Legal Document

411 U.S. 325 93 Supreme Court Reporter 1590 36 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 280 Reubin O'D. ASKEW et al., Appellants,v.The AMERICAN WATERWAYS OPERATORS, INC., at al. Number 71—1082. Argued Nov. 14, 1972. Decided April 18, 1973. Rehearing Denied June 4, See 412 933, 2746. Syllabus Florida Oil Spill Prevention and Pollution Control Act, providing for the State's recovery of cleanup costs imposing strict, no-fault liability on waterfront oil-handling facilities ships destined or leaving such any oil-spill damage to State private persons, does not, in context this action by shipping interests enjoin application statute, invade a regulatory area pre-empted federal Water Quality Improvement which is concerned solely with actual incurred Federal Government, presupposes coordinated federal-state effort deal coastal oil pollution. Nor police power over sea-to-shore pollution Admiralty supply an exclusive remedy admiralty-related suppl situation. Southern Pacific company versus Jensen, 244 205, 37 524, 61 L.Ed. 1086, Knickerbocker Ice Stewart, 253 149, 40 438, 64 834, distinguished. Pp. 329—344. D.C., 335 F.Supp. 1241, reversed. Daniel S. Dearing Robert L. Shevin, Tallahassee, Fla., appellants. Nicholas Judge Healy, New York City, appellees American Institute Merchant Shipping others. LeRoy Collins, The Waterways Operators, Inc., [Amicus Curiae Information from pages 326-327 intentionally omitted] Mr. Justice DOUGLAS delivered opinion Court. 1 This was brought merchant shipowners operators, world associations, members barge towing industry, owners operators terminal heavy industries located Florida, Fla.Laws 1970, chapter 70—244, Fla.Stat.Ann. § 376.011 seq. (Supp.1973) (hereinafter referred as Act). Officials responsible enforcing Act were named defendants, but intervened party defendant, asserting that its much broader than those defendants. A three-judge court convened pursuant 28 Code KF62 2281. 2 imposes strict persons result spill territorial waters facility used drilling handling transfer storage (terminal facility) ship facility. Each owner operator subject must establish evidence financial responsibility insurance surety bond.1 In addition, provides regulation Department Natural Resources respect containment gear other equipment be maintained prevention spills. 3 Several months prior enactment Congress enacted 84 Statutes-at-Large 91, 33 1161 Act).1a subjects without fault up $14,000,000 $8,000,000, respectively, Government It also authorizes President promulgate regulations requiring maintain around federally protected tenets maritime law evidenced progeny controversy turns. District held unconstitutional intrusion into domain. declared null void enjoined enforcement. 1241. 4 case here direct appeal. We reverse. find no constitutional statutory impediment permitting Forida, present setting case, 'requireemnt liability' concerning impact spillages Florida's concerns. To rule has done allow admiralty jurisdiction swallow most spillage—an insidious form vast concern every city port all estuaries life ocean lives people are greatly dependent. 5 * clear outset not preclude, fact allows, state regulation. Section 1161(o) that: 6 '(1) Nothing section shall affect modify way obligations vessel, onshore offshore person agency under provision damages publicly-owned privately-owned property resulting discharge removal oil. 7 '(2) construed preempting political subdivision thereof requirement within State. 8 '(3) . local conflict section.' (Emphasis added.) 9 According Conference Report, 'any would free provide requirements penalties similar imposed additional penalties. These, however, separate independent enforced through courts.'2 covers wide range 'pollutants,' 3(7), restricted definition 3(8). have here, question pollutant except 10 sure, contains pervasive system control discharges 'into upon navigable States, adjoining shorelines, contiguous zone.' 1161(b)(1). So far concerned, vessel liable discharged violation 1161(b)(2) amount 'not exceed $100 per gross ton $14,000,000, whichever lesser,' 1161(f)(1), caused act God, war, negligence theUnited omission another party. With like exceptions $8,000,000. 1161(f)(2)—(3). But each full where can show 'the willful misconduct privity knowledge owner.' Comparable provisions spell out 'a third party' 1161(g). 11 vessels Limited Liability 46 §§ 181—189, extends spills even injury shore. Richardson Harmon, 222 96, 106, 32 27, 30, 56 110. That limits liabilities 'value freight pending.' 189. 12 makes licensees3 'liable others,' it being necessary plead prove negligence.4 There between when comes interests, reaches only cleaning up. As respects damages, 14 requires vessel—a Act. 13 Solicitor General says while so override reason Supremacy Clause, bearing 'facilities' regulated Moreover, yet been courts susceptible interpretation harmony terms unlimited liability. determines measured cost spills, specified relate part spillage. Those two sections harmonious parts integrated whole. 1161(c)(2) directs prepare National Contingency Plan containment, dispersal, plan agencies 'shall' 'in coordination agencies.' Cooperative contemplated 1161(e), '(i)n addition taken government' may, there imminent substantial threat public health welfare, Attorney district bring suit abate threat. 1161(o)(2), stating nothing pre-empts 'from State,' scheme one allows—though require—co-operation regime regime. 