Legal Document

524 U.S. 417118 S.Ct. 2091141 L.Ed.2d 393 William J. CLINTON, President of the United States, et al., Appellants,v.CITY OF NEW YORK al. No. 97-1374. Supreme Court States Argued April 27, 1998. Decided June 25, Syllabus * Last Term, this determined on expedited review that Members Congress did not have standing to maintain a constitutional challenge Line Item Veto Act (Act), 2 U.S.C. §691 seq., because they had alleged sufficiently concrete injury. Raines v. Byrd, 521 ----, 117 2312, 138 849. Within two months, exercised his authority under by canceling §4722(c) Balanced Budget 1997, which waived Federal Government's statutory right recoupment as much $2.6 billion in taxes State New York levied against Medicaid providers, and §968 Taxpayer Relief permitted owners certain food refiners processors defer recognition capital gains if sold their stock eligible farmers' cooperatives. Appellees, claiming been injured, filed separate actions other officials challenging cancellations. The plaintiffs first case are City York, hospital associations, one hospital, unions representing health care employees. second Snake River cooperative its individual members. District consolidated cases, at least each Article III, ruled, inter alia, Act's cancellation procedures violate Presentment Clause, Art. I, §7, cl. 2. This again review. Held: 1.The appellees constitutionality. They invoked Court's jurisdiction section entitled "Expedited Review,'' which, among things, expressly authorizes "any adversely affected'' bring challenge. §692(a)(1). argument none them except member is an "individual'' within §692(a)(1)'s meaning rejected because, context entire section, it clear meant word be construed broadly include corporations entities. also unpersuaded appellees' nonjusticiable. These cases differ from Raines, only President's exercise has removed any concern about dispute's ripeness, but more importantly parties "personal stake'' having actual injury redressed, rather than "institutional injury'' "abstract widely dispersed.'' U.S., S.Ct., 2322. There no merit contention that, both suffered claims too speculative and, event, advanced wrong parties. Because now multibillion dollar contingent liability eliminated §4722(c), State, appellees, immediate, moment canceled deprived benefits. York's claim belongs fails light statutes demonstrating appellee providers will assessed for substantial portions payments make. Similarly, inflicted sufficient likelihood economic establish precedents, cf. Bryant Yellen, 447 352, 368, 100 2232, 2241, 65 184. assertion processing facility sellers would received tax benefits, ignores fact cooperatives were intended beneficiaries §968, overlooks party may harmed defendant therefore standing. Pp. ____-____. 2.The Clause. (a) empowers cancel "item new direct spending'' such "limited benefit'' Act, §691(a), specifying prevents provision "from legal force or effect,'' §§691e(4)(B)-(C). Thus, practical effect, presidential issue amended Acts repealing portion each. Statutory repeals must conform with INS Chadha, 462 919, 954, 103 2764, 2785-2786, 77 317, there authorization amend repeal. Under after bill passed Houses, "before become[s] Law,'' presented President, who "shall sign it'' he approves it, "return it,'' i.e., "veto'' does not. important differences between "return'' Act: return takes place before becomes law, whereas occurs law affects part. powerful reasons construing silence profoundly subject equivalent express prohibition. I governing enactment product great debates compromises produced Constitution itself. Familiar historical materials provide abundant support conclusion power enact "be accord single, finely wrought exhaustively considered, procedure.'' 951, 2784. What emerged present however, "finely wrought'' procedure Framers designed, truncated versions bills Houses. (b) rejects related Government arguments. First, cancellations merely exercises discretionary read previously enacted unpersuasive. Field Clark, 143 649, 693, 12 495, 504-505, 36 L.Ed. 294, relies, suggests critical suspend import duty exemptions was upheld: suspension condition predate statute, absolute once contingency arisen, executed congressional policy. In contrast, himself effect repeal laws, own policy reasons, without observing procedures. Second, greater traditional decline spend appropriated funds implement specified measures unlike earlier gives unilateral change text duly statutes. (c) profound importance these makes appropriate emphasize three points. expresses opinion wisdom lightly conclude signed into unconstitutional. has, twice full briefing question concluded clear. provisions finds unnecessary consider alternative holding impermissibly disrupts balance powers branches Government. Third, decision rests narrow ground authorized Constitution. If valid, authorize create whose voted either House signature. That desirable, surely document "become law'' pursuant §7. play different role, come through V amendment 985 F.Supp. 168, affirmed. STEVENS, J., delivered Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, GINSBURG, JJ., joined. concurring opinion. SCALIA, part dissenting part, O'CONNOR, joined, BREYER, joined Part III. opinion, O'CONNOR Seth P. Waxman, Washington, DC, appellants. Louis R. Cohen, Potato Growers. Charles Cooper, York. Justice STEVENS Court. 1 110 Stat. 1200, seq. (1994 ed., Supp. II), 1996 became effective January 1, 1997. following day, six brought suit Columbia On 10, entered order Byrd 956 25 (D.D.C.1997). obedience direction allow direct, appeal see §§692(b)-(c), we promptly noted probable review, 520 1489, 137 699 (1997). We determined, sue "alleged established III standing,'' 2322, 849 (1997); thus, "in . [the] overriding time-honored keeping Judiciary's proper sphere,'' id., 2318, remanded instructions dismiss complaint lack jurisdiction. Less months our case, Pub.L. 105-33, 111 251, 515, 105-34, 788, 895-896, 990-993. injured those cancellations, held statute invalid, 177-182 (1998), 522 118 1123, 140 172 (1998). hold constitutionality reaching merits, agree set forth 2, 3 begin reviewing items cases. Section 4722(c) 4 Title XIX Social Security 79 343, amended, transfer huge sums money help finance medical indigent. See 42 §1396d(b). 