Theories on women's fear of crime Social scientists have differing views on the causes of women's fear of crime. Some have argued that women's heightened fear of crime is due to women's higher levels physical vulnerability compared to men, although feminist work generally resists this generalization and often tries to relocate the cause to larger societal factors.  It is nonetheless important that most women are aware of pervasive cultural view that women are more vulnerable than men, which may make them think they are more likely to be victimized and therefore contribute to their fear; in this way, it would be perceived vulnerability and not actual vulnerability that is the cause of women's fear. Some research has also suggested that women are in fact not much more fearful about crime than men, but that dominant cultural ideas about masculinity may make men reluctant to talk about their fear or report it in surveys. Feminist Theory Feminist discourse on fear of crime tends to explain women's higher levels of fear with the unequal gender structure in most societies, which places women beneath men within the power structure and thus puts them especially at risk for victimization by men. This theory refers to the oppressive social control of women, arguing that some crimes against women (such as rape) and the socialization that women receive to feel vulnerable and fear male violence are used by the patriarchy to assert male dominance and "keep women in their place." Some feminist researchers argue that the questions that are being asked in studies of women's fear of crime do not adequately represent their actual fear. These researchers argue that abuse by men in close personal relationships is not adequately measured by typical questions on surveys, because those typical questions ask questions about crime outside of the home. They argue that women's victimization by people in their close personal relationships is not being used as a factor in measuring women's fear of crime. One study has shown that women may have higher levels of fear of crime, not because they are scared of being victimized themselves, but fear of their children being victimized. Women are more likely than men to see their relationships with others as an interdependent relationship. This interdependent relationship makes women more scared of crimes being committed against their loved ones than themselves. This distinction of relationships cause women's fear of crime to be higher than men's fear of crime, because men do not see their relationships as interdependent. This study argues that women's fear of crime is caused by traditional societal gender roles. Rape and fear of crime As rape is by far the most gendered crime by victimization, some feminist scholars have suggested that fear of rape is the most important and most unique element of women's fear of crime, or even that women's fear of crime is in fact a generalized fear of rape. Proponents of this theory, often referred to as the "shadow of sexual assault hypothesis," often note that women tend to fear that rape will co-occur with other crimes, such as burglary, a fear that is not found among men.  One study has shown that a man's typical response to a burglary was anger, while a woman's typical response was fear that was typical of a woman that had been sexually assaulted. Some supporters of the theory also note that sexual harassment, which most women will experience in their lifetimes, especially contributes to the fear of rape; in some cases, women's rejection of unwanted sexual advances leads to threats, and even "benevolent" harassment may increase women's wariness and fear of men in public spaces. While the fear of rape is the strongest among women, men also have a fear of rape, especially when looking at college aged men. While the fear of rape is the strongest among women, men also have a fear of rape, especially when looking at college aged men. While men do fear sexual assault, they are more likely to fear crimes such as burglary, but there is evidence that men's fear of sexual assault is correlated with their fear of other violent crimes, supporting the shadow hypothesis.  The fear of rape, unlike other fears of specific crimes, is almost exclusive to women. Among women, it is also one of the strongest crime-related fears, and is the strongest crime-related fear for young women. Levels of fear of rape vary among women by age, race/ethnicity, residential area, and other factors, but are especially high for women who have been victims of rape in the past or know victims personally (the latter group may include a significant portion of women, with one study estimating that over half of women know rape victims). Women are socialized from a very young age that rape can happen anywhere, to anyone, at any time. They are taught that they should always be aware of the possibility of rape and protect themselves it. Young women are taught strategies to keep themselves safe, and this idea is instilled in them at a young age. This teaching women about the possibility of rape at a young age may contribute to higher levels of fear of crime in women. Studies have shown that women that take more precautionary steps to avoid being raped have more fear of actually being raped, whereas women who work nights and are outside in the dark tend to have less fear of rape. This may be because women that are out in the dark alone are more familiar with the area, so they feel that there is less of a threat.  One researcher has coined the term "sexual terrorism" to describe violence against women that is intended to keep the patriarchal society that we live in alive. "Sexual Terrorism" includes behaviors such as splitting women into groups of "good" and "bad", producing media that degrades women, and supporting men that commit acts of violence towards women. The fear of rape may also be related to the fear of murder, as women tend to overestimate the proportion of rape victims who are murdered during their attacks. Stigma and blame are also factors: what many feminists refer to as the "rape myth," the popular idea that women can be blamed for their rape and that women are responsible for preventing rape by the regulation of their behavior, often serves to support the fear of rape. Demographic differences in women's fear of crime Although women as a whole demographic are more fearful of crime, specific subgroups of women may have higher levels of fear or be more likely to change their behavior because of it. In many studies, the demographics found to have the highest generalized fear of crime are single, older, urban, women of color, and of lower socioeconomic class. For fear of victimization for specific crimes, the demographics with the highest levels of fear may be different. Race /Ethnicity Theorists have suggested that