Legal Document

438 U.S. 104 98 Supreme Court Reporter 2646 57 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 631 PENN CENTRAL TRANSPORTATION COMPANY et al., Appellants,v.CITY OF NEW YORK al. Number 77-444. Argued April 17, 1978. Decided June 26, Rehearing Denied Oct. 2, See 439 883, 99 226. Syllabus Under New York City's Landmarks Preservation Law (Landmarks Law), which was enacted to protect historic landmarks and neighborhoods from precipitate decisions destroy or fundamentally alter their character, the Commission (Commission) may designate a building be "landmark" on particular "landmark site" an area "historic district." The Board of Estimate thereafter modify disapprove designation, owner seek judicial review final designation decision. designated landmark must keep building's exterior "in good repair" before alterations are made secure approval. two ordinances owners sites transfer development rights parcel proximate lots. Law, Grand Central Terminal (Terminal), is owned by Penn Transportation company its affiliates (Penn Central) block it occupies site." Appellant Central, though opposing Commission, did not Thereafter appellant entered into lease with UGP Properties, whereby construct multistory office over Terminal. After had rejected appellants' plans for as destructive Terminal's aesthetic features, no being sought, appellants brought suit in state court claiming that application "taken" property without just compensation violation Fifth Fourteenth Amendments arbitrarily deprived them due process law Amendment. trial court's grant relief reversed appeal, Appeals ultimately concluding there "taking" since transferred control city, but only restricted exploitation it; denial because (1) same use permitted before; (2) shown they could earn reasonable return investment itself; (3) even if proper never operate at profit, some income Central's extensive real estate holdings realistically imputed Terminal; (4) above Terminal, were transferable numerous vicinity, provided significant loss itself. Held: does constitute within meaning Amendment applicable Pp. 2559-2666. (a) In wide variety contexts government execute laws programs adversely affect recognized economic values action constituting "taking," instances such zoning where tribunal has reasonably concluded "the health, safety, morals, general welfare" would promoted prohibiting contemplated uses land, this upheld land-use regulations destroyed affected interests. many restrictions served substantial public purpose have been against challenges, e. g., Goldblatt versus Hempstead, 369 590, 82 987, 8 130; Hadacheck Sebastian, 239 394, 36 143, 60 L.Ed. 348, statute substantially furthers important policies so frustrate distinct investment-backed expectations Pennsylvania Coal Mahon, 260 393, 43 158, 67 322, acquisitions resources permit uniquely functions "takings," Causby, 328 256, 66 1062, 90 1206. 123-128. (b) deciding whether governmental effected character nature extent interference (here city tax site") focused upon, rather than discrete segments thereof. Consequently, cannot establish simply showing denied ability exploit super-jacent airspace, irrespective remainder parcel. 130-131. (c) Though diminution value alone, result law, concede, urge regulation individual different applies selected properties. But follow laws, embody comprehensive plan preserve structures interest, discriminatory, like "reverse spot" zoning. Nor can successfully contended involves matter taste therefore will inevitably lead arbitrary results, available reason believe less effective case any other context. 131-133. (d) That affects landowners more severely others itself often welfare legislation. Nor, contrary contention, solely burdened unbenefited extensively applied basis legislative judgment preservation benefits citizenry both economically improving overall quality life. 133-135. (e) effects appropriation airspace appropriate property; prohibits occupying certain features space while allowing gainfully supra, distinguished. Pacific KF135 P2 135. (f) interfere present prevent realizing "reasonable return" investment, impose drastic limitation air claim, record smaller, harmonizing structure authorized. Moreover, pre-existing parcels vicinity thus mitigating whatever financial burdens incurred. 