Legal Document

373 U.S. 427 83 Supreme Court Reporter 1381 10 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 462 German S. LOPEZ, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. Number 236. Argued Jan. 14, 1963. Decided May 27, Edward Judge Davis, Boston, Mass., for petitioner. Louis Federal KF105 F3 Claiborne, New Orleans, La., respondent. Mr. Justice HARLAN delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The petitioner, Lopez, was tried in a federal court on four-count indictment charging him with attempted bribery an Internal Revenue Agent, Roger violation 18 Code KF62 § 201.1 questions before us review are: (1) whether trial court's treatment 'entrapment' constituted reversible error; and (2) Davis' testimony relating to conversation petitioner October 24, 1961, which formed basis three counts convicted, wire recording that conversation, were properly admitted into evidence. 2 evidence at related meetings between Lopez Davis took place Clauson's Inn, situated North Falmouth, Massachusetts, operated by under lease. who investigating possible evasion excise taxes area, first visited Inn afternoon August 31, when he asked there any dencing, singing or other entertainment evenings showed advertisement stated was. said no denied responsibility advertisement. returned again evening saw dancing bar lounge. He described report his superior next day as 'potential delinquent' would 'follow up.' 3 21, lounge, spoke Lopez. about this meeting may be summarized follows: Early discussion, told thought establishment liable cabaret tax see books, but resisted suggested they continue office. Once there, avoid all 'aggravation' reach 'agreement.' After could not drop matter return following week, didn't wish 'insult' know take 'confidence.' Receiving reply, Lepez put some money desk saying: 4 'You can case. Here's $200. Buy your wife present. And I'll have more you Christmas time. This is & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions now.' 5 balked, urged bring family weekend 'as my guest.' Following questioning extent Lopez' business, during course estimated year's running $3,000, added another $220 desk, stating did want bothered returns past years file current quarter. More importunities part followed finally money. Before left, quarter come back 24. 6 version events giving $420 given effort prepare get books proper order. According testimony, from 17 on, since date had changed its policy one entertainment. 7 leaving reported fellow agent turned over Regional Inspector. On morning met four Inspectors, instructed keep appointment 'pretend play along scheme,' draw 21. then equipped two electronic devices, pocket battery-operated transmitter (which subsequently failed work) recorder, recorded their later day. 8 talk office and, once inside office, started explain form discuss return. computations made, never needed return, continued: 9 'Lopez: * Whatever we decide do here I'd like side visit me. Deduct anything think should happy because prevent something coming up If advised it let me know. Pick phone. meet town anywhere want. For information night *. 'Davis: Well, I've got job do. 11 Yes, Uncle Sam bigger than are pay lot texes, if benefit individually, let's way believe transpires I, even accountant anybody aware it. So feel it.'2 12 discussed receipts potential liability 1959—1961, protested estimates very high, although deny fact liability. said, 'I don't greedy anything,' gave $200 down free '(c)ome every so often give couple hundred dollars time in.' At point, 'Now suggest point without doing it, just *.' also confirmed 13 question accuracy little 24 gone figures (Lopez) become emotionally upset felt 'was purpose came 21st.' induced offer bribes. 14 ensuing charged intent induce among things, 'to refrain making examination records sales receipts' 1959—1961.3 remaining separate acts bribery, each influencing aid concealing sales, receipts, due 1959—1961. (Count 2), promise additional month 3), 4). 15 Prior trial, filed motion suppress Davis. hearing, denied. renewed denied, received Petitioner object Agent conversation. 