Legal Document

460 U.S. 325 103 S.Ct. 1108 75 L.Ed.2d 96 Carlisle W. BRISCOE, Chris P. Vickers, Sr., and James N. Ballard, Petitionersv.Martin LaHUE Hunley, etc. No. 81-1404. Argued Nov. 9, 1982. Decided March 7, 1983. Syllabus Held: Title 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (1976 ed., Supp. IV) does not authorize a convicted state defendant to assert claim for damages against police officer giving perjured testimony at the defendant's criminal trial. Pp. 329-346. (a) The common law provided absolute immunity from subsequent liability all persons—governmental or otherwise—who were integral parts of judicial process. Section private witnesses. Similarly, judges, Pierson v. Ray, 386 547, 87 1213, 18 288, prosecutors, Imbler Pachtman, 424 409, 984, 47 128, may be held liable under performance their respective duties in proceedings. When appears as witness, he reasonably viewed acting like any witness sworn tell truth, which event can make strong immunity. Alternatively, regarded an official performing critical role process, seek benefit afforded other governmental participants same proceeding. Nothing 1983's language suggests that belongs narrow, special category lacking protection suits. 329-336. (b) Nor anything legislative history statute indicate Congress intended abrogate common-law order provide remedy officers 336-341. (c) There is some force contentions reasons supporting immunity—the need avoid intimidation self-censorship—apply with diminished officers' likely more damaging constitutional rights than such by ordinary citizens. But analysis rests on functional categories, status. A performs functions witness. Moreover, extent traditional are less applicable witnesses, considerations public policy support witnesses emphatically Subjecting government officials, officers, might undermine only contribution process but also effective duties. 341-346. 663 F.2d 713 (CA7 1981) affirmed. Edmund B. Moran, Jr., Chicago, Ill., petitioners. Harriet Lipkin, Bloomington, Ind., respondents. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. 1 This case presents question statutory construction: whether authorizes person his Court Appeals Seventh Circuit absolutely immune based testimony, rejected petitioners' contention officials who testify about even if not. We agree conclusion. 2 heard argument three separate cases raising issue decided them single opinion. Two these before us writs certiorari. Petitioner Briscoe was court burglarizing house trailer. He then filed complaint respondent LaHue, member Indiana force, alleging LaHue had violated right due committing perjury proceedings leading conviction.1 testified one no 50 100 people Bloomington whose prints would match partial thumbprint piece glass found scene crime. According Briscoe, false because FBI considered print too incomplete value, without there evidence identifying him burglar. sought $100,000 damages. District granted LaHue's motion summary judgment four grounds: 1) facts alleged did suggest falsely; 2) allegations alone insufficient claim; 3) "under color law"; 4) Briscoe's collaterally estopped conviction. 3 Petitioners Vickers Ballard jointly tried sexual assault court. They subsequently brought civil action Cedar Lake, Indiana, deprived fair that, suggesting they been able harmonize stories making exculpatory statements police, prejudicially credibility those statements. Each plaintiff $150,000 compensatory $50,000 punitive federal magistrate dismiss alternative Hunley entitled immunity; petitioners failed allege prosecutor knowingly used testimony. affirmed dismissal first ground. Both appealed United States Circuit.2 4 Although issues argued Appeals, its holding both predicated squarely ground litigation 1983, well lay witnesses—are 1981).3 Because importance question, has given rise divergent conclusions Courts Appeals,4 we 455 1016, 102 1708, 72 132 (1982).5 5 Before confronting precise present—whether creates witnesses—we begin considering potential hand, judges prosecutors perform hand. unavailability categories sheds considerable light treated differently. 