Legal Document

464 U.S. 238 104 S.Ct. 615 78 L.Ed.2d 443 Bill M. SILKWOOD, Administrator of the Estate Karen G. Silkwood, Deceased, Appellant,v.KERR-McGEE CORPORATION, etc., et al. No. 81-2159. Argued Oct. 4, 1983. Decided Jan. 11, 1984. Syllabus Appellant's decedent, a laboratory analyst at federally licensed nuclear plant in Oklahoma operated by appellee Kerr-McGee Nuclear Corp. (hereafter appellee), was contaminated plutonium. Subsequently, after decedent killed an unrelated automobile accident, appellant, as administrator decedent's estate, brought diversity action Federal District Court based on common-law tort principles under law to recover for contamination injuries person and property. The jury returned verdict appellant's favor, awarding, addition actual damages, punitive damages authorized law. Appeals, inter alia, reversed award ground that such were preempted federal Held: 1. appeal is not within this Court's appellate jurisdiction 28 U.S.C. § 1254(2). Appeals held because preemptive effect law, could be awarded. It did purport rule constitutionality statute, which left untouched. decision, however, reviewable writ certiorari. Pp. 246-248. 2. pre-empted 248-258. (a) pre-emption state regulation safety aspects energy, see Pacific Gas & Electric Co. v. State Energy Resources Conservation Development Comm'n, 461 ---, 103 1713, 75 752 (1983), does extend state-authorized conduct related radiation hazards. There ample evidence Congress had no intention, when it enacted later amended Atomic Act 1954, forbidding States provide remedies those suffering from plant. Nor able point anything legislative history Price-Anderson Act—which established indemnification scheme operators facilities—or implementing regulations indicates allowed. Rather, clear enacting amending Act, assumed state-law available injured incidents, even though aware Regulatory Commission's exclusive authority regulate matters. Insofar are concerned, should judged basis Government has so completely occupied field foreclosed but whether there irreconcilable conflict between standards or imposition standard would frustrate objectives 249-256. (b) case with remedial NRC impose civil penalties licensees violation standards. Paying both fines state-imposed same incident physically impossible, nor exposure any purpose scheme. hinder 42 2013(d) "to encourage widespread participation development utilization atomic energy peaceful purposes," since disclaimed interest accomplishing means fail adequate hazardous materials. Finally, Congress' intent preclude dual hazards, since, indicated above, believe inconsistent vest regulatory over while time allowing plaintiffs like appellant caused 257-258. 667 F.2d 908 (10th Cir.1981), remanded. Michael H. Gottesman, Washington, D.C., appellant. C. Lee Cook, Jr., Chicago, Ill., appellees. John Garvey, Lexington, Ky., amicus curiae. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 Last term, examined relationship concluded states precluded regulating energy. --- ----, 1724, (1983). This requires us determine arising out escape plutonium federally-licensed facility either falls forbidden conflicts some other aspect Act. 2 * Silkwood Kerr-McGee1 its Cimmaron near Crescent, Oklahoma. fabricated fuel pins use reactor power plants. Accordingly, subject licensing Commission (NRC) pursuant §§ 2011-2284 (1976 ed. Supp. V).2 3 During three-day period November 1974, On 5, grinding polishing samples, utilizing glove boxes designed purpose.3 In accordance procedures, she checked her hands withdrew them box. When detected, more extensive check performed. A monitoring device revealed Silkwood's hand, right wrist, upper arm, neck, hair, nostrils. She immediately decontaminated, end shift, monitors detected contamination. However, given urine fecal kits instructed collect samples order discharge. 4 next day, arrived began doing paperwork laboratory. Upon leaving laboratory, monitored herself again discovered surface Once again, decontaminated. 5 third 7, upon arrival High levels detected. Four one sample submitted morning also highly contaminated.4 Suspecting spread areas outside plant, company directed decontamination squad accompany apartment. roommate, who employee awakened monitored. contaminated, although lesser degree than Silkwood. then apartment, finding several rooms, especially high bathroom, kitchen, bedroom. 