Legal Document

463 U.S. 783 103 S.Ct. 3330 77 L.Ed.2d 1019 Frank MARSH, State Treasurer, et al., Petitionersv.Ernest CHAMBERS. No. 82-23. Argued April 20, 1983. Decided July 5, Syllabus The Nebraska Legislature begins each of its sessions with a prayer by chaplain paid the legislature's approval. Respondent member brought an action in Federal District Court, claiming that chaplaincy practice violates Establishment Clause First Amendment, and seeking injunctive relief. Court held was not breached but violated paying from public funds, accordingly enjoined use such funds to pay chaplain. Appeals whole Clause, prohibited engaging any aspect practice. Held: Legislature's does violate Clause. Pp. 786-795. (a) opening Congress has continued without interruption for almost 200 years ever since drafted similar been followed more than century many other states. While historical patterns, standing alone, cannot justify contemporary violations constitutional guarantees, evidence context this case sheds light only on what drafters Amendment intended mean also how they thought applied authorized Congress. In applying states through Fourteenth it would be incongruous interpret as imposing stringent limits draftsmen imposed Government. history, there can no doubt legislative become part fabric our society. To invoke divine guidance body entrusted making laws is not, these circumstances, violation Clause; simply tolerable acknowledgment beliefs widely among people country. 786-792. (b) Weighed against background, facts clergyman one denomination selected 16 years, at expense, prayers are Judeo-Christian tradition do serve invalidate Nebraska's 792-795. 675 F.2d 228, reversed. Shanler D. Cronk, Lincoln, Neb., petitioners. Herbert J. Friedman, respondent. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 question presented whether day Amendment. 2 * offered who chosen biennially Executive Board Legislative Council out funds.1 Robert E. Palmer, Presbyterian minister, served 1965 salary $319.75 per month legislature session. 3 Ernest Chambers taxpayer Nebraska. Claiming he under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, enjoin enforcement practice.2 After denying motion dismiss ground immunity, 504 F.Supp. 585, prayers, funds. It therefore using chaplain; declined policy beginning prayers. Cross-appeals were taken.3 4 Eighth Circuit rejected arguments should dismissed Tenth or federalism grounds. On merits issue, court refused treat respondent's challenges separable issues had done. Instead, assessed because "[p]arsing [the] elements" lead "an result." 233 (CA8 1982). 5 Applying three-part test Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 602, 612-613, 91 2105, 2111, 29 745 (1971), set Committee Public Educ. & Religious Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 773, 93 2955, 2965, 37 948 (1973), all three elements test: purpose primary effect selecting same minister publishing his promote particular religious expression; state money compensation publication led entanglement. F.2d, 234-235. Accordingly, modified Court's injunction established 6 We granted certiorari limited challenge State-employed clergyman, --- ----, 292, 74 276 (1982), we reverse.4 II 7 deliberative bodies deeply embedded history From colonial times founding Republic since, coexisted principles disestablishment freedom. very courtrooms which United States Judge later Judges heard decided case, proceedings opened announcement concluded, "God save Honorable Court." invocation occurs 8 colonies was, course, linked church,5 Continental Congress, 1774, adopted traditional procedure See e.g., Cong. 26 (1774); 12 (1775); 530 (1776); 887 27 683 (1784). A. Stokes, Church 448-450 (1950). Although during Constitutional Convention,6 early items business, open session prayer. Thus, 7, 1789, Senate appointed committee "to take consideration manner electing Chaplains." Sen. 10. 9, House Representatives. 25, elected first chaplain, 16; suit May 1, H.R. 26. A statute providing payment chaplains enacted into law Sept. 22, 1789.7 Annals 2180; Stat. 71.8 9 days after appointment chaplains, final agreement reached language Bill Rights, 88; 121.9 Clearly men wrote Religion did view Congress.10 consistently most states,11 including Nebraska, where institution even before attained statehood. Journal Regular Session General Assembly (Jan. 1855). 