Legal Document

411 U.S. 1 93 Supreme Court Reporter 1278 36 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 16 SAN ANTONIO INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT et al., Appellants,v.Demetrio Pacific KF135 P2 RODRIGUEZ al. Number 71—1332. Argued Oct. 12, 1972. Decided March 21, 1973. Rehearing Denied April 23, See 959, 1919. Syllabus The financing of public elementary and secondary schools in Texas is a product state local participation. Almost half the revenues are derived from largely state-funded program designed to provide basic minimum educational offering every school. Each district supplements aid through an ad valorem tax on property within its jurisdiction. Appellees brought this class action behalf schoolchildren said be members poor families who reside school districts having low base, making claim that system's reliance taxation favors more affluent violates equal protection requirements because substantial interdistrict disparities per-pupil expenditures resulting primarily differences value assessable among districts. District Court, finding wealth 'suspect' classification education 'fundamental' right, concluded system could upheld only upon showing, which appellants failed make, there was compelling interest for system. court also even demonstrate reasonable or rational basis State's Held: 1. This not proper case examine laws under standards strict judicial scrutiny, since test reserved cases involving operate disadvantage suspect classes interfere with exercise fundamental rights liberties explicitly implicitly protected by Constitution. Pp. 18—44. (a) does any class. It has been shown discriminate against definable 'poor' people occasion discriminations depending relative district. And, insofar as disadvantages those who, disregarding their individual income characteristics, comparatively districts, cannot suspect. 18—28. (b) Nor school-financing impermissibly right liberty. Though one most important services performed State, it limited category recognized guaranteed Even if some identifiable quantum arguably entitled constitutional make meaningful other rights, here no showing fails minimal skills necessary purpose. 29—39. (c) Moreover, inappropriate invoke scrutiny involves delicate difficult questions taxation, fiscal planning, policy, federalism, considerations counseling restrained form review. 40—44. 2. violate Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. concededly imperfect, bears relationship legitimate While assuring child permits encourages participation significant control each district's at level. 44—53. D.C., 337 F.Supp. 280, reversed. Charles Alan Wright, Austin, Tex., appellants. Arthur Gochman, San Antonio, appellees. [Amicus Curiae Information pages 3-5 intentionally omitted] Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. suit attacking initiated Mexican-American parents whose children attend Edgewood Independent School District, urban Texas.1 They throughout State minority groups base. Named defendants2 were Board Education, Commissioner Attorney General, Bexar County (San Antonio) Trustees. complaint filed summer 1968 three-judge impaneled January 1969.3 In December 19714 panel rendered judgment per curiam holding finance unconstitutional Amendment.5 appealed, we noted probable jurisdiction consider far-reaching presented. 406 966, 92 2413, 32 665 (1972). For reasons stated opinion, reverse decision 2 * first Constitution, promulgated Texas' entry into Union 1845, provided establishment free schools.6 Early history, adopted dual approach schools, relying mutual State. As early 1883, constitution amended creation empowered levy taxes consent taxpayers 'erection . buildings' 'further maintenance schools.'7 Such funds raised supplemented distributed Permanent Available Funds.8 Fund, predecessor established 1854 $2,000,000 realized annexation settlement,9 thereafter endowed millions acres land set aside assure continued source support.10 received Fund well designated taxes,11 served disbursing arm late 1800's century. Additionally, 1918 increase used providing textbooks State.12 3 Until recent times, predominantly rural population spread relatively evenly across State.13 Sizable between became increasingly evident industrialized rural-to-urban shifts pronounced.14 location commercial industrial began play role determining amount resources available These growing taxable responsible part notable levels expenditure education.15 4 due time apparent concerned contributions sufficient ameliorate these disparities.16 Prior 1939, contributed money rate $17.50 school-age child.17 Although increased several times 1940's,18 $46 student 1945.19 5 Recognizing need funding help offset spending meet changing requirements, legislature 1940's undertook thorough evaluation eye toward major reform. 1947, 18-member committee, composed educators legislators, appointed explore alternative systems propose scheme would guarantee overcome resources. Committee's efforts led passage Gilmer-Aikin bills, named co-chairmen, establishing Minimum Foundation Program20. Today, Program accounts approximately total Texas.21 6 calls fund earmarked specifically teacher salaries, operating expenses, transportation costs. supplying general revenues, finances 80% Program, responsible—as unit—for remaining 20%. districts' share, known Local Assignment, apportioned formula reflect taxpaying ability. Assignment divided 254 counties pursuant complicated economic index takes account county's contribution manufacturing, mining, agricultural activities. considers share all payrolls paid and, lesser extent, State.22 assignment then county.23 district, turn, out taxation. 7 design complex twofold. First, attempt have equalizing influence placing heaviest burden capable paying. Second, Program's architects sought establish force contribute children24 but itself exhaust resources.25 Today impose derives locally expendable excess satisfy Program. 8 years went operation 1949, education—from sources steadily. Between 1949 1967, 500%.26 last decade alone budget rose $750 million to.$2.1 billion27 increases reflected consistently rising perpupil State.28 Teacher far largest item school's budget, dramatically—the state-supported salary teachers possessing college degrees risen $2,400 $6,000 over 20 years.29 9 appellees reside, compared litigation Alamo Heights District. comparison least Antonio area serves illustrate manner operates indicate extent exist despite impressive progress years. seven metropolitan enrolled 25 schools. situated core-city sector residential neighborhood little property. residents descent: 90% 6% Negro. average assessed pupil $5,960—the lowest area—and median family ($4,686) lowest.30 At equalized $1.05 $100 highest area—the $26 1967—1968 year above $222 state-local $248.31 Federal added another $108 $356 pupil.32 10 Antonio. Its six housing 5,000 students, community quite unlike 'Anglo,' 18% Mexican-Americans less than 1% Negroes. exceeds $49,000,33 $8,001. $.85 valuation yielded $333 Coupled $225 able supply $558 student. Supplemented $36 grant federal sources, spent $594 pupil. 11 figures complete statistical breakdown aid,34 partial statistics previously trend increasing significant. 1970—1971 year, allotment pupil, 62% 1967—68 year. Indeed, equaled Edgewood's entire local, state, sources. enjoyed similar netting $491 1970—1971.35 reveal two allotments funded own required Assignment. Heights, wealth, collections about 20% grant. Edgewood, hand, $8.46 2.4% grant.36 appears that, rough approximation potential each.37 12 Despite increases, found prevail varying State38 still exist. And disparities, attributable amounts collected conclude violated Clause. held discriminates people. F.Supp., 282. Finding interest, sustained show premised interest. Id., 282—284. On issue '(n)ot defendants unable interests they fail classifications.' 284. 13 virtually concedes historically rooted withstanding appropriate reviewing legislative judgments rights39 involve classifications.40 If, previous decisions indicated, means usual presumption validity, rather complainants must carry 'heavy justification,' structured 'precision,' 'tailored' narrowly serve objectives selected 'less drastic means' effectuating objectives,41 counterpart will pass muster. candidly admits '(n)o familiar contend yet achieved perfection.'42 Apart concession 'defects'43 'imperfections,'44 defends rationality vigor disputes Court's lacks 'reasonable basis.' 