Legal Document

546 U.S. 356 (2006) CENTRAL VIRGINIA COMMUNITY COLLEGE ET AL. v. KATZ, LIQUIDATING SUPERVISOR FOR WALLACE'S BOOKSTORES, INC. No. 04-885. Supreme Court of United States. Argued October 31, 2005. Decided January 23, 2006. *358 William E. Thro, State Solicitor General Virginia, argued the cause for petitioners. With him on briefs were Judith Williams Jagdmann, Attorney General, Bernard L. McNamee II, Chief Deputy Maureen Riley Matsen, Brian J. Goodman and Cynthia H. Norwood, Assistant Attorneys Matthew M. Cobb, Carla R. Collins, Eric A. Gregory, Joel C. Hoppe, Courtney Malveaux, Valerie Myers, Cameron O'Brion, Ronald N. Regnery, D. Mathias Roussy, Jr., Sievers, Associate Solicitors General. Kim Martin Lewis respondent. her brief Jon Fleischaker, Mark Vander Laan, Jeremy S. Rogers, G. Brunstad, Jr.[*] *359 JUSTICE STEVENS delivered opinion Court. Article I, § 8, cl. 4, Constitution provides that Congress shall have power to establish "uniform Laws subject Bankruptcies throughout States." In Tennessee Student Assistance Corporation Hood, 541 440 (2004), we granted certiorari determine whether this Clause gives authority abrogate States' immunity from private suits. See id., at 443. Without reaching question, upheld application Bankruptcy Code proceedings initiated by a debtor against state agency dischargeability student loan debt. 451. case consider proceeding bankruptcy trustee set aside preferential transfers agencies is barred sovereign immunity. Relying in part our reasoning reject defense advanced agencies. *360 I Petitioners are Virginia institutions higher education considered "arm[s] State" entitled See, e. g., Alden Maine, 527 706, 756 (1999) (observing only arms can assert State's immunity). Wallace's Bookstores, Inc., did business with petitioners before it filed petition relief under chapter 11 Code, U.S.C. 101 et seq. (2000 ed. Supp. III), States Eastern District Kentucky. Respondent, Katz, court-appointed liquidating supervisor bankrupt estate. He has commenced pursuant §§ 547(b) 550(a) avoid recover alleged each made when was insolvent.[1] Petitioners' motions dismiss those basis denied *361 The denial affirmed Appeals Sixth Circuit, judgt. order reported 106 Fed. Appx. 341 Circuit's prior determination abrogated proceedings. Hood Corporation, 319 F.3d 755 (2003). We certiorari, 544 960 (2005), question left open Hood: Congress' attempt 106(a)[2] valid. As *362 explain, however, persuaded enactment provision not necessary authorize Court's jurisdiction over these preference avoidance jurisdiction, its core, rem. Gardner New Jersey, 329 565, 574 (1947) ("The whole process proof, allowance, distribution is, shortly speaking, an adjudication interests claimed res"). noted does implicate sovereignty nearly same degree as other kinds jurisdiction. U.S., 450-451 (citing admiralty cases). That true 18th century today. Then, now, courts adjudicating rights estate included issue compulsory orders facilitate administration res. It appropriate presume Framers familiar contemporary legal context they adopted Clause[3]a which, explain Part IV, infra, reflects acquiescence grant congressional subordinate pressing goal harmonizing law defenses might been asserted history Clause, reasons inserted Constitution, *363 legislation both proposed enacted auspices immediately following ratification demonstrate intended just legislative Congress, but also limited subordination arena. Foremost minds who intractable problems, mention injustice, created one imprisoning debtors had discharged (from prison their debts) another State. discussed below, remedy problem, very first Congresses considered, enacted, authorizing federal to, among things, writs habeas corpus directed officials ordering release prisons. acknowledge statements majority dissenting opinions Seminole Tribe Fla. Florida, 517 44 (1996), reflected assumption holding would apply Clause. Hoffman Connecticut Dept. Income Maintenance, 492 96, 105 (1989) (O'Connor, J., concurring). Careful study reflection convinced us, erroneous. For stated Justice Marshall Cohens 6 Wheat. 