Legal Document

518 U.S. 604116 S.Ct. 2309135 L.Ed.2d 795 COLORADO REPUBLICAN FEDERAL CAMPAIGN COMMITTEE et al.v.FEDERAL ELECTION COMMISSIONCertiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for Tenth Circuit. No. 95-489. Supreme Argued April 15, 1996 Decided June 26, Syllabus Before Colorado Republican Party selected its 1986 senatorial candidate, Federal Campaign Committee (Colorado Party), petitioner here, bought radio advertisements attacking Democratic Party's likely candidate. The Election Commission (FEC) brought suit charging that had violated "Party Expenditure Provision" Act 1971 (FECA), 2 U. S. C. Section(s) 441a(d)(3), which imposes dollar limits upon political party "expenditure[s] in connection with general election campaign a [congressional] candidate." defended part by claiming expenditure limitations First Amendment as applied advertisements, and filed counterclaim seeking raise facial challenge Provision whole. District interpreted ``in with'' language narrowly held did not cover at issue. It therefore entered summary judgment Party, dismissing moot. In ordering FEC, adopted somewhat broader interpretation Provision, which, it said, both covered this satisfied Constitution. Held: is vacated, case remanded. 59 F. 3d 1015, vacated 1 Justice Breyer, joined O'Connor Souter, concluded prohibits application kind issue here-an has made independently, without coordination any Pp. 6-17. (a) outcome controlled Court's FECA law. After weighing interest permitting candidates (and their supporters) spend money advance views, against "compelling" governmental protecting electoral system from appearance reality corruption, see, e.g., Buckley v. Valeo, 424 1, 14-23 (per curiam), ruled unconstitutional provisions that, inter alia, limited right individuals, id., 39-51, committees, Comm'n National Conservative Political Action Comm., 470 480, 497, make "independent" expenditures coordinated candidate or candidate's campaign, but permitted other imposed contribution when an individual committee contributed directly they indirectly making see Buckley, supra, 23-36, 46-48. record indicates here must be treated, constitutional purposes, entitled protection, indirect subject regulation. There uncontroverted direct evidence developed advertising independently pursuant understanding Since Government does point legislative findings suggesting special corruption problem respect parties' independent expenditures, prior cases forbid regulation such expenditures. 6-12. 3 (b) Government's argument "independent," rather "coordinated expenditure" treated "contribution" Congress may constitutionally regulate, rejected. shows no actual matter fact. claim deference FEC interpretations rendering all "coordinated" unpersuasive. Senatorial 454 27, 28-29, n. distinguished. These regulations advisory opinions do represent empirical are cannot distinguished practice. Also unconvincing contentions conceded "coordinated," exists because are, some sense, identical. 12-17. 4 (c) Because expediture court need reach question argued Party: whether, parties, also forbids congressional efforts limit While deprived jurisdiction consider failure parties lower courts focus specifically on complex issues involved determining constitutionality lack provides prudential reason decide question. This first question, should defer action until have considered light decision. 17-20. 5 Kennedy, Chief Scalia, face, violates restricts party's spending "in cooperation, consultation, concert, . 441a(a)(7)(B)(i). occasion 58, 66, reasoning upholding ordinary extended does. Buckley's central holding one's own speech permitted, 44-58, what 441a(a)(7)(B)(i) "contribution[s]." concert with" indistinguishable substance his committee. permit latter, 54-59, former. 1-5. 6 Thomas, Parts I III 441a(d)(3) only petitioners, face. 1-5, 16-19. 7 addressing parties. That squarely before Court, principal opinion's reasons reaching addition, concerns chilling expression counsel favor resolving Reaching will clear circumstances under engage running afoul 441a(d)(3). 