Legal Document

408 U.S. 501 92 Supreme Court Reporter 2531. 33 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 507 UNITED STATES, Appellant,v.Daniel baron BREWSTER. Number 70—45. Argued Oct. 18, 1971. Reargued March 20, 1972. Decided June 29, Syllabus Appellee, a former Senator, was charged with the solicitation and acceptance of bribes in violation 18 Code KF62 §§ 201(c)(1) 201(g). The District Court, on appellee's pretrial motion, dismissed indictment ground that Speech or Debate Clause Constitution shielded him 'from any prosecution for alleged bribery to perform legislative act.' filed direct appeal this under § 3731 (1964 ed., Supp. V), which appellee contends does not have jurisdiction entertain because Court's action 'a decision judgment setting aside, dismissing' but instead summary merits based facts case. Held: 1. This has V) hear appeal, since order upon its determination constitutional invalidity 201(g) as indictment. Pp. 504—507. 2. is prohibited by Clause. Although provision protects members Congress from inquiry into acts motivation performance such acts, versus Johnson, 383 169, 185, 86 749, 757, 15 681, it protect all conduct relating process. Since case charges motivation, erred holding required dismissal 507—529. Reversed remanded. Solicitor Gen. Erwin N. Griswold appellant. Norman Pacific KF135 P2 Ramsey, Baltimore, Md., appellee. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 presents question whether Member may be prosecuted 201(c)(1), 201(g), accepting bribe exchange promise an official act. States, five counts 10-count indictment.1 Counts one, three, five, seven four separate occasions, appellee, while he Senator member Senate Committee Post Office Civil Service, 2 'directly indirectly, corruptly asked, solicited, sought, accepted, received agreed receive (sums) . return being influenced his respect action, vote, postage rate legislation might at time pending before capacity Sections 2, Title Code.'2 3 Count nine 4 demanded, exacted, (a sum) performed vote had been Code.'3 5 Before trial date set, moved dismiss immunity Clause, Article I, 6, Constitution, provides: 6 '(F)or either House, they (Senators Representatives) shall questioned other Place.' 7 After hearing argument, ruled bench: 8 'Gentlemen, case, admitted Government charge Brewster relate connection function States. 9 'It (sic) particularly view interpretation given shields Brewster, constitutionally 10 'I will, therefore, odd indictment, 1, 3, 5, 9, apply Brewster.' 11 pursuant V).4 We postponed consideration until merits. 401 935, 91 922, 28 214 (1971). 12 * asserts review against Specifically, urges dismissing (an) count thereof, where construction statute founded' 'decision sustaining motion bar, when defendant put jeopardy.' If correctly characterized those descriptions, States' appeal. 13 In Knox, 396 77, 90 363, 24 275 (1969), we considered violating 1001, general criminal punishing fraudulent statements made federal agency. accused willfully understating number employees wagers behalf form persons engaged business were law file. charging violations 1001 could failure answer wagering Fifth Amendment privilege self-incrimination prevented file respect. found Knox theory passed validity rested. U.S., 79 n. S.Ct., 364. held '§ applied class cases, invalid.' Ibid. 14 involved instant 201, statute. Section 201 applies 'public officials,' term defined explicitly include Members well officers Subsections (c)(1) (g) prohibit performing ruling here 'the (or) only that, Congress, invalid. Appellee argues also did rule never 'based case' applied. Under Sisson, 399 267, 2117, 26 608 (1970), lie rests, sufficiency alone, extraneous facts. result stipulated fact showing evidentiary outside would constitute defense trial, no available. See Findley, 439 Federal Reporter, 2nd 970 (CA1 1971). claims relied factual matter than 16 An examination record, however, discloses exception letter briefly outlined there 'facts' act recited statement case,' used Judge announcing decision, shows reliance Government's outline read Judge's reference 'facts,' context, are totally immune official, i.e., legislative, virtue cannot who accepts way office. conclude, relying drawn invalid As consequence, II 17 immunities written simply personal private benefit integrity process insuring independence individual legislators. genesis common known. 