Legal Document

429 U.S. 589 97 Supreme Court Reporter 869 51 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 64 Robert Pacific KF135 P2 WHALEN, as Commissioner of Health New York, Appellant,v.Richard ROE, an infant by Roe, his parent, et al. Number 75-839. Argued Oct. 13, 1976. Decided Feb. 22, 1977. Syllabus Responding to a concern that drugs were being diverted into unlawful channels, the York Legislature in 1972 enacted statutory scheme correct defects previous law. The statute classifies potentially harmful and provides prescriptions for category embracing most dangerous legitimate (Schedule II) be prepared on official form. One copy form, which requires identification prescribing physician, dispensing pharmacy, drug dosage, patient's name, address, age, must filed with State Department, where pertinent data are recorded tapes computer processing. All forms retained five-year period under system safeguard their security, thereafter destroyed. Public disclosure identity is prohibited, access files confined limited number health department investigatory personnel. Appellees, including group patients regularly receiving Schedule II doctors, brought this action challenging constitutionality patient-identification requirements. Holding "the doctor-patient relationship one zones privacy accorded constitutional protection" Act's provisions invaded zone "a needlessly broad sweep," since appellant had been unable demonstrate need those requirements, three-judge District enjoined enforcement challenged provisions. Held : 1. requirement reasonable exercise State's police powers, Court's finding necessity not proved sufficient reason holding unconstitutional. Pp. 596-598. 2. Neither immediate nor threatened impact either reputation or independence whom medically indicated suffices constitute invasion any right liberty protected Fourteenth Amendment. 598-604. (a) possibility doctor pharmacist may voluntarily reveal information prescription existed prior law, unrelated computerized bank. 600-601. (b) There no support record experience two program emulates assuming statute's security will improperly administered. 601. (c) remote judicial supervision evidentiary use particular items stored provide adequate protection against unwarranted invalidating entire patient program. 601-602. (d) Though it argued about induce refuse needed medication, does deprive public drugs, clear from fact 100,000 such each month before injunction was entered. 602-603. 3. Appellee doctors' contention impairs practice medicine free state interference without merit, whether refers own procedures, different statute, patients' has rejected (see 2(d), supra ). 604. 403 F.Supp. 931, reversed. Atlantic Seth Greenwald, City. appellant. Michael O. Lesch Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Miles Jaffe, City, appellees. Mr. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. 1 question presented record, centralized file, names addresses all persons who have obtained, pursuant doctor's prescription, certain there both lawful market. 2 portions Controlled Substances Act 19721 require recording ground they violate appellees' constitutionally rights privacy.2 We noted probable jurisdiction appeal Health, 424 907, 96 1100, 47 310, now reverse.3 3 Many illegitimate uses. In response 1970 created special commission evaluate drug-control laws.4 found existing laws deficient several respects. effective way prevent stolen revised prescriptions, unscrupulous pharmacists repeatedly refilling users obtaining more than doctor, doctors over-prescribing, authorizing excessive amount giving multiple prescriptions.5 drafting new legislation defects, consulted officials California Illinois central reporting systems used effectively.6 4 classified five schedules.7 Drugs, heroin, highly abused recognized medical use, I; cannot prescribed. Schedules through V include progressively lower potential abuse but also use. Our includes drugs.8 5 With exception emergencies, physician triplicate form.9 completed form identifies physician; pharmacy; dosage; age patient. second pharmacist, third forwarded Department Albany. A made exceed 30-day supply, refilled.10 6 room at Albany month. They sorted, coded, logged then taken another magnetic processing computer. Thereafter, returned vault destroyed required statute.11 surrounded locked wire fence alarm system. containing kept cabinet. When used, run "off-line," means terminal outside can read information. expressly prohibited regulation.12 Willful violation these prohibitions crime punishable up year prison $2,000 fine.13 At time trial 17 employees files; addition, 24 investigators authority investigate cases overdispensing might identified Twenty months after date Act, only investigations involving alleged overuse specific patients. 