Legal Document

547 U.S. 47 (2006) RUMSFELD, SECRETARY OF DEFENSE, ET AL. v. FORUM FOR ACADEMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS, INC., No. 04-1152. Supreme Court of United States. Argued December 6, 2005. Decided March 2006. *50 Solicitor General Clement argued the cause for petitioners. With him on brief were Assistant Attorney Keisler, Deputy Kneedler, Katsas, Irving L. Gornstein, and Douglas N. Letter. E. Joshua Rosenkranz respondents. Sharon Frase Warrington S. Parker III.[*] *51 CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS delivered opinion Court. When law schools began restricting access military recruiters to their students because disagreement with Government's policy homosexuals in military, Congress responded by enacting Solomon Amendment. See 10 C. § 983 (2000 ed. Supp. IV). That provision specifies that if any part an institution higher education denies equal provided other recruiters, entire would lose certain federal funds. The suing, alleging Amendment infringed First freedoms speech association. District disagreed but was reversed a divided panel Appeals Third Circuit, which ordered enter preliminary injunction against enforcement We granted certiorari. *52 I Respondent Forum Academic Institutional Rights, Inc. (FAIR), is association faculties. App. 5. Its declared mission "to promote academic freedom, support educational institutions opposing discrimination vindicate rights education." Id., at 6. FAIR members have adopted policies expressing opposition based on, among factors, sexual orientation. 18. They like restrict recruiting campuses they object has respect military. 654.[1] Amendment, however, forces choose between enforcing nondiscrimination this way continuing receive specified funding. In 2003, sought time it since been amendedprevented Department Defense (DOD) from providing funds "that either prohibits, or effect prevents" "from gaining entry campuses." 983(b).[2] considered DOD's interpretation *53 particularly objectionable. Although statute required only "entry campuses," Governmentafter terrorist attacks September 11, 2001adopted informal "`requir[ing] universities provide quality scope recruiters.'" 291 F. 2d 269, 283 (NJ 2003). Prior adoption policy, some while still complying having interview undergraduate campus. 282. But under had be permitted schools, did so. forced inclusion treatment violated schools' According FAIR, unconstitutional exercising right decide whether disseminate accommodate recruiter's message, ensuring availability funding universities. denied ground failed establish likelihood success merits its claims. held "of unwanted periodic visitor" not "significantly affect ability express particular message viewpoint." 304. decision large determination conduct speech, concluding expressive aspect "is entirely ancillary dominant economic purpose." 308. could regulate test set forth States O'Brien, 391 367 (1968). 2d, 311-314. *54 rejecting FAIR's constitutional claims, "the proposed requires `provide least potential employers.'" 321. response Court's concerns, codified policy. H. R. Rep. 108-443, pt. 1, p. 6 (2004) (discussing case stating amended "would address court's codify standard"). now prevents receiving prohibits campuses, . purposes manner employer." 983(b) ed., IV).[3] appealed judgment, arguing recently same reasons as earlier version. A Circuit agreed. 390 F.3d 219 (2004). conditions doctrine school surrendering losing university. 229-243. Unlike *55 Court, think O'Brien analysis applied view, regulated simply conduct. F.3d, 243-244. nonetheless determined activities properly treated rather than also O'Brien. 3d, 244-246. As result, remanded 246. dissenting judge affirmed. 260-262 (opinion Aldisert, J.). 544 1017 (2005). II "has practice provides exception "a longstanding pacifism historical religious affiliation." 