Legal Document

499 U.S. 187 111 S.Ct. 1196 113 L.Ed.2d 158 INTERNATIONAL UNION, UNITED AUTOMOBILE, AEROSPACE AND AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENT WORKERS OF AMERICA, UAW, et al., Petitionersv.JOHNSON CONTROLS, INC. No. 89-1215. Argued Oct. 10, 1990. Decided March 20, 1991. Syllabus A primary ingredient in respondent's battery manufacturing process is lead, occupational exposure to which entails health risks, including the risk of harm any fetus carried by a female employee. After eight its employees became pregnant while maintaining blood lead levels exceeding that noted Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) as critical for worker planning have family, respondent announced policy barring all women, except those whose infertility was medically documented, from jobs involving actual or potential OSHA standard. Petitioners, group affected fetal-protection policy, filed class action District Court, claiming constituted sex discrimination violative Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964, amended. The court granted summary judgment respondent, Court Appeals affirmed. latter held proper standard evaluating business necessity inquiry applied other Circuits; entitled because petitioners had failed satisfy their burden persuasion each elements defense under Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio, 490 642, 109 2115, 104 733; even if evaluative bona fide qualification (BFOQ) analysis, still reasonably necessary further industrial safety concern part essence business. Held: VII, amended Pregnancy Discrimination (PDA), forbids sex-specific policies. Pp. 197-211. (a) By excluding women with childbearing capacity lead-exposed jobs, creates facial classification based on gender explicitly discriminates against basis § 703(a) VII. Moreover, using words "capable bearing children" criterion exclusion, classifies pregnancy, must be regarded, PDA, same light explicit discrimination. erred assuming facially neutral it only discriminatory effect women's employment opportunities, asserted purpose, protecting unconceived offspring, ostensibly benign. not does apply male way applies females, despite evidence about debilitating reproductive system. Also, absence malevolent motive convert into effect. Cf. Phillips Martin Marietta Corp., 400 542, 91 496, 27 613. Because involves disparate treatment through discrimination, burden-shifting are inapplicable here. Rather, indicated Equal Employment Opportunity Commission's enforcement may defended BFOQ, more stringent than necessity. 197-200 (b) language both BFOQ provision set forth 703(e)(1) VII—which allows an employer discriminate "in certain instances where . [BFOQ] normal operation [the] particular business"—and PDA specifies that, unless differ others ability inability work," they "treated same" "for employment-related purposes"—as well these provisions' legislative history case law, prohibit discriminating woman her become prevents performing duties job. so-called exception limited pregnancy actually interferes employee's perform, direct concerns this regard aspects woman's job-related activities fall within "essence" Dothard Rawlinson, 433 321, 333, 335, 97 2720, 2728-29, 2729-30, 53 786; Western Air Lines, Inc. Criswell, 472 400, 413, 105 2743, 2751, 86 321. fetuses neither customers nor third parties essential manufacturing. 200-206. (c) Respondent cannot establish BFOQ. Fertile far appears record, participate manufacture batteries efficiently anyone else. professed welfare next generation do suffice sterility. mandates decisions future children left parents who conceive, bear, support, raise them rather employers hire courts. 206-207. (d) An employer's tort liability fetal injuries increased costs due fertile workplace require different result. If, general principles, bans policies, fully informs risk, has acted negligently, holding liable seems remote at best. incremental cost employing members one justify refusal gender. See, e.g., Los Angeles Dept. Water Power Manhart, 435 702, 716-718, n. 32, 98 1370, 1379-1380, 55 657. 1208-1209. 886 F.2d 871 (CA7 1989), reversed remanded. BLACKMUN, J., delivered opinion MARSHALL, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, SOUTER, JJ., joined. WHITE, concurring judgment, REHNQUIST, C.J., KENNEDY, joined, post, p. ----. SCALIA, Marsha S. Berzon, San Francisco, Cal., petitioners. Stanley Jaspan, Milwaukee, Wis., respondent. Justice BLACKMUN Court. 