</ref> The military funding of science has had a powerful transformative effect on the practice and products of scientific research since the 17th century. A primary motivation for the funding of academies of science was to organize scientific research to improve military effectiveness. Numerous astronomical observatories, starting in Portugal in the 15th century, also received government support to improve naval power. The early military academies in France, Piedmont-Savoy, and Great Britain also provided important sources of patronage to scientific researchers. The fundamental research of Stevin, Galileo, Descartes, Halley, Huygens, Robins, Euler, Coulomb, Lagrange, Lavoisier, and Laplace heavily depended on the military patronage they received. Such research, in turn, directly enhanced the military power of Western armed forces, especially in military engineering, artillery, and naval technology. This is evidenced by the central role that Western scientific education played when states outside of Western Europe sought to adopt Western military capability, beginning with Russia under Peter the Great, and continuing with the United States, the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, China and Japan. Since World War I, however, advanced science-based technologies has been popularly viewed as representing an essential component of a successful military system . Science and military technology before the modern era Replica catapult at Château des Baux, France Military support for scientific work was significant long before the 20th century, especially in such fields as ballistics, astronomy, chemistry, cartography, strength of materials, soil mechanics, naval architecture, and hydraulics. Some maintain that knowledge gained from technology was generally far more important for the development of science than scientific knowledge was to technological innovation.Hacker, Barton C. "The Machines of War: Western Military Technology 1850-2000." History and Technology, Vol. 21, No. 3, September 2005, pp 255-300. p 255. Thermodynamics, for example, is a science partly born from military technology: one of the many sources of the first law of thermodynamics was Count Rumford’s observation of the heat produced by boring cannon barrels.von Baeyer, Hans Christian. Warmth Disperses and Time Passes: The History of Heat. New York: The Modern Library, 1998. Mathematics was important in the development of the Greek catapult and other weapons,Hacker, "The Machines of War," footnote 1. but analysis of ballistics was also important for the development of mathematics, while Galileo tried to promote the telescope as a military instrument to the military-minded Republic of Venice before turning it to the skies while seeking the patronage of the Medici court in Florence.Biagioli, Mario. Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. And Galileo promoted the Copernician hypothesis of a sun-centered universe in part because it was more convenient for his theory of tides he developed for the Venetian navy. More significantly, his technique of determining longitude by measuring the moons of Jupiter was directly applied by Cassini in cartography, which had significant military implications. Likewise, Galileo's theory of ballistics without air resistance became the standard theory of mortar gunnery in the late 17th century. Nevertheless, craft-based innovation, disconnected from the formal systems of science, was the key to the major developments of small-arms technology well into the 19th century. The same cannot be said for artillery, however. The Liechtenstein and Gribeauval artillery reforms of 18th-century Habsburg Empire and France were directly inspired by the science of interior and exterior ballistics. Benjamin Robins himself helped motivate the invention of the short-range naval gun, the carronade. And the standard gunnery tables used by French forces in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars were derived by Jean-Louis Lombard, based on Euler's approximate analysis of ballistic trajectory subject to air resistance. Such scientifically advanced gunnery technology helps explain the high-level education in calculus-based mechanics that artillery officers were receiving by the late 18th-century at military academies throughout Western Europe and Russia. Interchangeable gun parts, illustrated in the 1832 Edinburgh Encyclopaedia Even craft-based military technologies were not generally produced by military funding. Instead, craftsmen and inventors developed weapons and military tools independently and actively sought the interest of military patrons afterward.Hacker, "The Machines of War," p 256. Following the rise of engineering as a profession in the 16th century, governments and military leaders did try to harness the methods of both science and engineering for more specific ends, but frequently without success--not unlike many ambitious weapons acquisition programs in the twentieth century . In the decades leading up to the French Revolution, French artillery officers received an education very similar to modern mechanical engineers, and military leaders from this scientific tradition attempted to transform the process of weapons manufacture from a craft-based enterprise to an organized and standardized system based on engineering principles and interchangeable parts (pre-dating the work of Eli Whitney in the U.S.). During the Revolution, even natural scientists like Claude Louis Betholleth participated directly, attempting to create “weapons more powerful than any we possess” to aid the cause of the new French Republic, though there were no means for the revolutionary army to fund such work.Gillispie, Charles Coulston. "Science and secret weapons development in Revolutionary France, 1792–1804." Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp 35–152. Quote from excerpt of Georges Cuvier’s eulogy of Claude-Louis Berthollet, p 35. Each of these efforts, however, was ultimately unsuccessful in producing militarily useful results. A slightly different outcome came from the longitude prize of the 18th century, offered by the British government for an accurate method of determining a ship’s longitude at sea (essential for the safe navigation of the powerful British navy): intended to promote—and financially reward—a scientific solution, it was instead won by a scientific outsider, the clockmaker John Harrison.Sobel, Dava. Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time. Penguin, 1996. The British Board of Longitude also rewarded significant cash awards to the mathematicians Tobias Meyer and Leonhard Euler for their work on determining longitude at sea by developing lunar tables. Likewise , the naval utility of astronomy did help increase the number of capable astronomers and focus research on developing more powerful and versatile instruments. Through the 19th century, science and technology grew much closer together, particularly through electrical and acoustic inventions and the corresponding mathematical theories. The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a trend toward military mechanization, with the advent of repeating rifles with smokeless powder, long-range artillery, high explosives, machine guns, and mechanized transport along with telegraphic and later wireless battlefield communication. Still, independent inventors, scientists and engineers were largely responsible for these drastic changes in military technology (with the exception of the development of battleships, which could only have been created through organized large-scale effort).Hacker, “The Machines of War,” pp 256-257.
