Legal Document

522 U.S. 359118 S.Ct. 818139 L.Ed.2d 797 ALLENTOWN MACK SALES AND SERVICE, INC., Petitioner,v.NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD. No. 96-795. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Oct. 15, 1997. Decided Jan. 26, 1998. Syllabus* Mack Trucks, Inc., sold its Allentown, Pennsylvania, branch to petitioner Allentown Sales, Inc. thereafter operated as an independent dealership, employing 32 original 45 employees. Although branch's service and parts employees had been represented by Local Lodge 724 machinists' union, a number suggested new owners, both before immediately after sale, that union lost their support or bargaining-unit members generally. refused 724's request for recognition commencement collective-bargaining negotiations, claiming good-faith reasonable doubt union's support; it later arranged poll employees, who voted 19 13 against union. The then filed unfair-labor-practice charge with National Labor Relations Board. Under longstanding Board precedent, employer entertains whether majority supports incumbent has three options: formal, Board-supervised election, withdraw from refuse bargain, conduct internal employee Administrative Law Judge (ALJ) held, inter alia, because lacked "objective doubt'' about status, violated §§8(a)(1) 8(a)(5) Act. agreed ordered recognize bargain Appeals enforced order. Held: Board's "good-faith test polling is facially rational consistent Act, but factual finding such not supported substantial evidence on record whole. Pp. ___-___. (a) This rejects Allentown's contention that, standard polls same unilateral withdrawal initiation irrationally permits employers only when would be unnecessary legally pointless do so. While adoption this unitary in some respects puzzling, so irrational "arbitrary [or] capricious'' under Procedure makes useless means insulating charge, there are other reasons why wish poll. Similarly, although avowed preference elections over should logically produce more rigorous polling, ought less rigorous; since set either higher lower than threshold split difference. (b) On presented, jury could have found enjoyed continuing support. contrary rests refusal credit probative circumstantial evidence, evidentiary demands go beyond substantive purports apply. Accepting concession did receive reliable information 7 remaining 25 margin 17 8-a ratio 2 1-if commanded statements various proffered cause anyone degree support, neither nor ALJ discussed any weighed side. cannot covertly transform presumption into working assumption all successor's until proved otherwise. (c) need determine whether, asserts, consistently rejected discounted similarly prior cases. Such practice mean something what phrase connotes, render irrelevant decision tends establish existence doubt. 83 F.3d 1483 (C.A.D.C.1996), reversed remanded. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion unanimous respect Part I, II, which STEVENS, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined, Parts III IV, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, THOMAS, joined. concurring part dissenting part, Stephen D. Shawe, Baltimore, MD, petitioner. Jonathan E. Nuechterlein, Washington, DC, respondent. Justice SCALIA Court. 1 precedent Board, believes no longer enjoys held latter two unfair labor practices unless can show "good faith We must decide determinations case record. * factory whose were International Association Machinists Aerospace Workers, AFL-CIO. notified managers May 1990 intended sell branch, several those formed here, purchased assets business December 20, 1990, began operate dealership. From 21, January 1, 1991, hired 3 During period made prospective owners Sales suggesting among bargaining unit. In job interviews, eight indicating, at least arguably they personally addition, Ron Mohr, member committee shop steward Trucks department, told manager was his feeling want "with company, if vote taken, Union lose.'' 316 N.L.R.B. 1199, 1207, 1995 WL 221136 (1995). And Kermit Bloch, worked mechanic night shift, entire shift (then 5 6 employees) 4 2, asked employees' representative, begin negotiations contract. letter dated 25, employees.'' Id., 1205. also announced "arranged secret ballot hourly conducted guidelines prescribed Board.'' Ibid. poll, supervised Roman Catholic priest, February 8, 1991; 13. Shortly thereafter, concluded "successor'' therefore inherited Mack's obligation 1203. compliance procedural standards enunciated Struksnes Construction Co., 165 1062 (1967), Act (Act), 49 Stat. 452, amended, 29 U.S.C. §§158(a)(1) 158(a)(5), status adopted ALJ's findings conclusion "had demonstrated harbored doubt, based objective considerations, Union's continued transition.'' N.L.R.B., 1199. 