Legal Document

548 U.S. 399 (2006) LEAGUE OF UNITED LATIN AMERICAN CITIZENS et al. v. PERRY, GOVERNOR TEXAS, No. 05-204. Supreme Court of United States. Argued March 1, 2006. Decided June 28, 2006.[*] *407 Paul M. Smith argued the cause for appellants in 05-276. With him on briefs were Sam Hirsch and J. Gerald Hebert. Nina Perales 05-439. her was David Herrera Urias. R. Ted Cruz, Solicitor General Texas, state appellees all cases. brief Greg Abbott, Attorney General, Barry McBee, First Assistant Edward D. Burbach, Deputy Don Cruse, Joel L. Thollander, Adam W. Aston, Solicitors General. Garre States as amicus curiae urging affirmance support appellees. Clement, Kim, James A. Feldman, K. Flynn, Lisa Stark. Rolando Rios, George Korbel, Jose Garza, Judith Sanders-Castro filed League Latin American Citizens al., Renea Hicks Travis County, 05-254. Michael Carvin Louis Fisher a cases Tina Benkiser Robert Long appellee Charles Soechting, appellants. John S. Ament III Richard Gladden Frenchie Henderson, appellant Gary Bledsoe, T. Goldberg, Sean H. Donahue, Dennis Courtland Hayes Texas State-Area Conference National Association Advancement *408 Colored People 05-276.[ÔÇö] JUSTICE KENNEDY announced judgment delivered opinion with respect to Parts II-A III, an I IV, *409 which THE CHIEF ALITO join, II-B II-C, Part II-D, SOUTER GINSBURG join. These four consolidated are appeals from entered by District Eastern Texas. Convened three-judge court under 28 C.  2284, heard appellants' constitutional statutory challenges 2003 enactment State Legislature that drew new district lines 32 seats holds House Representatives. (Though do not join each other claims, sake convenience we refer collectively.) In 2004 issued detailed findings fact conclusions law. Session Perry, 298 F. Supp. 2d 451 (per curiam). This vacated decision remanded consideration light Vieth Jubelirer, 541 267 (2004). 543 941 The reexamined political gerrymandering claims and, second careful opinion, again held defendants. Henderson 756 (2005). followed, noted probable jurisdiction. 546 1074 Appellants contend plan is unconstitutional partisan gerrymander redistricting statewide violates 2 Voting Rights Act 1965, 79 Stat. 437, amended, 42 1973. also use race politics drawing specific districts Amendment Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. panel, consisting Circuit Judge Higginbotham Judges Ward Rosenthal, brought considerable experience expertise instant action, based their knowledge State's people, history, geography. Ward, moreover, had served *410 replaced 2003, so they intimately familiar history intricacies We affirm Court's dispositions claim against 24. reverse remand 23. Because reach race-based equal protection or 23, vacate these claims. To set out proper framework cases, first recount litigation recent districting An appropriate starting point reapportionment 2000 but one census 1990. 1990 resulted 30-seat congressional delegation increase 3 over 27 representatives allotted decade before. See Bush Vera, 517 952, 956-957 (1996). 1991 lines. At time, Democratic Party controlled both houses legislature, governorship, 19 Congress. Yet change appeared be horizon. previous 30 years Party's post-Reconstruction dominance Republican eroded, Republicans received 47% vote, while Democrats 51%. supra, at 763; Brief Appellee Perry 05-204 etc., p. (hereinafter Appellees). Faced opposition could moving toward majority status, legislature designed favor candidates. Using then-emerging computer technology draw artful precision, enacted later described "shrewdest 1990s." Barone, Cohen, & Cook, Almanac *411 Politics 2002, 1448 (2001). 767, n. 47. Although Congressman Martin Frost acknowledged its architect. Session, 482. "carefully constructs democratic `with incredibly convoluted lines' packs `heavily Republican' suburban areas into just few districts." 47 (quoting Barone 2004, 1510 (2003) Almanac)). Voters who considered this unfair unlawful treatment sought invalidate gerrymander, no avail. Terrazas Slagle, 789 828, 833 (WD Tex. 1992); 821 1162, 1175 1993) realized hopes fears composition delegation. 1990's continued growth Party, end it sweeping elections office. Nevertheless, despite carrying 59% vote 2000, only won 13 Democrats' 17. 763. events likely forgotten either party when came time conformance incorporate two additional governorship Senate; did yet control Representatives, however. As constituted, unable pass scheme, resulting necessity court-ordered comply Constitution's one-person, one-vote requirement. Balderas Civ. Action 6:01CV158 (ED Tex., Nov. 14, 2001) curiam), summarily aff'd, 536 919 (2002), App. E Juris. Statement 05-276, 202a Balderas, *412 Statement), map known Plan 1151C. have said, members 1151C now review. Thus benefit candid comments concerning approach taken litigation. Conscious primary responsibility given branches government, hesitant "und[o] work another," apply "only `neutral' standards" 2d, 768. Once applied principlesÔÇösuch placing high-growth areas, following county voting precinct lines, avoiding pairing incumbentsÔÇö"the ceased, leaving free further except conform one-vote." Ibid. Under 1151C, 2002 17-to-15 delegation, compared 40% votes office 2000. Id., 763-764. Reflecting Plan, acknowledge "[t]he practical effect effort leave largely place `legal' plan." continuing influence court-drawn "perpetuated much [the 1991] gerrymander," ibid., lost when, gained Representatives thus, legislature. "set representation delegation." 471. id., 470 ("There little question single-minded purpose enacting [a plan] gain advantage"). After protracted *413 struggle, during legislators left frustrate quorum requirements, October 2003. It called 1374C. disappoint plan's drafters. 21 11, obtaining 58% races 41%. 764. Soon after 1374C, challenged court, alleging host violations. Initially, 457; 515 (Ward, J., concurring part dissenting part). relief here jurisdictional statements filed, Jubelirer. Our order vacating remanding weeks before elections. (Oct. 18, 2004). On remand, Court, believing scope mandate limited questions gerrymandering, rejected 777-778. would granted theoryÔÇöpresented remandÔÇöthat mid-decennial requirement, he concluded such argument within mandate. 779, 784-785 (specially concurring). II A Based similar theories address mid-decade character redistricting, argue 1374C should invalidated gerrymander. Davis Bandemer, 478 109 (1986), challenge presents justiciable case controversy, *414 118-127, there disagreement what substantive standard apply. Compare 127-137 (plurality opinion), 161-162 (Powell, That persists. plurality nonjusticiable questions, declined so. U.S., 306 (KENNEDY, judgment); 317 (STEVENS, dissenting); 343 (SOUTER, 355 (BREYER, dissenting). revisit justiciability holding proceed examine whether offer manageable, reliable measure fairness determining Constitution. B Before addressing arguments note some basic principles roles States, Congress, courts play how drawn. Article Constitution provides: "Section 2. shall composed Members chosen every Year several . 