Legal Document

431 U.S. 324 97 Supreme Court Reporter 1843 52 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 396 INTERNATIONAL BROTHERHOOD OF TEAMSTERS, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES et al. T.I.M.E.-D.C., INC., Petitioner, versus UNITED Nos. 75-636 and 75-672. Argued Jan. 10, 1977. Decided May 31, Syllabus The instituted this litigation under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act 1964 against petitioners, a nationwide common carrier motor freight, union representing large group company's employees. Government alleged that company had engaged in pattern or practice discriminating Negroes Spanish-surnamed persons (hereinafter sometimes collectively "minority members") who were hired as servicemen local city drivers, which lower paying, less desirable jobs than positions line drivers (over-the-road, long-distance drivers), went to whites, seniority system collective-bargaining agreements between petitioners perpetuated ("locked in") effects past racial ethnic discrimination because driver serviceman transferred line-driver job forfeit all competitive he accumulated his previous bargaining unit start at bottom drivers' "board." sought general injunctive remedy specific "make whole" relief for individual discriminatees, would allow them an opportunity transfer with full seniority. Section 703(a) makes it unlawful employment practice, inter alia, employer fail refuse hire any otherwise discriminate him regard race national origin. 703(h) provides part notwithstanding other provisions, shall not be apply different standards "pursuant bona fide . system, provided such differences are result intention ." District after trial, respect both agreements, held violated enjoined from committing further violations thereof. With relief, court determined "affected class" discriminatees included minority members been every terminal operation, whether they before VII's effective date. thereby became entitled preference over applicants future. Finding affected class injured varying degrees, created three subclasses, applied each formula filling establishment seniority, giving retroactive date those suffered "severe injury." right member vacancy was made subject prior recall rights agreement on layoff more years. Although agreeing Court's basic conclusions, Appeals rejected affected-class trisection, holding could bid future basis their once use even if antedated date, limited only by "qualification date" formula, awarded periods when (1) vacant, (2) met (or, given opportunity, have met) qualifications. Holding three-year priority favor laid-off workers "would unduly impede eradication discrimination," directed purely temporary arose might compete member's Held : 1. sustained its burden proving systemwide violation regularly purposefully treating favorably white persons. evidence, showing pervasive statistical disparities bolstered considerable testimony instances discrimination, adequately rebutted supported findings courts below. Pp. 334-343. 2. Since proved post-Act discriminatory policies, may no provision relief. Franks Bowman Transportation Co., 424 747, 778-779, 96 1251, 1271, 47 444. 347-348. 3. protected § therefore union's conduct maintaining did violate VII. Employees pre-Act person earlier Act's injunction must consequently vacated. 348-356. (a) By virtue does become simply perpetuate pre-Title Congress (as is manifest language legislative history Act) intend make illegal employees vested continue exercise rights, expense discriminatees. Thus here intentional disproportionate advantage longest tenure now enjoyed advantages sanctioned 703(h). 348-355. (b) issue entirely fide, applying races groups, negotiated maintained free purpose. 355-356. 4. Every applicant position presumptively refusal place based policy discrimination. Cf. Franks, supra, 773 n. 32, S.Ct., 1268. 357-362. 5. An incumbent employee's failure inexorably bar award nonapplicants afforded undertake difficult task should treated accordingly. 362-371. Congress' purpose vesting broad equitable powers "to possible 'fashion(ing) (of) most complete possible,' " Albemarle Paper Moody, 422 405, 421, 95 2362, 2373, 45 280. Measured prophylactic purposes VII, assertion has actually can never cannot prevail, consistently enforced surely deter applications aware unwilling themselves humiliation explicit certain rejection. 364-357. However, nonapplicant still show potential victim but practices. known prospect rejection shows wanted line-driving deterred qualified. Consequently, remedial hearing conducted knowledge policies. 367-371. 6. At remand will identify actual victims and, application principles equity, balance interest legitimate expectations innocent wrongdoing. 371-376. 5 Cir., 517 Federal Reporter, 2nd 299, vacated remanded. Robert D. Schuler, Bloomfield Hills, Mich., petitioner Number L. N. Wells, Jr., Dallas, Tex., 75-636. Lawrence G. Wallace, Washington, C., respondents cases. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion Court. 1 This brings several important questions 1964, 78 Statutes-at-Large 253, amended, 42 Code KF62 2000e seq. (1970 ed. Supp. V). issues grow out practices union. freight operations, represents engaging Americans, create maintain In addition presented these two rulings, subsidiary resolved occurred concerning nature aggrieved individuals entitled. 