724. review District Columbia Circuit, challenged facial rationality application facts case. court order, vigorous dissent. (1996). granted certiorari. 520 ----, 117 1105, 137 307 (1997). II challenges grounds. First, contends "reasonable election (a so-called "Representation Management,'' "RM'' election), Second, argues clearly demonstrates claim Finally, asserts has, sub silentio (and presumably violation law), abandoned prong standard, recognizes employer's unit renounce our we address first these challenges; two, conceptually intertwined, will addressed IV. 8 Courts defer requirements imposed "rational Act,'' Fall River Dyeing & Finishing Corp. v. NLRB, 482 27, 42, 107 2225, 2235, 96 22 (1987), "explication inadequate, arbitrary,'' NLRB Erie Resistor Corp., 373 221, 236, 1139, 1149, 10 308 (1963). require showing justify outright recognition, leaves legal incentive framework, results never supply otherwise lacking necessary already he permitted Three argument persuasive. A.W. Thompson, 651 F.2d 1141, 1144 (C.A.5 1981); see Mingtree Restaurant, 736 1295 (C.A.9 1984); Thomas Industries, 687 863 (C.A.6 1982). 9 RM elections, withdrawals puzzling policy, find within meaning §706. potentially "disruptive'' established relationships "unsettling'' chosen limit severely circumstances may conducted. Texas Petrochemicals 296 1057, 1061, 1989 224426 (1989), enf'd modified, 923 398 1991). reflects apparent tolerated might simply bargain. It true enough contemplated charge-but life even business) escaping findings. An concerned good relations abrupt recognition-even support-will certainly antagonize supporters, perhaps alienate fence. Preceding action careful, unbiased prevent consequences. "polls useless'' falsely assumes, moreover, every soon lack defend charge. seems us met nonetheless conclusive fact lest through time expense (ultimately victorious) suit benefit last next election. See Petrochemicals, supra, 1063. finally, probably though conviction regard identical chance significantly particularly wins. 11 acknowledged fits uncomfortably standard; pointed out, polling. F.3d, 1487. But elections. For one thing, consequences severe: loses still formal barred seeking another year. §159(c)(3). If surely 12 guilty "ha[d] enjoy Dyeing, U.S., S.Ct., 2235; Universal Camera 340 474, 71 456, 95 L.Ed. 456 (1951).1 Put differently, possible reach conclusion. See, e.g., Columbian Enameling Stamping 306 292, 300, 59 501, 505, 660 (1939); Consolidated Edison Co. 305 197, 229, 206, 216-217, 126 (1938). Before turning issue, clear up semantic confusion. asserted word "doubt'' "uncertainty'' "disbelief,'' uses sense. accept linguistic revisionism. "Doubt'' precisely sort "disbelief'' (failure believe) consists uncertainty rather belief opposite. subject issue God, example, disbelief agnostic, atheist. A uncertain, tentative, provisional disbelief. Webster's New Dictionary 776 (2d ed.1949) (def. 1: "A fluctuation mind arising defect knowledge evidence; judgment mind; unsettled state concerning reality event, truth assertion, etc.''); Shorter Oxford English 734 (1993) "Uncertainty wisdom course action; occasion room uncertainty''); American Heritage 555 (3d ed.1992) certainty often leads irresolution''). 14 question presented review, therefore, genuine, employees.2 view, answer no. 15 "statements used considerations supporting Union.'' 1207. (These included, statement Rusty Hoffman "he work shop,'' "would try 1206.) seemingly accepted (though essential analysis) willingness assume seventh (to effect "did feel comfortable thought waste $35 month,'' ibid.) union-as view unquestionably does. assessment "7 32, roughly 20 percent involved employees'' alone sufficient create "an support,'' id., specify how many express disavowals 16 (half unit), certainty. Still, say 20% first-hand-confirmed opposition (even countering support) much more. totally disregarded upon eighth employee, Dennis Marsh, said being paying.'' ALJ, "seems expression desire better representation all.'' is, accurately, dissatisfaction performance-which reflect speaker's represent him effectively, save get rid assuredly engender speaker entirely ignored. most significant excluded consideration consisted regarding merely own force general. "that this, "Bloch testify thus explain views fellow Unsubstantiated assertions disfavor reliability ordinarily demanded proceedings. (the itself meant that), fact. absent reason know Bloch basis information, lying, given considerable weight. 