Legal Document

471 U.S. 539 105 S.Ct. 2218 85 L.Ed.2d 588 HARPER & ROW, PUBLISHERS, INC. and the Reader's Digest Association, Inc., Petitionersv.NATION ENTERPRISES Nation Associates, Inc. No. 83-1632. Argued Nov. 6, 1984. Decided May 20, 1985. Syllabus In 1977, former President Ford contracted with petitioners to publish his as yet unwritten memoirs. The agreement gave exclusive first serial right license prepublication excerpts. Two years later, memoirs were nearing completion, petitioners, copyright holders, negotiated a licensing Time Magazine under which agreed pay $25,000 ($12,500 in advance balance at publication) exchange for excerpt 7,500 words from Mr. Ford's account of pardon Nixon. Shortly before article's scheduled release, an unauthorized source provided unpublished manuscript. Working directly this manuscript, editor produced 2,250-word article, least 300 400 consisted verbatim quotes copyrighted expression taken It was timed "scoop" article. As result publication Nation's canceled its article refused remaining $12,500 petitioners. Petitioners then brought suit Federal District Court against respondent publishers Nation, alleging, inter alia, violations Copyright Act (Act). held that protected by time respondents' use material constituted infringement Act, court awarded actual damages $12,500. Appeals reversed, holding it identified copyrightable sanctioned "fair use" § 107 Act. Section provides notwithstanding provisions 106 giving owner reproduce work prepare derivative works based on work, fair purposes such comment news reporting is not copyright. further determining whether factors be considered shall include: (1) purpose character use; (2) nature work; (3) substantiality portion used relation whole; (4) effect potential market or value work. Held: 107. Pp. 542-569. (a) using generous excerpts lend authenticity forthcoming memoirs, effectively arrogated itself publication, important marketable subsidiary right. 545-549. (b) Though like other rights enumerated 106, expressly made subject 107, analysis must always tailored individual case. interest stake highly relevant given fair. key, though necessarily determinative, factor tending negate defense use. And ordinary circumstances, author's control public appearance undisseminated will outweigh claim 549-555. (c) view First Amendment's protections embodied Act's distinction between uncopyrightable facts ideas, latitude scholarship traditionally afforded use, there no warrant expanding, respondents contend should done, doctrine what amounts figure exception Whether copying figure's manuscript case judged according traditional equities 555-560. (d) Taking into four especially leads conclusion question here (i) fact general simply one factor. While had every information, went beyond information actively sought exploit headline infringement, making "news event" out publication. commercial opposed nonprofit separate weigh finding Fair presupposes good faith. merely incidental but intended supplanting holders' commercially valuable (ii) may greater need disseminate than fiction, taking exceeded necessary infringed interests confidentiality creative over (iii) Although insubstantial they qualitatively distinctive played key role infringing (iv) Time's cancellation projected refusal direct Once holder establishes causal connection loss revenue, burden shifts infringer show damage would have occurred been expression. established prima facie failed rebut. More important, only shown if challenged become widespread, adversely affect Here, liberal posed substantial marketability serialization 560-569. 723 F.2d 195 (CA2 1983), reversed remanded. Edward A. Miller, New York City, Floyd Abrams, respondents. Justice O'CONNOR delivered opinion Court. 1 This requires us consider extent provision Revision 1976, (hereinafter Act) 17 U.S.C. sanctions quotations March 1979, undisclosed "A Heal: Autobiography Gerald R. Ford." purloined short piece entitled "The Memoirs—Behind Nixon Pardon." shortly appear Magazine. purchase print Harper Row Publishers, Row), Digest). agreement. successful action Nation. On appeal, Second Circuit lower court's act material. We granted certiorari, 467 1214, 104 2655, 81 362 (1984), we now reverse. 2 * February after leaving White House, Digest, contain "significant hitherto material" concerning Watergate crisis, "Mr. reflections period history, morality personalities involved." App. Pet. Cert. C-14—C-15. addition book form, excerpts, known trade "first rights." Time, weekly magazine. $25,000, additional pardon. issue featuring approximately week shipment full length version bookstores. Exclusivity consideration; instituted procedures designed maintain retained renegotiate second payment prior release 3 three weeks unidentified person secretly copy Victor Navasky, political commentary Navasky knew possession authorized returned quickly "source" avoid discovery. 557 F.Supp. 1067, 1069 (SDNY 1983). He hastily put together he believed "a real hot story" composed quotes, paraphrases, drawn exclusively Ibid. attempted independent commentary, research criticism, part because speed "make news" "publish[ing] book." 416-417. reprinted Appendix opinion, appeared April 3, 1979. 