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425 U.S. 391 96 Supreme Court Reporter 1569 48 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 39 Solomon FISHER et al., Petitioners,v.UNITED STATES al. UNITED Petitioners, versus C. D. KASMIR and Jerry Atlantic Candy. Nos. 74-18, 74-611. Argued Nov. 3, 1975. Decided April 21, 1976. Syllabus In each of these cases taxpayers, who were under investigation for possible civil or criminal liability the federal income tax laws, after having obtained from their respective accountants certain documents relating to accountants' preparation returns, transferred attorneys assist taxpayers in connection with investigations. Subsequently, Internal Revenue Service served summonses on directing them produce documents, but refused comply. The Government then brought enforcement actions, case District ordered summons enforced. Number 74-18 Appeals affirmed, holding that had never acquired a possessory interest not immune production attorney's hands. But 74-611 reversed, by virtue Fifth Amendment would have been privileged pursuant directed taxpayer if he retained possession, that, light attorney-client relationship, such privilege transferring his attorney. Held : 1. Compelled question does implicate whatever taxpayer-clients might enjoyed being themselves compelled documents. Pp. 396-401. (a) Whether barred subpoena while they hands, taxpayers' is violated enforcing because against taxpayer's lawyer "compel" do anything, certainly compel him be "witness" himself, fact are agents change this result. Couch States, 409 322, 93 611, 34 548. 396-398. (b) These present situation where constructive possession so clear relinquishment temporary insignificant as leave personal compulsion upon substantially intact, since sought obtainable without taxpayers. Couch, supra. Pacific KF135 P2 398. (c) attorneys, did lose any ever testify private papers This was no way decreased transfer. 398-399. (d) Even though may reasonable expectation privacy respect protect information compelling self-incriminating testimony. 399-401. 2. Although applies hands an attorney which client reason Amendment, protected producing question, involves incriminating testimony therefore production. 402-414. independently proscribe every sort evidence only when accused make Testimonial communication incriminating. 408. Here, however contents workpapers be, act thing itself involve testimonial self-incrimination, implicitly admitting existence rise level within protection Amendment. 409-414. 500 Federal Reporter, 2nd 683, affirmed; 74-611, 499 444, reversed. Lawrce G. Wallace, Washington, C., U. S. Robert E. Goodfriend Kasmir Richard L. Bazelon, Philadelphia, Pa., Fisher Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 two we called decide whether relationship enforceable over claims constitutionally immunity 2 * case, agent visited taxpayers1 interviewed laws. Shortly interviews one day later week returns. obtaining same few weeks lawyers respondent petitioner Fisher, respectively whom investigation. Upon learning whereabouts listed therein. described "the following records Tannebaum Bindler & Lewis (the accounting firm). 3 "1. Accountant's pertaining Dr. Judge Mason's books 1969, 1970 1971.2 4 "2. Retained copies returns 1971. 5 "3. reports other correspondence between Mason during 1971." 6 demanded analyses accountant expenses copied canceled checks deposit receipts.3 also appear concerning produced lawyer. declined comply actions commenced 26 Code KF62 §§ 7402(b) 7604(a). raised defense action accountant-client privilege, Fourth rights. claimed compulsory self-incrimination violation seizure necessary compliance violate right communicate confidence intervened made similar claims. 7 enforced its order stayed pending appeal. 683 (CA3 1974), petitioners' appeal raised, terms, claim, argued claim particularly confidential client. Third Circuit reargument en banc affirmed order, divided panel reversed 444 (1974). court reasoned and, nature retained, transfer attorney, "a legitimate regard materials placed custody, evidence, thus . protection."4 Id., at 453. We granted certiorari resolve conflict created. 