6 * two why allow recovery party First, create conduct result violation "rights, privileges, immunities secured Constitution laws." Its reach limited actions taken statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, usage, State Territory . ."6 It beyond when gives open trial, act performed law."7 7 Second, since 1951, this Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 71 783, 95 L.Ed. 1019, it settled all-encompassing referring "[e]very person" who, law, deprives another rights, literally.8 8 "It now tort created cannot understood historical vacuum. One important assumption underlying Court's decisions area members 42d familiar principles, including defenses previously recognized litigation, principles obtain, absent specific provisions contrary." City Newport Fact Concerts, Inc., 453 247, 258, 101 2748, 2755, 69 616 (1981). See 554, 1217, 288 (1967). 9 parties proceedings9 established English law. Cutler Dixon, 76 Eng.Rep. 886 (K.B.1585); Anfield Feverhill, 80 1113 (K.B.1614); Henderson Broomhead, 157 964, 968 (Ex.1859);10 see Dawkins Lord Rokeby, 176 800, 812 (C.P.1866). Some American required showing witness's allegedly defamatory relevant proceeding, once threshold made, privilege.11 could recover knew made malice.12 10 In words 19th century court, suits "the claims individual must yield dictates policy, requires paths lead ascertainment truth should left free unobstructed possible." Calkins Sumner, 13 Wis. 193, 197 (1860). apprehension induce forms self-censorship. reluctant come forward testify. supra, Eng.Rep., 968. And stand, distorted fear liability. Barnes McCrate, 32 Me. 442, 446-447 (1851). Even within constraints oath various ways give account These alternatives detailed differ emphasis certainty. knows forced defend lawsuit, perhaps pay damages, inclined shade favor plaintiff, magnify uncertainties, thus deprive finder fact candid, objective, undistorted evidence. Veeder, Absolute Immunity Defamation: Judicial Proceedings, Colum.L.Rev. 463, 470 (1909).13 truth-finding better served submitted crucible so factfinder consider it, after cross-examination, together determine where lies." 440, 999, 128 (1976) (WHITE, J., concurring judgment).14 11 At least respect clear existing do contend otherwise. Like legislators law's "a tradition grounded reason" believe impinged "by covert inclusion general us." U.S., 376, S.Ct., 788. II 12 already addressed permits recoveries persons law" Again, have impose officials. acts, supra; Stump Sparkman, 435 349, 98 1099, 55 331 (1978), initiating prosecutions, supra. central focus our nature proceeding itself. Thus, WHITE explained "based protecting process." 439, 999. extended equally participants, counsel 14 rule substantial. precisely function lies. ability courts, carefully developed procedures, falsity, accurately resolving factual disputes (and civil) involved 'given every encouragement full disclosure pertinent information knowledge.' " Ibid. 15 formed part "cluster judge-supervised trials," stemmed "from characteristics Butz Economou, 438 478, 512, 2894, 2913, 57 895 (1978); cf. King Skinner, 529 (K.B.1772) ("Neither party, counsel, jury, Judge put answer, civilly criminally, spoken office."). 16 "controversies sufficiently intense erupt easily capped decree. loser forum will frequently another, necessary assure advocates, harassment intimidation." Butz, 2913. 17 short, other. truth—in immunity;15 alternatively, ask, however, points different III point number references throughout debates 1871 Act widespread Ku Klux Klan trials.16 urge evils concerned, recognizing conflict Congressional intent. find unpersuasive. consisted several sections establishing remedies disorder violence Southern states.17 unjust acquittals conspirators prohibited 2, conspiracy section codified 1985(3) 241 (1976). 1—now 1983—differs essential respects, actions. 19 Act, Stat. 13, enacted April 20, 1871, month President Grant sent dramatic message describing breakdown states. Cong.Globe, Cong., 1st Sess. 236, 244 (1871). During debates, supporters bill repeatedly described reign terror imposed upon black citizens white sympathizers Hours oratory devoted details outrages—arson, robbery, whippings, shootings, murders, often committed disguise cover night. acts lawlessness went unpunished, asserted, controlled influenced administration justice. particular, obligated, virtue membership organization, protect fellow charged activity. duty offer themselves service grand petit juries, violate jurors' oaths refusing indict convict regardless strength bound appear again perjury, necessary, exculpate colleagues.18 Perjury means prevented courts gaining convictions crimes blacks Republicans. 20 view Act's sponsors, victims outrages "equal laws" perpetrators systematically unpunished.19 Proponents measure ineffectiveness enforcement individual's laws," independent power it.20 Monroe Pape, 365 167, 174, 81 473, 477, 492 (1961). 