4 Southern York, alleging conversion, tortious interference contract, After 6-day bench trial, Judge found Heal" §§ 106(1), (2), (3), protecting respectively preparation works, distribution public. C-29 C-30. rejected argument billed "hot news," contained new facts. magazine "published profit," "the heart" soon-to-be-published" "caused aborted thus diminished copyright." F.Supp., 1072. certain elements historical memoranda, per se copyrightable, totality these memoranda collected them [and] . laws." Id., 1072-1073. 5 A divided panel reversed. majority recognized "reflections" original "expression" But erred assuming "coupling [of reflections] transformed 'totality.' " 195, 205 noted attaches expression, ideas. concluded that, granting monopoly underlying history news, 'expression' [in confined] barest elements—the ordering choice themselves." 204. Thus similarities traceable paraphrasing material, facts, documents, quoted remarks third parties, disregarded evaluating infringing. 6 "When uncopyrighted stripped away, contains, most, are copyrighted. These paragraphs scattered phrases all previously publications. They include segment conversations Henry Kissinger several individuals. impressionistic depictions Nixon, ill phlebitis resignation pardon, Nixon's character, constitute major parts [the court] focus [its] examination 'fair use' matter." 206. 7 Examining see infra, 547, n. 2, reporting," essentially factual nature, appropriated piece, impact minimal evidence [did] support very limited led decision excerpt." borrowing "len[t] politically significant complementing facts." F.2d, 208. influenced "politically significant" matter conviction impede harvest knowledge so democratic state" "chill activities press forbidding circumscribed words." 197, 209. II 8 agree increase knowledge. believe insufficient deference scheme fostering provide seed substance harvest. conferred assure contributors store return their labors. Twentieth Century Music Corp. v. Aiken, 422 151, 156, 95 2040, 2043, 45 84 (1975). 9 Article I, 8, Constitution provides: 10 Congress Power Promote Progress Science useful Arts, securing Times Authors Inventors Right respective Writings Discoveries." 11 last Term: "[This] grant means achieved. motivate activity authors inventors special reward, allow access products genius has expired." Sony America Universal City Studios, 464 417, 429, 774, 782, 78 574 (1984). created rewards author order benefit public." 477, S.Ct., 807 (dissenting opinion). principle applies equally fiction nonfiction. here, example, two making, began contract services producing marketing preparing book, drafted essays word portraits figures participated hundreds taped interviews later distilled chronicle personal viewpoint. evident served inducing creation value. 12 confers bundle copyright.1 Under rights—to publish, copy, distribute work—vest creation. 106. practice, commonly sells who offer royalties owner's rights, however, statutory exceptions. 107-118. Among codifies privilege make earlier writer's work.2 addition, 102. those aspects work—termed "expression"—that display stamp originality. 13 Creation nonfiction even compilation pure fact, entails See, e.g., Schroeder William Morrow Co., 566 (CA7 1977) (copyright gardening directory); cf. Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. Sarony, 111 53, 58, 279, 281, 28 L.Ed. 349 (1884) (originator photograph work). holders complied notice registration procedures. See 401, 408; C-20. dispute Heal," whole, reproduction. Nor do manuscript's form unless excused M. Nimmer, 2.11[B], p. 2-159 (1984) Nimmer). Yet does prevent subsequent users constituent original—for borrowed rubric materials domain—as long unfairly appropriate contributions. Ibid.; Latman, Use Copyrighted Works (1958), Study 14 Law Studies Nos. 14-16, prepared Senate Committee Judiciary, 86th Cong., 2d Sess., (1960) Latman). Perhaps controversy courts copyrightability more aptly styled appropriation unoriginal encroached originality whole. Especially realm narrative, law currently unsettled regarding ways combine contributions Compare Wainwright Securities Wall Street Transcript Corp., 558 91 (protection accorded analysis, structuring marshaling facts), Hoehling 618 972 1980) (limiting protection words). Nimmer 2.11[D], 2-164—2-165. reach issues, admitted lifting language totaling constituting some 13% For reasons set forth below, find conceded within meaning III 15 defined others reasonable manner without consent." H. Ball, Literary Property 260 (1944) Ball). formulation reflects intent codify common-law doctrine. 13.05. case-by-case determination particular fair, statute notes nonexclusive considered. approach "intended restate [pre-existing] judicial change, narrow, enlarge any way." H.R.Rep. 94-1476, 66 (1976) House Report), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News pp. 5659, 5680. 16 "[T]he consent ha[d] implied incident constitutional policy promoting progress science arts, since prohibition inhibit writers attempting improve upon frustrate ends attained." Ball 260. Professor study commissioned revision effort, U.S., 462-463, 9, 781, opinion), summarized turning "importance copied performed point owner. words, consented use?" Latman 15.3 early 1841, Story recognition concerned letters another President, George Washington. 18 "[A] reviewer fairly cite largely design really truly passages criticism. hand, clear, cites most view, criticise, supersede substitute review it, deemed piracy." Folsom Marsh, F.Cas. 342, 344-345 (No. 4,901) (CC Mass.) 19 Story's hypothetical illustrates, precluded "supersede[s] original." Accord, S.Rep. 94-473, 65 (1975) Report). 