Legal Document

521 U.S. 898117 S.Ct. 2365138 L.Ed.2d 914 Jay PRINTZ, Sheriff/Coroner, Ravalli County, Montana, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. Richard MACK, Petitioner, v. UNITED Nos. 95-1478, 95-1503. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Dec. 3, 1996. Decided June 27, 1997. Syllabus * Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act provisions require Attorney General to establish a national system for instantly checking prospective handgun purchasers' backgrounds, note following 18 U.S.C. §922, and command "chief law enforcement officer'' (CLEO) each local jurisdiction conduct such checks perform related tasks on an interim basis until becomes operative, §922(s). Petitioners, CLEOs counties in Montana Arizona, filed separate actions challenging provisions' constitutionality. In case, District held that background-check provision was unconstitutional, but concluded it severable from remainder Act, effectively leaving voluntary place. The Ninth Circuit reversed, finding none unconstitutional. Held: 1.The Act's commanding background checks, §922(s)(2), is Extinguished with duty implicit requirement CLEO accept completed handgun-applicant statements (Brady Forms) firearms dealers, §§922(s)(1)(A)(i)(III) (IV). Pp. ____-____. (a) Because there no constitutional text speaking precise question whether congressional action compelling state officers execute federal laws answer CLEOs' challenge must be sought historical understanding practice, Constitution's structure, this Court's jurisprudence. P. 2369. (b) Relevant practice tends negate existence power asserted here, not conclusive. Enactments early Congresses seem contain evidence assumption Federal Government may States' executive absence particularized authorization. enactments establish, at most, Constitution originally understood permit imposition obligation judges enforce prescriptions matters appropriate judicial power. misplaces its reliance portions Federalist suggesting responsibilities could imposed officers. None these necessarily implies-what critical point here-that Congress impose without consent. They appear rest natural would consent, see FERC Mississippi, 456 742, 796, n. 35, 102 2126, 2157, 72 532 (O'CONNOR, J., concurring judgment dissenting part). Finally, executive-commandeering statutes country's later history, least very recent years. Even assuming newer represent assertion challenged they are vintage probative tradition. (c) structure reveals principle controls cases: "dual sovereignty.'' See, e.g., Gregory Ashcroft, 501 452, 457, 111 2395, 2399, 115 410. Although surrendered many their powers new Government, retained residuary inviolable sovereignty reflected throughout text. Lane County Oregon, 7 Wall. 71, 76, 19 L.Ed. 101. Framers rejected concept central government act upon through States, instead designed which State Governments exercise concurrent authority over people. Government's augmented immeasurably impermissibly if were able impress into service-and cost itself-the police 50 States. (d) control also have effect separation equilibration between three branches itself. transfers President's responsibility administer enacted by Congress, Art. II, §§2 thousands who left implement program meaningful Presidential control. Executive's unity shattered, President subject reduction, simply laws. (e) Contrary dissent's contention, direction officials constitutionally valid under I, §8, as "necessary proper'' execution Congress's Commerce Clause regulate sales. Where, violates principle, "proper carrying Execution'' delegated within Necessary Proper Clause's meaning. Cf. New York 505 144, 166, 112 2408, 2423, 120 120. Supremacy does help dissent, since makes "Law Land'' only "Laws shall made Pursuance [of Constitution.]'' VI, cl. 2. (f) most conclusively cases, jurisprudence clear compel enact or regulatory program. York, supra, 188, S.Ct., 2435. attempts dissent distinguish York-on grounds legislative make policy; requiring discrete, ministerial diminish officials' accountability; addressed individual while invalidated directed itself-are persuasive. A "balancing'' analysis inappropriate whole object direct functioning executive, hence compromise structural framework dual sovereignty; offends. See 187, 2434. 2.With receipt-of-forms requirements invalidated, destroy all Forms records, §922(s)(6)(B)(i), give would-be purchasers written reasons determining ineligibility receive handguns, §922(s)(6)(C), whatsoever part petitioners, participants administration scheme. As them, inoperative. 3.The declines address severability briefed argued parties: dealers remain obliged forward CLEOs, (IV), wait five business days thereafter before consummating sale, §922(s)(1)(A)(ii). These burden purchasers, plaintiff either those categories Court. 2384. 66 F.3d 1025 (C.A.9 1995), reversed. SCALIA, delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C. O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. opinions. STEVENS, opinion, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, opinion. Stephen Halbrook, Fairfax, VA, petitioners. Walter Dellinger, Durham, NC, respondent. Justice SCALIA 1 presented cases certain Pub.L. 103-159, 107 Stat. 1536, tasks, violate Constitution. 2 Gun Control 1968(GCA), §921 et seq., establishes detailed scheme governing distribution firearms. It prohibits transferring handguns any person 21, resident dealer's State, prohibited purchasing possessing firearms, §922(b). forbids possession firearm by, transfer to, convicted felons, fugitives justice, unlawful users controlled substances, persons adjudicated mentally defective committed mental institutions, aliens unlawfully present dishonorably discharged Armed Forces, renounced citizenship, been subjected restraining orders misdemeanor offense involving domestic violence. §§922(d) (g). 3 1993, amended GCA enacting Act. requires instant check November 30, 1998, amended, 103-322, 103 2074, immediately puts place operative. Under provisions, dealer proposes first: (1) transferee statement (the Form), §922(s)(1)(A)(i)(I), containing name, date birth proposed along sworn among classes §922(s)(3); (2) verify identity examining identification document, §922(s)(1)(A)(i)(II); (3) provide transferee's residence notice contents (and copy) Form, With some exceptions, then unless earlier notifies he has reason believe illegal. 