Legal Document

377 U.S. 533 84 Supreme Court Reporter 1362 12 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 506 baron Atlantic REYNOLDS, etc., et al., Appellants,v.M. O. SIMS al. David Judge VANN and Robert S. Vance, Appellants, versus Agnes BAGGETT, Secretary of State Alabama John W. McCONNELL, Jr., Nos. 23, 27, 41. Argued Nv. 13, 1963. Decided June 15, 1964. Rehearing Denied Oct. 12, See 85 13. [Syllabus from pages 533-535 intentionally omitted] McLean Pitts, Selma, Ala., for appellants in Number 23 appellees 27 Richmond M. Flowers, Atty. Gen. Alabama, appellee Flowers. Charles Morgan, Birmingham, 23. Vann, 27. McConnell, Mobile, Archibald Cox, Sol. the States, as amicus curiae, by special leave Court. Mr. Chief Justice WARREN delivered opinion 1 Involved these cases are an appeal two cross-appeals a decision Federal District Middle holding invalid, under Equal Protection Clause Constitution, existing legislative proposed plans apportionment seats houses Legislature, ordering into effect temporary reapportionment plan comprised parts but judicially disapproved measures.1 I. 2 On August 26, 1961, original plaintiffs (appellees 23), residents, taxpayers voters Jefferson County, filed complaint their own behalf on all similarly situated voters, challenging Legislature. Defendants below (appellants sued representative capacities, were various state political party officials charged with performance certain duties connection elections.2 The alleged deprivation rights Constitution Fourteenth Amendment, asserted that had jurisdiction provisions Civil Rights Act, 42 Code KF62 §§ 1983, 1988, well 28 § 1343(3). 3 stated Legislature was composed Senate 35 members House Representatives 106 members. It set out relevant portions 1901 which prescribe number bodies method apportioning among State's 67 counties, provide follows: 4 Article IV, Sec. 50. 'The legislature shall consist not more than thirty-five senators, one hundred five house representatives, to be apportioned several districts prescribed this Constitution; provided addition above each new county hereafter created entitled representative.' 5 IX, 197. whole senators less one-fourth or one-third representatives.' 6 198. representatives members, unless counties created, event representative. state, according inhabitants them, respectively, ascertained decennial census apportionment, when made, subject alteration until next session after have been taken.' 7 199. 'It duty at its first taking year nineteen ten, subsequent census, fix law apportion them respectively; provided, least 8 200. divide many senatorial there nearly equal other may be, senator, no more; such districts, formed, changed legislature, taken; preceding attached districts. No divided between district made up contiguous other.' 9 XVIII, 284. '* * Representation based upon population, basis representation constitutional amendments.' 10 maximum size increased 105 creation 1903, pursuant provision states that, seats, thereafter 202 203, established precisely boundaries enactment legislature. These provisions, specifically describing composition detailing allocated county, periodically enacted statutory measures modified only additional time litigation commenced.3 11 Plaintiffs last 1900 federal despite requirement reapportioned decennially. They since population growth 1960 uneven, now victims serious discrimination respect allocation representation. As result failure reapportion itself, asserted, they denied 'equal suffrage free elections protection laws' violation Amendment Constitution. adequate remedy, exhausted forms relief available through courts. pattern prolonged inaction 1911 present 'clearly demonstrates effected'; any future convention would making it unlikely membership fairly representative; while found complied failing decennially,4 court nevertheless indicated interfere matters reapportionment.5 requested three-judge convened.6 With relief, sought declaration establishing unconstitutional Constitutions, injunction against legislators itself accordance further issuance mandatory injunction, effective properly reapportioned, requiring conducting 1962 election large over entire State, 'may seem just, equitable proper.' 13 A convened, three groups residents Jefferson, Etowah Counties permitted intervene action intervenor-plaintiffs. Two cross-appellants minor exceptions, intervenors adopted allegations same plaintiffs. 14 March 29, 1962, just days decided Baker Carr, 369 186, 82 691, 663 moved preliminary defendants conduct May Democratic primary November general motion hearing order stating tentative views required before protect plaintiffs' rights, should take 'absolutely essential' 'further reasonable prompt opportunity comply duty' 15 April 14, Court, reiterating expressed earlier order, reset case July 16, noting importance case, together necessity within limited period time, early announcement views. 205 F.Supp. 245. Relying our jurisdiction, justiciability standing. judicial notice facts changes Alabama's 1901, w basis, never Constitution.7 Continuing, if could objection grounds apportionment. failed act, actions did meet standards, 'clear some matter prior election. 'present thinking' follow approach suggested MR. JUSTICE CLARK his concurring Carr8—awarding released consolidation revamping suffering 'the most egregious discrimination,' thereby releasing strangle hold sufficiently so permit newly elected body enact constitutionally valid permanent plan, allowing eventual dismissal case. Subsequently, amend adding prayer asked provisionally rural relaxed enough itself. 16 extraordinary 1966 elections. One amendment, referred '67-Senator Amendment.'9 consisting giving seat distributing others proportions' method.10 Using formula, amendment specified allotted 1970 census. county. legislation submitted ratification 17 embodied measure signed Governor, 'Crawford-Webb Act.'11 standby fail passage majority courts refuse accept (though rejected voters) compliance requirements Amendment. act representing along lines, altered few former In Representatives, gave seat, remaining 39 rough formula increasingly accorded seats. Crawford-Webb Act also 'until is law,' standards reapportionment. Future apportionments presumably statute, unlike affect. 