264 (1821), bound follow dicta which point now fully debated. 399-400 ("It maxim be disregarded, general expressions, every opinion, taken connection expressions used. If go beyond case, may respected, ought control judgment subsequent suit presented decision"). II Critical features exercise exclusive all debtor's *364 property, equitable property creditors, ultimate discharge "fresh start" releasing him, her, or further liability old debts. Local Loan Co. Hunt, 292 234, 244 (1934). "Under longstanding precedent, States, choose participate proceeding, court's no less than creditors." 448. here, like parties conceded much. 449 (noting concession "States generally order"); Tr. Oral Arg. 8-9. discharges demonstrates agencies' concessions, Hood's holding, correct. term "discharge" historically dual meaning; referred debts prison. Indeed, earliest English statutes governing insolvency authorized persons, One statute 1649 "An Act discharging Poor Prisoners unable satisfie Creditors." 2 Acts Ordinances Interregnum, 1642-1660, pp. 240-241 (C. Firth & Rait eds. 1911). purpose "Discharge. . person [the] Debtor" "of his Imprisonment." Ibid. Not until 1705 Parliament extend (and then traders merchants) include 4 Ann., ch. 17, 7, Statutes Large 165 (D. Pickering 1764) (providing upon compliance statute, "all persons so becoming them due owing time he, she, become bankrupt"); see McCoid, Discharge: Most Important Development History, 70 Am. Bankr. 163, 167 (1996). *365 Well into century, imprisonment debt still ubiquitous England[4] American Colonies. laws remained much concerned ensuring full satisfaction creditors (and, relatedly, preventing debtors' flight parts unknown[5]) securing new beginnings debtors. Illustrative laws' harsh treatment during period often fared worse common criminals prison; unfortunate insolvents, unlike criminals, forced provide own food, fuel, clothing while behind bars. B. Mann, Republic Debtors: Age Independence 78-108 (2002). Common itself was, Colonies, later several wildly divergent schemes Id., 79 consistency eighteenth colony, state, permitted debtmost mesne process, execution judgment"). At least four jurisdictions offered through legislatures. Railway Labor Executives' Assn. Gibbons, 455 457, 472 (1982). Those released surrender many coupled Other providing and, few places, Others *366 prison, exchange indentured servitude. Some provided debtor. P. Coleman, Debtors Creditors America: Insolvency, Imprisonment Debt, Bankruptcy, 1607-1900 (1999).[6] difficulties posed patchwork peculiar experience. England, where there sovereign, single could protect jailer creditors. two casesone litigated Constitutional Convention Philadelphia after itdemonstrate, uncoordinated actions multiple sovereigns, laying claim body effects according different rules, rendered impossible neat solution side Atlantic. James Allen, 1 Dall. 188 Phila. Cty. 1786), Jared Ingersoll, attorney year delegate Convention,[7] represented Pennsylvania creditor seeking recovery Jersey. Shortly release, traveled Pennsylvania, he arrested nonpayment *367 Jersey court. Ingersoll responded granting Jersey's "only arrest within Jersey." 190. court agreed: Whatever effect said, "goes [the debtor] Gaol Essex County Jersey; if fullest obedience paid it, Gaol, State." 192. observed "[i]nsolvent subsist Union, probably other.... Even Bankrupt subjects country, never supposed exempt Bankrupts being arrested." 191. second Millar Hall, 229 (Pa. 1788), decided Convention, found himself arguing principle announced James. His client, named "discharged insolvent Maryland, nature bankrupt[cy] law." Dall., 231. Prior discharge, Hall incurred Pennsylvanian Millar. neglected schedule Maryland court, personally notify looming discharge. Following order, promptly unpaid Responding Millar's counsel's argument controlled, urged adoption rule "the Defendant sufficient [a state." Absent such rule, continued, "perpetual *368 must lot man fails; hope retrieving losses honest industrious pursuits, will cut off bankrupt." accepted argument. Allowing