4 creates two significant alternatives foregoing sell purchaser possesses issued after check, §922(s)(1)(C), provides §922(s)(1)(D). rendered one applicable gun required duties. When receives dealer, "make reasonable effort ascertain 5 receipt violation law, including research whatever recordkeeping systems available designated General.'' §922(s)(2). take particular determines pending transaction unlawful; notify effect, do so. If, however, ineligible handgun, must, request, determination. §922(s)(6)(C). Moreover, discover objecting records his relating transfer, copy Form. §922(s)(6)(B)(i). GCA, "knowingly [the section Act] fined title, imprisoned more than year, both.'' §924(a)(5). Petitioners Printz Mack, Graham respectively, constitutionality provisions. 856 F.Supp. 1372 (D.Ariz.1994); 854 1503 (D.Mont.1994). divided panel Appeals (1995). We granted certiorari. 518 ----, 116 2521, 135 1046 (1996). II 6 From description set forth above, apparent purports participate, albeit temporarily, federally Regulated officer employee, whose forms them "reasonable efforts'' determine sales lawful. While prevent determined (it perhaps assumed state-law duties will prevention apprehension), empowered grant, waivers prescribed 5-day waiting period purchases notifying transactions petitioners here being pressed service, contend question, Constitution, treat sources, order, next sections 8 compelled enlistment programs is, years least, unprecedented. contends, contrary, "the earliest participation implementation laws,'' Brief 28. contention demands our careful consideration, "provid[e] "contemporaneous weighty evidence' meaning,'' Bowsher Synar, 478 714, 723-724, 106 3181, 3186, 92 583 (1986) (quoting Marsh Chambers, 463 783, 790, 3330, 3335, 77 1019 (1983)). Indeed, exposition . , acquiesced long term years, fixes construction given provisions.'' Myers 272 52, 175, 47 45, 71 160 (1926) (citing numerous cases). Conversely if, contend, avoided use highly attractive power, we thought exist. 9 observes first courts record applications Mar. 26, 1790, ch. §1, 103, transmit abstracts citizenship other naturalization Secretary 18, 1798, 54, §2, 567, register seeking issue certificates registry, Apr. 14, 1802, 28, 154-155. well be, applied authorized proceedings. 103; Holmgren 217 509, 516-517, 30 588, 589, 54 861 (1910) (explaining March 1790 "conferred admit citizenship'' refraining addressing "whether can against consent''); Jones, 109 513, 519-520, 346, 351, 27 1015 (1883) (stating obligations "with consent States'' "could enforced States'').1 Other era apparently arguably functions unrelated naturalization, resolving controversies captain crew ship concerning seaworthiness vessel, July 20, 29, §3, 132, hearing claims slave owners had apprehended fugitive slaves issuing authorizing slave's forced removal fled, Feb. 12, 1793, 7, 302-305, taking proof Canadian refugees assisted during Revolutionary War, 548, ordering deportation alien enemies times war, 6, 66, 577-578. 10 prescriptions, insofar That explicit another. accord so-called Madisonian Compromise, Article III, established creation lower optional Congress-even though obvious alone hear Warren, Making 325-327 (1928). And Clause, 2, announced Laws supreme Law Land; Judges every bound thereby.'' understandable why should viewed distinctively regard; unlike legislatures executives, sovereigns time. underlying "transitory'' causes operated elsewhere created justice forum enforce. McKenna Fisk, How. 241, 247-249, 11 117 (1843). itself, Full Faith Credit IV, generally respect arising Hughes Fetter, 341 609, 980, 95 1212 (1951). For reasons, think imposing imply service. numerousness statutes, contrasted utter lack (notwithstanding attractiveness course Congress), suggests power.2 brought attention Extradition "executive authority'' cause arrest delivery request fled. 302. implementation, §2.3 12 Not Congresses, far aware, authorization, indication precisely opposite assumption. On September 23, 1789-the day proposal Bill Rights, Annals 912-913-the First aimed obtaining assistance rudimentary necessary sort laws: holding prisoners jails expense. Significantly, recommendation legislatures. "recommended several pass laws, making expressly keepers gaols, safe keep therein States,'' offered pay cents per month prisoner. Sept. 1789, 96. when Georgia refused comply L. White, Federalists 402 (1948), reaction marshal failed Recommendation rent temporary jail permanent made, Resolution 1791, 225. 13 addition legislation, appeals sources usually regarded indicative original points reply criticisms tax produce sets revenue officers-for example, "Brutus's'' letter Journal December 13, 1787, "opens door appointment swarm excise prey honest industrious community, eat up substance, riot spoils country,'' reprinted Debate 502 (B. Bailyn ed.1993). "Publius'' responded probably regulations, collecting'' taxes, No. 36, p. 221 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961) (A.Hamilton) (hereinafter Federalist), predicted eventual collection internal revenue] immediate Union, officers, according rules, appointed id., 292 (J. Madison). invokes Federalist's general observations "enable [national] employ ordinary magistracy [State] 176 (A.Hamilton), "extremely probable instances, particularly organization clothed correspondent Union,'' But allowing assist (1982) (O'Connor, part), proved correct extensive mutual voluntarily provided another Republic, 401-404, see, 5, (directing collectors customs enforcing inspection laws). 14 Another passage reads follows: 15 "It merits Confederacy enumerated legitimate objects become land; observance legislative, sanctity oath. Thus, legislatures, courts, magistrates, respective members incorporated operations just extends; auxiliary laws.'' 177 (emphasis original). 16 rely passage, SOUTER (with conclusions agreement, post, __) foundation position; so pause examine detail. finds " [t]he reading'' phrases "will government'' laws'' National "authority exercising otherwise commerce say), "auxiliaries' action.'' Post, __. There obstacles interpretation. First, consequences ("incorporated "rendered laws'') said quoted flow automatically officers' oath observe jurisdiction.''4 means active role necessity directive it. ever thought, asserts litigation, law. second problem SOUTER's reading direction. —(The all, include merely incidentally, referring "all officers''; refers specifically all.) held, (1992).5 17 problems avoided, course, calculatedly vague recites-"incorporated laws''-are taken refer nothing (or less) owed officials, enact, enforce, interpret fashion obstruct operation attendant reality constituting obstruction, even acts, ipso facto invalid.6 Silkwood Kerr-McGee Corp., 464 238, 248, 104 615, 621, 78 443 (1984) (federal pre-emption conflicting law). This meaning accords context seeks explain citizens, old "bid much fairer avoid using force'' 176. reconciles Hamilton's 222, circumstances "to possible, attach Union accumulation emoluments''-which surely inducing come aboard paying rather commandeering official services.7 contends interpretation "supported 44,'' Madison, wherefore "Madison Hamilton'' together stand opposed view. fact, 44 quite clearly contradicts reading. Number, Madison justifies support ground essential agency giving Constitution.'' If agreed it), expected "essential agency'' (if described further) Instead, continues description: "The election Senate depend, House Representatives equally depend same instance; will, probably, forever conducted '' Id., 287 added). 