Legal Document

487 U.S. 815 108 S.Ct. 2687 101 L.Ed.2d 702 William Wayne THOMPSON, Petitionerv.OKLAHOMA. No. 86-6169. Argued Nov. 9, 1987. Decided June 29, 1988. Syllabus Petitioner, when he was 15 years old, actively participated in a brutal murder. Because petitioner "child" as matter of Oklahoma law, the District Attorney filed statutory petition seeking to have him tried an adult, which trial court granted. He then convicted and sentenced death, Court Criminal Appeals affirmed. Held: The judgment is vacated case remanded. 724 P.2d 780 (Okl.Cr.1986), 1 Justice STEVENS, joined by BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, concluded that "cruel unusual punishments" prohibition Eighth Amendment, made applicable States Fourteenth prohibits execution person who under 16 age at time his or her offense. Pp. 821-838. 2 (a) In determining whether categorical Amendment applies, this must be guided "evolving standards decency mark progress maturing society," Trop v. Dulles, 356 86, 101, 78 590, 598, 630, and, so doing, review relevant legislative enactments jury determinations consider reasons why civilized society may accept reject death penalty for less than old crime. 821-823. 3 (b) Relevant state statutes—particularly those 18 expressly considered question minimum imposition penalty, uniformly required defendant attained least capital offense—support conclusion it would offend execute That also consistent with views expressed respected professional organizations, other nations share Anglo-American heritage, leading members Western European community. 823-831. 4 (c) behavior juries—as evidenced statistics demonstrating that, although between 20 persons were executed during first half 20th century, no such has taken place since 1948 despite fact thousands murder cases period, only 5 1,393 willful homicide 1982 through 1986 offense leads unambiguous on 15-year-old offender now generally abhorrent conscience 831-833. (d) juvenile's reduced culpability, application class offenders does not measurably contribute essential purposes underlying support constitutes unconstitutional punishment. This already endorsed proposition culpability should attach crime committed juvenile comparable inexperience, education, intelligence make teenager able evaluate consequences conduct while same she much more apt motivated mere emotion peer pressure adult. Cf. Bellotti Baird, 443 622, 99 3035, 61 797; Eddings Oklahoma, 455 104, 102 869, 71 1. Given lesser well teenager's capacity growth society's fiduciary obligations its children, retributive purpose simply inapplicable offender. Moreover, deterrence rationale equally unacceptable respect offenders, demonstrate vast majority arrested are over offense, likelihood teenage kind cold-blooded, cost-benefit analysis attaches any weight possibility virtually nonexistent, fanciful believe deterred knowledge small number been century. 833-838. O'CONNOR that: 6 Although national consensus forbidding before very likely exist, unnecessarily adopted constitutional law without better evidence Court. legislatures set punishment above, coupled 14 rejected completely, suggests existence consensus. However, Federal Government 19 authorized setting age, provided some 15-year-olds prosecuted adults. These laws appear render eligible, thus pose real obstacle finding sentencing inference consensus, they dispositive because do indicate how many juries asked impose times prosecutors exercised their discretion refrain from penalty. Furthermore, granting premise adolescents blameworthy adults commit similar crimes, necessarily follow all incapable moral justify Nor there inherently being major crimes prospect Thus, danger societal drawn might mistaken. Rather rely inevitably subjective about best draw line punishment, if possible await express judgments additional legislatures. 849-855. 7 2. Petitioner's sentence aside ground whereas requires special care deliberation decisions lead penalty—there considerable risk enacting statute authorizing separately providing defendants treated circumstances, Legislature either did realize actions effectively eligible give serious consideration reflected explicit choice particular age. available 16, others whose pursuant specifies 856-859. 8 J., announced delivered opinion JJ., joined. O'CONNOR, concurring judgment, post, p. 848. SCALIA, dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, joined, 859. KENNEDY, took part decision case. 9 Harry F. Tepker, Jr., Norman, Okl., petitioner. 10 David W. Lee, City, respondent. 11 STEVENS BLACKMUN join. 12 Petitioner first-degree death. principal presented violate against infliction punishments"S1 13 * claim excessive had brief statement facts necessary. concert three older persons, former brother-in-law early morning hours January 23, 1983. disclosed victim shot twice, throat, chest, abdomen cut. multiple bruises broken leg. His body chained concrete block thrown into river where remained almost four weeks. Each participants each law,2 petition, see Okla.Stat., Tit. 10, § 1112(b) (1981), order "that said child competent mental know appreciate wrongfulness [conduct]." App. 4. After hearing, reasonable prospects rehabilitation Thompson within system held accountable acts adult certified stand adult." Id., (emphasis original). At guilt phase petitioner's trial, prosecutor introduced color photographs showing condition victim's removed river. use two error,3 error harmless convincing. used closing argument phase. display proper. find aggravating circumstances: especially heinous, atrocious, cruel; probability criminal violence constitute continuing threat society. found first, but second, fixed 17 affirmed conviction sentence, (1986), citing earlier State, 616 1159 (1980), rev'd grounds, (1982), "once minor also, violating Constitution, punished P.2d, 784. We granted certiorari cruel child, photographic deems erroneously admitted nevertheless violates defendant's rights virtue 479 1084, 107 1284, 94 143 (1987). II authors drafted punishments, attempt define contours category. They delegated task future generations judges society." 