8 Section withstand framework established curiam). anticorruption rationale relied inapplicable specific context funding since there minimal threat spends support oppose competitor, whether Parties traditionally worked together achieve common goals, work, risk Republic. To contrary, danger lies suppression activity. 9 Thomas Part II challenge, rejected significant difference between contributions expenditures: involve core basic associational rights Amendment. Curbs strictly scrutinized. See, 501. 441a(d)(3)'s fail strict scrutiny statute tailored serve compelling preventing fact ``corruption,'' defined ``financial quid pro quo: dollars favors,'' 497. Contrary ruling 28, bribery laws disclosure requirements present less restrictive means than indiscriminately covers many conceivable instances could exceed intent extract unlawful commitment 11-15. 10 J., announced delivered opinion, JJ., joined. opinion concurring dissenting part, Rehnquist, III. Stevens, Ginsburg, 11 NOTICE: formal revision publication preliminary print Reports. Readers requested notify Reporter Decisions, States, Washington, D.C. 20543, typographical errors, order corrections goes press. 12 Breyer Souter join. 13 1986, fall's election, Timothy Wirth, charged "expenditure" exceeded provision (FECA) "general campaign" office. 90 Stat. 486, amended, focuses those case. We conclude I. 14 understand our holding, one begin emerged 1974. sought remedy "corrupt" process (one large seem buy votes) level playing field reducing costs. See 25-27 (1976) consequently amounts corporations, "political committees" (such PAC's), contribute federal office, candidates, labor unions, spend, even own, help win election. 18 608, 610 (1970 ed., Supp. IV). 15 subsequently examined several Act's Amendment's free association protections. Massachusetts Citizens Life, Inc., 479 238 (1986); 480 (1985) (NCPAC); California Medical Assn. Comm'n, 453 182 (1981); supra. these cases, essentially weighed assuring system's legitimacy, corruption. 256-263; NCPAC, 493-501; Assn., 193-199; 14-23. doing so, found prohibited FECA's provisions, others. 16 Most limits. Those candidates' money, 51-54, S., 54-58, individuals (not campaign), similarly committees mostly limits-limits apply contributes coordinate 23-36. 46-48; 193-199 (limits committees). Consequently, now direct, indirect, following limits: 17 For "person": $1,000 "with election"; $5,000 year; $20,000 national within overall (for year) $25,000. 441a(a)(1), (3). "multicandidate committee": $15,000 year. 441a(a)(2). 19 provision, case, governs 441a(d). creates, exception above is, treatment, ordinarily would limitation committee" just described. 441a(a)(4). we said above, annual more And mentioned take form "expenditures with, request suggestion of, authorized agents." Thus, ordinarily, limitation. 20 However, shall call Provision," creates limitation, says: 21 "Notwithstanding law contributions, [committees] office ." 441a(d)(1) (emphasis added). 22 exempting statute, then substitute "expenditures" equal greater "2 cents multiplied voting age population State," 441a(d)(3)(A)(i), adjusted inflation 1974, 441a(c). about $103,000 Senate. Record, vol. 12, no. 4, p. (Apr. 1986). (A different 441a(d)(2), presidential campaigns. involves concerning races, address might grow out public Presidential campaigns). 23 January Congressman, he run open Senate seat November. April, either primary convention, Congressman Wirth. State complained Commission. pointed previously assigned allotment Committee, leaving permissible balance. 27 (1981) (state appoint agent allotment). purchase time was "expenditure office," consequently, 24 agreed Party. complaint violation. Provision's Amendment-a charge repeated intended elections, App. 68, Para(s) 48, attacked entire Provision. words "`in with' candidate" narrowly, meaning using "`express advocacy defeat.'" 839 1448, 1455 (Colo. 1993) (quoting 46, 52). 249. As so interpreted, held, here. dismissed 25 Both sides appealed. Government, statute-applying containing "electioneering message" "clearly identified candidate," Advisory Op. 1985-14, CCH Fed. Camp. Fin. Guide 5819, 11,185 (May 30, 1985) (AO 1985-14)-which, agreed. applicable, constitutional, ordered FEC's favor. 