Legal Document

521 U.S. 507117 S.Ct. 2157138 L.Ed.2d 624 CITY OF BOERNE, Petitioner,v.P.F. FLORES, Archbishop of San Antonio, and United States. No. 95-2074. Supreme Court the States Argued Feb. 19, 1997. Decided June 25, Syllabus * Respondent, Catholic applied for a building permit to enlarge church in Boerne, Texas. When local zoning authorities denied permit, relying on an ordinance governing historic preservation district which, they argued, included church, brought this suit challenging denial under, inter alia, Religious Freedom Restoration Act 1993 (RFRA). The District concluded that by enacting RFRA Congress exceeded scope its enforcement power under §5 Fourteenth Amendment. court certified order interlocutory appeal, Fifth Circuit reversed, finding be constitutional. Held: exceeds Congress' power. Pp. ____-____. (a) enacted direct response Employment Div., Dept. Human Resources Oregon v. Smith, 494 872, 110 1595, 108 876, which upheld against free exercise challenge state law general applicability criminalizing peyote use, as deny unemployment benefits Native American Church members who lost their jobs because such use. In so ruling, declined apply balancing test Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 83 1790, 10 965, asks whether at issue substantially burdens religious practice and, if so, burden is justified compelling government interest. prohibits " [g]overnment'' from "substantially burden[ing]'' person's religion even results rule unless can demonstrate (1) furtherance governmental interest; (2) least restrictive means furthering . interest.'' 42 U.S.C. §2000bb-1. RFRA's mandate applies any branch Federal or State Government, all officials, other persons acting color law. §2000bb-2(1). Its universal coverage includes "all law, implementation statutory otherwise, adopted before after [RFRA's enactment].'' §2000bb-3(a). (b) imposing requirements States, relied Amendment, guarantees no shall make enforce depriving person "life, liberty, property, without due process law,'' denying "equal protection laws,'' §1, empowers "to enforce'' those "appropriate legislation,'' §5. Respondent amicus contend permissible legislation Although certainly enact enforcing constitutional right religion, see, e.g., Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303, 60 900, 903, 84 L.Ed. 1213, only preventive "remedial,'' South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 326, 86 803, 817-818, 15 769. Amendment's design §5's text are inconsistent with suggestion has decree substance restrictions Legislation alters Free Exercise Clause's meaning cannot said Clause. does not changing what is. While line between measures remedy prevent unconstitutional actions substantive change easy discern, must have wide latitude determining where it lies, distinction exists observed. There congruence proportionality injury prevented remedied end. Lacking connection, may become operation effect. need distinguish supported history Court's case Civil Rights Cases, 109 3, 13-14, 15, 3 18, 22-24, 27 835; Mitchell, 400 112, 209, 91 260, 307-308, 350, 272. proved significant also maintaining traditional separation powers Judiciary, interpret elaborate conferring self-executing rights cf. id., 325, S.Ct., 816-817, thereby leaving interpretive Judiciary. (c) proper contradicts vital principles necessary maintain federal-state balance. An instructive comparison drawn Voting 1965, provisions were supra, subsequent voting cases. contrast record widespread persisting racial discrimination confronted Judiciary cases, legislative lacks examples instances generally applicable laws passed bigotry past 40 years. Rather, emphasis hearings was like one place incidental religion. It difficult based animus hostility burdened practices indicate some pattern country. most serious shortcoming, however, lies fact out proportion supposed remedial object understood responsive to, designed prevent, behavior. appears, instead, attempt protections, proscribing conduct Amendment itself prohibit. sweeping ensures intrusion every level government, displacing prohibiting official almost description regardless subject matter. agency official, §2000bb-2(1), enactment, termination date mechanism. Any time individual claims substantial his her Such claim will often contest. See 887, 1604-1605. Requiring interest show achieving demanding known U.S., 888, 1605. Furthermore, requirement used pre-Smith jurisprudence purported codify. All told, considerable congressional into States' prerogatives authority regulate health welfare citizens, identify counteract likely treatment 73 F.3d 1352, reversed. KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., STEVENS, THOMAS, GINSBURG, JJ., joined, but Part III-A-1 SCALIA, joined. filed concurring opinion. part, O'CONNOR, dissenting opinion, BREYER, joined except portion I. SOUTER, opinions. Marci A. Hamilton, Yardley, PA, petitioner. Jeffrey S. Sutton, Columbus, OH, Ohio, et al., amici curiae special leave Court. Douglas Laycock, Austin, TX, respondent P. F. Flores. Walter Dellinger, Durham, NC, Justice KENNEDY Court.