Legal Document

473 U.S. 373 105 S.Ct. 3216 87 L.Ed.2d 267 SCHOOL DISTRICT OF the CITY GRAND RAPIDS, et al., Petitionersv.Phyllis BALL al. No. 83-990. Argued Dec. 5, 1984. Decided July 1, 1985. Syllabus Petitioner School District adopted two programs—Shared Time and Community Education—that provide classes to nonpublic school students at public expense in classrooms located leased from schools. The Shared program offers during regular schoolday that are intended supplement "core curriculum" courses required by State. teachers full-time employees of schools, but a "significant portion" them had previously taught Education conclusion voluntary courses, some which not offered schools others are. part-time who for most part otherwise employed full time same their held. Of 41 private involved these programs, 40 identifiably religious attending both programs attend particular Respondent taxpayers filed suit Federal Court against certain state officials, alleging violated Establishment Clause First Amendment, made applicable States through Fourteenth Amendment. court agreed, entered judgment respondents, enjoined further operation programs. Appeals affirmed. Held: have "primary or principal" effect advancing religion, therefore violate dictates Clause. Pp. 381-398. (a) Even praiseworthy, secular purpose providing education schoolchildren cannot validate government aid parochial when has promoting single religion generally unduly entangles matters religious. 381-383. (b) challenged impermissibly three ways. First, state-paid teachers, influenced pervasively sectarian nature they work, may subtly overtly indoctrinate tenets expense. Second, symbolic union church inherent provision state-provided instruction buildings threatens convey message support general public. Third, subsidize functions taking over substantial portion responsibility teaching subjects. 384-398. 718 F.2d 1389, Kenneth F. Ripple, Notre Dame, Ind., petitioners. Michael W. McConnell, Washington, D.C., as amicus curiae, pro hac vice, special leave Court. A.E. Dick Howard, respondents. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion 1 Grand Rapids, Michigan, financed system, hired conducted "leased" Most This case raises question whether involve activities thus 2 * A. 3 At issue this Michigan. These first instituted 1976-1977 year, local 4 be supplementary State Michigan requires an accredited program. Among subjects "remedial" "enrichment" mathematics, reading, art, music, physical education. A typical student attends one class periods per week; approximately "ten percent any given student's academic year would consist instruction." Americans United Separation Church v. Dist. 546 F.Supp. 1071, 1079 (WD Mich.1982). Although itself is only there was testimony included offered, albeit perhaps somewhat different form, well. All subject elementary with exception Math Topics, remedial mathematics course secondary schools.1 5 often move classroom schoolday. (approximately 10%) "previously many those been assigned where were employed." Id., 1078. Rapids hires accordance its ordinary hiring procedures. Ibid. system apparently provides all supplies, materials, equipment used connection instruction. See App. 341. 6 throughout community on other sites, children well adults. here commence Arts Crafts, Home Economics, Spanish, Gymnastics, Yearbook Production, Christmas Drama, Newspaper, Humanities, Chess, Model Building, Nature Appreciation. found "[a]lthough sites basis, available usually more extensive curriculum." F.Supp., 1079. 7 employees. completely if 12 enroll. Because well-known teacher necessary attract requisite number students, accords preference instructors already within school. Thus, "virtually every facilities instructor school." 8 Both administered similarly. Director program, employee, sends packets listings participating before begins. administrators then decide want offer. works out schedule each school, into account, inter alia, varying holidays celebrated denominations. 9 Nonpublic will inspects consults make sure satisfactory. pays use space entering "leases" rate $6 week. "leases," however, contain no mention room, space, facility teachers' rooms, libraries, lavatories, similar additional charge. 1077. Each room free crucifix, symbol, artifact, although such symbols can present adjoining hallways, corridors, During being post sign stating it "public classroom."2 However, signs posted outside indicating inside annex. 10 petitioners label "part-time students," otherwise. There evidence ever attended 1097. "[t]hough Defendants claim record abundantly clear wearing cloak 'public student' enroll it." noted "[w]hereas assembled nearest residence, basis without consideration residence district boundaries." 1093. "beneficiaries wholly designated religion," ibid., school" classes, contrast largely neighborhood based, segregated offered.3 11 Forty forty-one operate character.4 vary another, suggests share deep purposes. For instance, Parent Handbook Catholic states goals "[a] God oriented environment permeates total educational program," Christian atmosphere guides encourages participation church's commitment social justice," continuous development knowledge faith, traditions, teachings theology." 