2 * brought action Tennessee federal Incorporated (company), pursuant 707(a) 2000e-6(a).1 complaint charged followed hiring, assignment, promotion policies Nashville, Tenn.2 second almost years later Texas, charging throughout transportation system. International Brotherhood Teamsters (union) joined defendant suit. actions consolidated trial Northern Texas. 3 central claim lawsuits minorities hiring so-called drivers. Those hired, alleged, thereafter discriminated promotions transfers.3 connection also challenged established purposes. 4 cases trial4 found shown "by preponderance evidence T.I.M.E.-D.C. predecessor companies plan ."5 contained contracts "operate(d) groups into within company." Both accepted Government's contention Negro fill operations operation.6 All employees, consideration vacancies jobs.7 subclasses. Thirty produced "the convincing harm" ordered offered dating back July 2, 1965, VII.8 A subclass four "very possibly objects discrimination" "were likely harmed," whom there injury. decreed January 14, 1971, filed lawsuit. Finally, 300 remaining "no either harmed individually." considered jobs9 ahead public behind third received seniority; begin then effect extended years.10 6 Fifth Circuit agreed conclusions Court: 299. appellate held, however, inadequate. Rejecting attempt trisect class, filled job, predated purposes, including bidding layoff. vacant,11 (or met, opportunity) qualifications driver.12 modified decree subjected id., 322, allowed members' Laid-off retain "purely temporary" vacancies. Ibid.13 7 remanded case hold evidentiary hearings necessary principles. We granted petitions certiorari consider significant 425 990, 2200, 48 814. II 8 contend respect, asserting first introduced insufficient "pattern practice" contends way If contentions correct, unnecessary, course, reach remedies so occupied attention Appeals. Atlantic 9 Consideration question involves controlling legal relatively clear. theory company, VII,14 Americans disparity treatment allegedly involved recruit, hire, transfer, promote equal people, particularly positions. ultimate factual thus disparate so, "racially premised." McDonnell Douglas Corporation Green, 411 792, 805 18, 93 1817, 1825, 36 668.15 10 As plaintiff, bore initial making prima facie 425, 2375, 280; U.S., 802, 1824. And, resistance enjoyment ultimately prove mere occurrence isolated "accidental" sporadic acts. It establish standard operating procedure regular rather unusual practice.16 11 agree carried proof. March shortly alleging 6,472 Of these, 314 (5%) 257 (4%) Americans. 1,828 (0.4%) (0.3%) persons, commenced. one exception man worked Chicago 1950 1959 predecessors employ until 1969. showed, 1971 terminals areas substantial population where white.17 great majority (83%) (78%) work paying jobs,18 whereas 39% nonminority categories. 12 recounted 40 Upon "(n)umerous qualified black American driving years, requests ignored, false misleading information about requirements, opportunities, procedures, same whites hired." Minority similar difficulties.19 13 principal response statistics existence shifting rebutting inference raised figures. But, our brief summary shows, relied "statistics alone." testified personal experiences cold numbers convincingly life. 14 event, unmistakably clear "(s)tatistical analyses served serve role" disputed issue. Mayor Philadelphia Educational Equality League, 415 605, 620, 94 1323, 1333, 39 630. See 805, 1825. Washington Davis, 426 229, 241-242, 2040, 2048-2049, 597. repeatedly approved proof, reached proportions comparable case, jury selection cases, see, e. g., Turner Fouche, 346, 90 532, 24 567; Hernandez 347 475, 74 667, 98 L.Ed. 866; Norris Alabama, 294 587, 55 579, 79 1074. Statistics equally competent discrimination.20 caution irrefutable; come infinite variety like kind rebutted. short, usefulness depends surrounding facts circumstances. See, Hester Southern R. 497 1374, 1379-1381 (CA5). 15 protest claims revealing imbalance take account particular business situation concedes virtually conditions force dropped. Its argument low personnel turnover, accounts recent disparities. points especially patterns broken. 16 forceful who, time suit, done new since But not. total number apparently dropped somewhat during late 1960's, record many continued period, white.21 To sure, improvements commented "T.I.M.E.-D.C.'s progress stands laudable good faith effort eradicate area assignment."22 F.2d, 316. upon course well changes little comfort erase obligation afford it. 413-423, 2369-2374.23 17 Appeals, systematic purposeful continuing beyond attempts rebut conclusion inadequate.24 For reasons we summarized, warrant disturb Blau Lehman, 368 403, 408-409, 82 451, 454, 403; Faulkner Gibbs, 338 267, 268, 70 25, 62; Dickinson, 331 745, 751, 67 1382, 1386, 91 1789; Commercial Credit 286 63, 67, 467, 468, 76 978; Chemical Foundation, Inc., 272 1, 6, 71 131; Baker Schofield, 243 114, 118, 37 333, 334, 61 626; Towson Moore, 173 17, 24, 19 332, 43 B 18 operated Act. calculating benefits, vacations, pensions, fringe runs joins takes service units. determining order jobs, laid off, recalled layoff, bargaining-unit controls. Thus, driver's runs25 protection length terminal.26 practical transfers 20 vice arrangement, "locked" inferior discouraging While disincentive workers, found, denied initially refused unrelated 21 linchpin embraced discriminatee finally obtain able "catch up" level contemporary discrimination.27 Accordingly, continued, built-in disadvantage constitute jointly liable. 