Legal Document

413 U.S. 634 93 Supreme Court Reporter 2842 37 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 853 Jule M. SUGARMAN, etc., et al., Appellants,v.Patrick McL. DOUGALL al. Number 71—1222. Argued Jan. 8, 1973. Decided June 25, Syllabus Section 53 of the New York Civil Service Law provides that only citizens may hold permanent positions in competitive class state civil service. The District concluded statute was violative Fourteenth Amendment and Supremacy Clause, granted injunctive relief. Held: 1. violates Equal Protection Clause since, context York's statutory service scheme, it sweeps indiscriminately is not narrowly limited to accomplishment substantial interests. Pp. 638—643. 2. 'special public interest' doctrine has no applicability this case. 643—645. 3. Nor can citizenship requirement be justified on unproved premise aliens are less employees than citizens, or other grounds asserted by appellants. 645—646. 4. While State an interest defining its political community, corresponding establishing qualifications for persons holding elective important nonelective executive, legislative, judicial positions, broad established § cannot basis. 646—649. 339 F.Supp. 906, affirmed. Samuel Atlantic Hirshowitz, City, Lester Evens, appellees. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 1 53(1) reads: 2 'Except as herein otherwise provided, person shall eligible appointment any position unless he a citizen States.'1 3 four appellees, Patrick Dougall, Esperanza Jorge, Teresa Vargas, Sylvia Castro, federally registered resident aliens. When, because their alienage, they were discharged 1971 from with city York, appellees instituted action challenging constitutionality 53. named defendants, appellants here, Administrator city's Human Resources Administration (HRA), Director Personnel Chairman Commission. sought (1) declaration invalid under First Amendments, (2) relief against refusal, ground appoint employ all similarly situated, class, (3) damages lost earnings. A defense motion dismiss want jurisdiction denied Judge Tenney, 330 265 (SDNY 1971). three-judge court convened. That ruled 906 1971).2 Lumbard joined court's judgment, but wrote separately concurrence. Id., at 911. Probable noted. 407 908, 92 2434, 32 682 (1972). 4 * Prior December 28, 1970, employed nonprofit organizations received funds through HRA Office Economic Opportunity. These supportive ceased available about time organizations, approximately 450 employees, including 16 noncitizens, absorbed Manpower Career Development Agency (MCDA) HRA.3 appellant advised transferees would city.4 fact so MCDA. In February, however, informed ineligible employment dismissed mandate 53(1). Shortly thereafter, MCDA solely alienage.5 5 Appellee Dougall born Georgetown, Guyana, September 1927. He been City since 1964. administrative assistant staff Unit. 6 Jorge November 1948 Dominican Republic. She 1967. Puerto Rican Forum clerk-typist and, later, human resources technician. worked latter capacity 7 Vargas Republic 1946. 1963. same 8 Castro El Salvador 1944. resided counselor then technician 9 record does disclose ever took step attain citizenship. 10 Court, reaching conclusion unconstitutional Amendment, placed primary reliance Court's decisions Graham versus Richardson, 403 365, 91 1848, 29 534 (1971), Takahashi Fish Comm'n, 334 410, 68 1138, L.Ed. 1478 (1948), extent, Purdy & Fitzpatrick State, 71 Cal.2d 566, 79 Cal.Rptr. 77, 456 Pacific Reporter, 2nd 645 (1969). On basis these cases, also conflict Congress' comprehensive regulation immigration naturalization because, effect, entrance to, abode in, York. Accordingly, held, encroached upon exclusive federal power constitutionally impermissible Article VI, cl. 2, Constitution. II 11 As often case, outset define precise narrow issue here presented. faced question whether flat prohibition classified valid. asked decide particular alien, more citizen, refused individual whatever legitimate reason might possess. 12 Neither reviewing legislative scheme bars some closely defined classes uniform consistent instead, indiscriminate. general standard enunciated State's Constitution, V, 6, effect appointments promotions 'shall made according merit fitness ascertained, far practicable, examination which, competitive.' line rather flexible constitutional measure, divided into classes. 40. first exempt class. It includes, generally, higher offices executive departments, certain municipal officers, which noncompetitive found impracticable. contains restriction whatsoever. 41. second This includes classified, practicable. There requirement. 42. third labor unskilled laborers examinations No alienage exclusion imposed. 