Legal Document

452 U.S. 337 101 Supreme Court Reporter 2392 69 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 59 James Atlantic RHODES et al., Petitioners,v.Kelly CHAPMAN al. Number 80-332. Argued March 2, 1981. Decided June 15, Syllabus Respondents, who were housed in the same cell an Ohio maximum-security prison, brought a class action Federal District under 42 Code KF62 § 1983 against petitioner state officials, alleging that "double celling" violated Constitution and seeking injunctive relief. Despite its generally favorable findings of fact, concluded double celling was cruel unusual punishment violation Eighth Amendment, as made applicable to through Fourteenth Amendment. This conclusion based on five considerations: (1) inmates at prison serving long terms imprisonment; (2) 38% more than "design capacity"; (3) recommendation several studies each inmate have least 50-55 square feet living quarters opposed 63 shared by double-celled inmates; (4) suggestion spend most their time cells with cellmates; (5) fact not temporary condition. The Appeals affirmed. Held : question is prohibited Amendments. Pp. 344-352. (a) Conditions confinement, constituting issue, must involve wanton unnecessary infliction pain, nor may they be grossly disproportionate severity crime warranting imprisonment. But conditions cannot said contemporary standards are unconstitutional. To extent such restrictive even harsh, part penalty criminals pay for offenses society. 345-347. (b) In view Court's virtually every one which tends refute respondents' claim, constituted insupportable. P.p. 347-348. (c) considerations relied insufficient support constitutional conclusion. Such properly weighed legislature administration rather court. They fall far short themselves proving punishment, absent evidence circumstances either inflicts or pain 348-350. (d) discharging oversight responsibility determine whether amount courts assume legislatures officials insensitive requirements sociological problems how best achieve goals penal function criminal justice system. 351-352. 6th Cir., 624 Reporter, 2nd 1099, reversed. Allen Pacific KF135 P2 Adler, Columbus, Ohio, petitioners. Jean Kamp, respondents. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 presented housing two single Southern Correctional Facility 2 * Respondents Kelly Chapman Richard Jaworski (SOCF), Lucasville, Ohio. when this behalf all similarly situated SOCF. Asserting cause 1983, contended SOCF Constitution. gravamen complaint confined cellmates too closely. It also blamed overcrowding SOCF, overwhelmed prison's facilities staff.1 As relief, respondents sought injunction barring petitioners, responsible from cell, except measure. 3 extensive about basis trial court's own observations during inspection it conducted without advance notice. 434 F.Supp. 1007 (1977). These describe physical plant, population, effects celling. Neither party contends these erroneous. 4 built early 1970's. addition 1,620 cells, has gymnasiums, workshops, school rooms, "dayrooms," chapels, hospital ward, commissary, barbershop, library.2 Outdoors, recreation field, visitation area, garden. described plant "unquestionably top-flight, first-class facility." Id., 1009. 5 Each measures approximately feet. contains bed measuring 36 80 inches, cabinet-type night stand, wall-mounted sink hot cold running water, toilet can flush inside cell. Cells two-tiered bunk bed. Every heating air circulation vent near ceiling, 960 window open close. All cabinet, shelf, radio into walls, wall consists bars seen. 6 "dayrooms" located adjacent cellblocks between 6:30 a. m. 9:30 Page According Court, "[t]he day rooms sense designed furnish type occupation ordinary citizen would seek his room den." 1012. dayroom television, card tables, chairs. Inmates pass dayrooms 10-minute period per hour, doors opened. 