Legal Document

483 U.S. 669 107 S.Ct. 3054 97 L.Ed.2d 550 UNITED STATES, et al., Petitioners,v.James B. STANLEY. No. 86-393. Argued April 21, 1987. Decided June 25, Syllabus Respondent, a serviceman, volunteered for what was ostensibly chemical warfare testing program, but in which he secretly administered lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) pursuant to an Army plan test the effects of drug on human subjects, whereby suffered severe personality changes that led his discharge and dissolution marriage. Upon being informed by had been given LSD, respondent filed Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA) suit. The District Court granted Government summary judgment ground suit barred doctrine Feres v. United States, 340 135, 71 153, 95 L.Ed. 152, precludes governmental FTCA liability injuries servicemen resulting from activity "incident service." Although agreeing with this holding, Appeals remanded case upon concluding at least colorable constitutional claim under Bivens Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 91 1999, 29 619, violation rights can give rise damages action against offending federal officials even absence statute authorizing such relief, unless there are "special factors counselling hesitation" or "explicit congressional declaration" another, exclusive remedy. Respondent then amended complaint add claims attempted resurrect claim. dismissing latter claim, refused dismiss claims, rejecting, inter alia, Government's argument same considerations giving should constitute factors" barring action. it vacated portion its order ruling court subsequently reaffirmed decision as individual employee defendants, Chappell Wallace, 462 296, 103 2362, 76 586, despite broadly stated holding may not maintain actions superior officers alleged violations, only bars when claimed wrongs involve direct orders performance military duty discipline necessary thereto, were involved here. certified interlocutory appeal 28 U.S.C. § 1292(b), affirmed respondent's claims. issue addressed Court's order, also ruled recent precedent indicated might now have viable therefore remanded. Held: 1. Appeals' reinstatement error, since 1292(b) authorizes Court, any other entered case. jurisdiction limited refusing court's particularly erroneous States party appeal, having previously dismissed Government. Pp. 676-678. 2. erred proceed notwithstanding Chappell. Respondent's is no evidence injury service" unavailable him service incidence decided adversely original ruling. chain-of-command concerns allegedly heart implicated here defendants unavailing, because ignores Chappell's plain statement analysis guided Feres. Thus, be disallowed whenever serviceman's arises out As Chappell, counsel these circumstances authorization Congress rather than judiciary make rules governing military, unique disciplinary structure Military Establishment, Congress' establishment comprehensive internal system justice, greater degree disruption rule would does test. It irrelevant whether current laws afford "adequate" remedy their injuries. Similarly personnel all redress civilian courts course service, referred traditional forms relief designed halt prevent violations award money damages, new kind cause 678-684. 786 F.2d 1490 (CA 11 1986), reversed part, SCALIA, J., delivered opinion REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, BLACKMUN, POWELL, JJ., joined, Part I BRENNAN, MARSHALL, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, joined. concurring part dissenting III post, p. ----. Christopher J. Wright, petitioners. Richard A. Kupfer, West Palm Beach, Fla., respondents. Justice SCALIA Court.* 1 In February 1958, James Stanley, master sergeant stationed Fort Knox, Kentucky, participate program effectiveness protective clothing equipment defenses warfare. He released then-current duties went Army's Chemical Warfare Laboratories Aberdeen Proving Grounds Maryland. Four times month, Stanley doses (LSD), study subjects. According Second Amended Complaint (the allegations we accept purposes decision), result LSD exposure, has hallucinations periods incoherence memory loss, impaired performance, occasion "awake sleep night and, without reason, violently beat wife children, later unable recall entire incident." App. 5. discharged 1969. One year later, marriage dissolved wrought LSD. 2 On December 10, 1975, sent letter soliciting cooperation long-term "volunteers who participated" 1958 tests. This first notification during time After administrative compensation denied Army, (FTCA), 2671 seq., alleging negligence administration, supervision, subsequent monitoring program. 