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407 U.S. 297 92 Supreme Court Reporter 2125 32 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 752 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR the EASTERN OF MICHIGAN, SOUTHERNDIVISION, et al.; Lawrence Robert 'Pun' PLAMONDON al., Real Parties inInterest. Number 70—153. Argued Feb. 24, 1972. Decided June 19, Syllabus The charged three defendants with conspiring to destroy, and one of them destroying, Government property. In response defendants' pretrial motion for disclosure electronic surveillance information, filed an affidavit Attorney General stating that he had approved wiretaps purpose 'gather(ing) intelligence information deemed necessary protect nation from attempts domestic organizations attack subvert existing structure Government.' On basis logs (filed in a sealed exhibit), claimed surveillances, though warrantless, were lawful as reasonable exercise presidential power national security. District Court, holding surveillances violative Fourth Amendment, issued order overheard conversations, which Appeals upheld. Title III Omnibus Crime Control Safe Streets Act, authorizes court-approved specified crimes, contains provision 18 Code KF62 § 2511(3) nothing law limits President's constitutional against overthrow or 'any other clear present danger existence relies on support its contention 'in excepting security Act's warrant requirement, Congress recognized authority conduct such withour prior judicial approval.' Held: 1. Section is merely disclaimer congressional intent define powers matters affecting security, not grant warrantless surveillances. Pp. 301—308. 2. Amendment (which shields private speech unreasonable surveillance) requires approval type involved this case. 323—324. (a) Government's duty safeguard must be weighed potential pose individual privacy free expression. 314—315. (b) freedoms cannot properly guaranteed if are conducted solely within discretion Executive Branch without detached judgment neutral magistrate. 316—318. (c) Resort appropriate procedure would frustrate legitimate purposes searches. 318—321. 6 Cir., 444 Federal Reporter, 2nd 651, affirmed. C. Mardian, Pasadena, Cal., petitioner. William T. Gossett, Detroit, Mich., respondents Eastern Mich. Judge Damon Keith. Arthur Kinoy, Newark, N.J., John Sinclair, Plamondon Waterhouse Forrest. Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 issue before us important people our country their Government. It involves delicate question power, acting through General, authorize internal approval. Successive Presidents more than one-quarter century have authorized varying degrees,1 guidance definitive decision This case brings here first time. Its resolution matter concern, requiring sensitivity both right itself unlawful subversion citizen's secure his intrusion. 2 arises criminal proceeding Michigan, conspiracy destroy property violation 371. One defendants, Plamondon, was dynamite bombing office Central Intelligence Agency Ann Arbor, Michigan. 3 During proceedings, moved compel disclose certain hearing determine whether 'tainted' evidence indictment based intended offer at trial. response, acknowledging agents conversations participated. also stated 'to gather Government.'2 exhibit camera inspection by 4 General's exhibit, asserted lawful, approval, (exercised General) held violated ordered make full conversations. 321 F.Supp. 1074 (ED Mich.1971). 5 then Sixth Circuit petition writ mandamus set aside order, stayed pending final disposition After concluding it jurisdiction,3 court required 651 (1971). We granted certiorari, 403 930, 91 2255, 29 708. * §§ 2510—2520, use classes crimes carefully 2516. Such subject order. 2518 sets forth detailed particularized application obtain well circumscribed conditions use. Act represents comprehensive attempt promote effective control crime while protecting thought Much drawn meet requirements enunciated Berger versus New York, 388 41, 87 1873, 1040 (1967), Katz States, 389 347, 88 507, 19 576 (1967). 7 Together elaborate III, there following proviso, 2511(3): 8 'Nothing contained chapter section 605 Communications 1934 (48 Statutes-at-Large 1143; 47 605) shall limit President take measures deems Nation actual hostile acts foreign essential activities. Nor anything force means, any contents wire oral communication intercepted foregoing may received trial hearing, only where interception reasonable, otherwise used disclosed except implement power.' (Emphasis supplied.) 