Legal Document

372 U.S. 539 83 Supreme Court Reporter 889 9 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 929 Theodore R. GIBSON, Petitioner,v.FLORIDA LEGISLATIVE INVESTIGATION COMMITTEE. Number 6. Reargued Oct. 10, 11, 1962. Decided March 25, 1963. Robert L. Carter, New York City, for petitioner. Mark Hawes, St. Petersburg, Fla., respondent. Mr. Justice GOLDBERG, delivered the opinion of Court. 1 This case is culmination protracted litigation involving legislative investigating committees State Florida and Miami branch National Association Advancement Colored People. 2 The origins controversy date from 1956, when a committee Legislature commenced an investigation N.A.A.C.P. Upon expiration this committee's authority, new was established to pursue inquiry. committee, created in 1957, held hearings sought by subpoena obtain entire membership list N.A.A.C.P.; production refused obtained court order requiring that be submitted. On appeal, could not require disclosure organization, but it compel custodian records bring them refer determine whether specific individuals, otherwise identified as, or 'suspected being,' Communists, were members. 108 So.2d 729, cert. denied, 360 919, 79 1433, 3 1535. Because impending authority 1957 1959 respondent Legislative Investigation Committee resume authorizing statute, chapter 59 207, Fla.Laws 1959, defining purpose operations respondent, declared: 4 'It shall duty make as complete time permits all organizations whose principles activities include course conduct on part any person group which would constitute violence, violation laws state, inimical well-being orderly pursuit their personal business majority citizens state. * *'1 5 petitioner, then president N.A.A.C.P., ordered appear before November 4, and, accordance with prior decision Court, him association his possession custody pertained identity members of, contributors to, state organizations. Prior interrogation witnesses chairman read text statute creating declared 'concerned various have been are presently operating fields first, race relations; second, coercive reform social educational practices mores pressured administrative action; third, labor; fourth, education; fifth, other vital phases life State.' also stated inquiry directed Communists Communist activities, including infiltration into described fields. 6 being called stand, petitioner admitted he organization's testified local had about 1,000 members, individual renewed annually, only lists maintained those current year. 7 told brought these hearing announced produce answering questions concerning He did, however, volunteer answer such basis own knowledge; given names shown photographs 14 persons previously front affiliated organizations, said associate none 8 petitioner's refusal based ground utilize testimony interfere free exercise Fourteenth Amendment associational rights prospective In procedure, after hearing, adjudged contempt, sentenced six months' imprisonment fined $1,200, or, default payment thereof, additional imprisonment. sustained judgment below, 126 129, granted certiorari, 366 917, 81 1093, 240; argued last Term restored calendar reargument Term, 369 834, 82 863, 841. I. 10 We here upon once again resolve conflict between speech governmental interest conducting investigations. decisions illumine contending principles. 11 has repeatedly within ambit constitutional protections afforded First Amendments. versus Alabama, 357 449, 78 1163, 1488; Bates Little Rock, 361 516, 80 412, 480; Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 247, 231; Button, 371 415, 328, 405. does contend otherwise, nor it, for, supra, beyond debate freedom engage advancement beliefs ideas inseparable aspect 'liberty' assured Due Process Clause Amendment, embraces speech.' U.S., at 460, S.Ct., 1171. And equally clear guarantee encompasses protection privacy president; indeed, both Alabama cases, very type question States' power discovery circumstances there presented. 12 fundamental highly prized, 'need breathing space survive.' 433, 338, 'Freedoms protected against heavy-handed frontal attack, stifled more subtle interference.' 523, 416. And, 462, 1171, hardly novel perception compelled affiliation groups engaged advocacy may (an) effective restraint *. recognized relationship one's associations. Inviolability many indispensable preservation association, particularly where espouses dissident beliefs.' So here. 13 At same time, Court's holdings demonstrate can no adequately inform itself—through investigation, if so desires—in act protect its legitimate interests. As considering propriety congressonal challenged Watkins States, 354 178, 77 1173, 1273: 'The investigations inherent process. That broad. It inquiries administration existing well proposed possibly needed statutes. includes surveys defects our social, economic political system enabling Congress remedy them.' 187, 1179. recently, scope inquiry, short, penetrating far-reaching potential enact appropriate under Constitution.' Barenblatt 109, 111, 1081, 1085, 1115. less obvious, investigate, broad