3 motion judgment, finding "was active participating bona fide occurred," 78-8141-Civ-CF, (SD May 14, 1979), 152 (1950), determined "the liable where arise incident Id., 146, S.Ct., 159. Fifth Circuit agreed Stanley's held lack subject-matter disposing merits. CIA, 639 1146 (1981). contended remand futile, bar could raise either directly Constitution 619 (1971). concluded, however, "has based Bivens," F.2d, 1159, "for consideration trial amendment appellant offer, seeking cure jurisdictional defect." 1159-1160. 4 unknown rights. specifically States' failure warn, monitor, treat after constituted separate tort which, occurring discharge, within exception FTCA. See Brown, 348 110, 75 141, 99 139 (1954). "separate distinct acts before so actionable doctrine." 549 F.Supp. 327, 329 Fla.1982). refused, rejected, sort alluded Bivens, supra, U.S., 396, 2005, cases cited sole authority rejection Ninth Circuit's Wallace 661 729 Sua sponte, 1292(b). 5 Following issuance moved partial final Rule Civil Procedure 54(b)1 behalf itself three agencies (improperly) named throughout proceedings. argued served, thus neither appeared parties nor sought representation Department Justice, one seek review refusal actions. concluded contentions "well taken," 552 Fla.1982), November 9, 1982, ordered Clerk "enter favor forthwith," ibid., prior 90 days serve defendant. docket sheet reflects terms ("The clerk enter USA," Brief Opposition A4), indicate additional document," Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 58, containing entered. 79(a). 6 Complaint, naming nine individuals (seven whom us petitioners) Board Regents University Maryland,2 asserting civil 42 §§ 1983 1985. Motions personal improper venue some (it proper made others), those motions on, issued our 586 (1983), "enlisted recover officer violations," id., 305, 2368, reversing brought attention apparently treating filing automatically reinstating concerning sua sponte reconsidered decision. that, case, did "totally ba[r] torts committed them term 574 474, 478 (1983). Rather, said, "a member brings thereto," F.Supp., 479, view Nor find congressionally prescribed remedies, Veterans Benefits' Act, 38 301 expression exclusivity contemplated preclude recovery. 397, 2005. again petitioners Eleventh granted. 7 conclusion require dismissal essentially grounds relied Court. (1986). think justice field facto[r]" precluding "[t]hose intramilitary procedures found adequate servicemen's racial discrimination complaints clearly inadequate compensate complained here." 1496. 8 taken, further Circuit, including Johnson 749 1530 (1985), rev'd, 481 681, 2063, 648 (1987), law-of-the-case principles adherence 1982 instructions "allow opportunity amend plead consistent precedent." 1499. 9 Because Courts uniform interpretation Chappell,3 seems odds sound judicial practice, certiorari. 479 1005, 642, 93 699 10 * We address instruction allow replead While advance several reasons why improper, perhaps Johnson, discuss one. come 1291. provides: "When district judge making otherwise appealable section, shall involves controlling question law substantial difference immediate materially ultimate termination litigation, state writing order. thereupon, discretion, permit taken . ." (Emphasis added.) 12 An Even if confined precise lower (because "order," question, court), particular appealed from. Commentators consistently observed scope issues open appeals closely [and] [t]he will consider matters orders." 16 C. Miller, E. Cooper, & Gressman, Practice 3929, 143 (1977). Pritchard-Keang Nam Corp. Jaworski, 751 277, 281, n. (CA8 1984), cert. dism'd, 472 1022, 105 3491, 87 625 (1985); Bear Marine Services, 696 1117, 1119, (CA5 1983); Time, Inc. Ragano, 427 219, 221 1970). 13 Here, "order from" basis relating long-dismissed not, argues, immunity parallels [sic] government's due arguing about appeal." 17-18. astonishing light fact (Stanley's 1982). vacate judgment.4 II 14 That leaves view, took unduly narrow decline nonstatutory arising service. 