983(c)(2) ed.). Government agree what requires: order university funding, must offer campus nonmilitary recruiter most favorable access. Certain professors participating amici, argue misinterpret statute. Brief William Alford et al. Amici Curiae *56 10-18; 56 Columbia Law School Faculty Members 6-15. these Amendment's requirement satisfied when applies all recruiters. On reading, excluding comply so long excluded employer violates reply brief, claims question before neither included questions presented nor raised FAIR. Reply Petitioners 20, n. 4. our review may, discretion, encompass "`fairly included'" within presented, Yee Escondido, 503 519, 535 (1992), there can little doubt granting certiorari determine fairly includes says. Nor we accept agreed parties. After all, "[o]ur task construe enacted." Duncan Walker, 533 167, 172 (2001). appropriate present consider applying general exclude conclude cannot correctly interpret Secretary compare military's "access campuses" students" (Emphasis added.) does call inquiry into why how "other employer" secured Under amici's "access" as, say, firm not. *57 do received situationregardless disparate attributable failure school's focus content amici it. Instead, looks result achieved compares provided" Applying therefore insufficient results greater level ensure operates such are given "provided Not text necessary give recent revision. prior version, "entry" without specifying should once thought DOD campus, unwarranted directly codifying interpretation, legislative change no effectlaw access, generally applicable Worse yet, made easier keep out altogether: simple denied, altogether, clearly mind refuse *58 negates revision, indeed render largely meaningless exercise. read both It treat treats employers who violate statute, III Constitution grants power "provide common Defence," "[t]o raise Armies," maintain Navy." Art. I, 8, cls. 12-13. Congress' area broad sweeping," U. S., 377, dispute authority require is, course, unless exceeds limitations legislation. Rostker Goldberg, 453 57, 67 (1981). fact legislation raises armies subject constraints mean ignore purpose determining constitutionality; recognized Rostker, "judicial deference apogee" legislates armies. 70. legislate matters recruiting, chose secure indirectly, through Spending Clause power. gives choice: Either allow afforded forgo proceed indirectly reduce affairs. choice goal creating condition deserves deferential *59 imposed mandate arguably free decline Grove City College Bell, 465 555, 575-576 (1984), rejected private college's claim conditioning compliance Title IX Education Amendments 1972 argument "warrant[ed] consideration" "Congress attach reasonable unambiguous financial assistance obligated accept." 575. concluded violation occurred reviewing substance claimsbecause 575-576. Other decisions, recognize limit place receipt "`the government may deny benefit person basis infringes his constitutionally protected freedom even he entitlement benefit.'" American Library Assn., Inc., 539 194, 210 (2003) (quoting Board Comm'rs, Wabaunsee Cty. Umbehr, 518 668, 674 (1996) (some internal quotation marks omitted)). principle, known doctrine, students. This us placed goes beyond "reasonable" offered becomes condition. clear *60 directly. Speiser Randall, 357 513, 526 (1958). Because prevent imposing requirement, limits say them anything. remain whatever views congressionally mandated employment retaining eligibility Tr. Oral Arg. 25 (Solicitor acknowledging "could put signs bulletin board next door, engage help organize student protests"). matter, regulates conduct, speech. affects doafford recruitersnot say. Nevertheless, number ways. First, assisting services, sending e-mails distributing flyers, involve supplying services unconstitutionally compelled speak message. Second, are, extent, speaking that, forcing permit host Third, although alternative regulating *61 each issue turn.