Legal Document

127 S. Ct. 1955 (2007) BELL ATLANTIC CORPORATION et al., Petitioners, v. William TWOMBLY al. No. 05-1126. Supreme Court of United States. Argued November 27, 2006. Decided May 21, 2007. *1960 Stephen M. Shapiro, Kenneth Geller, Richard J. Favretto, Mayer, Brown, Rowe & Maw LLP, Washington, D.C., Laura Coleman, Henry Walker, Marc W.F. Galonsky, Ashley Watson, Atlanta, Georgia, for BellSouth Corporation. Timothy Beyer, Brownstein Hyatt Farber, P.C., Denver, Colorado, Cynthia *1961 P. Delaney, Counsel Qwest Communications International Inc. Michael K. Kellogg, Mark C. Hansen, Aaron Panner, Huber, Todd, Evans Figel, P.L.L.C., Javier Aguilar, Schur, San Antonio, Texas, AT&T (formerly SBC Inc.). G. Taranto, Farr Paul Larkin, Jr., David E. Wheeler, Robert Zastrow, Arlington, Virginia, Dan Webb, Charles B. Molster III, Winston Strawn Chicago, Illinois, Verizon (successor-in-interest to Bell Atlantic Corporation). A. Topaz, Joseph H. Meltzer, Schiffrin Barroway, Radnor, PA, Douglas Richards, Buchman, Milberg Weiss Bershad Schulman New York, NY, Respondents. Justice SOUTER delivered the opinion Court. Liability under ง 1 Sherman Act, 15 U.S.C. 1, requires a "contract, combination. . ., or conspiracy, in restraint trade commerce." The question this putative class action is whether complaint can survive motion dismiss when it alleges that major telecommunications providers engaged certain parallel conduct unfavorable competition, absent some factual context suggesting agreement, as distinct from identical, independent action. We hold such should be dismissed. I upshot 1984 divestiture American Telephone Telegraph Company's (AT T) local telephone business was system regional service monopolies (variously called "Regional Operating Companies," "Baby Bells," "Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers" (ILECs)), and separate, competitive market long-distance which ILECs were excluded. More than decade later, Congress withdrew approval ILECs' by enacting Telecommunications Act 1996 (1996 Act), 110 Stat. 56, "fundamentally restructure[d] markets" "subject[ed] [ILECs] host duties intended facilitate entry." AT T Corp. Iowa Utilities Bd., 525 U.S. 366, 371, 119 721, 142 L. Ed. 2d 835 (1999). In recompense, set conditions authorizing enter market. See 47 271. "Central [new] scheme [was each ILEC's] obligation share its network with competitors," Law Offices Curtis V. Trinko, 540 398, 402, 124 872, 157 823 (2004), came known "competitive exchange carriers" (CLECs), Pet. Cert. 6, n. 1. A CLEC could make use an ILEC's any three ways: (1) "purchas[ing] services at wholesale rates resale end users," (2) "leas[ing] elements [ILEC's] `on unbundled basis,'" (3) "interconnect[ing] own facilities network." supra, 721 (quoting 251(c)). Owing "considerable expense effort" required available rivals prices, 410, vigorously litigated scope sharing imposed result Federal Commission (FCC) times revised *1962 regulations narrow range shared CLECs. Covad Co. FCC, 450 F.3d 528, 533-534 (C.A.D.C. 2006) (summarizing 10-year-long regulatory struggle between CLECs). Respondents Twombly Lawrence Marcus (hereinafter plaintiffs) represent consisting all "subscribers and/or high speed internet February 8, present." Amended Complaint 02 CIV. 10220(GEL) (SDNY) ถ 53, App. 28 Complaint). against petitioners, group ILECs,[1] plaintiffs seek treble damages declaratory injunctive relief claimed violations ch. 647, 26 209, amended, prohibits "[e]very contract, combination form trust otherwise, commerce among several States, foreign nations." conspired restrain two ways, supposedly inflating charges high-speed Internet services. Plaintiffs say, first, "engaged conduct" their respective areas inhibit growth upstart 47, 23-26. Their actions allegedly included making unfair agreements CLECs access ILEC networks, providing inferior connections overcharging, billing ways designed sabotage CLECs' relations customers. Ibid. According complaint, ILECs'"compelling common motivatio[n]" thwart efforts naturally led them conspiracy; "[h]ad one [ILEC] not sought prevent competing effectively resulting greater inroads into territory would have revealed degree entry been successful other territories absence conduct." Id., 50, 26-27. Second, refrain another. These are inferred failure "meaningfully [to] pursu[e]" "attractive opportunit[ies]" contiguous markets where they possessed "substantial advantages," id., ถถ 40-41, 21-22, statement Notebaert, chief executive officer (CEO) Qwest, another "`might good way turn quick dollar but doesn't right,'" 42, 22. couches ultimate allegations way: "In meaningful competition another's markets, light course within facts circumstances alleged above, allege upon information *1963 belief [the ILECs] entered conspiracy agreed compete otherwise allocated customers another." 51, 27.[2] States District Southern York dismissed state claim granted. acknowledged "plaintiffs may citing instances behavior suggest agreement," emphasized "while `[c]ircumstantial evidence consciously made heavy traditional judicial attitude toward conspiracy[, .] "conscious parallelism" has yet read out entirely.'" 