Legal Document

459 U.S. 297 103 Supreme Court Reporter 634 74 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 465 DIRECTOR, OFFICE OF WORKERS' COMPENSATION PROGRAMS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT LABOR, Petitionerv.PERINI NORTH RIVER ASSOCIATES et al. Number 81-897. Argued Oct. 4, 1982. Decided Jan. 11, 1983. Syllabus Before 1972, coverage under the Longshoremen's and Harbor Workers' Compensation Act (LHWCA or Act) extended only to injuries sustained by workers on actual "navigable waters of (including any dry dock)." In was amended expanding waters" situs include certain adjoining land adding a status requirement that employees covered be "engaged in maritime employment" within meaning § 2(3) Act. this case, an employee (Churchill) respondent construction firm injured while performing his job deck cargo barge being used sewage treatment plant extending over Hudson River New York. Churchill's claim for compensation LHWCA administratively denied ground he not 2(3). On petition review, which Director Office Programs (Director) (petitioner here) participated as support Churchill, Appeals held Churchill "maritime because employment lacked "significant relationship navigation commerce navigable waters." Held: 1. Where is party Court's Rule 19.6 has filed brief arguing Act, there justiciable controversy before Court. Accordingly, it unnecessary consider whether Director, official responsible administration enforcement Article III standing aggrieved seek review decision below. The Director's 28 Code KF62 1254(1) brings Court, he, employee, sufficient interest question at issue give him urge consideration merits Appeals' decision. Pp. 302-305. 2. marine worker upon waters, 2(3), thus 305-325. (a) There no doubt would have been 1972. 305-312. (b) nothing legislative history 1972 amendments themselves indicate Congress intended withdraw from course their existed amendments, language require such show possessed direct substantial relation order covered. contrary, indicates did intend "exclude traditionally covered." Moreover, explicitly deleted found Calbeck versus Travelers Insurance Co., 370 114, 82 1196, 8 368, "jurisdictional dilemma" created but local" doctrine whereby often required make perilous jurisdictional "guess" two mutually exclusive schemes, i.e., federal state scheme, applicable cover injury. 313-325. 652 Federal Reporter, 2nd 255, reversed remanded. Richard G. Wilkins, Dept. Justice, Washington, D.C., petitioner, pro hac vice, special leave Martin Krutzel, York City, respondents. Justice O'CONNOR delivered opinion 1 44 Statutes-at-Large 1424, amended, 86 1251, 33 901, seq., (hereinafter Act). 1426. As part its amendment expanded areas, 3(a), 903(a) (1978). At same time, added must Act.1 We granted certiorari case worker, who waters,2 Act.3 hold purposes LHWCA. we reverse 2 * facts are dispute. Respondent Perini North Associates ("Perini") contracted build foundation extends approximately 700 feet between 135th 145th Streets Manhattan. project place large, hollow circular pipes called caissons river, down embedded rock, fill with concrete, connect together above water concrete beams, precast slabs beams. were rail shore, where they loaded onto supply barges towed across river await unloading installation. 3 Raymond charge all work performed unload other materials set position insertion into rock. giving directions crane operator engaged caisson when line keep snapped struck Churchill. He head, leg, thumb.4 4 after formal hearing pursuant 19 919, Administrative Law Judge determined "some Petn., 31a. ("Director") appealed Benefits Review Board, 21(b)(3) 921(b)(3). Board affirmed Judge's denial coverage, theory involved building facilities ultimately employment." 13a.5 One Member dissented, "all 'navigable waters' term defined prior Amendments, [amended] Act." 17a.6 5 then sought Board's Second Circuit Appeals, 21(c) 921(c).7 respondent, position. petition, relying Fusco Associates, 622 1111 (1980), cert. denied, 449 1131, 101 953, 67 119 (1981). According Circuit, " 'significant waters.' 