Legal Document

466 U.S. 789 104 S.Ct. 2118 80 L.Ed.2d 772 MEMBERS OF the CITY COUNCIL LOS ANGELES et al.v.TAXPAYERS FOR VINCENT, al. No. 82-975. Supreme Court of United States Argued Oct. 12, 1983. Decided May 15, 1984. Syllabus Section 28.04 Los Angeles Municipal Code prohibits posting signs on public property. Appellee Taxpayers for Vincent, a group supporters candidate election to City Council, entered into contract with appellee Candidates' Outdoor Graphics Service (COGS) fabricate and post candidate's name them. COGS produced cardboard attached them utility pole crosswires at various locations. Acting under § 28.04, city employees routinely removed all posters (including signs) poles similar objects covered by ordinance. Appellees then filed suit in Federal District against appellants, officials (hereafter City), alleging that abridged appellees' freedom speech within meaning First Amendment, seeking damages injunctive relief. The findings fact, concluded was constitutional, granted City's motion summary judgment. Appeals reversed, reasoning ordinance presumptively unconstitutional because significant Amendment interests were involved, had not justified its total ban basis asserted preventing visual clutter, minimizing traffic hazards, interference intended use Held: 1. "overbreadth" doctrine is applicable here. There nothing record indicate will have any different impact third parties' free than it has interests, appellees failed identify difference between their claim invalid overbreadth grounds when applied during political campaign. Thus, inappropriate entertain an challenge 28.04. Pp. 796-803. 2. as expressive activity. 803-817. (a) general principle forbids government regulate ways favor some viewpoints or ideas expense others 28.04's text neutral—indeed silent—concerning speaker's point view, Court's been evenhanded manner. It constitutional power attempt improve appearance, this interest basically unrelated suppression ideas. Cf. v. O'Brien, 391 367, 377, 88 1673, 1679, 20 672. 803-805. (b) Municipalities weighty, essentially esthetic proscribing intrusive unpleasant formats expression. problem addressed 28.04—the assault citizens presented accumulation posted property—constitutes substantive evil prohibit. Metromedia, Inc. San Diego, 453 490, 101 2882, 69 800. 805-807. (c) curtails no more necessary accomplish purpose eliminating clutter. By banning signs, did eliminate exact source sought remedy. rationale Schneider State, 308 147, 60 146, 84 L.Ed. 155 which held ordinances absolutely prohibited handbilling streets sidewalks invalid, inapposite context instant case. 808-810. (d) validity elimination property compromised failing extend private citizen's controlling his own justifies disparate treatment, there predicate conclusion prohibition fails advance interest. 810-812. (e) While restriction activity may be if remaining modes communication are inadequate, does affect individual's exercise right speak distribute literature same place where prohibited. ample alternative Angeles. P. 812. (f) merit suggestion either itself "public forum" subject special protection, least should treated respect located. mere fact can used vehicle communication—such lampposts signposts—does mean Constitution requires such permitted. Public tradition designation forum reserved purposes, communicative otherwise, regulation (as here) reasonable effort suppress expression merely oppose view. 813-815. (g) Although plausible policy arguments might well made support could written would less severe effect like theirs—such providing exception campaign signs—it follow constitutionally mandated, nor clear suggested exceptions even permissible. To create other types protected risk engaging forbidden content discrimination. properly decide avoiding clutter removal creating increasing 815-817. 682 F.2d 847, reversed remanded. Anthony Saul Alperin, Angeles, Cal., appellants. Wayne S. Canterbury, Francisco, appellees. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. 1 property.1 question whether abridges Amendment.2 2 In March 1979, Roland Vincent Council. A known (Taxpayers) sign service company Vincent's 15 44-inch locations draping over stapling together bottom. signs' message was: "Roland Vincent—City Council." 