The analysis of network topology and dynamics is increasingly used for the description of the structure, function and evolution of complex systems. Here we summarize key aspects of the evolvability and robustness of the hierarchical network-set of macromolecules, URLanisms, and ecosystems. Listing the costs and benefits of cooperation as a necessary behaviour to build this network hierarchy, we outline the major hypothesis of the paper: the emergence of hierarchical complexity needs cooperation leading to the ageing  of the constituent networks. Local cooperation in a stable environment may lead to over-optimization developing an always-old  network, which ages slowly , and dies in an apoptosis-like process. Global cooperation by exploring a rapidly changing environment may cause an occasional over-perturbation exhausting system-resources, causing rapid degradation, ageing and death of an otherwise forever-young network in a necrosis-like process. Giving a number of examples we explain how local and global cooperation can both evoke and help successful ageing. Finally, we show how various forms of cooperation and consequent ageing emerge as key elements in all major steps of evolution from the formation of protocells to the establishment of the globalized, modern human society . Thus, ageing emerges as a price of complexity, which is going hand-in-hand with cooperation enhancing each other in a successful community .
The network concept is increasingly used for the description of complex systems. Here we summarize key aspects of the evolvability and robustness of the hierarchical network-set of macromolecules, URLanisms, and ecosystems. Listing the costs and benefits of cooperation as a necessary behaviour to build this network hierarchy, we outline the major hypothesis of the paper: the emergence of hierarchical complexity needs cooperation leading to the ageing (i.e. gradual deterioration) of the constituent networks. A stable environment develops cooperation leading to over-optimization , and forming an " always-old " network, which accumulates damage , and dies in an apoptosis-like process. A rapidly changing environment develops competition forming a "forever-young" network, which may suffer an occasional over-perturbation exhausting system-resources, and causing death in a necrosis-like process. Giving a number of examples we demonstrate how cooperation evokes the gradual accumulation of damage typical to ageing. Finally, we show how various forms of cooperation and consequent ageing emerge as key elements in all major steps of evolution from the formation of protocells to the establishment of the globalized, modern human society .
R
analysis of network topology and dynamics
network concept
D
the structure, function and evolution of
A
(i.e. gradual deterioration)
R
Local cooperation in a stable environment may lead
A stable environment develops cooperation leading
R
developing an
, and forming an "
A
"
R
ages slowly
accumulates damage
R
Global cooperation by exploring a
A
R
may cause
develops competition forming a "forever-young" network, which may suffer
R
causing rapid degradation, ageing and death of an otherwise forever-young network
and causing death
R
explain how local and global cooperation can both evoke and help successful
demonstrate how cooperation evokes the gradual accumulation of damage typical to
D
. Thus, ageing emerges as a price of complexity, which is going hand-in-hand with cooperation enhancing each other in a successful community