Legal Document

486 U.S. 750 108 S.Ct. 2138 100 L.Ed.2d 771 CITY OF LAKEWOOD, Appellantv.PLAIN DEALER PUBLISHING CO. No. 86-1042. Argued Nov. 4, 1987. Decided June 17, 1988. Syllabus In federal-court proceedings, appellee newspaper publisher challenged, on First Amendment grounds, the facial constitutionality of appellant city's ordinance authorizing mayor to grant or deny applications for annual permits publishers place their newsracks public property, and, if application is denied, requiring "stat[e] reasons such denial." If granted, provides that permit subject, inter alia, any "terms and conditions deemed necessary reasonable by Mayor." The District Court found constitutional in its entirety, entered judgment city. Appeals reversed, finding unconstitutional ground, among others, it gave unbounded discretion a unlimited terms issued. Held: 1. Appellee may bring challenge without first applying for, being permit. Pp. 755-769. (a) When licensing statute vests unbridled government official over whether expressive activity, one who subject law facially submitting process. Such constitutes prior restraint result censorship, engendering risks free expression can be effectively alleviated only through challenge. mere existence licensor's unfettered discretion, coupled with power restraint, intimidates parties into censoring own speech, even are never actually abused. Standards limiting provide guideposts check licensor allow courts quickly easily determine discriminating against disfavored speech. Without those standards, difficulties proof case-by-case nature "as applied" challenges render action large measure unreviewable. 755-759. (b) press speaker not as censorship every involving which subject; must have close enough nexus expression, conduct commonly associated pose real substantial threat risks. allowance here justified features (1) requires applications, thus permitting probable content viewpoint future speech already uttered, (2) directed narrowly specifically at expression—the circulation newspapers—and creates agency might tend favor Constitution city establish neutral criteria insure mayor's decision based considered. 759-762. (c) There no merit theory because particular manner (the use newsracks) prohibited entirely, "First protected activity" implicated ordinance's imposing less than total prohibition, assuming entirely. Presumably case hypothetical completely prohibits face both neutral, would apply well-settled time, place, test. contrast, communication certain some but others raises danger zenith when determination speak left an official's discretion. Even constitutionally impose content-neutral prohibitions condition obtaining license from boundless Use "greater-includes-the-lesser" reasoning latter context supported this Court's cases. 762-769. 2. portions giving authority he deems "necessary reasonable" unconstitutional. It cannot presumed will adhere standards absent face, so related health, safety, welfare citizens, additional imposed similar reasons. doctrine forbidding limits claims implicit made explicit textual incorporation, binding judicial administrative construction, well-established practice. minimal requirement state his denying does ensure decisionmaking, nor it, necessity, solid foundation eventual review. review under provision were relatively speedy, substitute concrete guide decisionmaker's 769-772. 3. Other questions presented need resolved, since holding regarding mayoral-discretion provisions alone sustains Appeals' severable remainder. Severability local question law, therefore best resolved below. P. 772. 794 F.2d 1139, affirmed part remanded. BRENNAN, J., delivered opinion Court, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, SCALIA, JJ., joined. WHITE, filed dissenting opinion, STEVENS O'CONNOR, joined, post, p. REHNQUIST, C.J., KENNEDY, took consideration case. Henry B. Fischer, Cleveland, Ohio, appellant. James Garner, appellee. Justice BRENNAN Court. 1 Lakewood, suburban community bordering appeals Sixth Circuit enjoining enforcement regulating placement newsracks. court's was conclusion property where. 