3 authority Code, city's Bureau Street Maintenance ordinance, including signs. weekly report covering period 1-March 7, indicated among 1,207 from week, 48 identified Vincent" Most apparently commercial character.3 4 On action Central California, naming city, Director Maintenance, members Council defendants.4 They injunction enforcement compensatory punitive damages. After discovery, parties cross-motions judgment issue liability. motion. 5 do purport resolve disputed fact; instead, they summarize material appears uncontroverted. recite principal responsibility locating removing handbills violation assigned Use Inspection Division Maintenance. court found both nonpolitical illegally "without regard content."5 6 explaining purposes zoning code enacted, noting furthered those large number "constitute blight."6 With specific reference crosswires, "would add somewhat blight inevitably encourage greatly increased unauthorized unsightly places. . ."7 7 addition, placing creates potential safety hazard, violations "block views otherwise cause hazards."8 Finally, prevent taxpayers "from exercising rights places; remain picket parade, handbills, carry automobiles permission owners thereof."9 8 conclusions law characterized economic improving beauty "by blight" "legitimate compelling."10 Those protecting workmen who must scale adequately supported affecting time, place, manner 9 but rejected law. reasoned involved. noted advanced three separate justifications none sufficient. make sufficient showing esthetics substantial offered demonstrate engaged comprehensive remove contributions unattractive environment industrial areas. hazards readily apparent problems result permitting certain kinds many publicly owned while acknowledging flat fire hydrants signals permissible method property, size, design, construction posters, them, reasonable, ban.11 10 appeal challenges Appeals' holding face. defend also contend crossarms poles. two quite statute considered "on face"—either every conceivable application, seeks prohibit broad range conduct unconstitutionally "overbroad." We shall analyze "facial" address application 11 * seminal cases state legislation face" involve departure rule litigant only standing vindicate rights. Stromberg 283 359, 51 532, 75 1117 (1931),12 Lovell Griffin, 303 444, 58 666, 82 949 (1938),13 statutes defendants' conduct, face enforce unacceptable ideas.14 character facial invalidity expresses never valid Such holdings15 invalidated entire statutes, adjudication review party before 12 Subsequently, however, recognize laws so broadly inhibit parties. This Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 736, 1093 (1940). case very existence deterrent whose unprotected.16 repeatedly challenged though narrowly drawn it.17 predicated "a judicial prediction assumption statute's refrain expression." Broadrick Oklahoma, 413 601, 612, 93 2908, 2916, 37 830 (1973). 13 development sensitive sweep ordinary requirements swallow rule. order particular case, we weighed likelihood 14 "[T]here comes effect—at best cannot, confidence, justify invalidating prohibiting State enforcing admittedly proscribe. put matter another way, particularly believe real, well, judged relation plainly legitimate sweep." U.S., 615, S.Ct., 2917-2918 (citation omitted).18 concept "substantial overbreadth" reduced definition. clear, one conceive impermissible applications render susceptible challenge.19 contrary, requirement stems underlying justification itself—the inhibiting 16 "The directly derived nature doctrine. sweeping statute, incapable limitation, chill individuals, extent deterrence expected decrease declining reach regulation." New York Ferber, 458 747, 772, 102 3348, 3362, 73 1113 (1982) (footnote omitted). 17 short, realistic danger significantly compromise recognized protections facially grounds. See Erznoznik Jacksonville, 422 205, 216, 95 2268, 2276, 45 125 (1975). Ohralik Ohio Bar Assn., 436 447, 462, n. 20, 98 1912, 1922 56 444 (1978); Parker Levy, 417 733, 760-761, 94 2547, 2563-2564, 41 439 (1974). 