Legal Document

515 U.S. 753115 S.Ct. 2440132 L.Ed.2d 650 CAPITOL SQUARE REVIEW AND ADVISORY BOARD, et al., Petitionersv.Vincent J. PINETTE, Donnie A. Carr and Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. No. 94-780. Supreme Court United States June 29, 1995. Syllabus * Ohio law makes Capitol Square, Statehouse plaza in Columbus, a forum for discussion public questions activities, gives petitioner Square Review Advisory Board responsibility regulating access to square. To use square, group must simply fill out an official application form meet several speech-neutral criteria. After denied, on Establishment Clause grounds, respondent Klan place unattended cross square during 1993 Christmas season, filed this suit. The District entered injunction requiring issuance requested permit, permitted erect its cross. Sixth Circuit affirmed judgment, adding conflict among Courts Appeals as whether private, display religious symbol violates Clause. Held: judgment is affirmed. 30 F.3d 675 (CA6 1995), Justice SCALIA delivered opinion with respect Parts I, II, III, concluding that: 1 1. Because courts below addressed only issue that sole question upon which certiorari was granted, will not consider respondents' contention State's disapproval Klan's political views, rather than desire distance itself from sectarian religion, genuine reason disallowing display. P. ----. 2 2. private speech fully protected under Free Speech secular expression. See, e.g., Lamb's Chapel v. Center Moriches Union School Dist., 508 ----, 113 2141, 124 352. traditional forum, may regulate content expression there if such restriction necessary, narrowly drawn, serve compelling state interest. Perry Ed. Assn. Local Educators' Assn., 460 37, 45, 103 948, 955, 74 794. Pp. ---- - 3 3. Compliance be interest sufficiently justify content-based restrictions speech, see, Chapel, U.S., at S.Ct., 2148, but conclusion implicated case strongly suggested by presence here factors considered determinative striking down id., Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 274, 102 269, 276-277, 70 440. As those cases, State did sponsor expression, made government property had been opened permission through same process terms required other groups. 4 SCALIA, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, KENNEDY, THOMAS, concluded Part IV petitioners' attempt distinguish unavailing. Petitioners' argument that, because forum's proximity seat cause misperception bears approval, their constitutional so-called "endorsement test" of, Allegheny County American Civil Liberties Union, Greater Pittsburgh Chapter, 492 573, 109 3086, 106 472, Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 104 1355, 79 604, rejected. Their version test, would attribute neutrally behaving government, has no antecedent Court's jurisprudence, consistently upheld neutral policies happen benefit religion. Where tested endorsement, subject test either itself, Lynch, supra, or else action alleged discriminate favor activity, County, supra. difference between forbidden endorsing religion does so what distinguishes Chapel. distinction disappear when conducted close symbols government. Given designated publicly announced open all equal terms, well purely sponsorship erroneous conclusions endorsement do count. See 2147, Widmar, 276-277. Nothing prevents displays identified such, it not, claim ban against alone disclaim sponsorship. ____. 5 O'CONNOR, SOUTER BREYER, presented justification denying permit. 6 (a) supplies appropriate standard determining governmental practices relating topics violate Clause, even where policy toward issue. Cf., 2147-2148, There necessity carve out, plurality opinion, exception context. 7 (b) On facts case, reasonable observer fairly interpret tolerance 2148. In context, "reasonable observer" personification community ideal behavior, determined collective social whose knowledge limited information gleaned viewing challenged display, extends general history appears. therefore, properly held, symbol, owned State, nearby, also awareness space multiplicity groups engage expressive conduct, ability read understand disclaimer offered include 8 SOUTER, O'CONNOR given available alternatives, cannot denial tailored response necessary ensure appear take position belief. 9 plurality's per se rule previously recognized precedents. admits, are some circumstances intelligent reasonably perceive imply government's Such perceptions should attributed analysis decisions, 630, 635-636, 3120-3121, 3123-3124, 472 (O'CONNOR, J., concurring part judgment), have looked specific determine any realistic danger think 692, 694, 1369, 1370, 604 concurring). would, handful make meaningless. 