Legal Document

432 U.S. 98 97 Supreme Court Reporter 2243 53 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 140 John R. MANSON, Commissioner of Correction Connecticut, Petitioner,v.Nowell Atlantic BRATHWAITE. Number 75-871. Argued Nov. 29, 1976. Decided June 16, 1977. Syllabus Glover, a trained Negro undercover state police officer, purchased heroin from seller through the open doorway an apartment while standing for two or three minutes within feet in hallway illuminated by natural light. A few later Glover described to another officer as being "a colored man, approximately five eleven inches tall, dark complexion, black hair, short Afro style, and having high cheekbones, heavy build." The other suspecting description that respondent might be seller, left photograph at office who viewed it days identified picture seller. In Connecticut court, was charged with, convicted of, possession sale heroin, his trial, held some eight months after crime, received evidence without objection testified there no doubt person shown also made positive in-court identification objection. After affirmed conviction, filed petition habeas corpus Federal District Court, alleging admission testimony trial deprived him due process law violation Fourteenth Amendment. dismissed petition, but Appeals reversed, holding should have been excluded, regardless reliability, because examination single unnecessary suggestive, unreliable any event. Held: Due Process Clause Amendment does not compel exclusion evidence. Pp. 109-117. (a) Reliability is linchpin determining admissibility confrontations occurring both prior Stovall versus Denno, 388 293, 87 1967, 18 1199, wherein determination depends on "totality circumstances." Id., 302, S.Ct., 1972. factors weighed against corrupting effect suggestive procedure assessing reliability are set out Neil Biggers, 409 188, 93 375, 34 401, include witness' opportunity view criminal time degree attention, accuracy criminal, level certainty demonstrated confrontation, between crime confrontation. 109-114. (b) Under totality circumstances this case, exist very substantial likelihood irreparable misidentification." Simmons States, 390 377, 384, 88 967, 971, 19 1247. casual observer had sufficient suspect, accurately him, positively respondent's only crime. 114-117. 527 Reporter, 2nd 363, reversed. Bernard D. Gaffney, New Britain, Conn., petitioner. David S. Golub, Stamford, respondent. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 1 This case presents issue whether compels exclusion, apart consideration pretrial obtained unnecessary. Court's decisions 1199 (1967), 401 (1972), particularly implicated. 2 * Jimmy full-time trooper State Police, 1970 assigned Narcotics Division capacity. On May 5 year, about 7:45 Page m., e.d.t., still daylight, Henry Alton Brown, informant, went building 201 Westland, Hartford, purpose purchasing narcotics "Dickie Boy" Cicero, known dealer. thought, lived third floor building. Tr. 45-46, 68.1 Brown entered building, observed back-up Officers D'Onofrio Gaffey, proceeded stairs floor. knocked door one apartments served stairway.2 area light window hallway. 27-28. opened 12 response knock. man and, behind woman. himself. then asked "two things" narcotics. 29. hand, gave $10 bills. closed. Soon returned handed glassine bags.3 While open, stood whom he purchase face. Five seven elapsed first until closed second time. 30-33. 3 their arrival. drove headquarters where Gaffey. did know identity 36. He build. wearing blue pants plaid shirt." 36-37. D'Onofrio, Records Hartford Police Department. Glover's office. acquainted with personally sight seen "(s)everal times" 5. 63-65. when alone, upon return 7; 36-38. 4 toxicological report contents bags revealed presence heroin. dated July 1970. 75-76. Respondent arrested 27 visiting Mrs. Ramsey Westland. which taken place 5.4 6 charged, two-count information, Conn.Gen.Stat. (Rev. 1958, amended 1969), §§ 19-481a 19-480a (1977).5 At January 1971, part defense. 38. that, although since sale, "there (was) whatsoever" mind 41-42. 37-38. 7 No explanation offered prosecution failure utilize photographic array conduct lineup. 8 Respondent, took stand own defense, 5, day question, ill Albany Avenue ("a lot back pains, muscle spasms . bad heart blood pressure neuralgia my face, sinus," id., 106), particular 106, 113-114. His wife she recalled, her husband refreshed memory, home all 164-165. Doctor Wesley M. Vietzke, internist assistant professor medicine University consulted April 15, 1970, medical history heard complaints facial pain, discovered pressure. 