20 implausible labored example assisting believed, neglected mention, laws.8 indeed view Madison's writings, text, commentary elsewhere.9 21 To complete record, history well, August 1882, 376, §§2, 4, 22 214, enlisted charge affairs immigration ports relief immigrants landing fall distress need public aid''; inspect arriving exclude found "convict, lunatic, idiot,'' indigent; send convicts back country origin "without compensation.'' statute did not, mandate duties, Treasury enter contracts purpose governor State.'' —(Emphasis added.) cites World War I selective draft utilize service departments agents Territories, Columbia, subdivisions thereof, Act,'' directions guilty misdemeanor. May 1917, 15, §6, 40 80-81 However, authorization service'' officers; refusal directions, might included governors volunteered services. interesting implementing Wilson commandeer services requested governors, Proclamation 1665 ("call[ing] Governor duties''); Registration Regulations Prescribed Approved Part §7 ("the State] regulations rules direction'') added), obtained Note, President, Senate, Executive Order 8, 1926, Ill. L.Rev. 142, 144 (1926), subordinate Selective Service §27 (1918); J. Clark, Rise Federalism 91 (1965). L.Rev., 144. impressive wartime measure solicitous independence. 23 number past few decades schemes. Some connected funding measures, accurately conditions grant mandates States; others, information involve us actual currently operative us; time enough validity proper case. deciding little relevance. tradition lends Their persuasive force outweighed almost centuries avoidance practice. Compare INS Chadha, 462 919, 2764, 317 (1983), veto, enshrined hundreds 1970's 1932, 967-975, 2792-2796 (White, dissenting), nonetheless III 24 examined above turn consideration discern postulate[s],'' Principality Monaco 313, 322, 745, 748, 1282 (1934), cases. 25 incontestible 410 (1991); Tafflin Levitt, 493 455, 458, 110 792, 795, 887 (1990). "a sovereignty,'' 39, 245 101 (1869); Texas 700, 725, 227 (1869), (to mention examples) prohibition involuntary reduction combination State's territory, §3; Judicial Power Privileges Immunities speak "Citizens'' amendment provision, V, votes three-fourths amend Constitution; Guarantee §4, "presupposes continued states instrumentalities sovereign reserved rights,'' Helvering Gerhardt, 304 405, 414-415, 58 969, 973, 82 1427 (1938). Residual implicit, conferral governmental powers, ones, implication express Tenth Amendment's nor people.'' 26 Framers' experience Articles Confederation persuaded instruments governance both ineffectual provocative federal-state conflict. 15. Preservation independent political entities price union, practicality coercive sanctions, bodies'' having been, words, "exploded hands,'' Records Convention (M. Farrand ed.1911), governments people-who were, government,'' 109. detail elsewhere, U.S., 161-166, 2420-2423, repeat here. suffices conclusion: explicitly chose confers individuals, States.'' 2423.10 great innovation design "our citizens capacities, federal, protected incursion other''-"a legal unprecedented form design, establishing government, own relationship, privity, rights people sustain governed it.'' Term Limits, Inc. Thornton, 514 779, 838, 1842, 1872, 131 881 (1995) (Kennedy, concurring). thus contemplates accountable citizens. 168-169, 2424; Lopez, 549, 576-577, 1624, 1638-1639, 626 Edgar MITE 457 624, 644, 2629, 2641, 73 269 interest protecting nonresident[s]''). expressed it: [T]he municipal authorities distinct supremacy, subject, spheres, sphere.'' 245.11 spheres protections liberty. "Just independence coordinate serve excessive branch, healthy balance reduce risk tyranny abuse front.'' Gregory, 2400. quote once again: 28 "In compound republic America, governments, portion allotted subdivided departments. Hence double security arises different other, itself.'' 51, 323. 29 180-181 (A.Hamilton). B discussed element "double security'' alluded Madison: division Governments. element: leave speculation Congress; says, "shall Care faithfully executed,'' personally whom appoints (save inferior authorize "Courts Law'' Heads Departments'' themselves presidential appointees), §2. possible appoint remove). insistence Executive-to insure vigor accountability-is known. 70 (A.Hamilton); Documentary History Ratification 495 Jensen ed.1976) (statement James Wilson); Calabresi & Prakash, Execute Laws, Yale L.J. 541 (1994). him, laws.12 C 31 resorts last, best hope defend ultra vires action, Clause. __-__, sale coupled Execution Powers,'' validity, because Amendment imposes limitations "not What destroys argument, itself.13 "La[w] various mentioned earlier, __, Clause,'' thus, words Federalist, "merely [an] ac[t] usurpation'' "deserve[s] treated such.'' 33, 204 Lawson Granger, "Proper'' Scope Power: Jurisdictional Interpretation Sweeping 43 Duke 267, 297-326, 330-333 (1993). fact answered argument York: [E]ven where prohibiting lacks directly prohibit acts -[T]he authorizes interstate directly; governments' regulation commerce.'' 2423. 32 perceives simple VI Officers, Oath Affirmation, Constitution,'' arguing virtue well,'' binding state-officer enforcement. Constitution]''; brings conscripting IV 33 prior novel phenomenon occur 1970's, Environmental Protection Agency promulgated prescribe auto emissions testing, monitoring retrofit programs, designate preferential bus carpool lanes. Courts Fourth Circuits statutory order what perceived grave issues, Maryland EPA, 530 F.2d 215, 226 (C.A.4 1975); Brown 827, 838-842 Columbia grounds, Train, 971, 994 (C.A.D.C.1975). After certiorari review declined rescinded conceded invalidity remained, leading vacate opinions below remand mootness. EPA Brown, 431 99, 97 1635, 52 166 (1977). 