18 vulnerable "overinclusive" response concerns "least drastic means" normal rested evaluation assumed parties, rather consideration court. not, appropriate based overbreadth. For COGS. 19 agree most mentioned perfectly reasonable. dispute proscribe attachment handbill sidewalk, crosswalk, curb, lamppost, hydrant, lifesaving equipment.20 Their position entirely horizontal supporting have, Specifically, attempted applies likely Indeed, suggests way tried avoid. Accordingly, validly COGS, simply individuals therefore argue generally sufficiently weighty abridgment speech. If advanced, argument analogous involved Lovell. But previously observed, acknowledge serves applications, hence applied. Instead, placed implicated. developed expertise "placing offensive manners alienate clientele constituencies,"21 emphasize value campaigns, see 555, 2917 (1981) (STEVENS, J., dissenting part); id., 550, 2914 (REHNQUIST, dissenting). light these arguments, attack activities. limit our analysis constitutionality concrete us, now turn COGS.22 II 21 communicating manner, presumably diminishes quantity City.23 activities surely raises "freedom speech" certainly "But say presents necessarily constitutes violation." 561, 2920, 800 (BURGER, C.J., since earliest decisions concerning sometimes curtail Schenck States, 249 47, 52, 39 247, 249, 63 470 (1919). 22 As demonstrate, purported interests—such desire minority unpopular cause, exclude points view marketplace ideas—that illegitimate immediately invalidate emerged line others. Bolger Youngs Drug Products Corp., 463 60, 65, 72, 103 2875, 2879, 2883, 77 469 (1983); Consolidated Edison Co. Comm'n, 447 530, 535-536, 100 2326, 2332, 65 319 (1980); Carey Brown, 455, 462-463, 2286, 2291, 263 Young American Mini Theatres, Inc., 427 50, 63-65, 67-68, 96 2440, 2448-2450, 2451, 49 (1976) (plurality opinion); Police Department Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 95-96, 92 2289-2290, 33 212 (1972). 23 That hint bias censorship enactment designed finds distasteful express. 24 672 (1968), set forth framework reviewing viewpoint-neutral kind: "[A] Government; furthers important governmental interest; expression; incidental alleged freedoms greater essential furtherance interest." Id., 1679. 25 settled legitimately police powers values. Berman Parker, 348 26, 32-33, 98, 102-103, 99 27 (1954), referring legislature blighted housing, observed housing "an ugly sore, community robs charm, makes men turn." Ibid. concluded: welfare inclusive. values represents spiritual physical, aesthetic monetary." 33, Penn Transportation City, 438 104, 129, 2646, 2661, 57 631 Village Belle Terre Boraas, 416 1, 9, 1536, 1541, 797 (1974); Euclid Ambler Co., 272 365, 387-388, 47 114, 118, 71 (1926); Welch Swasey, 214 91, 108, 29 567, 571, 53 923 (1909). 26 Therefore critical inquiries expression, purpose. III Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 448, 513 (1949), notion powerless protect unwanted exposure methods deemed nuisance. upholding loud raucous sound trucks, unwelcome noise.24 Lehman Shaker Heights, 418 298, 2714, 770 (1974), upheld advertising buses, stating entitled unwilling viewers interfere goal making buses "rapid, convenient, pleasant, inexpensive," 302-303, 2717 opinion). 307, 2719 (Douglas, concurring judgment); 209, 5, 2273 5. These municipalities 28 supra, dealt Diego's forms outdoor billboards. seven Justices explicitly billboards, 507-508, 510, 2892-2893, 2894 (opinion WHITE, joined Stewart, MARSHALL, POWELL, JJ.); 552, 2915 559-561, 2919-2921 dissenting); 570, 2924-2925 dissenting).25 writing plurality, expressly provide acceptable content-neutral billboards; appearance undoubtedly goal. 2892-2893.26 reaffirm majority Metromedia. ordinance—the "[T]he attempting preserve [or improve] quality urban life accorded high respect." 71, 2453 IV 30 scope substantially broader results tailored serve See, e.g., Heffron International Society Krishna Consciousness, 452 640, 647-648, 2559, 298 (1981); Schad Mount Ephraim, 61, 68-71, 2176, 2182-2183, 68 671 470-471, 2295-2296, Grayned Rockford, 115-117, 2294, 2302-2303, 222 (1972); 2291. constitute blight. remedy.27 plurality wrote Metromedia: "It speculative billboards nature, wherever located however constructed, perceived 'esthetic harm.' " 2893-2894. true 31 kind litter distribution leaflets cannot prophylactic expressing views. (1939), invalid. explained cities without abridging penalizing actually litter. 162, 151. campaign, affords brochures provides equal temporary adjacent sidewalks. "add somewhat" weight unsightliness discarded additional street-cleaning burden insufficient reviewed Schneider. 32 There, individual actively communicate recipients message. continued speakers distributors remained scene. dozens throughout area unattended until removed. Schneider, "deprive municipality enact regulations throwing broadcast streets. Prohibition abridge liberty bears relationship speak, write, print information opinion." 