135-137. 42 N.Y.2d 324, 397 N.Y.S.2d 914, 366 North Eastern Reporter, 2nd 1271, affirmed Daniel M. Gribbon, Washington, D. C., appellants. Leonard Judge Koerner, City, appellees. Patricia Wald, U. S., amicus curiae, special leave Court. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion 1 question presented may, part program districts, place landmarks—in addition those imposed ordinances—without effecting requiring payment "just compensation." Specifically, we decide land occupied owners' Amendments. 2 * Atlantic 3 Over past 50 years, all 500 municipalities encourage require buildings areas importance.1 These nationwide efforts precipitated concerns. first recognition that, recent large numbers structures, landmarks, destroyed2 adequate consideration either represented therein possibility preserving properties productive ways.3 second widely shared belief historic, cultural, architectural significance enhance life all. Not do these workmanship represent lessons precious our heritage, serve examples today. "[H]istoric conservation one aspect much larger problem, basically environmental one, enhancing—or perhaps developing time—the people."4 4 responding similar concerns acting pursuant State enabling Act,5 adopted 1965. N.Y.C. Admin. Code, ch. 8-A, § 205-1.0 seq. (1976). acted conviction standing [New City] world-wide tourist center world capital business, culture government" threatened legislation pr cipitate character. 205-1.0(a). believed measures safeguard desirable existing urban fabric benefit citizens ways: fostering "civic pride beauty noble accomplishments past"; protecting enhancing city's attractions tourists visitors"; "support[ing] stimul[ating] business industry"; "strengthen[ing] economy city"; promoting interior scenic education, pleasure people city." 205-1.0(b). 5 City typical primary method achieving goals properties,6 involving entities affecting providing services, standards, controls, incentives private users.7 While necessary feature attainment objectives, major theme ensure investments maximum latitude purposes inconsistent goals. 6 operation briefly summarized. responsibility administering vested (Commission), broad based, 11-member agency8 assisted technical staff. performs function, critical effort, identifying "a historical interest development, heritage cultural characteristics nation." 207-1.0(n); see 207-1.0(h). If determines, after giving interested parties opportunity heard, satisfies ordinance's criteria, "landmark," 207-1.0(n),9 situated site," 207-1.0(o ),10 district," 207-1.0(h).11 makes Estimate, considering relationship "to master plan, resolution, projected improvements renewal involved," 207-2.0(g)(1), Thus far, 31 districts 400 finally designated,12 continuing one. 7 Final results upon owner's options concerning site. First, imposes duty assure law's objectives defeated landmark's falling irremediable disrepair. 207-10.0(a). Second, approve advance proposal improvement site, ensuring construction site maintenance landowner's property. §§ 207-4.0 207-9.0. event wishes three separate procedures through administrative approval obtained. apply "certificate effect protected features": is, order approving alteration ground change harmony therewith. 207-5.0. Denial certificate subject review. 9 "appropriateness." 207-6.0. Such certificates granted concludes—focusing aesthetic, historical, values—that proposed unduly hinder protection, enhancement, perpetuation, landmark. Again, c rtificate who appropriateness submit alternative modified procedure seeking "insufficient return," 207-8.0—provides mechanisms, vary depending enjoys exemption,13 cause hardship. 10 Although restricts parcel, also enhances position respect. developed full allowed contiguous block. Zoning Resolution Article I, 12-10 (1978) (definition "zoning lot"). A 1968 ordinance gave additional opportunities parcels. Subject restriction floor transferee lot increased 20% authorized level, transfers across street inte section. 