630 (1958) (plurality opinion) (Warren, C.J.).4 performing reviewed work product juries,5 carefully certain types cases. confronting youth defendant—more specifically, offense—is sufficient reason denying State power we enactments,6 refer determinations,7 finally explain these indicators contemporary confirm our young capable acting degree can ultimate penalty.8 III Powell repeatedly reminded us importance "the experience mankind, long history recognizing differences accommodated duties children compared Examples distinction abound law: contracts, torts, procedure, sanctions rehabilitation, right vote hold office." Goss Lopez, 419 565, 590-591, 95 729, 744, 42 725 (1975) (dissenting opinion).9 recognizes basic statutes. vote,10 sit jury,11 marry parental consent,12 purchase alcohol13 cigarettes.14 Like States, developed justice most criminally responsible. Its statutes provide, however, 16- 17-year-old charged felonies shall adult.15 Other certification procedure authorize "as adult," apparently statutes, civil criminal, treat anything "child." childhood adulthood different ways various States. There is, complete near unanimity among 50 Columbia16 treating several important purposes. serve jury.17 Further, one drive consent,18 consent.19 Additionally, legislated subject, pornographic materials (50 States),20 form legalized gambling, minors permitted participate consent (42 States).21 Most relevant, enacted legislation designating maximum jurisdiction 16.22 All normal prepared assume full responsibilities adult.23 21 confronted establishing penalty.24 all,25 stated statute.26 One argue basis chronological current still tolerate 10-year-old children.27 think self-evident unacceptable; indeed, advanced case.28 If, therefore, too put group side focus drawn.29 When confine attention established death-penalty them require offense.30 22 community.31 American Bar Association32 Law Institute33 formally opposition juveniles. entirely abolished United Kingdom New Zealand (it Australia, except South Wales, treason piracy), neither countries executed. West Germany, France, Portugal, Netherlands, Scandanavian countries, exceptional Canada, Italy, Spain, Switzerland. Juvenile executions prohibited Soviet Union.34 IV 23 second factor examined acceptability sensibility juries. fact, infrequent haphazard handing out sentences prime Furman Georgia, 408 238, 92 2726, 33 346 (1972), administered unguided fashion, unconstitutional.35 24 While known precisely century scholar recently compiled table revealing 20.36 occurred last taking 1948.37 following year observed "whole country traveled far period automatic commonplace result convictions. . ." Williams York, 337 241, 247, 69 1079, 1083, 93 L.Ed. 1337 (1949). road past decades—in cases—leads 25 Department average 16,000 (murder non-negligent manslaughter) year. Of 82,094 Only them, including case, offense.38 Statistics can, course, interpreted ways,39 suggest five received way struck lightning unusual." U.S., 309, S.Ct., 2762 (Stewart, concurring). V 26 "Although legislatures, juries, weigh heavily balance, ultimately judge permits penalty" heinous old. Enmund Florida, 458 782, 797, 3368, 3376, 73 1140 (1982).40 making ask measured standard "measurably contributes" social served 798, 3377. 27 It agreed directly related personal defendant." California Brown, 538, 545, 837, 841, 934 (1987) (O'CONNOR, broad agreement mature responsible stressed difference explaining mitigating cases: 28 "But fact. life susceptible influence psychological damage. Our replete judicial recognition minors, years, Particularly 'during formative adolescence, often lack experience, perspective, judgment' expected 635 [99 3043, 797] (1979)." 115-116, 877, (1982) (footnotes omitted). 29 To add further emphasis force youth, quoted passage 1978 Report Twentieth Century Fund Task Force Sentencing Policy Toward Young Offenders: 30 " '[A]dolescents, particularly middle teen vulnerable, impulsive, self-disciplined Crimes youths just harmful victims deserve control long-range terms exclusively offender's fault; offenses represent failure family, school, system, responsibility development America's youth.' 115, n. 11, 11. 31 adult.41 obvious extended explanation.42 Inexperience, juveniles trusted privileges irresponsible morally reprehensible adult.43 32 "The purposes: retribution prospective offenders." Gregg 428 153, 183, 96 2909, 2929-30, 49 859 (1976) (joint Stewart, Powell, JJ.). "an expression outrage offensive conduct," "inconsistent dignity men." Ibid.44 offender, growth, For unacceptable.45 98% arrests involved offense.46 excluding younger will diminish deterrent value potential offenders. And even insignificant reasons. remote nonexistent. And, posits cold-blooded calculation 15-year-old, short, persuaded made, make, measurable contribution goals intended achieve. "nothing purposeless needless pain suffering," Coker 433 592, 97 2866, punishment.47 VI 34 counsel amici curiae "draw line" prohibit today, decide us; concluding Amendments offense.48 35 vacated, remanded instructions enter appropriate vacating sentence. 36 ordered. 37 KENNEDY APPENDICES* Appendix A Right Vote 38 26, permit 18-year-olds vote. No lowered voting below 18. chart assembles provisions constitutions provide 18-year-old 39 Ala. 40 [No beyond reference Const., Amdt. 26] Alaska Art. V, 41 Ariz. Ariz.Rev.Stat. 16-121 (Supp. 1987) Ark. Code Ann. 7-8-401 43 Cal. 2, 44 Colo. Colo.Rev.Stat. 1-2-101 (1980) 45 Conn. 46 9; Conn.Gen.Stat. 9-12 1988) 47 Del. Del.Code 15, 1701 (1981) 48 D.C. D.C.Code 1-1311(b)(1) Fla. Fla.Stat. 97.041 Ga. Ga.Code 21-2-219 51 Haw. Haw.Rev.Stat. 11-12 (1985) Idaho 34-402 52 Ill. Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 46, ¶ 3-1 53 Ind. Ind.Code 3-7-1-1 Iowa 47.4 54 Kan. 5, 55 Ky. Const. 145 56 La. 57 1, 10; La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 18:101(A) (West 1979) 58 Me. 59 Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., 21A, 111(2) 1987-1988) 60 Md. Md.Ann.Code, 33, 3-4(b)(2) (1986) Mass. Mass.Gen.Laws 51:1 62 Mich. Mich.Comp.Laws 168.492 (1979) 63 Minn. Minn.Stat. 201.014 64 Miss. 12, 241 65 Mo. VIII, 66 Mont. 67 IV, 2; 13-1-111 68 Neb. VI, 1; Neb.Rev.Stat. 32-223 (1984) 70 Nev. Nev.Rev.Stat. 293.485 N.H. Pt. 72 N.J. N.M. 74 75 N.Y. Elec. 5-102 (McKinney 1978) 76 N.C. Gen. Stat. 163-55 77 N.D. II, Ohio Rev. §§ 3503.01, 3503.011 79 Okla. 3, 80 Ore. 81 Pa. 82 Pa.Stat.Ann., 25, 2811 (Purdon Supp. 1988-1989) 83 R.I. Laws 17-1-3 84 S.C. 7-5-610 85 S.D. 86 VII, Codified 12-3-1 87 Tenn. Tenn.Code 2-2-102 88 Tex. 89 11.002 Utah 20-1-17 90 Vt. Ann., 17, 2121 91 Va. Wash. W.Va. W.Va.Code 3-1-3 Wis. Wis.Stat. 6.02, 6.05 (1985-1986) Wyo. Wyo.Stat. 22-1-102(k) B Serve Jury anyone jury. relating service. 98 Ala.Code 12-16-60(a)(1) 09.20.010(a)(3) Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 21-301(D) 100 16-31-101 Civ. Proc. 198(a)(1) 103 13-71-109(2)(a) (1973) 104 51-217 105 106 4506(b)(1) 1986) D. C. 11-1906(b)(1)(C) 40.01 109 15-12-40 110 612-4 2-209(2)(a) 111 Stat., 78, 112 33-4-5-2 607A.4(1)(a) 113 43-156 114 115 29A.080(2)(a) 1985) 116 117 Crim. 401(A)(2) 118 119 14, 1211 120 121 Cts. & Jud. 8-104 122 234:1 123 124 Comp. 600.1307a(1)(a) 125 593.41, subd. 2(2) 126 13-5-1 (1972) 127 494.010 128 3-15-301 129 25-1601 130 6.010 131 500-A:3 (1983) 132 133 9:17B-1 134 38-5-1 135 136 510(2) 137 9-3 138 139 Cent.Code 27-09.1-08(2)(b) 2313.42 140 38, 141 10.030(2)(c) 142 Cons. 4521 9-9-1 144 14-7-130 16-13-10 146 22-1-101 147 Govt. 62.102 (1988) 78-46-7(1)(b) 148 149 Ann.—Administrative Orders Rules: Qualification, List, Selection Summoning Jurors—Rule 150 8.01-337 151 2.36.070 152 52-1-8(b)(1) 153 756.01 154 1-11-101 C Drive Without Parental Consent 155 regulating driving learner's driver's licenses. one, drive, accompaniment. 32-6-7(1) 156 28.15.071 157 28-413(A)(1) 158 27-16-604(a)(1) 159 Veh. 12507 160 42-2-107(1) 14-36 161 21, 2707 40-301 322.09 40-5-26 162 286-112 163 49-313 164 951/2, 6-103 9-1-4-32 321.177 8-237 165 186.470 166 32:407 167 585 168 Transp. 16-103 169 90:8 257.308 171.04 170 63-1-23 171 302.060 172 61-5-105 (15-year-olds pass education course) 60-407 173 483.250 174 263:17 175 39:3-10 66-5-11 176 Traf. 502(2) 20-11 177 Cent. 39-06-08 178 4507.07 179 47, 6-107 180 807.060 1503 181 31-10-3 56-1-100 182 32-12-6 183 55-7-104 184 6687b(4) (Vernon 185 41-2-109 186 607 187 46.1-357 188 46.20.031 17B-2-3 343.15 189 31-7-112 D Marry 190 four, consent. 30-1-5 191 25.05.171 (judge consent, face opposition, circumstances) 25-102(A) 192 9-11-102 193 4101 1983) 194 14-2-106(1)(a)(I) 195 46b-30 196 13, 30-111 741.04 19-3-37 572-2 32-202 197 40, 203(1) 198 31-7-1-6 595.2 23-106 402.210 199 (minors legally marrying, marriage ceremony required); 9:211 (official perform party consent; comments 87, valid official sanctions) 200 19, 201 Fam. 2-301 (either woman married pregnant given birth child") Gen.Laws 207:7 202 551.103 517.02 203 93-1-5(d) (female consent) 451.090 204 40-1-202 42-105 205 122.020 206 457:5 207 208 40-1-6 Dom. Rel.Law 209 51-2 210 14-03-02 211 3101.01 212 43, 213 106.060 214 48, 1-5(c) 15-2-11 20-1-250 215 25-1-9 216 36-3-106 217 1.51 30-1-9 218 18, 5142 20-48 219 26.04.210 48-1-1 765.02 20-1-102 E Purchase Pornographic Materials 220 pornography dealing obscenity. 221 13A-12-170(1) 222 legislation] 223 13-3506 224 5-68-501, 5-68-502 225 Penal 313.1 226 18-7-502 227 53a-196 228 1361(b) 22-2001(b) 847.012 229 16-12-103 230 712-1215 18-1513 231 11-21 232 35-49-3-3 233 728.2 21-4301a 531-030 234 14:91.11 235 Stat.Ann., 2911 (1983 236 Code, 27, 272:28 237 750.142 617.293 238 97-5-27 239 573.040 240 45-8-201 28-808 201.265 242 571-B:2 243 2C:34-2, 2C:34-3 30-37-2 244 235.21 1980) 19-13 245 12.1-27.1-03 246 2907.31 247 1040.8 248 167.065 5903 249 11-31-10 (Supp.1987) 250 16-15-385 251 22-24-28 252 39-6-1132 253 43.24 (1974) 254 76-10-1206 (1978) 255 2802 18.2-391 256 9.68.060 61-8A-2 944.21 6-4-302 F Participate Legalized Gambling 257 gambling permitted, absolutely participating forms gambling. vitiates prohibition; six restrictions 11-65-44 258 43.35.040(a)(1) 259 5-112(E) 260 23-110-405(c) 261 326.5(e) 262 24-35-214(1)(c) 263 7-186a 264 4810(a) 2-2534 265 849.093(9)(a) 16-12-58 266 712-1231 267 67-7415 268 120, 1102(9) 269 [Gambling statute] 233.1(2)(c) 270 79-4706(m) 271 restrictions] 272 14:92(A)(4) 273 319 274 275 128A:10 276 432.110a(a) 277 278 97-33-21 313.280 279 23-5-506 280 9-250 281 463.350 282 287-A:4, 287-E:7(III), 287-E:21(V) 283 284 Tax 1610 285 286 53-06.1-07.1 287 3770.07 288 995.13 (permitted 289 163.575(1)(c) 290 305 291 11-19-32(l ) 292 293 42-7A-32 294 39-6-609(f) 295 179d, 296 297 31, 674(J) 298 299 67.70.120 300 19-23-9(e) 301 163.51(13) 302 11-25-109(c) 303 judgment. 304 plurality dissent agree fundamental propositions: never constitutionally precedents locate light 'evolving society.' See ante, 821 (quoting (opinion Warren, C.J.)); 827—829; 864-865, 872. e.g., McCleskey Kemp, 481 279, 300, 1756, 1771, I both principles. disagreements rest evaluations am reluctant adopt possess. conclude narrower grounds plurality, allow general available, concur Both look initially signs dissent's contention, 865, reliable society-wide issue, cannot interpretation evidence. 