15 If wants take lead spillage her waters, she use recoup who did damage. Whether could recover wrongdoer limited whether turn new removes pre-existing limitations questions we need reach here. Any them premature. sufficient day hold room recouping, least costs. 16 Beyond potential claim 'other others.' touches areas. may pulbic beaches ruined Shrimp, clam, oyster scallop beds destroyed, livelihood fishermen imperiled.5 takes cognizance claims if 17 Skiriotes 313 69, 924, 85 1193, had size commercial sponges dealt diving apparatus might used. allowed enforce against citizens. Chief Hughes, speaking Court, said: 'It interest proper maintenance sponge fishery statute applied conduct absence conflicting legislation, State.' Id., 75, S.Ct., 928. 18 Similarly, Manchester Massachusetts, 139 240, 266, 559, 565, 35 159, stated fails assume fisheries bay, right remain bays.' 19 brief accurately states exists damaged massive slick hit England France 1967 Torrey Canyon disaster. carried 880,000 barrels crude oil.6 Today more moved sea year tankers larger. 20 'The average tanker during World War II capacity 16,000 tons, 1965 risen 27,000 1966 averaged about 76,000 tons. Japanese launched 276,000-ton tanker, yards orders large 312,000 More sixty 150,000 tons order throughout world, 500,000 800,000 drawing boards, million thought feasible. On 1,010 foot British 'Esso Mercia' officers issued bicycles help patrol decks 166,890 vessel. 21 fleet itself growing rate rivals growth tankers. 1955 numbered 2,500 vessels. By increased 3,500, 1968 some 4,300 ships. At time nearly five engaged transporting oil, entire powered oil.'7 22 Our Coast Guard reports8 1970 3,711 our 1971 8,736. already increase number risk ever-increasing modern underlie States. 23 While own Hence collision because, noted, limitation runs 'vessels,' shore 'facilities.' reasons why decided pre-empt establishing either respecting 24 since 'cleanup' costs, left impose 'liability' losses suffered both interests. fault. adequate purpose. statutes absolute railroads lost fires sparks emitted locomotive engines sustained. St. Louis & San Francisco R. Mathews, 165 1, 243, 41 611. certain exceptions, unless willfulness established. Where 1161(f)—(g), previously summarized, 'willful misconduct.' operation leaves do work, burdens greater work. will resolve regimes arises. 25 say point 'containment gear' 7(2)(a) se invalid because uniform Cf. Huron Portland Cement Detroit, 362 440, 80 813, 852. Resolution question, well promulgated December 21, 1972, 1161(j)(1) Fed.Reg. 28250, should await concrete dispute applicable regulations. Finally, licensing facilities, traditional concern, creates legislation. 1171(b)(1) permits applicant first supplies certificate his 'will conducted manner violate water quality standards.' And Tit. I, 102(b), recently Ports Safety Public Law 92 340, 86 426, 1222(b) (1970 ed., Supp. II), prevent prescribing structures higher safety standards prescribed title.' 26 so, preemption fatal schemes, issue down constitutionally exercise activities concurrently Government. 27 main barriers found progeny. Jensen worker receive award York's workmen's compensation law, exclusive. Later, after expressly cases grant remedy, power. decisions subsequent holdings Frankfurter Romero International Terminal Operating Co., 358 354, 373, 79 468, 480, 368, mark isolated instances 'state yield needs finds inroads system.' added, however: 'But still scope. State-created liens admiralty. remedies wrongful death survival actions, historically absent relief offered admiralty, upheld causes action. these statutes. rules partition sale ships, laws governing specific performance arbitration agreements, regulating effect breach warranty contracts insurance—all others accepted decision cases, even, times, they conflicted require uniformity.' 373 374, 480—481. 29 Just Chambers, 312 383, 687, 903, gave approval City Norwalk, 55 KF105 F3 98, written Addison Brown, holding supplement creating recognize enforce, provided hostile 'to characteristic features inconsistent legislation,' U.S., 388, 691. Hughes citing Steamboat Chase, Wall. 522, 369, Sherlock Alling, 99, 819, went that, lie general giving valid. He said, grounds objection urged here; is, Constitution body matter interstate international administration cannot defeat impairment diverse legislation hence alone make needed changes law. contentions proved unavailing principle State, power, land limits, though incidentally affairs, 'does contravene acts Congress, nor work prejudice interfere uniformity relations.' encountered none objections. many created rights, recognized set forth reference made numerous authority navigation rivers harbors. further pertinent observation complete perfect countries considerable municipal underlies basis administration. These views abundant support history Court.' 389—390, 692. 30 added 1941, date broad 'recognition create rights their borders, run counter essential jurisdiction.' 391, 693. 31 Historically, cognizable See, e.g., Plymouth, 20, 125; Martin West, 191, 42, 159. Story wrote 1813, 'In regard torts N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions always understood, exclusively dependent locality act. never (I believe) deliberately claimed torts, committed high seas, ebb flow tide.'9 Thomas Lane, Fed.Cas. 957, 960, 13,902 (CC Me.). 