The Baron de Mackau of France presenting demands to Jean-Pierre Boyer, President of Haiti, in 1825 The Haiti indemnity controversy involves an 1825 agreement between Haiti and France that included France demanding a 150 million franc indemnity to be paid by Haiti in claims over property – including Haitian slaves – that was lost through the Haitian Revolution in return for diplomatic recognition. The payment was later reduced to 90 million francs in 1838, comparable to US $21 billion as of 2004) France's demand of payments in exchange for recognizing Haiti's independence was delivered to the country by several French warships in 1825, twenty-one years after Haiti's declaration of independence in 1804. Though France received its last indemnity payment in 1893, the government of the United States funded the acquisition of Haiti's treasury in 1911 in order to receive interest payments related to the indemnity.Douglas, Paul H. from Occupied Haiti, ed. Emily Greene Balch (New York, 1972), 15–52 reprinted in: Money Doctors, Foreign Debts, and Economic Reforms in Latin America. Wilmington, Delaware: Edited by Paul W. Drake, 1994. It took until 1947 – about 122 years – for Haiti to finally pay off all the associated interest to the National City Bank of New York (now Citibank). History Saint-Domingue colony Saint-Domingue, now Haiti, was the richest and most productive European colony in the world going into the 1800s. France acquired much of its wealth by using slaves, with the slave population of Saint-Domingue accounting for one third of the entire Atlantic slave trade. Between the years of 1697 and 1804, French colonists brought 800,000 West African slaves to what was then known as Saint-Domingue to work on the vast plantations. The Saint-Domingue population reached 520,000 in 1790, and of those 425,000 were slaves. The mortality rate among slaves was high, with the French often working slaves to death and transporting more to the colony instead of providing necessities as it was cheaper. At the time, goods from Haiti comprised thirty percent of French trade while its sugar represented forty percent of the Atlantic market. About sixty percent of the coffee consumed in European markets was also produced in the colony. Independent Haiti Haiti’s legacy of debt began shortly after a widespread slave revolt against the French, with Haitians gaining their independence from France in 1804. As a result, the slave trade began to divert from independent Haiti to the Southern United States, bringing economic growth to the young nation as well as vast power to slaveowners, who became even more wealthy than their French counterparts.Leger, J.N. Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors. The Neale Publishing Co.: New York & Washington. 1907. Accessed 19 February 2011. President of the United States Thomas Jefferson – fearing that slaves gaining their independence would spread to the United States – stopped sending aid that was initiated by his predecessor John Adams and pursued international isolation of Haiti during his tenure. In collaboration with the French, the United States would pursue the isolation of Haiti for decades more. Haiti had hoped that the United Kingdom would support their recognition due to the kingdom's strained history with France, even providing British merchants lower import duties, though during the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the British government agreed not to prevent France's actions by "whatever means possible, including that of arms, to recover Saint-Domingue and to subdue the inhabitants of that colony". In 1823, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of Colombia, Mexico and other nations in the Americas while refraining from extending recognition to Haiti, further disillusioning Haitians seeking recognition. Until France recognized Haiti's independence, the fear of reconquest and continued isolation would persist among Haitians. Haiti was also financially strained after purchasing equipment to defend itself from invasion. Knowing that improvements could not happen until Haiti received international recognition, President of Haiti Jean-Pierre Boyer sent envoys to negotiate terms with France. At one meeting in Brussels on 16 August 1823, Haiti proposed waiving all import duties for five years on French products and then duties would be halved at the end of the period; France refused the offer outright. By 1824, President Boyer began to prepare Haiti for a defensive war, more armaments inland to provide increased protection. After being summoned by France, two Haitian envoys travelled to Paris. At the meetings held between June and August of 1824, Haiti offered to pay indemnity to France, though negotiations ended after France said it would only recognize their former territory on the west half of Hispaniola and that it sought to maintain control of Haiti's foreign relations. Ordinance of Charles X As a show of force, captain Ange René Armand, baron de Mackau in the ship La Circe, along with two men-of-war, arrived at Port-au-Prince on 3 July 1825. Soon after, more warships led by admirals Pierre Roch Jurien de La