306 salient statistic bears every single legislature above. 829, 30. adds 826, appears two-thirds definitely exposed execution. (pointing books seem abandoned practice). Where large unambiguously outlawed 15-year-olds, affirmatively unequivocally practice, strong counterevidence persuade me practice exist. 307 argues If could sure deliberately chosen hardly suppose settled opposing practice. relied quite misleading. provides processed jurisdiction, becomes theoretically defendants. rendered exist 861-862; 828, 26. As points out, jurisdictions (or jurisdictions). 24. 308 reasons, having nothing whatsoever motivate channeled process. length conditions confinement example, inappropriate recidivists. Similarly, dangerous individuals, whatever confined facility vulnerable Such appropriateness 15-year-olds. absence implication illustrated cites trend toward lowering 867. allowing adults, circumstances. Jersey, 14-year-olds cases, lower based separate legislatures' 309 shown interaction theory 16. recent federal legislation, cited dissent, lowers 865 (discussing Comprehensive Crime Control Act 1984, Pub.L. 98-473, 2149). 866, imply law. point suggesting Congress Act. apparent striking treaty Article Geneva Convention Relative Protection Civilian Persons Time War, August 1949, [1955] U.S.T. 3516, 3560, T.I.A.S. 3365 (rules pertaining military occupation); 2696-2697, 34; ibid. (citing international agreements, signed ratified prohibiting juveniles). Perhaps Senate passed bill drug offenses, Cong.Rec. 14117, 14118 (1988). Whatever implications ratification have, effects Senate's action eventually tend undercut assumption signals felons. 310 indication approving nonetheless true, overstated significance, legal effect rendering eligible. forbids appropriate, examine inconsistent notions 311 previous statistics, data determinations, effort discern classes aberrational See, 584, 2861, 982 (1977) opinion); 794-796, 3375-3376, (1982); id., 818-819, 3387-3388 dissenting). emphasizes decades gone 5-year Ante, 832-833. dispositive. 312 variety factors, little individual's blameworthiness, cause groups population rate groups. moreover, prerequisites proved. data, raw reliably infer significantly similarly situated 313 Nor, finally, resolved disproportionality employed Part opinion. "proportionality nexus imposed blameworthiness." Enmund, supra, 825, 3391 dissenting); Tison Arizona, 137, 1676, Granting plurality's premise—that crimes—it educed 314 Legislatures recognize relative immaturity adolescents, age-based take account qualitative Hazelwood School Kuhlmeier, 484 260, 562, 592 (1988); Schall Martin, 467 253, 2403, (1984); McKeiver Pennsylvania, 403 528, 1976, 647 (1971); Ginsberg 390 629, 1274, (1968). But compare Planned Parenthood Central Missouri Danforth, 52, 74-75, 2831, 2843-2844, 788 (unconstitutional presume informed abortion), 654, 3053, 797 (STEVENS, judgment) (same), Akron Center Reproductive Health, Inc., 462 416, 469, 2481, 2513, 687 dissenting) (parental notification requirements constitutional). characteristics differently proportionality analysis. characteristics, vary widely individuals substitute context Nation's 42, 3391, 315 instructs inferring like 1846, Michigan became abolish treason, Rhode Island soon thereafter completely. Zimring G. Hawkins, Capital Punishment Agenda (1986). succeeding decades, continued towards abolition, World War I. 28-29. Later, after ensued steady dramatic decline executions—both absolute relation homicides occurring country. Bowers, Legal Homicide 26-28 (1984). 1950's 1960's, radically restricted ceased completely beginning 1968. H. Bedau, Death Penalty America (3d ed. 1982). 316 1972, heard arguments constitutionality suggested become relic, implicitly new Indeed, urged imposed, statutorily reflects revulsion repeal enforced." 386, 2802, (Burger, rejecting declared revive it. mistaken frozen difficult refute reject. 317 step today scope, conceivably reflect Furman. day come resolve upon policy 15. event, issue divides time. my view, need today. 318 Under punishments. Ramos, 463 992, 998-999, 3446, 3451-3452, 1171 (1983). Among themes Court's jurisprudence sanction. accordingly series unique substantive procedural designed ensure calm reflection ought precede gravity finality. affect authorities individual Neither nor committing upheld. Woodson North Carolina, 280, 2978, 944 (1976); Roberts Louisiana, 325, 3001, 974 188-189, 2932-2933, JJ.) supra). authority consider, Lockett Ohio, 438 586, 2954, 973 (1978); sufficiently precise circumstances considered, Godfrey 446 420, 1759, 398 (1980). practical guilty verdict followed trial-like proceedings, trials proceedings. Gardner 430 349, 1197, 393 (1977); Estelle Smith, 451 454, 1866, 359 (1981); Bullington Missouri, 430, 1852, (1981). forbidden crimes. Ford Wainwright, 477 399, 2595, 335 (Eighth insane prisoners). Constitutional scrutiny area searching noncapital sentences. 815, 3386, Rummel Estelle, 445 263, 272, 1133, 1138, 382 320 raises concerns led erect barriers contexts. authorizes murder, commission separately, proceeded manner, eligibility. Were clear implicit nature Legislature's problematic. peculiar dubious constitutionality, done earmarks careful kinds situation, execution.* 321 reached itself unusual. believe, keeping principles supported familiar principle—applied contexts—according avoid unnecessary, broad, adjudication. generally, Ashwander TVA, 288, 341-356, 466, 480-487, 688 (1936) (Brandeis, narrow principle, articulated ago Jackson: "We final infallible, infallible final." Brown Allen, 344 443, 540, 397, 427, 469 (1953) result); Califano Yamasaki, 442 682, 692-693, 2545, 2553-2554, (1979). By leaving open broader resolve, approach allows stake addressed instance suited so, people's elected representatives. 