7 few days became effective, litigation commenced prescribe associations physicians.14 After various preliminary proceedings,15 conducted one-day trial. Appellees offered evidence tending prove treatment decline because fear misuse cause them stigmatized "drug addicts."16 8 65 ¢s596¢sThe held intrudes deal addresses.17 9 * basis its during first 20 administration statute. when alone would provided Lochner versus 198 45, 25 539, 49 L.Ed. 937, involved making baker permit work 60 hours week. longer regarded authoritative, unconstitutional "an unreasonable, unnecessary arbitrary individual personal . ." Id., 56, S.Ct., 543. 10 implicitly many times.18 some effect simply court finds unnecessary, whole part.19 For we frequently latitude experimenting possible solutions problems vital local concern.20 11 case represents considered attempt problem. It manifestly product orderly rational legislative decision. recommended specially appointed extensive hearings proposed legislation, drew similar programs other States. surely nothing unreasonable assumption aid designed minimize drugs. could reasonably expected deterrent violators21 well detection investigation instances apparent abuse. very least, seem interest controlling distribution decision experiment techniques control.22 if fails teaches results foolish expenditure funds acquire mountain useless process remains available terminate unwise experiment. follows legislature's enactment York's powers. not, therefore, 12 contend invades "zone privacy."23 sometimes characterized protecting "privacy" least kinds interests.24 avoiding matters,25 important decisions.26 argue interests impaired mere existence readily creates genuine become publicly known adversely affect reputations. This makes reluctant prescribe, even indicated. follows, argue, decisions matters care inevitably affected Thus, threatens impair nondisclosure private independently. 13 persuaded, however, face, pose sufficiently grievous threat establish violation. 14 come three ways. failing, deliberately negligently, maintain proper security. accused proceeding. Or, thirdly, 15 law entirely possibilities attacking invalid face. emulated, administered improperly.27 And inadequate disclosures program.28 16 Even disclosure, is, course, true disclosed authorized Health. Such disclosures, significantly Nor meaningfully distinguishable host unpleasant invasions associated facets care. Unquestionably, individuals' lead avoid postpone attention. Nevertheless, hospital personnel, insurance companies, agencies often essential part modern reflect unfavorably character patient.29 Requiring representatives having responsibility community, automatically impermissible privacy. do actually occur, knowledge file causes medication. supports conclusion discouraged concern; clear, filled entry injunction. Clearly, did 18 said deprived decide independently, advice Although doubt prohibit drugs,30 done so. therefore unlike total prohibition conduct deprivation liberty. conditioned consent party.31 Within dosage limits appellees challenge, left 19 hold neither requirements Amendment.32 III appellee separately interference. If claim reference clearly frivolous. prepare written identifying name address prescribed drug. To extent derivative from, stronger than, patients'.33 rejection disposes well. IV 21 final word issues decided. unaware implicit accumulation vast amounts banks massive government files.34 collection taxes, welfare social benefits, health, direction our Armed Forces, criminal preservation great quantities information, much embarrassing disclosed. collect purposes typically accompanied concomitant regulatory duty disclosures. Recognizing circumstances arguably roots Constitution, nevertheless scheme, implementing administrative with, of, individual's accumulated intentional unintentional contain comparable 22 Reversed. 23 BRENNAN, concurring. & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions write express my understanding Court, join. attack disclose high abuse, storage file. recognizes "interest matters" aspect privacy, ante, 598-600, nn. 24-25, holds case, seriously enough showing indispensable effort control 26 small As long make request, here. field familiar 602 n. 29, generally Broad dissemination implicate rights, presumably justified compelling interests. See, e. g., Roe Wade, 410 113, 155-156, 93 705, 728, 35 147 (1973). 27 What troubling thus collected. Obviously, argues, itself rendered technology operations efficient. However, example Fourth Amendment shows Constitution puts type gather, gather it. easy accessibility vastly increase am say future developments curb technology. 28 carefully numerous safeguards intended forestall danger indiscriminate disclosure. Given serious and, so far shows, successful limit issue, storage, interests, traditional 29 absence deprivation, absolutely necessary Of consistent promote interest. supra; Eisenstadt Baird, 405 438, 464, 92 1029, 1043-1044, 31 349 (1972) (White, J., concurring result). 