21 designed specifically conspiratorial activities Klan. Indeed provision singles out "go highway." Earlier versions enumerated attributed Klan—murder, manslaughter, mayhem, battery, subornation obstruction legal resistance discharge duty, arson, larceny. 317. final version apply abuses debate.21 Part particularly tailored conspiracies commit prevent punishment Klansmen. provides penalties whenever shall 22 "conspire purpose preventing hindering constituted authorities securing equal laws, conspire manner impeding, hindering, obstructing, defeating course justice Territory, intent deny citizen laws ."22 23 not, tend show 1, applied wrongs law." bill's proponents exclusively concerned resulting acquittals—perjury furtherance conspiracy—and convictions. hundreds pages debate reference type deprivation case: Indeed, virtually silent regard innocent defendants.23 simple enough reason lacuna: other, direct, dealing victims. "reign terrorism bloodshed" require formal processes law; most, drumhead tribunals convened dead night.24 organization's into custody crimes, suggested resorted vigilante rather courtroom perjury.25 24 summary, supports conspired favorable defendant, effect suit victim. today. asked extrapolate pro-defendant pro-prosecution willing step, further invited relating 2—a directed toward conspiracies—to 1—a decline invitation. 42nd witnesses.26 IV 25 Petitioners, finally, carve exception witnesses.27 officers. Policemen products investigations, professional interest obtaining assertedly counterbalance tendency potentially vindictive defendants. addition, subject lawsuits duties, qualified immunity, defense generally undertaken employers. Further, citizens, policeman uniform carries eyes jurors. And, cooperate regularly prosecution unlikely substitute 26 force. clearly status defendant.28 stand witness; compulsory takes oath, responds questions direct examination prosecuted perjury. 27 28 "could expected frequency." Cf. 425, 992. Police scores year, defendants transform resentment being state's As files show, processing dismissed trial consumes amount time resources.29 29 significant burdens system law-enforcement resources. noted Imbler, answer each [a disgruntled defendant] wrongdoing, energy attention diverted pressing enforcing To degree burden alleviated government's goes always imposes emotional costs litigant. 30 sufficient limiting cause former vindicated forum, either appeal collateral attack. similar Imbler. contended "his allowed, others be, issuance writ habeas corpus shows substance." Id., 428 n. 27, 994 27. declined prosecutorial noting petitioner's success necessarily establish merits action. "using 'door-opener' risk injecting extraneous concerns proceeding." emphasized determining grant post-conviction relief, tribunal solely "This blurred subconscious knowledge post-trial decision accused prosecutor's called respond error mistaken judgment." 427, 993. danger exists witnesses.30 31 is, course, possibility despite safeguards indeed unjustly basis officers.31 bars possible avenue redress case, path recognized, again, situations, official's disserve broader interest. Learned Hand wrote years ago, "As balance between inevitable alternative. instance thought end leave unredressed done dishonest try constant dread retaliation." Gregoire Biddle, 177 579, 581 (CA2 1949), cert. denied, 339 949, 70 803, 94 1363 (1950).32 33 rationale prior governs disposition case. settled. set forth Ray Pachtman somewhat participation bringing just—or possibly unjust—conclusion indispensable. 34 35 BRENNAN, dissenting. 36 MARSHALL's dissenting opinion, post, eloquent Congress, enacting intend "government ." Post, 347. Whatever correctness argument, I crossed bridge (1967), 429, 994, 37 entirely MARSHALL, policies justify perjurious therefore dissent stated 38 whom BLACKMUN joins, except I, 39 extension conflicts fundamentally statute. conclude incorporates existed 1871. conclusion especially unjustified. proposition Most notably, 1845 cast serious doubt existence origins strongly meant Finally, deemed past officer-witnesses. 40 majority correctly states construction. Ante, 326. Yet departs accepted interpreting laws. 41 matters construction, begins focusing itself.1 "Absent expressed intention contrary, ordinarily conclusive." Consumer Product Safety Comm'n GTE Sylvania, 447 102, 108, 2051, 2056, 64 766 (1980). unambiguous guidance most assuredly "person," word employed describe encompasses.2 turns conventional approach interpretation head. assumes exemption plain unless demonstrate override ante, 336. absence simply presumes mean what said. purpose. damage violations rights; nullifies "pro tanto very create." 