Legal Document

425 U.S. 564 96 Supreme Court Reporter 1768 48 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 212 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.Roy MANDUJANO. Number 74-754. Argued Nov. 5, 1975. Decided May 19, 1976. Syllabus As a result of certain information concerning respondent's participation in an attempted sale heroin, respondent was subpoenaed to testify before grand jury investigating narcotics traffic the area. The prosecutor warned him that he not required answer any questions might incriminate him, all other had be answered truthfully or else would subject charge perjury, and if desired lawyer could have one but inside room. Subsequently, charged with perjury for admittedly false statements made about his involvement heroin sale. District granted motion suppress testimony because given warnings called by Miranda versus Arizona, 384 436, 86 1602, 16 694, holding "putative" "virtual" defendant when therefore entitled full warnings. Appeals affirmed. Held: judgment is reversed case remanded. Pp. 571-584; 584-609; 609. 5 Cir., 496 Federal Reporter, 2nd 1050, THE CHIEF JUSTICE, joined Mr. Justice WHITE, POWELL, REHNQUIST, concluded need witness who criminal activities which may been personally involved, failure give such no basis having suppressed subsequent prosecution based on those statements. 1774-1780. BRENNAN, MARSHALL, that, even privilege against compulsory self-incrimination implicated, answers are given, consistently Fifth Amendment prosecuted perjury; circumstances this were induced governmental tactics so unfair as constitute violation Due Process Clause Amendment; absence knowing waiver requires obtained calling putative compelling regarding suspected crime unavailable evidence later crime; potential prejudice defendant's compelled ability counsel help avoid prejudice, some guidance required. 584-609. STEWART, BLACKMUN, did require suppression testimony, since relevant only introduced attempting distribute where it plausibly argued must barred prosecutorial conduct amounting denial due process. Pacific KF135 P2 Andrew L. Frey, Washington, D. C., petitioner. Michael Allen Peters, Houston, Tex., respondent, pro hac vice, special leave Court. Chief BURGER announced opinion REHNQUIST join. 1 This presents question whether 694 (1966), involved; whether, absent warnings, 2 (1) 3 During course investigation into San Antonio, federal prosecutors assigned Drug Enforcement Administration Task Force learned undercover officer's encounter March 1973. At time, agent received employed bartender at local tavern, dealing narcotics. agent, accompanied informant, met tavern talked several hours. meeting, agreed obtain end placed phone calls from bar. He also requested $650 make purchase. Respondent left money advanced secure heroin. However, hour returned bar without agent's money. instructed telephone evening arrangements transaction. tried unable contact directed. record provides explanation keep appointment. No further action taken investigatory file matter closed. did, however, report prosecutors. Government seeking drug present illicit 4 2, 1973; approximately six weeks after abortive transaction employed. When room preliminary statements, following colloquy occurred between respondent: "Q. . Now, you & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions ask except ones feel tend you. Do understand that? 6 "A. ask? 7 You think will commission crime. Is clear? 8 Yes, sir. 9 don't All openly truthfully. And, course, do (questions) truthfully, words lie questions, possibly perjury. 10 11 Have contacted matter? 12 one. get 13 Well, like lawyer, cannot can outside free consult chose. during investigation, we you, talk to, let me know." App. 5-6. 