10 Standing patterns far here patterns. context, mean, Congress—their actions reveal their intent. An act 11 "passed assembled Constitution, whose members taken framing instrument, . contemporaneous weighty true meaning". Wisconsin Pelican Ins. Co., 127 265, 297, 1370, 1377, 32 L.Ed. 239 (1888). Walz Tax Comm'n, 397 664, 678, 90 1409, 1416, 25 697 (1970), considered weight accorded history: 13 "It obviously correct acquires vested protected right Constitution long use, when span time covers entire national existence indeed predates it. Yet unbroken something lightly cast aside." 14 No over century, consistent two centuries practice, aside. hardly week Members voted appoint Chaplain approve draft submission States, forbid just declared acceptable. Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 60 900, 84 1213 (1940), clause 15 This unique leads us accept interpretation saw real threat arising now challenged. conclude presents potential establishment provision school transportation, Everson Education, 330 67 504, 711 (1946), beneficial grants higher education, Tilton Richardson, 672, 2091, 790 tax exemptions organizations, Walz, supra. cites BRENNAN's concurring Abington School Dist. Schempp, 374 203, 237, 83 1560, 1579, 844 (1963), argues rely too heavily "the advice Founding Fathers" messages often tend ambiguous relevant society heterogeneous Framers, id., 240, S.Ct., 1581. points John Jay Rutledge opposed begin Brief 60.12 17 agree opposition measure weakens force argument; infuses power demonstrating subject carefully thoughtlessly, regard problems posed pluralistic specifically grounded objection fact delegates "were so divided sentiments [they] could join worship." Their met Samuel Adams, stated "he bigot, hear gentleman piety virtue, friend country." C. Familiar Letters Adams Wife, Abigail Revolution 37-38, reprinted 449. 18 interchange emphasizes consider proselytizing activity symbolically placing government's "official seal approval view" cf. 234. Rather, Fathers looked invocations "conduct harmonize[d] tenets some religions." McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 442, 81 1101, 1113, 393 (1961). always bar regulating conduct "harmonizes canons." Id., 462, 1154 (Frankfurter, J., concurring). Here, individual injury adult, presumably readily susceptible "religious indoctrination," see Tilton, U.S., 686, 2099; Colo Treasurer Receiver Gen'l, 378 Mass. 550, 392 N.E.2d 1195, 1200 (Mass.1979), peer pressure, compare, Abington, supra, 290, 1607 (BRENNAN, 19 unambiguous Divine "establishment" religion step toward establishment; As Douglas observed, "[w]e institutions presuppose Supreme Being." Zorach Clauson, 343 306, 313, 72 679, 683, 96 954 (1952). III 20 turn then features Beyond bare offered, have made: first, Presbyterian—has years;13 second, expense; third, tradition.14 factors practice.15 21 concerned Palmer's tenure giving preference views. We, Congresses perceive suggestion choosing advances church. contrary, indicates Palmer reappointed performance personal qualities acceptable appointing him.16 Legislature; guest officiated request various legislators substitutes absences. Tr. Oral Arg. Absent proof chaplain's reappointment stemmed impermissible motive, itself conflict Clause.17 22 Nor reason chaplaincy; remuneration historic initiated, noted earlier, ante, 788- (1776), states, Debates Proceedings Convention Va. 470 (June 26, 1788). Currently, legislatures provide Nat'l Conference Legislatures Amicus Curiae 3; §§ 61d 84-2; H.R.Res. 96th Cong., 1st Sess. (1979).18 well 1867 Neb.Laws 2-4 21, 1867), in, Neb.Gen'l 459 (1873). content concern judges where, here, indication opportunity exploited proselytize advance one, disparage other, faith belief. That being so, embark sensitive evaluation parse 23 sincerity those, like respondent, believe risks feared. But founded, Goldberg, aptly observed 308, 1616: 24 course great consequences grow small beginnings, adjudication ability willingness distinguish between mere shadow." National gives abundant assurance "while sits," Panhandle Oil Co. Mississippi ex rel. Knox, 277 218, 223, 48 451, 453, 857 (1928) (Holmes, dissenting). judgment Reversed. BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 28 today written narrow and, whole, careful opinion. effect, holds officially sponsored prayer, primarily account "unique history," 791, generally exempted Amendment's prohibition religion." dictum least prior decisions,1 rationale pose little overall fate Moreover, disagreement requires I confront twenty ago, cases striking down official ceremonial Bible reading schools, came close endorsing essentially result today.2 Nevertheless, much reflection, come conclusion wrong today. invocational exists Legislatures, unconstitutional. contrary doctrine underlying purposes saved either considerations suggested respectfully dissent. 