22 union, while acknowledging some sense asserts immunized finding illegality reason 2000e-2(h), part: 23 "Notwithstanding subchapter, compensation, terms, conditions, privileges origin argues "bona fide" meaning judged light history, intent, application, circumstances maintained. More specifically, ensure perpetuation immunizes effect. Court, litigation, presents hurdle seek Indeed, itself up cause attempt, through grievance gain appropriate 25 responds perpetuates 703(h); minimum prohibits assignments. 26 open ones Court.28 444, decided employer's stated thrust (§ 703(h)) toward defining what operation perpetuating occurring Act." 761, 1263. Beyond noting statute, statutory construction required litigation. 27 28 Because enactment said pre- Post-Act Bowman, without attacking legality them. acknowledges assignment relief.29 1271. Here Any receive direct discrimination.30 29 30 What remains review judgment unlawfully decide, validates systems constructive turn. 31 primary assure equality opportunities eliminate devices fostered racially stratified environments citizens. 800, 1823.31 417-418, 2371-2372; Alexander Gardner-Denver 36, 44, 1011, 1017, 147. Griggs Duke Power 401 429-431, 852-853. achieve purpose, "proscribe(d) overt fair form, operation." Id., 431, 853. neutral face intent nonetheless group. General Electric Gilbert, 429 125, 137, 401, 408, 50 343; 246-247, 2050-2051; 422, 2374, 2375; 802 1824; supra. 32 One "fair operation" discrimination.32 "Under Act, practices, tests face, terms operate 'freeze' status quo practices." 430, 33 Were 703(h), seem fall rationale. heart allocation choicest greatest layoffs, time. Where, white, flow disproportionately away passage distribution very real "operate literal demonstrate measure immunity 34 Throughout H.R. 7152, enacted critics bill destroy existing rights.33 consistent congressional proponents Department affected, Act.34 interpretive memorandum placed Congressional Record Senators Clark Case stated: 35 "Title rights. prospective retrospective. example, all-white working force, title comes non-discriminatory basis. He obliged indeed, permitted fire prefer vacancies, or, give special earlier." 110 Cong.Rec. 7213 (1964) (emphasis added).35 statement Senator Clark, voiced conclusion: If, collective contract event last off first, least true owing title, Negroes." 7207 added).36 38 statements added authoritative indicators section's Mansfield-Dirksen compromise substitute cleared VII.37 drafters goals resolve ambiguities House-passed version 7152. 11935-11937 (remarks Sen. Dirksen); 12707 Humphrey). debates indicate, concerned impact bargained apparent drafted eye meeting criticism embodying understanding assurances proponents, namely, outlaw among flowed inconceivable bill, intended vitiate representations supporters increasing systems. Humphrey, noted 1262, confirms "merely clarifies (Title VII's) present effect." 12723 (1964). sum, unmistakable routine resulted having greater Negroes. inevitably tends lists water down immunize refers systems, proviso requires reading compels us reject fide." accept require becomes allows enacted. affirmative parties subordinate consequence perversion invitation disembowel words do.38 neutral, discriminatees.39 41 That inescapable one, seems reference already employed rational distinguishing absence discrimination.40 distinction support anywhere history," 768, 1266. discussed above, honors employees' contrary mandate forbid previously job. anything, latter disadvantaged. 'it indeed surprising gave (group) other.' Ibid., quoting Phelps Dodge NLRB, 313 177, 187, 845, 849, 85 1271.41 (3) fide. applies groups. extent "locks" non-line-driver all. discouraged transferring Americans; contrary, overwhelming white. placing separate accord industry National Labor Relations Board precedents.42 conceded genesis circumstances, single fact extends unlawful. 44 On remand, vacated.43 III Our necessarily affect Several relating remain, consideration. 46 argue generally err tailoring "degree injury" employee, Appeals' sweeps too brush granting Specifically, assert employee demonstrates practices; elevated current status. separately. petitioners' substance proof pattern-or-practice equivalent outlined Green. properly remainder private, non-class challenging discrimination." 1823. complainant carry establishing involved, concluded applicant, group, unsuccessfully justified prohibited shifted offering legitimate, nondiscriminatory 49 seize means decision purport inflexible formulation. expressly "(t)he vary specification (a plaintiff) applicable differing situations." 13, importance lies, discrete elements required, recognition principle plaintiff adequate criterion Act.44 context action. plaintiffs proved, satisfaction "had various discharge employees." 