Legal Document

335 U.S. 538 69 Supreme Court Reporter 260 93 L.Ed. 222 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR, ARIZONA STATE et al.v. SASH & DOOR COMPANY al. LINCOLN FEDERAL LABOR UNION NO. 19129, versus NORTHWESTERN IRON METAL George WHITAKER, Atlantic M. DeBruhl, T. G. Embler, NORTH CAROLINA. Nos. 27, 47 and 34. Decided Jan. , 1949. On Appeal From the Courts of Arizona, Nebraska, North carolina. from State Arizona. Mr. or Haw. Hawai‘i Reports KFH45 A2 S. McCluskey, Phoenix, Ariz., for appellants. Donald R. Richberg, Washington, D.C., appellees. Justice BLACK delivered opinion Court. 1 This case is here on appeal Arizona under § 237 Judicial Code as amended, 28 United States KF62 344, Annotated KF65 U5 344 (now 1257). It involves constitutional validity following amendment to Constitution, adopted at 1946 general election: 2 'No person shall be denied opportunity obtain retain employment because non-membership in a labor organization, nor any subdivision thereof, corporation, individual association kind enter into agreement, written oral, which excludes continuation organization.' Laws Ariz.1947, Page 399. 3 The sustained against contentions that it 'deprived union appellants rights guaranteed First Amendment protected invasion by states Fourteenth Constitution'; impaired obligations existing contracts violation Article I, 10, Constitution; deprived due process law, them equal protection laws contrary Amendment. All these questions properly reserved state court, were decided Court.1 same raised court are presented here. 4 For reasons given two other cases today we reject appellants' denies freedom speech, assembly petition, impairs obligation their contracts, deprives law. Lincoln Federal Labor Union Number American Federation Northwestern Iron Metal Co., Whitaker Car lina, 525, 251. A difference between statute considered Nebraska Carolina has made necessary us give separate consideration contention this laws. 5 language prohibits discrimination non-union workers, but does not prohibit workers. argued failure provide workers provided places disadvantage, thus denying unions members Arizona's 6 Although itself expressly left without account membership. Prior passage amendment, misdemeanor coerce worker make contract 'not join become member organization' condition getting holding job A.C.A.1939, 43-1608. section code every such (generally known 'yellow dog contract') void unenforceable.2 Similarly, makes unenforceable an employer agrees discriminate Statutes implementing have sanctions its enforcement relief injunction suits damages practiced amendment.3 Whether snactions would afforded whom discriminated clear case. But assuming courts afford remedy suit damages, unable find indication statutes weighted side We satisfied attempted both anti-yellow-dog-contract law anti-discrimination strike what evils, where those evils most felt, manner effectively suppress evils. 7 In National Relations Board Jones Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 1, 57 615, 81 893, 108 Law 1352, challenge Act ground applied restraints employers did apply similar wrongful conduct employees. there pointed out, page 46, 628, rule 'legislative authority, exerted within proper field, need embrace all reach.' And concerning said existence should relative different groups 'is matter legislative judgment.' West Coast Hotel company Parrish, 300 379, 400, 578, 586, 703, 1330. cannot say 8 Affirmed. 9 MURPHY, dissents. 10 concurring opinions FRANKFURTER RUTLEDGE, see 538, 260. 11 FRANKFURTER, concurring. 12 passed forbidding agreements employ only members. Constitution invoked Since bring question judicial application Due Process Clause, explicit avowal attitudes towards may elucidate thereby strengthen adjudication. Accordingly, N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions set forth steps reached concurrence with my brethren deem substantial issue here, issues joining Court's opinion. 