Legal Document

412 U.S. 546 93 Supreme Court Reporter 2303 37 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 163 Donald GOLDSTEIN et al., Petitioners,v.State of CALIFORNIA. Number 71—1192. Argued Dec. 13, 1972. Decided June 18, 1973. Syllabus Petitioners, convicted for committing acts 'record piracy' or 'tape in 1970—1971, challenge the California statute proscribing such practices, as violative 'Copyright Clause,' Article I, § 8, cl. Constitution, and federal statutes enacted thereunder. The state appellate court upheld validity statute. Held: 1. does not expressly by inference vest all power to grant copyright protection exclusively Federal Government. Pp. 552—561. (a) Although objective Copyright Clause was facilitate granting rights national scope, it indicate that 'Writings' are interest protective legislation is, cases, unnecessary precluded. 555—558. (b) No substantially prejudicial interstate conflicts result where some within their own jurisdictions while other do not. 558—559. (c) Conflicts will necessarily arise between enactments congressional policy when protection. Pacific KF135 P2 559. (d) Unless Congress determines requires freedom from restraint a particular category 'Writings,' is (e) durational limitation imposed on invalidate laws, like one here, have no limitation. 560—561. 2. violate Supremacy conflicting with law. 561—570. did not, passing Act 1909, determine recordings, original writings, were unworthy 563—566. Nor 17 Code KF62 4, which provides 'the works copyrights may be secured under this shall include writings an author,' 5, pre-empt control over term 'writings' might apply. Sears, Roebuck & company versus Stiffel Co., 376 225, 84 784, 11 661; Compco Corporation Day-Brite Lighting, 234, 779, 669, distinguished. 567—569. 3. 1971, amended allow statutory intended alter legal relationships governing recordings 'fixed' prior February 15, Until unless takes further action respect fixed 1972, remains free proscribe record tape piracy those involved here. 570—571. Affirmed. Arthur Leeds, Los Angeles, Cal., petitioners. David M. Schacter, respondent. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 We granted certiorari review petitioners' conviction making criminal offense 'pirate' produced others. 2 In information filed State California, charging petitioners 140 counts violating 653h Penal Code. charged that, April 1970 March had copied several musical performances commercially sold without permission owner master tape.1 Petitioners moved dismiss complaint grounds conflict Constitution,2 Upon denial motion, entered pleas nolo contendere 10 counts; remaining dismissed. On appeal, Appellate Department Superior sustained After exhausting remedies, sought 3 * engaged what has commonly been called piracy'—the unauthorized duplication major artists.3 would purchase retail distributor single phonograph recording popular they wished duplicate. marketed companies contractual relationship. At plant, reproduced blank tapes, could turn used replay music player. then wound cartridge. A label attached, stating title recorded performance—the same appeared recording, name performing artists.4 final packaging, tapes distributed outlets sale public, competition copied. 4 made payments artists whose sold, various trust funds established benefit; producer, technicians, staff personnel responsible producing paying large expenses incurred production.5 use artists' names album title. 5 challenged forbids transfer any performance onto records intention selling duplicates, first received who, law, owners recording. afforded each substantial, lasting unlimited time, scope proscribed activities narrow. placed music, lyrics, arrangement employed precluded hiring musicians exact imitation embodied even hire who initial inorder duplicate performance. essence, thus solely specific expressions compose tape. 6 Petitioners' attack constitutionality many facets. First, contend establishes duration, Constitution. Second, claim interferes implementation policies inherent statutes. seq. According petitioners, Congress, interpreted 661 (1964), 669 establish uniform law throughout protect writings. As part scheme, urged individuals copy work protected copyright. Since effectively prohibits copying entitled protection, directly must fall Finally, argue 2, allows unpublished writings,6 authorize provision; since previously released had, published. 