Legal Document

383 U.S. 301 86 Supreme Court Reporter 803 15 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 769 STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA, Plaintiff,v.Nicholas deB. KATZENBACH, Attorney General of the States. Number 22, Original. Argued Jan. 17, 18, 1966. Decided March 7, [Syllabus from pages 301-305 intentionally omitted] David W. Robinson, II, and Daniel R. McLeod, Columbia, S.C., for plaintiff. Atty. Gen. Nicholas Katzenbach, defendant, pro se. D. McIlwaine, III, Richmond, Va., Commonwealth Virginia, as amicus curiae. Jack Pacific KF135 P2 Federal KF105 F3 Gremillion, Baton Rouge, La., State Louisiana, Francis Judge Mizell, Jr., Richmond M. Flowers, Montgomery, Ala., Alabama, Joe T. Patterson Charles Clark, Jackson, Miss., Mississippi, E. Freeman Leverett, Atlanta, Ga., Georgia, Levin or Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Campbell, Boston, Mass., Archibald Cox, Washington, D.C., Massachusetts, Alan baron Handler, Newark, New Jersey, Mr. Chief Justice WARREN delivered opinion Court. 1 By leave Court, 382 898, 229, South Carolina has filed a bill complaint, seeking declaration that selected provisions Voting Rights Act 19651 violate Constitution, asking an injunction against enforcement these by General. Original jurisdiction is founded on presence controversy between citizen another under Article § 2, Constitution. See Georgia versus Pennsylvania, Co., 324 439, 65 716, 89 L.Ed. 1051. Because no issues fact were raised in because Carolina's desire to obtain ruling prior its primary elections June 1966, we dispensed with appointment special master expedited our hearing case. 2 Recognizing questions presented urgent concern entire country, invited all participate this proceeding friends A majority responded submitting joining briefs merits, some supporting others General.2 Seven also requested received permission argue case orally at hearing. Without exception, despite emotional overtones proceeding, oral arguments temperate, lawyerlike constructive. All viewpoints have been fully developed, additional assistance most helpful 3 The was designed Congress banish blight racial discrimination voting, which infected electoral process parts country nearly century. creates stringent new remedies voting where it persists pervasive scale, addition statute strengthens existing pockets elsewhere country. assumed power prescribe Fifteenth Amendment, authorizes National Legislature effectuate 'appropriate' measures constitutional prohibition voting. We hold sections are properly before us appropriate means carrying out Congress' responsibilities consonant other therefore deny request be enjoined. I. 4 propriety 1965 must judged reference historical experience reflects. Before enacting measure, explored great care problem House Senate Committees Judiciary each held hearings nine days testimony total 67 witnesses.3 More than three full consumed discussing floor House, while debate covered 26 all.4 At close deliberations, verdict both chambers overwhelming. approved vote 328—74, measure passed margin 79—18. 5 Two points emerge vividly voluminous legislative history contained committee debates. First: felt itself confronted insidious evil had perpetuated certain through unremitting ingenious defiance Seond: concluded unsuccessful prescribed past would replaced sterner more elaborate order satisfy clear commands Amendment. pause here summarize reports Committees, document considerable detail factual basis reactions Congress.5 H.R.Rep. 89th Cong., 1st Sess., 8—16 (hereinafter cited Report); S.Rep.No. 162, pt. 3, 3—16, Code Congressional Administrative News, Page 2437 Report). 6 Amendment Constitution ratified 1870. Promptly thereafter Enforcement 1870,6 made crime public officers private persons obstruct exercise right vote. amended following year7 provide detailed federal supervision process, registration certification returns. As years fervor equality waned, laws became spotty ineffective, their repealed 1894.8 remnants little significance recently renewed battle discrimination. 7 Meanwhile, beginning 1890, North Carolina, Virginia enacted tests still use specifically prevent Negroes voting.9 Typically, they ability read write qualification required completion form. These based 1890 named States, two-thirds adult illiterate less one-quarter whites unable write.10 same time, alternate assure white illiterates not deprived franchise. included grandfather clauses, property qualifications, 'good character' tests, requirement registrants 'understand' 'interpret' matter. 