434, 996, judgment). interpreted carry purpose.3 explicitly read broad remedial goals. sponsor Rep. Shellabarger, declared: 43 remedial, aid preservation human liberty rights. All statutes authorizing liberally beneficently construed. strange and, civilized monstrous interpretation. your own Supreme States, everywhere else wise interpretation, largest latitude consistent uniformly construing people." 44 App. 68 (1871).4 45 appropriate import if, merely federalize "intended federally protected rights." Monell Department Social Services, 436 658, 685, 2018, 2033, 56 611 (1978) (emphasis added). Different surely guaranteed right—in law—rather law.5 concluded significantly deserves though constitute right." 196, 488, (1961) (Harlan, concurring). Therefore, arose context little violations. purest coincidence fully injuries protection." 196 5, 488 5. 46 Given doubts minimum, extend "in convincing necessary." 996 For elaborated below, far convincing. majority's "[i]n settled." 345. disagree stood 48 with, barred doctrines discusses associated defamation 330-331 9. However, petitioner falsely resembling defamation. charges probable hearings, resulted arrest.6 allegation malicious prosecution,7 related known Latin name, crimen feloniae imposuit (imputing crime felony).8 routinely permitted plaintiffs bring accusation felony officer.9 No illogical, allowed imprisonment expedient proferring thereby arrest warrant.10 49 discusses, well-settled 1845, logical underpinnings, proposing instead prove malice privileged communications. White Nicholls, How. 266, 591 (1845), Daniel unanimous dicta veritable treatise communications.11 began exceptions "which, elementary treatises, libel slander, denominated communications publications." 286. "exceptions" "[w]ords however hard bear used." 287. stated: 51 "But term 'exceptions,' just enumerated, never class actors transactions placed above cognisance absolved commands difficult conceive how, society relative mutual, tolerated injury legibus soluti; still imagine, how privilege instituted social good. books should, well-defined qualifications. properly signifies this, nothing more. That excepted instances change slanderous libellous matter, remove regular usual presumption malice, incumbent complaining construction written circumstances connected situation parties, adequate conclusion." 52 53 invoked discussing relying views judge immunity.12 54 "With ruled occasion, form foundation slander proof express malice; Hodgson Scarlett, Barn. & Ald. said Holroyd, speaking cause, 'If comments evidence, matter issue, shown, occasion justified them. If, proved bona fide, actionable.' added).13 If actually examined hardly overlooked Nicholls sole pronouncement highest land. concluded—as Tennessee 1871—that enunciated "settled Saunders Baxter, Tenn. 369, 383 age prevailed, Swift Tyson, Pet. 865 (1842), natural accompanied new jurisdiction.14 salient feature landscape acted rebuffing malice.15 "no actions." 337. fact, A. urging,16 extensively 1985(3). forerunner 2. out, 1117-1118, surprising over shed 1. my inquiry Only examining genesis determined certain immunities. 58 origin question. concept derived large Civil Rights 1866, 27.17 author relationship introducing measure: 59 "My warrant [§ Act]. model second 'civil act.' identically for, must, act, race, color, slavery. bill, facts, condition slaves, where, national citizenship." 60 (1871) 61 intimately connected, 1866 Act. B 62 field primary guarantee newly emancipated Negro equality whites race. debated. Controversy centered application 63 affirmed.18 notion thoroughly discredited. Senate idea "akin maxim wrong. places doctrine rebellion [the War] hatched." 39th 1758 (1866) (Sen. Trumbull). "aimed directly judiciary." 1155 (Rep. Eldridge). id., 1778 Johnson, Judiciary Committee) (§ "strikes department governments States"). unsuccessful efforts amend Representative Miller introduced amendment exempt 1156. particular significance, Bingham sanctions contained proposal. 1266, 1271-1272. Wilson, opposed largely place financial poor individuals government. 1295. stressed difference principle involved" sanction. 