313 F. Supp. 174, 179 (2003) Theatre Enterprises, Paramount Film Distributing Corp., 346 537, 541, 74 257, 98 273 (1954); alterations original). Thus, understood conduct, taken alone, do 1; must additional "ten[d] exclude self-interested explanation defendants' behavior." F.Supp.2d, 179. found plaintiffs' discourage inadequate because "the resisting incursion fully explained interests defending individual territory." 183. As supposed agreement other, does "alleg[e] refraining contrary ILECs'] apparent economic interests, consequently [does] rais[e] inference conspiracy." 188. Appeals Second Circuit reversed, holding tested wrong standard. It held "plus factors pleaded permit antitrust based on dismissal." 425 99, 114 (2005) (emphasis Although took view plead "include realm `plausible' possibilities order dismiss," then said "to rule anticompetitive fail support plausible claim, court conclude there no plaintiff demonstrate particular parallelism asserted product collusion rather coincidence." granted certiorari address proper standard pleading through 547 ___, 126 2965, 165 949 (2006), now reverse. *1964 II Because "does prohibit [all] unreasonable restraints only effected combination, conspiracy," Copperweld Independence Tube 467 752, 775, 104 2731, 81 628 (1984), "[t]he crucial question" challenged "stem[s] decision tacit express," U.S., 540, 257. While showing "business admissible circumstantial fact finder infer falls short "conclusively establish[ing] itself constituting] offense." 540-541, Even parallelism," reaction "firms concentrated [that] recogniz[e] interdependence respect price output decisions" "not unlawful." Brooke Group Ltd. Brown Williamson Tobacco 509 227, 113 2578, 125 168 (1993); see 6 Areeda Hovenkamp, Antitrust 1433a, p. 236 (2d ed.2003) Hovenkamp) ("The courts nearly unanimous saying mere interdependent establish 1"); Turner, Definition Agreement Under Act: Conscious Parallelism Refusals Deal, 75 Harv. L.Rev. 655, 672 (1962) ("[M]ere basic decisions conspiracy"). inadequacy interdependence, without more, mirrors ambiguity behavior: consistent just much line wide swath rational strategy unilaterally prompted perceptions See, e.g., AEI-Brookings Joint Center Regulatory Studies, Epstein, Motions Dismiss Cases: Separating Fact Fantasy, Related Publication 06-08, pp. 3-4 (2006) (discussing problem "false positives" suits). Accordingly, we previously hedged false inferences identical number points trial sequence. An nothing beyond entitled directed verdict, supra; proof include tending possibility action, Monsanto Spray-Rite Service 465 1464, 79 775 (1984); summary judgment stage offer tend defendants acting independently, Matsushita Elec. Industrial Zenith Radio 475 574, 106 1348, 89 538 (1986). B This case presents antecedent what Act. Rule Civil Procedure 8(a)(2) "a plain pleader relief," "give defendant fair notice grounds rests," Conley Gibson, 355 41, 78 2 80 (1957). attacked 12(b)(6) need detailed allegations, ibid.; Sanjuan Bd. Psychiatry Neurology, Inc., 40 247, 251 (C.A.7 1994), provide *1965 "grounds" his "entitle[ment] relief" more labels conclusions, formulaic recitation cause will do, Papasan Allain, 478 265, 286, 2932, 92 209 (1986) (on dismiss, "are bound accept true legal conclusion couched allegation"). Factual enough raise right above speculative level, 5 Wright Miller, Practice 1216, 235-236 (3d ed.2004) Miller) ("[T]he contain something merely creates suspicion [of] legally cognizable action"),[3] assumption (even if doubtful fact), see, Swierkiewicz Sorema N. A., 534 506, 508, 122 992, 152 (2002); Neitzke Williams, 490 319, 327, 109 1827, 338 (1989) ("Rule countenance dismissals judge's disbelief complaint's allegations"); Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 236, 94 1683, 90 (1974) (a well-pleaded proceed even appears "that recovery very remote unlikely"). applying these general standards stating matter (taken true) made. Asking impose probability requirement stage; simply calls reasonable expectation discovery reveal illegal agreement.[4] And, course, strikes savvy judge actual those improbable, unlikely." identifying suggestive render plausible, benefit *1966 prior rulings considered views leading commentators, already quoted, lawful fails be-speak unlawful agreement. makes sense therefore, allegation bare assertion suffice. Without conclusory unidentified point supply adequate show illegality. Hence, placed raises suggestion preceding well plausibly (not with) reflects threshold "plain statement" possess heft "sho[w] relief." undertaken, needs setting necessary claim; further circumstance pointing meeting minds, account defendant's commercial stays neutral territory. thus like naked complaint: gets close enhancement stops plausibility Cf. DM Research, College Am. Pathologists, 170 56 (C.A.1 1999) ("[T]erms `conspiracy,' `agreement,' border-line: might sufficient conjunction specific โfor example, written basis inferring terms complaint").[5] alluded practical significance 8 entitlement Dura Pharmaceuticals, Broudo, 544 336, 1627, 161 577 (2005), loss causation alleged, lest "`a largely groundless claim'" allowed "`take up time people, so representing terrorem increment settlement value.'" 