34 occasion ours implement, legislation programs. Hodel Virginia Surface Mining Reclamation Assn., Inc., 452 264, 2352, 69 (1981), (1982), sustained assuring ourselves cited court raised compliance standards precondition pre-empted field, Hodel, 288, 2366. FERC, construed troubling Public Utility Regulatory Policies 1978, "command'' agencies "consider'' standards, again field. 764-765, 2140-2141. warned "this never sanctioned promulgate regulations,'' 761-762, 2138-2139. 35 last confronted squarely unambiguously program, decision surprise. At (1992), "take title'' Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments 1985, providing disposal radioactive waste generated borders, title waste-effectively legislate pursuant administrative solution. 175-176, 2428. neither. 176, Government,'' "may program.'' 36 distinguishable ground: there, policy, issues final CLEOs. permissible, asserts, "Congress itself devises solution regulates private conduct'' "limited, non-policymaking law.'' line crossed compels capacities.'' 16. 37 distinction "making'' "enforcing'' it, "policymaking'' mere "implementation,'' one. meant as, reminiscent of, separates unconstitutional delegation separation-of-powers purposes. A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. 295 495, 530, 55 837, 843, 79 1570 (1935); Panama Refining Co. Ryan, 293 388, 428-429, 251-252, 446 (1935). notably successful describing latter line; indeed, abandoned FPC England Co., 415 345, 352-353, 94 1151, 1156, 39 383 (1974) (Marshall, result); Schoenbrod, Delegation Doctrine: Could Give Substance? 83 Mich. 1223, 1233 (1985). doubtful distinct. utterly policymaking component rare, level high jurisdiction's chief law-enforcement officer. Is really true involved deciding, expended check? satisfy divert personnel felony investigations, permitted consume one-half hour officer's parsimonious; diverting felony-investigation time, permitting beyond certainly unreasonable. devote maximum minimum preeminently matter policy? impossible, short, draw "no policymaking,'' too policymaking.'' How likely precisely; imprecise barrier intrusion effective 38 assuming, moreover, leaves discretion fail how improves worsens sovereignty. autonomous less undermined policy fields (as Judge Sneed aptly ago) "reduc[ing] [them] puppets ventriloquist Congress,'' F.2d, 839. attribute sphere authority. Wall., 725. compatible autonomy "dragooned'' Fernandez put below, F.3d, 1035) administering impressed find proffered decisions Testa Katt, 330 386, 67 810, 967 (1947), (1982). neither case relevant. stands proposition cannot refuse apply law-a conclusion mandated terms [by law]''). suggested says about Accord 178-179, 2429-2430. stated earlier) 2138-2139, upheld preconditions 2366, acting capacity, Testa, 759-771, 24, 2137-2144, 24.14 maintains specified accountability officials. fails terms. By forcing absorb financial Members credit "solving'' ask constituents solutions higher taxes. costs still position blame burdensomeness defects. Merritt, Three Faces Federalism: Finding Formula Future, Vand. 1563, 1580, 65 gun. CLEO, official, blamed error (even database) mistakenly rejected. 41 attempt distinguishing advances seems theory. former individuals-namely CLEOs-while difference, "individuals,'' capacities actions, State. writs individuals personal hand, ancient one, principally dictated common sense. observed suit her capacity official's office such, Will Michigan Dept. Police, 491 58, 2304, 2312, 105 45 (1989). capacity. say significance.15 "empty formalistic reasoning highest order,'' resorting this, distinguishes disembowels it.16 42 cluster arguments grouped heading: serves important purposes, efficiently administered period, places minimal officers.'' considerable disagreement extent burden, Assuming factors true, relevant evaluating incidental application applicability excessively interfered governments. Fry 421 542, 1792, 1796, 363 (1975); League Cities Usery, 426 833, 853, 96 2465, 2475, 49 (1976) (overruled Garcia San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 528, 1005, 1016 (1985)); South Carolina Baker, 485 505, 529, 108 1355, 1370, 99 592 (1988) (REHNQUIST, C.J., judgment). where, sovereignty, inappropriate.17 offends, comparative assessment interests overcome fundamental defect. Bowsher, 736, 3192-3193 (declining balancing test); 944-946, 2780-2782 (same); Plaut Spendthrift Farm, 211, 239-240, 1447, 1462-1463, 328 (holding legislated invalidation judgments categorically unconstitutional). approach bears repeating: "Much concerned setting traditionally measures deviating form. result "formalistic' partisans issue, typically product era's necessity. protects intentions: divides resist temptation concentrate location expedient crisis day.'' adhere today, conclude categorically, mandatory plainly runs afoul rule. V Act-the handgun] General,'' §922(s)(2)-is 46 challenge, Act: [Brady Form] transmitted'' derived "determines handgun'' purchaser, determination, CLEO. Quite obviously, received none, determination ineligibility, all. conceivable chosen, voluntarily, participate position.18 conundrum parties argued: jurisdictions jurisdictions, it) requisite (IV); questions, answering decline speculate regarding Cf., 186-187, 2434 (addressing remaining affected plaintiffs). 48 *** Today hold circumvent directly. directives problems, subdivisions, involved, case-by-case weighing burdens benefits necessary; commands fundamentally incompatible Accordingly, ordered. 51 concurring. Our precedent Nation's practices today. forces dealers. ante, holding, spell end objectives continue scheduled terminate 1998. Note §922. free continuance contractual wishes, §402 (conditioning funds highway safety requirements). 53 addition, appropriately refrains purely reporting similarly invalid. §5779(a) (requiring report missing children Department Justice). today properly holds "administer join full, write separately emphasize affirms undeniable notion enumerated, limited, powers. McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 579 (1819) ("This acknowledged powers''). [T]hat limits mistaken, forgotten, constitution written.'' Marbury Cranch 137, 60 (1803). (1992). 56 my "revisionist'' view, allocates states,'' extend wholly intrastate, point-of-sale transactions. 584, 1642, (concurring opinion). Absent intrastate corollary regulations. interpreted ceding (interstate otherwise), "temper jurisprudence'' return better rooted understanding. 601, 1650; opinion); Camps Newfound/Owatonna, Town Harrison, 520 1590, 137 852 (1997) (THOMAS, dissenting). 