14 questioning admitted previously convicted distributing drugs, recently used himself, purchased five months previously. Despite experience Antonio's traffic, denied knowledge identity dealers, save streetcorner source named Juan. steadfastly either selling sell time conviction 15 years before. specifically disclaimed discussed anyone preceding year stated try purchase ounce $650. refused amplify directly confronted prosecutor: Mandujano, our tell us more business here Antonio than today. there anything add telling sells heroin? 17 sir, couldn't because, know, along guys just can't 18 Following appearance, June 13, 1973, two-count indictment 21 Code KF62 §§ 841(a)(1), 846, willfully knowingly making material declaration § 1623.1 falsity conceded; sole claim should failed provide Miranda. evidentiary hearing, suppress. court held jury; Miranda2 365 F.Supp. 155 (WD Tex.1973). 19 1050 (CA5 1974). It recognized fact outset appearance. But "full accorded Mandujano position virtual defendant." Id., 1052. essence Appeals' is: 20 "In order deter prosecuting officers bringing jury, purpose obtaining incriminating perjur(i)ous accused adequately apprised rights, perjur(i) ous, suppressed.' 1056. (Emphasis added.) In ruling, undertook distinguish its own Orta, 253 312 (1958), Judge Rives, speaking court, stated: 22 "(A witness) thereafter assert constitutional guaranty. Under circumstances, commit successfully Constitution afforded protection said Glickstein (222 139, 142, 32 71, 73, 56 L.Ed. 128 (1911),) '. immunity guaranty relates past, does endow person testifies license perjury.' " 314. added; citations omitted.) 23 Orta opinion, Rives went observe: 24 "The debatable supervision representatives interest fairness. Scully, 1955, 225 113, 116, Second Circuit held: 25 mere possibility indicted furnishes requiring advised rights under Amendment, summoned Grand Jury.' 26 "That applicable record. There showing Jury testified indict already identified." Ibid. 27 "totality circumstances" commanded rested. 28 We agree views expressed supra, disagree instant case; accordingly, reverse. 29 (2) 30 integral part heritage brought country common law. Framers, most them trained English law traditions, accepted basic guarantee individual liberty; notwithstanding periodic criticism, much superficial, overlooking history, continues function barrier reckless unfounded charges. "Its adoption method preferring charges serious cases shows high place instrument justice." Costello States, 350 359, 362, 76 406, 408, 100 397, 402 (1956). Its historic office has shield arbitrary oppressive action, insuring accusations upon considered representative body citizens acting oath judicial instruction guidance. 31 Earlier noted vests substantial powers, "(t)he jury's investigative power broad public responsibility discharged." Calandra, 414 338, 344, 94 613, 618, 38 561, 569 (1974); Branzburg Hayes, 408 665, 700, 92 2646, 2666, 33 626, 650 (1972). Indispensable exercise authority compel attendance witnesses, Kastigar 406 441, 443, 1653, 1655, 212, 215 (1972), production evidence, White, 322 64 1248, 88 1542 (1944). witnesses thus legally bound testimony. U.S., 343, S.Ct., 617, L.Ed.2d, 568. principle long recognized. Burr, Fed.Cas. (No. 14,692e) (CC Va. 1807), Marshall drew precedents, aptly described Lord Chancellor Hardwicke 18th century, America hornbook proposition: right every man's evidence." repeatedly invoked fundamental proposition powers jury. Nixon, 418 683, 709, 3090, 3108, 41 1039, 1064 688, 2660, 643; 215; Monia, 317 424, 432, 63 409, 413, 87 376, 382 (1943) (Frankfurter, J., dissenting). not, limits. same establishes guarantees "no shall himself ." duty conditional; owes society unless asserted. 34 settled principles, confer absolute decline respond inquiry; negate simply conditions duty. cannot, example, asserted protect others possible prosecution. Rogers 340 367, 71 438, 95 344 (1951); Murdock, 284 141, 52 63, 210 (1931); Hale Henkel, 201 43, 370, 50 652 (1906). Nor witness' privacy. "Ordinarily, privacy jury." 353, 622, 574. 