1 In we concerned gender-based policy. May exclude employee might conceive? 2 * Johnson Controls, Inc., manufactures batteries. process, element ingredient. 3 Before 78 Stat. 241, Controls did employ battery-manufacturing June 1977, however, first official concerning lead-exposure work: 4 "[P]rotection unborn child immediate responsibility prospective parents. While medical profession company can support exercise responsibility, assume without simultaneously infringing rights persons. 5 ". Since mothers wish (or will mothers), would appear illegal treat capable though pregnant." App. 140. 6 Consistent view, "stopped short exposure," id., 138, but emphasized expected should choose job she such exposure. also required wished considered sign statement been advised having exposed lead. informed although there "that higher rate abortion," "not clear relationship between cigarette smoking cancer," was, "medically speaking, just good sense run you want expose however small. ." Id., 142-143. 7 Five years later, 1982, shifted warning exclusion. Between 1979 1983, excess 30 micrograms per deciliter. Tr. Oral Arg. 25, 34. This appeared level family. See 29 CFR 1910.1025 (1990). responded announcing broad exclusion lead: 8 [I]t [Johnson Controls'] placed could bidding, bumping, transfer promotion rights." 85-86. 9 defined "women "[a]ll bear documented." 81. It stated unacceptable work station where, "over past year," recorded deciliter site yielded air sample containing cubic meter. Ibid. II 10 April 1984, United States Eastern Wisconsin challenging Controls' violated amended, 42 U.S.C. 2000e seq. Among individual plaintiffs were Mary Craig, chosen sterilized order avoid losing job, Elsie Nason, 50-year-old divorcee, suffered loss compensation when transferred out Donald Penney, denied request leave purpose lowering his he intended father. Upon stipulation parties, certified consisting "all past, present production maintenance employees" Auto Workersbar gaining units nine plants "who continue [the employer's] Fetal Protection Policy implemented 1982." 84-C-0472 (Feb. 1985), pp. 1, 2. 11 defendant-respondent Controls. 680 F.Supp. 309 (1988). Applying three-part derived cases Courts Fourth Eleventh Circuits, concluded "there disagreement among experts regarding fetus," hazard established "a considerable body opinion"; "[e]xpert provided holds affects abilities men [and] effects great vulnerable affect adults"; "failed acceptable alternative protect fetus." 315-316. view disposition defense, "have undertake qualification's [sic] analysis." 316, 5. 12 Seventh Circuit, sitting en banc, affirmed 7-to-4 vote. (1989). majority necessity; defense; judgment. 13 Appeals, see 883-885, reviewed opinions Circuits. Hayes Shelby Memorial Hospital, 726 1543 (CA11 1984), Wright Olin 697 1172 (CA4 1982). Those three-step inquiry: whether substantial fetus; transmission occurs women; less equally preventing fetus. F.2d, 885. agreed Circuits "the components courts appeals EEOC utilized protection balance interests employer, manner consistent VII." 886. 733 (1989), remained plaintiff and—unlike Circuits—it thus imposed three steps. 887-893. Hayes, 1549, Wright, 1187. 14 ruled prevail. Specifically, no genuine issue material fact health-risk factor 888-889. unlike mother's exposure, father's presented, "is, best, speculative unconvincing." 889. Finally, found waived alternatives adequately presenting it. said event, produced 890-893. 15 Having appropriate framework satisfied standard, proceeded discuss met test, too. 893-894. banc business, concern. Quoting 2729-2730, 786 (1977), goal unborn, "more stake" simply decision weigh accept risks employment. 898. 16 Judges Cudahy Posner dissented remanded trial. Judge explained: "It (and should) difficult here I afford defendant opportunity try." 901. "[T]he need narrowly matters productivity, product quality safety." 902, 1. He case's "painful complexities manifestly unsuited judgment." 902. 17 stated: "I think mistake suppose decide once so meager record." He, too, observed defines " 'bona operation' 'normal encompasses ethical, legal, parties." 902 904. emphasized, lawful question ordinarily resolved 906. Like Cudahy, stressed "it rare lawfulness decided defendant's motion Easterbrook, dissent joined Flaum, available concluded, prevail irrelevant viewed Act's amendment 92 2076, 2000e(k). Easterbrook what excessive breadth (except proof incapacity children) most labor force pregnant, deciliter, figure anyway. 912-913. "Concerns tiny minority judged." 