1969, governing conditions under occur liberalized, Resolutions 74-79 74-793, apparently restrict Marcus, Air Rights Transfers & Contemp. Prob. 372, 375 (1971). class recipient lots expanded include "across opposite another except intervention streets intersections f[or]m series extending building[, that] [are] ownership." (emphasis deleted).14 addition, 1969 amendment permits, highly commercialized midtown Manhattan, unused single Ibid. B 11 This (Terminal). Central), most famous buildings. Opened 1913, regarded ingenious engineering solution problems railroad stations, magnificent example French beaux-arts style. 12 located Manhattan. Its south facade faces 42d Street street's intersection Park Avenue. At bounded west Vanderbilt Avenue, east Commodore Hotel, north Pan-American Building. 20-story tower, original design, planned tower constructed.15 eight-story station rents needed commercial number Barclay, Biltmore, Commodore, Roosevelt, Waldorf-Astoria Hotels, Building along Yale Club. least eight eligible recipients afforded virtue designation. 13 On August 1967, following hearing, "city block" site."16 confirmed September 21, 1967. opposed 14 January 22, 1968, increase income, renewable 50-year sublease agreement Incorporated (UGP), wholly subsidiary Union General Ltd., Kingdom corporation. terms agreement, promised pay $1 million annually during $3 thereafter. rentals offset $700,000 net presently received concessionaires displaced new building. 15 Appellants then permission atop Two plans, designed architect Marcel Breuer satisfying ordinance, submitted first, 55-story building, cantilevered rest roof second, II Revised,17 called tearing down portion included facade, stripping off remaining constructing 53-story 20, 1968. "appropriateness" proposals. four days hearings 80 witnesses testified, 16 Commission's reasons rejecting respecting Revised summarized statement: "To Landmark, tear down. To perpetuate strip off." Record 2255. preserved vertical facades structure, sympathetic consideration. created surroundings: dramatic view Avenue South. already silhouette further damage might provide better background disagreed, stating found majestic approach still unique far detrimental feet away. closer vantage points Pan Am towers largely cut view, mass top I. conclusion, stated: 17 "[We have] fixed rule making additions buildings—it depends how done . balance flamboyant Beaux-Arts seems nothing joke. Quite simply, overwhelm sheer mass. 'addition' times high reduce Landmark status curi sity. 18 "Landmarks divorced settings particularly when setting integral concept. setting, great design. plentiful afford lose few have. And meaningful way—with scale, materials protect, design it." Id., 2251.18 19 certificate. Because enjoyed exemption,19 remained suitable future uses, contract sale, remedies N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions plans. n. 13, supra. Further, avail themselves develop Instead, filed Court, Trial Term, claiming, inter alia, sought declaratory judgment, injunctive barring using impede otherwise lawfully constructed damages "temporary taking" occurred between date, date arising lifted. relief, severed taking."20 20 Appellees appealed, Appellate Division, reversed. A.D.2d 265, 377 (1975). Division held promote legitimate sustain constitutional claims proof beneficial evidence introduced trial—"Statements Revenues Co ts," purporting show operating years 1971, prepared instant litigation—had satisfied burden.21 claim statements showed loss, improperly attributed expenses taxes operations compounded error failing impute rental vast devoted purposes. failed unable transforming vacant underutilized revenue-producing use, profitably nearby sites.22 succeeded property's profitable unconstitutionally 21 affirmed. 1271 (1977). summarily compensation," id., 329, N.Y.S.2d, 917, N.E.2d, 1274, indicating it. circumstance, attack prevail Due Process Clause Whether substantive turned "privately privately managed ingredient" 328, 916, 1273.23 because: half century; profit area, hotels buildings, valuable "significant, 'fair,' terminal itself." 333-336, 922, 1276-1278. 