35 very availability Counselman Hitchcock, 142 547, 195, 1110 (1892), suggests occasions often arise potentially asked ordinary investigation. Probing types stuff investigations of; mission is, all, determine presentment return indictment. fair instituting proceedings persons believed committed crimes." L.Ed., 402. 36 keeping call activity, complete. true embarks inquiry focused individuals wrongdoing, directed misconduct able links chain relating others, centered broader problems concern society. entirely appropriate indeed imperative summon illuminate shadowy precincts corruption Since crime, organized, systematic unrealistic assume capable providing useful pristine pillars community untainted criminality. 37 never ignored reality enforcement. Speaking Powell said: "(M)any offenses character giving implicated crime." 446, 1657, 218. 39 White similar observation context state investigation: 40 "(T)he likely knowledge, least suspicion information, illegal .." Murphy Waterfront Comm'n, 378 52, 102, 84 1594, 1616, 678, 709 (1964) (concurring opinion). Moreover, expressly obligation appear different inquiry." Dionisio, 410 1, 10, 93 764, 769, 67, 77 n. (1973). 42 nothing new Court's recognition inquiries. early privilege, observed: "(I)t mouths (unlawful conduct) facts ascertained." Brown Walker, 161 591, 610, 644, 652, 819, 825 (1896). 43 Accordingly, witness, though engaged enterprise, compulsion self-incriminating; can, stand assured "is mischief seeks guard." 562, 198, 1114. invoke "Constitution forbid asking criminative questions." 433, 383 44 (Fifth) speaks compulsion. preclude testifying voluntarily matters him. If, therefore, desires 'compelled' within meaning Amendment." 427, 411, 380. 45 Absent remains absolute. 46 stage set asked. If interposes two choices. marginal value, pursue avenues thought sufficiently important, seek determination bona fides claim, Malloy Hogan, 11-12, 1489, 1495, 653, 661 (1964); Hoffman 341 479, 486-487, 814, 818, 1118, 1124 (1951), satisfy presiding judge subterfuge. 'there reasonable ground apprehend danger being answer,' 599, 648, 822, then overriding importance justify grant witness. 47 sought judge, answer, pain contempt, implicate activity. reason hard divine; Frankfurter indicated observing Quid quo securing witness: "Immunity displaces danger." Ullmann 422, 439, 497, 507, 511, 525 (1956); see Piemonte 367 556, 560, 81 1720, 1722, 1028, 1031 (1961). Based recognition, statutes conferring proceedings, including investigations, familiar they become 'constitutional fabric.' Lefkowitz Turley, 70, 81-82, 316, 324, 274, 283 (1973); 506, 524. Immunity Government's ultimate tool otherwise protected; conferred, suppressed, fruits, over privilege. Blue, 251, 255, 1416, 1419, 510, 514 (1966). On hand, immunity, once again imposed substitutes process whatever. Perjured obvious flagrant affront concepts proceedings. Effective restraints type egregious offense imperative. subpoena, contempt refusing drastic solemnity insure truthful answers. Hence, Congress act punishable severe penalties; way flushed open deal it.3 49 Similarly, exception allowed sanctions done instances perjurer complained exceeded inquiry. See, E. g., Knox, 396 77, 90 363, 275 (1969); Bryson 64, 355, 264 Dennis 855, 1840, 973 (1966); Kay 303 58 468, 82 607 (1938); Kapp, 302 214, 182, 205 (1937). Bryson, union officer labor affidavit averring Communist. collateral attack conviction, statute lie, lawfully imprisoned comply. rejected contention: 51 general citizen fraudulently Our legal system methods challenging lying them." 72, 360, 271. (Footnote Even statutory scheme blanket use found perjured fall grant. 222 (1911), bankrupt bankruptcy proceeding. Bankruptcy Act conferred bankrupt: "(N)o offered proceeding." 140-141, 129. bankrupt's literalistic interpretation perjury: 53 sanction imposition punishment swearing inherently included prohibited self-incrimination. (I)t conceived exists safeguards truthful. (T)he past perjury." 