Gravière and Grivel arrived at Haiti. A total of fourteen French warships equipped with 528 canons presented demands that Haiti compensate France for its loss of slaves and its slave colony. The following ordinance of Charles X, King of France, was presented: "Charles, by the grace of God, King of France and Navarre. "Wishing to attend to the interest of French Commerce, to the misfortunes of the former colonists of Saint-Domingue and to the precarious condition of the present inhabitants of the island; "We have ordered and order the following: "Art. I. The ports of the French part of Saint-Domingue shall be open to the commerce of all nations. "The duties levied in these ports either on ships or merchandise at the times of their entry or departure shall be equal and uniform for all nations except for the French flag, on behalf of which these duties are to be reduced to half the amount. "Art. II. The present inhabitants of the French part of Saint-Domingue shall pay at the Caisse des Dépots et Consignations of France, in five annual instalments, the first one due on the 31st of December, 1825, the sum of one hundred and fifty millions of francs, in order to compensate the former colonists who may claim an indemnity. "Art. III. Under these conditions we grant, by the present Ordinance, to the present inhabitants of the French part of Saint-Domingue the full independence of their Government. "And the present Ordinance shall be sealed with the great seal. "Done at Paris in the Palace of Tuileries, this 17th of April A. D. 1825, and the first of our reign. Under Charles X's ordinance, France demanded an indemnity payment of 150 million francs in exchange for recognizing Haiti's independence. In addition to the payment, Charles ordered that Haiti provide a fifty percent discount on French import duties, making payment to France more difficult. On 11 July 1825, the senate of Haiti signed the agreement of paying indemnity to France. Indemnity payment Payments were immediately difficult for Haiti; the first 30 million francs required a 24 million franc loan from French banks that resulted with high interest. The story of the first payment – 24,000,000 gold francs – being transported across Paris, from the vaults of Ternaux Gandolphe et Cie to the coffers of the French Treasury was recorded in detail. Haiti would continue to acquire loans from France and the United States in order to fulfill payments. Such large payments became impossible for Haiti and were often late, often raising tensions between the two nations. On 12 February 1838, France finally agreed to reduce the debt to 90 million francs to be paid over a period of 30 years to compensate former plantation owners who had lost their property; the 2004 equivalent of US$ 21 billion.Sommers, Jeffrey. Race, Reality, and Realpolitik: U.S.-Haiti Relations in the Lead Up to the 1915 Occupation. 2015. . Page 124.
The Baron de Mackau of France presenting demands to Jean-Pierre Boyer, President of Haiti, in 1825 The Haiti indemnity controversy involves an 1825 agreement between Haiti and France that included France demanding a 150 million franc indemnity to be paid by Haiti in claims over property – including Haitian slaves – that was lost through the Haitian Revolution in return for diplomatic recognition. The payment was later reduced to 90 million francs in 1838, comparable to US $21 billion as of 2004) France's demand of payments in exchange for recognizing Haiti's independence was delivered to the country by several French warships in 1825, twenty-one years after Haiti's declaration of independence in 1804. Though France received its last indemnity payment in 1893, the government of the United States funded the acquisition of Haiti's treasury in 1911 in order to receive interest payments related to the indemnity.Douglas, Paul H. from Occupied Haiti, ed. Emily Greene Balch (New York, 1972), 15–52 reprinted in: Money Doctors, Foreign Debts, and Economic Reforms in Latin America. Wilmington, Delaware: Edited by Paul W. Drake, 1994. It took until 1947 – about 122 years – for Haiti to finally pay off all the associated interest to the National City Bank of New York (now Citibank). History Saint-Domingue colony Saint-Domingue, now Haiti, was the richest and most productive European colony in the world going into the 1800s. France acquired much of its wealth by using slaves, with the slave population of Saint-Domingue accounting for one third of the entire Atlantic slave trade. Between the years of 1697 and 1804, French colonists brought 800,000 West African slaves to what was then known as Saint-Domingue to work on the vast plantations. The Saint-Domingue population reached 520,000 in 1790, and of those 425,000 were slaves. The mortality rate among slaves was high, with the French often working slaves to death and transporting more to the colony instead of providing necessities as it was cheaper. At the time, goods from Haiti comprised thirty percent of French trade while its sugar represented forty percent of the Atlantic market. About sixty percent of the coffee consumed in European markets was also produced in the colony. Independent Haiti Haiti’s legacy of debt began shortly after a widespread slave revolt against the French, with Haitians gaining their independence from France in 1804. As a result, the slave trade began to divert from independent Haiti to the Southern United States, bringing economic growth to the young nation as well as vast power to slaveowners, who became even more wealthy than their French counterparts.Leger, J.N. Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors. The Neale Publishing Co.: New York & Washington. 1907. Accessed 19 February 2011. President Thomas Jefferson – fearing that slaves gaining their independence would spread to the United States – ceased the aid that was initiated by his predecessor John Adams and sought the international isolation of Haiti during his tenure. In collaboration with the French, the United States would pursue the isolation of Haiti for decades more. Haiti had hoped that the United Kingdom would support their recognition due to the kingdom's strained history with France, even providing British merchants lower import duties, though during the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the British government agreed not to prevent France's actions by "whatever means possible, including that of arms, to recover Saint-Domingue and to subdue the inhabitants of that colony". In 1823, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of Colombia, Mexico and other nations in the Americas while refraining from extending recognition to Haiti, further disillusioning Haitians seeking recognition. Until France recognized Haiti's independence, the fear of reconquest and continued isolation would persist among Haitians. Haiti was also financially strained after purchasing equipment to defend itself from invasion. Knowing that improvements could not happen until Haiti received international recognition, President of Haiti Jean-Pierre Boyer sent envoys to negotiate terms with France. At one meeting in Brussels on 16 August 1823, Haiti proposed waiving all import duties for five years on French products and then duties would be halved at the end of the period; France refused the offer outright. By 1824, President Boyer began to prepare Haiti for a defensive war, more armaments inland to provide increased protection. After being summoned by France, two Haitian envoys travelled to Paris. At the meetings held between June and August of 1824, Haiti offered to pay indemnity to France, though negotiations ended after France said it would only recognize their former territory on the west half of Hispaniola and that it sought to maintain control of Haiti's foreign relations. Ordinance of Charles X As a show of force, captain Ange René Armand, baron de Mackau in the ship La Circe, along with two men-of-war, arrived at Port-au-Prince on 3 July 1825. Soon after, more warships led by admirals Pierre Roch Jurien de La Gravière and Grivel arrived at Haiti. A total of fourteen French warships equipped with 528 canons presented demands that Haiti compensate France for its loss of slaves and its slave colony. The following ordinance of Charles X, King of France, was presented: "Charles, by the grace of God, King of France and Navarre. "Wishing to attend to the interest of French Commerce, to the misfortunes of the former colonists of Saint-Domingue and to the precarious condition of the present inhabitants of the island; "We have ordered and order the following: "Art. I. The ports of the French part of Saint-Domingue shall be open to the commerce of all nations. "The duties levied in these ports either on ships or merchandise at the times of their entry or departure shall be equal and uniform for all nations except for the French flag, on behalf of which these duties are to be reduced to half the amount. "Art. II. The present inhabitants of the French part of Saint-Domingue shall pay at the Caisse des Dépots et Consignations of France, in five annual instalments, the first one due on the 31st of December, 1825, the sum of one hundred and fifty millions of francs, in order to compensate the former colonists who may claim an indemnity. "Art. III. Under these conditions we grant, by the present Ordinance, to the present inhabitants of the French part of Saint-Domingue the full independence of their Government. "And the present Ordinance shall be sealed with the great seal. "Done at Paris in the Palace of Tuileries, this 17th of April A. D. 1825, and the first of our reign. Under Charles X's ordinance, France demanded an indemnity payment of 150 million francs in exchange for recognizing Haiti's independence. In addition to the payment, Charles ordered that Haiti provide a fifty percent discount on French import duties, making payment to France more difficult. On 11 July 1825, the senate of Haiti signed the agreement of paying indemnity to France. Indemnity payment Payments were immediately difficult for Haiti; the first 30 million francs required a 24 million franc loan from French banks that resulted with high interest. The story of the first payment – 24,000,000 gold francs – being transported across Paris, from the vaults of Ternaux Gandolphe et Cie to the coffers of the French Treasury was recorded in detail. Haiti would continue to acquire loans from France and the United States in order to fulfill payments. Such large payments became impossible for Haiti and were often late, often raising tensions between the two nations. On 12 February 1838, France finally agreed to reduce the debt to 90 million francs to be paid over a period of 30 years to compensate former plantation owners who had lost their property; the 2004 equivalent of US$ 21 billion.Sommers, Jeffrey. Race, Reality, and Realpolitik: U.S.-Haiti Relations in the Lead Up to the 1915 Occupation. 2015. . Page 124.