129-131. physician found respondent, subjectively, "in great discomfort." 135. fact underwent surgery herniated disc L5 S1 August 17. 157. 9 jury guilty counts information. sentence less than six nor more nine years. conviction per curiam Connecticut. Brathwaite, 164 Conn. 617, 325 284 (1973). That court noted absence concluded "has injustice resulted evidence." 619, A.2d, 285. law, must before claim error passed will considered appeal. Ibid. 10 Fourteen later, alleged entitled under unreported written based court's review transcript,6 petition. appeal, Second Circuit instructions writ unless notice desire retry new occurred reasonable fixed Judge.7 363 (1975). 11 brief summary, felt suggestive. And, view, We granted certiorari. 425 957, 96 1737, 48 202 (1976). II supra, decided concerned petitioner York murder. following hospital victim's wife, wounded assault, patient. observing hearing speak, murderer. She identification. federal habeas, claimed violated Fifth, Sixth, rights. Appeals, en banc, affirmed. issue, reviewed practice showing suspect singly purposes identification, so unnecessarily conducive mistaken constituted denial law. widely condemned," U.S., 1972, confrontation surrounding it." spouse "was imperative." quoted observations Cir., 355 731, 735 (CA2 1966), could possibly exonerate accused; far courthouse jail; knew how long live; able visit taking room feasible procedure, circumstances, " 'the usual station line-up question.' 1972-1973. 13 Tennessee rape, consisting visual voice Biggers station-house showup victim assailant's directly indoors full moon outdoors. "no doubt" assailant. previously given others presented previous showups, lineups, photographs. violate process. reversed properly allowed go jury. certain cases scope protection derived procedures, namely, 1247 (1968); Foster California, 394 440, 89 1127, 22 402 (1969); Coleman Alabama, 399 1, 90 1999, 26 387 (1970).8 general guidelines emerged these "as relationship suggestiveness "admission process." 198, 382. expressed concern lapse "would seriously negative factor most cases." 201, 383. "central question," however, "whether 'totality circumstances' reliable even though suggestive." 199, Applying test, misidentification. jury." 14 well provide unambiguous answer question us: concerning possesses aspects reliability.9 passage, challenged pre-Stovall strict rule would make little sense regard preceded indication lead One perhaps argue implication, suggested different apply post-Stovall. us, then, simply analysis applies post-Stovall those pre-Stovall. III 15 present "sole tying Brathwaite consisted identifications agent, Glover." App. Pet. Certiorari 6a. constitutional stated inquiry used impermissibly obtaining out-of-court If so, whether, rise 9a. were cited. Circuit, its controlling clear "this type (display photograph) suggestive," turned inquiry. specified recited applied. It referred facts: duration least "couple minutes." There skylight adequate see clearly hall. "certainly paying attention identify seller." 10a. realized find arrest dealing. detailed D'Onofrio. supported enabled pick thereafter Glover. Only Despite sold 16 confirmed exhibition "impermissibly F.2d, 366, addition, "it so." 367. emergency urgency. said decision except harmless error, secured result admitting measures stand." what opposing inferences drawn passages preserved principle "requiring resulting 'unnecessarily confrontation' situations. 368. identifications, changed existing rule. Thus: "Evidence means excluded rules stringent can force administrators prosecutors adopt procedures give fair assurance awful risks 371. Finally, said, if conclusion wrong, writ, nevertheless, issue. judicial sunset 7:53 m. characterized duty agent "to cause arrests made," "could applied hundreds males." "little meaning," counsel table. subject "not implausible" "although evidently credited And troubled "the unexplained delay" arrest. too danger near scene, thought likely offender, Ramsey's apartment, rather "really remembered 371-372. IV 17 Petitioner outset acknowledges instant (because used) unnecessary" exigent circumstance). Brief 10; Oral Arg. 7. agreement proposes se claims dictated demands Amendment's guarantee rightly observes has occasion strictly kind. Since Courts appear developed approaches such See Pulaski, : Dismantles Wade Trilogy's Protection, Stan.L.Rev. 1097, 1111-1114 (1974). first, approach, employed focuses requires evidence, whenever procedures.10 