15 search seizure violates Fourth Amendment relief. suggested dictum inferring appropriate hesitation affirmative Congress," declaration persons injured officer's agents, must instead remitted another remedy, equally effective Congress." Due Process Clause Amendment, Davis Passman, 442 228, 2264, 60 846 (1979), Eighth Amendment's proscription cruel unusual punishment, Carlson Green, 446 100 1468, 64 (1980), repeating each 246-247, 2277-2278, 18-19, 1471-1472. (and Bush Lucas, 367, 2404, day), became holding. determination minority race "failed assign desirable duties, threatened them, gave low evaluations, imposed penalties severity." 297, 2364. "factors "[t]he need special regulations relation discipline, consequent justification justice. 300, 2365. explicitly conferred power, "[t]o Rules Regulation land naval Forces," Const. Art. I, 8, cl. showing Legislative Branch plenary control over rights, responsibilities framework Establishment. 301, 2366. Congress, noted, exercised "establis[h] regulate life, taking into account patterns define structure." 302, 2367. "[t]aken together, Establishment 'special factors' dictate inappropriate provide enlisted Bivens-type officers." 304, 2368. seeks distance himself ways. First, argues officers, indeed well personnel, Gaspard 713 1097, 1103-1104 1983) (plaintiff expose radiation nuclear test), denied, sub nom. Sheehan 466 975, 104 2354, 80 826 (1984), implicated. Second, service," do know character titles roles various status Maryland grounds. If sound, apply fully actions, proceedings determine they 17 second argument, available incidence, used Feres, 1981, 1150-1153, warrant reexamining Allen McCurry, 449 90, 94, 101 411, 414, 66 308 (1980). correct more facts here; posture assume acting true strictly controlling, sense broader court. language focusing officer-subordinate relationship existed hand, applicable To weight facts, ignore bear propriety respondents' formed States," 298, 2365, "[a]lthough limitations type recognized intent enacting guides case." 299, Since crucial, established test, reasoning support distinction rely on. 18 implicitly varying levels generality analysis. Most narrowly, reason believe affected—thus excluding suits, allowing, example, suits conduct egregious responsible feel exposed duties. Somewhat broadly, disallow underlies More still, situation beyond affirmatively appears affected. (This position urged Stanley.) Fourth, appropriate, And finally, conceivably entirely. Where locates along spectrum depends how prophylactic thinks prohibition (i.e., much occasional, unintended impairment willing tolerate), turn harmful intrusion thought be. policy scientific analytic demonstration right answer. Today, wrote see context less respect adopted rule. fact, anything felt freer compromise context, confronted explicit involvement was, face, unqualified; whereas inference own damages.5 say, BRENNAN's dissent characterizes it, 3076, power exempt Bivens. What distinctive specificity technically superfluous grant power,6 insistence (evident number Clauses devoted subject) confers Navy, militia political branches. All counsels creation remedies field. 19 major factor determining point, generality, consists produce. judgment—but once differ contexts. underestimates caused proposes. A extent call decisionmaking inquiry into, hence upon, matters. Whether implicates often problematic, raising prospect compelled depositions testimony details commands. putting aside risk conclusions (which becloud decisionmaking), mere process arriving disrupt regime. contrast, provides line relatively clear discerned extensive 20 Contrary Appeals, 1496, currently books "counsel[s] chosen manner uninvited affairs inappropriate. erroneously courts, "never held, hold, citations immediately following suggest, damages. Brown Glines, 444 348, 594, 62 540 (1980); Parker Levy, 417 733, 94 2547, 41 439 (1974); Frontiero Richardson, 411 677, 1764, 36 583 (1973). Such like Wilkes Dinsman, How. 89, 618 (1849), distinguished 2, "did ask imply action." Ibid. 21 reaffirm hesitation"—"the field," 2368—extend exists, abstention Johnson. hold "arise 22 essence entertain effect unqualified immunity, sufficient decisions absolutely foreclose defendant officials. short answer reference principles, officers. availability (those incurred service) logically defendants. When asserted statute, suggest exists consulting common-law enjoyed actors area pertains. applies (unless says otherwise) whatever provide. Similarly, case—whether founded Constitution—is analytically official liability. 