256 n. (CA2 1981). now seeks petition. agrees taken dissenting member Board: does possesses commerce," where, here, working employment, pre-1972 LHWCA.8 II 6 address Perini's threshold contention Perini, furthering different interpretation than one rendered Judge, Appeals.9 7 ignores procedural posture comes That makes us agency "responsible enforcement" Act,10 below.11 alone well. request writ certiorari, addressing claim, presents arguments presented Director. But, some reason entirely clear, elected virtue rules considered respondent.12 It context challenge considered. concedes proper litigation.13 below, entitled certiorari. Although statutory authority may argue presence guarantee existence respect However, automatic our 19.6, capacity, "may reversal judgment urged court." O'Bannon Town Nursing Center, 447 773, 783-84 14, 100 2467, 2474-2475 65 506 (1980). director's 1254(1), constitutional dimension requires, very least, "actual injury redressable Simon Eastern Kentucky Welfare Rights Org., 426 26, 39, 96 1917, 1924, 48 450 (1976). This meant "to assure legal questions court will resolved, rarified atmosphere debating society, factual conducive realistic appreciation consequences judicial action," well "an setting litigant asserts fact." Valley Forge Christian College Americans Separation Church State, 454 464, 472, 102 752, 758, 70 (1982). assures admittedly 9 intent. For reasons explain those deciding restrict scope requirement, cases construing relevant portions focus determine effect pre-existing coverage. 10 Beginning Southern Pacific company Jensen, 244 205, 37 524, 61 L.Ed. 1086 (1917), circumstances states could not, consistently III, Section Constitution, provide workers.14 If "direct relation" commerce, "the operation local law [would not] materially affect" uniformity law, characterized local," remedy. Grant Smith-Porter Rohde, 257 469, 477, 42 157, 158, 66 321 (1922). See also Western Fuel Garcia, 233, 242, 89, 90, 210 (1921). left without 11 After several unsuccessful attempts permit remedies apply whose local,15 passed 1927, 1424. Under original had satisfy five primary conditions First, "negative" definition "employee" contained 1927 "master crew vessel, nor person master load repair small vessel eighteen tons net." 1424.16 Second, suffer "injury" 2(2) "accidental death arising out . ." Third, employed "employer," 2(4) employer whole part, 1424.17 Fourth, meet "situs" 3(a) limited "disability results occurring Fifth, precluded unless "recovery disability through workmen's proceedings validly provided State law." 12 initially extend employment. mentioned, permitted if interpreted exclude local." See, e.g., Crowell Benson, 285 22, 52 285, 76 598 (1932). Application case-by-case determinations, schemes Employers faced uncertainty contributions insurance fund protect them liability. 13 Davis Department Labor, 317 249, 63 225, 87 246 (1942), recognized despite many involving doctrine, "been unable guiding, definite rule extent power advance litigation Id., 253, S.Ct., 227. Employees employers alike thrust "[t]he horns dilemma." 228.18 dismantling bridge barge. upheld application viewed "twilight zone" concurrent jurisdiction available applicability difficult determine. concerning acts resolved favor constitutionality Relying Davis, 368 (1962), further overlap workers. Calbeck, "designed ensure remedy [of employers] avoid source, federal, remedy." 124, 1202. Our examination "complete history" revealed incorporate 120, 1200. "Congress phrase 'if recovery law' sense consistent delineation reaching 126, 1203.19 14 little "in employer: "Workers seamen nevertheless (or so courts willing assume) 'maritime employment.' Gilmore & C. Black, Admiralty 428 (2d ed. 1975). discuss Parker Motor Boat Sales, Inc., 314 244, 62 221, 184 (1941). Parker, hired janitor, drowned riding employer's motor boats keeping lookout hidden objects water. When employee's beneficiary compensation, argued 'so character' remedy, ("if law") relief. 246, 223. A unanimous rejected argument, inquiry worker's commerce.20 abolishing relied heavily see U.S., 127-128, 1203-1204. 