22 Observing affirmance "[o]n record," analysis fully counsel level system, directed "should entitled submissions which, light [the court's] opinion, usefully factors discussed." 337, 1279. chose notice appeal We noted probable jurisdiction. 434 983 affirm. 23 issues Amendment, course Chicago, baron Q. R. 166 226, 239, 581, 585, 41 979 (1897), and, (2), so, compensation" Amendment.24 need address occurred.25 24 Before specific contentions, useful shaped jurisprudence injunction "nor shall taken what constitutes proved problem considerable difficulty. "Fifth Amendment's guarantee [is] bar Government forcing alone bear fairness justice, should borne whole," Armstrong States, 364 40, 49, 1563, 1569, 1554 (1960), quite "set formula" determining "justice fairness" injuries caused compensated government, remain disproportionately concentrated persons. 594, 990, 130 (1962). Indeed, frequently observed rendered invalid government's failure losses proximately "upon circumstances [in case." Eureka Mining Co., 357 155, 168, 78 1097, 1104, 1228 (1958); Caltex, Inc., 344 149, 156, 73 200, 203, 97 157 (1952). 25 engaging essentially ad hoc, factual inquiries, Court's identified several significance. impact claimant particularly, interfered are, course, relevant considerations. U.S., S.Ct., 990. So, too, action. readily characterized physical invasion see, 1206 (1946), arises adjusting common good. 26 "Government hardly go incident diminished paying every law," 413, 159, 322 (1922), accordingly recognized, contexts, values. Exercises taxing power obvious example. dismissed challenges challenged harm, interests sufficiently bound up "property" See, Willow River Power 324 499, 65 761, 89 1101 (1945) (interest high-water river runoff tailwaters maintain head property); Chandler-Dunbar Water 229 53, 33 667, 1063 (1913) (no exist navigable waters); Demorest Bank 321 36, 64 384, 88 526 (1944); Muhlker Harlem 197 544, 522, 49 872 (1905); Sax, Takings Police Power, 74 L.J. 61-62 (1964). 27 More importantly case, Nectow Cambridge, 277 183, 188, 48 447, 448, 72 842 (1928). classic example, Euclid Ambler Realty 272 365, 47 114, 71 303 (1926) (prohibition industrial use); Gorieb Fox, 274 603, 608, 675, 677, (1927) (requirement portions left unbuilt); Welch Swasey, 214 91, 29 567, 53 923 (1909) (height restriction), viewed permissible 592-593, 988-989, cases cited; Eastlake Forest Enterprises, 426 668, 674, 8, 96 2358, 2362 132 28 generally property, merit situations actions prohibited previously individualized harm. Miller Schoene, 276 272, 246, 568 (1928), illustrative. entomologist, statute, ordered claimants ornamental red cedar trees produced rust fatal apple cultivated nearby. recovery expense incurred removing cedars, felled trees, resulting decrease market whole. unanimous latter omission render invalid. properly make choice other" industry involved, exceeded "its powers destruction [without compensation] save legislature, greater public." 279, 247. 348 (1915), his lawful brickyard community legislature presence neighboring uses. supra (Government closing gold mines skilled miners mining work taking); Atchison, T. S. Federal KF105 F3 Public Utilities Comm'n, 346 346, 92, 51 (1953) (railroad required share cost grade improvement); Walls Midland Carbon 254 300, 118, (1920) (law manufacture carbon black upheld); Reinman Little Rock, 237 171, 35 511, 59 900 (1915) livery stable Mugler Kansas, 123 623, 273, 205 (1887) liquor upheld). 30 There, 1958 safety banned excavations below water table effectively sand gravel operated 1927. ourt challenge, although presumably had, Hadacheck, owner. assumed adverse land. purpose, taking occurred. It implicit effectuation supra; cf. Moore East Cleveland, 431 494, 513-514, 1932, 1943, 52 531 (1977) (STEVENS, J., concurring), harsh leading proposition amount "taking." There sold surface expressly reserved right remove coal thereunder. transactions, forbade subsidence house, unless house underlying 150 improved another. commercially impracticable mine coal, 414, nearly complete 414-415, 159-160, compensation. (1960) (Government's materialman's lien "taking"); Hudson McCarter, 209 349, 355, 529, 531, 828 (1908) (if height useless interest" required). Michelman, Property, Utility, Fairness: Comments Ethical Foundations "Just Compensation" Harv.L.Rev. 1165, 1229-1234 (1967). 