Legal Document

343 U.S. 717 72 Supreme Court Reporter 950 96 L.Ed. 1249 TOMOYA KAWAKITAv.UNITED STATES. Number 570. Argued April 3, 1952. Decided June 2, Rehearing Denied Oct. 13, See 73 5. [Syllabus from pages 717-719 intentionally omitted] Messrs. Morris Lavine, Atlantic L. Wiren, Los Angeles, Cal., for petitioner. Mr. Oscar H Davis, Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice DOUGL AS delivered the opinion of Court. 1 Petitioner, a national both United States and Japan, was indicted treason, overt acts relating to his treatment American prisoners war. He convicted treason after jury trial, see F.Supp. 824 judgment conviction affirmed. 9 Cir., 190 Federal Reporter, 2nd Series 506. The case is here on certiorari. 342 932, 378. 2 First. important question that lies at threshold relates expatriation. Petitioner born in this country 1921 Japanese parents who were citizens Japan. thus citizen by birth, Amendment XIV, § and, reason law, Hirabayashi versus States, 320 81, 97, 63 1375, 1384, 87 1774. 3 In 1939 shortly before petitioner turned 18 years age he went Japan with father visit grandfather. traveled passport; obtain it took customary oath allegiance. 1940 registered an consul as citizen. remained returning country. March, 1941, entered Meiji University commercial course military training. April, renewed passport, once more taking allegiance States. During period alien police. When war declared, still student University. became 1942 completed schooling 1943, which time impossible him return 1943 Koseki, family census register.1 did not join Army nor serve soldier. Rather, obtained employment interpreter Oeyama Nickel Industry Co., Ltd., where worked until Japan's surrender. hired interpret communications between assigned work mine factory company. treasonable involved conduct toward 4 December, 1945, Yokohama applied registration stated under had done various amounting issued passport returned 1946. Shortly thereafter recognized former prisoner war, whereupon arrested, indicted, tried treason. 5 defended trial ground renounced or abandoned citizenship expatriated. Congress has provided 401 Nationality Act 1940, 54 Statutes-at-Large 1137, 1168, amended, 8 Code KF62 801, Annotated KF65 U5 may lose nationality certain prescribed ways. It provides relevant part, 6 'A person whether birth naturalization, shall by: 7 '(a) Obtaining naturalization foreign state * *; '(b) Taking making affirmation other formal declaration state; '(c) Entering, serving in, armed forces unless expressly authorized laws if acquires such 10 '(d) Accepting, performing duties of, any office, post, government political subdivision thereof only nationals are eligible; *.' 11 court charged found lost Aerican prior during specified indictment, they must acquit even commit since duty would have ceased termination citizenship. further should find beyond reasonable doubt citizen, owed same also though question, honestly believed no longer then could committed intent. special verdicts contain, respect each act guilty, affirmative answer interrogatory 'an owing indictment.' 12 asks us hold matter law expatriated himself beginning 1943. places emphasis entry name Koseki. Prior been police alien. There evidence considered authorities action might give rise inference elected nationality: copy Koseki station removed alien; changed address California Japan; used get job camp; China ex rel. Scimeca Husband, 957, 958; accepted labor draft papers government; faced east morning paid respects Emperor. 13 difficulty petitioner's position implications acts, admittedly performed, ambiguous. dual nationality, status long law.2 Perkins Elg, 307 325, 344—349, 59 884, 894 896, 83 1320. concept recognizes exercise rights two countries be subject responsibilities both. mere fact asserts one does without mean renounces other. setting reasonably taken than assertion some bestowed him. deposition Attorney General states person's nationality. But already obviously acquire registration. deposed all nationals, abroad, bound registering 'not necessarily but merely reaffirmation exists.' From appear nothing disclosure theretofore made public. 14 Conceivably greater consequences. settings equivalent 'naturalization' within meaning 401(a) allegiance' 401(b). Certainly issue we cannot say renunciation What followed construed recognition acquired publicly disclosed first Cf. Hackworth, Digest International Law (1942), Page 373. changing University, so conform those records public record announcing interested authorities. 