Legal Document

544 U.S. 385 SMALLv.UNITED STATES No. 03-750. Supreme Court of United States. Argued November 3, 2004. Decided April 26, 2005. Petitioner Small was convicted in a Japanese court trying to smuggle firearms and ammunition into that country. He served five years prison then returned the States, where he bought gun. Federal authorities subsequently charged under 18 U. S. C. § 922(g)(1), which forbids "any person . any crime punishable by imprisonment for term exceeding one year possess firearm." (Emphasis added.) pleaded guilty while reserving right challenge his conviction on ground earlier conviction, being foreign, fell outside 922(g)(1)'s scope. The District Third Circuit rejected this argument. Held: Section phrase "convicted court" encompasses only domestic, not convictions. Pp. 388-394. (a) In considering scope it is appropriate assume Congress had domestic concerns mind. This assumption similar legal presumption ordinarily intends its statutes have extraterritorial, application, see, e. g., Foley Bros., Inc. v. Filardo, 336 281, 285. describes necessary portion "gun possession" activity prohibited as matter law. Moreover, because foreign convictions may include conduct laws would permit, engaging economic our society might encourage, from system are inconsistent with American understanding fairness, law punishes far less severely, key statutory of, year" somewhat reliably identifies dangerous individuals purposes convictions, rather than at issue. addition, difficult read statute asking judges or prosecutors refine definitional distinctions To somehow weed out inappropriate meet definition consistent statute's language; easy those versed accomplish; leave previously (say, crimes) uncertain about their obligations. These considerations provide convincing basis applying ordinary reach domestically oriented here. Thus, assumes congressional intent applies domestically, extraterritorially, unless language, context, history, purpose shows contrary. 388-391. (b) There no indication contrary language suggests beyond contrary, if creates anomalies. For example, creating an exception allowing gun possession despite antitrust business regulatory crime, 921(a)(20)(A) speaks "Federal State" offenses. If generally refers causes problem. But includes words prevent Such illustrative examples suggest did consider whether generic legislative history indicates Although keeping guns likely become threat does offer some support reading 922(g)(1) likelihood best, paid attention reinforced empirical fact that, according Government, since 1968, there been fewer dozen instances such has predicate felon-in-possession prosecution. 391-394. 333 F. 3d 425, reversed remanded. BREYER, J., delivered opinion Court, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, SOUTER, GINSBURG, JJ., joined. THOMAS, filed dissenting opinion, SCALIA KENNEDY, joined, post, p. 394. REHNQUIST, took part decision case. CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED COURT OF APPEALS FOR THIRD CIRCUIT. Paul D. Boas argued cause petitioner. With him briefs Stephen P. Halbrook. Patricia A. Millett her brief were Acting Solicitor General Clement, Assistant Attorney Wray, Deputy Dreeben, John Drennan. JUSTICE BREYER Court. States Criminal Code makes 1 "unlawful who U.S.C. (emphasis added). 2 question before us focuses upon court." Does apply entered well? We hold 3 * 1994 petitioner, Gary Small, having tried several pistols, rifle, Japan. sentenced years' imprisonment. 183 Supp. 2d 755, 757, n. (WD Pa. 2002). After release, Pennsylvania dealer. here F.3d 426 (CA3 2003). illegal statute. Small's argument, Appeals Circuit. 2d, 759; F.3d, 427, 2. Because Circuits disagree matter, we granted certiorari. Compare Atkins, 872 F.2d 94, 96 (CA4 1989) ("convicted convictions); Winson, 793 754, 757-759 (CA6 1986) (same), Gayle, 342 89, 95 (CA2 2003) Concha, 233 1249, 1256 (CA10 2000) (same). II 4 reference court. word "any" considered alone cannot answer question. life, speaker says, "I'll see film," mean films shown another city. law, legislature uses "`any person'" "`persons'" "the jurisdiction state." See, e.g., Palmer, Wheat. 