160-161, 150. impediment "the punishment throw papers streets." distributor scatter pamphlets air toss quantities paper window tall building low flying airplane. Characterizing means diminish State's condemn tender passerby reject accept it, thereafter keep dispose properly, incur he lets fall ground. One rightfully street open "carries him elsewhere express orderly fashion. extends spoken word." Jamison Texas, 318 413, 416, 669, 672, 87 869 (1943); Cox Louisiana, 379 559, 578, 85 476, 478, 487 (1965) (Black, part). appellees, tangible medium adverse landscape. antilittering activity, whereas employed gratuitously infringed upon willing listener. Here, evil—visual blight—is possible by-product created itself. contrast therefore, responds precisely City. V 34 accepted apply equally comparable categorically argued simultaneously permit onsite offsite grounds, unattractive. held, reasonably conclude outweighed countervailing other.28 So here, treatment. Moreover, extending locations, opportunity preserved, owners' bounds. Even remains, partial, nevertheless enhance appearance. 35 Furthermore, finding seek already inconsequential concerned. VI 36 guarantee employ times places, 647, inadequate. Grace, 461 171, 177, 1702, 1707, 736 654-655, 2567-2568; 535, 2332; Linmark Associates, Willingboro, 431 85, 93, 97 1614, 1618, 52 (1977). prohibited.29 advantages see, Talley 362 64-65, 536, 538-539, 559 (1960), reason obtained through means. Notwithstanding assertions brief indicates uniquely valuable mode communication, ability effectively threatened ever-increasing restrictions expression.30 VII suggest "Traditional occupies terms protection," 180, 1708, maintain sign-posting protection. 38 Hague CIO, 307 496, 515-516, 59 954, 964, 83 1423 (1939) Roberts, J.), recognized: "Wherever title parks rest, immemorially trust public, and, time out mind, assembly, thoughts citizens, discussing questions. places has, ancient times, part privileges, immunities, rights, liberties citizens. privilege citizen national questions regulated all; absolute, relative, exercised subordination comfort convenience, consonance peace good order; guise regulation, denied." 40 115, 2302; Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 394 152, 89 935, 939, 162 (1969); Kunz York, 340 290, 293, 312, 314, 280 (1951); 163, 152. Appellees' reliance misplaced. fail traditional access respecting items parks, controlled government." Postal Greenburgh Civic Assns., 2676, 2685, 517 (1981). Rather, "existence standard limitations evaluated differ depending issue." Perry Education Assn. Local Educators' 460 37, 44, 948, 74 794 (1983). 42 Lampposts course signposts, uses 131, 2686, 517.31 "for long view." Ass'n, 46, 955. Given served viewpoint neutrality, availability channels standard.32 VIII 43 theirs, variety ordinance: carrying messages (such signs), periods (perhaps campaigns), areas cluttered excessive property), meeting design specifications size color). Plausible exception, follows cf. Singer 380 24, 34-35, 783, 789-790, 630 (1965), example, fullest measure host communications command respect. An assertion "Jesus Saves," "Abortion Murder," woman "Right Choose," "Alcohol Kills," exemption just strong Abood Detroit Board Education, 231-232, 1782, 1797-1798, 261 (1977).33 volume postings mandated ordinance's defeat aim combating 44 Any rest determination control little applicability excepted category, category. questioning substantiality stake, believing form categories Therefore, "visual clutter" permitted remain, unattractive, "then obviously direct perhaps effective approach solving them." 508, 2893. implicated work parts rebut presumption. psychological economic. affects residential hold content-neutral, impartially administered threat "profound commitment debate issues uninhibited, robust, wide-open." Times Sullivan, 376 254, 270, 710, 720-721, 686 (1964).34 46 remanded ordered. BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL BLACKMUN join, dissenting. (1981), Diego could, consistently restrict "preserve City." 493, 2885. Today, sustains Angeles' similarly motivated Because lenient towards reasons aesthetics threatens seriously undermine I dissent. 