20 predicated "reasonable customary" when released consumption, charges works.4 copyright, property intellectual [was] absolute until voluntarily part[ed] same." American Tobacco Werckmeister, 207 284, 299, 72, 77, 52 208 (1907); 8.23, 8-273. rule, tempered practice equitable case, through de facto performance dissemination tip favor Revision—Part 2: Discussion Comments Report Register Copyrights General Law, 88th 1st 27 (H.R.Comm. Print 1963) (discussion suggesting disseminated technical "publication" nevertheless use); 13.05, 13-62, 2. never seriously disputed plaintiff's use." Publication infringes decide public, present published works.5 Respondents contend, Congress, including among apply pari materia works. proposition. 21 represents culmination legislative reexamination Mills Music, Snyder, 469 153, 159-160, 638, ----, 83 556 (1985); innovations, eliminated "as dividing line common protection," Report, 129 5745, extending also distinct element Judiciary confirms "Clause section work." 62 5675. 22 65; 13.05[A]. From beginning, entrusted task "overbalancing preserve successor chooses disclose them." Revision, 87th 41 (Comm. 1961). implicates threshold inherently different can publisher; lies primarily exclusivity. Because judicially enforced "sharing" substantial, inevitably shifts. 23 prominently analysis. discussing photocopied classroom states: 24 available user. If 'out print' unavailable normal channels, user justification reproducing it. applicability narrowly since, although unavailable, deliberate 'right publication' needs reproduction purposes." 64. 25 selected photocopying illustrate emphasized same standards applicable kinds uses material." 65. unconvincing contention absence passage indicates abandon appears instead discussion omitted final educators interim guidelines rendered obsolete. 67. incorporates reference, citing stating: reviewed discussion, considers still various [fair use] problem." 26 Even entirely silent, bound conclude Congress' characterization "restatement" existing types "change, it." 66. "[a] factor" 2; W. Patry, Privilege 125 (1985) Patry). unpersuasive soon-to-be-published ground demonstrated nonpublication. assumes confidential writings dissemination. true often enlisted service privacy. Brandeis Warren, Privacy, Harv.L.Rev. 193, 198-199 (1890). guise, choose less deserving protection. encompassing work's initiation, preparation, grooming crucial literary endeavor. accords "right distribution" 62, echos law's concern retain throughout critical stage. generally Comment, Stage "Fair Use" Factor: Row, Publishers Enterprises, 58 St. John's L.Rev. 597 obvious alike assuring leisure develop ideas free fear expropriation outweighs short-term value" gained premature Goldstein, Amendment, 70 Colum.L.Rev. 983, 1004-1006 (1970) (The soon-to-be "[was] justified brevity expedience"). exploitation themselves serve adjunct publicity marketing. Belushi Woodward, 598 36 (DC 1984) (successful depends coordination public); Marks, Subsidiary Rights Permissions, What Happens Book Publishing 230 (C. Grannis ed. 1967) (exploitation financial success books). B Respondents, Amendment values require rule circumstances thrust below "[t]he scope undoubtedly wider conveyed relates matters high concern." Consumers Union United States, Signal 724 1044, 1050 1983) (construing (case below) allowing advertiser quote Consumer Reports), cert. denied, 823, import grounds excusing ordinarily pass muster use—the piracy "scooping" serialization. explain essential story claims represents. precise [he] expressed himself [were] newsworthy say." Brief 38-39. argue public's learning fast possible 29 noted, correctly, copyright's idea/expression dichotomy "strike[s] definitional permitting communication while expression." 203. No narrates. 102(b). 403 713, 726, , 2140, 2147, 822 (1971) (BRENNAN, J., concurring) (Copyright laws restrictions freedom speech protects expressed); 1.10[B][2]. ago observed: element—the respecting current events production—is writer, report publici juris; day." International News Service Associated Press, 248 215, 234, 39 68, 71, 63 211 (1918). assures write narratives enjoy therein just compensation investment. Cf. Zacchini Scripps-Howard Broadcasting 433 562, 575, 97 2849, 2857, 53 965 (1977). 30 Respondents' theory, expand destroy expectation figure. Absent protection, little incentive create profit financing denied information. promise empty could avoided dubbing report" book. 1977), 434 1014, 98 S.Ct 730, 54 759 (1978). 31 assert necessity circumventing respect here.6 Where publisher invested extensive resources creating poised legitimate aim pre-empting chosen clothe narrative "newsworthy" To paraphrase recent decision: 32 "[Respondent] possessed unfettered revealed memoirs] enlightening audience, 'bodily appropriate' [Mr. Ford's] utilizing portions [manuscript]. flow assured recognize valid corporate theft, empowering ignore whenever determines contains importance." Iowa State University Research Foundation, Cos., 621 57, 61 (citations omitted). 33 Roy Export Establishment Columbia System, 503 1137 ("newsworthiness" justify copying), aff'd, 672 1095 (CA2), 459 826, 103 60, 74 (1982); Quinto Legal Washington, 506 554 1981) (same). 