Legal Document

361 U.S. 234 80 Supreme Court Reporter 297 4 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 268 KINSELLA, Warden, Appellant,v.UNITED STATES ex rel. SINGLETON. Number 22. Argued Oct. 22, 1959. Decided Jan. 18, 1960. Mr. Harold or Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Greene, Washington, D.C., for appellant. Frederick Bernays Wiener, appellee. Justice CLARK delivered the opinion of Court. 1 This direct appeal tests constitutional validity peace time court-martial trials civilian persons 'accompanying armed forces outside States'1 and charged with noncapital offenses under Uniform Code Military Justice, 10 KF62 § 802, 70A Statutes-at-Large 37. Appellee contends that dependent wife a soldier can be tried only in court affords her safeguards Article III Fifth Sixth Amendments Constitution. The trial held 2(11) unconstitutional as applied to dependents accompanying overseas offenses, 164 F.Supp. 707, Government appealed. We noted probable jurisdiction permitted appellee proceed forma pauperis. 359 903, 79 581, 3 569. 2 is mother Mrs. Joanna S. Dial, who was assigned tank battalion Army. Dials their three children lived government housing quarters at Baumholder, Germany. In consequence death one children, both were unpremeditated murder, 118(2) Justice. Annotated KF65 U5 918(2). Upon Dials' offer plead guilty involuntary manslaughter 119 Code, 919, charges withdrawn new ones charging them separately lesser offense returned. They then together before general Baumholder. Dial challenged over but, upon denial motion, pleaded guilty, did husband. Each sentenced maximum penalty Code. Their convictions upheld by Appeals, returned placed Federal Reformatory Women Alderson, West Virginia. Thereafter filed this petition habeas corpus obtained Dial's discharge from custody. From judgment warden has As been noted, based provisions Congress enacted article an effort extend, disciplinary reasons, coverage classes therein enumerated. attached, however, when if its applicability given foreign territory sanctioned 'any treaty agreement which may party' sovereignty, accepted rule international law.' existence such here admitted. constitutionality 2(11), it applies sole issue decided. question not first impression, we had us 1956 capital companion cases Kinsella versus Krueger, 351 470, 76 886, 100 L.Ed. 1342, Reid Covert, 487, 880, 1352. At original submission those cases, decided bare majority valid exercise power Congress, art. IV, 3, 'make all needful Rules Regulations' 'Territories' States. further 'procedure tribunals need comply standards prescribed Constitution courts,' page 475, 889, specifically against contention procedures provide indictment grand jury petit jury. short, said failure protections raised 'no defect,' citing re Ross, 1891, 140 453, 11 897, 36 Insular Cases, Balzac People Porto Rico, 1922, 258 298, 42 343, 66 627. After rehearing following Term, these opinions judgments entered declaring offenses. consolidated 1957, 354 1, 77 1222, 1148. held2 'Territories,' Ross doctrine, neither applicable nor controlling. It found exceptional springing granted I, 8, cl. 14, 'To make Regulation land naval Forces,' supplemented Necessary Proper Clause 18.3 But there involved must considered, said, relation Amendments. concluded that, provided could constitutionally justified. 5 result, subject bears directly on same class crimes. She says test whether come within 14's limitation 'land Forces' status person involved. Her conclusion are language, fortiori, cannot included, since clause draws no distinction fully accepts holding second Covert case, supra. case controlling where fact concurrences indicate considerations compelling necessity prosecution courts-martial might permit reason inclusion limited category jurisdiction. submits necessities points out affect military community whole; they have, fact, enjoy residence communities representation control; realistically part establishment. argues morale standpoint, present accompany American maintained abroad pressing one; special integral parts requires control commander; effectiveness depends readily available machinery affording prompt sanction resulting deterrent jurisdiction; procedure inherently fair but alternatives it. into agreements large number governments permitting signatories, pursuant utilizing various installations abroad. Its legal theory historical materials asserts well-established practice civilians forces, during Colonial days well formative period our concludes included necessary proper incident congressional 14. 