1023-1024 (CA10 1995). 26 granted certiorari primarily "either facially applied." Pet. Cert. i. discuss IV below, latter question-whether II. called expenditure, treat "contribution." 36-37, 46-47, 78; 498. describes how made. deposition, Chairman, Howard Callaway, yet nominee among three vying nomination. 195-196. He added arranged development script initiative, 200, he, else, approved it, 199, politically relevant who read were executive director director, ibid., discussions took place meetings attended staff, 204. 28 Notwithstanding testimony, Court-and reiterates passing brief Brief Respondent 20-that deposition showed advertisement candidates. Callaway's statement practice "coordinat[e] "campaign strategy," 195, Callaway "as [he] be" nomination, available them "all assets party," statements, however, descriptions They refer preparation. Nor conflict cast doubt upon, particu-lar can find "genuine" respect. Rule Civ. Proc. 56(e); Matsushita Elec. Industrial Co. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 574, 586-587 (1986). contribution. 29 So falls scope precedents extend protection Beginning "fundamental spent advertise views campaign." been grounded observation restrictions impose "only marginal restriction contributor's ability communication," 20-21, symbolic communicative value bears little relation size, 21, leave "persons expression, associate actively through volunteering services, assist nonetheless substantial extent supporting financial resources." Id., 28. At same time, reasonable materially exchanges favors. 26-27. 30 contrast, significantly impair groups "represent restraints quantity diversity speech." 19. related "[t]he absence prearrangement undermines alleviates given quo improper commitments 47. 31 Given principles, escape controlling effect. A reflects members' philosophical matters bind together, seeks convince others join members practical democratic task, task creating government voters instruct hold responsible subsequent success failure. "core" activity committees. Eu San Francisco County Central 489 214 (1989). 32 aware dangers associated tip balance direction. When considered, unconstitutional, set certain reiterated "the coordination" eliminate, "alleviate," "danger" effort obtain "quid quo." true 33 recognize permits ($20,000) ($1,000) ($5,000). 441a(a). unregulated "soft money" activities, electing state 431(8)(A)(i), voter registration "get vote" drives, 431(8)(B)(xii). But opportunity posed opportunities best, attenuated. Unregulated used influence except limited, party-building activities designated statute. 431(8)(B). Any earmarked particular limitations. 441a(a)(8). simply channel unlimited undesignated transfers committee." greatest therefore, appears donors give sums up benefit Congress, potential evasion serious matter, change statute's Cf. 197-199 (plurality opinion) (danger justified prophylactic PAC's). believe justify "markedly burden freedoms caused by" 44. 51; Contributors avoid effect donations amount (or more) themselves promoting 44-48 (risk individuals' insufficient spending). If anything, possible donation, directed donor, corrupt much larger) donor. fact, equally instances, source expenditure. 45-46; prevents us assuming, absent convincing necessary combat system. 34 Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. FCC, 512 ___, ___ (1994) (slip. op., 40-41) ("When defends prevent anticipated harms, posit existence disease cured") (citation internal quotation marks omitted); suggest wrote concern potentially "corrupting" purpose saw wasteful excessive spending. 57. indicating fear corruptive history demonstrates Congress' desire enhance seen important legitimate role American elections. 41 (Party "assure continue elections"); Rep. 93-689, (1974) ("[A] vigorous vital Americanpolitics [P]ooling resources small contributors function integral politics"); 7-8, 15. 35 controls Constitution grants deny Having this, further language, unconstitutionally vague. 40-44. 36 force precedent discussed. Rather, accepted, precedents, "independent expenditure," "contributions," regulate. 