4. Times, Places Manner Elections prescribed thereof; Congress may any Law make alter Regulations. ." text, explained, "leaves apportionment federal congressional. Growe Emison, 507 25, 34 (1993); see Chapman Meier, 420 (1975) ("[R]eapportionment primarily duty through body"); Smiley *415 Holm, 285 355, 366-367 (1932) (reapportionment implicated powers Art. I, 4). text provides, has generally required single-member districts. U. Const., 4; Pub. 90-196, 81 581, 2c; Branch Smith, 538 254, 266-267 (2003). But 275 opinion) (multimember permitted 55 762, 2a(c) circumstances). drawn earlier decennial census, explicit prohibition. legislative branch plays role our precedents recognize important See, e. g., Wesberry Sanders, 376 1 (1964). example, discussed. When enact requirement found necessary own. sometimes however, does shift locus responsibility. "Legislative bodies tasks courts; those responsibilities respond, imminence election makes impractical them so, becomes `unwelcome obligation' devise impose pending action." Wise Lipscomb, 437 535, 540 (1978) (principal Connor Finch, 431 407, 415 (1977)). Quite apart risk acting without legislature's expertise, quite difficulties faces fair rational, 414-415, *416 obligation placed upon Federal Judiciary unwelcome because most significant acts can perform ensure citizen participation republican self-governance. body explicitly power noteworthy statement preference process. vests foremost legislatures lawful, legislatively preferable courts. follow, too, if replace own design, presumption impropriety attach act. here, 460-461, decisions assumed court-mandated remedial plans Upham Seamon, 456 37, 44 (1982) curiam); Wise, Connor, 415); Burns Richardson, 384 73, 85 (1966); Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 587 Underlying principle assumption prefer replacement contrary ordinary operation Judicial plans, cannot justify reliance improper criteria determinations. considerations mind, turn consider plan. C decision, claim, solely motivated objectives, *417 serves legitimate public burdens group opinions affiliation. nature say, reveals sole motivation. Unlike Vieth, where acted context voluntarily itself data. "no act all" Appellant Jackson 26, hardly surprising, according appellants, "[t]here advantage" minority, 470. rule, perhaps presumption, invalidity adopted motivations salutary one, view, then need inquire about, nor parties prove, discriminatory effects gerrymanderingÔÇöa matter proved elusive since Bandemer. S., 281 opinion); 127 opinion). Adding test's simplicity quibble individual redistrict all. For number reasons, adopting test convincing. begin with, dispute assertion "sole" motivation There merit criticism, pejorative label overlooks indications motives dictate entirety. seem decided achieving majority, aims guide line drew. found, contours contested *418 more mundane local interests. 472-473. contend, contest, line-drawing requests honored. Appellees 34. Evaluating legality arising mixed complex, affixing single hazardous, even actor performing discrete Hartman Moore, 547 250, 259-260 (2006). composite manifold choices, task daunting. Appellants' attempt separate motive discarding complex choices made seeks avoid difficulty. skeptical, statute reference content legislation enacted. Even setting skepticism aside, successful attempting identify must sole-motivation theory disavows: show burden, measured standard, complainants' representational rights. reason, proposed markedly present today. 336 dissenting) ("Just factor in, outcome of, process, too partisanship permissible long predominate"), 338 ("[A]n acceptable rational basis neither purely personal partisan"), 292-295 307-308 judgment). sole-intent offered compelling linked circumstance legislation. structure *419 law indicate nothing inherently suspect about middecade And were, alone sure indication gerrymanders. theory, highly effective coincided receive less scrutiny than bumbling, partisan, redistricting. More concretely, untouched entrenched verge minority striking down plan, capturing larger share seats. treats similarly different ways reliability ascribe it. Furthermore, led seen making balance congruent power. sure, proportional representation, equating party's portion rough best. closely reflects distribution seems vehicle discrimination entrenches electoral minority. Gaffney Cummings, 412 735, 754 (1973). By measure, fairer survived plansÔÇöall three modified fail. amici proposes symmetry bias "compar[ing] fare hypothetically (in turn) percentage vote." *420 King 5. map's extent better party, respective shares reverse. Amici's compensate failure provide fairness. existence degree asymmetry large depend conjecture possible vote-switchers will reside. assuming choose reliably among models shifting voter preferences, wary invalidates results occur hypothetical affairs. Presumably litigated feared inequity arose. Cf. Abbott Laboratories Gardner, 387 136, 148 (1967). fundamentally, counterfactual plaintiff face same problem present, actual appellants: providing deciding much. Without altogether discounting utility planning litigation, conclude partisanship. absence workable judging gerrymanders, focus encourage excess outset decade, redistricts pursuant immune charge If barred least subject close judicial oversight, incentive prevent passage try luck might give deal negotiation rivals. 776-777. D exclusively purposes *421 They observe population variances tolerated "are unavoidable good-faith achieve absolute equality, justification shown." Karcher Daggett, 462 725, 730 (1983) Kirkpatrick Preisler, 394 526, 531 (1969); internal quotation marks omitted). Working unchallenged premise, that, shifted relied created interdistrict variances. distinguish ordinary, 3-year-old belatedly rely voluntary, violate five substantially. must, concede operate legal fiction constitutionally apportioned throughout constant accompanying costs instability. Georgia Ashcroft, 539 461, 488, (2003); Reynolds, 583. agree implemented 2001 using data enjoys so-called fiction, presumably belated promote interests, ensuring complies rights safe harbor enacts overriding thus "`unnecessarily'" creating variance "when compulsion" County 05-254, 18. particularly *422 enough condemn violating equal-population principle. believe Daggett product desire eliminate competitive noted, turns furthers rather redrawing place. 776. merely restates redraw map. answer, mirrors attack considerations, unsatisfactory reasons already intentionally manipulate is, finding effect, evidence serious allegation bad faith. demonstrated constitutes violation find unavailing subsidiary Larios Cox, 300 1320 (ND Ga.) 542 947 Larios, reviewed Legislature's Senate deviations objectives drafters, included interests along regionalist inconsistent incumbent protection, deviations. 1351-1352. examination relevant response *423 violation, something established here. clear guidance. panel explained "need resolve issue advantage population" "plainly unlawful" "bound up inextricably" clearly objectives. 