23 understand BRENNAN dispute this. former produces coextensive latter. quite possible achieve, adjust definition produce precisely results immunity. For State wanted eliminate driver automobile accidents, prescribe drivers immune negligent driving driving. But fails creating equivalency present (and, presumably, actions). relies novel analysis, reason. There contained provision—the Speech Debate Clause, 6, 1—which rendered Members legislative activity. counseling "are protections afforded Clause." 246, 2277. Framers through provision believed protection expanded provision. distorted achieve expansive device denying constitutionally apply. 24 Passman relevant similar Clause. course, field, others, assessment whether, hesitation," lie. court-created (as opposed Constitution) priori describe limit proposes application repudiation limitation hollow nothing duplicate pre-existing 25 foregoing reasons, assert reverse opinion. 26 ordered. 27 MARSHALL joins, STEVENS joins III, part. experiments treated thousands citizens though laboratory animals, dosing dangerous consent. victims, him. holds solely inflicted while performed Nation's Armed Forces. required result, decision, legally necessary, tragic flaw document. reality, disregards commands Constitution, bows purported requirements different master, declining finds hesitation." abdication, hesitation. dissent.1 Before addressing legal questions presented, important place historical context. medical trials Nuremberg 1947 deeply impressed world experimentation unknowing subjects morally unacceptable. Tribunal Code standard German scientists experimented Its principle was: 30 "1. voluntary consent subject essential. 31 32 "The responsibility ascertaining quality rests initiates, directs engages experiment. delegated impunity." Brandt (The Medical Case), Trials War Criminals Tribunals Under Control Council Law pp. 181-182 (1949) (emphasis added). 33 developed Code, citizens—soldiers civilians.2 34 1950's, defiance principle, intelligence Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began surreptitiously biological materials, These programs, "designed potential agents operationally unaware received drug," included "unwitting, nonvolunteer" Americans. S.Rep. 94-755, Book 385 (1976) (S.Rep.).3 alleges 1,000 soldiers covertly between 1955 1958. 392.4 35 moral implications conduct. 1959 Staff Study, Corps (USAINTC) discussed covert administration soldiers: " 'It always tenet basic American dignity welfare violated. intelligence, stakes interests national security tolerant moral-ethical values, limits, necessity. Any US EA 1729 [LSD] shown material. Proper operational techniques protect employment 1729.' 416-417 (quoting USAINTC Material Testing Program 1729, (Oct. 15, 1959)). 37 is, avoided covering up experiments. uncovered, Senate questionable legality, strong condemnation: 39 "[I]n tests, subordinated considerations; follow-up examinations neglected efforts secrecy Finally, command problems apparent CIA's programs paralleled supervision programs." S.Rep., 411.5 40 Having invoked conceal preservation requires remain free violate fear others demonstrate, (military civilian) left freedom. See, e.g., Jaffee 663 1226 (CA3 1981) (en banc) (exposure atomic weapons testing); Schnurman 490 429 (ED Va.1980) soldier mustard gas); Thornwell 471 344 (DC 1979) (soldiers knowledge); cf. Barrett 660 1291 (SDNY 1987) (death mental hospital patient unconsenting experiment mescaline derivative).6 Serious punished. Of soldiers, violation, enjoined discovered. injunction, comes too late already injured; "it nothing." 410, 2012 (Harlan, concurring). solution citizen, lies action—an today service-connected injuries, counse[l] practical absolute intentionally serving military. demonstrate reached ignoring precedent. alike) longstanding establishing general intentional well-established applied here, result. Then show denies unwarranted extension created reading tears analytical moorings, decisive cases, leads unjust illogical 43 acknowledges bring Ascertaining purpose both entitled damages.7 matter, same; inform identical, examine once.8 44 acknowledged intertwined. Congressman putatively unconstitutional "these Clause," 2277, "shields legislators immunity," 236, 11, 2272, 11.9 Absent ought ordinary persons. citizens. 45 notes, "analytically liability." Ante, 684. contend functional identical correctly applied, logical matter) outcomes. explained well: 46 consequences authorized public flowing Moreover, evaluated deciding recognize implied situations, silent, makes effort ascertain probable intent." Mitchell Forsyth, 511, 538-539, 2806, 2822, 86 (1985) (concurring opinion). 