18 evidence adduced trial panel consisted primarily figures showing issue litigation—the (under current substantially reenacting plan), 67-Senator Act. Under plans, represented senator. 19 21, held inequality violated finding noted 'generally conceded' parties litigation, shifts converted scheme, perpetuated 60 years later, invidiously discriminatory completely lacking rationality. 208 431. applying figures, 25.1% totel resided Senate, 25.7% lived elect Representatives. Population-variance ratios about 41-to-1 existed 16-to-1 House. Bullock 13,462, Henry 15,286, House, whereas Mobile 314,301, given 634,864 people, seven representatives.12 pertinent consistently construed prohibiting county,13 600,000 Lowndes 15,417, Wilcox 18,739 people.14 20 then considered both ascertain whether taken remedy aspects initially summarizing reached, stated: 21 'This has reached conclusion neither Amendment,' nor Act' meets necessary requirements. We find acts, whole, obviously discriminatory, arbitrary irrational becomes unnecessary pursue detailed development factors (federal constitutional) test.'15 22 senator 'make even invidious present.' pointed below, '(t)he control people reduced 19.4% State,' 34 smallest total 14% prevent submission electorate proposals (since vote two-fifths can defeat proposal Constitution). Noting 'only conceivable rationalization' scheme subdivisions thus analogous analogy ground merely involuntary units statute aid administration government. so-called irrelevant, cannot survive superficial examination history diametrically opposing population. Nor comparison different natures counties.'16 24 Constitution,' explicitly 'shall amendments,'17 previously probably convention.18 concluded, however, 'based reason, rational regard known accepted apportionment.'19 basis. About 43% live body. And, th population-variance ratio 59-to-1 significantly 4.7-to-1 County 10, eight, increase five. urban achieved limiting 55 populous each, net away allocate counties. Even so, disparities population-based standard remained. Montgomery 169,210 four Coosa 10,726, Cleburne 10,911, 25 Turning allocating diminishing populations, 'totally unacceptable.'20 37% reside electing 5-to-1. Each represent 52,000 persons eight represnet 20,000 people. regarded 'a step right direction, extremely short step,' 'slight improvement system representation.'21 combining two-county splitting larger smaller ones minority 27.6% population.22 person Bibb Perry worth times citizen six voter. concluded CrawfordWebb unacceptable' 'piece legislation' which, remained without 26 relating found, solely 284, '(r)epresentation population.' dealing conflicting somewhat paradoxical representative, although senator), view controlling dominant Legislature' language 197—200, obvious strictly entirely extent must Houses systems avoided. Indeed, policy theme require still complying provisions.'23 directed concern providing remedy. adopting provisional contained Senate. noted, Act,' unacceptable piece legislation, break hold.' Stating retaining deferring *, true Legislature,' emphasized 'moderate' designed suffice 25, entered decree determinations, concluding 'plaintiffs virtue debasement votes, continues (as law).' enjoined defendant Alabam validly conducted Court's order. 29 After decision, ordered particular immediate effect. likewise Black refused stay Consequently, decree. All serve four-year terms, regularly scheduled will 1966. 1963 regular produced apportionment,24 biennially, another 1965. 30 obtain malapportionment appears available.25 initiative procedure exists law. three-fifths approved people,26 convened approval call initiated Legislature.27 31 Notices timely 23) intervenor-plaintiffs (cross-appellants 41). Appellants contend erred unconstitutional, lacks power affirmatively Cross-appellants assert compel allegedly 41 probable 1963, 374 802, 83 1692, 1029. II. 32 Undeniably protects qualified citizens vote, consistent line decisions involving attempts deny restrict indelibly clear. repeatedly recognized protected Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 651, 152, L.Ed. 274, votes counted, Mosley, 238 383, 904, 59 1355. Mosley 'as equally unquestionable one's counted open put ballot box.' U.S., 386, S.Ct., 905. outright, Guinn 347, 926, 1340, Lane Wilson, 307 268, 872, 1281, destroyed ballots, see Classic, 313 299, 315, 61 1031, 1037, 1368, diluted ballot-box stuffing Siebold, 100 371, 717, Saylor, 322 385, 64 1101, 88 1341. 'Obviously included choose, secured cast ballots *.' 1037. Racially gerrymandering, Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110, white primaries, Nixon Herndon, 273 536, 47 446, 71 759, Condon, 286 73, 52 484, 76 984, Smith Allwright, 321 649, 757, 987, Terry Adams, 345 461, 73 809, 97 1152, denying impermissible. And seen continuing expansion scope country.28 freely candidate choice essence democratic society, restrictions strike heart dilution weight citizen's effectively wholly exercise franchise.29 33 663, we claim constitutionality impaired debased diluted, presented justiciable controversy adjudication spate similar lower amply shows problem perceived exist States.30 Baker, suit attack Tennessee remanded dismissed action, consideration merits. intimated proper evaluating validity scheme. give question appropriate remedies. Rather, simply 'Beyond cause stage doubt able fashion violations improper consider what prevail trial.'31 provides discoverable manageable use determining 36 'Nor need appellants, succeed ask enter determinations lacking. Judicial developed familiar, determine, must, reflects policy, capricious action.'32 37 Subsequent reconsideration light decision.33 38 Gray Sanders, 372 368, 801, 821, Georgia unit system, applicable statewide elections, resulted because where resided. indicating Fifteenth Nineteenth Amendments prohibit overweighting diluting race sex, 'How twice voting he lives area county? Once