15 becomes clear discussion "employers," Indeed, given deputy commissioners, courts, commentators (except specifically excepted statute), "covered what doing supposed doing) time injury." supra, 429-430.21 duties can B 16 "first significant effort reform gloss attached it," 901 seq. Northeast Marine Terminal 432 261, 97 2356. raise amount LHWCA, contiguous eliminate longshoremen's strict-liability seaworthiness against shipowners, shipowner's claims indemnification stevedores, promulgate administrative reforms. S.Rep. 92-1125, (1972) S.Rep.); H.Rep. 92-1441 H.Rep.), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News Page 4698. 17 present inquiry, important changes effected concerned 902(3), description 903(a). These sections provide: 18 "The 'employee' means including longshoreman longshoring operations, harborworker ship repairman, shipbuilder, shipbreaker, 902(3). "Compensation shall payable chapter pier, wharf, dock, terminal, way, railway, area customarily loading, unloading, repairing, vessel). 903(a).22 20 Amendments changed essentially 'situs' test eligibility looking both 'status' injured." 264-265, 2357-2358. removed remained same,23 "employer" reflect new 2(3).24 21 providing employment," define increased provision intention workers, like previously defined, waters. 22 overrule legislatively landward seaward depend nature injured. theory, adopted requires having waters."25 argues cannot plant—an activity typically associated 23 agree find congressional intent long held, "This liberally construed conformance purpose, way avoids harsh incongruous results." Voris Eikel, 346 328, 333, 88, 91, 98 (1953). Baltimore Philadelphia Steamboat Norton, 284 408, 414, 187, 189, 366 (1932); 268, 2359. 24 necessary passed, especially relates directly effected. Despite fact protection still stopped water's edge—a demarcation established Jensen. Nacirema Operating Johnson, 396 212, 90 347, 371 (1969), longshoremen occurred pier land. much said uniform irrespective (in ), pier. concluded, however, although exercise land-based activity, invitation move [Jensen ] addressed Congress, Court." 224, 354. Victory Carriers, Incorporated Law, 404 202, 216, 92 418, 427, 30 383 (1971). 25 responded (1972 Act)." P.C. Pfeiffer Ford, 444 69, 73, 332, 225 (1979). enacted committees House Senate prepared full reports summarized general legislation analysis proposed each section. S.Rep., supra; H.Rep., supra. clearly "extend additional workers." (emphasis added).26 surrounding addition situs, "with large geographical area, became describe affirmatively class desired compensate." 264, 2357. necessity gave rise requirement: Committee just activity." 13; 4708. comment coverage.27 26 these comments, anywhere else reports, suggest, claims, substantial) land, assumed covered, remain covered.28 discussing report section 16. presume "that representatives, citizens, know law," Cannon University Chicago, 441 677, 696-697, 99 1946, 1957-1958, 60 560 (1979), use "employees covered" refer included Calbeck.29 27 Other aspects scheme understanding requirement. that, prerequisite valid law.30 noted A, continued passage Surely, wished repeal legislatively, do removing statute exact emphasis doctrine.31 Congressional adhere indicated identified decisions amendments. mentioned above, apart expansion shoreside areas. Two elimination strict liability unseaworthiness owner afforded Seas Shipping Sieracki, 328 85, 872, 1099 (1946), indemnity stevedore Ryan Stevedoring Pan-Atlantic Steamship Corp., 350 232, 133 (1956). overruled 8-12; 4-8. is, therefore, highly unlikely return monstrosity" lay rest least indication so. 29 considering applied "point rest" employer, portion process takes dock. reasoned concept "[a] nowhere appears never during process, comport Congress' intent, restricts remedial designed absence concept, "claimed known industry conspicuous telling." 278-279, 275, 2365, 2363. sense, even slightest allusion plagued forty years restricting face covered," equally telling. Finally, note conclusion with, supported by, recent Sun Ship, Pennsylvania, 715, 2432, 458 displacing injuries. development conclude resurrect dilemma, spheres jurisdiction, eliminated. reasoning based, removal made law: "[T]he deletion 1972—if anything—may logically imply acquiescence [ ]. 