913. 18 With ruling, Circuit hold directed exclusively qualify We certiorari, 494 1055, 110 1522, 108 762 (1990), resolve obvious conflict Fourth, Seventh, issue, address important seeking fetuses, pregnant.1 III 19 bias obvious. men, given choice Section 255, 2000e-2(a), prohibits sex-based classifications terms conditions employment, hiring discharging decisions, adversely status.2 Respondent's sex. excludes assumes much brief before Brief 17, 24. 20 Nevertheless, assumed, two appellate already confronted policies involve 886-887; 1547; 1190. These analyzed neutral, upon opportunities women. Consequently, looked justified lenient statutory defense. went step invoked requiring questions. 887-888. assumed reason (protecting offspring) benign, That assumption, incorrect. 21 First, capacity, fertility alone. seek employees. Despite record system, harms befall offspring Accordingly, lost "effectively protec[t] employees." 1548. faced conceptually similar situation 613 (1971), "one another men—each pre-school-age children." 544, S.Ct., 498. requires produce reproducing. 22 Our conclusion bolstered 2000e(k), Congress purposes 'on sex' includes "because childbirth, related conditions."3 "The now made purposes, is, face, sex." Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock EEOC, 462 669, 684, 103 2622, 2631, 77 89 (1983). use 1982 pregnancy. Under potentially pregnant; evinces 23 above company's females. Whether practice depend why Marietta, supra, motives underlying employers' express alter intentionally character Nor arguably benign consideration 703(e) beneficence undermine 24 Commission accords conclusion. On January 24, 1990, issued Guidance Circuit's case. Pet. Cert. 127a. document noted: "For wholly inconsistent settled law." 133a. concluded: "[W]e better approach." 134a. 25 sum, "does pass simple test shows 'treatment person person's different.' 711, 1377, 657 (1978), quoting Developments Law, 84 Harv.L.Rev. 1109, 1170 (1971). forbidden "bona qualification." IV 26 "religion, sex, national origin religion, enterprise." 2000e-2(e)(1). therefore turn "certain instances" come exception. written narrowly, read narrowly. 332-337, 2728-2731, (1977); Trans World Airlines, Thurston, 469 111, 122-125, 613, 622-624, 83 523 (1985). 4(f) Age 1967 (ADEA), 81 603, 623(f)(1), tracks 321 emphasis restrictive scope grounded 703. 28 wording contains several restriction indicate reaches special situations. statute limits situations permissible "reasonably necessary" "normal operation" "particular" Each terms—certain, normal, particular—prevents subjective standards favors objective, verifiable requirement. But telling term "occupational"; indicates requirements skills aptitudes. WHITE "occupational" meaning Post, 212, According him, requirement "job-related" make condition effect, argues sterility reading renders word mere surplusage. "Qualification" itself encompass idiosyncratic requirements. modifying "qualification" "occupational," narrowed qualifications falls allowed narrow circumstances. danger herself U.S., 2729-2730. guards contact areas maximum-security penitentiaries stake "individual employment." inasmuch guard create real violence broke woman. Sex tolerated guard's job—maintaining prison security. high correlation perform functions refused allow proxy strength fairly accurate one. 31 Similarly, some approved airlines' layoffs flight attendants points during five months ground ensure passengers. Harriss Pan American Airways, 649 670 (CA9 1980); Burwell 633 361 1980), cert. denied, 450 965, 101 1480, 67 (1981); Condit 558 1176 1977), 934, 1510, 531 (1978); re National 434 249 (S.D.Fla.1977). cases, pointedly fetal, opposed passenger, best mother. Burwell, 371; F.Supp., 259. 32 context ADEA. focused nature engineer's tasks," "actual capabilities persons over age 60" relation tasks. 406, 2747. independent individual's assigned tasks, involved possibility age-connected debility, engineer properly assist pilot, thereby cause emergency. Furthermore, indispensable issue. Dothard, inmates; passengers plane. relate 'essence,' (emphasis deleted), "central mission business," 2751. 33 ignores "essence business" concludes "protecting carrying legitimate guarding prisons (Dothard ) flying airplanes (Criswell )." 217. limiting discussion rejecting our law established, seeks expand Third-party considerations entered analysis Criswell core performance. performance central enterprise. 