geographical chosen designated, who participate whatever race, occupation, income, wherever home unit. This concept 'we people' visualizes preferred class equality those basic qualifications. idea every voter casts favor competing candidates, underlies decisions.'34 40 'there indication homesite occupation affords permissible distinguishing State.' finally, concluded: conception Declaration Independence, Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Fifteenth, Seventeenth, mean thing—one person, vote.'35 Gray, 'unlike does involve degree limits authority legislatu e designing either question, inherent bicameral form Government, population.'36 43 Of course, faced Gray—that guidelines implementing Carr. 44 Wesberry 376 1, 526, 481, Term, attacks congressional districting legislatures do nonjusticiable questions generally 'want equity.' determine test schemes substantial 45 'contracts value expands others' intends Congress much prescription 'by People,' historical context, 'means practicable man's another's.' 46 principle solemnly Great Compromise—equal numbers people—for us draw lines way greater voice choosing Congressman others.'37 further, Wesberry, 'our Constitution's plain objective' 'of fundamental goal stating: 48 'No precious country having make laws good citizens, live. Other basic, illusory undermined. Our leaves room classification unnecessarily abridges right.'38 49 course dispositive directly controversies. Admittedly, decisions, person's considerations addressed rather distinct problems. But inapposite. though determinative here weighting classified, constitutionally, live, grounded prescribes t schemes, involved instant cases, principally Nevertheless, clearly government economic status, place residence State. problem, then, ascertain, insant cognizable principles justify departures legislatures. 50 predominant constitutes violative individual personal nature. Bathgate, 246 220, 227, 269, 271, 62 676, *.'39 While restructuring distribution focus concentrated ascertaining impermissible impairment vote. Like Skinner Oklahoma, 316 535, 1110, 86 1655, 'touches sensitive important human rights,' 'involves civil man,' presenting 'invidious discriminations types individuals guaranty laws.' 541, 1113. Undoubtedly, society. Especially franchise unimpaired manner preservative infringement carefully meticulously scrutinized. Almost century ago, Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, voting' right, rights.' 370, 1071. 51 Legislators trees acres. farms cities interests. long ours government, instruments bedrock system. hardly gainsaid allegation otherwise prohibited part times, contended residing disfavored areas diluted. appear suggest ote two, five, living elsewhere once. inconceivable counting legislators, multiplied face value, sustainable. unequal constituents identical.40 Overweighting overvaluation undervaluation there. resulting easily demonstrable mathematically. Their favored Two, equivalent neighbor. Weighting differently, means, happen reside, seems justifiable. ever aware forbids 'sophisticated simpleminded modes discrimination.' 275, 876, 1281; 342, 127, 110. supra: 'We believe Framers intended vote-diluting accomplished device containing widely varied inhabitants. To say run counter ideas *.'41 53 are, historically, fountainhead country. roots colonial antedate Nation Government. fact, formal stirrings American independence part, bodies. birth National adoption retained Nation's governmental structure. self-government medium inalienable full participation processes Most achieve them. Full requires, therefore, Modern viable needs, demands, less. 54 Logically, society ostensibly legislators. conclude sanction bodies, far surpasses possible denial might thought result. Since responsible enacting governed, collectively responsive popular will. traditionally viewed uniform treatment standing relation questioned challenged. representation, stand regardless Any criteria differentiation insufficient discrimination, purposes achieving fair concededly aim guarantees Diluting impairs Brown Board Education, 347 483, 74 686, 98 873, Griffin People Illinois, 351 585, 891, Douglas California, 353, 814, 811. minorities means ideals rule, served past, significance future. told complex many-faceted one. advised rationally consid r admonished impose differing philosophy citizens. cautioned dangers entering thickets mathematical quagmires. answer this: demands protection; oath office us. 56 'When exercises domain interest, insulated review. insulation carried used instrument circumventing federally right.'42 57 debased, citizen. fact legitimate reason efficacy complexions societies civilizations change, often amazing rapidity. nation once character predominantly urban.43 become archaic outdated. remains, remain, unchanged—the depend lives. Population is, necessity, starting point criterion judgment controversies.44 citizen, voter, city farm. clear strong command Clause. essential men. vision 'government (and) people.' places races. IV. 58 standard, requires sea Simply stated, individual's unconstitutionally compared Since, correctly invalid. Furthermore, lesser little crazy quilts, rationality, invalid alone.45 Although acceptable, deviations strict too body, arrangement sustained. comprise actually distributed close 5-to-1 existed. nicety requisite, sustainable none came approaching Legislative signally illustrative symptomatic seriousness States. At commenced, years.46 inaction, coupled unavailability remedy,47 resulted, years, becoming anachronism. Consistent frequency bases Inequality added other. crazy-quilt virtually conceded offered err 'meets requirements.' acted considering 1962.48 Consideration correct admittedly malapportionment, sort any, afforded. V. justified proceeding further. However, superficially resembles folowed Congress. seat. Arguably, Congress, Seats one, being glance, resemble 435 Congressman. Thus, differences underlying rationale result,49 arguably presents Much written Carr applicability arrangements.50 matter, drawn amendment.51 agree inapposite