681 (1966), Harlan canvassed history concluded 'was culmination long struggle parliamentary supremacy. Behind these simple phrases lies conflict between Commons Tudor Stuart monarchs during successive utilized civil suppress intimidate critical Glorious Revolution Britain, throughout history, recognized important protection legislature.' Id., 178, 754 (footnote omitted). 19 Clause's historic roots English must interpreted light American experience, context scheme government rather system. should bear mind system differs ours their Parliament supreme authority, coordinate branch. Our speech debate designed preserve independence, supremacy.5 task, insure legislature without altering balance three co-equal branches Government. 20 It undermine Framers' concern Legislative Branch acknowledge our reflect catalogue abuses hands Executive gave rise England. There nothing example, comparable imprisonment Tower and, owing subservience some royal judges 17th 18th century kings, meaningful recourse writ habeas corpus.6 fact, one previous occasion ever Congress. 21 (a) supra, reviewed conviction Representative conflict-of-interest statute, 281 ed.), conspiracy defraud 371. Appeals set aside Harlan, speaking 183, cited oft-quoted passage Lush Ex parte Wason, L.R. Q.B. 573 (1869): 22 am clearly ought allow doubted moment motives intentions House inquired proceedings anything do say House.' 577 (emphasis added). 23 Kilbourn Thompson, 103 168, L.Ed. 377 (1881), first expressed similar ambit privilege. said broadly 'generally done session relation it.' 204. statement, too, approval 179, 755. conclusion Johnson protected actual acts. 758. applying focused specific prosecution. conspiracy-to-defraud agreement among codefendants obtain indictments officials savings loan institutions. For services, included floor, claimed paid bribe. At extensively, relative count, concerning authorship speech, basis certain giving speech. use evidence support broad was, precluded prosecuting retrial, insofar depended inquiries speeches House. 25 note very narrow scope Johnson: 'We hold dependent (into preparation) necessarily contravenes emphasize limited prosecutions involving circumstances presented us.' 184—185, 757. 27 specifically left open which, though possibly entailing founded 'narrowly drawn' exercise power regulate Members' conduct. Of more relevance emphasized affect application, 'does draw them.' try counts, authorized new provided references making eliminated.7 Three affirmed Johnson's conviction. Warren, joined Douglas Brennan, concurring part dissenting part, stated: 29 'After reading my determining infected jury's (conflict-of-interest) counts. amply supports prosecution's verdict counts—that respondent over $20,000 attempting Department (present) co-conspirators, disclosing role enterprise. classic example arguments counsel court's instructions separating substantive seem unimpeachable. minor inflame jury pointed pride vigilance protecting financial institutions State. record further reveals participants aware finding criminality authorize conclusions & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions believe salutary principle conscientiously followed. Therefore, affirm convictions counts.' 188—189, 759. (Footnote omitted.) 30 thus stands unanimous rely A consistently generally it. sum, prohibits things duties 31 known, course, engage many activities purely These wide range legitimate 'errands' constituents, appointments agencies, assistance securing contracts, preparing so-called 'news letters' news releases, related grown years. They come expected means developing continuing future elections. entirely activities, political nature sense prior cases. But seriously contended matters, however appropriate, afforded Careful decided cases regarded reaching it,' 204, 'said him, representative, functions office,' Coffin Coffin, Mass. (1808). 