6 field, Toth Qualres, 1955, 350 11, cited approval supra, landmark. Likewise, course, consider effect latter problem.4 therefore turn teachings. discharged after his Army, committed discharge. 14 'provision itself does empower deprive people Bill Rights safeguards,' pages 21—22, restricted 'to narrowest deemed absolutely essential maintaining discipline among troops active service,' id., 8. brushed aside thought 'considerations discipline' excuse 'new expansion expense normal preferable systems jury.' Id., 22—23, (Italics supplied.) 'not willing hold circumvent should inferred through Clause.' summed up own words, namely, 'the Rules' regulate would seem restrict actually members forces.' 15, 4. 7 gloss reached There, have soldier, him complained committed. 'Trial permissible can, appraisal, regarded falling authority & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions * *.' Concurring opinion, 42, 1244.5 jurisdiction, follows, status, accused proceeding term Forces.' authority, concurring Justices expressing view think 'that proximity, physical social, women is, due regard put befoure us, so clearly demanded effective 'Government Regulation' reasonably demonstrate justification offenses.' 46—47, 1246. 8 each supporting struck down separate supported crime being 'in punishable death,' 45, 1245, 'analogous, ultimately, issues process,' 75, 1261. joining announcing judgment, join view, claimed 'all criminal trials' courts 'outside States,' pointing inclusive sweeping references person' prosecutions." 7—8, 1225—1226. two dissenters6 between other cases,' 89, 1268, required heretofore mentioned. briefs argument reveal argued submitted parties drawn purposes Supplemental Brief Rehearing, Nos. 701 713, Pages 16—20, 82—95. 9 careful study contentions Government. add reverse form broad presentation asserted coud fittings used adaptation rather than foreclosing here, indicates less capital. 'significantly different' one, different concept, therefore, fresh evaluation balancing rights indicated, about concurrence sufficient 'proximity, social justification' prosecution. Likewise Government's material—dealing 'too episodic, too meager adjudication,' 64, 1255, 1148, unable point drew any distinction, insofar grant concerned, crimes.7 makes claim historically ever made try basis Without contradiction, furnished show always 'status' accused, nature offense. To say 'defies definition terms 'status" defy unambiguous language background thereof precedents reference thereto.8 Furthermore, convinced critical impact will (even anyone relevant consideration), treatment virtue case. (see dissent there) rejected Even involving deprivation dependents, seriously question, doubt small now admitted brief here,9 spread world-wide installations, bring crisis. Moreover, areas occupation, grounds exist 37, Wilson Bohlender, 281, 305. See Madsen Kinsella, 1952, 343 341, 72 699, 96 988. Another serious obstacle noncapial while rejecting ones, place hands unreviewable discretion simply downgrading offense, thus stripping protections. By allowing assumption garb mercy,'10 depriving offender means defense nullify situation aggravated want legislation providing sitting argument, indicated provision either continental lands. Still heard total prosecute decision 1957 affected least services installations. do know Girard, 524, 1409, u544, insisted agreed Japanese civil authorities duty. information dependents. Strangely, prove quite deterrent. immediate return permanently subsequent more authorized answer problem. Certainly involve much difficult successful reach suggestion light opposed 'fresh balancing.' includes creation fixing punishment therefor. If all, full create diminish expand power, case-by-case sageguards Due process enlarge power. See, Quarles, do, taught cases,11 'fundamental fairness, shocking universal sense justice.' Betts Brady, 1942, 316 455, 462, 62 1252, 1256, 86 1595. deals exercise. Obviously Fourteenth Amendment dealing state action application did, believe infamous standards, invalid nature. Nor operation Clause. because caveat possesses carry 'foregoing' powers 'and Powers vested *' James Madison explained, 'but merely declaration, removal uncertainty, carrying execution (powers) otherwise grant.' VI Writings Madison, edited Gaillard Hunt, 383. There grants adopt Our initial inquiry include execution. answered affirmative amenable final inquiry, narrowed expanded again refer Madison: 12 'When discussions preceded ratification, known great apprehensions expressed many, lest omission some positive exception, delegated, certain rights, expose danger drawn, construction, especially laws reply objection, invariably urged fundamental characteristic principle Constitution, reserved; beyond enumerated fairly them; Writings, 390. 