R
$21 billion as of 2004) France's demand of payments in exchange for recognizing Haiti's independence was delivered to the country by several French warships in 1825, twenty-one years after Haiti's declaration of independence in 1804. Though France received its last indemnity payment in 1893, the government of the United States funded the acquisition of Haiti's treasury in 1911 in order to receive interest payments related to the indemnity.Douglas, Paul H. from Occupied Haiti, ed. Emily Greene Balch (New York, 1972), 15–52 reprinted in: Money Doctors, Foreign Debts, and Economic Reforms in Latin America. Wilmington, Delaware: Edited by Paul W. Drake, 1994. It took until 1947 – about 122 years – for Haiti to finally pay off all the associated interest to the National City Bank of New York (now Citibank). History Saint-Domingue colony Saint-Domingue, now Haiti, was the richest and most productive European colony in the world going into the 1800s. France acquired much of its wealth by using slaves, with the slave population of Saint-Domingue accounting for one third of the entire Atlantic slave trade. Between the years of 1697 and 1804, French colonists brought 800,000 West African slaves to what was then known as Saint-Domingue to work on the vast plantations. The Saint-Domingue population reached 520,000 in 1790, and of those 425,000 were slaves. The mortality rate among slaves was high, with the French often working slaves to death and transporting more to the colony instead of providing necessities as it was cheaper. At the time, goods from Haiti comprised thirty percent of French trade while its sugar represented forty percent of the Atlantic market. About sixty percent of the coffee consumed in European markets was also produced in the colony. Independent Haiti Haiti’s legacy of debt began shortly after a widespread slave revolt against the French, with Haitians gaining their independence from France in 1804. As a result, the slave trade began to divert from independent Haiti to the Southern United States, bringing economic growth to the young nation as well as vast power to slaveowners, who became even more wealthy than their French counterparts.Leger, J.N. Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors. The Neale Publishing Co.: New York & Washington. 1907. Accessed 19 February 2011. President of the United States Thomas Jefferson – fearing that slaves gaining their independence would spread to the United States – stopped sending aid that was initiated by his predecessor John Adams and pursued international isolation of Haiti during his tenure. In collaboration with the French, the United States would pursue the isolation of Haiti for decades more. Haiti had hoped that the United Kingdom would support their recognition due to the kingdom's strained history with France, even providing British merchants lower import duties, though during the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the British government agreed not to prevent France's actions by "whatever means possible, including that of arms, to recover Saint-Domingue and to subdue the inhabitants of that colony". In 1823, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of Colombia, Mexico and other nations in the Americas while refraining from extending recognition to Haiti, further disillusioning Haitians seeking recognition. Until France recognized Haiti's independence, the fear of reconquest and continued isolation would persist among Haitians. Haiti was also financially strained after purchasing equipment to defend itself from invasion. Knowing that improvements could not happen until Haiti received international recognition, President of Haiti Jean-Pierre Boyer sent envoys to negotiate terms with France. At one meeting in Brussels on 16 August 1823, Haiti proposed waiving all import duties for five years on French products and then duties would be halved at the end of the period; France refused the offer outright. By 1824, President Boyer began to prepare Haiti for a defensive war, more armaments inland to provide increased protection. After being summoned by France, two Haitian envoys travelled to Paris. At the meetings held between June and August of 1824, Haiti offered to pay indemnity to France, though negotiations ended after France said it would only recognize their former territory on the west half of Hispaniola and that it sought to maintain control of Haiti's foreign relations. Ordinance of Charles X As a show of force, captain Ange René Armand, baron de Mackau in the ship La