8 course subsequent litigation demonstrates variety persistence similar institutions deprive Grandfather clauses invalidated Guinn 238 347, 35 926, 59 1340, Myers Anderson, 368, 932, 1349. Procedural hurdles struck down Lane Wilson, 307 268, 872, 83 1281. outlawed Smith Allwright, 321 649, 64 757, 88 987, Terry Adams, 345 461, 73 809, 97 1152. Improper challenges nullified Thomas, 362 58, 80 612, 535. Racial gerrymandering forbidden Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110. Finally, discriminatory application condemned Schnell Davis, 336 933, 69 749, 93 1093; Alabama 371 37, 145, 9 112, Louisiana 380 85 817, 13 709. According evidence recent Department suits, latter stratagem now principal method used bar polls. Discriminatory administration qualifications found eight cases, Mississippi cases gone final judgment.11 Moreover, almost courts pursuant widespread 'pattern practice.' White applicants often excused altogether literacy understanding given easy versions, extensive help officials, registered serious errors answers.12 Negroes, hand, typically pass difficult versions without any outside slightest error.13 good-morals so vague subjective constituted open invitation abuse hands officials.14 obliged vouchers voters virtually impossible comply areas rolls.15 10 In years, repeatedly tried cope facilitating case-by-case Civil 195716 authorized seek injunctions interference grounds. Perfecting amendments 196017 permitted joinder parties gave access local records, register systematic Title & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions 196418 three-judge tactics disqualify elections. 11 Despite earnest efforts many judges, done cure estimates during Act, voting-age rose only 14.2% 19.4% 1958 1964; barely inched ahead 31.7% 31.8% 1956 1965; increased 4.4% 6.4% 1954 1964. instance, ran roughly 50 percentage Negro registration. 12 previous legislation proved ineffective number reasons. suits unusually onerous prepare, sometimes requiring 6,000 man-hours spent combing records preparation trial. Litigation exceedingly slow, part ample opportunities delay afforded officials involved proceedings. Even when favorable decisions finally obtained, affected merely switched devices decrees prolong disparity registration.19 Alternatively, defied evaded court orders simply closed offices freeze rolls.20 provision 1960 law authorizing impact maladministration procedural complexities. During debates Selma, referred pre-eminent example ineffectiveness legislation. Dallas County, Selma seat, there four two findings Yet those 156 383, although approximately 15,000 age county. Any possibility figures attributable political apathy dispelled protest demonstrations early months 1965. Committee summed up reaction developments words: 14 'The County took door rights conferred century ago. national scale difficulties experienced encountered over again laws. Four too long. burden heavy—the wrong citizens serious—the damage conscience adopt effective exist today. 'Such essential justification pending bill.' Report 11. II. 16 reflects firm intention rid voting.21 heart complex scheme aimed flagrant. Section 4(a)—(d) lays formula defining subdivisions apply. first remedies, 4(a), suspension period five last occurrence substantial prescribes second remedy, regulations review authorities determine whether perpetuate third §§ 6(b), 9, 13(a), assignment examiners list qualified who entitled 17 Other subsidiary cures persistent poll-watchers places already assigned. 10(d) excuses eligible 4(b) paying accumulated poll taxes state 12(e) provides balloting denied polls appointed. 18 remaining remedial portions area may occur. broadly prohibits rules abridge franchise Sections 6(a), 13(b) strengthen procedures attacking litigation. 4(e) educated American schools conducted foreign language passing English-language tests. 10(a)—(c) facilitates challenging imposition 12(a)—(d) authorize civil criminal sanctions guaranteed Act. 19 outset, emphasize us. challenged 4(e), 8, 10, 12(d) (e), 13(b), miscellaneous having nothing do lawsuit. Judicial await litigation.22 addition, find attack 12(a)—(c) premature. No person yet subjected to, even threatened with, authorize. Raines, 20—24, 519, 522—524, 524. Consequently, reviewed time 4(a)—(d), 5, 14, presently actual operation Carolina. turn description present status. 