32 (b) argues, broader test coverage urged executive judicial 'related due functioning process.' true quoted words appear opinion, takes them out context; quite different meaning now urged. contained eight challenged concerned attempts influence staff prosecutions. explaining why wrote: 'No argument made, nor think successfully contended, reaches conduct, attempt Justice, wise application improperly motivated raises problem deal.' 172, 751. (Emphasis added; footnote 34 stating 'in process' covered privilege, imply corollary everything 'related' office Quite contrary, held, citing course enacting protected. 35 Nor can give expansive interpretation. approval, 203, language Parsons Judicial Massachusetts (1808), thought enlarging 'legislative acts' illicit is: 36 '(The privilege) construed strictly, liberally, full design answered. will confine delivering uttering haranguing debate; extend report, every resulting nature, execution, office: define article, exemption prosecution, thing office; enquiring regular according rules house, irregular rules. place house; satisfied entitled within walls representatives' chamber.' 37 suggested words, Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 373 374, 71 783, 786—787, 95 1019 (1951), interpreting sweep seemed indicate today hold. Emphasis placed 'there Member) indicates referring committee meetings, take physical confines chamber. another passage, clarified: 38 'If chamber, sitting committee, executing commission appears me reason body member, session, he, body, discharging He therefore functions, representative debating, assenting to, draughting report.'8 Mass., 28. 39 treated process.9 process—the process.10 Appellee's contention draws essentially flavor rhetoric courts, precise surely fairly read. 40 (c) sound wise, abundance caution doubly beyond intended scope, literal language, Given sweeping reading, doubt few legislator engages unable somehow 'relate' Admittedly, effectuate purpose Branch, statutes apply, make super-citizens, responsibility. narrowest large, albeit essential, grant enabled reckless men slander even destroy others impunity, conscious choice Framers.11 41 free grave instance, reached level England compelled enact curative legislation. 42 'The practice granting freedom arrest molestation members' servants became serious menace liberty public order, offenders often tried—and successful—to escape penalties offences deserved ordinary courts hesitated inflict. Indeed, sale 'protections' proved source income unscrupulous members, 'indulgences' several occasions obtainable fixed market price.' C. Wittke, History Parliamentary Privilege (1921). 43 authors both need flow too safeguards. values, wrote so tolerates behavior tolerated citizens, shield what necessary Moreover, unlike formal, limitations monarch, limits co-ordinate branches, providing checks kind experienced country. 44 if exempt matters having relationship process, misconduct go unpunished each empowered discipline Members. indeed empower 'determine Rules Proceedings, punish disorderly Behavior, Concurrence two thirds, expel Member,' illequipped investigate, try, loosely incidentally sense, analogy dissents much emphasis, (1869), inapt. itself High Parliament'—the highest court land—and tradition better equips tasks. 45 exaggeration (the characteristics Parliament) colored great struggles (legislative) close nineteenth century. altogether forgotten now. Nowhere court—the realm, acting manner—persisted longer Parliament.' 14. 46 supremacy England's tribunal explains precluding lesser tribunal. 47 Australia Canada, 'where exists claim bar legislators bribery.' Note, Bribed Congressman's Immunity Prosecution, 75 Yale L.J. 335, 338 (1965) shown little inclination exert area.12 lay normal responsibility police prosecute myriad directly function, actually impaired. 