610, 631 (1818) (Marshall, J.) ("[G]eneral words," "`any,'" must "be limited" application "to objects intended them"); Nixon Missouri Municipal League, 541 125, 132 (2004) ("`any'" means "different things depending setting"); Alvarez-Sanchez, 511 350, 357 (1994) ("[R]espondent errs placing dispositive weight broad `any' enforcement officer agency without rest statute"); Middlesex County Sewerage Authority National Sea Clammers Assn., 453 1, 15-16 (1981) (it doubtful statute'" very appear); Flora 362 145, 149 (1960) ("`[A]ny sum,'" "catchall" phrase, "define what catches"). even though demands interpretation, Gonzales, 520 5 (1997), look itself. determining find help "commonsense notion legislates mind." Smith 507 197, 204, (1993). led adopt application. See 285 (1949); also supra, ("The `any persons,' enough comprehend every human being" but "limited cases within state"); EEOC Arabian Oil Co., 499 244, 249-251 (1991). That apply, prohibits unlawful abroad well domestically. And, although against extraterritorial directly case, believe when 6 thing, another, group, differ important ways. Past crimes more year's encourage. Art. 153 Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, Law Procedure 171 (H. Berman & J. Spindler transls. ed. 1972) (criminalizing "Private Entrepreneurial Activity"); 153, id., 172 "Speculation," defined buying up reselling goods other articles making profit"); cf., Gaceta Oficial de la Republica Cuba, ch. II, 103, 68 (Dec. 30, 1987) (forbidding propaganda incites social order, international solidarity, Communist state). They fairness. Dept. State, Country Reports Human Rights Practices 2003, Submitted House Committee International Relations Senate Foreign Relations, 108th Cong., Sess., 702-705, 1853, 2023 (Joint Comm. Print 2004) (describing failures "due process" citing testimony man equals two women"). And they severely. Singapore Vandalism Act, 108, §§ 2, III Statutes Republic Singapore, pp. 257-258 (imprisonment three act vandalism). 7 Cf. Sentencing Commission, Guidelines Manual 4A1.2(h) (Nov. ("[S]entences resulting counted" "prior sentence" criminal purposes). 8 considerations, suggesting significant differences between do dictate ultimate conclusion. Nor create "clear statement" rule, imposing special burden specificity. 399 (THOMAS, dissenting). simply convince should — helps determine Congress' indicia approximate balance. ibid. consequently extraterritorially. But, same time, stand ready revise show B 9 found Neither mention nor subject special, say, immigration terrorism, could argue seem especially relevant. 10 allows prior crime. 921(a)(20)(A). doing so, Ibid. An individual Canadian offense lawfully gun, Combines Investigation R. 1985, C-34, 61(6), (9) (1985), New York offense, 11 specifies "a misdemeanor violence." 922(g)(9). Again, these "misdemeanor[s] State law." 921(a)(33)(A). apparently senseless distinction (covered) relations misdemeanors committed (uncovered) abroad. 12 provides enhanced penalty rests "serious drug offense." 924(e)(1) (2000 ed., II). Again defines relevant through specific federal "offense 924(e)(2)(A)(i), (ii) ed.). offenses (potentially producing punishments) (not punishments). 13 years, characterized state misdemeanors, crimes. 921(20). presumably based determination sufficiently serious so preclude possessing firearm. (misdemeanors imprisonment) (predicate crimes). taken together 14 lengthy confirms serve liability provision bill containing restricted Rep. 1501, 90th 31 (1968) (defining terms "Federal" "punishable "determined be felony"). Conference ultimately version favor year," 928(g)(1). H.R. Conf. 1956, 28-29 (1968). change reflected view us. Rather, enacted simpler avoids potential difficulties arising define "felony" differently. concerned, latter virtues new fully explain change. use discern will silent, hence neutral factor, obvious, namely, Others tempted discuss all. cf. 406 15 As Government points out, sought "`keep hands demonstrated trusted firearm becoming society.'" Brief 16 (quoting Dickerson Banner Institute, Inc., 460 112 (1983)); Lewis 445 55, 60-62, 66 (1980); Huddleston 415 814, 824 (1974). dissent properly notes, 402-403, force argument weakened significantly, however, probably "10 dozen" Tr. Oral Arg. 32. reinforces Congress, matter. C 17 sum, reason added advantages flowing inclusion crimes, weighing them against, unfairness preventing inapt guns. 389. itself silence. Given reasons disfavoring inference coverage total silence initial coverage, 390-391, conclude courts, courts. course, remains free conclusion amendment. reasons, judgment reversed, case remanded further proceedings opinion. 19 It ordered. 20 CHIEF 21 whom KENNEDY join, dissenting. 22 recently emerged illegally importing weapons country, violated "who affecting commerce. Yet majority decides violate statute, occurred concluding subset any," distorts plain meaning departs established principles construction. I respectfully dissent. 