30 STEWART, Katz States, 389 347, 88 507, 576, although affords intrusions matters,* "general 'right privacy.' (T)he person's general let people like property life, largely States." 350-351, 510 (footnote omitted). 32 BRENNAN's states "(b)road (the collected State) Ante, 606. statement earlier footnotes opinion, ibid., citing 24-25 (majority opinion). footnotes, cite opinions, proposition advanced BRENNAN. 33 referred to, Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 85 1678, 510, married couple using contraceptives home. language discussion see id., 484-485, 1681-1682, discovered related (1) marriage, 485-486, 1682; 495, 1687-1688. (Goldberg, concurring); 500, 1690 (Harlan, judgment), Poe Ullman, 367 497, 522, 81 1752, 1166, 989 dissenting); U.S., 502-503, 1691-1692 judgment); (2) home, 1681-1682 opinion); 1687 supra, 1766 (3) contraceptives, 503, 169-170, 735, (Stewart, concurring). Whatever ratio decidendi Griswold, recognize freedom 34 Stanley Georgia, 394 557, 89 1243, 542, prosecuted possession obscene materials 564, 1247-1248, First applicable protects what he chooses choice poses sensibilities others, 565-568, 1248-1250. Upon says today contrary above views, join judgment. N.Y.Laws, chapter 878; N.Y.Pub.Health Law § 3300 seq. (McKinney, Supp. 1976-1977) (hereafter Pub. Law, except n.13, infra). Ingraham, 931 (S.D.N.Y.1975). Earlier dismissed complaint want substantial federal question. 357 1217 (D.C.N.Y.1973). Appeals reversed, required. 480 Federal Reporter, 2nd 102 (C.A.2 1973). Jurisdiction conferred Code KF62 §§ 1253, 2101(b). 474, amended 1971 7. Temporary Commission Evaluate Drug Laws T. S. C.) issued reports which, stipulated, history Act. Interim Report (State Legislative Doc. 10, Jan. 1972); Second (Albany, N.Y., Apr. 5, 1971). 3-5. Chairman C. summarized findings: "Law considerable depth time. indicate us useful adjunct culpable professional abusers, give reliable statistical indication pattern flow throughout states: sorely stem tide diversion lawfully manufactured controlled substances." Memorandum Chester R. Hardt, App. 87a-88a. 21; T.S.C. 27-44. Rptr. (West’s) Safety 11158; 11160; 11167 (West, 1975 Supp.1976); Ill.Ann.Stat., 561/2, 1308, 1311, 1312(a) (Supp.1977).. These schedules conform material aspects Comprehensive Abuse Prevention Control 1970. 801 opium derivatives, cocaine, methadone, amphetamines, methaqualone. Pub.Health 3306. accepted uses amelioration pain epilepsy, narcolepsy, hyperkinesia, schizo-affective disorders, migraine headaches. 3334, 3338. numbered serially, groups 100 $10 per (10 cents form). Official Prescription, Form NC-77 (8/72). 3331-3333, 3339. normally forwards filling dispenses himself, forward copies 3331(6). 3370(3), 1974 965, 16. retain years also, 3331(6), 3332(4), 3333(4), destroy them. Section 3371 "1. No person, virtue office research subject, manufacturing process, trade secret formula shall knowledge, report thereof, except: "(a) person employed department, executing article; "(b) subpoena order proceeding; "(c) agency, government, board regulate, license otherwise supervise article substances, course proceeding board; "(d) registry established article. "2. disclosed, effectuate party proceeding, presiding officer take insure public." Pursuant authority, promulgated regulations respect confidentiality follows: "No employee entitled obtain information; proceedings; Law." N.Y.C.R.R. 80.107 N.Y. 12-b(2) (McKinney physicians' associations, Empire Physicians Guild, Incorporated American Federation Dentists, articulate claims severable named physicians. find consider organizations themselves standing suits. addition original dismissal complaint, parties took depositions entered stipulation facts. Two parents testified concerned children filing child off medication concern. Three adult feared result identifications. obtains State. continue receive stigmatization. Four physicians entrenches observed reaction shock, fear, informed plan. refuses On hand, over objections, any, attention section psychiatry Medical Society (App. 166a), body apparently declined suit. 3332(2)(a), 3333(4). 