15 As said, presupposes exist assumption liabilities deemed inconsistent maintenance For example, when citizenship, nation use proclaiming supra, 353. Hence trip China, camp, bowing Emperor, acceptance incidents possible 16 Those sure, colored statements testified example felt loyalty about late 1945. boasted winning win taunted MacArthur's departure Philippines, expressed hatred things Americans. That 1944. This attitude continued into although May June, surrender, saying care 'which way goes because & N Dec. Immigration Decisions am going back anyway.' 17 On December 31, connection affidavit een 'temporarily residing' August 10, 1939; tha t came study Japanese; possessed register March 8, 1943; 'never naturalized, allegiance, voted subject, held myself out such.' service officer concluded overcome presumption reported, 'In possession uncle's Family Census Register. severe pressure uncle, whom financially dependent supply funds cut off; office believe statement.' These representations led issuance 19 If never what now says thoughts, attitudes, motives 1944 part intend renounce latter version jury, signing register, assume different significance; readily suggest If, hand, 1945 incident changes established pre-existing fact, viz. We think, words, peculiarly determine. charge satisfied there insufficient finding. 20 concedes enter services 401(c) claims tour camp 'serving in' statutory words. argues performance 'office, government' 'for eligible' 401(d) Act. 21 private company, organized profit. engaged producing metals contracts government. designated munitions corporation civilian employees allowed change quit their consent company's manned They lived controlled army. Though orders military, soldier services; wore insignia uniform distinguishing nonmilitary personnel; perform relation prisoners, except interpreter. His regulation company government, freezing its force, assignment command economy. indication Company nationalized properties seized operated g overnment. indicates regimented industry; organization operating profit management. employee regimentation industry. 22 require broad loose construction state' words sacrificed accepting thinking cases applicable. reluctant resolve ambiguity contained provide treacherous loss Nisei. said page 337, 891, 'Rights destroyed ambiguity.' harsh indeed Nisei, marooned World War II broke out, working whose business supervised broad, pervasive sweep. Section makes 'any basis expatriation; 'performing duties' One drafted included, well volunteered. bring most companies danger zone view economy industry supervision control asserts. therefore incline 'under relationship bureaus corporations owned controlled. Support narrower legislative history.3 23 4024 creates presumption5 Kawakita's category remains six months either presumed (d). 402 enlarge (d); rebuttable shown brought (d), overcome. showing loses Dos Reis Camara Nicolls, 161 860, 868. force spent. 24 408 provides, 'The result solely fulfillment conditions Act.' District methods expatriation 401. error. applicable Act' losing it. refers R.S. 1999, 800, survived it, proclaims right 'a natural inherent people'.6 do undertake squarely presented. expatriation, tenders inadmissible 'by conduct' 'expatriated citizenship.' failed show presented 401(b)—the indicated, major factual problem revolved around All referred to, including paying Emperor expressions hostility admissible issue. eyes make event tantamount 401(b), hardly standing alone. Hence, error charge, harmless. 25 conclusion reinforced another aspect case. signed indictment (1) defendant (2) yet convict 'the States' Under belief sufficient guilt admitted proof separate apart grounds assume, arguendo, wrong charging exclusive, 26 Second. contends can guilty resides, national. More specifically, maintains while resided paramount indeed, our enemy. 27 argument broadest reach against abroad enemy territory, least residing definition however, Constitution contains territorial limitation. 'Treason consist levying them, adhering Enemies, giving them Aid Comfort. *' Article III, 3. A substitute proposal containing limitations rejected Constitutional Convention. Farrand, Records Convention, Pages 347—348. 30, 1790, 112, passed defining crime likewise limitation; legislation substantially form present statute. (Supp. IV) 2381, 2381.7 reject suggestion living territoril limits them. Chandler 171 921, 929—930; Burgman 88 U.S.App.D.C. 184, 185, 188 637, 640. 28 e will nations, times competing conflicting. nature recently follows: 29 subjected taxes entitled protection jurisdiction Either insist territory. supports neither belligerent, aggrieved. suspicious disabilities alien, sequestration property, holds treasonable.' Orfield, Legal Effects Dual Nationality, Geo.Wash.L.Rev. 427, 429. 30 unavoidable consequence conflicting countries. 352 et seq. becomes retains circumstances deprived through operation treaty Congress; voluntary action. 