justifications advanced elimination uncertain deterrence prosecutors, "fair Smith Coiner, 473 877, 882 (CA4), cert. denied sub nom. Wallace Smith, 414 1115, 94 848, 38 743 second, lenient, approach continues rely circumstances. permits if, despite aspect, features reliability. Its adherents feel mandated contrast other, ad hoc serves limit societal costs imposed sanction excludes relevant evaluation trier fact. ex rel. Kirby Sturges, 510 397, 407-408 (CA7) (opinion Judge, now Justice, Stevens), denied, 421 1016, 95 2424, 44 685 (1975); Stanley Cox, 486 (CA4 1973), Slayton, 416 958, 1975, 40 309 (1974).11 20 Stevens, writing Seventh Kirby, observed: "There surprising unanimity among scholars regarding (the approach) essential avoid serious risk miscarriage justice." 405. pointed well-known judges position "evidence from, inadmissible prosecutor justify use procedure." 406. Indeed, ALI Model Code Pre-Arraignment Procedure 160.1 160.2 (1975) (hereafter Code), frowns display photograph. 21 here stresses same theme need improper practice, regards pre-eminent. Photographic needlessly employed. notes legislative regulation hoped (United v.) (, 218, 239, 1926, 1938-1939, 1149 (1967),) engender," forthcoming. argues cannot expected significant deterrent impact; direct immediate impact enforcement agents. Identification convincing sweeping exclusionary required. Fairness threatened thus, established predicate. are, course, several interests into account. driving Wade, Gilbert 263, 1951, 1178 (1967) (right post-indictment line-up), Stovall, day, problems eyewitness Usually witness testify encounter total stranger emotional stress. recollection distorted easily actions police. Thus, companion reflect hear us responsive concern. rule, goes application automatically peremptorily, alleviating factors, keeps relevant. 23 deterrence. Although effect, influence behavior. guard one, fear unreliable.12 24 administration justice. Here suffers drawbacks. denies may result, occasion, going free. Also, rigidity, judge approach. reversal Draconian sanction.13 Certainly, inflexible frustrate promote justice recently unlimited enthusiasm. See, example, opinions Brewer Williams, 430 387, 1232, 51 424 (1977). Janis, 428 433, 3021, 49 1046 25 true, noted, character case. But observation judgmental translate excluded. standard, all, fairness required Lovasco, 431 783, 790, 2044, 2049, 52 752 (1977); Rochin 342 165, 170-172, 72 205, 208-209, L.Ed. 183 (1952). reference circumstances," continuing stress totality, 382, not, together, establish standard Judge Leventhal, speaking pre-Biggers pre-Wade situation, correctly protecting evidentiary interest time, recognizing limited extent our adversary system.14 sWe therefore conclude pre- confrontations. Biggers. 199-200, These Against itself. V turn, facts analysis: 28 1. view. door, twice, each door. moments passed, conversation place, payment made. looked vendor. sunset, sure, sun yet set, dusk twilight. Natural outside window. light, well, inside apartment. 29 2. attention. passing observer, often Trooper specialized dangerous called Westland himself unlikely perceive "hundreds males," stated. true ferreting offenders work produce results. specially trained, assigned, experienced pay scrupulous detail, subsequently close scrutiny trial. 30 3. description. transaction. included vendor's race, height, build, color style cheekbone feature. clothing vendor wore. possess physical characteristics described. reacted once. Two produced 31 4. certainty. dispute purchase, testified: whatsoever." repeated. 32 later. do passage weeks viewing 33 indicators ability accurate hardly outweighed arising single-photograph displays suspicion, 383, 970-971, we acquiesce suggestion entails. thus urgency leisure. examined coercive another. allowing care reflection. plays analysis, undermined acknowledged frequent visits apartment.15 35 Surely, say 971. Short point, weigh. content good judgment American juries, element untrustworthiness customary grist mill. Juries susceptible they measure intelligently weight questionable 36 Of better including "so practicable number persons similar suspected whose likeness array." Code, § 160.2(2). enhanced avoided unreliable. disposed D'Onofrio's dimension enforced rigorous unbending defect, substance.16 37 criteria laid down satisfactorily met complied here. 39 ordered. STEVENS, concurring. 41 & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions join opinion, emphasize points. 