1991, directed federal subsidies reduced amount providers.1 1994, Department Health Human Services (HHS) notified 15 covered 1991 30, required $955 million States. notice advised could apply waiver grounds. request programs, well number others, HHS formally acted requests. estimated period October 1992 March 1997 high billion. 5 taken action requests, turned relief. August 5, resolved favor. identifies disputed provides "are deemed permissible compliance requirements'' relevant statute.2 6 11, sent identical notices Senate Representatives "one item spending,'' item, stating "this reduce budget deficit.'' He explained "to continue relying upon impermissible provider program'' " [t]his preferential treatment increased costs, treated differently all costly precedent comparable treatment.''3 968 7 A person realizes profit sale securities generally tax. existing ordinary business corporation can acquire corporation, including refining company, merger stock-for-stock transaction gain recognized seller, 26 §§354(a), 368(a); seller's payment, therefore, deferred. If, purchaser cooperative, cannot structure members, §521(b)(2); seller dealing obtain benefits deferral. 8 §1042 Internal Revenue Code permit sell cooperatives.4 purpose amendment, repeatedly sponsors, facilitate cooperatives.''5 benefits'' specifically identified XVII "subject line veto.''6 9 same date involving limited benefit. explanation action, endorsed objective encouraging "value-added farming purchase agricultural goods,''7 lacked safeguards "failed target small-and-medium-size cooperatives.''8 II 10 Appellees President9 consisting 30 potato growers Idaho farmer officer cooperative. 11 Appellee Hospitals Corporation (NYCHHC) responsible operation public facilities throughout ultimately denies State's automatically require10 NYCHHC make retroactive $4 years issue. F.Supp., 172. NYCHHC, potential liabilities revived provision. protection constituted give Growers, Inc. (Snake River) formed May assist farmers marketing crops stabilizing prices, strategy acquiring members retain revenues otherwise payable third-party processors. At time, considering aid facilities, plans take advantage passed. Indeed, Mike Cranney, acting behalf River, engaged negotiations owner processor qualified benefit pending legislation, terminated when §968. currently possible reversed. Based facts, "lost being equal footing competitors likely pay [be] able 968's breaks.'' Id., 177. 13 constitutionally mandated laws respects. resulted "were consented Houses Congress.'' 178.11 Moreover, violated "when unilaterally statutes.'' 179.12 As basis decision, "impermissibly government.'' Ibid. 14 prior initially confront jurisdictional questions. Review.'' §692(a)(1), [a]ny Member declaratory judgment injunctive relief Although applicability argues exception "individuals'' poses (although magnitude), failure raise occur lawyers does, confirm view undoubtedly synonymous "person.''13 special authorizing evidences unmistakable interest prompt authoritative judicial determination Act. Subsection (a)(2) requires copies subsection (a)(1) delivered'' Congress, shall intervene. days. imposes advance docket expedite greatest extent disposition matter (a).'' plausible reason why natural persons precluded entirely over corporate persons. Acceptance new-found reading §692 "would produce absurd unjust result intended.'' Griffin Oceanic Contractors, Inc., 458 564, 574, 102 3245, 3251-3252, 73 973 (1982).14 16 agree, course, confines courts "Cases'' "Controversies,'' "the doctrine serves identify disputes appropriately process.'' Whitmore Arkansas, 495 149, 155, 1717, 1722, 109 135 (1990).15 Our demonstrates respecting limits jurisdiction, even manifested obtaining views possible. But ripeness dispute, redressed 17 actually find suggestion yet correctly "suffered used law.'' 174. self-evident significance confirmed lobbied relief, decided warranted attention, selected act occupies 536 pages Statutes-at-Large. His appellate court setting aside verdict remanding trial damages claim. Even outcome speculative, reversal, like cancellation, causes significant immediate depriving favorable final judgment. revival immediately directly borrowing power, financial strength, fiscal planning obligor.16 18 reject appellees. already place, York17 providers18 To assessments, does.19 19 acquisition plants. Three facts specificity specific providing defined category purchasers assets.20 statutorily class "bargaining chip'' use carrying out plan assets. should canceled. rested bargaining chips impact deficit. organized very utilize ongoing plant expressed structuring tax-deferred actively searching future reversed; ample purchase.21 By chip, precedents. See, e.g., Investment Company Institute Camp, 401 617, 620, 91 1091, 1093-1094, 28 367 (1971); K. Davis & Pierce, Administrative Law Treatise 13-14 (3d ed. 1994) ("The routinely recognizes resulting [governmental actions] alter competitive conditions satisfy [Article "injury-in-fact' requirement] It follows logically petitioner suffer action] changes market satisfies test''). 20 Appellees' regard respondents 184 (1980). considered whether rule water deliveries reclamation projects 160 acres applied larger tracts Imperial Irrigation southeastern California; application limitation given large landowners incentive excess lands prices below prevailing price irrigated land. 160-acre apply, hoped land sought appeal. acknowledged "detailed information [their] resources,'' prospect windfall profits attract purchasers'' besides farmers. 367, n. 17, 17. Nonetheless, "even though certainty lands'' reversed, found "likely become available less prices,'' 2241. Yellen. Duke Power Co. Carolina Environmental Study Group, 438 59, 72-78, 98 2620, 2629-2633, 57 595 (1978).22 21 Court-that proposition particular inaction.23 Once plaintiff defendant, harm standing-regardless others sue. satisfied decide. IV 22 "cancel whole'' types law: (1) authority; (2) spending; (3) benefit.'' §691(a) II). undisputed involves terms 23 adhere precise whenever authority. identifying legislative history, purposes, items. §691(b) determine, respect (i) deficit; (ii) impair essential functions; (iii) national interest.'' §691(a)(3)(A). transmit message notifying five calendar days (excluding Sundays) §691(a)(3)(B). meticulously followed 24 receipt President. §691b(a). "disapproval bill'' pertaining "null void.'' sets detailed consideration bill,'' §691d, involved cases.24 majority vote disapproval bill. grant bill, §691(c), veto bill.25 plainly stated §691e, defines principal With spending benefit, effect.'' §§691e(4)(B)-(C) II).26 plain challenged prevented remaining statutes, latter, law. [R]epeal enactment, I.'' 317 (1983). enact, amend, Both assign responsibilities relate lawmaking process, neither addresses time Information Union, recommend Consideration Measures judge necessary expedient .'' II, §3. initiate influence proposals.27 "he Objections originated, enter Journal, proceed reconsider it.'' 2.28 usually described "veto,''29 overridden two-thirds House. 