Legal Document

538 U.S. 135 NORFOLK & WESTERN RAILWAY CO.v.AYERS ET AL. No. 01-963. Supreme Court of United States. Argued November 6, 2002. Decided March 10, 2003. Alleging that petitioner Norfolk Western Railway Company (Norfolk) had negligently exposed them to asbestos and thereby caused contract the occupational disease asbestosis, respondents, six former employees (asbestosis claimants), brought this suit in a West Virginia state court under Federal Employers' Liability Act (FELA or Act). Section 1 FELA provides: "Every common carrier by railroad while engaging [interstate commerce], shall be liable damages any person suffering injury he is employed such commerce ... for resulting whole part from [carrier's] negligence." As an element their damages, asbestosis claimants sought recovery mental anguish based on fear developing cancer. The trial instructed jury plaintiff who demonstrated reasonable cancer related proven physical was entitled compensation as awardable pain suffering. also not reduce recoveries because nonrailroad exposures asbestos, so long found negligent dust at contributed, however slightly, each plaintiff's injuries. rejected Norfolk's proposed instructions, which would have (1) ruled out unless claimant proved both actual likelihood manifestations alleged fear, (2) required apportion between other employers contributed claimant's disease. returned awards claimant. Appeals denied discretionary review. Held: 1. Mental may recovered worker actionable work-related exposure asbestos. Pp. 145-159. (a) judge correctly stated law when charged claimant, upon demonstrating stemming his present disease, could recover asbestosis-related damages. In ruling, follows path marked its decisions Consolidated Rail Corporation v. Gottshall, 512 U. S. 532, Metro-North Commuter R. Co. Buckley, 521 424. Gottshall describe two categories claims emotional distress damages: Stand-alone provoked injury, sharply circumscribed common-law zone-of-danger test; permitted. This case properly placed category. parties agree suffer cognizable FELA. plainly indicates, "accompanies injury," include fear. E. g., S., 430. adheres clear line recent delineate. 145-148. (b) Unlike stand-alone inflicted distress, associated with are traditionally compensable. By 1908, enacted, evolved encompass apprehension future harm component years, many courts question presented here, majority sustain recovery. Arguing against trend, amici assert claimants' fears too remote warrant inclusion awards. Amicus States refers "separate rule," most held statute limitations runs separately asbestos-related Because bring second action if develops, Government argues, cancer-related unwarranted here. question, frames it, whether can cancer, but when. But those did seek, allow, discrete increased risk Instead, they current which, allege, encompasses toxic causative later result Government's "when, whether," argument has large gap; it excludes experienced sufferer never gets To compensable suffering, further urges, must been "directly about injury." elides over key connection conduct allege suffering: Once bodily harm, actor answerable disturbance causes it. Given acknowledgment expert puts heightened category lung well undisputed testimony some ten percent sufferers died mesothelioma, good cause vulnerability Although stressed holding workers merely "unlimited unpredictable liability," 435, decision distinguished exposure-only plaintiffs stated, unambiguously, permits latter category, e. id., 436. categorical exclusion reduces universe potential numbers neither "unlimited" nor "unpredictable," for, only small fraction will develop asbestosis. 148-157. (c) affirms qualification seek important reservation. It incumbent complainant prove genuine serious. case, proof directed matter notably thin, might succumbed straightforward sufficiency-of-the-evidence objection, targeted attack. Norfolk, instead, cancer-fear claimants. Court, moreover, grant review sufficiency evidence reasonableness 157-159. 2. FELA's express terms, reinforced consistent judicial applications Act, allow entire whose negligence jointly thus placing burden seeking contribution tortfeasors. 159-166. statutory language supports court's understanding does provide apportionment causes. makes railroads "liable carrier." 45 C. § 51. here (an "injury"), linked employment "result[ed] negligence" Norfolk. therefore Nothing text instructs amount payable employer bears reduction third party injury-in-suit. maintains conveying injuries employee sustains "while carrier" outside Placed context, however, clause relies clarifies reach limited sustained themselves engaged interstate commerce; provision speak cases multiple causes, others unrelated employment. Moreover, interpreting require put tension rest statute. Several provisions expand railroad's liability abolishing defenses employees' ability employers. And although expressly directs responsibility comparative fault, prescribes no apportionment. 