10 Notwithstanding nothing lawn suggesting displays, flat Board's option protect appearance endorsement. Either two possibilities better suited requirement find most "narrowly drawn" alternative. First, could large clear preclude inference demonstrated alternative, instituted restricting one area permanent sign marking carrying 11 REHNQUIST, C.J., JJ., joined, IV, KENNEDY joined. opinion. STEVENS, GINSBURG, dissenting opinions. 12 Michael Renner, OH, petitioners. 13 Benson Wolman, respondents. 14 THOMAS join. 15 First Amendment, binding Fourteenth provides "shall respecting establishment religion." when, pursuant religiously policy, permits party located next 16 10-acre, state-owned surrounding Ohio. For over century used speeches, gatherings, festivals advocating celebrating variety causes, both religious. Admin.Code Ann. § 128-4-02(A) (1994) "for . free questions, activities broad purpose," Rev.Code 105.41 (1994), access. criteria, concern primarily safety, sanitation, non-interference uses proposed event. App. 107-110; 128-4-02 (1994). 17 It "to allow range speakers gatherings people conduct events Square." Brief Petitioner 3-4. diverse homosexual rights organizations, Way held rallies. Square: State-sponsored lighted tree privately-sponsored menorah Chanukah, showing progress fundraising campaign, booths exhibits arts festival. Although dispute litigation regarding frequency found, ample justification, them. 844 F.Supp. 1182, 1184 (SD 1993). 18 November 1993, after reversing initial decision holiday December authorized put up annual tree. granted rabbi's menorah. That day, received Carr, officer Klan, 8, 24, 1993. denied 3, informing letter deny "was advice counsel, good faith comply Constitutions, they interpreted relevant decisions Federal Courts." 47. 19 Two weeks later, having unsuccessful effort obtain administrative relief decision, leader Vincent Pinette, present suit Southern Ohio, seeking defended ground permit without freestanding displays; entirely entitled full Amendment protection; failed show construed Christianity State. issued and, emergency stay 510 114 626, 126 636 (1993) (STEVENS, chambers), then received, additional applications crosses January 1994. 20 appeal Board, judgment. agrees ruling Eleventh Circuit, Chabad-Lubavitch Miller, 1383 (1993), disagrees Second Fourth Circuits, Burlington, 936 F.2d (CA2 1991), cert. 505 1218, 112 3026, 120 897 (1992), Kaplan 891 1024 1989), 496 926, 110 2619, 640 (1990), Smith Albemarle, 895 953 (CA4), 498 823, 111 74, 48 (1990). We certiorari. 513 115 787, 130 779 (1995). II 21 preliminary matter: Respondents contend we treat freedom (the right message display) disagreement message's content, They suggest merits brief oral Ohio's views Whatever fact be, decided way. record before us opinions address issue;1 certiorari; decide. 22 Respondents' Our precedent establishes far being orphan, 352 (1993); Westside Community Schools (Dist. 66) Mergens, 226, 2356, 191 (1990); 440 (1981); Heffron International Soc. Krishna Consciousness, Inc., 452 640, 101 2559, 69 298 (1981). Indeed, Anglo-American history, least, suppression commonly directed precisely free-speech clause Hamlet prince. Accordingly, excluded protections proselytizing, Heffron, 647, 2563-2564, acts worship, n. 6, 6. Petitioners respondents, displaying cross, were engaging constitutionally protection extend length permitting Square. 23 undeniable, course, thereby accorded guaranteed Postal Service Council Greenburgh Civic Assns., 453 114, 129, 2676, 2685, 517 44, 954, 794 (1983). one's depends tradition status reserved uses. Cornelius NAACP Legal Defense & Fund, 473 788, 802-803, 105 3439, 3449, 87 567 (1985). If former, limit activity sharply circumscribed: impose reasonable, content-neutral time, manner (a exist here, might such), 955. These strict standards apply since found forum. F.Supp., 1184; F.3d, 678. 24 based place, restriction. contrary, concede—indeed essence case—that rejected advance single closing cross: avoiding Christianity, III 25 doubt compliance speech. 2148-2149; 271, 275. Whether however, different question. And write blank slate answering it. twice combination use, regulation, complying Both times, struck content. supra; 26 school district allowed facilities off-hours civic, recreational purposes, excluding, purposes. violated applicant's solely viewpoint program wished present. 2143-2149. district's compelling-state-interest defense here) wide uses, directly sponsoring group's "any Church more incidental." Id., reasoning applies fortiori full-fledged 27 followed naturally our examined university's exclusion student discrimination who "generally forum" 274. claimed justified created spectrum provide incidental 276. stated categorically "an university confer imprimatur approval sects practices." Ibid. 28 Quite obviously, well. 29 argue feature Widmar: which, contend, produce perception approval. urge test," (1989); (1984), mistake officially endorsed constitutional. note, begin with, really sort, much less appears recent petitioners us. "Endorsement" connotes demonstration support. New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 818 Webster's 845 (2d ed. 1950). cases accordingly equated "endorsement" "promotion" "favoritism." 