19, 1948, Extension 740.10 considered Victory Carriers, Incorporated Law, 404 202, 418, 383. apply longshoreman performing loading unloading services dock. relegated 215, 426. 'At explicit congressional authorization, extend historic boundaries law.' 214, 426.11 survived attack lower courts12 Gutierrez Waterman S.S. Corp., 206, 83 1185, 297. 'intrude heretofore reserved 212, 425. cautioned circumstances, 'we proceed caution construing dealing courts.' Ibid. extended beyond framers, hardly follows constitutionality extension sanctify exclusion powers traditionally competence One read finding indication intended injuries triable courts.13 34 Even acted area, permissible, Thus Kelly Washington ex rel. Foso 302 58 87, 82 3, appeared comprehensive inspection id., 89, code inspection. Some requirements, 14—15, 94; relating seaworthiness barred writing ruled negative, saying: 'A actually unsafe unseaworthy primary commonly understood sense protection principle. treat diseased animal unwholesome food. matter, protect waiting come rules. If, goes farther attempts particular structure, design, equipment, operation, judgment authorities desirable pass what plainly seaworthiness, encounter rule. too determined precise arises.' 15, 94. rendered before passed. 852, Ships cruising Cruising inspected licensed charged violating Detroit's Smoke Abatement Code. agents were, indeed, criminally sustaining prosecution 38 ordinance manifest purpose promoting welfare city's inhabitants. Legislation designed very air breathe clearly falls concept compendiously known instrumentalities act, areas commerce activities, government.' 442, 815. 39 reasoned 'limited affording perils navigation,' Detroit aimed elimination enhance cleanliness community.' 445, 817. reviewing decisions, noted exempt (1) pilotage laws'; (2) 'local quarantine (3) inspections'; (4) wharves docks.' 447, 818. follows, fortiori, States—is silently away purport remedy. discussed above, certainty stage conflicts waiver pre-emption 1161(o)(2) imposition 42 valid engulf everything chose call 'admiralty,' pre-empting confined facts, viz., suits relationship vessels, plying seas crews. whole established led us years ago 'twilight zone' permissible. Davis Labor Industries Washington, 317 249, 252—253, 63 225, 227, 87 246. hearing conclusion fell jurisdiction, findings final. findings, presumed applicable, constitutional. 257—258, 229. defined. 43 thus vitality left. decline move line shoreward oust situations involving shoreside waters. situations. Nacirema Johnson, 396 90 347, 371. 44 below 45 Judgment plaintiffs-appellees' temporary restraining order, indicated plaintiffs attempted comply Shipowners threatened divert ports. 1a amended docketed 'requirement 816, 1251—1376. Since cited substantially changed, references retained. H.R.Conf.Rep.No.91—940, Page 42; U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News Pages 2691, 2727. required obtain license operate 6(1). licenses include 'vessels transport petroleum products, by-products, pollutants waters.' 6(4). pilot master charge licensee's give immediate notification manager nearest coast guard station' imprisoned fined $10,000. ecological factors said Harv.Int'l L.J. 316, 321—323 (1969): 'Some marine lief obvious wake disaster befell 'Torrey Canyon.' Surface feeding fishes die swim floating slight, non-fatal contact render flesh inedible. Shellfish, among others, vulnerable When 'P.W. Thirtle' grounded off Newport, Rhode Island, 31,000 gallons black tanks refloat ship; virtual destruction Narragansett Bay. serious consequences pollution, immediately obvious. 'According Dr. Erwin Iversen, biologist: "The greatest problem toxic effects intertidal animals serve food important fishes. .. don't think merely killing populations Worse interrupts so-called chain.' 'There few studies accumulation chain. study, Paul Galtsoff Fish Wildlife Service, diatoms oysters feed grow slight trace water. microscopic plant great importance, estimated ten pounds produce pound fish. 'Large scale occurred Canyon' ran Seven Stones Reef, results huge birds. Aside humane aesthetic considerations, birds play vital role ecology seashore, profoundly affects fishing industry. uncertainty extent difficult estimate economic damage, importance industry world's economy doubt steadily increasing. Between 1958 1963, example, 42% rise catch. Because increasing seafood protein, future progressively consequences. 'Perhaps noticeable fouling recreational shorefront property. One-half washed ashore year, rendering unfit swimming filling unpleasant odors. Besides annoyance vacationing seeking urban life, loss considerable. estimated, Long Island summer resort beach thirty dollars. navigational fire hazards harbors, ports marinas.' (Footnotes omitted.) Brief Appellants 25. L.J., 317—318 (footnotes omitted). Polluting Incidents Around Waters, Calendar Year 1971, Environmental Protection, Commandant Guard. statement quoted Executive Jet Aviation, Cleveland, 409 253, 493, 497, 454 421, relevant part. advmiralty injury, property, water, notwithstanding consummated land.' Longshoremen's Harbor Workers' Compensation 901 seq., cover employees working customarily employer loading, unloading, repairing, building Amendments 92—576, 2, 1251. supra, 209 n. 9, 423. H.R.Rep.No.1523, 80th Cong., Sess.; S.Rep.No. 1593, Sess., 1898.

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