1080. policy statement similarly proclaims "it sufficient Christianity separate curriculum, Word must all-pervading force program." 1081. require parents seeking either subscribe doctrinal agree according statement. "pervasively sectarian," id., 1096, n. 13, concluded "without hesitation purposes advance religions," "a subsumed mission." 1084. B Respondents six officials. They charged Amendment Constitution, Everson Board Education, 330 67 504, 91 L.Ed. 711 (1947). After 8-day bench trial, merits behalf respondents programs.5 13 Applying familiar three-part purpose, effect, entanglement test set Lemon Kurtzman, 403 602, 2105, 29 745 (1971), held that, secular, "distinctly impermissible." relied fact publicly provided instructional services served premises. also conferred "direct benefits, financial otherwise, institutions." 1094. Finally, necessarily entailed unacceptable level entanglement, political administrative, between systems Petitioners appealed Sixth Circuit. divided panel 1389 (1983). We granted certiorari, 465 1064, 104 1412, 79 739 (1984), now affirm. II 14 Amendment's guarantee "Congress shall law respecting establishment our cases demonstrate, than pledge religion. Committee Public & Religious Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 771, 93 2955, 2964, 37 948 (1973); supra, U.S., 612, S.Ct., 2111; McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 442, 81 1101, 1113, 393 (1961). It mere injunction governmental discriminating among religions unconstitutional. See, e.g., Abington Schempp, 374 203, 216-217, 83 1560, 844 (1963); McCollum 333 211, 68 461, 465, 92 649 (1948). instead primarily proscribes "sponsorship, support, active involvement sovereign activity." 772, 2965; see Walz Tax Comm'n, 397 664, 668, 90 1409, 1411, 25 697 (1970). As Black, writing 15-16, 511, stated: "Neither [a nor Government] pass laws religions, prefer another. . No tax amount, large small, levied institutions, whatever called, form adopt teach practice religion." 15 Since guarantees apply States, we grappled problem nonpublic, In cases, goal give meaning sparse language broad Clause, while infringing ability welfare people own circumstances. Providing surely praiseworthy purpose. But consistently recognized even just history spiritual comfort, guidance, inspiration many, serve powerfully divide societies exclude whose beliefs accord sects achieved dominance. solution Framers jealously guard right individual worship conscience requiring maintain neutrality nonreligion. Only way "make wide variety creeds needs man deem necessary" "sponsor attitude shows partiality group lets flourish zeal adherents appeal dogma." Zorach Clauson, 343 306, 313, 72 679, 684, 96 954 (1952). 16 articulated 612-613, 2111, "[t]he inquiry area," Mueller Allen, 463 388, 394, 103 3062, 3066, 77 721 (1983): 17 "Every analysis area begin cumulative criteria developed years. Three tests gleaned cases. statute legislative purpose; second, principal primary neither advances inhibits 392 236, 243 [88 1923, 1926, 20 1060] (1968); finally, foster 'an excessive religion.' [v. 674, 1414]." 2111. 18 "must viewed setting precise limits constitutional inquiry, guidelines identify instances objectives impaired." Meek Pittenger, 421 349, 359, 95 1753, 1760, 44 217 (1975). particularly involving sensitive relationship children. government's magnified impact impressionable young minds, occasional rivalry parallel all-too-ready opportunity divisive rifts along lines body politic. 796-798, 2977-2978; 622-624, 2115-2116. concentrates attention issues purposes, entanglement—that determine action improper "law reaffirm alleged should measured criteria. 19 true dispute test. "manifestly secular." 1085; F.2d, 1398. find reason disagree holding, go consider inhibit Our institutions operate. schools" operated, characteristics articulated, example, complaint 356, 1758; 615, 2112. found, "[b]ased upon massive exhibits, inescapable receiving sense 1084; Hunt McNair, 734, 735, 2868, 2870, 923 366, 1763 ("The very integrated education"); 671, 1412 ("to assure future faith" "an affirmative dominant schools"). here—as past cases—"the goes hand mission schools' existence. Within institution, inextricably intertwined."6 657, 2133 (opinion BRENNAN, J.). 365-366, 1763; 245, 247-248, 88 1927, 1928-1929, 1060 (1968). 21 Given operating become intentionally inadvertently inculcating beliefs. crucial link thereby enlisting—at least eyes youngsters—the powers denomination directly subsidy affected. 22 (1) 23 jurisprudence characterized few absolutes, does absolutely prohibit government-financed government-sponsored indoctrination faith. Stone Graham, 449 39, 101 192, 66 199 (1980) (per curiam); 370, 1765; 619, 2114 certain, Religion Clauses, subsidized do inculcate religion"); Levitt Liberty, 472, 480, 2814, 2819, 736 (1973) ("[T]he constitutionally compelled state-supported activity indoctrination"); Engel Vitale, 370 421, 429, 82 1261, 1266, 601 (1962); 314, 684 ("Government finance groups undertake blend ."). Such indoctrination, permitted occur, devastating effects voluntarily what believe (and believe) coercive pressures State, tainting resulting corrosive secularism. 