irrelevant schemes. Attempted reliance after-the-fact rationalization defense maladjusted arrangements. constitutions completely, predominantly, population.52 Founding Fathers intention model adopted.53 Demonstrative Northwest Ordinance, year, 1787, territorial population.54 ingrained land. conceived compromise concession indispensable establishment republic.55 Arising unique cir umstances, type federalism group formerly independent bound themselves national surrendered sovereignty agreeing join 'to perfect Union.' remains separate entities delegated some, all, powers single almost three-fourths independently sovereign detract inapplicable sustaining precedent apportionments. developing republic cloud inception averted deadlock Constitutional Convention threatened abort Nation. rejecting electoral college supra, specific accommodation latter undertaken, therefore validation numerical ensued.'56 63 Political States—counties, cities, whatever—never entities. subordinate instrumentalities assist carrying functions. Hunter City Pittsburgh, 207 161, 178, 40, 46, 151, 'created convenient agencies exercising entrusted them,' 'number, nature, duration conferred (them) territory exercised rests absolute discretion state.' relationship Government analogous. sustained recourse analogy. inequitable necessarily involves something 'republican government.' Clause, perforce resulting, submergence equal-population 65 weighted amount submerge house. If permissible, ability thwarted Deadlock issues. frustration veto stemming accord overall nondiscriminatory summary, perceive difference, 66 bicameralism rendered anachronistic meaningless same—population. prime bicameralism, modernly considered, insure mature deliberate of, precipitate on, measures. complexion Different constituencies houses. single-member multimember length terms differ. differ, significantly, arranged balance off inequities presently utilized engender collective attitudes VI. By requisite honest faith effort construct practicable. realize practical impossibility arrange identical voters. Mathematical exactness precision workable requirement.57 68 enunciated Wesberry—equality districts—some distinctions invariably, feasible subdivision affording valid, ws significant way. Somewhat flexibility districting. Lower assuredly work concrete context actual litigation. For present, deem expedient attempt spell precise tests. What marginally unsatisfactory another, depending circumstances Developing doctrine case-by-case satisfactory arriving Cf. Slaughter-House Cases, Wall. 36, 78—79, 394. proceed relevant. 69 legitimately desire maintain integrity subdivisions, insofar possible, compact Valid underlie aims. Indiscriminate districting, natural boundary invitation partisan gerrymandering. Single-member rule creating multimember58 floterial districts.59 Whatever accomplishment, overriding objective approximately 70 History indicates, deviated, degree, legislatures.60 So divergences incident effectuation alone,61 sorts interests, attempting disparties Citizens, votes. Considerations alone justification principle. Again, land pastures, developments improvements transportation communications hollow, mid-1960's, claims considerations. Arguments sparsely settled availability access today, unconvincing. substance justifying insuring subdivisions. Several insubstantial maintained. Local frequently responsibilities operation legislature's activity local concerns deter possibilities permitting Carried far, (for example, county) result, subversion body.62 especially populated, exceed counties.63 Such conclude, careful scrutiny given, if, submerged adequately impaired. VII. 72 arguments upholding arrangement, houses, approval, admitting Union, Proponents argument population-bas d indicates arrangements plainly sufficient raised Guaranty nonjusticiable, 'political' nature absence standards.64 inconsistent admission deviating enunciated, more. satisfy requirement. assume, pass organization. event, however well-considered, validate insulate deprivations rights. VIII. That adopt periodic revision Decennial readjustment account growth. Reallocation coincides practice States,65 honored breach observance, Illustratively, reapportionment, yet brought, 1901. Limitations stability continuity organization undoubtedly reapportioning leads imbalance toward end resistance change incumbent substance, daily, monthly, annual biennial reasonably intend indicate minimal maintaining intimate frequent practicably desirable. frequency, suspect. IX. sets impossible. makes difference schem constitution provisions. noncompliance with, task simple. deemed effectuated. Clearly, accommodate possible. quite When unavoidable conflict Supremacy controls. X. 75 difficult remedial devices utilize cases.66 Remedial techniques differ challenged variety conditions. unusual plan. circumstances, impending imminent machinery already progress, withholding granting immediately awarding proximity forthcoming mechanics complexities laws, rely principles. timing endeavor avoid disruption process unreasonable embarrassing adjusting court's DOUGLAS, 'any fashioned well-known equity.'67 feel commendable manner. wisely declining refrained acting admitted discrepancies action. determination, fails requisites so. Additionally, restraint, remedying deficiencies effect, great difficulty, prescribing purpose usurp responsibility 77 find, using best invalid,68 well-considered power. final effectively, proceeded fashion. evinced realization avowedly interim, affirm remand proceedings opinion. ordered. 78 Affirmed remanded. 79 CLARK, affirmance. 80 goes beyond necessities laying down population' offshoot 381 (1963), i.e., 'one vote,' 'nearly practicable' admonition 8, 530, 481 (1964).* Whether vote' 'approximately equal' 'some deviations' 'mathematical nicety' majority's vague phrases. applies me quilt,' revealing my 253—258, 629—732, (1962). I, reach 'federal analogy.' view, include departure account, afford elements dissenting Lucas Forty-Fourth General Assembly Contract lorado, 741, 1476, date. STEWART agreed Accordingly, reasons Colorado, Page 744, 1477. & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions framing adhere closely opportunity, devise HARLAN, dissenting.