Legal Document

505 U.S. 377 112 S.Ct. 2538 120 L.Ed.2d 305 R.A.V., Petitioner,v.CITY OF ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA. No. 90-7675. Argued Dec. 4, 1991. Decided June 22, 1992. Syllabus * After allegedly burning a cross on black family's lawn, petitioner R.A.V. was charged under, inter alia, the St. Paul, Minnesota, Bias-Motivated Crime Ordinance, which prohibits display of symbol one knows or has reason to know "arouses anger, alarm resentment in others basis race, color, creed, religion gender." The trial court dismissed this charge ground that ordinance substantially overbroad and impermissibly content-based, but State Supreme Court reversed. It rejected overbreadth claim because phrase others" had been construed earlier state cases limit ordinance's reach "fighting words" within meaning Court's decision Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 568, 572, 62 766, 769, 86 L.Ed. 1031 category expression unprotected by First Amendment. also concluded not content-based it narrowly tailored serve compelling governmental interest protecting community against bias-motivated threats public safety order. Held: is facially invalid under Pp. 381-396. (a) This bound court's construction as reaching only expressions constituting words." However, R.A.V.'s request scope formulation be modified, thereby invalidating overbroad, need reached, since unconstitutionally speech subjects addresses. P. 381. (b) A few limited categories speech, such obscenity, defamation, fighting words, may regulated their constitutionally proscribable content. these are entirely invisible Constitution, government regulate them based hostility, favoritism, towards nonproscribable message they contain. Thus regulation may, however, underinclusive, addressing some offensive instances leaving other, equally offensive, ones alone, so long selective prescription content, there no realistic possibility ideas afoot. 382-390. (c) ordinance, even Court, unconstitutional imposes special prohibitions those speakers who express views disfavored "race, At same time, permits displays containing abusive invective if addressed topics. Moreover, its practical operation goes beyond mere actual viewpoint, discrimination. Displays do invoke would seemingly useable ad libitum arguing favor racial, etc. tolerance equality, opponents. Paul's desire communicate minority groups does condone "group hatred" justify selectively silencing 391-393. (d) discrimination reflected rest upon very reasons why particular class at issue proscribable, aimed "secondary effects" Renton Playtime Theatres, Inc., 475 41, 106 925, 89 29, for any other sort threaten censorship ideas. In addition, content justified ensuring basic human rights historically discriminated against, an favored topics have precisely beneficial effect. 393-396. 464 N.W.2d 507 (Minn.1991), reversed remanded. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion REHNQUIST, C.J., KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, JJ., joined. WHITE, filed concurring judgment, BLACKMUN O'CONNOR, joined, STEVENS, joined except Part I-A. BLACKMUN, judgment. I WHITE Justice SCALIA Court. 1 predawn hours 21, 1990, several teenagers assembled crudely-made taping together broken chair legs. They then burned inside fenced yard family lived across street from house where staying. Although conduct could punished number laws,1 two provisions respondent city Paul chose (then juvenile) Minn.Legis.Code § 292.02 (1990), provides: 2 "Whoever places private property symbol, object, appellation, characterization graffiti, including, to, Nazi swastika, reasonable grounds arouses gender commits disorderly shall guilty misdemeanor." 3 Petitioner moved dismiss count therefore Amendment.2 granted motion, Minnesota That petitioner's because, prior cases, see, e.g., re Welfare S.L.J., 263 412 (Minn.1978), modifying amounts words," i.e., "conduct itself inflicts injury tends incite immediate violence . .," 507, 510 (Minn.1991) (citing Chapli- nsky (1942)), reached "that first amendment protect." N.W.2d, 511. view, "the means toward accomplishing order." Ibid. We certiorari, 501 ----, 111 2795, 115 969 (1991). 4 construing we given court. Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates Tourism Co. Rico, 478 328, 339, 2968, 2975-2976, 92 266 (1986); York Ferber, 458 747, n. 24, 102 3348, 3361, 73 1113 (1982); Terminiello Chicago, 337 1, 69 894, 895-896, 93 1131 (1949). Accordingly, accept authoritative statement reaches constitute Chaplinsky. 510-511. his amici urge us modify formulation, "substantially overbroad," Broadrick Oklahoma, 413 601, 610, 2908, 2914-2915, 37 830 (1973). find unnecessary consider issue. Assuming, arguendo, all doctrine, nonetheless conclude otherwise permitted solely addresses.3 5 Amendment generally prevents proscribing Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 309-311, 60 900, 905-906, 84 1213 (1940), expressive conduct, Texas Johnson, 491 397, 406, 109 2533, 2540, 105 342 (1989), disapproval expressed. Content-based regulations presumptively invalid. Simon & Schuster, Inc. Members N.Y. Victims Bd., 502 ---- - 501, 116 476 (1991) id., S.Ct., (KENNEDY, judgment); Consolidated Edison Public Serv. Comm'n N.Y., 447 530, 536, 100 2326, 2332-2333, 65 319 (1980); Police Dept. Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 95, 2286, 2289-2290, 33 212 (1972). From 1791 present, our society, like free civilized societies, restrictions areas, "of slight social value step truth benefit derived clearly outweighed order morality." Chaplinsky, supra, U.S., 762. recognized freedom speech" referred include disregard traditional limitations. See, Roth United States, 354 476, 77 1304, 1498 (1957) (obscenity); Beauharnais Illinois, 343 250, 72 725, 96 919 (1952) (defamation); ("fighting words"); see judgment). Our decisions 1960's narrowed categorical exceptions Times Sullivan, 376 254, 710, 11 686 (1964); Gertz Robert Welch, 418 323, 94 2997, 41 789 (1974); Milkovich Lorain Journal Co., 497 13-17, 110 2695, Miller California, 15, 2607, 419 (1973), approach remained important part jurisprudence. 6 sometimes said "not area protected speech," Roth, 483, 1308; Beauharnais, 266, 735; 571-572, 768-769; "protection extend" them, Bose Corp. Consumers Union 466 485, 504, 104 1949, 1961, 80 (1984); Sable Communications Cal., FCC, 492 115, 124, 2829, 2835, (1989). Such statements must taken context, more literally true than occasionally repeated shorthand characterizing obscenity "as being all," Sunstein, Pornography Amendment, 1986 Duke L.J. 589, 615, 146. What mean areas can, consistently with (obscenity, etc.)—not made vehicles unrelated distinctively Thus, proscribe libel; make further libel critical government. recently acknowledged distinction 763, 3357-3358, where, upholding York's child pornography law, expressly "question here censoring literary theme. ." See 775, 3364 (O'CONNOR, concurring) ("As drafted, statute attempt suppress communication ideas"). 7 surely establish proposition obstacle whatsoever expression, "may [them] freely," post, 400 (WHITE, council enact prohibiting legally obscene works contain criticism or, indeed, endorsement simplistic, all-or-nothing-at-all protection odds common sense jurisprudence well.4 most "de minimis " ibid., respects "worthless undeserving constitutional protection," 401; quite indeed. "no ideas," essential exposition ideas." 769 (emphasis added). 8 instance can feature (e.g., obscenity) another opposition government) commonplace, found application many contexts. held, example, nonverbal activity banned action entails, expresses—so flag violation outdoor fires punishable, whereas dishonoring not. 406-407, 2540-2541. Barnes Glen Theatre, 2456, 2460-2461, 504 (plurality); 2465-2466 (SCALIA, 2468-2469 (SOUTER, States O'Brien, 391 367, 376-377, 88 1673, 1678-1679, 20 672 (1968). Similarly, upheld "time, place, manner" restrictions, "justified without reference speech." Ward Rock Against Racism, 781, 791, 2746, 2753-2754, 661 (1989) (internal quotation marks omitted); Clark Community Creative Non-Violence, 468 288, 298, 3065, 3071, 82 221 (1984) (noting O'Brien test differs little standard applied manner restrictions). And just power noncontent element noise) entail element; also, elements. 9 exclusion simply that, purposes features words are, despite verbal character, essentially "nonspeech" communication. Fighting thus analogous noisy sound truck: Each is, Frankfurter recognized, "mode Niemotko Maryland, 340 268, 282, 71 325, 333, 95 267 (1951) (Frankfurter, result); both used convey idea; neither has, itself, As truck, words: use hostility—or favoritism—towards underlying Compare Frisby Schultz, 487 474, 108 2495, 101 420 (1988) (upholding, facial challenge, content-neutral ban targeted residential picketing) Carey Brown, 455, (1980) (invalidating picketing exempted labor picketing).5 10 concurrences describe setting forth new principle prohibition cannot "underinclusiv[e]," 402 judgment)—a "absolutism" whereby "within 'proscribable' either (STEVENS, easy target concurrences' own invention. "underinclusiveness" limitation "content discrimination" State's speech. There problem whatever, (and forms expression) certain media markets, although "underinclusive," discriminate Communications, 124-126, 2835-2836 (upholding 47 U.S.C. 223(b)(1) (1988), telephone communications). Even assert requires absolute. applies differently context fully rationale general prohibition, after all, "rais[es] specter Government effectively drive viewpoints marketplace," 508; Leathers Medlock, 499 1438, 1444, 113 494 (1991); FCC League Women Voters 364, 383-384, 3106, 3119-3120, 278 2333; 95-98, 2289-2292. But among various often pose threat. 