27 law; bill; role process enacting silent Presidential amends parts understood Clause requiring "approve Bill, toto.''30 powers, Congress. designed. 29 oral argument, suggested do "repeal'' "lockbox'' Act,31 "retain[s] real, budgetary effect'' insofar savings cancellation. Tr. Oral Arg. 10.32 provides, "real, lockbox made inoperative longer relieves liability.33 Such lose character simply some continuing Government.34 functional partial advances arguments position despite unambiguous properly violation primarily 294 (1892), contends granted submits substance "is, "decline spend' money, implement' measures.'' Brief Appellants 40. Neither persuasive. 31 upheld Tariff 1890. Oct. 1890, 567. contained "free list'' almost 300 articles exempted duties "unless specially provided act.'' 602. exemption sugar, molasses, coffee, tea, hides "whenever, so often'' country producing exporting products imposed "reciprocally unequal unreasonable '' 612, quoted Field, 680, 500. then during suspension. §3 delegated President: 32 "Nothing expediency just legislation left [W]hen ascertained exactions, reciprocally unreasonable, tea hides, proclamation declaring suspension, country, occur. discretion premises duration ordered. enforcement absolutely existence fact, said ascertaining issuing proclamation, will, function making itself hands provisions, complete themselves, permitting free introduction sugars, countries, suspended, contingency, suspensions imposed.'' 504-505. 33 passage statute. exist passed: imposition unreasonable'' countries. Tax Reform necessarily based evaluated suspend; while true determinations provision, §691(a)(A) qualify cancel. Finally, suspended executing embodied cancels rejecting judgment.35 Clark undermine fail 34 reliance tariff discussed contain similar unavailing reasons.36 Some "suspen[d] discontinu[e]'' discriminatory nations abolished. 686-687, 502-503 (discussing Jan. 7, 1824, ch. 4, §4, 3, 24, 1828, 111, 308).37 slightly 31, 1830, 219, §2, 425, imposing foreign ships repealed'' no-discrimination 687, 503; 686, Mar. 1815, 77, 224, hereby repealed,'' [s]uch President'' determination). 35 cited trade, affairs arena, "a degree freedom restriction admissible domestic alone involved.'' Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 304, 320, 216, 221, 81 255 (1936). "Moreover, he, better opportunity knowing prevail countries.'' Ibid.38 More important, occurrence events subsequent occurred up President.39 moment. presumably anticipated might amending Constitution.40 persuaded funds. reviewed detail series Executive broad expenditure For example, First "sum[s] exceeding'' amounts spent various operations. Sept. 29, 1789, 23, §1, 95; 26, 1790, 104; Feb. 1791, 6, 190. later years, wide how allocated functions. argued confers difference predecessors, them, None predecessors arguably change. VI 37 implicit what written, 38 Many major political served Legislative Branches long advocated "ensur[ing] accountability Washington.'' H.R. Conf. Rep. 104-491, p. (1996).41 debate deliberation unauthorized Constitution.42 have, 39 although validity grounds, address concerns commanded favored extensive scope Congress' delegate law-making authority, equivalent, excellent briefs amici curiae us valuable illuminates delegation really bear dispositive Constitution, 179.43 40 500-page "Public 105-33'' procedural steps taken: containing exact approved Representatives; precisely text; explicitly paragraph omitted stages, Public 105-33 validly enacted. law-one Something known modified designed 41 determining law,'' Cf. Term Limits, Thornton, 514 779, 837, 115 1842, 1871, 131 881 (1995). 43 44 concurring. 45 nation plunder treasury putting survival peril. us, then, importance, seems undeniable tend restrain persistent excessive spending. Nevertheless, invalid. Failure justify unconstitutional remedies. 46 write respond my colleague observes threaten liberties citizens, point disagree. post, __. lessened here adjusting themselves. Post, __, 2124. say somewhat hand reallocate seem require acceptance premises: first, good demands second, liberty risk. former premise inadmissible. Constitution's stability transcends convenience Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority Citizens Abatement Aircraft Noise, 501 252, 276-277, 2298, 2312-2313, 236 (1991); Bowsher Synar, 478 714, 736, 106 3181, 3192-3193, 92 583 (1986); 944-945, 958-959, 2780-2781, (1983); Northern Pipeline Constr. Marathon Pipe Co., 50, 73-74, 2858, 2872-2873, 598 (1982). latter premise, too, flawed. Liberty always stake seek transgress separation powers. 47 Separation fundamental insight: concentration single branch threat liberty. Federalist states axiom explicit terms: "The accumulation legislative, executive, judiciary, justly pronounced definition tyranny.'' 47, 301 (C. Rossiter 1961). So convinced inheres Bill Rights necessary. 84, pp. 513, 515; G. Wood, Creation American Republic 1776-1787, 536-543 (1969). Madison's insistence Rights. Goldwin, From Parchment 75-153 grave mistake, think scheme sound theory renders lesser importance. Amar, Yale L.J. 1131, 1132 (1991). 48 recent perhaps, Fifth Fourteenth Amendments illuminated conception embraced confined. principles federalism secure sense term, quite addition idea intrusive governmental acts. promise people control remote central government ought possess shape destiny check two. vision, ability basic decisions. Quoting Montesquieu, Papers manner: 49 ""When executive united body,' says "there liberty, apprehensions arise lest monarch senate tyrannical execute manner.' Again: "Were judging life exposed arbitrary control, legislator. Were behave violence oppressor. ''' supra, 303. 50 citizen taxed measure alone, adequate citizen's threatened. Money instrument lives citizens. loses real constraints. 51 object true, enhance reward group punish another, taxpayers hurt favor ignore another. Yet effects. establishes mechanism sole visible target, disfavor extract further concessions enhances beyond endorsed. 