65 After passed House, Andrew Johnson vetoed it. His opposition "invades State." Veto Message, 1680. warned "judges [and] marshals sheriffs, ministerial execute processes, sanctioned issued execution judgments, subjected fine impose." Within weeks, House overrode veto. Various Congressmen responded President's criticisms freely admitted legislation aimed systems. Committee, Lawrence, "I invade permit invade, strike down, destroy perverted uses speedily invaded. grievance insignificant." 1837. (response Sen. Trumbull veto message); 1838 (statement Clarke). became 1866. C 66 "background" liability.19 Far background Bingham, become chairman Committee Congress. Senator Trumbull, participated legislation,20 drafted 67 aware "model" Sess.App. Shellabarger). manager Senate, George Edmunds, "carrying bill" 568. Coburn "gives parallel penal provision" "If valid, dares controvert unquestionable." 461. 429 McHenry opposition) ("The act"); 385 Arthur "cumulative, goes, bill"). explains perfunctory.21 Of measures generated controversy counterpart controversial 568 Edmunds) nobody objects to"); 313 Burchard) ("To section, injured objections."); 665, 2022 (debate amendment); Developments Law—Section Federalism, 90 Harv.L.Rev. 1133, (1977). Opponents repeated arguments enactment 1.22 portraying consequences Thurman pointed prosecutions Act.23 exaggerated rhetoric opponents act. Instead, reflect battle fought adopted sanction contrast, mild action." 482 Committee). So fall deaf ears. noteworthy interrupt speakers misconstruing proposal,24 disputed opponents' characterizations officers.25 assume officials,26 sub silentio approaches incredible.27 Sheriffs marshalls, while quintessentially serving notwithstanding Johnson's objections. Because, Shellabarger stated, case" "on facts" obviously whatever D lack sharply contrasts substantial 1019 (1951), relies. 330,334. Legislative enjoyed unique position conceived Parliamentary struggles Seventeenth Century enshrined Speech Debate Clause Constitution. vast providing 372-375, 786-787. incorporation example, spectre raised message,28 quick disavow intention. length scope "enact" of" law.29 validity distinction, reflected reluctance impinge legislators. Radical Republican "staunch advocate freedom," 788, displayed solicitude courts.30 replete hostile systems.31 reasonable testifying witnesses.32 73 bases purportedly mandate sued 341-345. "exceptional situations" makes "essential." 507, 2911, (1978).33 view, official-witness falls short standard. 74 around developed. comes clothed authority state. greater harm average testifies.34 aggravated draws expertise. fingerprint identification medical examiner death impact trial.35 time, threat prosecution, serves constraint witness' non-existent police-witness context. Despite apparent prevalence perjury,36 exhibit extreme charging maintain close working relationships agencies.37 forecloses situations pressing. inhibited much remote normally involving conduct. skepticism. usually insulated economic hardship authority.38 event, truly desires 'every knowledge,' 335 (quoting 999 judgment)), withheld key testifying.39 concern "significant resources." 343. empirical unfounded. Sixth Columbia five years, 328-329 4, perceptible drain resources circuits compared bar lawsuits. comprehensive study Central California, includes Los Angeles, indicates annually District.40 testify, undoubtedly many disgruntled. Yet, 0.5% District,41 243 full-time Angeles.42 burden."43 practical obstacles deter suing misconduct.44 77 competing interests stake area, strikes one-sided balance. eschews one. mere good faith undesirable acquiesce maliciously rights.45 part, patent name "The essence certainly consists protections receives injury." Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 163, (1803). V 78 reasons, sustain heavy plainly odds respectfully dissent. 79 BLACKMUN, join I. adhere 258-259, 2755-2756, (1981), regarding played proper assume—indeed, assumed—"that 2755. careful determination retained. convincingly demonstrates finds present history, considerations. 