721, 2436. 31 Ship injuries, extension supplements, rather supplants, 720, most peculiar result follow. Concurrent exist whom "traditionally hazardous pre-Davis choice jurisdictions compensation. Such anomalous Congress. inconsistent express desire light inadequacy systems. 12; 10. 32 holding affect adversely emphasize receive merely meeting test, regard language.32 satisfies providing, course, excluded Act.33 simply historically locale, perform waters.34 IV conclusion, anything caused hereby reversed, remanded opinion. 34 ordered. 35 REHNQUIST, concurring judgment. 36 injury, longshoremen, vessels. Therefore N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions concur STEVENS, dissenting. 38 Neither relies today justifies departure defining post-1972 Longshoremen Workers (LHWCA). historical perspective, more literal reading anomalies troubled duplicate period. first history. 39 principal title text. provides workers' benefits harbor workers.1 basic tests—a focusing occurred, character occupation. An satisfied tests comprehensive longshore work. 40 requisite occupational provides: 41 expressly includes subcategories, reasonable clarity. what, any, categories independent expansive, open-ended reading. 43 oldest respected teaches terms should specific examples therein. statute, subcategories—longshoremen workers—are described detail, subcategory strong inference snug fit subcategories.2 corroborated took trouble add making either vessel.3 short, ordinary words actually cover. 45 unaffected injured; ashore, afloat. Therefore, critically "employees" covered—the reveals concern key occupations provision. "any vessel." added). 46 ignore history, concentrate text inescapable people workers—amphibious persons moving freight off ships, building, destroying ships. "checker" worker.4 So "terminal laborers," Caputo, 2348, 53 320 (1977), "cotton headers," "warehousemen," ibid. plainly lacks link regardless 47 examine Amendments5—without unmentioned history—we reach conclusion. single word6 Hearings, Reports, Legislative Debates suggests Congressman Senator believed anyone separate enactment.7 opening Subcommittee Daniels explained existing LHWCA8 need amendments: 49 repairmen, defense bases outside private District Columbia. 50 "Amendments overdue. act years, cost inadequate become serious matter. 51 "For example, allows totally disabled two-thirds average weekly wages since 1961 limitation $70 per week maximum payment permanent disability. substantially lower wage Columbia statute. "More 270,000 repairmen addition, another 300,000 protected 200,000 Outer Continental Shelf projects. "Last year 109,000 statute; 240 fatal. 68,000 related work, 27,000 54 years. Hearings H.R. 247 Select Labor Education 92nd Cong., Sess., "House Hearings"). 55 Throughout hearings, legislators told again how increase Act's Daniels.9 seems plain understood traditional 56 Committees reported respective bills, sought-after benefits. They provisions "status" discussed previous done response problem edge. Because regularly constantly "walking coverage." side, Joseph Leonard, international safety director International Association, spoke about hardship system imposed: 57 "Federal stops gangplank you come law; State. Thirty-six docks maybe inland waterways. 58 worry longshoremen." 297. 59 And Minority Counsel brought Senators' attention.10 encompass entire members regular duties. precludes bridge. Yet accepts view claimant grants aboard floating therefore expects walk typical workday. flatly explicit "permit otherwise [only] H.R.Rep. 92-1441, Pages 10-11, 13.11 Only harmoniously purpose achieved. confirms my Amendment explains why once 45-year interval enactment (1941), uphold award neither worker.12 lonely rested longer significant, surely insufficient predicate all-inclusive commenting briefly identify chapters (which covers period 1917 1927) Prior adequately whatever existed. year, national regulation Rail (1917).13 Over classic dissents greatest justices, adhered though twice attempted authorize "maritime" injuries.14 so-called "Jensen line" developed limit 64 Jensen originally appeared foreclose soon somewhat vaguely area—in survived. Thus, 1922, carpenter uncompleted launched Willamette recover Oregon Workmen's law. paramount thought prejudiced Oregon's "certain matters."15 Unlike scheme. Northern Coal Dock Strand, 278 142, 73 232 (1928),16 fatal shipboard longshoreman. matter purely concern. navigation, thereto essential. Strand worked major unimportant. pursuit accident occurred." 