52 answer, surrendered hand; nor suffice veto, restore seeks relinquish. cession voluntary innocuous. compact enduring yield Congresses follow. Freytag Commissioner, 868, 880, 2631, 2639-2640, 764 942, 13, 2779, 13. Abdication responsibility design. 53 helps ensure vigorous asserting device operates horizontal axis vertical well, citizens exercised. vital regularity power. afterwards. Though Chadha deportation person, exemption, circumstance mean irrelevant here. increasing envisioned, secure. 54 bereft controls improvident Federalism safeguard, easier enforce nationwide. mechanism, informed electorate. Whether electorate problem hand, structures strives confront. command statesmanship. emerge. mechanisms, plus functioning itself, employed, prove insufficient, validate device. observations, join 55 whom joins, BREYER joins 56 Today acknowledges ""overriding sphere,''' ante, quoting 2318 proceeds, prescribed expedited-review "individual[s],'' II); denial another might, not, view, benefit,'' addressed. spending''; believe (other provision) challenge; unrestrained zeal reach merits evident disregard statute's extends affected [the Act],'' §692. appellees-corporations, cooperatives, entities-are accepted usage term. Worse still, confirms concerned, speaks English rest us: "In unless indicates wor[d] "person' include[s] corporations, companies, firms, partnerships, societies, joint individuals. §1 (emphasis added). And doubly worse, definitional distinguishes "persons.'' says, 58 solely on- 59 (I) businesses size form association involved; 60 (II) individuals, general demographic conditions, income, marital status, dependents, filing status §691e(9)(B)(iii) II) 61 majestically sweeps language aside, [t]here persons.'' Ante, "absurd'' done so. treats individuals favorably associations time. nothing whatever extraordinary-and bizarre declare "scrivener's error''-in believing seriously delay "vetoed'' according (but corporations) unlikely mind; said, obvious 62 sued, thus qualifies §692, Cranney. Since confer complaints, §692(a), Declaratory Judgment §2201, invoking §1331. After appealed Appeals Columbia. representation desires [t]o eliminate possibility district court's escape review,'' Reply deem petition writ certiorari judgment, §2101(e), it. Rule [a] appeals, court, showing imperative deviation normal practice Court.'' issues involved, little pursue Appeals, 63 Not hear case; "To meet requirements "[a] allege personal fairly traceable defendant's allegedly unlawful conduct requested relief.''' 2317, Allen Wright, 468 737, 751, 104 3315, 3324-3325, 82 556 (1984). 64 River's Director Vice-Chairman, standing, gave chip,''' [b]y precedents.'' unclear means deprivation suffices creates alleged. process'' relies footnote, 22, Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors America Jacksonville, 508 656, 113 2297, 124 586 (1993). There, contractors city ordinance racial preferences award contracts denied laws. 658-659, 2299-2300. association's regularly bid performed contracts, designated set-aside ordinance. 659, proof awarded absent discrimination. reason, explained, [t]he "injury fact' variety barrier, ultimate inability 666, 2303, citing Turner Fouche, 396 346, 362, 90 532, 541, 567 (1970), Richmond J.A. Croson 488 469, 493, 706, 721-722, 854 (1989). words, Florida hold, suggests, one's fact,'' is. Inasmuch equal-protection inapposite. know outside field mere detriment position,'' opposed demonstrated loss bargain, reduction chances receiving contradicted Simon Eastern Ky. Welfare Organization, 426 96 1917, 450 (1976), low-income local hospitals Service (IRS) ruling charitable tax-exempt status. situation strikingly here: third plaintiffs. denied. 66 legally cognizable injury, alleged, must, demonstrate personally Warth Seldin, 422 490, 502, 95 2197, 2207, 343 (1975). Rights, rendered receipt; suit, resembles plaintiff's winning lottery reduced, never bought ticket, tore winner announced. evidence show bargaining, impaired "was §968,'' is, "negotiations,'' "discussions.'' According affidavit Cranney: 67 "On spoke Howard Phillips, Packers, concerning Cooperative passed, Growers Blackfoot, deferral gain. Mr. Phillips pass. me Jim Chapman, General Manager, him previous discussion matter.'' App. 112. 68 something "if pass.'' course most that; Packers (IPP) get right. "at either. Nor caused IPP reconsider. IPP, discussions. terminate discussions buying facility,'' 114. record deferred allow; interested; ended action. prepared offer price-tax no-that cross IPP's laugh threshold. attraction IPP; Cranney thought was. facts-which things bargaining-it pure conjecture position. many times, conjectural hypothetical injuries Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 555, 560, 112 2130, 2136, 119 351 (1992). 69 demonstrated, finds, Presumably mind bargain plant. evidence, indeed allegation, likely. alleges "more difficult processors,'' 12. abstract "increased difficulty'' sufficed injury-in-fact (which not), speculation. appears, willing afford-and impossible difficult.'' All "interested'' talking further. "likelihood'' difficult'' realistically grasp, adopt jurisprudence likely: "plausible.'' 70 Twice addressed party, nature party's response defeats "purely denials service traced IRS's] "encouragement' instead decisions implications.'' 42-43, 1926. "equally desired remedial availability services.'' 43, (1984), parents black children attending schools IRS policies private schools. "federal racially communities desegregated.'' 752-753, 3325-3326. challenge[d] unlawful,'' 757, 3327-3328, "it withdrawal school lead policies.'' 758, 3328. Likewise, here, purely tax-deferral prompted sale, let reflected price. 71 closest finding terms, distinguishable. came dispute 800 Valley, owned acres, Valley residents wished class. forbade delivery project irrigable maximum amount, fixed Secretary Interior, fair value 1929, Boulder Canyon Project. 366-367, 2240-2241. "far lands'] current values,'' would-be "had controversy afford today emphasizes, "purchasers stand reap resale.'' Financing, easy by. Here, notion cash bottom-line price, financing readily available. plants, resale market. side equation, clearer purchasers' favor, sell. withdrawing production, sale-even bargain-basement land-would enable cost improvements, drainage systems. operating profit, future; proffered cancelled uncertainty wind buyers land; seemed enough, since "respondents desire purposes farming.'' "likely'' purchased cancelled. 