** 87 holds States1 ways violate ruling fate.2 office, placing pervasive overlordship judiciary. again,3 register protest. PRELIMINARY STATEMENT. Today's structure people; play encroach 'population' ideology—and score practices earliest beginnings wide debate (see Frankfurter, J., 266, 301—323, 737, 755—767, 663)—I think tenet authorize 89 discussion, Ala ama (Nos. 41, ante, 533) particularly 561—568 thereof, remarkable (as, indeed, opinions Brothers Pages 588, 587,) address hand. Stripped aphorisms, boils assertion appellees' 'debased' 'diluted' entitle fewer tied frail tautology 'equal' 'equal.' 90 Had paused probe deeply inhibit pleased shown understanding ratified it, adopted. confirmed numerous common evidenced amendments abrupt past 1962. 91 excused explained 'developing' constitutionalism. speak 'development' ignored. can, think, apportionments, such, limitations, save imposed Republican Form (Const., 4),4 bringing purview amounts nothing amending 92 concerned, complaints proved right. 93 Before observed done followed wake, Sanders quotes length, forecloses reach. 94 competence adjudicate. action', 237, 720, evident concerned exclusively attention touches apportionments.5 Neither text Amendm nt materials bearing question. None briefed brought attention.6 95 expressly laid aside theory striking 376, 806, STEWART, joined id., 381—382, 809. 96 rested 2, forward concerning note 530. Thus abundantly deal called time. turn. Language 99 relies portion 'deny laws,' disregards reads: 'Representatives respective numbers, excluding Indians taxed. electors President Vice Executive officers male twenty-one age, abridged, except rebellion, crime, therein proportion bear age (Emphasis added.) 101 text. introduced discussed Reconstruction Committee,7 reported States,8 split submit section Senate.9 application stood alone, am unable understand utter disregard second recognizes States' 'or way' abridge (State) express abridgment. comprehensive reference preclude sugg stion today. indeed words themselves, imply, construction puts 102 Proposal Ratification 103 conclusive believed saw fit. Moreover, demonstrate undisturbed 104 (i) Congress.—A resolution proposing became Committee Fifteen 30, 1866.10 sections read: malecitizens age.'11 Thaddeus Stevens 8. opening remarks, why supported fell 'far short' wishes: 'I obtained public Not consulted. Upon survey ground, loyal induced ratify proposition stringent this.'12 107 explanation belief, remember 'that months since, more, committee fixing surely enfranchisement distant period,' Senate.13 108 He ex lained impact 109 allows unjust operates man operate all. punishes crime punish black degree. man. redress afforded testify allow color same. advantages codes. Now degrees punishment inflicted, magnitude skin. disqualifies testifying courts, tried enumerate partial oppressive laws. Unless restrain fear, keep crush death hated freedmen.'14 turned section, said article.'15 Its said, Congress.'16 unmistakable withhold vote: 111 'If exclude her adult elective franchise, she forfeit proportion. grant universal shear forever hopeless executive.'17 112 Closing discussion dislike allowed discriminate (with vote) class, receive proportionate credit inrepresentation.'18 113 Toward Bingham, author leading proponent,19 following: 114 'Allow me, Speaker, passing, takes pertained it. otherwise, freeman privileges immunities Republic, assumed power, give, shows, regulating States.'20 continued: 115 excludes subjected law; save, exception, republican choose supposed Madison, treason despotic people.'21 remarks: 116 'To sure agree, peopl reporting reconstruction States.'22 117 closing Committee, speaker resolution, doubtful exception,23 Bingham law.' assumption inadvertent silent. effected speakers repeatedly, implication, regulate borders. Attached Appendix hereto statements. 10.24 Debate began pattern. Speaking Chairman ill, Senator Howard, member meaning 119 clauses disable depriving whoever life, liberty, property due law, him abolishes injustice subjecting caste code another. prohibits hanging hanged. shield throws Is President, extend man, poor privilege law? 120 'But, sir, classes voting. not, creature always positive lying slaves, depotism (sic).'25 121 Discussing regret 'not recognize *.'26 122 do; you, half dozen prefer colored suffrage; Houses; really Legislatures whom premises; likely approbation Legislatures, fourths propositions force provisions? 123 ye prepared race. fairly, misunderstanding subject. Union suffrage, restriction, 124 meddle right.'27 125 There speech finally adopted, sections, fully understood everyone interfered franchise. B statements debates passed 1866.28 changed, 13.29 126 (ii) 'loyal' States.—Reports available.30 compelling indirect evidence. 1870, disregarded spread population.31 Ten emphasis applied principles, recognition areas.32 Can seriously two-thirds render unconstitutional? 127 theoretical. New Jersey, Cape 8,349, Ocean 13,628, Senator, Essex Hudson Counties, populations 143,839 129,067, respectively.33 left population.34 besides mentioned 30,000,35 disproportions also. York, Hamilton 128 Assembly.36 ranged 15,420 942,292.37 100,000 50,000,38 disproportion large. Vermont, counties.39 4,082; largest 40,651 20,000.40 (iii) 'reconstructed' States.—Each readmitted Union.41 scrutinized Congress.42 Debates readmission extensive.43 instance, Objecting inclusion Florida 1868, Farnsworth floor House: Legislature; thousand inhabitants.'44 129 response Butler illuminating: 130 'All arguments, statements, Judiciary proper. your Reconstruction, proper, House.'45 131 Constitutions Contained departing Amendment.46 North, real theory. North Carolina, leaving numbers.47 5,000 15,000, widespread substantial.48 South Charleston, 88,863, Senators; ranging 10,269 42,486, Senator.49 Florida, Representative; four.50 Dade 85, Alachua Leon 17,328 15,236, respectively.51 132 incredible exacted price readmission, studied 133 recited show doubt: 134 '(1) awareness possibility deliberately chose plenary Amendment; 135 (2) included, adopted; 136 (3) majority, doing, accepting limitations freedom, questioned, chose. 