[4] 1 Some leading precedents established principle telling people West Virginia Bd. Ed. Barnette, 319 624, 642 (1943), state requiring schoolchildren recite Pledge Allegiance salute flag. And Wooley Maynard, 430 705, 717 (1977), another New Hampshire motorists display motto"Live Free Die"on license plates. similar expression schools. Nonetheless, often elements For example, send post notices boards employer's behalf. See, e. g., 169-170; NALP (National Association Placement) 11. offering behalf *62 points out, statements ("The Army will meet interested Room 123 11 a.m."), opinion, scrutiny. Respondents (citing Riley National Federation Blind C., 487 781, 797-798 (1988)). sort assistance, far cry Barnette Wooley. unlike laws those cases, dictate "compelled" if, There nothing approaching Government-mandated pledge motto endorse. point plainly incidental regulation "it never deemed abridgment press make course illegal merely initiated, evidenced, carried means language, spoken, written, printed." Giboney Empire Storage & Ice Co., 336 490, 502 (1949). Congress, prohibit discriminating hiring race. take down sign reading "White Applicants Only" hardly analyzed one A. V. St. Paul, 505 389 (1992) ("[W]ords circumstances directed conduct"). Compelling sends scheduling allegiance, Jehovah's Witness "Live Die," trivializes suggest is. *63 2 Our compelled-speech cases limited situation individual personally government's instances force speaker speaker's Hurley Irish-American Gay, Lesbian Bisexual Group Boston, 515 557, 566 (1995) (state parade include group whose parade's organizer wish send); Pacific Gas Elec. Co. Public Util. Comm'n Cal., 475 20-21 (1986) (plurality opinion); accord, id., (Marshall, J., concurring judgment) agency utility company third-party newsletter billing envelope); Miami Herald Publishing Tornillo, 418 241, 258 (1974) (right-of-reply editors' newspapers). Relying precedents, compels "[b]y interviews receptions arrange." 240. resulted complaining own affected accommodate. nature central holding Hurley. 568 ("Parades form expression, just motion, inherent expressiveness marching explains involving protest marches"). "every unit conveyed [parade's] organizers," dictating "alter[s] th[e] parade." 572-573. State's public accommodation law, parade, "violates fundamental rule *64 protection autonomy message." 573. violations Tornillo interference desired printing tak[es] up space devoted material newspaper preferred print," U.S., 256, right-of-reply altering paper wished express, 258. true Gas. There, regularly newsletter, envelope. 8-9. Thus, four times year, interfered utility's communicate newsletter. plurality likened 16-18. case, accommodating receptions. organizer's contingents, inherently expressive. facilitate assist obtaining jobs. lack editorial page newspaper; sufficiently interfere school. respond alike viewed *65 see wrong policies, do. PruneYard Shopping Center Robins, 447 74 (1980). upheld shopping center owner others property. explained engaging identified owner, remained disassociate himself "not being affirm [a] belief governmentally prescribed position view." 88. here. Nothing about suggests restricts policies. high appreciate difference sponsors permits legally so, pursuant Westside Community Schools (Dist. 66) Mergens, 496 226, 250 (1990) 268 judgment); Rosenberger Rector Visitors Univ. Va., 819, 841 (attribution concern plausible fear"). Surely lost time get 3 Having view impermissibly brings protection. forms "`symbolic speech'" deserving 376. "conduct labeled `speech' whenever intends thereby *66 idea." Ibid. extended Texas Johnson, 491 397, 406 (1989), burning flag warrant burning, "expressed" treating differently actions accompanied explaining conducted "overwhelmingly apparent." supra, 406. An observer sees interviewing away knowing disapproval rooms full, decided someplace else. component created itself accompanies explanatory strong evidence here warrants If combining enough create party always transform "speech" talking instance, announces Internal Revenue Service refusing pay income taxes, apply Tax Code Neither progeny supports result. *67 apply, pass muster produce establishing effective. 245. surmised ample resources recruit means," suggesting "loan repayment programs" "television radio advertisements." 