23-38. 37 Supp., 1453, based factual finding consulted planing Instead, accepted if law, "[b]ased Commission's statute," ibid. legal conclusion. 3d, 1024. courts' "finding" conclusion, infra, 6-8, instead, erred accepting conclusive presumption "coordinated." did. 38 argument, points materials, interpretations, say imply include: (1) campaign," CFR 110.7(b)(4) (1995); (2) Opinions use word describe Provisions' limitations, 1984-15, 5766, 11,069 31, 1984) 1984-15); 1988-22, 5932, 11,471 (July 5, 1988) 1988-22); (3) Opinion says explicitly footnote "coordination presumed `independence' precluded," ibid.; (4) "[p]arty incapable `independent' " 1. 39 argues, basis "empirical officials course consult communications election." 27. judgment. most materials description necessarily possibility AO 1984-15 11,069. concede says, footnote, presumed." 1988-22 4. statement, like others, external embody (say, hardly ever independently) investigation. Indeed, require investigation, applies alike. (a excess limits) event, suggests opposite, namely sometimes, ("Although consultation permissible, required"). circumstances, cited empirical, experience-based, determination being hold, "coordinated."The accept characterization. claimed, example, administratively speaking, difficult separate than, say, PAC. 109.1 (1995) (distinguishing groups). draw dicta purported regulatory regime described brief. 40 fails distinguish indicate distinction impossible untenable unmodified term explained passed 1974 amendments, groups. 608(e), IV); 39. Finally, characterized decisions prohibiting But, characterization prove An agency's calling purposes) one. NAACP Button, 371 415, 429 (1963) (the "cannot foreclose exercise mere labels"); Edwards South Carolina, 372 229, 235-238 (State strictures applying label "breach peace" peaceful demonstrations). 42 argues concession underlying facts. "Questions Presented" petition terminology, arguments consider. Reply Petitioners 9-10, (denying labels control analysis). referred where away abandoned uncoordinated And, bound proper Nat. Bank Ore. Independent Ins. Agents America, 508 439, 447 (1993); 333 611, 623-628 (1948); Young 315 257, 259 (1942) (recognizing "our judgments precedents" left merely stipulation parties"). 43 amici argue identical, i.e., party, "is" assume, so. W. Keefe, Parties, Politics, Public Policy America 59-74 (5th ed. (describing "coalitions" differing interests). chose quite differently Act, regulating other. 441a(a)(2)(B). 110.2, 110.3(b) (1995). metaphysical identity absolute interests eliminates relationship 54-59 (Congress candidate/campaign committee); Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 790 (1978) (where "corruption" contributions). IV. 44 decided, claimed well reached deciding applied" challenge. 45 68-69. affidavits allege exceeding 159, deprive overbroad applications, provide especially resolve current dispute. If, wants us, mooted resolution Renne Geary, 501 312, 323-324 (1991) (facial generally entertained "as-applied" case); Brockett Spokane Arcades, 472 491, 503-504 (1985). 46 More importantly, courts, briefs isolate, address, coordinated, nor examine, context, similarities differences similar knowledge, 20-year in-fact protected Amendment, though 46-47. complex. Kennedy out, post, 4-5, share features virtually simple (compare, donation payment media bills, 46). Moreover, PAC's, having in, devoting to, goal "work further" agenda," Post, 490 PAC); 492 (coordinated PAC's limitations). implicates range appear, including 47 litigation, opinions, issues, conclusively deem coordinated. reflect, litigation strategy denied statute-a (including expenditure) struck unconstitutional. 441a(a)(2), (4), (7)(B)(i). Rather challenging well, thereby authority regulate obscure severability exempt provision. 11, 9. strategies adjudicate counterclaim, consideration reconsidered opinion. 48 note neither wanted Provisions stand independent, 108; non-constitutional ground briefed Locke, 471 84, 92, 49 disagrees notwithstanding considerations. great number addressed presented facts raised believes appropriate overrule sua sponte finance jurisprudence, numerous over last years. 