72 fundamentally, reasoning govern represents crabbed superseded. tail-end "an era requirement assure adverseness sharpens presentation issues,''' Spencer Kemna, 523 978, 985, Baker Carr, 369 186, 204, 691, 703, 663 (1962). afforded controversy,'' causation redressability. "That parsimonious yielded acknowledgement "means "defin[ing] assigned judiciary tripartite allocation power,''' charter provid[ing] interaction federal] governments several States,''' Spencer, Forge Christian College Americans Church 454 464, 474, 476, 752, 760-761, 700 While enough "stake'' adverseness, brings inappropriate resolution allegations attributable challenges, remediable invalidation Because, resolve 74 spending.'' incur particularized avoided undone. Unlike violates 75 requires, [e]very Senate, shall, Law, States; approve Const., complied requirements: item. "cancel''-prevent "having effect''-certain 76 §7 obviously cancelling possibly execution observes, ""repeal I.''' 2785, case. certainly arguable, original matter, acknowledges, rejected. 1809, trade restrictions Great Britain France revoked edicts §11, 528. Joseph Story regarded conferral unremarkable Orono, F. Cas. 830, 10,585, (CCD Mass. 1812). 1890 "suspend, countries duties. §3, 612. reciting history 1798 conferring to, "discontinue prohibitions restraints declared,'' 684, 501-502, "suspend aforesaid act,'' 685, "declare inoperative,'' 688, 503. goes demand reaches. categorically prohibits dispositions implementing reduction, augmentation augmentation-generally substantive rulemaking. are, sure, latter-and am acknowledge severe. Those established, categorical prohibition conclusively disprove, authority: When allowed go far, usurps nondelegable 78 doctrine, correct distinguish authorizations affairs, area where "degree freedom,'' __ (citation omitted). distinctions details with, everything went far transferring political, traditions retained Branch. turn, crux matter: Congress's reside exclusively note, "cancel'' (1986), Emergency Deficit Control 1985, §901 (1982 III), deficit exceeded "sequestration'' mandating reductions Comptroller General. §902. sequestration "amounts sequestered permanently cancelled, §902(a)(4) unconstitutional, General, Branch removal determine cuts made,'' 733, 3191, "functions entailing terms. 732-733, 3191 broader General's 1985 traditionally 80 Insofar "law-making'' conferred dime's worth discretion. Founding Nation. 1789-1791, lump-sum appropriations Government- purposes. early permissive appropriations, leaving unfettered 1803, $50,000 build "not exceeding fifteen gun boats, armed, manned fitted out, employed require,'' 28, 206. Jefferson reported sum fifty thousand dollars boats remains unexpended. peaceable turn Mississippi unnecessary,'' Annals Cong. (1803). Examples committed abound history. During Civil War, $76 divided "as exigencies 1862, 32, 344-345. Depression, $950 "for and/or rules regulations prescribe,'' 15, 1934, 351, classes projects, President,'' Appropriation 1935, 115. questioned. Rather, [t]hat prescribing expenditures appropriates plain. Appropriations acts replete instances amounts, allotted expended agencies.'' Cincinnati Soap 308, 321-322, 764, 770, 1122 (1937). Certain Presidents claimed withhold 1876, Grant harbor river Aug. 14, 267, 132, [u]nder circumstances [would he] works clearly national,'' "works interest, Rec. 5628. Franklin D. Roosevelt impounded flood reservoir levee Oklahoma. 18, 1941, 377, 638, 645; Hearings S. 373 Ad Hoc Subcommittee Impoundment Funds Committee Operations Powers Judiciary, 93d Cong., 1st Sess., 848-849 (1973). Truman ordered impoundment hundreds millions military aircraft. 1949, 787, 987, 1013; Harry Truman, 538-539 (W. Reid ed.1964). Nixon, Mahatma Ghandi impounders, asserted press conference 1973 "constitutional right'' impound "absolutely clear.'' News Conference 1973, Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc. 109-110 Train 420 35, 839, (1975), proved wrong, implicitly funds, purpose. exceed'' [s]ums allotted'' Administrator Protection Agency, §§1285, 1287 (1970 III). Upon allot authorized. 40, 842-843. held, interpretation, allotment 44-47, 844-846. short this: Had spend'' slightest doubt constitutional. instead-authorizing spending-is technically different. technical technicalities fully with; delegation, preeminently technicalities. title perhaps simplify comprehension, comply campaign pledge, succeeded faking line-item offend §7; formation Union. 83 84 foregoing respectfully dissent. 85 SCALIA dissenting. 86 conclusion. textual command, principle. Consequently, 87 approach considerations mind. effort some, all, revenue-diminishing massive proper. 88 Nation founded, easily kind period, population four million, Dept. Commerce, Census Bureau, Historical Statistics States: Colonial Times 1970, pt. employees numbered fewer 5,000, 1103, annual outlays totaled approximately 1104, operative follows: 89 "Be year, paid monies arise, requisitions heretofore states, tonnage, sums, viz. hundred sixteen defraying expenses civil list, late government; thirty-seven department war; ninety discharging warrants issued board treasury, unsatisfied; ninety-six paying pensions invalids.'' 95. wishing select appropriation veto. Today, 250 1990 Census, employs people, Office Management Budget, Government, Fiscal Year 1998: Analytical Perspectives 207 (1997) (hereinafter Perspectives), $1.5 trillion, 303 Budget), typical dozen titles, sections, spread across 500 Statutes Large. 251. divide thousands, tens bills, sign, separately. permits choose novel achieve same, legitimate, end. focus phrased structural "legislative'' vest "executive'' IV, infra. applying interpreted generously institutional arrangements permit. Mistretta 361, 412, 647, 676, 714 (1989) (upholding Sentencing Commission promulgate Guidelines); Crowell Benson, 285 53-54, 285, 293-294, (1932) (permitting non-Article commission adjudicate factual arising dock workers' compensation statute). generally, Opp Cotton Mills, Wage Hour Div., Labor, 312 126, 145, 524, 532-533, 624 (1941) ("In increasingly complex society perform functions'' delegating regulatory agency); Youngstown Sheet Tube Sawyer, 579, 635, 863, 870, 1153 (1952) (Jackson, concurring) (Constitution "interdependence'' flexible relations "workable government''); J.W. Hampton, Jr., 276 394, 406, 348, (1928) (Taft, C.J.) (" [T]he assistance [between branches] common inherent necessities co-ordination''); 53, 293 [R]egard had'' "where invoked, matters required''). 