593, 3101 (citing cases). peculiar say "promotes" "favors" giving enjoy. matter violation enact Bowen Kendrick, 487 589, 608, 108 2562, 2573, 520 (1988); Witters Washington Dept. Services Blind, 474 481, 486-489, 748, 751-753, 88 846 (1986); Mueller Allen, 463 388, 3062, 77 721 (1983); McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 81 1101, 393 (1961). Kiryas Joel Village Dist. Grumet, 512 2481, 2492-2494, 129 546 propose, called "transferred endorsement" test. 31 rely heavily each easily distinguished. creche "Grand Staircase" Courthouse staircase basis, favoring 599-600, 50, 3104-3105, 50 ("[t]he Grand Staircase kind location displays"). expressly distinguished site "the six associate creche." (emphasis added). city's because, endorse 685-687, 1365-1366. assume, unconstitutional effectively endorses But neither holds nor remotely assumes treatment can unconstitutional. 32 absence perceived material Widmar. "no particular creed," result empirical investigation; directly, thought, privately sponsored. ibid. significant referred thought community"—not outsiders individual members uninformed about school's practice. Surely latter, hearing ceremonies premises, knowing premises' availability sorts leap But, effect said, sponsorship, So Once shared groups, defense. 33 What dictum "[T]here crucial forbids, Exercise Clauses protect." 250, 2372 concurring).2 assert, effect, disappears too merely subpart principle: whenever mistaken proposition accepted, least where, fostered encouraged mistake. 34 Of preferential (or anywhere matter) (as involve discrimination). conceive entity manipulates administration within building) certain advantage it, creating impression accurate. situations, favoritism, here. genuinely known widely many, many years. Private veto see favoritism none. 35 contrary view, espoused post, ____, well, exiles realm less-protected heretofore inhabited sexually explicit commercial Young Mini Theatres, 427 61, 70-71, 96 2440, 2448, 2452-2453, 49 310 (1976); Central Hudson Gas Electric Corp. Public Serv. Comm'n N.Y., 447 557, 100 2343, 65 341 (1980). sad day casts piety pornography, finds hospitable expletives, Cohen California, 403 15, 26, 91 1780, 1788, 284 (1971), prayers. This bizarre Constitution forms speech; outright perverse considers receives answer tempers By words never meant, Court, impediment connected occurrence 36 Since principle possibly restricted squares front capitols, regime usher unappealing. require (and permit) sufficient sponsored, event public, various organizations. districts adopting similar future guess undetermined critical mass nonetheless viewpoint. Similarly, universities forced reassess statement henceforth depend immediate appearances. Policy makers themselves vise side other. Every act force officials weigh host imponderables. How close? building, symbolizes authority? guessed wrong direction, guilty violation; other, liable suppressing exercise risk run restrains own expression). 37 disrupt settled providing benefits contravene basis constitutionality laws, implicate issues, Witters, Mueller, radical implications laws invalid hypothetical observers may—even confuse endorsement.3 38 concerned misperceptions, such. "manner" assuredly Clark Creative Non-Violence, 468 288, 293, 3065, 3069, 82 221 (1984). sponsorship.4 39 Religious (1) (2) occurs terms. Those conditions satisfied therefore bar 40 41 concurring. 42 I join petitioner's grounds. legal involves lead anyone erected symbol. erection act, Christian one. 43 little main objective establish racist white States. ceremony, supremacy tool intimidation harassment racial minorities, Catholics, Jews, Communists, hated associated practice cross-burning. Cross-burning unknown early emerged Reconstruction. W. Wade, Fiery Cross: America 146 (1987). product Thomas Dixon, book Clansman formed story movie, Birth Nation. M. Newton Newton, Klan: An Encyclopedia 145-146 (1991). book, cross-burning borrowed "old Scottish rite" (Dixon apparently believed Reconstruction "reincarnated souls Clansmen Old Scotland") celebrate execution former slave. T. Clansman: Historical Romance 324-326 (1905). took significance 1920's became southern clergy, postwar period reverted original function instrument intimidation. 185, 279. 44 sure, members. hymn "The Rugged Cross" sometimes played cross-burnings. Moore, A Sheet Symbolic Analysis 287-288 (Ph.D. dissertation, Tulane University, 1975). extent communicate During his testimony local testified seen "as freedom, trying unite people." 