50 "interest [in clutter] expression" "no purpose." Ante, 805. consider analyzing 525-527, 2901-2902 (BRENNAN, 656, 2568, part), answers reflect startling insensitivity principles embodied Amendment. my shown local electorate. recognizes each problems. Our given characteristics. is, course, time-honored information, towns. At unfettered proliferation fixtures offend public's aesthetically pleasing environment. called adjudge government's recurring dilemma—namely, clash wish media views, learn others, matters importance community. deciding question, overlooked. entails relatively small reaching wide audience, allows flexibility accommodating formats, typographies, graphics, conveys easily read understood reader viewer. prevalence Angeles1 indication that, speakers, alternatives far satisfactory. Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. Conrad, 420 546, 556, 1239, 1245, 448 Nevertheless, asserts avenues available. notes although prohibited, not. Brief Appellants 25-26. needs nearly First, proof allow common sense contrary instances. speaker hardly get across forced rely medium. difficult believe, advocating increase rate tax succeed persuading 54 Similarly, adequacy distributing dubious, despite Martin Struthers, 141, 145-146, 862, 864-865, 1313 (1943). Particularly carried expressed few words graphic image, typically people handbill. remains seen passersby posted, single discarded. printed quantity, hours spent average cost higher poster. reason, doubtless "essential poorly financed causes people," 865, communication. Stone, Fora Americana: Speech Places, 1974 S.Ct.Rev. 233, 257. completely banned because, circumstances, equivalent adequate substitute, examine care proffers ban. 55 acknowledges, ante, 805, limits delicate task falls courts weigh circumstances appraise 161, 151, (1939). first determine aimed suppressing speech, compelling suppression. 540, 2334, 99, 2292, court's (1) objective substantial, (2) imposed further objective. Unless conditions met invalidated. 808, 810.2 My Metromedia addressing purely "before deferring judgment, convinced comprehensively environment." 531, 2905. adhere Its correctness—premised largely concern easy assert evaluate—is, me, reaffirmed fundamental speech—that solely "proscribing expression," 806 difficulties fulfilling obligation ensure trespass secured unavoidable subjectivity judgments—the "beauty eye beholder." consequence subjectivity, defended raise grounds—such security, health, safety.3 practice, inherent judgments too fashion impairs meaningfully required inquiries.4 Initially, faces determining actual related facade content-based Of improvement preservation functions, functions. 2904. regarded itself, displeasing. Cohen 403 91 1780, 284 (1971). subjective, evade asserting displeasing aspect communicative—for sound, location. evaluating claimed essential; one, reliable assessing genuineness claims. us pursuing objectives, judgments. clutter," attributable whole offends community's orderly, visually second signs.5 themselves lawful, Yet mask declaring avoid unquestioned acceptance bare declaration lest duty unlawful trespasses protections. B proves objective, speech-restrictive achieving Here too, meaningful standards frustrated. 61 62 No doubts aesthetics, behind substantial. E.g. 1709, 45, 955, (1968). uphold ascertain pursued. ordinarily defer immune examination. 72-73, 2184-2185. objectives underlie restrictions. independent assessment difficult. overstate goals. unless carefully scrutinize aesthetics-based idly foreclosed sake insubstantial objectives. 64 inquiry evaluate impeded deliberate unintended manipulation. Governmental usually virtually limitless ways. Consequently, fit whatever program devises promote interests. Once selected preferred correct mismatch ends redefining conform several signs: (3) reduction density restrictive well. possible, select problem, considering really Then, having means, strongly inclined characterize one. done purposefully least-restrictive-means requirement, inadvertently natural concomitant together. regardless why done, confronted statement impossible 66 possibility interdependence policies poses major obstacle reviews able pay lipservice alternatives. defined mind. asked achieved ask highlight circularity inquiry. Since goal, currently expressed, available 67 ease equated confirms close scrutiny ends. 824-825. assess caused City—as distinguished densely packed If, latter ban, C Regrettably, develop gauging depth eradicating approves cursory degree oversight. Without stopping supposed genuine defers doing precludes serious begins affirming "[t]he end prohibit." 