159-161. view counter century jurisprudence. No made much hints mandates among potentially Also significant, there scant lower authority proposition contemplates apportionment, repeatedly joint several traditional rule, see, "Atlas," 93 302, 315. contends modern trend affairs more guide. See, Monessen Southwestern Morgan, 486 330, 336-339. At rate, retain full liability, even certain circumstances, changes away rule come through legislative enactments rather than development principles. Congress, amended Finally, reading handicap vastly complicate adjudications. adjudged respect given accords overarching purpose bear identifying responsible costs should spread them. 161-166. Affirmed. GINSBURG, J., delivered opinion unanimous Parts I, II, IV, Part III, STEVENS, SCALIA, SOUTER, THOMAS, JJ., joined. KENNEDY, filed concurring dissenting part, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR BREYER, joined, post, p. 166. 182. CERTIORARI TO THE CIRCUIT COURT OF KANAWHA COUNTY, WEST VIRGINIA. 2 Carter G. Phillips argued petitioner. With him briefs were Stephen B. Kinnaird, Fred Adkins, Rodney L. Baker Laura D. Hunt. 3 David Salmons pro hac vice amicus curiae urging reversal. brief Solicitor General Olson, Assistant Attorney McCallum, Deputy Clement, Anthony J. Steinmeyer, Peter Maier. 4 Richard Lazarus respondents. James A. McKowen, H. Rion, Jr., Lawrence M. Mann.* 5 JUSTICE GINSBURG Court. 6 Act), 35 Stat. 65, amended, §§ 51-60, "in part" negligence. now presents issues involving application. first issue concerns recoverable suffers asbestosis: When job, worker's "pain suffering" cancer? 7 extent before — example, prior subsequent manufacturers suppliers injury. Is employee, pursuit indemnity enterprises sole damages-award-sharing recourse? Or initially injury-causing tortfeasors, i. e., division limiting injured proportionate share? 8 resolving issue, we follow drawn 424 (1997), relied complemented 532 (1994). Metro-North, disease-free asbestos-exposed workers; contrast, observed, "suffe[r] disease" (here, asbestosis) "recover distress." 432. We decline blur, blend, reconfigure our jurisprudence manner urged petitioner; adhere Accordingly, hold 9 similarly write new requiring initial chronic asbestosis), 10 * (plaintiffs below, respondents here) employer, Circuit Kanawha County, Virginia.1 alleged, App. 17-20.2 Id., 21. 11 Before trial, moved exclude all referring irrelevant prejudicial. 52-53. motion, Tr. 251 (Apr. 14, 1998), extensive relating including smoking histories significantly cancer.3 (Of claimants, five histories, persisted after diagnosis. 265, 336-337.) Asbestosis manifested itself heard, significant (one ten) dying fatal lining abdominal cavity. 92-97 expert); 472 (Norfolk's expert) (nine percent).4 12 Concluding shown reasonably awarded "for cancer." 573. explained, relevant "only genuineness plaintiffs' Ibid. On score, charged: 13 "[A]ny developed compensated you award suffering." 14 instructing jury, instruction, sufferer's "an cancer" "physical manifestations" See 548. 15 refused request instruct 539.5 Two working employers: Carl Butler, three months, worked elsewhere pipefitter 33 250, 252, 375; Freeman Ayers years auto-body shops, 274-275. awarding charged, "not make deduction non-railroad exposures," "dust [Norfolk] injuries." 570.6 16 total ranging $770,000 $1.2 million. 578-589. After settlements non-FELA entities, final judgments amounted approximately $4.9 590-613. impossible look behind determine particular done so, see W. Va. Rule Civ. Proc. 49 (1998), endeavor clarify jury's determinations; special verdict interrogatory calling report, separately, assessments, any, fear-of-cancer 17 motion Pet. Cert. 4a, review, 1a-2a. granted certiorari, 535 969 (2002), affirm. II 18 renders [the] "injury death result[ed] Enacted Congress designed "shif[t] `human overhead' doing business employers." 542 (quoting Tiller Atlantic Coast Line Co., 318 54, 58 (1943)). "[T]o [the Act's] humanitarian purposes, tort effectively barred workers." 542. cataloged "abolished fellow servant rule"; "rejected doctrine contributory favor negligence"; "prohibited exempting contract"; and, 1939 amendment, assumption defense." 542-543; 51-55. "Only these explicit alterations," "is `an avowed departure rules law.'" 544 Sinkler Missouri Pacific 356 326, 329 (1958)). confronts dispute regarding what statute, instructs, principles "are great weight analysis." 544; 558 (SOUTER, concurring) (The Court's duty federal FELA, informed reference evolving law."). III 19 turn supra, 143. answering (1994), (1997). 20 witnessed co-worker episode severe distress. 