150. chapter "a tyranny," incorporated confederate battle flag." connotation; linked he central purposes America." 142-145. surely nature. 45 sought convey component, nonreligious purpose erecting appropriated sacred hate. my mind, suggests truly involved although agree disposition come end, meets eye. djQ whom BREYER join, 46 concur Despite messages bigotry racism conveyed along connotations ante, ____ (THOMAS, concurring), bottom understood us—as relationship asks including involving symbols," 628, 3120, (1989) today, 47 reasons conclude [State] 2143, granting respondents temporary separately, emphasize seeks identify situations " 'adherence person's standing community,' Allegheny, 594, (quoting 687, 1367, (1984) necessarily focuses informed observer. "In years, paid particularly attention [in cases] 'endorsing' long jurisprudence." 592, 3100. 2148; Rapids Ball, 373, 390, 3216, 3226, 267 (1985) (asking "whether symbolic union church effected likely adherents controlling denominations nonadherents disapproval, choices"). 'that belief favored preferred,' Wallace Jaffree, 38, 70, 2479, 2497, 86 prohibition "[e]ndorsement sends outsiders, community, accompanying insiders, community," 688, 1367 3119 judgment); Wallace, 69, 2496 judgment). "[e]xperience proves reduced 2499, inquiry captures fundamental evaluate property. 593-594, 3101. While "expression activity," believe impermissible sent contexts, direct favoritism. infra, true prior today. Nonetheless, aptly demonstrates, occasions employed perspective intersected parallels instant case. Thus, while (1981), recognition identifies ultimately led (SOUTER, is, notes, 2372, (1990) (plurality opinion). quoted applying itself; indeed, sentence relies immediately "secondary students mature enough support nondiscriminatory basis." carefully surveys, Moreover, numerous lower (including case) applied context Georgia (CA11 1993) (en banc); Kreisner San Diego, 775, 782-787 (CA9 1993), 690, 657 (1994); Americans Separation Rapids, 980 1538 1992) Doe Small, 964 611 (CA7 cf. (CA4 1990), background, draw new lines "[r]eligious forum," 51 None vigorous administered properly. certainly informs important deciding like seek spaces: groups." Ante, And, governed otherwise placement manipulation involved. 52 consideration nature ownership add disclaiming role community. factor clear, aspects arguably intimate message—particularly especially potent stood unattend- ed buildings. helps remove message. Cf. 14, 276, ("In light number meeting campus, University mere campus place. University's handbook already notes name 'be way aims, policies, programs, products, organization members' "). these facts, then, [of inclusion] neutrality endorsement." 248, 2371 53 agreement outcome mask company point: disagree "[i]t —confuse view duty hold invalid. today takes exceedingly narrow step well-established notions requires. negative defined ____; imposes affirmative obligations steps avoid supporting forbids hiding behind formally criteria remaining studiously oblivious effects actions. Governmental intent control, permissible Religion form. 54 operation actor intends actively encourages result, 1368 violated. 'transferred endorsement,' attribution actions (operating therein), issue, actually At point, example, dominate formal transformed into 275, 277 (concluding allowing others "[a]t evidence [the school's] forum"). Other effect—whether fortuity geography, space, character others. jurisprudence remain flexible handle arise. 55 recognize distilled fixed, rule. "[e]very judged unique constitutes 1370 answered abstract, instead requires examine operates continue "must subjected careful judicial scrutiny," ibid., inquiry. 56 Conducting review always sensitive matter. Unfortunately, noted "even development articulable guidelines resulted Members results cases." 623, 3117. Today, STEVENS reaches constituted cross' Yet note arrived divergent conducting analysis. point departure, appears, concerns test's [who] evaluates conveys 3121 proper deemed casual passerby postulated dissent. 57 moored writ large, 627, 1368, individuals saving isolated non-adherents discomfort subscribe. "entirely sweep[ing] away acknowledgment lives citizens," 3117 becomes responsible, due disregard evident injection life citizenry. 58 focus actual observers, differing degrees knowledge. Under approach, precluded passersby thereof. creates gauge 'objective' meaning [government's] respect, applicable person" tort law, "is ordinary individual, occasionally unreasonable things" "rather [collective] judgment." Keeton Prosser Law Torts 175 (5th 1984). "we ask person offended State] United, F.2d, 1544. Saying presumed possess level informa- tion citizens share chooses majority non-adherent," L. Tribe, Constitutional 1293 1988), invites values intended protect. recognizes difficulty inherent focusing people: someone who, quantum knowledge, viewer feel uncomfortable. 