43. fourth we concerned. practicable determine examination. s 44. Only limits several classes, particularly deemed disqualified, readily defined. appear, that, scope cited provision, reaches various nearly full range work tasks, is, way menial policy making. 13 Apart service, unclassified 35. among others, offices, filled appointment, legislature, Governor, teachers. present there. 14 Other requirements round out scheme. constitution voters, II, 1, members III, 7, Governor Lieutenant-Governor, IV, Comptroller Attorney-General, citizens. And Public Officers requires 'a office' States. 'civil apparently one 'possesses attributes officer . involve(s) portion soverign (sic) power.' 1967 Op.N.Y.Atty.Gen. 60; Post Corporation Moses, A.D.2d 243, 250, 210 N.Y.S.2d 88, 95, rev'd grounds, N.Y.2d 199, 219 176 North Eastern 709 (1961). 15 We thus have provisions number statutes together, constitute employment. case concerns Law. section's constitutionality, judged framework justifications presents. III established, course, alien entitled shelter Clause. 371, 1851, (1971); Truax Raich, 239 33, 39, 36 9, 60 131 (1915); Wong Wing States, 163 228, 238, 977, 981, 41 140 (1896); Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 369, 1064, 1070, 30 220 (1886). See re Griffiths, 717, 2851, 910. protection extends, specifically, words Hughes, who 'work living common occupations community.' U.S., 41, S.Ct., 10. 17 Appellants argue, violate equal guarantee 'establishes generic classification reflecting special career service.'6 distinction drawn between said, 'rests fundamental concept identity government members, state.'7 servant 'participates directly formulation execution policy,' must free competing obligations another power.8 having employee undivided loyalty substantial, attendant foreign 'might impair exercise his judgment jeopardize confidence objectivity.'9 Emphasis our decision Workers Mitchell, 75, 67 556, 754 (1947), upholding Hatch Act proscription activity said employer 'has discretion establish related integrity efficiency operations government.'10 18 once apparent, appellants' justification proves both too much little. above outline reveals, applies many respect proffered little, if any, relationship. At time, application seem naturally fall within purpose. Our review treat differently greater degree precision. 19 372, 1852, observed 'are prima example 'discrete insular' minority (see Carolene Products Co., 304 144, 152—153, n. 4, 58 778, 783—784, 82 1234 (1938)),' classifications based 'subject close scrutiny.' long quarter century ago held 'to apply laws exclusively inhabitants confined limits.' 420, 1143. therefore look substantiality enforcing question, narrowness discrimination confined. 20 Applying purpose confining servants those ties elsewhere, withstand necessary scrutiny. recognize own form government, limiting participation 'the basic conception Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 344, 995, 1004, 31 274 recognize, too, community. But seeking achieve purpose, aliens, means employs precisely light acknowledged 21 neither nor application. Its imposed ineligibility 'sanitation man, B,' Perotta Gregory, Misc.2d 769, 158 221 (1957), typist, office worker, well participates policy. indiscriminately. Viewing entire interest, great breadth even evident. Sections 35 Law, relating generally high appointive contain restrictions. Indeed, permits circumstances. view imprecision conclude 22 baron further contend, simply do exeuction Understandably relying Crane 195, 85, 218 (1915), Heim McCall, 175, 78, 206 Ohio ex rel. Clarke Deckebach, 392, 47 630, 1115 (1927), argue confine (then Judge) Cardozo accepted argument concern advancement profit state.' People Crane, 214 N.Y. 154, 161, 108 Northeastern KF135 N59 427, 429 aff'd, (1915). rejected approach, assistance Graham, where heavily grounded notion '(w)hatever privilege, right, dependent citizenship.' .. now rights turn governmental benefit characterized 'right' 'privilege." 374, 1853. Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 404, 83 1790, 1794, 965 (1963); Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 627 89 1322, 1327, 600 (1969); Goldberg Kelly, 397 254, 262, 90 1011, 1017, 25 287 (1970); Bell Burson, 402 535, 539, 1586, 1589, (1971). 23 rejection special-public-interest require here. regard demonstrated, appellants, upheld, challenge, Labor works States.11 Konvitz, Alien Asiatic American chapter (1946). 24 perceive inapplicable yet applicable controlling reside lawfully period time. pay taxes. subject country's Armed Forces. 50 U.S.C.App. 454(a). Astrup Immigration Service, 509, 1583, doctrine, rooted concepts privilege desirability use resources, To extent Heim, intimate otherwise, weakened considered C. tender 53's bar intended long-term employee, deportation well, conscription country, likely remain temporarily position. fully agree response contention: 26 'There offer proof (appellants) hard pressed demonstrate surrounding area years, (appellees), whose family resides poorer risk who, prior had residing F.Supp., 909. 