34 our haste forgotten Framers engine By establishing one's supplies economic stated Mazer Stein, 347 201, 219, 460, 471, 630 (1954): 35 philosophy behind clause patents copyrights encouragement effort gain best way welfare talents 'Science Arts.' again Aiken: 37 immediate secure 'author's' labor. ultimate is, incentive, stimulate works] good." 2043. 38 fundamentally odds accord lesser greatest importance Such notion ignores premise injures alike. "[T]o propose imposed 'social dissemination] detriment artist,' depriving owners precisely encounter afford Gordon, Market Failure: Structural Economic Analysis Betamax Case Predecessors, 82 1600, 1615 (1982). commentator noted: "If volume pirated away competing publisher, [soon] nothing worth reading." Sobel, Amendment: Gathering Storm?, ASCAP Symposium 43, (1971). Amendment; Lies Public Interest?, 59 Tulane 135 Moreover, thought "includes both speak freely refrain speaking all." Wooley Maynard, 430 705, 714, 1428, 1435, 51 752 (1977) (BURGER, C.J.). suggest sanction abuse instrument suppress York's Chief Fuld: 40 prohibit improper restraints voluntary ideas; shields man wants wish him quiet. There necessarily, suitably areas, concomitant publicly, serves end affirmative aspect." Estate Hemingway Random N.Y.2d 341, 348, 296 N.Y.S.2d 771, 776, 244 N.E.2d 250, 255 (1968). Courts commentators particular, countervailing Schnapper Foley, 215 U.S.App.D.C. 59, 667 102 (1981), 455 948, 1448, 71 661 1.10[B], 1-70, 24; Patry 140-142. 42 already expanding IV 43 mixed fact. Pacific Duncan, 744 1490, 1495, (CA11 1984). district sufficient evaluate each factors, appellate "need remand factfinding [but] do[es] qualify 1495. constitutes light principles discussed above. meant exclusive: "[S]ince reason, definition possible, raising decided own 65, 5678. are: address separately. 44 Purpose Use. correctly examples "give idea sort might regard circumstances." 61. listing exhaustive, ibid.; 101 (definition "including" "such as"), single presumptively "fair" drafters resisted pressures groups presumptive categories structured requiring 83, 90th (1967); 4. "[W]hether referred sentence depend application determinative mentioned sentence." 62. arguably "news" therefore productive trial fixing actually Meskill wisely "[c]ourts chary deciding news." (dissenting). Gertz Robert Welch, 418 323, 345-346, 94 2997, 3009-3010, 789 (1974). 'news,' newsreporting 119. seek 46 tends "[E]very unfair belongs 451, 793. arguing purely commercial, misses entirely. crux profit/nonprofit sole motive monetary stands paying customary price. 1144; 13.05[A][1], 13-71, 25.3. 47 cannot scooping hardcover abstracts.7 C-27. holder's Meredith 378 686, 690 (SDNY) (purpose text compete original), 500 1221 1974). Also "character" propriety defendant's conduct." 13.05[A], 13-72. 'good faith' dealing.' Bernard Geis 293 130, 146 1968), quoting Schulman, 832 knowingly exploited B-1, C-20—C-21, C-28—C-29. Unlike typical up justification. Like competitor newsweekly, bid abstracting Heal." "distinguishes 'a scholar chiseler profit.' 94, Hearings Bills 89th ser. pt. 1706 (1966) (statement John Schulman). 48 Nature Work. Second, directs attention characterized autobiography. recognizes fantasy. Gorman, Fact Fancy? Implications Copyright, J. Soc. 560, 561 49 "[E]ven field gradations relative proportion fancy. One move sparsely embellished maps directories elegantly written biography. permit expressive copied, vary case." 563. 50 Some briefer adequately convey facts; tapes "smoking gun" perhaps integral inseparable 1.10[C]. did stop isolated excerpted subjective descriptions whose power individualized focusing exceeds "nature." 13.05[A]; L.Rev., 613. Our narrower press, weighs release. encompasses all, choices when, where, irrefutable; entered contractual undertaking "keep confidential" required whom "sign keep confidential." C-19—C-20. submit proposed seven days clandestine opportunity quality control. C-18. patched number inaccuracies." 300b-300c (testimony Navasky). clearly difficult characterize "fair." Amount Substantiality Portion Used. Next, examine amount terms, Court, took heart overruling Judge's evaluation qualitative taking. 1145 (taking 55 seconds hour 29-minute film substantial). described chapters interesting moving entire manuscript." Reply 16, 8. powerful chapters. testified reciting "absolute certainty [Ford] himself," 303; "this comes Ford," id., 305; carry "definitive quality" original, 306. short, indicates, Learned Hand cogently remarked, "no plagiarist excuse wrong showing how much pirate." Sheldon Metro-Goldwyn Pictures 49, 56 298 669, 835, 80 1392 (1936). Conversely, originator seeks someone else's Stripped quotes,8 takings Meeropol Nizer, 560 1061, 1071 (copyrighted 1% featured). around dramatic focal points. post, 570. "magazine meager, indeed infinitesimal language." Effect Market. Finally, focuses use.9 13-76, cases cited therein. properly applied, materially impair copied." 1.10[D], 1-87. market. infringement. erroneous, noting record establish nonperformance disagree. Rarely clear-cut damage. 23, Any payment. reason nonperformance. With apportionment profits flowing commingles noninfringing "must abide consequences, separation injured party justly him." 309 390, 406, 60 681, 687, 825 (1940). 504(b) (the prove attributable Similarly, once probability existence 14.02, 14-7—14-8.1. Stevens Linen Mastercraft 656 11, 1981). accounting profits. 504(b). 