14 This, then, establishes framework our analysis. We decide, first, whether impinges thereby requiring scrutiny. If so, should affirmed. not, examined determine rationally furthers legitimate, articulated purpose therefore constitute invidious discrimination violation II 15 novelty complexity posed appellees' challenge financing. concluding required, relied dealing indigents treatment criminal trial appellate processes,45 disapproving restrictions vote.46 Those cases, concluded, classification. discriminated regarded precedents controlling. reasoned, based affirming undeniable importance education,47 absent justification, stand. agree case, aspects sui generis, may so neatly fitted conventional mosaic analysis follow, find neither suspect-classification fundamental-interest persuasive. Atlantic 17 discovered courts recently struck down States,48 forms heretofore reviewed Rather focusing unique features alleged discrimination, assumed findings simplistic process analysis: since, traditional poorer receive expensive educations people, wealth. ignores hard threshold questions, including makes difference purposes consideration Constitution disadvantaged identified defined customary terms, relative—rather absolute—nature asserted deprivation consequence. Before justifications classifications create subjected think analyzed closely below. 18 comes us definitive description classifying facts delineation disfavored Examination complaint, briefs, contentions oral argument suggests, however, three ways claimed might described. discriminating (1) persons incomes fall below level poverty characterized functionally 'indigent,'49 (2) others,50 (3) irrespective personal incomes, happen districts.51 Our task ascertain whether, fact, possible bases 19 starting point. individuals, constituted prior shared distinguishing characteristics: impecunity completely pay desired benefit, consequence, absolute opportunity enjoy benefit. Griffin versus Illinois, 351 76 585, 100 L.Ed. 891 (1956), progeny,52 invalidated prevented indigent defendant acquiring transcript, adequate substitute use stages appeal process. payment de facto indigency, totally transcripts. emphasized had 'adequate substitute' full stenographic transcript. Britt North Carolina, 404 226, 228, 431, 434, 30 400 (1971); Gardner California, 393 367, 89 580, 21 601 (1969); Draper Washington, 372 487, 83 774, 899 (1963); Eskridge Washington Prisons, 357 214, 78 1061, 1269 (1958). Likewise, Douglas 353, 814, 811 (1963), defendant's court-appointed counsel direct appeal, dealt way gaining representation. provides relief whom burdens paying defense speaking, great insurmountable. deal quality acquired wealthy. Williams 399 235, 90 2018, 26 586 (1970), Tate Short, 401 395, 91 668, 28 130 (1971), penalties incarceration simply inability fine. Again, demanded sum. do touch question denied fines heavier burdens. person's ability order avoid disproportionate Sentencing judges may, often do, pay, such circumstances guided sound discretion mandate. 22 Finally, Bullock Carter, 405 134, 849, 31 (1972), filing-fee requirement primary elections. Both relevant present there. size fee, running thousands dollars high $8,900, effectively barred candidates fee. 'no access ballot' (id., 149, 859), occasioned denial position ballot. 23 Only describing system—discrimination definably persons—might criteria cases. cursory examination, demonstrates characteristics can here. support charge 'poor,' made effort peculiar fairly indigent, beneath reason believe poorest necessarily clustered A exhaustive study Connecticut '(i)t clearly incorrect live .. Thus, factual assumption Serrano—that 'poor'—is false Connecticut.'53 Defining Bureau Census 'poverty level,'54 found, surprisingly, around areas—those same areas attractive districts.55 Whether pattern known, record assuming people—defined reference impecunity—are concentrated 24 nor addressed fact foregoing lack values receiving education; rather, unsettled disputed determined expended it,56 answer where involved, require equality precisely advantages.57 indeed, view infinite variables affecting process, except sense. asserts 'adequate' By public-school education, teachers, books, transportation, funds, Legislature endeavored 'guarantee, welfare whole, shall education. what meant 'A Education."58 repeatedly briefs fulfilled desire now assures 'every education.'59 No proof offered persuasively discrediting refuting assertion. reasons—the absence evidence results education—the susceptible identification terms.60 suggested above, embraced second third approach, theory comparative income. prove correlation exists therein That is, along continuum, lower dollar family's children. 27 principal adduced comparative-discrimination affidavit submitted Professor Joele S. Berke Syracuse University's Educational Finance Policy Institute. apparently accepting substance theory, noted, positive measured terms expenditures. residents, 282 n. 3. correlations sustained, argued education—equated education—are dependent Appellees' face serious unanswered bare higher degree correlation61 poor,62 diversity ever special accorded classes. allegations conclusions. 29 Berke's survey 10% Texas. His findings, margin,63 wealthiest few sample spend devote remainder districts—96 composing almost inverted, i.e., next populated while incomes. conceptual answered favorably appellees, discrimination.64 brings us, defined—district discrimination. Since indicated expenditures, without regard residents. Assuming perfect top bottom, viewed encompassing spends education.65 Alternatively, MARSHALL's dissenting post, 96, restrictively include falls statewide average, median, artificially However described, clear asks extend exacting review allegedly large, diverse, amorphous class, unified common factor residence districts.66 defines none indicia suspectness: saddled disabilities, history purposeful unequal treatment, relegated political powerlessness command extraordinary majoritarian thus But recognition never invoking solely contention.67 assert interferes accordingly application standard Graham Richardson, 403 365, 375—376, 1848, 1853—1854, 534 Kramer Free 395 621, 1886, 583 Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 1322, 600 (1969). question—whether sense Constitution—which consumed attention commentators years.68 B 33 Brown 347 483, 74 686, 98 873 (1954), unanimous 'education perhaps function governments.' 493, S.Ct., 691. What context racial lost vitality time: 34 'Compulsory attendance both democratic society. performance responsibilities, service armed forces. very foundation good citizenship. instrument awakening cultural values, preparing him later professional training, helping adjust normally his environment. days, doubtful reasonably expected succeed life he opportunity, undertaken it, terms.' Ibid. 35 theme, expressing abiding respect vital society, numerous opinions Justices writing before after decided. Wisconsin Yoder, 205, 213, 1526, 1532, 234 (Burger, C.J.), 237, 238—239, 1544 1545 (White, J.), (1972); Abington Dist. Schempp, 374 203, 230, 1560, 1575, 844 (1963) (Brennan, J.); People Illinois ex rel. McCollum 333 212, 68 461, 465, 649 (1948) (Frankfurter, Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 45 571, 69 1070 (1925); Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 43 625, 67 1042 (1923); Interstate Consolidated Street R. company Massachusetts, 207 79, 26, 52 111 (1907). Nothing holds today detracts historic dedication agreement conclusion 'the grave significance society' doubted.69 examination Harlan, law impinging interstate travel, admonished '(v)irtually statute affects rights.' U.S., 655, 661, 1342, 1345. view, legislation fluctuated, majority's affected, gone 'far 'super-legislature." would, authority competence. Stewart's response Harlan's concern correctly articulates limits fundamental-rights rationale employed decisions: 37 'The 'pick particular human activities, characterize them 'fundamental,' give ..' To contrary, recognizes, must, gives demands.' 642, 1335. (Emphasis original.) 38 statement underline clear. subjecting eligibility statutes imposed one-year durational residency precondition AFDC benefits, explained: 39 '(I)n moving exercising penalize unless promote governmental unconstitutional.' 