144, 89. inability adequate later 68 second 1972) category employees. gap progeny.17 902(3) unchanged until 1972), purported "validly first, literally, complementary exclusive. and, 3, 288 But imprecision Jensen-Rohde line, risked unfairness: asked literalist bar recovery. close might easily misguess, miss limitations, end up all. 69 potential injustice ways. Notwithstanding jurisdiction,18 apply, (1962).19 mechanism ensuring go unprotected twilight zone overlapping obtain coverage.20 practice reference circumstance walked performance routine Whatever force had, perfectly shore-based normally program Surely received temporarily cross significant—surely motivation whatsoever action 71 hand, unpredictability depends happenstance occurs. above,21 burdens occasionally onerous significantly higher benefits.22 Both concerns alleviated employee. aggravated indiscriminately undefined group "load, unload, build, ships." 72 All remains rewriting expressed already noted, demonstrated itself.23 Even sufficient, really objecting failure mention decided 1942—Parker Inc.—during hearings debates. considers unusual mind virtually inconceivable wanted similar future cases. case—a janitor boat located James River—was minimum number bring Virginia 116 789, 793. motorboat enabled basis sustaining written.24 presumption understands legislates remembered isolated three decades earlier, follows duty disavow purpose.25 straightforward construction. begin itself. "Absent ordinarily regarded conclusive." Consumer Product Safety Commission GTE Sylvania, 102, 108, 2051, 2056, 766. encompasses workers; affirmative evidence type classify builder plants employment."26 affirm "(3) expression 1424: examined newly-covered situs. declined speculate Amendments; defined." 265 25, 2358 25. injured, plant. "person operations" 921(c) pertinent part: "(c) Any affected final appeals circuit filing sixty days following issuance written praying modified aside. Ninth agreement Weyerhaeuser Gilmore, 528 957 (CA9 1975), 429 868, 179, 148 Fifth contrary Circuit. Boudreaux American Workover, 680 1034 (CA5 1982) (en banc) (Tate, J.). argument 921(c). 7, "adversely aggrieved" which, 21(c), Courts Appeals. 601 659 1979), vacated remanded, 1028, 697, 664 rev'd remand, 1980), (1981); OWCP Donzi Marine, 586 377 1978); I.T.O. Corporation 542 903 (CA4 1976), sub nom., Adkins Baltimore, 433 904, 2967, 1088 remand grounds, 563 646 (1977). inquiry. applies purport issue. Regulations 802.410(b) Secretary Labor] administer chapter, authorized (1) regulations chapter." 939. assigned responsibilities acknowledge occasions, petitions Walter Tantzen, 446 905, 1829, vacating remanding, Shaughnessy, 670 624 (1980); Rasmussen, 436 955, 3068, 1120 (1978); Jacksonville Shipyards, Perdue, 539 533 aff'd 575 79 (1978), 440 967, 1520, 784 Tantzen Shipyards summary dispositions, Rasmussen merits, 29, 903, 122 none occasion own right disagreed. insurer petitioned consolidated. insurer. Jacksonville, defended defend 13, infra. "All parties petitioners respondents, supports petitioner schedule papers stake outcome stages proceedings. thereby "party" "granted party" Given identity decide open 2353, Terminal, recently promulgated nature. Fed.Reg. 16133 (Mar. 1977)." Ibid. Cases admiralty Jurisdiction." line." Knickerbocker Ice Stewart, 253 149, 438, 834 (1920); Washington W.C. Dawson 264 219, 302, (1924). 1426, "[a]n officer thereof foreign government, political subdivision thereof." contain Rather, "employer." dilemma certainty contribution wholly fail liabilities planned." 228. dissent mean pay benefits, costly protection. dissent's duplicative exaggerated reasons. shore contribute funds event LHWCA's deemed eligible 2436, financial burden heavy are, carriers operations nominal premiums. record or, matter, dissent, relative spread premiums Churchill) engage repairing working, himself minor mechanical adjustment so, view. zone, overturn "by treating exclusive." 