59 aware explained 'history ubiquity' 3121. Nor Today's proponents building nearby dissenting). know displayed. park time types display's Statehouse. 600, 3104, (noting "[t]he ."). approach assume 'ultra-reasonable observer' understands vagaries jurisprudence," member how past—and fact, definition 60 dissent's property-based fails give weight displayed traditionally public. very installed property," dissent suggests, "implies message." Post, curtilage involved, "places fiat devoted assembly debate, [particularly] streets parks 'have immemorially trust assembly, communicating thoughts citizens, discussing questions.' 955-956, (1983) Hague Committee Industrial Organization, 307 496, 515, 964, 83 L.Ed. 1423 (1939)). presumption "structures property—and, particular, buildings plainly State—imply message," dissenting), rebutted historically supports allows accompanied, disclaimer. 61 believe, religious, conduct. type able adequate disclaimer, Pet. Cert. A-15 A-16; condition application. Wilkinson, 1098, 1104-1106 1990). 62 "To sensitivity yield unanimous margins." 629, 3120 flexibility virtue vice; "courts keep mind scheme myriad, subtle ways eroded," 63 "compliance speech." "prohibits appearing 'making adherence community.' concurring)). presents doing so, 64 want specifically suggestion desired. protests statues, disable owned, structures. posters utility poles eliminate visual clutter, City Los Angeles Taxpayers 466 789, 808, 2118, 2130, 80 772 camping parks, similarly adopt prohibiting forums around Ward Rock Against Racism, 491 781, 791, 2746, 2753, 661 ("[E]ven provided [that] 'are reference regulated interest, leave alternative channels communication information,' quoting Clark, 3069). 66 Otherwise, concurrence end erred differs SCALIA's, vote affirm possibility affixing adequately 67 declines action, rule: indicating 68 My receive straight alike: (acknowledging "hypothetical endorsement") original); "misled" insufficient size enquire sponsored cross). concedes saying "on set violating forum." 43. need "obtuse," 611, 630 (Easterbrook, presume land prominence belongs represents enjoys (statues), (such "Seasons Greetings" banner), (flags, are, presumably, taken time). 59, 64-65 (photos); Appendices B infra. domination dimwit though three years menorah, "thermometer," artisans' left overnight festival), ("Even remains express government"), "[f]or century" "speeches, festivals," When speaks first foremost, speaker, conveys) viewed belonging owner stands. sum, am odds precedents, 71 alluded elements analytical framework supplied Lemon Kurtzman, 602, 2105, 745 asking said 'preclude[s] conveying attempting 3101, judgment) omitted), prohibits belief," 72 County's dismissed, allegation itself" "government discriminat[ing] expression." omitted). meaningless "effect-of-endorsing" Effects one, principal assess them 3123-3124 493, 754, (1986) 3104-3105 (majority opinion); "religion relevant, perception, community." 1369 Unless retreat abandon effects, sense harm subclass owns "once proclamation belief, disseminated property, demonstrating faith, follows enjoined." 612, 3111. Notably, "particular proclamation" passage anything kind. 73 intend lay confirmed subsequent cases. Justices decide high Equal Access Act, Pub.L. 98-377, 98 Stat. 1302, U.S.C. §§ 4071-4074, club "noncurricular" organized students. four "does religion" group. 252, 2373 White Blackmun, JJ.). concurred order school] [religious] club's goals." 2378 (opinion Marshall, Brennan, J.); 264, 2379 ("If schools conferring doctrine nominally 'neutral' save running afoul Clause") original). Mergens 'limited forum,' 233, 247, 2363, 2370, reached irrebuttable presumption, making contextual taking account 250-252, 2372-2373 264-270, 2379-2382 ("[T]he practice"); concurring) ("Every religion"). audience, ("[S]econdary basis"); details clubs" school, students' initiate organize clubs"); presumptively (" '[I]n [the] advancement "primary effect," ' 277, (1981)); inaction disassociate message, 251, ("[N]o participate" activities). plurality, moreover, relied group, "[t]o [a group] evinces toward, Ibid.; 270, 2382 (Marshall, importance "taking what- ever further reflect participants"). 75 evangelical church, wanting series films child-rearing perspective, refused premises non-religious perspective. reaching conclusion, "not primary advancing inhibiting Again forum: film shown hours "repeatedly" variety" speakers. "Under circumstances," concluded, "there [school] thus notwithstanding active central, irrelevant, enquiry. why here," 76 contrary. adoption fits There, university, focused "effects" prong, 272, "should appreciate religion," unlikely, "draw place," carried [student] organization.' 