7 found began receiving late 1972 them 1975 because increase Ohio's statewide population. At trial, 2,300 inmates, 67% whom life other long-term sentences first-degree felonies. Approximately 1,400 celled. Of these, 75% had choice spending much waking hours outside dayrooms, school, library, visits, meals, showers. spent locked classification.3 8 remaining addressed allegation created SOCF's staff. food "adequate resrect," adduced no "whatsoever prisoners been underfed taxed population." 1014. ventilation system adequate, substantially free offensive odor, temperature well controlled, noise excessive. Double reduced significantly availability space facilities,4 rendered inadequate resources library schoolrooms.5 Although there isolated incidents failure provide medical dental care, indifference staff inmates' needs.6 violence, court number acts violence increased but only proportion failed produce establishing itself caused greater ratio guards satisfied standard acceptability offered expert witness. Finally, did find administration, faced jobs, "water[ed] down" jobs assigning job necessary reducing worked, id., 1015; psychiatrists social workers since begun. 9 findings, punishment. rested considerations. One, view, "can accent[uate] close confinement overcrowding." 1020. Two, capacity." reference asserted: "Overcrowding necessarily involves excess limitation general movement mental injury exposure." Ibid. Three, accepted decency recommending institution quarters.7 contrast, share Four, asserted "[a]t prisoner celled will cellmate."8 1021. Five, practice; condition.9 10 On appeal Sixth Circuit, petitioners argued read, light holding se disagreed; viewed affirmed, further opinion, ground clearly erroneous, conclusions law "permissible findings," remedy reasonable response violations found.10 11 We granted petition certiorari importance administration. 449 951, 353, 66 214 (1980). now reverse. II 12 consider here first Robinson versus California, 370 660, 82 1417, 758 (1962), imposes upon State confine those convicted crimes. unquestioned "[c]onfinement . form subject scrutiny Amendment standards." Hutto Finney, 437 678, 685, 98 2565, 2570, 57 522 (1978); see Ingraham Wright, 430 651, 669, 97 1401, 1411, 51 711 (1977); cf. Bell Wolfish, 441 520, 99 1861, 60 447 (1979). until case, we considered disputed contention particular punishment.11 Nor occasion specifically principles relevant assessing claims violate look, first, precedents State's authority impose conduct. 13 three words, punishments: "cruel unusual." interpreted words "in flexible dynamic manner," Gregg Georgia, 428 153, 171, 96 2909, 2924, 49 859 (1976) (joint opinion), extended Amendment's reach beyond barbarous punishments issue earliest cases. See Wilkerson- Utah, 130, 25 L.Ed. 345 (1879); re Kemmler, 136 436, 930, 34 519 (1890). Today prohibits which, although physically barbarous, "involve pain," supra, 173, S.Ct., 2925, crime, Coker 433 584, 592, 2861, 2866, 53 982 (1977) (plurality opinion); Weems States, 217 349, 30 544, 54 793 (1910).12 Among "unnecessary wanton" inflictions "totally penological justification." U.S., 183, 2929; Estelle Gamble, 429 97, 103, 285, 290, 50 251 (1976). 14 No static "test" exist unusual, "must draw meaning evolving mark progress maturing society." Trop Dulles, 356 86, 101, 78 590, 598, 596 (1958) opinion). held, however, "Eighth judgments should neither appear merely subjective views" judges. Rummel Estelle, 445 263, 275, 100 1133, 1139, 382 sure, "the contemplates end [a court's] judgment bear acceptability" given 597, 2868 182, 2929 " 'judgment[s] informed objective factors maximum possible extent.' 274-275, quoting 2866 For example, capital certain crimes values, looked "objective indicia" derived history, legislatures, sentencing juries. 176-187, 2926-2931; 593-596, 2868. Our deliberate inmate's needs recognized common "[a]n rely authorities treat needs; if fail do so, met." 290. 