82 knowing use violates itself Agurs, 427 97, 103, nn. 8-9, 2392, 2397, 342 (citing cases). Appeals' decision, conviction aside guilt doubt. veracity robbed trailer, meet proof. State, 388 N.E.2d 638, 644 (Ind.Ct.App.1979). sentences complaint. On review pretrial orders dismissing complaints, assumed complaints' true. violation—that respondents' certiorari holding, assumptions purposes deciding implying valid. resolution respondents law," answered affirmative. F.2d, 721 4. Appeals. Brawer Horowitz, 535 830, 836-837 (CA3 1976) (lay court; Bivens action); Burke Miller, 580 108 (CA4 1978), cert 440 930, 99 1268, 487 (1979) (state examiner; Charles Wade, 665 661 (CA5 1982), pending, 81-1881 (police suit); Myers Bull, 599 863, 866 (CA8), 444 901, 213, 138 Blevins Ford, 572 1336 (CA9 1978) (private assistant attorney; Fifth Amendment). Briggs Goodwin, 569 (CADC 1977), 437 904, 3089, 1133 (dicta rejecting Hilliard Williams, 516 1344, 1350 (CA6 1975), vacated rev'd grounds, 961, 1453, 729 (1976), aff'd remand, 540 220 (rejecting agent bureau investigation; action). petition following question: "Whether commits during 1983." Writ Cert. i. raise nor brief discuss hearings. decide hearings Briscoe. defective unconstitutional manner, Cuyler Sullivan, 446 335, 342-345, 1714-1716, 333 (1980), lawyer responsible himself meaning Polk County Dodson, 454 312, 445, 509 (1982). compelled character office counsel. 319, 450; Ferri Ackerman, 204, 402, 355 (1979). discharges truthfully conceivable, nongovernmental conspiring Dennis Sparks, 449 24, 27-29, 183, 186-187, 185 (1980); Adickes S.H. Kress Co., 398 144, 152, 1598, 1605, 142 (1970). go "color ever nineteenth-century "every" literal reading. National Society Professional Engineers 679, 687-688, 1355, 1363-1364, 637 (1978). availability accusations crime, 350-351, inapposite "We collection attempted get present, maintainable. centuries entire exists, shews now, maintainable." (Ex.1859). M. Newell, Law Defamation, Libel Slander 450-459 (1890); J. Townshend, Treatise Wrongs Called 353-354 (2d ed 1872). See, e.g., Lawson Hicks, Ala. 279, 285-288 (1862); Hodges, Fla. 197, 208-210, So. 357 (1907); Smith Howard, Iowa 51, 56-57 (1869); Gardemal McWilliams, La.Ann. 454, 106, (La.1891); Ryan, 951, 951-952 (1884); McLaughlin Cowley, 127 Mass. 316, 319-320 (1879); (1851); Cooper Phipps, Or. 357, Pac. 985, 986-987 (Or.1893); Shadden McElwee, 86 146, 149-154, S.W. 602 (1887); Cooley Galyon, 109 13-14, 607 (1902); Hoar Wood, Metcalf (44 Mass.) 197-198 (1841) (statements counsel); Marsh Ellsworth, N.Y. 309, 312-313 (1872) (same). Other closer rule, pertinency materiality. Chambliss Blau, 86, 89-90, (1899); (1860) (in objection ruling responses know case). "good faith," see, Carroll, 161, 166 (1870); Tenn., 149-150, 602, material response questions. pertinent, proving bad faith. received relevant, violated. analysis, rule. relies heavily Court, (3 How.) 286-288, (1845). discussion purely dictum. defendants' assertions requesting plaintiff's removal customs collector, statement privilege. authoritative. 1909 commentator that: ". demands [of immunity] controlling reports questioned. Strangely isolated Mr. Daniel, denied policy; expression obiter, immunity." 465-466 (1909). 1860, New York asserted reasoning Daniel's propositions deduces unsustained authority." Perkins Mitchell, Barb. 461, 468 (N.Y.1860). 1878, West Virginia severely criticized stating reviewed authorities, cited seen, none position, shielded forms. overwhelming weight idea, lie libelous American, Brown, W.Va. 71, 128-129 (1878). McGehee Insurance Co. North America, 112 F. 853 1902) (declining follow Nicholls); Shelfer Gooding, N.C. 175, 181-182 (1855) (suggesting miscited Scarlett ). reliable acted" privilege, honest erroneously difficulty seemed inappropriate E.g., Wis., 198; Me., 446-447; Ala., 89, 602. N.Y., 312 (importance placing jury "to enable arrive truth"); Mass.), (stressing impartiality antidote inaccuracies exaggerations adversaries). drew distinction supra note 12, 468-469. types took deterred prospect subsequent, vexatious litigation. Brief 19-20, citing Schwartz, Statutory History States: 599-606, 625 addition discussed text infra, armed insurrection domestic 3), authorized suspension 4), jurors take test 5), penalty Supporters quoted investigating committee members, binding 158, 173, 201, 320-321, 322, 340, 437, 443-444, 457, 458, 503, 516, 518, 653, 654, 687 322 (remarks Stoughton); 334 Hoar); 375 Lowe); Beatty); 459 Coburn); 481-482 Wilson); 486 Cook); 501 Frelinghuysen); 506 Pratt); 608 Pool); 697 Edmunds). local influence county courts; independence, terror, can; sympathies nearly identified vicinage; neighborhood; prejudices passions easily. marshal, sheriff, arrests certainty, General Government, seize offenders spite banded combined expected." 460. 374 459-460 514 Poland). Compare 317 (original Shellabarger) 477-478 (more amended version); 567, 702 (Senate adding punishing obstructing justice). imposition derogation Witnesses traditionally "or combination evidence." 