32 Finally, facilitate "takings." holding direct overflights claimant's chicken farm, constituted Causby emphasized "merely [but was] flight planes." 262-263, 7, 1066. Griggs Allegheny County, 84, 585 (1962) (overflights Portsmouth 327, 135, 287 (1922) (United military installations' repeated firing guns Cress, 243 316, 37 380, 61 746 (1917) (repeated floodings project YMCA 395 85, 1511, 117 (1969) (damage federal officers attacked rioters taking). 1226-1229; L. contending Amendments, arguments, tailored facts accompanied constitutional. these, emphasize dispute. settings, cities enact controls Orleans Dukes, 427 297, 2513, 511 (1976); Young American Mini Theatres, 50, 2440, 310 Village Belle Terre Boraas, 416 1, 9-10, 94 1536, 39 797 (1974); Berman Parker, 33, 75 98, 102, (1954); 108, 571, contest objective architectural, entirely goal. They dispute means securing law. challenge premises decision below. accept must, state, capable earning return,26 valuable, none derogate observe citing gainful "air rights" superadjacent entitling measured fair rights. 34 Apart own disagreement characterization infra, 134-135, submission heretofore untenable. Were rule, erred upholding restricting rights, subjacent, (1962), lateral, (1927), parcels.27 "Taking" divide ttempt determine segment abrogated. taking, focuses whole—here, Secondly, appellants, focusing argue significantly concede sustaining regulations, related promotion welfare, uniformly reject value, (75% law); (871/2% value); 674 issue resolved permit. Appellants, moreover, historic-district legislation, Maher Orleans, 516 1051 (CA5 1975), individuals Stated baldly, appears singled out endure hardship hold scheme Agreement argument would, invalidate comparable Nation. find true, emphasize, regulate given communities whereas But, suggestions, spot," zoning: singles different, favorable treatment ones. Rathkopf, Planning 26-4, (4th ed. 1978). contrast discriminatory zoning, antithesis embodies wherever city,28 noted, plan. 38 Equally "is subjective, taste," Reply Brief unavoidably singling disparate unfair treatment. hollow ring case. For denials effect, now suggest sense unprincipled. event, decision, whatsoever conclusion courts difficulty context indeed context.29 Next, differs identical communities. follows, argue, inherently incapable producing equitable distribution characteristic requirement afforded. true severe others, mean Legislation commonly others. sustained cases.30 Similarly, account. wished neighbors residences. 40 suggestions factually inaccurate. contention overlooks fact Terminal—all contained close Terminal.31 Unless Council whole—which unwilling do—we conclude benefited Law. Doubtless Miller, Euclid, Goldblatt.32 Appellants' broad-based us treat instance, enterprise capacity, appropriated strictly purpose. farm beneath nowise impaired neither exploits nor facilitates entrepreneurial city. situation remotely pattern aircraft. Law's prohibit anyone else permitting fashion. prohibiting, "aesthetic" reasons, adult theaters specified (1976), regulat level. Hempstead. Contract Rejection arguments not, however, end inquiry, established whenever interests, laws. consider magnitude "there exercise eminent domain [it]." 159. inquiry narrowed severity resolution turn requires careful assessment Unlike acts Goldblatt, Griggs, way permits contemplates continue precisely used years: containing concessions. So expectation importantly, record, regard obtain investment. 44 exaggerate respects.33 maintained, denying applications excess stories indicate refuse comparably sized said suggests intention report depended "would harmonize material Terminal]." 2251. Since smaller know Terminal.34 45 build literally accurate say Their abrogated; argued development-rights ideal,35 here supportably valuable. well occurred, nevertheless undo btedly mitigate reason, account regulation. Cf. 594 3, 990 3. 