2 * Prior 1983, Lakewood absolutely private structure property. On strength denied Plain Dealer Publishing Company (Newspaper) permission coin-operated dispensing devices sidewalks. response, Newspaper brought suit Northern Ohio challenging ordinance. adjudged absolute prohibition unconstitutional, delayed entering permanent injunction give time amend law. 3 Although could appealed judgment, decided instead adopt two ordinances structures conditions. One concerns § 901.181, Codified Ordinances, City (1984).1 That gives newsrack permits. denies application, required event grants issues several Among them are: approval design Architectural Board Review; agreement owner indemnify liability arising newsrack, guaranteed $100,000 insurance policy effect; (3) "other Mayor."2 4 Dissatisfied new ordinance, elected seek permit, amended complaint amended. favor. three respects. First, held issues. Second, concluded absence express governing design, applications. Finally, majority panel indemnity requirements owners violate burdens placed other property.3 court foregoing severable, entire insofar regulates commercial districts.4 appealed, we noted jurisdiction. 480 904, 107 1345, 94 517 (1987). II 5 At outset, confront issue We conclude may. A. 6 Recognizing protection accorded text Amendment, our cases long allegedly necessity license.5 E.g., Freedman v. Maryland, 380 51, 56, 85 734, 737, 13 649 (1965) ("In area freedom well established has standing ground delegates overly broad office, proscribed properly drawn statute, applied ") (emphasis added); Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 97, 60 736, 742, 84 L.Ed. 1093 (1940) (in context, "[o]ne had asking . call whole scheme prosecuted failure procure it"). See also Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 394 147, 151, 89 935, 939, 22 162 (1969) (" 'The hardly thought subjected restraints [a law] right attack constitutionality, yielded demands' " (quoting Jones Opelika, 316 584, 602, 62 1231, 1242, 86 1691 (1942) (Stone, dissenting), adopted per curiam rehearing, 319 103, 104, 63 890, 87 1290 (1943))); Lovell Griffin, 303 444, 452-453, 58 666, 669, 82 949 (1938) ("As [providing discretion] void it"); cf. Secretary State Md. Joseph H. Munson Co., 467 947, 956-957, 104 2839, 2846-2847, 81 786 (1984).6 7 root line precedent time-tested knowledge placing hands censorship. Shuttlesworth, supra, U.S., S.Ct., 938; Cox Louisiana, 379 536, 453, 471 (1965); Staub Baxley, 355 313, 321-322, 78 277, 281-282, 302 (1958); Kunz New York, 340 290, 294, 71 312, 315, 95 280 (1951); Niemotko 268, 325, 267 Saia 334 558, 68 1148, 92 1574 (1948). And these evils engender identifiable As said Thornhill: 8 "Proof abuse been requisite purporting dissemination ideas. John Milton assault 'Appeal Liberty Unlicensed Printing' pernicious merely reason censure comments matters concern. sporadic censor pervasive inherent very discussion." 741-742 (emphases added). 9 Freedman, supra. Self-censorship immune challenge, derives individual's actions, power. difficult visualize relies degree single sales feeling significant pressure endorse incumbent upcoming election, refrain criticizing him, order receive favorable speedy disposition application. Only eliminate adding element certainty fatal self-censorship. Cf. Hoffman Estates Flipside, Estates, Inc., 455 489, 498, 102 1186, 1193, 362 (1982) (vagueness doctrine). test standards. 10 makes distinguish, applied," between legitimate denial illegitimate censorial guideposts, post hoc rationalizations shifting far too easy, making favorable, suppressing unfavorable, expression. See, e.g., 964, n. 12, 2850, 2851, 12; 557, 465. Further, difficulty delay itself discourage litigation. A espousing unpopular shoestring budget likely target retaliatory denial, financial means action. paper find easier capitulate what perceives preferred viewpoint, simply up shop. struggling willing able litigate successfully, relief "too little late." Until decree contrary, stands. interim, opportunities irretrievably lost. 57, 738; see Saia, 560, 1149; Cantwell Connecticut, 296, 306, 900, 1213 (1940). sum, fetter B 11 concepts form heart distinguish laws vulnerable not. discussed above, previously identified major schemes: self-censorship speakers avoid speak; detecting, reviewing, correcting content-based statutes threaten entertain immediate Therefore, lies whenever discriminate disliked speakers. This say subject. 12 regulatory present contains which, least combination, justify Lakewood's annually licenses. Thus, sort system individual multiple licenses periodically renew license. necessarily view words about spoken, uttered. position illusion effect "licensed" ability continue speaking future. Yet demonstrating link later prove impossible. While perhaps direct regulation allowing actual licensed permitted, Bantam Books, Inc. Sullivan, 372 58, 83 631, 584 (1963), periodic sufficiently threatening invite second feature expression: newspapers. framework establishes charged particularly reviewing breeding "expertise" tending Indeed, printers historically declared archetypal statute. W. Blackstone, Commentaries *152. Here again, bound licensor, way proving unconstitutionally motivated, faced prospect, they pressured conform unreviewable preference. 