347, 1627 Blue Chip Stamps Manor Drug Stores, 421 723, 741, 95 1917, 44 539 (1975)). So, however true, relief, "`this deficiency exposed minimum expenditure money parties court.'" Miller 233-234 Daves Hawaiian Dredging Co., 643, 645 (D.Hawai 1953)); also Dura, 346, 1627; Asahi Glass Pentech 289 986, 995 (N.D.Ill.2003) (Posner, J., sitting designation) ("[S]ome crossed outset before patent permitted go inevitably costly protracted phase"). thing cautious dismissing advance discovery, cf. Poller Columbia Broadcasting System, 368 *1967 464, 473, 82 486, 7 458 (1962), quite forget proceeding expensive. indicated over 20 years ago Associated Gen. Contractors Cal., Carpenters, 459 519, 17, 103 897, 723 (1983), district retain power insist specificity allowing potentially massive controversy proceed." Car Carriers, Ford Motor 745 F.2d 1101, 1106 1984) costs modern federal litigation increasing caseload counsel sending likelihood construct events related complaint"); Note, Modeling Effect One-Way Fee Shifting Discovery Abuse Private Litigation, N.Y. U. 1887, 1898-1899 unusually cost cases); Manual Complex Fourth, 30, 519 (2004) (describing extensive Memorandum Niemeyer, Chair, Advisory Committee Rules, Hon. Anthony Scirica, Rules (May 11, 1999), 192 F.R.D. 354, 357 (2000) (reporting accounts percent actively employed). That potential obvious present case: least subscribers continental America's largest firms (with many thousands employees generating reams gigabytes records) unspecified (if any) occurred period seven years. answer say shy can, groundless, weeded early process "careful management," post 1975, given lament success supervision checking abuse modest side. Easterbrook, Abuse, 69 B.U.L.Rev. 635, 638 ("Judges little about impositional control claims presented themselves"). And self-evident cannot solved scrutiny stage," less "lucid instructions juries," post, 1975; threat push cost-conscious settle anemic cases reaching proceedings. Probably, then, taking care require reach level hope avoid enormous "`reasonably founded [discovery] relevant evidence'" claim. Stamps, 1917; alteration Dura).[6] *1968 not, dispute Monsanto, Matsushita, main argument ostensible conflict ours construing 8. Black's Gibson spoke accepted unless doubt prove entitle him 45-46, 99. "no facts" language isolation revealing theory suffice impossibility shown face pleadings; formulating understanding standard, F.3d, 106, (invoking Conley's describing dismissal).[7] On focused literal reading facts," wholly whenever pleadings left open later "set [undisclosed] recovery. So here, specifically prospect unearthing direct preclude dismissal, though *1969 forth single suggests 114. seems approach dispense hope'" able case, 1917); Mr. Micawber's optimism enough. Seeing this, judges commentators balked passage F.2d, ("Conley never interpreted literally") and, "[i]n practice, either inferential respecting material sustain viable theory" (internal quotation marks omitted; emphasis omission original); Ascon Properties, Mobil Oil 866 1149, 1155 (C.A.9 1989) (tension acknowledgment rests); O'Brien DiGrazia, 543, 546, 3 1976) ("[W]hen plaintiff. supplies think imposes duty conjure unpleaded frivolous unconstitutional. substantial one"); McGregor Excess Landfill, 856 39, 42-43 (C.A.6 1988) O'Brien's analysis); Hazard, From Whom No Secrets Are Hid, 76 Tex. 1665, 1685 (1998) having "turned head"); Marcus, Revival Pleading Procedure, 86 Colum. 433, 463-465 (noting tension subsequent understandings 8). on, pile citations questioned, criticized, away long To Court, opinion's concrete reasonably amply relief. But often quoted mention part after puzzling profession 50 years, famous observation earned retirement. phrase best forgotten incomplete, negative gloss standard: once stated adequately, supported complaint. Sanjuan, (once stated, "receives imagination, hypotheses accord, Swierkiewicz, 514, 992; National Organization Women, Scheidler, 510 249, 256, 798, 99 (1994); H.J. Northwestern 492 229, 249-250, 2893, 195 (1989); Hishon King Spalding, 69, 73, 2229, 59 (1984). Conley, described breadth opportunity claims, govern survival.[8] *1970 III When look agree comes short. begin with, leaves rest descriptions ILECs. Supra, 1962-1963. few stray statements speak directly agreement,[9] conclusions resting allegations. first takes "absence markets," CLECs," "and [earlier]"; "in of" these, concludes 27.[10] nub *1971 behavior, steps keep manifest disinterest becoming themselves, sufficiency turns suggestions raised viewed experience.[11] contained invests inaction conspiracy. disobey attempts compete, intimates resistance upstarts anything natural, unilateral intent keeping dominance. did subject competition; obliged subsidize competitors equipment rates. incentive resist powerful, routine flouted allege, 23-24, reason companies had themselves natural anyway; fact, alleging imply violation almost businesses sure thing. closest pass predicate "would territories." But, logic aside, premise still joint encouragement Act; said, "each want dealing CLECs" attempt out, regardless ILECs." 