1257. Despite showing, available. erred plaintiffs. "demonstrating members; reapply 772, illustrates another plaintiff's met. broad-based discrimination; allegation reasonable grounds infer decisions pursuit forth dispelling inference.45 51 follow model, suit squarely Franks. Government, employers. 336, 16. initial, "liability" stage offer policy. existed. shifts defeat demonstrating inaccurate insignificant. show, claimed product period pursued few justify discrimination.46 fails arises conclude determine remedy. Without court's justifies Such form continuation keep records file periodic reports court, "necessary rights" VII.47 53 When seeks district usually additional proceedings liability phase scope not, discriminatorily second, "remedial" trial. case. typical suits, arise dissipate cannot, therefore, believe based; decisionmaking. 54 supports decision, need job48 rests lawful reasons. Part II-A, error company. applicant49 discrimination.50 56 distinguish classwide coupled excluded. nonapplicants, suggested "as matter White (line driver) worth candle." 320. 57 grant inconsistent make-whole impermissibly preferential solely race. unless minority-group injury whatever 58 "immutable rule" nonvictims, determination depending correctly 59 left "identifiable VII." 750, decide inexorable Individual 60 Analysis problem premise 417, 2371. again Albemarle, objective prophylactic: remove barriers male 429-430, 852-853; serves providing 'spur catalyst causes employers unions self-examine self-evaluate endeavor eliminate, far possible, vestiges' 2371-2372. whole injuries 418, 2372. afforded, fashion restitution." 764, 1264. 62 'not merely power duty render future.' 2373. ordinarily exist denying 'which, generally, frustrate eradicating suffered.' 771, 1267, 63 standards, prevail. always confined requested opportunity. 64 announce sign "Whites Only" hiring-office door, ignored rebuffs. message communicated subtly just clearly applicants, manner publicizes recruitment techniques, responses casual tentative inquiries, composition excluded groups.51 person's desire translated formal unwillingness engage futile gesture much goes motions submitting application. 65 model 419, 2372; 769, 1266, Board, enforcing orders, recognized submit claiming affiliation activity. NLRB Nevada Consolidated Copper Corp., 316 105, 960, 86 1305, directing former newly available well-known refusing members. re N.L.R.B. 1182, 1208, 1231. Similarly, vain Courts orders reinstating striking despite strikers reinstatement strike ended. E. Park Edge Sheridan Meats, 323 956 (CA2); Valley Die Cast 303 (CA6); Eagle-Picher Mining & Smelting 119 903 (CA8). Piasecki Aircraft 280 575 (CA3); Anchor Rome Mills, 228 775 (CA5); Lummus 210 377 Consistent NLRA useless act serving confirm discriminatee's unavailable him. Acha Beame, 531 648, 656 Hairston McLean Trucking 520 226, 231-233 (CA4); Bing Roadway Express, 485 441, 451 Industries, 479 354, 369 66 denial ground claimant formally exclude coverage entrenched forms Victims gross precisely successful totally per se prohibition put equity invidious extend hope self-realization. limitation manifestly "historic 'secur(e) justice' 'to past.' 68 forever foreclose entitlement cry, easy Mt. Healthy City Education Doyle, 274, 568, 471. analogous presumption III-A, 69 identified "with degree specificity," accordingly affirmed. cites act. futility seeking filing followup application.52 agree. duration leave doubt insufficient. possessed requisite qualifications.53 There city- jobs,54 desirability self-evident choice.55 content jobs.56 gap, nonapplicant's willingness court-ordered notice relief57 demonstrates, according argument, 72 assumption falls short satisfying normally jeopardy being must, best, suffer runs. 343-344, 25. Non-applicants chose post hoc invitation, enter security says choice freely choose starting desired individual, remand.58 Contract 73 simple one. Initially, determinations deciding After identified, nearly 'recreate relationships no' process recreating involve approximation imprecision. include did, vacancy, equities allocating Moreover, rightful determined, faced delicate adjusting interests prejudgment consent decree, see 4, assume exercising first-priority terminals. constituted final defined "vacancy" awaiting return work. openings occur off.59 322-323. 75 remedy, adjustment competing disturbing urge pertaining rate places hierarchy.60 directly controlled Act,61 nonvictim restored equity. devising implementing formulating draw "qualities mercy practicality (that) instrument nice reconciliation private needs claims." Hecht Bowles, 321 321, 329-330, 592, 88 754. 195-196, 852-853, modifying 113 202 547, 600; 798-799, 1280-1281 (POWELL, J., concurring dissenting part). Especially immediate implementation threatens impinge parties, "look realities necessities inescapably reconciling interests," "special blend necessary, fair, workable." Lemon Kurtzman, 192, 200-201, 1463, 1469, 151 (opinion Burger, C. J.). 77 record, decline explain why subordinated contractual determination, considering 400 three, composed neither nor members, influenced small information. hand redefined believed behest understanding. opinion, concept completely valid. size altered substantially. Until identifiable consequent evaluate abstract struck best left, instance, sound discretion court.62 779, 1271; 416, observe exercises dealing developed state meaningful appeal. 