1352. sum, disagree view override valid, sufficiently shape identifying legally impermissible classifications. challenge. changes south west violations occurred whichÔÇöboth redistrictingÔÇöcovers land area Houston includes area, north-south strip Austin Rio Grande Valley. election, became apparent 23 increasingly powerful Latino threatened oust Republican, Henry Bonilla. voting-age 57.5%, Bonilla's Latinos dropped successive 1996. 488-489. Bonilla captured 8% *424 51.5% overall vote. loss support, protect incumbency changing linesÔÇöand hence mixÔÇöof district. divided Webb city Laredo, Mexican border, formed county's base. 94% Latino, previously rested entirely 23; nearly 100,000 people neighboring 28. 489. rest county, approximately 93,000 remained numbers lost, added voters counties comprising Anglo, central 488. newly district, 46%, though total votingage 50%. adjustments elsewhere, course, inserted third between east extended farther north. New 25 long, narrow winds way McAllen Mexican-border towns Austin, center miles away. 502. seven full counties, 77% resides split northern southern ends. Of 77%, roughly half reside Hidalgo McAllen, parts Austin. 55% district's population, mostly distant north south. 499. communities opposite ends divergent "needs interests," 502, owing "differences socio-economic education, employment, health, characteristics," 512. summed underlying Texas: "The *425 Congressional dual goal increasing general protecting particular, nuance reelected age populationÔÇöalthough certainly majority." 497. clear: "[t]o retrogression 5" reduced strength Act. "if, totality circumstances, shown processes leading nomination subdivision equally open racial group] opportunity electorate participate process elect choice." 1973(b). identified threshold conditions establishing violation: (1) "`"sufficiently geographically compact constitute district"'"; (2) "`"politically cohesive"'"; (3) "`"vot[es] bloc enable usually defeat minority's preferred candidate."'" Johnson De Grandy, 512 997, 1006-1007 (1994) Growe, 40 quoting Thornburg Gingles, 30, 50-51 (1986))). Gingles requirements. requirements established, directs us "totality circumstances" determine *426 electorate. 1011-1012; Abrams Johnson, 521 74, 91 (1997). terms require interpretation. purpose, referred Report 1982 amendments Act, identifies factors typically including: "the voting-related subdivision; racially polarized; used practices procedures tend enhance .; bear past hinder ability effectively process; overt subtle campaigns; been elected notes demonstrating officials unresponsive particularized needs policy subdivision's practice tenuous probative value." 44-45 (citing Rep. 97-417 Report); pinpoint citations Another forms area. 1000. *427 determination satisfied upheld unless erroneous. 78-79. Where ultimate dilution" "a misreading governing law," reversible error. 1022. diluted remain Specifically, caused drop 57.5% 46%. recognized "Latino unquestionably, weakened 1374C." weakening amounts dilution. analysis, evident preconditionsÔÇöcohesion populationÔÇöare "racially polarized voting" indeed "throughout State." 492-493. polarization especially severe: 92% voted 88% non-Latinos him. 134, Table 20 (expert Allan Lichtman Voting-Rights Issues Redistricting (Nov. 2003) Report)). projected Anglo often, always, electing candidate choice 496-497. sufficient cohesion meet requires "sufficiently *428 district." 50. constituted Though lack real opportunity, old possess protected While stated "moving direction." Indeed, 15 officeholders. 518 race, prevailed was. changed specifically worried suggested simply prevailed, 495, incorrect. win said right equality guarantee success minority-preferred candidates whatever race." 1014, 11. registration 523 part), concomitant rise near-victory threat incumbency, very Since prevented immediate emergent *429 denial sense term. 1374C's version contrast, "is unquestionably 496. Latinos, bare hollow sense, include citizenship. fits language eligible affect group's altered now. Considering isolation, satisfied. argues, nonetheless, met obligations offsetting true, "States retain broad discretion 2." Shaw Hunt, 899, 917, 9 (1996) (Shaw II). limits, though. premise always less-than-equal individuals greater others. 917 ("The vote-dilution injuries suffered persons remedied majority-black somewhere else State"). below, conflicting concerns resolved allowing majority-minority another accommodated. possibility II, (rejecting idea once shown"). inclusion plaintiffs necessitate exclusion *430 others, faulted choice. why, condition existing reasonably 1008. current contains six GI Forum presented majority-Latino districts, compact, took "disparate communities." 491-492, 125. contrary, court's resolution remains, though, failed comparable compactness inquiry Grandy comparison challenger's proposal "existing forbid creation noncompact 999 cannot, remedy elsewhere State. 916 (unless `geographically compact' group, "where sits, `there wrong remedy'" 41)). Simply put, offers excuse right. Abrams, 91-92, *431 dismantling post, (opinion part, his comports expressly prong looks "reasonably refused violation. 916. true analysis compliance defense challenge, distinguished relative location alleged 20% overlap sought, "[w]e think incorporation mean district] substantially addresses violation." 918; 1019 (expressing doubt dilution compensated half). different, still longer Apart conflict JUSTICE's deficiency one-way rule whereby (except, seems, challenge). appears accept plaintiff, *432 she form Post, 505. If, "six Latino" 498, decide purposes. 300-mile gap groups. observations, compactness. 502-504. ruled instead concerns, combined groups allow Latino-preferred prevail effectiveness substitute compactness, aggregating Latinos. 503-504. approach, satisfy was, together, outcomes. evaluate predominated Valley Central interest," characteristics." conclusion smoothness combining interest, inapposite *433 analyzed context, focuses predominant Miller 900, 916-917 (1995). 2, injury dilution, embraces considerations. refers 997 concurring); 111 (compactness "which boundaries differs compactness"); (the compact" (internal omitted)). precise emerged "inquiry take account `traditional maintaining interest traditional boundaries.'" 92 977 opinion)); 979 (A "reaches grab small apparently isolated communities" compact). recognition nonracial "assum[e] voters' `think alike, polls.'" Miller, 920 Reno, 509 630, 647 (1993)). prohibited assumption, combines farflung segments disparate provides contemplates. *434 exercise franchise foster transformation society fixated 490; cf. 511 ROBERTS, J.). disservice goals failing differences race. differences, inquiry, significance regarding characteristics, needs, community near border around well supported uncontested. Legitimate differing disregarded consequence cover distant, goals. Compactness therefore, "style points," 494 J.); critical advancing "opportunity (And style points, difficult understand why propose claim.) witnesses know culture testified, "could thinly financed adequate responsive elected." 