27 assert inefficient, when eventually leave will expense hiring training replacements. Even could accept underlying argument—that citizens—and assuming rationale logically suggestion stated noting alien's "justification expenses inappropriate unreasonable discriminated consists aliens." 376, 1854. 28 53, denies right Amendment's guarantee.12 Because conclusion, need reach naturalization. 376—380, 1854—1856. IV rule unconstitutional, individualized determination, refused, from, employment, noncitizenship, refusal hire, discharge, rests interests relate characteristics employee. ban relation scrutiny Amendment. not, appropriately qualification office. Just Framers Constitution keep themselves, provided Tenth regulate elections,' Oregon 400 112, 124—125, 260, 263, 272 (1970) (footnote omitted) (opinion Black, J.); see id., 201, 303 Harlan, J.), 293—294, 348—349 Stewart, '(e)ach prescribe officers manner chosen.' Boyd Thayer, 143 135, 375, 382, 103 (1892). Luther Borden, How. 581 (1849); Pope Williams, 193 621, 632—633, 573, 575, 48 817 (1904). Such inheres virtue obligation, already noted above, preserve 1004. responsibility applies, participate formulation, execution, perform functions go heart representative government. There, phrased separate concurrence, 'where bears rational relationship demands position.' such action, voter wholly immune See, example, Kramer Union School District, 395 1886, 583 demanding deal matters resting firmly prerogatives. 625, 1888; Carrington Rash, 380 89, 91, 85 775, 777, 675 (1965). recognition historical exclude democratic institutions, 632—634, 575—576; 381, establishment operation designated holders.13 U.S.Const. 4; Amdt. X; supra; Duncan, 139 449, 461, 577, (1891). never vote implicit voting permissible criterion rights. Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 567, 568, 84 1362, 1384, 506 (1964); Harper Virginia Board Elections, 383 663, 666 667, 86 1079, 1081, 169 (1966); 93—94, 96, 777—779; Lassiter Northampton Election Board, 360 45, 50—51, 985, 989, 1072 (1959); Mason Missouri, 179 328, 335, 125, 128, 45 (1900). confined, relevance responsibility, itself factor reasonably 'political 33 34 Affirmed. REHNQUIST, dissenting. two cases holds really different 'inherently suspect'. interprets invalidating legislation involved, language concerning suspect classifications,' or, matter, merely 'suspect classifications.' principal drafted adopted prohibit invidiously discriminating race, Slaughter-House Cases, Wall. 36, (1873), plainly manifested intent, race rightly 'suspect' there used evidence intent Framers, suggest slightest render classification, designed protect insular minorities' racial minorities, justify result reached cases. Two factual considerations deserve emphasis accorded opinions. First, records Nos. 1222 71—1336 indication suffered disability precluded them, either group individually, applying being status naturalized 71—1222, discloses, steps obtain indicate affirmative desire become 71—1336, 'elected Netherlands', 162 Conn. 249, 294 281, 282, deliberately chose file Code KF62 §§ 1427(f), 1430(a). 'status' individuals therefore, forever encumbered; take alter chose.1 38 Second, 71—1222 agencies Of represented three typists, 'senior clerk,' 'human technicians,' six resource specialists,' 'supervising specialists.' reveal what performed servants, although appellee chief administrator program; remaining Administration, body numerous administers types social welfare programs, spending money dealing constantly arms federal, state, local governments. 39 citizen-alien eyes fails mention, let alone rationalize, recognizes difference instances document brevity. Representatives, I, Senators, 3, Congress authority '(t)o Rule Naturalization' society, courts extends suits involving 'and Citizens Subjects,' somehow parties 'different,' Eleventh Amendment; Fifteenth, Nineteenth, Twenty-Fourth, Twenty-Sixth Amendments relevant 'citizens.' President natural Citizen,' 5. One speculate meaning today. 40 Not set forth cut analysis results cases; very reads establishes condemns 'suspect.' sentence provides: 'All thereof, wherein reside.' 42 obviously thought doing something, something important. Citizenship meant society continuing mere presence residence. carefully distinguishes 'persons' birth naturalization, achieved status, general. 