2729-2730 ("The correctional counselor's maintain security"); 2751 (the airline's safe transportation passengers). attempts transform customer safety. employees, No disregard injury children; transforms deep social aspect making. 34 therefore, makes approach itself, suggests distinctions suggests, mandate decline so. Such expansion contradicts narrowness exception, plain PDA. 35 PDA's own: Unless purposes." clearly sets Congress' remedy Women either treated like "similar work." words, doing counterparts forced 36 asserts 218. arrives ignoring second clause Act, states shall Until day, every Member acknowledged "[t]he [of PDA] clearer: 'shall purposes' nonpregnant similarly situated respect California Federal Savings Loan Assn. Guerra, 479 272, 297, 107 683, 698, 93 (1987) (WHITE, dissenting). Act. 37 confirms compels. Both House Senate Reports accompanying legislation workers being differently children. Amending S.Rep. 95-331, 4-6 (1977): 38 "Under bill, covered focus alone work. Pregnant able permitted 39 40 [U]nder longer stop working regardless continue." 41 Prohibition Based Pregnancy, H.R.Rep. 95-948, 3-6 U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1978, 4749. counsels expanding Report quoted time unable late often imposes child, Chavkin, Walking Tightrope: Parenting, Work, Double Exposure 196, 196-202 (W. Chavkin ed. take account get done. Becker, From Muller Oregon Vulnerability Policies, U.Chi. L.Rev. 1219, 1255-1256 (1986). becoming reserved herself. 43 conclude it, reiterate holdings safely business.4 V 44 difficulty concluding moral ethical Decisions mandated attempted capacity. dismissal failure submit sterilization. 45 pertinently observed: play say 'the job' [Controls] Lines fly planes crashing." 46 impossible tell argument somewhat academic all; perhaps worth noting, shown "factual believing substantially involved." Weeks Southern Bell Tel. Co., 408 228, 235 (CA5 1969), approval Even sparse apparent small Of pregnancies reported babies birth defects abnormalities. reveal workers, statistics show approximately percent year. birthrate drops blue collar 30. U.Chi.L.Rev., 1233. fear prenatal injury, matter how sincere, begin incapable jobs. VI 47 necessary. One dissenting judges expressed ignore. 904-905. correct prevent conscience. statute, conflict. 48 More currently recognize right recover negligence wrongful death. Wolfe Isbell, 291 Ala. 327, 333-334, 280 So.2d 758, 763 (1973); Simon Mullin, Conn.Sup. 139, 147, 380 A.2d 1353, 1357 (1977). Note, Suffolk U.L.Rev. 747, 754-756, nn. 54, 57, 58 (1988) (listing cases). complies developed warns damaging noting gave problem lengthy whatsoever claim excluded course pregnancy." Fed.Reg. 52952, 52966 (1978). 54354, 54398. Instead, series mandatory protections which, taken together, "should effectively minimize newborn child." 52966. 1910.1025(k)(ii) Without negligence, find employer. 49 Although us, observes compliance pre-empt state liability." 213. relied him prediction, inapposite. For example, (1987), expanded pre-empted federal act unlawful 291-292, 694-695. Here, contrast, fears punish complying VII's command. When comply requirements, pre-empts States. Florida Lime Avocado Growers, Paul, 373 132, 142-143, 1210, 1217-1218, 248 (1963). 50 Farmers Union WDAY, 360 525, 79 1302, 1407 (1959). 315(a) Communications 1934 barred broadcasting removing defamatory statements contained speeches broadcast candidates public office. then libel arose result speech radio television facilities WDAY candidate 1956 senatorial race North Dakota. prohibition censorship immunity speaker. To actions "would sanction unconscionable permitting civil criminal very conduct demands licensee." 531, 1306. 51 "We aware causes widely recognized throughout hesitated abrogate stand 'as obstacle accomplishment execution full objectives Congress.' 535, 1308, Bethlehem Steel New York State Labor Relations Bd., 330 767, 773, 1026, 1030, L.Ed. 1234 (1947). 52 If furthers impede goals enacting argued faces liability, mention crippling ones, pre-emption us. concurrence's speculation unfounded premature. tort-liability reduces unpersuasive propositions. solve hazards resorting exclusionary plainly method diverting attention obligation police workplace. Second, spectre award damages reflects more. extra provide affirmative 32. Indeed, passing length providing equal conditions, "decision forbid associated therewith." Arizona Governing Comm. Tax Deferred Annuity Compensation Plans Norris, 463 1073, 1085, 14, 3492, 3499, 1236 (1983) (opinion J.). Price Waterhouse Hopkins, 1775, 268 54 We, course, presented with, decide, prohibitive threaten survival merely prior them. today remarkable unprecedented. Concern existing historically excuse denying opportunities. Oregon, 208 412, 324, 551 (1908). prohibited pregnant. means says. 56 role family economic role. hers make. 57 reversed, proceedings opinion. ordered. 