18 Another gave overall "if lose'' "it union.'' again objected irrelevantly "there gained knowledge.'' 1208. "could legitimately rely [the statement] doubting status,'' 1200, Mohr "referring existing complement, individuals [Allentown],'' ibid. disregarding Mohr's wholly irrational.3 won informal actual Its them rested successor company disposition predecessor came old one. 1197, n. 3; 43, 46-52, 2236, 2237-41. rationally adopt purposes imposing duty opposite (i.e., contend relationship between sentiments forces) determining irrationality impermissible if, BREYER'S dissent suggests, further political objectives. borne here establishes contributes favor existed. think reasonably great credence assertion hostile position assess antiunion sentiment. committee; according indicate personal undeniable value doubt.'' inescapable) received pro-union cited comment without Union,'' "was job.'' Giving fair weight quite impossible factfinder avoid reasonable, grounds doubt-to uncertain -the retention IV 21 That make fairly straightforward administrative-law case, except factfinding aberration. "the continues cite words standard,'' systematic decisions reveal eliminated strict head count.'' Brief Petitioner 10. denies (not too persuasively) insisted count,4 does saying regularly persuasive demonstrations decisions. defense, relying earlier, similar conclude here. 1488. current conform long pattern academic commentary. One scholar, conducting " [a] thorough law,'' "circumstantial matter abundant, rarely, ever, satisfy test. practice, deems satisfied proven expressly repudiated direct however, nearly gather lawfully. Thus, ostensibly highly fact-dependent totality-of-the-circumstances test, approaches per se rule . '' Flynn, Costs Benefits "Hiding Ball'': Policymaking Failure Judicial Review,'' 75 B.U.L.Rev. 387, 394-395 (1995) (footnotes omitted). 23 Weeks, Mid-Contract Loss Majority Support: Waivering Presumption, Wake Forest L.Rev. 883, 889 (1984). Members observed phenomenon. Curtin Matheson Scientific, 494 775, 797, 110 1542, 1554-1555, 108 801 (1990) (REHNQUIST, concurring) (" [S]ome recent suggest Board] now requires individual "expressed desires' repudiate order status''); 799, 1556 (Blackmun, dissenting) [T]he appears avowals employees''). 24 conceivable adjudicating agency particular quantity character far logic really effective certain categories cases applying preponderance proof demand preponderance, notice law genuine burden preponderance. arises, then, situation obtains measure applied recited. As theoretical leaving aside authority), raised bar stringent requirement reasonable-doubt adopting evidence. Would difference achieved result formally place standards, say? would. governs proceedings administrative agencies related judicial scheme "reasoned decisionmaking.'' Motor Vehicle Mfrs. Assn. States, State Farm Mut. Automobile Ins. 463 29, 52, 103 2856, 2871, 77 443 (1983). Not agency's decreed scope lawful authority, process reaches logical rational. enforce principle regularity regulations which, well agencies' adduce. SEC Chenery 318 80, 63 454, 87 626 (1943); 332 194, 67 1575, 91 (1947). uniquely major federal agencies, promulgate virtually rules field adjudication rulemaking. Bell 416 267, 294-295, 94 1757, 1771-1772, 40 134 (1974). (To knowledge, regulation ever dealing appropriate size units health care industry. C.F.R. §103.30 (1997)). reasoned decisionmaking well. hard imagine violent breach primary different announced. repetition hardly mend it. 26 Reasoned decisionmaking, applied, promotes sound results, unreasoned evil applies enunciates spreads directions, preventing subordinate personnel (notably judges), courts. These exemplified withdrawal-of-recognition explicitly reaffirmed adherence preponderance-of-the-evidence standard. ALJ's, interpreting others have, required ""clear, cogent, convincing''' majority. Laidlaw Waste Systems, 1211, 1992 169083 (1992). insisting "in rebut factors majority.'' So far, good. went add, [t]his terms "clear, convincing' significance cases.'' proceeded waters impenetrably muddy following: 27 "It defense relied cogent rejections agent, i.e., convincing manifestations, taken whole, loss convincing'' described "speculative, conjectural, vague''-evidence plainly meet proof.'' 1211-1212. 