Legal Document

435 U.S. 291 98 Supreme Court Reporter 1067 55 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 287 Edmund FOLEY, Appellant,v.William G. CONNELIE, Individually and in his capacity as Superintendent of the New York State Police, S. Atlantic Smith, Individually, Director Personnel Police. Number 76-839. Argued Nov. 8, 1977. Decided March 22, 1978. Syllabus statute limiting appointment members state police force to citizens held not violate Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. Pp. 294-300. (a) Citizenship may be a relevant qualification for fulfilling those "important nonelective . positions" by "officers who participate directly formulation, execution, or review broad public policy," Sugarman versus Dougall, 413 634, 647, 93 2842, 2850, 37 853. Strict equal protection scrutiny is required justify classifications applicable such positions; need only show some rational relationship between interest sought protected classification. In deciding what level applied, each position question must examined determine whether it involves discretionary decisionmaking, execution policy, which substantially affects political community. 294-297. (b) Police officials are clothed with authority exercise an almost infinite variety powers, calling very high degree judgment discretion, can seriously affect individuals. officers fall within category non-elective policy." supra, at S.Ct., 2850 (emphasis added). enforcement laws function one where citizenship bears special demands particular position, therefore confine performance this important responsibility citizens. 297-300. 419 F.Supp. 889, affirmed. Jonathan Weiss, City, appellant. Judith Gordon, appellees. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 We noted probable jurisdiction case consider constitutionally limit its States. 430 944, 97 1577, 51 791 (1977). 2 The appellant, Foley, alien eligible due course become naturalized citizen, lawfully country permanent resident. He applied trooper, filled on basis competitive examinations. Pursuant statute, N.Y.Exec. Law § 215(3) (McKinney 1972), authorities refused allow Foley take examination. provides: 3 "No person shall appointed unless he citizen States." 4 Appellant then brought action District Southern York, seeking declaratory that State's exclusion aliens from violates After was certified representative class similarly situated, three-judge convened merits claim. constitutional. 889 (1976). affirm. 5 * essential facts uncontroverted. Exec. 1972) prohibits appellant becoming troopers. It disputed has uniformly complied restriction since enacted 1927. Under it, desires compete trooper relinquish foreign American citizen. Some class, including currently waiting periods imposed congressional enactment.1 6 A member force, law body exercises throughout State. powers troopers generally described statutes functions traditionally associated peace officer. Like most officers, they charged prevention detection crime, apprehension suspected criminals, investigation suspect conduct, warrants have search, seizure arrest without formal warrant under limited circumstances. carrying out these responsibilities officer empowered resort lawful include use any weapon carry while duty. All call 24 hours day appropriate whenever criminal activity observed. 7 Perhaps best shorthand description role advanced Court: "State law, private profession benefit themselves their clients, but people large York." F.Supp., 896. II 8 claims rights Clause. 9 decisions regard living our society reflected fine, often difficult, questions values. As Nation we exhibit extraordinary hospitality come country,2 surprising been "a nation immigrants." Indeed, residing many accorded noncitizens few other countries. Our cases reflect close restraints aliens. But never suggested legislation inherently invalid, nor all limitations suspect. See 648, 853 (1973). Rather, beginning involved denial welfare assistance life itself, treated certain restrictions al ens "heightened judicial solicitude," Graham Richardson, 403 365, 372, 91 1848, 1852, 29 534 (1971), treatment deemed necessary aliens—pending eligibility citizenship—have no direct voice processes. Carolene Products Co., 304 144, 152-153, 58 778, 783-784, 82 L.Ed. 1234, n. (1938).3 10 Following Graham, series resulted requiring meet exclude educational benefits, Nyquist Mauclet, 432 1, 2120, 53 63 (1977); range employment, supra; practice licensed professions, Examining Board Flores de Otero, 426 572, 96 2264, 49 65 (1976); re Griffiths, 717, 2851, 910 These exclusions struck noncitizens' ability exist community, seemingly inconsistent determination admit residence. 377-378, 1854-1855; Barrett, Judicial Supervision Legislative Classifications—A More Modest Role Protection?, 1976 B.Y.U.L.Rev. 89, 101.4 11 would inappropriate, however, require every statutory clear hurdle "strict scrutiny," because do so "obliterate distinctions aliens, thus depreciate historic values citizenship." 