634, 1331. travel long significance,70 decision, therefore, did hoc determination social right.71 40 Lindsey Normet, 56, 862, decided Term, firmly reiterates critical determinant procedural limitations tenants suits landlords Oregon's Forcible Entry Wrongful Detainer Law, urged 'a stringent mere rationality.' 73, 874. statutory implicated 'fundamental particularly poor,' "need decent shelter" "right retain peaceful possession one's home." White's analysis, instructive: 41 'We denigrate decent, safe sanitary housing. remedies ill. perceive document dwellings tenant occupy real landlord beyond term lease, rent Absent mandate, assurance definition landlord-tenant relationships legislative, judicial, functions.' 74, supplied.) 42 Similarly, Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 1153, 491 explicit 'administration assistance needs impoverished beings,' id., 485, 1162,72 departing settled mode policy. housing, central benefits justify Jefferson Hackney, 535, 1724, 285 Richardson Belcher, 78, 254, 231 (1971). lesson addressing plain. province substantive name guaranteeing laws. key discovering comparisons societal opposed subsistence weighing travel. Rather, lies assessing Eisenstadt Baird, 438, 1029, 349 (1972);73 Dunn Blumstein, 330, 995, 274 (1972);74 Police Dept. City Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 2286, 212 (1972);75 Skinner Oklahoma Williamson, 316 62 1110, 86 1655 (1942).76 44 course, afforded saying protected. said, undisputed cause depart legislation. contention, distinguishable peculiarly close Specifically, insist essential effective First Amendment freedoms intelligent utilization vote. asserting nexus speech urge speak meaningless speaker articulating thoughts intelligently persuasively. 'marketplace ideas' empty forum lacking communicative tools. argue corollary information77 becomes hollow privilege when recipient taught read, assimilate, utilize knowledge. line reasoning pursued vote.78 Exercise franchise, contended, divorced voter. electoral reality conform ideal, depends informed electorate: voter cast ballot reading thought processes adequately developed. 46 dispute propositions. zealous unjustifiable interference individual's Yet presumed possess either citizenry choice. desirable goals freedom expression representative government doubted.79 indeed beliefs freed interference. implemented instrusion otherwise 47 conceded constitutionally prerequisite indication expendi tures short. Whatever merit opportunities children, involved where—as true case—no acquire enjoyment 48 Furthermore, logical perceive. How, instance, distinguished basics food shelter? Empirical buttress ill-fed, ill-clothed, ill-housed ineffective participants derive Amendment.80 thesis doubt supra Normer, supra. 49 carefully considered arguments supportive liberty unpersuasive. further subject sense, significantly different applied touching rights. 'deprived,' 'infringed,' 'interfered' Oklahoma, supra, 536, 1111; 1331; 338—343, 1001—1004. distinction endeavoring Brennan, Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 1717, 828 (1966), expresses salient point:81 50 'This Congress unconstitutionally diluted anyone's vote extending effected (to others similarly situated) 51 '(The question) restrict deny franchise effect extends law. decide challenged limitation permissible. deciding question, principle closest distinctions denying inapplicable; presented reform measure aimed eliminating existing barrier franchise. propriety principles 'statute invalid farther did,' 'strike evils time,' 'reform take step time, phase problem seems acute mind .." 656—657, 1727. regard. Every leading utilizes today—including permitting localities expend locally, creating continuously expanding aid—was improve quality.82 Of criticized accomplish. plain substance, thrust affirmative reformatory scrutinized sensitive nature Constitution.83 Contract 53 clear, accord searching impinge 54 rest inappropriateness strict-scrutiny test. century adjudication affirmatively supports review, requires bear purposes. represents nothing lass attack chosen raise disburse revenues. asked condemn conferring subdivisions power interests. doing, intrude traditionally deferred legislatures.84 interferences policies Clause: 55 broad possessed field recognized. (T)he underscore wisdom large needed formulating policies. pointed fields, legislatures greatest familiarity conditions have, constitutionality demonstration hostile oppressive .' Madden Kentucky, 309 83, 87—88, 60 406, 408, 84 590 (1940). 56 Lehnhausen Lake Shore Auto Parts Co., 410 356, 1001, (1973); Judge C. Penney 311 435, 445, 61 246, 250, 85 267 57 stand grounds continue acknowledge expertise problems wise raising disposition Yet, alter drastically throw altogether favor property, income, purchases goods services, devised discriminatory impact. arena alternatives exist, too rigorous lest schemes become subjects criticism Clause.85 58 addition matters persistent specialized knowledge experience counsels premature levels. assistance, presents myriad 'intractable economic, social, philosophical problems.' 1163. managing suggests 'there permissible method solving them,' rationality, legislature's tackle problems' respect. 546—547, 1731. scholars experts divided. controversy concerns demonstrable education86—an underlying legal drawn case. Related questioned cost equally education.87 regarding boards boards, respective responsibilities control, undergoing re-examination. ultimate related likely divined earnestly debate issues. circumstances, judiciary advised refrain imposing inflexible restraints circumscribe handicap research experimentation solutions keeping abreast ever-changing conditions. 59 remembered, also, arising implications national Questions federalism always inherent constitutionality, instead '(t)he foremost interpreting pertinent provisions examines action,'88 imagine greater impact abrogate presently existence candidate system, imperfections, nevertheles turn attention. III contours traced outset opinion. describe detail how operates, directly demands receives roughly comparable source.89 contribution, Funds teacher—compensated statesupported salary—for students.90 personnel for: teachers;91 'special service' teacher—librarian, nurse, doctor, etc.—for teachers;92 superintendents, vocational instructors, counselors, exceptional provided.93 Additional current transportation,94 textbooks.95 63 administered Education Central Agency, responsibility accreditation96 monitoring teacher-qualification standards.97 allotted years,98 financial steadily increasing. None content rely 64 virtue obligation fulfill located borders. remain sufficiently enriched program.99 manner. insubstantial, supplement 1967. exceed part, rates market varies value.100 valuable capability supplementing funds. measure, additional devoted salaries teachers. Therefore, attributes property-affluent pupil-teacher ratios schedules.101 65 outline structure. Because 'to basis' expenditure. disagree. 66 resources, State.102 1883.103 When growth centers accompanying calling considerable investment 'foundation grant' legislators pioneering work New York reformers 1920's, George D. Strayer Robert M. Haig.104 Their sacrificing element Strayer-Haig represented accommodation competing Coleman: revolution shows continual struggle forces: society best afford children.'105 responsive era witnessed consistent centralization functions government, sharing survived. Term majority Wright Council Emporia, 407 451, 2196, Stewart '(d)irect vitally strongly felt society.' 469, 2206. Chief Justice, dissent, agreed '(l)ocal overriding standpoint well.' 478, 2211. 70 persistence attachment reflects depth commitment supporters. means, Coleman Equally important, offers decisionmaking determines spent. locality tailor programs needs. Pluralism affords experimentation, innovation, healthy competition excellence. An analogy Nation-State uniquely appropriate. Brandeis strengths 'serve laboratory; try novel experiments.'106 stands profit multiplicity viewpoints approaches 71 because, flexibility suggest preserved promoted resulted choice others,107 'some inequality' striking McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 425—426, 81 1101, 1104—1105, (1961). condemned imperfectly effectuates goals. 