16 In charge jury, judge emphasized presumption innocence burden Government establish 'every essential element' crime beyond reasonable doubt. detailed what these elements called particular attention contrast specific Count 1—to records—and general counts—to conceal question. strongly alleged been established Although defense counsel briefly adverted possibility summation request judgment acquittal ground. Nor instruction particularly aimed such defense. Nevertheless, entrapment.4 made objection instruction, aspect charge. jury acquitted found guilty Counts 2, 4. A notwithstanding verdict law evidence' sentenced term imprisonment year. 19 per curiam affirmance conviction Appeals First Circuit, 305 Reporter, 2nd 825, granted certiorari, 371 859, 116, 97, consider outset opinion. Supra, Pages 428—429. I. 20 entrapment, meaning, purpose, application, problems sharply divided occasions. See Sorrells versus States, 287 435, 53 210, 77 L.Ed. 413; Sherman 356 369, 78 819, 848; Masciale 386, 827, 859. Whether absence conclusive showing controlling standard looks only conduct Government, takes account predisposition defendant, issues mooted. We need not, however, concern ourselves here, approach, petitioner's belated claim entrapment insubstantial, record fails show prejudice warrant reversal score. 21 concerned manufacturing enforcement officials agents. Such conduct, course, far different permissible stratagems involved detection prevention crime. Thus issue fairly presented criminal prosecution must least kind government agents well accused commit charged. 22 case has made. It undisputed unsolicited references scarcely leave room doubt same bribes offered meeting: obtain assistance present periods.5 As shows improper overtures began almost stated: 'Deduct office.' similar statements preceded computations,6 comment, greedy,' heavily relies. Moreover, find nothing whole, own instigated Upon assessment record, seems manifest afford opportunity continuation upon earlier voluntarily embarked, circumstances susceptible proof. 23 therefore evident that, theory, shown law. Indeed, paucity might justified refusal instruct entrapment.7 But event given. Under circumstances, now challenge instruction. Fed.Rules Crim.Proc., 30;8 Moore 104 U.S.App.D.C. 327, 262 216; Martinez Cir., 300 9. score plain error charge, affecting substantial rights, despite failure object. 52(b). Since does disclose sufficient bribe, cannot conclude prejudiced proof, assuming too great. By token, persuaded significant determine turn effect Government's 'men ordinary firmness,' charged, defendant. Accordingly, respect correct statement enough say case, error. II. Petitioner's contentions admissibility His argument primarily addressed claims obtained rights Fourth Amendment.9 Recognizing weakness position permitted testify challenges well, trial. theory view falsification mission, gained access misrepresentation i.e., illegally 'seized.' support relies Gouled 255 298, 41 261, 65 647, Silverman 365 505, 81 679, 734. neither decisions lends comfort indeed rationale buttresses conclusion admitted. Lee 343 747, 72 967, 96 1270.10 25 long detained unlawful invasion simply apparent willingness accept bribe real. Compare Wong Sun 471, 407, 441. consent, while violate privacy seizing surreptitiously knowledge. supra. consisted knew full used against wished. decline hold whenever private, offeree intend accept, constitutionally protected communication. 26 constitutional emerges perspective. sustained instances 'electronic eavesdropping' challenge, devices enable overhear conversations human ear. See, e.g., Olmstead 277 438, 48 564, 944; Goldman 316 129, 62 993, 86 1322. insisted device planted physical area. validity here. Indeed involves 'eavesdropping' whatever sense term. use listen otherwise heard. Instead, most reliable participant fully entitled disclose. means premises Amendment. carried out assent, nor heard himself. 27 thus quite Rathbun 355 107, 161, 134, statutory attack admission policeman overheard extension telephone consent party anything, clearer, conceded 'that either publish it.' 110, 163. (Emphasis added.) 