718-719, 2435-2436. eliminated resulted sphere compensable majority relief, relief awarded stage proceedings, Parker. Chief Stone case: "after [the claimant's] hardly doubted." 260, 231. Professor Robertson "Parker abolition local' exception," vitality. D. Robertson, Federalism (1970). state, certainly claimant] get it." 211. carve possess commerce" case-law, exception rests misreading impact points concludes says assisting bridge, required. it. claimants welders vessels, predicated properly "traditional" deny This, neglects [suffered waters] particular 127, 1203. read activities, Nalco Chemical Shea, 419 572 1969) (a pilot salesman travelling offshore platform); Interlake Nielsen, 338 879 (CA6 1964), 381 934, 85 1765, 699 (1965) (watchman); Radcliff Gravel Henderson, 138 549 1943), 782, 638, 88 1074 (1944) (workers trimmed sand gravel dredged bed); Rex Investigative Patrol Agency, Collura, 329 F.Supp. 696 (EDNY 1971) (land-based sent watchman); Standard Dredging 770 (Ala.1944) (employee dredging bed intracoastal canal); Ford (Md.1943) (night Perry Contractors, 202 So.2d 694 (La.Ct.App.1967), 390 1419, 280 (1968) (worker diving assist tunnel canal). list exhaustive, various decisions. Pennsylvania Railroad O'Rourke, 344 334, 367 (1953), was, fact, railway brakeman, railroad cars car float switch engine. 340, 305. statutes (the Employers' Liability Act), involve Deputy Commissioners means, ought grant [LHWCA] awards." 19, 220. came awards 20, 219-220. paid "Injury" 2(2), 902(2), disease infection arises naturally unavoidably accidental willful third directed "Employer" 2(4), 902(4) vessel)." add: individuals engaged, form individual apparent inconsistency wording defines contemplate real distinction relationship" articulate Perini. labeled "Extension Coverage Shoreside Areas": [1927] insofar builders concerned, occur 'upon States.' Thus edge; laws. disparity depending side edge occurs." "To matters worse, laws inadequate. believes repairman fortuitous bill amend builders, shipbreakers, (excluding masters vessel) activity. 12-13; movement noncovered areas frustrated opportunities Pfeiffer, interpret "direct" commerce." cases, operations," enumerated 271, 273, 2360, 2361; 82, 337. yet possible applications activities maintain "employee," date focused occupations. 10-11. 2361. Regardless difficulties arise applying landward, who, employees, defined. Ignoring references focuses instead passages view) tasks tend prove relegate extensive findings "most inadequate." 10, 4707. "cannot word" worker. Post, 330. word overlooks Commissioners, commentators. 21, cites Executive Jet Aviation, City Cleveland, 409 93 493, (1972), premised connection reliance misplaced. tort crash airplane flight "within continental States, [is] principally land." 266, 503. Jurisdiction 1333(1), district "[a]ny civil jurisdiction." occasioned problems inherent locality-alone crashes aircraft situation happens fall fortuitous." 265, 503, 504. occurs 1333(1) "each histories jurisprudential interpretations decades." 1034, 1035, 1050 (footnote omitted). "fortuitously" "now clear" "shore-based worker" waters) award, "perfectly clear." Holcomb Robert W. Kirk 655 589 1981) (watchman LHWCA—Court myriad decisions); 698 watchman's dismissed "claim belonged [New York] agency"). Certain comments debates preceding Representative Steiger posed answer provision: "Q. Do change coverage? "A. Yes. law's docks. wharfs, terminals, railways 118 Cong.Rec. 36385 original). 36270-36271 (remarks Sen. Williams); id., 36381-36382 Rep. Daniels). 