execute "upon debtor's] out discharged," explained, "would giving superiority some affording double satisfactionto wit, proportionable dividend there, here." 232. having already obliged effects, "to permit taking [of] compel perform impossibility, pay deprived means payment,an would, least, amount perpetual imprisonment, unless benevolence friends should interfere [his] account." These cases illustrate backdrop adopted. Millar, earlier given preclusive Full Faith Credit Articles Confederation. James, 190; possibility discussion proposal encompass Acts, particular, coverage committed Committee Detail[8] together "`[t]o uniform bankruptcies, respecting damages arising protest foreign bills exchange.'" Nadelmann, On Origin Legal Hist. 215, 216-217, 219 (1957); Plank, Limits 63 *369 Tenn. Rev. 487, 527-528 A days advisement, Detail recommended adding bankruptcies'" Naturalization what became I. 527. Committee's recommendation little debate later. Roger Sherman alone voted apparently because impose citizens penalty England: death. Madison, Notes Debates Federal 1787, p. 571 (Ohio Univ. Press 1966). absence extensive text insertion indicates agreement importance response problems Millar.[9] III understood today framing, principally rem 447; Co., 241; Straton New, 283 318, 320-321 (1931); Hanover Nat. *370 Bank Moyses, 186 181, 192 (1902); Lamp Chimney Ansonia Brass Copper 91 656, 661-662 (1876). bankruptcy, premised estate, 447. such, not, usual even affected. Although interest avoiding unjust making enforceable primary motivation provision, encompasses entire "subject Bankruptcies." unitary concept rather amalgam discrete segments. "on Bankruptcies" providing, certain respects, more simple adjudications example, gave commissioners appointed district power, inter alia, imprison recalcitrant third possession estate's assets. 1800, 14, Stat. 25 (repealed 1803). More generally, disputes concerning bankrupts' estates ancillary enforcing adjudications. W. Blackstone, Commentaries England 486 (1766) assignees bankrupt's propertythe 18th-century counterparts today's trusteescould "pursue any method recovering vested them," pursue methods equity consent creditors); Rev., 523 (discussing empowering transfers); *371 Ex parte Christy, 3 How. 292, 312, 314 (1844) (opinion Story, J.) (describing 1841 broad terms); Wright Union Central Life Ins. 304 502, 513-514 (1938) (defining "bankruptcy" "`subject relations between nonpaying fraudulent extending relief'" (emphasis added)). Our decision illustrates point. dissenters pointed out, arguable particular procedure pursued characterized purely proceeding. 455-456 (Thomas, dissenting). But merely held illustrated early personam directing prisons, infra. Braden 30th Judicial Circuit Ky., 410 484, 494-495 (1973) writ act prisoner seeks relief, holds unlawful custody"). interplay thereto evident us. Respondent 547 various qualify voidable preferences. determination, standing alone, operates mere declaration avoidance. wants; bar turned over. 502(d). cases, though, trustee, marshal entirety *372 need transfer 550(a). mandating turnover although furtherance involve process. decide themselves properly rem.[10] appellation, crafted give transferred property. do dispute core aspect since century. Rust Cooper, Cowp. 629, 633-634, 98 Eng. Rep. 1277, 1280 (K. 1777); Alderson Temple, Black. 660, 661-663, 96 384, 385 *373 1768); Preferences, Efficiency: An Expression Doubt, 67 Va. 249, 251-253 (1981) precedents, dating back Sir Edward Coke's Case Bankrupts, 25a, 76 441 1584), addressing commissioners' preferences); re Dehon, 327 B.R. 38, 62-65 (Bkrtcy. Ct. Mass. 2005) (collecting historical materials). And free clear IV Insofar courts' transfers, suit, agreed plan So evidenced shows Framers' prevent competing sovereigns' interference supra, immediate wake Constitution's ratification. establishing succeeding passed. Warren, History 10 (1935) ("[I]n session 1st most subjects; June 1, 1789, House prepare bill"). 