30 makes pretense subjecting formal "tests" traditionally structured inquiry fails is, sense, good thing, confirms carving exception rather reshaping accommodate For my purposes, however, must obvious: that, if judge unsentimental eye settled doctrine, strike clear 31 commonly cited formulation prevailing ound (1971): "Every analysis area cumulative criteria developed years. Three tests may gleaned cases. First, [at issue] secular purpose; principal neither nor inhibits religion; finally, foster 'an excessive government entanglement religion.' " 2111(1971) (citations omitted).3 "purpose" preeminently seems me self-evident.4 "To laws," 792, nothing act. whatever functions might play formally session, getting quiet down, imbuing them sense seriousness high purpose—could plainly performed purely nonreligious fashion claim insult perfectly honorable individuals instituted continue 33 "primary effect" clearly religious. said "prescribing form worship," involved choice participate, places "indirect coercive pressure upon minorities conform approved ." Engel Vitale, 370 421, 431, 82 1261, 1267, 601 (1962).5 More importantly, halls explicitly link belief observance prestige State. "[T]he appearance joint exercise authority provides significant symbolic benefit minds conferred." Larkin Grendel's Den, 505, 511, 297 (1982).6 224, 1572, (1963). 34 Finally, "entanglement" religion. pointed forms: program involve impermissibly monitoring overseeing affairs. 614-622, 2112-2115.7 process "suitable" permanent rotating basis, insuring himself herself involves precisely sort supervision agencies possible avoid.8 35 Second, arise divisive political potential" program. 622, 2115. 36 "Ordinarily debate division, however vigorous partisan, normal healthy manifestations democratic system government, division along lines evils protect. divisiveness process." Ibid. omitted). second clear. controversy Senator colleagues, stage difficulty rancor lawsuit brought, split conformity. App. 21-24. record reports series instances, involving Chambers, Reverend others lines.9 And general, eventful—and divisive—than hasty indicate.10 38 sum, group students asked apply nearly unanimously find unconstitutional.11 39 path imperfectly capture nature importance stake case. adequate function forces shaped doctrine. 40 Most provisions enforceable absence action, nevertheless moral intuitions applicable governments. quite different. core, less statement about proper role ourselves land. 41 embodies judgment, born turbulent society, "must private matter individual, family, choice. 625, 2117. "Government democracy, national, neutral matters theory, hostile advocacy no-religion; aid, foster, theory another militant opposite. mandates governmental neutrality nonreligion." Epperson Arkansas, 97, 103-104, 89 266, 269-270, 228 (1968) (footnote 43 "In words Jefferson, erect 'a wall separation church state.' 16, (1947), quoting Reynolds 98 145, 164, 244 (1879).12 44 "separation" "neutrality" implicit purposes. Four particularly here. 45 closely related general conceptions liberty found remainder guarantee conscience.13 conscience, sphere, implicated engages direct indirect coercion. support practices agree. 46 "[T]o compel man furnish contributions propagation [religious] opinions disbelieves, sinful tyrannical; forcing him teacher own persuasion, depriving comfortable pastor, morals make pattern 13, 510, Virginia Liberty, Hening, Statutes (1823). 47 keep interfering essential autonomy life, taking decision issues,14 unduly officials.15 third prevent trivialization degradation attachment organs government. "stands expression principle Founders personal, sacred, holy permit 'unhallowed perversion' civil magistrate." 432, Memorial Remonstrance Assessments, Writings Madison 187. 221-222, 1570-1571; 283-287, 1603-1605 concurring).16 49 help assure issues, sensitivity, occasion battle arena. Lemon, 622-624, 2115-2116; Education Allen, 236, 249, 88 1923, 1929, 1060 (Harlan, concurring); Engel, 429-430, 1266. With Government influenced partisan argument itself. will winners losers battle, losers' common recourse dissent fight again day. religious, seeks battles, American point feel alienated acted "official" "authorized" religion.17 B 50 imperatives relationship denominations, extend practices. Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 1680, 982 (1961), example, struck requiring oath qualification hold office, free religion, non-establishment re igion. And, pair hang reproachful parents, prescribed schools represent serious encroachment supra; "[i]t sacrilegious anti-religious say separate country stay business writing sanctioning leave themselves those choose look guidance." 435, 1269 51 recent concoction overreaching judiciary. Even written, Framers broke Articles Confederation constitutions, name God document. "omission reference Deity inadvertent; remain unnoticed."18 Thomas Jefferson Andrew Jackson, respective terms President, both grounds declare thanksgiving fasting.19 James Madison, subsequent Presidency issue face today, stated: 52 "Is Chaplains Houses pure freedom? 53 strictness, answer negative. forbids everything establishes worship representatives, Ministers majority them; taxes. Does establishment, Constituent representative Body, majority, conducted nation." Fleet, Madison's "Detached Memoranda," Wm. Mary Quarterly 534, 558 (1946). C 54 within fundamental message Schempp. intrudes conscience participate "prayer opportunity," 794, basic disagreement, comment declining participate. residents eliefs. commit theological issues.20 degrading allowing call intermeshed order. injects sphere creating every selection reconsideration itself, provoke ultimately alienate religiously identified citizens.21 D 55 One response foregoing account, exhaust full meaning certain tensions inherent required deviate absolute adherence neutrality. considerations, although important, specific, none present, warrant way unconstitutional constitutional. Because occasionally suggests becomes important briefly identify prominent explain why relevance 56 (1) 57 number recognized may, contexts, receive programs policies available, basis criterion, wide class similarly situated beneficiaries,22 precise cataloguing contexts necessarily easy task. need tarry daily nonmember officer stretch imagination appear anywhere catalogue. 58 (2) 59 Conversely, encompass broad, total, spectrum concerns, overlapping considerably range coincides conflicts See, 431-445, 1108-1115, (1961) (Sunday Laws); Harris McRae, 448 319-320, 100 2671, 2689, 65 784 (1980) (abortion restrictions). suggest excused ground, really takes position seriously.23 statutes McRae; merely harmonizes religions," McGowan, 422, 1103; fundamentally distinguishes phenomena resemble lie near them, aesthetic feeling."24 Accord, 424, 1263. (3) 61 cannot, adopting decidedly anti -religious view, forbidden recognize culture.25 Certainly, bona fide classes comparative schools.26 certainly, text Abraham Lincoln's Second Inaugrual Address inscribed Lincoln purged profound content. offering "a Ante, 792 (emphasis added). "Prayer act."27 "Praying means word, end, speak, line God."28 clergy offer museum pieces, put display once edification legislature. engaged it—as body—in worship. If upholding denial fact, suspect supporters handed pyrrhic victory. 62 (4) 63 Our sometimes conflict. Commissioner, upheld taxation administrative 674-676, 1414-1415. tension exists; vindicate abolishing 64 (5) respect, religion: Under Free Exercise motivated claims give rise rights strongly-held not. n. compelled extent facilitate opportunities religion.29 299, 1612 concurring) ("hostility, neutrality, characterize refusal prisoners soldiers cut off civilian communion"). accommodating interests. faced allow debate. certainly voluntary groups employ needs legislators. regularized conducting behalf legislature, order constituting single term. Exercise, whatsoever. 66 few lapses already noted, commendably qualified says above analysis. society," chooses interfere. sympathize reluctance prevalent ingrained am, unconvinced arguments, shake conviction letter spirit main sustaining historical. cannot—and not—purport "undeviating acceptance," 681, 1417 concurring), 791; 10, disclaims exclusive reliance longevity 790. does, wording proceedings, 788, intent 788-790. "of considerable import abstract language," absent history—there despite surface appeal argument, reasons specific override imperative.30 68 Indeed, profoundly unilluminating subjects. assumes guarantees contained clause. assumption, questionable. Legislators, passions exigencies moment, constituents press pass