137 belief implications construing confounded history. difficulty attend situations contemplated framed. problems untouched. 138 C. 1868. 139 following reverse: 1875 guaranteeing upper limit House.52 Florida's 1885 continued guarantee per three.53 Georgia, 1877, counties.54 Louisiana, 1879, guaranteed parish House.55 1890, Mississippi population.56 Missouri's areas.57 Montana's 1889 counties.58 Hampshire amended direct taxes paid;59 Hampshire's 1902.60 140 1894, York peculiar population: Senators, countries adjoining 'separated waters' one-half whenever mo Senators increased, preserving small seats.61 addition, Assembly.62 Carolina 1876 fixed House.63 Oklahoma's (1907) House; 'take part' representatives.64 Pennsylvania, 1873, House.65 Carolina's 1895, Senator.66 Utah's 1895 assured House.67 Wyoming, 1889, representative.68 141 D. Today. 142 invalidates upheld none, scarcely comment situation contrary record roughly 20% total, geographic populated devices, straight minimum complicated kind exemplified York's struck today 20, 633, 633.69 Tennessee, Virginia, 69, 678, 1441, whose sound standpoint uniformly opposed permissible. 143 E. Factors. 144 summary ignores, Amendments. abridging 'on color, previous condition servitude.' latter, certified 1920, sex classifications. Minor Happersett, 162, 627, women Privileges Immunities well. 145 'And again, fourteenth fifteenth, ight abridged enforce suffirage immunities, &c.? Nothing less, go part?' Id., 175. 146 men and, women, officers, how plausible interest opposes vote—can Amendment?70 Yet, highly implausible controls methods suprotected, inescapable has, relegated limbo anachronisms assigned. 147 Mention or, accurately, silently overruled confer anyone, noted. point. Colegrove Barrett, 330 804, 973, 1262, 'for want question' alleging Illinois 'gross power' atrocious laws.71 Remmey Smith, 708 (D.C.E.D.Pa.), Pennsylvania deprived 'constitutional Amendment'. 709. 'notoriously true' disenfranchisement Philadelphia knowledge.' 710. question.' 342 916, 685. 148 Kidd McCanless, 200 Tenn. 273, 292 Western Reporter, 2nd dismiss declaratory Apportionment unconstitutional. elects Senate; 40% Representatives.' 276, S.W.2d, 42. Without dissent, granted appeal. 352 920, 223, 157. Radford Gary, 541 (D.C.W.D.Okla.), plaintiff statutes Oklahoma mandate deprive States.' 542. resident 15% 2% 4% unwillingness inability branches available. dismiss. affirmed dissent. 991, 559. 149 recent distinguished 235—236, 719 720. dispositions imaginary. 1947 1957, raising issues Three fourth affirmed.72 150 catalogue complete, judgment, today's refuted construe inference subsequently unequivocally adop ion 151 elaboration 'constitutional' far—and unwisely—it strayed bounds authority. consequence handful blanket supervise Legislatures. imagine intolerable inappropriate interference judiciary 152 41), Constitution—which lightly dismisses wave remark 'it provisions,' 584 ratification, 'standby' (or declared unconstitutional) Sims Frink, D.C., 543—551. Both nine before,73 Extraordinary Session very directive 245, 248. formulated picking F.Supp., 441—442. 552. Beyond warned like undertook 442. manner,' 586, approves avowed action' acts 1966, 587. 153 Maryland (No. 656, 1429), Special Delegates, pressure courts.74 Thereafter, Appeals apportioned. Fair Tawes, 229 Md. 406, 184 715. branch 674, 1439. presumes (are) hereby pending provisions' 675, 1440. premise, concludes 'feel obliged affirmative now, 'under plan.' 154 Virginia 1441), reapportionment.75 Court.76 Eight Mann Davis, 213 577. session, penalty court.77 Only slowed process;78 'an plan'; promptly defects plan,' action.' 693, 1449. 155 Delaware 307, 695, 1449), stayed 7, 'in hope expectation' intervening days. Sincock Terry, 205, 207. prodding, presumably, claim, Assembly, Section (the Constitution), de jure unconstitutional.' 205—206. Five defendants' wish substitute wisdom Delaware', circumstances', promptly. 210 395, 396. October declined enjoin November. went suggestion, 206—207, facilitate required. 401. January again effe tive 17, 1963.79 reluctant conclusion' II, amendment. Duffy, 215 169, 189. Observing Delaware, trapped box time,' 191, acceptable including 1964, old provisions.80 proceedings, forward, wise temperate manner.' 710, 1458.81 156 Records duplicated already. jarring picture threatening business entering, inevitably judgments incompetent make. meeting haste deliberating deciding threat interference. tell, unseemingly affairs ponderous insistence protection,' 566. refusing potential claimed protection, assumes, supports, conclusion. 157 mark Predictions working false. ontinues consequences assuring 'can standards,' 578. Deeming 'expedient' 'precise tests,' contents considerations.' Ibid. 158 Generalities obscure cold truth amenable standards. guide decide have, shape line. combination both. keeping stable respects, assistance whatsoever. Quite obviously, limitless districking avoided Reshaping modifying solutions, varying consequences, broadside.82 159 ignores this, saying 'what case,' product glaringly depart redetermination, extensive 160 Court—necessarily, believe—provides generalities main thesis, removed fields competence. Recognizing 'indiscriminate districting' 'partisan gerrymandering,' 578-579, formation districting.' opinions, declares districts: 161 (1) history;83 162 (6) 'availability representatives';88 163 (7) theories (except Court);89 164 (8) occupation;90 165 (9) power.'91 166 (10) preference State.92 167 appears, factor consider, apart policy' recognizing 'population *.'93 168 logic theoretical politics, principle, establishes exclusions. Certain establish says anything score, 'legislators acres,' 1382; 'citizens, votes,' 580; 'people, ibid.94 conceded. obvious, meaningful ciphers speaking interests—economic, social, political—many reflect establish, interests adjusted disregarding grouped CONCLUSION 169 approaches third round deepens conviction entry realm profoundly ill-advised before, 48, 547, vitality analysis else depends, weakened reform; complacent politic 170 cut fabric federalism. eventually thinking aftermath desirable cost radical Judiciary. overbearing impatience high inevitable. 