57 construe Congress' encompass "substantially affect'' commerce, delegating areas outside reach Amendment, fittingly celebrated preventing "prohibiting exercise'' religion "abridging freedom speech.'' Second appears limitation government's provides: [a] regulated Militia, right bear arms, infringed.'' consider nature substantive safeguarded Amendment.1 read confer "keep arms,'' colorable exists scheme, pertains protections.2 raise Perhaps, future date, opportunity Story wrote arms "has justly considered, palladium liberties republic.'' Story, Commentaries §1890, 746 (1833). meantime, striking down inconsistent Amendment. BREYER join, dissenting. 59 exercises affirmative firmly supported Nation, basic Government. implicate difficult questions associated coercion Nor wisdom relying carry out aspects function basis. behalf entire needed development remarkably similar heavily debated collect Or entertain decide prefer ignore. 61 ultimate implications emergency. Matters air raid wardens, military draft, mass inoculation forestall epidemic, threat international terrorist, response respond. empowers response, anything "in [or] Court,'' effective? More narrowly, concluding elected representatives people, contains unwritten rule announces today? 62 Perhaps today's majority suggest emergency facts suggestion expression judgment. implied 63 passed "epidemic violence.'' H.Rep. 103-344, 103rd Cong. 1st Sess. 1993 U.S.Code Admin. News pp. 1984, 1985. notes 15,377 Americans murdered 1992, 12,489 deaths caused handguns. Ibid. special concern violence far, developed nations.'' partial contained purchased, met remarkable success. Between 1994 1996, approximately 6,600 potentially dangerous prevented checks; 70% indicted felons. Justice, Bureau Statistics Bulletin, Estimate: Presale Firearm Checks (Feb.1997). Whether evaluation enactment danger efficacy warrants accorded decision. 64 sufficient disposition grants Putting side revisionist views T HOMAS (1995), adequately supports effected additional [t]o Powers'' adequate process identifying entrusted ample enactment. Unlike category restriction Using language "not'' Const., Amdt. 10. 68 confirms limited affirmatively purport limit scope effectiveness Congress.1 156, 2417, (1992) (" [i]n inquiries mirror images other''). immunizes citizens.2 infer greater 3. affirmation because, explained "have Constitution.''3 44, 312 (E. Bourne 1947) conflict Land,'' unanimous explaining tribunals tort litigation Employers' Liability applies parallel modest harmony therefore jurisdiction, inadmissible, presupposes contemplation exertion confided adopted act, spoke thereby Connecticut emanated legislature, respected accordingly Claflin Houseman, 93 130, 136, [23 833 (1876)]: thereof are. foreign regards concurrent, and, paramount sovereignty.''' Cases, 223 1, 57, 169, 178, 327 (1912). 392, 813-814, (1947). 74 clause, sentence, paragraph ignore I. 75 states, govern army financed requisitions constituent Confederacy, creating soldiers 76 method unacceptable, demeaned character cumbersome inefficient. confederation allows ways complying overriding requisition obviously deferential concerns uses citizenry. change conceived enhance new, unmentioned immunity indirect government'') ineffective Confederation, Alexander Hamilton "we citizens.'' materials strongly Founders intended empowering it-as citizens-to "by extending head enable each, 180. unambiguous; demand went explain: easy perceive tend destroy, apprehension, governments] proceed; advantage securing due obedience enjoyed Ibid.4 specifically, debates ratification government. Opponents repeatedly fears ability taxes citizenry overbearing presence States.5 rejoined arise explained, 235. Similarly, resorted except supplemental purposes collection, 318.6 powerful weak. "none implies Ante, __-__ omitted). No fair justify "individual citizens''-including "employ[ing] magistracy'' States-was faced "upon collective 179-180. problem, resulting regular peaceable Union.'' 80 especially members, (second emphasis hard imagine unequivocal branch powers.7 81 unpersuasive discount statement. majority, "congressional directive,'' mean says. source remotely ""incorporat[ed] government''' defined Congress. law.8 Second, interpreting affect relevance weight relates magistrates. Bereft founding, rests claim actually exercised Republic. misguided fact. indicated resolution "provides [its] "had framing instrument,''' (1983)), failure area existence. position, correct, undermine post-New Deal O'Connor noted undertakes activities unimaginable Framers.'' 157, 2418. importantly, elect clerks variety functions, contemporary status immunize majority's incomplete misleading. 84 citizenship. applications, specifying administer'' loyalty clerk application.'' Early Fifth clerks, fine. 567 (specifying clerk'' added)). thereafter, Seventh maintain registry naturalization. aliens, data, aliens; fees compensation. 154-155 "of state'' added)).9 85 serve, functionally, like certifying vessels. 132-133. casts adjudicative duty, characterization complaint ship's proximately located) investigative committee "most skilful maritime affairs'' back. basis, judge fit voyage. forth, essence, procedures expert inquisitorial proceeding, supervised characteristic activity.10 86 assumes essentially sheds light obligations. irrelevant asked function-a disputed infra, __ badly mistaken. 87 truer applying functional assessing played was, context, hardly unusual. scholar noted, "two ago, performed varied laying city streets ensuring vessels.'' Caminker, Sovereignty Subordinacy: Commandeer Officers Implement Law?, Colum. 1001, 1045, And, executive. Forrester 484 219, 227, 538, 544, 98 555 (noting "intelligible administrative, assigned perform''). "judges'' empty order.11 88 evidence, furthermore, acknowledge difference influenced concerns, Constitution.12 80-81, indicates legislature saw impediment respectfully "request[ing]'' bluntly statesman, indicate doubted necessary.13 merit appraisal incident, assume comment supposed hypothetically motivated choice language.14 89 concludes reference large implying entitled presumption validity. rested bicameralism presentment requirements, 946, 2781-2782, inferences drawn silent favors consists entirely substantial opposition view; ruling strikingly lacking support. modicum textual judicially crafted rule, it.15 90 "structural'' rebut presumption. preserve employees obligations, registering young adults commissions manage release hazardous §§11001, 11003, collecting data underground storage tanks pose environmental hazard, §6991a, traffic fatalities, §402(a), children, §5779(a), agency.16 (1985): principal chosen ensure lies novelty composition protect overreaching Congress.'' 