sober piece legislation enact,31 assumed other. bill authorizing congressional 8, expressed unconstitutional, 807-808, instructive point. views represented change mind role, hurley-burley detached observer unpressured reflection. Since latter charged, am sure writings influential deliberations earlier vote. 69 treats Act touchstone. Both amendments, became supreme virtue ratification understanding Congress.32 Richardson Ramirez, 418 24, 43, 94 2655, 2665, 551 (1974); Maxwell Dow, 176 581, 448, 456, 597 (1900).33 observation especially compelling considering Rights. Amendments up bright idea morning; rather, enactment forced condition original Constitution.34 presumptively Rights somewhat akin treating party contract ter contract. proposition, accepted, resolve heretofore perplexing law. 70 tendered misguided static document detail fixed life experience Framers. variety place fix forever guarantee.35 truly faithful "our limit broad practices." 241, 1581 task translate majestic generalities conceived liberal eighteenth concrete restraints officials dealing twentieth West Bd. Barnette, 319 624, 639, 1178, 1186, 87 1628 (1943). 71 adaptability amendments respect "[O]ur composition vastly diverse forefathers. changes, objectionable highly offensive persons, devout nonbelievers alike." 240-241, Cf. McDaniel Paty, 435 628, 1328 (plurality opinion). President issued proclamations calling Americans engage Christian prayer.36 Story, treatise contended "real object" "was, countenance, Mahometanism, Judaism, infidelity, prostrating Christianity; exclude rivalry sects ."37 Whatever deference Adams' Story's dese ved read different light. Similarly, treated, sacred figures emulated, authors meant last ages. lifeless work. mind, focus betrayal lessons history. Of entirely validate There theme which, implicit, pervades exemplified comparison formulaic recitation 786. apparent worst, "mere shadow" threat" 795, 1616 (Goldberg, Simply put, de minimis violation, somehow unworthy attention. frankly know disposition Court," Trust," "One Nation God," like. adhere Schempp mottos minimis, lost significance. 203-204, 1560-1562 invocations, 73 all, STEVENS' effectively highlights, unlike wordings, easily narrowly sectarian.38 federal judiciary sit board censors better avoiding invocations. fundamentally, "non-sectarian" nine Justices inevitably continuously debate.39 Prayer business—serious business—and "acknowledgment country" immerse business.40 Some theologically problematic exercises predominantly faiths own.41 object attempt prayer.42 impossible marked Trinitarian references.43 invoking Christ flawed human beings God.44 petitionary improper.45 hat lacked element deficient.46 troubled shallow prayer,47 non-spontaneous prayer,48 spiritual preparation concentration.49 might, objections organ government.50 level expected government-sponsored prayer.51 requirement, though proselytizing.52 arose otherwise activity, remedy But, center beyond competence inconsistent liberty, ecclesiastical arbiter. IV 75 made strict robs nation identity. contrary. "neutral" religion.53 questions imperative. Alexis Tocqueville following concerning travels land 1830s: 76 "The atmosphere thing arrival States. France seen spirits freedom marching opposite directions. America intimately together reign My longing understand 78 phenomenon increased daily. 79 out, questioned communions; sought clergymen, depsitaries creeds interest survival. astonishment revealed doubts agreed except details; sway complete state. hesitation stating throughout nobody, lay cleric, that." Democracy 295 (G. Lawrence, trans., Mayer, ed., 1969). 80 confirmed Tocqueville's observations.54 likely stimulated furious reaction. also, convinced, invigorated "spirit religion" freedom." STEVENS, democra ically reflect lawmakers' constituents. Prayers Catholic priest Massachusetts Legislature, expect Jehovah's Witness disciple Baker Eddy Moon serving Regardless motivation chaplain,1 plain designation sole period constitutes declines "embark prayer." 795. Perhaps unable away sectarian given chaplain.2 Or perhaps unwilling acknowledge conditioned acceptability silent majority. 85 affirm Appeals. Rules Unicameral, 2, 21. These recorded vote collected prayerbooks, published expense. 1975, copies printed; prayerbooks published, 1978 (200 copies), 1979 (100 copies). costs amounted $458.56. named defendants Marsh, capacity. All petitioners us. publish holding Petitioners facet decision, 19-20. review immunity claims. They Appeals' d taxes used fund chaplaincy, assert claim. churches dispositive question. instructive, colony took defining rights. 