Legal Document

438 U.S. 1 98 Supreme Court Reporter 2588 57 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 553 Thomas L. HOUCHINS, Sheriff of the County Alameda, California, Petitioner,v.KQED, INC., et al. Number 76-1310. Argued Nov. 29, 1977. Decided June 26, 1978. Syllabus After respondent broadcasting company, KQED, had been refused permission to inspect and take photographs at a portion (Little Greystone) county jail where prisoner's suicide reportedly occurred conditions were assertedly responsible for prisoners' problems, respondents brought this action under 42 Code KF62 § 1983 against petitioner, who supervised jail, claiming deprivation their First Amendment rights. Thereafter petitioner announced program regular monthly tours open public, including media reporters, parts (but not Little Greystone). Cameras or tape recorders llowed on tours, nor interviews with inmates. Persons, members media, knew prisoner could visit him. The District preliminarily enjoined from denying KQED news personnel representatives reasonable access Greystone, preventing using photographic sound equipment conducting inmate interviews. Appeals affirmed. Held : judgment is reversed case remanded. Pp. 6-16; 16-19. 546 Federal Reporter, 2nd 284, Chief Justice, joined by Mr. Justice WHITE REHNQUIST, concluded that neither Fourteenth provides right government information sources within government's control. have no constitutional over above other persons, interview inmates make recordings, films, publication newspapers, radio, television. Pell versus Procunier, 417 817, 94 2800, 41 495; Saxbe Washington Post, 843, 2811, 514. 8-16. 2 (a) public importance in penal facilities media's role providing afford basis reading into Constitution enter those institutions, gather information, pictures broadcast purposes. does guarantee Grosjean American Press, 297 233, 56 444, 80 L.Ed. 660, Mills Alabama, 384 214, cases relied upon respondents, concerned freedom press communicate already obtained, but indicated compels provide information. 8-12. 3 (b) Whether should institutions manner sought matter legislative, judicial, resolution. 12-16. 4 STEWART, while agreeing more than assure equal generated controlled once has opened its doors, terms are reasonably imposed individual may—if they impede effective reporting without sufficient justification—be unreasonable as applied journalists convey general what visitors see. was thus clearly entitled some preliminary relief Court, an order requiring permit reporters Greystone facility him let them randomly encountered In respects injunction gave areas which persons excluded, enlarging scope view. 5 Kelvin Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Booty, Jr., Oakland, Cal., petitioner. 6 William Bennett Turner, San Francisco, respondents. 7 BURGER delivered opinion, REHNQUIST joined. 8 question presented whether 9 * Petitioner Houchins, Alameda County, controls all Jail Santa Rita. Respondent operates licensed television radio stations frequently reported newsworthy events r lating Francisco Bay Area. On March 31, 1975, Rita jail. report included statement psychiatrist illnesses his patient-prisoners there, prison illnesses. 10 requested facility. refused, Oakland branches National Association Advancement Colored People (NAACP) filed suit 1983. They alleged violated refusing failing any means be informed prevailing learn grievances. Public such essential, asserted, NAACP participate debate County. further asserted coverage cells most way informing conditions. 11 complaint permanent prevent "excluding generally full accurate therein." 17, when filed, there appears formal policy regarding However, according he process planning since took office six months earlier. July 8, invited interested arrangements tours. News given notice advance presumably made early reservations. 12 Six planned funded estimated cost $1,800. first scheduled filled week after announcement.1 A reporter several tour 14, 1975. 13 Each limited 25 permitted only did include disciplinary portions known "Little Greystone," scene rapes, beatings, adverse physical Photographs available, cameras allowed Those inmates, removed 14 support request injunction, testimony affidavits stating complexes substantial experiencing significant security administrative problems. contended failed adequate two reasons: filled, signed up unable cover jail; prohibition photography exclusion practice keeping view substantially reduced usefulness media. 15 response, admitted never experimented permitting beyond allowed; claim disruption caused institutions. He however, unregulated would infringe privacy,2 tend create "jail celebrities," turn generate internal problems undermine security. also unscheduled disrupt operations. 