14. context," 273, "absence [would] "confer practices," Even otherwise, forums, preference serious loophole SCALIA's intentionally willfully "foster[s]" "manipulates" "in it," list short, bodies generous scope encourage forums. "manipulat[e]" exclude seem invite encouragement, own, tempt body contract encouraging enterprise exhibit itself. 78 Something happened Immediately ordering grant council overwhelming crosses. churches crosses, "blanket permission" "all friendly affiliated with" so. Opposition RA24-RA26. strewn embarrassment suspicion opportunity latter clear. specifics admit anticipated, weighed upholding Latin world, point. Statehouse, flags flying statues hand. supposed stand plot menorah's expired days went up). A15-A16, A31; 677. displays. Based factors, understandably possible (1983), situation. application, representative accompanied legible "from distance," explaining "without support." 118. contents sign" "open negotiation." Ibid.1 attach "demonstrat[e] allegiance to, faith." 3111.2 With alternatives available, "appea[r] belief." reasons, APPENDIX TO OPINION OF [NOTE: MATERIAL SET AT THIS POINT IS NOT DISPLAYABLE (GRAPHIC OR TABULAR MATERIAL)] 84 dissenting. 85 create strong installation there, rebutting presumption. sequence disclosed illustrates rebuilding "wall separation State" Jefferson envisioned.1 unadorned placed, unattended, Capitol. decides assumption hybrid object. indicates Titan Realm Ohio" Jews" placing "symbol Jewish belief" 173.2 Some unaware unfamiliar reaction inspirational crucifixion resurrection Jesus Christ. More knowledgeable regard anti-semitic disrespect sect. interpretation, symbol.3 second, icon intolerance expressing anti-clerical treated prohibit irreligious messages. 52, 2487, anti-religious bigoted Ballard, 322 78, 86-89, 882, 886-888, 1148 (1944) (government lacks power judge truth beliefs); Watson Jones, Wall. 679, 728, 666 (1872) ("The knows heresy, committed dogma, sect"). wooden unquestionably completely love, hate, still exclusion—a calling powerfully outsider status. event, espouse concludes, message; "incidental benefit" parties justifies conclusion. 89 "at (1989), "appearing position" best standpoint observer."4 expresses. paramount matters stranger No stringent well-grounded sovereign subscribe.5 90 maintenance mindful unexplained. signs generally owner's views. component conveys. "Displaying residence often carries quite distinct someplace else, text picture means. Precisely location, identity 'speaker.' eminent rhetoric observed, speaker attempts persuade. 'Peace Gulf' retired decorated war veteran provoke 10-year-old child's bedroom window bumper sticker passing automobile. espousal socialism carry grounds stately mansion pasted factory wall ambulatory sandwich board." Ladue Gilleo, 2038, 2046, (footnote 92 Like speakers, places her autonomy choose McIntyre Elections Comm'n, 514 1511, 1516, 131 426 stationary, implicit location.6 93 speak implies reinforcement implication stands placed capitol world normally parcel real estate lawgiver territory—has facilitated 94 uncensored qualify contradict normal parades demonstrations near exercises petition redress grievan- ces—exercises recipient messenger. parade visible reach audience possible, usually messengers persons statue freestanding, silent, immoveable structure—regardless —appears messenger, or, Contrast, light, image hooded Klansman holding, 95 object forum.7 Today correctly despite condemned foreclose entire medium allowed.8 affords basic liberty: speech" using parks. 515-516, (1939) Roberts, J.). destroy rights. empower structures 814, 2133, (1984);9 Thus protecting individual's communi- cative (whether speaking, parading, handbilling, waving flag, Lovell Griffin, 303 444, 666, 949 (1938), send home, 2046-2047, implant physical structure campaign poster, burning Elvis Presley) "right," greater intrusion interferes Government's differentiate individuals, exist.10 state—imply Government considerable leeway, outside arena, kinds not. leafletting buildings, wish identified. obvious, categories erotic exhibits, advertising, perhaps well—without Clause.11 "public entities enforcing prohibitions limiting non-controversial messages.12 limitation inhibit fora. 97 restrict suffice profess exercising authority. Instead, much, 91-92, 169. rationale Just preventing conduit ideas ratifying, allowing, endorsing, stationary viewers approves appended infer foot (which organization) legible, remain, third she herself.13 character, reinforce in, on, 99 acknowledges state's prohibited asserts, accords enjoy." unpersuasive. existence dispel "ultra-reasonable jurisprudence. presumptuous precondition protection. Many (probably most) "limited "non-public church. Reasonable knowledge; 'obtuse,' 675, 679 1994) concurring)); unworthy human. forum—specifically, emphasizes past unat- tended convincing, Square—a highly unlikely supposition.14 previous does. Most significant, Chanukah. cross.15 equally objectionable. stamp religions compounds violation. sect proscribes religions,16 nonreligion. 