* 1 A decision challenged (RFRA), 107 Stat. 1488, §2000bb seq. calls question RFRA. We conclude statute 2 Situated hill city Texas, 28 miles northwest St. Peter Church. Built 1923, church's structure replicates mission style region's earlier history. seats about 230 worshippers, number too small growing parish. Some parishioners accommodated Sunday masses. meet needs congregation Antonio gave permission parish plan alterations building. few months later, Boerne City Council authorizing city's Historic Landmark Commission prepare proposed landmarks districts. Under ordinance, preapprove construction affecting buildings district. 4 Soon afterwards, could proceed. authorities, designation (which, church), application. Western 877 F.Supp. 355 (1995). 5 complaint contained various claims, point litigation centered constitutionality. upon basis relief refusal permit. appeal 1352 (1996). granted certiorari, 519 ----, 117 293, 136 212 (1996), now reverse. II 6 876 (1990). we considered Clause when had peyote. Their ingest sacramental purposes, made use drug criminal. evaluating claim, set forth 965 (1963), would asked Oregon's prohibition did, stated: 7 [G]overnment's ability prohibitions socially harmful depend measuring effects action objector's spiritual development. To individual's obligation obey contingent law's coincidence beliefs, State's "compelling' both tradition common sense.'' 885, 1603 (internal quotation marks citation omitted). 8 application test, Smith explained, produced anomaly ignore neutral applicability. been accentuated, reasoned, difficulty particular central moreover, "is within judicial ken centrality beliefs faith, validity litigants' interpretations creeds.'' 1604 9 neutral, failed pass muster, noted, cases protections stake. Id., 881-882, 1601-1602. Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 92 1526, 32 (1972), example, invalidated Wisconsin's mandatory school-attendance Amish parents refused grounds send children school. That implicated control children's education. acknowledged employed considering challenges compensation rules three occasions balance tipped favor individual. Sherbert, supra; Thomas Review Bd. Indiana Security 450 707, 101 1425, 67 (1981); Hobbie Unemployment Appeals Comm'n Fla., 480 136, 1046, 94 190 (1987). Those stand "the proposition system exemptions, refuse extend hardship reason.'' 884, By contrast, prohibition, Oregon's, issue, sounder approach, approach accord vast majority our precedents, hold inapplicable [free exercise] challenges.'' 1603. held 11 Four Members disagreed. They argued placed served narrowly tailored achieve 894, 1608. O'CONNOR satisfied while Blackmun, Brennan Marshall, see justifying members. 12 These points interpretation debated floor debates. Many criticized reasoning, disagreement resulted passage announced: 13 [T]he framers Constitution, recognizing unalienable right, secured First Constitution; 14 "neutral' toward surely intended interfere exercise; (3) governments should justification; 16 (4) Division (1990), virtually eliminated justify imposed religion; 17 (5) prior rulings workable striking sensible balances liberty competing interests.'' §2000bb(a). Act's stated purposes are: 18 restore (1963) (1972) guarantee burdened; 19 provide defense whose government.'' §2000bb(b). 20 "branch, department, agency, instrumentality, (or law) States,'' well "State, subdivision State.'' confirmed §2000bb-3(a), "applies accordance usage term, "state law'' include municipal ordinances. III 21 Government enumerated powers. M'Culloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 405, 579 (1819); Federalist 45, p. 292 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961) (J. Madison). determine constitutionality laws, controversies, premise "powers legislature defined limited; limits mistaken, forgotten, constitution written.'' Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 176, (1803). 22 far reaching provisions, impose 1993, S.Rep. 103-111, pp. 13-14 (1993) (Senate Report); H.R.Rep. 103-88, (House Report). provides, relevant part: 23 "Section No abridge privileges immunities citizens States; nor deprive life, law; jurisdiction equal laws. 24 ..... 25 5.The enforce, appropriate legislation, article.'' 26 parties disagree over legislation'' laws.'' contends, support amicus, legislation. Congress, said, protecting liberties guaranteed Due Process Clause, beyond Smith. dispense proof deliberate overt instead concentrate accords settled understanding violations. further contended limited acknowledge "a positive grant power'' Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 651, 1717, 1723, 828 (1966). Ex parte Virginia, 100 339, 345-346, 676 (1879), explained following broad terms: 29 "Whatever appropriate, is, adapted carry objects amendments view, whatever tends submission contain, secure enjoyment perfect equality civil invasion, prohibited, domain power.'' 30 deters remedies violations fall sweep intrudes "legislative spheres autonomy previously reserved States.'' Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 455, 96 2666, 2671, 49 614 (1976). For suspension literacy tests similar parallel Fifteenth Const., Amdt. §2, measure combat voting, 308, 808, 769 (1966), despite facial Lassiter Northampton County Elections, 360 79 985, 1072 (1959). Amendments, supra (upholding several 1965); ban prohibited certain people schooled Puerto Rico voting); 272 (1970) 5-year nationwide registering vote); Rome 446 156, 161, 1548, 1553, 64 119 (1980) 7-year extension jurisdictions preclear ""standard, practice, procedure respect voting'''); James Everard's Breweries Day, 265 545, 44 628, 68 1174 (1924) medical prescription intoxicating malt liquors Eighteenth manufacture, sale, transportation beverage purposes). 31 true, [a]s unlimited.'' 128, 266 (opinion Black, J.). assessing breadth power, begin text. given "provisions agree respondent, course, article,'' refers, follows holding 1213 (1940), "fundamental concept embodied [the Clause] embraces Amendment.'' Price, 787, 789, 1152, 1154, 267 (1966) (there "no doubt criminal sanction Amendment'') §5, extends "enforc[ing]'' described 817-818. enforce,'' constitutes violation. Were longer be, meaningful sense, Amendment].'' 33 History drawing distinction, apparent 34 confirms remedial, rather than substantive, nature Enforcement Joint Committee Reconstruction 39th began drafting January 1866. objections Committee's first draft rejection draft, bearing defining February, Republican Representative John Bingham Ohio reported amendment House Representatives behalf Committee: 35 "The each property.'' Cong. Globe, Cong., 1st Sess., 1034 (1866). 36 proposal encountered immediate opposition, continued through days debate. across political spectrum criticisms theme: much expense existing structure. E.g., 1063-1065 (statement Rep. Hale); 1082 Sen. Stewart); 1095 Hotchkiss); App. 133-135 Rogers). Democrats conservative Republicans give intrude areas responsibility, federal Constitution. Typifying these views, Robert Hale New York labeled "an utter departure principle ever dreamed men framed Constitution,'' 1063, warned codes procedures overridden, repealed abolished, established instead.'' Ibid. Senator William Stewart Nevada likewise "Congress legislate fully subjects property,'' "there left Legislatures,'' "work entire form 1082; accord, 1087 Davis); 133 radicals, brethren "unwilling establish uniform throughout Hotchkiss), objected giving primary responsibility legal hands majorities. Bickel, Original Understanding Segregation Decision, 69 Harv. L.Rev. 1, 57 (1955); Graham, Our "Declaratory'' Stan. (1954). 37 As result having expressed many different quarters, voted table until April. B. Kendrick, Journal Fifteen 215, 217 (1914); 42d 115 (1871) Farnsworth). seen marking defeat proposal. Nation, Mar. 8, 1866, 291 ("The postponement conclusive [it]''); Times, ("It doubtful comes again ''); App., Farnsworth) (The "given quietus two months, slept sleep knows waking''). defeated "chiefly profession s[aw] [it] dangerous centralization power,'' 291, "many leading th[e] [of Representatives] consent radical 151 Garfield). early considered. Instead, new article April 30, 38 Section prescribed [t]he 2286. revised plenary remedial. effective. protect national Republic whenever same abridged acts 2542. Stevens "allow[ing] correct unjust 2459. 2768 Howard) (§5 "enables conflict amendment, formal enactment''). H. Brannon, Privileges Guaranteed Constitution 387 (1901) (Congress' prohibitive, corrective, vetoing, aimed undue law''); 420, 452-455 (same); T. Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 294, n. (2d 1871) ("This purpose police preclude "abridge States'''). did raise concerns regarding prescribe property. See, Garfield) [Fourteenth Amendment] oust State[s]''). After revisions here, Houses ratified July 1868 39 significance then. During debates Ku Klux Klan years ratification, Garfield there saying "unless language clauses cannot, reasonable interpretation, [§5] force effect rejected [Bingham] clause.'' 151; 115-116 Scholars successive generations agreed assessment. Flack, Adoption (1908); 1966 Sup.Ct. Rev. 79, 97. eight Amendments action, prohibitions. thought, departed vesting it, "Congress, courts, judge 64. aspect occasion resistance caused proposal's threat balance, nonetheless attracted attention Members. 1064 Hale) (noting Bill Rights, unlike proposal, "provide safeguards enforced exercised Legislature''); Rogers) (prior "was entirely courts citizens''). enacted, confers self-executing. Cf. 816-817 (discussing Amendment). controversy remains 41 limitation inherent earliest 835 (1883), sections 1875 penalties full of'' public accommodations conveyances, seeking private conduct. authorize "general citizen, corrective legislation; counteracting adopt making '' 23. "legislate upon'' opposed "power modes redress'' offensive "repugnant'' 24. Reese, 214, 218, 563 (1875); Harris, 106 629, 639, 601, 609-610, 290 (1883); Bowman, 127, 139, 678, 679-680, 47 979 (1903). specific holdings might superseded modified, Heart Atlanta Motel, Inc. 379 241, 85 348, 258 (1964); Guest, 745, 1170, 239 preventive, definitional, questioned. Recent revolve around emphasized propriety [legislation judged reference historical experience reflects.'' 