20 assailed automatically apply State, separate subdivision such county parish, made: (1) determined November 1, 1964, maintained 'test device,' (2) Director Census 50% votingage residents voted presidential election reviewable upon publication Register. 4(b). throughout phrase device' registrant voter '(1) demonstrate read, write, understand, interpret matter, educational achievement his knowledge particular subject, (3) possess good moral character, (4) prove voucher members class.' 4(c). 21 Statutory coverage terminated if obtains declaratory judgment District determining preceding shall consent entry he reason believe facts otherwise. 4(a). For purposes section, deemed manner incidents few promptly corrected, continuing effects abated, unlikely recur future. 4(d). On after decision (other denial section Act), occurred anywhere subdivision. actions heard panel, direct appeal 22 brought within August 1965, administrative determinations proceeding.23 day, extended Alaska, counties one Arizona.24 Arizona, Hawaii, Idaho added 19, 1965.25 Thus far Arizona counties, single asked Columbia grant terminating statutory coverage.26 23 failure device.' 24 account provision, temporarily barred enforcing portion requires every applicant show he: 25 'Can (the State) submitted (him) officer can owns, paid collectible year on, assessed hundred dollars more.' S.C.Code Ann. 23—62(4) (1965 Supp.). inseparable test,27 makes objection finding. Similar suspended listed above.28 27 procedure different force This terminated, however, either circumstances: General, interposed 60 days, obtained will 5. 28 altered extend closing hour polling p.m. p.m.29 sought judicial change nor rule scrutiny, announced does challenge amendment. There indications record above since 1964.30 29 Service Commission appoint whenever certifies facts: meritorious written complaints least alleging disenfranchised color race, otherwise necessary guarantees making determination, consider, among factors, ratio non-whites seems reasonably discrimination, good-faith 6(b). certifications 30 appointed test according prescribing times, places, procedures, forms. 7(a) 9(b). meets requirements law, insofar placed voters. Examiners transmit lists once month place names official rolls. examiner 45 name transmitted. 7(b). 31 removed lost eligibility valid successfully 9(a) 7(d). office designated Commission; listing available inspection; supported affidavits people personal relevant facts; served mail residence. hear render filed. petition officer's service review. appeals circuit resides affirm unless clearly erroneous. court. 9(a). 32 informs rolls, longer reasonable cause fear abridgement grounds, ascertaining govern termination non-white terminate census, census General's refusal arbitrary unreasonable. 13(a). 33 October 30, certified need counties,31 serving assigned parishes Mississippi.32 vote, employed extensively.33 withdrawn Columbia. III. 34 fundamental ground exceed powers encroach reserved amici curiae specific They violates principle denies due employing invalid presumption barring findings, constitutes attainder, impairs separation adjudicating guilt claim infringes III directing issue advisory opinions. contend 6(b) abridges precluding giving functions; speed. maintain 4(a) buttressed 14(b) limiting distant forum. Some contentions dismissed outset. word 'person' context Due Process Clause Fifth cannot, mode interpretation, expanded encompass Union, never International Shoe company Cocreham, 246 La. 244, 266, 164 So.2d 314, 322, n. cf. City 318 Reporter, 2nd (C.A.5th Cir.). Likewise, consistently regarded Bill Attainder protections individual groups, peculiarly vulnerable non-judicial guilt. Brown, 381 437, 1707, 484; Ex parte Garland, Wall. 333, 366. Nor standing parent invoke Government, ultimate parens patriae citizen. Com. Massachusetts Mellon, 262 447, 485—486, 43 597, 600 601, 1078; Florida 273 12, 47 265, 267, 71 511. objections considered aspects basic question case: Has exercised relation States? 