420 906, 95 824, 42 835 (1975). Because our view either clients, affirm judgment reverse II 8 All parties concurred proposition excused Taxpayer turning accountant's possessed them, Attorney purpose legal advice should subpoena. agree reasons set forth Part III, Infra, convinced decision 548 (1973), it excuse 9 relevant part provides: 10 "No person shall Witness himself." (Emphasis added.) involved anything himself. has held repeatedly limited prohibiting use "physical moral compulsion" exerted asserting Perlman 247 7, 15, 38 417, 420, 62 L.Ed. 950, 956 (1918); Johnson 228 457, 458, 33 572, 57 919, 920 (1913); supra, 328, 336, 615, 619, 548, 554, 558. See Holt 218 245, 252-253, 31 2, 6, 54 1021, 1030 (1910); Dionisio, 410 1, 764, 35 67 (1973); Schmerber California, 384 757, 765, 86 1826, 1832, 16 908, 916 (1966); Burdeau McDowell, 256 465, 476, 41 574, 576, 65 1048, 1051 (1921); California Bankers Assn. Shultz, 416 55, 94 1494, 1514, 812, 836 recently ruled rights documentary her requiring own accountant. ground ingredient lacking." U.S., 329, S.Ct., 616, L.Ed.2d, 554. 11 more than Couch. toward attorneys. true 12 much, there agent, reflected longstanding view. Hale Henkel, 201 43, 69-70, 370, 377, 50 652, 663 (1906), said "was intended permit (a person) plead some third incriminated testimony, even (T)he witness Himself." original.) "It extortion himself offends sense justice." Agent no, taxpayer. "accused," nothing extorted him. 13 Nor those situations, suggested exist, intact. 333, 618, 556. see difference delivery case. As accused. 14 Respondents petitioners argue, apparently agreed, enforced, lost solely gave obtain advice. misconceives constitutional privilege. protects possession. It simply subpoenaed available. "A party production." L.Ed., 920. 15 legally ethically required confidences client, latter forfeit often stated several purposes protecting privacy. See, e. g., Murphy Waterfront Comm'n, 378 52, 84 1594, 1596, 678, 681 (1964); 332, 335-336, 617, 619-620, 556, 558-559; Tehan ex rel. Shott, 382 406, 416, 459, 453, 460 Davis 328 582, 587, 66 1256, 1258, 90 1453, 1456 (1946). invasion violates Within limits imposed language necessarily observe, truly serves interests; ground, included, applied prevent otherwise proper acquisition which, Court's view, sort.5 contrary statements appropriate safeguards overheard used time uttered, Katz 389 347, 354, 88 507, 512, 19 583 (1967); Osborn 385 323, 329-330, 87 429, 432-433, 17 394, 399-400 Berger New York, 388 41, 57, 1873, 1882, 18 1040, cf. Hoffa 293, 304, 408, 414, 374, 383 disclosure removes risk incrimination. Kastigar 406 441, 92 1653, 32 212 (1972). If generally man's mouth pen house, protections presumably lifted probable cause warrant immunity. mitigated immunity; Amendment's strictures, unlike Fourth's, removed showing reasonableness. Framers addressed subject directly They struck balance State's believe will found becomes sufficiently great, justified search seize issue. seek still another achieve general deal specific issue self-incrimination. cannot cut completely loose moorings language, serve protector word mentioned text concept adhere "compelled of) information." Nobles, 422 225, 233 n. 2160, 2167, 45 141 Insofar through protected, stems sources6 seizures subpoenas suffer "too much indefiniteness breadth things 'particularly described,' " Oklahoma Press Pub. company Walling, 327 186, 208, 494, 505, 614, 629 (1946); re Horowitz, 482 72, 75-80 (CA2 1973) (Friendly, J.); First NAACP Alabama, 357 449, 462, 78 1163, 1171, 1488, 1499 (1958); evidentiary privileges privilege.7 III Our above cases, however, outset consistently urged forced expose turned appears unqualifiedly. difficulty erroneously relied urging many words. nevertheless invoked body law policies govern posture feel obliged inquire Amendment.8 20 Confidential disclosures assistance privileged. Wigmore, Evidence, § 2292 (McNaughton rev. 1961) (hereinafter Wigmore); McCormick 87, Page 175. encourage clients full Wigmore 2291, 2306, 590; 175, 92, 192; Baird Koerner, 279 623 (CA9 1960); Modern Woodmen America Watkins, 132 352 (CA5 1942); Prichard 181 326 (CA6) aff'd, Per curiam, 339 974, 70 1029, 1380 (1950); Schwimmer 232 855 (CA8 1956); Goldfarb, 280 (CA6 1964). practical matter, knows damaging could readily absence disclosure, reluctant confide difficult fully informed However, effect withholding fact-finder, purpose. Accordingly absent 81 280; 554; McCormick, 89, 185. lower courts uniformly pre-existing process Grant 227 74, 79-80, 190, 192, 423, 426 2307 cited; 90, 185; Falsone 205 734 1953); Sovereign Camp, W.O.W. Reed,, 208 Ala. Southern S69 910 (1922); Andrews Missisppi R. Co., Ind. 169, 98 Northeastern N59 49 (1860); Palatini Sarian, N.J.Super. 