322 therefore 323 whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE WHITE join, dissenting. 324 thereby preventing individualized maturity responsibility, opposed uniform standing, meaning Amendment. decided much, more, (1978). commits deprived benefit rebuttable presumption enough posed here, these. individuated overcoming possibly deemed seems plausible answering affirmative, respectfully dissent. 325 begin restating fuller Thompson's participation helpful understanding left doubt night 22-23, 1983, brutally premeditation murdered brother-in-law, Charles Keene, motive evidently being, part, Keene's physical abuse sister. mother's house evening, company friends, explained girlfriend "we're going kill Charles." Several later, neighbor, Malcolm "Possum" awakened sound gunshot front porch. Someone pounded door shouting: "Possum, door, let in. They're me." telephoned police, opened man knees attempting repel blows arms hands. men holding gun stood apart, hitting kicking kneeling man, attempted hit back. beating object inches length. police called back disturbance on, spoke telephone away car. 326 house, companions returned. helped off boots, say: "[W]e killed him. head cut throat threw river." Subsequently, wife accomplices tell mother "he dead Vicki didn't worry anymore." During days admissions. witness testified source hair adhering pair boots carrying. replied kicked Keene head. told Charles' chest Another friend seen dancing local bar, remarked hard bullet Ultimately, codefendants twice "so fish eat body." codefendant Washita River, chain blocks attached found. On February recovered. Chief Medical Examiner beaten, 327 information arrest warrant Thompson, began proceedings defined unless specified automatically 1101, 1104.2 (Supp.1987). addition, invoked present if: (1) establish "prosecutive merit" (2) certifies, considering system. 328 hearing March probable prosecutive merit. April determine amenable clinical psychologist understood wrong antisocial personality modified believed severe repercussions behavior. Numerous witnesses prior abusive Mary Robinson, employee contacts arrests, included assault battery 1980; October 1981; burglary May 1982; knife July deadly weapon She counseling State's Human Services none placements seemed improve recommended foregoing testimony, written certifying appealed Appeals. 329 Grady County December prosecution circumstance, "especially cruel." 115-117, 877-878, defense youthfulness factor. judge, accordingly, appealed, Standing 1159, 1166-1167 (Okl.Cr.1980), 780, 784 admission proceeding, prejudicial outweighed probative value; overwhelming guilt. outweigh phase, properly admitted, demonstrated brutality petitioned issues, review. A. 330 demonstrates, caught up scheme unthinkingly lumped together contrary, gave whether, subjected all. answered affirmatively, upsetting particularized absolute, pronounces principle short 16th birthday sociological implausible; doubly implausible Constitution. 331 text Fourteenth, punishments." maintain originally 16; unusually unequivocal not. explicitly Blackstone's Commentaries England, published 1769 accepted accurate description common According Blackstone, above (viz., 7) imposed; (14) incapacity other) felony. *23-*24. M. Hale, Pleas Crown *22 (describing presumptive 14); Kean, History Liability Children, L.Q.Rev. 364, 369-370 (1937); Streib, Children: Experience Committed Age Eighteen, Okla.L.Rev. 613, 614-615 (hereinafter Children). historical conformed common-law categorically immune documented executions, 1642 1899, Children 619. 332 Necessarily, seeks contrary C.J.). 821. assessing evolving easy evolution culminated one's own views. assessment looked objective today's 277-279, 2746-2747, (BRENNAN, 293, 2985, JJ.); 593-597, 2866-2869, 788-789, 3371-3372, (1982). consist enacted. rarely ever Members sense people 333 significant ago, 2149, changed opposite direction perceived attitudes suggest: "in interest justice," transferred Court, enabling U.S.C. 5032 (1982 ed., IV). testimony delinquents "cynical, street-wise, repeat indistinguishable, counterparts," Hearings S. 829 Subcommittee Committee Judiciary, 98th Cong., 1st Sess., 551 (1983), 1979 alone i.e., total nationwide, 1,000 forcible rapes, 10,000 robberies, aggravated assaults. 554. Since statutes1 determined unconstitutional, adoption 15-year-old. sure, specifically mind; alter reality what permits. go behind intentions strange regarding liability moving perceives penalties.2 334 Turning level, observes rather raising liability.3 status quo particular: chooses "confine [its] attention" 829. include computation larger (19) governed rules survey shows, words, exists (the punishment) view insofar concerned. latter presumed 824, warrants here capital-punishment do. Government, 40% permissible sanction, category obviously impossible evolved discernible legislation—or society, assuredly relevant.4 falls promises examination juries." 831. turns perhaps inconvenient fewer murderers 1984 1986. V. Juveniles 168-169 Instead, examines course substantially notably exercise executive clemency. Those show, unsurprisingly, rare. discussing Constitution procedures continue rare, entirely. takes persuasive embrace prohibition—changed clearly permanently irrevocably enshrined 1948. 336 Even assuming pertinent 4-decade adequate calling halt pendulum swing attitudes, frail trend. adequately drop murderer Foremost reduction public general. (including Columbia) currently statute, acquired 1950. Table 3-1. willingness (which reasonably felt it), combined modern trend, constitutionalized (1978), nationwide 1,272 per decade then. 56, 4-1. ready unwilling consideration, pronounce rarely. basis, attributing phenomenon occur—any 1927 when, level higher post-1950 years. approximately next executions. 