15 apply compose issue. held denial care because, worst result torture, and, less serious cases, any purpose. Arkansas prisons resulted deprivation basic human needs. Gamble Hutto, alone combination, deprive minimal civilized measure life's necessities. could 103-104, 290-291. offenders B 16 constitutes Virtually claim. unanticipated population lead deprivations essential food, sanitation. among create intolerable confinement. F.Supp., 1018. educational opportunities diminished marginally celling, limited work delay before education inflict pain; kind simply punishments. wrench language history hold desirable aids rehabilitation violates 17 imprisonment served SOCF; quarters; Supra, 343-344. imprisonment.13 most, theory pain.14 Perhaps reflect aspiration toward ideal environment does mandate comfortable prisons, type, house persons crimes, discomfort. Thus, There being violation,15 III 18 proceed cautiously making unless reverse it, "[a] decision impermissible reversed amendment," thus "[r]evisions experience." 176, 2926. mind inquiries "spring judicial answers idea operate detention 539, 1874.16 19 Courts certainly scrutinize especially older ones, justly "deplorable" "sordid." 562, 1886.17 When "federal discharge duty protect rights." Procunier Martinez, 416 396, 405-406, 94 1800, 1807-1808, 40 224 (1974); Cruz Beto, 405 319, 321, 92 1079, 1081, 31 263 (1972) (per curiam ). responsibility, perplexing system: punish justly, deter future return imprisoned society improved change useful, law-abiding citizens. 20 us unusual. not, 21 so ordered. 22 BRENNAN, BLACKMUN STEVENS join, concurring judgment. 23 Today's reaffirms "[c]ourts confinement." Ante, page. With & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions agree. agree case practice write separately, emphasize today's way construed retreat careful conditions, discuss undertaking scrutiny. 24 never what constitute punishment" within ante, 344-345, questions repeatedly lower courts. individual entire systems declared unconstitutional Amendments,1 litigation underway many others.2 learned repeated investigation bitter experience intervention indispensable dictates—not mention humanity—are observed prisons. familiar area suggest overeager usurp task today notes, entrusted instance "legislature court." 349. And certainly, suppose ordered creation "comfortable prisons," ibid., model country clubs. contrary, soul-chilling inhumanity American thrust conscience." Suffolk County Jail Eisenstadt, 360 676, 684 (Mass.1973). 26 Judicial opinions make pleasant reading.3 Pugh Locke, 406 318 (MD Ala.1976), aff'd modified, 559 283 (CA5 1977), rev'd grounds, 438 781, 3057, 1114 (1978) curiam), Chief Judge Frank Johnson gruesome detail then prevailing Alabama institutions "horrendously overcrowded,' 322, point where some forced sleep mattresses spread floors hallways next urinals. 323. "dilapidat[ed]" "filthy," infested roaches, flies, mosquitoes, vermin. Sanitation ill repair, emitting overpowering odor"; over 200 men toilet. provided toothpaste, toothbrush, shampoo, shaving cream, razors, combs, Food "unappetizing unwholesome," poorly prepared often insects, utensils. meaningful vocational, educational, recreational, programs. 326. A health officer "wholly unfit habitation according criterion used evaluation public inspectors." 323-324. "rampant violence" prison. 325. Weaker "repeatedly victimized" stronger; robbery, rape, extortion, theft, assault "everyday occurrences 324. Faced record, court—not surprisingly—found issued comprehensive remedial order affecting aspect administration.4 27 Unfortunately, example abberational anachronistic. Updated: January year, Ramos Lamm, 639 (1980), cert. denied, 450 1041, 1759, 68 239 (1981), Tenth Circuit unit Colorado Penitentiary Canon City areas "unfit habitation," 567; unsanitary "grossly inadequate," 570; "fraught tension violence," leading death, 572; "blatant[ly] inadequat[e]" "appalling," 574; various restrictions prisoners' rights visitation, mail, access rights, 578-585. Similar tales horror recounted dozens See, e. g., cases cited n. 1, supra. 28 Overcrowding cramped particularly pressing Out orders effect concerning federal correctional 31, 1978, involved overcrowding. Prisons Jails 32. Two-thirds federal, state, local dormitories providing person—the deemed acceptable Public Health Association, Department, authorities.5 29 administering indeed 'complex intractable,' "ante, 351, 16, 404, 1807, (1974), core lack allocated Confinement unquestionably expensive proposition: average direct current expenditure adult 1977 $5,461 inmate, 115; cost constructing additional estimated $25,000 $50,000. 