52-55, 2487-2489. pro-religious consistent favors irreligion." incompatible principles embodied examples "United Campaign 'thermometer,' "craftsmen's Arts Festival."17 A-16. confirm thermometer contribute Way. seems creativity artisans craftsmen occupy contradicts whatever adorn grounds.18 later 'for purpose,' symbols. They, booths, readily distinguishable (1993). perfectly incorrect identification inferring entity. case: circumstances, creed, incidental. 271-272 [102 275-276], three-part articulated 602 [91 745] (1971): purpose, foster excessive entanglement 2148 contrast, obviously "have religion"; record. dealing display—a venue lacking facilities. display; state, Endorsement if, roof onlookers witness ceremony connect obtrusive, eye-catching symbolism 107 underscores symbolism. prompted turn vandalism motivated illustrate potential insidious flows state-endorsed proselytizing. synagogue Klansman's produced enjoyed apparent will—to beliefs there. message.19 wisely minimize strife forbidding activity. Conspicuously absent mention served repeat portion authored Black literal interpretation text: "A proportion settlers country came Europe escape bondage compelled attend government-favored churches. centuries contemporaneous colonization filled turmoil, civil strife, persecutions, generated established maintain absolute supremacy. them, times places, Catholics persecuted Protestants, Protestants Protestant sects, shade another Jews. efforts loyalty top league men women fined, cast jail, cruelly tortured, killed. Among offenses punishments inflicted things speaking disrespectfully ministers government-established churches, non-attendance expressions non-belief doctrines, failure pay taxes tithes "These old transplanted began thrive soil America. charters Crown companies control destinies colonials establishments all, believers non-believers, attend. authority repetition old-world persecutions. hounded proscribed faith; Quakers conscience jail; Baptists peculiarly obnoxious dominant sects; varied faiths minority locality steadfastly persisted worshipping God consciences dictated. dissenters government-sponsored preached inflammatory sermons designed strengthen consolidate generating hatred dissenters. 'establishment religion' means this: Neither pass aid religions, prefer another. influence go him disbelief can, openly secretly, participate affairs organizations vice versa. Jefferson, 'a State.' Everson Ewing, 330 1, 8-10, 16, 504, 508-509, 511, 511-512, 711 (1947) (footnotes citation eloquent Jackson succinctly — "that every propagation indirectly business. states' hands religion's off above bitter controversy life. ." 26-27, 516-517. wrestling removed persecution William Penn sail America, resolved gave rise litigation.20 Nevertheless expressed landmark counsel caution approving federal commanding authorize unprecedented. entangles sovereigns disserves underlies "respecting religion."21 respectfully 116 117 118 confront Near statues. human sight. belonged 119 aim uncouple (1947), court order, character. Sullivan, Liberal Democracy, U.Chi.L.Rev. 195, 197-214 (1992) (negative order). final paragraphs arrangements distanced world," ____: ____1 permanently marked. arrangement mandate A26 ("Plaintiffs defendants Square"). cross2 unsturdy: sponsor; unequivocally distance. ordered demanding sturdier withstand difficult poses. reserve let prospect today's authorized. (appendix J.) (photograph display). syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber Co., 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. Circuit's "[z]ealots too" unpopular, shows ripped potency infirmity; fervently devotional blatantly Zealots too." 680 1994). addressing zealous unpopular) O'CONNOR's observation: "We secondary 2372. says observation second first, "difference "crucial." true, "be properly," extending cover eventuality likely" occur. Before desirable explore precise degree unlikelihood (is 100%?)