1161. suggest, methods satisfying drastic' conceived. restrictive alternative. Cf. 343, 1003; Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 488, 247, 252, (1960). remember reduced much allocated. schools.108 justified believing financing, place hands result lessening autonomy. purse strings go policies.109 72 arbitrary allows availability 'happenstance.' see justification allows, contend, fluctuate fortuitous positioning boundary lines taxation—indeed units—requires jurisdictional boundaries inevitably arbitrary. inevitable going blessed assets others.110 static quantity. Changes number events, influence. enterprises encouraged locate various actions—public private. 73 impermissible customarily financed taxes, police fire protection, health hospitals, utility facilities kinds. severe denigration follow contentions. prerogative nullify measures merely thereof unevenly citizens live. sum, say irrational invidiously discriminatory. acknowledged shortcomings persistently endeavored—not success—to plan hurried, ill-conceived certainly group decades elsewhere, studies qualified giving validity entitled, Lindsley Natural Carbonic Gas 220 61, 337, 340, 369 (1911), stage development 'rough accommodation' arrive practical workable solutions. Metropolis Theatre Chicago, 228 69—70, 441, 443, 730 (1913). One many enlightened solution. unwilling assume ourselves superior scholars, authorities States, especially proposed conceived nowhere tested. McGinnis Royster, 263, 270, 1055, 1059, (1973). hold abundantly satisfies standard. IV 75 light focused California predecessor, Serrano Priest, Cal.3d 584, 96 Cal.Rptr. 601, 487 Reporter, 2nd 1241 cautionary postscript reached approved Brothers elsewhere unprecedented upheaval Some whatever approved, being beneficial one. But, just simple issues certain predicting consequences massive change thoughtful ramifications dependable answers scholarship unqualified confidence desirability uprooting demonstrated consensus poor, minorities, over-burdened benefited abrogation modes Unless board—an event likelihood open question111—these realize gains levels, benefit redistribution invariably impecunious districts.112 appear random chance minorities property-poor districts.113 projects achieve lead centers,114 exacerbate areas. 77 considerations, highlight function. initiation reforms violence separation powers staying hand. hardly add imprimatur status quo. heavily tax. innovative thinking methods, uniformity opportunity. already challenges. come lawmakers democractic pressures elect them. Reversed. 79 STEWART, concurring. 80 Texas, described chaotic unjust.1 & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions find, States. join am convinced course mark departure principled unchartered directions suggested, think, imaginative my Brother MARSHALL today. Unlike confers creates liberties.2 Clause, created 82 There books affect differently others. discrete objectively classes.3 legislation, offended discriminatory—only wholly capricious. See, e.g., Rinaldi Yeager, 305, 1497, 577. compendiously Warren's 1105, 393, following words: 'Although precise developed, wide scope enacting safeguard rests irrelevant achievement objective. acted practice, inequality. it.' doctrine specific adjudication—the duly enacted Thayer, Origin Scope American Doctrine Constitutional Harv.L.Rev. 129 (1893). Under disappears inherently 'suspect.' Amendment, prime example race. 873; McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 283, 222. settings, 'suspect'—for example, origin,4 alienage,5 indigency,6 illegitimacy.7 apart conferred presumptively invalid, law's classifications. newspapers published resided five superficially basically, scuch abridged press. Numerous principle.8 87 refusing invalidate applies thoughtfulness understanding sketchily summarized. points out, kind cognizable Clause.9 discernible categories, criteria. Third, 'on objective.' liberties. follows, reaffirmed 88 BRENNAN, dissenting. WHITE devoid basis, violative disagreement distressing assertion deemed 'explicitly Constitution.' Ante, 33—34. convincingly demonstrates, proposition 'fundamentality' right's effectuation guaranteed. '(a)s nonconstitutional draws closer, infringed adjusted accordingly.' Post, 102 103. Here, inextricably linked participate association 111—115. muster stricter invalid. WHITE, DOUGLAS BRENNAN join, combination funding, revenue, funds.1 Concededly, yields disparity revenue typical pupil.2 concede, spendable contends all, autonomy leaves much.'3 advances rationalization: 'While level.' disagree government. James Valtierra, 402 137, 1331, 678 Much left option, insuring extended option children's goal. sensible achieving aim preserving initiative decision. 94 difficulty like estate latter matter desirous supporting impossible utterly realistic tax, revenue-raising mechanism practically legally unavailable. situation readily demonstrated. 95 portion Program—the Assignment—by levying boundaries. addition, authorized, statute, County, Student enrollment 5,432, 22,862. $49,078, $5,960. $1.20 debt (bond) 20¢ evaluation, 52¢ bond 67¢. rates, bases, $1,433,473 $236,074 dollars, $223,034 $279,023 dollars. apparent, variance results, correlate effort, rate. base twice using one-half larger. slightly fewer one-third Edgewood. 97 deficient Heights. East $31,000, four Applying $1, $2,818,148. apply yield East, 45¢, $1,249,159—more two-thirds Plainly, applying Conversely, smaller yields. currently operative undeniably serious. 85¢ valuation, $330 Assignment.4 $356.5 99 valuation. prohibitive $5.76 $100. places $1.50 ceiling rate, limit surely attained yield. precluded law, object statute. enough Taxas seeks valid, maximizing initiative; ralated end achieved. lat Weber Aetna Casualty Surety 164, 172, 1400, 1405, 768 (1972): 101 tests variously expressed, requires, minimum, Morey Doud, 354 457, 1344, 1485 (1957); Williamson Lee Optical 348 563 (1955); Gulf Colorado Santa Fe Ry. Ellis, 165 150, 255, 666 (1897); Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 1064, (1886).' Neither heeds rule. aims choice, resort choose interested parents, rich augment Requiring furtherance goal, effectuate goal achievement, gesture.6 suffer mean mean, believe, below, 'imposing constitutionl conditions.' fashion maximization 'different be(ing) placed unrelated objective statute.' Reed Reed, 71, 75—76, 251, 225 103 Perhaps believes permitted inconsequential. agree, magnitude appearing sensibly ignored, 104 identifying plaintiffs constitutes definite voters underrepresented reapportionment Baker Carr, 186, 204—208, 691, 703—705, 663 (1962); Gray Sanders, 368, 375, 801, 805, 821 Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 554—556, 1362, 1377—1379, 506 (1964). filing fee upheld, victims wrought 'cannot segments inequities Clause,' 'we ignore recognize weight voters, candidates, according status.' 144, 856. blink students end, differentially affected least, provision device 105 MARSHALL, concurs, 106 decides, effect, vary accordance reside. abrupt mainstream concerning unconstitutionality wealth.1 More unfortunately, though, seen retreat unsupportable acquiescence deprives earliest reach citizens. arbitrarily channels fortuity 107 judgment, start life, concerned, permit tenuous record. accept notion remit vagaries which, contrary suggestion, proved singularly unsuited remedy discrimination.2 I, one, unsatisfied hope 'political' solution sometime indefinite future while, meantime, countless unjustifiably inferior hearts minds unlikely undone.' 494, l.Ed. (1954). respectfully dissent. 108 acknowledges 'substantial expenditures' ante, 15, 'largely taxation,' 16. examining seriousness invidiousness scheme, undertakes elaborate exploration purportedly gaps funding. however praiseworthy efforts, doing worst but, Amendment's taken doubted produces numbers schoolage 109 sources: taxes; Government; government.3 enlightening order. 