1776, Declaration included, Article precursor Clauses. B. Schwartz, Documentary History 231-236 (1971); S. Cobb, Rise America, 491-492 (1970). disestablish disestablishment, Burgesses (Nov. 1712); Commonwealth 1788) (ratification convention); Delegates (state legislature). Rhode Island's mirrored Virginia. founded Roger Williams, era espouse 426. 1641, provided conscience. 430. convention, Virginia's, began W. Staples, Island 1765-1790, 668 (1971) (reprinting 1790 minutes convention). oversight. At point, Benjamin Franklin "that henceforth imploring assistance Heaven, blessings deliberations, morning proceed business." M. Farrand, Records 1787, 452 (1911). His proposal mid-stream adoption highlight omissions "[t]he funds." Ibid.; 455-456. that: "there shall allowed five hundred dollars annum Congress." compares favorably congressmen's salaries $6.00 attendance, 70-71. bears note advocates drafter see, 495-497; 537-552, undertake Representatives, 11-12; 541-549, 891. Interestingly, 1789 resolved aside Thanksgiving Day signal favors Almighty 123. 88. challenged 1850's "sundry petitions praying abolish office chaplain," S.Rep. 376, 32d 2d (1853). Judiciary, reasoning rule permitting elect establishing Sunday Closing Laws, addition, reasoned viewed 2-4. event, 35th abandoned favor inviting local officiate, Cong.Globe, 14, 27-28 (1857). Elected reinstituted 36th 162 (1859); 1016 (1860). Curiae. procedure. Alaska Leg. Uniform Rule (1981) (providing invocation); Ark. (1983); Colo. Legislator's Handbook, Rep. (1982); Idaho Joint Ind. Kan., Ky.Gen'l Ass.H.Res. La. Order, 10.1 8.1 Me.Sen. Register, Md., (1982 1983); Mo., Mo. 1-1 (1983) N.H. Manual Use Gen'l o N.H., 52(a) (1981); N.D.Sen. 101 Ore. 4.01 (opening only); 104 Pa.Code 11.11 (1983), 107 21.17 S.D. Official Directory 4-1 Tenn.Permanent Order (1981-1982) (provides admission chamber "Chaplain Day"); Tex. Utah 4.04 Va.Manual Delegates, 21(a) (1982) (session opens "period devotions"); Wash.Permanent Wyo. 2-1 (1983). Mason's Procedure 586(2) (1979). cou raised, apparently successfully, Pennsylvania while debated, Penn. Herald, Nov. 1820s, L. Pfeffer, Freedom 248-249 (rev. ed. 1967), William 558-559 comparison, denominations alternate chambers weekly 12; 16. characterizes "nonsectarian," "Judeo Christian," "elements 87. (Deposition Palmer). explicitl Christian, removed references 1980 complaint Jewish legislator. 49. claimed collecting books enjoining further publications, 3, express chaplains. Reports elections reported chaplains' names, religions affiliations, Gazette (April 1789); V 27, 1789) (listing nominees House); VI (May 1789). 3. Dr. Edward L.R. Elson January 1969 February 1981, years; Frederick Brown 1949 1969, Library, states' differ widely. Like several serves system, statutorily resolution, Cal.Gov't Code Ann. 9170, 9171, 9320 Sen.Res. Colo.House 54th Gen.Ass. 17-19 Conn.Gen.Stat. 2-9 Geo.H.R.Res. 3(1)(e) Geo.S.Res. 3(1)(c) Iowa 2.11 Mo.Rev.Stat. 21.150 (1969) (West); Nev.Rev.Stat. 218.200 (1979); N.J.Stat.Ann. 52:11-2 (1970) (We t); N.M.Stat.Ann. Const. Art. (1978); Okla.Stat.Tit. 74, 291.12 292.1 (West Supp.1982); Vt.Stat.Ann., Tit. Supp.); Wisc.Stat. 13.125 Supp.). 312-313, (1952); 213, 1566, saying chambers, federal, involvements kind state, mature adults incurring penalty, indirect." 299-300, Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 271, 102 269, 275, 440 Wolman Walter, 433 229, 97 2593, 2599, 714 (1977); 772-773, (1973). Stone Graham, 449 39, 41, 192, 193, 199 (finding "pre-eminent purpose" posting Ten Commandments classroom "plainly nature," recitations "supposed purpose"); 107-109, 272-273, "anti-evolution" purpose); 223-224, 1572 (public consisting Lord's Prayer). matter: "I strive relate Senators helpers divine." Deposition, 28. "My drawn closer God. wisdom theirs day." 46. Senate, 1963-1968, p. (hereinafter Prayers) ("Save O God, gesture custom"). 42, 194. adults, "presumably pressure." 792. Quite apart debatable significance 224-225, 1572-1573; 430, 1266, (1962), uncertain factually correct: instinct survival, loath non-conforming. P. Blanshard, Man Washington 94-106 (1960). infra, 803-804, 808, detriment 512; Commission, 1414-1415, aid examine school's records determine total expenditures attributable education activity." 