119. Oftentimes, funding dramatically below required comply standards. bring Louisiana compliance supplemental appropriation $18,431,622 year's operating expenditures, $105,605,000 outlays. Williams Edwards, 547 1206, 1219-1221 1977) (Exhibit A). Over last decade, resources, ample, lagged behind burgeoning populations. Ruiz 503 1265 (SD Tex.1980), stated "unprecedented surge" "undercut realistic expectation" eliminating triple despite construction new $43 million unit. 1280-1281. risen 42% 1975, year grew fastest rate years. Krajick, Boom Resumes, Corrections Magazine 16-17 (Apr.1981) (report annual survey populations).6 major infusion money keep pace apathy political powerlessness contributed pervasive neglect Henley people "knew little nothing system" prior Holt litigation, "sporadic sensational" exposes. Sarver, 309 362, 367 (ED Ark.1970). Prison "voteless, politically unpopular, socially threatening." Morris, Snail's Pace Reform, Proceedings 100th Annual Congress Correction Assn. 36, (1970). suffering prisoners, known, "moves community severe exceptional cases." conscientious "[c]aught middle," refuse "to sufficient tax dollars outdated up minimally Levine, 648, 654 (Md.), part, 588 1378 (CA4 1978).7 After exposure process, Pettine came "barbaric conditions" Rhode Island's ugly shocking outward manifestations deeper dysfunction, attitude cynicism, hopelessness, predatory selfishness, callous appears infect, degree another, almost everyone comes contact [prison]." Palmigiano Garrahy, 443 956, 984 (RI remanded, 599 (CA1 1979). 32 Under emerged critical force efforts ameliorate inhumane conditions. Insulated pressures, charged enforcing Constitution, strongest position insist remedied, significant financial cost. BLACKMUN, Appeals, set tone Jackson Bishop, 404 571, 580 (CA8 1968): "Humane day, measured dollar ." 33 Progress Nation's slow uneven, pressure. Nevertheless, clear responsible, remedying abuses order, "forcing legislative branch government reevaluate correction policies appropriate funds upgrading systems." 163. detailed study four Bar Association concluded: "The studied impact broad substantial. beneficial institutions, systems, broader community. Dire consequences predicted personnel accompany studied. protections, undermine control. Institutional improved, turned 'country clubs.' intervened affairs, judges take facilities." M. Harris D. Spiller, Decision: Implementation Decrees Settings (National Institute Law Enforcement Criminal Justice, 1977). 35 Even acknowledged helped obtain needed reform. GAO, Comptroller General, Report Congress: Department Can Do More Help Improve Local Facilities 12-13 (GGD-80-77, 1980). Commissioner New York City, defendant lawsuits challenging jail stated: "Federal resort us. If there's going change, think cities states look friend." Gettinger, "Cruel Unusual" Prisons, 3, (Dec.1977). similar vein, Minnesota testified congressional Committee "have upgraded development procedural safeguards regarding rights. my taken place, fundamental improvements occurred. 37 38 "While intend imply sit expectantly desk week awaiting news another impending suit, recognize agency consistently deals fairly incarcerated our judicially accountable." Civil Rights Institutionalized Persons, Hearings S. 1393 Subcommittee Senate Judiciary, 95th Cong., 1st Sess., 409-410 (testimony Kenneth KF105 F3 Schoen).8 39 "determine challenged comports dignity." Furman 408 238, 282, 2726, 2748, 346 (BRENNAN, J., concurring). determinations imprecise indefinite, 100-101, 597-598, (1958); Wilkerson 135-136, require application yet humane performing deferential adoption execution practices preserve internal discipline maintain institutional security." 547, 1878, (1979); 16; Jones North Carolina Prisoners' Labor Union, 119, 128, 2532, 2539, 629 (1972). Many including overcrowding, poor sanitation, safety precautions, arise policy. 