7 note at outset refer case pending courts. Public Law 92—140, 85 Statutes-at-Large 391, §§ 1(f), 5(n), 19, 20, 26, 101(e), passed recordings. However, amendment specifically available only sound 'fixed, published, copyrighted' after before January 1, 1975, nothing Title 17, 'be applied retroactively (to) construed affecting way before' Since, according language amendment, intend govern these amendments application case.7 II 8 argument rests premise lies beyond powers reserved our system. If correct, prevail, cannot exercise sovereign which, relinquished Government its exclusive exercise. 9 principles followed construing stated Alexander Hamilton 32 Federalist: 'An entire consolidation into complete sovereignty imply subordination parts; whatever remain them, altogether dependent general will. But plan (Constitutional) convention aims partial union consolidation, governments clearly retain act, delegated States. This delegation, rather alienation, sovereignty, exist three cases: Constitution express terms authority Union; instance Union, another prohibited exercising authority; similar absolutely totally contradictory repugnant.'8 two instances mentioned present barrier State's enactment clause issue provide exercised 12 applying third phase test, we examine manner operate objectives inquiry recognized Cooley Board Wardens, How. 299, 13 L.Ed. 996 (1852), when, determining whether regulate commerce9 'compatible existence States,' noted: 'Whatever subjects nature national, admit system, regulation, justly said require Congress.' How., Id., 319. 14 Court's determination alone legislate matters import reflects basic principle federalism. Marshall said, 15 'The genius character (federal) government seem be, external concerns nation, internal affect generally; but completely State, States, necessary interfere, purpose executing government.' Gibbons Ogden, Wheat. 195, 23 (1824). 16 question inferred simple one, broad varied. warning sounded equally applicable Clause: 'Either affirm, deny (the commerce) lose sight power, assert concerning really part.' 18 also careful distinguish situations concurrent possibly lead arise. 'It . mere possibility inconvenience powers, immediate constitutional repugnancy can implication alienate extinguish pre-existing right (state) sovereignty.' Federalist 32, Page 243 (B. Wright ed. 1961). 19 gives power— 20 'To promote Progress Science useful Arts, securing limited Times Authors Inventors Rights respective Writings Discoveries ..' 21 describes both seek means achieve it. progress science arts. employed, 'to promote' synonymous words stimulate,' encourage,' induce.'10 To accomplish purpose, authors fruits works. An author possesses preclude others his creation commercial purposes permission. words, encourage people devote themselves intellectual artistic creation, guarantee inventors reward form copies 22 scope. While debates Constitutional Convention extremely limited, described James Madison utility scarcely questioned. solemnly adjudged, Great Britain, common inventions seems equal reason belong inventors. public good fully coincides cases claims individuals. separately make effectual provision either most them anticipated decision point, laws Congress.'11 24 difficulty noted relates burden inventor wishes system available. so, separate required government; effect borders.12 supported eliminates need multiple applications expense involved. effect, greater than fields worthy action. 25 recognizes potential benefits patents 18th century show, contrary, willingness portions arts local importance.13 Whatever diversity people's backgrounds, origins, interests, variety business industry Colonies, range obviously far today country 210 million 50 view enormous diversity, unlikely citizens parts place importance relating subjects. subject matter addressed purely attention discern unyielding control. 26 next whether, actual operation, prejudice interests noted, boundaries. grants prejudiced borders elsewhere. may, however, adversely affected not; wish able buy exists. neither so inevitable nor severe compel conclusion, jurisdiction Congress. Obviously protection—and not—that circumstance reduces economic value copyright, hardly render worthless. situation different regard monopolies, lottery, food concession enclosure park; case, escape monopoly purchases area State. Similarly, copyrights, except willing travel across lines order still serve induce new creations State—the very see here type arise, example, if impose imposts tariffs;14 uniformity apply regulation shipments.15 27 difficult how inevitably difficulty. time "writing" incidental administration, authorized. Where unrestricted distribution writing thought interest, Commerce eschew develop attempted protected. liberty stay hand entirely.16 action, total relinquishment States' inferred. 