57 "should 793 (emphasis added); 484, 36, 810, (collecting cases) inquiry take harm 1980); supra, 1070; 1146. affects (in adaptation [and serialization] right) fair." 13.05[B], 13-77—13-78 (footnote undisputed besides employed featured episodes about pardon—precisely licensed Time. lent air reader know 300c. competed share "With exceptions supplants infringement." Placed broader perspective, permits unreleased poses general. "Isolated instances minor infringements, multiplied many times, aggregate inroad prevented." V concluding matter. erred, well, overlooking resulting "infinitesimal," too weight sum, materials. increasing 1499-1500. designed, imposing, "compulsory license" figures. quotation judgment remanded proceedings consistent opinion. ordered. APPENDIX TO OPINION OF THE COURT 64 excepting Government documents attributed persons, boldface text. ante, 7. corresponding footnoted. FORD MEMOIRS BEHIND NIXON PARDON Heal, late June, says blanket Richard raised resigned Presidency Gen. Alexander Haig, chief staff. writes misunderstanding, Ronald Reagan 1976 running mate, Washington lawyer Bennett Williams, Democrat, head Central Intelligence Agency, Rockefeller Vice regretted "cowardice"1 remove Presidential contention. describes prickly relations Kissinger. 67 obtained 655-page typescript Advance mid-April thereafter. initial decided, tentatively 50,000; depending reaction 68 detail negotiations considerations surrounded According version, broached Haig August 1, 1974, resigned. newly transcribed equivalent gun"2 President. 69 deeply hurt Haig's revelation: "Over past months repeatedly me involved Watergate, innocence, fade view."3 him, let President's alternatives. "ride out"4 resign, said. listed resign pointing leave Ford, him.5 said recommendation, basically assessment adds, "Because references authority, I ask power."6 "It's my understanding lawyer," replied, "that authority criminal individual." neglected tell conditioned improper, aide, Bob Hartmann, suggested well told seemed comfortable "Silence implies assent." 72 consulted counsel James Clair, advice Jack felt mention context "time bomb," Bryce Harlow, six Presidents mere "could cause lot trouble."7 73 conversations, called read statement: "I want you understand intention recommending resigning talked yesterday afternoon consideration whatever make." Despite tapes, Jackson, Mich., luncheon audience day guilty impeachable offense. "Had otherwise moment," writes, whole house cards collapsed."8 75 justifying goes "compassion hhadn't prompted all."9 Rather, "to get monkey off back other."10 76 precipitating series secret meetings counsel, Phil Buchen, Special Prosecutor Leon Jaworski Jefferson Hotel, where staying time. attributes providing "crucial" information11—i.e., investigation ten process "take years."12 memorandum Jaworski's assistant, S. Ruth Jr., being persuasive. written: 77 recommend indictment think proper notify Miller sufficiently indictment." say: "One strong leniency inclined, ought rather late." years, "would spend quietly San Clemente,"13 "it virtually impossible anything else."14 79 him. Hartmann sure. Buchen wanted condition agreeing settle custody papers proceedings, reluctant that. At plan whereby kept vault facility near Clemente, keys open Services Administration, did, confession occasion or, minimum, express contrition. tells negotiation lawyer, wording statement. reports Miller's response. likely yield. "His few client ability discuss objectively almost nonexistent."15 statement forthcoming. soon emissary arrived confronted ultimatum Ron Zeigler, secretary. "Lets thing straight immediately," Zeigler "President issuing whatsoever Jerry pardons not." draft, turned down better that."16 drafts finally made, stopped far confession. When aide Benton Becker tried acceptance admission guilt, wasn't listening. Instead, talk Redskins. left, pressed cuff links tiepin "out jewelry box." Ultimately, sums picked student Yale School before. learned precedence law. respected tenet above law, demanded Watergate—behind possible."17 86 Later, acted health impaired, debated ailing visit. trip remind everybody didn't, people say lacked compassion."18 went: 87 stretched flat back. tubes nose mouth, wires arms, chest legs machines orange lights blinked off. His face ashen, seen anyone closer death.19 88 includes during years. 89 Immediately informed Executive Office Building phoned felt. "Henry," said, you. country stay. I'll everything ."20 90 "Sir," job along yours me." "We'll along," we'll along." Referring Kissinger's joint jobs Secretary National Security Adviser don't change. it's worked let's way."21 92 Later change relieved responsibilities fired Schlesinger Defense. thereafter, reports, presented "draft" letter resignation, call needed quiet dissent conservatives objected firing Schlesinger. 93 Connally. replace Agnew, ambition hold office January 1977."22 replied mate "He'd excellent," observed problem that." Decision Run Again. was, us, sincere run announce enhance credibility wife, Betty. "You can't disastrous foreign view. next half governments dealing lame-duck All initiatives dead water, wouldn't able implement your policy. probably consequences domestic issues. You reassert yourself hanging limb. You've got President." David Kennerly, photographer. response seizure Mayaguez. airstrikes Cambodians desirable; bombings. Following lull conversation, spoke 30-year-old photographer, pictures hour. 96 "Has considered," Kennerly asked, local Cambodian commander hands ship by?" Nobody, apparently, following silence, carried day. "Massive overkill," decided. "It Navy jets Coral Sea surgical strikes specific targets."23 Character. flaw, "pride." terribly proud man," "he detested weakness people. I'd heard disparagingly soft expedient. (Curiously, didn't feel weak. Reporters, sensed, adversaries. responded reciprocal disdain.)"24 disdain Democratic leadership regarded pride contempt overcome difference wrong,"25 wonder Watergate. 