16 affidavit noting various concerning reach public. Attached current mail, visitation, phone call regulations. regulations send unlimited number letters judges, attorneys, elected officials, Attorney General, probation officers, sealed prior mailing. Other subject inspection contraband provided mail read. 17 With few exceptions,3 Media awaiting trial consent inmate, attorney, district court. Social services officers contact "relatives, community agencies, employers, etc.," assist counseling vocational, educational, personal Maximum-security free unmonitored collect telephone calls designated limit. 18 considering testimony, affidavits, documentary evidence parties, "responsible representatives" facilities, "at times hours" "from utilizing facilities." rejected petitioner's contention then effect necessary protect privacy minimize It found officials involved jails "more flexible [was] both desirable attainable." "demonstrated irreparable injury, absence remedy law, probability success merits, favorable interest, balance hardships" favor. 19 interlocutory appeal Court's order, invoked 834, 2810, 495 (1974), held "newsmen prisons afforded public." departed abused discretion because it ordered give greater argument Post Co., 514 controlling. concluded, albeit three separate opinions,4 jails, sustained order. II 20 Notwithstanding our holding supra, assert recognized flows logically decisions construing Amendment. argue constitutionally guaranteed U.S., 835, S.Ct., Branzburg Hayes, 408 665, 681, 707, 92 2646, 2656-2669, 33 626 (1972). From receive implied special government-controlled This right, contend, matter. Respondents suggest implicit language Press 250, 449, 660 (1936), 219, 86 1434, 1437, 484 (1966), notes safeguard "misgovernment" crucial contend concealing voters impairing public's discuss criticize system administration. III 21 We can agree many respondents' generalized assertions; matters "of great importance." 830 n. 7, 2808 7. Penal require large amounts funds, mission criminal justice system. person placed becomes, effect, ward state whom society assumes broad responsibility. equally true intelligently form opinions about Beyond question, important; acting "eyes ears" powerful constructive force, contributing remedial conduct business. served function beginning Republic, like components limits. 22 substitute adjunct and, courts, "ill equipped" deal Cf. Procunier Martinez, 416 396, 405, 1800, 1807, 40 224 (1974). must confuse government; each special, functions, complementing—and sometimes conflicting with—the other. 23 these camera equipment, moving still intimated Nor rationale rely lead implication right. 24 emphasized opinion traditional source But analysis reveals obtained; neith demand. challenge tax advertising revenues "plain purpose" penalize publishers curtail selected group newspapers. 251, 449. summarized familiar important history attempts criticism Crown England infamous licensing requirements taxes press, id., 245-247, 447 designed similar restrictions "form previous restraint printed publications, circulation." Id., 249, 449.5 discussing "untrammeled press," readily acknowledged need "informed opinion" misgovernment. criticized issue "the circulation entitled." Ibid. nothing privilege distinguished publish dealt burden restrain newspaper's communication reference entitlement meant cannot whatever acquire—and elect reveal. Landmark Communications, Incorporated Virginia, 435 829, 838, 1535, 1541, (1978). 26 statute making crime editorial election issues day. striking down statute, noted "a major purpose [the First] discussion governmental affairs," 218, 1437. discussed "as antidote abuses power chosen people serve." As Grosjean, remotely imply guaranteeing anyone generally. 27 offers even less position. Its observation, dictum, "news gathering protections," 2670, sense sources. That observation read context; response forcing disclose grand jury received confidence violate deterring communicating 680, 633. There undoubted law," 681-682, 2657, affords others—private governments—to supply 28 assumed manifest tatements 29 available generally," 684, 2658. 30 31 "[n]ewsmen scenes disaster excluded," 684-685, 32 conceived. declared, explicitly reservation, "no public," Pell, Saxbe, 850, 2815, premise prevented fact Zemel Rusk, 381 1, 85 1271, 179 (1965), Branzburg, 684 22, 2658, 834 9, negates notion confers appellant essentially same here. ban travel Cuba, interfered acquaint himself effects Government's foreign domestic policies Cuba might affect policies. Warren, writing flatly that, stake, stating: 34 "There clothed ingenious garb decreased data flow. For example, unauthorized entry White House diminishes citizen's opportunities find relevant country being run, speak carry unrestrained information." 16-17, 1281. (Emphasis added.) 