13 constrained crimes, Neither history decisions furnish foothold concept protjects. today irreversibility free employed prosecuted crime. illogical respecting encompasses appropriately deem 'necessary' good order' still deny infliction penalty. proposed here. militate whole likewise contrary entire Articles War. prior Constitutional Convention, War 17 whose brought never exceptions 1806 revised, retained 16 carried penalty, although complaint 'almost every bill stained blood.' 15 Annals Cong. 326. exclusion along cause additional disturbance 'delicate arrangements many countries.' pointed disruption relations decision. involves 'important national concerns reluctant enter' Covert. truth problems identical intertwined equal palliative troubled world. protected specific conviction permissible. affirmed. Affirmed. 18 HARLAN, whom FRANKFURTER joins, dissenting 21, 58. 19 Within compass law,' prosecutable abroad, 'persons serving with, by, forces' areas.1 20 These four crimes concededly covered (1) service (No. 22); (2) employees, also (Nos. 21 37);2 (3) employees 58). instance holds Act unconstitutional. While agree 58, give services, war, nonmilitary personnel narrow conception result particularly unfortunate setting present-day scene. what context, review past fate desirable. 22 1955 Term came 1352, army wives convicted, degree stationed husbands bases Initially divided Court, joined, convictions.3 relied 35 627, Territories. factors, combination, led conclude guarantees apply Americans legislatively established tribunals; circumstanced court-martial, tribunal; offend fundamentals process. 23 pressures closing Term. 483—486, 893—894. Having become summer rested untenable, moved opening reheard, joined minority. 352 901, 123, 92; 65—67, 1255—1256, 11484 Court's set aside, stand fall depended solely cases. was, Four broadly 'civilians' criminally times peace, 3—41, 1223—1243.5 Two concurred specially ground explicitly reserving subjected trials.6 41—64, 65—78, 1243—1255, 1255—1262. dissented, adhering earlier opinions.7 78, 1262. And participate cases.8 24 Thus Nevertheless, despite wide differences views particular reached—none commanded assent Court—Covert establishing peace. On faulty considered controls presently us. Apart results consideration. needlessly traversing already my 67—78, 1256—1262, shall reasons believing right, wrong. 25 First. stems basic premise occupying scope having follow presumably 'civilians,' cases; statute 26 proceeded unsound. speaks soldiers sailors, gives prescribe 'Rules Forces.'9 read connection Article, authorizing 27 Laws Execution foregoing Powers, States, Department Officer thereof.' 28 read, encompasses, order. automatically exclude regulation non personnel. 29 impermissible conclude, brethren occasion 20—22, 1232—1233), holds, 304, resorted judging type. clause, found, powers, indeed 'as each' Second 43, 1244 (concurring Frankfurter, J.). Brandeis Jacob Ruppert Caffey, 251 264, 300—301, 40 141, 150, 64 260: 30 'Whether defense, purpose post offices roads, regulating commerce several states execution' duty reposed federal government. attributes sovereignty limits powers. Debs, 158 564, 900, 39 1092. Some confusion perhaps avoided, if, instead distinguishing 'express implied,' 'specific general' used. For conferred section express 31 Classic, 313 299, 320, 61 1031, 85 1368. 32 Of 'expand' limited, appropriate 'necessary proper' relate, 'proper' one. say, now, 'is power' disregard I. 33 Viewing Congress' governing Clause, becomes apparent, believe, person's establishment alone determinative, factor token, major ascribes disappears. 