774, 1269; 421 discussed, vacated, opinion. 80 ordered. 81 MARSHALL, BRENNAN joins, part. N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions T. I. M. E.-D. guilty blacks acts set Term 444 (1976).1 do permits treat differently prevented acquiring road. dissent aspect holding, limitations 83 quite acknowledges, ante, 349-350, absent exempts "classify(ing) deprive tend adversely individual's race, color, religion, sex origin." 2000e-2(a)(2) ed., 424, 853, 158 (1971) added). Petitioners' that: awards benefits possessing credential which, due acquiring. "(e)very worker old segregated bids slot, classification reasserts itself, suffers anew bias." Local 189, Papermakers Paperworkers States, 416 980, 988 (CA5 1969) (Wisdom, J.), cert. denied, 397 919, 926, 100 (1970). 84 concedes, touch understatement, view support." Ante, 346 28. dissent, six cases,2 indicated agreement, dissent.3 unbroken Equal Employment Opportunity Commission conclusion.4 And weight scholarly accord.5 Yet Term, 343 (1976), overturns unanimous EEOC Once again, respectfully disagree. bear mind statute designed evils aimed broadly: employment," limit, segregate, classify status." 2000e-2(a) V) carves exemption prohibitions. longstanding construction, "be liberal interpretation (and) exemptions sweep narrowed intended." Piedmont ICC, 311-312, 541, 545 (1932); Spokane Inland 241 344, 350, 668, 671, 1037, 1115 (1916); Dickson, Pet. 141, 165, 689 (1841) (Story, Unless "plainly (the) spirit" Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Phillips, Walling, 490, 493, 807, 808, 89 1095 (1945), deemed unprotected. else section, applicability unmistakably" anything holding. section provides, pertinent 87 "(I)t (Emphasis added.) "privileges employment" hand, others, prior, assigning jobs; disadvantaged read literally, instant it, rendering inapplicable. avoid compelled reconstruct read: "did purpose." 356. radical reconstruction proviso. documents written weeks amendment containing introduced. specifically discuss proviso.6 importantly, none addresses Not surprisingly, think subtleties enacting comprehensive, pathbreaking Act.7 my mind, dispositive. Absent unambiguous legalizing wrongs, how applies. Even inferences view, legalize administrative developments positively refute conclusion. uphold is, though, assigned city-driver explained footnote. 348 30. footnote relies Air Lines, Evans, 553, 1885, 571. Evans devoid analysis paragraph. base strength sheer bootstrapping. 92 Had objectively examined opposite "it Act."8 1263 arising dependent benefiting paragraph Clark-Case Interpretive Memorandum begins: retrospective." explains: example forbidden title." Clark's prepared answers propounded Dirksen "Question. abolish list happens seniority? "Answer. retroactive, change lists." 7217 99 ignore reaching remarkable. admittedly affords stronger Spanish-Surnamed though threat avert nonremedial, fictional want superseniority invalidated whenever These opponents raised9 addressed.10 "there jobs." 354. 101 task, then, assuming imputed ourselves question, made," Burnet Guggenheim, 288 280, 285, 369, 371, 513 (1933) (Cardozo, focused problem: validated discrimination? answer devastating today's validating fully understood. Prior 1965 find lowest paid, menial industries Nation South. factories, laborers trained skilled positions;11 porters;12 steel plants coke ovens blasting furnaces, hotter dirtier" employment.13 holds, essence, advance pay price: surrender jobs. many, price high, locked positions.14 willing reconcile subsequently assigned. remain distant dream 102 am nothing suggest write entire generation Nor postpone achievement economic equality. backers viewed necessity moral imperative.15 They corrosive victims, society generally.16 sought, citizens"; 1823, 668 (1973); 147 (1974); 2372, (1975). enable society. 103 invalidate wholesale goal.17 suing behalf here, overturn "time (minority group) (recognized) (the group's) time," 995, Admittedly, manifested that. Memorandum, using waiting lists, Title, selections training programs disrupt lists. sacrosanct, ban interfered pre-existing anticipated Judge Butzner's seminal Quarles Philip Morris, 279 F.Supp. 505, 516 (ED Va.1968): "It freeze existed Act."18 104 leaves dispelled subsequent developments. ignores developments; critical. 105 First, score beginning early 1969, unlawful.19 retreated, 141-142, 410-411, interpretations 'entitled deference,' 2378, 434, 855; Before aside EEOC's administers, 'compelling indications wrong.' Espinoza Farah Mfg. 414 86, 94-95, 339, 287 (1973), Red Lion Broadcasting FCC, 395 367, 381, 1794, 1801, 371 (1969). 