Circe, along with two men-of-war, arrived at Port-au-Prince on 3 July 1825. Soon after, more warships led by admirals Pierre Roch Jurien de La Gravière and Grivel arrived at Haiti. A total of fourteen French warships equipped with 528 canons presented demands that Haiti compensate France for its loss of slaves and its slave colony. The following ordinance of Charles X, King of France, was presented: "Charles, by the grace of God, King of France and Navarre. "Wishing to attend to the interest of French Commerce, to the misfortunes of the former colonists of Saint-Domingue and to the precarious condition of the present inhabitants of the island; "We have ordered and order the following: "Art. I. The ports of the French part of Saint-Domingue shall be open to the commerce of all nations. "The duties levied in these ports either on ships or merchandise at the times of their entry or departure shall be equal and uniform for all nations except for the French flag, on behalf of which these duties are to be reduced to half the amount. "Art. II. The present inhabitants of the French part of Saint-Domingue shall pay at the Caisse des Dépots et Consignations of France, in five annual instalments, the first one due on the 31st of December, 1825, the sum of one hundred and fifty millions of francs, in order to compensate the former colonists who may claim an indemnity. "Art. III. Under these conditions we grant, by the present Ordinance, to the present inhabitants of the French part of Saint-Domingue the full independence of their Government. "And the present Ordinance shall be sealed with the great seal. "Done at Paris in the Palace of Tuileries, this 17th of April A. D. 1825, and the first of our reign. Under Charles X's ordinance, France demanded an indemnity payment of 150 million francs in exchange for recognizing Haiti's independence. In addition to the payment, Charles ordered that Haiti provide a fifty percent discount on French import duties, making payment to France more difficult. On 11 July 1825, the senate of Haiti signed the agreement of paying indemnity to France. Indemnity payment Payments were immediately difficult for Haiti; the first 30 million francs required a 24 million franc loan from French banks that resulted with high interest. The story of the first payment – 24,000,000 gold francs – being transported across Paris, from the vaults of Ternaux Gandolphe et Cie to the coffers of the French Treasury was recorded in detail. Haiti would continue to acquire loans from France and the United States in order to fulfill payments. Such large payments became impossible for Haiti and were often late, often raising tensions between the two nations. On 12 February 1838, France finally agreed to reduce the debt to 90 million francs to be paid over a period of 30 years to compensate former plantation owners who had lost their property; the 2004 equivalent of US$
$21 billion as of 2004) France's demand of payments in exchange for recognizing Haiti's independence was delivered to the country by several French warships in 1825, twenty-one years after Haiti's declaration of independence in 1804. Though France received its last indemnity payment in 1893, the government of the United States funded the acquisition of Haiti's treasury in 1911 in order to receive interest payments related to the indemnity.Douglas, Paul H. from Occupied Haiti, ed. Emily Greene Balch (New York, 1972), 15–52 reprinted in: Money Doctors, Foreign Debts, and Economic Reforms in Latin America. Wilmington, Delaware: Edited by Paul W. Drake, 1994. It took until 1947 – about 122 years – for Haiti to finally pay off all the associated interest to the National City Bank of New York (now Citibank). History Saint-Domingue colony Saint-Domingue, now Haiti, was the richest and most productive European colony in the world going into the 1800s. France acquired much of its wealth by using slaves, with the slave population of Saint-Domingue accounting for one third of the entire Atlantic slave trade. Between the years of 1697 and 1804, French colonists brought 800,000 West African slaves to what was then known as Saint-Domingue to work on the vast plantations. The Saint-Domingue population reached 520,000 in 1790, and of those 425,000 were slaves. The mortality rate among slaves was high, with the French often working slaves to death and transporting more to the colony instead of providing necessities as it was cheaper. At the time, goods from Haiti comprised thirty percent of French trade while its sugar represented forty percent of the Atlantic market. About sixty percent of the coffee consumed in European markets was also produced in the colony. Independent Haiti Haiti’s legacy of debt began shortly after a widespread slave revolt against the French, with Haitians gaining their independence from France in 1804. As a result, the slave trade began to divert from independent Haiti to the Southern United States, bringing economic growth to the young nation as well as vast power to slaveowners, who became even more wealthy than their French counterparts.Leger, J.N. Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors. The Neale Publishing Co.: New York & Washington. 