Legal Document

472 U.S. 511 105 S.Ct. 2806 86 L.Ed.2d 411 John N. MITCHELL, Petitioner,v.Keith FORSYTH. No. 84-335. Argued Feb. 27, 1985. Decided June 19, Syllabus In 1970, petitioner, who was then the Attorney General, authorized a warrantless wiretap for purpose of gathering intelligence regarding activities radical group that had made tentative plans to take actions threatening Nation's security. During time installed, Government intercepted three conversations between member and respondent. Thereafter, this Court in United States v. District Court, 407 297, 92 2125, 32 752 (1972) (Keith ), ruled Fourth Amendment does not permit wiretaps cases involving domestic threats national Respondent filed damages action Federal against petitioner others, alleging surveillance which he been subjected violated Title III Omnibus Crime Control Safe Streets Act. Ultimately, granting respondent's motion summary judgment on issue liability, held entitled either absolute or qualified immunity. The Appeals agreed with denial immunity, but held, respect Court's order appealable under collateral doctrine. Held: 1. Petitioner is absolutely immune from suit arising out his allegedly unconstitutional conduct performing security functions. His status as Cabinet officer itself sufficient invest him considerations separation powers call immunity state federal legislators President do demand similar officers other high executive officials. Nor nature General's functions—as opposed prosecutorial functions—warrant points no historical common-law basis carrying tasks essential security, such pertains judges, prosecutors, witnesses. performance functions subject an official same risks entanglement vexatious litigation judicial "quasi-judicial" have primary well-springs immunities. And danger officials will disregard constitutional rights their zeal protect sufficiently real counsel affording Pp. 520-524. 2. extent it turned question law, "final decision" within meaning 28 U.S.C. § 1291 notwithstanding absence final judgment. Qualified entitlement stand trial certain circumstances. Such rather than mere defense liability; like effectively lost if case erroneously permitted go trial. Accordingly, reasoning underlies immediate appealability indicates should be similarly "collateral order" doctrine; each case, district court's decision unreviewable appeal also meets additional criteria interlocutory order: conclusively determines disputed question, involves claim separable from, to, asserted action. 524-530. 3. authorization Amendment. Under Harlow Fitzgerald, 457 800, 102 2727, 73 396, unless clearly established law. when took place, well over year before Keith, supra, decided, unconstitutional. 530-535. 729 F.2d 267 (CA3 1984), affirmed part reversed part. Paul M. Bator, Cambridge, Mass., petitioner. David Rudovsky, Philadelphia, Pa., Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 This stemming by former General States. presents issues: whether undertaken interest security; not, finding standard 396 (1982), appealable; and, so, ruling correct. 2 * Bureau Investigation learned members antiwar known East Coast Conspiracy Save Lives (ECCSL) blow up heating tunnels linking office buildings Washington, D.C., discussed possibility kidnaping National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger. On November 6, acting information, Mitchell telephone William Davidon, Haverford College physics professor group. According 3 FBI installed tap late stayed place until January 1971. time, Davidon respondent Keith Forsyth. record us suggest conversations, appear innocuous, were ever used Forsyth any way. 1972, when, criminal defendant facing unrelated charges, moved 18 3504 disclosure electronic subjected. Government's response Forsyth's revealed although never actual target surveillance, "did participate are overheard during course expressly through General." App. 20-21. accompanied affidavit, sworn Richard Kleindienst, averring "in exercise [the President's] authority relating set forth 2511(3)." Id., at 23.1 4 Shortly thereafter, use ). wake decision, lawsuit several defendants Eastern Pennsylvania. alleged both Act 1968, §§ 2510-2520, sets comprehensive standards governing governmental private agents. He statutory provisions provided right action; sought compensatory, statutory, punitive damages. 