47 redundance troubles equation strikes me analyses properly performed. cannot characterized, asserts, granted.10 48 performing therefore, discussing officials.11 B 49 historically extraordinary circumstances. Qualified (that know, known, violated law) "represents norm." Harlow Fitzgerald, 457 800, 807, 102 2727, 2732, 73 396 (1982) (Presidential aides); Mitchell, supra (United Attorney General); Butz Economou, 438 478, 98 2894, 57 895 (1978) (Cabinet officers).12 50 Butz, balanced exercise discretion related interest encouraging vigorous authority," 506, 2911, crucial importance deterring committing vindicating citizens, 504-505, 2909-2910.13 full adverse consequences, "seriously erode provided guarantees," 505, 2910, undermine assumption jurisprudence: "that individuals, government, law." 2910 "not unfair knows outside law," "insisting awareness limits interfere judgment." 506-507, 2911. 51 receive certain functions, emphasized burden "exceptional situatio[n]" "absolute essential business." 507, 2911; Harlow, 812, 2735. "first office embraced function sensitive total shield liability," "then discharging protected act asserted." 813, 52 when, invoked,14 demonstrating usual qualified abrogated. "no carrying tasks security." 521, 2813. pointed out: National carried secret. circumstances, far likely actual abuses go uncovered fancied unfounded burdensome litigation." 522, 2813.15 highlighted "danger high disregard zeal security," deemed "sufficiently real affording immunity." 523, 2814. 53 Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 1683, (1974), Governor, Adjutant General Ohio Guard, Guard sued deployed fire guns disturbance. awarded highest State—the Governor (who commanded Guard)—and executive take action.16 demonstrates perform decisionmaking.17 54 Whoever know), they, most officials, record reveal offices let alone functions normally performed, (somehow) participated administer soldiers). idea carry [absolute immunity]" functions. Yet grants long inflict doing violence "extension seriously guarantees." 2910. C 55 accepted common law. Nixon 731, 747, 2690, 2699, 349 (1982); 2813; 508, My qualified, absolute, norm government involving matters, buttressed 56 At law, superiors exemption accountable law.18 "[T]he English adopt [intramilitary] discipline,"19 [also] cases." Zillman, Intramilitary Law: Incidence Service Meets Constitutional Tort, N.C.L.Rev. 489, 498, 499 (1982).20 best-known remand, Dinsman Wilkes, 390, 1036 (1852). permitted Navy seaman willful torts. commander jury charge providing confer torts: "It lost sight chief agent trust, conducting skill, fidelity, energy, errors yet shielded jurisdiction, inflicts private malice, cruelty, species oppression, independent ends. 58 humblest marine sheltered aegis wrong, office." How., 123.21 59 noted above, example practice 491, 2903. addition, plainly indicating never sue tort. Indeed, preserving reveals away superiors, close infra, ----, straying further. 61 Repeatedly referring 'peculiar superiors,' "immediate compliance orders," violations." 2368 112, 143, (1954)).22 concedes central focus gives shrift obvious namely, Instead seizes underlying doctrine, dramatically expands carefully extending logic meaning recognition. follows: concern "military discipline" guide soldiers' precluded soldier's injury, concludes, 63 flaws. said good "guided," governed, differs significantly context; acts, deterred doctrine—the superior—the relevant, subordinates. Stanley. assure ourselves actually drastic step insulating violations. utterly do. two rationales entirely inapplicable here.23 third rationale—a solicitude discipline. Feres' components. first, instinctive obedience orders, doctrine.24 rationale profoundly exclusively concerned her command.25 sues officials.26 65 components fears disrupted factual inquiries necessitated involved, however,in implicate judgments decisions, nonservice-connected contractors contractor tortfeasor. John- son, 700, 2070 (SCALIA, dissenting).27 desire justify employees, insufficient civilians Unless (or requiring immunity) condemnation accorded acts. vigor sapped incorrect (albeit incorrect) choice. decisionmakers, connected, somehow intertwined mission. 691, significant (constitutional claim) contexts, latter, vigorous-decisionmaking "on pause proposed squared Constitution." 524, offers plausible extend 67 create inflexible rule, blind Given thoughtlessly violation.28 68 decides case) select higher level concludes foreclosed "[t]his judgment," "how tolerate." 