5-15. Doing seems inconsistent view "inappropriate reexamine" "without briefing," "principles animate policy stare decisis caution overruling longstanding theory parties." International Business Machines 517 (1996) 13). view, competing proceed cautiously, consistent precedent, remand proceedings. 50 reasons, remanded 51 ordered. 52 whom Scalia join, part. 53 agreement pleadings throughout preserved constraints face Elections (FEC), violate 54 plurality's relating squared Ante, plurality finds invalid, agree behind quarrel beside point, burdensome unrealistic attempt funds behalf candidates) 55 illuminates deficiencies statutory whole constrains logical, implementation "person," obvious reflects, restrict expending speech. 56 restricts. calls nature "contribution," 441a(a)(7)(B)(i), restricted acknowledges, allow suggested analysis. also, e. g., Landmark Communications, Virginia, 829, 843 ("Deference judicial inquiry stake"). "marginal restriction[s]" rights, 20, attributes "speech" purposes: 57 "A serves communicate support. communication contributor increase perceptibly size contribution, rests solely undifferentiated, act contributing. most, very rough index intensity person organization thus restraint communication, evidenced way infringe freedom issues. result voters, transformation into debate someone contributor." (footnote omitted). 58 objections 66. uphold associations, 23-38; 182, opinion), fit "contributions" Buckley. my transplant involving embodies "profound principle uninhibited, robust, wide-open." New York Times Sullivan, 376 254, 270 (1964). unique serving principle; exist shared beliefs. (1989); Sweezy Hampshire, 354 234, 250 (1957). Morse Va., (slip 3-4) (Kennedy, dissenting). performs function, "identify[ing] people constitute association, limit[ing] only." Wisconsin ex rel. La Follette, 450 107, 122 (1981). members, selecting traditions principles transcend campaigns; message known effective, vice versa. 60 makes ask, does, answer yes, more, less, justification type spending, resemblance discussed Supra, 2-3. necessity "communicate[s] support," e., hope she elected work agenda. 61 treating contributions. difficulty stifling do. fanciful suppose limiting "does issues," impractical imprudent, least, "cooperation" "consultation." speech, behalf, separated constraining advocating essential positions pursuing goals. fate inextricably intertwined 494-495 62 tradition engaging joint activity; two entities during authority, undifferentiated satisfy criteria 63 accord remit protracted otherwise, concur 64 65 petitioners' violated, think reject analyzing scrutiny. stand, anti-corruption sustaining 66 initial write Breyer's 67 counterclaimed Office Senator 441a(d) 68. Though faults "focus[ing] expenditures," ante, 17, certainly includes expenditures.1 431(9)(A) ("The `expenditure' purchase, payment, distribution, loan, advance, deposit, gift anything value, influencing office") (1981), reference tantamount 68 liberal rules governing civil pleading, 8, straightforward allegation unconstitutionality clearly suffices regulated consistently precisely counterclaim. expressly "analyzing committees," 1024 1995), 69 "specifically allege," immaterial. 159 ("[T]he intends pay [Section(s) 441]. costs [sic] 441a(d)], due deterrent statute"), 23-24 ready, willing able defeat 441a(d), deterred credible enforcement action"). 70 notes validity 18, granting certiorari. too late now. needlessly protract remanding Appeals. "issue complex," good avoiding it. sit easy cases. while asked fact" analysis challenges routinely applications court. Broadrick Oklahoma, 413 601, 612 (1973). Whether actually not, contrary considering testing end it.2 71 unanswered, inhibit nationwide. All resolves opponent) thereafter punished settles little, anything. wonder show-presumably circumstantial evidence-a link course, main purposes 72 us. now, instead uncertainty types engage. A. 73 Critical contributions3 drew giving "operate area fundamental activities," 14, invalidated upheld gave results this: "The theoretical speech," 19, whereas "limitation[s] group entai[l] 20-21. conclusion supported mainly assertions contributions: first, contributor; second, express 21. jurisprudence (MCFL), 238, 259-260, 261-262 Comm. (NCPAC), 497 (1985); 196 opinion). 