42 First, indicated 405-406 (CA7 1975), arguments favor fashioning minimize convicting innocent basis carry force. Nevertheless, reasons today. am persuaded rulemaking function performed "more effectively somewhat clumsy fiat," 408, Constitution foreclose experimentation development rules. 43 Second, evaluating sometimes difficult put guilt entirely side.* BLACKMUN'S carefully avoids pitfall relies appropriate indicia consider factual extremely close, resolved properly. MARSHALL, BRENNAN joins, dissenting. 45 Today's come surprise watching dismantle protections erected decade ago (1967); (1967). distressing virtually ignore teaching experience embodied blindly uphold defendant innocent. 46 magnitude analyzing trilogy it. foundation recognition "high incidence justice" trials. 228, 1933. Relying numerous studies over many years Professor Wigmore Frankfurter, "(t)he vagaries well-known; annals rife instances identification." is, impossible control source errors faulty perceptions memories witnesses vigorously contested trials conducted diligent judges. acted, preventable threat posed inherent manner 47 California prohibiting accused represented counsel. Further afforded uncounseled lineup allowable convincingly demonstrate tainted violation. way, held, fraught misidentification fairer, Sixth rights assistance preserved. crux decisions, unusual truth-seeking testimony. This, combined juries unfortunately unduly receptive evidence,1 fundamental ignored prophylactic retroactive, reflects concerns recognized principles, confrontation" identification" deny 301-302, plainly suggestive,2 introduced along ruled process, necessity procedure3 suggestion. right suspects free enforceable constitutionally invalid Comparison confirms interpretation. Where apply, analogous fundamentally manner. interpretation reinforced statement 1972 (emphasis added). Significantly, precisely confrontations: "The forbids 1199; 402." Illinois, 406 682, 691, 92 1877, 1883, 411 (1972) added).4 50 begun continued (1968). There, deal fatally Simmons, already accomplished, therefore, constitutionality procedure. itself test focused, entailed. applying understandably witnesses' initial Finding affected rejected petitioner's attack conviction. Again, comparison instructive. independent-source sought cases, identifying solely memory events merely remembering picked Accordingly, situations, includes bearing tests potential generating irreparably directed ascertaining violations introduction procedures. latter circumstances.5 distinction succeeding cases. (1969), like involved 442, 1128, "procedure 443, 1129 contrast, (1970), bolster plurality enunciated Simmons. stem allegedly 54 inexplicably seemed erase situations (1972). unnecessary.6 Evidence this, together admitted was, short, cast mold. Yet apparent distinction, test. stated: "(T)he primary evil 'a misidentification.' violates defendant's ." 381-382. describes lesson ignores 55 disregard Stovall. take misidentification' transform "standard (an) 381. deleting word "irreparable" formulation. metamorphosis ignoring fortified earlier 121, situation focused commentators almost unanimously mourned demise decision.7 56 Apparently, agree, believe wrongly decided. concludes distinguishable it, paragraph itself, 198-199, 381-382, seems distinguish considers alternatives, totality-of-the Ante, 110-111. weighs deciding essentially 111-113. evaluates factors. 57 favors heavily, unquestionably never fairer alternative available. quickly conform 58 gives dangers trilogy. concludes, grave adoption totally lessons Wade. permit identifications. Neither today points contrary empirical Studies validity assessment testimony.8 "content juries," ante, 116, impetus repeated miscarriages juries' willingness credit inaccurate 59 errs relative heavily factor, finding "reversal sanction" obtain strong distaste "inflexible exclusion," rejects 113. doing, disregards distinctions advocated remedies violations. 60 "inflexible." suppressed, fruit unlawful search, forever lost prosecution. nature readily reproduced. permitted independent example. Similarly, prosecuting attorney learns arrange scrupulously conditions. evaluated Wade-Simmons inquiry, "reliable" support fairly additional, persuasive jury, thereby increasing chance justified value whatsoever completely eliminated. 61 criticized preventing usually order serve unrelated innocence, discouraging illegal searches Suggestively unreliability concomitant irrelevance. protects integrity discourages ineffective investigatory methods. 