502; 503 (Elected region "testified size diversity newly-configured constituents outcomes"). groups' *435 prefers Anglos' areasÔÇöfor rural urban communitiesÔÇöcould therefore proximity. 111-112 When, common index result friction, elsewhere. emphasize enormous geographical distance separating communities, coupled populationsÔÇönot aloneÔÇöthat renders mathematical compact. find, noncompact. Contrary suggestion, 501, closer geographic proximity 25. importantly, contention pockets becoming cohesive. efficacious identity, undertaking differences. problem. *436 proportionality comparing population. circumstances." not, "safe harbor" complying 1017-1018; 1025 (O'Connor, concurring) (proportionality never dispositive"); 1027-1028 judgment) "some relevance," "placing undue emphasis risks defeating Act"). harbor, ratify "an unexplored validity: jurisdiction ., traded off class." 1019; 916-918. contends regional basis, say conduct analysis. "passed frame terms." parties' agreement Dade proportionality. 1022-1023. hand, allege "injury African Hispanic Complaint 03C-356 Tex.), pp. 1-2; Amended 2:03-354 5, 7; Plaintiff's 2:03cv354 etc. 4-5. *437 argument. result, assessing itself. answer look statewide. correctly delimit argument, misunderstands determined, factor, "`intensely appraisal'" Rogers Lodge, 458 613, 622 (1982)); 101 appraisal undiluted belong "minority group," "its members." 917. trade group. "whether whole dilutes strength," 504 J.), displace Instead, participation." seven-district arbitrary. easily eight *438 opportunities across inevitable "win some, lose some" voting. circumstances characterized whole. (listing factors). Particularly presence votingÔÇöand submergence votesÔÇöthroughout entire Looking statewide, amount 16% total, 22% Texas' (Appellant Community Survey Census Bureau, 24.5% figure available 22%.) are, shy representation. "magic parameter," 1017, "rough proportionality," 1023, two-district deficit weighs disproportionality deemed insubstantial, overcome "[T]he value assigned vary facts," 1020, facts convince 23's poised politically active, *439 marked continuous Spanish-surnamed registration. Report, 142-143. numbers, almost ousted spurred incumbent's dramatically increased turnout 2002. 1579. growing cohesive hope undermined progress active 1014 (finding scheme thwart historical tendency exclude Hispanics, perpetuate it"); White Regester, 755, 769 (1973) (looking "remedy Mexican-Americans, bring stream life encouraging registration, voting, activities" (citation Blacks Texas," 473, elaborated processes: "Texas well-documented touched African-Americans Hispanics register, otherwise Devices poll tax, all-white system, *440 restrictive periods unfortunate history. official processÔÇöstretching back ReconstructionÔÇöled covered Section 5 1975 jurisdiction, Department Justice frequently interposed objections subdivisions." Vera Richards, 861 1304, 1317 (SD 1994) (citations 981-982 767-769. addition, "political, social, economic legacy discrimination" 492, "hinder process," 45 Against background, Latinos' diminishing indicates belief "unresponsive group." (same). essence away bears mark intentional action political, racial, 508, damaging fruitless mobilization efforts dividing middle Laredo. reason taking constituency *441 districting, 740, teaches various forms, constituents. keep intact officeholder accountable promises broken, accord concern voters. means excluding officeholder, purposely opposed Bonilla, latter course. policy, validity realm politics, underlying" tenuous"). suggesting nominal (without majority) reasons. create facade claim. suggestion reducing needed flexibility 506, making. chose break congressman dissatisfaction purported harm hundreds apart, represent interest. denying *442 Notwithstanding facts, places great "new `a been.'" 493 503). statement, expressed summarizing witnesses' testimony, qualifies points minimal relevance. First, accounting detrimental consequences problems. Second, "had been," today, distinction foregoing, demonstrates troubling blend raceÔÇöand beginning 2's overcoming prior discriminationÔÇöcannot sustained. hold protection. confront redrawn legitimacy changed. 528 *443 IV Dallas dilute African-American 24 entitles enacted, Democrat 1978. 481-482. Anglos largest 49.8% 20.8%. Exh. 57, 339. second-largest 25.7% consistently Frost. broke diverse assigning pieces Accepting seek, cohesively 484, nonetheless done times before, assume 50% 1009; Voinovich Quilter, 146, 154 46-47, 12. accommodate assistance cross-over votes." Voinovich, 158 (emphasis deleted). *444 relatively 64% primary. goes, translated election. finding, testimony Democrat, began, 24's demographic similarity ran Anglo. 483-484. "In short, is," conclusion." 484. fail demonstrate error finding. last years, obvious benchmark exists FrostÔÇöin electionsÔÇöcould signify primary, interpreted (assuming voting) run, system. trial explanations, erred crediting endorsed 242-243 (testimony Tarrant Precinct Administrator "favored community" gone unopposed *445 "serves community's] interests") 262-264 Congresswoman Eddie Bernice (Martin Frost, particular) splitting community), 277-280 Representative Ron Wilson candidate, "influence [d]istricts" fully community). submitted expert inconsistent. examined, split. 75-76, 92-96; 2:03-CV-354 138; Tex.). committed rejecting questionable showing prevail. Anderson Bessemer City, 564, 574 (1985) ("Where views evidence, factfinder's erroneous"). 485, suffice "to choice," 1973(b), candidates, none whom others *446 Accordingly, aid Frost's kind influence, unnecessarily infuse virtually raising questions. 491 respond pointing "denying abridging vote," 1973c. Ashcroft tests, 478, 480. So able substantial, decisive, process" 482, establish run afoul raise district-specific cognizable unpersuasive. Just STEVENS suggests burden occupy. 475-476 special fact, 24, *447 whole, 484; 208a. STEVENS' complied 478-481ÔÇöeffectively overruling briefing, lower issueÔÇödoes solve effect. * reject affirmed reversed proceedings. ordered. STEVENS, BREYER joins part. suit perfectly judicially manageable standards merits Applying standards, explain wholly unnecessary neutral fashioned curiam) (Plan Plan) creates shapes, fragments interestÔÇöall purposesÔÇöviolated govern impartially. Prior misconduct excuses justifies *448 invalid direct reinstate Moreover, explain, remainder cracking unconstitutional. maintenance advantageous Changes, equalize Similarly,  1973, orderly campaigning communication constituents, underscore importance requiring boundariesÔÇölike affects processÔÇömust, least, serve governmental purpose. Burdick Takushi, 428, 434, 440 (1992); 448-450 joined Blackmun JJ., minimize cancel elements population," Fortson Dorsey, 379 433, 439 (1965), adoption 451, 470, 472 2004) withstand scrutiny. replaced, manifestly neutral, legitimately milestone put misuse decades Civil War, associated former Commander *449 Chief Union Army attracted slaves handful "carpetbaggers," maintained black participating elections, see, Allwright, 321 649, 656-661 (1944), management multimember schemes, 765-770 (1973), recently, outrageously ante, 410-411 KENNEDY, 987-990 (appendixes 1005-1007, 1042-1045 Unfortunately, tactics unique Democrats; devised example excessively gerrymandered States' years. Cox 947, 947-950 (2004) BREYER, (Democratic Georgia); 267, 272 342 (Republican Pennsylvania); 744 Jersey); Badham Eu, 694 664, 666 Cal. 1988), 488 1024 (1989) California). Despite sordid manipulating stranglehold power, managed become finally remove 1990's, justification. happened. discussion *450 transpired release demonstrates, abandoned maximize 2001, many aforementioned freeze status dominant Senate. Democrats, year, revealed growth, entitled bringing 32. equipopulous Karcher, 725. law, 457-458. Legislature, House, regular session, Governor Rick call session. Litigation judge. Del Rio, 67 S.W.3d "`the stead.'" Statement) *451 proceedings, impartial interested supporting prepared "Conscious `und[o] another,' `only "neutral" standards' 1151C." Ante, J.) 756, 768 2005)). started blank located Districts 31 produced occurred, "compactness, contiguity, respecting municipal boundaries." 