34 Second. suggested difference non-capital significant, persons, equally other. passes lightly awesome finality instances reflected adjudications procedural thrown around Thus, State appoint counsel indigent defendant Powell Alabama, 287 53 55, 158, whereas absolute right counsel, Again, murder jury, judge, 1111(b), 1111(b); see 60 766, amended, 2274(a), similar statutes.10 Further illustrations concern prohibition acceptance pleas and, appellate mandatory automatic appeals convictions.12 acknowledged gravity treason nonsoldier unlimited 2(11); obtain whenever 77, retreating conclusion. peacetime none represents inexorable approach adjudication subscribe. 37 thing situated another life stake. like brings play, properly taken justifying without court. Before me persuasive showing concluding course maintenance kind far 38 Third. revert rules forces. How little substance appears inducted army, though capacities, fullly 2(11). Yet except formality real remained same. Although recognized 'even he formally wear uniform,' 23, 1233, drawing line demarcation not, defies 'status.' true aspect closeness remoteness relationship Is close enough may, factors involved, deal persons? enough, respect draw Though presence purposes, render shown am similarly charged. concur 41 Fourth. weighed adequately satisfied. 70—73, 76—77, 1258—1260, 1261—1262, matters originally adumbrated Brother Clark 83—88, 1265—1267. Nothing supplemental data presented persuades justified area rational basis, concerned. problem sought met ways, submit once choice excluded concerned competence find command procedures. lacking enabling cope effectively broader engendered disturbed world conditions. Those fraught ill-equipped assess, important enter clearest sort compulsion. That compulsion amply demonstrated chequered Today's regrettable bound disturb delicate countries, relinquish nations substantial Status Forces Agreements. 43 affirm 44 WHITTAKER, STEWART part. 45 (whose respondent Singleton), husband, Germany, convicted violation Justice,1 imprisonment years. Guagliardo, electrical lineman Air Force Nouasseur Depot Morocco, conspiring commit larceny stores 81 881, petitioner Wilson, auditor Army Berlin, courtmartial acts sodomy 134 50 728,* five Grisham, cost accountant Corps Engineers Orleans, France, premeditated 118 712,** sentenced, reduced clemency Secretary 46 objected him. convictions, sentences, release District successful—Singleton (United Singleton D.C.S.D.W.Va., 707) Guagliardo McElroy, 104 U.S.App.D.C. 112, 259 Reporter, 2nd 927)—but not—Wilson Bohlander, D.C.Colo., 167 791) Grisham (Grisham Taylor, Cir., 261 204)—and review. 47 categories. offense; employee claims civilian, instead, court, Amendment, impartial 48 grave questions least, difficulty. recent clear extends territorial boundaries reaches exercised citizens—that proceeds citizens '(i) t act accordance limitations imposed Constitution.' 6, 1225. 49 presented, then, authorizes punishments lands 'accompanying' 'employed by' conduct character. source exists, Constitution.2 provides: 51 'The Power 52 Pursuant August 10, 1956, chapter 1041, et seq.—revising pre-existing War—enacted 802(11), provides, pertinent part: 54 chapter: 55 '(11) Subject party law, 56 disputed existing treaties sovereignties, alleged occurred, punish embraced Arguments challenging reasonableness so, however reasonable. 74, 1260 opinion). 57 Did enact Code? Certain aspects recently determined binding me.3 because, violate III, 2, Constitution; opinions, 58 Like writes today, support ones. nothing creates limitation. Legalistically logically, person, hence, law all. Sympathetic curtailment impose sentences cold purely gradations 'accompanying,' by,' posts has, acted enacting Code—otherwise not. Inasmuch six hand, affirmance 59 pains limit '(T)he wives, servicemen (of 'in' 14), even serviceman receiving benefits Government.' 1233. mere gone reduce protection them.' 33, 1239. 1245 J.), 75 76, 1260—1261 Harlan, main carefully 'Mrs. Smith served capacity.' 32, 1238. (Emphasis added.) marked 'serving (or) latter, numbering 25,000 located 63 countries throughout world—mainly highly trained specialists technicians possessing skills forces—are engaged work,—as construct maintain lines communication airfield lighting apparatus equipment, audit accounts assist accounting system building communications Pardeau, france, Kossalater American-occupied perform doing orders , direction 'members' forces; infrequently, work control. contact concerning, operations security risks problems. paid payroll, commissary, housing, medical, dental, mailing, transportation, banking, tax-exemption, customs, border-crossing privileges