141-142, 130. 54 (3) 55 case, oath, questioned related reached Mandujano's interrogation. Those required, view, specific focus interrogation, evidenced prosecutor's traffic. error prosecutor, court's treat 'smack' entrapment"; consequence, "elemental fairness" suppressed. F.2d, 1058, 8. analysis, premised erroneously applied standards fashioned warnings4 aimed evils seen endemic police interrogation custody.5 addressed extrajudicial confessions admissions procured hostile, unfamiliar environment lacked procedural safeguards. decision rested self-incrimination; prescribed "compulsion" inherent station perceive inquiries custodial equivalents: speak isolated setting well greater courts official impartial observers guard intimidation trickery." 461, 1621, 716. 57 many questioning, take wholly Indeed, reveals what "coercion" derived "factual studies (relating to) violence 'third degree' physical brutality beating, hanging, whipping sustained protracted incommunicado extort confessions. 445-446, 1613, 707. To extend these inquiring activity extravagant expansion remotely contemplated ; dynamics constant extension doctrine marked contrasts commented time. observed coercive justified, "in contrast (the jury) abuse powers." Mara, 46, 774, 788, (1973) (dissenting See re Groban, 352 330, 347, 520, 388 (1957) (Black, 59 (4) 60 volunteered sufficient inform responsibilities particularly consequences Miranda, Appeals, told silence, obviously warning incorrect, custody has, question, innocuous, Michigan Mosley, 423 96, 321, 313 (1975), whereas contrary, valid claim. And asserts cease, particular addressed. Cf. 103-104, 326. Other lines properly pursued. 61 informed assistance counsel, That statement plainly correct recital instituted hence Sixth come play. Kirby Illinois, 682, 1877, 411 A "before insist, right, represented 333, 513, 380.6 principles insist presence attorney Fed.Rule Crim.Proc. 6(d). 62 Respondent, explanation, falsely. redundant; served emphasize oath. "Once swears answers, requirement 'warn or, conversely direct truth.' render sanctity quite meaningless admonition adhere it." Winter, 348 204, (CA2 1965). Nickels, 502 1173, 1176 (CA7 65 petit violates solemn "tell truth," itself warning. cited proceedings.7 66 event, sworn truth duly constituted heard tribunal.8 another context, permit proving violation. Harris New York, 401 222, 91 643, (1971), violation: 67 "(The Amendment) construed include 225, 645, 4. 68 More recently, reaffirmed salutary principle: 69 provided perverted inconsistently, perjuriously, risk confrontation prior inconsistent utterances." Oregon Hass, 420 714, 722, 1215, 1221, 570, 577 (1975). 70 Walder 347 62, 74 354, 98 503 (1954); DiGiovanni, 397 412 1968); Cargill 381 849 (CA10 1967); DiMichele, 375 959, 960 (CA3 1967). important jettisoned; akin "entrapment" suggested here. 245 549 (CA8 1957). Assuming Arguendo, "putative defendant," bearing validity 72 appropriately concerned sources ample believe suppliers. was, proper respect trafficking.9 interpose self-incrimination, permissible option. Tenth held, "other government's Pommerening, 500 92, (1974). 73 reversed, cause remanded consistent opinion. Reversed. 75 STEVENS took consideration case. whom MARSHALL joins, concurring judgment. concur Court, "even permits refuse Government, statements." Mackey 667, 705, 1160, 1166, 404, 428 (1971) (Brennan, judgment). Although guaranteed put answering falsely "a gave take." 82, 366, 275, 280 (1969). "Our 264, 271 (1969) (footnote omitted). States1, 128, 130 (1911). Further, satisfies procedures Amendment. 78 aspects plurality denigration agree. 