550-551, 1017. Given receiving equivalent Senators smallest voice unrealistic constituents. presume reflect considered benefit therefrom. enactments17 added impact safeguards federalism identified supplemented grounded flatly enlisting Recent developments demonstrate effective. expresses avail "at __; (arguing "Members "solving' taxes''). specific "unfunded mandates'' meaningfully legislation.18 Unfunded Man dates Reform 1995, 104-4, 48. imposition, full funding, manner displace priorities.'' U.S.C.A. §1501(2) (Supp.1997). inter alia, objection bill mandate,'' statute, $50 million.19 proceed anyway. Legislation, Mandates Harv. 1469 (1996) (describing statute). Whatever demonstrates unelected off protection extraordinary circumstances.20 Perversely, damage vital limiting enlist incentives aggrandize name rights, create vast bureaucracies policies. exactly thing promised occur, states. 234-235 (Hamilton); 318(Madison).21 colorful hyperbole, Branch "would tension impressing unduly tip favor emasculate Presidency, States.22 approved cooperative implemented disapproved putting place, locally. 2423 ("Our methods urge adopt consistent interests''). calls mechanisms constructing approved. condition spending,23 unilateral area,24 affects alike.25 belied importance sweep meet description, York. 167-168, 2424 (mentioning, Clean Water Occupational Safety Health 1970, Resource Conservation Recovery 1976). undergirding trivial soon collapse. rules. rule-making, pre-empt lawmaking exceeded involves persons, hospital executives school administrators, merchants purchaser's fitness weapon; disturb flows holdings permissible access data. 160, 2420; vanishes problem. Far musters task working intergovernmental relationships around authorized. Neither implicitly matter, followed sound occasional situations interest. Rather, exceptions confirm Holmes' reminder machinery work allowed play joints.'' Bain Peanut Tex. Pinson, 282 499, 501, 228, 229, 482 (1931). 100 advises "prior Court'' conclusive position. States.26 types encourage dispose wastes borders. Amendment.'' 173, 174, 2427. doubt third "incentive'' gave option adopting low waste. that, waste, "option'' amounted explained: "A unconstitutionally techniques Either way, commandeers processes program,' 288 [101 2366], outcome lie conferred noting unique'' "inconsistent 177, 2429. statements, officials-as legislators-may policy. congressionally subsidy producers,'' 2428, act. relies dictum 2435 added); unnecessary dispute dicta Bancorp Mortgage Bonner Mall Partnership, 513 391, 130 233 (1994) (SCALIA, J.) ("invoking customary dicta''). substance York's referred possibility devise elaborate management policymaking. despite characterize scale.27 KENNEDY's well: "This etiquette violated formal directing cf. [112 120] organize 781 [102 2149], part).'' 583, 1642 (KENNEDY, "cannot one.'' already 16, abundant Eleventh recognizing CLEO's immunity. knowledge, previously "disembowels,'' Amendment.28 Importantly, misconstrues ignores point. utilities commissions, step considering energy procedures, periodically. ceasing "choice'' recognized realistically foreclosed, alternative area. 764, 766, 770, 2140, 2141, 2143. minimal, posed Act.29 Puerto Rico Branstad, 483 2802, 187 (1987), overruled Kentucky Dennison, 717 (1861), 1793 Commonwealth seek extradition barrier. concedes, nevertheless constitutes Branstad ambiguity face "States.'' Avoiding applicability, Iowa deliver sought. 229-230, 2808-2809. relied alone, principles federalism-despite Member attention, 231, 2809-2810(SCALIA, judgment).30 explanation demeans importance. unanimously occupy adjudicating litigants Emergency Price 1942, regardless crowded dockets matters. "state law,'' describes narrower consented entertain. law], Thing notwithstanding''), embraces principle. more. [are] whenever 113 Hence, misguided. focuses "Judges bound.'' "apply law'' entertain, focus judges.31 114 reinterpretation FERC. commission "adjudicate disputes [a federal] statute.'' 760, 2137. "jurisdiction analogous those'' ibid., adjudicate claims. serving function, commissioners unquestionably impossible reconcile extension FERC.32 message expressio unius intend implausible. Throughout judges, merited agents. reluctance "press similar-indeed, lesser-burden town constables intolerable affront perverse. contemplated learned articulate men fashioned so.33 crosses newly threshold comparable Crime Center offensive state. believes enlarged bureaucracy, 118 dissent. 119 STEVENS's qualifications. dispositive paucity examples employment myself go instances __-__; (majority illustrations positions, me force. 121 closer anticipated, finally straightforward 45. 122 bind "employ 174 Cooke Were stop arrangements agreement. addresses combined officers's requirement, Legislatures, Magistrates 174-175 employed performance functions; incorporated'' operation, "auxiliary'' "bound oath,'' him products undertaken own, States', unfettered choices.1 123 requirement. He asks magistrates swear oblige counterparts. His Constitutions effect. Governments, 307 "agency'' selecting Senators, §3 (repealed XVII). judges' numbers laws.2 124 Two anticipated instructive, counter proliferation collectors. exercise) supply citizens' share tax, "eventual tax] 313. explains readily emoluments,'' appointing 125 passages, persuade "auxiliaries'' action. sure, follow official. agree, rightly decided now toward immunizing mandate); essence command. tripartite (say, obligating powers), suppose exceeded, 554, 556-567, 1020-1026, (1985) (without delineating outer "destructive sovereignty''). 126 points. recognize Field, 350-351, (1883), will. statement, too, dictum, prevail. material value quotation paying. therefore, prevailing petitioners' points, budget liable unauthorized expenditures. Petitioner 4-5; 95-1503, 6-7. 127 STEVENS joins, 128 add nation practical democratic virtues countries, facing maintained derives silence Switzerland, Germany, European bureaucracies, decrees "federal'' body. Lenaerts, Constitutionalism Many Federalism, Am. Comp. 205, 237 (1990); D. Currie, Republic Germany (1994); Mackenzie-Stuart, Foreward, Comparative Constitutional Europe America ix Tushnet ed.1990); Kimber, Comparison Md. 1658, 1675-1677 interferes less, more, "state,'' member nation, subsidiary helps safeguard liberty well. Council Communities, Edinburgh, 11-12 Conclusions Presidency 20-21 (1993); Lasok K. Bridge, Institutions 68, 81-84, 100-101; Frowein, Integration Experience Through 573, 586-587 Cappelletti, M. Seccombe, Weiler eds.1986); 232, 263. 