808. them "remedies flagrant,'' 315, 811, "banish blight infected electoral parts country nearly century,'' noted evidence reflecting subsisting pervasive discriminatory-and therefore unconstitutional-use tests. 333-334, 821-822. remedies, administrative resources pending review, regulations covered jurisdictions, assignment examiners list qualified applicants enabling listed vote. new, unprecedented deemed ineffectiveness 313-315, 810-812, slow costly character case-by-case litigation, 328, 818-819. 43 necessity using strong respond deprivation resulting country's discrimination. 132, 268 ("In long discriminatory disfranchise voters account race'') J.); 147, 276 (Literacy "have times weapon minorities, Negroes Americans Mexican ancestry, Indians'') Douglas, 216, 311 ("Congress determined prejudice prevalent unduly lend themselves application, either conscious unconscious'') Harlan, 235, 320 (" [T]here legitimately anywhere inevitable vote minorities inability consequence previous education'') Brennan, 284, 344 [N]ationwide [suspension tests] reasonably thought evil varying degrees manifests part country'') Stewart, Rome, 182, 1564 ("Congress' determination another counter perpetuation 95 unsurprising unassailable''); 656, 1726 (Congress factual York's "constituted invidious violation Equal Protection Clause''). non-remedial 333, lowering minimum age elections. five reached conclusion intruded area 125, (concluding "reserves voter qualifications elections'') 154, 280 (explaining "Fourteenth never restrict allocate fit'') 349 qualification age'') Burger, C. explicit rejecting position endowed provisions. 307-308 350 Black's inferred 265. 45 interpreted acknowledging expands §1 This best one. §4(e) provided successfully completed sixth grade school in, accredited by, Commonwealth instruction English read write English. hand, required able related rationales "be viewed Rican community residing nondiscriminatory 652, 1724. rationale, prohibit large segments community, Ricans "enhanced "helpful gaining services community.'' 4(e) thus deal "discrimination services.'' 653, 1725. second alternative holding, address provision establishing qualifications.'' 654, perceived Clause.'' 1726. Both upholding rested it. interpreting Morgan "would require enormous decision's rationale.'' 46 If define own altering meaning, "superior paramount unchangeable ordinary means.'' "on acts, alterable please alter it.'' Cranch, 177, 60. conceive limit Van Alstyne, Failure Duke L.J. 292-303 Shifting majorities effectively circumvent detailed Article V. turn consider B 48 contends Act, prevents targeting practices. Lukumi Babalu Aye, Hialeah, 508 520, 533, 113 2217, 2227, 124 472 [A] permissible''). avoid proving violations, simply invalidate imposes accomplishing Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 477, 2758, 2774, 65 902 (plurality opinion); 1561-1562, then do same, argues, promote liberty. sometimes measures, ends achieved. appropriateness light presented. Strong harm unwarranted another, lesser 334, 50 instructive. judiciary modern bigotry. persecution mentions episodes occurring 1991, Hearings H.R. 2797 Subcommittee 102d 2d 331-334 Laycock) Hearings); Hearing 2969 Senate 30-31 Dallin Oaks) Hearing); 68-76 Laycock); 1990, 5377 101st (1991) Buchanan, Jr.) (1990 Hearing). absence more recent stems that, witness testified, "deliberate usual problem country.'' 334 Laycock). Report [L]aws directly increasingly rare''). Much discussion anecdotal autopsies performed Jewish individuals Hmong immigrants 81 Nadine Strossen); 107-110 Yang); 118 Stephen J. Solarz); 336 5-6, 14-26 27-28 Hmong-Lao Unity Assn., Inc.); Baptist Committee); 8; 14, (like here), incident normal operation, adverse churches synagogues. e.g. 17, Dugan, Jr.); 122-123 157 Edward M. Gaffney, 327 143-144 Forest D. Montgomery); 1990 14. concern imposed, 2; 4-5; 117-118 Solarz). lack record, shortcoming. Judicial deference, compiles regard body constitutionally appointed decide.'' 207, 306-308 matter, method reach decision. 51 Regardless terms meaning. protections. Preventive types reason believe affected enactment likelihood being unconstitutional. 1562 (since "jurisdictions demonstrable intentional create risk purposeful discrimination'' "prohibit changes impact'' jurisdictions). Remedial "should mischief wrong [Fourteenth] [A]mendment against.'' 13, 52 confined. Sweeping Federal, State, Governments. enactment. alleges 53 rights. confined regions flagrant, 811-812, discrete class i.e., ensure (in reduce possibility overbreadth), terminate "at behest subdivisions danger materialized during preceding years.'' 331, 820. restricting banning tests, (1970), attacked type qualification, "notorious grounds.'' 355, 832 (Black, dissenting). submit Department preimplementation review. voting. 