28 seen, explicitly precludes times concern. lack significantly actions another. exists why take affirmative categories restraint. therefor conclude Right Writings.' B 29 base additional appropriate release. From this, created violation portion 'for Times.' Read literally, text N Immigration Nationality Decisions support position. Section enumerates Congress; limitations appended understood limit congressional, state, Moreover, clear dangers force When monopoly, effects pervasive; citizen reach. confined borders. Consequently, tendency inhibit narrowly circumscribed. voided III 30 Our conclusion surrender end inquiry. proceed void Clause. formula capture complexities determination; varied 'Our primary function circumstances state) stands obstacle accomplishment execution full Hines Davidowitz, 312 U.S., 52, 67, 61 399, 404, 581 (1941). turn, then, fulfill. 31 By 'Authors.' These narrow literal sense but, rather, reach reflect principles. 'author' viewed individual writes composition, term, sense, mean 'originator,' 'he whom anything owes origin.' Burrow-Giles Lithographic Sarony, 111 53, 58, 279, 281, 349 (1884). although word script printed material, physical rendering creative aesthetic labor. Ibid.; Trade-Mark Cases, 100 82, 94, 550 (1879). Thus, 8. act broad, enabling materials meet definitions. Rather, brought purview scheme left discretion history indicates consider classes dependent, writing, product economy. technology expanded activity provided economical reproducing manifestations activity, areas initiated.17 33 taken establishing performances. should 1909; determined composition extent itself, capable protection.18 claim, cite House Report 1909 Act, states: 34 committee extend mechanical reproductions themselves, give composer proprietor control, accordance provisions bill, manufacture devices.' H.R.Rep.No. 2222, 60th Cong., Sess., (1909). 35 interpret accurately Congress' meaning cite, remember modern differs greatly existed 1909. report read written today, distort meaning; against background written. 36 1831, extended compositions. possessed sell score; purchased play home piano instrument. Between 1831 numerous machines invented allowed mechanically. For insert roll disc perforations places player almost results someone playing mounting sales devices detracted composition. Individuals instrument little, any, sheet music.19 problems arose eventually reached 1908 White-Smith Music Publishing Apollo 209 319, 52 655. There, Company manufactured rolls mechanically compositions covered owned appellant. Appellant contended constituted 'copies' copyrighted sale, permission, infringement held rolls, well records, statutes, merely component machine executed composition.20 Despite fact composer, denied. It pointedly waiting Co.21 insure composers adequate effort. Henceforth, 1(e), considered reproducing, payment section cited limits composer's right; themselves. Nowhere machine, composition22 renderings performance, control.23 38 rest entirely belief exempt Assuming found, occupied field comparable Rice Santa Fe Elevator Corp., 331 218, 67 1146, 91 1447 (1947). assertion based opinions (1964). 39 provides: 40 author.' 4. 41 lists works, adds: 42 above specifications subject-matter defined 5. 43 employs 'writings,'24 argued more 60 years elapsed provision, Office, courts, Register Copyrights, administration statute, consistently ruled 'claims reproduce' Regulations 202.8(b) (1972).25 With early exception,26 American courts agreed interpretation;27 passage acknowledged interpretation. Both Senate proposed qualified H.R.Rep.No.92 487, Pages (1971); S.Rep.No.92—72, U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1566. light consistent interpretation agency empowered administer agree claim. 44 Sears Compco, rely, could, unfair configurations possess qualities design patent. stated: 45 '(T)he patent standards carefully invention preserving competition. life expiration date article lacked level patents. run counter true inventions, time. Just encroach upon directly, cannot, forbidding competition, kind clashes laws.' 230—231, S.Ct., 788 (footnotes omitted). 