93 Chief Marshall, well-known passage, 94 should, change, entirely, instrument, properties code. unwise attempt provide, immutable rules, foreseen seen dimly, best occur.'' McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 415, 579 (1819). mentioned, calls attention genius Framers' pragmatic room innovation. need referee branches. And, points 97 asked invalidate particularly confronts deeply vexing problem, compelling reasons.''' (quoting (1986) (STEVENS, judgment)). 870 ("Presidential fluctuate, depending disjunction conjunction [and when] implied maximum''). 99 background literal words commands, closely resemble different, literally arrangement beside point. drive exactly miles per hour interstate highway speed limit. limit, small No words. interpret nonliteral concurring). objective, past, 101 believes simple syllogism captures reasoning: Major Premise: exclusive method enacting, repealing, Minor "repea[l] amen[d]'' way, namely announcing __-__. Conclusion: inconsistent 105 unconvincing, Premise faulty. "canceled'' intact. understand say, speaking, repealed imagine been, written. Imagine 515 (quoted 2), following: 107 One. Taxes collected [requiring payment] however prevent just-mentioned determines x, y z. (Assume z Act). 108 Whatever think, imaginary thing saying. One "prevent[s]'' deeming §691e(4)(B) letter. delegates him. linguistic italicized proviso appear, called One, but, instead, bottom page, referenced asterisk, statement applies every next asterisk appears. so, appeared, earlier-enacted along applicable picked formula. (Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act), 99-177, 1063, (enforcing strict deficit-neutrality statutes); (in Congress'' singular plural, vice versa) But, last-mentioned namely, [future] §§691(a), 691e(4)(B) Its sections §691e(8), "cancel,'' §691e(4). dispose analysis does. Literally "repealed'' "amended'' anything. (1892) (President's rates added)). formal quibble, somehow "obvious'' to,'' "comes close "analogous to'' grants (to render "legal effect'') animal, path appoint. document, trust beneficiary appoint property Jones life, remainder Smith etc., Brown,'' Black heirs body,'' appointment all. W. Bowe Parker, Page Wills §45.8 (rev.3d ed.1962) (describing appointment). alternatives taking consequences flow alternative, describes detail. Any choice, choice "amend'' appointment, instrument; contrary, accordance instrument's §45.9, 516-518. example useful simplicity, illustrates logic conferred, power-a deny language. 95-384, §13(a), 737 ("Section 620(x) Foreign Assistance 1961 certification resumption cooperation Turkey [other criteria]'') added); §2072 (Supreme courts, [a]ll conflict §405b (subsection Procurement Policy [g]overnment-wide regulations'' standards, (e) determine[s]'' significantly adverse accomplishment mission'' agencies, [to promulgate] null void'') Gramm-Rudman-Hollings §252(a)(4), 1074 (authorizing "final order'' "permanently cancell[ing] compliance) 104-208, 3009-695 ("Public 89-732 [dealing immigration Cuba] democratically elected Cuba power'') 99-498, §701, 1532 (amending §758 Higher Education 1965) (Secretary "may'' educational loan corporation; decides stock, Student Loan Marketing Association acquires Secretary'' percent voting "section 754 [governing composition Board Directors] 104-134, §2901(c), 1321-160 (President "authorized [preceding] proviso'' last proviso, "appropriate environmental management [or] locally-affected interests, cultural, biological historic resources''). 114 examples, "without Every alternatives, spells examples "make'' nullify created included books (indeed, component of) potentially nullification. Pennsylvania put century ago: legislature power.'' Locke's Appeal, Pa. 491, 498 (1873). offers closer analogy suspect. contains feature, if, after, "force §691c; lockbox); Letter Counsel Cooperative, dated Apr. 1998 (available Clerk file) (arguing feature inapplicable due severability argued). essence, feature: enacts "budget-busting'' reduces host programs pro rata way; notes (say, $2 item) would, neutralize (by billion) "budget busting'' effects (and "save'' mandatory cuts, net reduction); "neutralization'' (i.e., canceled), truly additional above regime. 23-24 (1996) (lockbox [items] devoted offset increase law''). "lockbox,'' (returning quo enacted). decide refers-either mentioned via feature. 116 features like, property. or, (despite title). "amendment,'' (or repealing) procedures, disagree violation, nonetheless principles-principles vesting "executive Power'' Powers'' Congress,'' §1. questions Has "non-Executive'' power? "encroach'' reserved territory? violating "nondelegation?'' limitations "adequate representatives KENNEDY insists. (concurring opinion). answer "no.'' Viewed conceptually, conveys "executive.'' above, "executes'' Conceptually authority-to rates-that frequently degree, kind. IV-C, characterize "legislative,'' bill) applicability, Trucking Assns., 344 298, 310-313, 307, 314-316, 337 (1953), claims, 50-51, 54, 292-293; Wiener 357 349, 354-356, 1275, 1278-1279, 1377 (1958), fall purview Wayman Southard, 253 (1825) (Marshall, ("Congress rightfully itself''). "carry distinction mathematical precision'' "divide watertight compartments,'' Springer Philippine Islands, 277 189, 211, 480, 485-486, 845 (Holmes, dissenting), for, "blend[s]'' "separat[es]'' workable government. Davis, §1.09, (1958). 120 rulemaking adjudicatory Assns. 314-316; guideline-writing Commission, prosecutor-appointment judges, Morrison Olson, 487 654, 696-697, 2597, 2621-2622, 569 (1988). conceptually reconcile description ("executive'') irreconcilable distant. Radio Comm'n Elec. 281 389, 969 (1930) (power radio licenses "judicial'' power). 121 rest, conceptual objective. B 122 often Powers, Government-and thereby protect liberty-by "safeguard encroachment aggrandizement expense other.'' Buckley Valeo, 424 122, 683-684, 659 (1976) (per curiam); 380-382, 659-660. 51, 349 (J. Cooke 1961) Madison) (separation resist encroachments others''); danger blended unchecked power''); also, (invalidating intrusion Branch); (1982) (Congress away judge); Myers 272 52, 21, (1926) limit remove official). 