6 level apartment many personal belongings destroyed. sent Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory extent vital body organs. work 13. That night, accident. 908, 912 (CA10 1981). 7 Karen's father, present his capacity estate. common stipulated came expressly rejected Kerr-McGee's allegation intentionally removed effort embarrass company. specific findings fact respect cause 8 course trial, presented tended show always comply regulations. One witness conceded amount unaccounted during question exceeded permissible limits.5 485 F.Supp. 566, 586 (W.D.Okl.1979). An official testified he feel conforming "as low reasonably achievable" standard.6 Ibid. may have permitted unrestricted area residence. complied most serious personnel exposures exceed requirements result significant health addition, introduced report investigation determined only throughout failure maintain record dates two 9 trial court shown occurred employment. deciding injury claim covered Oklahoma's Workers' Compensation provides sole remedy accidental Okla.Stat. tit. 85 12 (1981). Instead, claims alternative theories strict liability negligence.7 10 explaining evaluated determining awarded: 11 "[T]he give sake example way punishment, if finds defendant defendants been guilty oppression, fraud, malice, presumed. . "Exemplary limited cases where direct malice gross negligence. They allowed recklessness wanton disregard another's rights evil will inferred. If grossly wantonly reckless exposing others dangers, holds him intended natural consequences acts, treats willful wrong." 603 (W.D.Okl.1979) (Appendix). 13 favor $505,000 ($500,000 $5,000 property damage) $10,000,000. entered judgment against amount. 14 moved n.o.v. new trial. denying motion, 566 (W.D.Okl.1979), contention compliance damages. noted "had duty part 20 Title Code Regulations release 'as achievable.' Compliance cannot demonstrated merely through control escaped absolute amount." Id., 585. Therefore, concluded, "inconsistent [with congressional design] negligent, conduct." 15 renewed contentions greater success before Tenth Circuit. court, decision split panel, affirmed part. first recovery controlled exclusively workers' compensation thus $500,000 injuries. damage portion award, holding applied theory circumstances case. statutes "punitive awarded case," id., 923. 16 reaching conclusion adopted broad preemption analysis. "any competes substantially AEC hazards associated plants handling material" impermissible. Because "[a] judicial exemplary punishment bad practices deter future involving less intrusive acts state," awards 17 appealed, seeking review Appeals' ruling award. We probable postponed consideration jurisdictional issue until argument merits. 721, 74 948 II 18 address issue. empowered appeals "by [if] statute [is] [the] invalid repugnant Constitution ." argues invalidated grounds 23 (1981),8 necessarily unconstitutional, least contends, confines disagree. 19 keeping policy authorizing strictly construed, Perry Education Ass'n Local Educators' Ass'n, 948, 953, 794 (1983); Fornaris Ridge Tool Co., 400 41, n. 1, 91 156, 157 27 174 (1970), we consistently distinguished struck down constitutional exercise without reference statute. former come scope 1254(2)'s grant. Malone White Motor Corp., 435 497, 499, 98 1185, 1187, 55 (1978); Dutton Evans, 74, 76 6, 210, 213 (1970). latter do not. supra, U.S., S.Ct., 953; Hanson Denckla, 357 235, 244, 1228, 1234, 1283 (1958); Wilson 327 474, 482, 66 663, 667, 90 L.Ed. 793 (1946).9 See County Arlington United States, 669 925 (CA4 1982) cert. denied, 23, 39 (1982); Minnesota Hoffman, 543 1198 (CA8 1976), denied sub nom Alexander, 430 977, 97 1672, 52 373 (1977). into second category. case." F.2d, mention parties contest defend their briefs. While itself down, Cf. 953. our 1254(2) jurisdiction.10 21 Nevertheless, below addressed important; affects states' traditional citizens government's express desire power. treating statement petition certiorari, do, 2103, grant reach merits ruling. III 22 As recently observed can general ways. evidences occupy field, falling preempted. 