358-359. reason comity, restraint, recognition expertise defer negligent omissions motivation limits decency. primacy executive prisons; conform minima, obligation steps violations. 405, 1807.9 41 decisionmaking actual challenge. important deficiencies together." 373. "exist combination; affects other; together [may] cumulative inmates." considering challenge examine totality circumstances.10 condition itself, "exposure punishment." Laaman Helgemoe, 269, 322-323 (NH Moreover, information assistance sources, testimony prisoners. purpose, health, medical, psychiatric, psychological, penological, architectural, structural, experts proved useful observing interpreting (commenting "task easier experts").11 43 elusive, perhaps, second inquiry: observed. expressed ways, see, C. I. Concord Advisory Bd. Hall, 398, (Mass.1978) ("contemporary decency"); 979 (conditions bad "shock conscience citizen"); 102, 'broad idealistic concepts dignity, standards, humanity, decency,' 2d, 579). descriptions merit, end, attempting left knowledge standards.12 2868, 44 determining legitimate become "touchstone imprisoned." (lighting, heat, plumbing, ventilation, space, levels, space); sanitation (control vermin preparation, facilities, lavatories showers, clean places eating, sleeping, working); (protection violent, deranged, diseased fire protection, emergency evacuation); services (clothing, nutrition, bedding, dental, time, exercise recreation, rehabilitative programming); staffing (trained adequate staff, avoidance placing positions inmates). ibid.; F.2d, 567-581. incarceration threatens physical, mental, emotional well-being and/or creates probability recidivism incarceration," conclude 45 reviewing perception seen directly heard there. From know modern, "top-flight, facility," 1970's $32 million, 1007, 1009 Hogan, toured facility, "not lacking color," "generally speaking, quite airy, etc." 1011. reasonably furnished, lavatory water steel mirror, china commode flushed radio, vent, lighting fixture, bunkbed. 1011-1012. Prisoners cellblock frequent dayroom, cells," "designed respect," kitchens dining clean. permitted visitation. 'well ratio," while uncommon, out 1014-1015, 1016-1018. Plumbing adequate. 1015. well-stocked library. 1010, 2. eight schoolrooms, kitchens, workshops. 1,280 inmates. 46 slightest doubt enough men. understand concluded. 1021; 5, supra; post, 371-372, (MARSHALL, dissenting). That unmistakable signal legislators Ohio: expanded, fewer Facility—cramped though are—constitute Hite Leeke, 564 670, 673-674 1977); 404-405.13 47 "touchstone" inquiry 'the imprisoned.' 364, leave adequately sheltered, fed, protected, education, work, available.14 One need compare description 354-356, realize crowded is, better, large Nation.15 48 consequence might worse run. transferred Columbus Facility, deteriorating nearly 150 years old, preliminary enjoining racially segregative punitive practices. Stewart Rhodes, 473 1185 correct abstract existed results harm decided abstract. prisoners.16 unable identify signs seriously harmed there;17 indeed, crowding reached causing injury. Since facility offends norms, am impermissible, concur perhaps technically observation, "consider[ing] crimes," obviously writing slate. 685-688, 2570-2572, Already, concerns significance 52 571 1968), both MARSHALL dissent here, was, believe, examined penitentiary violative proscription punishments." sat appeal, privileged unanimous panel My voting discloses concern sometimes imposed beings. Bailey, 444 394, 419, 424, 624, 639, 641, 62 575 (1980) (dissenting perceive, BRENNAN separate writing, possibility regarded, language, administrators adopt policy deference purpose decency, 346, 349-352. old prevalent decades ago. join BRENNAN's I, too, feel continue available sincerely claim subjected points 347, necessarily, constitutionally, entails restrictions, discomforts, loss privileges complete freedom affords. door cruelty neglect. Against condition, courts, hoped, remain bastion. MARSHALL, dissenting. 