48 disciplining countervailing risks abuse surrounded panoply protective present judged articulated standards13 mercy almost unbridled discretion once accuser, prosecutor, judge, whose established right review. short, defend safeguards Constitution. somewhat naive assume triers wholly objective considerations party politics passions moment.14 Strong trials conducted entrenched majority far greater harassment conventional procedural protections accused, including grand jury, strict standards proof evidence, extensive appellate 49 Finally, all-embracing. unclear extent illegal activity occurred Member, undiscovered brought after office.15 50 render virtually crimes peripherally Such inconsistent given, privileges embodied 6. sentence provides 'shall Cases, except Treason, Felony Breach Peace, privileged Arrest Attendance Session respective Houses. .' Williamson 207 425, 163, 52 278 (1908), rejected claim, convicted subornation perjury purchase lands, arrested, convicted, imprisoned crime treason, felony, breach peace modern disturbing peace. Edward Douglass White noted 'breach peace' mean, came mean later, misdemeanor usage, derived breaching King's embraced whole law. Quoting Lord Mansfield, '(t) laws country employment sanctuary ..' 439, 167. 51 subsequent Long Ansell, 293 76, 55 21, 208 (1934), Member's Brandeis Court: 'Clause (of 6) defines immunity. Its exact leaves room terms grant.' 82, 22. 53 recognize identical closely origin. hardly preceding plainly 54 (d) WHITE suggests permitting initiate subject potential endanger legislature—for campaign contribution twisted ruthless prosecutor But, just noted, along possessing potentially abuse; possibilities inherent delegates independent powers.16 Federalist 73, Hamilton possible hazards confronted support. Legislature, discretionary salary emoluments Magistrate, obsequious proper him. might, most reduce famine, tempt largesses, surrender inclinations.' 56 Yet Hamilton's 'parade horribles' finds real history. check-and-balance mechanism, buttressed unfettered society press, encouraged arose. explained third branch intervened neutral authority. See, e.g., Lovett, 328 303, 66 1073, 1252 (1946). divided powers expressly check 16th centuries. 57 Probably importance reaction engendered dominate harass another. Even traditional establish dominance met success contrary popular sentiment. Attempts 'purge' uncooperative legislators, notably successful. statutes, applicable 100 years,17 abused Branch. When powerful sought responsive combined Branches, checked effort enlarge M. Pusey, Charles Evans Hughes 749—765 (1951). 58 closing eyes realities failed non-legislative accepted attempt, bribe, greatly enhanced see substantial increase Branches today. underestimate harassment, laws, deliberately allowed remain books 59 discount possibility occur, possibility, consider remote, balanced danger flowing absence violates outset, legislator, own sake, thereby bribes, perhaps power, gravely defeat honest representation. Depriving investigate Judiciary unlikely enhance independence. disinclination understandable Houses delegated committing contempts 194. 60 occur So expressed, enough essential separation powers, guard excesses corrupt corrupting turn next determine provilege. III 61 prima facie Four 'corruptly receive' money capacity.' 201(c), asks, demands, exacts, solicits, seeks, accepts, receives, agrees value (1) act' guilty offense. 62 inquire how spoke, debated, voted, chamber taking agreeing way. show fulfilled bargain; promise. 63 Taking is, obviously, function; not, conceivable interpretation, incidental legislator. 'act office.' 'thing 27. taken, or, And 64 defaults bargain. To payment, compact, If, undisputed took bill voted bill, alters removes area wrongdoing crime? 65 Another alleges 'asked, 'for capacity. 'asks, himself him' performed, again, unnecessary motivation. sustain received, receive, knowledge donor paying compensation Inquiry necessary; briber's reasons sufficient carry jury. rests heavily offense linked Brewster's 'action, legislation.' true, precludes acted, decided. position fragile proposition 'would word' wanting prove agree evidence. Perhaps appealing so, here, inadmissible. Government, act, debate, indicted. accept dissent retreat required. 67 BRENNAN condemned impermissible Johnson. That misconstrues concept nexus functions. remand, retried floor admitted. implies chosen retry obtained asserting 7, supra. 68 reasonable consistent purpose, casually affairs itself. needed. 69 Clause.18 Accordingly, reversed remanded opinion. 70 BRENNAN, whom DOUGLAS joins, dissenting. 72 single, well-defined issue—that narrowly otherwise receiving.$19,000 (as Committee).' receipt $5,000 already decision' charges, me, fell clear prohibition decisions (1966). call 'speeches debates' certainly laid scrutiny acts; motives, supposed, themselves, unless, delegate branches. 