28 Each sentence explanation nonsense, sentences together compatibly nonsensical. "Preponderance evidence'' "clear describe known, contrasting proof. To say, does, whole'' convert one; second whatever conjectural vague'' meets reconvert offsetting errors compounded indeed accurately passage, like Laidlaw, series exemplify divorcing frustrates review. revision subtly obliquely, becomes complicated enterprise appeals met. difficult know, certiorari sought, involves generally applicable unusually high proof, just allegedly mistaken able impede oversight, disguising policymaking factfinding. 30 Because it, systemic approach unacceptable, apply understood principle, Reviewing courts entitled take substantial-evidence basis. Even hence predictable departure proper alter judged. 31 not, inconsistent "substantial deference interpretation regulations.'' Jefferson Univ. Shalala, 512 504, 512, 114 2381, 2386, 129 405 (1994). Substantive governed general provision "arbitrary, capricious, abuse discretion, accordance §706(2)(A). falls text give regulation. On-the-record factfinding, "unsupported evidence,'' §706(2)(E)-which very specific §160(e) ("The questions considered whole shall conclusive''). gives satisfies requisite exists, factfinder. 505. eccentric demand. moreover (we possibly), search revisions rules-revisions supposed determine-hidden regime envisioned dissent-a inadequate become (adjudicatorily adopted) forth, thereby converting rule-interpretations judges defer-the APA nullity. can, course, forthrightly counterfactual presumptions (which law) way furthering policy goals-for irrebuttable during year following certification, see, Station KKHI, 284 1339, 1340, 1987 89811 enf'd, 891 230 1989). justified categorically excludes testimony grounds, reference inherent value. (Such exclusion reasonableness compatibility Act.) undervaluation exaggeration prove. Westbrook Bowl, 293 1000, 1001, 11, 223989 (1989) stated "testimony conversations directly few conveying fellows' ''), quoting Sofco, 268 159, 160, 10, 1983 24722 When engaged simple unconstrained exclusion, free prescribe inferences reject, draw demands. "Substantial exists ensure achieves minimal obligation, foundation honest legitimate adjudication. 33 foregoing reasons, "preponderance connote. line precedents decision, error, discount historical treatment unverified employee's sentiments.'' error [t]he questioned reports antipathy toward 1488, citing 11; at, Assuming assessments behavior true, provide justification Of skeptical claimed reliance second-hand reporter little mislead. inference circumstances, arbitrary disregard extracted 34 holding quality treated representation,'' anti-union sentiments, expressed interview indicated Destileria Serralles, 289 51, 1988 214114 (1988), 882 (C.A.1 1989), Middleboro Fire Apparatus, 234 888, 894, 1978 7283, 590 1978). union-and disaffection, ignore altogether. and, depending 35 *** 36 D.C. Circuit reversed, remanded instructions deny enforcement. 37 ordered. 38 Chief whom THOMAS join, part. 39 I concur III, However, disagree II. 1991); Auciello Iron Works, 517 781, 116 1754, 1755, 135 64 (1996); 778, 1544-1545, (1990). stated, harder pin down. Court's opinion, ante 825-826, despite billing rigorous. concedes: doubt' sufficiently fact-specific advance taking withdrawing ultimately deemed standard.'' Respondent 38. 41 exclude bit evidence) preclude extremely limited circumstances-ironically, almost practical prerequisite questioning forbidden obtain method. Matheson, 1555 (C.J., ("I insist determined using sentiments.''); 3, 1555-1556 dissenting). valuable ensuring lacks fact, effectively concedes scope. losing ex post challenge happened 42 authorized by, with, overriding goal industrial peace. Polling purportedly threatens peace "raises simultaneously role representative representative.'' 1061-1062; 27. threatened disruption stability unsettling argued, impair rights collectively. yet rational, allows use confirm recognition. valid, claims, common 1060; 36-37, 12. 43 reasoning comes short counts. language second, apart statute irrational. 44 authority regulate rest power prohibit "interfere restrain, coerce exercise'' right collectively §8(a)(1), §158(a)(1).1 fails demonstrate accord safeguards overt coercion threats reprisal, violates restrain affect collective relationship. affected, outcome necessarily prevents. raise "doubts'' minds appear interfere rights, permissible once rebuttable. 37-38, 2232-2233, (1987) (recognizing nonrebuttable certification). disruptive warrant severe restrictions exercise rights. Constr. 1062, 1063 addressing validity organizing drive, violate (1) purpose majority, (2) communicated (3) assurances reprisal given, (4) polled ballot, (5) created coercive atmosphere.'' 