55 reading surely (SOCF) safe, spacious happens include two-inmate determined run majority case. overcrowded, unhealthful, dangerous. None State. Until today, absolutely "state legislatures" "prison officials" suggests, 352, analyzing questions—had suggested forcing tiny good thing. noted, "everybody" agreement undesirable.1 disciplinary security matter. claimed anything whatsoever "punish[ing] justly," "deter[ring] crime," "return[ing] chance citizens." 352. demonstrate individuals sent ever hold.2 56 dispute 1,600 keeping floor space. hundreds shared, "doubled," hardly intended. doubled 30-35 space.3 Most windows building larger that. aware himself, very least, space—an smaller occupied good-sized automobile—in avoid emotional, deterioration.4 fact. 1020-1021 brief concede practiced "less desirable." Brief Petitioners 17. 58 "embodies humanity judged. (1976), 579 1968). Thus me, consistent problem considerable condemn result. record amply demonstrates present here. severely overcrowded. above design capacity.5 two-thirds lengthy sentences, for, elsewhere, length ignored deciding meets 686, 2571, (1978). double-celling short-term problem. found, contested, double-celling, enjoined, foreseeable future. cells.6 true, asserts, "there imprisonment." 348. "necessarily "excess 1020 (emphasis added).7 course, judge actually visited give always accorded finder shred anyone matter thought approved, aside concurrent sufficiently will, unchecked, deterioration health. go therefore affirm Appeals. disagreement proper goes further, adding unfortunate dicta read warning interference operation literally, majority's admonitions eviscerate courts' traditional role preventing imposing 61 concedes "certainly confinement," adds apparent caveat: "In outset, none dictum, moreover, takes proceeding add regret, sanguine motivations officials. Too often, governments truly "insensitive Amendment," evidenced (lengthy periods isolation); (failure needs); Battle Anderson, 388 (CA10 (severe overcrowding); Gates Collier, 501 1291 1974) (overcrowding conditions); 442 304 1971) (unsafe abuse); Ala.1976) (constant fear harm), aff'd, 353-361 judgment).8 64 transgress rules. offense severe, proportionate severity. administered limitations down rising rates recent years, alarming tendency simplistic philosophy lock throw away keys, streets somehow safe. climate, unrealistic expect overcrowded harmful point—when deplorable process offers redress—that play role. believe vital discharged step abandoning altogether. dissent. favor, eliminated increases state-wide prompted continued. Furthermore, transfer lesser special recipient Tr. Oral Arg. 5-6. interest resuming 542-543, 25, 1876, 25,000 volumes, lawbooks, "modern, well-lit," "superior quality quantity." 1010. classrooms "light, equipped." workshops laundry, machine shop, shoe factory, sheet metal printshop, sign engine-repair shop. requested protective custody substantiate fears classified "limited activity" six week. "voluntarily idle" newly arrived classification cells. administrative isolation reasons allowed attend religious services, movie, commissary. noted few permit lawbooks available, allow effective "ready, able, willing receive schooling denied opportunity," received opportunity attend. Turnover substantial backlog needing routine treated emergencies. 1016. cited, Assn., Manual Standards Adult Institutions, Standard 4142, (60-80 feet); National Sheriffs' Handbook Architecture (1975) (70-80 Council Crime Delinquency, Model Act Protection Prisoners, Delinquency 4, (50 feet). assertion opinion. Elsewhere 1012, 1013. finding regulations classification, submitted exhibits. Rather move release them, urged, initially "proceed dispatch formulate, propose, carry plan terminate SOCF." 1022. plans, rejected. reduce month fell approximate capacity 1,700. App. Pet. Certiorari A-39. two-paragraph affirmance filed publish. 1099 (1978), 1420. (1977), corporal Amendments differences schoolchild, "Prison brutality 'part total such, scrutiny.' 