329, 887. lost, carries obligations privileges benefits. difficult discharge. An wages us. very livelihood indirectly help nation. these days total manpower critical everyone placed productive increases strength wage Of course, caught predicament conflict openly electing becoming resides Yet, far existing concerned, need choice continue administrative ruling State Department lives claiming owes States.8 cry necessitated residence there. conceivably nonperformance complained breach law. requires acts. compulsion come demanded coerced employer supervisor desire heart do. defenses Such acts—if voluntarily willfully treasonable. influence, gravity offense. judge distinction instructed willingly 'but acted required coercion compulsion.' short, accountabe thi perform. 31 retain freedom remain minimum hostile know rejected. wants renouncing turn fair-weather retaining contingent benefits meanwhile playing traitor. wherever reside. 32 Circumstances compel otherwise compatible role traitor defend compelled conduct. facts tendered. forced maintain that, being resident proposition reject. 33 Third. No Person Treason Testimony Witnesses Act, Confession open Court.' 34 So material here, consists elements—adhering enemy; aid comfort. Cramer 325 1, 29, 65 918, 930, 89 1441. think disloyal thoughts side Yet commits comfort enemy, hand impulsively intent betray. Two witnesses intention act. 933. 35 eight acts.9 alone, properly proved, sustain conviction, elements established. Since findings upset insufficient. Haupt 330 631, 641, 67 874, 879, 91 1145. conclude, proved. 36 Each related camp. mostly Bataan weakened condition arrival. below normal weight; many suffering disease; unfit work. Company. interpreter, said. authority duties, shows long, persistent, continuous directed conceivable 37 After arrived, autorities raised quota ore expected pr oduce day. 120 165 carloads day; increased 200. swearing beating threatening punishing faster harder, failing fill quotas, resting, slowing down. 38 category. Overt (a) alleged developed May, kicked named Toland ill, slowed down lifting pieces rocks tracks keep clear. suffered dizzy spell told thereupon him, causing fall flat face hand. Another wanted pick up; let (j) struck Armellino, weak emaciated, order carry lead. Armellino carrying bucket fall. got up, buckets, pushing along. 39 aimed getting prisoners—work produced concluded. efforts small; contribution effort certainly minor, crucial. Harboring spy insignificant Germany recent important. unnecessary successful completion enemy's project; abortive attempt; sum casual unimportant step. gives immediate moment performance, qualifies constitutional standard Chief Marshall Ex parte Bollman, Cranch 75, 126, 554, 'If actually levied, however minute, remote scene action, leagued general conspiracy, traitors.' designed speed up production, plainly gave sense. 40 cruelty 41 (b) Grant, prisoner, seen sentry coming Red Cross storeroom package cigarettes. thrown cesspool sergeant, ordered knocked repeatedly. While Grant cesspool, hit over head wooden pole sword, squat down, sit water. pool, blue, teeth chattering, straighten up. 42 (c) 1944, guards lined punishment articles clothing blankets, strike who, thought, hard enough. 43 (d) imposed O'Connor, sick stolen supplies. soldiers repeatedly pool petitioner, O'Cnnor temporarily reason. 44 (g) July August, sergeant detail early, run quadrangle. Americans, unable fast illness, additional four respectively. threw pebbles sod faster. 45 (i) Carter, heavy log ice-covered slope mine. Carter slipped, fell, injured, knew badly hurt needed attention delayed removal approximately five hours. 46 (k) spring summer participated inhuman Shaffer, Shaffer kneel bamboo sticks platform stick inside joints knees, arms above holding water later log. tired bent elbows, leaned spilled water, take bucket, throw refilled. Then fell gash. wound treated, go performance. 47 inflict prisoners. regarding call job, found. compulsion. seeks, municipal how helps source Constitution. definition, gains immunity unlawful performed. offense; scrupulously observes nations; nonetheless amounts crime. chapter relate numerous supplement build lesser crimes 45, 939. power crimes, requirements same. processes amendment; modify alter 48 agree. innocent commonplace appearance gaining significance reference evidence, supra. showed sympathy lack zeal cause, breaking promoted cause tended strengthen advance interests. fearful, docile, subservient. Because punishments less likely troublesome; fewerguards; watching. ten d 'heart courage war.' test laid Lord Treby Trial Captain Vaughan, How.St.Tr. 485, 533. measure 28, 34, 934. efforts; encouraged advanced 49 sufficiently proved witnesses. witness was, eye-witness commission saw heard testified. instances variance details. Thus thirteen agree exact date occurred, agreed place, victim, happened o'clock afternoon; Grant. Appeals concluded, agree, disagreement among place collateral 'While testify act, testimony identical.' 