536-537. He Conrail, "mental directly 544. 21 Reversing Appeals' judgment plaintiff, uncabined recognition "hol[d] very real possibility nearly infinite defendants." 546. Of "limiting tests law," ibid., selected test delineate "the proper scope employer's avoid subjecting 554. That confines who: "sustain impact defendant's conduct"; immediate conduct"—that is, escaped instant "within zone danger impact." 547-548 (internal quotation marks omitted). remanded reconsideration test. 558. 22 applied claim one intensively New York City's Grand Central Terminal. time lawsuit, clean bill health. relief. Exposure alone, held, insufficient show impact" "[A] simple (though extensive) contact carcinogenic substance," "does offer help separating valid invalid claims." 434. evaluation problem formidable, "because contacts, serious carcinogens common." "The number uncertainties surround recovery," added, "suggest called `unlimited liability.'" 435 557). 23 prayers tied injury: "Common-law courts," recognized, "do permit distress...." 432 (emphasis added). noted, "a effort" value "perhaps desire physically victim likely event." 436-437. 24 sum, categories: position principal dissent embraces, 172, 177 (KENNEDY, part), us ally Brief Petitioner 16-31; urge placement (or disease) Respondents 26.7 25 Relevant characterization Urie Thompson, 337 163, 187 (1949) (occupational diseases hazardous dusts FELA). Oral Arg. 4, clinically serious, often disabling, progressive disease," Reply 430; 436 ("The disease."). therefore, cannot plausibly maintain like symptom free." grounded suits infliction us, complain (asbestosis) attendant B 26 with, "parasitic" on, Restatement (Second) Torts 456 (1963-1964) (hereinafter Restatement) states general rule: 27 "If actor's another subject "(a) fright, shock, it...." (Emphases added.) 28 A need her anguish. Comment c. course she suffered, otherwise claims, whatever form, fully recoverable." Dobbs, Law 822 (2000). 29 genuinely feared, materialize. Minneman, Future Disease Condition, Anxiety Relating Thereto, Element Recovery, 50 4th 13, 25, 2[a] (1986) (mental underlying prospect inasmuch sufficiently occur"). Physically plaintiffs, "reasonable fears" 844. classic bitten dogs succeeded gaining recovery, wound, bite someday rabies tetanus. wound heal, "[t]he ghost hydrophobia raised, down during life-time victim." Lord Derby, F. 267 (ED La. 1883).8 30 20th century, variety "fear-of" claims.9 Among Heightened "must necessarily depressing effect person. Like sword Damocles," knows there, fall. Alley Charlotte Pipe Foundry 159 N. 327, 331, 74 885, 886 (1912).10 31 Many considered address Hoerner Anco Insulations, Inc., 2000-2333, (La. 1/23/02), 812 So. 2d 45, 77 (fear "appropriately order [asbestosis claimant's] damage claim"); Beeman Manville Corp. Asbestos Compensation Fund, 496 247, 252-253 (Iowa 1993) (cancer admissible cancer); Denton Southern 854 888-889 (Tenn. erroneous "Trial cancer"); Celotex Wilson, 607 1223, 1229-1230 (Del. 1992) (sustaining charge allowing Coffman Keene Corp., 257 Super. 279, 293-294, 608 416, 424-425 (1992) included Fibreboard Pool, 813 658, 666, 675-676 (Tex. 1991) "confirmed asbestosis"); Sorenson Raymark Industries, 51 Wash. 954, 958, 756 P. 740, 742 (1988) (evidence "admissible establish, factor, [an Eagle-Picher Inc. Cox, 481 517, 529 (Fla. 1985) Devlin Johns-Manville 202 556, 563, 495 495, 499 (1985) suffered "substantial harm" cancer).11 32 courts, supporting support contention, States, amici, Curiae 12. e.g., Wilson Sales 684 111, 120-121 (CADC 1982); Pustejovsky Rapid-American 3d 643, 649, n. 2000) (listing cases).12 argue, suit. 17-18; 5. 15. sounds similar theme. Post, 174 ("a without remedy cancer"). 573 ("[Y]ou cancer."); For person, whether, when, 34 Even simply string bow. maintains, deleted; internal omitted) 544). itself, exposure, generate insists agrees, "fear unrelated, law, sufferer's] 11; 172.13 "any harm," "resulting it." 456(a) added).14 There relationship sufficient own acknowledged 470 (affirming "asbestosis necessary problem"). Morgan Seaton, Occupational Lung Diseases 151 (3d ed. 1995) Seaton) ("[H]eavy cumulative lead increase cancer.... [T]here considerable indicates increases present."). 341 ("There doubt presence least smokers, rate Churg Green, Pathology 343 (2d 1998) ("[S]tudies strong notion crucial asbestos-associated cancers."). 36 Furthermore, testified contradiction "different kind background risks individuals face," (BREYER, J.): Some "ten people mesothelioma." 93; Seaton 350 suggests that, once lungs susceptible primed dose then [mesothelioma] inevitable.").15 light evidence, illness inflicts "agonizing, unremitting pain," relieved death, 168 chronic, painful concrete reminder [a plaintiff] injuriously substantial qualitatively quantitatively intensify fear." 2d, 529. 