59 whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE KENNEDY join, 60 overtly 1964 2000e-2(e). erroneously holds, never nevertheless concur reversal us favor improperlyen tered Appeals. 61 starting point statute. Demarest Manspeaker, 498 177, ----, 599, 112 608 (1991); Board Ed. Westside Community Schools (Dist. 66) Mergens, 496 226, 237, 2356, 191 making batteries, "particular business." satisfy, nothing statute's policy.1 62 contrary, if, liability. Common tells causing costs. hypothetical; born alive caused W. Keeton, D. Dobbs, R. Owen, Prosser Keeton Law Torts 55, 368 (5th increasing number torts committed conception, F. Harper, James, O. Gray, 18.3, 677-678, (2d 1986). 63 dismisses speculating "Title best." Ante, 208. comfort employers. offers proposition.2 warnings preclude claims injured rule waive behalf children, parents' imputed children.3 generally determine advance constitute negligence. Compliance standards, Solid Wastes Management Killian, 918 671, 680, 1990) (collecting cases); 653(b)(4). possible strictly liable, "abnormally dangerous." Restatement (Second) 869, Comment b (1979). 64 Relying contends 21. contention misrepresents Manhart. There, contribute pension fund, reflect greater longevity individuals. 708, 716-717, 1379-1380. detail certainly analysis. footnote showing Department's retirement plan." 716, 30, 1379, contain "cost-justification comparable price suit," "no total case." 65 Prior construing confirm enough include sort form adoption "contact" positions Alabama's penitentiaries. took note environment: "In system inmate access facilitated dormitory living arrangements, institution understaffed, portion population composed offenders mixed random prisoners, few visible deterrents assaults custodians." 335-336, 2730. "[m]ore [was] employees: likelihood inmates assault pose threat victim basic control penitentiary security personnel." circumstances, oversimplification characterize women] 'romantic paternalism.' Frontiero Richardson, 411 677, 684 [93 1764, 1769, 583]." 2729. 66 revisited (1985), (ADEA). endorsed two-part used Fifth Usery Tamiami Trail Tours, 224 (1976). "so peripheral 'reasonably business.' concern, 419, 2754,4 'adjusts factor' "—" '[t]he factor, measured probable severity accident, qualifications,' (quoting Tamiami, 236). ' involved," "impossible highly impractical" deal basis. 414, 2752 Telephone Telegraph 1969))). takes interest "[w]hen establishes carefully formulated respond documented safety, overly burdensome persuade trier necessary' 2754. avoidance inherently added). 2751-52; 2728-29. Court's job," ante, 204, adds facts case, ).5 68 relevant determining largely inadequate staff facilities. 2729-30. considered, restructure environment airline pilots install expensive monitoring devices older "Congress' unwillingness change operations." 242, 1786, (1989) (plurality opinion). 69 contrary assertion, restrict "Definitions" section 2000e, purport eliminate clarified included antidiscrimination provisions. As recognized, principles." 3499-3500, (1983).6 70 interpretation confirmed history. discussed 678-679, 2628-2629, (1983), designed overrule General Electric Gilbert, 429 125, 401, 343 (1976), "an disability-benefits plan coverage all." 136, 408. "makes pregnancy-related favorably conditions." News, 2631. not, defenses. Report, "defines proscribed physiological occurrences [pregnancy, conditions] peculiar application way." 3-4 (1977) "[p]regnancy-based subject scrutiny acts statute." 4752 added).7 71 "Congress ignore toxic fetuses. foolish result, it.8 72 my reversing affirming grant failing consider operation." "substantial risk" 871, 879-883, 898 meant occur absent fails extent likely occur.9 insists risk-avoidance consumers, BFOQ.10 73 information too far. evident presumption documentation age, 876, 8, presumptively position 877. There efficient infirmities warrant invalidating entire program. 74 Third, recalled until operated identified grounds current operations. dangers 899, increased. rejected significant adverse effects. 75 petitioners' males. proof. 