640, 878. talking describing part. 50 Fourth. challenges sufficiency second element treason—adhering two-witness requirement extend element. Intent betray inferred themselves, 933, defendant's own attitudes effort, 642, professions 51 Evidence concerning loyalty, leaves little traitorous 'It looks like MacArthur run-out powder you boys'; superior your soldiers'; 'You Americans don't chance. 'Well, guys needn't won't back; stay citizen'; 'We kill anyway, You States'; 'I glad dead, home live happy.' aligning cause. wives families, man, 100 years, officers, whip world, boys available work, too And day ended surrendered commented, bastards fed' 'you fat on.' 52 damn me tothe At intended everything following application conceded continuance entire 53 versions witnesses, believed, overwhelming evidence. lot end betray, issue, decide. adverse accept truth protestations shadow hangman's noose save finding based uncoerced purpose amply supported Therefore firmly Other errors pressed upon insubstantial adequately disposed notice, exception severity sentence. offenses 'shall suffer death; or, discretion court, imprisoned fined $10,000, every shall, moreover, incapable States.'10 death sentence arbitrary. limits. Whether offense trivial appellate set aside reach. flagrant persistent leeway reaching decision warranted interfering. Blockburger 284 299, 305, 180, 182, 76 306. 55 Affirmed. 56 FRANKFURTER, having argument, disposition 57 CLARK consideration 58 VINSON, BLACK BURTON join, dissenting. War. regarded official notice Thereafter, secured plant, prayed daily Emperor's health victory. heinous recited Court, convince consistently demonstrating done. 60 Petitioner's States—made War—cannot restore record, whole retention reverse Blakemore, Recovery Cause Expatriation Law, Am.J.Int'l 441, 449. discussions Talbot Jansen, Dall. 133, 164—165, 169, 540; Inglis Trustees Sailor's Snug Harbour, Pet. 99, 157, 161, 617; Shanks Dupont, 242, 247, 249, 666; 339, 344—345, 1320; 97 98, 1774; Savorgnan 338 491, 500, 70 292, 297, 94 287; Unitd 860; Ricketts, 193; Uyeno Acheson, 510, 514—515; Tomasicchio 98 166; Kondo 886 887; Hamamoto 904, 905; Boissonnas 101 138, 147, 151—152; Di Girolamo 380, 382; Coumas Superior San Joaquin County, Cal.2d 682, 192 Pacific 449; Doyle Ries, 208 Minn. 321, 293 Northwestern KF135 N69 614; Ludlam Ludlam, N.Y. 356, 376—377; Lynch Clarke, Sandf.Ch., 583, 659, 677—679; Phelps Jackson, 79 Vt. 504, 520, 657, 661, L.R.A.,N.S., 1245; Borchard, Diplomatic Protection Citizens Abroad, 575—591; Flournoy, Election, Yale L.J. 545, 693; Vol. pp, 352—377; Hyde, (2d ed.) 1131 1143; Moore, Digest, 518—551; Nielsen, Some Vexatious Questions Relating Col.L.Rev. 840; Oppenheim, (7th ed., Lauterpacht), I, 606—610; 427; Van Dyne, Citizenship 24, 34. explanatory comments code Laws transmitted message President 1938, (d): 'With subsections called statement Williams, dated 20, 1873 (14 Op.Atty.Gen. 295, 297): "My addition domicile remain, amount willingness submit adopt employment, engaging services, etc., treated Government actual naturalization. Naturalization highest, expatriation." (Italics added.) Codification 76th Cong., 1st Sess., House Committee Print, 67. speaking hearings (see Hearings H.R. 6127, 9980, 131—132), described provision way: seems object fairly accepts serves particularly persons great cases. thousands *. Say Mexico takes Mexican Government, equivlent nationality.' reads outside parent subsection section 401, according state, individual presentation satisfactory diplomatic consular immigration rules regulations jointly prescribe. However, arise employee, accompanying member family.' 802. adopted 'upon recommendation checking activities prospective 'fifth Columnists." 86 Cong.Rec. 11948. 800 provides: ' Whereas people, indispensable enjoyment life, liberty, pursuit happiness; whereas principle freely received emigrants invested citizenship; claimed citizens, descendants, subjects states, governments thereof; necessary peace claim promptly finally disavowed: declaration, instruction, opinion, order, denies, restricts, impairs, questions declared fundamental principles Republic.' 'Whoever, levies adheres enemies, elsewhere, death, $10,000; ncapable States.' Abstract Passport Precedents, Division Office Instructions, 1.6, 19, 1941. answered affirmatively printed Kawakita, 824, 851—852. (1946 2. note 7,

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