36 resolving clear. purpose construing several provisions, general doctrines point principle. rational Cf. rulings Term, sustaining II Heart Atlanta Motel 379 241, 258—259, 261—262, 348, 358—359, 360, 258, Katzenbach McClung, 294, 303—304, 377, 384, 290. standards 37 declares '(t)he abridged color, condition servitude.' always treated self-executing construed, further specification, invalidate face practice. Neal Delaware, 103 370, 567; 1340; 1349; 1281; 987; 1152; 535; 110; 112; rendered respect rule, reiterated Term Carrington Rash, 89, 91, 775, 777, 675, 'have broad conditions suffrage exercised.' gist matter supersedes contrary exertions power. 'When exercises wholly domain interest, insulated But insulation carried instrument circumventing federally protected right.' U.S., S.Ct., 130. 38 contends precedents authority judiciary strike statutes procedures—that allow rob rightful role. contrary, expressly 'Congress enforce article legislation.' adding authorization, Framers indicated chiefly responsible implementing created 1. 'It enlarged. prohibitions contemplated make (Civil War) effective.' 100 345, 676. Accordingly, courts, 39 past, enactments upheld. examples, see 1957, sustained 524; supra; Hannah Larche, 363 420, 1502, 1307; 1960, upheld 128, 808, 717. rare occasions unconstitutional powers, attacked evils comprehended Reese, 92 214, 563; James Bowman, 190 127, 678, 979. 40 applied involving concerning express Marshall laid classic formulation, ratified: 41 'Let end legitimate, let scope constitution, appropriate, plainly adapted end, prohibited, but consist letter spirit constitutional.' McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 421, 579. 42 subsequently echoed describing War Amendments: 'Whatever is, carry objects view, whatever tends submission contain, secure enjoyment perfect equal protection invasion, congressional power.' 345—346, 44 employed, later, related Eighteenth Everard's Breweries Day, 265 545, 558—559, 628, 631, 68 1174. reject argument appropriately forbid violations terms—that task fashioning applying them localities necessarily left entirely courts. circumscribed artificial oft-repeated words Marshall, referring authorization 'This power, like vested Congress, complete itself, utmost extent, acknowledges limitations, constitution.' Gibbons Ogden, 196, 23. IV. 46 inventive go into effect adjudication. legitimate response problem, precedent provisions. 302—304, 383—384, 290; Darby, 312 100, 120—121, 61 451, 460, 609. inadequate combat inordinate amount energy overcome obstructionist invariably lawsuits.34 After enduring resistance might well decide shift advantage inertia perpetrators victims. remains, course, combatting evil, address ourselves. Second: confines small instances familiar name.35 This, too, permissible dealing problem. learned occurs knew way accurately forecasting spread future.36 acceptable fashion, chose limit attention geographic immediate action seemed necessary. McGowan 366 427, 1101, 1105, 393; Salsburg 346 550—554, 74 280, 282—285, 98 281. doctrine invoked approach, applies terms admitted appeared. Coyle Smith, 221 559, 688, 55 853, therein. 48 consider target remedies. awkwardly respects disregards various arguments, largely beside point.37 began work reliable eventually evolved describe infer significant danger justify S.E.C., 327 686, 710—711, 66 785, 798—799, 90 945; Assigned Car Cases, 274 564, 582—583, 727, 733, 1204. 49 To specific, imposed States—Alabama, Mississippi—in discrimination.38 embraces States—Georgia Carolina—plus large State—North fragmentary mainly adduced Commission.39 identifying evils, obviously avail information probative source. 252—253, 354—355, 258; 299—301, 382, above, share characteristics incorporated formula: registration, rate 1964 below average. Tests long tool perpetrating evil; low pertinent obvious disenfranchisement inevitably affect practice theory. It impose formula, absence proof free years. bound relating presumptions organs government Compare Romano, 136, 279, 210; Tot 319 463, 63 1241, 87 1519. 51 irrelevant excludes employ means. entailed misuse devices, designed.40 strengthened Legislation deal phases way, distinctions drawn practical experience. Williamson Lee Optical 348 483, 488—489, 75 464—465, 99 Railway Express Agency People York, 106, 533. exempted reveals devices. confirms rationality formula. 52 Acknowledging overbreadth, behest materialized 'ordain establish' inferior tribunals. Bowles Willingham, 503, 510—512, 641, 645, 646, 892; Yakus 414, 427—431, 660, 668, 670, 834; Lockerty Phillips, 182, 1019, 1339. contractual claims $10,000 Claims, and, until 1962, sole venue officially residing Nation's Capital.41 discovered suggestion exceeded bounds imposing limitations respect. 