1561-1562. Like permitted preclearance conditions lapsed seven say, requires dates, geographic egregious predicates. Where, pervasively effort limitations kind tend proportionate legitimate 54 stringent demands reflects end objector exercise, Claims someone's ("What logic bear contradict believer's assertion act "central' personal faith?''); 907, 1615 questions sincerity admittedly fine '') (O'CONNOR, judgment). ""compelling interest' really says -[The test] open prospect exemptions civic obligations conceivable kind.'' Laws valid stifling punishing exercise. observations reargue illustrate alteration attempted Even assuming say equivalent intermediate scrutiny, nevertheless searching scrutiny attendant invalidation. citizens. 55 costs exacts, practical heavy curtailing regulatory exceed Simply put, ones motivated disproportionately observers, circumstance impermissible motive. Washington Davis, 426 229, 2040, 2048, 597 disparate impact test. reality numerous individuals. way follow let alone beliefs. addition, requirement-a codify-which indicates broader goal 56 sphere responsibilities, just duty informed judgment clear Republic. 1789, Member debate theory "it officious'' affect House, Madison incontrovertibly importance other, preserved entire. duty.'' Annals 500 (1789). afford presumption enactments enjoy. teaches respects determinations branches. acted province Branch, branches background already issued, later controversies treat precedents principles, including stare decisis, contrary expectations disappointed. us; here invoked authority, precedent, RFRA, control. 58 *** 59 instance "determin[e] needed Amendment,'' conclusions entitled deference. 1723-1724. discretion unlimited, retain since Broad sustaining ordered. 61 concurring. 62 my (RFRA) "law respecting establishment religion'' violates 63 landmark happened museum art gallery owned atheist, eligible exemption ordinances forbid enlargement Because Church, claimed gives owner entitlement applicable, Whether actually prevail not, atheist agnostic obtain. preference irreligion, forbidden Wallace Jaffree, 38, 52-55, 105 2479, 2487-2489, (1985). whom STEVENS joins, part. I briefly O'CONNOR's dissent (hereinafter dissent'') materials post, 2106 (dissenting opinion). Constitution's "does relieve comply "valid ground proscribes prescribes) prescribes proscribes).''' 879, 1600 (quoting Lee, 455 252, 263, 102 1051, 1059, 71 127 (1982) (Stevens, judgment)). material odds little consistent dissent's extravagant shows compared assessment prominent scholarly critic who, extensive review willing venture "constitution ally compelled [from regulating conduct] contemplation ratifiers possible McConnell, Origins Historical Religion, 103 1409, 1415 (1990) (emphasis added); Hamburger, Right Exemption: Perspective, Geo. Wash. Law 915 (1992) (arguing supports Smith's exercise). 66 departs reflected Colonies, Territories period up ratification Rights. Post, __-__. But afforded affirmative participate interference, conflicts law''; thus, invalid religiously __. However, "free exercise'' cited taken "for'' "in __-__ (Maryland Concerning Religion 1649, Rhode Island Charter 1663, Hampshire Constitution); __ Declaration 1776 Northwest Ordinance 1787); "discriminat[ory]'' (New or, finally (and unhelpfully Constitution), interferes __, 1649 Georgia Constitution). eminently arguable sort refers to-such __-__would constitute "for,'' of,'' one's "discriminatory'' action. Assuming, accorded sweeps broadly require, contain "provisos'' significantly qualify grant. According dissent, view "superfluous'' enforceable conscience.'' disagree. fact, plausible reading (if broadly, requires) virtual restatement Smith: violate negate license manner "unfaithfull Lord Proprietary'' 1649), "behav[e]'' "peaceabl[e] quie[t]'' (Rhode 1663), "disturb peace'' "peace [and] safety State'' York, Constitutions), "demea[n]'' oneself "peaceable orderly manner'' (Northwest 1787). At provisos keeping "peace'' "order'' seems meant, precisely, obeying [E]very breach peace.'' Queen Lane, Mod. 87 Eng. 885 (Q.B.1704). late 1828, Noah Webster published Dictionary Language, he meanings "peace'': "8. Public tranquility; quiet, security laws; as, keep peace; break peace. Language (1828).1 philosophy (associated prominently Locke), regarded freedom lawfully prohibited,'' West, Case Against Religion-Based Exemptions, Notre Dame Law, Ethics & Policy 591, "Thus, disturb-the-peace caveats apparently freedom, merely event violence force, but, generally, occurrence illegal actions.'' 918-919.2 And while, cause understand critics. camp, knowledge, favored "compelling interest'' conforms "breach peace order''-i.e., category (more "violation law'') possibly conveyed phrase order,'' justifies Apart Territories, bodies', Continental Congress's, accommodation accommodation-which took liberty-suggests (according dissent) drafters assumed similarly.'' legislatures (though always)3 found "appropriate,'' ibid., accommodate mandated [T]o religious-practice permitted, desirable, required.'' 