12 When consists entire significant danger idea viewpoint exists. reason, having adjudged neutral enough support protection, form class. To illustrate: might choose prohibit patently prurience—i.e., involves lascivious sexual activity. prohibit, includes political messages. Kucharek Hanaway, 902 F.2d 513, 517 (CA7 1990), cert. denied, 498 713, 702 Federal criminalize directed President, 18 871—since outside (protecting individuals fear violence, disruption engenders, threatened will occur) force when person President. Watts 394 705, 707, 1399, 1401, 22 664 (1969) validity 871 "overwhelmin[g] [the] Chief Executive allowing him perform duties interference physical violence"). President mention policy aid inner cities. take final example (one mentioned 421-422), price advertising industry others, risk fraud characteristics commercial justifies depriving full Virginia Pharmacy Bd. Citizens Consumer Council, 425 748, 771-772, 1817, 1830-1831, 48 346 (1976)) view greater there. Cf. Morales Trans World Airlines, 2031, 119 157 (1992) (state airline advertising); Ohralik Ohio Bar Assn., 436 447, 98 1912, 56 444 (1978) lawyer advertising). depicts men demeaning fashion, L.A. Times, Aug. 8, 1989, section p. 6, col. 1. 13 Another valid according differential treatment content-defined subclass happens associated 48, 929, 29 (1986) (quoting, emphasis, 771, 1830); Young American Mini 427 50, 71, 34, 2440, 2453, 49 (1976) 80-82, 2457-2458 (Powell, concurring); Barnes, 2469-2471 could, permit live performances involving minors. circumstances violate laws (a law treason, violated telling enemy nation's defense secrets), subcategory swept up incidentally rather 2460 FTC Superior Trial Lawyers 493 411, 425-432, 768, 776-780, 107 851 (1990); 1678-1679. sexually derogatory produce Title VII's employment practices, 42 2000e-2; CFR 1604.11 242; §§ 1981, 1982. Where acts shielded merely discriminatory philosophy. 14 These bases refute selectivity restriction "even arguably 'conditioned sovereign's agreement what speaker intend say.' Metromedia, San Diego, 453 490, 555, 2882, 2917, 800 (1981) dissenting part) (citation omitted). well. Indeed, validate (where totally issue) necessary identify "neutral" basis, nature official suppression (We think stand way motion pictures blue-eyed actresses.) Save limitation, address leave alone. 342-343, 2977-2978.6 II 15 Applying principles unconstitutional. others," symbols amount remaining, unmodified terms clear insult, provoke "on invective, matter how vicious severe, permissible unless specified Those wish connection ideas—to affiliation, union membership, homosexuality—are covered. impose subjects. ----; Arkansas Writers' Project, Ragland, 481 221, 229-230, 1722, 1727-1728, 209 (1987). 16 operation, moreover, discrimination, words—odious racial epithets, example—would prohibited proponents views. themselves religion, gender—aspersions person's mother, usable placards speaker's One hold sign saying, "antiCatholic bigots" misbegotten; "papists" insult religion." authority license side debate fight freestyle, while requiring follow Marquis Queensbury Rules. 17 here, emphasized, persons (which met requirements Equal Protection Clause); rather, (as repeatedly emphasized) messages "bias-motivated" hatred particular, case, "based virulent notions supremacy." 508, wholeheartedly agree "[i]t responsibility, obligation, diverse communities confront whatever appear," confrontation consist limitations brief asserts meet city's needs content-specific measure aspect "is condoned majority." Brief Respondent 25. point majority preferences expressed fashion Despite fact acknowledge group hatred, STEVENS suggests "fundamentally misreads" ordinance. Post, 433. directed, he claims, "injur[ies]" "qualitatively different" injuries. 424. word-play. makes fear, dishonor, produced distinct nothing caused distinctive idea, conveyed message. evaded easily. obvious arouse "anger, gender" hostility characteristics. concedes "racial, religious, gender-specific symbols" "a cross, swastika instrumentality import." 8. argued Juvenile "[t]he fact, Ordinance attempts legislate." Memorandum Ramsey County Attorney Honorable Charles A. Flinn, Jr., dated July 13, 89-D-1231 (Ramsey Cty. Ct.), reprinted App. C-1. 19 comes specific discussed earlier, nor exception assuredly fall (here, words) proscribable. explained 386, categorically excluded communicates embodies particularly intolerable socially unnecessary) mode expressing wishes convey. singled out especially expression—it not, selected threatening opposed obnoxious) manner. Rather, proscribed ing gender, religious intolerance. Selectivity creates seeking handicap alone render invalid, comments concessions case elevate certainty. argues mentioned, allows (1986). According intended, impact [sic ] right accused," "protect victimization vulnerable membership against." 28. assuming completely proscribes, regulates, ever considered secondary effects Renton. Boos Barry, 485 312, 1157, 99 333 "[l]isteners' reactions type 'secondary effects' Renton." Id., 321, 1163-1164. "The emotive audience effect.' 334, 1170-1171. (opinion Brennan, J.).7 21 hardly discussion permitting suspicion afford ample for, confirmation of, suspicion. Finally, defend conclusion regulates ideological interests. Specifically, helps ensure members subjected including peace wish. doubt interests compelling, promote them. "danger censorship" presented statute, (1991), weapon employed "necessary asserted [compelling] interest," Burson Freeman, 1846, 1852, (plurality) added); Perry Education Assn. Local Educators' 460 37, 45, 103 948, 954-955, 74 794 (1983). existence adequate alternatives "undercut[s] significantly" 329, 1168, casting considerable government's protestations justification accurate description purpose effect law," Burson, 1859 concurring). Boos, 324-329, 1165-1168; cf. Minneapolis Star Tribune Comm'r Revenue, 575, 586-587, 1365, 1372-1373, 75 295 dispositive question therefore, whether reasonably achieve interests; plainly An topics, served displaying council's biases out.8 forbids. politicians entitled hostility—but through imposing unique (however benightedly) disagree. 