79 * Ante, 574-575, mechanically quotes 376 (1943), 80 Monia scope Sherman Act, although dictum contexts. Smith 337 137, 147, 1000, 1005, 1264, 1272 (1949). issues implicit confronted, ex rel. Vajtauer Commissioner Immigration, 273 103, 302, 560 (1927), slim reed rest proposition.2 clearly incompatible spirit letter dictum, evincing accurate evaluation "essential mainstay" "American prosecution," 7, 1493, 658 (1964).3 my repeat dictum4 factual analysis crucial policies resting inapposite precedential authority, indefensibly default responsibility. For supply jurisprudential foundation necessary ensure values preserved threatened interrogated personal acts plans emphasized and, importantly, stood fast essential premise underlying entire justice "ours accusatorial inquisitorial State establish guilt independently freely secured coercion prove out mouth." Richmond, 534, 541, 735, 739, 760, 766 (1961).5 Numerous opinions express enforce adversary embodied Bill Rights face attempts, name expediency ignorance lessons utilize inquisitional procedures. successful maintenance sometimes blatant subtle assaults core underpinning vigilance jealously guarding himself. Watts Indiana, 338 49, 1347, 1801 (1949); Blackburn Alabama, 361 199, 242 (1960); Culombe Connecticut, 568, 1860, 1037 (1961); supra; Garrity Jersey, 385 493, 616, 562 (1967); 274 mainstay system," Supra, 460, 1620, 715, "registers advance development liberty 'one great landmarks struggle civilized.' 426, 500, 518 83 "Cardinal order, men exploited condemn law, Hawkins' words, prisoner 'to deluded conviction.' Hawkins, Pleas Crown (8th ed. 1824), 595. (The) (of principle) proposes convict punish produce independent officers, simple, cruel expedient forcing lips." 581-582, 1867, 1045. light role deep "appreciat(ion of) breadth significance designed protect," Piccirillo 400 548, 567, 530, 596, 608 dissenting) treatment analyzed Atlantic 85 institution mandated "deeply rooted Anglo-American history," 342, 568 (1974) historically bulwark officials ways notions liberty. Founders liberties crimes 'a less clear, institutions Gornment, liberty, (1892). delineating operation note nature primarily rather adversary: inquest, inquisition." Blair 250 273, 282, 471, 979, 983 (1919). Given characterizing principle, alerted flexible mode certainly illustrated fundamentals subverted talismanic invocation system. discriminating fully for, identical conflict privilege: "When each other, both construction, preserve extent." Burr6, F.Cas., Pages 38, Commerce Va.1807). Close scrutin attention competing area conflicting "Court (is) zealous(ly) safeguard underlie privilege." 445, 1656, 217 conception explainable reference support (1927). involved deportation prospective deportee's violated 306, 566. Essential observation: "It tribunal conducting trial weight contention contention. relied deemed waived manner fairly pass "lack notice government" rationale classic form centrally addressed7 else, "he 380.8 89 view Term: "Unless Seeks giver liability, remain silent arise. An non-criminal Unless objects, government Ordinarily processes eliciting deems incriminating. Only knows Apparently innocent disclose burden lies timely assertion addition, rule preservation justice. undermined deliberately burdens self-incriminating disclosures. areas circumvention constitutionally policy proceedings." Garner 424 655-656, 1178, 1183, (1976) (emphasis added). situation excused completely voluntary -type "the Acutely aware incriminatory disclosures sought." Garner, 657, 1184, 379 Marchetti-Grosso9 situation, confers precisely filing class majority (are) themselves responding," 660, 1185, 381, "as coerced-confession cases, self-incrimination." submit de facto countenance erosion Constitution. B clear intentional interrogate stands formally charged. Lawn 355 339, 311, 321 (1958); 345, 346, 569. obtained.10 True, 573-574, "who inquiry" Per se justified (1974), yield situations risking vast calculated gainsaid juries Grunewald States11, 353 391, 423, 963, 983, 931, 953 (1957), device fatally tempting abuse. doubt sanctioning unfettered