184; Kramer Pollock-Krasner Foundation, 890 250, 256 (S.D.N.Y.1995) (while "may believe conspiratorial equally lawful, goals constitute conspiracy").[12] *1972 Plaintiffs' second rests reticence wake passed "`hop[e] large incumbent monopoly attack neighbors' areas, situated so.'" 38, Consumer Federation America, Lessons Deregulation Before Meaningful Competition Spells Disaster, 12 (Feb.2000)). Contrary hope, declined "`to other's significant way,'" 20, remains highly compartmentalized geographically, minimal competition. Based affairs, perceiving blessed "especially attractive opportunities" surrounding dominated ILECs, assert "strongly 40, 21. history teaches anything. traditionally unregulated industry low barriers entry, sparse dominating separate geographical segments signify here alternative explanation. that, norm telecommunications, exception. 535 467, 477-478, 1646, 701 (2002) public monopolies). born world, doubtless liked world was, surely knew adage who lives sword. noncompetition former Government-sanctioned monopolists tight, expecting neighbors same gives reasons old turf. says generally declining lucrative opportunities being pursued during period,[13] *1973 replete indications faced insurmountable profitability owing flagrant requirements 47; Not monopolistic tradition peculiar difficulty mandating "[f]irms expand limit none enters every outside observer regard profitable, small portion markets." Hovenkamp 307d, 155 (Supp.2006) (commenting bar). expected become legacy disappointment plausible. Court's assessment suggested adduced valid claim.[14] our analysis runs counter (2002), employment discrimination lawsuit [need] establishing prima facie framework McDonnell Green, 411 792[, 93 1817, 36 668] (1973)." They argue "flexible evidentiary standard" "should transposed rigid cases," 512, "transpos[ing] `plus factor' woodenly unwise," Brief 39. correctly understood, however, "Swierkiewicz change law pleading, re-emphasized. Circuit's heightened Title VII Rules' structure liberal requirements." 181 (citation footnote omitted). Swierkiewicz's "detailed termination, provided dates, ages nationalities persons involved termination," failing discrimination. 992. reversed ground impermissibly applied amounted insisting "specific *1974 Here, contrast, specifics, face. nudged across conceivable * remanded proceedings opinion. ordered. STEVENS, whom GINSBURG joins except Part IV, dissenting. paragraph 24-page states decided "major competition" Ante, 1961. settled If indeed issue, reversal (1954), adequately resolve case. Enterprises held, issue illegal. 540-542, substantive law. acted perfectly lawful. If, horizontal competitors, unlawful. answer, denied. Why, proceed? Does charge "plausible" acceptable complaint? not. Respondents' amended describes variety straightforward petitioners "entered 27 explains Congress' enacted self-interests, petitioner Incumbent Carriers (ILECs) assiduously avoided infringing refused nonincumbent networks. quotes CEO ILEC, neighboring "might right." Moreover, respondents "communicate amongst themselves" numerous associations. 46, 23. sum, recognized classic per se Report *1975 Attorney General's Study Laws (1955). rules procedure since ruling "must complaint." Overstreet North Shore 318 125, 127, 63 494, 87 656 (1943). instead requiring knowledgeable executives Notebaert respond sworn depositions limited discoveryโand file denying agreementโthe majority permits immediate dismissal assurances company lawyers untoward afoot. embraces "there anyway," ante, 1971; Act," "natural thing," 1972. petitioners' team correct entirely presence "agreed another" statements," 1970; conduct. such, longstanding precedent, sound practice mandate sort response Two concerns presumably explain dramatic departure procedural enormously expensive, risk jurors mistakenly proved pursuant similar decisions. Those merit careful management, including strict stage, lucid juries; justify answers collective decisionmaking. importantly, interpretation driven majority's appraisal sufficiency. come happenstance inadvertent. English experience Byzantine special rulesโillustrated hypertechnical Hilary 1834[1]โmade *1976 appeal easy litigant understand sufficed put nature sought. Stateside, Dudley Field developed influential Code 1848, "[a] constituting ordinary concise language, repetition, manner enable person know intended." Simplify Abridge Practice, Pleadings Proceedings Courts State, 379, 120(2), 1848 497, 521. Substantially appeared Equity adopted 1912. Fed. 25 (requiring simple asks omitting evidence"). arose, progeny "facts" "conclusions," distinction far easier apply. noted, "it virtually impossible logically distinguish `ultimate facts,' `evidence,' `conclusions.' Essentially occurrences place. spectrum, passing continuum varying particularity described." Weinstein Distler, Comments Procedural Reform: Drafting 57 518, 520-521 Cook, Statements Codes, 21 416, 417 (1921) Cook) ("[T]here logical grouped phrases `statements fact' `conclusions law'"). responsive difficulty. Its drafters intentionally reference "evidence" "conclusions." 