28 Stripped essentials, amounts saying right rely flaws agent's memory, credibility being beset corroborating impeachment. justify excluding accurate memory.11 risk offering included accurately reproduced court, faultless memory mechanical recording. 29 violated introduction exercise our supervisory powers. inherent power refuse receive material sparingly exercised. Its application where manifestly officials, wholly unwarranted.12 30 function seek truth falsity charges brought Proper fulfillment requires limitations aside, relevant, competent admissible, unless manner obtained—for example, violating statute rule procedure—compels formulation court. McNabb 318 332, 63 608, 87 819; Mallory 354 449, 1356, 1479. 31 When look overriding considerations require exclusion highly useful nothing. There rules procedure. eavesdropping private overheard. has, short, act creation exclusionary rule. affirmed. 32 Affirmed. 33 Chief WARREN, concurring result. 34 concur result achieved compelled state views separately. pointed dissenting BRENNAN, majority interpreted reaffirming sub silentio 1270. agree BRENNAN wrongly decided revitalized, base grounds those dissent, chosen specially. dissent assumes respects same, dissimilar viewpoint permit powers administration justice courts. 35 share fantastic advances field communication constitute great danger individual; indiscriminate raises grave Fifth Amendments; impose heavier supervision fairness procedures system. However, result, uses proscribed unconstitutional unfair methods. One lines Lee. 36 sets greater detail, entering notice both authority purpose—to investigate delinquency payment taxes. investigation, promised future facts evasion. accepted promptly superiors. business complete outfitted concealed recorder tape testified introduced corroborate testimony. entrapped investigation start bribe. contrary, claimed having latter served protect man wished corrupt public servant performance trust. Tax required examine suspected evaders necessary national taxation Many taxpayers interviewed integral parts underworld. duty, faced situations proof will word evader perhaps associates. They defenseless outright denials which, open refutation, undermine reputation individual honesty public's confidence work. Where confronted situation, fair 37 Lee, completely story. arrested, direct engaged distribution opium unreliable accomplice handled contacts purchasers mistake selling undercover narcotics agent. To strengthen sent 'special employee,' Chin Poy, Lee's laundry armed transmitter, bail pending Poy known formerly employee. character exposed familiarity traffic agreement supply future. Thus, eliciting admissions syndicate encourage instead calling testify, receiving end radio contact led directly conviction. 38 substantially advantage rather, obviate stand. itself 39 'We speculate reasons why called. unlikely assumption defects blemishes trust confidences make distruct close underworld serve bait, near design embrace confidante, vouch witness. Lee.' further advantages using Poy. Had available cross-examination, explored nature Poy's friendship unmonitored appeals friendship, entrapments, police pressure bear persuade informer, recollection contents seriously discredited prosecution, raised proportions. yet limits within informer appeal camaraderie-in-crime suspect, suffice substantial. already struck psychological pressures confessions totally circumstances. Leyra Deno, 347 556, 74 716, 98 948; Spano York, 360 315, 79 1202, 1265.1 Yet remains develop raise decision, courts evaluate impact practices justice.2 40 answer call hostile interest identity whereabouts. Roviaro 353 53, 623, 639. undependable disreputable putting witness, impeachment late employer. tactical possibilities situation prosecutor bent obtaining Through case-in-chief supporting onus finding called, impeached collateral favoring hardly employed less likely able questionable methods convict him. join permitting sanction implication radically shift pattern presentation factual legal concerning justice.3 Cf. 758, 974 (Black, J., dissenting). 42 whom DOUGLAS GOLDBERG join, dissenting. 