23 Let mistake about belief someone's front reprehensible. sufficient disposal prevent behavior adding fire. 24 judgment reversed, remanded proceedings inconsistent opinion. 25 ordered. whom O'CONNOR join, joins I(A), 26 should ends 27 easily decided contours established holding, argues, fatally criminalizes II, infra. Instead, "find[ing] unnecessary" questions review,1 ante, 381, holds never briefed parties before serious departures teaching plurality (1992), five Justices present case. 28 ordinarily eager abandon precedents. Twice past month, declined overturn longstanding controversial law. Allied Signal, Director, Division Taxation, 2251, --- (1992); Quill North Dakota, 1904, 91 (1992). each briefing issue, opportunity apprise change precedents, invoking stare decisis. 2261; Corp., 1915-1916. casts aside long-established doctrine adopts untried theory. judicious proceeding, reasoning result transparently wrong. 30 31 stated falling lacks values designed protect Constitution affords expression. (1942), clearest possible terms: 32 "There well-defined classes prevention punishment thought raise Constitutional problem. well observed utterances ideas, 769. ). 34 concedes, held discrete For instance, individual falsely shouts "fire" crowded theatre Schenck 249 47, 52, 39 247, 249, 63 470 (1919). pornography, 764, 3358, 20, 2612, (1973); 484-485, 1308-1309, (1957). "[l]eaving considerations officials [and figures] target, libelous publication Constitution." 3358 (citations 35 All based. apply worthless society. 768-769. departed principle, emphasizing confines [these] classification[s], evil restricted overwhelmingly outweighs interests, any, stake, process case-by-case adjudication required." 763-764, 3358-3359; Bigelow Virginia, 421 809, 819, 2222, 2231, 44 600 (1975). provided principled focused distinguishing between freely showing need.2 36 Today, announces Courts did 1308. 383, citing 735, (1952); 1961; submits "must context" "literally true." Ante, 383. contrary, meant said: firmly entrenched reviewed guarantees time ratification concluded, "[i]n light history, apparent unconditional phrasing intended every utterance." 482-483, 38 today, points "[n]othing precedents warrant[ing] tradition." 1860 2261. Nevertheless, protects narrow protection—at least extent lawmakers strictly distinctions expressed." 386. Should want now words. borrow phrase, "Such well." 384. evil, treat subset violating Amendment; definition protection. 40 majority's observation "quite indeed," 385, answer. exchanging views, rallying supporters, registering protest; inflict injury. Therefore, restrict hate creating driving marketplace. 387. insistence inventing brand underinclusiveness puzzles me.3 redeeming virtue attempting avoid chilling 612, 2915, Osborne Ohio, 495 103, 112, 1691, 1697, Brockett Spokane Arcades, 472 491, 503, 2794, 2801, (1985); 772, 3362, "underbreadth" creation serves desirable function. permits, indeed invites, continuation terms, 768-769, until cures underbreadth catch-all "and subject ordinance." Any contribution holding negative one, necessarily signals intimidation outweigh morality traditionally placed Amendment.4 "debate," 392, legitimates discussion. 43 Furthermore, obscures line (i.e., Amendment) remaining expression). By placing valueless, equal footing discourse deemed greatest value, devalues latter category. 1849-1850; Eu Francisco Democratic Central Comm., 489 214, 222-223, 1013, 1019-1020, 271 B second break precedent, refuses sustain though survive strict scrutiny applicable nevertheless pass review settled 'is drawn end.' Board, 509, (quoting 231, 1728, (1987)). urged majority, "helps ----. promoted treats analysis irrelevant constitutionality legislation: 45 effect." 46 Under drawn, muster object legislation accomplished banning wider appears renunciation review, fundamental tool analysis.5 abandonment inexplicable handed down month ago.6 seven eight participating agreed challenge statute. 198, 1851; 217, 1848 dissenting).7 solicitation votes distribution campaign materials feet entrance polling place. survived regulating electioneering near accomplish goal. 1856-1857. Significantly, places; 1850. plurality, included THE CHIEF JUSTICE types required scrutiny, squarely failed drafted broader, "States adopt problems require exist." 1856 50 direct conflict leaves options violence: (1) sweeping (thereby "regulat[ion] exist); (2) legislate all. 51 Had adopted challenged election nonpolitical characterized "reasonably necessary," 395, place premises.8 52 rejection analysis, offers reasoned discarding time. believe doctrinal revisionism elected party enacting similarly preposterous laws. misguided. 