34, 83 24 (1951); Pearson Yoder, Okl. 105, 134 421 State Sowers Olwell, 64 Wash.2d 828, 394 (1964). requires broader rule. Pre-existing appreciably easier Thus, discouraged disclosing ability remain unfettered. Duces tecum exclusive unless latter's Where advice, defeated applicable. follows, then, When From document, common exempt document bound produce." 2307, 592. Lower held. 592 Judson, 322 460, 466 1963); Colton 306 633, 639 1962). accepted below, asserted respondents conceded brief oral argument. it. 21 Since investigations papers, unobtainable accordingly proceed bar below On odds Second Beattie, 522 267 (1975), cert. pending, 75-407, 75-700. IV 22 prevents objection incriminate Boyd 116 68 524, 29 746 (1886). forfeiture proceeding partners fraudulently attempting import glass paying prescribed duty. partnership contracted furnish needed construction building. specified foreign glass, understood all furnished partnership's existing duty-paid inventory, replaced duty-free imports. Pursuant arrangement, imported duty free. represented entitled entry additional soon arrive. concerned cases. Government's position building At trial, invoice received shipper covering previous 29-case shipment. disclosed, offered used, partners, establish claiming greater exemption contract. inadmissible favor Government. orders manner warrants, 622, 528, 748; not, consistent person's property can proprietary superior obtained. 623-624, 528-529, 748. went hold defendant items violating well Fourth. More specifically, declared, owner goods forfeited meaning Constitution." 634-635, 534, 752. Admitting into both Amendments. 23 Among pronouncements, Was declare seizure, otherwise, purely rendered seized inadmissible. Gouled 255 298, 261, 647 Agnello 269 20, 46 4, 145 (1925); Lefkowitz, 285 452, 52 76 877 (1932). That rule "(t)here special sanctity distinguished forms property, render fall scope principles seized. ." 309, 265, 652. Private taken taxpayer, like "mere evidence," objections. Several Boyd's express implicit declarations stood test time. application 652 recent 614 Purely (but "nontestimonial") materials, contraband fruits instrumentalities crime, now searched circumstances, Warden Hayden, 387 294, 1642, 782 (1967).9 Also, notion "testimonial" inconsistent 576 (196; 439, 1040 (1967), approving circumstances conversations suspected crime. Marron 275 72 231 (1927). 25 Communication have, accordingly, extend giving blood samples, 763-764, 1831-1832, 915-916 (1966);10 handwriting exemplars, Gilbert 263, 265-267, 1951, 1952-1954, 1178, 1181-1183 voice Wade, 218, 222-223, 1926, 1929-1930, 1149, 1154-1155 donning blouse worn perpetrator, 1021 (1910). Furthermore, despite Boyd, neither nor individual shielded grounds. Bellis 417 85, 2179, 40 678 precise sustained rejected considered. pronouncement nonetheless appeared dictum opinions Wilson 221 361, 538, 543, 55 771, 778 (1911); Wheeler 226 478, 489, 158, 162, 313 White, 694, 698-699, 1248, 1251, 1542, 1545-1546 (1944); 587-588, a1258-1259, 1456-1457; Schmerber, 915-916; 330, 555; 2182, 683. To extent, rested including transgressed Fifth, foundations washed away. consequence, prohibition forcing long searching rationale proscriptions give "testimony" incriminates Accordingly, turn what, any, protection, summons. 27 A doubt substantial compulsion. testimony; ordinarily restate, repeat, truth sought. Therefore, alone face communications. supra ; taxpayer's. prepared contain far record demonstrates, wholly voluntary, anyone else.11 avoid merely item contains writing, someone else. 28 response communicative aspects own, aside produced. Compliance tacitly concedes control indicate belief Curcio 354 118, 125, 77 1145, 1150, 1225, 1231 (1957). elements clearly present, issues tacit averments "incriminating" applying questions perhaps lend categorical answers; resolution instead depend facts particular classes thereof. before us, confident doubtful rises belong accountant, him, kind usually working Surely relying "truth-telling" prove access 2264, 380. location foregone conclusion adds little sum total conceding papers. Under "no touched. surrender." Harris, 274, 279, 557, 558, 732, 735 (1911). 30 submit exemplar admits write impliedly asserts writing. experience, first near truism self-evident. event, although it, done deemed again allowed custodian corporate belonging collective entities unions partnerships bankrupt businesses possessor. 