Black and Latina women, and women of color in general, in the United States may have higher rates of fear of crime due to increased social vulnerability; because of institutional racism and sexism against women of color, their identities may put them at greater risk of victimization, leading to higher levels of fear. Some theorists have suggested that African American women may have more fear of crime, because they are exposed to more crime due to living in lower socioeconomic areas. Studies have shown that African American women are more sexualized than White women, so their fear of sexual assault is higher. This fear of crime leads to more psychological distress among African American women. Studies have shown that there is a positive link between men who hold sexist attitudes and men who hold racist attitudes, which leads to an increased possibility of accepting common rape myths. Solutions to women's fear of crime In general, proposed solutions to women's fear of crime either place the responsibility on individual women (through preventive strategies) or on official agencies (through infrastructure improvements, anti-rape education, more involved policing, etc.), and are often framed as a combination of both. Of those that expect women to protect themselves from crime, most focus on the dangers for women in public spaces; however, as women usually face their highest rates of victimization in the home or at the hands of known people, these campaigns have been suggested to be particularly ill-equipped to help solve the problem of women's high fear of crime, and to support an untrue picture of women's victimization.  One of the most common individual strategies for dealing with fear of crime and preventing victimization is simple avoidance, the attempt to stay away from areas (such as dark alleys or public transportation) where it is believed victimization is likely to occur; research has found that women employ avoidance strategies more often than men do. Avoided areas may include neighborhoods with high crime rates, but for many women also include any unfamiliar areas. Women may also employ other isolation strategies by avoiding social interaction with strangers, ignoring them or moving quickly and with purpose to discourage interaction  Another common method of allaying fear of crime among women is by "crime-proofing" homes or possessions. Popular examples include home security systems, locking away valuables, or participating in neighborhood watch programs. These strategies are used by people of all genders, but some are more often employed by women. For example, many women in an American study reported choosing purses with zippers or holding purses protectively to defend against theft and purse-snatching. Feminist  commentators usually take the view that the responsibility for reducing women's fear of crime lies with the society, and that fear must be combatted at its source by addressing men's violence against women. Women's fear of crime around the world Although most research on women's fear of crime has been done in English-speaking countries, with the most done in the United States, similar trends in women's fear of crime have been found around the world.
Causes Social scientists have differing views on the causes of women's fear of crime. Some have argued that women's heightened fear of crime is due to women's higher levels physical vulnerability compared to men, although feminist work generally resists this generalization and often tries to relocate the cause to larger societal factors. Social factors It is nonetheless important that most women are aware of pervasive cultural view that women are more vulnerable than men, which may make them think they are more likely to be victimized and therefore contribute to their fear; in this way, it would be perceived vulnerability and not actual vulnerability that is the cause of women's fear. Some research has also suggested that women are in fact not much more fearful about crime than men, but that dominant cultural ideas about masculinity may make men reluctant to talk about their fear or report it in surveys. Feminist theories Feminist discourse on fear of crime tends to explain women's higher levels of fear with the unequal gender structure in most societies, which places women beneath men within the power structure and thus puts them especially at risk for victimization by men. This theory refers to the oppressive social control of women, arguing that some crimes against women (such as rape) and the socialization that women receive to feel vulnerable and fear male violence are used by the patriarchy to assert male dominance and "keep women in their place." Some feminist researchers argue that the questions that are being asked in studies of women's fear of crime do not adequately represent their actual fear. These researchers argue that abuse by men in close personal relationships is not adequately measured by typical questions on surveys, because those typical questions ask questions about crime outside of the home. They argue that women's victimization by people in their close personal relationships is not being used as a factor in measuring women's fear of crime. Rape fear As rape is by far the most gendered crime by victimization, some feminist scholars have suggested that fear of rape is the most important and most unique element of women's fear of crime, or even that women's fear of crime is in fact a generalized fear of rape. Proponents of this theory, often referred to as the "shadow of sexual assault hypothesis," often note that women tend to fear that rape will co-occur with other crimes, such as burglary, a fear that is not found among men. Sexual harassment and gendered fears One study has shown that a man's typical response to a burglary was anger, while a woman's typical response was fear that was typical of a woman that had been sexually assaulted. Some supporters of the theory also note that sexual harassment, which most women will experience in their lifetimes, especially contributes to the fear of rape; in some cases, women's rejection of unwanted sexual advances leads to threats, and even "benevolent" harassment may increase women's wariness and fear of men in public spaces. While the fear of rape is the strongest among women, men also have a fear of rape, especially when looking at college aged men. While the fear of rape is the strongest among women, men also have a fear of rape, especially when looking at college aged men. While men do fear sexual assault, they are more likely to fear crimes such as burglary, but there is evidence that men's fear of sexual assault is correlated with their fear of other violent crimes, supporting the shadow hypothesis. Socialization of women The fear of rape, unlike other fears of specific crimes, is almost exclusive