11, 450, 44. offense shaped 16th 17th Parliament, Star Chamber, judges. Holdsworth, 515-519 (1924); S. Milsom, Historical Foundations Common 418 Ed. 1980). hundred small triple-columned print, Senator—not reported bill—referred innocent. 653 Osborn). connection proposal retain test-oath nocturnal meetings passing decrees condemning political enemies. 157, 209, 320, 321, 504. lynch mobs attacking suspects custody, 156, 166, 200, 444, 446, 447. dissent, speak witnesses—private officials—to "state process" violating individuals. questioned proposition, now. 22, Therefore successors 32, infra. requisite congressional With silent, unwilling referred officials" State," marshals. implicitly reject defines (1967); contours proposed clear. Similar presumably experts, coroners, examiners, psychiatric workers. 513-514, 2914-2915, (administrative enjoy Executive Branch); 430-431, 994-995 (reserving prosecutor, initiate administrative investigative tasks); Hampton 484 1973), 415 917, 1413, 471 (1974) (prosecutor's ceases capacity quasi-judicial role). stage. puts falsity materiality statements, mind testified. Sometimes estoppel previous verdict, newly-discovered concedes inaccurate, mind. Summary feasible circumstances. C. Wright, Federal 493 (3d ed. 1976). proceed traverse original writing clean slate, craft meritless demonstrated injustice, obtained relief. remain relief fashion perceives believe, than, great as, misidentification unintentional mistake. persons, acquitted undergoing fails, powerless punish misconduct. punished criminally willful deprivations 242. Jackson Transit Authority Local Div. 1285 Amalgamated Union, --- ----, 2202, 2207, 639 (1982); Bread Political Action Comm. FEC, 577, 578, 1235, 1237, 432 University Research Assn. Coutu, 450 754, 771, 1451, 1461, 662 (1981); Dawson Chemical Rohm Haas 448 176, 187, 2601, 2608, 696 criticizes reading refers 7. Society, Sherman "cannot says." 687, 1363. "person" exclude occasions, relied Maine Thiboutot, 2502, 2504, 555 (1980) phrase 'and laws' says, subset attached modifiers phrase, embraces ."); Parratt Taylor, 451 527, 534, 1908, 1912, 420 (1981) (relying limitation intentional deprivations); Owen Independence, 445 622, 635, 1398, 1407, 673 "absolute unqualified" municipalities); 688-689, 2034-2035, "plain meaning" 1983). Jones Alfred H. Mayers 392 420, 88 2186, 2193, 1189 (1968) terms" 1982). Mastro Plastics Corp. NLRB, 350 270, 285, 359, 309 (1956) Boisdore's Heirs, 113, 122, 1009 (1850)); SEC C.M. Joiner Leasing Corp., 320 344, 120, 123-124, (1943); Hart Sacks, Legal Process 1411 (Tent. 1958). 217 ("[T]here whatsoever terms [in 1983], used."); 800 Perry) ("Now, mischief remedied."); 476 Dawes) (The "invades, trenches upon, impairs iota tittle [constitutional rights], therefor."). Note, 1229, 1232 (1955) ("When right, enforce limitations constitutes consideration law."); Bator, Mishkin, D. Shapiro, Wechsler, Weschler's System 336 1973) ("[W]here astute, statutes, defeat them."). Memorandum Support Complaint, J.A. 9-11. grew conspiracy. early 1293, indicted among seeking redress. By century, replaced conspiracy, soon surplusage. Bigelow, Leading Cases Torts 190-191 (1875); T. Street, Liability (1906); 366 (4th 1936). Blizard Kelly, 107 389, 389 (K.B.1823) sense charge magistrate."); Davis Noak, 171 502, 504 (N.P.1816). Fuller Cook, 567 (K.B.1584); Knight Jermin, 391 (K.B.1589); Clarke Poston, 172 1304 (N.P.1834); Wheeler Nesbitt, 544, 546, 765 (1860); Bunton Worley, Ky. (1815); Maddox Jackson, Monf. (Va.) 462 Hill Miles, N.H. (1837) (permitting "maliciously magistrate"); Byrd, 377, 380 Center Spring, 393 (1856); Wilkinson Arnold, Ind. (1858); Rockwell 207, 209 (1867). hearing emphasizes presented mentions 329, contrary rules, "[t]he include subsidiary fairly comprised therein." S.Ct.Rule 23(1)(c). Peters Kiff, 407 493, 495, 92 2163, 2164, 83 (1972) (MARSHALL, announcing Douglas, Stewart, join) (a challenge composition encompassed mention juries.) hearing. Officer "several prosecution," petn. spoke id. 14, 16-18, 20. lengthy excerpts briefs 3-5; 2-4. respondent's 9-11; 17-22. appeared 78-139 (ND Oct. 3, A-47. 713, 715 framed proceedings, 328, nonetheless leaves substantially instance, cross-examination increases undetected. "extended" "importance subject." 291. 106 91 (K.B.1818) (Holroyd J.). Kendillon Maltby, 174 562, 566 (N.P.1842) (Lord Denman, C.J.); Thomas Churton, 121 1150, 1151 (K.B.1862) (Cockburn, C.J.) question). "falsehood malice." jurisdictional ch. 1343(3). conflicted point: diverged matter. 