13 coming machine age tended despoil human personality. turned men women 'hands.' industrial history early Nineteenth Century demonstrated helplessness employee achieve dignity society so largely affected technological advances. Hence trade increasingly indispensable weapon self-defense part aid well-being work expression life merely means earning subsistence. unionization encountered shibboleths premachine reflected juridical assumptions survived facts they based. Adam Smith was treated though his generalizations had been imparted him Sinai thinker who addressed himself elimination restrictions fetters upon initiative enterprise day. Basic expressed conception 'liberty' equated theories laissez faire.1 result economic views confined lawyers judges Framers enshrined Constitution. misapplication notions classic economists resulting disregard perduring reach led Holmes' famous protest Lochner measuring Herbert Spencer's Social Statics. 198 45, 75, 25 539, 546, 49 937. Had awareness impermanence legislation permanence gradually prevailed, might indeed 'hardly limit sky' embodiment 'our moral beliefs' Amendment's 'prohibitions.' Baldwin Missouri, 281 595, 50 436, 439, 74 1056. 14 attitude regarded encroachment order infected unconstitutionality disrespect attempts wage-earner's bargaining power. With premise, Adair States, 208 161, 277, 52 Ann.Cas. 736, Coppage Kansas, 236 35 240, 59 441, L.R.A. 1915C, 960, followed logically enough; even Truax Corrigan, 257 312, 42 124, 66 254, 27 375, could unexpected. when tide turned, circumstances changed arisen new claims divine origin. Brandeis Senn Tile Layers Union, 468, 857, 863, 1229, shows current running strongly direction—the direction social dogma increased deference l gislative judgment. 'Whether wise,' he said, now speaking dissent 'for permit (picket) public policy—not our concern.' 481, 1229. Long before that, Duplex Printing Press Deering, 254 443, 488, 41 172, 184, 65 349, 16 196, warned: 15 'All derived purposes exist; above rises duty community. conditions developed industry engaged continue struggle danger determine whether exist, function limits permissible contest declare duties situation damands. legislature which, while limiting group aggression defense, substitute processes justice more primitive method trial combat.' Unions powers State. Like power financial aggregations, organized springs fraction whole Holmes referred 'the one club belong.' former subject control, though, course, particular incidence control brought test bar E.g., Northern Securities 193 197, 24 48 679; SEC, 327 686, 708, 785, 797, 90 945. Neither can latter claim exemption. Even Government—the organ people—is restricted system checks balances established designers distributed authority among three branches promote efficiency preclude exercise arbitrary power.' Brandeis, dissenting Myers 272 52, 293, 21, 85, 71 160. Their concern society, whose government instituted, gave urgency fear concentrated arbitrary. power, professedly employed democratic purposes, hardly rendered unfounded. 17 If justifies incorporating devices curb judgment requires regulation private dismissed insupportable. no than medium through individuals able act together; begotten helplessness. come being when, exist long as, aims seen shared common group. There natural emphasis, however, tendency subordinate inconsistent interests impulses individuals. this, easy transition thinking entity having own. An ardent supporter also less disinterested student out 'As soon personify idea, country church, employers' association, obscure responsibility transferring emotional loyalties fictitious creation then acts psychologically obstruction, especially times crisis, critical reasoned Laski, Morris Cohen's Approach Legal Philosophy, U. Chi.L.Rev. 575, 581 (1948). 18 right like carried extreme, encounters principles. See Hudson County Water McCarter, 209 355, 529, 531, 828, 560. At point mutual vantage demands too much compromise must struck. Dicey, Public Opinion England 465 (1905). When reached—where intersection fall—is plainly special province legislature. effect sustaining purpose protect employees exclusionary practices unions. Steele Louisville N.R. 323 192, 226, 89 173; Wallace Corporation Board, 248, 238, 216; Railway Mail Association Corsi, 326 88, 1483, 2072, cf., Elgin, Joliet Eastern Burley, 325 711, 733—734, 1282, 1294, 1295, 1886. rationale prohibiting union-security founded resolution conflicting interests.2 Unless treat unconstitutional goes grain offends believe socially desirable, respect. 