9 2511(3). argues requirement Brief 7, 28. thus viewed recognition affirmance 10 think language 2511(3), legislative history statute, refutes interpretation. relevant that: 11 . .' 12 Against dangers specified. At most, implicit does areas. Few doubt this, refers—among things—to protection 'against But so far concerned, essentially neutral. 13 certainly confers no wholly inappropriate purpose. provides interpreted disturb under Constitution. short, simply left found them. view reinforced general context III. 2511(1) broadly prohibits '(e)xcept wise specifically provided chapter.' Subsection (2) thereof four specific exceptions. each exceptions, statutory follows: 14 'It intercept' particular described.4 15 subsection (3), involved, contrasted exceptions preceding subsection. Rather uses 'shall unlawful' employing standard exception, (3) disclaims intention 'limit President.' 16 express 2516, federal judge when provide offenses. These offenses described meticulous care specificity. 17 Where surveillance, followed 2518. (1) competent jurisdiction states detail application.5 prescribes elements probable cause find issuing authorizing interception. (4) (5) strict time Provision made (7) 'an emergency situation' exist (or principal prosecuting attorney State) 'with respect conspiratorial activities threatening interest.' situation, 'if approving forty-eight hours.' If obtained, therefor denied, Act. these interrelated provisions delineating permissible interceptions activity upon conditions, been incongruous legislated complex area single brief nebulous paragraph. comport problem extraordinary exercised drafting sections therefore conclusion inescapable did legislate surveillances.6 supports Most colloquy between Senators Hart, Holland, McClellan Senate floor: 20 'Mr. Holland. (2511(3)) Senator (Hart) has read affirmatively give power. conferring President. saying herein do him thing. 21 'There affirmative statement. 22 McClellan. President, we understood trying away him. 23 correct. 24 Hart. expand Clearly could so. 25 McClelland. Even intended, 26 However, agreed should regarded intending authority, including put bug on, now. 27 'In addition, & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions exchange makes clear, even law, always extremely vague says way affected title III.'7 hardly expect clearer expression neutrality. debate above explicitly indicates contract whatever existed accept characterization congressionally prescribed exception warrant, consider came and, so, constitutionally valid. viewing neutrality, hold statute measure executive Rather, look II 28 outset emphasize limited nature raises challenge 1968. necessity obtaining unrelated interest. (1967); Further, instant scope powers, country. 'deemed Government' (emphasis supplied). There involvement, directly indirectly, power.8 Our inquiry, important, narrow one. addresses open Katz, supra, U.S., 358 n. 23, S.Ct., 515: 30 'Whether safeguards authorization magistrate satisfy situation involving ..' 31 determination inquiry into 'reasonableness' search seizure question, derives content meaning reference clause. Coolidge Hampshire, 443, 473—484, 2022, 2042—2047, 564 begin noting fundamental duty, Article II, 1, Constitution, 'preserve, defend Constitution States.' Implicit those who means. discharge General—may employ plans plot Government.9 cases sanctioned less continuously various Attorneys since July 1946.10 Herbert Brownell, Eisenhower, urged international grounds 33 'turn telephone carry intrigue. success frequently rests piecing together shreds many sources nests. participants often dispersed stationed strategic positions government industry throughout country.'11 34 Though seriousness magnitude, threats sabotage sufficient number justify investigative them.12 covertness complexity dependency conspirators investigatory instrument circumstances. marked acceleration technological developments sophistication resulted new techniques planning, commission, concealment contrary public interest deny prudent employment very employed lawabiding citizens. 35 said '(t)he most basic function property.' Miranda Arizona, 384 436, 539, 86 1602, 1661, 694 (1966) (White, J., dissenting). And unless own capacity preserve people, society become disordered all rights liberties endangered. As Chief Hughes reminded Cox 312 569, 574, 61 762, 765, 85 L.Ed. 1049 (1941): 36 'Civil liberties, imply organized maintaining liberty lost excesses unrestrained abuses.' 