73 That, apparently, well. asked point blank allege(d) functions.' responded: 74 contending ducking question; squarely presented. going quibble that.' App. challenge applicability argued prohibitions avoided, 'waived' were, through congressional authorization allegedly provisions 201: 76 77 33. 78 Furthermore, initial brief doubtless reflecting recognition analysis adopted today, argue falls Rather, conceded least assumed 'Speech Debate,' crime. admissions settled doctrine makes binding Jones, 345 377, 378, 759, 760 (1953), issue properly us Today, reach issue, entails 'no acts,' ante, 525, doing permits recede firm admissions, ignores and—most important—it repudiates principles developed past line culminating Those principles, vital people represented Congressmen integrity, deserve hasty burial dissent. 80 dispel outset notion asserted strains outer writes length Debate' cover 'all Ante, 515. assuming conclusion, fail merely 'relating process,' calls behind then, periphery center Congressman 81 dating back 1881 refused limit mentioned that: 82 spoken debate. forcible reports committees, resolutions offered, writing, reproduced voting, vocally passing tellers. 83 authoritative regard bodies Parsons, court, later saw generous privilege: 84 'These secured, intention benefit, rights people, enabling representatives execute fear prosecutions, criminal. article 85 doubt, postal rates constituted called proceeding. Senator's immunity, submit, goes extracongressional cast, plaintiff state solely harassing Nevertheless statutes. Frankfurter unworthy Legislators deterrents uninhibited discharge duty, indulgence good. One expect uncommon courage subjected cost inconvenience distractions pleader, hazard speculation motives. Fletcher Peck, Cranch 87, 130, 162, consonant remained unquestioned. 87 '. times passion, dishonest vindictive readily attributed believed. Courts controversies. Self-discipline voters ultimate discouraging correcting abuses.' 377—378, 788—789. 88 Barring require affirmance dismissal, neither dishonorable, proceeding halls Senate. complicated about conclusion. follows inescapably forth basic elements declines According 'taking way,' 'that promise.' 526. Similarly, solicited 'with act,' 'into itself.' 527. deemed avoid 89 With respect, artificial us. alleges, mere money, Insofar votes proving bargained-for together motivating Proof 'knowledge still demonstrate 'official referred charges. voting did. Either equally repugnant correct bargain, needed 'influenced' definition themselves surrounding trial. carries same dangers accountability Brother cogently states, post, 556: 'Bribery carried prearrangement; transaction plucked loses force. small comfort know whatever be, bargain.' Thus, impression, presecution, barred What especially result, six years ago conspiring 371, seek companies. Part Floor favorable companies generally. extensively contents, authorship, conviction, deliver persuade today: 93 rationale Clause) suits content legislator's prevent impediments duties. justify latter poses threat reasonably cause restrain such, questioned. antecedent attacked 'Whether lives up immaterial. essence offense; consummated, complete.' Wharton, Criminal Law Procedure, 1383 (Anderson ed. 1957) .. respondent, 'questioned' bargain entire protected.' Brief 25, O.T.1965, Pages 10—11. 94 answered places. emphasizing allegation particular remuneration interests,' stated, 180, 755: 'However reprehensible extends impeding motivated, precisely forecloses inquiry.' supplied.) Again, id., 182—183, 756: 96 clause meant 'content' libel actions, unlawful bribe.' 11. historically seditious frequent instrument intimidating sole legal employed, framed broadest terms.' 97 forward dispelled citation (1869). citizen magistrate Lords petition heard floor. denied 'statements places foundation proceedings, injurious interest person. amenable law.' 576 (Cockburn, C.J.). Blackburn added, concur thinking information Lords, indictable offence.' 98 provable face rejection reasoning own, 'authorized eliminated.' 511. excluded consideration, intervene Department, Department. intervention infra, 542. camouflage departure collateral fundamental issues follow promise, like there, inquiry. 