43 1270, incriminating accused, laundryman, offenses. large shop acquaintance former employee, who, unknown person. agent, receiver tuned transmitted standing sidewalk outside laundry. rejected arguments invoking Amendment decision error, reason authority, decided; subsequent experience sapped vitality had; regarded overruled; instant rationally indistinguishable; therefore, reverse below. 44 brief oral doubtless realizes lost virtually force authority. seeks distinguish strategy succeeded, appears, Brethren. Court's accord passing mention Court—On Lee-factually analogous suggests colleagues joined today considered dead letter. Court, rather follow adopted substance distinction 45 argues 'Petitioner complain secret thoughts unfairly extracted him, were, beginning, intended words, communicated auditor them.' prongs second first. sure, auditors Lee—the outside. equally here—the Minifon. vehicle whereby accused's third party, whose statements. auditor, enabling Minifon be, was, thereof. 46 'human witness (Davis) actually testifies machine merely repeats corroborates narrative.' difference did, himself testify; challenged evidence, recording, independent testified. repetitive corroborative authenticated introduced. authenticated, depend Therein differ fundamentally from, notes parties taken. trier credits insofar notetaker. believes transcribed settled held recordings third-party Monroe 228, 233—234, 234 49, 54—55.1 47 half surrendered 'secret thoughts' assumption, untenable, designed secrecy. person commits paper, license seize paper; communicates verbally another, words. certainly rested waiver. mean limited person's solitary thoughts, fostered secretiveness. concept liberty one's communications, historically has. 'The common secures determining, ordinarily, sentiments, emotions shall others them expression, generally retains fix publicity Warren Brandeis, Right Privacy, Harv.L.Rev. 193, 198 (1890). supplied.) That communications privileged. assumed divulge conversaion; vis-a -vis inheres sight undue ask persons assume, compel discretion choosing auditors, damaging disclosures motives trusted. today's parties, transcribers transmissions Lee—third shut conventional eavesdroppers lowering voices, withdrawing place—may guard risk, mouth 49 social encouraging Neither allowing murderer murder weapon home. possessions, secure defined framework principle. forbid searches, defines conditions searches; disclosure ought subject regulation. principle granted, reasoned reaching results depending person, (On Lee), avowed 50 CHIEF JUSTICE, distinctions case: first, carrying device, legitimately seeking honest servant; second, unlike electronically circumvent production key admit differences, how problem us, fruits surreptitious surveillance. order convince superiors solicit carry trial; save proceeding introduce transmission stand implicate freedom enshrined withholding cases same: 51 indistinguishable, continued inescapably us. approach clearing away bit underbrush: suggestion speaker's verbal auditor's consenting transcription invitation officers cat's-paws decoys conjunction equipment, important, invokes fictive waiver incompatible meaningful always authorized reluctant speak freely Surely high things 'off record.' chilling free, unconstrained recordings, self-incriminating speaker society, people watch carefully. 52 Nothing United, contrary. officers' listening existing subscriber extension, wiretapping Act, 605. narrow one. grant certiorari construction, discusses Furthermore, careful emphasize, phones use, normal telephoning receiver's end. Rathbun's specially installed purposes, attempt transcribe phone electronically. 605 application. serious inconvenience inhibited speaking telephone, graver society home office.2 III. comes basis, power,3 trials surveillance 54 History text Constitution true path answer. celebrated Entick Carrington, Howell's State Trials 1029 (C.P.1765), Lord Camden laid distinct principles: search warrants uncertainty; searches infringe privilege self-incrimination.4 Camden's double focus structure Lasson, Development (1937), 103; Fraenkel, Converning Searches Seizures, 361, 366 (1921).5 clauses conjunctive, plainly functions. Warrant Clause specifically evil warrant, single immediate cause American Revolution.6 clause embodies encompassing is, light untrammeled extract people. viewed, complementary Fifth. Feldman 322 487, 489—490, 64 1082, 1083, 88 1408. informing Amendments comprehensive personal face governmental intrusion. 