Legal Document

454 U.S. 263 102 Supreme Court Reporter 269 70 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 440 Gary E. WIDMAR, et al., Petitioners,v.Clark VINCENT al. Number 80-689. Argued Oct. 6, 1981. Decided Dec. 8, Syllabus The University of Missouri at Kansas City, a state university, makes its facilities generally available for the activities registered student groups. A religious group that had previously received permission to conduct meetings in was informed it could no longer do so because regulation prohibiting use buildings or grounds "for purposes worship teaching." Members then brought suit Federal District Court, alleging violated, inter alia, their rights free exercise religion and freedom speech under First Amendment. upheld as being not only justified, but required, by Establishment Clause Appeals reversed, viewing content-based discrimination against speech, which find compelling justification, holding does bar policy equal access, are open groups speakers all kinds. Held : University's exclusionary violates fundamental principle should be content-neutral. Pp. 273-278. (a) Having created forum groups, University, order justify discriminatory exclusion from such based on content group's intended must satisfy standard review appropriate exclusions; i. e., show is necessary serve interest narrowly drawn achieve end. 273-274. (b) Although complying with constitutional obligations may characterized compelling, an "equal access" would incompatible Clause. will offend if can pass following three-pronged test: (1) It has secular legislative purpose; (2) principal primary effect neither advance nor inhibit religion; (3) foster "an excessive government entanglement religion." Here, conceded meet first third prongs test. In context this case absence any evidence dominate forum, advancement forum's "primary effect." An therefore test's second prong well. 274-277. (c) State's achieving greater separation church State than already ensured sufficiently "compelling" question. 277-278. 635 Reporter, 2nd 1310, affirmed. Ted D. Ayres, Columbia, Mo., petitioners. James M. Smart, Jr., respondents. Justice POWELL delivered opinion court. 1 This presents question whether close desiring discussion. 2 * stated City1 encourage organizations. officially recognizes over 100 routinely provides Students pay activity fee $41 per semester (1978-1979) help defray costs University. 3 From 1973 until 1977 named Cornerstone regularly sought facilities.2 1977, however, buildings. regulation, adopted Board Curators 1972, prohibits teaching."3 4 Eleven students, members Cornerstone, challenge Western Missouri.4 They alleged discussion violated religion, protection, Fourteenth Amendments Constitution States. 5 Upon cross-motions summary judgment, challenged regulation. Chess versus Widmar, 480 F.Supp. 907 (1979). found Constitution. Id., 916. Under Tilton Richardson, 403 672, 91 2091, 29 790 (1971), court reasoned, provide without giving prohibited support institution religion. F.Supp., 915-916. rejected argument discriminate basis content. entitled less protection other types expression. 918. 6 Eighth Circuit reversed. 1310 (1980). Rejecting analysis viewed justification. 1315-1320. held 1317. According Appeals, effect" rather further neutral purpose developing students' " 'social cultural awareness well [their] intellectual curiosity.' Ibid. (quoting bulletin's description program, reprinted id., 1312, n.1). 7 We granted certiorari. 450 909, 101 1345, 67 332. now affirm. II 8 Through accommodating meetings, done so, assumed obligation discriminations exclusions applicable norms.5 forbids enforce certain public, even required create place. See, e. g., Madison Joint School Wisconsin Employment Relations Comm'n, 429 167, 175, n.8, 97 421, 426, 50 376 (1976) (although business private session, "[w]here opened direct citizen involvement," bear heavy burden justification); Southeastern Promotions, Limited Conrad, 420 546, 555-559, 95 1239, 1244-1246, 43 448 (1975) (because municipal theater public city exclude production satisfying safeguards prior restraints). 