191-208. sum, always criminals (like executions) rarer still. rational discerning penalty; justification predeliction converting statistical rarity occurrence ban. surely fear requiring begins stage results individuation. readily run Between 1930 1955, women 1986—and 22-year 1962 1984. Proportionately, impressive (From versus potentially 1—the defendant—in years.) Surely woman.5 338 believes relies effective establish, requisite certainty, extend frequency shows equivalent 191-208; limits selected 29. plain me, inappropriately capacity. Doubtless exist—as existed 6—below fully steadfast agreed-upon live by, regard 339 Having avoided original punishment," utterly failed justifying decency" juries," 822, proceeds, forth desirability imposing discussion recitation propositions "broad agreement" namely, "punishment defendant," "adolescents adults." 834. "[g]iven children," rationales apply 'nothing suffering.' 838, quoting 2866. this, seen, agreement. Nonetheless, governing solely 'abiding conviction' 833, 2869. 340 accord '[a]lthough penalty.' 3376. here. "for judge" permits, means punishments because, thinks, unusual," cf. Board Education, 347 483, 686, 873 (1954); society; perceptions decency, penology, mercy, entertained—or strongly entertained, "abiding conviction"—by unrepresentative segment sits face, phrase entertained dictated consciences. 341 questions discussed irrelevant, them. suffices say another esteemed colleague invokes support, 823—825, 834: 342 "Minors embroiled range brink majority. Some 'street-wise,' hardened criminals, deserving greater accorded suspected crime." Fare Michael C., 707, 734, 4, 2560, 2576, opinion). 343 uncontestably prevailed adopted, judging democratically representatives, persuades substantial appointed decree. necessary, suggests, "we [be] persuaded," correctness understand O'CONNOR's concurrence correctly, agrees firm executed, finding. not, reach seemingly inevitable (3) Rather, proceeds (in II) "differently punishments," 856, protections contexts, actually plainly felons (after findings) adequate, needed stating "15-year-olds crimes." 345 First, (b)—that nonexistence produces arbitrarily refusing represents "considered judgment." 852. Second, follows (b)—how problem solved citizens really want action. referred precedent (c). discretion, 176-196, 2926-2936, 289-301, 2984-2989 JJ.), hat, thought (once again) required. unaware any, addresses subject. concurrence's argument, conclusion, replaced anything. protection announces requirement legislature, referendum, bills printed 10-point type. lifted (since supposed disappear) complied longer doubtful; favor executions; never. concern fluke—a contemplated produced accidental interlocking consequences, clear. prominence extensive coverage press nationally. necessary act remedy miscarriage intent, was. Governor certainly frustration we, pardon mistake What proposes nullify effectuate though unconstitutional. designed, enact resulting saying executed," "blind "white-haired grandmothers "mothers two-year-olds executed." specifying take, content. studiously sort interference States' processes, heart sovereignty. Placing restraints manner laws, good idea, abolition idea ours impose. purports adopting respectful disdainful. says Oklahoma's: you doing legislate say. 348 fulfill promise arriving "narrow conclusion" avoiding "unnecessarily broad" holding. 858. hoists deck loose cannon brand principle. henceforth invalidate uncertainty whereupon protective process legislation. named extremely low intelligence, 75, appealing finds viz., statutes? motto "death different" mean demands identifiable respects, limitations appropriate. approach, prefer misdescription favored plurality. Solomonic solution prevent Solomon, subject constraints department government federal, democratic 349 inadequate violated permitting body. contends proceeding unfair deny due 350 question, wounds slashes abdomen, circumstance unduly inflammatory. excessively inflammatory character concededly attack, inflammatoriness exceeds evidentiary worth balancing relevance prejudice Lisenba California, 219, 227-228, 285-286, (1941). 351 provides: "Excessive bail required, fines inflicted." proscription Government. Robinson 370 660, 1417, 758 (1962). 1101(1) 'Child' eighteen (18) sixteen (16) seventeen (17) kidnapping extortion, robbery weapon, rape degree, firearm felony, arson explosives, shooting intent kill, manslaughter nonconsensual sodomy." gruesome. Admitting inflame experienced reversal whole introducing ghastly, value. fail assist determination court's error." 782-783 Weems 544, 793 (1910). hard, enchained labor, plus deprivation perpetual surveillance, constituted punishment" Bill Rights Philippines (then control). Premising synonymity Philippine clauses, wrote: "Time works changes, brings Therefore vital wider mischief gives birth. [cruel clause] learned commentators progressive, fastened obsolete acquire enlightened humane justice." 373-374, 378, 551-552, 553. Ollman Evans, U.S.App.D.C. 301, 326-327, 750 F.2d 970, 995-996 (en banc) (Bork, concurring): "Judges stewardship provision core outer ill-defined, neverending next. judges—and office philosophy judging—if boundaries self-evident. [I]t generation framers' values, world knew, know. changes unchanging values application. hesitate thing, freedom keeping. refuses threats value, hence crabbed robs full, fair meaning, fails duty." 2986, (WHITE, J.); 789-796, 3372-3376, 814, 3385 (legislative adjudication) (Court concurring); 789-793, 3372-3374. consistently recognized standards, measure index lies language construed clause: "unusual" depends, usage, magnitude acceptance. regularity penalty's cases—that sanction comports sentences—is connected insistence channel nonarbitrary results. guide meaningful way, pattern morality regular harshest raping woman, stated: "[T]he contemplates end brought bear Amendment." 