23 December 1992, shipped 19-gallon electric water heater Okinawa, Japan, ostensibly present someone Okinawa. App. Appellant 02-2785 (CA3), 507a-510a, 530a-531a, 534a, 598a (hereinafter Appellant's App.). sent heaters Japan year. Id., 523a-527a. Thinking unusual ship tank overseas present, 599a, customs officials searched discovered rifles, semiautomatic 410 rounds ammunition, 603a-604a; 262a, 267a, 277a. 24 indicted multiple counts violating Japan's weapons-control laws. 261a-262a. Each three-judge Naha, 554a, all 14, 1994, 426, credit 320 days served, 1; Government's Support Detention Crim. 00-160 Pa.), 3-4. paroled 22, 1996, parole terminated May 1998. 1. 25 A week after completing June 1998, purchased 9-millimeter SWD Cobray pistol dealer Pennsylvania. 48a, 98a. Some time later, search residence, premises, automobile revealed .380-caliber Browning 300 ammunition. 47a-51a, 98a-99a. prosecution ensued. 26 prohibit "Read naturally, expansive meaning, is, `one indiscriminately whatever kind.'" (1997) Webster's Dictionary 97 (1976) 3d)); Department Housing Urban Development Rucker, 535 130-131 (2002) (statute drug-related termination public housing lease precludes requirement tenant know activity); Brogan 522 398, 400-401 (1998) criminalizing false statement mere denial wrongdoing); 356, 358 referring officers federal, state, local capable arresting crime). No exceptions appear face statute; "[n]o modifier nothing restriction," 60 (1980), "court." imprisonment'" "language limiting breadth word, [the statute] `term[s] imprisonment'"). unambiguously judicial bodies1 impose requisite Indisputably, clear 27 Of court," like context. E.g., Deal 508 129, context geographic limit court."2 By contrast parts firearms-control expressly qualified jurisdiction. 921(a)(20) (excluding certain offenses" "crime year"); 921(a)(33)(A)(i) "misdemeanor violence" law").3 explicit "State" provisions restrictions wants so. 28 Counting moreover, implicates federalism rules justified construing narrowly past.4 eminently practical put ones; indicate dangerousness just Part III-B, infra. straightforwardly 29 Faced inescapably text, narrows assuming text ante, 388-389; criticizing accuracy proxy dangerousness, 389-390; finding broad, natural "creates anomalies," 391; counted, 393. None arguments persuasive. 30 first invents canon interpretation "an statutes," 390 cabin reach. "assumption" imposes rule Congress: Absent statement, Court's created implausible. today's ruling, way ensure courts construe refer facts entities describe specifically foreign. "special specificity," ibid., am sure is. innovation baseless. derives entirely different, well-recognized, statutes: "It longstanding principle legislation appears, meant territorial States." 248 (1991) (internal quotation marks omitted). rightly concedes extraterritoriality "does case." Ante, Though trigger prohibition, criminalizes prosecuting enforcing punish conduct. Pasquantino 371-372 (federal wire fraud covers scheme aimed defrauding government tax revenue). 32 cited 389, assumption. restrict 203-204 (1993) (Federal Tort Claims Act claims Antarctica); (Title VII Civil 1964 regulate employment practices firms employing citizens abroad); 285-286 (1949) labor contract private contractor construction work done country); 630-634 punishing piracy high seas robbery noncitizen board belonging exclusively subjects straightforward applications canon, restricting reaching borders, lend unprecedented borders. 33 have, true, recognized rooted Smith, 5. my true notion: Gun country surely "domestic concern." consistently grounded risk extraterritorially applicable conflict laws, subjecting conflicting 248. completely absent Quite opposite, takes finds it. Aside justifying result reaches. Its concession inapposite therefore end 34 Rather stopping there, introduces "assumption statutes" sua sponte, briefing point,5 providing guidance constitutes "domestically statut[e]." 390. except dealing "immigration terrorism," 391, reversing previous "has force" "that involve military affairs," Sale Haitian Centers Council, 509 155, 188 (provision Immigration Nationality extraterritorially); supra subjects). creation threatens wreak havoc extraterritoriality.6 35 narrow opines results. primarily attacking reliability identifying individuals. 389-390. Citing various observes interpreted 922(g) speech activities [United States] permit," 389; "from fairness," ibid.; "for severely," concludes prohibition possession. 36 claim "somewhat identif[y] individuals" untenable. compiling 389-390, constructs parade horribles. cherry-picks few egregious unlikely correlate intuitions severely ignores countless excellent proxies culpability.7 Surely "reasonable drafting are, average whole, accurate gauging culpability, worst-of-the-worst are. Breyer, On Uses Legislative History Interpreting Statutes, 65 Cal. L. Rev. 845, 854 (1992). case: sentence shipping eight hundreds reasonable dangerousness. 