14, 2128. (BURGER, C. J., dissenting). act more than ritual content beyond fanfare ceremony. new Nation, part distinct others. Cf. Worcester Georgia, Pet. 515, 559, 483 (1832). individual, point, belongs polity entitled processes democratic decisionmaking. Accordingly, recognized historical power participation institutions," U.S., sovereign's obligation " 'to preserve basic conception community.' 2850. 12 practical consequence theory "our will demanding deal matters firmly constitutional prerogatives." classification showing This intended denigrate valuable contribution traditional hospitality. recognition fact ruled people. Thus, deny right vote, run elective office, lie heart institutions. 647-649, 2850-2851. Similar considerations support legislative o jury service. Perkins 370 134 (Md.1974), aff'd, 913, 2616, 368 Likewise, executive, legislative, positions," seeks reserve better jobs members. entrusts policy immediately lives even ballot voter choice legislator. sum, then, represents choice, right, governed peers. To effectuate result, necessarily examine community.5 essence holdings date although extend education welfare, along earn livelihood engage govern reserved III 13 discussion essentially government, especially complex modern presence pervasive. fulfills fundamental government constituency. ranks formulate per se, powers.6 vested them significantly sensitive areas daily life. Constitution, course, provides safeguards persons, homes possessions, well guidance officers. And countries, if any, provide individuals discretion police. Nonetheless, may, invade privacy individual places, e. g., Terry Ohio, 392 88 1868, 20 (1968). They conditions break down door enter dwelling building warrant, Miller States, 357 301, 78 1190, 1332 (1958), circumstances; stop vehicles traveling highways, Pennsylvania Mimms, 434 106, 330, 54 331 14 An arrest, commonly police, serious matter when prosecution follows acquittal obtained. Most arrests prior authority, observes progress suspects felonious afoot. Even routine traffic made trooper—for speeding, weaving, reckless driving, improper license plates, absence inspection stickers, dangerous physical condition vehicle, describe obvious common viol tions—can intrude individual. stopping cars, limits, driver passengers disembark search weapons, depending time, place That prophylactic attested number wounded killed process making inquiry borderline, minor violation situations—for example, initial offense but, unknown vehicle occupants armed engaged embarked conduct. 15 Clearly calls abuse misuse impact individuals.7 office policeman sense "the occupations community" Hughes referred Truax Raich, 239 33, 41, 36 7, 10, 60 131 (1915). plenary equated employment "common over generally. rationale qualified immunity historically granted rests difficult delicate judgments make. Pierson Ray, 386 547, 555-557, 87 1213, 1218-1219, 18 288 (1967); cf. Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 245-246, 94 1683, 1691, 40 90 (1974). 16 short, anomalous conclude subjected noncitizen say jurors judge surprising, therefore, expressly citizens,8 whom reasonably presume familiar sympathetic traditions.9 clearly THE EXECUTION Of polICY." dougall, u.s., position. consonant States.10 17 Affirmed. 19 STEWART, concurring. dissenting opinions convincingly demonstrate impossible reconcile Court's full sweep reasoning past decisions. & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions increasingly doubtful about validity (in least concurred) join case. 21 BLACKMUN, concurring result. 22 Once again called upon adjudicate constitutionality York's impose requirement occupational activity.* Although joined striking requirements kind, see (1971); (1973); (1976), including, specifically, (1977), difficulty agreeing result reaches here. 23 establish standards one. decided just last Term, recent pronouncement area law. There, citing observed once based alienage "are subject scrutiny, ' and, 605, 2282, went 'the governmental claimed discrimination carefully order legitimate substantial, means adopted achieve goal precisely drawn.' 2124. same opinion, were intimated when, 642 2847 said: "[T]he 'in establishing own form might consideration alienage. makes quite clear, had mind define qualifications voters, 'elective nonelective' 'who policy.' [413 U.S.], 2842. id., 2842." 11, 2126. 25 When acting, discriminatory preserving community employs. 26 agree conclusion duties government. rationally execute should persons presumed share as, possess status. consistent Federal preclude serving 27 MARSHALL, BRENNAN STEVENS joins, dissenting. 28 Almost century ago, landmark Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 369, 1064, 1070, 30 220 (1886), "persons" meaning Eighty-five years later, concluded constitute 'discrete insular' minority," singling unfavorable strict scrutiny." 