129 Of nations, differences own. 134-138 A. Hamilton) (rejecting federalism). cast empirical problem-in reconciling liberty-enhancing smaller entity. 42, 268 Madison) (looking experiences countries); 43, 275, 276 (same). offers confirmation asks: Why, how, sees alternative-the gun-law expansion existing bureaucracy-better promote liberty? (STEVENS, suggests, absolute principle-forbidding assignment virtually overwhelm civil effort,'' §922(s)(2)-words easily considerations say, cost, result. Regardless, out, matter. Precedent precedent-that common-likely reflects, widely shared belief federalism, assigning ways. Dakota Dole, 203, 2793, 171 (1987) (spending power); 70, 479, 472 (1984); 2420, (general duty); (pre-emption). (SOUTER, inflexibility poses surprising technical obstacle believed solve 132 STEVENS' syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. wrong suggesting, 9, (1912), eliminate connection proceedings contingent applications. Cases "when invoked conformity 56-57, 178. "ordinary jurisdiction'' courts. —(Our references dissent'' joined GINSBURG BREYER. such.) single early, pre-20th-century, driven (which doubtful), premise wrong. characterized (bearing mind identical Sweezy Hampshire, 354 234, 255, 1203, 1214, 1311 (1957)). quintessentially applicants qualifications, unreasonable ancillary recording, registering, unalterably nature. 132-133, resolve "like agencies,'' cleverly true-because ("quasi-judicial'') functions. §554; Humphrey's Executor 602, 869, 1611 foolish, mistake original, 18th-century imitating agencies, 20th-century "three neighbourhood proceeding "supervised activity,'' significantly witnesses, Fed. Rule Evid. 706. adjudicative; report, "adjudge vessel voyage 132. Person charged Treason, Felony, Crime, flee Demand Authority up, removed Jurisdiction Crime.'' obligation, "prescribe Manner Acts, Proceedings, proved, Effect thereof,'' §1. California Superior Cal., Bernardino Cty., 400, 407, 2433, 2438, 332 (1987). Both automatically. supreme, oath-bound "incorporated'' auxiliary.'' progression automatic (3): (2a) "auxiliary.'' incompatibility (a to), saying, "any official,'' command,'' commanded. passage? assuredly "natural government's] impressibility "courts magistrates'' something "legislatures.'' science bring disparity parity language-namely, command''-seems untrue. inherently uncommandable commanded subjects upon-commanded, require, annual budgets forbid gambling. betraying "essence'' sovereigns, government) obeyed criminalizing marijuana. insignificant, subscribe interpretations 9. phrase problematic enables deduces although compensate mighty leap, (for compensation adequate) takings simple. discussion omits executives' agency''-and observing "other examples'' curiousness mentioning "an "was talking executing statutes; effect,'' so, Story's commenting goes did; itself: often called exert Powers allow Rights filling vacancies senate recess legislature; fill house representatives; officering militia, calling them; surrender justice.'' 577 (1851). peculiar piece, confirmed writer, determinative does. crediting expansive expressed, pen expositor "from nationalistic nationalists clauses Rossiter, 199 (1964). split personality'' federalism. Braveman, W. Banks, R. Smolla, Law: Structure System 198-199 (3d ed.1996). overall reflects "large agreement Madison,'' 198-199. choose would, blind eye Madison's-not Hamilton's-that prevailed, popular sentiment, 44-47, 194, 196; ed.1911) 366, subsequent struggle fix __-__. reiterating 210-213, 2446-2447, pre-existing individuals. good reason. copied verbatim indicating [w]here intends enjoy vested Continental Field Office Va. L.Rev.1957, 1972 BREYER's ours. constitution, writing familiar systems, classical antiquity time; 18-20 Federalist. discussion) modern favors. clearer. extended critique Utrecht Netherlands, concludes: "I apology dwelt precedents. oracle truth; responses unequivocal, ought sacred. truth, unequivocally pronounces communities, contradistinguished solecism theory, subversive ends polity 138. Antifederalists, pointed Switzerland-and then-400 success "confederate republic''-as unnecessary. Patrick Henry, Speeches Ratifying Convention, June, 1788, Essential Antifederalist 123, 135-136 (W. Allen G. Lloyd ed.1985). Europe's. unique contribution theory.'' 575, 1638, concurring) Friendly, Forward, (1977)). believes, "tension'' massively augment sap Presidency. destruction unity, efficient unitary sacrificed reduces device reducing falsely presumes exclusive those, explicitly. unusual implications. (finding §§1, remove officers); aside judgments). [a]lthough "judges' Clause].'' enough. (only ""judges' Clause]'') (officers adjudications judges). Crowell Benson, 285 22, 285, 598 (1932), adjudicatory review. prescribe, FERC), account unacceptable way nonadjudicative issue. suggestion, municipalities ago entity immunity, Monell City Social Servs., 436 658, 690, 55, 2018, 2035, 611 (1978); guarantees 855-856, 2476, Garcia, supra (resolving transit authority). embraced (impermissible) (permissible) based egregious wrenching context. reconstruct cited, 2429-2430, reader distortion. includes, following: "Additional discuss Again, 179, 2430. requi re weapon,'' [imposed data.'' ----. undoubtedly advance possession. belongs capacity; investigation databases to. posits impossible. note, regard, assert regard enjoins "county unit'' "prohibit[ing] regulat[ing] purchase, (including delay transfer), ownership, handgun,'' Mont.Code §45-8-351(1) Arizona subdivision firearms,'' Ariz.Rev.Stat. §13-3108(B) today; Mack treatment occurred Miller, 816, 1206 (1939), reversed Firearms 1934. guarantee citizen's possess sawed-off shotgun weapon shown equipment'' "contribute defense.'' 818. define, construe, Marshaling array growing body scholarly "right arms'' right. Malcolm, Keep Bear Arms: Origins Anglo-American Right 162 S. Every Be Armed, Evolution Van Alstyne, Personal Arms, 1236 Amar, Fourteenth 1193 (1992); Cottrol Diamond, Amendment: Toward Afro-Americanist Reconsideration, Geo. 309 Levinson, Embarrassing 637 (1989); Kates, Prohibition Original Meaning (1983). scholars, argue secure arms. Bogus, Race, Riots, Guns, Cal. 1365 Williams, Civic Republicanism Citizen Militia: Terrifying 551 Cowboys, Philadelphia Mayors, Republicanism: Sanford Levinson's 661 Cress, An Community: Hist. (1984). somewhat overlooked jurisprudence, engendered academic, public, debate. changes altered "powers Crosskey Jeffrey, Politics (1980). done, "it confine powers; admitted implication, descended recount minutia.'' 