19 urged embodies fatal survival labor. legislators people reason skeptical labor's insistence necessity strength compel rather petsuade allegiance reluctant members? past fifty years total number employed, counting salaried self-employed farmers farm laborers, quite trebled, membership thirty-three times; time open-shop drive World War, ratio unorganized non-agricultural about nine, almost three.3 However necessitous unionism 1898 1923, status 1948 precludes condemnation judgment, whatever think it, type outweighs detriments. deny experiment laws, view fact Railroad Brotherhoods held own despite congressional prohibition security4 light experience countries advanced democracy, Great Britain Sweden, deeply rooted acceptance principles collective uncompromising contractually security.5 preferable interest subjected intervention free play forces, disclosed 'union unfair practi es' and, if so, correction appropriate self-discipline pressure opinion—these express views. very limited discharged recognize unrelated feelings community render addressing wilfully destructive cherished rights. matters, censorship press separation Church State, history, speaks decisively forbid experimentation. 20 policy finds rest solely includes transcends entitled weight combining opposition 'closed shop' long-range welfare example, came Court, staunch promoter unionism. testifying Commission Industrial Relations, said: 21 'I stand open shop, ought well powerful responsible; build up union; far making stronger; create ablest experienced men.'6 22 Yet believed 'The objections, legal, social, closed shop strong, ideas antagonistic spirit, serious obstacle progress.' Letter Sept. 6, 1910, Lawrence KF105 F3 Abbott Outlook.7 another occasion wrote, 'But prople not, will accept shop. They consent exchange tyranny employees.' Feb. 26, 1912, Steffens.8 summing unionism, 23 'It true 'success union' necessarily 'perfect monopoly'. union, attain preserve liberty, strong stable. include trade. Indeed, desirable not. Absolute leads excesses weakness: character intelligence bear strain unrestricted attains success reaches ideal condition, stable, yet outside ranks appreciable non-unionist. diversity ch racter, beliefs, taste mere selfishness—will insure supply, enjoyment privilege individualism Such nucleus check operession oppression employer.' Quoted Louis D. Brandeis' contribution discussion Peace Liberty Nat. Civic Rev., 2, Pages (May 15, 1905). deemed preferential reliable form security shop; serves prove pragmatic dogmatic solution. Whatever views, reinforced adoption insuring undercutting standards effects dissident minority Under interpretations Act, 29 151 seq., undisturbed Taft-Hartley 141 seq.,9 45 representative designated majority exclusive deal matters wages working conditions. Individual favorable terms obtained barred. Judge I. Case 321 332, 64 576, 88 762; Order Telegraphers Express Agency, 342, 582, 788; Medo Photo Supply 678, 830, 1007; 737, 1296, 1886, n. 35. bidder cannot, would, undercut standards. 26 undesirability convincingly urged, invalidation debilitates popular government. Most dealing problems error.10 That appears demonstrably bad belie prophecy actual operation. good, innocuous. found wanting trial, better defects removed aborted fiat. assertion deflects ultimately rests—the people. proponents confidence arguments 'economic brief,' address electorate. Its endorsement vindication mandate never give. vain hope recently voters Maine, Massachusetts, New Mexico.11 although several addition laws,12 legislatures many have, sometimes repeatedly, rejected them.13 What refuse do, undo. restraint deeper value experiment: fonded recognition gulf nullifying legislation. theoretical legislating taken oaths support courts, challenged, sure exercised allowable vague contours' process. Theory notorious predominate legislatures.14 practice wide. day-to-day democracy vital non-democratic Government rigorous self-restraint. Because inherently oligarchic, Jefferson thought 'an irresponsible body'15 nd 'independent nation itself.'16 saved oligarchic professes service humane ends. As amply proves, judiciary prone misconceive good confounding requirements, misconceptions legitimate displacement except slow pace.17 Judges appointed decisions run counter