207 substitution `claim relief' code formulation `facts' `cause action' distinctions drawn codes `evidentiary `conclusions' ."). relaxed idea litigants in. merits sorted flexible pretrial appropriate, crucible trial. 992 8(a) starting simplified system, focus claim"). Clark, "principal draftsman" Rules,[2] thus: "Experience expect pleadings, really function. distinguishing others, remedy clear, permanent result." *1977 Procedure: Last PhaseโUnderlying Philosophy Embodied Some Basic Provisions 23 A.B.A.J. 976, 977 (1937) Rules). paradigm new illustrated inclusion appendix Form 9, negligence. relevant, 9 only: "On June 1936, highway Boylston Street Boston, Massachusetts, negligently drove motor vehicle crossing highway." Negligence, Forms App., Civ. Proc., U.S.C.App., 829 9). plaintiff's injuries demands judgment. reliefโ namely, negligent drivingโwould "`conclusion law'" old. Cook 419. suffices "restrict[s] task notice-giving invest[s] deposition-discovery vital role preparation trial."[3]Hickman Taylor, 329 495, 501, 67 385, 91 451 (1947); 513, 4, (citing example "`the simplicity brevity contemplate'"); Thomson 362 969, 970 2004) J.) replaced pleading"). (1957), understood. black railroad workers union protect discriminatory discharges, Railway Labor treatment lacked specificity. Writing Black rejected union's foreclosed 47-48, doing so, he articulated rejects today: appraising follow, Consistent design outright futile. Once clear matters appropriately relegated stages process. Today, regards fishing expedition, scraps language. Concluding "questioned, enough," 1969, dismisses careless composition. *1978 interred, let eulogy. exact "puzzl[ed] years," ibid., cited authority dozen opinions four writings.[4] 16 "questioned," "criticized," "explained away." Indeed, today's Member express adequacy formulation. Taking cues courts, utilize repudiates: "beyond doubt" relief.[5] *1979 Petitioners requested retired, nor six amici filed briefs petitioners. rewrite Nation's civil textbooks call most informed deliberation so. established processโa rulemaking processโfor revisions order. งง 2072-2074 (2000 ed. IV). Today's "`no facts'" "an 1969. meant. First, explained, knew, meant codify require, invite, facts.[6] "pleading label reads opinionโa permissible complaintโwould impressed itself. Rather, remodeling neither explicate. pellucidly interested contain, contain. qualification "appraising *1980 45, added). paraphrase majority, survival," triply meaning examining "accepted rule" Leimer State Mut. Life Assur. Worcester, Mass., 108 302 (C.A.8 1940), she beneficiary life insurance plan wrongfully withholding proceeds her. reversing grant Eighth noted court's warrant "'it appear exist, defectively stated.'" 305 Winget Rockwood, 326, 1934)). Rulesโspecifically 8(a)(2), 12(b)(6), 12(e) (motion definite statement), judgment)โas reinforcing notion justification insufficiency statement, certainty claim." 306. refuted strongest unlikelihood determine fate "No how improbable her attempt, final determination rights favor Third relied Leimer's admonition Continental Collieries, Shober, 130 631 (1942), diversity breach contract unenforceable concluding went enforceability Leimer: likely seem unable entitled, averring try it." 635. third approvingly Judge Clark himself. Dioguardi Durning, 139 774 (C.A.2 1944), pro plaintiff, importer "tonics," charged customs inspector auctioning off merchandise bid itโand amount equal bidโand complained tonics missing weeks sale. inference, hinted averments words, fraudulently denied rightful tonics, which, violated adoption lead rein drafting, "could disclosed view, *1981 chose, asking pre-trial hearing moving supporting affidavits. stands, properly deprived day obviously firmly believes purposes admitting." 775. student knows, Clark's disquieted defense bar gave rise movement revise "`cause action.'" 1201, 86-87. failed, explicitly approved Conley; retrospect application principles universally accepted," 1220, 284-285. Leimer, Dioguardi, thereof hardly "puzzling," philosophy unlike days separating wheat chaff assigned short, captures policy choice embodied binding courts. consistently reaffirmed half century Conley. For (1974), Appeals' respondents, Governor officials Ohio, argued barred sovereign immunity. then-Justice Rehnquist, "[w]hen reviews reception affidavit admissions, necessarily one. ultimately prevail claimant claims. Indeed unlikely test." 1683 Rhodes "alleged terms" defendants, calling Guard suppress Kent University protests, "were guilty wanton, wilful Krause 471 430, 433 1972). "[w]hatever complaints, favorable Procedure," Eleventh Amendment styled suits capacities. 238, 1683. again voice appointed limits Leatherman Tarrant County Narcotics Intelligence Coordination Unit, 507 163, 1160, 517 (1993). Chief Rehnquist rebuffed Fifth effort craft municipal liability accounted today litigation," Cty. 954 1054, 1057 (1992) omitted), "state detail *1982 includes why defendant-official successfully maintain immunity." Leatherman, 167, 1160 inconsistent 9(b) motions place combat abuse: [an amendment 9(b)], rely weed unmeritorious sooner later." 