331-333, 11-12. prevailed jurisdiction, explain thinks focused sorely deficient. defined 330. inexplicably irrelevant Congress' Unless clairvoyant, access majority. token, Van Vechter 332, article 1909. arguably cites eight None state, let officer, muster Veeder. 336, 15. pre-1871 cases, completely. (1869) 161 (1870), supreme award recovered slandered stand. (N.Y.) 461 (1860), demurrer sue physician peace commitment lunatic. was, language, "purely dictum." 193 175 (1855), upholding smattering opinions well-reasoned think latter commanded familiarity decisions, deliberations Archer) Prigg Pennsylvania, 539, 1060 (1842)); Coburn) Cohens Virginia, Wheat. 264, 257 (1821)); 84 Bingham) Barron Mayor Baltimore, 243, 672 (1833), Moore People Illinois, 306 (1852)); 188 Willard) Dred Scott cases); 242 Bayard) Withers Buckley, 84, 816 (1857)); 311 Zandt, 215, 122 (1847)). 19-20. enacted, part: usage subject, subjected, jurisdiction shall, notwithstanding, equity, 13. "That inhabitant punishment, pains, having slavery involuntary servitude, whereof duly convicted, prescribed guilty misdemeanor, conviction, exceeding thousand dollars, both, discretion court." 475-476 (exchange Cowan); Thayer Eldridge); 1267 Raymond) ("[I]f sheriff distinctions race misdemeanor bill.); 500 Cowan (noting judge, constable, everybody" 2); 598 ("All parties" participate liable, executes 556-557, 1218-1219, 484, Carey Piphus, 255, 1042, 1048, 252 Nahmod, "Background" Tort Liability, Ind.L.J. (1974). 1293-1295 (1866). limited, unrealistic demand Surely define inherently futile. 366, Arthur); Lewis). 217. 382, 46. occasions remarks present. Officers Under Yale L.J. 328 (1969). concede 242, modern successor 345, 32. classic formulation Mansfield, quotes, precluded civilly, office.") punishable offense. Jurors body verdict personal method attaint. 1924); Damport Sympson, 769 (K.B.1596). Kates, Judges Acts, Nw.U.L.Rev. 615, 622-623 1680 1758. 1150-1152 ("Sheriffs, not; ears hear, hear conceal falsify it; juries accomplices."); Rainey) ("[T]he control wholly inimical impartial equity."); 186 Platt) (judges exercise "almost despotic powers Republicans justice"); 277 Porter) loyal men summed up word: obtain courts. .") (referring "prejudiced bribed judges"). casts (1967) distinguishable, powerful. significantly, functions, 39, Pierson, 557, 1219. Six Unknown Named Agents Bureau Narcotics, 403 388, 1999, 619 (1971). deal explicit indicating action, whereas implied restrain implicit 14th Amendment implicated suits, relevance Nugent Sheppard, 318 F.Supp. 314, Ind.1970). 392, 2002 (agent possesses "far harm" trespasser own). Checks balances built strategic costs. expose weaknesses cost emphasizing jury. Marshall, 1169, 1171 1973); Veney 344 542, 542-543 1965) (Wright, judgment); Berrios, N.Y.2d 361, 370, 321 N.Y.S.2d 884, 890-891, 270 709, 714 (1971) (Fuld, C.J., dissenting); Dickerson, 273 Cal.App. 645, 660 Cal.Rptr. 400, (1969); Tarlow Search Warrants 31-77 (1973); 1972 Knapp Report Corruption; Sevilla, Exclusionary Rule Perjury, San Diego L.Rev. 839 (1974); Grano, Dilemma Defense Counsel: Spinelli-Harris Possibility 1971 U.Ill.L.F. 405, 408-409; Younger, Routine, 204 Nation 596 (May 8, 1967); Comment, Geo.L.J. 507 (1971); Colum.J.L. Soc.Probs. 87, (1968). Newman, Suing Breakers, 447, 449-450 indemnified authority. 2047 (POWELL, concurring); Project, 781, 810 Ind.Code Ann. 34-4-16.5-5(b) 34-4-16.5-18 (Burns Cum.Supp.1982). differences contends "immunity defendant." 342. involve parties. While ignores embodied Kendall Stokes 98, (1845); McCray Maryland, 456 3-4 1972) ("Where discretion, refused system."). Here, lower noted, 719, exercises him. result, seems correspondingly compelling." 720. Eisenberg, 1983: Doctrinal An Empirical Study, Cornell 482, 550-551, statistics 1975-1976. estimate approximate Professor Eisenberg grouped prisoner arrest, assault, search seizure. Table VI. total 5,810 California 1976. Annual Director Administrative Office 1976, 177, D-3 350. 7,294 Angeles Dept. Commerce, Census, Employment (data employees). Data experience overstate cases. Over seven Connecticut. 786 23, 793 Former wish entanglements needed pursue Lawyers probably incentive face uphill struggle. Amsterdam, Suspects Criminal Cases, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 785, 787 (1970) (civil "very rare, until recently rare insignificant, maintenance formidable."). Harper James, 1645 ("[I]t stretching pretty say worse actual Since abused greatest motives improper, here swing way.").

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