123 contrast "encroaches'' insert, majority, phrase apply. §691f(c)(1) 2320, "exempt Act''). "disapprov[e],'' reinstate, drafts place-and outer Thus sort check'' KENNEDY. by, improper, earliest did, spending, __-__ (SCALIA, part). 353 ("contemporaneous exposition founders framers participating fixes construction provisions''). favors Country B, objects "rewrite'' opposite, respond, "But power; you exempt Act; your safe.'' Where burden overcoming inertia lies rule. encroachment? 125 "aggrandizes'' office. budget. spend, items, permit, effect. explain detail, past occasions. strengthen Presidency, minute compared worked delegations kinds upheld. Ass'ns, (1953) (delegation authority); Lichter 334 742, 1294, 1694 (1948) regulate "excessive'' profits); Commodity Futures Trading Schor, 833, 675 (same). C 126 "nondelegation'' added raises serious obstacle "see[k] branch'' "extent character'' "according co-ordination.'' 351. way assistance; "cannot standard.'' Chicago, M., St. P.R. 282 311, 324, 159, 162, 359 (1931). Or, Taft's familiar lay down intelligible principle body [act] conform.'' 409, 352 127 ways. procedural. tells "identifying cancellation'' refer selection "prevent effect''), "consider,'' 128 construction, [those and] sources 129 purposive. behind promote "greater accountability'' "eliminate wasteful (1996). 130 substantive. "prevent'' "reduce standards broad. equally broad, broader. National Broadcasting 319 190, 225-226, 997, 1013-1014, 1344 (1943) Communications broadcast licensing "public convenience, necessity'' require) (internal quotation marks omitted); FPC Hope Natural Gas 320 591, 600-603, 281, 286-288, 333 (1944) "just reasonable'' rates); Rock Royal Co-operative, 307 533, 577, 993, 1014-1015, 1446 (1939) (if milk "unreasonable,'' "fi[x]'' level interest''). 785-786, 1316-1317, Light SEC, 329 90, 104-105, 133, 141-142, (1946) SEC "unfairly inequitably'' distributing security holders); Yakus 321 414, 427, 660, 668-669, 834 Price fix commodity "fair'' "equitable''). 132 doctrine. Panama Refining Ryan, 388, 241, 446 (1935), discovered midst issue, promulgation Petroleum Industrial Recovery sentence. 412-413, 244-245. A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. 295 1570 195, standard ("fair competition''), virtually industry. 521-525, 839-841. Cardozo exemplified "delegation running riot,'' "roving inquire evils discovery them.'' 553, 551, 853, 852 133 involve commission,'' parties, industry scope. government, budget, tailor concludes responsibility. governs television licenses, necessity.'' §303 together purpose, guarantees awareness together, guide 134 similarities listed systematically industry, develop workplace safety aimed discrete problem: concerns, economy, outlays, 18; 303, (because affect §691e(9)(A) II)), tiny fraction appropriations. Compare 73-75 (listing $500 overall "tax expenditures'' OMB 1997) (federal receipts trillion) Juris. Statement 71a estimating "value'' revenue loss, $20 million). involved-determining dispensation few individuals-does lend standard. expenditure, desirability avoiding building surplus) comparative weight conflicting goals. language, way? 1009 [P]ublic ""as complicated factors permit''') FCC Pottsville 309 134, 138, 437, 439, 656 (1940)). believe, public, choices accordingly. 426, 668 (standards "sufficiently definite ascertain conform[ity]''). 136 monetary expenditure'') delegated, inform money. 190; (appropriating measures); part) numerous examples). Fourth, rely Nelson Brothers Bond Mortgage (Station WIBO), 289 266, 627, 636, 1166 (1933) ("public necessity [standard] context''); Fahey Mallonee, 332 245, 253, 1552, 1556, 2030 (1947) (otherwise vague banks explicit, custom, adequate''). Relying context, sometimes mention 535-536 (granting recess "appropriated department'' "applied [instead] department''); Expenditure 1968, 90-364, §§202(b), 203(b), 271-272; annually reserve $6 $10 obligation Second Supplemental 1969, 91-47, §401, 82; 91-305, §§401, 501, 405-407. highly Commn. Bros., 636; 250-253, 1554-1556; 777, 1313 satisfaction Act''); 844-846, (1975) (disallowing Nixon's efforts intend instance). recognize constitutionally-acceptable agencies-differences argue particular, administrative agency differs agencies subsidiary interest'' Doing diminishes risk breadth cloak unfair implementation. §3:15, 207-208 (2d ed.1978). typically Motor Vehicle Mfrs. Assn. Farm Mut. Automobile Ins. 463 40-42, 2856, 2865-2866, 443 narrowed rule, implementation Procedure Massachusetts, 505 801, 2767, 2775-2776, 636 (1992) (APA Congress). 139 determinative. decisionmakers, official. voters, who, principle, manner decisions, voters consider. discretion, agency, stake. Dalton Specter, 511 462, 1719, 1728, 497 (1994) (Presidential base closure recommendations reviewable; "approv[e] disapprov[e] sees fit''); Franklin, 2775-2776 census report unreviewable abuse discretion); 799-800, 2774-775 (it "important integrity officer'' unelected Commerce). reflect Clinton Jones, ---------, 1636, 1639-1640, 945 (BREYER, judgment) unitary executive), account nondelegation Consequently 141 Most, term 10) beneficiaries, similarly situated. §691e(9) difficult. pick voluminous. (increasing decreasing individual's taxes) end power) concern. differences, result. 142 thing, other. Skinner Mid-America 490 212, 1726, (1989), taxing Transportation system pipeline user fees. "fees'' "tax,'' amounted tax, unanimous that: "From present, varied consequent practices stricter fees taxation, scrutiny challenges. wisely circumspect Taxing enumerated heightened prudence Constitution.'' 221-223, 1732-1733. 144 standards. "suspend'' raising rates, specialized commodities. 1244, attack. 693-694, 504-505 ("no valid objection made'' "conferring discretion'' President) Dec. 19, 1806, 411 "authorized'' of'' customs it''); 1794, 41, 372 (empowering embargo ports require'' revoke "whenever proper''). 1922 adjust "equalize'' costs production home abroad, 1922, 356, §315(a), 941-942. (1928). 145 today's imports, income now, revenues. 1106 57% total Government). higher percentage tax-related extremely "limited'' 146 meaning. administered offered precision promise, "equalized'' transport trade. 147 accept majority's examples. "duty'' event. it''). Others leave hands. 612 triggered "whenever'' "so as'' "satisfied'' "unequal imposed); (historically "invest[ed] discretion''). 148 tries exercising executes supra. 