53 Clause rationally related legitimate interest. defamation drew affiliation "an government," unquestionably fail rational review.9 54 Turning does, (but infra ), review. proscribes injure reflects City's harms pressing concerns Nation's painful experience determination reasonable. compelling. 395. C 55 patched argument apparently nonexhaustive list hoc exceptions, viewed confine facts 415 (BLACKMUN, judgment), effort anticipate arise radical revision were give rule decides today's call into making illegal life 871. (per curiam Surely, singling threats, incorporates distinction; indicates disfavors oth ers.10 391. theory, justifying enactment safeguard irrelevant, 57 save engrafted following onto newly announced rule: proscribable." 388. goes, constitutional, "since President." 58 swallows rule. Certainly, [fighting words] [groups discrimination]." 59 communication, category, objectionable 393. Again, confuses restriction; conveys overriding personal imminent ugliest targets falls exception, posits regime "happens 389, encompassing "words ibid.11 simple explanation eagerness craft VII hostile work environment claims suddenly 61 unlawful "because [an] individual's sex, national origin," 2000e-2(a)(1), covering workplace forbid "sexual harassment," "[u]nwelcome advances, requests favors, nature" intimidating, hostile, working environment." 1604.11(a) harassment generally; focuses characterize "disfavored topi[c]" harassment. way, similar condemns "impose[s] subjects." broad uses decide review; cover harassment, harassing Hence, insulate "sexually 'fighting words' practices." 389. close examination. First, keyed presence absence economic quid pro quo, Meritor Savings Bank Vinson, 477 57, 65, 2399, 2404, (1986), victimized worker. Consequently, 394. Second, focus statute's glosses over language governing environment, "incidental" 376, 1678, If relationship broader bring add prefatory concerning generally. 64 third theory deciding concocts catchall unforeseen problems, concern heightened lack decisional "there afoot." 390. demon strated, 401. discards notion out-of-hand. it, confuse Its selection rewrite inexplicable, whole avoided principles. 66 disagree conclusion: grounds. 67 emphasized again heard conceivably situations Court." 2915; 503-504, 2801-2802. defendant prosecuted face activities harm society go unpunished muted." Broadrick, 2916; 169, 8; 3360-3361; Schaumburg Better Environment, 620, 634, 826, 834, Gooding Wilson, 405 518, 521, 1103, 1105, 68 "strong medicine," invoked strike "real, substantial well, judged relation sweep," Broad rick, susceptible partial invalidation. 613, Board Airport Comm'rs Los Angeles Jews Jesus, 482 569, 574, 2568, 2571, 500 "When federal dealing construe limiting construction." 24. Of course, "[a] deal way." Osborne, 113-114, 1698-1699. contends narrowing written, interpreted provision ignore interpretation, instance. Ibid.; Kolender Lawson, 461 352, 355, 1855, 1856, 903 (1983); Hoffman Estates Flipside, Estates, 455 489, 494, 5, 1186, 1191, 362 (1982).12 70 interpretation stricken supplied cure Lewis City Orleans, 130, 132-133, 970, 972, 214 Gooding, 524-525, 1107-1108. looked determining contravened Here, antibias Consideration interpretation. face. unprotected, that—however repugnant—is relied Amendment's protective sphere: "imminent lawless action," Brandenburg 395 444, 449, 1827, 1830, 430 (1969), "fighting" erred consequently rendered overbroad. Chaplinsky—words "which utterance tend breach peace." far identifying inflicted sought regulate. (tracking ordinance) censors create ethnic, bias." understand ruled "by utterance" causes resentment." clear, generalized strip hurt feelings, offense, unprotected. Eichman, 496 310, 319, 2410, 287 409, 414, 2541, 2544, (1989); Hustler Magazine, Falwell, 46, 55-56, 876, 881-882, (1988); Pacifica Foundation, 438 726, 745, 3026, 3038, 1073 (1978); Hess Indiana, 414 105, 107-108, 326, 328-329, 303 Cohen 403 1780, 1785-1786, 284 (1971); Street York, 576, 592, 1354, 1365-1366, 572 (1969); "[c]riminal statutes scrutinized care; application." Houston Hill, 451, 459, 2502, 2508, 398 (1987) criminal resentment, Lewis, 132, 972.13 III 76 disregarded providing coherent replacement arid, doctrinaire driven frequently irresistible impulse judges tinker mischievous best lower courts. join folly 78 regret done possibilities: precedent future Either disheartening. 79 great (setting logic heads), seems approach, inevitably relax level out, weakens protections accorded scant. reality provide cigarette customarily forbidden categorizing, reduce board. sad satisfying willing weaken protections. significantly alter jurisprudence, but, instead, regarded aberration—a manipulated whose premise opposed, namely, assaults distracted proper mission temptation "politically correct "cultural diversity," here. opinion, perhaps regrettable. 81 compromised hoodlums minorities homes crosses lawns, preventing people Saint specifically punishing race-based prejudice community. concur 83 I, Conduct risks rules. Lighting fire ammunition dump gasoline storage tank dangerous; severely trash vacant lot. Threatening someone her race beliefs cause severe trauma touch off riot, high disruption; on, say, athletic team. legitimate, reasonable, justifications 85 Because communicative content—a hostility—the raises different questions. Is "overbroad" too much speech? "underbroad" answering questions, my colleagues today wrestle principles: first, "categories [including words'] 'not speech,' second, "[c]ontent-based [of expression] invalid." 