205a. 206a-209a. "eschewed treat independent locator," below-the-surface `ripples' myriad submissions us. patently irrational shapes 6 widely cited extreme country, more." 207a-208a. believed "likely produce breakdown state." 209a. reflecting 471 (describing 1151C). testified biased "[m]aybe slightly" Republicans. 224 (deposition *452 Ronald Keith Gaddie, Ph.D.). appeal, major motion asking judgment, did, (2002). capitalize provided them. incumbents attract ticket-splitters (individuals elections), favored carried court.[1] hoped gains body. gave Governor's mansion, Reconstruction. executive branches, "decided state's *453 seizing incumbents." According Lieutenant Bill Ratliff, regarded member Senate, "political 110% `the motivation.'" 473 transcript). Or, advantage." conclusion). Court: overwhelming motivating force behind 2003." Defendants' Post-Trial 51 Brief). series dramatic confrontations ultimately violated absented themselves denied quorum. session redistrictingÔÇöthe step figures, lacked House. During approved map, Senate's longstanding tradition two-thirds allowed block Dewhurst suspend future *454 considering Nonetheless, depriving lone returned passed maps avoided have, inter alia, essentially preserved southwest Dallas-Fort Worth Phil King, legislation's chief sponsor fragmenting but, lawyers drafted unchanged. conferees seeking reconcile maximizing advantage, significantly existed Plan. predominately moved west, pushing adjacent Black resided fragmented Republican. 104-106. *455 cracked path resistance'" liability "accomplish objectives." 51-52 million Texans average, measures counterparts 177-178 report Professor Gaddie).[2] Numerous challenging grounds panelÔÇötwo courtÔÇörejected challenges, Ward's partial dissent 451. Responding plaintiffs' appeals, reconsideration 267. characteristically thoughtful written Higginbotham, constitutionality 756. prohibit cycle, 766, 760-762. *456 original chapters saga began quote final comment principal presented. concluded: "Finally, directly implicit said: exercise, inappropriate hands body, bloodfeud, revenge exacted rival. arena, wisely should. is: abuse core, evinces fundamental distrust voters, serving self-interest expense good." 209a-210a (footnote raised appeal addressed. lawful "in i. from, simpler than, "`lack discoverable standards'" 277-278. out, political-gerrymandering considered, itself, *457 place." 33. place, borders follow criteria. describes "level granularity," attempted gain. 417 (noting "partisan line" 1374C). multitude "granular" concluded, promulgated redistrict, partisan. 285. (arguing assess redistrict). permissible. undeniable readily task. Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 341 (1960) allegations, circumstantial "tantamount demonstration," "solely" segregate lines); Personnel Mass. Feeney, 442 256, 276-280 (1979) (analyzing discriminate women). although per se ban midcycle *458 be. pointed raises inference machinations played map-drawing process." 367 (dissenting reinforced record case. unambiguously promulgate 1374C: advantage. ("It evidence" "`decided incumbents'" Vieth)); description ample includes: legislators; procedural irregularities above accompanied including targeted abolition departures lines; (4) excessive interfere development strong relationships constituents; (5) *459 conceded 51. my colorable contending intentÔÇöin intent[3]ÔÇöcannot admissible record.[4] capable analyzing intent proof question, 37 *460 indulges relying proposition "our own." 416. recognizes "[j]udicial determinations." incorrectly concludes singular criterion. 417-418. distinctions Balderas. interim objection contiguous originally fashioning remedy, erroneously "substituted preferences legislature." 40. "`to reapportion [or statutory] requisites timely fashion having so,'" should, "`follow policies State,'" 41 Weiser, 783, 794-795 (1973)). suggest honor "`expressed provisions whenever adherence detract Constitution.'" Upham, White, 794-795). *461 exceeded authority authorized choosing. 44. then, stands authority. stand disadvantaging party. reflect misunderstanding legislatures, courts, comport institution far best situated policies" wish supply disadvantage opponents. straightforward application settled leads inescapable Fortson, added). limit Amendment's prohibition invidious discrimination, citizens retaliation component actions sovereign establishes *462 disfavored Cleburne Living Center, Inc., 432, 447 (1985). freedom association guaranteed prevents State, absent "penalizing process,. expression views." 314 Elrod Burns, 427 347 (1976) opinion)). protections embodied Amendments E. Lehr Robertson, 463 248, 265 (1983); York City Transit Authority Beazer, 568 (1979). principles. advantaging "If declared `All X's principles,' surely violated." 312 Relying maintains unpopular insufficient representative rights." 418. conclusionÔÇöwhich goes merits, manageability, claimÔÇöis *463 merits. argues test" "encourage motivation." 419, 420. injured (and unconstitutional) undertaken data.[5] 328-339 347-353 GINSBURG, 365-367 KENNEDY's heightened engage willing enforce standards. *464 event, accurate exposition simultaneously explains disadvantaged evaluated amply supports imposes severe politicians process.[6] arguing takes position equitable parties. emphasizes electionsÔÇöheld 1374CÔÇöRepublicans 32, 66%, Admittedly, "roughly proportional" 44, system tends "seat bonus" wins seats, Alan Heslop Amici Curiae seat bonus phenomenon). *465 419 "Plan power"). Democrats. depends itselfÔÇöin words, regardless year. And, severe. expert, gives 22 Alford, favorably "neutral approach" 207a, agreed. He surprise "how things moved" 22-to-10 pro-Republican year," 226a (declaration Ph.D.).