9 institutional mission, describes providing "secular education" Brief Petitioners 44, exempt actions scrutiny. With respect persons there, our cases leave doubt Amendment association extend campuses universities. Healy James, 408 169, 180, 92 2338, 2345, 33 266 (1972); Tinker Des Moines Independent District, 393 503, 506, 89 733, 736, 21 731 (1969); Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 487, 81 247, 251, 231 (1960). 10 Here UMKC discriminated desire engage These forms protected Heffron International Society Krishna Consciousness, Inc., 452 640, 2559, 69 298 (1981); Niemotko Maryland, 340 268, 71 325, L.Ed. 267 (1951); Saia New York, 334 558, 68 1148, 1574 (1948).6 exclusions. See Carey Brown, 447 455, 461, 464-465, 2286, 2290, 2292, 65 (1980).7 III 11 claims maintaining strict State. derives "Establishment Clauses" both Constitutions. Atlantic 12 argues cannot offer terms violating States.8 agree compelling. follow, Court's cases. Those hold "First, [governmental policy] have second, one advances inhibits . .; finally, [policy] 'an religion.' Lemon Kurtzman, 602, 612-613, 2105, 2111, 745 (1971). Committee Public Education Regan, 444 646, 653, 840, 846, 63 94 (1980); Roemer Maryland Works Bd., 426 748, 96 2337, 49 179 (1976). 13 two test clearly met. Both open-forum policy, including nondiscrimination speech,9 purpose10 avoid religion.11 But concluded, here, allowing share limited advancing religion.12 14 misconceives nature case. creation violate speech. (1972).13 we unpersuaded discourse, 15 oblivious range likely effects. possible—perhaps foreseeable—that benefit access facilities. explained organization's enjoyment merely "incidental" benefits prohibition advancement" Nyquist, 413 756, 771, 93 2955, 2964, 37 948 (1973); see, Works, (1976); Hunt McNair, 734, 2868, 923 McGowan 366 420, 422, 1101, 1103, (1961). 16 satisfied within meaning Two factors especially relevant. 17 First, university confer imprimatur approval sects practices. As quite aptly stated, "would more commit goals" "now committed goals Democratic Society, Young Socialist Alliance," eligible F.2d., 1317.14 18 Second, broad class nonreligious speakers; there recognized UMKC. provision spectrum important index effect. Wolman Walter, 433 229, 240-241, 2593, 2601, 53 714 (1977); supra, 781-782, n.38, S.Ct., 2969-2970, n. 38. If barred extension general "a police fire departments, sidewalk kept repair." 747, L.Ed.2d, 2345 (plurality opinion); quoted U.S., 658, n.6, 849, 6.15 At least empirical UMKC's B 19 Arguing gone proscribing indirect religion,16 provisions Constitution.17 20 courts ruled applied equally those wishing gather need not, determine how decide issue. also unnecessary us whether, Supremacy Clause,18 interest, derived own constitution, ever outweigh interests limit before us. On hand, respondents' special solicitude. Our most exacting scrutiny undertakes regulate Police Dept. Chicago Mosley, 92, 212 (1972). asserted here—in Constitution—is Free Exercise Speech context, unable recognize IV 22 way undermines capacity establish reasonable time, place, manner regulations.19 Nor right make academic judgments best allocate scarce resources "to itself who teach, what taught, shall admitted study." Sweezy Hampshire, 354 234, 263, 77 1203, 1218, 1311 (1957) (Frankfurter, J., concurring result); see California Regents Bakke, 438 265, 312-313, 98 2733, 2759-2760, 57 750 (1978) (opinion POWELL, announcing judgment Court).20 Finally, affirm continuing validity cases, 188-189, 2349-2350, campus rules substantially interfere opportunity students obtain education. 23 decision narrow. seeks Its content-neutral, violation standards. 24 For reason, 25 Affirmed. 26 STEVENS, judgment. 27 recognizes, every "make resources," ante, 278. appears hold, "serve interest" whenever they based, part, Ante, 274. conclusion apparently flows suggestion program—from excluded, 273, n.5—must managed though were "public forum."1 my opinion, "compelling forum" analyze presented needlessly undermine 28 Today major colleges universities operated authority. Nevertheless, same streets parks are. facilities—private public—are maintained primarily body faculty. performing learning teaching missions, managers countless decisions communicative materials. select books inclusion library, hire professors philosophies, courses curriculum, reward scholars written. addition, encouraging participate extracurricular activities, necessarily