53 nullity relief. pointed submit asserting guilty then refute Government.42 4(d) assures disprove isolated instance relief quite bearable, particularly conduct themselves. N.H. R.R. 355 253, 256, 78 212, 247; S.E.C. Ralston Purina 119, 126, 981, 985, 1494. 54 bars trigger allows way. withdraw numerous parties. example, California Eastern Line, 351, 419, 383; Switchmen's Union Mediation Bd., 320 297, 95, 61. subject objective statistical Bureau routine analysis Department. functions arouse plausible dispute, apparently concedes. event improperly applied, 4(b), provided serves partial substitute Suspension 56 arrive consideration assails temporary reciting Lassiter Northampton Bd. Elections, 360 45, 79 1072, themselves very case, went say, 'Of test, fair face, uproot.' Id., 53, 991. shows including instituted disenfranchising framed facilitate aim, administered fashion years.43 Under circumstances, violated. 709; 1093. 57 suspends cases. Ibid. Underlying feeling allowing could sincerely complain about 'dilution' electorates illiterates.44 continuance how fairly future, favor unqualified registrants.45 permissibly rejected alternative re-registration voters, believing harsh enjoyed lives.46 58 scrutiny uncommon contends, recognized exceptional appropriate. Home Bldg. Loan Association Blaisdell, 290 398, 231, 413; Wilson New, 243 332, 298, 755. resorted extraordinary contriving kinds perpetuating adverse decrees.47 suppose try maneuvers future evade itself. compulsion unique decisive manner. reasons stated, inappropriate putting opinions, violation principles furnishes mechanisms suspension. wishing amendment concrete 'controversy' Government. Public Utilities Comm. 534, 536—539, 446, 448—450, 470; California, 332 24—25, 1658, 1661, 91 1889. An remedy determination continued unnecessary vindicate examiners. expeditious procedure. closely persistently franchise, evasion decrees.48 realized suspend misused localized undisturbed. briskness procedure, affected, harass Negroes. forestall abuse, providing ways removing error fraud.49 7(d) removal himself, 11(c) fraud. 62 recognition unnecessary, should sent.50 warrant claim, asserted curiae, regard sets adequate guide discretion, him calculate whites, weigh avoid possible 13(a) indirect assuring withdrawal needed. Carlson Landon, 342 524, 542—544, 72 525, 535—536, 96 547; Mulford 38, 48—49, 648, 652, 1092. marshalled array potent weapons effectively. Many directly development willingness abide restraints legitimately them.51 Hopefully, millions Americans able live. look forward day truly complaint dismissed. APPENDIX TO OPINION THE COURT. VOTING RIGHTS ACT AN fifteenth purposes. Be Representatives America assembled, That known 'Voting 1965.' Sec. 2. prerequisite standard, practice, race color. 70 3. (a) Whenever institutes accordance serve interlocutory determines finds justifying equitable subdivision: Provided, effectively corrected action, eliminated, probability recurrence (b) If device denying abridging deems (c) territory subdivision, court, grant, retain deem commenced enforced qualification, prerequisite, color: chief legal sixty submission, except neither court's finding object enjoin 4. Federal, subsection unit, filing plaintiff entered enactment denials abridgments judges 2284 title lie reopen motion judgment. 76 device, per centum therein 77 mean class. (d) engaged (e)(1) hereby fourteenth American-flag predominant classroom English, prohibit conditioning English language. completed sixth grade school in, accredited by, territory, Puerto Rico inability language, level education presumptive literacy, equivalent English. 82 set forth enact administer institute enters procedure: 6. 3(a), of, writing twenty believes meritorious, (considering, nonwhite appears exists bona fide being amendment), amendment, prepare Such examiners, 9(a), appointed, compensated, separated Commission, employment 1939, (5 KF62 118i), prohibiting partisan activity: authorized, consulting head department agency, designate suitable consent, positions. oaths. 