5 Discovery related preliminary proceedings dragged next five-and-a-half years. By early 1978, submitted motions prepared rule. contended uncontested facts illegal applied retroactively 1970 rule Imbler Pachtman, 424 409, 96 984, 47 128 (1976), "good faith" doctrine Wood Strickland, 420 308, 95 992, 43 214 (1975). 6 court found there genuine dispute informed ECCSL's plots, Davidon's phone, ostensible wiretap, concluded, clear violation which, view, given retroactive effect. rejected Mitchell's Pachtman: Imbler, prosecutor only acts "initiating pursuing prosecution"; constituted investigative function. 447 F.Supp. 192, 201 (1978). Although rejecting assert could prevail proved acted good faith. Applying standard, its focus mind concluded neither side met burden establishing material fact denied parties' 203. 7 appealed Third Circuit, remanded further factfinding "necessary [a] . initiate prosecution" thus scope recognized Pachtman. 599 1203, 1217 1979). remand, hearing served purpose. evidence record, intended facilitate investigation. himself disavowed intention insisted reason gather needed purposes. Taking word regard, conclusion 8 At reconsidered light purged subjective components "government discretionary functions, generally shielded liability civil insofar violate reasonable person would known." 818, S.Ct., 2738. argument Keith: merely logical extension general principles particular Katz States, 389 347, 88 507, 19 576 (1967), first unaccompanied physical trespass search Amendment's warrant requirement. Department, suggested, chosen "gamble" create exception requirement presented Having gamble, complain consequences.2 therefore judgment, granted scheduled 551 1247 (1982). 9 again appealed, contending erred rulings Holding possessed jurisdiction decide despite pretrial arguably judgment,3 Pachtman otherwise. With Cohen Beneficial Industrial Loan Corp., 337 541, 69 1221, 93 L.Ed. 1528 (1949). Fearing allowing piecemeal appeals issues unduly appellate courts, unwilling hold goal protecting frivolous required orders denying immediately appealable. claim, noted, one, policies underlying frustrated forced wait ruling.4 1984). leading entry timely petition certiorari seeking review 10 performed important one we hitherto left unanswered. See Halperin Kissinger, 196 U.S.App.D.C. 285, 606 1192 (CADC 1979), aff'd equally divided 452 713, 101 3132, 367 (1981). Moreover, objective Fitzgerald has Courts Appeals.5 Finally, decision—left standing Appeals—that law contrary Columbia Circuit Sinclair 207 155, 645 1080 1981), Zweibon Mitchell, 231 398, 720 162 1983), cert. denied, 469 880, 244, 83 182 (1984). We address these issues, 929, 322, 259 II 11 furtherance scrutiny afforded President, see Nixon 731, 2690, 349 witnesses, Briscoe LaHue, 460 325, 103 1108, 75 (1983); Butz Economou, 438 478, 508-517, 98 2894, 2911-2916, 57 895 (1978); Stump Sparkman, 435 349, 1099, 55 331 legislators, Dombrowski Eastland, 387 82, 87 1425, 577 (1967); Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 71 783, 1019 (1951). conclude 12 As chief enforcement officer, provides vital assistance latter's duty "preserve, protect, defend Constitution States." Const., Art. II, 1, cl. 8. argument, essence, so sensitive, protection our well-being, cannot tolerate risk those chilled personal may impinge citizens. arguments, "when urged behalf implications, merit most careful consideration." U.S., 319, 2137. Nonetheless, believe led recognize immunities dictate result case. 13 Our decisions area leave doubt immunity: (1982); supra. then, must rest position Executive Branch, 810-811, 2734. Because capacity situations functional approach questions provide scant support blanket immunization "national function." 