14 Because here, think appropriate, controlling required. Of course, require licensing, special procedures expression; 15 contrast type case, general aimed do determinations basis ongoing carry For example, building rarely effective To sure, rare occasion opportunity exist, seeks build plant. But blunt instrument warrant intervention allegation misuse. charges made, areas unrelated yardstick occasional speech-related decision. 16 discussion explains why dissent's analogy newspapers soda vendors inapposite. 788-789. Newspapers business while selling soft drinks. vendor engages soda; preventing installing machines penalize directly prevent occurring. decide vest him frequent exercise vendor's speak. 17 proper leaflets. settled leafletters laws. Talley California, 60, 80 559 (1960); (1938). accurate premise peaceful pamphleteering "is fundamentally different function newspaper." Organization Better Austin Keefe, 402 415, 419, 91 1575, 1578, 29 (1971); Lovell, 450-452, 668-669. turn head. relying meaningless distinction ultimately distributed machine rather hand. invalid distribution "by hand otherwise." 447, 667. did consider sense logic theory. effectiveness distribution, especially low-budget, controversial neighborhood newspapers, twin threats undetectable are, anything, greater pamphleteers. Schneider State, 308 164, 146, 152, 155 (1939) (relying pamphleteering); Martin Struthers, 141, 145-146, 862, 864-865, 1313 (1943) (same). C 18 analysis divorced careful examination unique just relation before us, dissent then "activity Amendment" prohibition. finds ban constitutional. concludes, involves Amendment," However, more legal sleight-of-hand, misdirecting focus inquiry vesting toward blanket prohibition.7 19 key syllogism. syllogism blind radically harms "greater" "lesser" restrictions.8 neutral. analyzing Consolidated Edison Co. Public Service Comm'n N.Y., 447 530, 535, 2326, 2332, 65 (1980); Police Department Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 2286, 33 212 (1972). rise silencing restraining channel speech; ask interest justifies silence. put another way, "the basically incompatible normal activity time." Grayned Rockford, 116, 2294, 2303, 222 20 specter official. demonstrated often uniformly policies press, hence upon speaker. 465; Staub, 322, 282. bears repeating "[i]n license." 737. Fundamentally, then, proposal ignores animating banned 21 point aptly illustrated comparison cases: (1948), Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 69 448, 93 513 (1949). prohibiting sound trucks Chief could, calculated manner, viewpoints. Just seven months trucks. plurality distinguished precisely there constituted speak, others; barred all. 80, 450 (plurality Reed, J.).9 irreconcilable now puts forward. Under novel rule, should determined completely. so, Kovacs, rejected No (as defines it) issue.10 23 Kovacs/Saia clearest example flaw reasoning. host expressly implicitly logic, considered merits embodied discrimination vested officials open-ended threatened same, where assumed greatly restricted issue. 24 instance, banning all picketing near school except labor picketing. sensitive message. Whether picket entirely dispositive inquiry. 96-99, 2290-2292. Similarly, Flower United States, 407 197, 1842, 32 653 (1972), summarily reversed conviction Flower's return military facility leaflet after having ordered leave once before. doubted commander generally restrict access facility. But, base purposes treated surrounding city, refused prohibit leafletting. Schacht 398 90 1555, 26 44 (1970), struck down actors wear uniform theater motion picture production "if portrayal discredit armed force." although valid, stand. yet rejection area. There, Jehovah's Witness convicted disorderly park whatever religious parks, depending 272-273, 327-328. Or, Frankfurter concurring "[a] standard differs toto coelo limited terms, nondiscriminatory practice, considerations safety like." Id., 282, 333. Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 269, 70 440 (1981) (public university create forum, done exclude groups justification); Madison Joint School Wisconsin Employment Relations Comm'n, 429 167, 97 421, 50 376 (1976) (School speech). counter unanimous authority, refer supporting alleged constitute used circulate otherwise regulated 25 Ultimately, fall weight. preceding demonstrates, dangers entirely—the favors along disfavors—the risk governmental implicated. outright concerns, developed tests them. reason, advance one, ignore other, satisfied. compounds error defining case) exercised. "activity" protected. After all, "[l]iberty circulating essential [freedom expression] liberty publishing; indeed, circulation, publication value." Ex parte Jackson, 96 (6 Otto) 727, 733, 877 (1878); 452, 669. 27 recharacterization semantic; substituting allows define away activities demonstrate becomes noise levels law; parade anywhere hours day; analysis, Mayor loud demonstrations evening parades "requir[e] engage Amendment." Post, 777. Grayned, 113, 2302 (implying excessively "subjective discriminatory enforcement"). 28 Moreover, countenanced linguistic prestidigitation, "manner" upheld. determining look solely Amendment's abridged. 87, 453. Council Los Angeles Taxpayers 466 789, 2118, 772 (1984). So certainly restriction; resolve III Having merits. Section provides: "The shall either [for permit], stating following terms. ." 901.181(c) sets out including: "(7) apparent nothing written make statement "it interest" inaccessible location providing explanation whatever. illusory "constraints" renders guarantee high-sounding ideal. 150-151, 938-939. 30 asks us presume presumes act good faith face. presumption disallows. (1965). Poulos Hampshire, 345 395, 73 760, 1105 (1953); (1951). write nonbinding silent statute.11 31 disclaims desire pass issue, apparently resist few regard. 793, 13. asserts distinguishes specificity, give. comforted availability comes Nowhere body dispatch. Rather, languish indefinitely Council, Newspaper's remedy petition mandamus. 54-55, 59, 736-737, 739. decision-maker's 1149, ---- - ----. attempts given whereas former supposedly urgency. overstates proposition. agree exceptional force argument denied. wait always news report. News fungible. Some stories covered publications, develop readership. benefit event, needs time; come 738. forgo four years lawsuit. smaller publications same sacrifice. IV 34 hold reasonable," remaining review, mayoral sustain Mayflower Farms, Ten Eyck, 297 266, 274, 56 457, 459, 675 (1936). Accordingly, remand cause take further consistent opinion. 35 ordered. 36 THE CHIEF JUSTICE KENNEDY 37 whom O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 38 Today takes extraordinary doctrine, cautiously past years, applies circumstance, precedent. unwarranted expansion previous cases, I dissent. 39 important set forth dispute. 40 quite municipal declines "pass" Ante, 762, 7. My approach specific majority, me question; below, precedents suggest sidewalks constitutional, true here) ample alternative 24-hour exist. ruling today read indication contrary: cities remain today's enact bans. 41 rejects view, heretofore lower courts, se unconstitutional.1 Cities "may expression." 760. common allowed exert control permanently appropriate purpose erecting device. 42 disagreement status newsracks, propriety vending devices. dispute "technical" question: What scope peculiar governs area? reads "a [an] ris[k]," "whenever [such speech." 759. true, believes, him; indicates willingness abjure here). 43 "giv[e] speech" face—without showing discrimination, potential licensee sweep potent principled; rooted history. expression," unduly broad. locality Amendment. opposed matter), exception usual here. Our indicate "excessive discretion" 45 reluctant attacks statutes, i.e., Court.2 rule follow activities. York ex rel. Lieberman Van De Carr, 199 552, 144, 305 (1905), plaintiff milk Plaintiff claimed arbitrary board select permitted sell milk. response was: 46 "[Prior] doubt proposition conferring discretionary boards withhold trade within police violative rights secured Fourteenth arbitrarily exercised, shown exercised individual, sanction hesitated interfere protection, authorize interference Federal court." 562, 146. 47 error, affirmed. "One heard complain, refusal. He happens." Highland Farms Dairy, Agnew, 300 608, 616-617, 57 549, 553, 835 (1937) (citations omitted). effect.3 specified assume illegally Douglas Noble, 261 165, 170, 303, 305, 67 590 (1923); Lieberman, 146.4 48 however, contexts departed insistence as-applied adjudication. suitably confined. "In (1965).5 draws support 49 prevailing each involved sought altogether. Streets, sidewalks, parks traditional fora; leafletting, pamphletting, places regulated, 312 569, 574-575, 61 765, 1049 (1941); 306-307, 904-905, (1940); forbidden, Jamison Texas, 318 413, 869 (1943); Likewise, prerequisite exhibition film Maryland. 