106 Second, 1972 1972, Public Law 92-261, 103, amending doing, invalidating evident Senate House Committee cite leading decisions, prominent law articles. S.Rep. 92-415, Page n.1 (1971); H.R.Rep. 92-238, (1971). took opinions dissatisfied,20 overrule expressed approval "perpetuation principle" systems21 invoked Committees' recommendations government employees,22 expand EEOC.23 Section-by-Section Conference floor managers "language hardly explicit," 765 21, 1264, that, "in indicated, assumed govern 118 7166, 7564 (1972). perhaps important, explaining empowers prevent 2000e-2 2000e-3," 2000e-5(a) V), declared: 107 "The encompassed sections 703 704 enumerated original expanded courts, 7167, (1972) added).24 108 held: "When passed touching matter, legislation assist subject." Tiger Western Investment 221 286, 309, 578, 584, 738 (1911); Bell Aerospace 275, 1757, 1762, 134 (1974) (subsequent "significant weight"); 380, 1801; Stafoff, 260 477, 480, 197, 199, 358 (1923) (Holmes, J.); New York Norfolk Peninsula Produce Exchange, 240 34, 39, 230, 232, 511 (1916) (Hughes, Weeks, Cranch 8, (1809). Earlier implicitly canon 1976 Administrative Procedure §§ 701-706, 1946, independent jurisdiction courts. Califano Sanders, 430 99, 192 (1977). discussing '(seize) thing aid derived .,' Brown GSA, 820, 825, 1961, 402 quoting, Fisher, 358, 386, 304 (1805), intent. readopted signed effect, retroactivity problems inhere interpret here. Stockdale Insurance Cos., Wall. 323, 331-332, (1874). bald "entitled weight," 354 construing precedent. 109 Only materials reviewed above "completely (answer) somehow available" backpay provide grants dissent. follows: "(a) Whenever Attorney secured deny herein described, bring civil Acting General), setting requesting permanent injunction, restraining responsible deems insure described." 707 amended 107, 2000e-6(c) Commission, General, authority suits private-sector 1974, entered substituting retaining party jurisdiction, appealability, related matters. 2000e-6(d) named T.I.M.E. Freight, mergers 17-year period. 304, currently operates Canadian Provinces. Line over-the-road hauling compose Other distinct units servicemen, trucks, unhook tractors trailers, perform tasks; dockmen, hostlers, pick deliver terminal. represented Following receipt consented entry Decree Partial Resolution Suit. adjudication merits. agreed, recruiting program; inquired employment, existed, notify openings; inspection quarterly Court; adhere uniform respecting "(b)y any, suffering 1964." "any persons," obligated percentage equaled metropolitan $89,500 settlement obligations. payments exceeding $1,500 paid "alleged discriminatees" Government. Suit occurred. decree. validity contract's remained reported Cases Fair Practice (BNA) KF3315 L32 690 EPD P 8979 (1973-1974). driver. separately respect. Under Area Over-the-Road Supplemental Agreement "modified" strictly home move covered "bumping" junior vacancy. person. slightly requiring subclasses mention requirement exist, Circuit's formula. Rodriquez East Texas Motor 505 40, 29, rev'd grounds, 395, 1891, 453, cited 318 35; Sagers Yellow Freight System, 529 721, 731-734. began 1966, becoming 1966. opened used. (with slight modification) provides: "(1) sex, origin; "(2) "Disparate treatment" easily understood type treats people others Proof motive critical, although situations inferred treatment. Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. 252, 265-266, 555, 563-565, 450. Undoubtedly obvious evil 13088 Humphrey) ("What factor employment. men women qualifications, Catholic citizens, Protestant Jewish colored citizens States"). Claims distinguished stress "disparate impact." facially harshly necessity. infra, 349. motive, disparate-impact theory. Compare, 430-432, 853-854, 158, 802-806, 1824-1826, 668. baron Schlei Pacific KF135 P2 Grossman, Discrimination 1-12 (1976); Blumrosen, Strangers Paradise: Concept Discrimination, Mich.L.Rev. Either may, facts. 1830 term art, reflect usual meaning. Humphrey explained: "(A) consists something isolated, incident, repeated, routine, generalized nature. if, discriminated, chain motels restaurants practiced statute. point single, insignificant, 14270 appears 707(a), identical used legislation. 12946 Magnuson) (referring 206(a) 2000a-5); 13081 Case); 14239 Humphrey); 15895 Rep. Celler). Jacksonville Terminal 438, 441 Ironworkers 443 544, 552 (CA9); West Peachtree Tenth 437 221, 227 Mayton, 335 153, 158-159 Atlanta, 22.35% 51.31% proper. Atlanta Los Angeles, 10.84% 17.88% Negro. Angeles 374 showed San Francisco, Denver, Chicago, "considered jobs," 369-370, 55. thought better worse another. Hayes international 456 112, Lead 438 935, 939 Two examples illustrative: George Taylor, Negro, 1968, told manager driving. replied "a lot road Caucasian, cetera," "I don't feel ready now. Give around, you know." Taylor months got responses. Feliberto Trujillo dockman Denver 1967, officer asked told: "You're Chicano, know, isn't Chicano system." Petitioners statistics, comparing large, decisive conflict 703(j) 2000e-2(j). "Nothing subchapter interpreted comparison community, State, area, area." erroneous balanced. probative often telltale explanation, expected representative community hired. Evidence longlasting imposes mirror population. Sheet Metal Workers 123, 127 Considerations sample detract value 620-621, 630, figures accurately pool relevant. Ibid. 15, 1161-1193. "Since frequently violation. avenue uncover clandestine covert involved." 551. also, Pettway Iron Pipe 494 211, 225 Gaston County Dyeing Mach. 457 1377, 1382 442; Parham Southwestern Tel. 433 (CA8); Jones Lee Way 245, 247 (CA10). Between hundreds systemwide, outside ranks None Exhibit 204. 