1722; Fidelity Savings Loan de la Cuesta, 458 141, 153, 102 3014, 3022, 73 664 Rice Santa Fe Elevator 331 218, 230, 67 1146, 1152, 1447 (1947). entirely displaced matter question, still actually is, impossible Florida Lime Avocado Growers, Inc. Paul, 132, 142-143, 83 1210, 1217-1218, 248 (1963), stands obstacle accomplishment full purposes Congress, Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 67, 61 399, 404, 581 (1941). Electric, 1722. contends consider each these turn. examination statutory convinced "Congress government radiological involved construction operation plant." 1723. Thus, "the entire concerns, except powers ceded states." 1726. 24 dispositive Noting "regulation effectively asserted form preventive relief," San Diego Building Trades Council Garmon, 359 236, 247, 79 773, 780, 775 (1959), submits punishes deters prohibited field. prompted coupled actions portions convinces far it. 25 recounted "[u]ntil 1954 use, ownership technology remained monopoly." year, legislation provided private involvement Aug. 30, ch. 1073, 68 Stat. 919, amended, V). retained manner occurred. particular, (the predecessor NRC) "exclusive license transfer, delivery, receipt, acquisition, possession materials." 1724. 2014, (e), (z), (aa), 2061-2064, 2071-2078, 2091-2099, 2111-2114 26 1959 "clarify respective responsibilities byproduct, source, special 2021(a)(1). S.Rep. 870, 86th Cong. 1st Sess. 8-12 U.S.Code Admin.News 1959, p. 2872. turn adopt suitable program. retain disposal material determines should, potential thereof, disposed Commission." 2021(c)(4). therefore materials.11 prohibit premised belief qualified what type complex area. informed AEC, continued materials technical considerations complexity likely prepared deal foreseeable future." H.R.Rep. 1125, Cong., (1959). nothing more, concern inability formulate effective foreclosure conditioning arguably disallow resort intention providing remedies. Indeed, indication seriously considered precluding 1959. silence takes added significance light persons conduct. difficult would, comment, remove all recourse illegal Construction Workers Laburnum 347 656, 663-664, 833, 836-838, 1025 (1954). 29 More importantly, discussion concerning available. After enacted, companies contemplating entry industry expressed potentially bankrupting suits incident. result, 1957 passed amendment Pub.L. 85-256, 71 576 (1957). facilities required obtain up $60 million financial protection suits. $500 liability, resulting $560 limit 30 Although apply situation,12 preceding enactment subsequent amendment13 accidents free utilize existing Joint Committee Report original version explained follows: 31 "Since interference likelihood responsibility together indemnity. At prohibition making payments courts prorating proceeds available." 296, 85th (1957), 1957, pp. 1803, 1810. 32 H.Rep. 435, (1957); 1605, 89th 2d (1966), 1966, 3201. 33 clearly working assumption absence action, apply.14 true fully 1965: 34 "The contained provisions improve AEC's procedures licensees. manifested continuing necessity assuring effectiveness national program protecting employees public inclusion reflected intimate existed prevention indemnity legislation." 649, 4-5 (1965). 35 well need regulation. fact, But, time, establish normal [was] maintained." 22, 1823. 36 NRC's set foreclose reaffirmed 1966. 1966 respond concerns about adequacy See, e.g., 650, event "extraordinary occurrence",15 waive fault, charitable governmental immunity defense, limitations defense years. 2210(n)(1). Again, importance much substance, assumptions based. 37 Describing amendment, stated: 38 "By requiring agree defenses defendants' restricted; concomitantly, extent, enlarged. Just whom fixed What subsection authorize [NRC] require they might otherwise assert." Cong 3226. Similarly, outlined incidents extraordinary occurrences, "Absent determination [that 'extraordinary occurrence'], claimant exactly today law—including, perhaps, benefit applicable provides." 