35 ideas case. See, e. g., Virginia Pharmacy Board Citizens Consumer Council, 425 748, 96 1817, 48 346 (1976); 408-409, 1808, 1809; Kleindienst Mandel, 753, 762-763, 2576, 2581, 683 claimed essential publish. IV 36 flawed, lacks precedential contrary statements opinions, invites involve itself legislative task left political processes. body appropriately resolve one 37 alternatives escaping attention. reform movements gained impetus result reports citizens visiting committees volunteered commissions reports. See T. Eriksson, Reformers 32-42, 69 (Djurklou translation 1976); W. Crawford, Report Penitentiaries vii-viii, xiii-xv, 10-11, App. (1969 ed.); baron McKelvey, Prisons 52-56, 193 (1936). Citizen forces v sitation continue play deficiencies systems reforms.6 Grand juries, potent subpoena power—not traditionally concern themselves institutions; prosecutor judge may initiate inquiries, embraces arsenal weapons inquiry relating tax-supported case, bodies compelled findings if default, always pressure disclosure. choice appropriate method decision resolved decision.7 "good," "desirable," "expedient" commanded To do so trivialize adjudication. 38 Unarticulated assertion assumption best qualified discovering malfeasance finds Editors newsmen decide acquire. Columbia Broadcasting System, Democratic Committee, 412 94, 124, 93 2080, 2097, 772 (1973); Miami Herald Publishing company Tornillo, 418 241, 730, 2831 (1974); Note, Rights Gather Information, 87 Harv.L.Rev. 1505, 1508, 1513 hand, coerced prefer conceal. No comparable pressures compel known. 39 discernible duty disclose, standards governing disclosure Because guidelines, absent statutory standards, hundreds judges would, Appeals' approach, fashion ad hoc cases, own seems "desirable" expedient." We, therefore, reject conclusory hospitals mental particular openness bureaucracy. [Citing supra.] interest knowing protected quarantee Free protection indirect. Freedom Information Act Official Secrets Act. "The Constitution, words, establishes contest, Congress resolution, least instances, through carefully drawn legislation. rest, we rely, often must, tug pull society." Stewart, "Or Press," Hastings L.J. 631, 636 (1975). learning variety ways, conveniently prefer. criticizing 413-418, 1811. render legal assistance entitled. 419, 1814. seek out former prison, institutional personnel, complaining 43 Moreover, California statutes currently Corrections authority intervals. Rptr. (West’s) Ann. §§ 6031-6031.2 (West Supp. 1978). Health inspectors required State General Corrections. & Safety 459 1970). Fire prisons. Cal.Admin.Code 1025 (1976). Following here, Supervisors called Administrator; hearing report, media; initial describe 44 Neither mandates Under holdings Washing- ton until decree otherwise, do, different accorded 45 reversed, remanded proceedings. 46 Reversed 47 MARSHALL BLACKMUN part consideration concurring judgment. 49 N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions issued unwarranted, therefore concur my view, injunctive scope. 50 Amendments government, basic superior doors.* Accordingly, say score. 51 applying abstractions facts Whereas "equal access" meaning identical respects, believe concept flexibility accommodate practical distinctions between 52 When assignment, journalist simply edification. b passed others, very specific reasons. "Enlightened citizenry ideal premised . ." 726, 2672, (dissenting opinion). Our depends heavily enlightenment. Though lapses, "has mighty catalyst awakening affairs, exposing corruption among employees occurrences Estes Texas, 532, 539, 1628, 1631, 543. 484. 660. 53 speaks separately speech accident, acknowledgment critical played society. requires sensitivity role, needs performing effectively. touring grasp reality eyes ears. jail's sights sounds personally place, use equipment. short, may, justification, 54 principles, relief. At time decision, areas. evidently fulfill obligation allowing sign think mistaken assumption, law. 55 frequent keep informed. By leaving "specific methods implementing [to] Houchins," court causing undue disruption. recording presentation viewing seen visitors, kept consistent needs. These elements court's sanctioned amply supported record. overbroad. enlarged erred concluding broader press. exceeded respects. affirming reversed. foreclose possibility remand. vie , availability future depend extent framed equitably 58 STEVENS, BRENNAN POWELL join, dissenting. 59 holds inconsistent 495, public" abuse discretion. respectfully disagree. 60 Inc., televised programs granted correctional area, Quentin Prison, Soledad Jails Bruno prepare material. taken inside walls interviewed disturbances occasions. 61 involving Rita, 1972 newscast finding "shocking debasing prevailed [at Rita] constituted cruel unusual punishment man beast law."1 carried assigned inmates.2 Petitioner's disagreement conclusion newscast. 