382 (Opinion Court). opinions maxims, has—quite rightly—adhered absolutism suggested colleagues. WHITE's write separately suggest allure absolute skewed opinions. 87 Fifty years ago, articulated (1942). have, observes, described 1308, 90 revises approach. rules, "categories" "unprotected," "elements" wholly "proscribable." act, chemical compound, element. act contains element, (nonproscribable) contains. antigovernment obscene, antigovernment. assume concluding initial matter, me something adventure wonderland, concept "obscene anti-government" fantastical. narrow; trier "appea[l] prurient interest, depic[t] describ[e], [and] whole, lac[k] literary, artistic, scientific value." 2614-2615, (1973) "Obscene antigovernment" then, contradiction antigovernment, "lac[k] value" obscene. bolster likening novel conduct. loud Republican Party loud, pro-Republican; flag. analogies inapposite. examples, elements loudness pro-Republican orientation) coexist; ("obscenity") other. mind, unwise unsound highly speculative hypotheticals. am, troubled analysis—namely, Drawing broadly worded dicta, establishes near-absolute matter. rejects "all-or-nothing-at-all" 384, promptly embraces own: "proscribable" holds, all.1 ruling fundamentally misunderstands role status conflicts disrupts well-settled occasion, declared "never permitted," 99, 2292, (1972), overstated. Mosley indicated Chicago's proscription nonlabor per se unconstitutional, demonstrated "clearly disruptive [labor] picketing." 100, 2292. Contrary dicta elsewhere, demonstrate distinctions, inevitable indispensable understanding broadest determined activity: "speech," "fix prices, contracts, false warranties, bets bookies, threaten, [or] extort." Schauer, Categories Amendment: Play Three Acts, Vand.L.Rev. 265, 270 (1981). Whether competitors Sherman Act Noerr-Pennington doctrine2 hinges agreement. advocacy impermissible incitation crime depends, occurs, exactly say." 66, 2450, (plurality opinion); Musser Utah, 100-103, 399-401, 562 (1948) (Rutledge, dissenting). Mine Workers Pennington, 381 657, 1585, 626 (1965); Eastern Railroad Presidents Conference Noerr Motor Freight, 365 127, 523, (1961). Likewise, "unprotected" determined, part, magazine gesture word, photograph fixed (1964), Dun Bradstreet, Greenmoss Builders, 749, 2939, 593 (1985), depends matter: matters receives scarcely predicated content: premised assumption difference. Consistent premise, zoning ordinances movie theaters films shown. opinion), broadcast indecent Lehman Shaker Heights, 2714, 770 (1974) advertising, buses. ,S.Ct. employees, concerned partisan matters. Trade Commission misleading labeling, Jacob Siegel FTC, 327 608, 758, 888 (1946), National Labor Relations Board's employer's election-related NLRB Gissel Packing 616-618, 1918, 1942-1943, 547 (1969). advertisements cigarettes, 1331-1340,3 cigars; bus advertising; monitor lawyers, (1978), doctors. involved content—precisely invalidates today. unavoidably based, "presumptively examples demonstrate, nearly total dictum suggests. Disregarding vast body overstatement Amendment—namely, contorts fabric created rough hierarchy Core occupies highest, position; nonobscene, explicit second-class expression; receive Assuming last certainly afforded core Yet Packer Corp 285 273, 643 (1932) (Brandeis, J.) advertisement cigarettes billboards street-car placards). that.4 Perversely, gives Congress passengers buses advertisements, ironic unregulated "union homosexuality." turns head: Communication once still proscribed) speech—and possibly 191, 195, 196, Perhaps recognizes perversities, quickly extended regulations. states "[w]hen pivotal passage, writes 97 "applies 387, belies claim. strikes above, self-description inapt: provides currently opaque set (all threats) (threats President) likely "fear violence," "disruption," "violence." Precisely reasoning, compels constitutional. Just determine consequences Council target's threats. judgment—that gender-based qualitatively eminently realistic. Next, [commercial speech] .)" "greater" industries. demonstrates "[O]ne justifies" Certainly legislature legal trade medical impossible reconcile recognition valid." 392 deleted). "certain groups" (for elderly) (that elderly injured nonelderly). minors minors) obtaining publications. Ginsberg 390 629, 1274, 195 determined—reasonably fighting-word injuries defined ("certain groups") (injuries gender") difference: legislature's neutral, distinction. sum, central ruling—that invalid"—has simplistic appeal, worse, extends overstated hitherto and, doing so, wreaks havoc undermine Stated directly, position withstand scrutiny. I-A reservations "categorical approach" concerns, noted occasions, 778, 3365-3366, (1982) lead response unsatisfying. Admittedly, appeal: not—the safe harbors governments alike. sacrifices subtlety clarity am convinced, ultimately unsound. fits poorly complex Few dividing lines straight unwavering, efforts categorization rise fuzzy boundaries. definitions "obscenity," Marks 188, 990, 996, 260 (1977) part), "public forum," Postal Service Greenburgh Civic Assns., 114, 126-131, 2676, 2683-2686, (1981); 136-140, 2688-2691 (Brennan, 147-151, 2694-2696 (Marshall, dissenting); 152-154, 2696-2698 dissenting) debating forum"), illustrate quest certainty subcategories destined fail. seriously importance context. legitimacy context.5 Whether, picture sentence abstract, setting, use, audience. legislatures nonobscene art, documentary behavioral psychiatric device," protection; always consideration context." 