practical intergral them. dissimilar problems, few privileges, generally very employees. meager, solid history, preceding contemporaneous framing adjudication' (354 opinion), related, 'civilian particular,' work. severability 640, '* standing alone.' McElroy Determination intended Framers examination practices political climate time. country adopted Provisional Massachusetts Bay April 5, 1775.4 Articles, initially 'civilian' farmers tradesmen—the minutemen—who Revolution, Officers, Soldiers, others concerned'. Winthrop (Reprint 1920) 947. provided: 'All sellers retailers camp, whatsoever enlisted Regulations Army.' 950. Revolutionary governed 'Articles War' Continental June 30, 1775.5 Nine 69 soldiers. revised September 20, 1776,6 save minor revisions pertinent, remainder war.7 Thirteen 'commissaries,'8 'suttlers,'9 'storekeepers,'10 'belonging States,'11 parts.'12 1778, addition made. provided, 'That Commissary, Quarter Master, forage Civil Martial neglect duty, offence office Journals Vol. X, Page 72. Wagon drivers 'receiving pay hire' artillery 177513 1776.14 Throughout period, 'drivers' 'artillery gunners' experts. 'Horses oxen, hired drivers, formed transport' cannon. Manucy, Artillery Through Ages (G.P.O. 1949), 10. Washington's concretely writings.15 protracted controversy Convention militia power.16 fear detrimental liberty; preservation country.17 assuring enforcement unanimous determination keep subjection resolved inserting appropriation longer years (Art. 12), continuance 'according Congress.' cls. 16, Amend. II.18 65 gave representatives people—the Congress—the straight Confederation.19 thereto, Hamilton Beloff, Federalist, XXIII, 111: 'These ought limitation; impossible foresee define extent variety exigencies, corresponding satisfy *.'20 67 Soon formation 29, 1789, 25, 4, 96, essentially 1776. Act, Congress—it almost assume—approved consistent exercising complete enactment adoption 1806. (2 366) re-enacted sutlers, retainers, whatsoever, armies soldiers.' Provisions re-enactments Code: revision 1874, Rev.Stat. (2d ed. 1878), 236 (Article 63); 1916, 651; 1920, 787; 109, codified 802(11). 68 1916 War, substantially equivalent 2(11),21 adopted.22 consideration eminent committee experts, 1956—recognizing turbulent conditions require commitments world—reenacted, with' States' redefined adding classification. making Rather, empowers appear be, treated as, synonymous services.23 70 Viewed birth govern reulate closely related forces? Do establishment, done petitioners occupy worked? 71 consistently held, contexts, services. Ex parte Milligan, Wall. relative efficient navy, 'Every connected branches public created government, serving, surrenders courts.' Duncan Kahanamoku, 327 313, 606, 610, 90 688, 'well-established (and) 'would greater relevance, circumstances uniform.' repeat query circumstances, Reed, 13, 538, 'If (civilian employees) (armed) service, asked are.' serve aboard ship clerk paymaster Navy dismissable commander ship, occupied 'an (place) navy (that) (t)he order efficiency depend(ed) largely faithful performance (his) duties' Brazilian port. 21—22. Johnson Sayre, 773, 914, reaffirmed practically facts. requiring 'cases arising expressly excepts 'words fifth amendment, relating mode accusation, martial regular 115, 776. exception 'was undoubtedly designed correlate (Reid 1233), jury-trial framers doubtless, meant sixth presentment fifth.' 123. Quirin, 317 40, 17, 87 3. independent 73 Counsel argue, citation force courts-martial, field.' early field.'24 What really field'? Seemingly, mean actual war' war.' element technical sense, retainers field." 71, n. 1259 Historically, extend exist. Prior punished peace.25 1814, Attorney General board vessels courts. Op.Atty.Gen. 177. field' organized camps remote places functioning. 