99 hearing speech, adequate plea forgiveness, persuaded "Nixon touch reality."26 100 year, Post printed H.R. Haldeman's memoir, Ends Power, eve Books, Post's feat second-rate burglary." disagreed, claiming coup represented "first-rate enterprise" burglarized nothing, Haldeman memoir came Comment courts, "There fundamental journalistic here—a central Pentagon Papers dated 5, Spring Books number, ethical problems disclosure. BRENNAN, WHITE MARSHALL join, dissenting. holds 200,000-word related event undoubted significance pursues laudable goal ideas," 558, zealous prerogative will, fear, stifle broad nurture. Protection achieved exceedingly narrow arts sciences robust debate enlightened citizenry constricted reading respectfully dissent. presents First, forms infringe Row's finds resolve issue. finds, infringement.1 disagree Court's holding, question. enactment legislation terms natural promoted periods writings." 2222, 60th (1909). define included maximize her product. challenge strike "difficult discoveries society's commerce hand." 108 "originality" requirement maintenance interests.2 Properly interpreted extends communicates. 93-983, 107-108 (1974) ("Copyright preclude pertains concepts"); 56-57 (same); *, ("[T]he laws, course, protect expressed"). limitation precludes narration. 109 supposed framers Constitution, empowered 'to promote times discoveries' (Const., Art. par. 8), confer happen historic spread 70, 110 Rosemont 366 303, 1966), 385 1009, 546 (1967). 2.11[A], 2-158.3 "promotion arts" limit Were concepts, wither scholars forced unproductive replication predecessors. 972, 979 1980). ensures consonance values. 577, 13, 2858 "profound national commitment issues uninhibited, robust, wide-open," Sullivan, 376 254, 270, 710, 721, 686 (1964), leaves room arena quiet, indeed, politician speeches philosopher treatises obtain contained." Lee Runge, 404 887, 893, 200, 169 (Douglas, dissenting denial certiorari). principles, essence self-government." Garrison Louisiana, 379 64, 74-75, 209, 215-216, (1964). citizen permitted marshal advocacy choices.4 112 follows Deciding reasons. elusive practice. form. challenging. Not surprisingly, test defied formulation.5 general, though, proceeds axes: closely tracked structure presentation; appropriated.6 113 applied biography chronicled tenure commented unique perspective. Apart quotations, indirectly recounted latter-day Presidency, perceptions center events. 570-579. claimed qua Infringement close tracking information.7 114 Language. Much synopsis lengthy discussions manuscript.8 course summary presentation, occasional sentences resembled manuscript.9 linguistic leeway seeking "wishing cexpress range Landsberg Scrabble Crossword Game Players, 736 485, 488 (CA9 paraphrased copyright.10 Third, approximating paragraph, chapter disparate original. 1977). 115 Structure Presentation. mimic structure. sections sequence it.11 roughly track similarity, done chronologically similarly chronological manner. Also, 2,000-word bodily Most created, recounted, article.12 116 therefore, efforts substantially 117 liable explicitly makes "[s]ubject 118." "Notwithstanding comment, reporting, teaching (including multiple copies use), research, 118 "eschewed rigid, bright-line 449, 31, 792, 31. "equitable reason" 448, 792 guided statutorily prescribed factors: 119 "(1) educational purposes; 120 "(2) 121 "(3) 122 "(4) 123 determinants mechanistically issues; endless variety situations combinations arise exact rules statute"); do, guidance fact-specific inquiry. 124 particularly official, conducted constant unprotected be: Was used, original? Limiting easy history. ensure historians commensurate labor collecting, sifting, organizing, reflecting predominates one. produces revealed, collocation expressed. resist tendency reject basis feeling deprived sense piratical urge compensate understandable. An inequity seems lurk fruit historian's compensation. This, unforeseen byproduct imagination. way: "Copyright concepts." 56-57. "engine expression," choke multifarious indirect consequent integrity values, freighted proprietary right.13 126 judgment, fallen temptation violation failure distinguish permeates aspect Application straightforward 127 acknowledges, reporting. 651. principals, 1979 widely candidates Presidency. That reported diminishes news. newsstory differs editorial unelaborated render report. Often books manuscripts, solicited unsolicited, reports. E.g., Frequently manuscripts report.14 128 lists prime example another's criticism approved informs public; clear saw strongest correct use—dissemination furthered interest. 207-208 explicit congressional endorsement strongly favors concedes validity purpose15 offsets purportedly considerations. asserts publishes profit, desire signaled illegitimate Ante, 562-563. bad faith, claims, "knowingly 563 130 reliance use," inappropriate context. Many paradigmatic country, obviously aware enacted favoring meaningless imprimatur placed uses.16 131 automatic presumption undermine validation purpose. business earns reputation, readership, prompt news—and rivals. importantly, colors point. suggests reveal competition negative bearing Indeed seem distaste standard 132 putative faith unwarranted. illegally Row; causes abandoned dismissed 199-201. "purloined" someone, imputes culpability Nation.17 contents knowing 133 points brands conduct thievery. 