110 new, unencumbered boundaries.4 restricts monies raised, property-taxpaying district.5 40% whole.6 factors—its district.7 regardless enthusiasm factor—the district—necessarily education.8 though willing substantially poor. short, property-rich disfavor ones. 112 seriously disparate alone, amply illustrated data included detailed districts9 conducted Joel Among things, revealed richest examined, $100,000 $610 whereas studied, $10,000 $63 pupil.10 27, districts.11 113 moreover, dismissed rates—by tend rates.12 extra begin match production studied produce $585 31¢ 70¢ $60 pupil.13 Without more, stateimposed picture widely schoolchildren, 114 variations corrected scheme. Government cover Texas.14 signiticantly scheme.15 115 50% Texas.16 Technically, programs. Constitution.17 obtained receipts one-fourth occupation annual Fund.18 contained $296,000,000. annually capita basis19 Obviously, flat eradicate differentials atrributable facet program, Program,20 deducted sum Program.21 116 purposes: expenses.22 pays, overall Program; Assignment.23 'economic index' allocate larger costs districts.24 pays 117 district.25 intended improve, degree, index—an districts.26 noting, leveled effectiveness allocation.27 taxes. developed agriculture, payrolls, scholastic population.28 discern factors predictive 1966, consultants originally participated told Governor's Committee Public Education: Economic Index evaluating better sheer chance, much.'29 putting criticisms equalization allocation, district30 districts.31 Districts uses illustration, 1967 Heights,32 Edgewood,33 Program.34 data, gap narrowed $3 1%, aid, widened $135 38%.35 character prompted observe (state aid) tends subsidize expense around.'36 venture mildly effect.'37 119 facts, continually has, years, given emphasize cruel irony revenues.38 compensate stark schement, crux can, escaping feature education.39 120 caused stake reject suggestion assured 121 unadorned restatement contention absurdity. Authorities spending.40 conflicting expert testimony achievement.41 sit, resolve enforce inescapable former planning latter. regard, looks receive. forced underfunded physical facilities, experienced classes, narrower range courses funds—and nevertheless excel credit child, cf. Missouri Gaines Canada, 305 349, 232, 236, 208 (1938). opportuntiies talents wasted want broader, education? Discrimination learn 122 Hence, duty tear barriers state-enforced segregation inequality contemplated school, Sweatt Painter, 339 629, 633—634, 848, 850, 1114 (1950), stated: 123 '(W)e white Negro faculty, variety specialization, body, library, (whites only) Law superior. close.' McLaurin Regents Higher 637, 851, 1149 (1950). educated hence antiquated plants, diversified curriculum. insignificant quality, understand why country's zealously Court.42 124 consequences, input, introduced 1968—1969, 100% degrees.43 contrast, during 80.02% District.44 Also, 47% emergency teaching permits, 11% permits.45 undoubtedly reflection scale Heights.46 teacher-student ratio districts.47 words, expected, inputs child's purposes, situation, raises state-created Gaston 285, 293—294, 1720, 1724—1725, 125 proving Hobson Hansen, 327 844, 860—861 (D.C.D.C.1971). inputs. ambiguous. prima facie 126 appellants' eradicates effects Appellants 'does child.'48 majority, considering tells 'was State,' 45, 'assur(es) child,' 49. eased remarks me. 127 via improves vis-a-vis districts—in funds—to eliminate Certainly demand unrealistic, minor usually claim. Mayer 189, 194—195, 410, 414—415, 495—496, 778—779, Bain Peanut Pinson, 499, 501, 229, 482 (1931). seen, minimis functioning system; tax.49 128 everyone unspecified evidently 'enough.'50 persons. Frankfurter 'equal protection' clause disembodied equality. enjoins laws', abstract things treated same.' Tigner 310 141, 147, 879, 882, 1124 357, 816, Goesaert Cleary, 335 464, 466, 198, 199, 163 (1948). excusable. sufficiency inequalities action. mandates 'all circumstanced alike.' KF105 F3 Royster Guano Virginia, 253 412, 415, 560, 562, 989 (1920). 131 encompassed adequacy, seem application. inform judicially manageable 'enough' excuse heed fervent affirmation self-restraint undertaking sufficient. adequacy fundamentally inconsistent 42—43, 101. stresses, uncertain finds divine opportunity—much equivalent provide. obscure uncontroverted impugning muchtouted 'adequacy' Program.51 132 inequality—not gross inadequacy—of unintelligible directing principle. Clause.52 133 'distinction betwen live' living 281. indisputablet 134 less. respect, point drawing subdivisions. Prince Edward 218, 231, 1226, 1233, 256 (1964); 427, (1961); Salsburg 346 545, 550—554, 282—285, 281 135 interests, inapplicable characteristic geographic location. Gordon Lance, 1, 4, 1889, 1891, 273 565—566, 1383—1384, 379, 807, (1963). citizens, embodied constitution.53 consequence endemic Consequently, discriminates, perspective, 136 STEWART's sufficient, define 'kind classes' evidentlyperceives 'cognizable 62. He cite, remotely event, predicate individuals compose requirement. precision analytically necessary. So identified, discrimination—whatever employed.54 fees impediment identified. tended choosing; names favor.' '(t)his voting Nevertheless, although membership not. 137 be, STEWART demanding clarity charged displays uncertainty exact 19—20. firm grasp issue. articulable instance 138 theories sure, litigation. suggesting goes lengths discredit relied, doubts correctness rejecting below,56 disputes. 139 overarching parameters controlling determinative opportunity.57 saying, laws, whole.' principle, excessively advantaged whole. average. attempts disparage 'artificially level' 28. unmistakably dictated clearer suffered for, needed.58 turn. 140 insufficient purpose; 'compelling interest' withstand twofold: divides highly suspect; second, interest,' namely, 141 adversely see, 336—342, 999 1003, 629—631, 1328—1330, (1969), character, 372, 1852, 191—192, 287—289, 222 (1964), ensure substantial, 342—343, 1003—1004; concludes, Instead, tested lenient matters. 1104—1105; 465—466, 1349—1351, 561; 78—79, 340—341, (1911). avoids telling further. emasculation 142 begin, once voice rigidified 519—521, 1178 1180, (1970) (dissenting opinion); 90, 261, (1971) opinion). neat categories dictate review—strict rationality. defy easy categorization. done reveals spectrum comprehends care scrutinize classifications, depending, drawn. embody sort reasoned argued—that 'concentration (is) receive, classification.' 520—521, 1180 143 labored call classification, encompass somehow bound text itself. themselves called Further, citizen's interstate, expressly mentioned implicit premises document: beginning concomitant stronger created.' Guest, 383 745, 758, 1170, 1178, 239 (1966). Crandall Nevada, Wall. 35, 48, 744 (1868). theconstitutionally 'shown interest.' 'answer' 'is Constitution,' 33—34.59 144 know guarantees procreate, 541, 1113, (1942), elections, conviction, (1956). instances stake, displayed strong treatment. independently fullblown protection. 145 Buck Bell, 200, 1000 (1927), refused procreate. continuing 'strict scrutiny' procreation essential' '(m)arriage survival race.' Recently, Roe Wade, 113, 152—154, 705, 726—727, 147 (1973), explained intimate privacy stature 'right' procreate initial Bell. 154, 727. 146 elections right,' 'preservative 370, 1071, (1886); 561—562, 1381—1382. reason, 'this citizen jurisdiction.' 336, (emphasis added). final attached unequally distributed, independent guarantee.60 Oregon Mitchell, 112, 260, 272 (1970); 626—629, 1889—1891, Harper Virginia Elections, 663, 665, 1079, 1080, 169 likewise 'true all.' 18, 590. supra; (1963).61 148 correct degenerate unprincipled, subjective 'picking-and-choosing' 'substantive laws,' 33. guaranteed, accordingly. procreation, fully nonetheless are, interrelated guarantees. Procreation understood interaction privacy. tied civil enhances integrity rights62 protect ultimately fundamental. 149 exercised unmarried contraceptive devices married purported effected. 446—447, 1034—1035. regulation, 425, 1105; Kotch River Port Pilot Comm'rs, 330 552, 557, 910, 912, 1093 (1947). weighted '(a) (by Court) 426, 1105. Baird adhere tolerant conceivable advanced statute—e.g., deterrence premarital sexual activity regulation dissemination potentially dangerous articles—the prepared face, proceeded substantiality 449—454, 1036—1039. deference (1948); entirely appropriate, contraceptives 453 454; 463—464, 1038—1039; 1043—1044 J., concurring result). 152—153, 726—727. 150 influenced race,63 nationality,64 alienage65 established. manifold. Certain ethnic frequently 'discrete insular minorities' powerless 1852; Carolene Products 304 778, 783—784, 1234 race, nationality, alienage "in irrelevant' acceptable purpose, Kiyoshi Hirabayashi 320 81, 100, 1375, 1774.' 