37 elementary truths welcome development—even restraint supervision. is, understandably, deep-seated uneasiness apprehension capability will intrude cherished law-abiding citizens.13 Bill Rights privacy. physical entry home chief evil wording directed, broader spirit now surveillance. supra; Silverman 365 505, 81 679, 734 (1961). refused lock instances trespass. governs 'not tangible items, but extends recording statements 'technical trespass local law." 353, 512. That implicitly broad unsuspected governmental incursions conversational entails14 necessitate safeguards. 38 National cases, moreover, reflect convergence First values 'ordinary' crime. stronger greater jeopardy protected speech. 'Historically struggle freedom press England bound up power,' Marcus Search Warrants etc., 367 717, 724, 1708, 1712, 1127 History abundantly documents tendency Government—however benevolent benign motives—to suspicion fervently dispute policies. protections targets official suspected unorthodoxy political beliefs. dissent acute act concept 'domestic security.' Given difficulty defining interest, abuse becomes apparent. Hart addressed dilemma floor 39 'As it—and my fear—we motion, declare—name your favorite poison—draft dodgers, Black Muslims, Ku Klux Klan, civil activists Government.'15 40 price dread subjection unchecked fear unauthorized eavesdropping deter vigorous citizen discussion action conversation. For dissent, discourse, society. 41 absolute terms, task examine balance stake case: posed need needs citizens better undertaken. ask unduly efforts directed it. 42 Anendment speaks 'unreasonable searches seizures,' definition turns, least part, commands Some argued test procure reasonable,' Rabinowitz, 339 56, 66, 70 430, 435, 94 653 (1950).16 view, however, overlooks second clause Amendment. dead language. 43 'a valued part decades, determined result scores courts over inconvenience somehow 'weighed' claims police efficiency. be, working machinery government, operating course check 'well-intentioned mistakenly over-zealous officers' party system enforcement.' 481, 2046. 44 See 68, 445 (Frankfurter, dissenting); Davis 328 582, 604, 66 1256, 1266, 90 1453 (1946) 45 Over two centuries ago, Lord Mansfield common-law principles prohibited warrants arrest unnamed individuals officer might conclude guilty seditious libel. fit,' Mansfield, 'that receiving judging officer. ought judge; directions officer.' Leach Three King's Messengers, How.St.Tr. 1001, 1027 (1765). 46 Mansfield's formulation touches heart directive: that, practical, represent wrongful collected invasion premises Inherent issuance 'neutral magistrate.' 453, 2031; 356, 514. further 'probable cause' instructs baseless proceed. Branch. contemplate officers disinterested magistrates. Their responsibility enforce laws, investigate, prosecute. 359—360, 515—516 (Douglas, concurring). prosecutorial sole judges utilize sensitive means pursuing tasks. historical judgment, accepts, unreviewed yield too readily pressures incriminating overlook invasions speech.17 48 case, Plamondon's gained 'has never sustained ground reasonably expected voluntarily confined intrusive consistent end.' 356 357, contemplates judgment,18 risk exercised. role accords doctrine best preserved separation division functions among different branches levels Harlan, Thoughts Dedication: Keeping Judicial Function Balance, 49 A.B.A.J. 943—944 (1963). independent satisfied, argues, 'extremely limited' post-surveillance review.19 Indeed, review reach failed prosecutions. Prior time-tested effectuating rights. Beck Ohio, 379 89, 96, 223, 228, 142 (1964). true some requirement. Chimel California, 395 752, 89 2034, 685 (1969); Terry 392 1868, 889 (1968); McDonald 335 451, 69 191, 93 153 (1948); Carroll 267 132, 280, 543 (1925). few delineated, 514; general, they serve enforcement well-being destruction. carving out reaffirmed principle 'police must, whenever practicable, advance seizures procedure,' 20, 1879; 2039. 50 special circumstances applicable obstruct told primarily collecting subversive forces, traditional established govern investigation activity, ongoing gathering. 15—16, 23—24; Reply 2—3. 51 insists 'as practical neither knowledge nor believe problems, contends, involve large subtle factors' beyond competence evaluate. 4. 52 reason exemption believes significant portion 'would create serious lives informants agents. Secrecy ingredient gathering; 'danger leaks ., because addition judge, you clerk, stenographer like assistant bailiff apprised nature' surveillance.' 24—25. 53 contentions behalf complete implications, merit careful consideration. reject lightly, especially worldwide ferment disorders prevalent turbulent periods history. doubt, pragmatic position. 