525 909, 915 1976). substantive limit punished such. (1962). erred assuming suffice establish 543-544, 27, 447, helpful respect questions, "they minima; rather, recommended organization question." Dept. Indeed, generalized weigh heavily sanction." desirable, size violating small, exceptionally modern functional; heated ventilated sanitary radio. contend dangerous potential frustration, tension, violence. led rioting. danger riots concern, whatever situation different lend peculiarly normally discretion administrators. 551, 32, 1880, 32; 132-133, 2541, Pell Procunier, 417 817, 827, 2800, 2806, 495 (1974). dissenting [the Court] case." Post, 369-370. incorrectness statement examination facts forth above, 340-343, nn. 2-6, 1009-1018. instances, selectively relies acknowledging gave weight. emphasizes psychological "may expected" celling; aggression. 1017. fails mention, referred superintendent physician [in violence] numbers [of inmates]." telling fact—ignored dissent—that resolved conflict "that activity due [an increase] uncontroverted records, maintained "detail[ed] bespeak[ing] credibility." ambiguity dissent, 373, 6, selective others 4-6 note flatly inconsistent prior, twice-repeated, cellmate around 9:00 m.," 1013, leaving hours. unquestioned—and mentioned "restrictive classification." guilty "rule infractions [after] plenary hearing" "are 'choice' (at degree)." remembered violent regime supervision discipline. makes "rated Bureau influence population: arrests, prosecution policies, parole decisions. Because rapidly, build, extremely difficult calibrate "rated" capacity" predictions Memorandum Amicus Curiae 6. designer guessed incorrectly sketched magnitude 404-405, (5 vols.). suffices repeat: "[T]he America complex intractable, point, readily susceptible resolution decree. expertise, planning, commitment province branches government. reasons, equipped deal increasingly urgent reflects healthy realism." 1807 (footnote omitted). Wolff McDonnell, 418 561-562, 568, 2963, 2977, 2980, 935 125, 2537. exacerbated inflation communities. illustrative. 1970's, 341. Yet, compelled Examples federal-court decisions 1980), (1981); 1206 1974); placed are: Alabama, (CA curiam); Arizona, Cardwell, CIV-75-185-PHX-CAM (DC Ariz., Oct. 14, 1980) (consent decree); Arkansas, Finney Mabry, 458 720 Ark. 1978) Colorado, Delaware, Anderson Redman, 1105 (Del.1977); Florida, Costello Wainwright, 397 Fla.1975), 1239 (CA5), vacated rehearing 539 1976) (en banc), rev'd, 325, 1191, 372, remand, 553 506 banc) Guthrie Caldwell, 3068 Ga., Illinois, Lightfoot Walker, 486 504 Ill.1980); Iowa, Watson Ray, 90 F.R.D. 143 Iowa 1981); Kentucky, Kendrick Bland, 76-0079-P (WD Ky., 24, Louisiana, Maryland, 648 1978), Nelson Collins, 455 727 1978); Mississippi, Missouri, Burks Teasdale, 603 1979); Hampshire, 269 Mexico, Duran Apodaca, 77-721-C NM, July 17, York, Todaro Ward, 565 (CA2 (in case) Oklahoma, Oregon, Capps Atiyeh, 802 (Ore.1980); Pennsylvania, Hendrick Jackson, Pa.Cmwlth. 392, 187 (1973); Island, 956 Tennessee, Trigg Blanton, A-6047 (Ch. Ct., Davidson Cty., Aug. 23, (Tenn.App., May (for consideration changes conditions), pending (Tenn.Sup.Ct.); Texas, Tex.1980). Feliciano Barcelo, 497 (PR Barnes Government Virgin Islands, 415 1218 (V.I. 8,000 (hereafter Jails). behooves remember "it impossible written convey pernicious degradation suffer [unconstitutionally operated prisons]—the experiences youthful forcibly raped; justifiable wondering called defend assault; sheer misery, discomfort, wholesale privacy one, two, forty-five foot suffocatingly packed dormitory; wretched stress endured sick injured "For [such prisons], content essence daily existence." 1391. upheld wide 687-688, 2571-2572, Services Institutions (1976); Jails, 2.04, (1980); 39-50, 85, causes increasing rates, stiffer provisions, (Apr.1981); Manpower Survey System, Vol. III, 13-14 instances politicians "assume Constitution," 352 added), sad shown requirements. Institutionalized, 96th (1979) Assistant Attorney General Drew Days); 448 659, 671 (prison implement unrelated ability comply). William G. Nagel, Jersey corrections official witness that, he participated, worked "systematic way" "impede fulfillment constitutionality institutions." Hearing 772 He "learned resist correcting operations pressed threat suit directive judiciary." 