99 'prosecution motivations, (not but) members.' Assuming statute,' it, enactment, serve accountable offers 'waiver' allowed. None these, seems override public's secured Clause.1 preliminary matter, contend, forum punished guilty. '(e)ach Member.' reach, extending 'to offence (House or) senate trust duty member.' re Chapman, 166 661, 669—670, 677, 680, 1154 (1897). investigation speculated stocks interested tariff bill. Representatives 1873 censured stock forestall Credit Mobilier. instances expulsion bribes.2 101 Though conceding enforcement power. position, relies primarily following Burton 202 344, 688, 693, 1057 (1906): 102 'While framers keep appointed sphere contemplated authority admit seat duly elected admitted, should, degree, restrict forbidden interests carrying effect granted However, mail fraud Rev.Stat. 1872, Statutes-at-Large 123. nonlegislative 751, ((n)o excerpt said, 'not Constitution,' 104 cites additional provide Members; press business, politically judgments fellow Members, transfer courts. Once unpersuasive find persuasive 'Legislative suited juries task blameworthiness of, levying appropriate punishment upon, persons.' Brown, 381 437, 445, 1707, 1713, 484 (1965). prosecutors, judges, equipped kinds here. Senators pressures, constituents special-interest lobbies. Submission hope support, withdrawal, uncommon, unethical.3 outright emphasis end trier's everyday necessities Whatever special competence areas, likely judge observation bears repeating here: 'Courts 789. 105 colleagues, adjust wish expression. doubtful, expression unpopular views First Amendment. Bond Floyd, 385 116, 339, 235 completely foreclosed; 'restraints imposed implications Constitution.' Barry ex rel. Cunningham, 279 597, 614, 452, 455, 867 (1929), Powell McCormack, 395 486, 519 40, 1944, 1963, 491 (1969). 106 delegation. While 'culmination supremacy' Crown's 'criminal legislators,' 754, story. points large British taken Parliament's domination, always ranged succeeded rightful dominion areas purposes labeled Aware abuses, Framers, submits, exlusive delegation, shared Branches. 107 historical fact. By century, obtaining offenses contravening good processes. 1694, incorporation Sppech Bill Rights, Falkland 2,000 pounds Crown, pleasure Speaker Commons, Sir John Trevor, year.4 108 control Independence assertion absolute institutional privileges. '(T)he plenary law, described Coke lex parliamenti. Only declare occasioned, privilege.' Watkins 354 188, 1173, 1179, 1273 (1957). punishment, extended servants, trespass estates theft servants' goods. went common-law sitting. led named arrest, imprisonment, Parliament.5 America. 1662, Virginia Burgesses exempting well, molestation.6 109 pointing determined them. Madison stated department activity, drawing impetuous vortex.'7 Jefferson looked 'tyranny legislatures' formidable dread present, years.'8 Therefore Framers adopt parliamenti, enjoy numerous restraints. takers refers Convention debates writings remotely argument. Indeed way, toward personalized defeasance delegation 110 details formulated Convention's Style, phrased revising V Articles Confederation provided: 'Freedom impeached Congress.' wording Rights 1689 Speech, Debates Proceedings Parliament, Place wording, variations appeared constitutions. VIII Maryland Declaration (1776) declared 'ought judicature.' (Art. XXI, 1780) 'freedom deliberation, house legislature, accusation complaint, whatsoever.' New Hampshire XXX, 1784) Massachusetts'. short '(f)reedom severed Colonies Crown Nation.' 372, 786. 111 Despite excess,' 375, 787, Jefferson, criticism Richmond, Virginia, said: 112 '(T)hat have, enable usefully, land, representatives, cognizance coercion Executive.' Works Thomas 322 (Ford 1904). 113 Jefferson's contemporaries9 early 1808, 114 'In considering organized composing house. derives constitution, paramount legislature. resembles attached exempted arrests mesne (or original) returning from, attending court. privileges, deprived, resolve 115 intent reflected contemporary understanding feared yields 8, ignore 'any place' acts.10 116 yield outrageous committed gone unpunished. undertake portentous significance, resolved uninfluenced magnitude perfidy alleged. assigned judiciary 201. Nation disservice permit shirk favor misbehavior judiciary. justified wisdom judgment. enforce spirit. deciding turning arrogates exclusively principled justification, none, denial compels old indelible imprint distinguished scholar merited life. 117 WHITE, join, 118 offensive No insulates misdeeds. phnish Members: 119 empowers behavior. refusal obey preservation order. 