24 (1975), invalidated loan professional staff—including teachers—to accelerated instruction, guidance counseling testing, premises subjected "comprehensive, discriminating, continuing surveillance," (quoted Meek, 1765), entail risk state-sponsored personnel "advance church-related serve." 1765. though paid potential impermissible fostering under circumstances, reduced, nonetheless present." 372, 1766. sufficiently monitored, simply too great indoctrination. us today defect identified Meek. With respect instructors, whom doubt precisely because controlling zealously, expected faiths. Yet premise put aside convictions engage entirely soon over. Moreover, so "official" Nonetheless, themselves asserted, specifically monitored content. 353. 26 dedicated schoolteachers attempt good faith perform conscientiously. Cf. Lemon, 618-619, 2114. subtly, infuse supposedly after danger arises "not employee [is] likely deliberately subvert his task service rather might alter behavior normal course." Wolman Walter, 433 229, 247, 97 2593, 2605, 53 714 (1977). "The conflict inheres situation." 617, 2113. 27 structured differently, poses important difference every" schoolteacher, 1079, significant worked schools.7 monitor 330.8 28 despite differences holding controls Time, Education. virtually indistinguishable colleagues, "performing integral advancement belief constantly maintained." 371, Teachers (or overtly) conform teach, perceive context dominantly reinforcing indoctrinating effect. stated "[w]hether 'remedial reading,' 'advanced 'reading,' remains teacher, doctrine intertwined persists." Unlike types upheld, state-created standardized tests, Regan, 444 646, 100 840, 63 94 (1980), diagnostic services, 241-244, 2601-2603, "substantial risk" "be purposes." 656, 848. adduced specific incidents case. 1404. absence proof dispositive. When conducting knowingly unwillingly tailor content fit school's announced goals. If so, kind ideological influence detected reported parents, itself. presumably order receive spending balance heavily perspective, little motivation discern creep course. Neither cause complain supported mission. And incentive detect report lack significance. 30 (2) 31 guards direct, state-funded efforts youngsters Government promotes effectively fosters close identification responsibilities any—or all—religious denominations attempts doctrines. conveys endorsement disapproval core violated. Lynch Donnelly, 688, 1355, 1367, 604 (1984) (O'CONNOR, J., concurring); cf. 222, 1571 (history teaches "powerful bring about fusion concert dependency end official placed behind orthodoxies"). Larkin Grendel's Den, Inc., 459 116, 125-126, 505, 511-512, 74 297 (1982): "[T]he appearance joint exercise authority benefit minds power conferred." Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 274, 102 269, 276, 70 440 (1981) (finding "incidental" "primary" "does confer imprimatur approval practices"). 32 follows concern effected perceived endorsement, nonadherents disapproval, choices. care citizens perceiving formative years.9 276; Tilton Richardson, 672, 685-686, 2091, 2099, 790 (1971). symbolism tender years, experience limited consequently function much choice. 33 school-aid sensitivity state. Grappling problems ways face today, (1948), permit personnel. (1952), off passed muster. helps explain presented graphic symbol "concert dependency" state, Zorach, 312, 683. conspicuously absent program.10 34 case, spend moving classes. take place building composed denomination. environment, unlikely latter successfully kept commentator written: 35 "This pervasive [religious] makes mind lasting imprint holy transcendental central facets life. increases institution guide one's life adjustments undoubtedly stimulate interest vocations. short, serves fulfill concurrently, separated. Support entails disqualifying molding personality student." Giannella, Nonestablishment Doctrinal Development: Part II. Principle, Harv.L.Rev. 513, 574 36 Consequently, notices sign11 temporarily him powerful encouragement day. Judge Friendly, Second Circuit companion bar, 38 "Under City's plan are, far concerned, adjunct pace halls, building, members orders. appears enterprise staffed sponsor public." Felton Secretary, Dept. Ed., 48, 67-68 (1984). 39 effect—the enterprise—is (3) (1947), "[n]o 16, 511. exception, subsequent struck down payments dollars institutions. 774-781, 2966-2969 (reimbursement maintenance repair expenses); teacher-prepared tests); (1971) (salary supplements teachers). (permitting routinized recordkeeping testing performed law). 42 Aside cash payments, distinguished categories funds fund resources. category, "well established confers 'indirect,' 'remote,' 'incidental' is, alone, invalid." Roemer Maryland Works Board, 426 736, 747, 2337, 2345, 49 179 (1976); 742-743, 2873-2874. "indirect" means accomplish end, effect" found. On rationale, upheld loans textbooks 236-238, 2599-2600; 359-362, 1760-1761, bus transportation schoolchildren, supra. 