46 properties.36 Affirmed. REHNQUIST, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE STEVENS join, dissenting. Of York, appellees official landmarks.1 initially pleased chosen distinguished committee architects, historians, planners singular distinction. he discover, here, him cost, little offsetting honor associated York's desire limited "landmarks" borders taxpayers instead Only superficial word involve "zoning."2 Typical limit prospective piece diminish abstract forbidden likely partially flows All placed restrictions, municipality whole words Holmes, speaking 415, 160, "an average recipro ity advantage." Where relatively separated another, treated differently surrounding reciprocity exists. imposition substantial—in dollars reciprocal benefits. completely normal restrictions. regime latter, landowner purposes, historic-landmark affirmative expense. traditional zoned, likewise upheld, represents ultimate treating alike things different. rubric "zoning" yet sufficed avoid well-established bars whole." (1960). discussion Pages 147-150. objections Central. Immediately duty, backed criminal fines penalties, "exterior portions" repair." Even burdensome, strict limitations thereupon time landmark, precarious condition. effort sources revenue, During period construction, per year. Upon completion, rent option guaranteed minimum clear p oposed compliance limitations. appellee issued "Certificate No Exterior Effect" Appropriateness." refused construction. provides part: compensation."3 very literal sense, violated prohibition. declared apparent Today, form, including erection stories, despite good-faith attempts, obtain. Taking always read literally, constitutionality appellees' scrutiny interpretation key Clause—"property," "taken," compensation."4 54 destroyed. term includes entire "group inhering citizen's [ownership]." Motors Corp., 323 373, 357, 311 (1945). 55 "vulgar untechnical thing respect citizen exercises [Instead, it] denote[s] group relation THING, AS RIGHT TO POSSESS, USE AND DISPOSE IT. provision addressed sort possess." 377-378, 359 added). 56 free consistent boundaries absent appellees, forever state.5 subjected nonconsensual servitude properties.6 destroyed—in narrowly interpreted seizures phrase narrow. deprivation former accretion sovereign taking." 378, 359. Lynah, 188 445, 469, 539 (1903);7 Dugan Rank, 372 609, 625, 83 999, 1009, (1963). "not injury 'taking' sense," 48, 1568, inquiry. examination exceptions demonstrates compensable here. 58 As early 1887, injure having compensate use. "A prohibition declared, valid injurious community, cannot, deemed benefit. disturb dispose it, declaration prejudicial public, not—and, consistently existence organized society, condition pecuniary sustain, permitted, noxious inflict community." 668-669, 301, 205. Thus, residential L.E forbids excavation line, relevant, merely seem 146.8 nuisance exception coterminous police dangerous Curtin Benson, 222 78, 31, 102 (1911), Government, Yosemite National grazing cattle constitutionally fence take straying onto others' compensating him. 62 "Such considered herd responsible neglect 86, 33. 63 question, prevention misuse illegal legal essential attribute nuisance. limitations, health requirements. outstanding architecture. prevented too job designing unadorned admiration decided unchanged sightseeing Yorkers tourists. narrow set ways. "good fit outer adhere detract designed, "exercise dominion land," 262, 1066, loss. "Property inroads parties, acquired." Dickinson, 331 745, 748, 1382, 1385, 91 1789 (1947). 1009.9 noninjurious ruled cross section thereby "secure[s] 160.10 reduces values, burden evenly harmed Here, multimillion dollar appellants; felt flowing City. one-tenth percent people. exactly costs protection directed. 68 "prevents loading says surrenders something exacted members equivalent returned him." Monongahela Navigation 148 312, 325, 622, 626, 463 (1893). 69 Less ago, reiterated 70 1569. Nashville, C. St. Walters, 294 405, 428-430, 486, 494-495, 79 949 (1935).11 Holmes pointed bottom" changes desired fall." 416, 160. flow accrue enjoy spread population person cents year minor surely accrued. discrimination prohibits.12 response occurs property.13 inability 470, 357. converse true. become noncompensable grace allows "reasonable" "[I]t invasion, long substantial, determines 385, (1917); 266, 1068. Appellees, recognizing constraints empty-handed. notes, ante, 113-114, theoretically "transfer" previous adjacent control. ppellees coined system "Transfer Development Rights," TDR's. Clause, strictest meaning. allow approximate perfect taken." 