14 First, deciding function looked question. legislative example, rooted long struggle England America independence, presupposition scheme representative government. witnesses firm roots common 330-336, 1113-1116. analogous 15 Second, obvious wellsprings process arena open conflict, virtually every is, always winner, least loser. It inevitable many lose pin blame bring them effort relitigate conflict. Bradley Fisher, Wall. 335, 348, 20 646 (1872). tasks, contrast, carried secret; conflict overt winners losers rare. circumstances, far more likely abuses uncovered fancied give rise unfounded burdensome litigation.6 Whereas threat significantly affect fearless independent actors process, unlikely effect tasks. 16 Third, checks help prevent going unredressed. Legislators accountable constituents, 378, 789, largely self-correcting: procedural rules, appeals, challenges obviate need unjust results. Similar built-in restraints name however, exist. recognition importance safety Nation democratic system government, accept notion completely unnecessary. observed label security" cover multitude sins: 17 "National often reflect convergence First values present 'ordinary' crime. Though stronger cases, greater jeopardy constitutionally protected speech. History abundantly documents tendency benevolent benign motives—to view suspicion fervently policies. political dissent acute where attempts act vague concept power 'domestic security.' Given difficulty defining interest, abuse becomes apparent." 313-314, 2134-2135. immunity.7 emphasize mercy litigants complaints. articulated "clearly allow carry wholly free concern occasion pause consider proposed can squared laws But precisely point standard: "Where expected know rights, hesitate. ." 819, 2738 (emphasis added). true matters fields Republic threatened incentives abide vests courts decisions" "a 'final' necessarily mean last possible case." Gillespie Steel 379 148, 152, 85 310, 199 (1964). Thus, falls "that small class finally determine claims action, too cause require consideration deferred whole adjudicated." 546, 1225. 21 A major characteristic Cohen's "unless reviewed terminate], all." Stack Boyle, 342 12, 72 7, (1952) (opinion Jackson, J.); Hollywood Motor Car Co., 458 263, 266, 3081, 3083, 754 When defendant's trial, double grounds, consistently appealable, vindicated after occurred. Abney 431 651, 97 2034, 52 651 (1977).8 substantial essence possessor's answer cf. Helstoski Meanor, 442 500, 99 2445, 61 30 (1979). 22 heart shares attribute immunity—whether conception animating "where official's duties legitimately implicated, public better taken 'with independence without fear consequences.' " 2738, quoting Pierson Ray, 386 547, 554, 1213, 1217, 288 (1967). citation Ray makes clear, "consequences" concerned limited money damages; they include "the costs subjecting trial—distraction duties, inhibition deterrence able people service." Harlow, 816, 2737. Indeed, emphasizes even discovery avoided possible, "[i]nquiries kind peculiarly disruptive effective government." 817, 23 concerns mind, refashioned way "permit resolution insubstantial judgment" avoid "subject[ing] government burdens broad-reaching discovery" legal norms time. 817-818, 2737-2738. Unless plaintiff's allegations pleading dismissal commencement discovery. id., Even complaint adequately alleges commission fails uncover committed acts. face litigation, conditioned essentially plaintiff complains appealable: 24 An satisfy two criteria: "conclusively question," Coopers & Lybrand Livesay, 437 463, 468, 2454, 2457, 351 (1978), involve "clai[m] action," Cohen, ground easily requirements. "conclusive" respects. some represent defendant, nothing subsequent alter immune. Alternatively, judge plaintiff, succeed proving version facts, escape liability. allegations, because "[t]here simply steps maintains barred," apparent "Cohen threshold fully consummated satisfied" 659, 2040. 25 Similarly, follows litigate consequences conceptually distinct merits violated. 659-660, reviewing correctness nor actually claim. All law: challenged or, proscribed took.9 To sure, entail factual make relief; true, prosecution barred Congressman complained protections Speech Debate Clause. compare second indictment prosecutions offense, while evaluating Clause, analyze seeks liable other, unprotected conduct. holding doctrine, supra; (1979); separate purposes test though resolving issue.10 26 turns IV 27 limitation. purely "appropriate resolution" addressed Appeals. 