55 Boyd 116 616, 524, 746, 'a remembered civil lives States' (Brandeis, 474, 571): 56 principles (Entick Carrington) affect essence security. (farther) concrete adventitious circumstances; apply invasions employes sanctity man's privacies life. breaking doors, rummaging drawers, constitutes offence; indefeasible security, property, forfeited offense—it sacred underlies judgment. Breaking house opening boxes drawers aggravation; forcible compulsory extortion papers crime, forfeit goods, condemnation regard fourth fifth amendments run other.' 630, 532. 57 set narrowly literal conception 'search seizure,' reading together creating broad inviolate personalty. seizure sense, documents subpoena duces tecum. Ex parte Jackson, 727, 735, 877, clearly intimated letters mail Hoover McChesney, 472 (Cir.Ct.D.Ky.1897). 58 impeached. basic principle, interact create privacy, freedom, repeatedly approved Court.7 gist '(t)he security arbitrary intrusion police.' Wolf Colorado, 338 25, 69 1359, 1361, 93 1782; Stefanelli Minard, 342 117, 119, 118, 138; Frank Maryland, 359 360, 362, 804, 806, 877. Only Terms ago, Amendment's 'right privacy' 'basic right,' Mapp Ohio, 367 643, 656, 1684, 1692, 1081, remarked "intimate relation" Amendments. Id., 657, 1692. also, insistence liberally construed, Byars 273 28, 32, 248, 249, 71 520; Lefkowitz, 285 452, 464, 420, 423, 76 877; Grau 124, 38, 212, seizures mere opposed instrumentalities impermissible supra, 464—466, 423; Harris 331 145, 154, 67 1098, 1103, 91 1399; Abel 362 217, 237—238, 80 683, 696, 668, accomplished force, subterfuge, 306, 263; see, Gatewood 226, 209 789; Fraternal Order Eagles 93; General Pharmacal Co., D.C., 205 F.Supp. 692; Bush, 172 818; Reckis, 119 687; Mitchneck, 225; 283 51, reversing, 818, invalid subpoena, e.g. Hale Henkel, 201 43, 76, 370, 379; Trade Commission Tobacco 264 336, 68 696; Brown 276 otherwise, Wakkuri 844, confirmation broadest Poe Ullman, 497, 549—552, 1752, 1780—1781, 989 (dissenting opinion). 59 background appraise dissents Justices Holmes, Stone, Butler, admissible trials. holding, pertinent here,8 propositions trespass committed petitioners obtained, inapplicable; inadmissible violative unethical. 60 apart wiretapping, olmstead deemed control, five members declining reexamine soundness decision. Turn, cf. note 10, infra. too, hinges demonstrable erroneously decided, steadily sports jurisprudence eliminated. 61 Olmstead's illiberal interpretation tangible actual trespasses departure previous decisions, notably Boyd, misreading history limitation squared liberty. 'literal' 'In every-day talk, 1789 now, 'searches' listens. Bible 'searching' Scriptures (John V, 39); literature heart conscience; record. None manual objects. (J)ust looking around searching, sounds searching. Seeing hearing reactions environment waves instance, sound other. And, accordingly, seeing camera dictaphone work end-organs searcher—more accurately.' 193 313 (Frank, exposition, moreover, insupportable. utterly impractical instrument contemporary familiar technology eighteenth century; refused seemingly Framers farsighted foresee invention telephone. (3) deviant harbinger decisional revolution. reiterate adherence subpoenas tecum comply Amendment, Bausch Lomb Optical 321 707, 727—728, 805, 815—816, 1024; Oklahoma Press Publishing company Walling, 327 186, 66 494, 90 614; McPhaul 364 372, 382—383, 138, 144, 136—a requirement patently inconsistent grudging, 'searches seizures.' (4) Specifically, severed supports decision's surveillance, though intangible, nevertheless Irvine California, 128, 381, 561; 734;9 Lanza 370 139, 142, 82 1218, 1220, 384. reaffirmed fruits, physical, Fourth. 