1063-64, additional restraint unlikely.2 46 Additionally, rationale shrift Act's protecting choice. 790-791, 1760. By ascertaining indirectly goal. Employees properly Employers legitimate, recognized interest 1062. ability provides neutral manner obtaining relevant obligations. 1554-1555 concurring); concurring). Stability, while important River, 37, be-all end-all. justify, allowing nonmajority remain (after certification contract expired) denying views. restricts absence 47 Quite statutory equates polls, having matter, __. conceding basic inconsistency actions dramatically effects. Surely creates greater Consistent higher. 48 consequences, risk representative. matter. admits, binding year, §159(c)(3), petition time.3 40, differing lower. "avowed elections,'' ante, __-__. equal, especially doing reinforced long-standing Gissel Packing 395 575, 616-617, 89 1918, 1941-1942, 547 (1969), determination communications attempting dissuade §8(a)(5). upholding noted speech communicate firmly infringed §8(c), §158(c), implements First Amendment requiring "any views, argument, opinion'' "evidence practice,'' contains "no threat promise benefit'' §8(a)(1). 617, 1942. Collins, 323 516, 537, 65 315, 325-326, 430 (1945) (union solicitation protected Amendment); Virginia Elec. Power 314 469, 477-478, 62 344, 348-349, 86 348 (1941) (employer's attempts persuade joining Amendment). codified regulatory where contained coercion. 50 Gissel's reasoning, speech, constitutionally prohibited amounts reprisal. There distinction soliciting instant communicating Our protection extends equally Kleindienst Mandel, 408 753, 762-763, 92 2576, 2581-2582, 683 (1972), solicit responses, Edenfield Fane, 507 761, 765-766, 113 1792, 1797-1798, 123 543 (1993); Bd. Pharmacy Citizens Consumer Council, 425 748, 1817, 1825, 346 (1976). More specifically, Thomas, 534, 324-325, activity. protected, Electric Power, establishing 536-537, 325-326. 51 resolve §8(a)(1) sharply raises constitutional issues employers' concerns, deference. Edward J. DeBartolo Florida Gulf Coast Building Trades 485 568, 574-577, 1392, 1396-1399, 99 645 (1988); Bishop Chicago, 440 490, 506-507, 1313, 1321-1322, 533 (1979); Rust Sullivan, 500 173, 190-191, 111 1759, 1770-1771, 233 (1991). 52 DeBartolo, proscribe peaceful handbilling permissible. special construe normal accorded. nevertheless because, "where acceptable construction serious problems, problems.'' 1397. Bill Johnson's Restaurants, 461 731, 742-743, 2161, 2169-2170, 76 277 (1983) untenable light concerns interests, Act). "is open obviates deciding congressional prohibition [employer polling] Amendment.'' 578, 1399. 53 my Gissel, allow tend instance, Amendment. 54 Court, concludes lawful. arguendo, agree join opinion. 55 GINSBURG 56 holds unlawful ground "not evidence.'' Ante, __; §160(e); §706(2)(E). departed half-century governing type 490-491, 465-466, (1951). rewritten adequate justification. ignored developed (Board) guidance rule. failed kind leeway mandate. Beth Israel Hospital 437 483, 98 2463, 2475, 57 370 (1978). reviewing identify examine weigh 1951, [w]hether Congress placed keeping Appeals.'' Camera, 491, 466. "intervene rare instance misapprehended grossly misapplied. Ibid.; Hospital, 507, 2477 (""misapprehended misapplied' ''); Golden Bottling 414 168, 414, 419, 388 (1973) ''). Consequently, overturn Appeals' conclusion, obviously seriously misunderstood nature duty. 58 begins stating namely employer, "held __ (emphasis added). 60 omits italicized transforms rephrasing as: 61 "Allentown Key technical hundreds opinions written decades called suddenly disappeared, looks ordinary reflect, specialized workplace, court's understanding human psychology. transformation, dictionary, offers looked wrong word, "doubt,'' instead "objective.'' majority's departs settled principles permitting broad interpret rules, 2386-2387, (1994) (courts "must regulations''); Bowles Seminole Rock Sand 325 410, 413-414, 1215, 1217, 1700 (same), rulemaking adjudication, 294, (1974); 202, 1580, (1947) (same). illustrate problem analysis, background, findings, detail. investors) bought Mack. All dismissed. changed company's name interviewed rehired recently dismissed workers, putting back jobs previously held. Union, years, sought recognition; it; counsel brought charges; corporation Mack, 1204, (1995), affirmed Appeals. rebuttable status. 