52-53, 1, 735-736 included Part II-C, infra. how themselves defined Lovell-Freedman doctrine. affect "enjoyment freedoms guarantees." (1958). "subjecting to" suspect, 938-939, (1969), amorphous "nexus" 51 applicable stores sold These obviously municipality therefore, muster But—and critical—Lakewood cast wide net. Instead, (and like devices) precedents, distribute papers newsboxes, affixed am convinced 52 streets, leaflet, solicit, proselytize forum "does mean [appellee] [its newspapers] where, [it] chooses." Breard Alexandria, 341 622, 642, 920, 932, 1233 More specifically, Dealer's encompass property—a vigorously argues—and exclusive use, semi-permanent basis, erection newsbox.6 newspaper. privilege invade liberties others," Associated Press NLRB, 301 132-133, 650, 656, 953 (1937); "rights others" public-at-large's chosen activities, including passage streets. 160, 150, (1939). 53 From outset contemporary recognized streets "have immemorially trust public." Hague CIO, 307 496, 515, 59 954, 1423 public, "cordon" off portion sidewalk effort increase papers. Schneider, 150. wrote ago, upholding telegraph company's poles property: 54 ordinary traveler, foot vehicle, passes fro occupation thereof temporary shifting. members open equally [all] citizens. company is, respect much space occupies poles, exclusive. Whatever transportation messages, respects highway personal travel, wholly lost St. Louis Western Union Telegraph 148 98-99, 485, 488, (1893). 55 publish municipalities construction printing books, accept bookseller construct bookshop—even small one—on sidewalk. booth leafletting conducted. Preventing "taking" abridge freedoms. operate bookstore locate movie however wherever chooses notwithstanding Arcara Cloud 478 697, 106 3172, 568 (1986); Renton Playtime Theatres, 475 41, 925, (1986), erect distributors seeking materials facilitates efforts. "We again reject 'notion somehow fully realized unless subsidized State.' Regan Taxation Representation Wash., 461 540, 546, 103 1997, 2001, 76 129 (1983) (quotingCammarano 358 79 524, 534, 462 (1959) (Douglas, concurring)). Consequently, subsidize giving, selling, leasing preserve lawfully dedicated." Adderley Florida, 385 39, 47, 242, 247, 149 (1966). Preserving generally, corporation, "lawfully dedicated" use. belong primarily way." Packard Banton, 264 140, 257, 259, 596 (1924). otherwise, interests cities—like placements.7 interests, ----, keeping entity. concern consistently localities insuring persons using forums. Heffron International Society Krishna Consciousness, 452 640, 101 2559, 2565, 298 (1981); 115, 2302, (1972); 574, 765. testimony trial detailed variety posed running gamut obvious unimaginable.8 Based testimony, "along increas[e] probability accidents injury." App. Juris. Statement A32. disturbed Appeals, ruling. third cities' aesthetic interests. countless American invested sums money renovate urban centers districts. Increasingly, discordant area.9 sufficient outdoor advertising signs, extent signs convey messages. Metromedia, San Diego, 453 490, 507-508, 2882, 2892-2893, 800 opinion); id., 552-553, 2915-2916 (STEVENS, part); 559-561, 2919-2920 (Burger, dissenting); 570, 2924 (REHNQUIST, dissenting). billboards. "[T]he attempting quality life high respect." Young Mini 427 50, 71, 2440, 2453, (opinion Stevens, J.). 806-807, 2129-2130, (1984); hesitant recognize "ample channels" available distributing Arcara, 705-706, 2, 3177, 2; Perry Education Assn. Local Educators' Assn., 460 37, 53, 948, 959, 74 (1983); Virginia Pharmacy Bd. Citizens Consumer 425 748, 771, 1817, 1830, 346 (1976). person lives one-quarter mile outlet: store night newsbox located A27. Home delivery, distributes vast A26, option well. undertake most possible 647, 2563. believe objections right, predicate Maryland Ordinance regulate traditional, adjudication exemplified Appellee's 901.181(c)(7) rejected. offers departing "nexus expression" turn. 64 comparing decisions: sound-amplification trucks; upheld totally Today's states grounds 764-766. 66 majority's reading flawed "rationale rather, three-Justice plurality. 78-89, 449-450 fact, Justices understood exact contrary manner—i.e., repudiation earlier Saia. 97-98, 459 (Jackson, concurring); 101-102, 460-461 (Black, Douglas, Rutledge, rests accepted decided. An plausible revisiting sound-truck Kovacs: rested "assumption"—later proved erroneous Kovacs—that repeatedly suggests "ban" muster. 1150. 