[7] winning 2004. *466 carry 52% 216, 229. Put differently, ensures succeeds convincing 10% candidates,[8] shift, unlikely win. achieved parity. Gaddie's (or, matter, 49%) 229-230. social scientists bias, undoubtedly standard" measuring "burden rights," 418 "requires similarly-situated equally, receives fraction particular percentage." accepted scholars systems. Tufte, Relationship Between Seats Votes Two-Party Systems, Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 540, 542-543 (1973); Gelman Enhancing Democracy Through Legislative Redistricting, 88 541, 545 (1994); Thompson, Election Time: Normative Implications Temporal Properties Electoral Process *467 98 51, 53, 7 (2004); Engstrom Kernell, Manufactured Responsiveness: Impact Laws Unified Control Presidency 1840-1940, 49 531, Like experts extrapolating sample data, (1986) (discussing bivariate ecological regression analysis). Plans 34-42 (report Alford); 189-193, 216 Gaddie). Because, above, distributed departure standard. evaluation, slightly Republicans, consistent 16 216. impact dismissed de minimis. 62.5% (20) whereas 37.5% (12) zero *468 differential structured 25% differential. salient shoulder defending Brown Thomson, 835, 842-843 (holding implementation prima facie Clause, defend plan); 1320, 1339-1340 (same, "`ten percent rule'" concluding it, 10%). partisanÔÇöas supraÔÇösuch accomplishes purpose.[9] *469 regard choice, there. lessens exert lawmakers, minimizing capacity meaningful "defies reality suppose losing government victorious party," 109, 170 elections," 132 482 whose defeated polls representative, "important likelihood decisive account.'" 100 judgment)). One "take account," today's tomorrow's majority. Guinier, Tyranny Majority 77 Ely, Distrust 84 (1980); Letter Madison Thomas Jefferson 1787), reprinted Republic Letters 502 (J. ed. 1995) desideratum Government modify sovereignty Society" fixed oppressing minority). *470 democracy premised seek faction constituency. 648 (1993). undermines crucial Republicans) "When obviously effectuate perceived whole." Shaw's harms applies because, addition job constituency, feel beholden cartographers live 329-331 reduces vigorous advocates weakens incentives locks 20-22 49% lock-in meaning other. 227-228 worry *471 majorities, minorities district.[10] Far representing "one self-governance," 416 guarantees *472 Republican-dominated membership notwithstanding pro-Democratic shifts opinion. "hypothetical" "counterfactual," 420, strength. 19-22 harmed lawmakers recruiting mobilizing resources, Thus, requisite discussed sovereign's adopts rules machinery defining boundaries, community. segment ÔÇöwhether ethnic, religious, economic, politicalÔÇöthat occupy weak community, protection." 748 accepting tolerable *473 rights, unconstitutional.[11] thought entirety, 24ÔÇöwhich, FrostÔÇöwas Readily analyze replacements forth manipulation Amendments. impartially inform occasions operates *474 population.'" 751 added); (1966). inflicted gerrymanders element situations, interfered voter's "engage advancement beliefs ideas," NAACP Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 449, 460 (1958). aware tolerate Cousins Council Chicago, 466 F.2d 830, 847 (CA7 1972) (Stevens, However, prove intended plaintiff's violated. 859-860. 307, 312-316 317-318 343, 347-352 356-357, Justices conclusion. 292 determined 305-306. test, features burden-shifting SOUTER's 348-351, blatant *475 eminently manageable. standing 327-328 Hays, 737 (1995)). 347-348 Hays). "purpose" jurisprudence, judges other, race-neutral subordinated strict applies, 958-959 narrowly tailored Illinois Bd. Elections, 619 Ill. 1997), 522 1087 (1998); 994 concurring).[12] Easley Cromartie, 532 234, 241 *476 redistricters inquiry.[13] 349-350 gerrymander). facts: plan; residence party; prongs harmed, character, 754-758, 762-763 348 principle, "can quantitatively"). fear devote resources litigating intent. *477 outlined 6, 32ÔÇöfour 24ÔÇöcan homes 24.[14] proving spite lead liability, pursue unseating course lowered [of liability]"). agreed issue. claimed 26 *478 crack driven prejudice, "remove Frost," "lose lived County." impermissible, predominantly willingness adopt indicia factor. "was `to insure participation] destroyed [discriminatory] techniques.'" Beer 425 130, 140-141 94-295, (1975); alteration Beer). goal, jurisdictions, "that franchise." Georgia, 477 jurisdictions "leave chance were" *479 retrogression. Americans unanimous authored staff attorneys Justice, cohesively, Recommendation Memorandum 33 (Dec. 12, 2003), http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/documents/texasDOJmemo.pdf (as visited 21, 2006, Clerk file). community's crossover nonblacks blacks 33-34. white, returns, leaders, "`scorecards'" dedicated African-Americans. 35. [Balderas District] [was] splintered submerged area." 67. choice,[15] *480 retrogressive, 31, 67-69. retrogressive objection, preclear General's Morris Gressette, 432 (1977), vigilant enforcement critical, litigation.[16] option preclearance submitting filing declaratory Columbia, *481 review 461. tools retrogressive. Complying promulgation buttresses "legislature [politically] [political] considerations." acknowledgment Legislature. 52 (citing, legislators). fragmentation Republicans' defeated. Turning proposed, because: (Frost) candidate; 106 (showing two-party 1996 32); *482 319-320 scores 1374C).[17] rejects lacks "any fairness," 446. fair. values enjoy mere Conversely, 477-478, 14. fair, harmed. applying below *483 foregoing concur majority's respectfully also, specifically, SOUTER, joins, II-D timing, II-A, preserves 346 working 346-355 criterion board). improvident grant certiorari, add thoughts future: seemingly flat rejection turning followed 416-420 Browning, Representation Partisan Bias 1251 (1987). Interest exploring notion evident, 419-420 *484 465-468 part); 491-492 Perhaps attention devoted administrability levels diluting upholds submerging consideration. resting precedent laid Fifth Circuit, Valdespino Alamo Heights Independent School Dist., 168 F.3d 848, 852-853 (1999), cert. denied, 1114 (2000): district," 50, (here, 24) 2.[1] today sidestepped 50%, 443; *485 1008-1009 41, 46, day come 461 (2003), coalition fewer survive 1973c, enforced 482-483. accorded independence 477-479, integrity process,[2] required, fails (or Columbia) participants preclearance, vast country Unless recourse whatsoever, possible, definition numerical reconstituted putative condition. gatekeeping stage. clear-edged satisfaction *486 tending election.[3] explanation entertaining breach 1973: show, this: potential practice, practice." 17 deleted); 90, ("[I]f white probably forthcoming prefer, appear strength, choice"). Hence, emphasized "`functional.'" 48, (majority ("[T]he mechanically claim"). surprising looked political-primary conditions, *487 91-92 (1997); 52-54, 59-60. pertinence obvious: elected, ago evaluating Classic, 313 299, 318-319 (1941) integral procedure controls elector ballot counted likewise Here, indictment, determines representative"); 320 ("[A] involves provision"); 660 (1944) fusing Classic instrumentality officers"); 661-662 postulate like secured privilege man color").[4] predecessors *488 fit scholarship adequately predictable primaries things. Grofman, Handley, Lublin, Drawing Effective Minority Districts: Conceptual Framework Some Empirical Evidence, N. 1383 (2000-2001).