discretion delay indictments pending suspects runs grave allowing (to) evade restrictions turning agent." Mara12, 29, 779, (Douglas, individual's mobilized aware. Careful measures needed "still (to stand) inquisition, however subtle, (criminal) Wood U.S.App.D.C. 288, 265, 279 (1942) (per Rutledge, J.). choose precise timing indictment, surprising commentary uniformly decries distinction De jure amount "Distinctions status created incongruous who, accused, Functionally indistinguishable defendant, enjoys unimplicated apprisal fifth amendment rights. advantage anomalous deferring formal charge, summoning trial." Note, Self Incrimination Witnesses: Uniform Protection Advocated, Yale L.J. 1271, 1276-1277 (1958) (footnotes omitted).13 97 seems jeopardy consulted thereby Kelly, 1198, 1202 (E.D.Ark.1972). serious, tactic interrogating transactions events "intentional relinquishment abandonment" "known" Schneckloth Bustamonte, 218, 235, 2041, 2051, 854, 867 Johnson Zerbst, 304 458, 464, 1019, 1023, 1461, 1466 (1938), subversion "establish safeguards, through skillful investigation." 54, 1350, 1806. Where employed, borders absurd say, justification "government eliciting" 655, 378. Rather, beyond "acutely sought," 379, conclusion condoning resort tactics, partners "undermin(ing)" "adversary justice" "deliberately seek) disclosures." Id.14, Such exemplars prevented enshrinement stamp approval turn backs heretofore "be 'alert repress' abuses invoked, mind 'the valuable (has been) examine crimes, accused.' 485, 817, 1123 quoting 65, 375, (1902). "(A) practically nullified Tucker, 417 2357, 2362, 191 Contract 99 Thus, hold intelligent known probable measured objective standard15 suspect committing regard crime.16 waiver, fashion trial. readily demonstrated proof currently understood "Some reasoned burdened affording panoply (However, i)t Because proceeding silent." F.Supp., 1202. 101 Certainly extent task weigh benefits" "potential injury functions jury," 349, 620, 572, down side imposing avoided ignorant their "interfere effective expeditious discharge duties," id., 350, 621,17 L .Ed.2d, 573; "saddle minitrials showings (that) impede investigation," 17, 773, 81; "delay disrupt proceedings," supra,18 621, 572. requirements attempts elicit impose onerous prosecutor. reported decisions lower replete examples proffering element liberties. uncertain it, safely ensuring all. proclaim "privilege 1114; II 102 second disturbing facet today "(n)o play." 581. cite, proposition. Kirby's premise, "note(d) outset," here." 687, 1881, 416. sharp contrast, inextricably Clearly "faced forces organized society, immersed intricacies substantive law." 689, 1882, L.E2d, 418. 103 380 neither Groban nor squarely presented question.19 recent decisions, E.g., Escobedo 478, 1758, 977 (1964), recognizing "substantive affinity" "coextensive(ness)" U.S.App.D.C., 280, J.), led continuing vitality older dicta.20 104 Accepted scrutiny wherein claimed "analyz(ing) inheres prejudice." Wade, 227, 1926, 1932, 1149, 1157 Coleman 399 1999, 2002, 387, 395 (1970). ordinarily enable effectively last Term. 105 testimonial depends advice someone skilled matter, offer layman scope, nuances, boundaries self-executing mechanism; affirmatively waived, lost asserting fashion." Maness Meyers, 419 449, 466, 584, 595, 574, 587 (1975).21 106 peculiarly critical abuse, entertains "realistic average (putative) professional skill (represented) experienced unsel." 462-463, 1022, 1465; 236, 2052, 868. 107 secret collapses superficial consideration. little idea how raise privileges. (I)n intricate possibilities surround easily unwittingly waive 345-346, 108 "would strange Court" substance imminent criminally charged, "fend himself." 20, 2009, 403 (Harlan, 109 procedure whereby, addition afford appointed wait room, times posed. Capaldo, 821, 824 1968), cert. denied, 394 989, 1476, 764 Pepe, 1365, 1369 (Conn.1973).22 minimal protections present, Thereafter, contested, hearing propriety officer, present. 