84 7. shall, regulation designate, examine form require contain allegations whom finds, instructions 9(b), inconsistent prosecution certify list, supplements month, copies attorney thereto transmitted inspection business later forty-fifth election. list. whose examiner's allowed district residence notified (d): virtue forty-five certificate evidencing therefrom 8. assign, persons, enter attend holding observing tabulating votes cast tabulated. report 9. prepared prescribe. entertained ten inspection, constituting grounds challenge, copy application. fifteen petitioning reversed removals promulgated consultation instruct applicable listing, loss Upon challenger own subpena attendance testimonony witnesses production documentar section. contumacy obey subpena, possession, said domiciled transacts business, agent receipt appear officer, produce pertinent, relevant, nonprivileged documentary ordered, give touching investigation; punished contempt thereof. 10. payment tax precondition (i) precludes limited imposes unreasonable financial hardship (ii) bear relationship interest elections, (iii) directed forthwith actions, subdivisions, injunctive therefor implement 94 duty judge assign earliest practicable date, thereof, expedited. 95 pendency notwithstanding declare constitutional, resident becomes examiner, pay tenders current election, tender timely law. accept payment. receive together applicant. acting fail refuse permit willfully tabulate, count, , person's person, otherwise, intimidate, threaten, coerce, attempt coerce attempting urging aiding exercising duties 6, 12(e). Whoever knowingly gives false name, address, establishing conspires encouraging illegal pays offers accepts fined imprisoned both: general, special, solely selecting electing candidate President, Vice elector, Member Senate, Representatives, Delegates Commissioners territories possessions, Resident Commissioner Rico. Whoever, falsifies conceals material fact, false, fictitious, fraudulent statements representations, uses knowing statement entry, both. 12. secured 4, 11(a) (b), $5,000, 101 destroys, defaces, mutilates, alters marking paper ballot tabulated machine 102 interferes engage act prohibited 11, preventive relief, permanent injunction, restraining order, count votes. 104 (e) allege forty-eight hours notify founded. notification, file marking, casting, counting ballots inclusion results thereto. matters immediately preclude 105 (f) proceedings exhausted 106 13. Listing clause notifies roll, take survey 107 14. arising governed 151 1957 (42 1995). 108 execution employee hereto. 109 'vote' 'voting' include primary, including, casting ballot, counted totals candidates party propositions 110 term 'political subdivision' conducts 111 subpenas States: writ greater distance miles proper shown. 112 15. 2004 Revised Statutes 1971), 131 (71 Statutes-at-Large 637), 601 (74 90), (78 241), follows: 113 Delete 'Federal' wherever subsections (c); 114 Repeal (g) (h) (g), respectively. 115 16. Secretary Defense, jointly, study whether, practices preconditions tend result Armed Forces containing study, exist, recommendations advisable 116 17. Nothing construed deny, impair, adversely 117 18. appropriated sums 118 19. thereof circumstances invalid, remainder similarly situated thereby. 119 Approved 120 BLACK, concurring dissenting. 121 agree substantially Court's unequivocal command Government unmistakably protect subtle. my dissenting Bell 378 226, 318, 1814, 1864, 822. doubt notorious upholding major effect. reach conclusion, somewhat stated 'the theory.' base conclusion rational, enough me creating hitherto unquestioned undisputed when, where, what stating granting unreviewable mechanical come acted established See, e.g., Martin Mott, 537; George S. Bush 310 371, 944, 1259; Hirabayashi 81, 1375, 1774. 122 Though, said, conclusions, dissent constitutional. linked, coming goes amend constitution trying persuade proposed think 123 controversies only. arises approve amendments, hard justiciable arise sense advance adopt. dispute amounts cry traditional notion meaning enforceable applied. And controversy, has, forum settling important original party.1 trial treat dignity constituent Union. 