54 requested departure standards. scrutiny. Official gathering, risks infringement Security inherent vagueness concept, necessarily continuing temptation oversee dissent. recognize, before, role, manner compatible procedure. 55 argument evaluation. Courts regularly deal difficult issues insensitive uncomprehending cases. Certainly can recognize considerations 'ordinary crime.' threat senior convey significance court, 56 fracture secrecy long imparting respected confidentialities involved. Judges counted conscious already imposed judiciary connection espionage, sabotage, treason, 2516(1)(a) (c), threats. Moreover, adversary proceedings: ex parte request judge. Whatever clerical secretarial personnel minimized proper administrative measures, possibly point allowing assistance. 57 Thus, concerns customary initiation Although added burden justified values. impaired degree. A establishes presumptive validity minimize justification review. By importance reassurance generally indiscriminate wiretapping bugging occur. IV 58 emphasize, opinion, decision. outset, aspects addressedAnd to, agents.20 rest delineate 59 same standards procedures policy gathering range interrelation types information. exact identify operations Often, too, emphasis prevention enhancement preparedness possible future crisis emergency. focus precise conventional 60 distinctions wish protective latter differ Different relation vary according enforced deserving protection. Camara Municipal 387 523, 534—535, 1727, 1734, 930 (1967): tested mandate reasonableness. determining inspection—the terms goals code 62 Congress, example, showing follow allege cases; could, member specially designated (e.g., Columbia Circuit); reporting 63 paragraph not, course, guide rather opinion. sought refined constitute hold, accordance prescribe. V 64 unlawful, below correctly Alderman 394 165, 961, 176 (1969), controlling accused impermissibly Alderman, 'the should, appropriate, place defendant counsel enforceable orders unwarranted materials entitled inspect.' 185, 973.21 65 hereby Affirmed. 67 THE CHIEF JUSTICE concurs result. 68 REHNQUIST took consideration DOUGLAS, concurring. While join add words 71 phase campaign agencies exemptions Warrant Clause For, due clandestine eavesdropping, placing heavy show 'exigencies (make its) imperative.'1 Other abuses, incident arrest, partly deterred damage actions offending officers,2 adverse publicity, possibility reform process. safeguards, ineffective lawless 'bugging' victims totally unaware. exclusion tainted appear negligible deterrent value inasmuch frankly concedes primary fortify collage accumulate indictments convictions. inapplicable here, machine literally enjoy discretion. 72 Here, rummage months end every conversation, how intimate personal, carried selected lines, seize utterances sense pulse underground. 73 wiretap lasted monitored 900 Edward Kennedy recently 'warrantless devices accounted average 78 209 days listening per device, compared 13-day device installed order.'3 He concluded revelations frightening untold thousands being secret remain operation perhaps years time.'4 innocent random caller telephones tapped line flagged data bank. Laird Tatum, 1971 Term, 71—288. 74 gross epitomize directed. unfortunate witness hazards intrusions receive sanction Weeks 232 383, 341, 652; Mapp 643, 1684, 1081; 685, entire homes ransacked pursuant Kremen 353 346, 77 828, 876, cabin, totaling 800 items (such '1 Dish Rag')5 seized occupant taken San Francisco study FBI similar Von Cleef Jersey, 814, 2051, 728, police, searched arrestee's house hours, eventually seizing 'several thousand articles, books, magazines, catalogues, mailing lists, correspondence (both unopened), photographs, drawings, film.' Id., 815, 2052. Silverthorne Lumber company 251 385, 182, 319, 'without shadow authority' raided offices petitioners (the proprietors earlier jailed) 'made clean sweep papers there.' Holmes, termed tactic 'outrage.' 390, 391, 182. Stanford Texas, 476, 506, 431, state 2,000 literature writings Black, inspect alleged subversive's home. 75 security' draw outside mainstream law. recurring desire reigning officials dragnet intimidate critics lies core prohibition. writs assistance led ratification Entick Carrington, 1029, 95 Eng.Rep. 807, decided 1765, finds striking parallel utilized here. Secretary State messengers roam about libelous material libellants sovereign. Entick, critic Crown, victim during publications impounded. brought successful messengers. verdict appeal. Camden wrote sweeping tactics validated, cabinets bureaus kingdom thrown messenger, secretary fit charge, suspect, person author, printer, publisher libel.' 