485—486, 416—417, crowd mold local property law, Chapman 610, 617, 776, 780, 828; Jones 257, 266, 725, 733, 697; Jeffers, 48, 93, 59; McDonald 335 451, 454, 191, 192, 153, expressly held, bar, 511, 682.10 (5) Insofar rests notion exclude illegal Constitution, scope enforcement. Upshaw 410, 170, 100; Rea 350 214, 292, 100 233; 1479; Morgan, Law Evidence, 1941—1945, 481, 537 (1946). empowered fashion conformity 'the experience.' Rule 26, Rules Criminal Procedure. Even letter concede, violates spirit, devise appropriate prophylactic invoked procedure me, gratuitous cripple power. reconciled mandate conformable evolving principles. (6) caused widespread dissatisfaction Congress overruled enacting Communications consistently generous Nardone 302 379, 275, 314; Weiss 308 321, 269, 84 298; 338, 307; Benanti 96, 155, 126, recognizing 'resort ethical standards destructive liberty.' (I), 383, 277; Goldstein 114, 120, 1000, 1003, 1312. s 605, directed practice sanctioned Olmstead, techniques congressional enactment source judicial enforced, 'broad morality well-being,' (II), 340, 267, wiretap court-made anomalous courts, enforcing recognize sanctuaries IV. understand Goldman, carved exceptions guided factors articulated decisions. pervasive fear technique destroyed, 'search' meaning Note, 1960 Term, 75 40, 187 (1961). thing, inherently indiscriminate, compliance particularity difficult; objects seizure, ordinarily lawful Page 456-457, supra; finally, usefulness depends lack suspect. unconvincing. devised compelling forbidding altogether. requirements technical unreasonably stringent; bedrock effective protection offends fundamental self-incrimination, recognized; exploratory revives evils bitterly Revolutionaries; notice, became intolerable intrusions Electronic tolerated name unconstitutional. event, premature possibly devised. inflexible, obtusely unyielding legitimate needs clear antecedent justification magistrate central Amendment,' Ohio ex rel. Eaton Price, 263, 272, 1463, 1468, 1708 (separate opinion); 455, 153; 251—252, 703, 668 opinion), precondition numerous suggestions ways Amendment.11 70 pass muster hypothetical questions, constitutionality stage purely hypothetical. important still Until holds incentive imaginative solution accommodated. factor unarticulated premise expressed 'if relatively innocuous offensive, fortiori, whole gamut investigatorial involving deception condemned. Police longer employ confidential informants, agents, wear 'plain clothes.' misses point. principles, probe words spoken qualitative walls beds, disguise. intrude privacy. eavesdropper betrayed deceived deals probably society. necessarily assume speak. soon play, changes crucially. eavesdropping, mitigating residuum 449—451, supra.12 traditionally engage extension. Eavesdropping indictable law13 unsavory practice. diminish potentiality harm . aids add new dimension eavesdropping. penetrating, truly obnoxious fact, makes omniscient; omniscience tools tyranny. V. 73 foregoing analysis discloses adequate exception negatively. ignore positive bringing Not grown enormously recent years, Todisco 298 208; Kabot, 295 848, dimensions recently empirical studies decided. study Samuel Dash Associates number legislative inquiries14 reveals terrifying facts: microphones various kinds pervasively detectives, police, labor spies, employers variety downright disreputable.15 These go simple 'BUGGING,' AND PERMIT DEGREE OF INVASIOn frightening.16 Far providing unimpeachable lend themselves diabolical fakery.17 impelled enact regulatory legislation.18 clear,19 surely stiff destroy studies, imports peculiarly severe liberties worth purloin Our possessions value compared personalities. mind speech press, 33, 50; Marcus Search Warrant, 717, 724—729, 1708, 1712—1714, 1127; 376, 813, 877 today, indivisible. 'Under Hitler, dictaphones houses, families gathered bathrooms whispered discussions intimate affairs, hoping escape sending apparatus.' 317 strikes deeper ancient feeling castle; Freedom communication, postulate captured privileged undermined unconstrainedly suppose King, Wire Tapping Surveillance: Neglected Constitutional Consideration, Dick.L.Rev. 17, 25—30 becomes sufficiently widespread, prospect checking hazard hagridden furtive fantasy. obverse sense. lately recognized freedoms include right, certain anonymity. N.A.A.C.P. Alabama Patterson, 357 1163, 1488; Bates Little Rock, 361 516, 412, 480; Talley 60, 536, 559; Louisiana Gremillion N.A.A.C.P., 293, 1333, 301; Gibson Florida Legislative Investigation Comm., 372 539, 889. passive quiet, active aggressive, precious activity expressing ideas beliefs. destroys anonymity privacy; privy everything goes on. anomaly regulated Fourteenth prohibited statute, poses greatest pale law.20 steadfastly enforced home, officers. seems, outflanked technological past. condone contributing climate official lawlessness conceding helplessness right's 'fundamental society.' 