concerning activities. Because university's limited, educational time space evaluate proposed activity. & N Immigration Nationality Decisions think obvious, example, requested room particular time—one view Mickey Mouse cartoons rehearse amateur performance Hamlet—the require reserved submitted application first. why defend permit facility other. allowed program illuminates genius Walt Disney given precedence duplicate material adequately covered classroom. Judgments kind made academicians, federal judges,2 standards encumbered ambiguous phrases like interest."3 30 Thus, subscribe chief soapbox oration Capitol Hill. legitimately regard some subjects relevant mission others. officer, allow agreement disagreement viewpoint speaker granted. deny recognition organization—or give lesser school groups—it valid reason doing so. 266.4 31 established sufficient justification refusal campus. advanced treatment fear since record discloses danger appear sponsor participation entirely voluntary, properly concludes groundless. put side, met imposed Healy. 32 reliance case.5 said, believe measure control agenda facilities, preferring others, needing identify so-called interests." Quite obviously, Republicans Presbyterians while denying Democrats Mormons privilege.6 seems apparent attack young philosophers discuss skepticism Being exists, political scientists debate accuracy "opium people." used anticlerical doctrine, me comparable express belief God permitted. fact expression faith includes ceremonial suppressing entirely. Accordingly, although endorse reasoning, concur 34 WHITE, dissenting. 35 affirming majority rejects petitioners' purposes. property purely services Amendments. agree. 813, 2982, (1973) (WHITE, dissenting); 661, 2135, (1971) J.). Clause, sets limits organizations; do. long argued action incidentally aids held. step permissible necessary, one. view, just Religion Clauses policies beneficial words, good deal freer formulate affect divergent ways majority. Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 422-423, 83 1790, 1803-1804, 965 (1963) (Harlan, dissenting). majority's position inevitably lead contradictions tensions between warned Stewart 416, 1800. 36 issue here pertinent part: "No (except chapels herein provided) either nonstudent Student congregations local churches denominations sects, technically regulations apply organizations, provided 38 instances difficult "worship" "religious teaching," ends, group, after explicitly offering prayer, singing hymns, reading scripture, biblical principles. described follows: "Although these casual observer correspond precisely traditional service, part atmosphere." 907, 910 (1979).1 interpreted impermissible impermissible, runs afoul 39 large argument, accepted below majority, founded proposition uses Amendment.2 Not protected, argue, worshipqua different variety matter principle. plainly wrong. Were right, emptied independent circumstances practice took form 40 "novel," 274, supported previous Just last Term, obvious posting copy Ten Commandments classroom wall statute requiring summarily struck down. Stone Graham, 449 39, 192, 66 199 That presumed ignore written message, permitted treat would, must, treat, secular—messages Amendment's Similarly, prayer schools rest distinction varieties speech: act, apart content, indistinguishable biology lesson. Abington Schempp, 203, 1560, 844 (1963); Engel Vitale, 370 82 1261, 601 (1962). Operation dependent, circumstances, Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 1680, 982 (1961), down, violative requirement declaration condition employment. again scope 41 verbal acts acts, reconsidered. line draw many surely seriously suggest drawn.3 case, uphold "Sunday Mass." principle—indistinguishable "The History Catholic Church."4 42 There attempt disentangle intrude upon about subject involves only; accomplished through add anything argument. rely claim impermissibly interferes question, conclude not. Plausible analogies side themselves. Respondents agrees, permitting worship, forum." 273. ample support, argue distinctions use, messages conveyed in, forum. Department Cox Louisiana, 379 536, 85 453, 471 (1965). nondiscriminatory established. Murdock Pennsylvania, 319 105, 870, 87 1292 (1943). Moreover, clear bounds beyond go enforcing regulation: suppose prevent saying grace meals cafeteria, distribution literature campus.5 44 Petitioners, constitutionally directly subsidizing services: "fun[d] specifically otherwise setting." 