37 understandably underscores point central Metro-North. 10. liability." earlier 147, "plaintiffs latter] category." 436; Commentary distinguishes asymptomatic "developed harm." Henderson Twerski, Litigation Gone Mad: Exposure-Based Recovery Increased Risk, Distress, Medical Monitoring, 53 Rev. 815, 830 (2002); 830, 833-834 (classifying pleural thickening observing unlike sufferers, face "significantly do serves constant [them]").16 38 approach endorsed "unpredictable." recognizes, 22, re Haw. Fed. Cases, 734 Supp. 1563, 1570 (Haw. 1990) ("A exercising due diligence, know percentage impairment.")); cf. 319 (study showed persons 1959, examined; 1950-1959, figure percent). C 39 "[w]hether [FELA] claimed (i). Our answer yes, affirm complainant, Smith 843 854, 859 (CA5 1988) ("general concern [one's] health" Keene, Super., where "ha[d] genuine, believable omitted)). 4th, 5, 54-56, (discussing affirming "apprehension genuine").17 thin,18 40 larger shield. unsuccessful petition Virginia, 548 request); 634 (amended appeal). submitted forms, 549-560, forms call specification Thus, 144, tell verdicts ascribed how much.19 41 event, specifically only, aligned stems presenting categorization IV 42 next contention erred [from awards] [asbestos] exposures" 570. language, authorize referred, 144-145, 43 carrier...." U.S.C. 44 Resisting reading, trains "makes causes." 32. uncouples obscures meaning. 46 applies [they are] in" commerce. statute's correspondingly commerce." added); 207 463, 504 (1908) (predecessor declared unconstitutional regulated commerce). Such cases, think, controlled just damages" "negligence." 47 context bolsters recounted earlier, 145, innovations, fault. (set 6). 48 Essentially, then, asks narrow textual warrant. Reining proposes, unprovided inconsistent Act's overall facilitating thrust. find plea untenable congressional silence. Cf. Edmonds Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, 443 256, 268, (1979) ("It particularly curious refer established principle negligence, yet say word adopting [defendant] basis [another party's] negligence."). Indeed, Rogers 352 500 (1957), opposite. Rogers, described "irrelevant" "whether reason" employee's defendant "some identified evidence." 503; 508 ("[T]he inquiry today rarely single played small, suit."). existence contributing highly relevant. paucity reporters contain numerous stating severally parties,20 recognizing defendants indemnification actions applicable law.21 Those third-party unnecessary authorized identifies position: Dale Baltimore Ohio 520 Pa. 96, 105-107, 552 1037, 1041-1042 (1989). cited previous followed court. reed slim overcome historical practice courts. conclusion mandate harmony repeated statements rule. 1876 admiralty wrote: 52 "Nothing right having loss [of cargo], sue wrong-doers, them, election; equally clear, contribute disaster, either loss." 315 (1876) Cong. Rec. 4536 (remarks Sen. Dolliver) (the intended "brin[g] up liberal interpretations prevail States"). Miller Union 290 227, 236 (1933) (describing "settled innumerable authorities" citing 1883, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1902, 1904, 1906, 1910, 1913); Edmonds, 260 (joint remains admiralty). 54 nonetheless "[a]pportionment enactment" 1908. concerning refute contention. authorities, procedural sued action, substantive These problems," Dean Prosser cautioned, "require separate consideration, little Joint Liability, Calif. 413 (1937). While [procedural] joinder extremely strict," 414, [also] distinct altogether principle: though concurred combined produce result" "no possible," 418. 55 Looking beyond practice, 40-43. inquiry. 336-339 (prejudgment interest available unavailable enacted). (Third) Torts, Apportionment 17, Reporters' Note, table, pp. 151-152 (1999), tables, 153-159, principles, B18, Note. 273 ("Once conditions created, free change them.").22 56 adjudications, if, sometimes suggests, 50, 20, suppliers, employers, within pool. Sinkler, cost human inescapable expense railroading, borne someone, seeks adjust equitably carrier."). them.23 57 Under "injury" railroad, regardless party. "injury," conclude instruction challenged erroneous. 59 "elephantine mass cases" lodged again recognize, "defies customary administration calls national legislation." Ortiz 527 821 (1999); Report Judicial Conference Ad Hoc Committee 3, 27-35 (Mar. (concluding effective reform requires legislation creating dispute-resolution scheme); (dissenting statement Hogan, J.) (agreeing solution answer" suggesting "passage administrative procedure Black legislation"). Courts, resist pleas made, essentially serve abate today's litigation crisis. 438 ("[C]ourts consider create."). 