556, unsupportable, unspoken perfectly despite objection sharp division Appeals. objecting. awareness chance adjudged unfounded Imputing objection, impermissibly prejudices impedes arrival "purpose" 134 "not fungible" "[c]opying broadcast stronger motion picture." 455, 40, 795, 40. statements reflect principle, 107(2) 13.05[A][2], 13-73—13-74. "[I]nformational works," readily others, protected." 496-497, 816 (BLACKMUN, dissenting). acknowledges fantasy," 563, "[s]ome facts," ibid. discounts force consideration, 'nature.' 564.18 introduces categorical 555 ("Under use"). 136 unwarranted unfaithful intent.19 identifies encompassed 552-555,20 timing medium tolerable others. 490, 813, ambiguous relies 552-555, 564. presumption, presumes intolerable injury—in usurpation interest21 quick litmus timing. "Congress plainly instructed calls sensitive balancing interests," Term resolved "two dimensional" approach. (rejecting "productive 137 purports sheer speculation. privacy Ford. Lacking, "deliberate owner" confidential, Report—in places great reliance, 553 —recognized impetus narrowing 13-73 considerably ") added). depicts "confidentiality" interest, 564, all. capturing analyzed such. 602-603. Lacking suggestion interfered official 138 considering component "nature" deflates informational supports fourth factor—the 107(4)—and presumed 139 questions judgments used. 200,000 quantitatively dispose inquiry, however. required. matter-of-fact representation him; "arguably rich content. Beyond poignant manuscript; Nixon.22 turns admittedly 140 "in work," disfavors use.23 conclusion, rely findings 1062, 1072 misplaced, finding, "totality" reflective vast matter, lie "heart" irrelevant 141 tacitly recognizing unjustifiable, independently appearing states passages." 565. observation, inference article,24 adheres 142 observations quality. agree, excessive 143 Had use—in quantitative terms—would certainly appropriate. much: motivation insights psyche laden emotion immeasurably enhanced words. revelation unknown thoughts, motivations, fears moment Thus, easily resolved, gratuitous 144 Conceding evaluated 145 "is 566, affected sales itself. 566-567. Unfortunately, badly skews holds, containing eroded 567. agreement, "[r]arely damage." essence, "competed excerpts" 568, planned 147 indisputably precipitated eventual cancellation. mean caused injury Row. Wholly apart abrogate market, product wholly activity. 148 specifically excerpts." fully holding. Ford: 149 "Author hereunder Author's disclosed career life Work, Author agrees endeavor media, television, radio newspaper hereunder." 484. 150 monopolizing 151 garner arrangement monopolize revenue arrangements shield information.25 152 Balancing Interests. n weighing naturally Both here. justifies facilitate favorable Without question, event, form—as information—was injure uncertainty use.26 motivating quotation, adopted impose liability 153 "effect[s] extension curtailment ideas." 263, (Brandeis, advanced historian—or recently left office—to capture possession. risking "essence 215-216. grist debate. imposes succeeded pertinent part: "Subject 118, title authorize following: ; ." scholarship, include— notes: "[Perhaps] guide Joseph McDonald's clever Golden Rule: 'Take resentful you.' 13-66, McDonald, Non-infringing Uses, Bull. 466, (1962). reason," "permits rigid occasion, creativity foster." L. Seltzer, Exemptions 18-48 7; Strauss, Unpublished (1957), 29-31, 4, (1961) (citing cases); Shaw, States (1950) ("[T]here material"); 260, works"); Weil, 276, (1917) "has, probably, others"). Cf., Flint, User's Guide ¶ 10.06 (1979) (United Kingdom) ("no Beloff Pressdram Ltd., [1973] E.R. 241, 263 (Ch. 1972) Wheaton Peters, 591, 657, 1055 (1834) (distinguishing "obtain redress improperly obtaining work] endeavors realize publication" statute); Press Monroe, F. 196, 199 writ error dism'd, 164 105, 367 (1896); Stanley Cal.2d 653, 660-661, 221 P.2d 73, 77-78 (en banc); Golding RKO Radio Pictures, 193 162 (Cal.App.1948) ("An [an neutralized 'it one' "), 690, (1950); Fendler Morosco, 253 N.Y. 291, 171 N.E. 56, ("Since plaintiff play, unfair"), rehearing 254 173 867 (1930). bears warranting exemptions areas see, (compulsory records); (no works). exemption limits servants service. excuses unconsented "standard practice," articles Erlichman, Dean's "Blind Ambition," Bernstein Woodward's Final Days" proof Post, 590-593, 14. Amici curiae bring alleged Circuit, articles. Appeals, motion, struck exhibits Record Doc. 19; notice. "approximately words" specify excluded persons documents. oral argument, Tr. Oral Arg. 24-25. potentially excludes persons. endorse aid discussion. Economists addressed come play fails price zero. T. Brennan, Copyrightability Use, Dept. Policy Paper 13-17 (1984); demonstrate, functioning encourages economists' displace channels disrupts benefit. angry myself cowardice saying ultra-conservatives, going Rockefeller, consequences." 496. [I]t so-called smoking gun. 3. [O]ver [option] try out" letting impeachment fighting way. staff, President—Gerald Ford—would 5. power. 