743, n. 23, 2698, 23. turn attention 818-819, 2738; Davis Scherer, 468 183, 197, 104 3012, 3021, 82 139 aimed security—the subsequently declared illegal. (1972). November, not. 29 traced back 1940, Roosevelt instructed Robert Jackson approve persons suspected subversive activities. 1946, Truman's approval Tom Clark's request expanded wiretapping Branch perceived extend "domestic security." Report Commission Review State Laws Relating Wiretapping Electronic Surveillance 36 (1976). Attorneys serving Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, continued practice employing efforts combat foreign domestic. 310-311, 10, 2133, 10. Until 1967, anything practices Constitution: Olmstead 277 438, 48 564, 944 (1928), property Amendment, suffered erosion, Silverman 365 505, 81 679, 734 (1961), explicitly it. Not 1967 did restrictions, including Warrant 576. Yet searches all circumstances Amendment; justify ordinary note "[w]hether safeguards prior magistrate situation 358, 515, concurrences, Members debated authorize Compare 359-360, 515-516 (Douglas, J., joined BRENNAN, concurring), 362-364, 517-518 (WHITE, concurring). 31 aftermath Katz, remained uncertain. uncertainty expression Congress attempted fashion rules "meet requirements enunciated Berger New York, 388 41 [87 1873, 1040] 347 [88 576] (1967)." 302, 2129. setting detailed agencies, disclaimed "to limit measures deems necessary overthrow force unlawful means, structure existence Government." 2511(3) (1976 ed.). interpreted provision "expression neutrality," 2132, reflecting awareness uncertain unwillingness circumscribe whatever might exist.11 Uncertainty legitimacy period reflected lower courts. widely cited handed down July 1969, Southern Texas legally Clay, CR. 67-H-94 (SD Tex., 14, 1969), aff'd, 430 165, 171 (CA5 1970), rev'd 403 698, 91 2068, 810 (1971). course, speak legality directed soon uphold constitutionality Black Panthers, believed constitute Dellinger, CR 180 (ND Ill., 20, 1970) (App. 30), rev'd, 340 (CA7 1972); O'Neal, KC-CR-1204 (Kan., Sept. 38), dism'd, 453 344 (CA10 1972). 33 So stood Only days termination Department's contention cases. Smith, 321 (CD Cal., 1971); Sinclair, 1074 (ED Mich., 1971). Sixth Dist. 444 (CA6 1971), own affirmance followed 1972. short, survive expiration wiretap. means follows, authorizing authorization. Departments six successive administrations considered constitutional. years earlier, Two accepted position, later firmly countenanced wiretapping, doubtful jurisdiction. framing it, yet receive definitive demanded: 34 "The country Government. delicate President's power, internal approval. Successive one-quarter century varying degrees, guidance brings here Its matter concern, requiring sensitivity subversion attack citizen's secure privacy unreasonable intrusion." 299, 2128. 35 Of laid permissible agreement be, say principle already established" phrase bear.12 was, teaches resolved acted. gambled departs Harlow. hindsight-based what rejected. decisive incorrect, Hence, directions Congress, Amendment.13 V affirm Appeals' erred, declining immunity; erroneous reversed. 37 ordered. 38 POWELL 39 REHNQUIST 40 Chief BURGER, concurring O'CONNOR, I join Parts I, III, agree discussion unnecessary write separately my JUSTICE STEVENS extended reaches wrong conclusion. 42 Gravel 408 606, 2614, 583 (1972), aides implement Member enjoy Clause themselves enjoy. noted 822, 2740, logic applies top aides. officer—and surely none General—is "aide" arm execution "take Care faithfully executed." astonishing paradox 100 Senators Representatives share Member, aid whom THE CHIEF joins, 44 majority previous concerning indicate whose (1984); 815-819, 2736, 2739, Double Jeopardy Where rejects preclude special justifies review. very irretrievably 506-508, 2448-2449, 660-662, 2040-2041, (1977). comes 45 petitioner's concur resolve reach decline opinion. 46 STEVENS, Some "shielded liability." 748, 2700, For shield Constitution.1 various enacted 1871 Civil Rights intend liability.2 accorded individual violations. Bush Lucas, 462 2404, 76 648 (1983). rests, part, indication authors text relevant predicated practical remedy flowing factors evaluated implied situations, silent, ascertain probable intent. opinion, legislated area, legislation just assertion analysis recognized. 