60 reasons County 61 Notes: Briefs ofamici reversal Association American Railroads Daniel Saphire, Randall Jordan, Mary Helen Moses, William Brasher; Insurance Seth Waxman, Edward DuMont, Kimberly Parker, Craig Berrington, Lynda Mounts; Chamber Commerce Evan Tager, Eileen Penner, Miriam Nemetz, Robin Conrad; Trial Lawyers Public Justice Arthur Bryant, Brent Rosenthal, Misty Farris, Kevin McHargue. affirmance State et al. Darrell V. McGraw, Frances Ann Hughes, Managing General, Silas Taylor, Senior Robert Kono, Acting Guam, Attorneys respective follows: Bill Lockyer California, Jane Brady Delaware, Thomas Iowa, Steven Rowe Maine, Joseph Curran, Maryland, Reilly Massachusetts, Mike Hatch Minnesota, Jeremiah (Jay) Nixon Missouri, McGrath Montana, Philip T. McLaughlin Hampshire, Patricia Madrid Mexico, Eliot Spitzer York, Roy Cooper North Carolina, W.A. Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Hardy Myers Oregon, Sheldon Whitehouse Rhode Island, Sorrell Vermont; Federation Labor Industrial Organizations Jonathan Hiatt, Alexander, Leon Dayan, Laurence Gold. Professors Ned Miltenberg; Health Scott Nelson, Vladeck, Brian Wolfman; Brotherhood Locomotive Engineers Jungbauer Keith Queensen; Coalition Justice, Victor Schwartz, Mark Behrens, Walter Dellinger Pamela Harris, Jan Amundson, Zoll, Donald Evans, Deal; Transportation Clinton III; Washington Legal Foundation Griffin Bell, Jeffrey Bucholtz, Popeo, Samp. brought, option, noncancerous scarring fibers; symptoms shortness breath, coughing, fatigue. Ranging severity mild debilitating, rare instances, fatal. RAND Institute Civil Carroll al., Costs Compensation: An Interim Petitioner's Supplemental Lodging, SL82 Institute); Dept. Human Services, Agency Toxic Substances Registry, Toxicity (2000) mortality smokers showed, percent. 93-94 expert);id., 473 expert). nonsmokers, lower, 2.5 contributes mesotheliomaId., 93. mesothelioma far, instances traceable 17. latency period generally 20-40 exposure. 16. stated: condition railroad." 539 compare terms percentages."Id., 570-571; ("contributory bar diminished proportion attributable employee"). appears, place above-described categories, somewhere between. Seepost, (opinion part). alsoGamer Winchester, 110 1190, 1193 1937) (rabies, lockjaw, blood poisoning); Serio Brewing 141 290, 299, 998, 1001 (1917) (hydrophobia); Macoughtry, Okla. 399, 402, 117 1088, 1090 (1911) rabies); Buck Brady, Md. 568, 573, 73 277, 279 (1909) Heintz Caldwell, Cir. Dec. 412 (1898) (hydrophobia lockjaw); Warner Chamberlain, Del. 18, 21, 638, 639 (1884) Godeau Blood, Vt. (1880) (apprehension poison dog bite). See,e. Goodmaster Houser, 225 Conn. 637, 647, 625 1366, 1371 (1993) motor vehicle accident necessitate surgery, risking facial nerve paralysis); Laxton Orkin Exterminating 431, 434 1982) drinking contaminated water); Baylor Tyrrell, Neb. 812, 824-826, 131 393, 401-402 (1964) deterioration hip bone following accident); Schneider Chalfonte Builders, Bucks 122 (Pa. Ct. Common Pleas 1961) water causing gastrointestinal ailments grave typhoid fever); Figlar Gordon, 133 577, 585, 645, 648 (1947) brain epilepsy); Kansas Texas McSwain, Tex. 317, 319, 118 874, 875 poisoning foot injury); Butts National Exchange Bank, 99 Mo. 168, 173, 72 1083, 1084 (1903) (same). alsoSterling Velsicol Chemical 855 1188, 1206 (CA6 ingestion Clark 710 (CA1 1983) bladder "benzidine test" prisoner detect skin); Dempsey Hartley, 94 918, 921 1951) (injuries breasts); Zieber Bogert, 565 376, 383, 773 758, 762 (2001) recurrence untimely diagnosed medical malpractice); Anderson Welding Testing Laboratory, 304 351, 353 1974) (handling radioactive pill); Lorenc Chemirad 56, 76, 179 401, 411 (1962) (toxic chemical spilled hand); Ferrara Galluchio, Y. 16, 20-21, 152 249, (1958) (radiation burn shoulder); Coover Painless Dentist, 105 Cal. 110, 115, 286 1048, 1050 (1930) (X-ray burns). alsoJackson 781 394, 413-414 1986) compensable, occur); Bonnette Conoco, 2001-2767, 1/28/03), 837 1219, 1227 accompanied mere qualify Wolff A-One Oil, 216 Div. 291, 292, 627 788, 789-790 (1995) (fear-of-cancer asbestos-induced disease); Capital Holding Bailey, 873 187, 194 (Ky. 1994) (recovery "if cross threshold establishing harmful resulted producing agent"); Mauro 116 126, 137, 561 257, 263 (1989) (claim "clearly where, injury"); Lavelle Owens-Corning Fiberglas Misc. 11, 507 476, 480-481 (Ct. Pleas, Cuyahoga Cty. 1987) (asbestosis-afflicted distress). Contrary precedent comparison heavy authority. Fulmore CSX Transp., 252 Ga. 884, 897, 557 64, 75 (denying misplaced reliance (1997)); Cleveland 547 410, 690 1146, 1150 (1997) (plaintiff asserting noncancer damages); Watson 201, 203-204, 468, 471-472 (1987) permissible showing probably exposure). response posed latent-disease cases. single-action precluded bringing mesothelioma. Allowing complaints determined, balanced repose recovering adequate