559-560, 561, indicated moved "indispensable instruments Since Saia's underlying called least, Saia-Kovacs shaky departure undertakes. incorrectly rely now-discredited formulation Holmes, Davis Massa- chusetts, 167 43, 731, (1897). 762-766. applicability whatsoever, ante, 766-767, slay straw man creation. inception, holds altogether, consequently "to circumstances [activity] availed of, lesser." Davis, 48, 733. if, provided issuance owned race, political party, clearly (or Constitution), invalid. granted improper reasons, susceptible attack. embrace abandoned ago. 963. 72 my this: forbidden altogether (without afoul Amendment) requirement, presence se. case—which involve freedoms—the apply, rules concerning permissibility laws) prevail. understand 786. asserted "[t]he 'activity' protected." Ibid. wrong. not, jurisdiction—the many 373-374. majority—and I—that guilty "recharacterizing" is: 75 why, intimations 766-769, change outcome licenses—not narrow category prohibited—but sweeping range activity. 149, 937, "any parade"; 735-736, films Maryland; 451, 668, leaflets pamphlets limits. Surely, extreme level abstraction operates difference laws, focused regulation. 13, address offers. 77 Instead clear support, adopts apply. peculiarly troublesome, uncertain vague expanse. appears stop short saying suppress great abused limit delegations 503-504, 1195-1196, (1982).10 enacted tandem 901.181 illustrates principle discussed, 753—754, invalidated complete (then 901.18 code), ordinances. One, property—the appeal. second, 901.18, uses 266-267. Someone wishes soft-drink fear engaged Council's liking. fears substantial, facts eminently provable courtroom; applicant Councilwoman her last election campaign. surely possibility therein fears. 121, 2306, 50; Euclid Ambler Realty 272 365, 395-396, 114, (1926). Seeking expansive ruling, examples instances newly crafted strike decisions. told granting placements "frequent 761. How empirical assessment, know. seems product—be pop alter significant, widely known speech—and incur wrath officials. "usefulness" licensee's whatsoever situation vendor.11 treatment problem curious enough, "assures" invalidate requiring, facilities. told, intervention." "laws appear survive today. decision, repeals law) device" property) books? section guidelines 901.181) "general application," scrutiny opinion—even odd "the-greater-but-not-the-lesser" quality: tradition challenges, litigants. prudent one. Most importantly, detriment newspaper, 901.181. A30. "Mayor stands ready City" pursuant "only use." Indicative litigation fact January 1987, interim property—an defects challenged Eighteen passed enacted, still property.12 strange rhetorical flourish, belittles usefulness tool licenses, afford await results 771. "[N]ewspaper can[not] permit" time," remonstrated. 771—772. eschewed year half. mentions ever-present self-censorship, result. 757-759, 767—768. efforts Ohio's largest handful newsboxes locations community. accepts appellee's expert, unlikely percent two; paper's overall affected one-hundredth (0.01%). 82-84, 214. hard harder image censor, fits declined appeal adverse 270-274. liking, meet newspaper's concerns. 275. disgruntled, won Brief A56-A59. David Goliath imagery balance regulator inapt—except, possibly, reverse.13 88 Because, unlike virtue mayor, reach cited. Parts III, 901.181(a), Review Board. argues provision, excessive Board, thereby concluded, Board's role fail did. 901.181(a) fallacy exposed considering full implications. 1325.04, approve designs "all City." 386 potentially speech-suppressing invalid, 1325.04 well: punish chill building.14 1325.04. 901.181(a)—which subjects architectural erected Lakewood—is either. immunity businesses therein. laws." 132, 656; also, Citizen 131, 139, 927, 931, (1969); Oklahoma Walling, 327 186, 192-193, 494, 497-498, 614 (1946). process A36. According bookstores, theaters, churches renovation obtain construction. Appellant 37-38. exempt anomalous precedents. 62, 2448. 1146 (CA6 1986), designs, "buildings." disapproval ironic, "narro[w] specifi[c]" suspect. defect fault today, rock place: newsrack-specific, accused drawing noose tightly around activities; your regulators lack conundrum unfortunate. Simply ways papers, via "buildings," escape all-inclusive extends cover here: Newsracks disregard economic esthetic contribute "visual blight" working eradicate. 