116 7.1% 1967 10.5% 1972. increased greatly 1973, presumably 31. narrower attacks precise delineation referred populations located close available, failed portion suited age, health, trucking etc. lacking force. go accuracy communities. overwhelmingly work, access terminal, healthy sufficiently frequency whites. Pretrial Stipulation summarized 312 (of 2,919 1,802 (62%) 1,117 (38%) drivers; 180 (7%) 167 (93%) drivers). fine tuning obscured glaring remarked, inability came misuse zero." 315. apart consisted mainly applicants. "affirmations dispel exclusion." Louisiana, 405 625, 632, 1221, 1226, 536. attempted witnesses ruled judge bound committed relying instead overpowering correct appropriately concern conduct. 360-362. Certain runs, reasons, others. chosen top "board" arranged except Agreement. 1958 driver, 1971. loses 1970. henceforth enjoy preferable present. Concededly, support. adopted Va.). departmental (first emphasis adoption 987-988 133-134, 20; Bethlehem Steel 446 652, 658-659 Chesapeake Ohio 471 582, 587-588 (CA4). Insofar depended discriminatory" "genesis F.Supp., 517, resting proposition adoption. Article Master lawsuit provided: Employer Union origin, segregate "grievable" breach contract. insofar 331. today 571, largely dispositive holds timely charge discriminatee. Here, sued directly, barred. unlawful, enlarge awarded. "There societal sides (employer-employee) equation. broad, overriding interest, shared employer, consumer, efficient trustworthy workmanship assured decisions. abundantly tolerates subtle otherwise." 801, Asbestos Vogler, 407 1047 (CA5), apt illustration. excluding blood marriage. 1966 challenge policy, pre-Act, observed: "While nepotism alike discriminatory, negroes Mexican-Americans membership." 1054. 914, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., 65-66, (1963) report); 486-488 Hill); 2726 Dowdy); 7091 Stennis). material 759-762, 1261-1263, 1518 Celler); 6549 6564 Kuchel). "bipartisan captains" debate. Bipartisan captains selected parties. detail, defending discussion 6528 Vaas, VII: Legislative History, B.C.Ind. Com.L.Rev. 444-445 (1966). text 760 16, 1262. Dirksen, following exchange: Would prevail promotions, management function governed labor calling dismissals? Normally, call 'last fired.' Negroes, fired white? Seniority bill. fired' hired,' 'first long hired' race." 1262; 35, 435. reason, bars resulting "an discriminate," hearings, 351, pertinent: perfectly chance rules 'low totem pole' amendments 764-765, 1264; 796-797, (Powell, part), result. indicates, susceptible readings. references "de facto ladders," Pages 5, (1971), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 2137, address authors Report VII," construe views Congress, commenced, weight. proscribe Va.), progeny. stressed 516. 980 "No doubt, 'reverse discrimination' meant protect outrank rejection, senior 994. addition, suppose plantwide Then, now, measured ways, plant, department, progression. Aaron, Reflections Legal Nature Enforceability Rights, Harv.L.Rev. 1532, 1534 (1962); Cooper Sobol, Testing Laws: Approach Objective Criteria Hiring Promotion, 1598, 1602 contains suggestion preferred. Georgia Highway 150 1649, 1651: defined, homogeneous, functionally effectively duties functions, supervision, bases payment, divergent (city operations) unit." Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 19(a). MacMillan Bloedel Containers, 503 1086, (CA6). instance belongs based. demand rely applicant: absolute relative lack sought. Elimination sufficient, creates rebuttable presumptions generally. Presumptions judicial evaluations probabilities conform party's superior McCormick, 337, (2d 1972); James, Burdens Proof, Va.L.Rev. 51, (1961). Keyes School Dist. 413 208-209, 2686, 2697, 548. factors conclusively likelihood component overall pattern. changed wrongdoer. evaluation applicant's relevant items factors, agents knew decision-making process. defense meet mean limits use. focus demonstrated examining composed, commonly explanation 20, therein. exercised devise therefrom. infra. incorporated parties' Nonapplicants III-B, justification purported pretext 804-806, 1825-1826. far-ranging escaped scrutiny discourage 495 398, 418-419 (CA5) (public advertising), 444; Carter Gallagher, 452 315, 319 (CA8) (recruitment); 458 (posting qualification requirements); Ironworkers, 315 1202, 1238, 1245-1246 (WD Wash.) (dissemination information), aff'd, 544 (CA9). measures preventing deterrence intimidated Franks: large. incumbency narrow impossible statuses nonincumbent differ practice. claim, determinations: applied. issue, familiar tasks incumbent's certainly superficially plausible heard Inasmuch coming forward nevertheless other, one-third earned annually difference varied $1,000 $5,000 year. California terminals, "LOS" substantially earnings, load unload trucks. hours, spend family, hazards high speeds. acknowledged "parallel" "are confidence concluding applying. 318, adopts arguing accrued unlikely II-B, detracts acquired deterrent imposed regardless ethnicity. encountered claim. days, qualification-date informal inquiry, expression unexpressed credible convincing. judge. Paragraph 9(a) "A 'vacancy' Order, opening caused unit, death, resignation incumbent, increase where, ordinarily, roster occurs. competition "However, continues consecutive 'vacant' position, respective dates, Order." provisions agreements. (NMFA) establishes "(s)eniority broken discharge, voluntary quit, (or) year layoff." evident, NMFA determines lose recall. Subject NMFA, methods procedures application" Agreements. Agreement, covering Conference, loss 42, reduction increased, returned reverse off," recall, involving influx 3(a)(1) (merger solvent 5(b)(2) (branch closing branch). "dovetailing" active facilities involved. Ibid.; (honoring Military Selective Service 1967). recognizes "questions accrual, forth," resolution unforeseen problems. 