1907. Accessed 19 February 2011. President Thomas Jefferson – fearing that slaves gaining their independence would spread to the United States – ceased the aid that was initiated by his predecessor John Adams and sought the international isolation of Haiti during his tenure. In collaboration with the French, the United States would pursue the isolation of Haiti for decades more. Haiti had hoped that the United Kingdom would support their recognition due to the kingdom's strained history with France, even providing British merchants lower import duties, though during the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the British government agreed not to prevent France's actions by "whatever means possible, including that of arms, to recover Saint-Domingue and to subdue the inhabitants of that colony". In 1823, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of Colombia, Mexico and other nations in the Americas while refraining from extending recognition to Haiti, further disillusioning Haitians seeking recognition. Until France recognized Haiti's independence, the fear of reconquest and continued isolation would persist among Haitians. Haiti was also financially strained after purchasing equipment to defend itself from invasion. Knowing that improvements could not happen until Haiti received international recognition, President of Haiti Jean-Pierre Boyer sent envoys to negotiate terms with France. At one meeting in Brussels on 16 August 1823, Haiti proposed waiving all import duties for five years on French products and then duties would be halved at the end of the period; France refused the offer outright. By 1824, President Boyer began to prepare Haiti for a defensive war, more armaments inland to provide increased protection. After being summoned by France, two Haitian envoys travelled to Paris. At the meetings held between June and August of 1824, Haiti offered to pay indemnity to France, though negotiations ended after France said it would only recognize their former territory on the west half of Hispaniola and that it sought to maintain control of Haiti's foreign relations. Ordinance of Charles X As a show of force, captain Ange René Armand, baron de Mackau in the ship La Circe, along with two men-of-war, arrived at Port-au-Prince on 3 July 1825. Soon after, more warships led by admirals Pierre Roch Jurien de La Gravière and Grivel arrived at Haiti. A total of fourteen French warships equipped with 528 canons presented demands that Haiti compensate France for its loss of slaves and its slave colony. The following ordinance of Charles X, King of France, was presented: "Charles, by the grace of God, King of France and Navarre. "Wishing to attend to the interest of French Commerce, to the misfortunes of the former colonists of Saint-Domingue and to the precarious condition of the present inhabitants of the island; "We have ordered and order the following: "Art. I. The ports of the French part of Saint-Domingue shall be open to the commerce of all nations. "The duties levied in these ports either on ships or merchandise at the times of their entry or departure shall be equal and uniform for all nations except for the French flag, on behalf of which these duties are to be reduced to half the amount. "Art. II. The present inhabitants of the French part of Saint-Domingue shall pay at the Caisse des Dépots et Consignations of France, in five annual instalments, the first one due on the 31st of December, 1825, the sum of one hundred and fifty millions of francs, in order to compensate the former colonists who may claim an indemnity. "Art. III. Under these conditions we grant, by the present Ordinance, to the present inhabitants of the French part of Saint-Domingue the full independence of their Government. "And the present Ordinance shall be sealed with the great seal. "Done at Paris in the Palace of Tuileries, this 17th of April A. D. 1825, and the first of our reign. Under Charles X's ordinance, France demanded an indemnity payment of 150 million francs in exchange for recognizing Haiti's independence. In addition to the payment, Charles ordered that Haiti provide a fifty percent discount on French import duties, making payment to France more difficult. On 11 July 1825, the senate of Haiti signed the agreement of paying indemnity to France. Indemnity payment Payments were immediately difficult for Haiti; the first 30 million francs required a 24 million franc loan from French banks that resulted with high interest. The story of the first payment – 24,000,000 gold francs – being transported across Paris, from the vaults of Ternaux Gandolphe et Cie to the coffers of the French Treasury was recorded in detail. Haiti would continue to acquire loans from France and the United States in order to fulfill payments. Such large payments became impossible for Haiti and were often late, often raising tensions between the two nations. On 12 February 1838, France finally agreed to reduce the debt to 90 million francs to be paid over a period of 30 years to compensate former plantation owners who had lost their property; the 2004 equivalent of US$