3212. surrounding notwithstanding authority. For example, suggestion replace remedies, noting displacement engender great opposition. Hearings Proposed Amendments Relating Waivers Defense, Cong.2d 31, (1966); 6-9. already citizens, concerns. Other comments made similarly available.16 40 focuses differences compensatory asserts that, most, allow former. argument, misdirected inquiry awards. Punitive long force unless supplanted. burden IBEW Foust, 442 42, 53, 99 2121, 2128, 60 698 (1979) (BLACKMUN, J., concurring). Yet, unable To contrary, issued insurance themselves contemplate law.17 41 sum, whatever take, incidents. No doubt tension nevertheless own liability. But understand done years stand concepts tolerate them. less. negligence sense threatened conform standards, consequence something quite willing accept. suggest never instance preempt insofar perceive frustration B 43 curiae, scheme, violated. 2282 appear impossible. 44 frustrates purposes." 2013(d). "[t]here little primary was, continues be, promotion power." 1731. accomplished 'at costs' ". ----. provision cited goes developed utilized consistent "with public." promoting stated 45 reject submission A, second-guess conclusion.18 IV 46 conclude remand reassert opinion, including jury's supported sufficient excessive. reversed, remanded proceedings opinion. 47 ordered. 48 BLACKMUN, MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 49 I join POWELL's dissent add my believe, demonstrate incompatibility last Term Cons. Dev. 190, case, compelled espouses today. 50 explains fundamental incongruity result. acknowledges operations largely technological expertise necessary Ante, 250-251. Yet concludes substantial licensee follow regards procedures. recognizes paradox disposition, blames irrationality Congress. Then, humility, duty-bound dictates institutional modesty transfer blame today's injects Court, view, tortures earlier decisions and, wreaks havoc structure carefully created. 51 analytic framework just year ago Gas. precise 921, 2011 seq. V), California's condition California State's plant's wastes. Two proper disposition First, complete: 53 "State States. occupies identifiable it, here, test 'the act regulated Act,' " 1726 (footnote omitted). 54 important analysis Despite upheld recognized operations, 1718-1719, economic. prevent investments become white elephants due inadequate waste storage facilities. meant deprive make economic power, pre-empted. teaching safety. forth compel now upheld, prospect paying large fine—in $10 million—for operate particular obvious precautions follow. dispute, moreover, purpose. "private levied juries." Gertz Robert Welch, Inc., 418 323, 350, 94 2997, 3012, 789 (1974). Smith Wade, 1625, 1636, 632 (1983) ("[D]eterrence egregious damages"). court's instructions damages: 56 allowance rests principle offender society, restraint transgressor warning commission offenses App. Juris. Statement 112a. 57 sought day-to-day factual how occurred; judge refused instruction intentional infliction, herself. ante, 243; 915. abundantly clear, therefore, operating Kerr-McGee. Authority so, precisely Gas.1 virtually every contaminated.2 enforcement arsenal—including criminal sanctions—to police standards.3 conducted complete contamination, found justify imposing fine.4 fashion fine meet appropriate plutonium.5 58 imposed 100 times maximum single apparently largest ever imposed.6 occupation compels 59 noted, course, produces opposite compensating victims affect licensee's calculus. Compensatory indirect impact daily facility. crucial distinction safety, whereas compensate victims. victims, inconceivable leave all,7 comfortably accommodates—indeed compels—the are. Differences calculating further distinguish two, highlight victim eligible calculated victim's injury. Whatever imposes, remains continue pay results. presumably mind administrative schemes intact. rely solely setting juries place complement implicit contrast, adherence safety—and standard. worth defendant" "amount deterring defendant, committing similar enables enforce exacting Were standard, continuous law—an too small serve receive increasingly sanctions suits, obtained. point, incredible regulations, intact different fines. shows 62 eliminates "tension" concedes creates. faithful Government's balance ensuring safe Power Reactor Electricians, 367 396, 81 1529, 1533, 924 (1961) ("the safeguarding [public] belongs Commission"). preserves ability avoids anomaly activity complicated experts. Sess., (1959) future"). 