120 'So, also, penalty inflict compel attendance absent standing subject. 121 'Each election qualification members. undoubted examine witnesses inspect papers, usual cases; witness trying contested election, refusing testify, judicature. 122 impeach government, Where impeachment subject, questions, manner justice cases.' 189—190, (1881). 123 accounting place—whether proposes command (Members Congress) Const., cl. 124 disposes distinguishing performance. promises casts accordance majority's did, although corrupt, application. distinction withstand values secure. 125 assure reinforce Founders, prevents liability. Concededly, sued not. embrace underlying question. mode analysis, speaking, manner; anterior crime, introduced things, made. This, violated 126 infirmity inheres requires defendant's receipt, all, many, Clause; identify Here whatsoever, 'his arguing contemplate arrangement added.) charge, Like word: impugned specified himself. value, represents convict undertaking more, 'questioned (some) Place' fulfill purpose. 127 fares better. section 'being calling undertook Clearly, survive cast other, nevertheless inevitably implicated. 201(c) (1), implicate duties.* 128 'against disfavored chief prompting privilege,' 182, 756, 'we look prophylactic clause.' Let suppose informed oppose administration-sponsored chairman key pending. informs allegations hopes expresses confidence report pressure Congressmen, undeniable. fare answers corruption compelling likelihood administration's suggestion Putting ill-conceived, mistaken, false accusations, maintain inhere completed occurred. object armed question, forewarned, event 129 All comes naught Bribery 130 system, fails account, illusory Ours government. Candidates heated contests victor receives greatest constituents. campaigns run platforms undertakings promote policies. geared, constituency. legally dictation voters, residual districts, day answerable 131 Serving crucial ongoing constant stream complaints requests help service. Judged volume mail, theoretical ignored. unethical job listen petitions groups State district, group serving threatening interests. 132 Against background second life assumes considerable Congressional financed contributions supporting working garner generate campaigns. expects campaign. expectation arise indicated forthcoming champions view. Financial arrive approve continue. mutuality constituent inevitable. Constituent repeatedly coincide rare supported making, bargaining 133 this, ethics. Nevertheless, opportunities Executive, us, sold obvious opportunities, exists, create enormous threats suggestions prosecution—precisely evil prevent. 134 Neither distinguishes payments use. arm introduce policies vest leverage dilemma forced declining feel constrained less entreaties demands contributors. supposed missteps difficult fall ordinarily permissible, necessary, scarcely ensures root 135 destined for, offended. diminished defined. becomes vulnerable degree inhibit relations addition, difficulty defining uses funds office, bookkeeping bribery; yet interchange suspect. accounts retain unrestricted exactly legitimately used. workable lines enhances prospects correspondingly diminishes action. 136 deny sanctioning Instead, purports away itself, amount implication offends assault, robbery, murder. treaten forbid unpersuasive. 137 despite influencing constitutional. proves much, difference vocal detractor accurately credible accusing murder, theft, rape, crimes. arguably valid wider prone fish waters search correlations endless, abuse. 138 conspiracies drunken driving tasks irrelevant defense. hand, strong 176—177, 753—754, 681. knows advised odds lodged practical inherently implicates divine heart 139 dispositive. comprehensive sanitize environment. promising money. murder unrelated believed voting. Equally drew motivations 140 embraces contentions rejecting formed major proof, presentation Lords. sets court: 141 'could person 576. C.J.) 577.' 