620, 2114. involved, supervising "too (testimony Rev. Palmer) preferences have," (same), "inject dogma" Lewis, Chairman Board). P lmer) (discussing raised Christological clergy). gave 19th century. 788-789, Opposition "both radicals extreme Protestant sects. inspired motives united opposing chaplaincies breaking demarcation sectarians felt State, 130 (1950) Stokes). 133-134. Similar controversies Report Select New York Several Memorials Against Appointing (1832) (recommending abolished), Blau, Cornerstones 141-156 (1949). periodically lines. Oregonian, Apr. C8 ("Despite protests representative, follower Indian guru start Thursday's [Oregon] [of Representatives] Shortly Ma Anand Sheela invocation, half-dozen representatives walked floor protest prayer."); California Journal, 37th Sess., 171-173, 307-308 (1907) legislator committed "crowning infamy" "words irreverent godless man"). 805-806, 818-821. doctrines bear Last Term, discriminated faiths, invalidated unless justified interest, 269-270 [102 273-274, 440] (1981), fitted Murdock Pennsylvania, 105, 116-117 [63 870, 876, 1292] (1943)." Larson Valente, 456 247, 1673, 1685, (1982). evident impossibility Buddhist monk Sioux worker period, 69-70, post, 822 (STEVENS, dissenting), application test. pains gone emphasize "ceremonial" ease necessity 797-798, least, fail still articulated Schempp: "What foreclose, decisions forbidden, activities institutions; purposes; (c) ends, suffice." 294-295, 1609. Roemer Works, 426 736, 770-771, 2337, 2356, 179 dissenting); Hunt McNair, 734, 750, 2868, 2877, 923 (1973) 643, 2126 680-681, articulated, comparable practices, 510; 194; 214-225, 1567-1573; 232-234, 243-253, 1576-1577, 1582-1587 244-247, 1683-1685; 222, 1571; caso 490, 494-496, 1683-1684, (1961); 618, 636, 1322, 1332, 593 (1978) judgment). function, way. particular, persons creates burden Review Bd., 450 707, 1425, 624 Yoder, 406 205, 92 1526, (1972); Sherbert Verner, 398, 1790, 965 Elizabeth Blue Hull Church, 440, 601, 658 (1969); Ballard, 322 78, 882, 1148 (1944). 2112-2115; NLRB Bishop Chicago, 501-504, 99 1313, 1319-1320, 533 remaining discuss reduced liberty. court, refuse decide properly Consider, addition authorities text, leading Methodist clergyman: "[Some propose] reassert values school-house wall, erecting cardboard nativity shrines corner, God's money, Holy Name oratory. Is ultimate profanity? things places? market-place holy? improve people? character motives? symbols thereby cheapened degraded. television commercial captive audience—boredom resentment." Kelley, Separation 181, 190-191 Consider condensed version 1954 scene: pretty thick. breakfasts, [and on]; added Pledge Allegiance. Pledge, enough pious ours, rhythm upset anti-Communist spirituality improved insertion phrase 'under God.' introduced directing post cancel mail slogan 'Pray Peace.' (The devout, devotions, stuck stamped letters mail.) deflationary tone politics don't mix. Politicians develop deeper convictions, folk wiser convictions; duties faith—but unqualified confuses emotional loyalties relative shifting politics. "All affirmations danger contradiction lived inoffensive, externalized ones purposes." Miller, Piety Potomac 41-46 (1964). Schools Buildings Jurisdiction, Hearings Courts, Civil Liberties, Administration Justice, 46-47 Howard, Churches U.S.A.) Hearings); Fox, Prayer, Theology Today 258 (1972). argued alienates wish tighter bond true. (I vigorously deny, disfavors broader necessary life. 803-804; 821-822.) submit dissatisfaction tempered knowledge adhering rejecting History, 215, 217 (1981). Stokes 523. 266 1967) Pfeffer). follows: interdicted intermeddling institutions, doctrines, discipline, exercises. [I]t proposed recommend prescribe fasting [But] invite magistrate exercises, Fasting exercises; discipline. Every objects according tenets; never safer hands, deposited it." Ibid., Jefferson's 428-430 (1905). 819-821. discussion inclined significantly troubling sixteen impression "establishing" constant attention shorter increase discord lesson draw this, regular deemed (1947) (transportation school); (charitable exemptions). sensibly, respectfully, ascribe Sabatier, Outlines Philosophy 25-26 (T. Seed, 1957 ed.) Sabatier). James, Varieties Experience 352-353 (New Library 1958); F. Heiler, xiii-xvi (S. McComb, 1958 Heiler). 