810, 2131. noted, 790, due 760—761. imposition newsboxes. occasion, initial adoption encompassed permissible final disputed 901.181(c)(5), occasioned installation use" newsrack. permittees amount liability. obvious. sovereign immunity, liable negligence performance nonperformance acts." Haverlack Portage Homes, St.3d 26, 30, 442 N.E.2d 749, 752 (1982); Dickerhoof Canton, 128, 451 1193 (1983). injury caused remains avoiding Council. acknowledges that, alone, indemnification constitutional; recognizes bar requirements.15 Nor argue unobtainable, economically infeasible.16 found), "users" F.2d, 1147. 98 "differential [for] presumptively unconstitutional." Minneapolis Star & Tribune Minnesota Comm'r Revenue, 575, 585, 1365, 1372, 295 Yet, inapposite unpersuasive. on-street objects welfare—such bus shelters, telephone electric wiring emergency phone boxes—and company, Judge Unthank, concurrence "public services quasi-governmental nature," 1148. one.17 99 ensued, structures, explicitly newsrack-permittee holders, land. Compare 901.181(c)(5) 901.18. record Gannett Satellite Information Network, Metropolitan Transportation Authority, 745 767, 773-774 (CA2 1984); 755, begin treat nonpress favorably permittees, valid time. unwilling imply practice us. 932. 901.181(c)(5). V reverse invalidating deals unchallenged. relevant follows: "901.181 NEWSPAPER DISPENSING DEVICES; PERMIT AND APPLICATION "Applications forms approved rental thoroughfares respecting throughout City. terms: "(a) [newsracks] Review. "(b) residential districts "(c) conditions: "(5) permittee save harmless device furnish, permittee's expense, protect damage bodily injury, death, arise operation connection therewith Hundred Thousand Dollars ($100,000). "(6) term assignable; Mayor. "(e) aggrieved refusing revoking quoted 1141, 1986). utilities (telephone booths, utility shelters) extant enacted. severable. Its diminished away. Pittsburgh Human Relations, 413 376, 385, 2553, 2558, 669 (1973). general, compare Plymouth Coal Pennsylvania, 232 531, 359, 713 (1914) (coal mining), Yazoo Mississippi Valley R. Jackson Vinegar 226 217, 40, 193 (1912) (railroad), (1905) (dairy business), 964-968, 2851-2853 (charity solicitation), Hynes Oradell, 610, 1755, 243 (registration candidate charity solicitation door door), (parade), (film censorship), (1960) (handbills), (1948) (sound trucks), (leaflets), challenges. logical framework, informs abjures reliance next sentence "where Amendment)," prevail." words, includes lesser clearer discredited imagined. plurality's (three dissent) broader rationale repudiated. WHITE's interpretation square jurisprudence: commands viewed taken Members concurred judgmen[t] narrowest grounds." Marks 430 188, 193, 990, 993, 260 (1977). Clearly, judgment. history vindicated distinction. cited literally hundreds times 40-year (a phenomenon "repudiated"), notation "overruled Munson, 965, (citing presents unacceptable suppression ideas, face); Schad Mount Ephraim, 61, 84, 2176, 2190-2191, 671 judgment) ("Presumably, activity—even activity—pursuant standards; 558 [68 1148], [69 448]"); (Kovacs compared course string cite illustrate approves restrictions neutral); (1951) Vinson, joined Burton, Clark, Minton, JJ.) loudspeaker amplifier unconstitutional). ignored. California LaRue, 409 109, 117, 390, 396, 342 (1972) "States validly neighborhoods"); Red Lion Broadcasting FCC, 395 367, 386-387, 1794, 1804-1805, 371 neutrally regulated); Edwards South Carolina, 229, 680, 687, 697 (1963) (Clark, dissenting) broadcast truck streets). instant criminal prosecution. foolish federal courts' declaratory authorization, U.S.C. 2201 (1982 ed., Supp. IV), Steffel Thompson, 415 1209, 505 (1974). argued, unpersuasively, pre-enforcement unfairly deprive chance state-court authoritatively construed well-understood virtually light imposed. (1953). narrowing "fairly susceptible." Erznoznik Jacksonville, 422 205, 2268, 125 (1975); Broadrick Oklahoma, 601, 617-618, 2908, 2918-2919, 830 litigant development bringing suit. Houston Hill, 482 2502, (1987) (declining abstain certification construe fairly construction). Once agreed gained Facial attacks, nature, dependent denial. waiting achieve exist temporarily limbo uncertainty during interim. Minneapolis, Med.L.Rptr. 2116, 2122-2123 (DC Minn.1983); Rochester, Misc.2d 619, 330 N.Y.S.2d 648 Brockett Spokane Arcades, 472 491, 501-503, 105 2794, 2800-2802, (1985); States Grace, 171, 175, 1702, 1705, 736 Nixon Administrator General Services, 433 425, 438-439, 2777, 2787-2788, 867 (1977); E. Seagram Sons, Hostetter, 384 35, 52, 1254, 1264, (1966); Raines, 20-24, 519, 522-524, 524 Watson Buck, 313 387, 402, 962, 967, 1416 (1941). Independent Warehouses, Scheele, 331 70, 1062, 