7. Presumably 38, briefs modification interterminal Conference. petition us. Rule 23(1)(c). disposition presented, permit reconsider rightful-place amount argument. rectify makeup participate "preference" 703(j). secure inherent 1277 alternatives them, discretion. 796 1362 stating "difficult," 364, understand addressing difficult. unnecessarily adds nonapplicants' burden. past, "says little," willingness. sort pieces attempting overly meaningless generalizations. 648 (CA2 1976); 652 1971); Nance Carbide 540 718 (CA4 1976), pending, 76-824, 76-838; Patterson Tobacco 528 357 1975), 1666, 176 226 1975); 582 1972), sub nom. Railroad Trainmen 939, 1893, Robinson Lorillard 791 (CA4), dismissed, 404 1006, 573, 655 420 1225 1970), Swint Pullman-Standard, 539 721 Sabala Gillette, 1251 75-788, 76-1060; Gamble Birmingham 514 678 Resendis 1974); Herrera Carey Greyhound Bus 500 1372 211 Johnson Goodyear Tire Rubber 491 1364 1973); 474 906 418 1971), 406 906, 1607, 815 (1972); Long Kraft 450 557 Armco 498 1970); 1969), (1970); Detroit Edison 515 301 (CA6 75-220, 75-221, 75-239, 75-393; Palmer 1040 Head Timken Roller Bearing 486 870 Bailey 462 160 Rogers 510 1340 (CA8), summarily remanded, 423 809, 19, (1975); (CA8 Gibson Longshoremen, 543 1259 (CA9 Navajo 525 1318 1975). Va. 1968). Bowe Colgate, Palmolive 489 896 (CA7 245 (CA10 954, 972, 237 28, results survive decision. "is rational, precedents(,) purpose," 356, distinguishes Commerce Clearing Empl. Prac. Guide (1976) PP 6481, 6448, 6441, 6400, 6399, 6395, 6382; (1973) 6373, 6370, 6366, 6365, 6355, 6334, 6313, 6272, 6223, 6217, 6214, 6211, 6197, 6195, 6188, 6176, 6169, 6044. Opportunity: Glimmer Hope, Rutgers L.Rev. 268 (1969); 1598 Fine: Plant Employees: Effect Layoffs, U.Colo.L.Rev. Gould, Black Worker: Implications, 1039 Poplin, Depressed Economy: Layoff Problem, UCLA 177 S. Ross, Reconciling Affirmative Action Anti-Discrimination University, Twenty-Eighth Annual 231 Developments 1109, 1157-1164 Comment, Updated: Hired, First Fired Seniority, Questions Liability Remedy, Colum.J.Law Soc.Prob. Note, Problem Fired: Retroactive Remedy Ga.L.Rev. 611 Layoffs 1544 Incumbent 1260 (1967); Systems: Back Foot Line? Ky.L.Rev. 114 Conflict Opportunities, 1975 Wis.L.Rev. 791; 1969 L.J. 1091; N.C.L.Rev. 891 (1968). documents, quoted 759-761, nn. 15-16, 350-351, 7212-7215 (1964); Reply Arguments Made Hill, 7207; Response 7216-7218. April aloud debates. 26, 1964. 11926. add documents. (Rep. Cellar); 6549, 11848 (Sen. 6563-6564 Kuchel); 9113 Keating); 15893 McCulloch). own naivetEe: "In tended series distinguishable events, ill-will organization. Experience false." underlies Franks' refusals awarding disrupts detailed attack report Judiciary Report, H.R.Rep.No. Sess. (1963): (T)he taken unknown unknowable. carpenters' hall, say, call, carpenters, forced pass carpenters beneath stipulated original). line, advanced minorities. 487 Stennis); 7878 Russell). states: workers." 7213. phrased Case. 1970). 1971). 655. "lock-in" explains why, assertion, "rational jobs) job." moving higher assumes obtaining 385-386, 10. true, notes, 3540-355, EEOC, commentators, 5; Harv.L.Rev., 1544, conclusion, questioned Watkins Workers, 6547 6562 7203-7204 Clark); Pt. 26-29 (1963). sources commentator "(T)he conflicts itself. wish expedite integration mainstream end, all, de replaced slavery end War." 191. 1042: "If integrated paper acceptable root embodied presently arrangements advancement rights." interpreting 269, Electrical 149 769 (1964), enforced, (CA3 1966), hall commits referrals experience nonunion develop experience. Houston Maritime Assn., 168 615 (1967), enforcement 584 definitional subsection (j) "religion" "religious observance belief." formulate guidelines religion Dewey Reynolds Company, (324) (6th Cir. affirmed divided 689, 2186, 267 (1971)." 7167 (Section-by-Section 1746, Sens. Williams Javits). define encompass religious Metals 324, 334-335 naive assumptions 7, state: "Employment complex phenomenon. Experts describe 'systems' 'effects' literature replete discussions of, mechanics lines progression, pre-act institutional whose expert assistance, technical perception exists complained unlawful." recommendation singled Papermakers, "have contributed significantly combat imagine "address(ed) case," referring practices" citing Papermakers. governments (such as) ladders." 10; 2152. debate Senate. 1815 Williams); 117 31961 Perkins). process, approaches handling serious (including systems)." 19. argued: "Administrative tribunals equipped handle complicated Issues perplexed plant-wide restructuring pay-scales progression lines, rosters testing." 2146. re-enacted sections, gloss 2A Sands, Sutherland's Statutes Statutory Construction 49.10 cited; cf. (1975) (finding re-enactment "ratified" unnamed charges EEOC).

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