300-304, 1612-1614 Illinois McCollum 333 235-236, 461, 477, 649 (1948) (Jackson, 225, 1573. Sabatier Heschel, Man's Quest (1954) Heschel). Douglas' famous Being," context. quotation paragraph appears here: "We Being. chooses. room deem necessary. sponsor attitude shows partiality lets flourish zeal adherents dogma. comes competition thrust sect person. compulsory. coerce anyone attend church, observe holiday, instruction. doors suspend operations want repair sanctuary undertaken here." 313-314, 683-684. advanced skeletons closet. Punishment Crimes 116 (1790) (enacted convicted theft offenses "be publicly whipped, exceeding thirty-nine stripes"); 23, 1866, 216 (reaffirming racial segregation Columbia; exactly States). Morgan, (1966); Eidenberg R. Morey, Uses 61-64 (1969). commentator "was carry-over exercised plenary jurisdiction [this] dislodged becoming firmly established." Pfeffer 170. practical matter, "we practically went legislatures" ratifying Rights: 1171 (1971). looking admits, dubious originally difficulties controlling constitutionality collateral acts Commentaries (1st 1833); 544 (1946); Wofford, Blinding Light: Interpretation, U.Chi.L.Rev. 502, 508-509 431-433, 662, 730 (1879); Barron Baltimore, (7 Pet.) 243, 250, 672 (1833); Dumbard 10-34; Schwartz 697-980, 983-984. Frontiero 411 677, 1764, 583 (gender discrimination); 347 483, 873 (race Colgrove Battin, 149, 155-158, 2448, 2451-2453, 522 (jury trial); Trop Dulles, 356 86, 101, 590, 598, 630 (1958) (cruel unusual punishment); Katz 389 347, 507, 576 (1967) (search seizure). 266; 513. Story 1871. Trinity 143 457, 470-471, 516, 226 (1892); Vidal Girard's Executors, How. 127, 197-199, 205 (1844). relatively examples. 11, 14-17, 71-73, 108; Invocations Fred Holloman, Kansas 1980-1982 Sessions, pp. 40-41, 46-47, 101-102, 106-107. Cahn, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 981 (1962); Howard) ("there 'nonsectarian' ."). N.Y. Times, 4, 1982, ("Mr. [Jerry] Falwell [founder organization "Moral Majority"] quoted telling meeting Newswriters Association Moral Majority 'if otherwise, disintegrate' "). side, irrelevance, obviousness, non-religious include H. Smith, Religions 138 (Perennial 1965) Theravada Buddhism). ("We told [school] 'nonsectarian,' traditions rotation. solution fervently devoted religion."); Freehof, Modern Reform Responsa (ecumenical services principal, frequently); Bancroft, Communication Worship Non-Catholics (non-sectarian possible, "offensive religions"). 115 Bloesch, Struggle 36-37 Bloesch) ("Because Savior plays crucial pray having salvation intercession. Christ. penetrate tribunal Father Son, Redeemer."); Fischer, Role Encounter 153, 155-156 (1980). eliminated receiving complaints Senators. 793, 14. Suppose, omit references. Should dismissed? implications Clauses? Eckhart, Meister Eckhart 88-89 (R. Blakney, trans. 1941); T. Merton, Contemplative Will ams, What Believe How 412-413 (3d 1969) Williams) Science communion). Bloesch 72-73; Stump, Petitionary Am. Philosophical Q. Wells, Prayer: Rebelling Status Quo, Christianity Today, 1979, 32-34. Matthew 6:6 ("But thou, thou prayest, enter thy closet, hast shut door, secret; seeth secret reward thee openly."). Williams 274-275 Quaker practice). Heschel 53; Heiler 283-285. 256; 133-134; 65-66 (statement Baptist Affairs). Niebuhr, Faith Politics ("A genuinely prophetic speaks word ruler nation, rulers nations."). 159 ("World evangelization numbered goals proclaiming gospel glory God."). 1-31 1897). Murray, Hold Truths 73-74 (1960) (American "has benefited maintenance, exaggerated form, distinction state."); Martin, Revived Dogma Cult, 111 Daedalus 53, 54-55 "icy thinness cold airs Northwest Europe vapors England significant, represents difference world North exporting countries. countries stable monarchies churches, institutional vitality low. lacking monarchy high." omitted)). 16-year "stemmed motive." 793. again, subjective decisive criterion judging Compare Rogers Lodge, 3272, 1012 City Mobile Bolden, 446 55, 1490, standard maximizes conducive evenhanded administration 3283 91-94, 1512-1513 March 1978, invocation: "Father heaven, suffering death your son moving hearts praise glory. cross reveals wonder crucified. life-giving glorious resurrection approaching. hour triumped Satan's pride; celebrate event redemption. reminded price Psalmist: 'My you forsaken me, cry? 'O cry day, not; night, relief me. 'Yet enthroned Place, Israel! 'In fathers trusted; trusted, them. 'To cried, escaped; shame. 'But worm, man; scorn men, despised people. 'All scoff me; mock parted lips, wag heads: 'He relied Lord; let Him deliver him, rescue He loves him.' Amen." 103-104.

Classification Label: 2