234-235. Governmentaccording Circuit statute's burden essential furthering interest recruiting. disagree Appeals' reasoning "an essential, permissible neutral promotes substantial less effectively absent regulation." Albertini, 472 675, 689 (1985). satisfies requirement. Military raising supporting Armed Forcesan objective terms employers. methods beside point. army navy might adequate. (regulations "invalid imaginable burdensome speech"). judgment courts. Const., 12-13; 64-65. suffices chosen add effectiveness recruitment. Accordingly, regarded *68 B extends speak. associate speaking, termed "right association." Boy Scouts America Dale, 530 640, 644 (2000). reason clear: exercised one's voice voices others. Roberts Jaycees, 468 609, 622 (1984). individuals' join together speak, essentially silence intended protect. argues orientation significantly presence obligation them. heavily 230-235. Scouts' Jersey's accommodations organization homosexual scoutmaster. association, Dale expression," interests justify intrusion, violated. 655-659. *69 similarly associational rights. To chooses "associate" sense interact Recruiters definition, outsiders come onto trying hire studentsnot become distinction critical. "`to desire.'" 648 Roberts, 623). allowing impairs saying undertaken symbolic 66, too "erect shield" "simply asserting" mere impair 653. notes protects more group's membership decisions. disclosure lists groups seeking anonymity, Brown Socialist Workers '74 Campaign Comm. (Ohio), 459 87, 101-102 (1982), impose penalties withhold benefits disfavored group, Healy James, 408 169, 180-184 (1972). organization's composition, attractive, concerns affecting Students faculty *70 message; composition making desirable. associate, regardless repugnant considers * attempted stretch doctrines well extent incidentally effort cast themselves organizers Hurley, overstates activity impact it, exaggerating reach precedents. violating erred likely reverse remand further proceedings consistent opinion. ordered. ALITO took consideration case. NOTES [*] Briefs curiae urging reversal filed State Greg Abbott, Texas, Ted Cruz, General, Barry McBee, Edward D. Burbach, Joel Thollander Adam W. Aston, Solicitors Attorneys respective follows: Troy King Alabama, John Suthers Colorado, M. Jane Brady Delaware, Charles J. Crist, Jr., Florida, Steve Carter Indiana, Phill Kline Kansas, Michael Cox Michigan, Lawrence Long South Dakota, Mark Shurtleff Utah, Darrell McGraw, Virginia; Civil Rights Union Peter Ferrara; Legion Robert P. Philip B. Onderdonk, Jr.; George Davidson, Carla Kerr, Scott Christensen, David K. Park; Individual Gerald Walpin; Christian Legal Society Gregory Baylor Steven Aden; Claremont Institute Constitutional Jurisprudence Eastman Edwin Meese III; Eagle Fund Andrew Schlafly; Judge Advocates Huckabee Brett Barkey; Professors G. McBride, Consovoy, Daniel Polsby, Joseph Zengerle; Foundation Hodge; Abbot Martin Kaufman, Joe Reeder, Sellinger, Einwechter; Congressman Richard Pombo Perry Pendley Becker. affirmance University Kathleen Sullivan, Donna Euben, Ann Springer, Rabban; Liberties Kenneth Y. Choe, Shapiro, Matthew Coles, James Esseks; Paul Smith, Hohengarten, Mach; Bay Area Lawyers Freedom Beth Brinkmann, Seth Galanter, Ruth Borenstein; Cato Coleman; Waxman, Randolph Moss, Mingle, Ada Meloy, Wendy White; (the Sam Heldman Hilary Ball; Guild Zachary Wolfe; Gay Jonathan Hafetz Lustberg; Servicemembers Network Linda T. Coberly, Tyler Paetkau, Sharra Greer, Kathi Westcott, Gene Schaerr; Student/Faculty Alliance Equality Carmine Boccuzzi, Walter Dellinger Pamela Harris; Burt Dodyk Rosen; Schiller Barrett. Findley Harold Johnson amicus curiae. [1] serve Forces engaged acts, stated homosexual, married sex. challenge litigation. [2] complaint named numerous plaintiffs well. plaintiff standing bring suit. 284-296 suit members. 219, 228, 7 sufficient satisfy Article III's case-or-controversy Bowsher Synar, 478 714, 721 (1986)). standing, discussion [3] covered 983(d)(1) IV) Departments Defense, Homeland Security, Transportation, Labor, Health Human Services, Education, Central Intelligence Agency Nuclear Security Administration Energy. Funds covered. 983(d)(2). loss denying universitywide. 983(b). [4] subsidize "by putting demands employees resources." subsidizing concept used cases. Johanns Livestock Marketing 550, 559 minimal, monetary nature, Government. Johanns, after Circuit's noted previous compelledsubsidy involved "[c]itizens fund speech." 562. recruiters'

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