376, 1854. During ensuing six Terms, invalidated discriminating against four separate occasions, finding could survive scrutiny. (1973) (competitive civil service); (attorneys); (1976) (civil engineers); (1977) (financial higher education). Today upholds excluding bases decision largely dictum effect barred holding "state positions "participate 2850.1 perform placing "narro[w] exception," 2126, usual rule presumptively unconstitutional. According y dissent. sense, true policy. Just firefighters fires extinguished, sanitation workers streets kept clean, believed committed crimes arrested. simply demonstrates exception, read context, "would swallow rule." Nyquist, 2127. employee "execution" unambiguously holds blanket 31 Thus phrase "execution policy" cannot mean programs, rather interpreted actually setting pursuant delegation substantial legislature. head executive agency promulgating regulations executes file clerks not. indicates, "elective nonelective" involve policymaking group excluded. my view, job positions. 32 There vast difference formulation application specific factual settings. While correct discretion," ante, 298, nature; officer's conduct contained Constitutions, statutes, regulations.2 responding situation applying choices—which shaping—to perceives them.3 previously distinction exercised found defining scope afforded 42 Code KF62 1983: 33 "When court evaluates relating guideline 'good faith cause.' branch, far choices—whether legislation, budgets, day-to-day decisions—is virtually infinite. [S]ince options chief principal subordinates broader subtle less responsibility, comparably broad." 245-247, (1974) (citation omitted). 34 places great reliance policemen make searches, "without authority." Ante, 298. certainly "[an] matter," ibid., concerned "intru[sions] individual." Ibid. concerns way "anomalous" arrested searched "noncitizen officers," 299, By authorizes "any person" another felony arresting person's presence. N.Y.Crim.Proc.Law 140.30 1971). Moreover, authorized incident arrest.4 primarily troopers, nevertheless understand how imply troopers' justifies given authority. 35 Griffiths citizens, "despite vital attorneys," denigration trooper—who, notes, 297, operates "in life"—to find "make him formulator 729, 2858. Since reason, let alone compelling interest, here issue,5 hold statute's xclusion STEVENS, should, scrutinize closely professional services borders. like lawyers, field expertise trustworthy. Detailed individual's appropriate. Conversely, disqualifies entire doubly objectionable. denies access unique talent; also opportunity characteristics thought possess. 38 first objection poses wisdom denying Hercule Poirot Sherlock Holmes Court, decide. second raises different kind satisfactory answer rule: What characteristic otherwise alien? 39 No suggests lack intelligence courage serve disqualifying apparently allegiance doubt concerning trustworthiness loyalty pervasive flat ban justified. integrity suspect, why law? Are untrustworthy disloyal lawyers tolerable policemen? Or legal able detect department? Unless repudiates 910, reject conclusive presumption untrustworthy.1 explanation categories employment. Aliens vote. families unlikely beneficiaries patronage system controlled during much history. widespread today nothing vestige nonvoting distributing spoils victory party faithful.2 If true, explain, justify, discrimination. 41 influenced selection reference governing reasons instructive. Elrod Burns, 427 347, 2673, employees discharge beliefs exception officials.3 identified Burns both nature justifying regular employees. draw line nonpolicymaking intelligible fashion possible. MARSHALL points out, 305, context liability 1983, placed Governor Ohio. 1691-1692, 90. unquestionably condemn dismissal affiliation differed superiors. Yet, inexplicably, transformed into ranking, official presented excluded 43 does purport disturb teaching Sugarman, transformation rest unarticulated premise government" employed institutions performing ." Dougall judgment, refute it. Respect function, respect military, cause us lose sight democracy neither constabulary military responsibility. Instead, implements policies formulated indirectly citizenry. announced institution inappropriate. 44 misapprehension institutionalized obfuscates significance privilege participating policy—a denied exercising society—is citizenship. gives dramatic naturalization ceremony.4 transition change status person. qualitatively incremental increase economic benefits accrue holders papers. citizen's vote decisionmaking honorable prerogative enjoy. 45 final analysis, jurisdiction, Constitution commands treatment. opportunities good reason. plainly teaches burgeoning market totally foreclosed policymaker country, total fall. 46 rejects uphold identifying concern possible disloyalty, equally disqualify law; yet continuing vitality Griffiths. process, irrelevant there explains discrimination, justification already rejected Court.5 47 Because fails either apply established rules stated respectfully recognize effectively prevent ever limits ages years. 