889-890. proving rests Waterhouse, 248, 1789; Thus, sufficient survive discounted "speculative," 889, animal studies. studies assess Industrial Petroleum Institute, 448 607, 657, 64, 100 2844, 2871-72, 1010 (1980), uses establishing regulations, Steelworkers America, AFL-CIO-CLC Marshall, U.S.App.D.C. 60, 128, 97, 647 1189, 1257, 453 913, 3148, 997 (1981). evidence, dispute fact. below: 76 legality novel contentious sensible early stage case-by-case basis, careful examination adversary sparse. district judge jumped gun. scanty encouraging incautious adopt endanger millions minor gains health. "But favor, additional Therefore precipitate entry plaintiffs' favor. 908. agree reservations, mention. 80 "evidence system," 198. treating "on pregnancy" constitutes sex," unequivocally "Johnson factual 207 (internal quotation marks omitted). "somewhat all," ibid.; entirely irrelevant. taking put gives power affecting families. forum believe elsewhere." 2d 915 1989). 82 am willing assume, intimates, 208-211, give rise law. answer (including provision) perfectly reasonable accommodated However, demonstrated liability—which defeat tort-based assertion Last, goes afield, me, suggesting alone—short "costs 210—cannot 206. WHITE's concurrence, 214, this, wrong. think, shipping refuse crew long voyages on-board foreseeable emergencies, quite feasible, inordinately expensive. cost-based Sixth foundry specified concentrations air-borne Grant Motors 908 1303 said: dissenters perforce amount overt logically recast impact countenanced [P]laintiff alleged defense." 1310. Fair Housing Comm'n, 218 Cal.App.3d 517, 267 Cal.Rptr. invalid California's fair-employment reads: employer— "(1) fail discharge individual, otherwise compensation, terms, privileges race, color, origin; "(2) limit, segregate, classify applicants deprive tend status employee, origin." added subsection (k) 701 reads pertinent part: 'because [in VII] include, to, conditions; predicts reaffirmation privacy 219-220, 8. addressed privacy-based customers. Nothing test," implicated. Backus Baptist Medical Center, 510 1191 (ED Ark.1981), vacated moot, 671 1100 (CA8 1982) (essence obstetrics nurse's sensitive care patient's intimate private concerns). heavy reliance 'occupational' 12, unpersuasive. Any qualification, since Webster's Third International Dictionary 1560 engaged non-fertile "occupational lower courts, "occupational." English 72, 2270, (1990) (state intentional infliction emotional distress Energy Reorganization 1974); 290-292, 694-695, reinstatement disabled 2000e(k)); Silkwood Kerr-McGee 464 238, 256, 615, 625-26, 443 (1984) punitive damage laws regulating nuclear plants); Bernstein Aetna Life Casualty, 843 359, 364-365 1988) ("It well-established preempt common remedies"); 2000e-7. Estate Infant Fontaine, 128 N.H. 695, 700, 519 227, 230 (1986); Collins Eli Lilly 116 Wis.2d 166, 200, 342 N.W.2d 37, 53, (1984), 826, 107, (1984); Doyle Bowdoin College, 403 1206, 1208, (Me.1979); Littleton Jordan, 428 S.W.2d (Tex.Civ.App.1968); Fallaw Hobbs, Ga.App. 181, 182-183, 147 S.E.2d (1966); 488(1) (1965). example "peripheral" Diaz 442 385 (CA5), 404 950, 275, attendant, determination trial "non-mechanical" attending passengers' psychological needs. nonmechanical "tangential" "[n]o suggested stewards seriously jeopardize place another." 388. asserts, 203, reject 'essence business' test. reaffirm obvious—that businesses. factor.' 224, 236 1976). airplanes. recognition importance varies businesses mean completely Contrary 204-205, altered reasoned practices 284-290, 691-694. disagreed conclusion, arguing "shall purposes" preferential workers. 297-298, 698-699. Obviously, purely separate imposing [her] work" cramped belied examples mentioned—a nurse hired elderly woman, all-male professional baseball team, masseur. Cong.Rec. 2718 (1964) (Rep. Goodell); 7212-7213 (interpretive memorandum introduced Sens. Clark Case); 2720 Multer). none "actually interfer[e] 204. seem directly physical consistently Fesel Masonic Home Delaware, 447 1346 (Del.1978), aff'd, 591 1334 (CA3 1979) (nurse's aide home); Jones Hinds 666 933 (SD Miss.1987) (nursing assistant); Local 567 Federation State, County, Municipal Employees, AFL-CIO Michigan Council AFL-CIO, 635 Mich.1986) (mental workers); Norwood Dale Maintenance System, 590 1410 (ND Ill.1984) (washroom attendant); gynecology department hospital). Apparently, levels, later elevated level. 191; 876-877. possible, combined frequent bloodtestings, sufficiently

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