49 1968,3 regulating interception wire oral communications. 2510-2520. One section Act, ed.), specifically exempted "any communication President" purposes.4 covered proviso exempt prohibitions III. 301-308, 2128-2132.5 Mitchell. affidavit justifying grounds virtual carbon copy justification offered involved Keith. reason, holds "authority 2511(3). ante, 532-533, 11, 536, 13. 50 determination exercising "power episodes inescapably leads attached being justified Presidential "aides entrusted sensitive areas policy unhesitating interest." 812, 2735. "such 'central' domains "discharge singularly mandate delegating nearly own." 2735, 19. 51 Here, delegated responsibility General.6 determined information about conspiracy plotting kidnap adviser sabotage facilities buildings. That vigorous guaranteeing aide integrity personally Congress. Secretary State, Defense policy, liabilities political. Intense scrutiny, people, press, traditional method deterring violations Branch. authorizes remedies, presumably intends retributions best incremental added outweighs adverse exposure decisionmaking. However balance struck, enabling responsibilities perform decisiveness potentially ruinous hesitation.7 53 passions aroused policy8 profile "easily identifiable target[s] suits damages." 753, 2703. Persons wisdom honor hesitate serve positions politically motivated associated squander reputation, sap financial resources office. lawsuits recent confirms rationality anxiety.9 availability hardly comforting merit. 54 If argued refused enact described circumstance, highly rationale Bivens Six Unknown Narcotics Agents, 388, 1999, 619 (1971), supports comprehensively field declined impose 396-397, 2004-2005; 2411, Congress' failure factor counselling hesitation. requires favor 56 MARSHALL dissenting protects legitimate needs officials, retaining 2697, squarely rightly decided. 58 disagree, properly us. applying embodied 1291, distinguishing numerous denials undisputed 59 acknowledges refusal grant technically court. therefore, come narrow confines 1225, (1949), progeny. has, years, varied statement slightly, inquiry relatively constant. "[T]he judgment." 60 read narrowly, strong supporting respects peering shoulder step preserves scarce otherwise spent costly time-consuming appeals. Trial errors become moot aggrieved party nonetheless obtains favor, waste familiarizing anew partial taken. Equally important, removes potent weapon harassment hands litigants. Frankfurter, writing Cobbledick 309 323, 540, 84 783 (1940), "avoid[s] obstruction permitting cost succession rise, initiation effective, administration leaden footed. momentum arrested reviews component elements unified cause." 62 asserted, sympathetic appellant undoubtedly gain lurking behind usually vastly larger number relaxation threaten salutory Properly applied, situations. rule, relax constraints satisfied. find criterion—finality—because "completely merits" "effectively A. 63 identical ultimate merits, quite closely related. phone warrant. Assuming disputes resolved, implication indeed liable. refer statutes, consult treatises secondary materials, undertake reasoning. here, separate. 64 close relationship consequence parties events surrounding wiretap.1 readily decidable divergence congruence questions. If, instance, differed wiretaps, perhaps still move facts. sense merits.2 65 application prong straightforward preclusion appeal. confirm result. past, found, inter alia, claims, (1977), excessive bail, (1951), 742-743, post bond actions.3 None conclusive ultimately merits.4 analysis, research, 66 attempt rigors violated." Ante, ---- especially vintage, exacting standard. formulation Lybrand; stated "resolve[s] action." 2457 Richardson-Merrell Inc. Koller, 424, 2757, (1985), Flanagan 465 259, 265, 1051, 1054, 79 (1984), 3082, (1982) (per curiam Firestone Tire Rubber Co. Risjord, 449 368, 375, 669, 674, 571 noting "resolved asserted." 