See,e.g., 119. inevitable conflict rule" allows successive double same cfpost, "detrimentally affects carry everyday life work"). O. McBride, 841, 842 1930) ("Where nervous shock proximately act necessity exclusively injury."); Goodrich, Emotional Disturbance Damage, Mich. 497, (1922) ("Recovery allowed impact, frankly said therefrom."); Magruder, Harv. 1033, 1048-1049 (1936). overstated risk. 22-24, nn. 18-20. sit reweigh information trial. SeeTennant Peoria Pekin 321 29, (1944). note, none studies addresses Rather, home Attitudes About Cancer, Am. Indus. Med. 437 (1992); Goodman, Ray, Malloy, Zhao, Cancer Asbestos-Exposed Cohorts: Meta-Analysis, Causes Control 453 Erren, Jacobsen, Piekarski, Synergy Between Smoking Risks, Epidemiology 405 (1999). varies fiber type. 24, (citing 346-347). true, suggestion unavailing: less argues quantifying accurately extrapolated evaluate 8-9, 4. impeded jury. Unconstrained Restatement,"post, J.), erase Repeatedly, recites controlling governing "stand-alone action[s] 171 (1994)); 169 Metro-North's justification disallowing claimants); 173 (bracketing "make distress; so"); 180 Gottshall). ("emotional asbestosis-afflicted plaintiff" fit already permitted distress"). gains aid Barron Martin-Marietta 868 1203 (ND 1994), cites equating 175. "adduced substance threatens Supp., 1205. agree, unavailable. absence disturbances] deserving award." Considering dissents' readiness "develop law" 170, 177, 181 J.); nevertheless questions "basis jurisprudence" requirement "genuine serious," contrast dissent, BREYER appears ultimately advance elaboration serious." specify, additionally, detrimentally affec[t] work." 187. elaboration, "consistent sense law." definition give serious" aired 143, 148, page. ruling today. testify cancer; afraid breath Others varying degrees disease; corroborative objective 116-117, 255, 298-299, 332) prediction adhering inGottshall will, setting, bankrupt defendants, 168-169 186 dissents largely disregard, inter alia, control devices include, request, sufficiency, particularized forms. chose measures order; entirely ken. 147. Jenkins Pac. 820, 824-825 (SD 1937), rev'd grounds, 96 (CA9 1938); Gilbert 197 32, 397 447, 450 (1990); Lewis Passenger 176 947, 948-951, 675 504, 505-507 (Civil 1998); Gaulden Burlington No., 232 Kan. 205, 210-211, 654 389 (1982); Blanton, 63 93, 100, 430, (1940); Demopolis Tel. Hood, 212 Ala. 216, 218, 102 35, (1924); Lindsay Acme Cement Plaster 220 367, 190 275, 278 (1922); Louisville Nashville Allen, 67 Fla. 269-272, 65 8, (1914). Mills River Term. 276 222, 224 2002); Gaines Illinois 1170, 1171 (CA7 1994); Ellison Shell Oil 882 349, 352-354 1989); Alabama Great Chicago Northwestern 493 979, 983 (CA8 1974); Foote Mineral 384 224, 227-228 1967); Kennedy Pennsylvania 282 705, 708-709 (CA3 1960); Ft. Worth Denver Threadgill, 228 307, 311-312 1955); Patterson 253 (CA2 1952); Stephens Transp. 991 618, 620 Tucker Reading 335 1269, 1271 1971); Reynolds 320 1141, 1142-1143 1969); Spielman Haven Hartford 147 451, 453-454 (EDNY 1956); Engvall Soo 632 560, 568 (Minn. 2001); 97-2013 5/13/98), 714 832, 835; Bean, Ill. 620, 623, 525 1231, 1234 (1988); Narcise Gulf 427 1192, 1195 1983); Dow 728, 729-732, 195 323, 324-325 (1972); Gulf, Mobile Dixon Transfer 153-155, 98 783, 785-786 (1951); Seaboard Air Dist. Elec. Protective 106 333, 143 316, 317 (1932); Lewter, Right Railroad, Charged Injury Death Employee Claim Indemnity Contribution Other Tortfeasor, 928 (1968 2002). analogy Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, 1980 (CERCLA), 9601et seq., circumstances. 44-45. CERCLA's structure, purpose, vintage differentiate measure ways presented. CERCLA context. submits "wasteful," 47, able implead secure resolution forum actions. (railroad complaint party); 563 62 whom CHIEF JUSTICE, O'CONNOR, join, part. correct, my view, rejecting Act) apportioned according causal absent assent. 64 III. manifest precedents compel justify result. sound application inform implementing contrary, different yield aberrant results respectful dissent. ground protected Act. Ante, 144-145. threat objective. appear surface solicitous goals realities otherwise. 66 Consider consequences old. All except history tobacco use, smoked years. They daily activities. complained become depressed; attorneys, "concern" health this, respondent $770,640 $1,230,806 reduced $523,605 $1,204,093 account respondents' cigarette use. Contrast prospects fact Cancers periods latency. Their decades Selikoff Latency Insulation Workers Canada, 2736, 2740 (1980) (lung becomes 15-24 exposure); long, mean years"); Mustacchi, 277 (June 1996) pathogenesis carcinomata). cancers inflict excruciating harrowing illness. 68 One particular, faces agonizing, lungs, spreads throughout thoracic cavity tumors metastasize. 