743, 2874, (1973). in-kind subsidy subsidy. convincingly pays basketballs basketball team thereby Bibles Cornerstone.6 45 analogy suggests itself, falls extremes. implying Allen, 392 236, 88 1923, 1060 (1968) (state loan textbooks parochial students); Zorach Clauson, 343 306, 72 679, 954 (1952) (release schools, during hours, perform away grounds); Everson Education, 330 1, 504, 711 (1947) transportation students). Provision uniform very transportation. perspective worship; rather, choose 46 Each persuasive. results, reaching here. demonstrate difficulty reconciling various expressed Clauses. therefore, resolution achieved returning requires assessment ability freely beliefs practices 47 complain compliance them "about block half" conditions comfortable campus.7 minimal. minimal, furthers avoiding financing supporting worship—in definitive State—is truly mean act toward end amply Constitution.8 strong imposition minimal beliefs. 48 facts, permits others purposes, furnish reverse Appeals. City (UMKC) four Missouri, Missouri. organization evangelical Christian denominational backgrounds. affidavit filed "perhaps twenty actively backbone organization." Affidavit Florian (Sept. 29, 1977), 911 (WD Mo.1979). on-campus classrooms center. attracted up 125 students. typical meeting included Bible commentary, views experiences. "4.0314.0107 No Curators, laws construction. forbid functions "4.0314.0108 Regular regular recurring Special procedures each chapel Chancellor. directed advantage group." nearest Columbia campus, approximately miles east approved officials never "authorized utilize where full knowledge include[d] 910. Respondent Clark Vincent Chess, plaintiff among initiated October 13, 1977. Named defendants petitioner Dean UMKC, Curators. possesses characteristics college surrounding environs peculiarly 'the marketplace ideas.' individual take [would be] denial customary media communicating administration, faculty members, students." 181-182, 2346. enjoy "denial [to groups] purposes" subjected level restraint. 181, 184, 2346, 2347. analyzed "in light environment." (1969). continue adhere view. differs significant respects forums theaters. education, denied authority impose compatible held, nonstudents alike, grant dissent worship" "free speech" guarantee protection" "speech," reasons, "the speech." Post, 282. novel protections post, 281-282, n.2, 283. descriptions experiences fail qualify "speech." repudiate Term's appeals nonbelievers constituted Rather, kinds new "speech act[s]," 282, constituting "worship." three difficulties distinction. fails intelligible indication when "singing principles," 281, cease "singing, teaching, reading"—all despite matter—and become unprotected drew arguably principled line, highly doubtful lie judicial competence administer. Cf. Fowler Rhode Island, 345 67, 70, 73 526, 527, 828 (1953). Merely university—and ultimately courts—to inquire into significance words faiths, varying faith. Such inquiries tend entangle forbidden Walz Tax 397 664, 668, 90 1409, 1411, 697 (1970). relevance rely. wishes preserve vitality gives Constitution, designed win converts, Heffron, converted. far latter former. 2347: "It remembered College's restraint, associational above. While legitimate preventing disruption 'heavy burden' rests appropriateness action." "Congress law respecting establishment ." U.S.Const., Amdt. 1. been Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303, 60 900, 903, 84 1213 (1940). emphasizes, distinguish "religious" undertaken State, religion—and "nonreligious" speech—speech, plain text followed attempts equate difference "speech" n.3. lacks foundation judicially unmanageable. avowed exchange ideas. aim. creating promote ideas aired there. Undoubtedly advocated desires association. invalidated statutes instruction McCollum 333 649 (1948). speaker. risk "entanglement" attempting 1318 (CA8 1980). Initially, fall alone prove impossible task age definition O'Hair Andrus, 198 U.S.App.D.C. 198, 613 931, 936 (1979) (footnote omitted); L. Tribe, American Constitutional Law § 