658, 2039 67 precise outlines "conceptual distinction" "[a]ll law." 528.5 assumption seems fact. me entirely wrong; legal, factual, merits. embodies determinations await focusing order, substitutes less stringent 68 something complete separability required, toothless disserves requirement.6 delay unjustified repeated permitted, post-judgment reexamine issues. today repetitious issue, inquire into recently "[m]ost judges courts." 434, ----. usual, affirmed, repeat "conceptually" different, connection apparent; much work duplicative. derives abstract advanced presence concrete put off fuller development stage assist disposition Simply put, prohibited contains full description Kenyatta Moore, 744 1179, 1185-1186 70 finds thought condition review, thrust weak, little profit maintaining fiction remains prerequisite B states "[a]t us," 525, third test: upon proceedings. that, includes Cf. encompasses specified one's Rule Procedure characterized opposing failed fact, test. statute limitations gave tried concerned. results follow host (e.g., jury due process), venue, parties), rights; except ineluctably point, characterization characterize presupposes judgments end gaining opportunity privileged undergoing regrettable lightly. 74 imposition chose advance modifying substantive making easier prove motion, relieve today: extra adjusting addition extraordinary excepting operation rule? advances notes 526. This, restates Harlow; today. unable issue. 56(c).7 declares "[t]he liability," italicizing words "immunity suit" clarifies rationale, wide variety "immunities"8 establishes sober assessment interests counsels departing normal asserted. lead 'distraction service.' 526 post-Harlow environment evils real, possibly These ill flow dispositive defendant—whether based limitations, estoppel, lack jurisdiction, like. considerable finality, ruling. think suffering 77 event, suggested pose significant threat, achieving Harlow's lawsuits. gained remaining proceed 78 predictably types. norm. expeditiously determination, expect tend norm questionable established. Many certified 1292(b) likely, writ mandamus. 13, 676, 13; 474-475, 2460-2461. offers hope unavailable reversal. Out beneficial smaller subclass effects avoiding subset declaration all. benefits seem small. Most meritless dismissed stages, minimizing distracted duties. Officials aware extensive deterred scent illegality; (those unlawful) goals seriously suggestion taking confidence restored mistaken brought overturned 80 appeal, imposes enormous plaintiffs whole.9 self-limiting quality. MacDonald, 850, 862, 1547, 1553, (1978) (relying "there speedy inherently limits claim" appealable). available previously tried. obviously (1979) (Speech immunity); Swift Packers Compania Colombiana Del Caribe, 339 684, 861, 94 1206 (1950) (order attachment ship); Roberts 844, 954, 1326 ) forma pauperis ambit restricted few extremely See, e.g., (the President); (1976) (prosecutors); (1967) (judges); (1951) (legislators). (and pursued by) sued capacity,10 regardless strength him. result, today's plaintiffs, delaying endlessly appeals.11 justice relentless increase caseload immunity,12 mischaracterization From outset, instead simple spy opponents. created resolved. engage de novo factfinding—an do—or intentionally below achieve purports justifications favor. states: interception, recognized." 535, demonstrate 1982 ruling, said "has word" claimed approved Pet. Cert. 59a. reproduced 56a-60a, determining paragraphs quoted statement, said: "[R]egardless faith belief existed contend, invasion dissidents conducted guise contends, 'arose context administrative function' part." 59a "at improper purpose, construct court, logic, Otherwise, according reached, hence unavailable." decided since arises considering Constitution. Perhaps proceeded wants, suggests, complicated great discretion decision. rate, speculations ought irrelevant; forfeit (arguably) went task inartfully. There am loss understand principle, aside sympathy hostility bases dissent. ed.) provided: "Nothing contained chapter 605 Communications 1934 (48 Stat. 1143; 605) shall potential hostile obtain deemed contents foregoing received hearing, proceeding reasonable, disclosed power" (footnote omitted). provision, repealed 1978 201(c) Foreign Intelligence Pub.L. 95-511, 1797. notice wiretaps. 