162, 166, 352, 240, 243 (1965); Oliver, 333 257, 499, 682 (1948); 1369. disallowed, opportunity posed contempt. 663, 1187, 383. 110 argument impermissibly manifested plethora followed.23 damage "role Ibid.,24 effect 111 unnecessary define exact dimensions questioned. write plain disagreement implication proceeding, consultation enjoyed wealthy enough hire lawyer.25 accede regime "squalid discrimination," Griffin 351 12, 24, 585, 593, 891, 901 (1956) judgment), man gets has." 899 (opinion Black, reminded command equally persons," passage heightened weakened (by Court) mitigate disparate indigents process." Williams 241, 2018, 2023, 586, 593 Argersinger Hamlin, 407 25, 2006, 530 (1972); Tate Short, 395, 668, (1971); Gideon Wainwright, 372 335, 792, 799 (1963); Douglas California, 811 supra. says, door assuredly everyone's regardless economic circumstance. 112 applies individuals. indigent affluent. While authorities relieve poverty, indigence administration 472, 1627, 722. 113 BLACKMUN 114 them. honestly, impunity falsehood." 280; process,* reverse reaching explored JUSTICE's BRENNAN's separate Count declarations materially false: year? No, them? ever go buy sir." subsequently utilized Congress' legislative history 1623: "A subpena truthful." S.Rep. 91-617, Page "At outset, (police) subjected first unequivocal terms silent. court. "(A)n warn attorney, indigent, represent him." 467-473, 720. 444, 1612, 706 suspect's coercive. implicated. advise makes consider asks determine. apparently practice begins. Masinia 296 871, 877 1961). Cases voiding convictions lawful authority. 1957); Thayer, 214 929 (Colo.1963); Cross, 170 (DC 1959); Icardi, 140 1956). Nebraska undertaken "roving commission," power. 'perilously close fraud jurisdiction court.' Quoted 553. occasion address correctness results instances. suggest improper principal aim activities, indicated, impropriety target inquiry, appropriate, fact, explain damaging decides Of allegations contain seeds 'duress' defense, perhaps statement(s were) 'willfully' (18 1623), determined initially 83, 281 Nothing forecloses raising defenses Vajtauer, issue decided permissibility using silence penalties skeptical "afterthought" 566, reasons discussed, Infra, 591-592, presented, petitioner obliged immigration defeat silence. prerequisite admissibility accused's 'free voluntary: (they) extracted sort threats violence, implied promises, slight, exertion influence.' Bram 168 532, 542-543, 183, 187, 573 (1897); 1493. inadmissible confession mild whip refusal, allow wife until confessed." sum, fulfilled chooses will.' 715 Furthermore, evaluated (under 'intentional abandonment privilege' standard (1938)) administrative agency congressional committee." 238, 2053, 869 Reference notes, count distribution "Ours opposed characteristic freed practices borrowed Star Chamber Continent whereby hours end. Ploscowe, Development Present-Day Criminal Procedures Europe America, Harv.L.Rev. 457-458, 467-473 (1935). carries mouth. 'The suffer Crown, chapter ed., 1824). charges, doubt, extorted whatever pressures, prompt magistrate, supplied necessary, characteristics manifestations demands." 1801, 1806 "(t)hrough liberal construction (has) firmest limitation Rief, Witness Compulsory Testimony Legislation, Am.Crim.L.Rev. 829, 852 exercises exhibiting instance Judicial phenomenon central Meshbesher, Right Counsel Before Jury, F.R.D. 189, 198-199 Rutledge sitting Columbia Circuit: privilege) force itself. guards ancient inquisition. power, usual testify, dissolves. duress bring play question." 277, 268 (1942). 