62 photograph area occurred. advising deny subsequent requests stories incidents facility.3 Except 1972, completely excluded inner commenced.4 rules outgoing except lawyers, inspected; prohibited mention correspondence names actions officers. 63 People,5 equitable "means priso ers' grievances "denying enjoin excluding 6-7. complaint, motion attorney described uniformly expressed harmful consequences purpose.6 64 letter dated days instituted, proposed pilot program. suggested tentatively 14. cell allow approved answer supporting explaining why identifying recent changes outside. stated KQED's granted, felt obligated honor disrupted mealtimes, exercise times, appearances inmates.7 pointed recently amended delete mentioning respect explained possible photographing excessive consumption, "problems control" belief "that interviewing excessively unwieldy."8 65 An evidentiary four guided place. revealed inadequacy obtaining confinement transmission certain jail.9 opportunity facility, offered sale omitted characteristics, catwalks guards observe inmates.10 Indeed, possible, sight during tour, realistic picture addition, fixed scheduling 66 Of importance, remaining booked, assurance conducted December restraints legitimate penological interests.11 67 thereafter enjoining hours," court, determine event, retain tensions circumstances exclusion. 68 Ninth Circuit affirmed, framing review.12 stayed mandate stay application fairly subsequently certiorari decide: raised applicant's petition quite clear. If 'no access' doctrine [v. 495,] 514,] applies wrong, If, viewed impliedly situation existed necessarily dispositive, review propriety light appropriate, although necessary." 429 1341, 1344, 97 773, 775, 733. 70 reasons, will separately, control injunction. First, unconstitutionality rise litigation rest Second, tailored properly awarded representative successful proving harmed violation await grant injured unconstitutional yet vindicate 71 grew refusal refusals institution suit, censorship relaxed experimental initiated. matter, consider relevance 72 well settled defendant's corrective anticipation following commencement deprive course unlawful. Grant 345 629, 632-633, 73 894, 897, 1303, cited.13 apparent. enforced virtually total confined. addressed lawyers censoring related daily existence. Prison significantly abridged onditions public.14 Therefore, adopted along, restrictive constitutional. nondiscriminatory entirely avoid scrutiny.15 strongly suggests contrar 74 specifically evaluating claim, inquire Rather, canvassed acquire And prohibiting "not attempt conceal prisons." 830, 2808. challenged restriction access, experience posed isolated limitation efforts background record demonstrated "accorded conditions,"16 considered constitutionality single Pell. 75 conditions, justified pointing concealment from, denial to, true, emphasize reflected case.17 What indicate established inseparable unduly restricted assessing adequacy, considered. 76 Here, operation date instituted plainly disclosed consistently denied confined correspondence. no-access policy, modified wake resort survive scrutiny charged guilty offenses. 77 preservation flow long core objective Constitution.18 reason protects dissemination receipt ideas. See,e. 756, 1822, 346; 1808-1809, 224; 683.19 Thus, invalidated authorizing rights intended recipients. Morales Schmidt, 489 1335, 1346 (CA7 1973). So prelitigation impingement noninmate correspondent's receiving communication. 78 addition safeguarding another elects communicate, serves societal function.20 self-government existence citizenry.21 Madison wrote: 79 "A popular Government, acquiring it, Prologue Farce tragedy; or, perhaps both. Knowledge forever govern ignorance: mean Governors, arm knowledge gives." Writings James 103 (G. Hunt ed. 1910). sufficient, channels restraints. Without acquisition large, self-governance contemplated Framers stripped substance.22 81 measure protection. 2656, 626; 833, 2809.23 indicate, private benefit qualif "press" insure fully importance. 82 went "to heart natural organized society, united common good, impart interests." 243, 446. struggle stamp advertisements—the so-called "taxes knowledge": 83 "[I]n adoption [taxes] dominant controlling aim prevent, for, affairs. [against taxes] establish preserve English doings misdoings government. Upon correctness characterization exactions 'taxes knowledge' sheds flood corroborative light. ultimate, enlightened thing stake." 247, 448. 