1291. panel debatable enough referring panel. 700 1983). Judge Sloviter dissented, arguing arguments Circuit's earlier addition, immunity—unlike immunity—was Weis, dissenting, itself, vindication Weis engaged Eighth, Circuits Krohn 742 (CA1 1984); Evans Dillahunty, 711 828 (CA8 1983); McSurely McClellan, 225 67, 697 1982), Fifth Seventh rulings, 1179 Lightner Jones, 1251 1985). injunctive relief adjudicated claims. Rockefeller, 739 140 Bever Gilbertson, 724 1083, 948, 285 relief, propriety us, express faced 1981); Smith Nixon, 276, 1183 1979); (1981); Weinberg 588 275 (CA9 1978); Burkhart Saxbe, 596 Pa.1984); McAlister Civ. Action 72-1977 (filed Oct. ED Pa.). spate undermine large numbers generated They proper role conceivable deterrents General. declaratory exclusionary admission illegally seized However, Harlan pointed Fed. 398-411, 2005-2012, remedies useless citizen accused crime completed violation: "it nothing." 410, 2011. Other possibilities mentioned Mitchell—including impeachment General—would dubious value flagrant state-court party's federal-law tribunal "final" 1257. Mercantile Bank Langdeau, 371 555, 520, 523 (1963); Construction Laborers Curry, 542, 531, 514 (1963). one: (by defendant) advancing "separate aspect test, BRENNAN's account suggest, overlap fatal appealability, (or, situation, Government's) outside distinction dissent's "necessarily merits," post, inaccurate: meritorious directly controlling holdings outcome determinative "collateral" explanation "on distinguish one. proposition "merits" unlawful. inconsistency handling (1985). Contrary suggestion, alternative disqualification litigation. Rather, observes depend (or nondisqualification) success litigating form dispute. order—unlike ruling—is reference isolation 2, contradicted "simply legislate surveillances." 306, 2131. disclaimer powers, let alone rejection submission remand shown "clear danger" majority's exemption showing danger. apply exists, violates insists incorrect concluding 1970-1971 untenable. Had unavailable. light, precludes (1) investigatory purposes, (2) Cases, Treason, Felony Breach Peace, Arrest Attendance Session respective Houses returning same; House, questioned Place." (1951); 212. out, 514, repealed. 300-301, 2128, disagreeing construction 2511(3), language compelled reached. 336-343, 2146-2149. nevertheless Memorandum Heads Agencies (June 30, 1965), reprinted Div., 670-671 ("[A judge's] corrected unsatisfied hound charging malice corruption. Imposing contribute principled decision-making intimidation"); 424-425, 992 ("The trust prosecutor's suffer constrained terms damages"). ("It judge's him, controversial arouse intense feelings litigants"). pre-Keith example 522, 6. Part infra, misrepresents parties. "factual overlap," 529, show separability. renders inseparable. introduced, moves verdict produced raises jeopardy—at arises—will ordinarily raise same, similar, (claim Clause); Eisen Carlisle Jacquelin, 417 156, 2140, 732 (1974) allocating action); del vacating ship maritime case); status). think, "controlling" 528, 9. determinative, immunity—or subject-matter indispensable party, answered "[a]n claim." 528. correct, pleadings. seen plausible pleadings plainly explain difference motion. different inconsistent issue." 528-529. evidently believes attorney evaluate, "respondent's [and] relevance instances misconduct attorney's zealous pursuit 440. [in motion] rendered forthwith pleadings, depositions, answers interrogatories, admissions file, together affidavits, any, moving Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 56(c). traditionally everything now-dormant charitable tort W. Keeton, D. Dobbs, R. Owen, Prosser Keeton Law Torts 133 (5th ed. state-action antitrust Parker Brown, 317 341, 307, 315 (1943), sovereign statutes contain 78iii(b) (good-faith self-regulatory organizations disclosures difficulties securities dealers); 1483 (immunity vessels pollution control remedies); 1304 (immunities carrier goods sea); U.S.C.App. 1706 (1982 ed., Supp. III) agreements among carriers sea). public. Those pursue lose. Permitting divert longer available. advantage defense. Brandon Holt, 464, 873, 878 instant apt illustration. 1979

Classification Label: 7