171 Finally, support mistaken function nutshell, major social ill cure 'principle,' lead' promoting reform act. panacea blot welfare, ordained haven movements. premise diffusion lies greatest promise liberty exceeds authority, slow workings process. when, name interpretation, adds excluded reality substitutes 172 dissent believing jurisdictional doctrines substantive here, hould was: experiment venturesome reverse Courts (Alabama), (Virginia), (Delaware), directions complaints. (New York), 508 (Colorado), 29. 173 APPENDIX TO OPINION OF DISSENTING. 174 Statements during Amendment.* 175 'As nearest justice make, approve voters.' 2463 (Mr. Garfield). 176 'Would unprecedented thing (former slave) element here; count fifths (no longer fifths, question) soon you apportionment?' 2464—2465 Thayer). 177 object reduce southern Electoral College; inducement negro suffrage.' 2467 Boyer). 178 'Shall pardoned rebels million selection Representative?' 2468 Kelley). 179 shall, amendment; Could controlled report fifteen, country.' 2469 180 'But ask, suffrage? negroes Union?' 2498 Broomall). 181 base instead aggregate 2502 Raymond). 182 admit falls desire, tends equalization existing; demand continue country—and ultimately eleven restored people—I myself doubly humiliated disgraced, criminal even, hesitated equalizes representation.' 2508 Boutwell). 183 'Now, conceding ought black, suffrage. settle complication age.' 2510 Miller). 'Manifestly nat onal enlarged borders denied. lost denial, rebellion hoped justice, impartial disqualified crime. attained secured: determined polls, demand; odious inequalities equalized, believe, unlitimately admitted.' 2511 Eliot). 185 insurgent authority; distinction it; moment impossible waive deference compels look enemy.' 2532 Banks). 186 assume misrepresent oppress direction; incorporated get thirds cordially best.' 2539 2540 Farnsworth). 187 188 189 vote; vindicated non-voting wrong aliens, females, minors. say, Why inequality? injustice? apparent commits outrage denies blacks, advantage profit outrage. Does suppose people? sustain reducing disfranchise him.' 2800 (Senator Stewart). 190 amendment) relieves Negro) misrepresentation represe tation whatever.' 2801 191 venture section) read thus: negroes—presenting alternative loss negroes, equality.' 2939 Hendricks). 192 better satisfied intelligent Negroes) Army. wiser produce craving ere Believing accomplish hoping respect, adoption, glad further.' 2963—2964 Poland). 'What amendment? Just whip less.' 2987 Cowan). 193 States—certainly mine, all—there contradistinguished borough elections; be; qualifications prescribed, locality qualification some. Now, affect representation?' 2991 Johnson). 194 'Again, table, concedes exclusive consequently, (if wrong) impotent redress.' 3027 195 fixes does, lose bears 3033 Henderson). 431 (D.C.M.D.Ala.1962). sub nom. Frink. Included Attorney Chairmen Secretaries Judges Probate probate judges Alabama. Provisions Codes 1907 1923, recently reenacted Tit. 1940 recompiled 1958). Opinion Justices, 263 Ala. 158, 164, So.2d 881, 887 (1955), 254 185, 187, 714, 717 (1950), 247. Rice, 712, 848 (1962), 9, review injunctive 'this function, Waid Pool, 255 441, 869 (1951), suit, 'appellants seeking department committed department.' 442, So.2d, 870. 2281 2284. During 1,828,697 3,244,286. Virtually gain occurred incurred sizable losses 260, 733 (Clark, concurring). Proposed Bill 93, Acts Session, 124. 443—444. commonly methods, Schmeckebier, Method Proportions, Law Contemp.Prob. 302 (1952). Reapportionment 59, 91, 121. reproduced 445—446. chart Defendant 447—449. includes 1900, 1950, censuses. division forming pieces multicounty district, 200, argue change. ap ortionments Constitution—the composition, censuses, E 450. 437. 438. According interval merits, proposal, 'refused inquire Amendment' proposes.' reading 'manifest uncertainty legality measured Compare 183, 184, 713, 714 (1955). later infra, 568-569, 68, reject comported statute's extrapolated. 45,000 seat; 90,000 seats; 150,000, 150,000 300,000, 300,000 600,000, F 451. 'minimum-change measure' redrew around nominees retain nominees, shift overrepresented underpopulated, district. 439. Possibly understandable await determination 1956 referendum, accounting defeat. 736—737, 1473—1474, date, lack presence Ala.Const., 286. Nineteenth, Twenty-third Twenty-fourth expansions Also relevant, regard, 1957 1960. dissenting, Peters, 339 279, 641, 643, 834. 'There paper drop pull lever booth. counted. discount. suffers (where a) strength. (t)he discounted.' Liti ation instituted 1962—within McKay, Thickets Crazy Quilts: Protection, Mich.L.Rev. 645, 706—710 contains appendix Eisenberg, Devaluation Urban Suburban Vote (1961); Goldberg, Statistics Malapportionment, Yale L.J. 198, 699. 226, Scholle Hare, 429, 910, (Michigan); WMCA, Inc., Simon, 370 190, 1234, 430 York). 379—380, 808. 381, 806. Later phases 378, 807. 533. 17—18, 535. 'personal individual,' 280, 834, 'important people,' MacDougall Green, 335 281, 288, 4, 3. (DOUGLAS, dissenting.) BLACK, 328 549, 569—571, 1198, 1210, 1432: clause half-vote (T)he Constitutionally imply systems, form, cast. (A) eligible Congressmen destroy effectiveness 'apportionment' name.' quoting James delegate Associate '(A)ll equal. Elections equal, state. manner, remain invariably same.' Works Wilson (Andrews ed. 1896) 15. 290, 4: '(A) regulation (which) discriminates sections. 'Free foundation Discrimination citizenship deprives integrity. 