124 manipulation create illusion cloud ask validity become operative, precisely type forbids. elsewhere, Griswold Connecticut, 479, 507, Pages 513—515, 1678, 1694, 1697, 1698, 510, drafting wanted opinions propose body. suggestions rejected. likewise flout them. resorting unnecessarily circuitous, route adopted 125 My adoption conflict says granted formulation 579, (Emphasis added.) cannot compelled beg policies, distorts structure distinction meaningless. One premises others, 'to respectively, people.' Certainly King's 'transporting beyond reserve anything, constitutions sending hundreds away them.2 veto guarantee Republican Form Government.' inevitable forces entreat faraway approval impression conquered provinces. plead subjects President himself chosen staff. inconceivable radical degradation intended Amendments. Of indisputable operative intrudes supreme heretofore content supremacy agents bring lawsuits controversy. assumes compel approaches dangerously near wiping useful units interpretation leads result. 126 meanings did put since. Constitutional Convention negative Congress. proposals convention debated extensively occasion overwhelmingly rejected.3 belief resided helpless function governments.4 Since indication agents. endow bodies policies Congress—denied law—can delegate cases—they Washington approval. 127 Acts extremely viewed minor importance likely irritant aid confidence vigorous, citizens.5 1973 et seq. (1964 ed., Supp. I). Carolina: Virginia. General: Illinois, joined Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Michigan, Montana, Hampshire, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Wisconsin. Hearings H.R. 6400 Subcommittee Judiciary, Sess. Hearings); 1564 U.S.Code 480 Hearings). Record April 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30; May 13, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26; July 9; confirmed, sources, 225 F.Supp. 353, 363—385 (Wisdom, J.), aff'd, 229 925, 983—997 (dissenting rev'd rem'd, 717; 192 677 (Johnson, Cir., 304 583, commission Rights, Mississippi; 1963 Rep., Voting; 1961 Voting, 2; 1959 generally Christopher, Constitutionality Stan.L.Rev. 1; Note, Protection Va.L.Rev. 140. 433. 36. 1895 leader movement disenfranchise Key, Southern Politics, 537—539. Senator Ben Tillman frankly explained delegates aim test: '(T)he thing patriots statesmen 'ignorant blacks') government.' He equally candid exemption 'explain' constitution: 'There particle fraud illegality it. just showing partiality, perhaps, (laughter,) discriminating.' described vein: 'By $300 you men colored men.' Journal 464, 469, 471 (1895). dominant figure convention, merits examination. Prior War, slave teach write. Following war, rapidly segregation schools. Throughout period, begun develop. Brown Board Education, 347 489—490, 688—689, 873; Rep. 147—151. themselves: 677, 339 679. satisfied registrar writing, 'FRDUM FOOF SPETGH.' 384. enrolled filled him. Penton, 212 193, 210—211. Panola fund 'Chickasaw School Fund." Duke, 759, 764. Forrest six baccalaureate degrees, Masters Arts. Lynd, 818, 821. Atkins, 323 743. Logue, 344 290, 292. 634. 86. 1971 ed.). Appeals Circuit ordered registrars Forrect past. forms error, public-challenge 996—997 opinion). Parker, 236 511; Palmer, 230 716. convenient reference, reprinted Appendix opinion. Morgan 247 prob. juris. noted, 1007, 621, 248 316. Texas, 252 234 95; Harper 951, 425, Butts Harrison, 806, 94, 57, argued January Coverage Fed.Reg. 9897. 14505. Alaska Civ.Act. 101—66; Apache 292—66; Elmore 320—66. 14045—14046. chart consideration, 30—32; 42—43. Review rules. 23—342 Brief App. 13850. 9970—9971, 10863, 12363, 12654, 13849—13850, 15837; 914. (1965). 9—11; 6—9. 13; 52, 55. 27; 201. defense 14; 13—14. 12; 9—10. Georgia: 160—176; 1182 1184, 1237, 1253, 1300—1301, 1336—1345. 27—28, 39, 246—248. 116, 196—201; 1353—1354. 75—77; 241—243. Regarding 1491, 1346(a) Concerning officers, Stroud Benson, 254 448; 536, 87th Sess.; S.Rep. 1992, 1391(e) ed.); Moore, Practice 4.29 92—93; 26—27. 11—13; 4—5, 9—12. 15; 15—16. 17; 22—23. 10—11; 16; 200. constitutionally unconstitutional. reminiscent deeply resented crown colonies. abuses complained bitterly inconvenient places. signers Declaration Independence protested King 'has called unusual, uncomfortable, depository Records, fatiguing compliance measures,' objected beyound Seas pretended offences.' fresh minds caused trials 'shall Crimes committed.' Also Sixth defendant 'jury wherein committed, previously ascertained law.' Debates 1787 reported Madison Documents Illustrative Formation (1927), 605, 789, 856. speaker expressing prevailing proposal, 'Will ever hand foot worse mere corporations * *.' 604. 'If thereby.'

Classification Label: 1