263-264, 2356-2357, 78-79, 334-335, geographic. also, First Constitution Benedict §§ 17, (7th 1981); 428-430; Injuries Maritime Petroleum Workers: Plea Radical Simplification, Texas L.Rev. 973, 986-987 (1977); Comment, Broadened La.L.Rev. 683, (1973); Note, N.C.L.Rev. 925, 940 Larson, 89.27, 89.41 (1982); Tucker, Procedure Subsequent Tulane 1056, 1062 holding, transiently fortuitously falls exempting water-based test. recognition necessarily factor determining Contrary suggestion post, failing By enactments, been, to: bases, Aug. 16, 1941, ch. 357, 1, (codified 1651-1654), nonappropriated instrumentalities post exchanges, June 1952, 444, 2, 139 8171-8173), (c) government contractors overseas war-risk hazards, 1942, 668, Title I, 1031 1702), (d) Columbia, May 1928, 600, 612, repealed July 1980, D.C. 3-77, D.C.R. 2503, (e) oil drilling rigs outer shelf, 1953, 345, 4(c), 462 1333(b)). Coincidentally, authors named Sutherland point strikingly suitable case. Sutherland, Shipbuilders' Assistant 77 (1755 ed.) ("The straiter snuger Sheer lies, less Wind hinder Motion Ship") added); Statutory Construction 273 (1891) 'other persons,' 'warehouseman' 'wharfinger,' ejusdem generis, viz., business, conduct business warehousemen wharfingers pursuit, shipping, grinding, manufacturing"). Seamen Jones 688. 11; here. definitions 902(4). read: (3) net. (4) dock). 'employer' dock) No of— net; (2) reads: assumes Ante, 319, quoting particular, referring (1962). Part infra, shipbuilders, statutorily Act; benefits; None cited reports. opposed enactment. bills proposing embodied 247; 3505; 12006; 15023; S. 2318; 525; 1547 (all Sess.). incorporated committee action. 12006, Sess.; 2318, Sess. (as reported). nonetheless groups E.g., Statement Hodgson, 47-64 (referring throughout "longshoremen" "longshore industry"); Ralph Hartman, Bethlehem Steel ("reference suggest 'longshoring,' fails recognize shipbuilding yards—and Columbia"); Exhibits D1, D2, E, F Flynn, (pointing is); Howard McGuigan, AFL-CIO, 255-258 far below 662/3% current levels industry, Columbia). Cf. John O'Donnell, Air Line Pilots 327-329 (suggesting crews). Counsel, Eugene Mittelman, exchange representative AFL-CIO: "MR. MITTELMAN. My last [sic] man series Longshore water, "Do this, extended, really, water-line on? McGUIGAN. obviously incentive gives superior appreciate that. assuming bill, principle water? O'BRIEN. [I]f take former prominence field extended." 2318 Public Finance, 73-74. shows covered: 4708; 12-13. Arguably footnote opinion, ante, 644, echoed Parker's broad R.R. There, brakeman "car floats"—could recovered O'Rourke cloudy, 339-340, 305-306. Like relies, reasoned: deceased engaging nature; contract; likewise maritime; rights therewith jurisdiction. "If subject ships coming her ports obligations imposed Statute, likewise. consequence destruction establish; freedom countries seriously hampered impeded." 217, 529 (citation 218-223, 529-532 (Holmes, J., dissenting); 166-170, 442-443, (1920) 228-239, 305-309, (1924) (Brandeis, dissenting). explaining Rohde subsequent stated: "In contract prescribed essential harmony uniformity. Here sea essential." 321. 1928 arose main impetus correct believe proviso accord aim Congress; taken, Without affirming rejecting implications accept measure mark existence." 250, 184. 231, (1942) (Stone, C.J., 132, 1206, (1962) (Stewart, proposition wish (ante, 321). true What preclude area. confronted exists. observed: press sharply referred competent counsel predict fall. planned. affirmed, lose benefit compelled secured loss accidents employees; accident, liable payments. fine imprisonment misdemeanor failed, apparently secure act. 938, 932." point, dissenter complete agreement. 262, 332-334. particularly heavy. low, offered Calif.L.Rev. 342, 347 (1962); NACCA L.J. 200, 203, 206 (1964); Gardner, Remedies Personal Seamen, Railroadmen, Longshoremen, Harv.L.Rev. 449-50, (1958). Today, things quite different. 1981, averaged 252 percent California premiums, 160 Florida Testimony Associated General Contractors America, 1182 97th 1st 924-936. replaced "unless law" Calbeck. today, boats. 5, boat, helped boat. narrow workmen preserves today. four appeals, stated 312, 21. uses radical unsettling draw inference. hard sprinkling Daniels' reminder 1970 longshoremen. 332. tension among components states: "[B]efore 'covered injury' 319. concludes: "Our 'traditionally covered' factor. 324 33. Similarly, "[Congress's] 'employees Calbeck," ante 319-320, "not 'traditional' activities," 20. activities. 644-649 janitors workers..

Classification Label: 7