1800 respects copy force. law, chiefly measure designed benefit Like principal provisions *374 commissioners, appointment debtor, 22; "cause doors dwelling-house broken," 22-23; seize collect assets, 5, 23; examine individuals 18, 19, 25-27; "certificate discharge" once distributed, 36, 31. differed slightly English, however. difference uniqueness system involving sovereigns concerns lay itself. judge sitting obtained sheriff, "Bailiff Officer, Gaoler Keeper Prison" "Bankrupt Custody" 5 Geo. 2, 30, ¶ 13 (1732). version worded differently; specifically effective 32; Comstock, F. Cas. 237, 239 (No. 3,073) (Vt. 1842) repealed, discharge). This remarkable years, passed Fourteenth Amendment, available prisoners. Royall, 117 241, 247 (1886).[11] Moreover, *375 hardly prominent Nation's concerns. Chisholm Georgia, 419, "shock[ed]" country lack regard immunity, Principality Monaco Mississippi, 313, 325 (1934), 1793. ensuing five years culminated Eleventh Amendment rife amenability suit. Yet appears record objection based infringement Haines 184-185. strongly supports view source intrusion sovereignty, simply contravene norms exemplify. Cf. Blatchford Native Village Noatak, 501 775, 779 (1991) ("[W]e stand says, presupposition constitutional structure confirms ...").[12] Petitioners, ignoring *376 history, contend nothing words evinces intent alter "background principle" Fla., 72. Specifically, deny word "uniform" implies anything about pre-existing immunities immunities. Brief 32-42. merits petitioners' argument,[13] *377 misses point; aside, Framers, adopting plainly redress rampant injustice resulting refusal respect another's orders. demonstrated First consideration enact carry albeit sphere. ineluctable conclusion, then, brought "Laws Blatchford, consented either expressly `plan convention'"); *378 713 (same).[14] scope limited; exercised rema narrow focus always res, exercises powersissuance includedunquestionably involved ratifying acquiesced whatever otherwise effectuate courts.[15] V Neither adversary adjudicate loans, nor relied, 448-449 York Irving Trust 288 (1933); Gardner, 565; Van Huffel Harkelrode, 284 225 (1931)), rested statement *379 Nor relevant "abrogated" transfers. 106(a).[16] rather, amenable think peradventure is. may, option, treat way insofar operation laws. Its arises itself; "abrogation" effected statute. affirmed. ordered. THOMAS, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE, SCALIA, KENNEDY join, dissenting. Under monetary absent valid abrogation, "settled doctrine" establishes preconditions. 748 (1999). casts long-established principles hold unlikely class individualsbankruptcy trustees conclusion cannot justified text, structure, Constitution. addition, ruling square settled jurisprudence; *380 reach without overruling (1989). maintains ascertained established legislate area manifest additional intention waive Accordingly, respectfully dissent. appear framework examining understood, reiterated ago Hans Louisiana, 134 (1890): "`It inherent individual consent. sense practice mankind; exemption, attributes enjoyed government Union. Unless, therefore, convention, remain States....'" (quoting Federalist 81, 548-549 (J. Cooke 1961) (hereinafter 81); emphasis added deleted). York, 256 490, 497 (1921) ("That sued fundamental jurisprudence important bearing construction repeated decisions judicial embrace entertain *381 given"); 44, 54 reinforced people swiftly rejected 419 (1793), Hans, 11; Reid Covert, 354 n. 27 (1957) (plurality opinion). Thus, "[f]or [since Hans] reaffirmed suits unconsenting `was contemplated States.'" Tribe, 15); 54-55, 7 finds authorizes "[t]o 4. suggests abrogation limitation numerous occasions, "[t]he restricts III, used circumvent limitations placed jurisdiction." 72-73. "[I]t doctrine neither substantive attempted bars raising court." Alden, 748. Kimel Florida Bd. Regents, 528 62, 80 (2000); Board Trustees Ala. Garrett, 531 356, 364 (2001). applied clauses 8 supra (the Interstate Indian Commerce Clauses); Prepaid Postsecondary Ed. Expense *382 College Savings Bank, 627 Patents Clause). difficult discern replete acknowledgments special regard. 