142 Wason distinguish performance; both. writing position. 758 permitted 143 Because gives begrudging clause, dealing principal us—a purporting Members—would apparent convinced True, try. Nonetheless, understand bind objecting Representatives. allocation authorizes offending account abdication impermissible. 144 beginning. immunize Congressmen. reserves insist develop procedures midst prostitute remaining bribers offering 201(b). 'Whoever, selected entity, for: '(1) (shall offense).' 201(a) official' 'Member subsection "official cause, suit, controversy, pending, capacity, profit.' aiding abetting indirectly offense.)' (Supp. V, 1970) relevant part: 'An district instances: 'From information, founded. amended eliminate relies. 3731. perfected Cella, Doctrine Freedom Debate: Past, Present Future Bar Prosecutions Courts, Suffolk L.Rev. (1968); 337—338 23—32 On objection then affirmed. 419 (CA4 1969), cert. denied, 397 1010, 1235, 423 (1970). defamed hence 'concession' seeks attribute lawyer focus response revealing limiting (1881) (voting resolution); (1951) (harassment hearing; case); (1966) (making floor); Dombrowski Eastland, 387 1425, (1967) (subpoenaing records hearing); McCormark, resolution). equivalent inapplicable 'To objected, character basely defamed, pecuniary recompense satisfaction. truth injury reputation commonwealth, unreserved unawed prosecutions.' Cochran Couzens, App.D.C. 282 874, 79, 772 (1930) (defamatory uttered action). Thomas, Protector People Haven Criminal?, Harvard Rev. 74, 80—81 (No. 1965); 349 (1965); Oppenheim, Free Loyola 27—28 (1955—1956). (1897): President Andrew Kennedy, Profiles Courage 126—151 (1955). Samuel Chase Atlantic Beveridge, Life Marshall 169—220 (1919). Parliaments reserved exclusive tried land.' 15—16. obviously implicit remand exist, Quinn, F.Supp. 622 (S.D.N.Y.1956) (motion acquittal unaware fees firm); (1906) (Senator Department); Dietrich, KF105 F3 671 (C.C.Neb.1904) (Senator-elect's payment procure statute); May U.S.App.D.C. 233, 175 994, 830, 58, 505 (1949) (Congressman receiving services agency); Bramblett, 348 503, 504, 594 (1955) defrauding agency). Bramblett misuse via 'kick-back' scheme, strategically timed harm Congressman. indicted campaigning re-election, contributed defeat. Mayor Curley re-elected N.Y. Times, Nov. 1945, Page 12, col. 5; Catholic Encyclopedia 541 (1967). overlook barriers bring face. First, indict, prepared solid Thereafter, convince petit presumption innocence favoring accused. hurdles faces consequences weapons unjustly omnipresence media competitive afford irresponsible misconduct. enacted 1853. Act Feb. 26, 1853, chapter 81, 171. reversing express constitutionality probes Should sustained, permissible adopts My disagreement 4, accompanying text. Cf. Conflict Interest Association City York 14—15 (1960): congressman's status matter. represent economic group, self-interest tied group. talk Farm Bloc, Silver Senators. fishing congressman mindful industry—though himself, source. representation inevitable indeed, applauded. Sterile abstract situations farmer senator farm Negro bills. purist attitude evils conflicts runs afoul premises government.' R. Luce, Assemblies 401—402 (1924). notable instance Robert Walpole, 1711 expelled corruption. T. Taswell-Langmead's, Constitutional 583—584 (11th Plucknett, 1960). 39—47 (1921); Taswell-Langmead, 580. arbitrary contraction extension. 1763 reacted angrily tract Wilkes, withdrew libel. fled France outlaw. Upon 1768, again expelled, libel, sentenced months' imprisonment. 1782 expelling Wilkes declaring incapable re-election expunged Tasswell-Langmead, 584—585; 527—528, 1967—1968, Clarke, (1943). 48. 375 James Wilson, responsible encourage publick firmness success, indispensably fullest resentment powerful, Wilson 421 (R. McCloskey 1967). earliest 1790, 'opinion, decree.' April 30, 112, 117. bribe-taking Blackstone, 'when administration justice, undue reward behaviour W. Commentaries *139. judges. Coke, Third Institute 68, 1—2. Gravel 606, 2614, 583, preparation execution unprotected putting defending Here,

Classification Label: 7