807. alternatives, unsurprising "[b]y remedy." 808. explain reaches conclusion, "[w]ith landscape." 810. But, demonstrated, lead caution. 70 imply engage said, often implementation functions dangers freedoms, need stringent seems exercise. this, require legitimacy Justifications articulated critically examined committed problem. 72 statements demonstrates 2904 judgment). demonstration, violative requiring type showing, constraints established unaesthetic. Second, pursued And finally, front, better precise thereby ones objective.6 hesitate pursue What mean, pursued, arbitrarily discriminating characteristics present 531-534, 2904-2906 defending importantly, show programs entail parallel stringency, geographical scope, focus. found, signs—throughout presence. 852 (CA9 1982). violates extreme stringency barring being posted—and scope—covering City—it suggested. supra 533-534, 2905-2906. limited pass muster. doubt areas—including, perhaps, Angeles—could contribute eyesore genuinely eliminating. include pristine, uses, designated themes, broad-gauged renovation necessary. Presumably, areas, zone lack development; environment; especially vigilant keeping clean; location permanent signs; reserve kiosks, reducing regulating coupling measures reduce regulated, focused goals 76 absence sweeps trenches struck down Amendment.7 reads follows: "Sec. Hand-bills, signs-public objects: "(a) person paint, mark write on, affix, hand-bill curbstone, lamp post, tree, shrub, tree stake guard, railroad trestle, electric telephone telegraph trolley wire pole, appurtenance thereof fixture alarm system lighting system, bridge, drinking fountain, buoy, preserver, boat saving equipment, sign. "(b) Nothing section contained installation terrazzo construction, permanently colored admixture Works permit. "(c) affixed provisions Works. responsible illegal liable incurred authorized collection said cost. "(d) metal plaque plate letters figures sidewalk commemorating historical, cultural, artistic event, personality Works, approval "(e) painting house numbers curbs permits issued accordance 62.96 Code." provides: "Congress press. ." Under Fourteenth limitation authority. (1938). were: "Leonard's Nite Club Alamar Travel Item—Madam Wongs Salon Broadway Vernon Auditorium—Apache Jupiter Raul Palomo, Jr. Rose Royce Total Experience 13" App. 73. convenience refer "City." Juris. Statement 17a. 18a. Planning Zoning enacted land; conserve stabilize property; spaces air; fight fire; lessen congestion streets; facilitate utilities facilities safety, welfare, plan." Finding 11, reads, full, enumerated cross wires plaintiffs [seek] authorization aware distinction make." 17, 18, Conclusion Law 19a. acknowledged subsequent experience prove ineffective goals, reenact down. procedure, cited Ratner, Function Due Process Clause, 116 U.Pa.L.Rev. 1048, 1110-1111 convicted displaying red flag symbol opposition organized government. supervisor summer camp children. camp's curriculum stressed class consciousness solidarity workers. Each morning raised children recited pledge allegiance "workers' flag." peaceful display wrote: maintenance discussion responsive changes lawful security Republic, system. face, authoritatively construed, vague indefinite fair repugnant guaranty conviction appellant aside." 369-370, 536. religious license. license literature, gave chief deny abate anything "nuisance." "We think Whatever motive induced adoption, strikes foundation press subjecting censorship. struggle primarily directed licensor. John Milton 'Appeal Liberty Unlicensed Printing.' became initially publish 'without what formerly published one.' previous restraint publication exhausting liberty, prevention leading adoption provision." 451-452, 669 Stromberg, Lovell, tailor licensing ideas, suppress. carries Subsequent invalidation Saia 334 558, 1148, 1574 (1948) (ordinance loudspeaker discretion unlimited); Cantwell Connecticut, 296, 900, 1213 (1940) discretion); (ordinances provided issuance licenses); 516, opinion) (statute demonstration uncontrolled director safety). sporadic abuse censor pervasive discussion. asking therefor call scheme prosecuted failure procure it. penal specifically evils allowable but, ambit lends harsh discriminatory prosecuting officials, groups displeasure, continuous purview." 