1063. related proceeding, Huckle Money, Wils. K.B. 206, 207, 768, 769 (1763), presided Entick's appeal another despotic practice, '(t)o enter man's virtue nameless evidence, worse Spanish Inquisition Wilkes Wood, 1153, 98 489 (1763). early Boyd 116 616, 626, 524, 530, 746, 485—486, 511 512; 49—50, 1879, 455 9, 2032, tyrannical assailed Huckle, Wilkes, practices endured colonists,6 abuses ensured prominent Rights. Landynski, Seizure 28—48 (1966). N. Lasson, Development 43—78 (1937); Note, Warrantless Searches Light Chimel: Return To Original Understanding, Ariz.L.Rev. 457, 460—476 (1969). 76 illustrated flood e.g., 71—288; Gelbard 71—110; Egan, 71—263; Caldwell, 70—57; Gravel, 71—1026; Kleindienst Mandel, 71—16; currently throes paranoia, resembling hysteria surrounded Alien Sedition Acts, Palmer Raids, McCarthy era. Those register governments redress subjected scrutiny grand juries,7 FBI,8 military.9 associates interrogated. bugged wiretapped. They befriended informers.10 patriotism loyalty questioned.11 Sam Ervin, chaired hearings military civilian dissidents, warns 'it exaggeration talk hundreds dossiers.'12 Kennedy, mentioned devices.' More implicated. Also critics. When excuse defense subversion, obliged remind it, apology Court's commitment preservation corrosive environment precisely expedients.13 Brandeis said, concurring Whitney 274 377, 641, 648, 1095 'Those won independence revolution cowards. change. exalt cost liberty.' Warren Robel, 258, 264, 419, 423, 508; '(T)his 'national defense' itself, justifying designed goal. term notion defending ideas apart. indeed ironic if, name defense, (make) worthwhile.' 79 stood barrier officialdom privacies life. lowered permit subversives' pillaged why abodes mail secretly authority? defeat terrifying claim stand enduring served last Term 455, 564: times unrest, caused racial conflict unrealistic 'extravagant' some. authors concepts. altogether unlike personal arbitrary changed, reducing everyman's pleases urban industrial world, changes more, less, important.' much erosion omnipresent ear likelihood fomenters upheaval modify form governing.14 Page 334 80 APPENDIX TO OPINION CONCURRING FEDERAL WIRETAPPING AND BUGGING 1969—1970 Ordered Devices Days Use Minimum Maximum Year (Rounded) 1969 462 8,100 20,800 1970 180 2,363 113 22,600 Ratio Used Average Ordered: Per Device 17.5* 45.0* 15.4 86.2 221.3 3.4 9.6 13.1 71.7 200.0 WHITE, judgment. 82 two-count charging injure injury Count codefendants fourth dynamite. alone dynamiting injuring disclose, things, records them, unindicted coconspirators, coconspirators. jury asked dismissal taint exist. Opposing submitted disclosing participated monitoring Government,' having expressly General. copies memorandum reflecting seal inspection.1 83 characterized position organizations. Absent authorization, challenged infringed either introduced 84 require vacate denied Appeals. (CA6 1971). barred direction infirm, turn tainted. affirm defendant-respondents (Brief 115) reaching intimating views withrespect 1968, forbids, pain penalties damages, undertaken prohibition provided' statute. Later communications; prohibitions 2511(1). 2511(2), specifies situations apply. covered 2511(2) illegal saved majority asserts 'disclaimer' 'exception.' however labeled, apparent face reached ban eavesdropping.2 production subjected. responded turnover complied Clearly, prevail demonstrate, first, 2511(3); secondly, forbid wiretap, applied here.3 comply supported fall bounds Nevertheless, opinions Appeals, stopped inquire proceeded adverting time-honored rule abjure Ashwander Tennessee Valley Authority, 288, 346—348, 466, 482—483, 688 (1936) (concurring opinion). Because record unnecessary, improper, decide questions improvidently reached. threshold put: Was branch carved warrant? answer, seems me, offered opposition records. whatsoever suggesting attack, assertion App. 20. Neither fell sentence utterly fails assume demanded: prevent subvert; unlawfulness; articulates rstructure shortcomings measured patent. conceded less. was: 'Do affidavit, standing alone, satisfies Act?' Assistant answered 'No, sir. rely Tr. Oral Arg. 96 counsel, seek save supplement affidavit.5 includes avert Government, endorsed request.6 am unconvinced mere endorsement when, later characterizing impliedly tap given judicially cognizable ascribed obviously proceedings 97 reluctant proceed instance sustain referred What excepted deeming danger. No Without determination, 2515 fruits trial.7 99 additional reasons issue. First, purported exempt authorized. extent, 21—23, improvident until bar question. 