771 Dreier 550, 784 1542 (1974); here equally enforceable. Moreover, assuming minimal significance, surely illegal help one's prepare deliver juncture, quite unprepared poses realistic threat incrimination possibility responding authenticate12 workpapers, payer's competent authenticate reports13 testifying orally. vouch accuracy. admissible authenticating Without more, us represent supra; corporate, union, business respond business' doing "representation subpoena," 1231.14 shield here; "private papers," affirmed. So ordered. 36 Affirmed part; part. 37 STEVENS took consideration disposition BRENNAN, concurring judgment. N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions concur Given prior rather summonses. 557-558 337, 620, 559 (Brennan, J., concurring). join opinion, portent what serious crippling secured Like today's Miller, 435, 1619, 71, step denigration settled nearly 100 years ago According Court, "(w)hether 'private papers.' Ante, 414. implication papers" jurisprudence implications throughout opinion1 prompt me conjecture once laying groundwork future decisions tell formally reserved actually answered availability Semble, Hudgens NLRB, 424 47 196 (1976). recall history construed safeguard governmental intrusions recorded phrased "nor (any himself" makes reference, "papers, effects," designed "to maintain inviolate large areas privacy." Feldman 487, 490, 1082, 1083, 1408, 1412 (1944). Expressions legion central "(I)t person's) indefeasible security, liberty property" "constitutes essence offence" 630, 532, 751. reflects "our inviolability human personality 'to enclave lead life.' 1597, respects inner sanctum feeling thought proscribes state intrusion extract self-condemnation." 327, 553. Miranda Arizona, 436, 1602, 1620, 715 (1966). "The Self-Incrimination Clause enables citizen create zone government force surrender detriment." Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 484, 85 1678, 1681, 510, 515 (1965). 350 n.5, 581 (1967). pays lip service bedrock premise statement "(w)ithin interests," 399. explicit elsewhere highlights namely, product precedents teach, factor controlling determination cart-before-the-horse approach fundamentally principle constrained wording reach cherished value safeguards. 761-762, 1831, 914 "Court always provisions Constitution established. direct operation literal words measure ppose provisions. 467, 424, 877, 883 decided Amendment) receive liberal construction, stealthy encroachment 'gradual depreciation' (it), imperceptible practice well-intentioned, mistakenly overzealous executive officers." 647, 650 (1921). Maness Meyers, 419 461, 584, 592, 584 History principle, mechanical wording, life Amendment.2 compulsion, granted, nowise supports argument demeaning privilege's unavailability evidences Amendments, afforded absolute. critical definition sheltered 43 teach extends just individual's immediate declarations, written, form papers.3 originally 'right silence' defendant's lips. Beginning early eighteenth century English widened include necessity tend .Lord Mansfield summed up declaring defendant, 'though Court.' Levy, Origins 390 (1968).4 recognizing 533, 534-535, 752, 753, faithful historical conception reaffirmed Ballmann Fagin, 200 212, 433 cashbook containing evidence. 761, 1830, 914, most expressly "that Otherwise provide .." supplied.) Indeed, reiterated question. E.g., Calandra, 414 338, 346, 613, 561, 570 221, 1929, 1154 266, 1953, 1182 1257-1259, 1456-1457 1545, 1546 375, 542, ICC Baird, 194 25, 45, 563, 569, 860, 869 (1904). emphatically until today, room "historic function (to individual) records." 701, 1252, 1547 (emphasis supplied). 44 common-law extension inevitable. An person. reveal less questioned directly. Many matters knowledge easily head down scrap paper. perceive disclose mind paper fortuity, persons would, peril, thoughts events lives. think thoughts, facilitated paper, preserve intimate memories curtailed fear become subjects sanctions invalidly imposed. very reality fears helped impetus 631-632, 532-533, 751-752; Griswold, Today 8-9 (1955); Evidence 2250, Pages 277-281 1961); 2251, 313-314; McKay, Privacy, 1967 Review 193, 212.5 treatment falls short precedents.6 is, course, 'compelled information,' 401, Similarly, "contain taxpayer)" operate production, 409, follow producible declarations. And depends voluntary," Ibid., unavailable voluntarily, Production creation protects. Though concludes require sought, 409. analysis patently incomplete: threshold inquiry affirmation papers' sure, correctly observes "(t)he Merely else." For enough compelled. Unless come recognized guideposts determining books, writings 58 (1911), example, subpoenaing president corporation, testimonial, compelled, bar. "(u)ndoubtedly president) records, held: "(T)hey character scrutiny implied Case, claimant constantly emphasized. public official kept administration office, actual lawful custody justify officer resisting inspection, supply dereliction." 