[5] accordingly dismiss jumping 1009-1022, plurality, 443-446. accepts weight perennially white. 444-445 (no ever 484 candidate," ibid.); 445 "District *489 1991"). responses. "[u]nder important." 68 convincingly "chosen representative" black-white dominated nominated speculation rebut demonstration voters.[6] device rigged bar aspirants preferred, uncontroverted strongly sedulously 107 (Frost's rating parties); 218-219 political-science African-Americans' choice); 239 Kirk, mayor "has base records [in numerous areas]" incredible community"); 240-241 (Kirk's *490 beloved possibly himself, rapport community); administrator [African-American] interests").[7] elimination third, involved.[8] circumstances. 1009-1022. go enquiry truncated conducted *491 Circuit's rule,[9] candidate-of-choice rejected. return labored mightily All untethered barrier, develop unconstrained rightly 528-531 thing, timing (between periods), radical boundary-drawing criteria, "desire "sole 458. Compare, 176-178; 452-455, 458-459 *492 advantage," 458, encompasses exaggerate popular votes. (plaintiffs' expert), (State's 360 Finally, successfully neutralize Nor tried nonpartisan grounds, stability exaggeration 359 (same), way. entrenchment demonstrated," [have] render[ed] district-drawing compromises irrelevant," found." overwhelmingly relies unjustified seriously harmful consequences. entirety Clause. gerrymanders." 423. existsÔÇöthat controversyÔÇöhas *493 (2004), disposition specifying granted, controversy. factual findings, move "moving" direction, 489, 503-504 85% (six seven) somehow 1965. reaches finds districtsÔÇöDistrict 25ÔÇöare insufficiently consist groups, certain districtÔÇöeven bloc. 126, 503. been." 503; 498-499. Hispanic-preferred [would win] examined 25," added), *494 enjoyed dismisses factfinding ground experienced properly "compact" 430-431. carefully says have. highlighted shown. Unable escape factfinding, awkward prospects novel boot. Never struck achieves maximum loses differently. Such pushes areaÔÇöan removed abridgement [a] color," 1973(a), "based circumstances," *495 class subsection (a) 48. simple: success, ibid. ("Minority candidates"). next generation confirmed "manipulation [single-member] lines" packed more, dispersed some. 153-154 Again configuration prospects. involving created, 38 (1993), *496 supplement 154. emphasized, one. 99 predicted employing, dilution"). unsurprisingly, invariably understood control. (1994), reaffirmed understanding. Hispanic-majority created. defended containing "lack ethnic groups," bolster keeping alternative "creating proposing divides manner chosen, *497 elsewhere." 1015. Here Latino-majority support. predecessor did. clearly-erroneous [Federal Rule Procedure] 52(a) appellate [W]hether peculiarly dependent facts" omitted)); 622, 627 (1982). avoids fault districtÔÇöDistrict 25ÔÇöis concentrations "`bacon-strip'" inevitable, geography demography 486-487, 490, 491, 125, criticizes deficient. *498 433 inaccurate context. quotes elaborating believes applied. 424 502); 434 502). quoted "`needs interests'" 424, precisely "bear districts"ÔÇöincluding 25ÔÇö"are functionally understanding 1374C," Latinos" added)). addressed sections opinion: VI-C VI-D bacon-strip (including 25) VI-D. 168. faults discussing lines," pertinent *499 mentioned 506-508. VI-C, have: Latinos." unambiguous: "Witnesses span colonias 25." on: 15, 27, territory travel corresponding combine cities analyses, knowledgeable actually works outcome." inexplicable read passages reached *500 "without problems." 442. "not question" parsing statistical 434. goals," rests "prohibited assumption" "think polls," following, reason: No "assumptions" background. Not Court; dissent. trial. trials, assumptions assertions facts. analyses records. showed 499-500. "have outcomes elections." 500. "assum[ing]" "prefer historic patterns. erroneous "aggregat[e]" effectiveness. 432. "mathematical possibility" *501 435, otherwise. indulging unwarranted "assumption[s]" evidence. What blushingly ironic majorityÔÇöformer 23ÔÇösuffers "flaw" ascribes degree. decries separated "enormous distance," "hundreds apart," 441, twice apart. Old runs "from El Paso, 500 miles, San Antonio covers 25]." Giberson); Giberson) ("[D]istrict extends outskirts Paso dipping spanning miles"). distance." Or "assume" good bit (less 80 apart) Grande.[*] *502 returns impeccably 503-504, favorable 499 (observing "do majorities"); ("Latino outcome" "every "compared Plaintiffs reduction Viewed backdrop, "participate *503 which, controlling baffles me let arrives begins declares "[c]onsidering" isolation," chides "by 429. " 430. issue, viewed located, isolation." isolation" "violation" Gingles. 60% two, being thwarted grouped remaining 40%. 1015-1016 ("[S]ome *504 befalls substantial size"). II); Any caught incompatible ("[T]here dense support" retaining adding 25). correct 952 (1996), misplaced. 977-981 911, proceeding liability. incorporated multiple, small, ignoring subdivisions. 987-989 (Appendices A-C (depicting districts); 902-903 districts). normal shared planÔÇönot mention planÔÇöand *505 487-488, Gingles-compliant (remarking presented, district"); coincident disputes 25ÔÇöthe concentrationÔÇömust "anywhere," latitude proportion Until instance. "geographica[l] compact[ness]" 49-50. invoked proposes. Sensley Albritton, 385 3d *506 591, 596-597 (CA5 2004); Mallory Ohio, 173 377, 382-383 (CA6 1999); Stabler Thurston, 129 1015, (CA8 1997). aspect profess "oddly shaped." 38, 41. odd shape, submitted. 41-42. imposing freestanding repeatedly 2," 9, prohibitions types districts," 155. "flexibility" "federal enforcing lack." 978. intrusion line-drawing, majorityminority rhetoric. "one-way not," 431, bothering equivalence legislating repeated assurances all, word "compactness" nowhere agreed-upon 36-37. bestow precedence antithesis 1011 inequality *507 judgments comprehensive, limited, canvassing facts"). Suggesting determinative contravenes proceeds, "`there proved, other'"), error, interests" offset polls. assumptions. Whatever competing margins, 480 squeamishness supposed facing 25ÔÇöhaving AustinÔÇöis unlike healthy faced "[M]inority pull, haul, ground, virtue slighted *508 meant hasten waning racism politics." 1020. Holding draws (but turnout) event unfamiliar "opportunity." satisfies factors, automatically follow. 2: majorities population." out. "substantial proportionality" "diluted cast voters," 1014-1015, proportionality: South West met, argue, proportionality." 494. *509 "[l]ower `proportionality' Gingles." 493-494, 131 cases). region. "will 504. counting misplaced proportionÔÇö71% (five seven)ÔÇöthan satisfied, 46% or, disregarding 24% 13. Surely figures "flaw[ed]," recast us, scope, until smaller scale." 1021-1022. here: 486 factors. *510 level, 19% basis. improper, given, flatly "count" communities. everywhere TexasÔÇöeven satisfiedÔÇöcan calculating measured. Heads win; tails loses. more. mix forming districtsÔÇöa combination uncritically monolithic assembled (from communities) express *511 necessarily outside fighting holding, ethnicity. mixes count business, divvying rejiggering SCALIA, THOMAS expressed, 271-306 ably again, judge discernible 413-423. articulating of. appeal. *512 301. dispose guidance perpetuates content. nonjusticiable. 