74 lacks significance, adhere Burger put it: "[C]ontributions coin." 241 (concurring part).4 Contributions "[d]iscussion qualifications operation Constitution." 14. donates partisan organization, enhances donee's adds debate, communicates himself. add discourse donee productive individual. fosters "free discussion affairs," Mills Alabama, 384 214, 218 (1966), does.5 Giving BeVier, Money Politics: Perspective Finance Reform, Calif. L. Rev. 1045, 1064 (hereinafter BeVier). acknowledged "`[e]ffective private particularly controversial ones, undeniably enhanced association.'" Alabama Patterson, 357 449, 460 (1958)). associations citizens pool fully 494. pool, effective advocacy. Against Rent Control/Coalition Fair Housing Berkeley, 290, 296 ("To wishing band association"). limits, furthering viewpoints. "[a]ny interference simultaneously adherents." (1957) opinion).6 75 Turning differences, discern meaningful former pass intermediary-some entity organizing facilitating dissemination message-whereas citizen another effectively deploy cause ought rights. promote himself, likeminded persons. expenditure; differ form, substance. commentator cautioned, "let lose sight Powe, Mass Speech Newer 1982 Ct. 243, 258. 76 Echoing sometimes rationalized referring "speech proxy." (Marshall, J.) proxy" ineffective tool distinguishing Even usually go-between facilitates spender's message-for instance, agency television station. 258-259. differentiate 243-244, (Burger, part). extra step proxy chain. again, 77 recently recognized "proxy" endorsed give, fully-protected donors' 78 `proxy speech' approach useful [where] obviously hearing [the] organizatio[n] want voices message; otherwise money. collective pooling amplify full subordinate modest opposed sufficiently wealthy expensive ads 495. 79 proposition caps marginally speech-that signals nothing support-is unsatisfying. Assuming assertion descriptively accurate (which questionable), still mean terms poster reads "We Smith" me deserving Smith position agriculture subsidies." pure support, unadorned valuable process. 80 sum, unlike seriously protections depend fine line purpose. principle, groups: social, economic, beliefs seek affect policy. deeply flawed. Accordingly, employ B. 81 premise forms repeatedly 501; 294; 786 (1978).7 am convinced traditional scrutiny, broad process, 82 formula well-established. requires interest. reform, prevention 496-497, "financial favors," 497.8 means-ends specified "[w]here possible, curtail degree meet hand, infringing pose prompted regulation." MCFL, 265. 83 stated "closely drawn unnecessary abridgment" 25. summarily existed-for requirements-FECA's invalid. Bribery laws, "deal blatant attempts action," inadequate With rules, admitted "many salutary purposes" "entitled partial measure, ceilings concomitant." Ibid. noted volunteer "limited extent." 84 monetary narrow tailoring test. Addressing caps, appellants argued: 85 "If minority secure appointments quo, vast majority donor share. Where involved, blunderbuss innocent innocent." Appellants O. T. 1975, Nos. 75-436 75-437, pp. 117-118. 86 were, mind, correct. Broad bans designed precision required sweep prohibitions. 87 particular, suffers infirmity. flatly engaging, engage, resembling Austin Michigan Chamber Commerce, 494 652, 689 (1990) (Scalia, dissenting) "extends producing social harm" requirement) original). Schaumburg Better Environment, 444 620, 637 (1980) stop fraud charitable solicitations, "lump" truly organizations cloak profitmaking refuse precise measures other"). observed, "it forgotten gain: promotion program, enthusiasm giver vaguely conceives interest." Overacker, 192 (1974). 88 punish deter conduct FECA, donees accountable questionable dealings 637-638 (explaining "less intrusive" solicitation penal [that be] directly" "disclosure finances organizations"). alternatives, wholesale bribery-but Amendment-are tailored. 