192, 288. prejudices solicitude alienage, coalesce—or degree—in 151 Strange, 128, 2027, recoupment convicts differentiated criminals debtors, debtors protective exemptions debtors.66 "some rationality" types debtors. 140, 2034. restraint. 'that betoken interests' recovering expenses discouraging fraud. Powell, speaking 152 'these thwarted reference. notwithstanding serve, blight hopes self respect.' 141—142, 153 fraud collection substantiated exclusively 154 gave men preference women entitlement administrator estate, resorted protecting testing sex bore objective,' reduce probate choosing applications letters administration. 76, 254. Accepting Idaho sustainable rule, business administration estate. 511, 514, 465 635, 638 (1970). '(t)o mandatory other, accomplish elimination hearings merits, forbidden theoretical unsubstantiated distinction—however appear—sufficient sustain sex. 155 pause past criminality spector deep roots actual differences. Still, sensitivity born wedlock Levy Louisiana, 391 68, 1509, 436 (1968). 156 Weber, workmen's compensation unacknowledged illegitimate deceased occupied deceased. inquiry these: 'What promote? endanger?' 173, 1405. Embarking rejected deceased's beneficiaries 'not dependency recovery encouraging illegitimates insight conclusion: 157 '(I)mposing disabilities concept wrongdoing. birth penalizing ineffectual—as unjust—way deterring parent. Courts prevent opprobrium hapless enable strike relating 175—176, 1407 (footnote omitted). 158 Status birth, color skin, something generally considerations. illegitimacy stigmatized birth—particularly innocent warrants consideration. 159 summary, me inescapably removed extremes dreaming up ascribed revulsion earlier excesses halls.' 520, 1179 differs markedly involved. variable appearance 'super-legislature.' 31. agree. experiences oppression discrete, underlie document. truth, continues selecting private acknowledging action.67 160 Opinions shield decisions. obfuscated body legislature, Open consistency label 161 singles analytic odds pursues. unmistakable. 162 rejects fundamental, follows concludes bestowed 236. values. country Undoubtedly, famous 691: 164 'Today, governments. Compulsory '(p)roviding ranks apex State.' borne mandated constitution.68 uniformly recognized69 society's well-being. explanation rest, 221, 1536, prepare .,' prepares self-reliant self-sufficient facets observation suggestive 166 receiver information ideas, pursue life. Sweezy Hampshire, 234, 1203, 1212, 1311 (1957), speaks inquire, evaluate, gain new maturity casually classroom "marketplace ideas." Keyishian Regents, 385 589, 603, 675, 683, 629 (1967). formal andassociation enhance attendance. pivotal success opening culture lend undeniable.'70 167 'Americans civic institution preservation government.' Township 1576, concurring). instilling young appreciation processes.71 instill tools discourse debate. dominant consciousness participation.72 '(c)ompetition ideas andgovernmental core freedoms.' Rhodes, 32, 5, 11, immediate electorate. Article § 2, Seventeenth rights,' 1381. Data Presidential Election attainment;73 296, 1725, 'enter school.' attach significance, franchise.74 168 disputing this, refuge 'never choice.' Ante 36. blur stake. With seek seek, distribution impairs effort. children; 'where considered, enshrined compel fundamentality districts75—aconclusion strengthened live, (1956); McDonald Comm'rs 802, 1404, 1407, 739 'shared benefit.' 20. explain 170 Harper, poll $1.50, age interfered interest—the '(l)ines disfavored.' 1082. announced consisted way. 'bars excludes (from franchise) pay.' added.) 'degree (was) irrelevant.' toto; exempted; 171 refute characterizes transcript therefor, counsel. (grants) convicted proverty.' purchase denies advance,' ibid. added), type person hinges counsel,' 355—356, 816 absolutely pay; counsel, rich.76 outright interest.77 172 differ essentially wealth.78 families, warranted 173 28—29, presence forth Compare, with, suspectness on, race explainable grounds. politically groups.79 Personal proverty entail stigma groups.80 permanent disability; shackles escaped. importantly, irrelevance nationality have. group,81 ignored cognizance gauged awareness relevance 174 evaluated mind, careful interests,82 whatsoever Given distinct poverty. control,83 abilities. thus—particularly children—we disfavored. 175 disability ordinarily promotion Here reallocation opposition vested quo, dissimilar faced intervention reapportionment,84 695—697, (1962). 176 contrast decisions, instance. Griffin, Douglas, Tate, indigency sector. specified governmentally controls natural trends allocation use,85 'unusual classifications.'86 177 anaylsis, Defendant 178 cases: served, reasonableness advance 95, 2289. Differences require, 'compelling,' 'substantial' 'important,' significance. differences, any, descriptions legitimacy ready purpose,87 serve. Beyond chooses act Robel, 389 258, 265, 419, 424, 508 (1967); now, alternatives' jurisprudence. 627, 1889. act, selects, 179 control. Presented conclusion. 180 outset, matter, observed 2206, 477—478, 2210 2211 C.J., dissenting). control—which includes funding—has present, weigh schoolchildren. balance confronted sincere produced For, record, 181 regulate minute details prescribes courses.88 All approval,89 used.90 qualifications procedures obtaining certification.91 legislated length day.92 said: 182 'As acts statewide. territorial limits, integral vast coextensive confines Texas.' Treadaway Whitney 205 South Western 97, (Tex.Civ.App.1947). 183 El Dorado Tisdale, 422 (Tex.Com.App. 1928). 184 matters, suggest—as does, 49—50—that conscious truly dedicated expect sacrifice wish opposite result. district—a 185 showed inverse yield.93 again comparing Districts. 1967—1968, contributing costs, attract library courses, matching programs—under labor.94 nine obtain Heights.95 myth observed, 'rather reposing fix expenditure, arranged structure (with taxes) taxes).' Van Dusartz Hatfield, 334 870, 876 (D.C.Minn.1971). 186 secure control.96 as, than, impairment schoolchildren.97 need, merits negative features, impugns sake sham us. 187 conclusion, untoward 188 affirmance death knell centralized Clearly, policy spending. narrow aspect control—namely, took decision-making 189 decentralized plans put forward.98 courts. guise 190 interests.' 40. most, eliminates control.99 191 solace possibility suggestions redress doubtless comfort wealthy worth more. unjustified form, importance. ephemeral character. render Clause.100 192 affirm Page 193 TO OPINION OF DISSENTING REVENUES TEXAS DISTRICTS CATEGORIZED BY EQUALIZED PROPERTY VALUES AND SOURCE FUNDS CATEGORIES Total Revenues Per Pupil Market Value (State-Local- Taxable Property (Columns Federal, Columns 2) 4) Above $205 $815 $41 $856 (10 districts) $100,000-$50,000 287 257 544 610 (26 $50,000-$30,000 224 260 484 529 (30 $30,000-$10,000 295 461 546 (40 Below 243 306 441 (4 194 APPENDIX VALUES, TAX RATES, YIELD RATES PER PUPIL (Equalized Rate Applied ON Value) $.31 .38 .55 213 .72 .70 195 SELECTED BEXAR COUNTY, TEXAS, VALUATION INDICATORS EDUCATIONAL QUALITY Selected Cent From High Low Professional Teachers Staff Student- Valuation Salaries College Masters Emerg- Counselor Degrees ency Permits Ratios Pupils ALAMO HIEIGHTS $372 645 4.80 NORTH EAST 288 1,516 4.50 251 2,320 4.00 SIDE 258 1,493 4.30 HARLANDALE 1,800 EDGEWOOD 209 3,098 4.06 196 RANKED VALUE RATE REQUIRED GENERATE HIGHEST IN ALL Ranked Tax Needed Highest Yield HEIGHTS $0.68 JUDSON 1.04 CENTRAL 1.17 1.21 SOMERSET 1.32 1.56 1.65 SOUTH WEST 2.10 3.03 3.20 5.77 5.76 Not 'because condition District.' Third Amended Complaint, App. 14. bears, defendants. After pretrial conference, issued dismissing Subsequently, joined plaintiffs' amicus curiae brief properly convened appealability judgment. Code KF62 §§ 2281, 1253. delayed extensive discovery allow completion pending investigation (W.D.Tex.1971). 280. stayed mandate program. court, retained remedial offer plan. 286. Tex.Const., X, (1845): diffusion suitable schools.' 2: shall, practicable, furnish Tex.Const. 1876, 7, 3, amended, Aug. 14, Vernon's Ann.Tex.St. 5. Gammel's Laws 1847—1854, 1461. (interpretive commentaries); Report Challenge Chance (1969) (hereinafter Report). (see interpretive commentary); 11—12. cataloged Adequacy Schools, 7—15 (1938) Bd. Educ.). Nov. commentary). 