63 reasons rejects above opts instead admits creates "tension liability." 256. respect, struggling Without explanation, accident seek dispute. compensated operator given. 64 obfuscation appears outset analysis, rhetorically: 65 "[T]here [state law] 251 (emphasis supplied). passage, responds made. Respondent attributed callous compensation. imply heartless. real issue; well. source confusion petitioner must lead effect.8 Petitioner placed bleak—though contrived—choice "all recourse" pointed reason treatment required; indeed, drawn. irony approach Gas, decided ago, drew line find. critical dispute motivated non-safety disagreement better 69 seems obscured focusing role awarding State, Oklahoma, showing negligence.9 care, argued willingness being suggested 70 surprising, jury-imposed promote avoid causes. licensees, liability.10 hold liable causes, regardless fault. chooses relaxed negligence—the simply bear. effect, uses subsidizes expense numbers citizenry let reduce hardly support notion set—either law—standards care higher secure Having focused wrong issue, seeks relies heavily 576. occurrence obtain. perceived unavailability unlimited investment projects. system occurrence." three major components: 1) empowers liability; 2) million; 3) sets aggregated (with procedure apportioning million). limit, additional certain occurrence," 72 Price-Anderson's plainly demonstrates occurrence, interfere bill became explained: basic underlying two: Since [i.e., million]. added), passage demonstrate, corpus "state law" application suit 252-254. Such interpretation ignores context statement, variety incongruities fails address. 77 omits quotation passage. makes describes Act; description interferes situations. damages; 1954. bases begs enacted. proponents emphasized proposed pre-empts undoubtedly intrusiveness. assuage minimal intrusion legislation.11 statements uncertain interpret resulted statutes. relevant issue—the 1954—this complete. By using leaves intact, implicitly proves much. Surely concede intend, entertain nuisance enjoin unsafe. trespass effluents position treated undifferentiated 80 itself. million. minimize inconsonant leads anomalous exceeds million, definition, purpose; deterrent justifies paradoxical logical Price-Anderson.12 unavailable Court: passages "there "Federal pre-empt puts absurd 82 dollar limit. situation, prorationing claims. allowed, greatly excess compensation, inequitable, goal implication insisting references ends began, paragraph analysis,13 once 84 conclusion" 258. Not conclusion, asked so. risk repetition, injury; sustained spend concerns." insistence obfuscating change truly us. 86 POWELL, Chief BLACKMUN join, 87 authorizes lay judges judgments safely. predicate heavy approved (NRC)—the agency assure stringent worthy punishment. comes explicitly "preempted" regulations" "expressly 1726.1 authorization state's torts. 88 plaintiff, "regulatory" nature rather compensatory. Circuit case—prior 922 Cir.1981). "no state." 923; Appeals. 89 facts instructive. respondent built AEC. absent job week—from night killed—as states—"in accident." 242. suffered injury,2 temporary permanent, mental distress short period. "actual damages" verdict. Where facility, contested properly view citizen family punish facility.3 instructions. "punish": 92 future."4 93 advised proved "direct negligence." "inferred." causal connection neglect minor witnesses testifying experts—found fault training lack supervision.5 NRC, discharge responsibility, various violations.6 None violations, deemed enough NRC.7 Moreover, investigated physical security months deficiencies. occurred, found. 244; Operations Investigatory 74-09 (December 16, 1974), 5. motion N.O.V. district agreed "escape 585 These conclusions "inferred"—in evidence—from testimony petitioner's experts overall conditions 95 defends awarding—even inferences—of competency sophisticated states: supplanted [T]he allowed." 255. Co.'s holding. 