1972). One indication attitude Congress' relatively easy immigrants 1427 (1976 ed.). alien's is, control Congress durational residency attainment requires reside five prerequisite naturalization. 1427(a) 'no longer luxury; necessity strength, fulfillment survival.' 9, 2125. say, accomplish end "sweeps indiscriminately," 643, 2848, differences involved. Bar Association Project Standards Criminal Justice, Urban Function 119 (App. Draft 1973); National Advisory Commission Goals, 22-23 President's Enforcement Administration Challenge Crime Free Society (1967). event, abuses remedies injury. Bivens Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 388, 1999, 619 (1971). evidence knowledge error misconduct. Twenty-four besides specifically statewide agency: Ark.Stat.Ann. 42-406 (1964); Cal.Govt.Code Ann. 1031 (West Supp. 1976); Fla.Stat.Ann. 943.13(2) 1977); Ga.Code 92A-214 (Supp. Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 121, 307.9 (1975); Ind.Rules Regs., Tit. Article 4-7 Iowa 80.15 Kan.Stat.Ann. 74-2113(c) Ky.Rev.Stat. 16.040(2)(c) Mich.Comp.Laws 28.4 Miss.Code 45-3-9 Mo.Rev.Stat. 43.060 (1969); Mont.Rev.Codes 31-105(3)(a)(v) Nev.Rev.Stat. 281.060(1) N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 106-B:20 1975); N.J.Stat.Ann. 53:1-9 N.M.Stat.Ann. 39-2-6 (1972); N.D.Cent.Code 39-03-04(4) Ore.Rev.Stat. 181.260(1)(a) Pa.Stat.Ann., 71, 1193 (Purdon 1962); R.I.Gen.Laws 42-28-10 (1970); S.D.Comp.Laws 3-7-9 3-1-4 (1974); Tex.Rev.Civ.Stat.Ann., 4413(9)(2) (Vernon Utah 27-11-11 Oklahoma Okla.Stat., 47, 2-105(a) 1976). Nine general types employees: Ala.Code, 36, 2-1(a)(1) Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 38-201 Haw.Rev.Stat. 78-1 Idaho 59-101 Const., 6, 2; Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., 5, 556 Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., 31, Ohio Rev.Code 124.22 (1978); Tenn.Code 8-1801 Vt. Stat.Ann., 3, 262 W.Va.Const., 4, 4. countries ways intolerable indeed violative rights. nations belief freedom movement travel, identification cards times. This, inter alia, affords entrusted who, native Americans, indicated acceptance McCarthy Philadelphia Civil Service Comm'n, 424 645, 1154, 366 Detroit Officers Assn. Detroit, 385 Mich. 519, 190 North Western Reporter, 2nd dismissed want federal question, 405 950, 92 1173, 227 (1972). appellees listed succession citizenship, declaration intent fewer occupations. Brief Appellee O.T. 1976, 76-208, Pages 19-22, nn. 8-44, inclusive. legislatively repealed modified, judicially invalidated. Others, apparently, still effect; among inspector, reporter, funeral director, masseur, therapist, animal health technician. that, positions, scrutinized standard normally involving minority." 642, did explain vary being excluded, focus Ibid., quoting Dunn Blumstein, 344, 995, 1004, 274 647-648, viewed circumstances further lesser applicable. Regardless approach followed, remains same: Is policy"? extent deploy formulating view REHNQUIST lone Sugarman. His 'low level' servants 'governors' write 'low-level' administrator 'apply.' 661, 2867. eight-Justice majority, did, took opposite position: "who cases" comparable "those regulations." Rosse, 418 38, 39-40 (C.A.2 1969); Viale, 312 595, 599, 600 1963). discussing searches refer "citizen" taking action, Swarovski, 557 1977), cert. denied, 1045, 796 39; plain language provision applies person." proffered appellee, App. D-30 (affidavit Police), accepted below: "The rightly conflicts glaring duty violators immigration laws, Governor's Detail visiting dignitaries, investigations having security, security events visitors 1980 Winter Olympics Lake Placid, 898 (S.D.N.Y.1976). Not surprisingly, appellee rely argument brief here, mention suggestion refuse enforce highly offensive. refusal hire trusted faithfully race, nationality, sex. long passed accept worth reiterating "one conscience oath Constitution. 726 18, 2851." Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 88, 111 n.43, 1895, 1909, 48 495. "In assumption service easily understood. merit appointment, examination, replacing method rewarding polls; rewards presumably voters (or families) characterized most, all, time. enactment equivalent considered so." Id., 107, 1907. "A employees, effectiveness efficiency insured, undercut tactics obstructing implementation administration, sanctioned electorate. inadequate validate wholesale. Limiting dismissals sufficient end." 367, 2687. eloquently out: 'a institutions.' 2125." 295-296. squarely treat scarce resource 641-645, 2847-2849, Nor burdens pro ide incentive 9-11, 2126-2127, 63. For Government immigration. 100-101, 1904. understanding "most citizens," persuasive. cited before patently invalid continue after deliberate Sugarman's unaffected holding.

Classification Label: 1