3366 Smith 431 291, 311-321, 1756, 1769-1774, 324 sweeps declares sensing limits all-or-nothing less suggest. intermediate speech) geographic (public fora, nonpublic fora) varying levels stringently delimited While "[l]ibelous [are] (1952), rulings (1974), qualified narrowly. (1987); (1971). restraint [regulation] purely advertising," Valentine Chrestensen, 316 54, 920, 921, 1262 repudiated (1976). short, history largely evolution, believe, unworkable "protected" futile. My faults persuades sets foregoing suggests, Unlike infirm invalid; unlike subtle considers arguendo does) selective, subject-matter Not alike; recognize others. reduced formula, factors character. editorial importance," 375-376, 3114-3115, (1984), "First protectio[n] 'at zenith.' Meyer Grant, 486 425, 1886, 1894, (1988). comparison, "commercial 340, 2976, "society's [sexually films] different, lesser magnitude [its] untrammeled debate." 70, 2452; (1978). character weighs status. noted, freer hand restricting written spoken word." "[a]ny assessment precise employer relations account dependence employees employers." 617, 1942. university Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 277-280, 269, 278-280, 440 school Hazelwood School Dist. Kuhlmeier, 484 260, influences analysis. 'captive audience[, one] necessity, choice.' 302, 2717 omitted).6 familiar embodiment relevance "fora" differentiating locations. contested informs evaluation constitutionality. system restraints bearing heavy presumption validity." Bantam Books, 372 58, 631, 639, 584 (1963). More regulations, implicitly distinguished indicating pernicious. "If bedrock finds disagreeable." 2544. "Viewpoint purest form," 62, 964, (1983) dissenting), legislative skew Schacht 63, 1555, 1559, (1970). "Especially debatable advantage people, offended." Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 785-786, 1407, 1420-1421, 707 viewpoints, 546-547, 2338, general, viewpoint-based restrictions.7 considering restrictions. 2452-2453, "what [was] stake adult exhibited." dimensions ruling. material presents "confronts citizen privacy home"; complete times broadcast. 748-750, 3039-3041. play multi-faceted conflated dimensions. Whatever doctrines, declare proclaim "content-based" "content-neutral." applying —as does—that Looking activity, things clear. hypothesis bars low-value constitutes [is] [it] "expressive [rather] 2540. (by hypothesis) offense; injury." hypothesis, restricts confrontational potentially violent situations. illustrative. cross-burning case—directed single African-American trapped home—was crude intimidation. sends automatically endow protection.8 expressed, causes. regard, misreads describes "addressed [several] topics," supplied), policing subjects," ibid. "prohibit[ing] addresses." supplied). suggestion, gender," discussions characteristics.9 "one [by on] resembles publications adults. would, widespread unproblematic. distortion carefully implicated. 67, 2450-2451 (emphasizing neutrality observing animated "hostility view" theatres); 745-746, 3038-3039 (stressing "government remain marketplace ideas"); Women's 412-417, 3134-3137 554-555, 2916-2917, part). functional necessity contemporary governance: suggestion viewpoint. intolerance "follow Rules" advocates "fight freestyle." thing. writes: "One 'anti-Catholic bigots' 'papists' 'on religion.' 391-392. true, proves point. asymmetrical. saying "all [religious] bigots misbegotten" misbegotten." signs extremely unlikely), attacks religion" one's tolerance. Conversely words), Muslim hoisting claiming Catholics misbegotten, bar Catholic attacking Muslims. evenhanded. battle intolerance, hurling conflicting sides extend pugilistic metaphor, bans punches "below belt"—by party. debate.10 noteworthy narrow. "hate ban, cross-burnings displays. Rather already open range equality. 'raise marketplace.' burn announce rally supremacy, land, day night, [execution] offends Court) Taken together, persuade vote uphold it. syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 337, 287, 499. carrying penalties. Minn.Stat. 609.713(1) (providing prison terroristic threats); 609.563 (arson) $10,000 fine, depending damaged); 609.595 (Supp.1992) (criminal damage property) year $3,000 property). charged, Count delinquency petition, 609.2231(4) (Supp.1990) (racially motivated assaults). count. 397-398, "fairly included" petition Rule 14.1(a). filings courts below) assertion "violat[es] Amendment," Pet. Cert. i, technical "overbreadth" claim—i.e., parties—but contention him, content-based. component along, defect. 