2 1965 THOMAS's joined, Holder Hall, 874, 891-946 clear, 492 jurisprudence continues drift Act's opportunities. removal residents, assert living often discern. presume, *513 fulfill manner. demographics redistricts, awareness redistricted 915-916 "exercise extraordinary caution" predominate, hesitate requires. 908 920. redrew Texas's represented margin victory steadily eroding. 488-489 423-424 Court), 8 drawers adjust imperiled incumbent: undisputed desired shore assist reelection." residents Then, one-half heavily analytically distinct racial-gerrymandering *514 sort 642-649 (1993) I). power; purposeful classification helped hurt. 651-652 (distinguishing Jewish Organizations Williamsburgh, Inc. Carey, 430 144 contrast predominated, (2001) "[r]ace decision" omitted)), Arlington Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 429 252, 265-266 617 distinction, irrelevant. 509, dooms intentional-vote-dilution Easley, 242. overturn "`left definite firm conviction mistake committed.'" 573 Gypsum Co., 333 364, 395 (1948)). division political." 509. *515 note, instance, decreased indicating conscious pleased slight Latino. 90 87 508-510. happens loyal happen fact." Hunt 526 551 (1999). 968 ("If correlate affiliation, correlates justify").[1] motivation, *516 improperly conflated affiliation (regardless races) objective. 551. "Discriminatory implies volition decisionmaker. selected `because of,' `in adverse identifiable 279 (citation, marks, footnote Latinos: interstate highway, 509-510, "lines twists, turns, jumps Anglos, vice-versa," 511. scenarios alternatives furthered 915 ("Electoral interests"). impugned *517 continue nominally action. Washington Davis, 426 229, 238-241 (1976). intent, 242, explanation. commit matter. There, 241. Bush, 993 ("[S]o subordinate proxy, consideration, coming scrutiny"). triggered. 999-1003 (THOMAS, 1002, concession classified 25: "[T]o Hispanic-opportunity districtÔÇönew CD 25ÔÇöwhich 106. *518 Unquestionably, triggers 908. asserts 105-106. provision forbids "standard, procedure" "does "retrogression 141 Latino-opportunity undecided antidiscrimination laws 921; 911. Congress's Fifteenth abridgment Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301 impossible discrimination. 909 *519 Richmond Croson 469, 498-506 (1989)). 309; Beer, 140-141, 1973b(b), 1973c; (recounting 1975). case, "`actual purpose'" "`a evidence' believing," 908-909, 4 omitted), reading of" 921.[2] tailor beyond statute. 926 Justice's maximization interest). worsen minorities' opportunities; improve necessary, mind 5's 479-483 constrain minority-influence *520 480-483. impaired "effective franchise," choice" positions leadership 479-485. bearing evidentiary normally undertake "fact-intensive" inquiry. 490. concede, "necessitated liability." position. 5.[3] concessions, Court. NOTES [*] Together 05-439, court. [ÔÇö] Briefs reversal Brennan Center Deborah Goldberg Waldman; Progress Walter Dellinger, Jonathan Hacker, Matthew Shors, Jeffrey Wice; Reform Institute Daniel Ortiz; University Professors Lucas Powe, Jr.; Samuel Issacharoff Pildes, pro se, Mr. Issacharoff, se. Ogden, Nuechterlein, Leonard Shambon, Siegelbaum Women Nos. 05-204, Harold Hammett Fort Worth-Tarrant Utah Mark Shurtleff, Utah, Gene Schaerr, Steffen Chanos, Nevada, Jim Petro, Ohio; Exchange Marguerite Mary Leoni; Committee Josefiak; Senator Jubelirer P. Krill, Jr., Linda Shorey; Speaker Glenn Richardson Anne Lewis Frank B. Strickland; Shawn Stephens Wilson, Maureen Mahoney Legal Defense Educational Fund, Theodore Shaw, Jacqueline Berrien, Norman Chachkin, Debo Adegbile; Blum Reilly Marc Levin; Marshall Braden, Doherty, Clark Bensen; Justin Nelson Lee Godfrey. 05-276 North Anita Earls, Julius Chambers, Boger; Neil Cogan Cogan, [1] effect" 2005); 768, 52. ticket-splitting anything, surrounding misimpression Rather, detail [2] perimeter-to-area score, compares length perimeter smallest circle ratio space encompass 178. [3] architects cases: Neutral qualify [4] arguably unmistakable clarity. Therefore, discuss "obligation districting." 286 Deciding 100% "too much" worth emphasizing do, employ permit actions. infra. [5] 1342-1353 Ga. undertook searching preserving favoritism incumbents. valid Justice. 947; 951 (SCALIA, demonstrate, [6] burdened consists applicable "politically coherent engaged voting." [7] incumbent, Chet Edwards, (with 51% vote) nonincumbent challenger Republican-leaning district; Edwards outspent challenger, ties spend money stronger "very chance" Edwards. 224a, 226a. [8] 52%. [9] proponents "providing much," unfairness would, whether, rate, helpful (though talismanic) tool type appreciate door 419-420, scientists, [10] Safe well. article coauthored Chairman Commission, competition positive Potter Viray, Reform: Barriers Participation, 36 Mich. 547, 575 Viray); (1994). noncompetitive depressing lags behind, rates nations. Viray 575-576, 200. polarize decisionmaking bodies. Clingman Beaver, 544 620 (2005) "increase bitter poisoned [legislative] inspiring examples courteous adversary debate deliberation"); Gerrymandering Disaggregated Ct. 409, definition, median centrist party"); Raviv, Unsafe Harbors: Person, Vote Pa. Const. 1001, 1068 cater party). Karlan, Draw Line?: Review Political Gerrymanders, 153 (providing "[n]on-competitive threaten vitality governance"). [11] impose. examining objective factors: another, predecessors, departs (6) input (7) (8) [12] agrees SCALIA point. [13] apportion fairly underrepresented (such economically distressed region), predictably effects. 351-352 posit gerrymandering). [14] justified counsel's representations oral Tr. Oral Arg. genuine residences [15] "control" 498 assuming, concludes, 444-446, indisputable color "play (explaining adds subtracts `influence districts'"). [16] explains, 443-447, am 485-490 "50% rule," "unique appeal," 456, separately. [17] portions 12 106, 319-320. subsequent 1008 475, 518-519 "ability elect" ways, school board might, 850-851 1999), (2000). California Jones, 530 567, (2000) ("In association's selecting nominee. issues day, predetermined nominee ambassador views"). ostensibly shows; constrained, rules, truly Note, Limbo: Coalitional Districts, Primaries Manageable Dilution Claims, Y. "reflect record" responding prophecy touchstone populations packed, manifestation diminution discounted speculating contest implications identification Suffice dealing populations. aspects progeny rethought ostensible Notably, compose (50.6%) three, 515; there, pegged 48.6%, 185-186. 46.9% 48.6% respectively. 184-185. fig leaf stressing distances involved 25ÔÇöwhile ones 23ÔÇöis "it purposes." 435. that; "did 496 435ÔÇöcertainly 25ÔÇöbut dispute, "[u]ntil instance," infra, "efficacious identity," doing regard: extent. 187 Gaddie) (for estimated 51%, 41.3% 44% 23). predominated. mark. lay Strict apply, vel non incumbent-protection well, 969 scrutiny, nonretrogression. 983; 1003

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