890, 1606. "Values protected interference enshrinement banished process.'' final source consists statements Framers context (not connection Constitutions). objection accommodation: think meant describe judicially enforceable), legislatively morally desirable. Thus, pamphlet written opposing Virginia's __-__, argue Virginia although earlier, __; argues wrongly society ahead belief approved legislators, Likewise, letter George Quakers, Washington's "wish desire'' accommodated, accommodation. offered reflect speakers' views "proper'' relationship (at insofar content suggests) relationship. exception statement Jefferson interdicted intermeddling institutions, doctrines, discipline, exercises,'' omitted); quite espouse advocated L.Rev., 1449-1452. 70 me telling found, says, fails say. Had surrounding forms discussed (either Constitutions surprising find single refusing failure Yet cites none-and knowledge academic defenders position, 1504, 1506-1511 cases), none exists. closest come 1850 1813, 1777, quoted acknowledgement priest-penitent privilege, priest testify contents confession. People Philips, General Sessions, (June 1813), excerpted Privileged Communications Clergymen, Cath. Lawyer 199 (1955). lone weak minor court,4 involve statute, achieved (without invoking entitlement) court's modifying common-law recognize privilege. On side ledger, Pennsylvania, flatly view. Philips Gratz, Pen. W. 412 (Pa.1831), litigant continuance trial appearing Sabbath principles. Stansbury Marks, Dall. 213, 353 (Pa.1793), decided "refused sworn, Sabbath.''5 items "historical evidence'' forward today's dissent. [b]efore keeping'' adequately answered itself.) marshalled fairly correctness Smith; supportive destructive And, return compatible am familiar has, great popular attraction. Who abstract general, unreasonable practice? Unfortunately, ultimately reduced concrete presented simply, people, elected representatives, outcome (as believes, __) exempt laws? put nothing undermine people. 72 BREYER joins I, dissenting. disposition case. us yardstick uses prompted rigorously remain decided, reexamine there. Therefore, brief represents reargument. misinterpretation simultaneously back course allay believed improperly restricted 74 reasoning III-A Indeed, standard join careful thorough analysis shows, Ante, added). short, independently expand statute. Accordingly, turns "congruence end.'' recognition diminish draw less called dictates. enacts delegated powers, judgments exposition 75 III-B premised assumption correctly interprets accept. continue improper deciding claims. Court-without briefing argument issue-interpreted prohibit, justification, applicable. Contrary case, antidiscrimination protects unfavorable treatment. 892-903, 1607-1613 Before idea: conduct-regardless specifically targeted generally-we 1608 (citing Hernandez Commissioner, 490 680, 699, 2136, 2148-2149, 104 766 (1989); 141, 1049, (1987); 257-258, 1055-1056, (1982); McDaniel Paty, 435 618, 626-629, 98 1322, 1327-1329, 593 (1978); 1533, (1972); Gillette 401 437, 462, 828, 842-843, 168 (1971); 403, 1793-1794, (1963)). 76 neither precedent nor, below, harmed reliance ruled natives son's autopsy, conducted pursuant Yang Sturner, 750 558, 559 (D.R.I. 1990). Eighth conducting zoned commercial raised concerns, though secular not-for-profit organizations area. Cornerstone Bible Hastings, 948 F.2d 464 (C.A.8 1991); Rector Bartholomew's 914 (C.A.2 1990) (no facially "drastically Church's revenue charitable ministerial programs''), cert. denied, 499 905, 111 1103, 214 (1991); Hershberger, 462 N.W.2d 393 (Minn.1990) (Free exempting farmer displaying bright orange triangle buggy, grounds, showed equally well). lower applying inquiry accommodating practice. 77 Stare decisis revisiting "" [S]tare policy mechanical formula adherence latest decision, however questionable, involves collision doctrine embracing scope, intrinsically sounder, verified experience.''' Adarand Constructors, Pena, 515 200, 231, 2097, 2114-2115, 132 158 (1995) Helvering Hallock, 309 106, 119, 444, 451-452, 604 (1940)). particularly true where-as plainly illustrates-"correction practically impossible.'' Seminole Tribe Fla. Florida, 517 116 1114, 1127, 134 252 (1996) Nation's demonstrably wrong. Moreover, such, engendered militate overruling Planned Parenthood Southeastern Pa. Casey, 505 833, 855-856, 112 2791, 2808-2809, 120 674 (1992). 78 very place, restate opinions, demonstrated gravely precedents. 570-571, 2246-2247, (SOUTER, concurring) (stating "difficult escape virtues, comfortable fit 894-901, 1608-1612 concurring); Revisionism U. Chi. 1109, 1120-1127 examine gain insight original Clause-an undertake. recognized Clauses Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 673, 1355, 1359, (1984) Establishment comported reveals contemporaneous guarantees''); School Dist. Abington Township Schempp, 203, 212-214, 1560, 1565-1567, 844 (1963). 80 casts current unnecessarily hinder believers freely practicing jurisprudence. drafted 1787 1788, safeguarding liberties, speech Federalists, chief supporters amending explicitly freedoms superfluous, completely secure. 