62 worthless tools. They pose society large way governmental disobedience Olmstead 277 438, 471, 485, 564, 570, 575, 944 (1928) (Brandeis, J., dissenting). For public erroneously conclude, caught convicted, real outlaw remain large. Law failed unprotected depredations active criminal. 63 reasons, enhance, detract effective allow misleading juries. Equally important, criminals streets citizens assume action them protection. According calculus, point acceptance 64 Even disturbing reliance uses, suggests reinterpretation concept measured government violating standards fairness. By relying probable instead use, probably guilty. Until today, "Equal law" meant existence depend sex, religion, nationality, accused. adherence dealing every defendant, whatever personal irrespective strength State's him. Strong nevertheless beyond doubt. Chapman 386 18, 824, 705 importing violation, undermine Clause. "It important note courts free, interpreting constitutions, case." Oregon Mathiason, 429 492, 499, 711, 716, 714 (1977) (Marshall, dissenting).9 65 disagreement proper pleased recognize vitality mandates weighing itself" "indicators (a witness') 114, 116. holds, to, account led misidentification, otherwise highly render inadmissible. assuming applicability require result. 66 Officer suspect. Careful record shows speak sentences four words, hand money, 29-30, reopened, receive drugs return, 30, 31-32. entire face-to-face transaction seconds. during exclusively seller's 33, importantly, woman 30. concentrating details away face money drugs. 67 As notes, attentive making common scholarly study indicate "is erroneous average untrained mere correct specific scrutinized just normal witness." Wall, n. 14; Levine Tapp, 8, 1088. Moreover, "identifications policemen competitive activities, narcotic agents ., special care." 14. searching fails 68 Another indicator correct.10 unsure initially picture, key piece paid salary, imagine responding negatively questions your correct. 34, Wade: 'It matter once (pretrial confrontation), on.' 229, 1933, quoting Williams Hammelmann, Parades I, Crim.L.Rev. 479, 482 (1963). 69 Next, finds enhanced. temporal proximity makes greatest loss occurs hours dropoff much slowly.11 increased gap greater, necessarily decreases. 70 shortly incident. assertion "Glover 'hundreds males,' stated," 115, actually summary appearance. 101. discount clothing, significance proceeding. noticed clothes, diverted Otherwise, vaguely skin color, hairstyle, cheekbones," mention features, estimate age. Conspicuously absent native West Indies, certainly something member community immediately appearance accent.12 71 From weaker extraordinarily strongly error. dismissing here, grants license convict displaying everything done wrong wrong. all. Because photos static, two-dimensional, outdated, "clearly inferior reliability" corporeal 70; People Gould, Cal.2d 621, 631, Cal.Rptr. 273, 278, 354 Pacific 865, 870 (1960). photographs justifiable knowledge offender's identity, poor inexcusable Here, Detective believed 101, further investigation resort possible. With inconvenience, arranged.13 Properly conducted, gone remove identification.14 73 Worse available photo array. reason, single-suspect "been condemned." 1973. appearance, surely strongest involving seeing suggestively displayed "retain image seen." 383-384, "Subsequent nothing likeness." 484. warned, individual (and) heightened perso(n) pictured committed crime." ALI, 160.2(2), (5) 74 (or live matter) dramatically culprit. Why else choose person? deeply ingrained human agree knowledgeable decision.15 moreover, witness, assignment. detective, presumably familiar local drug operations, work, loyalty deference better-informed colleague.16 arrest, funds buy wasted. 75 discounts overwhelming suggestiveness, however. photograph, suggestion." blinks psychological reality.17 absence, powerful message telegraphed emphatically told man," responded man.' 1129.18 76 compelling misidentification" Brathwaite. erased retained barely observe 77 distinguished panel legal govern reveal affirm grant relief. dissent reinstatement references transcript Superior County, pursuant parties, 23, hearing. appears Cicero concedes, event, effected intended." 81-82. cross-examination, interview defense preceding 84, 86-87. redirect, using daily "an inability recall remember events." 88-89. "Lots times building." friend ever visited, family, children, 453 Avenue, Hartford. statutes ways affect litigation. 1971 Conn.Pub.Acts 812, 1; 26; 73-137, 74-332, 3; 75-567, 65. party submitted request claims. supra. propriety raised appeal asserted related either exhaust contemporaneous, objections. 