35; Md. Educ., 5—7; Coons, W. Clune, Sugarman, Private Wealth 48—49 E. Cubberley, Apportionment 21—27 (1905). 1940, centers. 35. Committee, Have Must Bills 11—13 (1950); 11. 16, 12. period 200 $50 During period, 'in advantages $52.67 daily attendance.' 56. General 46th Legis., Reg.Sess.1939, chapter Pages 274—275 ($22.50 student); Spec.Laws 48th Reg.Sess.1943, 161, 262—263 ($25 student). 49th Reg.Sess.1945, 52, 74—75; adoption 14; Research League, Problems (Interim 1972). accounted 48% 41.1% 10.9% 20, 9. 44—48. 1,161 1948, Survey 1935—1936. 39—42. 15. 51—53. $206 $493. capital $44 $102 53—54. Acts 51st 334, Tex.Educ.Code Ann. 16.302 113—146; Berke, Carnevale, Morgan White, Case: Wrong Search Remedy, L. Educ. 659, 681—682 1960 census statistics. technically, money. nn. 16—19, supra) distribute uniform grants 1968, $98 However, subtracted plays siginficant ameliorating budgets disdistricts, renewed map smallest county size. indicate, obviously percentage educate (22,000) $11,100 $49,000, considerably lower. quoted utilized trivial court's upon. gain. sizable emphasis degrees. degrees, support. Coones, 13, 63—125. formulas 'anti-equalizing.' formula, anti-equalizing terms. diminshed aid. did. lowered combined 13. Index, instituted. text, 9—10. researchers fomula altered respects accurate ability, 48; Finance: Majority Exceptions 31—32 (2d Interim 1972); 29, 680—681. University. sampling shows, extremes, Categorized Equalized Values, Median Family Income, State-Local Revenue Income Minority $5,900 8% $4,425 32% $544 $4,900 23% $483 $5,050 31% $462 $3,325 79% $305 affiant's methodology Goldstein, Interdistrict Inequalities Financing: Critical Analysis Priest Progeny, U.Pa.L.Rev. 504, 523—525, 67, (1972)), thrust. infra, 27—25. reliability affidavit, 29. E.g., Loving 388 1817, 1010 therein. Brief Tr. Oral Arg. 3; Reply (1966); Com'rs, Goosby Osser, 409 512, 854, cited 29—30. 870 (D.C.Minn.1971); Robinson Cahill, N.J.Super. 223, Milliken Green, Mich. 203 457 rehearing granted, Jan. represent 'low property.' Complaint functional impecunity. 22—23. 20—21. endeavored, apparently, 25—27. Citing proof, 'those brief, contain 43—44; indications emphasizes describes valuations.' City, 458, 1818, 440 Roberts LaVallee, 40, 194, Long Iowa, 362, 290 Note, Statistical Decisions: Winning Battles Losing Wars, Yale L.J. 1303, 1328—1329 1324 102. 1328. founded simplistically looking commentators. 101, infra. 852, 858; 414; 778—779; 816. functions. 7. hypothesized, closer. tuition people—definable prescribed sum—who it. attempted, imperfectly, assessment mode, concentration 547—549, 1723—1733, Ely, Legislative Administrative Motivation 1205, 1258—1259 Simon, Collective Bargaining Future Systems, 409, 439—440 Supra, 38. Studies collective residing Ridenour Ridenour, Priest: Kansas Finance, Kan.L. (1972) ('it correlation: pupil'); Davis, Taxpaying Ability: Study Relationship Counties, Change 10th Nat. Assn. Conf. 199 L.J., 53. 38, 522 527. predisely represent: 'Plaintiff consisting pupils 'except California." Cal.3d, Cal.Rptr., 604, P.2d, 1244. 873. Appellees, avoided se draw 230—231, 1232—1233, 284, Kras, 631, 626 MARSHALL'S 121. 187, Clune 339—393; 534—541; Vieira, Unequal Expenditures: Views Mo.L.Rev. 617, 618—624 Comment, Financing, Laws, Mich.L.Rev. 1324, 1335—1342 Financing Cases: Discrimination, Ariz.L.Rev. 88, 120—124 283. 757—759, 1177—1179, 237—238, 317, 321—322, (opinion Marshall, JJ.). lingering Shapiro. Dandridge, rational-basis Maryland's maximum unconstitutional, reversing ground travel.' contemporaneous Goldberg Kelly, 264, 1011, 1018, 'welfare food, clothing, medical care.' Eisenstadt, Massachusetts prohibited devices, standard.' 447 1035. dictum, recited '(I)f Griswold (v. Connecticut, 381 1678, 510 (1965)), valid original). canvasses explains supplied). underpinnings longer mentioned.' 135, 138—144, 271—275 (Douglas, J.) 241—242, 323—324 JJ.); 140—144, 854—856; 625—630, 1888—1889, 30—31, 9, 10—11, (1968); 554—562, 1377—1382, 379—381, 807—809, antipicketing ordinance exempted labor picketing prohibitions. appropriately 'affecting 2293. sterilization 'habitual criminals.' Implicit 152, 726, Red Lion Broadcasting FCC, 389—390, 1794, 1806—1807, 371 Stanley Georgia, 564, 1243, 1247, 542 Lamont Postmaster 301, 306—307, 1493, 1496—1497, 398 (1965). vote, se, references shorthand whenever elective segment population. 'intelligent franchise,' 1726, literacy ibid.; deprived use. Compare Lassiter Northampton 360 985, 1072 (1959), 133, 269 (Black, 144—147, 276 216—217, 279, 310—311 (Harlan, j.), 231—236, 318—321 JJ.), 281, 282—284, 343—344 (Stewart, Schoettle, Col.L.Rev. 1355, 1389—1390 622—623; Tenant Interest Representation: Proposal National Tenants' Association, Tex.L.Rev. 1160, 1172 1173, registered Voting Rights Act 1965 enforcement English voting. suspended Puerto Rico completed 'American-flag' language instruction English. sixth-grade non-English-speaking ones Hargrave Kirk, 313 944 (M.D.Fla.1970), vacated, 476, 856, Schilb Kuebel, 502 Bell's Gap Pennsylvania, 892 (1890); Carmichael Southern Coal Coke 301 495, 508—509, 868, 871—872, 1245 (1937); Allied Stores Ohio, Incorporated Bowers, 358 522, 437, 480 (1959). guidance replace rejection state-wide expansion sales authors 201—242, 'district equalizing.' simplest subsidies 'poorer' away 'wealthier' collect equalizing,' noting feasible, work, President's Commission People, Money 32—33 Bateman Brown. Reflections Urban 701, 706—708 Brest, Book Review, Stan.L.Rev. 591, 594—596 543; Wise, Equalization Lawsuits: Model Response, Rev. Soc. Action 123, Silard Intrastate Case Judicial Relief 1970 Wis.L.Rev. quality-cost sides following: Jencks, Inequality Silberman, Crisis Classroom Office Equality Opportunity (1966) (the Report); (F. Mosteller Moynihan eds. Guthrie, G. Kleindorfer, Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Levin Stout, Schools Inequality; 85; Swanson, Cost-Quality Relationship, 59—68. 519—522; 80; 86, 530, 532, 442, 444, (1959) concurring); 1731, 1732 approximately.$2.1 billion came 16.13 V.T.C.A. 16.18. 16.15. 16.16, 16.17, 16.19. 16.45, 16.51—16.63. 12.01—12.04. 11.26(a)(5). 16.301 seq. 13—14. practice Commercial 30% another. 25—26; 666—667, 18. commentator 'disparities salaries.' 62, 413. debated inconclusively essentials academic opportunities, schedules. 316—319. assure, favorable standards. debatable, empirical advantage teachers' instruction. intractable absence, satisfactory techniques judging performance. Relatively kind, board reward deserving deserving. automatically predetermined 'steps,' 10- 12-year periods. 85, recently, Hawaii maintained purely instructive today: 'Under anything area, desire. corrective urgently for. Allowing communities minimums Haw.Sess.Laws, Haig, (1923). subsequent finance, 39—95. Coleman, Forward vii. Ice Liebmann, 262, 311, 371, 387, 747 (1932) (Brandeis, dissent maintenance. 20.04(d) litigated $.55 $100, barely allowable (The retirement bonds.) bars await states 'mere sham,' 130, offered, 'as inequality.' 126. possibly systems—a supported basis—the faith maintains told, regulates education,' ibid., textbook selection, qualifications, day. assertion, genuine supported. refuted division Code. supervision day-to-day 'management control' squarely boards. 17.01, 23.26 innumerable eminent domain construction 17.26, 23.26; hire terminate personnel, 13.101—13.103; designate employment 13.901; maintain discipline, 21.305, suspend disciplinary reasons, 21.301; kindergarten 21.131—21.135, training 21.111, handicapped, 11.16; transfer 21.074—21.080; bus 16.52. Pervis LaMarque Ind. Dist., 328 638, 642—643 S.D.Tex.1971), reversed, 466 1054 (CA5 Nichols Aldine 356 (Tex.Civ.App.1962). zones, closing old ones, hours (within limits), grading guidelines, recreational athletic policies, routine remains function, preponderating bulk executed level, concerned. theme—that policies—is recurrent liternature inerease bargaining unions 'non-salary' items, loads, size, curricular choices, selection administrative personnel—matters 434—436. Struggle Control Social Policy: 64, 77—79 (C. I. Housego Dyke 1970); J Conant, Child, Parent, ('Unless community, board, purse, feeling .'); Howe, Anatomy Revolution, Saturday Review 84, (Nov. 1971) ('It axiom politics Hutchinson, State-Administered Locally-Shared Taxes (1931) ('(S)tate .'). Irrespective regards prospects detrimental, agrees inevitable, educators, legislators. maintaining rule 'territorial uniformity.' 