681. judgment; situation. Were concede ----), nonetheless conclude, accord deliberately choosing impaired. comprehend frees doubt intentionally, bad faith, accountability embodied Bivens—that above remedy—apply. 69 factor" Chappell—congressional "provid[ing] grievances presented by" soldier—is 2367.29 Veterans' Benefits where, stem (in large part) pain suffering covered Act. UCMJ assists tortfeasor member. contrast "provides remedy" complaint. 386, 378, 2415, 2416, 2412, (1983) (special "fully cognizable" "elaborate remedial system," "comprehensive," "meaningful," "constitutionally adequate" remedies). 70 Nonetheless, inactivity) significance 'make Forces.' 679 14). existence injury. express Constitution. possessed area, many exist pleasure hesitated infer agencies' matter frequently area. considering authority, (1979). imperatives invocation hollow, nonexistent; IV 72 instructive: Subject unilateral forced mutilation death, conscripted without, against, will—he still capacities act, fail meet challenges stakes. Though 'number' High Command, token thing. (Imagine say turned war game staged sample observations endurance, courage, cowardice.)" H. Jonas, Philosophical Reflections Experimenting Human Subjects, Experimentation Subjects (P. Freund, ed. 1969). object, sample. indignity. maintenance "take defending Nation completely abandoning freedoms worth defending." Goldman Weinberger, 475 503, 530-531, 106 1310, 1325, 89 (1986) (O'CONNOR, dissenting). absent concretely (not abstractly) action, talismanic face tort, subject. Soldiers asked defend indifferent dignity. dissent. 74 agree reinstated Appeals. join generally (1971), [708] 683—684. unanimously "also basis" my read together; unmistakably stand proposition mandate avoid entertaining harm amount negligence, recklessness, deliberate indifference entertainment "injuries 'arise service.' 684 159). bounds decency simply considered Chappell—a rights—surely insulate calculated exposure healthy consent, combat, combat training, exigency, gather information beings. 77 No judicially crafted involuntary occurred observes, played instrumental role criminal prosecution Nazi World War, 687, standards behavior "voluntary satisfy moral, ethical concepts." 181 (1949). very society victims compensated, best be, perpetrators. am prepared Constitution's promise guarantees much. Accordingly, forward, ., entry fewer just delay direction Joseph R. Bertino, M.D.; Maryland; H.D. Collier; Albert Dreisbach; Bernard G. Elfert; Sidney Gottlieb, Helms; Gerald Klee, Van Sim, Walter Weintraub, Klee employees 1958; rest point followup. names Sweet 687 246 1982), nearly Jorden Bureau, 799 99, 107-108 1986) (§ Trerice Summons, 755 1081, 1082-1084 (CA4 1985); Mollnow Carlton, 716 627, 629-630 (CA9 1983), 465 1100, 1595, 126 (1984); (1984). Regents, similarly invitation, Petitioners 17, explains author opinion, dissented saw adopting FTCA, 692, dissenting), believes appropriate. made, recognized, narrower Had spelled out, event Necessary Const., 18—as regulation Postal Service. Mulford, Beings, Stan.L.Rev. 105, (1967) (Military submit nontherapeutic procedures) (citing Rights Personnel Regarding Care Experimental Procedures, 117 Science 212-215 (1953)). governed law: "[Human state] dramatizes notion nationals chooses perceives source reach regarding inalienable, arbitrary cancellation State." Bassiouni, Baffes, Evrard, Appraisal International Practice: Need Experimentation, Crim. L. 1597, 1607 massive Report product Committee "conduct[ed] investigation operations activities extent, any, illegal, unethical engaged agency Government." Committee's "to illustrate country." Significantly, added play." community general," knowledge "unethical illicit serious repercussions diplomatic circles detrimental accomplishment mission." 394 CIA Inspector General's Survey Technical Services Division, 217 (1957)). 403: "Though known dangerous, lives placed jeopardy ignored ten years followed Dr. Olsen's death. [Dr. Olsen, suicide knowledge.] violated, continued." 1981), 1953 Camp Desert Rock, Nevada, commanding unprotected bomb exploded nearby. inoperable cancer 1977 cause. Between 1945 1963, estimated 250,000 maneuvers troops battlefield conditions. Disabilities Nuclear Weapons Testing: Hearing Affairs, 96th Cong., 1st Sess., typically positioned miles detonation. They (although Atomic Energy Commission were) warned dangers radiation. instructed cover eyes detonation; "soldiers shut bones forearms moment explosion." Schwartz, Making Civil: Proposed Reform Doctrine, Yale L.J. 992, 994, (discussing firsthand accounts T. Saffer O. Kelly, Countdown Zero 43, 75, (1982)). servicemembers disproportionately afflicted leukemia, nonmalignant disorders. 