380, 544, 779 original). S.C 950 (1918), permitted "there voluntary exposition articles" "an 14, 955. therefore, criterion disclosed party. 332-333, 617-618, 556-557. say, degree holder keep desires produce. Most recently, (1974), followed Wilson. partner small firm invoke refusal financial records. stated: established effects sole proprietor practitioner about life." 87-88, "decisions inapplicable entity reflect ' Protection major theme running basis Boyd." 92-92, 2184, 685. "(C)orporate requisite element confidentiality essential attach." 2185, 686. concluded considerations precluded reliance case.7 51 cataloguing ambit probably impossible. Some classification. Comment, Search Seizure Papers: Considerations, Loyola (LA) L.Rev. 300-303 (1973). created authenticated Government, automobile registrations deeds, seem outside hardly Economic But, noted, practitioner. Such least aspect activities, concededly life. mental notes affairs complicated age, away complexities Cf. Olmstead 277 438, 474, 564, 571, Ld. 944, 954 (1928) (Brandeis, dissenting). Nonbusiness economic individual, protected. insights lifestyle. are, frequently, always, parties; foreclose Personal letters constitute integral enclave. letters, interpersonal, private, peculiarly narrow extent Papers diary fortiori 53 instant respect, inadequate. gaping hole omission reference interests impermissibly invade interests. observations "accountant's taxpayer's" "were taxpayer," touch privacy, determine 378, 778, "(T)he mere appellant wrote, signed, (documents), conditioned enlarged exists written person."8 insufficient trigger privilege," 11, .," say available outset, "testimonial." requested authenticates identified compel. disagree, admission proved know strength consider authentication insubstantial Actually, establishes taxpayers', thereby supplying incriminatory link chain them. link, cannot, 56 exemplars supportive position. 1178 "(a) ., itself, identifying physical characteristic protection." 266-267, 1183. viewed strictly nontestimonial, insufficiently Also Nothing impliedly, indicates most, issues, considered, disposed artificial organization undertakes obligation foreclosing exercise privilege.9 MARSHALL, adopts new deciding evidence.1 has, various forms, discussed commentors time; noted ago, theory "has odd sound it." 348, 625, 565 (1973) (dissenting). subpoena, tells lies document's contents, previously suggested, verification inherent exists, producer, 59 technical somewhat esoteric focus content investigator seeks BRENNAN traditions country England, originated. line whose rationales holdings overturned support "any forcible convict crime" compels Constitution. 746, 751 1258-1259, 60 However analytically imprecise deeply Members ought request. While welcome attempt rule, incumbent believe, fashion core concern. preferred recognition themselves. 350, 626, 566 (Marshall, 61 Nonetheless, am hopeful theory, properly applied, recognizes, others argued, verify authenticity 1975), promise innovative discernment documents' producer. expanded kinds rationalizes seems afford almost complete provides persuasive distinguishing corporate-document involving citizens. seldom doubt, existence, fairly termed all. hand, assume places top list protect. 426-427 (concurring judgment). inverse permissibility existence. diary, personally maintained exist clear, checks, quickly simultaneously "real danger" result, Rogers 340 367, 71 344 Brown Walker, 161 591, 644, 819 (1896); Counselman Hitchcock, 142 547, 195, 1110 (1892). practice, progeny concerned. 