439-440, 442, 416, 417, 386 dissenting); 118 (CA2), 897, 156, 788 (1955) (Frank, result). Marchetti 390 39, 697, 889 (1968); Grosso 906 (1968). ambiguity multiple references "tainted" defendants resolved score. Hooley 209 234, 235 (CA1 1954); 1367, 1370 (Conn.1973); Garnes, 156 467, 469 (SDNY 1957), aff'd, 258 1958), 359 937, 651, 637 (1959). prosecutors, asserted, facto/de postpone subpoena discovery evasion strictures pursuant 16(c). Tigar Levy, Inquisition, Mich.St.B.J. 693, 700 (1971). Boudin, Geo.L.J. Dash, Indicting Jury: Critical Stage?, 807, 809-810 190; 1967 Duke 97; Self-Incrimination Iowa L.Rev. 564, 571 Comment, Witness' Privilege Against Self-Incrimination, Nw.L.Rev. 207, 223 (1967). inquisition yet offense) rise 'inquisition,' called, signifies examination suspicion, presentment, accusation .; contest hundred solely system." Wigmore, Evidence 2251, 295 (McNaughton rev. Others combine elements subjective intent 117 subjective-intent pose difficulties, Grossman, 154 813, 817 (N.J.1957), purely manageable point reviewing costs criteria resolve doubts favor cause, whose develops cause. Wong, 553 576 (CA9 1974), pending, 74-635 (Miranda defendant); 328 98, (Ct.App. DC Nos. 74-1106, 74-6579 (requiring "potential" Luxenberg, 374 246 (CA6 1967) (warning "virtually defendant"); 312, 314 (CA5), 357 905, 1156 (knowing witness"); Stanley 434 1957) (protection extended 1205 (E.D.Ark.1972) remote prosecution"); Kreps, 349 1049, 1053-1054 (W.D.Wis.1972) "prime suspect"); Fruchtman, 282 536 (N.D.Ohio 1968) 'virtually defendant' "); Mattox Carson, 1054, 1059 (M.D.Fla.1969) defendants"), rev'd grounds, 202 (1970); Haim, 218 922, 932 (S.D.N.Y.1963) DiGrazia, 213 232, 234 (N.D.Ill.1963) execution witness); 816 "target" defendant). 372, 226 269, (serious sought"); 116 ("suppos(ing)" ethics policy, refrain accused"); result) (suggesting intends indict); Grunewald, 233 1956) dissenting part), rev'd, 931 Connelly 249 576, 581 356 921, 716 (approving 74-735 Kitchell 354 720 (CA1), 1011, 1970, 1032 (1966) "clearly suspected"); Sapio, 299 440 1969) response argue self-incriminatory needs enforcement value choice, denigrate it. "No may, occasion, guilty deserts. far-reaching evil recurrence Inquisition Chamber, stark brutality. Prevention occurrence lesser evil. Having tendency human doors future law-enforcing agencies." 428, 501, 519 supra Daniels, 461 1076, 1077 1972); Friedman, 445 1088 (CA9), Sub nom. Jacobs 404 958, 326, Mingoia, 710, 713-714 1970); Gollaher 523 960, 434, Corallo, 413 1306, 1328 431, 422 Levinson, 405 971, 979 Strang 906, 1746, 219 (CA3), 389 838, Irwin, 192, 199 1965), 967, 1272, 308 720; 955, 429, 360 581; 440; Zirpolo, 288 993, 1007 (NJ Leighton, 265 27, 36-37 932; 164 640, 641 1958); Hoffa, 495, 510-512 Ironically, greatest impediment reliance traditional Groban; Hannah Larche, 363 420, 1502, 1307 (1960). Recent Developments, Procedure Investigative Proceedings: Washington 1971, Wash.L.Rev. 513 13; 7; Powers, Procedures, Problems, Col.J.L. Soc.Prob. 681, 713 1963 Term, 143, L.J., 19. Sheridan Garrison, 673, 679 (ED La. 1967), 415 699 1969); 17; Friendly, Tomorrow: Case Constitutional Change, U.Cin.L.Rev. 671, 190-191, 195-196; Steele, Stage Proceedings, Mo.L.Rev. 193, Soc.Prob., 719; Harv.L.Rev., 222; 131-133; 517-518. Contra, arguing 21, 701; 193; 203; 722; 124-125. viable purposes privileges subvert functioning sanctioned States. Kan.Stat.Ann. 22-3009 S.D.Comp.Laws 23-30-7 (1975); Utah Ann. 77-19-3 Wash.Rev.Code 10.27.120 Mich.Stat.Ann. 28.943 (1972) (one-man jury). George, 444 310, 315 1971) (right "after question"); Weinberg, 439 743, 745 exercised almost (permitted "whenever desired"); Isaacs, 759 (ND Ill.1972) ("provided counsel"); Application Caldwell, 311 358, 362 Cal.1970) "at wishes"); ("could chose"); 512 ("given (his) lawyer"). Levine 611, 1038, 989 1173 1974); 1077; Perrone 416 466 1328; 960; 199; Tramunti, 343 551 vacated, 886, 1906, 993 Kane, 746, 753 1965); 641-642. meaningful "discourage efforts acquire privileged exactly effort condemns create inhibit paradoxical indeed." 125 121. appears passage: "Respondent (CA8).

Classification Label: 0