to women. Among women, it is also one of the strongest crime-related fears, and is the strongest crime-related fear for young women. Levels of fear of rape vary among women by age, race/ethnicity, residential area, and other factors, but are especially high for women who have been victims of rape in the past or know victims personally (the latter group may include a significant portion of women, with one study estimating that over half of women know rape victims). Women are socialized from a very young age that rape can happen anywhere, to anyone, at any time. They are taught that they should always be aware of the possibility of rape and protect themselves it. Young women are taught strategies to keep themselves safe, and this idea is instilled in them at a young age. This teaching women about the possibility of rape at a young age may contribute to higher levels of fear of crime in women. Studies have shown that women that take more precautionary steps to avoid being raped have more fear of actually being raped, whereas women who work nights and are outside in the dark tend to have less fear of rape. This may be because women that are out in the dark alone are more familiar with the area, so they feel that there is less of a threat. "Sexual terrorism" One researcher has coined the term "sexual terrorism" to describe violence against women that is intended to keep the patriarchal society that we live in alive. "Sexual Terrorism" includes behaviors such as splitting women into groups of "good" and "bad", producing media that degrades women, and supporting men that commit acts of violence towards women. The fear of rape may also be related to the fear of murder, as women tend to overestimate the proportion of rape victims who are murdered during their attacks. Stigma and blame are also factors: what many feminists refer to as the "rape myth," the popular idea that women can be blamed for their rape and that women are responsible for preventing rape by the regulation of their behavior, often serves to support the fear of rape. Demographic differences Although women as a whole demographic are more fearful of crime, specific subgroups of women may have higher levels of fear or be more likely to change their behavior because of it. In many studies, the demographics found to have the highest generalized fear of crime are single, older, urban, women of color, and of lower socioeconomic class. For fear of victimization for specific crimes, the demographics with the highest levels of fear may be different. Race and ethnicity Theorists have suggested that Black and Latina women, and women of color in general, in the United States may have higher rates of fear of crime due to increased social vulnerability; because of institutional racism and sexism against women of color, their identities may put them at greater risk of victimization, leading to higher levels of fear. Some theorists have suggested that African American women may have more fear of crime, because they are exposed to more crime due to living in lower socioeconomic areas. Studies have shown that African American women are more sexualized than White women, so their fear of sexual assault is higher. This fear of crime leads to more psychological distress among African American women. Studies have shown that there is a positive link between men who hold sexist attitudes and men who hold racist attitudes, which leads to an increased possibility of accepting common rape myths. Proposals In general, proposed solutions to women's fear of crime either place the responsibility on individual women (through preventive strategies) or on official agencies (through infrastructure improvements, anti-rape education, more involved policing, etc.), and are often framed as a combination of both. Of those that expect women to protect themselves from crime, most focus on the dangers for women in public spaces; however, as women usually face their highest rates of victimization in the home or at the hands of known people, these campaigns have been suggested to be particularly ill-equipped to help solve the problem of women's high fear of crime, and to support an untrue picture of women's victimization. Avoidance One of the most common individual strategies for dealing with fear of crime and preventing victimization is simple avoidance, the attempt to stay away from areas (such as dark alleys or public transportation) where it is believed victimization is likely to occur; research has found that women employ avoidance strategies more often than men do. Avoided areas may include neighborhoods with high crime rates, but for many women also include any unfamiliar areas. Women may also employ other isolation strategies by avoiding social interaction with strangers, ignoring them or moving quickly and with purpose to discourage interaction Defenses Another common method of allaying fear of crime among women is by "crime-proofing" homes or possessions. Popular examples include home security systems, locking away valuables, or participating in neighborhood watch programs. These strategies are used by people of all genders, but some are more often employed by women. For example, many women in an American study reported choosing purses with zippers or holding purses protectively to defend against theft and purse-snatching. Feminist commentary Feminist commentators usually take the view that the responsibility for reducing women's fear of crime lies with the society, and that fear must be combatted at its source by addressing men's violence against women. Worldwide Although most research on women's fear of crime has been done in English-speaking countries, with the most done in the United States, similar trends in women's fear of crime have been found around the world.
R
Theories on women's fear of crime
Causes
A
Social factors
R
Theory
theories
D
One study has shown that women may have higher levels of fear of crime, not because they are scared of being victimized themselves, but fear of their children being victimized. Women are more likely than men to see their relationships with others as an interdependent relationship. This interdependent relationship makes women more scared of crimes being committed against their loved ones than themselves. This distinction of relationships cause women's fear of crime to be higher than men's fear of crime, because men do not see their relationships as interdependent. This study argues that women's fear of crime is caused by traditional societal gender roles.
R
Rape and fear of crime
Rape fear
A
Sexual harassment and gendered fears
A
Socialization of women
A
"Sexual terrorism"
D
in women's fear of crime
R
/Ethnicity
and ethnicity
R
Solutions to women's fear of crime
Proposals
A
Avoidance
A
Defenses
A
commentary Feminist
R
Women's fear of crime around the world
Worldwide