46 configurations, balanced innovation originality identical products. indicated articles protect, free. prevent requirements disturbed balance drawn thereby gave arises balance; unattended, act.28 IV 47 More ago, Brandeis observed dissent International News Service Associated Press: 48 rule noblest human productions—knowledge, truths ascertained, conceptions, ideas—become, voluntary communication others, air use.' 248 215, 250, 68, 76, 63 211 (1918). 49 there fixed, immutable line tell us 'human productions' private property become 'free air.' earlier times, artist's largely restricted stage; once performed, remained 'recorded' memory seen heard Today, precise detail reproduce again utmost fidelity. evidences legislative prohibit piracy,' conduct continued production California. Accordingly, has, given attributes property. idea concept; precisely sum, shown 1971 653h, 1972.29 concluded decisions reaffirm 51 retained intrude up now, preempted. enforced occurred case. 53 DOUGLAS, BRENNAN BLACKMUN concur, dissenting. 54 55 Power (t)o Discoveries.' 56 brief comment copyrights: 57 Congress.'1 58 faithful admonition. 788, said: 59 'Thus unpatentable 'in domain whoever chooses so.' 231, 789. novelty patented. companion 237, 782, charge ruling, stating: 'Today supra, unprotected forbid article. interfere policy, found implementing allowing access leave domain.' 62 Prior 25, expressed 'national laws,' 231 n. 7, bolstered Acts 'exclusive hear saves published writings.' Ibid. 1972,2 And effective 'only (Feb. 1972), 1975.'3 64 California's promotes monopoly; issued, fosters instances. plus renewal period,4 extends her perpetuity. 65 Cases surcharged 'unfair competition' 'pirated recordings.' products market consumer failure areas. drive strong evident reading reports Act.5 Yet, took short step, setting trial period approach. told being ground pre-empted field, absence possible obtain Committee following comment: 66 'While expresses question, extension resolve arisen connection efforts combat courts.'6 commenting proposals resulted House: 68 'We believe extending reproduction soundest, whereas doubt, frequently create unwarranted perpetual monopolies. urgent protection.'7 69 Judge Learned Hand Capitol Records, Incorporated Mercury Records 221 Reporter, 2nd 657. That uncopyrighted holding prevailed provision. emphasized 'uniformity' principal Patent obtained pre-emption. He 70 'If, example bar, defendant forbidden New York, plaintiff's 'publication'; practically impossible importation York. exactly evil directed.' 667. 71 reverse judgment below. 72 MARSHALL, join, 73 Court, understand it, this: '(t)o Framers peculiarly attention. force, bar promoting interests. every item enumerated relevant desire preserve patented demonstrated best let go unrestricted. similar. There certain secured. Its silence about relative promotion 'Science Arts.' says, classes, until acts. copyrighting,1 74 respect, accept step argument. my view, power. author' (emphasis added). strongly suggests follow grant. ways: protecting designated leaving open classes. shows latter course chosen, registered.2 Ordinarily, enumerate 'sound recordings' expression reign for, because realities process, generally infer conclusions. Cf. Cleveland 329 14, 22, (1946) (Rutledge, J., concurring). Inc., ordinary practice prevail. imposing restraints adopted construction class permitted, find although, course, facts items involved; broadest cases.3 sufficient evidence convince me permit For, whenever technological advances wise, acted promptly. See ante, 562—563 17.4 Compco: decided rule, convinced hindering 75 attractive one; persons capitalize talents needing assess independently prospect acceptance 'mechanical configurations.' Such low-cost benefit public. presumption betokens outweigh impediments creativity opposite true, distaste 'pirates' out laws. therefore hold enforce limiting reproduction. pertinent part, '(a) Every person guilty misdemeanor who: '(1) Knowingly willfully transfers causes transferred sounds record, tape, recorded, intent cause transferred, consent owner. '(2) '(b) section, 'person' individual, partnership, corporation association; 'owner' owns device indirectly derived.' Specifically, count alleged 'at City County wilfully, unlawfully knowingly caused (were) trial, factual sparse. parties description method operation Tape Industries Assn. America Younger, 316 F.Supp. 340 (CD Cal.1970), appeal dismissed jurisdiction, 401 902, 880, 801 (1971), Appeals, CA9, 26,628. attached cartridge relationship producer recorded. misrepresented source manufacturer tapes. costs longplaying exceed $50,000 $100,000. 