84 Noting familiarity struggle, held: "[S]ince misgovernment, suppression abridgement publicity regarded otherwise grave concern. here bad because, present setting, deliberate calculated device limit virtue guaranties." recognition "underlying generally"24 2810. unnecessary adjudicate directly challenge; considerations single, additional mode contrast, commenced concealed policies, cut off source, 88 degree attend activity. Such questions f government.25 unquestionably occasions activity complete secrecy. commonly "grand proceedings, conferences [and] meetings official gathered executive session 2658; 2810.26 functions government—essential indeed country's vital interests—necessarily secrecy, oversight.27 situations reasons withholding apparent legitimate. 89 "[r]espondents force confidential invade decisionmaking processes officials."28 end wholly confidentiality. While administer, justification fellow confined.29 90 militate favor relate unique perform democratic Not financed funds administered servants,30 integral component therein temporarily, permanently, deprived liberty conform dictates Constitution. express command Sixth proceeding "public trial."31 fair, integrity proceeding.32 survives conviction carries how convicted treated period hoped-for rehabilitation. stern discipline, retains protections punishment, see, Estelle Gamble, 97, 285, derive occasional busy court.33 91 Some inmates—in number—are pretrial detainees. pending trial, offense presumption innocence. Certain objectives, i. e., deterrence, rehabilitation, whi h regard prisoners, inapplicable detainees.34 Society ensuring unconvicted accord status. demonstrates correspondence, valid affirmative likelihood merits depend, final analysis, treatment large. probable rested servants treating committed custody. arbitrarily cutting abridges Constitution.35 entered Moreover duties itself. either litigant prove suffered harm proper attempting redress mischief worked others. ideas, remedying needed concerns Preliminary proof affected granting adversary contemplates adjudication controversies litigants, improper though possessed invalid awards press.36 95 anything novel goes mere repetition unlawful conduct. numerous varied chancellor wrongdoer steps eliminate law imposes decreed court.37 follows unconstitutionally suppressed temporarily widely facts, concealed, come along lines "aptly constitutionalviolation,"Milliken Bradley, 433 267, 287, 2749, 2761, 745, perfectly clear illegal Court. order.38 character, revision before reached conclusion. affirm Appeals. According now subsided longer waiting list. lose lawfully confined, civil Wolff McDonnell, 555-556, 2963, 2974, 935 cited therein. Inmates prisons, fundamental privacy; animals zoo filmed photographed however "educational" Persons parole released approval commanding officer. courthouse obtain 284 (CA9 1976). Near Minnesota ex rel. Olson, 283 697, 713-716, 625, 630, 1357 (1931). More Organization Better Austin Keefe, 402 415, 1575, (1971), concepts reaffirmed. Nebraska Assn. Stuart, 427 2791, 2831, 730 Behind Bars, Bar Young Lawyers Section Visitation Program 1970-1975; Case, Participation: Experiment Prison-Community Relations, Probation 18, 19-21 (Dec. 1966); Final Ohio Citizens' Task Force A28 (1971); Illinois Subcommittee Institutions Legislative commission Visit Examine (1969); Massachusetts, Governor's Correctional Industries, (Sept. 1970); System Study, Report, (July 1971). Act, 552 (1976 ed.), decisions. Forces factors government-held New York Times States, 403 713, 728-730, 2140, 822 (concurring Brenneman Madigan, 343 F.Supp. 128, 132-133 (ND Cal.1972). Based Judge Zirpoli "inescapable razed ground." discharged telecast. Access denied, gang rapes poor Tr. 208, escapes 135-136. sheriff "press tour" attended cameramen. "freshly scrubbed" forbidden ask encountered, 16-17. "special population disproportionately black [and NAACP] meaningfully County." Complaint, ¶ 3. Since NAACP, parties focused KQED. master's criminology University Berkeley years' enforcement Police Department. supervision Francisco. "opinion, based education administration, contribution understanding know done dollars spent programs." 15. contrast floodgate Officer testified liberalization actually declined. 152. inflexible barriers generates closed especially close scrut ny. 24. cells. photos women's cells, "safety cell," "disciplinary cells," interior Greystone. dayroom omits monitor maintains continuous urinals. "Sheriff Houchins liberal presently existence, disturbances. Furthermore, recollection Nevertheless feared invasion inmates' privacy, creation 'celebrities,' threats policy. fears groundless, convincing allayed. "As written and/or photographed, agreement. pre-trial detainees publicity, obtained counsel. 'celebrities' likely emerge random Regarding security, searched. electronic locking devices studied facilitate escape plans, study sketch devices. Most importantly, ground laid administrators, devices, respected "Thus reviewing plaintiffs hardships struck plaintiffs' favor." 