12, 14, 15-16. briefs ineffective boundaries vague, 26, denominating word" Reply 5; ("[The ordinance] vague 'narrowly construed' ") oral argument, counsel reiterated point: "It positions, [punishing others], subcategory, technically, [the picking message, State." Tr. Oral Arg. resting contention, criteria petition. Electric Cooperative Pub. Comm'n, 375, 382, 1905, 1911-1912, Brown Socialist '74 Campaign 459 87, 94, 9, 416, 421, 250 Eddings 104, 113, 869, R. Stern, E. Gressman, S. Shapiro, Practice 361 (6th ed. 1986). government, consequence, Clause. asserts, "be course "legitimate" violates fused acknowledgment make) underlies (1972) (ordinance "appropriate interest" supporting inasmuch content"); (1980). 514, seeks dismissing anti-government "fantastical," 418, believing politics finding obscenity. Unfortunately purveyors obviously false. shockingly hard pornographic model sporting tattoo found, "taken [to] political, value," Anyway, come illustrations "unprotected invalid: illustration one. racist unfortunately, anything "highly hypothetica[l]," 419. disregards "established 415, cites aware none) involved, resolved, Ferber. contrary traditions conclusively resolved envisioned. string "selective content" 421-422. Analysis reveals, begin with, three command 63-73, 2448-2454, 744-748, 3037-3040, (plurality), discuss (1946). event, contents readily concede: presumptive invalidity invariable invalidity, room viewpoint-neutral forums, Lehman, 301-304, 2716-2718; Cornelius NAACP Legal Defense Educational Fund, 473 788, 806, 3439, 3451, 567 respect CSC Letter Carriers, 548, 564-567, 2880, 2889-2891, 796 response. assumes unlikely) described, correlated odious message; "chain causation" "run[s] persuasive component" 2470-2471, "primary" speech—i.e., (or repellant) force. regard Tennessee anti-electioneering Term "logical connection" voter fraud—an inherent borne "long history" "wide-spread time-tested consensus," 206, 208, 1855-1858—the faced "rare case[s]" 211, 1857-1858; 213, mistaken seek convert plurality's passing comment exist," revolutionary source trouble past. J.); 434 J.). certiorari questions: "1. May local 'hate-crime' symbols, property, alarm, vagueness Constitution? "2. Can saved construction, laws, 'imminent action?' i. "[o]nly fairly therein, issues reads expansively appear quoted above. impression briefs, 381-382, 3, approximating Most "reiterat[e]" argument; responded bench. Previously, shown refrain theories pressed passed resort. Illinois Gates, 462 217-224, 2317, 2321-2325, 527 Given threshold jurisdiction rationale. Elec. 1911, preliminary jurisdictional prudential sufficiently weighty "In communications, judicial significance." 504-505, 1961-1962, (1948). assortment attaches claim, truly I(C), (discussing exceptions). suggest, Burning almost 445, 1828, "direct invitation exchange fisticuffs," 2542, infra, applies. relies availability 'undercut[s] significantly' 'necessary interest.' (plurality)). necessary, pointedly deferred choice. 1168. restrictive alternative available. inside-out substituting adequately identified lawmakers. be: fit government; believes 384-385. Earlier Term, struck "Son Sam" accused convicted criminal's income describing deposited escrow account." 504. dissenters complain scrutiny; objected rigorous 1865 concurred "though [as] forum." 1848. fora. settings, 'has fullest urgent application,' 223, 1020, Monitor Patriot Roy, 401 272, 621, 625, (1971)). stating 384-385, 4. relevant challenging 95-99, 2289-2292, linking Fourteenth resort improbable hypothesizes senseless distinctions. distinguishes nonthreatening conflation rarely-used incorporating "speech" elements, (1968), haunt aftermath derive Bookseller's 636, 645, 782 'readily susceptible' limitation; conform requirements." Bookseller's, dispute. certified Erznoznik Jacksonville, 422 205, 216, 2268, 2276, 125 (1975), principally relies, plain construction," Johnson Texas, times, settings. intrudes "captive audience." 2502-2503, 748-749, 3040-3041, merges (1968); disputes crafted markets" best, ill-defined. tell whether, former, neighborhoods threat (such riot) hypothetical illusory says "A word," Holmes crystal, transparent unchanged, skin living vary greatly color used." Towne Eisner, 245 158, 159, (1918); Jacobellis 378 184, 201, 1676, 1685, 793 (1964) (Warren, Chase, 128, 139-140 1972) (Stevens, (arguing who, belief, refused judge entered courtroom contempt choice"). problematic, 537, belie claims. message." always, read context: "Finally, ask reflect 'content' 'expressive conduct' represented 'burning cross.' violence. unfortunately equivalent waving knife thrust, pointing gun fired, lighting match arson, hanging noose lynching. statement, cowardly hatred. assault. victim['s] head. ultimate words.' C-6. "wordplay," "[w]hat threats] harms] former are] idea." 392-393 concludes miscomprehends look recent unrest cities justifiable order, regrettable incendiary Nation matures condition, justifiable. 3137, ("In licensees [who] represent heterogenous view. sensible restriction—or condemn content-based'—because station owners shades opinion").

Classification Label: 2