117, 709, 147; 481-482, 1679-1680, 510; Ferguson Skrupa, 372 726, 729-730, 83 1028, 1030-1031, 93; FHA Darlington, Inc., 358 84, 91-92, 79 141, 146, 132. "We concerned, wisdom, need, appropriateness legislation." Olsen Nebraska ex rel. Western Reference Bond Assn., 313 236, 246, 61 862, 865, 1305. Brandeis' classic merits reiteration: "To stay experimentation things economic grave responsibility. Denial fraught consequences Nation. happy incidents single courageous may, citizens choose, serve laboratory; try novel experiments risk rest country. power strike down embodies that, measure arbitrary, capricious, unreasonable. this, due clause substantive procedure. But power, ever guard, lest erect prejudices legal principles. guide light reason, minds bold." Ice company Liebmann, 285 262, 311, 52 371, 386-387, 76 747 (dissenting opinion) detected violations significant effect. "From beginning civilized societies, legislators judges acted unprovable assumptions. assumptions underlie regulation commercial business affairs .." Paris Adult Theatre Slaton, 413 49, 61, 2628, 2637, 37 446 (citations "Nothing prohibits reaching acting legislatively conclusive empirical data." 63, 2638. "Such regulation, assumed, variety valid forms." Robinson California, 370 660, 664, 82 1417, 1419, 758. Cf. Minnesota Whipple Martinson, 256 41, 41 425, 426, 819; Beauharnais Illinois, 343 250, 261-262, 72 725, 732-733, 919. rely shadows cast Bill Rights. Language opinions Justices view "implicit concept ordered liberty" Palko 302 319, 325, 58 149, 152, 288, quoted 726), "fundamental" undefined penumbra independent source protection. reviewing cases, expressed "right privacy" founded Amendment's liberty, 152-153, 726-727. "This restrictions upon action, feel or, determined, Ninth reservation people, encompass woman's her pregnancy." 153, 727 (emphasis added). See 168-171, 734-736 1690, judgment). Professor Kurland written: "The still undefined. partially revealed, shape remain fully ascertained. governmental surveillance intrusion. government. thought, experience, belief compulsion." I, University Chicago Magazine 7, (autumn 1976). describes directly Amendment; correspond text. dissent Olmstead 277 478, 48 572, 944, Brandeis alone" valued men"; 483, 1681, said: "(T)he intrusion." 542; Bankers Assn. Shultz, 416 21, 79, 94 1494, 1526, 39 812 (Douglas, 78, 1525 (Powell, Doe Bolton, 179, 739, 201; Loving Virginia, 388 1, 87 1817, 1010; Pierce Sisters, 268 45 571, 69 1070; Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 43 625, 67 1042; Allgeyer Louisiana, 165 578, 427, 832. Paul Davis, 693, 713, 1155, 405, dealing "matters relating procreation, contraception, family relationships, rearing education. areas, limitations States' substantively regulate conduct." C.'s failed Chairman, Re: Triplicate Prescriptions, 1973 (reproduced 88a). Just last Term Buckley Valeo, 612, 46 659, Election Campaign violated contribute minority parties: "But tendered Instead, appellants primarily 'the articulated fears individuals, experienced political process.' best offer testimony minor-party refused contributions outweighs harm alleged." 71-72, 659 Here, too, urge "clearly fears" pernicious effects assume Buckley. accordance scheme. Appellees' described, 594-595. behalf pre-adolescent amphetamines hyperkinesia doubly premature. Not stigmatize enter requiring destruction records ignored, 11, accompanying physician-patient privilege unknown common exists enactment, subject exceptions waiver reasons. McCormick, Evidence 98, 101-104 (2d ed. Judge Wigmore, 2380, 3, 6, 2388-2391 (McNaughton rev. 1961). Familiar examples venereal disease, injuries caused deadly weapons, certifications fetal death. Updated: January upheld recordkeeping Missouri abortion challenge based intrusion, Planned Parenthood Central Danforth, 428 52, 79-81, 2831, 2846-2847, 788. settled powers regulating professions. 664-665, 1419-1420; ex. 426; Barsky Board Regents, 347 442, 449, 74 650, 654, 98 829. 201, instance, defective concurrence state-licensed physicians, performed, advance approval committee less members staff procedure regardless woman concerned. emanates Amendment, Terry Ohio, 392 9, 1868, 1873, 889, point quotes 576. involve affirmative, unannounced, narrowly focused investigations. never carried us. now. Likewise Patient derive anonymity association Bates Little Rock, 361 516, 522-523, 80 412, 416, 480, NAACP Alabama, 462, 78 1163, 1171-1172, 1488. protect "freedom purpose advancing ideas airing grievances," 523, treatment. Also, uncontroverted past 1172, element absent Schulman City Hospitals Corp., 38 N.Y.2d 234, 379 N.Y.S.2d 702, 342 North Eastern 501 (1975). references physician's administer 197-198, 199, 750, 751, 201. Nothing suggests greater strength vindicated pregnant bear procedures encumbered placing obstacles path she connection impacted decision, merely laborious patient, Constitution. Boyer, Computerized Records Right Privacy: Emerging Response, Buffalo L.Rev. (1975); Miller, Computers, Data Banks Individual An Overview, Colum. Human Rights (1972); Assault Privacy (1971). Utz Cullinane, 172 U.S.App.D.C. 67, 78-82, 520 467, 478-482 350 5: example, imposes abridgment 'freedom associate one's association.' Third unconsented peacetime quartering soldiers extent, Fifth too 'reflects Constitution's ". 'to enclave life.' " ' Tehan Shott, 382 406, 86 459, 465, 453. Virtually every interferes degree. violates command Constitution." notes, 599-600, 26, line "privacy," affording autonomy unit raising children.

Classification Label: 4