—for text, extension costs. Contrary argue, supply whatsoever. "applied today," results—which proof invited chaos required, follow debate STEVENS' beholder determinant (no unknowledgeable), average beholder, (what accuses favoring) "ultra-reasonable" beholder. course achieves question, unrealistic expect judges juries?) answers ultra-reasonable be) think. irresponsible Nation's legislators walk minefield. reason, others, inquire adequacy attached difficulties posed inquiry, yet reject principled line visible. inclination closer misled, just (under current law) misled. Needless say, constraint ridiculous. rejects criterion, (on imagine) identifying enough. complex addition litigable feature. description negotiate, appeared complaint, stipulations jointly parties, 100, ¶ 32. conceded disclaimer" proposed, Memorandum Support Temporary Restraining Order Preliminary Injunction C2-93-1162 Ohio), p. 5, assumed throughout Defendants Plaintiffs's Motion pp. 21. integral desired awarding injunction, Square"), mean unnecessary. findings discussed A15-A16 (findings fact), A20, A22-A23 (conclusions law), accompany command (photo); Appendix Opinion preceded sign, considered. scrutiny flimsy cardboard base functioned "convey[s] attempt[s] preferred," (emphasis, internal quotation marks, indicia (e.g., indications purpose) outweigh mitigating Stone Graham, 449 39, 41, 192, 193, 199 (1980); 600-601, 3104-3105; 4. drafted. Parish, Displays Fora, 253, 285-287 Reynolds States, 145, 164, 244 (1879). Titan" referring season 98; ____-____. offensive. turn, observers. vandalized erected, for, protest latter's presence. Record 31. identifiable Christianity; further, Christianity. St. Charles, 265, 271 1986) ("Such sectarian. Christians. Greek Orthodox (equilateral) [T]he targets [establishment] clause, strictly applied"). five 'reasonable 620, 3115 642-643, 3127 Marshall fiction, judgment.' describes Her comes well-schooled jurist, finer tort-law model. enhanced singularly strips happens fall 'ideal' standard. Instead observer, universe someone" ignores apprehension objectively reasonable. exotic cow zoo Hindu survive exceptions billboard, represent billboard's billboards rented advertising space. hand, billboard inalterably opposed thereon; disagrees, expected profound. holding impute presumes prescient doctrines adopted. "Our voiced ordinances banned distribution pamphlets municipality, 451-452 [58 669, 949] (1938); handbills streets, Jamison Texas, 318 413, 416 [63 672, 869] (1943); door-to-door literature, Martin Struthers, 319 141, 145-149 862, 864-866, 1313] Schneider 308 147, 164-165 [60 146, 152, 155] (1939), live entertainment, Schad Mount Ephraim, 75-76 [101 2176, 2186-2187, 671] Frisby Schultz, 474, 486 [108 2495, 2503, 420] (1988) (picketing 'fundamentally residential areas'). foreclosing media discrimination, pose apparent—by eliminating common measures suppress 2045, stated: "Appellees' reliance misplaced. fail demonstrate items comparable 'the guarantee controlled government.' 517] Rather, 'existence limitations evaluated differ depending issue.' Education [103 794] (1983)." 2133-2134. (say, incumbent governor opponent) discriminatorily denied. incorrectly category inappropriate rest value Yet, vehicles, Lehman Shaker Heights, 418 298, 2714, 770 (1974), heart afforded Amendment. McIntyre, 1518-1519. "private prayers," settings novel disrespectful Several scholars commented malleability public-forum "As [an] overview 'public forum' ordinarily restriction—despite rhetoric. reveals much. "Beyond confusing coupled inadequate inadequately unduly hampering authorities others." 992-993 1988) Farber Nowak, Misleading Nature Forum Analysis: Content Context Adjudication, Va.L.Rev. 1219, 1221-1222 Square's downtown inevitable countless motorists pedestrians noticing abjures legend attachment adequate. passers history. sees by, schoolchildren, traveling salesmen, tourists politic, fragmented (1989). inside 598-602, 3103-3106, alongside "sign saluting liberty" 613-621, 3111-3115 632-637, 3121-3124 663-667, 3138-3140 decisive votes liberty. banner reading, "Season's Greetings") hardly unreasonable; powerless symbol—including —in 647-649, 3129-3131 attended festival pendency 159. endorsements nature, Constitution. "There offend nonmembers advertised advertisement disrespectful. devout Christians reverential settings, home; countenance commercialization Christ's birthday. suit, firmly Pittsburgh's City-County Building. '[p]assersby ignore backs,' inevitably tendency sincere deeply felt differences achieve ecumenical goal. foment disagreement." 650-651, 3131-3132 part) (citations 664, 3139 (KENNEDY, part). Clarence Darrow: 'The leaves off, begins, needed arm support, wherever harmed pretend serve.' Tr. Oral Arg. 7, Scopes 154 Tenn. 105, 289 S.W. 363 (1927), Wolman Walter, 433 229, 2593, 2614, 714 (1977) could, larger reimbursing transportation reimburse attending Catholic schools. (1947). words, selected breadth richer command. 2, 1106 1990) (approving 'prominently of' 'readable automobile street structure' "; approved read: 'This constructed funds constitute Commonwealth Kentucky] doctrine.' ") Court); McCreary Stone, 739 716, 728 1984) (disclaimers requirements size, visibility, small), aff'd, 471 83, 1859, (per curiam); 285-286 (disclaimer sponsor, uncertain language" [government] message"; "disclaimer's measured visibility display"). "[T]his assert property." A15-A16.

Classification Label: 2