An American sociologist Richard Marc Emerson (1981) further distinguished between two forms of transactions in direct exchange relations: negotiated and reciprocal. There exists a clear distinction between negotiated and reciprocal forms of direct exchange. Along these lines, Yamagishi and Cook Yamagishi , Toshio, and Karen S. Cook. 1993. “Generalized Exchange and Social Dilemmas.” Social Psychological Quarterly 56:235–48(1993) and Takahashi Takahashi , Nobuyuki. 2000. “The Emergence of Generalized Exchange.” American Journal of Sociology 105:1105–34(2000) note that emphasis on collective aspects of generalized exchange neglects elements such as: the high risk of the structure, the potential for those who fail to give to disrupt the entire system, and the difficulty of establishing a structure of stable giving without initial levels of high trust or established norms. American sociologists: Karen S. Cook,Cook, Karen S., Richard M. Emerson, Mary R. Gillmore, and Toshio Yamagishi. 1983. "The Distribution of Power in Exchange Networks: Theory and Experimental Results." American Journal of Sociology 89: 275-305 Richard M. Emerson, Toshio Yamagishi,Yamagishi, Toshio and Karen S. Cook. 1993. "Generalized Exchange and Social Dilemmas." Social Psychology Quarterly 56:235-48 Mary R. Gillmore,Gillmore, Mary Rogers. 1987. "Implications of General- ized versus Restricted Exchange." Pp. 170-89 in Social Exchange Theory, edited by Karen S. Cook. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Samuel B. Bacharach,Bacharach, Samuel B. and Edward J. Lawler. 1981. Bargaining: Power, Tactics, and Outcomes. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass and Edward J. Lawler Lawler , Edward J. 1986. "Bilateral Deterrence and conflict Spiral: A Theoretical Analysis." Pp. 107-30 in Advances in Group Processes. Vol. 3, edited by Edward J. Lawler. Greenwich, CT: JAI. all study negotiated transactions. Pure-generalized exchange Takahashi and Yamagishi proposed pure-generalized exchange as a situation where there is no fixed structure. It is regarded as more general, flexible and less restricted compared to previous model . In essence, pure-generalized exchange is network-generalized exchange with a choice of recipients, where each actor gives resources to recipient(s) that s/he chooses unilaterally. However, this model also comes with a limitation; the necessity of a criteria that represent a collective sense of fairness among the members. By easing the limitations caused by the models described above, Takahashi (2000) proposed a more general solution to  free rider problem. This new model is summarized below. Selective giving in pure generalized exchange
An American sociologist Richard Marc Emerson (1981) further distinguished between two forms of transactions in direct exchange relations: negotiated and reciprocal. There exists a clear distinction between negotiated and reciprocal forms of direct exchange. Along these lines, Yamagishi and CookYamagishi , Toshio, and Karen S. Cook. 1993. “Generalized Exchange and Social Dilemmas.” Social Psychological Quarterly 56:235–48(1993) and TakahashiTakahashi , Nobuyuki. 2000. “The Emergence of Generalized Exchange.” American Journal of Sociology 105:1105–34(2000) note that emphasis on collective aspects of generalized exchange neglects elements such as: the high risk of the structure, the potential for those who fail to give to disrupt the entire system, and the difficulty of establishing a structure of stable giving without initial levels of high trust or established norms. American sociologists: Karen S. Cook,Cook, Karen S., Richard M. Emerson, Mary R. Gillmore, and Toshio Yamagishi. 1983. "The Distribution of Power in Exchange Networks: Theory and Experimental Results." American Journal of Sociology 89: 275-305 Richard M. Emerson, Toshio Yamagishi,Yamagishi, Toshio and Karen S. Cook. 1993. "Generalized Exchange and Social Dilemmas." Social Psychology Quarterly 56:235-48 Mary R. Gillmore,Gillmore, Mary Rogers. 1987. "Implications of General- ized versus Restricted Exchange." Pp. 170-89 in Social Exchange Theory, edited by Karen S. Cook. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Samuel B. Bacharach,Bacharach, Samuel B. and Edward J. Lawler. 1981. Bargaining: Power, Tactics, and Outcomes. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass and Edward J. LawlerLawler , Edward J. 1986. "Bilateral Deterrence and conflict Spiral: A Theoretical Analysis." Pp. 107-30 in Advances in Group Processes. Vol. 3, edited by Edward J. Lawler. Greenwich, CT: JAI. all study negotiated transactions. Pure-generalized exchange Takahashi and Yamagishi proposed pure-generalized exchange as a situation where there is no fixed structure. It is regarded as more general, flexible and less restricted compared to previous models . In essence, pure-generalized exchange is network-generalized exchange with a choice of recipients, where each actor gives resources to recipient(s) that s/he chooses unilaterally. However, this model also comes with a limitation; the necessity of a criterium that represents a collective sense of fairness among the members. By easing the limitations caused by the models described above, Takahashi (2000) proposed a more general solution to the free rider problem. This new model is summarized below. Selective giving in pure generalized exchange
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