790 (Aug. 1789); 406-407, (1819). Recognizing because-even responsive submission roots today-it "principle sovereignty'' nowhere invalidating further "necessary'' undisputed sales, "proper'' circular traction argument. gives contradicted Chief Marshall [i]ts purport[s] enlarge, granted.'' 420; 418-419(explaining effect'' idea straitened compressed narrow limits''). legislation-a core authority-does unwarranted necessary, constitutions. "Several distinction. content constitutions scarcely conception founding. eminent recently observed: "At framed Massachusetts apparatus used towns gathering. 1830s Tocqueville feature praised ideal centralized decentralized administration.'' Beer, Make Nation: Rediscovery American 252 model expectation himself [that] [would] relation governments.'' ed.1993) "Brutus'' "ope[n] community''); 633 Henry salaries dependants Continent immense sums'' [d]ouble [tax] expence''). Antifederalists likelihood Elliot, Debates 167-168 (2d 1891) Henry). wide acceptance serious efforts, somehow comments, acknowledging rejecting opponents' "sophist[ic]'' "tend 180, *. consequence "automatically'' oath, omitted), italicized word "automatical ly'' impression used, century later, (1910), "against consent,'' 517, 589. comments (1883). Those dicta, [i]t be'' facially participation. Any contrary themselves. now-rejected doctrine. 520, 351. resolved "voluntary'' jurisdiction. unhelpful majority. chooses Testa. likely. wrongly miscategorized repositories land War. amount claims, 2; authorities, 548. Able muster bald strikes "doubtful,'' proceeds attack substantially "quintessentially tasks[s],'' adversarial common-law accustomed. "ancillary'' irrelevant, minor assess vessels compelling. Activities sort, resemblance traditional adjudication, afield litigation. prerogatives sparing "highly attractive,'' discretion, exist, sufficiently commentator "President might, officer, war justifiable Congressional hands.'' U. (1926). marshalls facilities insisting jailkeepers significance (apparently Confederation) jailkeepers, 96, months slightest doubts. unexplained fashioning judge-made doctrine restraint brief, colorful, life expectancy. exhaustive iota plausible rebuttals consistently pointing substitute evidence. neutral historian begin prima facie Sheriffs county (CLEOs), police, sheriff, officer,'' §922(s)(8), non-state —(We briefly footnote 855, (1976), entirety itself.) worth "accor[d] federation.'' Aqueduct Sewer Metcalf Eddy, 506 139, 146, 684, 689, 605 "political exist solely whim behest State,'' Port Trans-Hudson Feeney, 299, 1868, 1877, 264 (1990) (Brennan, judgment), "consistently afford municipalities.'' Lake Country Estates, Tahoe Regional Planning Agency, 440 401, 1171, 1177, 401 (1979); Hess Corporation, 47, 394, 404, Whenever Congress-"the gravest delicate perform,' Blodgett Holden,< /I> 275 148 [48 105, 107, 206] (1927) (Holmes, J.)-the "great Congress.' Broadcasting System, Democratic Committee, 412 94, [93 2080, 2086, 772] (1973). coequal uphold Frankfurter Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee v.McGrath, 164 [71 817] (1951) opinion), "due primary sitting government.''' Rostker Goldberg, 453 64, 2646, 2651, (1981). "tak[e] blame'' proposition, speculations article. vastly overstated. legislators, routinely authority: ordinance, doubtless sophistication acting, always underlies look grievance. 785, 2151, part) (legislators differ legislators legislation''). alters truth. real event, proves politically unpopular, confident misfortune lies. plaintiffs denouncing Shaffer, Suit Shoots Sheriff Spotlight, 1994, B1; Downs, Most Dealers Shrug Proposal Raise License Fee, Missoulian, Jan. 1994. book discussing T. Walters, My Cold Dead Fingers: Why Needs Guns sure inform disgruntled denied permission purchase origins requirements. voters confused "blame'' gross confidence electorate assumptions excludes coverage bills areas, matters, discrimination, measures. §1503 initial signs curbing behavior concern. law's Budget unfunded threshold. these, modified fifth, enacted, all; increase wage. Office, During Year 13-15 (Jan.1997). raises specter seriously threatened fulfill aggrandizement alarmist hypothetical fanciful hypothetical. gathering information, arguable concerns. 167, 2423-2424; (1987); question. same, 2140-2141; cut does, circumstances, doing distinguished [A]ll regulate. ..... enforceable propositions regulation.'' legislature. supra. individuals,'' 2430, retailers Thus Ironically, preposterous traced Cities. 854, 2475 footing corporation commerce''). curtailing Fair Labor Standards identify legislation. correctly opinion's truncates grossly misleading fashion. sentence "there structures decisionmakers refrain actions.'' "rigid isolated,'' 761, 2138, whatever.'' resonates t hroughout opinion: namely, retain unregulated notions comity construct ill-starred Taney [was] lowest ebb,'' 225, 2806. "If seemed 1861, looming shadow Civil whatever, it,' How., way.'' 2808. "Kentucky Dennison development. Yet stood world away. longer.'' 230, 2809. informing event language, crucial follows judges. entirety, reads: thereof; Treaties thereby, notwithstanding. omitted area, Testa; hotly contested are, divorced relies, "Judges'' adoption away shoring presuming founders felt well-accepted point, proper. analysis. (that rendering "incorporat[ing]'' Government) "are infers reading, it,'' ibid. "automatically''; consequently, ante 8. credits imagination "novel science,'' language,'' ibid.; salvage tell legislate. generous. realize "parity language'' (i.e., "auxiliar[ies]'') operates accordance branches. terms; told about. legislator legislature's subject-matter discretionary be; legally ordered damaging such. elections (discussing Madison), please Congress). obstruction English bad that. Someone obstructing "incorporated operations'' One escape prose inapposite figures speech. supporting "nonobstructors.'' defends sensible Court: (legislative out) roles save remark Madison's, ignores. "several assigned,'' "content [himself] conclusive.'' 307. objection), then, choosing agency, purporting exhaust possible. reflecting weaker personality. This, surprise us, rejects "split odds writers personality notable integration: describe Publius nominal author Federalist] personality' federalist exponent [but]through nationalist admirer energetic diagnosis indictment man self-contradiction useful fair-minded exercise. view-the sprawling size concentrated time-a "whole personality,' am papers intellectual tensions Feder alist creators reflection built expounds celebrates.'' 78, differing views, passages show sign strain.

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