1232 1233; of, etc., Muskogee 668 (CA10 1969). Any encounter barriers. nearly suffering undernourishment, kinds burgeoning weary resisting nullifying taxing marked Senate Select Opportunity, 92d Cong., Sess., Toward 339—345 (Comm.Print Callahan, Milestone Millstone J.Pub.L. 25—26 420 421. calculated $2.4 bring districts—an double 16—18. claims 'each undersigned stringency.' Amici Support (filed Montgomery county, Md., al.). 114, 526; 27; commission Civil Rights, Role 356—357, 47, (f)ifty-nine percent (average pupil.)' far—the District—is 72% Mexican-Americans. Side Districts, 7% Mexican—American respectively. 673. Issues 1972) (monograph Inequities Professors Callhan); Finances Large-City Systems: Comparative (HEW publication); 33—36; 410—411, 418. Times, Mar. 1973, col. exception statement: 506; 583; 999, 274. such. Minor Happersett, 162, 627. Fifteenth Nineteenth unnecessary. 92. Oyama 332 633, 644—646, 269, 274—275, 249. 534. 891. 'Indigency' indigency; vis-a -vis affluence. 678. Gomez Perez, 872, 56; 768. See. (free speech); (freedom travel); v association); ('liberty' conditionally Due Process Amendment). 660, 1732, heart intricate series Chapter Code, 16.01 15.01 seq., 20.10 discussed Plaintiffs' Exhibits 8, exhibits totals, correspond quoted. figures, factor. 11—13, Variable practices accounts, small disparities. federal, equal, differential attacked concede state-provided easier education.' insists mimimum Like violated, choices implemented, privide where, 1973; 289 569 Hollins Shofstall, C—253652 (Super.Ct.Maricopa Ariz., July Sweetwater Planning Com. Organization Hinkle, (Wyo. 1971), juris. relinquished, 493 1050 (Wyo.1972). postponed 1971 Regular Session recognizing self-initiated reform, poses N.Y. 19, 1972, bonding acquisition sites equipment buildings,' 20.01 acquisition, construction, 'gymnasia, stadia, facilities,' 20.21—20.22. fourth temporary bonds 20.01, 20.04, outside gymnasia, repay thereon, 20.22, 20.25. 20.02. 20.04. figure 41.1%. Theoretically, maintenance, 20.02, 20.04(d). allowable, approaching 174. allowed employ differing assessment—a introduces 20.03. party meaningfully much. 46. main 'equalized property' assessment. Affidavit Berke. 1,200 Appendix 134. ' correlation, 0.973, pupil.' conclusions, 15—16, 25—27, run critique relies, directed fimily expenditures; study, 55. II, 135. 10.9%. abandoned belie effect. 48%. (Supp.1972). 15.01(b). essence, trust initially quantities land, sale enormous corpus preceding 15.01(c). 16.01—16.975. 16.71(2), 16.79. 16.301—16.316, 16.72—16.73, 16.76—16.77. 16.74—19.76. calculating 48. 16.01. 40—41. 45—67; Program—An Evaluation: 4954, 67—68 two-step calculation. determined. Then shares 16.74—16.76; 6—8 quoting Dr. Edgar Morphet. extraordinarily summarized 41—43. salaries—more particularly, salaries. payroll 16.316. 16.301(c). standards, revenues—that revenue—to difference, 16.301(a). focus factors: 16.301—16.316. net increments experience. circle, vividly illustrates III, 136. $49,478 Affidavit, Table VII, 216. $5,960 former's closer latter's. true, perspective then—the counts here—Edgewood populations. revealed, accomplishments criticize failures. 38—39. tolerance. 'persons law,' 657, 1727, bail bondsman, responsible. defect problem, viewed, remedial. $248 219. 1970—1971, totals $418 $913. bonds, 290—330 Conventional Wisdom, 69, 91—104 1972), 79—90 Kiesling, Measuring Service: Rev.Econ. Statistics, Answers Interrogatories ('Dollar probably measuring .'), Deposition ('(I)t money, no. wisely you it'). witness, Graham, Quite obviously, proterty-rich allocates wisdom. amici curiae, inter alia, Marino Unified District; Beverly Hills Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, Dearborn Michigan Grosse Pointe, System. Interrogatories, 115. 37.17% 14.98% faculty 116. 117. 118. 22,862 864 26.5 110, 114. 5,432 265 20.5 17. disparties questions. intimations 'receiving wealth' 'that, advantages.' 24. remark 'wealth' restriction 117—120 77. Ans. 17, 9; 48—51, 22—24; 88—89, 41—42; Daniel Jr., 52—55; 242—243. summarily affirmed dismissals attacks schemes. McInnis Shapiro, 293 (N.D.Ill.1968), aff'd curiam, sub nom. Ogilvie, 322, 1197, 308 Burruss Wilkerson, 572 (W.D.Va.1969), 44, 812, dispositive action, differed materially McInnis, 'only apportions Amendment.' 331. '(1) pupils' needs, nonjusticiable.' 329. 'scarcely distinguishable.' 574. need. rules management 132. matter. member monetary relief, defining apparent. litigation, elements injunctive officials. Potts Flax, 288—290 1963). lodge minorities. 23. data—which appellees; relies note 1303 Common demographic geographically urban-rural, industrial-agricultural small, densely populated, best. article middle groups. 524 26—27. 50,000 sample. appears, enlarged sample, true. Governors Minnesota, Maine, Dakota, Wisconsin, 21. unchallenged willingness litigate tribunal—where impossible—is unfair unsound. Consistent represent, others, lying reside.' Part C, superfluous, strictly restricting O'Brien, 377, 1673, 1679, 672 Cox 545—551, 453, 459—463, 471 interesting reconcile intends 'right process' mystery indigents, scrutiny; Duncan 145, 1444, (1968) (right jury trial); 1920, 1019 (1967) compulsory process); Pointer 380 400, 1065, 923 (1965) confront accusers). 1822, 249 Korematsu 323 216, 193, (1944). 'provision strips array erected disposable earnings garnishment, debtor wage garnishment sickness, exemption execution debtor's trade.' 2031. Gunther, Foreword: Evolving Changing Court: Newer Protection, Association compulsory-attendance eight Brown, Carolina repealed provision, Mississippi discretionary legislature. Developments Law—Equal 1129 Money: Need Reform '(l)iterally, survive nation (education).' that: background necessity citizenship.' Levin, 103—105 Hess Torney, Development Political Attitudes Children 217—218 Campbell, Passive Citizen, Acta Sociologica, Nos. 1—2, 20—21 influencing dispose 36—37. obvious intercourse, competitive. 'enough.' Department Commerce, Census, Registration November Current Population Reports, P—20, Costs Nation Inadequate 46—47 welfare, someone eat 37. crucial closeness relationship. severity inadequate bear. Perhaps, single unanimously constitutions 111—112 68. analogous self-sufficiency. bodies taxpayer challenging (1959); (1940); (1890). taxpayer, 'imposes iron equality, prohibiting trades professions excise products.' 526—527, 440—441. nature—a revenue-producing beneficiaries; suits, equalize strait jacket spell 1347. lawyer buy indigent. equipped require. Coppedge 447, 917, 922, side misreading affected. discussed, 89, situated; bar excessive Outside purview 562—563, 1382, recognized: 'It enact two, five, representatives, once. districting representatives constituents identical. Overweighting overvaluation votes dilution undervaluation favored aware forbids 'sophisticated simple-minded discrimination." 381, 808—809, differently. prospective candidates' threatended exclusion community' fees. Harrington, Other America 13—17 (Penguin ed. Banfield, Unheavenly 63, 75—76 Lynd Lynd, Middletown Transition 450 (1937). Miln, Pet. 102, 142, 648 (1837). implementing True, move escape so. burdening or, precisely, is. 1328 1330, difficulties securing augmented secured Tex. Cities, Towns Villages Civ.Stat.Ann. 1011a—1011j (1963 Supp.1972—1973). 850 (Tex.Civ.App.1954); Corpus Christi Jones, (Tex.Civ.App.1940). 614, 1254. 875—876. Cf., Two Guys Harrison-Allentown, McGinley, 582, 1135, 551 21.101—21.117. Criminal failure teach courses. 4.15—4.16. 12.11—12.35. 12.62. 13.031—13.046. 21.004. Jose Cardenas, Superintendent edgewood 234—238. IV, My runs afoul Texas—local wealth—is purports scrutinizes affording 98, Centralized deprive essence 2211, leave gamut policy-making—teachers, curriculum, sites, whole allocating objectives. much-discussed Sugarman seminal 201—242 fixed encourage overtax returns. artificially. calculations Yexas calculations—involving factors—in conjunction 43—44. remove commercial, industrial, mineral rolls, return bases. compelled; breadth eliminated. inhibit provisions. N.J. Super. 187; Based V 208, 1967-1968 XI 220, IX

Classification Label: 1