89 faulty. completely stamping abridge guaranteed freedoms, accomplish Similarly, modes remain least problem. could, avenues speech.9 Were rested principled nevertheless Under progeny, purportedly aimed sustained attack.10 Just invalid stemming invalid.11 91 asserts representatives officials. explain "corruption," however;12 closest thing explanation offers "`the real imagined coercive actions office.'" 25). reviewing groups, (PACs), 23, 35, status dealing 59, 67. 92 loses force. Nahra, Laws: Dilemmas, Concerns Opportunities, Ford. 53, 105-106 (1987). What "coercive" him? aim stance and, takes reelected, votes. aim, achievement "a subversion process." wins, implements platform, corruption; successful ideas marketplace representative borrow phrase alter reaffirm response messages paid [political groups] democracy presentation electorate varying view." 263 (suggesting "[v]oluntary specter corruption"). 93 structure quos 97-98 (citing Sorauf, Politics 15-18 1984)). wide variety interests, 98, majoritarian importance single diffused. reason, argue, Renewal al. Amicus Curiae 16, donated cleanest politics." J. Bibby, Commonsense (Dec. 1983). long continues uniform donors, conduit bribing 94 "demonstrat[ing] recited harms real, conjectural," 41), proof corrupting expenditures"). insofar enact "but spending," 57), unwarranted 95 understood term, Republic heavy assertedly aimed. 96 conclude, 97 Ginsburg joins, dissenting. 98 her campaign. disagree 99 persuaded sufficient predicate First, shares sponsors fates linked. interdependency party-or persons party-will abuse virtue power spend. appropriately threat. chosen broadcast challenged immaterial Although nominees race summer, campaigns respective frontrunners fall. 100 Second, supplement embodied likewise Individuals 441a(a)(1)(A). circumvent cap. blocking undermine policies Act. (approving ceiling circumvention candidates); 203 (Blackmun, judgment); curiam) total rationale). 101 leveling cost White "money always equivalent campaigns." (opinion wrong assume net expenditures-which tend protect access arena, staffs interminable fund-raising, diminish repetitive 30-second commercials-will adverse informed 262-266. 102 surely wisdom experience far superior ours. questions spending.13 affirm acknowledges earlier `expenditure'" Congressional "to expenditures." remaining straw men. (if entirety, expenditures); raised). expenditures) generate severability) itself. Without deal corollary merit, can, Breyer. Coordinated categorized ("[E]xpenditures agents, candidate"). Three Members thought part); 261 (White, 290 part), Member disavowed subsequently, 518-521 678 (Stevens, concurring) (stating "should any, weight corporate participation elections"). H. Alexander, 234 (1972): contributions; specifically, congenial viewpoint Some heard interested financially voicing position. widely heard, mass necessary, costly. By extension, then, debate." illustrate implicate values, everything states "[a] failure." "Coordinated" attributes. prearranged candidate-presumably election-does purposes. (1976), scrutinize rules. (FECA's "both interests"); (contributions "`subject scrutiny'") gone unnoticed, seemed forgiving review "not sort protection"). 201-202 judgment) (under lesser standard expenditures). III, party. My general, Stevens submits "accord [Congress'] 3, adopted, poses letting fox watch henhouse. reform inappropriate BeVier 1074-1081. acknowledge legislators game keep challengers 1075 ("`Courts police inhibitions trust so'") omitted) Ely, Democracy Distrust 106 (1980)). R. Winter, Financing Constitution, 486 Annals Am. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci. 34, 40, purify service, incumbents 1078-1080. ration acquiesce 45-47 (striking down "advocacy presently appear apparent corruption"); (1986) (invalidating incorporated [any] threat" corruption); 498 commitments" "hypothetical possibility"); 297 "Buckley formed ballot measures" inapplicable); (concluding referendum corporations present"). chides taking positition 19-20, insufficiently "cautious," ignores why precedent. Nor, sorts One irony sided petitioners change. Curiae; Curiae.

Classification Label: 2