326, 626. 76 "[I]f adjective 'just' omitted, compensation, natural import language emphatic 'just.' can, combination words, doubt 77 465, 355; Pewee 341 117, 670, 671, 95 809 (1951). determination "full equivalent" awarded "judicial function." Collieries 262 341, 343-344, 565, 566-567, 1014 (1923). TDR's irrelevant. "The purposes—that political character; ordered, judicial. Congress representative, paid, Constitution ascertainment inquiry." contend imperfect lower reach awarded. Appeals' gives support appellants: defects detailed elsewhere [and] complex permit." 334-335, 920, 1277 81 "uncertain contingent value" adequately preserve" lost Investing 587, 591, 385 5, 350 381, 383, 429 515, 602 hand, offered amounts slim, remand taken."14 warned danger forgetting strong improve enough warrant shorter change." foreseen abated. easily corporations overburdened York. ignore precedents construing Eminent Domain indeed, achieved change. Trust Historic Preservation, Guide Programs Directory District Commissions municipal efforts, determined foundations Nation living give orientation people," Act 1966, Statutes-at-Large 915, Code KF62 470(b) (1976 ed.), Gray, Response 314 one-half listed Buildings Survey, begun 1933, Costonis, Chicago Plan: Incentive Urban Landmarks, 85 574, 574 (1972), Huxtable, Bank's Plan Sets Off Debate "Progress," N.Y. Times, Jan. Page col. 2. 205-1.0(a) Gilbert, Introduction, Precedents Future, 311, 312 (1971), quoting Robert Stipe, 1971 Conference May (unpublished text, 6-7). N.Y.Gen.Mun.Law 96-a (McKinney 1977). declares policy authorizes local governments areas. consensus widespread ownership feasible wise. base, budget maintenance, museums facilities, scene. Wilson Winkler, 330-331, 339-340 n.2, 580-581; n.6; Rankin, Operation Interpretation creating mission historian qualified field, planner landscape architect, realtor, resident each five boroughs. Charter 534 requirements composition according chairman, "prudent tradition" lawyers, preferably experience laymen specialized qualifications concern Goldstone, Aesthetics Districts, 379, 384-385 " 'Landmark.' Any improvement, thirty old older, nation provisions chapter." 207-1.0(n). 'Landmark site.' An thereof abutting situated, ). 'Historic district.' which: contains value; periods styles architecture eras history city; factors, district "scenic landmark," 207-1.0(w), "interior landmark." 207-1.0(m). Districts correct noting publicly owned, majority structures. non-tax-exempt shows agencies assume enable include, to, partial exemption, remission taxes, authorizations alterations, reconstruction 207-8.0(c). devised approved agencies. accepts proceeds rejects recommend proceed acquire protective period, originally appropriateness. Tax-exempt somewhat differently. preconditions satisfied: sell issuance approval; exists request, return; longer purposes; buyer intends structure. return, sale proceed. remedy tax-exempt landmarks. illustrates, 121, files establishes relief. exemption demonstrated restricted, totally inadequate "legitimate needs," Lutheran Church 316 305 (1974). transfer, procedure. examine compatible approbation focus occupants goes authority deny application. 585-586 (1972). foundation columns, built express supporting tower. "Grand Station, America, evokes spirit combines brilliant solution, wedded t fabulous terminals time. Monumental today built. style, best Beaux Arts." 2240. denominated II, Commission. However, learned easements, substituted evaluated Revised. discussing referred landmarks: reception wing added Gracie Mansion school church 12th side First Presbyterian adjoin. Watch Tower Bible Tract Society Brooklyn Heights, modern idiom, respects qualities surroundings Heights District, Butterfield House West Street, Breuer's Whitney Museum Madison locale." Real Prop. Tax 489-aa Supp. suggested unconstitutional afforded, appeared rely findings: itself, exclusive