prevailing voted office supplanted consonant it. farther pressures deliberations secret remain beyond disclosure either periodic reports modern device securing electorate 'press conference.' rely save unwisdom. alert—and alertness enduring democracy—unwise readily books. vigilance over representatives proves itself. Our pass question. implications constantly kept mind vigorously observed. shape measures negation shaped others, requisite intellectual humility, humility presupposes complete disinterestedness. end, indifferent temper wishes. Dooley's 'th' Coort follows th' iliction returns' wit cynicism, demand principle. yields licenses despotism, o assurance indulge will. fulfill extent succeed shaping judgments rational standards, impersonal communicable. Matters policy, definition conflicts value, elements values imponderable. Assessment competing worth differences feeling; prophecy. Obviously forum mediating clash rendering prophetic body chosen functions assumed disragard historic 30 concur 34, Carolina. convicted warrant charged only, effect, violated 'by executing agreement contract' shop.1 neither charge evidence employer, after became effective, refused union. charge, therefore, conviction contract. No provision involved, state's attorney conceded, argument objections statute, agree proscribe accordingly affirming convictions. 31 Sash Door Company, 47, raised, am decision, reservation. involved fact, immediately involving Thirteenth closely approach touching exists possible ignored.2 Strikes called throughout defense nonunion men. today's decision construed foreclose illegal concerted refusal going enjoin strike,3 want thorough reargument deciding momentous 32 thing. force entirely another. difference, reserve until squarely inescapably presented. reservation do understand 33 MURPHY concurs insofar applies 34 47. 67 Ariz. 20, 189 Pacific Reporter, 2nd Series 912. Ariz.Code Ann. 56-120 (1939). Ariz.Sess.Laws 1947, ch. 81, 173. Of theory wholly squared facts. faire doctrines dominant, activity affairs considerable. Handlin, Commonwealth: Study Role Economy: 1774—1861 (1947); Hartz, Economic Policy Democratic Thought: Pennsylvania, 1776—1860 See, e.g., Initiative Referendum Publicity Pamphlet, (Compiled Issued Secretary State); Testimony Legislative Committee Welfare, March 1947 (transcript Committee's record substance testimony kindly furnished Department Nebraska); Closed Shop pamphlet published 'Right-to-Work Committee'; N.C.Laws chapter 328, (preamble). see, Open Virginia, Report Virginia Advisory Council Governor House Doc. Address Wm. Tuck General Assembly People Extra Session, 8—9 Tucumcari (N.M.) Daily News, Oct. 1948, 3, col. (report radio addresses sponsors proposed 'right-to-work amendment'). table, membership' AFL, CIO, independent unaffiliated unions, including Canadian international headquarters States; 'employment' figures (i.e., wage salary workers), self-employed, unpaid family domestic-service Year Membership Employment (thousands) 467 --------................. 1900 791 17,826................... 1903 1,824 20,202................. 1908 2,092 22,871................. 1913 2,661 27,031................. 1918 3,368 33,456................. 1923 3,629 32,314................. 1928 3,567 35,505................. 1933 2,857 28,670................. 1938 8,265 34,530................. 1943 13,642................. 45,390. 15,600................. 50,400 'union-membership' totals, Dept. Labor, Bureau Statistics (mimeographed pamphlet); totals preliminary estimates Statistics. Unemployment Force, 1900—1940, Conference Record, 77, 80 (1940); since 1929, basis estimated Technical Note, Monthly Section Fourth, 1934 Amendment, Statutes-at-Large 1187, 1926, 44 577, 152, subd. 4, face union-shop agreements, interpreted. 40 Op.Atty.Gen., (Dec. 29, 1942). wisdom course judge. 