37 Contrary majority's assertion, sense bar people casually dismisses point observation "`10 dozen'" prosecutions involved 394 32). rarity prosecutions, refutes simultaneous claim, horribles count. anyone aware, handful thus rested perfectly consonant gunrunning. why including unwise, let irrational. 38 worries anomalies" provisions. 391-392. affords offenders lenient treatment ones respects: offender not; perpetrator analogous not. respects, receive harsher counterparts: One violence could; 15-year mandatory minimum possession, 39 outcomes undue concern. certainly occasion employ, invoke, absurdities. employ "where be, genuine sense, absurd, i.e., quite impossible alleged absurdity obvious most anyone." Public Citizen Justice, 491 440, 470-471 (1989) (KENNEDY, concurring judgment); 141 (SCALIA, judgment) ("avoidance unhappy consequences" inadequate interpreting text); Sturges Crowninshield, 122, 203 (1819) (before disregarding constitutional provision, "must injustice monstrous, mankind would, hesitation, unite rejecting application"). 40 Here, "anomalies" absurd. most, odd; rational. exempting ban. decided proceed incrementally exempt familiar, ones. event, abandons results incongruous mutant inapposite. Whatever utility canons guides intent, useless modified ways never imagined enacting 922(g)(1). 41 Even generates anomalies, dangerous. explained above, permits murder, rape, assault, kidnaping, freely Supra, 7. Meanwhile, tampering vehicle identification number, 511(a)(1), barred firearms. concern anomalies principled choosing over mine. D 42 hypothesizes `convicted court' convictions," 392, license text. Whether correct anyone's guess. Regardless, method guesswork-as-interpretation. Beecham 368 (1994), relieved disability civil rights restored (as opposed state) acknowledged possibility phrases turns accidents drafting," 374; observed legislators differently reading, "or, likely, all," nonetheless adhered unambiguous Ibid.; Organization Women, Scheidler, 510 249, 262 Racketeer Influenced Corrupt Organizations Act] applied situations anticipated demonstrate ambiguity. demonstrates breadth" brackets omitted)). Beecham, "our task hopeless ascertaining passed reconvened [this] particular cas[e]," U.S., 374, manageable following enacted. 43 reliance absence discussion equally unconvincing. Reliance statements existed, problematic enough. phenomenon. Koons Buick Pontiac GMC, Nigh, 543 50, 73 dissenting) (criticizing novel "Canon Canine Silence"). 44 agree, silent. describes, formed amended Conference, "`Federal' crimes" "crimes `determined felony'" "`in year.'" seeks saying `felony' differently." eliminated. revised simple, avoided difficulties, year." expansion intended. elimination references covered. 45 Some, approved both Houses President (if signed bill) source interpretation. do, committee ought strong confirmation State," "any." IV 46 convincingly explains departure Instead, institutes troubling really "any," "some `any,'" indicates; absurdity; faults gauge culpability; employs discredited methods intent. Notes: See,e.g., Random English Language 335 (1966) "court" place justice administered," tribunal duly constituted hearing cases," session assembly"); Concise Oxford Current 282 (5th 1964) "[a]ssembly persons acting tribunal"); (1961) assembled authority administration justice," official assembly legally met transaction business," judge sitting trial cases"). `I'll film,' city,"ante, 388, adds analysis. implies speaker, often accessible distance. Unlike film remark, restriction. 921(a)(15) "fugitive banned 922(g)(2), fled avoid giving testimony"); 924(e)(2) offense," can sentence, "State law") 125 (2004), authorizing pre-emption "prohibiting ability entity" telecommunications services. 128 held required States' delivery services own political subdivisions. 140-141; Raygor Regents Univ. Minn., 534 533, 540-541 ("any" insufficiently abrogate sovereign immunity); Atascadero Hospital Scanlon, 473 234, 245-246 (1985) party mentions quasi-extraterritoriality fashions. barely footnote pointing 44, attempts justify "other balance."Ante, false. Other balance, long indicium explained, Brottsbalk (Swedish Code), SFS 1962:700, (murder); Canada, S.C. C-46, 244(b) (discharging endanger life); 102(2) (making automatic weapon); Laws Israel, Penal 345(b)(2) (rape cutting Egypt 143 (giving detained order escape); Mexico 139 (terrorism explosives, toxic substances, firearms, fire, flooding, violent means); 163 (kidnaping); Firearms Offenses 1968 (United Kingdom), 27, 18(1) (carrying commit indictable resist arrest); Zambia Cap. 87, 19, 200-201 (1995) 24, (assault occasioning actual bodily harm); 25, 251-262 (kidnaping, abduction, selling slaves)

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