168-169, 1160. Most recently, allow. cases, precedents produce or, primarily evidence, meet shifting burdens 792, 668 (1973). Trans World Airlines, Thurston, 469 111, 121, 105 613, 83 523 (1985). terminated national origin Rights 1964. suit opinion, "under appropriate apply case." 511, observed contemplate litigant's stage. "simplified "relies define disputed issues dispose claims." Amici Curiae O.T.2001, 00-1853, 10 (stating device testing truth determining back complaint" omitted)).[7] context, evaluating solely defendants. motion, `that tends *1983 possibility' conspirators independently.'" 588, 1348 764, (1984)). is, collusive action." 1348. Everything therefore perfect described. production burden translate becauseโin behaviorโthe "conceivable" "plausible," 1974. my doubts infra. speculation correct, "plausibility" irreconcilable governing precedents. fear lawyers' arguments denials evidence. poor rule, 'the hands conspirators,' giving ample sparingly." Hospital Building Trustees Rex Hospital, 738, 746, 96 48 (1976) (1962)); Knuth Erie-Crawford Dairy Cooperative Assn., 395 420, 423 (C.A.3 1968) `liberal' consideration complaints important inherent details pleadings"). authorizes attorney's fees indicates encourage, discourage, private enforcement Radovich Football League, 352 445, 454, 77 390, 456 (1957) ("Congress position add laws"). less, urge engage armchair economics year wrote, presciently, "I age learn lesson live active disposed evaded paper i.e., formalistic parties. Experience cut trials particular." Special "Big Case"? ProcedureโThe Handmaid 147, 148 (C. Reasoner eds.1965) *1984 Big Case) Case," succumbs temptation previous steadfastly resisted.[8] assures us "`heightened'" 1973, 14, shall difficult way. laws, 526-527, (1983). Nor failed injury entitling sue Brunswick Pueblo Bowl-O-Mat, 429 477, 489-490, 97 690, (1977). concerned, all. mind-boggling conclusion. explains, enactment prohibited other. statute replace take affirmative (2004); existing operations forbidden Each latter step. extremely decision, am willing presume independently decision. entertain unlikely. places 64, both entering forgo *1985 recognizes, assumes fact)." 1965. circumvents obstacle pretending exist. admits disregards "on allegations" 1970. dichotomy "legal conclusions" stuff bygone era, 1976-1977. defining feature Pleading, 35 Yale L.J. 259 (1925-1926), conspicuously abolished 1938. Employing Plasterers Assn. 347 186, 188, 452, 618 (1954) (holding, Government's effects interstate deciding "[w]hether `allegations `mere pleader'"); Brownlee Conine, 957 353, 354 1992) `conclusory,' whatever exactly overused cliche means, automatically condemn it"); Walker Lucky Lager Brewing 323 1963) ("[O]ne purpose get technical ."); Oil, Chemical Atomic Workers Int'l Union Delta, 277 694, 697 1960) ("Under Procedure,. ancient longer significant"); 1218, 267 parties"). "Defendants contract" "defendant drove," 9; 1977. one.[9] inclined anachronistic ignore "implausible." Many truly great economist perceptively "[p]eople seldom together, merriment diversion, conversation ends public, contrivance prices." Smith, Inquiry Into Nature Causes Wealth Nations, 39 Great Books Western 55 (R. Hutchins Adler eds. 1952). cynical sentiment value, here. *1986 23,[10] Notebaert's curious encroaching fellow incumbent's right," What mean that? One possible (indeed plausible) while company's self-interest brethren, Illinois Coalition Competitive Telecom construed 44, 22 (calling "evidence phone kill service"), Members letter Department requesting investigation ILECs'"very non-competition policy" coordinated). Perhaps sensible term run. That's tell anyway. 36. better Instead permitting ask looks articles decides "`sustainable model.'" 1972-1973, 13. Never mind thatโas anyone ever interviewed knowsโa newspaper article verbatim transcript; writer selects package story, record subject's posterity. importantly construe ambiguous favor.[11] Allen Wright, 468 737, 768, 3315, 556 supportsโthat simultaneous poach authorized agreementโsits comfortably possibility. require. hand, *1987 "have another."[12] 27. denial responsible proposed "`phased discovery'" existence certification. 25-26. plan. Whether respondents' sensible, negotiation.[13] Given complaintโbuttressed Adam SmithโI discussions *1988 perhaps played decisionmaking implausible preferable granting ("[T]hrough weapons devices, penalties aid proof, force function"). unfortunate invite debates conclusively surprise barโ "lament" "common," 1967โshould lobby affairs. "we recall primary responsibility win clients, improve administration public." Case 152. decisions, instructed amend Rulesโnot them.[14] 515, Crawford-El Britton, 595, 118 1584, 140 759 (1998); 168, IV Just colleagues text statutory essential faithful Congress. Zuni Public School Dist. Education, 550 1534, 167 449 (SCALIA, dissenting). happen tools construction reliable text, congressional guide interpretation. 1534 (STEVENS, concurring). intentions sources lawโthe 1996, Procedureโ unmistakably direction, marches resolutely treble-damages test inure future answer. announced purport *1989 command glaringly obvious. transparent concern drives interest protecting defendantsโwho wealthiest corporations economyโfrom discovery. 