 The military funding of science has had a powerful transformative effect on the practice and products of scientific research since the early 20th century. Particularly since World War I, advanced science-based technologies have been viewed as essential elements of a successful military . Science and military technology before the modern era Replica catapult at Château des Baux, France While there were numerous instances of military support for scientific work before the 20th century, these were typically isolated instances; knowledge gained from technology was generally far more important for the development of science than scientific knowledge was to technological innovation.Hacker, Barton C. "The Machines of War: Western Military Technology 1850-2000." History and Technology, Vol. 21, No. 3, September 2005, pp 255-300. p 255. Thermodynamics, for example, is a science partly born from military technology: one of the many sources of the first law of thermodynamics was Count Rumford’s observation of the heat produced by boring cannon barrels.von Baeyer, Hans Christian. Warmth Disperses and Time Passes: The History of Heat. New York: The Modern Library, 1998. Mathematics was important in the development of the Greek catapult and other weapons,Hacker, "The Machines of War," footnote 1. but analysis of ballistics was also important for the development of mathematics, while Galileo tried to promote the telescope as a military instrument to the military-minded Republic of Venice before turning it to the skies while seeking the patronage of the Medici court in Florence.Biagioli, Mario. Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. In general, craft-based innovation, disconnected from the formal systems of science, was the key to military technology well into the 19th century. Interchangeable gun parts, illustrated in the 1832 Edinburgh Encyclopaedia Even craft-based military technologies were not generally produced by military funding. Instead, craftsmen and inventors developed weapons and military tools independently and actively sought the interest of military patrons afterward.Hacker, "The Machines of War," p 256. Following the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, governments and military leaders did try to harness the methods of both science and engineering for more specific ends, but frequently without success . In the decades leading up to the French Revolution, French artillery officers were often trained as engineers, and military leaders from this mathematical tradition attempted to transform the process of weapons manufacture from a craft-based enterprise to an organized and standardized system based on engineering principles and interchangeable parts (pre-dating the work of Eli Whitney in the U.S.). During the Revolution, even natural scientists participated directly, attempting to create “weapons more powerful than any we possess” to aid the cause of the new French Republic, though there were no means for the revolutionary army to fund such work.Gillispie, Charles Coulston. "Science and secret weapons development in Revolutionary France, 1792–1804." Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp 35–152. Quote from excerpt of Georges Cuvier’s eulogy of Claude-Louis Berthollet, p 35. Each of these efforts, however, was ultimately unsuccessful in producing militarily useful results. A slightly different outcome came from the longitude prize of the 18th century, offered by the British government for an accurate method of determining a ship’s longitude at sea (essential for the safe navigation of the powerful British navy): intended to promote—and financially reward—a scientific solution, it was instead won by a scientific outsider, the clockmaker John Harrison.Sobel, Dava. Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time. Penguin, 1996. However , the naval utility of astronomy did help increase the number of capable astronomers and focus research on developing more powerful and versatile instruments. Through the 19th century, science and technology grew closer together, particularly through electrical and acoustic inventions and the corresponding mathematical theories. The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a trend toward military mechanization, with the advent of repeating rifles with smokeless powder, long-range artillery, high explosives, machine guns, and mechanized transport along with telegraphic and later wireless battlefield communication. Still, independent inventors, scientists and engineers were largely responsible for these drastic changes in military technology (with the exception of the development of battleships, which could only have been created through organized large-scale effort).Hacker, “The Machines of War,” pp 256-257.
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