69. discontinuance "It courts beware defeat protestations repentance reform, abandonment timed anticipate resumption." Oregon Medical Soc., 326, 333, 690, 978. next month. certainly assume relief, soon level. outsiders living character prisoners visitation privileges alternative Even member fortunate enough name visit, inmate's place confinement. minimum-security enlist aid Service complain 38. maximum-security calls, unlikely accept charges, call's communicative purpose. Although sentenced circumstances, defense counsel, prosecutor, outside confines requirement makes patently inadequate Finally, willingness release which, informal offer apparently lawsuit. too fails Hence, were, nonexistent. 1281, 179, said: 626: "We significance speech, assembly welfare. qualify protection; seeking news, eviscerated." Both derives 728 4, 2650 (STEWART, J., dissenting). Department regularly conducts citizens. maximum minimum sections stop encounter. permit, corrections step aside confidential. Apart officials. token, newsman wishes write story program, sit participants." note, did, public: 'assures maintenance society,' Time, Hill, 385 374, 389, 534, 543, 456 (1967), secures 'the paramount officials,' Garrison Louisiana, 379 64, 77, 209, 217, 125 (1964). Sullivan, 376 254, 710, 686 ' "[a]ny expression comes bearing heavy validity." 714, 2141, Bantam Books, 372 58, 70, 639, 584 (1963); Correlatively, published. 2581-2582; Stanley Georgia, 394 557, 564, 1243, 1247, 542 (1969). "In (1972), 'news protections,' 'without eviscerated,' 2656." 832-833, 2809. 764-765, 1827, 125; 266-270, 718-720, 686; Associated 326 20, 1416, 2013; Hay s, 726 2, dissenting.) Lamont Postmaster 301, 1493, 398; Red Lion FCC, 395 367, 390, 1794, 1806, 371; 542; Martin City Struthers, 319 141, 862, 1313; Marsh 501, 276, 265. "What stake preserving aspect rightly treasured ability destiny. embodies Nation's commitment self-determination abiding faith surest developing national lies exchange views issues. unfettered; repeatedly encompass expression." 862-863, 2821 (POWELL, Atlantic Meiklejohn, Speech Relation Self-Government (1948): "Just far acquaintance doubt disbelief issue, just ill-considered, ill-balanced planning, good. mutilation thinking directed." Admittedly, mentioned Bill guarantees meaningful. accomplish willing addressees them. barren marketplace sellers buyers." 308, 1497 (BRENNAN, concurring). buyers meaningful exchange. 728, 2673 dissenting): "No unnecessarily impermissibly compromised. dimensions, exist." 864, 2822 Nixon, 683, 705 15, 3090, 3106, 1039, Founders followed confidentiality: Constitutional Convention 1787 privacy. M. Farrand, Records 1787, Pages xi-xxv (1911). records years Convention. Statutes-at-Large 475, 15th Cong., 1st Sess., Res. (1818). secrecy constitution kind developed written. C. Making 134-139 (1937)." rule grounds: " '(1) whose indictment contemplated; (2) utmost deliberations, friends importuning jurors; (3) subornation perjury tampering witnesses testify later appear indicted it; (4) encourage untrammeled disclosures crimes; (5) innocent accused exonerated investigation, expense standing guilt.' Procter Gamble 356 677, 6, 983, 986 1077, quoting Rose, 215 617, 628-629 (CA3 1959). communications high Government advise performance manifold duties, confidentiality plain discussion. Human teaches expect remarks temper candor interests detriment process." 705, 3106. 861, 2820 'prisons limited.' Id.% 849, 2814, (citation omitted). truism reflects regulating objectives. Nixon Warner 589, 1306, 570, decided Term, tapes enjoyed trial. truncated 609, 1308. administration effectiveness rehabilitative programs, maintain, experiences individuals incarcerated concern." prosecutions, shall enjoy speedy impartial wherein committed, previously ascertained nature cause accusation U.S.Const., Amdt. 6. much men's lives Lewis Peyton, 352 791, 792 (CA4 1965). re Oliver, 333 257, 270, 499, 506, 682: every contemporaneous forum judicial power." fact, constitute punishment. F.Supp., 132-133. remedied For, bear responsibility "Incarceration punish, deter, rehabilitate convict. ends necessity personnel. Conversely, incarceration conviction, retribution incarcerating Their temporary operation, concomitantly diminished. Punitive measures context harmony innocence." Anderson Nosser, 183, 190 (CA5 freedoms abridgment follow wide Communications Douds, 339 382, 674, 925; 357 1163, 1488; Boyd 116 616, 524, 746; redound disseminate performs function. acts agent intelligent self-government. enabling effecting Amendment." 863-864, 726-727, 2672 fashioning Amendment, appropriate. extensive desegregation decrees, see last Term Milliken 745. noted, indicating jeopardized threatened permitted. 414 1812 224.

Classification Label: 2