1966-1967. incurred arguing 12(b) exceeded petitioners,[15] law-changing lack confidence ability buttressed appellate judges' profoundly serious stark break precedent. happens obstructs favoring undergirds abundant untrue, directing looking fundamentalโand unjustifiedโchange character practice. respectfully dissent. NOTES [1] T's created Regional Companies. Through series mergers acquisitions, consolidated named suit: Corporation, International, Communications, 16. Together, 48, 26. [2] repeats substantially language: "Beginning continuing present, dates unknown Plaintiffs, Defendants co-conspirators by, things, agreeing stifle others allocating Section Act." 30-31. [3] dissent greatly oversimplifies somehow dispensed altogether. 1979 (opinion (pleading facts"). While, types eliminated cumbersome bases claim," added), "showing," blanket assertion, hard satisfy "fair notice" rests. 1202, 94, (Rule "contemplate[s] circumstances, occurrences, presented" authorize pleader's "bare averment wants it"). [4] Commentators offered examples 1425, 167-185 "parallel probably chance, coincidence, responses stimuli, unaided parties"); Blechman, Parallelism, Signalling Facilitating Devices: Problem Tacit Collusion Laws, 24 N.Y.L. 881, 899 (1979) "conduct restricted freedom associates agreement"). "complex historically unprecedented changes pricing multiple discernible reason" 37; Reply 12. [5] border Research factual. Here lies factually suggestive. liability. [6] heart reassurances "`"phased"'" "limited certification." Post, ___24. different (each multibillion corporation legions management employees) sprawling, costly, hugely time-consuming undertaking easily susceptible kind drawing envisions. dissent's effective cited, background have, slim: "The timing wrong. files sketchy (the fulsome documents), launched. details. used find always knows parties, going find. magistrate supervising notโ cannotโknow productivity request, requester's contents (or head) adverse party unknown. Judicial officers measure benefits requester isolate requests. Requesters disclose estimates gain imposing (and lose improvement accuracy). portions trim excessive demands, been, doomed be, hollow. detect; detect define; `abusive' theory, information." 638-639 (1989). [7] Nagler Admiral 248 319 1957), indicating alone Nagler, 325). (which upheld verdict conspiracy) Now (1986), conscious parallelism, implication fresh [8] earliest "cited authority" others. 1978. embraced Appeals, comports (1975)); (alteration Dura)); 526, (1983) ("It assume plaintiff] laws alleged"); Wilson Schnettler, 365 381, 383, 632, 620 (1961) ("In [that arrest probable cause] below we, arrested committed narcotics offense"). decide 1979, Government highlight problems stemming clarification 27-28; Amicus 22-25; 17 "[p]etitioners amici" mounting "attack `no facts' standard"). finds relevance 1940s, 1979-1981. indulging analysis, challenge 302, 1940) ("`[I]f, conceived could, trial, granted'"); 631, 635 1942) ("No stand unobjectionable proposition satisfaction factfinder. weighing claims"). [9] 30-31 (alleging conspiracy" another). [10] rested described, references Apart seven-year span (i.e., "[b]eginning present," 30), mentioned time, place, conspiracies. contrasts sharply model negligence, exemplifies allegation" survives dismiss. Whereas struck car specified date furnishes clue (much agreed, illicit wishing prepare pattern laid answer; seeking begin. [11] quotations leave impression agreement; exclusively via recognized. 182 (S.D.N.Y.2003); 102-104 (C.A. 2005). [12] belong various associations, 23, playfully trade, "buttressed Smith." 1985-1986, 1987-1988. Smith peering down today, surprised tongue-in-cheek remark pinmaker devote financial human capital hire lawyers, depositions, fend belonged guild pins carried tag. [13] reported Qwest's CEO, despite recognizing dollar.'" Chicago Tribune, Oct. 31, 2002, Business Section, 1). reportedly full published referenced truncated drawn. Evid. 201. sustainable model" "just nuts." (cited 22). Another source thought "unwise" "base plan" privileges accorded environment too unstable. Dec. 19, 23). [14] conclusion, "heightened" broaden accomplished "`by amending interpretation.'" (1993)). subjects abusive litigation, requires. Proc. 9(b)(c). insufficiently "particular[ized]", rather, warranted toto W. Holdsworth, History 324-327 (1926). Gulfstream Aerospace Mayacamas 485 271, 283, 1133, 296 (1988). "particularity" "all fraud mistake," 9(b), canon expresio unius est exclusio alterius applies 9(b). SEC Zandford, 813, 818, 1899, 153 Davis Monroe Ed., 526 629, 654, 1661, 143 839 (1999); Hartford Fire Ins. California, 811, 2891, 612 Brower Inyo, 489 593, 598, 1378, Hughes Rowe, 5, 10, 101 173, 66 163 (1980) (per curiam); McLain Real Estate Orleans, 444 246, 100 502, 62 441 (1980); Estelle Gamble, 97, 285, (1976); (1974); Cruz Beto, 405 322, 1079, 31 263 (1972) Haines Kerner, 404 521, 594, 30 652 Jenkins McKeithen, 411, 422, 1843, (1969) (plurality opinion); Cleveland Loudermill, 470 532, 554, 1487, 84 494 (1985) (Brennan, concurring dissenting part); Hoover Ronwin, 466 558, 587, 1989, 590 (1984) dissenting); Air Lines, Evans, 431 553, 561, 