96 Id. face kind preempted, silent issues arise. Shimer, 374, 381-383, 1554, 1559-1561, (1961). reiterated "powers states" added). refer text amendments. bring sweeping exception announced term refusing find party arguing history, found, proving wishes inexplicably shifts prevail considering relevance bear incident, whatever. concern, particularly prevalent experience limited, disasters occur. anticipating concern—of course—was loss Duke Carolina Environmental Study Group, 438 59, 93, 2620, 2640, 595 (1978). secondary, nonetheless enterprise encouraged build anticipated needs nation. With disaster bankrupt utility, sort backed plan desirable 63-65, 2625-2626. summary, aggregate Licensees purchase commercial (approximately million), indemnify remainder. legal occurrence. 65, 2626. neither law.8 "tort includes generally certainly used Price-Anderson. addressing possibility catastrophic availability ordinary concerned "punishment" However bits pieces Act's clear. then, now, entrusted expert comprehensive assess penalties, obligation oversee operations. 101 Even decided, concept safety.9 committed encouraging present.10 commitment economy western democracies—perhaps, democracy itself—depends primarily derived fossil sources. suggests sources inexhaustible. brief shattering 1973 embargo Middle East oil. confirmed wisdom—indeed necessity—of identifying exploiting alternate sources—particularly term. promising identified date generated Public overriding industry. Striking insure task unique professional expertise. detailed created promulgate regulations.11 Those constitute uniform efficiency across country. Northern Minnesota, 447 1143, 1153-1154 (8th Cir.1971), aff'd mem., 405 1035, 1307, (1972). insulated ad hoc, uninformed perhaps biased decision-making.12 reasonable liable, part, occasioned infer persons, selected essentially random, unfocused undefined deterrence. wisely discretion NRC.13 105 disquieting function unauthorized medium. Under accepted negligent malicious, plaintiff wide ranging "expert" leak Ms. "oppression," "fraud," "malice" "wanton reckless[ness]" mentioned inflammatory jury. 278. 106 instruct jury, proper, told decide invalid: 107 "Such you accurate defy human credence, questionable best scientific knowledge, accomplish purpose." Jury Instruction 27. (Emphasis added) 108 Until today, understood lawfully "human credence" presumptively valid ignored. knowing jumble followed14—concluded record, totally ignored court. attaches AEC—the responsible enforcement—investigated 277. C 109 conflict, intend 257. cites regulations—for "adequate remedies" include "award[s] damages". tried explicit "punish" "offender society". Supra, 276, 3. And windfall 110 disarray. longer oversight NRC. Juries unfamiliar competent unlikely, rudimentary comprehension public.15 instructing fraud (see, 276), And, sure standardless freedom ignore prescribed defied "can purpose". 284. 111 spoken April 20, 1983, preemption. 112 113 governance staff—experts controls correctness Today, opens inviting door inferences taken utmost unfair; discourage needed acknowledged affirm employed subsidiary "mere instrumentality" latter. 2073, licenses handle processed Section 2201(b) govern 2, 1970, obtained possess closed 1975. box supposedly impervious processing equipment holes permitting spiked insoluble plutonium, i.e., excreted body. vials. hold-up (plutonium very thorough cleanout), inventory difference (opening closing) 1972-1976 4.4 kilograms. represented .522% 842 kilograms received permits .500%. "persons engaged activities exposures, releases radioactive areas, achievable." CFR 20.1(c) efforts limits specified [in regulations] practicable." terminology significant. Fed.Reg. 33029 (1975). disagreed applicability principles, answer interrogatory negligently answered affirmative. "[i]n breach contract, presumed." Denckla involve 1257 predecessor. close between" 1257. Calero-Toledo Pearson Yacht Leasing 416 675-677 2080, 2087-2088 452 reliance Grace Brethren Church, 457 393, 2498, (1982) misplaced. 1252, construed broadly create "exception minimizing mandatory docket Court." 405, 2506. McLucas DeChamplain, 421 21, 1365, 1371, 699 filed, agreement 2021. had, quantity mass. 2021(b)(4) ed., 2073 protection. 2210(a). protection, 2210(c), limitation applies indemnified. 2210(e). 1977, expire 1967. extended 1965, 89-210, 855, 1975, 94-197, 1111. substantive changes years, notably 89-645, 891. sustaining challenge, echoed assumption, possessed "was vindicate harm visited source." 