1995). subside. increases, almost short onset ibid. ("Death usually occurs months years.... minority patients, around 15%, survive years"). Yet majority's endangers chances reason funds disappeared, depleted unrealized willing embrace. 69 recognized Amchem Products, Windsor, 591, 598 ("`[E]xhaustion assets distorts process; lose altogether'" 2-3 1991))); framed guide case: 70 "In world resources, permitting large-scale widespread diminish disease?" 424, 435-436 71 ignores warning. inability pay comes pass. imprudent injustice. driven companies, hundreds thousands people, into bankruptcy, companies insolvent since January 1, 2000. SL82. bankruptcy remaining greater financial strain, Edley Weiler, Asbestos: Multi-Billion-Dollar Crisis, Legis. 392 (1993); Plevin Kalish, What's Behind Recent Wave Bankruptcies? Mealey's Report: 2001), closer exhaustion, Schuck, Worst Should Go First: Deferral Registries Litigation, Pub. Pol'y 541, (1992). litigation, fast diminishing wooden determination antithetical ensuring 555 (1994) "central focus perils"); 430 (noting threatened caused, traumatic harm"). consequence decision, worst lesser, problematic, exhausted resources payment. Today's protecting; threatening. adopts settled answer, no. unsettled, evident diverse approaches problem. comprehensive discussion, authorities acknowledged, interpreted position. reaches, far inevitable, derives comport administers effective, principled way. I disagree 148. observes "related" (courts "`do distress'" 432)). true matter, begs question: What entitle suffering? 76 applying provides answer. person's direct condition. ("[T]hese used sensations condition" Damages harms pursuant (defining (such fright anxiety) injury"). defines existing natural of, expected flow from, (tortfeasor "fright, it"). 78 includes types fears. accompanies radiation burn, arises intervening cause, examination. 1883) ("To system insignificant drawing money adequate"). passage deeming "emotional it," 456(a), refers, official commentary sort instantaneous trauma arising tortious act. e ("Thus struck automobile broken leg pain, grief, worry leg, seeing car hit him"). 79 Other, 456, d (clarifying accompanying itself"). 80 Applying standards think brooding, contemplative discomfort arise lungs. product learning doctor receiving (perhaps time) correlate contemplating possible affect lives. 81 "[t]here 154. exists examining enough case. fundamental premise conceded, understand this: link Disease, 313. incidence correlates less-frequent workers, suffice. Correlation causation. Absent causation, difficult conceive why marginally suitable predicate correlation establish suffice 82 conceded jurisdictions diagnosed, citations persuasive. collects result, decided high State. 150-151, 11. predicated 889 Hagerty L Marine Servs., 788 315, 1986)); 480 1987); (1985), contrary Five pleurisy, 250 1993); 1992); 129-130, 258-259 (1989); (1995), reject, ante, 153-156, 14. end, analysis, 83 hand, acknowledges, 151-152, based, lawsuit notwithstanding proscription splitting develops. (Ginsburg, J.). adopted jurisdictions, 821, (2002) (collecting cases), suggest apply 84 pertinent reasons. First, illustrates construct fair sensible problems litigation. Second, establishes eliminates perceive avert relief foreclosed future. 85 reached conclusion, reasoning deserves attention settled: 86 "[D]amages speculative. inequitable obtain came fruition. 87 . 88 Appellants left [Pennsylvania law] commenced claims. non-cancer contracting erodes integrity [separate] rule." Simmons Pacor, 543 664, 677-678, 674 232, 238-239 (1996). 89 analysis persuasive accounts, way not, underway compensating victims period. surely equitable allotment Court; adopt govern availability 90 alone view. careful California District Northern parasitic verifiable nexus feared. 1203, 1211-1212 addressed type 1210, 9, determined implication precedent, 1212 Potter Firestone Tire Rubber 965, 863 795 (1993)). prerequisite well: akin spinal puncture, admit damages." 1211. 91 proofs offered summary meet incapable standard. 92 `the occur.'" 149 25). tangential, causal, ("Thus, chance original anxiety tenuous"). characterization, furthermore, finds quoted majority. 154 ("[A] `resulting it'" 456(a))). 171-172, act, variation, concern, guidance awarded. More important, disagreement telling, keep mind nature implementation (1949), administer workable 479 (1943) finally"); ("That law"). State-court dispositive. Dice Akron, 342 359, 361 (1952) ("State laws determining incidents be"). bound giving meaning Within constraints, arrive correct practical Restatement. 