1885, 52 571 (1977) (Marshall, Simon Eastern Ky. Welfare Organization, 426 26, 55, judgment). EB Invs., LLC Atlantis Development, 930 So. (Ala.2005); Health Social Servs. Native Village Curyung, 151 P.3d 388, 396 (Alaska 2006); Newman Maricopa Cty., Ariz. 503, 808 P.2d 1253, 1255 (App.1991); Serv. Colo. Van Wyk, 377, 385-386 (Colo.2001) (en banc); Clawson St. Louis Post-Dispatch, LLC, 906 A.2d 308, 312 (D.C.2006); Hillman Constr. Wainer, 636 576, 578 (Fla.App.1994); Kaplan Kaplan, 266 Ga. 612, S.E.2d 198, 199 (1996); Home Depot U.S.A., 111 Hawai`i 401, 406, 270 (2006); Taylor Maile, Idaho 253, 156, 160 (2005); Fink Bryant, 2001-CC-0987, 4 (La. 11/28/01), 801 349; Gagne Cianbro 1313, 1318-1319 (Me.1981); Gasior Massachusetts 446 Mass. 645, 846 N.E.2d 1135 Ralph Gallagher, 926 890, 893 (Miss.2006); Jones Montana Univ. 337 Mont. 7, 1247, 1254 (2007); Johnston Nebraska Dept. Correctional Servs., Neb. 987, 989, 709 N.W.2d 321, 324 Blackjack Bonding Las Vegas Munic. Ct., 116 Nev. 1213, 1217, 14 1275, 1278 (2000); Shepard Ocwen Bank, 361 N.C. 137, 139, 197, Rose Equitable 2001 ND 154, 632 429, 434; ex rel. Turner Houk, 112 Ohio 3d 562, 2007-Ohio-814, 862 104, Moneypenney Dawson, 2006 OK 2, 141 549, 551; Gagnon 570 656, 659 (R.I.1990); Osloond Farrier, 2003 SD 28, Lincoln Brass Works, 712 S.W.2d 470, (Tenn. 1986); Association Haystack Property Owners Sprague, 145 Vt. 443, 446, 122, (1985); re Coday, 156 Wash.2d 485, 809, 815 Hampshire Comm'n, 216 W.Va. 499, 607 828, 831 Warren Hart, 747 512 (Wyo.1987); Malpiede Townson, 780 1075, 1082-1083 (Del.2001) (permitting "where determines omitted)); Canel Topinka, 212 Ill. 311, 318, 288 623, 818 317 (replacing "appears "is clearly apparent"); Young, 522 386, 388 (Ind.1988) curiam) certainty"); Barkema Williams Pipeline 666 614 (Iowa 2003) (holding sustained "only exists non-moving relief"); Pioneer Bullitt S.W.3d 757, (Ky.2003) "if nonmoving him/her Corley Detroit Mich. 274, 277, 681 342, 345 "`if development possibly recovery'"); Oberkramer Ellisville, 706 440, (Mo. 1986) banc) (omitting words formulation); Colman Utah Land 795 622, 624 (Utah 1990) claim"); NRC Management First Va. Bank-Southwest, Cir. 68, 70, WL 23540085 Virginia [to formulation], describe "`showing'" 1965, 3. extent "showing" depend particulars "showing." Similarly, specifying object intelligently. Omissions instance type "bareness" concerned. inability persuade actually altogether failing, fatal 89-90 ("[P]leadings party's advise event sued upon, guidance res judicata collateral estoppel, indicate tried jury. demanded this; indeed, shows performed pleadings" (footnotes omitted)). Our contrary. There, causation, element securities prices purchased artificially inflated, "provide causal connection [alleged] misrepresentation." 1627. identifies noticeโwhich "notice pleading" rightly condemnsโbut occurred. answered (as apart lawyers). wanting, plausibility, forestall." 897; 897 ("As us, alleged"). credited, give lacks 1970-1971, 10. lacking statement. (2002). conceded "[o]ur current specificity, it's specific." Tr. Oral Arg. 14. conspiracies," 1971, purposes, academic. associations "playfully" trade. 1971-1972, Quite contrary: regular basis, withโthough proveโthe unequivocal "rest ILECs," 1970, association meetings ironic seeks draw Evidence 201(b), judicially noticed territorial jurisdiction capable accurate ready resort whose accuracy questioned." dispute. worries "conclusory" begin." admitting charge. "sprawling, time-consuming" 1967, throw baby bathwater. vastly underestimates case-management arsenal. begins, motion; 7(a) reply "rigorous analysis" ensure certification General Southwest Falcon, 457 160, 102 2364, 72 740 (1982); Initial Offering Securities certify met, overlaps issue). power, backed sanctions, regulate conferences scheduling orders, discuss, inter alia, elimination defenses," 16(c)(1); necessity desirability amendments pleadings," 16(c)(2); discovery," 16(c)(6); adopting procedures managing involve complex issues, questions, unusual problems," 16(c)(12). Subsequently, confers broad discretion interrogatories, requests requests, case; sequence devices deployed; limitations them. 598-599, 1584. 26(c) annoyance, embarrassment, oppression, undue expense" disallowing conditions, limiting scope. take, proffers, stipulations, stonewalls, screen vel non defendant. Societe Internationale Pour Participations Industrielles Et Commerciales, S.A. Rogers, 206, 1087, (1958) 34 sufficiently adapted exigencies litigation"). filings bespeak suit, device, array 11 sanctions. 11(b), (c) (authorizing sanctions "for improper purpose, harass unnecessary delay needless increase litigation"); Guides, Chromatic 498 533, 922, 1140 (1991) represented signs papers, attorneys); Atkins Fischer, 232 116, (D.D.C.2005) arsenal options disposal"). "background law," 1968, Easterbrook solution legislative arenas. He ills complains revolution procedure: "Perhaps pare radical countryโalthough prevailed 1938, adopted. abandoning officers, judge-directed prepared pay piper. discoveryโimpositional otherwise." [15] wrong, costless plaintiffs. 54(d)(1) ("[C]osts attorneys' prevailing directs").

Classification Label: 7