72-73, 16; 93-94 (Stevens, dissenting) ("In confronting reason distinguish regulate commerce tribes, [or] promote progress science arts authors inventors" (citations omitted)); 77-78, dissenting); Hoffman, (Scalia, concurring judgment). Today's thus reconciled jurisprudence, purport overturn. majority's departure precedents framework, however; overrules sub silentio supra. petitioner 99like respondent Katz heresought action 547(b). plurality joined Members Court, failed expressed possessed so. 104. SCALIA concurred judgment, *383 empower abrogating 105; ibid. concurring) ("I agree enacting Clause"). (1) immunity; (2) that, minimum consent), overcoming require clearer statutory provided.[1] After decision, longer stand. makes needed manifests sued. Ante, 378. break precedent relying evidence purportedly reveals eliminate 362-363, 373. undoubtedly wanted national confirms. goes further, contending intolerable vary State, demanded single, law. 365-368. concludes achieve 362. Both claims unwarranted. *384 waived conflates distinct sovereignty: regulating citizens, citizens.[2] Nothing including clause founding generation latter sovereignty. run and purposes together. empowers interstate copyrights patents. provisions, motivated desire nationally legislation. Preface reprinted Farrand, Records 539, 547-548 (1911) Farrand's Debates) regulation defects Confederation); Framing 48 (1913) Confederation naturalization, copyrights, patents). recognized uniformity patent important." Prepaid, 645. Nonetheless, refused, weight *385 assigns instead recognizing "is factor belongs patent-power calculus, plea deprives patentee undermine objective differential categories 469 (1982) requirement straightjacket forbids classes debtors, prohibit commercial transactions manner"). B greatly exaggerates depth fervor regime. idea arise late began earnest May 25, 1787. xi. charged putting forth comprehensive draft August 6. Ibid.; 177. language eventually September 483-485, later, 489. analysis, emphasizes zeal timing explain. premise fares explaining postratification period. correctly notes valuable *386 insight understanding 373, 374. undermines, supports, theory. "For [authority] largely unexercised Congress. states matters 16 109 ratified." Tabb, Inst. 13-14 (1995). act, major financial disaster, repealed instance thereafter. 14-21.[3] 1898, well permanent 30 544. refutes, paramount *387 reality, survived identifies suggesting Legislatures, anxious fact, opposite view. To particularly grave offense hauled citizen make payments Alexander Hamilton, author followed emphasizing especially solicitous specific payment debts: "`[T]here color pretend governments plan, divested privilege paying way, constraint flows obligations good faith. contracts nation binding conscience pretension compulsive They confer right independent will. owe? How recoveries enforced? done waging war contracting State; ascribe implication, destruction governments, consequence, altogether unwarrantable.'" 549). *388 C attempts bolster three observations power: forbid violation issued ante, 365-366, 374-375; inability Colonies Confederation, enforce 366-368; (3) rem, 369-373. implication correct, necessarily proceedings, settings. 370; 377-378. none comes close demonstrating relief.[4] availability 1803 support respondent's effort obtain today.[5] *389 consistent then-prevailing notions Young, 209 123 (1908), official, offend Amendment: "The doubted serving officers whose custody found. refused matter discretion; others granted, all." 168 Young repeatedlyincluding 71, 14. observes "until framing statute," 378, observation reconcile analysis underpinnings Young's holding. prisons whatsoever money damages.[6] *390 observationthat 366-368implicates faith credit, apparent observation, describes length rulings 1786); 1788). explanation clear, problem recognition sister-state judgments courts, disregard courts. litigation creditor. sought previously entered 368. unsurprising arose credit. 368-369.[7] points *391 "plainly orders." 