43 second category prohibition forms enterprise." 250, 2606. aid" government, acting done supporting institution. Under schemes tuition grants benefits Sloan 825, 2982, 939 780-794, 2969-2976, "loan" materials 248-251, 2605-2607; 365, 1763. formally in-kind assistance direct contribution funds. insufficient save never accepted possibility subsidization, above invalidate hand, unimportant were, could gradually entire proffered substantial," 784-785, 2971-2972, indirect incidental.12 problem, like law, degree." 684. 45 dual functions, perspective. 401-402, 3070; Wolman, unconstitutional ground advanced "primary, religion-oriented 364, 2605-2607. 243, 2603 (upholding " 'general regardless incidental accrues schools,' quoting 21, 1766, 21). here, addition similar—and forbidden—effect clearly prohibited 46 flows schools.13 course, ultimately "flows to" petitioners' argument nonideological including explicitly rejected prior fiction saved masking students. 249, 2606, 16. fortiori includes "inescapably [has] Where, meaningful distinction "the concept individuals transparent fiction." 264, 2614 POWELL, 47 argue "subsidy" supplemented curriculum rule regulation. fails distinguish 368, feature controlling. knowing first. "supplement" "supplant" nearly allege. new matter—reading, etc.—was past, concerns triggered "supplemental" courses. 370-371, 1765-1766. important, discontinue existing replaced later average student, spends 10% principled impose limit percentage To let genie bottle larger segments turned violating cardinal principle prime supporter system. 624-625, 2116-2117. III 48 conclude ways.14 reasons, played role American education, long choose alternatives. THE CHIEF JUSTICE 625, 2117: "[N]othing said construed disparage national Their enormous." "rest[s] tends destroy degrade 431, 1267. Therefore, Constitution decrees matter individual, family, choice, inevitable, drawn." 2117. standards firmly rooted contours defined," 761, 2959, position quite affirmance Appeals. 50 ordered. 51 Chief BURGER, concurring dissenting part. 52 I decisions Earley DiCenso, decided together violates dissent reasons my Aguilar Felton, 402, 3232, 290 (1985). O'CONNOR, 54 (1985), Court's Like New York Title employs offer supplemental Nothing indicates attempted proselytize why counterparts disobey instructions. 55 relies finding 1078 ante, 376, 387, 7. fact, fraction work employed. 193. significantly increase actual uphold 56 Court, overwhelmingly current addition, supervisors principals offered. supervision, aims where, pervades accustomed play everything teach. concur 57 WHITE, dissenting.* 58 evidenced opinions 661, 2135, 813, (1973), disagreed interpretation application dissents, am [are] contrary long-range interests country." 820, 2996. satisfied sought forbidden Hence, reverse 59 REHNQUIST, dissenting. 60 Wallace Jaffree, 472 38, 2479, 85 ---- principles 381-382, 390, 391, 392, declines discuss faulty "wall" rest. doing blinds 150 years' 61 "effects" prong "symbolic religion" creates Ante, 385. wonders how "Math Topics," "Spanish," "Gymnastics," greater link" municipal creche chaplain Marsh Chambers, 783, 3330, 1019 62 unfortunate result disclaimers, impugns integrity teachers. Contrary promises, assumed eager inculcators dogma, 387-389, requiring, words, "ongoing inspection." post, 412; 412, ----. Not instance inculcation exists records reverse. did decision extent "physical industrial arts shared level." 39. level, level. 1390 (CA6 1983). constitutionality read follows: "GRAND RAPIDS PUBLIC SCHOOLS' ROOM. THIS ROOM HAS BEEN LEASED BY DISTRICT, FOR PURPOSE CONDUCTING EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS. ACTIVITY IN IS CONTROLLED SOLELY DISTRICT." 200. expected, majority belong 85% Catholic. Twenty-eight Roman Catholic, seven Reformed, Lutheran, Seventh Day Adventist, Baptist. lacked taxpayer standing Flast Cohen, 83, 1942, 947 (1968), Valley Forge College 464, 752, 700 (1982). challenge. affirm finding, relying numerous adjudicated challenges aiding (1977); 744, 2343, 356-357, 6, 1758-1759 (1975); 762, 2960, 478, 2818, 608, 611, 2109-2110, (1971); 3, differ substantially colleges refused characterize sectarian" 755-759, 2349-2351. Many include prayer attendance run churches organizations tenets, faculties bodies denomination, belonging 1080-1084. Approximately reassigned back taught. evaluation once years that. 54, 330. prayers commencement session historical usage 795, 3338, indulged assumption opening (1962). Compare 367-373, 1764-1767 (invalidating premises), 244-248, 2603-2605 neutral school). 2, "indirect subsidy" evokes flow ." 743, 2874. sense. reason, substantial" necessary. cite (1983), deduction expenses, Mueller, unlike instant unmediated code "numerous, choices school-age children." 399, 3069. conclusion, need aspects entangle matters, violation third applies 84-237, 84-238, Department 84-239, Chancellor City 402.

Classification Label: 2