344 (1970); Hearings S. 646 H.R. 6927 Subcommittee Judiciary, 92d 1st 27—28 (1971). pay cost 'Nothing annual work, equity, copying, publication, consent, damages therefor.' raised 241 1961); 318—319, (1851). Kendall Winsor, 322, 328, LEd. 165 (1859); Mitchell Tilghman, Wall. 287, 418, 125 (1874); Bauer Cie O'Donnell, 229 10, 616, 617, 1041 (1913). 43, 309 Numerous examples difficulties creators Noah Webster, effort book, Grammatical Institute English Language, legislatures least six perhaps 12. baron Bugbee, Genesis 108—110, 120—124 (Wash., D.C., 1967); H.R.Rep.No.2222, Similar experienced John Fitch desired perfect steamboat. Federico, Patents, J.Pat.Off.Soc. 166, 170—176 (1931). 1751, Massachusetts Benjamin Crabb employ process candles whale oil. process. Resolves, Private, Province Bay, Vol. 3, Session Jan. chapter 546—547 (1878). 1780, Pennsylvania Henry Guest processing tanning oil blubber, noting 'a discovery manufactories state.' Statutes Large 1682 1801, 132 (J. Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Flanders eds. 1904). South Carolina Peter Belin 1786 newly designed waterworks aided rice, staple agriculture, Another rice 1788. Carolina, 755 (T. Cooper 1838); id., (1839). 1787, Maryland spinning carding cotton wool state. .' Laws Maryland, Nov. 6, 1786—Jan. (W. Kilty 1800). year, flour mills, 'tend simplify cheap staples commonwealth 12, 483—484 1906). 42, 305 Morgan Virginia, 328 373, 1050, 90 1317 (1946); Bibb Navajo Freight Lines, 359 520, 79 962, 1003 (1959); Southern Arizona, 325 761, 1515, 89 1915 (1945); West 262 553, 658, 1117 (1923). publication. 1790, governed maps, charts, books. May 31, 124. 1802, 'who invent design, engrave, etch historical print prints Apr. 29, 36, 171. Protection revised 1831. Feb. 16, 436. 1865, Mathew Brady's pictures Civil War attaining fame, photographs photographic negatives added list Mar. 126, 540. Again 1870, augmented cover paintings, drawings, chromos, statuettes, statuary, models designs fine art. July 230, 198. provided. sections discussed opinion. bill things enormously increased,' President recommended revision, among reasons, 'omit(ted) reproductive processes, protection.' (quoting Samuel Elder Theodore Roosevelt). added. 1912, motion pictures. occasion motion-picture photoplays vast proportions. money invested therein great valuable ought distinct definite recognition H.R.Rep.No.756, 62d (1912). spurred growth piracy, was, due partly advances. S.646 H.R.6927, 4—5, remembered related Act. 551—552. 1(e). H.R.Rep.No.7083, 59th pt. (1907) (Minority Report). 'After all, perforated roll? testimony skilled unable compositions, notation performer. 'These duly properly operated mechanism adapted, produce tones harmonious combination. think act.' 323, 655 (1908). 10; especially Patents foreign extent, affects photographs, graphophones, piano-playing instruments, instruments mechanical.' 1(e) '(W)henever permitted acquiesced serving royalty cents manufactured. Assuming, arguendo, duplicated constitutes 'similar use,' claimed diminish return lessening number produced, above, presently passed. indication detracts royalties receive. Furthermore, produced. Taxing raise lessen entering commerce. direct invalid. 10. registration rise administrative difficulties. comply notice deposit 20. rightfully issued classifying maintaining considerable. Chafee, Reflections Copyright: II, Col.L.Rev. 719, 735 Ringer, Unauthorized Duplication Sound Recordings, Studies Prepared Trademarks, Copyrights 86th (Comm.Print 11, 14. Fonotipia, Limited Bradley, 171 KF105 F3 951, 963 (EDNY 1909). Aeolian Royal Roll 196 926, 927 (WDNY 1912); Waring WDAS Broadcasting Station, 327 Pa. 433, 437 438, 194 Atlantic 631, 633—634 (1937); 657, 661—662 (CA2 1955); Jerome Twentieth Century Fox-Film 736, 742 (SDNY 1946). stress 'published.' consequences publication have. 'publication' serves art defines application. Supra, 392. 24. H.R.Rep.No.92—487; S.Rep.No.92—72; H.R.Rep., 13. copyrighted. 5(n) (1970 ed., Supp. I). proviso afford writing. sections, conjunction practical novel requirements, requiring placement copy, bears repeatedly referred rules both. See, 228, 787, 7; 781, 1951, copyrighting Many bills introduced, none enacted. 21—37 Respondent argues failed enact primarily uncertainty international conventions, comforted knowledge Brief 28—32. enough aware problem, acted, innovations presented problems, expeditiously. confronted spring 1970, existed, before.

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