597, 2868. Jersey T.L.O., 350, 733, 748, 720 (Powell, Burger 483 776, 3114, 638 1215 1241 patronize bingo parlors pool halls accompanied 995.13, 1103 pawn property, 59, 1511(C)(1) (Supp.1981), services health professionals medical care, otherwise emancipated, 63, 2602 2601(a) (1987), operate gallery, 703 (1984), disaffirm contract, "necessaries," supra; Craig Boren, 429 190, 197, 451, 456, 397 (1976). Henceforth, Columbia "States," sake simplicity. Appendices B, infra. C, D, E, F, Davis, Juveniles: System, "a presumption" "is be. Post, adjust affords renders unable freely rationally. insane, irreversibly ill loss brain function, instance, retain "rights," agents interests principals mind. Garvey, Freedom Choice Law, Harv.L.Rev. 1756 paternalism beneficent caring, nurturing parent behalf shaping life. assemblage makes class; yet do, restricting choices feel costs benefits attending decisions. ironic assumptions class—about inherent agents, choosers, shapers lives—were suddenly unavailable inflicting informing consistency, tells cruel, unusual, predicate rational, choosing agent, legitimately stance. observed: "Children, definition, assumed themselves. parents, falters, play parens patriae." 265, 2410, Anderson, 536, 840, 844, 1221 (Frankfurter, concurring) ("Children reflect. theories fallacious reasoning uncritically duty children"); 649-650, 1285-1286, (1968) result) ("[A]t delineated areas, possessed presupposition First guarantees. deprive rights—the marry, vote—deprivations intolerable adults"); Parham J.R., 603, 2493, 2505, ("Most concerning decisions"). Almost accused waived court. 22; presence waiver ages 867-868, distorts truly Consider example: Michigan, Oregon, Virginia 712A.4(1) (1979); Ore.Rev.Stat. 419.533(1)(a), (1)(b), (1987); Va.Code 16.1-269(A) executed—because executions—but, Virginia, floor dealt court), youthful Union higher. 22. measures (Territory Alaska, Session Laws, 1957, 132, 23d abolishing crime; Stat.Ann. 12.55.015 "Authorized sentences" 12.55.125, "Sentences imprisonment felonies" penalty); (United 118, 122-123, 489 1242, 1246-1247 (1973), (1972); 22-2404 death); Hawaii Hawaii, Regular 282, 28th Leg., abolishment punishment; Rev.Stat., 706-656 (Supp.1987), (1965 Acts, 435, Abolished; 902.1 penalties Class Kansas (State Randol, 461, 471, 513 248, books, Kan.Stat.Ann., 22-4001—22-4014 21-3401, 21-4501(a), felony Maine (1887 133, 17-A, 1251, 1152 Supp.1987-1988), Massachusetts (Commonwealth Colon-Cruz, 150, 470 N.E.2d Constitution; 279:57-279:71 (1986)); (Const., "No death"; 750.316 (Supp.1988-1989), murder); Minnesota (1911 Minn.Laws, 387, sentence; 609.10 609.185, imprisonment); York (People N.Y.2d 41, 70-79, 468 879, 893-899 mandatory serving (1976), invalidating remainder York's statute; N.Y.Penal 60.06 1987), Dakota (N.D.Cent.Code, 12-50 (1985), Sentence Execution Thereof," repealed 1973 N.D.Laws, 116, 1975); Cline, 299, A.2d 1309 (1979), prisoner R.I.Gen.Laws 11-23-2 (W.Va.Code, 61-11-2 "Capital abolished"); Wisconsin (1853 Wis.Laws, 103, "An 939.50(3)(a), 940.01 (1985-1986), imprisonment). Alabama (see 13A-5-39—13A-5-59, 13A-6-2 Supp.1987)); Arizona 13-703 13-706, 13-1105 (1978 Arkansas Ark.Code 5-4-104(b), 5-4-601—5-4-617, 5-10-101, 5-51-201 (1987 Delaware 636, 4209 (1987)); Florida 775.082, 782.04(1), 921.141 18-4001—18-4004, 19-2515 Louisiana 14:30(C), 14:113 1986); La.Code Crim.Proc.Ann., 905 et seq. Supp.1988)); Mississippi Miss.Code 97-3-21, 97-7-67, 99-19-101—99-19-107 (Supp.1987)); Mo.Rev.Stat. 565.020, 565.030-565.040 Montana Mont.Code 45-5-102, 46-18-301—46-18-310 701.10-701.15 (1981 Pennsylvania Pa.Cons.Stat., 1102(a), 9711 Carolina S.C.Code 16-3-10, 16-3-20 (1985 S.D.Codified 22-16-4, 22-16-12, 23A-27A-1—23A-27A-41 (1988)); 76-3-206, 76-3-207 Vermont Vt.Stat.Ann., 2303, 7101-7107 (1974 18.2-31 (1988), 19.2-264.2—19.2-264.5 Washington Wash.Rev.Code 10.95.010-10.95.900 Wyoming 6-2-101—6-2-103 (1988)). reported black hanged 1855 Cherokee Indian 1885. 619-620 Tr. Oral Arg. (respondent 872 (dissent exists); 848 (concurrence agrees). argue, "could imposed" 864 opinion), Ibid. would, though, acknowledge impermissible anymore. landmark (1972). Greenberg, Yale L.J. 908, 929-936 NAACP Defense Educational Fund, Row, U.S.A. (1980-1987). (Vermont frequently counted 15th (1974), amended Dakota's factors. 23A-27A shift comparison facially, execution, ratio "theoretically" occur. (Cal.Penal 190.5 1988)) (age 18); Colorado (Colo.Rev.Stat. 16-11-103(1)(a) (1986)) Connecticut (Conn.Gen.Stat. 53a-46a(g)(1) (1985)) Georgia (Ga.Code 17-9-3 (1982)) 17); Illinois (Ill.Rev.Stat., 9-1(b) (1987)) Indiana (Ind.Code 35-50-2-3 (Supp.1987)) 16); Kentucky (Ky.Rev.Stat. 640.040(1) Maryland (Md.Ann.Code, 412(f) (1988)) Nebraska (Neb.Rev.Stat. 28-105.01 Nevada (Nev.Rev.Stat. 176.025 Hampshire (N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 630:5(XIII) (prohibiting crime) (§ 21-B:1 indicates majority, 630:1(V) culpable offense); (N.J.Stat.Ann. 2A:4A-22(a) 2C:11-3(g) Supp.1988)) Mexico (N.M.Stat.Ann. 28-6-1(A), 31-18-14(A) (N.C.Gen.Stat. 14-17 prison escape sentence); (Ohio Rev.Code 2929.02(A) (1984)) Oregon (Ore.Rev.Stat. 161.620, 419.476(1) Tennessee (Tenn.Code 37-1-102(3), (4), 37-1-103, 37-1-134(a)(1) (1984 Supp.1987)) Texas (Tex.Penal 8.07(d) (Supp.1987-1988)) 17). drug-related killings, caveat "[a] carried committed." 2455, 100th 2d Sess.; previously community 102, 35, (1958); 596, 2868, 796-797, 22, 3376-3377, "Be Resolved, Association opposes, (18)." Association, Summary Action Taken House Delegates Annual Meeting). "[C]ivilized societies spectacle children. Institute, Model 210.6, commentary, (Official Draft Revised Comments 1980). foreign Brief Amnesty International Amicus Curiae A-1—A-9, Various Countries, staff Library Congress, 1988 (available Clerk file). 