377. "rampant injustice" entirely sister authorization Finally, fact aspects enjoy certainly answer case: proceedingsproceedings "ancillary jurisdiction," though 372. Two ago, notwithstanding invocation 440, 448 (2004). doing so, explicitly distinguished noting "unlike *392 hands grounds preference." 454. fall outside possible exception confirmed Nordic Village, 503 (1992), similar facts. There, Trustee recent Internal Revenue Service tax determining trustee's alternative "[r]espondent sum money, `particular dollars,' res attached." 38 Begier IRS, 496 53, 62 (1990); citations omitted deleted).[8] evade claiming seeks, alternative, return `value' preference, actual `property transferred.'" 372, 550(a)). where, *393 practical distinction options, surely result accident pleading. ask "return" "`property transferred,'" 10, cite assertion. 31 ("[T]he recover, $20,000 ... IRS"); 915 F.2d 1049, 1051 (CA6 1990) subsequently unauthorized post-petition IRS"). light weakness recast understandable, unconvincing. * thing overrule altogether. wrong, terms disagreement transparent. today, contrast, comprehend. contrast citizens. NOTES [*] Briefs amici curiae urging reversal Ohio al. Jim Petro, Ohio, Douglas Cole, Solicitor, Elise Porter, respective follows: Troy King Alabama, David Márquez Alaska, Terry Goddard Arizona, Mike Beebe Arkansas, Bill Lockyer California, John Suthers Colorado, Richard Blumenthal Connecticut, Jane Brady Delaware, Charles Crist, Thurbert Baker Bennett Hawaii, Lawrence Wasden Idaho, Lisa Madigan Illinois, Steve Carter Indiana, Thomas Miller Iowa, Phill Kline Kansas, Gregory Stumbo Kentucky, Foti, Steven Rowe Joseph Curran, Reilly Massachusetts, Michael Cox Michigan, Hatch Minnesota, Jeremiah (Jay) Nixon Missouri, McGrath Montana, Bruning Nebraska, Sandoval Nevada, Kelly Ayotte Hampshire, Peter Harvey Patricia Madrid Mexico, Eliot Spitzer Roy Cooper North Carolina, Wayne Stenehjem Dakota, Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Hardy Myers Oregon, Corbett, Patrick Lynch Rhode Island, Henry Dargan McMaster South Long Paul Summers Tennessee, Greg Abbott Texas, Shurtleff Utah, Sorrell Vermont, Rob McKenna Washington, Darrell V. McGraw, West Peggy Lautenschlager Wisconsin, Crank Wyoming; Association Colleges Universities Robert Bartlett Ebner; National Conference Legislatures Ruda Crowley. affirmance Sheehan; Susan Block-Lieb Freeman Lieb. Williamson amicus Bruce Mann. [1] defined "any property "(1) creditor; "(2) account antecedent owed made; "(3) insolvent; "(4) made "(A) 90 date filing petition; "(B) ninety petition, insider; "(5) enables receive if title; "(C) received extent title." instituted accounts receivable. has, letter indicating further. [2] Section 106(a), amended 1994, "Notwithstanding assertion governmental unit following: Sections 105, 106, 107, 108, 303, 346, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 503, 505, 506, 510, 522, 523, 524, 525, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553, 722, 724, 726, 728, 744, 749, 764, 901, 922, 926, 928, 929, 944, 1107, 1141, 1142, 1143, 1146, 1201, 1203, 1205, 1206, 1227, 1231, 1301, 1303, 1305, 1327 title. hear sections units. Rules Procedure, awarding recovery, award punitive damages...." "governmental unit" "State," "municipality," "department, agency, instrumentality 101(27). above-quoted 106(a) product revisions precedents. Reform 1978, 92 2549, contained unit[s]," deemed "waived immunity" determinations "notwithstanding immunity." 2555-2556. (1989), sufficiently predecessor "abrogate" Government's 101; 39, prompted 1994 Gibson, Congressional Response Village: Amended Sovereign Immunity, 69 311 [3] Cannon University Chicago, 677, 699 (1979), endorsed presumption "that thoroughly familiar" Title IX Civil Rights 1964. equally proper delegates aware potential nonuniform insolvent's [4] abolished 1869, exceptions. Act, 32 33 Vict., 4; Cohen, Debt Relation Discharge 153, 164 [5] widely acknowledged 34 35 Hen. (1542), deal growing number who, "craftily obtaining Hands great Substance Mens [sic] Goods, suddenly flee Parts unknown." [6] "At Revolution, thirteen colonies