95 considerations generated awareness painful, lacks suffices "causes learns ill time"). entitlement turns so. If viewed alleging fail disallowed There, massive amounts hour day 427. witnesses discounting 15-year habit, 97 Despite indications satisfy "zone danger" explained implicated restrictions 433. reaction incremental, precision, heightening speculation caprice, 435. implicate degree Each being told dying. calculable precision juries incremental shared population. observe, literature, cohort, drops percent, most, nonsmokers statistics beginning average male life, form Ries Institute, SEER Statistics Rev., 1973-1999, Tables I-15, I-16 http://seer. cancer.gov/csr/1973_1999/overview.pdf (as visited Feb. 2003) (available Clerk file). literature smokes Changes Cigarette-Related Risks Implication Prevention Control, Tobacco Monograph, 1997, xi, Table incurred wholly 100 derive estimate reason, risk, attempted outset added end. calculate invites speculation, asking infer rough compounded. 101 indicate legitimacy concerns. above, 167, received $500,000 million despite recited "to trial," 155, 15, awards," 159. instructive translating dollar confusing contested complicated harm. demonstrates speculative, unreasoned vivid agony provided increased, admonished awards, "important reservation" "prove 157. proof, standard judges enforce. "genuineness" ameliorate unlimited liability. 552. explaining skepticism, observed: 103 "Such fact-specific haphazard results. Judges forced subjective determinations authenticity counterparts. limit inconsistently.... intangible arbitrary unacceptable." speculative instead restricting classes eligible available. ibid.; allegations compensation, nothing prevent capricious outcomes. individual severe, reconciles exhaust 104 sure, admonition "`unlimited 433 limitation goal ends intervention, 166, entreaty before, 865 (REHNQUIST, concurring); 866-867 dissenting). use decision. regrettable accept responsibility. explain opinion. 107 108 join close one, mention mind, tip balance. 109 majority, believe Second legal us. 148-149, (majority opinion). sets forth disturbance" "actor's for" 456. gives whatsoever. openness consequent uncertainty enacted (FELA) kinds primarily accidents, railway collisions entanglement machinery. (where issue) nearest enactment (and presumably reflective assumed, 554-555) (1934) Restatement). restricted substantially conduct. 111 reflects liberalized (in Restatement's words) extending produced disturbance," removing words "similar immediate." Linguistically speaking, reflect extension "expectable" "intended" normally accompany, say, collision machinery-related accident, 905, e, 458 (1977). "brooding, fear" 172 holdings extend (e. "shortness breath," 298-299) (say, inhaling fibers visible cloud dust). say. 112 Nor examples resolve expansive example involves connected torts like, considerably restricted, "about securing shelter [one's self] family" "wanto[n]" eviction wantonness factor warranting broad Illustration 458; 458. 113 Most conclusions (even triggered injury). Restatements statutes. predominant views. answers consensus. opinion); 173-174 114 uncertainty, acting factors helped shape distress" rules. argue KENNEDY described, 115 area impose valid, trivial, touchstone regard. work because, ordinary risks, increment diagnosis seems virtually evaluate. 178-179 (viewed favor) nonsmoker, perceived something 22% (about nine) three. 155 http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1973_1999/overview.pdf Mar. Would odds nine suddenly "reasonable" three? smoker, risktaker to, four, Cagle, Criteria Attributing Exposure, Clin. Path. Ries, I-16, smoking-related 50-50, Centers Prevention, Projected Smoking-Related Deaths Youth Morbidity Mortality Weekly 971 (1996), reasonable, rises further? know, impossible, affirmative law's recovery-limiting pure How augmentation lives monetary attach incrementally 30%? unreality lack seriousness real. impossibility knowing appropriate insofar appearance tears veil disregard ordinarily shelters itself. measures, 159, 19, respect. Third, perverse basic compensatory objectives harms. Yet, points out, interpretation precisely that. fear," knowledge substance, condition, correlated elevated quite substances. addition generating injuries, compensation. And, shows, combination circumstances occur everyone threatens, future, compensate actually developed. 168-170. estimated, consumed $50 billion eventual exceed $200 billion. Institute). dozens bankruptcy. set aside reducing Trust fund promised 100% liquidated pays 5%. 79-80. tomorrow's costs, genuine. 170 hard choices. Members indicated enact (1999) concurring). responded. ignore threaten achievement objectives. 119 reasons, 157, adding met: years; occurs; (3) face. Where hold, reimbursable. above hold. do, would, unusually work. (awarding psychiatrist-confirmed "severe cancerophobia" burn). However, create restrictive opinion), indeed, respectfully

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