97-98, 742 representative Gooding Wilson, 405 518, 1103, "At 'no rehabilitating prosecution,' Dombrowski Pfister, 479, 491, 1116, 1123, transcendent society allowing 'attacks overly requisite narrow specificity,' 486, 1121. persons fear criminal sanctions 520-521, 1105 (citations also, 494, 1125, (1965). CSC Letter Carriers, 548, 580-581, 2880, 2897-2898, 796 implicit doctrine." Broadrick, 630, 2925 "Simply put, overbroad invalidation, unobjectionable. suppressed allowed enough; beyond legislative regulation. arguably hand prospect elsewhere." Jeffries, Rethinking Prior Restraint, Yale L.J. 409, 425 (1983) (emphasis supplied). However, unquestionably attaches deter great attack. 217, 2276-2277, 22, 16. affidavit partial president stated: "No surfaces, streetlamp posts, hydrants, trees, shrubs, treestacks guards, vertical poles, systems, fountains, lifebuoys, preservers, equipment signs." 148. capable litigants. assume always Landmark Communications, Virginia, 435 829, 844, 1535, 1544, (1978). Brown Socialist Workers '74 Campaign Committee, 459 87, 95-98, 421-423, 250 re Primus, 412, 433-438, 1893, 1905-1908, Buckley Valeo, 424 45-48, 68-74, 647-649, 658-661, 659 (per curiam); 100-101, 2292-2293, Stanley Georgia, 557, 566-567, 1243, 1248-1249, 542 Robel, 389 258, 264, 267, 419, 423-424, 425, 508 (1967); Mine Illinois 222-223, 353, 356-357, 426 NAACP Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 449, 462-465, 78 1163, 1171-1173, 1488 (1958). devote resources expended complied Reed listener passer-by pamphlet take home practically helpless escape privacy except protection municipality. "City exchange paper. control. bar trucks broadcasts interest, amplified volume, municipalities. business Trenton, 125,000 people, distractions dangerous useful dissemination thoroughfares quiet tranquility desirable dwellers likewise mercy advocates religious, social persuasions. compel mechanical voice amplification 86-87, 453-454 agreed analysis. 96-97, 458-459 (Frankfurter, concurring); (Jackson, concurring). relied BRENNAN's outweigh proved undertaken coordinated elements Diego. misplaced BRENNAN concerned salutary ameliorate beside 530-534, 2904-2906, thus suggesting THE CHIEF JUSTICE much feature environment: "Pollution breathe water drink; ear." 2920 (dissenting correct. 510-512, 2893-2895 549-553, 2913-2916 560-561, 2919-2920 "In stated esthetics. altered underinclusive advertising." 511, 2894. "Third, chosen speech—onsite advertising—more speech—offsite advertising. reflects decision former latter, stronger decided instance—onsite advertising—its yield. judgment." 512, 2895. JUSTICE, REHNQUIST, point. 541, 2909-2910 563-564, 2921-2922 151-152 ("[O]ne plea place"). solicitude expensive feasible segment citizenry, (1943) ("Door door circulars people"), practical boundaries, 88-89, 454, 514 (1949) ("That cheaply reached sounds ., enough charged nuisance publicity open"). 549-550, 2913-2914 part) (ban graffiti creators expression). communicate—bumper stickers official automobiles—and yet attach "Taxpayer bumper city-owned automobiles. point, things dominion identical owner's things, owner lawfully dedicated." Adderley Florida, 385 39, 242, 149 (1966). Just dispositive label discrete focus forum. Generally workable analytical tool. 'time, manner' forum, piece personal real 'public forum' blur edges," 132, falling paradigms mirroring clearly trust, recent convention, large. 223, (1967). Equal Protection Clause contains banners commemorative plaques, gives owners, authorize premises, advantage nonproperty campaigns. appear Appeals. According Appeals, inspection personnel 51,662 January 1980, 1980. 853, (1982). leave 819-820. Safety, subjective aspects wholly subjective. When invoked judge plausibility. aesthetics. scholar "Aesthetic policy, formulated implemented federal, state, levels, partakes farce seldom accurately candidly portrayed, let alone understood, vehement champions. diversion dubious flatly deplorable undermines credit soundly conceived executed. indiscriminate, quixotic demands overwhelmed legal institutions, frequently integrity legislative, administrative, processes 'beauty.' Costonis, Aesthetics: Critique Reformation Dilemmas, Mich.L.Rev. 355 content-neutrality. disproportionately messages, may, content-hostile. theoretically, remotely, distinctively unaesthetic suggest, community, tolerate disadvantage approach. restricted medium, price cloak appellants concluded, facts regarding ordinance." F.2d, 852.

Classification Label: 2