'citizen' rationally distinct subclass obvious 43 unnecessary venture detailed discussion paramount amend overrule explicitly Dred Scott decision. Sandford, 393, 691 (1857). construing privileges immunities States' irrelevant before insofar peculiar e.g., Wall., 79; Cruikshank, 542, 588 (1876); Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 651, 152, (1884); Crutcher Kentucky, 141 47, 851, 649 (1891); Logan 144 617, (1892); Quarles, 532, 959, 1080 (1895). Cf. Crandall Nevada, 35, 744 (1868). Decisions 'person' prohibits status. Since terms lesser included 'persons,' failure articulate why forbidden serves illuminate absence foundation instant decisions. 44 again rational-basis test protection, advanced rational. (1927); Terrace 263 197, 15, 255 (1923); Porterfield Webb, 225, 21, 278 Webb O'Brien, 313, 318 Frick 326, 115, 323 Patsone Pennsylvania, 232 138, 539 (1914); Blythe Hinckley, 180 333, 390, 557 (1901); Hauenstein Lynham, 100 483, 628 (1880). violation limit projects considers enactments 'NOT CONTROLLING,' THOSE DECISIONS CLEARLy applies. 46 reject methodological approach decisions, relies part Game (1948). Truax, supra, invalidated prohibited employers five employing 20% noncitizens. law businesses. pains explain disturb holdings, specifically 'it should added act engaged receive moneys.' 40, decided after Clarke, engaging If anything, later Takahashi, involved 'ineligible citizenship' receiving commercial fishing licenses. legitimately using classify granting withholding did countenance attempt 'by incorporation.' features aliens; group, another. apparent. most important, properly inquire motive, overwhelming Japanese ancestry procuring blind fact, history. 412, 413, 1139. classifies country origin core such. previous certainly announced classification' classifications. say evades confronts precedent. third, paramount, 'decision' relied quoted footnote (1938), prohibiting interstate shipment milk. discussed presumption stated: 49 'Nor enquire similar enter directed religious, Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 571, 69 national, Meyer Nebraska, 262 1042; Bartels Iowa, 628, 1047; Farrington Tokushige, 273 284, 406, 646, Nixon Herndon (273 536, 446, 759); Condon (286 73, 52 484, 76 984): prejudice discrete minorities condition, tends seriously curtail processes ordinarily call correspondingly searching inquiry.' 152 153, 784. 'authority' footnote, Members joined, 'classifications inherently suspect' '(a) liens prime whom heightened solicitude appropriate.' 1852. 51 Frankfurter aptly observed: 'A hardly seems appropriate announcing new purport announce ..' Kovacs Cooper, 336 90—91, 448, 455, 513 (1949) (concurring opinion). accepted, conspicuously silent 'doctrine' 54 refer 'searching inquiry' perhaps entirely consonant 'national' category mentioned attempts education languages English, deprivation 'liberty' Fifth Amendments. mention 'citizen-alien' distinction, support reasoning 'nationality' 'alienage.' 55 recitation 'insular minority' necessarily theory propounded footnote. taken appears whenever feels societal insular,' treats group. 56 consisting over 200 million multitudinous origins, customs, tongues, beliefs, cultures least, diverse. extraordinary ingenuity lawyer find discrete' every road. Yet, uses, today stand proposition choose 'minority' 'feels' deserves 'solicitude' thereafter classifying 'majority.' N Dec. Nationality find, cite, 'ward Court' protection. 57 apparent invocation 'status,' feel 'appropriate' appear utilized Weber Aetna Casualty Surety 406 164, 1400, 768 (1972), cited, without discussion, Graham. 14, 1407. marked condition illegitimacy, national origin, altered 71-1222. nothing indicating changed acts. my view, proper inquiry exists admission bar. 59 'State legislatures presumed acted despite practice, inequality. aside facts conceived it.' McGowan Maryland, 366 425—426, 81 1101, 1104—1105, 393 Before discussing preliminary reflection opinions warranted. Perhaps portions native-born especially diligently learn history, mores, institutions successfully completed rigorous process intimation, statement, concludes taxes them (but 71—1336) Forces, 'groups' indistinguishable purposes analysis. Compulsory military ended Congress.2 Given ubiquity texes opinion, totally unconvincing attribute payment leveling significance indicated Is arriving abroad immediately purchases pack cigarettes, thereby paying taxes, citizen? 61 71-1222 answer negative, proceeds arenas. Unless context, analytical clear, convincing, curiously conflicts nonpolitical value heretofore ascribed 'special,' wasted effort past. Afroyim Rusk, 387 253, 87 1660, 757 (1967); Trop Dulles, 356 86, 78 590, 630 (1958). 62 origin; distinctions native Americans 'foreigners,' she familiar traditions, formal contact. 'an understanding English language' knowledge fundamentals principles States.' 1423. make understood, integrated into, system. 