insolvents No systems alike spirit. ten colonies, or, went effect, remaining six scattered, periods, usually ad hoc insolvents." America, [7] admitted 1773 elected member Continental 1780. Council. served 1790 1799 again 1811 1817. From March 1821 death 1822 City Philadelphia. Among (1793)for 9 Dictionary Biography 468-469 (1932). [8] July delegates' proposals. [9] Of course, located "`intimately connected'" 466 42, 285 (N. Y. Heritage 1945)). mean, implications mirror Clause's unique combined singular us represent implicit [10] characterization suggest. stated, rejecting "exception" unavailable "sum dollars.'" There view, "no [bankruptcy] Whiting Pools, 462 198 (1983), "estate," "includes seized petition." 209; 58 (1990) ("`property debtor' best commencement proceedings"). observe "value" 550(a), "property transferred," 37 ("Respondent invokes section 550 `the transferred'"). [11] Judiciary 1789 issuance writ, custody. Haines, Uniformity Power: Why Different, 77 129, 179-181 (2003) Haines). Also, interim 1867, crises viewed warrant response: Carolina nullification controversy 1828-1833 632 (1833); 539 (1842); Duker, Habeas Corpus 187-189 (1980). 1833 imprisoned 1842 judges nationals governments. [12] Further gleaned 1800. "nothing shall, manner, secured heretofore passed, construed lessen impair security for, them." 36. felt carve preferences undermines suggestion operating background commentator read requiring protected "priorit[ies]" "specifically Legislature Union" Act's provisions. T. Law Compared 334 (1801) (reprint 1992) ("But apprehend [that] extends priority Union; priorities favour crown extended analogy country"). [13] represents limitation, expansion, 468 ("Unlike contains affirmative restriction States"). Frankfurter's Vanston Bondholders Protective Comm. Green, 156 (1946), proposition geographic uniformity," 172. Based authorities, argue interpreted greater impinge conferred, 33. logic persuasive. rest compared Clauses anything, mandate showing constrained application, geographically otherwise, cf. 470 (invalidating aimed "one regional railroad" else), imply lacks robust sense. 158-172. demonstrates, ensure Sturges Crowninshield, 122, 193-194 (1819) Marshall, deserve notice. pass laws, uniform, States"); 57-58 Lathrop Drake, 516 (1876)); Nos. 197-201, 481-491 Rossiter (A. Hamilton) (pointing "uniform[ity]" example "surrender [States'] convention"). [14] object injunction commence constitute 123, 159-160 (1908). While supported Framers. finally recently expedient "fiction" supremacy Pennhurst School Hospital Halderman, 465 89, 114, (1984); Idaho Coeur d'Alene 521 261, 281 (1997). [15] mean suggest labeled could, [16] (holding likewise 101. Immunity union." 549. attribute sovereignty; discussed, completely separate portion 32. dozen adopt Annals 2671 (1799) "not [bankruptcy legislation] past, [have] legislated way" (statement Baldwin)); 380 (same). April ample role 61, (By copyright 109, 124.) short lived; 248. decade inattention communicatedthat vest leaves 122 (1819). 9, repeal 82, 614. economic upheaval War caused 176, 14 517, too decade, 160, 20 99. sure, adds, footnote, "[w]e `bankruptcy' 15. offers statement; principled draw distinctions future cases. known (let test validity) time. December 1803, 6, sole reference cited 237 1842), 374, ruling, 40 repeal, existence provision. contends "remarkable prisoners." shares pedigree (unlike Constitution) Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445 (1976). recognizes, 374-375, 11, Amendment. 632; 539; (1980) Acts). bears relevance event, explained above, 150 ("[A] examination [of Amendment] altered [Eleventh] Amendment"). 457 (1982): "Prior drafting passing relieve Given status questions raised recognize [citing Millar]. impossibility abuse legislators honest. surprising introduced Clause." omitted). funds trust Statesso "particular dollars" help case. effort. 200-201; 39 Pools 106(c) waiver provision]"). Furthermore, Government lien, 202. By uncontested owns funds, barring ("A Treasury quite tangible retained ownership").

Classification Label: 9