779. obstructionist behavior affirmed award attorney's fees faith. 689-693, 2572-2574. hearings state-operated emphatically endorsed passing Persons Act, 96-247, Statutes-at-Large 1997 seq. (1976 ed., Supp.IV), authorized suits institutionalized Conference "conditions across Nation: barbaric treatment juvenile curbed; facing prospect voluntarily previously announced H.R.Conf.Rep. 96-897, U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1980, Pages 787, 833. (1972): supervise enforce 'persons,' unmindful latitude rules regulations. like individuals, right redress grievances includes 'access presenting complaints.' adopts totality-of-the-circumstances test. 347 (Prison "alone necessities") added). 687, 2571 ("We error whole, continued prohibition punishment") disparage use assist functions. acknowledges "helpful relevant" circumstances. 348, 13. Again, great value evaluating "suffice decency," help norms evaluated. connection, standard-setting organizations Commission Accreditation Corrections, valuable. rated living-space requirements, permanent character ruled "unconstitutional circumstances." A-2. aspects prison; embroider theme itself. mitigated considerably dayrooms. inhabitants double-occupant activities. remainder, "receiving" status, semiprotected status choice, 'idle" choice. remainder rules, after hearing. During final implemented limiting day. 27. true unconstitutionally confined. 356. say "demonstrate[d] high specificity certainty." 1286. may, usual, employ sense, testimony, practical modes proof. 1286-1287. Cf. 810-814 (evidence "replete examples deleterious health," risks, engage programs, levels quiet well-being, anxiety, fear); 1112-1118 (court damage incidence self-mutilation, suicide, attempted assault, homosexual destroyed privacy, overtaxed filth, noise, vermin, fostered idleness, broke incentive demoralized staff). agreement—as everybody—that 1016 1010-1011. alone, bunk-style allowance furniture room, 20-24 feet, typical door. ("a minimum sq. ft."); feet"; "[i]n exceed standards"); ("80 institutions"); ("[s]ingle occupancy 70 area"); ("at space"); ("not fifty sleeping area"). recommend witness, former warden Rikers "an awful stretch time," expected "assault behavior" "homosexual occurrences." 48. added "skid row bums" Bowery flophouses tend live healthier surroundings 55. apparent, disagree weight testimony. pointed refuting contradicting absolute himself 572, 12, 1891, (1979), institution" mentions capacity, dismisses rating "[p]erhaps" reflecting us," adds, "is 350-351, 15. Rated argues, irrelevant numerous Actually, irrelevant. By definition, represents unit, hold." 41-42 reason, exceeds accommodate hold—in short, factor why feels dismiss entirely. 344, 8, lacks basis, leaves "substantial number" assumes, 350, "flatly inconsistent" reject favor second. course both. choose so. attaches me matters. categories: "receiving," category "a couple weeks"; idle," presumably means says; activity," requested, custody. immediately categories justifies imposition otherwise particular, rape (the presumed request custody) quarters. incorrectly, committed rule infractions. commit plight, mere infraction warrant imposition. credited "close quarters" likely schizophrenia disorders "aggressive anti-social characteristics." became Contrary majority, 349-350, assert accept Plainly, just se. Other conclusions. Campbell McGruder, 188 U.S.App.D.C. 258, 273, 521, 536 388, 399-401 Detainees Brooklyn House Detention Malcolm, 520 399 1975). calls comment. asserts questions" 'simply question.' 13, truism, plainly analysis. study, competent, rule. once established, shed violated. Brown Board Education, 483, 494, 11, 74 691, 873 (1954) (using show segregation). forbids "either imprisonment," unconstitutionality want Deciding proportions, competently done, naturally function. Here, worthy assessment casts token methodology, content, relied. implies, plaintiffs meritorious tremendous difficulty

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