1072, 1346 (1947); Smith Cahoon, 283 582, 1264 (1931); 544-545, 362-363, (1914); Bradley Richmond, 227 477, 482-483, 318, 319-320, 603 (1913); 224 168, 449, 710 (1912); Fischer Louis, 194 361, 371, 673, 675, 1018 (1904); Baer Wauwatosa, 716 1117, 1123-1124 (CA7 1983); Spanish 128 U.S.App.D.C. 93, 615, 626 (1967); Wallach Pagedale, 671, 674-675 (CA8 1967). Confining attention impact complaining party advisability concrete, hypothetical, proposition, arrive informed judgments Much underlies case-or-controversy Article III. As-applied serves end deciding dispose submission unnecessary confrontations Congress legislators. Ashwander TVA, 288, 346-348, 466, 482-484, 688 938, 557-558, 465-466, 319, 280, resists "characterization" arguing "ren[t]" "permanently aside" Tr. Oral Arg. 47. contends, right" mechanical cousin" "newsboy." 10; NLRB Hearst Publications, 322 111, 115-116, 851, 853, 1170 (1944). "permanent" buildings peripatetic 37-38; McDonald 121 90, 90-91, 300, Editor Publisher, Apr. 9, 8, col. (discussing "bolting" sidewalks). Here, "placement normally occupying years." A30-A31. object size, weight, permanence "physical occupation" Loretto Teleprompter Manhattan CATV Corp., 458 427-430, 434-435, 3164, 3171-3173, 3175-3176, 868 Lovett West Central Gas W.Va. 739, 742-743, S.E. 196, 197-198 (1909); Southwestern Bell Telephone Webb, 393 S.W.2d (Mo.App.1965). character newsrack's intrusion lessened 487-488, (1893) (discussed infra ----). conflict accounts recent spate 767 Miami Herald Hallandale, 734 666 (CA11 Providence Journal Newport, 665 F.Supp. (RI1987); Norwood, 579 (Mass.1984); N.Y.2d 576, 516 616, 509 311 (1987); Burlington Times Vt. 275, 532 A.2d 562 Printing Totowa, 211 N.J.Super. 511 139 (1986). Ball, Extra! Read All About It: Problems Regulation Coin-Operated Vending Machines, Colum.J.L. Soc.Probs. 183, 185-187 (1985). testifying reported numerous incidents newsboxes—signposts, signal poles—were hit cars, bicycles, pedestrians. 144-145. vehicle sidewalk, injuring occupants passersby. Tua Brentwood Motor Coach Pa. 209 (1952). Cars drivers purchase increasing traffic hazards driving. 89, 124-128. exhibits introduced described restricting pedestrian traffic, blocking ramps handicapped, fire hydrants. 151-154; Defendant's Exs. GG-1, GG-7, GG-9, 391-393. one-on-one encounter seemingly benign McDermott Engstrom, So.2d 553 (Fla.1955). recently received serious electrical shock approached resulting bolts anchor penetrated line. Are Streets Walking?, Dealer, July 3, 12-A, cols. 1-2; N.Y. Times, 14, 1986, A14, 5; 16, 1-2. article growing frustration rapidly escalating numbers Longhini, Coping High-Tech Headaches, Planning Contents, 31-32 (Mar.1984). Esthetic problems chief complaints. 31. Many residents expressing dismay distributors' seeming Sept. 1984, 11, 1-3; Aug. 22, A12, 3-5; May 28, hire employees concern, see, Rankin McPherson, 483 378, 2891, 315 (1987), employers fire. plenary commissions misused infringe rights, Pacific Electric Utilities Cal., 10-15, 903, 908-911, 533-535, 2330-2332, (1980), infirm. liquor violation Reed Village Shorewood, 704 943, 949-951 1983), practical contemplated prospect permits—a sole proprietorship source owner's income, newsracks—I feel constrained anticipation encounter. oral highlights point: "QUESTION: Well, [the interim] effect, you gone ahead installed boxes? "MR. GARNER [Appellees' Counsel]: No, Your Honor. Why not? GARNER: thought, suggested earlier, standpoint certainly— you'd win lawsuit get boxes there. Yes, that's correct, 43-44. (comparing (1965), (1969)). aspects diminish abuses factors schemes past, 149-150, 153, 157-158, 937-938, 940, 942-943, facilitate help rest rationale. decisions distinguishing aspect 284. 901.181(e), instance) unfavorable Then, unsuccessful, dissatisfied Rev.Code Ann. 2506.01 et seq. (Supp.1987). assurance go unremedied. conducting (such organizing parade) "most propitious [may] pas[s]," 740, processes serve burden permit-applicant, Shuttlesworth. Not Boards plans applicants reprisal wish place. National Institute Municipal Law Officers Amicus Curiae. excerpt clear: [Y]ou assert devices? remarkable [Appellee's suggesting that. 48. argue. copies $1 million (10 901.181(c)(5)) obtained Ohio—including Cleveland—where 401. addition, beyond entities predate legislation. appellant, boxes, easement decades old. 28. contended Dealer) contracts ibid. Henceforth, pre-existing nonindemnifying become "isolated exceptions rule." 583, 5, 1371, 193-194, Any current, would, Star, 583-584, 1370-1371.

Classification Label: 2