1866, Judge Advocate declared.26 thereafter, 'confined pendency war theatre war.'27 ignore war. wrote, consensus interpretation view. 1872, issued Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Indian Territory (where functioning) defensive earthworks protect threatening Indians 22.28 observed, 1879, 1895, aboardship 74 Doubtless, passing frontier extension detachments borders But, seems lands—where extend—must, conditions, regarded. Because longexisting tensions fervent hope preventing worse, told kept constantly alert ready prevent or, arise, 'brush fires' allowed ignite holocaust atomic necessities, frequently recurring fires,' suppressed, mainly bases. exist—are fortifications Mexico Territory, exist, frontier. Op. J.A.G. Nov. Letters sent, 331 (National Archives) note 26; 28. Rules'—all rules—' Forces'—not just 'Forces,' promulgated rules, 'armed end, necessary, witness States'—where exist—in facts, rationally shooting turn, field'; hence Both lack alternatives, U.S., 1262 (dissenting strongly buttress conclusion, indeed, doubted. case; 2. following: Alaska east longitude 172 degrees west, Canal Zone, group Hawaiian Islands, Puerto Virgin Islands.' dissented. Whittaker, took 18. Dynes Hoover, 1857, How. 65, 838; 281; 1946, 688; Winthrop, Law Precedents 1896), 144 seq. Reprint (1920) 105—107. functioning 'modified' 'expanding' 'under changing circumstances.' 68, 1257. writer wrote dissent. Covert: 'Mr. Black: 'Members crimes? When existence?' Davis: Well, articulated case.' you curious (whether), your reading forth, field No explicit Balck.' Aside traffic violations, 273 (both noncapital) December 1954, November 1958. 'Offenses economic laws' 88 denominated 'other.' Merits 75. (361 305) 'He glad, counterfeiting seal; feared seeming lenity appeared child mercy; apprehended object facilitate taking defence, left 25th Edward III. proofs adherence king's enemies, consequently species corruption blood attached; classing head treasons operate blood, contrived take appearance lenity. characters cruelty, most odious assumed mercy: here; pretence mercy deprived defence. chance contest, shield list benefit challenge—the witnesses, enable detect conspiracies perjury—the copy charge ten trial, prepare himself awful day—the assistance learned gentleman speak unlearned man—all arms humanity England fortified individual, crown, away. Harshness severity substituted tenderness compassion; insulted spared blood!' Speeches Right Hon. Charles Fox House Commons (London 1815) 78. 1932, 1595, would, wit: Government, alternatively, relies 'War Power,' Occupied Zone Berlin. Cf. proceedings below, issue. myself, written Clark, Burton Minton, 470 886 880. Chief Black Douglas 485, 894. Frankfurter Reservation. 481, 892. remaining dissent, 902, 124, Minton meanwhile retired. Brennan, successor, motion. (the Brennan. myself. Burton. succeeding Reed arising,' E.g., M.G.L.A. 265 2; Miss.Code Ann. 2536; N.H.R.S.A. 585, N.Y.Code Cr.Proc. 332. Cal.Penal 1239(b); ORS 138.810. seq., hereafter, brevity, called 'Code.' Now 934. ** 918. overlook applicable, adds empowering plainly purposes. agrees HARLAN'S clause. member handed down, ineligible argued, coming II, 111. 7, 1775, reprinted 953 961—971. prepared principally John Adams. Adams, Works, 83—84; Sept. 1776, 6. VIII, 1. XII, XIII, 9. 17. XLVIII; 957. XVI, I; 970. report Washington Committee With January 1778: 'As men, duties Commissaries, Forage Masters Waggon Masters, looked money rank them, departments it, proper, trivial inconsequential circumstance, uniforms badge distinction.' 379. Numerous detailed Writings. A 'Wagon Master' acquitted 1778. 359. 'waggoner' May 1778 (Vol. 487), 1780. time, rider' convicted. 24—25. 1779, 'Commissary Issues' Hides' court-martial. 385—386. 1780, acquitted. 96-97. 'commissary' 'barrack master' tried. 22—23. recited 507; 12, 242; 54, 314; 190. Prescott, Drafting (1941), 515—525; Elliot's Debates 443—445. Glenn Schiller, Law, 18—20. summarized XLI, 207: 'Next effectual union, best possible precaution armies, revenue appropriated support. constitution prudently added. 526; 443. Hamilton, aide-de-camp distinguished officer, knew commonly presumed most, Revoluntary wherein commonplace. 2(d) War: '(d) All camp articles.' 787. Enoch Crowder, stated Affairs: 'There subjecting 65. exercised. joins subjects acquires capacity imperil safety man obligation enlistment contract commission.' Hearings H.R. 23628, 62d Cong., Sess., 61. Cong.Globe, 37th 3d 995 XXXII J.Const.Cong. 111, suttlers 1806, 359, 366, R.S. courts-martial. Ft. Monroe, Va., 1825; Md., Gibson, Oklahoma, 1833; Brooke, Fla., 1838; Camp Scott, Utah 1858; Bridger, 1858. formulated direction: 'It Bureau usage detachment march, custom advisable, sutlers followers vicinity offences discipline, customary expel Army: If, tried, Martial, 60th War.' Archives). Precedents, 101. primarily implies enemy, 'engaged offensive operations.' 24, that: 'Possibly region chiefly inhabited Indians, description

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