88, 32, 2638, 2639 occurrence" causing dispersal nuclear, byproduct confinement amounts offsite, substantial, probably offsite offsite." 2014(j). criteria defining located 140.81-140.85 General Counsel Hennessey "[i]t eminently disturbing encountered life property." (1966). amendments laws states. remain unchanged, affected"). Following published policies agreements. reciting waivers contains following provision: Any 140.91, Appendix para. 2(c) 801 Had thought legislation, suggests, didn't don't available, provides. put "a business adversely affect[ ] safely activities." 9991 (1982). policy. Of challenge propriety remand. infra, page. seemed "It impermissible attempt [the powerplant], regulation, directly [Commission's] operation." 19.12 (1974) (requiring education workers radiation); 20.101-20.108 app. (radiation dose individuals restricted areas); 20.202 (use equipment); 20.203 (posting warnings around 20.402 (notification theft materials); 403 radiation). Part terms licenses. 70.23, 70.24, 73.1 (license applicants personnel, equipment, protect sabotage 70.51, 70.53 (nuclear materials). 2271-2284 Criminal conviction violations imprisonment. 2272-2278b, 2284. Attorney injunctive relief stop orders. 2280. 2282. 1980, increased penalty $100,000 per violation; one, day constitutes separate violation. 2282(a). initiate modify, suspend, revoke emergency, immediately. 70.61-70.62 voiding bioassay Motion Dismiss Affirm A17. evidenced calculated: "You size wealth Corporation appropriate, future, acts." 113a. instructed, bound Your conduct, characteristics risks it." 102a. N.Y. Times, 26, col. (largest $850,000). relied States: considerations. almost vacuum; inference judgments." governing strong Brief Appellant 42-43; Reply 11-12. 576, inadequacies administering receiving approval afforded Price-Anderson, assure, entitlement laws, ill-suited problems 2nd which, read context, objective suffer 1810 (Price-Anderson offers practical sound possible hazards") reflect confusion. respondent's explains: [congressional] 257 Unless "adequate" damages—an forward damages—then held: government'." autopsy death 8.8 nanocuries nanocuries. Disagreeing speculated experienced lung cancer chromosome date. types importance. element awarded, finite. sure, illustrates, judgments. guidance physicians, medical records, lost wages, and—where permanent disability occurs—actuarial earnings expectancy. contrast illustrated pre-trial knowledge guide discretion, chose could, well, "consistent proffered reports investigations occurring 1971, 1972, 1973. fire March seepage container September 25, Neither employees. instance. behalf criticized respirators design awareness cancer. evident diligent overseeing lose seven days work, anyone else 17, 1972. instance, maintenance violated breakfast checking signs return, prior breakfast. 9, local, federal, concern. Assuming arguendo assertion correct, local irrelevant. doctrine authorities. 3022. Free Bland, 369 1089, 180 (1962): relative Framers prevail." 666, 1092. advances technology, percentage total electricity produced rose zero 12% 1981. Statistical Abstract 1982-1983, 581; Historical Statistics Vol. II, 95-107. period, recall fatalities Much credit progress go successor, gave enforcing revocation license. 2236, 2280, 2272 2273. recent dramatic increase activities—a influence juries. public's vast destruction weapons—an commonplace demonstrations anti-nuclear groups movements exist, world. Often help civilization proliferation weapons destroy seem unaware countries. Cohen, Most Scientists Don't Join Radiation Phobia, Wall St.J., Nov. 28, ("even educated segments American badly misinformed" industry). currently levy provisions, rules, (Supp. IV, 1980). violation, $25,000. (1976), 96-295 (1980). establishing fines, views monetary achieve 96-1070, 96th 33-34 (1980); 96-176, 23-24 (1979), 2216. invited condemn instructions, purporting "bound follow," 10,000 words long, pages printed appendix. repetitive, conflicting, confused panel lawyers. unlikely juror idea called apply. House misgivings nevertheless, untrained perceptions prejudices.

Classification Label: 8