7a-8a; merits them. inclined otherwise. photographs, mostly group ones, bank-teller victims discussed "chance misidentification," 971; declined prohibit "either exercise supervisory power or, less, requirement," aside offered. Black Simmons' frivolous. 395-396, 977. manager robbed. lineup, one-to-one reaffirmed remanded err 5-6, 2001-2002. MARSHALL "established situations." Post, 122. Pretrial covered In-court governed turns sorted category other. adopts guiding condemned mixing lines adopting uniform emphasis, suggest formal structure impose truly rules, expect none. departed grievously past Brennan's dissent. fact, suggests. both. cited assessed 4, 2000. departure synthesis subsequent determined reliable. simpler: reliable, wake admissible. Fourth Circuit's recent 877 (1973), 55. convictions urges show accurate. Suggestive vitiate tend Cf. McGowan, Constitutional Interpretation Criminal Identification, Wm. Mary L.Rev. 235, 241 (1970). Unlike warrantless preindictment intrude protected interest. considerations urging deriving bear problem. (CA 1975). "In essence system accept elements obvious example bias. unlike counsel, 'integrity' "Counsel cross-examine summation causing doubts suggestibility countervailing alibi." Clemons 133 U.S.App.D.C. 27, 48, 408 1230, 1251 (1968) (concurring opinion) (footnote omitted), 964, 1318, 567 (1969). troubled, "long 372. 27. verifying substance issued earlier, 16. Those verification constitute, "long" period. fortnight, arrest's delay "unexplained." regular visitor tends confirm guilt. robbery, papers wallet 401. analyzed, any, harmless. e.g., KF135 P2 Eye-Witness Cases 19-23 (1965); N. Sobel, Identification: Legal Practical Problems, 3.01, 3.02, (1972); Hammelmann II, 545, 550 accused, Negro, brought handcuffed white officers employees Attorney encounter: hard conveying Case Sacco Vanzetti 31-32." 234, 1936, reasonably feared die arranged. also, 240 offender narrowly circumscribed context "conducive noteworthy, advert circumstantial guilt, 335 733-734 discuss Harlan, describing setting applicable "(t)his accords resolution Stovall." pointedly same, standard. detectives walking victim." 195, 380. ordered repeat words Inadequate efforts secure participants pressing showup. e. g., 37, (Supp.1977); Grano, Ash Do Any Safeguards Remain Danger Convicting Innocent?, Mich.L.Rev. 717 (1974); Hartman Goldberg, Death Warren Doctrine NLADA Briefcase 78 1097 Recent Developments, Unnecessary Suggestiveness Not Violate Process, Colum.L.Rev. 1168 Anderson, 389 Mich. 155, 172-180, 192-220, 205 North Western 461, 468-472, 479-494, 485 (1973); Psychology Gap 121 U.Pa.L.Rev. 1079 O'Connor, "That's Man": Sobering Study Eyewitness Polygraph, St. John's 238-239; 7, 723-724, 768-770; 1169 11. exhaustive Michigan noted: "For on-going systematic problem, reported top iceberg. writer turn up course hours' inquiry." Mich., 179-180, N.W.2d, 472. 6, 716; Washington, 181, 193-194, 1814, 1821-1822, 238 (Brennan, dissenting); Brennan, Constitutions Protection Individual Rights, Harv.L.Rev. 489 supra; Commonwealth Botelho, Mass., 343 Eastern 876 15-16; 217-220, 493-494; 4-6. 1100-1101; Note, Procedures Stovall: Lower Bobble Ball, Minn.L.Rev. 779, 789 (1971); 214-215, 491. Reviewing Columbia showups generally permissible, removed not. McRae 137 80, 87, 420 1283, 1290 Barbados adult. 99. noteworthy informant witnessed "trustworthy," 47, disagreed return. staged Brathwaite's indicating fully capable keeping track whereabouts information investigation. saw committing unusually suspect's identity. 250, 251, 1944, 1945, (White, ongoing times, objectionable. 228-229, 1933; 173-177, 215-217, 468-471, 491-493; 26-40; 9-10; 8. indicates remarkably ill-informed, impressed description, 108, alter transaction, acted wild guess hunch rested vague vehicle." 64. dealer, to. 68, 69. provides perfect investigator bolstering other's inadequate seemingly 12. "identification reflection," unequivocal sign accuracy. Time reflection reconstructing dimly coincide viewer. discussion imply lack respect honesty dedication share frailties create Frank O'Connor decried article began caveat: "From vantage ten Queens County (1956-1966) bench (1969 (1974)), holds professional competence policemen. Laudable doubtful legion. Deliberate, willful frame railroad unknown, me. Yet, best-intentioned becomes honestly convinced corners cut, niceties forgotten, committed."

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