806.21 provides: 'Whoever promises, offers, gives thing officer employee acting behalf department agency thereof, influence action question, matter, cause, pending, capacity, profit, committing, collude in, allow, fraud, commission omit fined times amount imprisoned both.' omissions passage. indicated elisions appear original computing (the Inn), reporting Service.' this: over-bearing persuasion wrongful induces firmness commit, defendant acquitted, done. needless types enforcement, matters statutes, difficult properly, steps procure involve participation, provided participation deliberate temptation men firmness, someone disposition yourself presuaded preponderance created temptation, he, instigator author taken place, means.' 1. 1, noted above, records, attached emphasis language count. based solely jury's proved existence assertions liability, recklessly false entrapment. noted, assertions, ample believing due, undertook errors computation 'nervousness,' offers. submitted provides part: 'No assign portion omission therefrom thereto retires verdict, distinctly objection. Opportunity jury.' persons, papers, effects, unreasonable seizures, violated, Warrants issue, probable supported Oath affirmation, describing searched, seized.' old defendant's knowledge, small microphone distance away. differences cut trustworthiness challenged. purposes 'corroboration' issue. York ruled after arraigned, presence advice proceedings arraignment. People Meyer, N.Y.2d 162, 227 N.Y.S.2d 427, 182 Eastern Gideon Wainwright, 335, 792, 799; 324, 1207 (DOUGLAS, concurring). Meyer solicitation awaiting submission grand jury. Presumably, circumscribed employee' patrolman beat. involved, cross-examination invariably critical 371—375, 820—822. limit final wherein consummated, revealed series inducing sales. apparently unaware ever place. 374—375, 821—822. interests require, limiting corroboration condition 341, 613: 341—342, 268, 307, beginning history, formulated applied prosecutions. (Collecting authority.) formulating strict canons evidentiary relevance.' 414—416, 172, itself, eliminate universally condemned—use 'third degree' confession immediately arrest. Burgman 184, 188 637; Belfield Coop, Ill.2d 134 Reports, 1008 (1956); Boyne City, G. A.R. Anderson, 146 Mich. 328, 109 Northwestern KF135 N69 429, L.R.A.,N.S., 306 (1906); Reyes, Or. 595, 636, Pacific 182, 196 (1957); Paulson Scott, 260 Wis. 141, Western 706 (1951). ground phonograph seem stronger (than telephone), reproduced, reproduction themselves.' Annotation, Admissibility Sound Recordings 1024 (1958). contrasted revived, status verified assert represented knowledge usual phrase affirm 'knew time." Wigmore, Evidence (3d ed. 1940), 747. 'It follows (present revived) paper differs recollection, embodiment adopted, id., 763. strength witness' authorizes grounded consented in; proscribes unauthorized interceptions telephonic authorized, turning entirely interception carefully differentiating modes in. concession quotes pure dictum. argue supervisory-power considering secured themselves, parties. '(T)he plaintiff unclean hands itself. contrary litigation. protects itself.' 485, 575, 944 (Footnote omitted.) certain, obligeth accuse himself; self-accusation, falling innocent guilty, cruel unjust; seem, disallowed principle.' Trials, 1073. 'Historically dealing provision sought abuse rise independence. John Adams causes Revolution. Otis' 'American independence born.' Adams, Works 247.' 