'Membership Brotherhoods' Brotherhood Locomotive Engineers, Enginemen Firemen, Conductors, Trainmen, each, railroad CIO 1919 figure 'Employment Class Railroads' all, operating carriers. Railroads 456 1,908 1924 434 1,774 1929 423 1,661 268 1,008 1939 303 988 1944 442 1,415 450 1,352 available kindness Those 1924—1934 based Wolman, Ebb Flow Trade Unionism 230—31 (1936). I.C.C. annual Railways 33d Ann.Rep. (1922); 38th (1926); 1934, 54th (1942); 60th 55 (1948); I.C.C., Transport Economics Statistics, Statement M—300, Wage Steam (1947). (1938); Sweden (1938). Cf. T e Universal Declaration Human Rights, cl. Nations, 11, declaring compelled belong association.' Sen.Doc.No.415, 64th Cong., 1st Sess. 7681. expressions sympathy cause id. 7659—60, 7662, 7667; Employer Trades Business—a Profession (1914); Co-operation, Filene Co-operative Echo, (May, 1905), reprinted Curse Bigness (Fraenkel ed. 1935); Big Business Liberty, 38. Copy collection papers Library University Louisville, indebted. quoted Mason, Brandeis: Free Man's Life (1946). op. cit. supra, note 7680—81. alternative advocated 'preferential shop,' apparently, barred accounts Moskowitz, Power Constructive Reform Movement, (1912); Winslow, Conciliation, Arbitration, Sanitation Cloak, Suit, Skirt Industry York City, Bulletin 98, Jan., H.R.Doc.No.166, 62d 2d 203, 215. Louisville; 7, 303—04. H.R.Rep.No.245, 80th 17; Cong.Rec. 4491 1947). Examples experimentation undertaken meet recognized bank-deposit guaranty wake panic 1907 Oklahoma. Despite doubts wisdom, due-process attack Noble Bank Haskell, 219 104, 186, 112, L.R.A., N.S., 1062, Ann.Cas.1912A, 487, Id., 299, 341; Shallenberger Holstein, 114, 189, 117; Assaria Dolley, 121, 123. Experience proved unworkable, Robb, Guaranty Ba k Deposits Encyc.Soc.Sciences 417 (1930). stood way, remained profit errors attempt mature solution problem national scale. Sen.Rep.No.77, 73d 9—13; H.R.Rep.No.150, 5—7. establishment Deposit Insurance Banking 1933, 168, 264, 264. expedient inadequate, way further Glass-Steagall Harv.L.Rev. 325, 330—32 (1933). 13, Maine 'An Protect Right Work Prohibit Secondary Boycotts, Sympathetic Jurisdictional Strikes' Protecting Members Nonmembers Organizations Opportunity Work.' vote favor first bill 46,809; second, 13,676; bills, 126,285. These Deputy Maine. Nov. Massachusetts measure denial organizatiion,' 1,290,310 505,575. Executive Commonwealth 24, 60. day Mexico 60,118 41,387 (incomplete returns). Clovis News Journal, 5, 3. Ark.Const. Amend. 1944, Acts Ark.1947, 101; Del,.laws 30; Fla.Const. Decl. Rights 12, amended 1944; Ga.Laws 140, 616; Iowa 296; La.Gen.Stat. 4381.2, Dart.1939, 202 2; Md.Ann.Code Gen.Laws 1939, art. 100, 65; Nev.Comp.Laws 10473; N.D.Laws 243; S.D.Const. 1946, 92; Tenn.Public 36; Texas 74, Vernon's Ann.Civ.St. 5207a; Va.Acts 2. valuable digest regulating Killings-worth, Acts, Appendix A, Beverley Kritzman Killingsworth, 267 variety empiric single decade (1937—47). list anticlosed-shop compiled Division Standards, Reports, date. Calif.: A.B.1560, 1941; S.B.974, Conn.: H.B.557, S.B.823, 1939; H.B.302, 1947; Kans.: H.B.256, S.B.410, S.C.Res.No.10, 1945; Ky.: S.B.231, 1946; Mass.: H.B.864, Minn.: S.B.102, Miss.: H.B.714, 1942; H.C.R.21, (semble); H.B.171, H.B.328, 1948; H.B.1000, Mo.: S.B.144, N.H.: H.B.225, Ohio: H.B.49, Utah: S.J.R.15, H.J.R.15, 1947. U.S.News, 22, (Nov. 1948). Charles Hammond, Aug. 18, 1821, Writings Thomas 330, 331 (Memorial ed., 1904). Samuel Kercheval, July 1816, 32, Jefferson's alarm felt dangerous government, letters William baron Giles, April 1807, 187, 191; Caesar Rodney, 25, 1810, 424, 425; John Taylor, May 28, 17, 21; Spencer Roane, 1819, 212; Ritchie, 1820, 297; James Pleasants, Works Jefferson, 213, 214 (Federal 1905); Barry, Joly 1822, Writings, 388; Coray, 31, 1823, 480, 487; Edward Livingston, 1825, 112. Autobiography 120 22. Commager, Majority Rule Minority 28—38 (1943). time, obstacles disappear removed. twenty elapsed income tax Pollock Farmers' Loan Trust 158 601, 912, 39 1108, Sixteenth took establish constitutionality minimum women: put jeopardy equally divided Stettler O'Hara, 243 629, 37 475, 61 937, Adkins Children's hospital, 261 43 394, 1238, overruled 585, frustration moreover, specific struck down; backwash drowns unnumbered projects otherwise trial. warrant, material, entered '* * combination conspiracy commerce Carolina, combinations, whereby persons organizations named acquired monopoly enterprises required organization acquire Bill #229, Session Chapter particularly sections 2—3 75 N.C. *.' syllogism be: present 'illegal' relation retaining employment; strikes 'illegal objects' 'unlawful'; 'unlawful' enjoined; object'; therefore enjoined.

Classification Label: 6