14-6 (1978). monitor ensure rule. finding relied financial assistance sectarian circumscribed constitutionality. Congress federally subsidized years, considered restriction insufficient: "If, building is, converted interests, original [constitutionally impermissible] 683, 2098. statement funds maintain read broadly. concerned might convert funded stamp nothing suggested limitation discussions. Cases acknowledged deprives solely claimed Respondents' implicates association, bases extent, any, infringed Neither reach questions arise accommodation should, conflict prohibitions are, course, adults. impressionable younger able appreciate neutrality 685-686, 2099. themselves affidavits "[s]tudents know something organization, feel attending meeting." Frederick App. 18, 19. number inference mere handbook notes name "be identified aims, policies, programs, products, opinions members." 1980-1981 Handbook 25. similarly recurrent aid schools] aspect frees spend ends." Americans Rogers, 538 South 711, 720 (Mo.) (en banc) (holding stricter Constitution), cert. denied, 1029, 632 Harfst Hoegen, 349 Mo. 808, 815-816, 163 609, 613-614 (1942) (same). Mo.Const., Article §§ 7; 9, 8. Luetkemeyer Kaufmann, Mo.1973), aff'd, 419 888, 134 (1974), VI, cl. 2. Grayned Rockford, 104, 116, 2294, 2303, 222 (1972) ("The pattern normal dictate reasonable,' quoting Wright, Campus, Vand.L.Rev. 1027, 1042 (1969)). his 278, STEVENS expresses concern "undermine universities." above clear, unjustified. n.5, supra. itself. "[i]n exclusions." page, n.20 ("Our itself"). 1311, Frankfurter forcefully spoke grave harm resulting governmental intrusion life university. 261, 1217 (concurring result). portions address T. Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Huxley: 'It atmosphere conducive speculation, experiment creation. prevail essential freedoms" university—to study.' 1218. comments "atmosphere" critical life. 312, 2759, J.) ("Academic freedom, enumerated Amendment"); Note, Academic Freedom Regulation Hiring, Harv.L.Rev. 879 Van Alstyne, Specific Theory General Issue Civil Liberty, Concept 59, 77-81 (E. Pincoffs ed. 1972). Illinois Elections Bd. Workers Party, 173, 99 983, 59 230, BLACKMUN "what tendency tests easy 'compelling [state] interest' 'least drastic [or restrictive] means.' fully is. means 'convincingly controlling,' 'incapable overcome' balancing process, then, announces inevitable result, all. And, me, means' slippery slope signal result chosen reach. judge unimaginative indeed he come little 'drastic' 'restrictive' almost situation, enable himself vote strike legislation down." 992 opinion) (citation omitted). Healy, stated: petitioners showing entitlement College. procedural file conformity College, final rejection failure convince administration unaffiliated National [Students Society]. reasons later consider affiliation controlling But, issue, once requirements, College rejection. safeguarding 183-184, 2347 (footnotes citations determination keep Church completely separate, pursuant dictates qualification. "[n]o 272, Farber, Content Amendment: Revisionist View, Geo.L.J. 727 "worship Reaching particularly inappropriate indicates phrase teaching" worship." noted plaintiffs did contend "limited, way, include services." 913. oral counsel indicated texts constitute Tr. Oral Arg. 9. sole prohibit Given entire turns surprising assumes describing discriminating "speakers discussion." above, intends discussion"—as preliminary matter, discussion" entered takes None stand proposition. involved communication nonreligious, audience. Talk beliefs, worship. park. addressing uniformly parks. 327. Indeed, footnote "requires" drawn. explain "required" observe voluntarily recognizing another context. Counsel respondents somewhat forthright extraordinary breadth collapsed "regular 26. He submission services, 39. conversion church, meets requirements entry—e. rent—as analogy. precedent simply speech—including religion—it sect chooses (1963), Thomas Indiana Security Division, 707, 1425, 624 (1981), "subsidize," indirectly, practices, subsidize similar behavior motives. message attractive suggesting fare weight appearance endorsement Since 1820, contained "not explicit restrictive Constitution." Paster Tussey, 512 97, (Mo.1974).

Classification Label: 2