159, 1105, 1399 Of outlaws warrants, establishes root superintendence seizures. E.g., Bram 168 532, 543—544, 183, 187, 568; 71, 377, 652; Weeks 232 647; Amos 313, 654; Agnello 269 20, 33—34, 4, 6—7, 145; McGuire 95, 99, 259, 260, 556; 467, 424, 1083; 328 582, 587, 1256, 1258, 1453; Zap 624, 628, 1277, 1279, 1477. liberal construction paralleled similarly Counselman Hitchcock, 142 547, 562, 195, 197, 1110. part, peculiar communications. amendment extended expanded wires, world intervening wires highways stretched.' 465, 568. installs connecting intends project voice outside, house, messages them, Here intercepted projected voices conversation.' 466, disingenuous artificiality plain. Although, arguably, face-to-face intimately conversations, 452-453, realities modern life, indispensable role Amendments, holdings Silverman, implicit Silverthorne Lumber 251 385, 392, 319, excluded 'reduce words.' Nueslein District Columbia, App.D.C. 85, 115 690. penetration 'spike mike' several inches wall occupied petitioners. mike touched heating duct acted conductor wall. detectaphone placed touching (but penetrating) declined trespass, severely impaired—and Olmstead. Actually, fortiori applying Amendment: 'This sees hears permission enter, premises. supplements aid, pick of, within, Lee). overhearing through introduction, laundry, picked 'house' 766—767, 977—978 (Burton, 140, n. 6, 998 (Murphy, dissenting); (McNaughton rev. 1961), 2184b(3), Westin, Wire-Tapping Problem: An Analysis Proposal, Col.L.Rev. 165, 200—208 (1952). drawn hand, places, streets, forth, hand. Hester 265 57, 445, 898. 'Eaves-droppers, windows eaves hearken discourse, thereupon frame slanderous mischievous tales, nuisance presentable court-leet: sessions, punishable fine sureties good behaviour.' Blackstone Commentaries 168. Ga.Code Ann. 26—2001; N.D.Cent.Code 12—42—05; S.C.Code 16—554. Dash, Schwartz, Knowlton, Eavesdroppers (1959); Hearings Res. Subcommittee Rights Senate Committee Judiciary 85th Cong., Sess. passim (1958); Report California Interception Messages Use Other Devices Joint Study Illegal Communications, N.Y.Sess.Laws (1956). ('bugging' interrogation rooms, jail cells, interview rooms jails), (monitoring employees' pen sets), 136 (use termed 'universal' Orleans Baton Rouge), 175 (in '(b)ugging much frequently openly wiretapping'), 180 (again California: 'Literally, connected trained technicians, specialists pry windows, locks, ruse gain entry plant conversations. leased company, post city monitored place'), 190 blackmail), (bugging busbands wives 212 ('tables bugged restaurant according proprietor, customers food detect discourtesy waitresses'), 229—230 bugging divorce proceedings), 269—271 (wiretapping controversies Philadelphia), 280—281 Las Vegas: 'A bug visiting hoodlum's hotel to'). are, few isolated examples practice; Wall Street Journal, April 9, 1963, col. 4; 22, 3. parabolic concentrates curved mirror focuses light) feet. P2 350. impossible detect, 353, mine detector. 342. microwave-beam developed range 1,000 feet ability penetrate obstacle. Pp. 357—358. exists, readily obtainable; are. maganzine Snooper' describes literally marvel that's space age. Incredible amplify 1,000,000 times. Sensitive disk reflector (500 ft.) can't lips moving. Just this. Portable; tripod stethescopic earphones. best part—a regular plugged down. Have fun!' advertised price $18.95. controlled experiment, sample political tape. studio specializing editing broadecasting studios edited meaning. Finally, new, distorted speech. ear oscilloscope detectable. noticeable editor hurried reveal rapidly changing patterns screen. wave forms comparison motion-picture film; equipment expected build-up decay altered cutting, skilful editorial manipulation observed. hours studying films, sure clue revealing found.' 368. Cal.Penal §§ 653h, 653i; Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., chapter 99; Nev.Rev.Stat. 200.650; N.Y.Penal Law, 738. crimes continuing nature, typically major crimes. done plainclothesmen bookmarkers' operations prostitution. gambling vice generally, steady maintain arrest Continuous order, enables 66. generally. Senator Hennings insidious prevalent wiretapping. Wiretapping-Eavesdropping Legislator's View, Minn.L.Rev. 815 (1960). Another observer 'far graver' Williams, Defense Counsel's 855, 862 Viewing do, occasion

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