63 'Through system sponsored Naturalization school system, aided preparing himself citizenship, give him structure. order intelligently complete thoroughly member committee (House Judiciary Committee) able read, write, speak reasonable facility.' H.R.Rep.No.1365, 82d Cong., Sess., (1952) (emphasis added). 64 1424, precludes manifest opposition naturalized. An 'good moral character,' 1427(a)(3), mean 'attach(ment) (disposition) good happiness 80. Federal Regulations 332b (1973), detailing cooperation schools conducting applicants sufficient demonstrate, believe, prove are, understand: familiarity mores institutions. dem onstrated willingness ability integrate whole, just community,' uses term. proved 'like' ways be. ignores assimilation dedication prescribed 65 believe irrational natural-born proliferation administration witnessed recent conduct dispensation services funds, vested de facto decisionmaking policymaking hands textbook equivalent policymakers 'top' variety. Nevertheless, private seek approval concerned, 'low level' policymakers. (1970), implicitly recognized 'governors' write regulations 'low-level' 'apply.' community legislators, judges, administrators, provide admitted 66 efficient convincing rationale. Native-born expected society; affect how react interact Naturalized demonstrated adjust patterns attitudes, traditions. assume others expect 'government' us. grew up bribery self-dealing culture does; imperious bureaucracy historically complacent contemptuous attitude toward supposed serve; fewer checks existed abuses; serve superiors—could rapport would, duties exist personal sinecures her superior. influence charge program, allocating personnel, decisionmaking, lower level servant, fellow workers superiors, direct contact public. All factors materially functioning possibly clearly irrational. clearcut. traditionally latitude prescribing rules technical competence character fitness, governing practice law. Konigsberg Bar California, 997, 105 importance lawyers judiciary justice needs extended comment. attorney 'officer court' Connecticut, recognized. Powell Alabama, 55, 65, 77 (1932); Garland, 370, (1867). represents client, also, 'sign writs subpoenas, recognizances, (and) administer oaths.' Conn.Gen.Stat.Rev. 51—85. More emoluments position, though, tremendous trust places lawyers. liberty property client depend fidelity representation afforded lawsuits. given, increasingly undertaken exercise, relationships process. doubt today's required learned spoken involved. Connecticut's reflects skills needed makes experience, gained growing process, foreign-born citizen. suppose Connecticut Examining Committee tests sociology, route. Instead, operate assumption significantly experience Particularly appellant, candidly admits wants live sever birth, reverse affirm 71—1336. source Laws 1939, 767, declarative years. Tr. Oral Arg. 43, 45. 53(2) N.Y.Civ.Serv.Law (Supp.1972—1973) temporary exception requirement: '2. Notwithstanding law, department head appointing deems acute shortage lack qualified personnel recruitment, thereof commission due inquiry, existence waive positions. commission, be, annually each waiver requirement, revoke finds longer exists. non-citizen appointed pursuant section continued prosecutes procedures continue until, annual review, exists.' And, event, Rights Statutes, 1343(3) (4). 907 suit maintainable 'all enforcement compete Service.' Affidavit Harold O. Basden, App. 31—33. institution acquired agency, restriction, 53(1), alleged terminated additional lacked qualify senior 49. order, 93, excluded contested Brief 17. 22. 23. Ibid. 13. past, invoked uphold overriding treaties, noncitizens exploit McCready Virginia, 94 391, 248 (1877), inherit real property, (1880), acquire land, (1923), Oyama 332 633, 269, 249 aware aspects 3301; Exec. Order 10577, Fed.Reg. 7521, 2.1 (1954); 338.101, 302.203(g) (1973); Treasury, Postal General Government Appropriation Act, 1972, 602, 92—49, Statutes-at-Large 122, Works Appropriations 1971, 502, 91—439, 902. deciding susceptible challenge. Jalil Hampton, 148 U.S.App.D.C. 415, 460 923, cert. denied, 409 887, (1972); Comment, Aliens Service: Closed Door?, Geo.L.J. 207 congressional debates leading adoption clear knew matter vote, amendment suffrage indeed, concomitant Cong. Globe, 39th 1st 141—142, 2766—2767 (1866). noteworthy, 40th proposed version Fifteenth expressly discriminatory provision struck conference. evident debate opponents wanted retain control 3d 1425—1426, 1623—1633 (1869). Although residents years complaint filed, 1427, 'class' period. circumstance underscores adapted lived Services, none served honorably expeditiously 1440. male register draft called same' neglects consider statute: like commitment believed warranted, aside, immediate, acceptance society.

Classification Label: 1