5-6. Only finished [Bryce Harlow] uncertain Jack, option trouble ahead. 18. During repeated assertion moment, collapsed. 21. compassion hadn't 266. another. 236. pieces 246. verdict Guilty, assume appeal. 248. doubt years: minimum two, maximum six. Clemente. 238. else. 239. [Miller] optimistic getting nonexistent. asked 251. Years before, School, Nixon—and possible. 256. My staff visit Long Beach Hospital, away. trip, everyone compassion. ended begun. Of go. 298. death. 299. line, you." 46. hats wore, change," Betty ambitions 1977. 155. Subjectively, sense. Massive overkill. targets vicinity Kompong Som. 416. flaw pride. man, disdain.) 53. wrong. 54. lasted fifteen minutes, convinced reality. 57. bypassing issue, intimate laws. governing ("No narrates"). 102(b) "In authorship extend idea, procedure, process, system, method operation, concept, discovery, regardless described, explained, illustrated, doctrines 13.05 Nimmer), function accommodate token, Suid Newsweek Magazine, 146, Rokeach Avco Embassy 197 USPQ 155, 161 1978). perverse government limiting speaker draw, FEC Conservative Political Action Committee, 470 480, 1459, (1985), draw. proscribe word-for-word Otherwise immaterial variations. Nichols 119, 1930). step wholesale venture onto somewhat terrain. 974 1980), 1.10B, 1-73—1-74 ("It selection specificity warrants protection"); Chafee, Reflections Copyright: 503, 513 (1945) lie[s] somewhere wrote down. [T]he covers 'pattern' work"); 593 ("too literal language"). aspect. Neither nor approached "per copyrightable," "totality 1072-1073 approval 213-214 (Meskill, rejected. extended interwoven (purportedly reflections) "totality." blend speculative Precluding squared intent, Reports, "[c]opyright (1974); (1976). core thwarted serious concerns arise. narration analytical expends hundred Republican Convention 1976: "About month convention, aides met Reagan's representatives unity. reached balloting, winner go loser's hotel suite congratulate opponent waging fine campaign. Together, conference Republicans aside differences rally ticket. Kansas hope victory. win, Sears contacted Cheney refined scenario. insisted conditions. alone; either camp room. Secondly, nomination interested job. turn down, embarrassing refusing help GOP. relayed conditions me, them. assistance fall stupid anger followers moment. "Later Californian's hotel, closest advisors, businessman Justin Dart, urged yes Regardless he'd Dart insisted, patriotic duty accept post. agreed. time, development me. Dart-Reagan him? sure—I divisive, campaign; additionally, resented things Administration's policies—but 628-629. encapsulated sentence: "Ford mate." 627. instances, brief paragraph conveys gist runs Addendum Defendant's Post-Trial Memorandum, 627-704. reads: offense." 572. stated: "Representative Thad Cochran escorted Jackson Hilton Hotel. 649. parallels similar degree. 570-579, 571 ("He 'ride out' said"). asserted 148; USPQ, 161. Other claimed. Ruth, capacity assistant Jaworski. 573. document Government. 105. exhibit introduced pages correspond consecutive follows: 607-608, 44, 496, 2-3, 7, 4-5, 5-6, 14, 15, 18, 19, 21, 266, 236, 246, 248, 249, 238-239, 239, 243, 245, 250-251, 251, 252, 253, 256, 298, 46, 494, 537, 155-156, 216, 415, 416, 53-54, E-1 E-41. "copied" chose select presentation. supply Myers Mail Express Off.Bull. 478 1919) (L. Hand, J.). duplicate pertinent. 'It wasted proscription prevent.' 650 1365, 1371 (CA5 1981), 310 1966). Soc., 594-595. threaten production results diminution incentives apparent. noneconomic writing. officials "tell side story." academic scholarship. old humankind. Times, Aug. 1984, C20, col. (article revelations Cardinal Spellman); Dec. 10, 1981, A18, Erlichman); Sept. 29, autobiography Nixon); Mar. 27, Days); Blind Ambition Dean). rejects evaluations 561. nonproductive. selection, organization, presentation 478-479, 807-808 refers "every exploitation." 562. understood, position dealt use—video recording television programs use—about judgment. evaluates addressed, articulated effectuate instruction "whether nature." 107(1). entirety identical original; circumstances. But, appropriately cry purported personally stolen negatives offices graphic representations photographic images. "focusing Whatever 107(3)—and lays supporting 553, (1975); 551, 553-554. allows grants owners, "subject 107," provision. heavily, bear evidenced choice" publish. Given draw irrespective privacy, editorial, interests. adoption unpersuasive. monolithic barrier wishes did. Misc.2d 462, 279 (S.Ct.N.Y.Cty.), App.Div.2d 633, 285 568 (1st Jud.Dept.1967), aff'd grounds, 250 contrary unsupported reference authority. Congressional way, incorporate nullifying methodological prescription definite adopting understood fact-specificity methodology weighty interests: all; ensuring groomed dissemination; remunerative 552-555. apocalyptic prophesy "effectively figure." 557. fig leaf plagiarism, usually drain '[C]ompassion all.' other.' 572-573. 'would Clemente,' else.' 'I possible.' 575. 'If compassion.' (5) "He death." (6) 'A man,' 'he disdain.)'. 'His wrong.'. 'Nixon reality.' 578. emphasis Superficially, whole," 107(3) directive implies, 100-percent adverse (100% taken). presume, work" dovetails supra. "an mingles 'must consequences,' 567 (citation omitted), misconceived. shown, shift shown. rights. rationale, presented. dilute sentiment. plausible, erosion officials. manifest threatened.

Classification Label: 7