149 implicates justifies unusual taxation "foreign policy'' arena. Treasury "power mitigate remit'' penalties nonpayment liquor "upon appear reasonable.'' §43, 209. later, authorized, lieu collecting stamp duty, banks, centum dividend banks.'' July 1797, recently, "prescribe needful Code], alteration relation internal revenue.'' §7805(a). regulations, "which taxpayer liability, 222, Hampton area. 150 ways diminish widespread decisionmaking: 151 deviations policy, §691e(9)(A)(i) (defining expenditure'' baseline structure''). 152 whole, requires. 153 destroy expectation written receive "Taxpayers, great.'' 154 (4) probably million) §1701, 1099 (identifying 155 (5) parcel defining focuses "revenue-losing'' regards puts back pockets taxpayers, "baseline'' them. represented Pipeline, 222-223, 1732-1733 (no "different stricter'' context). Still approval context. 156 upshot "spending'' warrant 157 sum, novel. sense, skirts edge. edge means, ends. chosen repeal, Nor, "line veto'' announces. improperly shift principles, represent experiment may, representative work better. try methods way. respect, syllabus constitutes Reporter Decisions reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. Voluntary Contribution Provider-Specific 102-234, 1793, §1396b(w). provides: WAIVER CERTAIN PROVIDER TAX PROVISIONS.-Notwithstanding taxes, fees, 1903(w)(3)(A) (42 1396b(w)(3)(A)), subparagraph (B) (C) 1903(w)(3) (E) for) (including proceeding) completed subparagraphs Act.'' 515. 63a-64a (Cancellation 97-3). excerpt §691a adding (g), QUALIFIED REFINER OR PROCESSOR.-For subsection, "qualified refiner processor' corporation- (A) substantially activities consist active horticultural products, 1-year ending purchases one-half refined processed from- purchasing cooperative.'' 896. H.R.Rep. 105-148, S18739 (Dec. 1995) (Senator Hatch, introducing version ownership products''); ibid. Craig, cosponsor [c]urrently, compete entities [processing] advantages deferrals transactions purchases''; helpful cooperatives''); 116-117 (Letter Congresspersons Roberts Stenholm 1995)) (congressional sponsors "provide firm destiny. proposal farmers, refine raw commodities value-added products. encourage themselves market-oriented environment vertically integrating. confident look beneficial took farmers''). 1101. 97-2). day stated: "Because strongly family farm co-ops, me.'' 125. creating incentives "very worthy goal.'' 130. actions, invalid; N.Y. Pub. §2807-c(18)(e) (Supp.1997-1998) event secretary human services assessments exclusion, exclusion void commissioner collect Interest measured commissioner''); §2807-d(12) (1993) (same); §2807-j(11) §2807-s(8) explained: "These form, requisite Senate. proceeded required, valid.'' 178-179. Unilateral participant Bicameralism Clauses prevent. independent I. rescissions agreed single-handedly revise participants vetoed "person'' being, see, Webster's Third International Dictionary 1152, 1686 ("individual'' "single being''; being''), ("person'' includes "corporations, individuals''). ""the Court.''' 11). believed dictate contexts. relief.'' 3324, Anderson Green, 513 557, 1059, 1050 (1995) curiam), misplaced. California welfare year residence California. HHS. filed, vacated proceeding Accordingly, reached residents; ripe until waiver, conjectural. 559, 1060 [i.e. California, HHS] live conjectural''). contingently liable 106-107. bringing Rochester exclusionary zoning pract ices community prospective officials. 509, 2210-2211. reimburse State. 721, 3185, (1986). 111-115 (Declaration Cranney). obtained irrespective accorded minority-owned contracts. "because failed contract ordinance.'' 664, 2302. Appeals' position, reconciled preference city's business, ordinance, bidders standing; fact'' negotiation 2303. Having traceability redressability satisfied-each distinguishable, chain Allen, schools, adopted procedures'' 739, 3318. lax white students attend interfered children's desegregated attenuated standing: "It uncertain exemptions. parent child threatened speculation whether, community, collectively schools.'' 3328 (footnote Simon, Ruling nonprofit emergency-room poor. ""encouraged' indigents.'' 42, attenuated: implications. services. sheds light, elect forgo avoid undetermined drain uncompensated 45, 1927 ("Speculative inferences connect [respondents'] petitioners''). granting subsidy plants seeking buy proposed disapprove 1157, 2444, 1144, 2436, 105th Sess. E. O'Neill, Director, Congressional Office, Year, Process Implementation, Rules, 2d (Mar. 11-12, 1998), disapproving 105-159, (1998) (disapproving items). connection rescind.'' §691e(4)(A). reads "cancel' "cancellation' means- rescind; spending- law), effect; entitlement program, results program §691e(4) Story, Commentaries §1555, 413 (1833) (Art. enables evil, suggest remedy''). "Every Reconsideration thirds pass sent, Objections, House, likewise reconsidered, Law. Cases Votes Yeas Nays, Names Persons Journal respectively. returned ten Days (Sundays excepted) him, Same Manner Adjournment Return, Case Law.'' "veto' describe 925, 2771, (1983) (citing Black's 1403 (5th ed.1979)). Writings George Fitzpatrick 1940); Taft, Presidency: Duties, Opportunities Limitations (1916) (stating "has law''); Blackstone, *154 crown lterations alterations houses''). ensures deficit, increases §§691c(a)-(b); (OMB) estimates presents estimate entry "pay-as-you-go'' submitted §252(d) "Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act''), §902(d). §691c(a)(2)(A) 23. self-imposed revenue: reductions), "sequester'' budgeted required. §§900(b), 901(a)(1), 902(b), 906(l). submit §§252(b) 254 §§902(b), 904. §691c(a)(2)(B). pay-as-you-go balances,'' "savings cap "OMB score go.'' analysis, procedure's applicability. "Congress's infelicitous terminology transform 40-41 (citations omitted), consistent retains option lingering small-and-medium cooperatives.'' 97-2); 8, days, constitute rejection comported 503 1866, 12, inoperative'' lift cattle importation endanger cattle). interests unfriendly discriminating governments, invest relating commerce nations.'' 504. 407, feel unable conveniently effective, dependent Executive''). Rules Enabling §2072(b), 2072(b) lower Sibbach Wilson 422, 479 promulgates, repeal'' statute); Henderson 517 1638, 1644, 880 §2072(b)). promulgated uniform courts. event-here, supra ("A restraining cutting way''). Bowsher, 3192-3193 ("When reasons''). severable provisions. clause; appeared dropped explanation. 41.

Classification Label: 12