63 limit prosecution's grant useful tool sources, possible, immunized necessary, introduced. mandates different must presently effectively fruit testimony.2 offers procurement afford. short, sacrifices pragmatic, Ad hoc, unduly pessimistic signals end ready embrace myself, trial judges apply instance sensitivity traditional concerns uncertain area. husband wife filed joint return. "books records" medical practice. receipts related textile waste business. wife's women's wear shop. rely Appeals. There offended 306, 264, 651 33-34, 6-7, 145, 149-150 466-467, (1932); Mapp Ohio, 367 643, 661, 1684, 1694, 1081, 1093 (1961) (Black, purported find situations. "In unwilling source forbids case." 651. event predicate lacking here, 475-476, 1050-1051 "legitimate privacy," differentiated "We today prevail where, semblance accused." arguments successful had. narrowly drawn unquestionable relevance Special problems presented Bennett, 888, 897 1969) J.), here. values plainly implicated Rule Evid. 501, effective January 1975, district "shall governed interpreted experience." 501 authorities cited Infra. Fed.Rule Crim.Proc. 26. intervene, disagree need universally p.193, 94, 197 (2d ed. 1972) McCormick); Republic Gear Borg-Warner Corp., 551 1967); Bouschor 316 451 633 1962); (CA8), denied, 833, 48, (1956); Baldwin Commissioner, 125 812 1942). Citing 908 (1966), 302-303, 1648, 789, "whether evidential precludes object seizure." was: "Since petitioner's writing petitioner, grounds." 1833, 916. And, Marchetti 39, 697, 889 (1968); Grosso 62, 709, 906 (1968), Conversations introduced safeguards, F.2d, 9, performed chattel authored producer demanded. 128, 261. "implicit authentication" prevailing justification subpoenas. ("the reaches responses communications, 746"); 344, 564 dissenting) complying "implicitly testifies brings demanded"); 267, 270 1975) J.) ("(a) demanding equivalent take stand admit genuineness"), 75-700; 380 component chattels "is witness' assurance, incident process, articles ones 126, 268 ("(t)his (applying subpoenas) defended produces (or matter) represents, subpoena"); People Defore, 242 N.Y. 13, 27, 150 585, 590 (1926) (Cardozo, ("A 'protected Subpoena duces tecum, voucher genuineness.' 'testimonial compulsion' "). seeking "retained copies" "copies" original sent testified sufficient introduction notation "(s)pecial here," 401 context discussion imply forthright confessions crime resisted grounds provision 'a page worth volume logic.' Ullmann 422, 497, 506, 511, 524 (1956) (Frankfurter, J.). right, England America, proves rigid definition." 428 (1968). "Some tests seemingly 'physical evidence,' lie detector measuring changes interrogation, eliciting essentially testimonial. testing effort guilt innocence physiological responses, willed evoke spirit situations call 'is broad mischief guard.' safely except British institutions instrument framed adopted." Ex parte Grossman, 108-109, 69 527, 530 (1925). ancestors unsuited political conditions." Grosjean American 297 233, 249, 80 660, 668 (1936). extended adoption Roe Harvey, Eng.Rep. 302, 305 (K.B.1769); King Heydon, 195 (K.B.1762); Purnell, 595, 597 (K.B.1748); Cornelius, 1133, 1134 (K.B.1744); Queen Mead, 119 (K.B.1703); Worsenham, 91 1370 (K.B.1701). significance development diminished country's experience Constitution's adoption. Supra, 368-404. "And discovery extorting party's oath, free government. abhorrent instincts Englishman; American. suit despotic power; abide pure atmosphere freedom." proposition, ultimately incorrect. observe Amendments shed other, independent other. Constitution, unreasonable Amendment," predicate, let violation. incorrect suggesting 'mere Fifth." relation (1921), searches 399-400, violations lost. material nor, turn, violations. Agnello, contraband, illegally Subsequent modifying evidence" left untouched citing notes, open Legal 407 9. Hayden observed: clothing 'testimonial' 'communicative' nature, 789. observation Fifth. Contrary intimations, 407-408, lends challenges grudging gives evident "(i)n 410, 11. Obviously heart safeguarding With invoice, fair does, (Bellis ) considered." Bellis, care point out: today," 2187, 688, leaving unaltered "imprecise" investigator's summaries witnesses. carefully indication contained conveyed investigator. 234, 2168, 151. Individuals acting representatives group "assume rights, duties association officers, obligations." 699, inescapable officers agents, undermine unchallenged largely frustrate regulation organizations." (1957), custodian's representation subpoena." Curcio, note problem undertaking (One charged failure produce, thereafter supra.) undertaken stipulated, subpoenas, obviating resulting itself. real well. affords possesses authenticate. relinquish able assert

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