1933, Geo. 53(1), Murder (Abolition Penalty) 1965, 1(5), (abolishing Kingdom), reprinted Halsbury's Statutes 55-56 (4th 1985); Act, 1961, Reprinted 650-651 human treaties penalties. 6(5) Covenant Civil Political Rights, Annex G.A.Res. 2200, U.N. GAOR Res.Supp. (No. 16) 53, Doc. A/6316 (1966) (signed States), Material 368, (1967); 4(5) O.A.S. Official Records, OEA/Ser.K/XVI/1.1, 65, Corr. (1970) 673, 676 (1970); 1949 (ratified States). 249, 2731 (rarity arbitrary imposition) (Douglas, 274-277, 2744-2746 prevents sentences; arbitrariness) 299-300, 2757-2758 312, 2764 arbitrariness; "A negligible returns patently excessive" Amendment) 314, 3375-3376 (few kill). 190-208 (compiling 1620 18; crime). Professor Streib reports 1948, Irvin Mattio, 197. Dept. Justice, Uniform Reports: (1986); (1985); (1983); Bureau Bulletin: Punishment, 1986, 1985, 36, 168-169. observe 80,233 1,388, 1.7%, 1,861, 0.3%, interpreting great, sweeping clauses jurisprudence. Marbury Madison, Cranch 177, (1803) ("It emphatically province is"). With vague yield mechanical parsing, method different. 268-269, 2741-2742 2869 ("We abiding conviction" rape). conception operates supporting role prevention. absent misbehaving But, responsibility? thing implied, accountability—the unfettered free will." Fox, Court: Context, Problems Opportunities (1967) (publication President's Commission Enforcement Administration Justice). report evaluation condemned presentation Academy Child Adolescent Psychiatry, concluded: "Adolescence great physiological stress. maturational stresses, homicidal cope dysfunction, cognitive limitations, psychopathology. function families merely nonsupportive violent abusive. findings raise tradition death." Lewis, Pincus, Bard, Richardson, Prichep, Feldman, Yeager, Neuropsychiatric, Pyschoeducational, Family Characteristics Condemned E. Erikson, Childhood Society 261-263 ("In search continuity sameness, refight battles artificially appoint perfectly well-meaning roles adversaries"); Identity: Youth Crisis 128-135 adolescence "identity confusion," "preoccupied eyes are"); Gordon, Tattered Cloak Immortality, Adolescence (C. Corr J. McNeil eds. ("Risk-taking safety adolescent sky diving, car racing, drugs alcoholic beverages, activities flirting ways, counterphobic behavior—a challenge wherein survival victory death"); Kastenbaum, Adolescence, Meaning 99, (H. Feifel 1959) ("The lives intense present; 'now' pallid comparison. Everything valuable immediate situation close future"); Kohlberg, Development Children's Orientations Moral Order, Vita Humana (1963) (studies reveal "large concepts attain successively background represented factor"); Miller, Suicide: Etiology Treatment, Psychiatry 327, (S. Feinstein, Looney, Schwartzberg, Sorosky 1981) (many possess "profound omnipotence immortality. Thus suicide, occur"); supra 3-20, 184-189 separates children's immature, undeveloped ability adultlike manner"). invalidated absent. 801, 3378 (death kills intends "does ensuring gets deserts"); someone low). base goal deterrence, doubts deters instances. 624-628, 2983-2985, (deterrence kill; "doubtful" deter "individuals becoming ventures unintentionally result") judgment); Spaziano 447, 480, 3154, 3173, (because invalidation jury's guided, weak 798-800, 3377-3378 (unlikely kill) 301-302, 2758-2759 (unverifiable imprisonment) 345-355, nn. 124-125, 2780-2785, 124-125 unsupported evidence) (MARSHALL, Reports, (80,233 82,094, 97.7%). 2929, ("[T]he totally penological gratuitous suffering") disposition unnecessary presented, assembled assistance National Aid Defender Lawyers, Jewish Amici Curiae. Contrary suggestion, involving "those statutes." 877. affirmative includes evidence—not specify "appealing" belongs—that leaves Cases lacking analogous reads ulterior incorrectly drawn. 906a (peacetime espionage); 918 member Armed Forces); 32, IV) (destruction aircraft, motor vehicles, facilities 115(b)(3) (retaliatory family enforcement officials) (by cross 1111); Member Executive official, Supreme Justice) 794 (espionage); 844(f) property 1111 (first-degree jurisdiction); 1716 (mailing injurious articles 1751 (assassination kidnaping President Vice President) 1992 (willful wrecking train 2113 (bank robbery-related kidnaping); 2381 (treason); U.S.C.App. 1472 1473 aircraft hijacking). disputes significance Congress' pointing approved narcotics-related offenses. Representatives President. were, supra. narcotics minimal reason, observation Treaty limited Compare Juveniles, B-1 B-26 233-249 (1974). 14; 16-1806 (Supp.1988); added excluded offenses: sexual assault, armed firearm, possession school older; Ill.Ann.Stat., 37, 805-4(6) present, murder; 31-6-2-4(b)-(e) (Supp.1987); felonies; Ky.Rev.Stat. 635.020(2)-(4), 640.010 (Supp.1986); offense; 260.125, 3a intercourse deliberate homicide, mitigated homicide; 41-5-206(1)(a) offenses; N.J.Stat.Ann. 2A:4A-26 1987); 13-, 14- adults; N.Y.Crim.Proc.Law 190.71 reliance International's 830-831, 34, beliefs Nation. rule determinative position contradicts world. forget expounding. practices nations, democracies, accident, "implicit concept ordered liberty" occupies mores but, permitting, well. Palko Connecticut, 319, 149, 152, (1937) (Cardozo, J.). people, however Justices be, Americans all, own. leave footnote vote, jury, organized halls, alcohol, materials, cigarettes. 823, 10-14. sensibly eye relevant. 725-727, 2572-2573, (totality test Fifth background, warnings him); 634-637, 642, 3043-3045, 3047, (abortion differs minority). pros cons smoking cigarettes, somewhat killing being.

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