purely operations, revenues tenants "provide plaintiffs minimize harm suffered appear reflected maintaining therefore, here—and be—factored Metropolitan Transit Authority Connecticut invalidating serious transferring Biltmore Hotel Roosevelt Hotel. calculating e titled "publicly created" components property—i. e., elements attributable "efforts society" "social complex" located—had excluded. contain segregating rests bases page, occasion increments" Disparity Issue: Context Decision, 402, 416-417 Our statement distillation questions jurisdictional "Does social desirability paid use? "Is unmeasurable 'society entity'? finding possibility, exercising rights? accorded landmark-preservation regulation, conceded defective, limited, procedurally speculative, discretionary authorities, meet landmarks?" Jurisdictional Statement 3-4. fourth raise whether, third questions, embrace Both 7-8, courts' reply brief conclusions rationale Appeals, 15, findings depend rationale. based invariably—i. Welch, illustrate fallacy imposing "servitude" contrasted stated point "further plan," 330, 918, 1274 (1977), implementation "acceptable treatment." Ibid., 1275. Therefore, understand disagree When occur. attempt distinguish each, "noxious" contrast, beneficial. rfectly themselves. involved "blameworthiness, moral wrongdoing conscious act risk-taking induce[d society] shift pa[rt]icular individual." understood resting supposed policy—not unlike preservation—expected produce similarly correlatively, asserted fundamental harmful. suggestion ignores sensibilities ideals City's. Bros. Brick Alexandria, 169 Va. 271, 282-283, 192 Southeastern S6 881, 885-886, want 302 658, 369, 508 (1937). Manhattan 14th 59th Streets. duties throughout assurances arbitrariness, applicability comparable, identical, assurances. length 36-43. Counsel admitted oral lines Tr. Oral Arg. 19. 585-589. intended demonstrate changed ceases "economically viable," 42-43. percentage (such Bridge, Hall, Statute Liberty Municipal Asphalt Plant) questions. (1977 10, 1978, Supplement). refers 107, guidance selection sites. Section 207-1.0(n) forth 8-A possess "[t]his Each zone exploitation, discrimination, nonconforming orderly inuring all, individually difficult impossible achieve "Nor district. [In districting, zoning,] benefit, extent, furtherance "Restrictions demolition resemble 'discriminatory' condemned ." 329-330, 917-918, "legislature prescribe form 236, 584, (1897). touches base with, attempts touch them, anything meticulous. (1952), 124, respondents' trained team engineers face impending seizure enemy." 203. particular, urposes (1946) ("air low-flying airplanes); (same); Harbor Land (firing projectiles summer resort Butler Frontier Telephone 186 Northeastern N59 716 (1906) (stringing telephone wire irrelevant physically used. "reference suitable, wants expected immediate future." Boom Patterson, 403, 408, 206 (1879) pervert citizen, stood pretext good, practices ancestors." cited Hadacheck; (1928); Goldblatt. 125-127, 133. (1893), expended sums money locks dams. "Suppose, stream, canal locks, pass around rapids falls. condemn canal, question; equal necessity doubt." 630. rationale, kept importance 12. Gettysburg Electric 160 427, 576 (1896). undertaken cities, "It embraces convenience morals. advancing convenience, evils eradicated advantages secured. moneys raised taxation taxed receive suffer detriment, so-called assessments laid o ners ordinarily them." 429-430, 494-495. comfort Ante, 118 18. refuses aesthetic. 117-118. Difficult conceptual posed define types (farmlands, properties, areas), unit examined. rights," denied. (1922). resolve opinion. point, implies property," 127; phrased 'reasonable return' investment," 136; becomes 138 36. suggests, 131, sights owners, "all Nation" fall. assumes, purchasing condemning restrictive easements results. Ore.Rev.Stat. 271.710, 271.720 (1977); Md.Ann.Code, 41, 181A (1978); Va.Code 10-145.1 10-138(e) Richmond, Va., 21-23 British 1937. Act, 1937, Edw. Geo. lvii, 8. Other encouraging Conn.Gen.Stat. 12-127a Ill.Rev.Stat., 24, 11-48.2-6 10-139 (1978). departs drastically traditional, constitutional,

Classification Label: 3