100 Second, again assumption inadmissible respondent Plamondon. added.) 101 My conclusion, again, nonconstitutional, excluding disposed of, 102 prepared reconsider adversary, camera, taint. discerned over, legality tap. 10, infra. reads 'JOHN MITCHELL duly sworn deposes says: '1. States. '2. concerning overhearing occurred contends legal. '3. Department installation '4. Submitted containing description subjects memoranda '5. certify prejudice facts camera. Accordingly, court's copy furnished defendants. matter, envelope return retained appellate matter.' Jurisdiction interlocutory appealable 1291. issue, jurisdiction, relying All Writs 1651, cited F.2d, 655—656. appropriateness relate common carriers Commission, stituations consented 2518, Procedure communications '(1) Each writing oath affirmation applicant's application. include information: '(a) identity making application, application; '(b) statement relied applicant, belief issued, (i) details offense been, being, committed, (ii) location facilities intercepted, (iii) (iv) person, known, committing whose intercepted; '(c) tried unlikely succeed dangerous; '(d) period maintained. automatically terminate establishing occur thereafter; '(e) previous applications known intercept, persons, places '(f) extension setting results obtained interception, explanation failure results.' 'by assure conducts surveillance—pursuant possess—the admissible. 114 Cong.Rec. 14751. sponsor bill. exchanged constitutes debated House floor. Report Judiciary Committee explicit floor, appears President—whatever be—'is disturbed.' S.Rep.No.1097, 90th Cong., Sess., U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News, 2183 (1968). 'National Wiretap': Presidential Prerogative Responsibility, author concludes 'Congress what amounted noninterference constitutionality S.Cal.L.Rev. 888, (1972). refers President' situations: 'foreign power'; sometimes threats, powers. emanating—according affidavit—from organizations.' definition, organization' mean group organization (whether formally informally constituted) composed agencies. distinguish 'domestic' 'foreign' collaboration degrees groups Enactment reflects combatting Frank S. Hogan, York County years, telephonic valuable weapon enforcement's fight 117 14051. 'Crime Commission' appointed Johnson noted great bring sanctions bear consistently higher echelons aid techniques. maintain indispensable develop adequate crime, investigations, witnesses corroborate testimony, substitutes them—each step evidencegathering process investigations prosecutions.' Commission Law Enforcement Administration Justice, Challenge Free Society 201 month Tom Clark advised Truman using vitally May 1940 Roosevelt Jackson 'involving nation,' questionable meant apply subversion. extent apparently varied administrations but, sharp curtailment Ramsey administration, 1946 Truman. 18; Respondents 51—56; 14056. Public Wire Tapping, Cornell L.Q. 195, 202 (1954). Rogers, Case Yale L.J. 792 1,562 incidents January 1971, facilities. statistics incorporating frivolous bombings nongovernmental level 26—29; 13. Professor Alan Westin written likely 'new technology' enforcement. book psychological personality testing storage retrieval. Not contemporary emanated control. Privacy Freedom total intercepts Tit. 1968 597 1970, intercept 655 295 45% incriminating. 14052. 14750. subsequent assurances, quoted implied grant, contraction, eased Senator's misgivings. accepted. considered judged 'founded little subjective regarding acceptability sorts conduct, interests. Under unconfined analysis, approach evaporation point.' 764—765, 2041. 79—105 (1937). word 'judicial' connote upheld '(u)nless proposed relates capricious, i.e., helpful 22. 8, supra. impermissible see Smith, 424, 425—426 (CDCal.1971); American Bar Association Project Standards Criminal Electronic Surveillance 120, 121 (Approved Draft Supp. 11). Clay, 430 165 (CA5 1970). unnecessary arguments advanced re-examination Alderman. 564; 456, 193, 153; 756, 2036, 685; Jeffers, 342 48, 51, 93, 95, 59. Bivens Six Unknown Named Agents Bureau Narcotics, 388, 1999, 619. Letter Members Subcommittee Administrative Practice Committee, 17, included letter chart comparing court-ordered department-ordered reproduced Appendix statistical breakdown duration, location, implementing agency 1,042 judges, Office Courts, Applications Orders Authorizing Approving Interception 1971; Washington Post, 14, 1972, A30, col. (final ed.). 3, Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Schwartz, Costs Benefits (American Civil Liberties Union 1971); Legitimation Eavesdropping: Politics 'Law Order,' Mich.L.Rev. itemization objects seized, 349, 830, 876. 'On side Atlantic, centered around customs detection smuggled goods.' February 1761, expired six after death George Boston merchants petitioned Superior granting writs. represented James Otis, Jr., became leader movement independence. 'Otis completely electrified audience room denunciation England's whole toward Colonies warrants. Adams, young man twenty-six age yet admitted bar, spectator, scene oft-quoted words: 'I say solemn manner, Otis's oration Assistance breathed breath life.' 'was flame fire! Every crowded appeared me go away, did, ready arms Assistance. Then Great Britain. child Independence born. namely 1776, grew manhood, declared himself free." 58—59. Donner Cerruti, Grand Jury Network: How Nixon Has Secretly Perverted Traditional Safeguard Individual Rights, 214 O.T.1971, Nos. 71—110 71—263. N.Y. Times, 15, 6, (grand Times staff published Pentagon Papers). E.g., April 12, ('U.S. Tighten Radicals'); 1969, ('F.B.I.'s Informants Bugs Collect Data Panthers'); D21, ('When Calls, Everybody Talks'); 16, B15, ('Black Activists Are Targets'); B13, ('Bedroom Peeking Sharpens Files'). And, Daniel Schorr, television correspondent critical Nov. 11, 4; 13, Dr. Martin Luther King FBI, V. Navasky, 135—155 Mrs. Eleanor L. Lewis Theoharis Meyer, Security' Justification An Elusive Exception, Wayne L.Rev. 749, 760—761 Banks, Computers Hearings Constitutional Judiciary, 92d 1st Sess. (1971); 29, 3. 'Informers twentieth century. deployed combat perceived radicals 1920's. fears began Communism, Communist Party heavily infiltrated. Infiltration intense former agent estimated ratio informant 5.7 members 1962. recently, attention shifted militant antiwar groups. university students country, informers seem ubiquitous campus. insight current Media Papers, stolen Media, Pennsylvania. infiltrate conference war resisters Haverford College August convention Students 1970. reveal endeavors recruit informers, ranging bill collectors apartment janitors, effort constant black communities Left organizations' (N.Y. 22, 1). Philadelphia's community, instance, buildings 'including Racial Equality, Southern Christian Leadership Conference (and) Coalition' (ibid.) singled building employees FBI.' Developments Law—The Interest Liberties, Harv.L.Rev. 1130, 1272—1273 accounts impersonation journalists soldiers gain confidences Press Freedoms Pressure, Twentieth Century Fund Task Force 29—34, 86—97 revelation Army infiltration spying Senators, Governors Congressmen, (1971) (discussed denial certiorari Williamson 405 1026, 1323, 487). Among Papers suggestion dissidents stepped "enhance paranoia endemic circles (to) get across behind mailbox." March 25, 33, (Senate peace advocates adviser, aiding abetting enemy). Amicus curiae 71—288, 8. 713, 2140, 822; Powell McCormack, 486, 1944, 491; Aptheker State, 378 500, 1659, 992; Baggett Bullitt, 377 360, 1316, 377; Youngstown Sheet Tube Sawyer, 343 579, 863, 1153; Duncan kahanamoku, 327 304, 606, 688; White Steer, De Jonge Oregon, 299 365, 255, 260, 278; Ex Milligan, Wall. 2, 281; Mitchell Harmony, How. 115, 75. 907—912 continue write naming amount condemned dissenting Osborn 385 323, 439, 446, 394: 'Such lay down indiscriminately sweeps scope, regard participants. prohibit.' Ratios meaningful program initial stage 1969. Source: Mardian M. 1971. Source figures withheld Department. concluded: 20—21. agree majority's analysis import Surely, limitation applicability open-ended; described. assuming uncover graft forbidden text infra, powerless undertaking warrant. 13—14: 'Q. answer doing suggest case? (Assistant General): Court— Well, would—my next is. Would say, though, President? Mardian: announced Colony Catering severely restrict area. let's says, then, certifies States? and— satisfied? Yes, would—I concur Your Honor.' appearing debates bill, 14750-14751, interfere engage indication supposed section. 17: document contained, Act? respect. qualification, 'These case.' 21. submission (as) proof fact signature.' 6—7. argument, said: '(T)he questtion. .. justification, partial exhibit.' 14—15. reply brief, flatly: (in camera) documents, acted.' 9. Procedures practice countersigning wiretap. finding 17—18. 'Whenever derived therefrom trial, jury, department, officer, agency, regulatory body, committee, subdivision 2515.

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