440, 443-444, 448-459 (Gales Seaton 1834) (remarks 1789). feared guaranteeing backfire, express mention imply others protected. Alexander dangerous, specifying "various exceptions powers'' granted, colorable pretext granted.'' 84, 513 ed.1961). Anti-Federalists, insisted definite guarantees. Apprehensive newly overwhelm individuals, wanted assurances matters Curry, Freedoms: America Passage 194 (1986). Additionally, Baptists Protestant dissenters freedom. 198. 82 end, legislators acceded demands. December 1791, added With provided: thereof.'' 1. Neither ratifying detail, protection. disingenuous neglected precisely words precise L. Levy, Essays 173 (1972). exactly signified. [I]t astonishing discover abstraction vague convey impression 1787-1788 nebulous conception sought insure''). variety sources supplement shed suggest that-contrary Smith-the intend adopting discriminated today, affirmatively government's notion deserved concepts ratified. contrary, articulated colonies Island, Delaware, Carolina, mid-1600's. colonies, sanctuaries groups dissenters, extended groups-although Christian groups-beyond own. arise plurality faiths. term appeared document 1648, Baltimore extracted governor Maryland councilors promise disturb Christians, Roman Catholics, 1425 Exercise). after, Assembly clause passing Religion: [N]oe professing beleive Jesus Christ, henceforth bee waies troubled, Molested discountenanced thereof [be] beleife consent, soe unfaithfull Proprietary, molest conspire civill Governemt.'' reprinted Founders' 49, (P. Kurland R. Lerner eds.1987) Island's 1663 analogous "liberty residents ways molested, punished, disquieted, question, differences colony.'' "freely, enjoy judgments, conscience concernments ; behaving peaceably quietly licentiousness profaneness; injury, outward disturbance others.'' Providence Plantations, Swindler, Sources Documents 363 (1979). Various agreements prospective settlers proprietors Jersey similarly paralleled 1663. Declaring Priviledges (1691); Concession Agreement Lords Proprietors Province Caesarea, New-Jersey (1664); West New-Jersey, Art. X (1681); Fundamental East XVI (1683); XVIII (1663). N. Cogan, Complete 23-27 (Galley 1997). documents history, pursue chosen essential "licentiousness.'' words, conflicted prevailed important interests militated otherwise. notions ideas cases-that exercising C expounded charters re-emerged century constitutions flurry constitution-drafting followed Revolution. Connecticut incorporated version constitution. 1455. typically perhaps all, corresponded clauses. precursors varied, conscience, particular, interests. 1777 worship, preference, forever hereafter allowed, mankind: Provided, hereby construed excuse licentiousness, State. N.Y. XXXVIII (1777), 178 88 Similarly, 1784 declared: 89 "Every natural worship GOD according dictates reason; hurt, restrained person, estate worshipping GOD, season agreeable doth peace, others, worship.'' N.H. (1784), 345 90 read: [N]o ought molested persuasion profession, practice; unless, colour man good order, infringe morality, injure natural, civil, rights.'' Md. XXXIII 93 "All repugnant Ga. LVI 449 addition 1787-which contemporaneously re-enacted Congress-established bill territory Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota. "No demeaning himself peaceable manner, mode sentiments, territory.'' Territory 1787, strongly suggests accepted required, possible, not-and conscience-there specify, "construed [the] proviso superfluous. sense superior overridden purposes. 97 Legislature fully. May 1776, Convention wrote containing initial drafter clause, Mason, following: "That owe CREATOR, discharging (directed) conviction, violence; therefore, fullest toleration unpunished unrestrained magistrate, happiness, society. mutual forbearance, love, charity towards other.'' Draft Papers Mason 284-285 (R. Rutland ed.1970) 99 Mason's go enough 26-year-old recently studies Presbyterian College Princeton. He "toleration,'' contending word implied favor, inalienable Second, countenanced matters, "exercise yielded inimical society.'' suggested instead: ""That Creator, direction conviction only, compulsion, conscience; invested peculiar emoluments privileges, subjected disabilities, existence manifestly endangered.''' G. Hunt, Liberty, Annual Association 163, 166-167 wished shift "toleration'' Cobb, Rise Liberty 492 (1902) (reprint 1970) belonging grace''). Madison's otherwise endangered.'' extent clause. silent subject, providing (1776), Constitutions, 50. formulations envisioned conflict, balanced endorsed irrelevant Presumably, strike middle narrower D bears ratified, should, Unsurprisingly, inhabited persuasions, rarely conflicted. Most 17th 18th belonged denominations Christianity harmonious colonial Freedoms, 219 theirs Christian, i.e. Protestant, country, automatically expected uphold commonly ethos morality''). smaller intrusive unusual. Nevertheless, tension rare, unknown pre-Constitutional America. commonly, arose oath requirements, military conscription, assessments. 