'None guarantees. notion strength hostile 130. controversies urban-rural conflicts, fast-growing suburban underrepresented currently thrust results, underrepresentation areas, 19th century, seaboard Eastern Southern possessed struggled disproportionate bitterly growing inland areas. Conceivably, acquire excess entitled. Malapportionment directions. However British experience eradicating 'rotten boroughs' interesting enlightening. Parliamentary Boundary Commissions. difficulties Britain Edwards, Theoretical Comparative Aspects Redistricting: Reference Vand.L.Rev. 1265, 1275 302—307, 756—759, 663. (Frankfurter, Marshall 48,018, Baldwin 49,088, Houston 50,718, each. comprising Lauderdale Limestone 98,135, Lee Russell 96,105. Conversely, 18,739, single-county An pre-Baker Comment, Unrepresentative Ala.L.Rev. 403 cited notes 4—5, suits prospectively voted electorate. Resemblances actual. conformity feature 1/435 country's hand, 1/106 1/3 50% unfair reduces % percentage argued comparable thorough statement matters, see, e.g., Analogy (National Municipal League pamphlet 1962); Standards, Notre Dame Law. 487 (1963). Merrill, Blazes Trail Through Thicket Reapportionment, Okla.L.Rev. 67—70 opinion, 547-548. Report Advisory Commission Intergovernmental Relations, 10—11, 35, Thomas denounced 1776 changing 1816 wrote composing direction himself Letter Samuel Kercheval, Writings (Ford 1899) 38. 1819, 'Equal prejudice prejudices justified.' William King, Papers, Library Vol. 216, 38616. Ordinance 1787 specifically: benefits legislature.' 530—533, 481. analogies college, redistricting, conventions concerns, validated collegiate inequality, implied 807, 821. Bain Peanut company Pinson, 282 499, 501, 228, 229, 482, joints.' cf. 731—732, 1471, Davis Mann, 686—687, 1445, n. formulae legislatures, Dixon, Standards Pow r, Law, 367, 398—400 Book 58—62. suggestion newer differentiations Instead, Territory MichL.Rev. 698—699 Determining Northing maximums minimums 217—232, 710—718, discussing nonjusticiability years. 1962—1963, 250—251, 727—728 (Douglas, concurring), passages quoted 556, 557, infra. 250, 727. precatory advisory 440—441. 568-569. Incidentally, apposite. Georgia's ** (This Incorporated Lomenzo, 1418; 1429; 1441; Roman Sincock, 1449; 508, 1459.) Maryland, Virginia. exhibit staff Bureau Public Administration University apportioned, ranked eighth 'representativeness,' attacking Ante, 30. 610—611. 330, 771, joined, 737; 382, 809; 536. clause, manifestly V Elliot's Adoption (1845), 332-333, relief. Luther Borden, How. 44, 581; Ohio rel. Bryant Akron Metropolitan Park District, 281 74, 79—80, 230, 710; Highland Farms Dairy, Agnew, 300 608, 612, 551, 835. 715, 'would futile.' relevance compass sentence: 'Judicial Except perhaps 'crazy quilt' Brother 251, 727, 241, 265, 723, 736. cryptic remands 430, Journal reprinted Kendrick, Joint (1914), 83—117. Cong.Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2459—3149, passim (1866) (hereafter Globe). Globe 3040. 2265, 2286. 'Sec. 1. States; 2. whenever, versions op. cit., Flack, (1908), 55—139, passim. 2459. referring 'whenever 538, muster 1289. 2460. 87, 106; 11, 60—68, 71. 2542. categories violating Representative Rogers, 2545, covered 2538. 'refuse vote.' 2545. 2766. 3042. 3149. mostly reports messages Governors Ark.House 288 (1866—1867); Fla.Sen.J. 8—10 (1866); Ind.House 47—48, 50—51 (1867); Mass.Legis.Doc., Doc. 149, 4—14, 16—17, 24, 25—26 Mo.Sen.J. N.J.Sen.J. (Extra Sess.1866); N.C.Sen.J. 96—97, 98—99 (1866 1867); Tenn.House 12—15 (1865—1866); Tenn.Sen.J. Sess. 1866); Va.House Doc., Wis.Sen.J. 33, 101—103 (1867). Contra: S.C.House Tex.Sen.J. 422 App.). citations Fairman, 'Does Incorporate Rights?' Stan.L.Rev. 5, 81—126 (1949). Conn.Const., 1818, Third, (towns); N.H.Const., 1792, Part Second, XXVI (direct paid); N.J.Const., 1844, cl. (counties); R.I.Const., 1842, VI, (towns cities); Vt.Const., 1793, chapter (towns). Amend. II; IX—XI; III, 1; V, Iowa Const., 1857, 35; Kan.Const., 1859, Me.Const., IV—Part First, 3; Mich.Const., 1850, Mo.Const., 1865, 2; N.Y.Const., 1846, 5; 1851, XI, Pa.Const., 1838, 6, amended; Tenn.Const., 1834, W.Va.Const., —1863, 9. Ninth Census (1872) Census), 49. hereafter, 1866—1870. 1860 anyone interested statistics. See, 3028 (remarks 5. 50—51. 67, 67. Mar. 1867, Statutes-at-Large 429. declaring conditions imposed, nullify Arkansas, 22, 72. Jan. 62; Feb. 67; Texas 80. 363. bill eventuated said: considering? voluntarily formed constitutions, sent constitutions. Those printed looked them; pronounced repub ican form; propose forever. Subject requirement, willing 40th 2465 (1868). remarks Butler, 606. attested conditioned deletion seventeen fifth article proviso 73. Sen.Ex.Doc. 57, 14—15. Texas, Mississippi, 363 121, 124—127, 961, 1026, 1027, 1029, 1025. 2412—2413, 2858—2860, 2861—2871, 2895—2900, 2901—2904, 2927—2935, 2963—2970, 2998—3022, 3023—3029 refer representatives. sparsely-populated inhabited rebels, who, coming fortunes thirty registered voters; yet, constitution, 3090—3091 3092. VIII, Fla.Const., XIV; Ga.Const., 3, La.Const., 20; N.C.Const., 6; S.C.Const., 6. 52—53. 8; 60. XIV. 18—19. 1875, 1885, VII, III. 16. Miss.Const., 256. Mont.Const., 4. IX—XI, XXVI, amended. 1902, Arts. 25. 1876, Okla.Const., 1907, 10. 17. Utah Wyo.Const., tabular presentation Nov. pure base, Relations 12. 362, 930, 1340; (Fifteenth) governments sense belonged beginning, possession rest support, fall ground. seeks deals.' phrases Jurisdictional Statement, 19. primaries 759; 984. gone 926; 1281. certainly reluctance Newberry 256 232, 469, 913. 987; 1152. municipal redrawn Negroes Justice, relied 349, 131. handed reversing initial Circuit Anne Arundel dismissing complaint, hear claims, 'declare ecial Governor November, election.' 228 412, 438—439, 670. remand, declaration. 'emergency' 31, 43, Apr. 28, laws'. 585 586. apply orders required.' THE CHIEF disposition XVI, successive Assemblies. nailed lid 'box time' seemed trapped.' temporarily opened crack BRENNAN delay Assemblies 711, 1458, slammed shut again. 633), reaching once, 368. Colorado 1459), Lisco McNichols, 471, election, 219 922. pressures mere fancy sort, day tempted 579. 'economic interests';84 579-580. area;85 580. (4) considerations;86 (5) areas';87 576-577. 1448. 692, 736, 1473. 581. modern communication, finds 'unconvincing' voters' page references (1866).

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