41, 2234-2235, (1987). Absent extraordinary circumstance, obligated 30% decertification loses), §159(c)(1)(A)(ii); §101.18(a) (1997), shows "either founded basis, deleted; quotation marks citations took last-mentioned options. According "objective'' primarily presenting managers, who, turn, reported insignificant reasons-for example equivocal, transition. 1206-1207. six, possibly seven, (22% 32) helped quarrel count statements, Mohr. says Allentown. agree. Consider Marsh's statement. Marsh said, notes, ""he paying.''' favor. mention interviewing would, re-employ. evaluating wrote interviews "somewhat tainted likely applicant wants hear.'' 1206. stating, reiterating normative "rely asserting [s]tatements employer.'' ""[e]mployee equivalent union.''' Torch Operating 322 939, 943, 1997 34911 (1997) (quoting Briggs Plumbingware, 877 1282, 1288 1989)); Either (presumably known advised bar), help creating 66 how, us, plausibly argue fall outside lawfully delegated authority. nonunionized tell nothing feelings. represents discretionary squarely fact-finding powers responsibilities. Radio Officers 347 17, 49-50, 74 323, 340-341, 455 (1954). Nor procedurally improper agency, court, drawing accumulated expertise exercising responsibilities) adjudicatory develop thumb assigned kinds Cf. Aerospace, 1771-1772; Chenery, 1580. Bloch's statement, Worth, (five six mentions (""Bloch employees'''), ("no employees] representations sympathies [Allentown] proceeding''). 68 "reason demands'' "be weight.'' why? experience, "view suspicion caution'' "purporting Wallkill Valley General 288 103, 109, 213698 866 632 (C.A.3 1989); Louisiana-Pacific 283 1079, 1080, 6, 89647 (1987); Bryan Memorial 279 222, 225, 1986 53785 (1986), 814 1259 (C.A.8 1987). Indeed, specifically qualify 109-110 (finding opposed "cannot considerations'' "bare "subjective, "lacking demonstrable foundation''; "insufficiently definite contribute considerations'') (emphases 69 How unreasonable guidance, likely, (thereby helping understand employee-generated petition)? Why conclusory Bloch's, names names, unsupported concrete testimony, interviewer foresees workforce? put directly, substitute detailed workplace-related matters, record, argued? 70 consider manager's Since, perspective closer question, forth discussion full. wrote, 72 "Should allowed opinion? offered steward, regard. speaking large dissatisfied small Moreover, referring composed whereas men. Certainly composition complement bear group Union. He speak Respondent. himself concluded: 73 "Given off-the-cuff [Mohr's] [sic] upon, reflected discounting (namely how'' "gained knowledge'') "irrelevan[t].'' ----. so? specifics possibility overstating job-preserving effort curry managers. importantly, detail brings pre-existing cautionary (about employees), diminishes reliance. discusses reason, 23, considers "wholly irrational,'' "rationally'' one,'' 78 "for 79 assumptions, obvious. secure 38, 2233. preserve quo peace; assuming (in workers quo, 38-40, 2233-2234; dislodging same. Regardless, argued contradictory illogical. 80 third namely, "whether "almost off-the-cuff.'' "Board's sentiments'' (which, itself, discount). And, out significance. Rather, "sufficient 81 Given adequately supported. conclusions granted, confirmed. 2475. 82 sum, focus conclusions, transformed administered interpretive precedents, interpretations bar, employers, unions, staff. will, fear, weaken system carefully constructed decades. syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. included petition. Post, reads: "Whether erred obtained meaningless.'' Pet. Cert. i. "so meaningless'' argumentative. Fairly read, asks answered affirmative erroneously insufficient suggests focused words, portion "based considerations.'' stressed brief force, source, 1679 2: "Emphasizing expressing self-consciousness''). Requiring reinforces "reasonable,'' external (subjective) impressions. instead, redefined ignoring real meaning, "exceedingly reliable.'' discuss rule, explicit announcement (assuming warning); repeatedly finds so, permanent deleterious language. points entirely, observation accurate irrelevant. quoted above all. 31-32, 8. Those them, J Drainage Products. 269 1163, 1984 36301 (1984), decided decade ago. good-faith-doubt alternative §8(a)(5), section alleged extended §8(a)(5) differs Section states, employer-(5) representatives §158(a)(5). phase 28. protect effects situations. anything, seem established. situations, serves providing making obligations unassailable effective, coercive, level hand, wins apparently Nation-Wide Plastics, 197 996, 1972 4574 permit bargaining. agreement reached, 1758,

Classification Label: 6