244, 2276, plaintiff she prevails made. 12(b)(6). instance, "failure claim," "upon granted." "drained transgressions," deter wrongs." 501, 2908, (internal quotation omitted). Davis, decide question. Analytically, postponed until factor," contrary conclusions. "any creating" 685. Neither petitioner argue militating militate permitting use connection inquiry. waived sovereign causing When, necessarily policies alter underpinning affect President, (1982), prosecutors, Imbler Pachtman, 424 409, 96 984, 128 (1976), prosecutorial adjudicative 508-517, 2911-2916, possess servants Procunier Navarette, 434 555, 855, (prison officials); O'Connor Donaldson, 422 563, 2486, (1975) (state administrators); (1974) officers); Pierson Ray, 386 547, 1213, 288 (police). balancing "fundamentally antagonistic social policies." Barr Mateo, 360 564, 576, 79 1335, 1342, 1434 (1959) (plurality wrongdoing tortious conduct, encourages participation allows courageous freedom concentrate responsibilities. suggests 'ascertain[ing] ability 'to evaluate validity training unconventional, enhanced interrogations.' 3, 411-412). Again regard checks help going unredressed." 2814 (legislators constituents, theoretically self-correcting appellate review). "[s]imilar built-in restraints name exist." 491-492, 2903 (In [in which] [authorizing malicious conduct]"); Burgess, Official Immunity Liability Torts Committed Commanders Mil.L.Rev. 46-47 (1980) (reading violations). detail contrary. factor"—the Relying nature life—the unhesitating disciplined responses personnel"—the "would undermined exposing hands charged command." drove Chappell; govern whose unknown. W. Winthrop, Precedents 880-885 (2d 1920) (collecting libel, prosecution, false imprisonment, service-related injuries). Winthrop treatise defense malice respecting resembling Some Sutton Johnstone, T.R. 492, Eng.Rep. 1215, 1246 (K.B.1786) (dictum); Dawkins Lord Rokeby, F. 806, 841, 176 815 (N.P.1866); Paulet, L.R. Q.B. 115 (1869). side, statutory Crown Proceedings 1947, Geo. ch. 44, unresolved. Fraser Balfour, L.J.K.B. 1116, 1118 (1918) (court "still open"). Wilson MacKenzie, Hill (N.Y.Sup.Ct.1845) cases) (naval beating imprisonment man; rejected stating allowed done rubric discipline); Maurice Worden, Md. 233 (1880) (professor Naval Academy libel; immunity). 403, (1852) endangered dishonored servicemember "be oppressed officer, ill-will, wantoness justice"). "Stanley here," "explicitly focus[ed] [that] case," using 680. "hierarchical command, wholly patterns," 2366 feared allowing recovery, varies State, impinge military's uniformity. "swift," "efficient," "generous disability death benefits" (VBA), Stat. 1118, amended, "an injuries." 689, 2068, (1987). VBA unaccompanied defined disabling. Those infringed, humiliation "in suffering, lasting permanent physical compensated all." Effectiveness: Alternative A.F.L.Rev. 171, 198-199 (1982-1983). extended refer to, orders. aspect official. Feres—the uniformity thoroughgoing compensation—were relevant. 22, supra. points disobeyed him, distinguish removes chose mean precluded. Criticisms blanket equal force chain command. dubious serviceman recourse deprivation argument—that safeguarding compatible needs engender promote discipline—is appealing." Note, Torts, Mich.L.Rev. 312, 328 Cf. 2074 dissenting) ("Or perhaps—most fascinating contemplate—Congress recovery discipline"). Uniform (UCMJ), 938, 939, 27. reflexive contexts (combat counter-example). sanctions obey Calley, C.M.R. (1973) (obedience kill illegal); Kinder, 742 (USAF Ct.Mil.Rev. 1954) executed shoot subdued prisoner South Korean air base). occurs court-martial (through habeas corpus jurisdiction), Burns Wilson, 346 137, 142, 1045, 1508 (1953), reviews interference career advantage, 1491, injunctive declaratory UCMJ, 938 (providing procedure "[a]ny armed forces wronged officer"); 939 damage property Services); Colson Bradley, 477 1973) (judicial claim); Cortright Resor, 447 245 (CA2 1971) (same). states "freer unqualified," "rely damages." 681—682. approach angle. suing creates narrowly interpreted. done, represents judge-made Our class indefensible enlargement status. standing alone, [the] military" sufficed "unique field" together" award.

Classification Label: 7