1466. resolved scruples him complying coverage. Quakers sects Biblical subscribe oaths "swear'' allegiance authority. Adams Emmerich, Nation Dedicated Liberty: Heritage Emmerich). Without accommodation, participating activities involving oaths, testifying court. Colonial created alternatives decisions, 1665 enter pledges book. 56. 1691, allowing affirmation, 1734, affirmation. exemptions. Emmerich 62. Early occurred conscription requirements. Mennonites, denominations, arms. asserted conscription. Obviously, excusing objectors service high cost, North exempted 1600's. Massachusetts, mid-1700's. 1468. conscription: "As arms consciences, earnestly recommend them, contribute liberally calamity, distressed oppressed Country, consistently principles.'' Resolution 1775, Journals 1774-1789, 187, 189 (W. Ford ed.1905). Again, pacifists demonstrates obligation. Notably, "violence consciences,'' conscience. problem. Typically, pay tithes government-established tithepayer belonged. government-compelled grounds. 1469. Hampshire, responded additional excused removing hats court; Jews marriage allowed European organize whole towns faith. 1471. sure, legislatures, accommodations. liberties-judicial yet exist. was, presume Amendment-many legislatures-assumed similarly, safeguarded. E writings leaders helped shape thoughts Madison-one principal architects Rights-as revealed Assessment 1784, illuminating. issues adoption provision. disestablished England nonpreferential so-called assessment.'' History, 200. how Virginia-either voluntarily-was widely debated. 136. assessment, led Patrick Henry, gained slight Assembly. Malbin, Politics: Intentions Authors introduced "A Establishing Provision Teachers Religion,'' taxed denomination choice, taxes designated fund aid seminaries. 200-201; 140-141; infringement opposition bill. now-famous "Memorial Remonstrance Assessments.'' 201. thousands Virginians oppose petitions expressing legislature. eventually died committee, Freedom, 1779. Remonstrance'' begins man; dictate.'' Writings 184 (G. Hunt ed.1901). nature, wrote, "unalienable,'' "cannot other[s],'' entails Creator.'' continued: "This [owed Creator] degree obligation, Society -[E]very becomes member Society, [must] saving Universal Sovereign. man's institution wholly cognizance.'' 184-185. then, duties God authorities-the ultimate loyalty owed above all. Creator directed strive idea subordinate consonant accommodate, 114 Other Jefferson, "when order.'' 1808, indicated ""the exercises.''' 428-429 (A. Lipscomb ed.1904) (quoted Office Legal Policy, Justice, Attorney General, (1986)). ""[e]very exercises, tenets; safer hands, deposited it.''' expressly utmost scruples, writing group Quakers: [I]n conscientious treated delicacy tenderness; wish desire, always extensively nation permit.'' Letter Called (Oct. 1789), Mutual (E. Humphrey ed.1932). Oliver Ellsworth, Framer Chief punish gross immoralities impieties; example detriment.'' Landholder, (Dec. 1787), 640. Isaac Backus, minister delegate Massachusetts convention declared ""every affairs mind, injured thereby.''' Inhabitants Massachusetts-Bay, Backus Calvinism 487 McLoughlin ed.1968). perspectives existed thinkers approached somewhat differently, 21-31, distill tidy formula. discerned. Foremost, status. taking Kauper, (1964) [O]ur independent preferential ''). concluding Remonstrance'': ""[T]he citizen [his] conscience' tenure -[I]t gift nature; dear solemnity, studied emphasis.'' 191. lightly countenanced. 31. Finally, shared ""true morals solid foundation happiness.''' Congress); Founders republic largely moral derived religion''). ideas-particularly characterized pluralism regulation-there 121 represent profound commitment conceived receptive voluntary expression, expression tolerated show, properly Certainly, anomalous heightened identified speech-a exercise-has Given altogether highest respect. 122 line, faithfully serve reconsider -and 123 respectfully 125 decide sufficient free-exercise reasons 564-577, 2242-2250, judgment), doubts precedential value adherence. intensified today arguments going ante, raises soundness rule. (Justice (addressing arguments). merits (which itself, Lukumi, 571-572, 2246-2247), prepared correct. adversarial consideration, down reargument permitting reexamination issue. Since declines marked "intolerable tension,'' 574, 2248, soundly decided. dismiss writ certiorari improvidently accordingly 126 whether, correct, us. paragraph necessarily them. syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber Co., 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. SCALIA "licentious,'' enactments, [e]xceeding law.'' (1828). explanation applies, "unless, society,'' probably "both [James] [between laws], interests,'' regulation concerned. mentions, thirteen Colonies mid-1700's; "virtually all'' 1789. Sessions mayor's court, ruling Phillips DeWitt Clinton, last mayor preside subsequently reconstituted Common Pleas. Clinton jurist, indeed practiced Phillips, instrumental disabilities Catholics York. Biography 221-222, 224 (1943). author [C]onsiderations legislature, magistrate discretion, established.'' W., 417.

Classification Label: 2