be, without limit. fact general authorized permissible conclusion investigatory body inquire demand forms information. Validation subject matter necessarily carry automatic wholesale validation questions, subpoenas, documentary demands. See, e.g., 197—199, 1184. See 127—130, 1094. When, case, claim made particular demands infringe substantially courts must, permissibility actions, 198—199, 1184—1185; '(T)he delicate difficult task falls weigh appraise substantiality reasons advanced support regulation enjoyment rights,' Schneider State, 308 147, 161, 60 146, 151, 84 L.Ed. 155. interests stake significant magnitude, neither resolution impact limited dependent upon, parties involved. Freedom viable government both, purpose, indivisible concepts; whatever affects here, all. II. Significantly, substantial agreement proper test applied reconcile competing claims Committee's brief 'Basically, hinges entirely evidence (was) sufficient show probable cause nexus Branch, activities.' understand mean—regardless label applied, 'nexus,' 'foundation,' whatever—that essential prerequisite validity intrudes area constitutionally speech, press, petition convincingly relation information overriding compelling interest. Absent regulatory concern, 'demonstrated cogent obtaining making public' 'justify abridgment disclosures will effect.' 524, 417. 'Where encroachment liberty, prevail showing subordinating compelling.' Ibid. 15 Applying facts contends Uphaus Wyman, 72, 1040, 1090; 1115; Wilkinson 365 399, 567, 633; Braden 431, 584, 653, result upholding right Barenblatt, Wilkinson, Braden, witness' past present Party supported conviction. apparent necessary preponderating fact, cases founded holding ordinary party, known country, that, because nature, therein itself scrutiny.2 Assuming correctness premises decided, further demonstration deemed necessary, since direct object Party, pertinent 16 Here, alleged who party inquiries. Rather, president, contempt divulge contents records. There suggestion national organization was, is, subversive organization. Nor indication policies either dominated influenced. record indicates communism voluntarily taken steps keep Each year 1950, adopted resolutions barring Moreover, officers thoroughly investigated connections though grounds termination membership, expulsions occurred during five years preceding investigation. 17 Thus, unlike situation seeking he, himself, even allegedly groups; instead, thrust disclose concededly nonsubversive organization.3 Compelling rights, presents, wholly different membership. say, 1094, mean seriously inhibit impair demonstrated bear crucial fulfillment purpose. controlling subversion character objectives outweigh conceal affiliations means groups—concededly legitimate—automatically forfeit simply infiltration. issues go admittedly lawful 18 Respondent's reliance similarly misplaced. There, upheld Hampshire, connection 'subversive' guests attended World Fellowship summer camp located State. found activity—held concern Fellowship, itself, justify guest list; semblance III, infra. contrary 'tenuous best,' 80, 1046, disputed already public virtue generally applicable Hampshire law places accommodation, question, maintain register open authorities. noted registration 'made inception they (the guests) now wish private.' 81, 1046. Finally, Uphaus, boundaries presence constituted threat No need evident identify subversives questioning petitioner; apparently satisfied knows are. III. 19 absence directly determinative we turn, then, consideration us. Obviously, still list, readily dispose supra; like follow merely attempting do piecemeal what done single step. Though indications intended broadly records,4 base today prediction might pursued initially unopposed Instead, rest insufficient concedes demonstrating immediate, substantial, sustain association. 20 Basically, relied foundation consists Judge Strickland, investigator predecessors, Arlington Sands, former official. 21 Strickland name some whom 'front' 'affiliated' His description 'each member and/or participated meetings affairs Dade County, Florida.' addition, one having made, unspecified contribution amount organization.5 22 know ambiguous how supposed For appears, indicated reason entertain belief, each named than two attendance, extent existed, peripheral begun ended commencement 1956. asserted however slight, coincided time. except passing reference participation annual elections, carried control over policy much sought. reasoning find attendance appears barred attenuated, prerogative seemingly attaching listen scheduled speaker program. Mere meeting bare membership—without more—is sponsoring 23 number longer residents Florida; people, see supposing current—much influential—members because, testified, available related 24 did informant instructed infiltrate 'other organizations.' But persuasive recitation neutralized informant's response command attend 'on occasions' which, laid, himself interrogated investigate knowing 25 assertedly important witness, added anything convincing regard existence officership predated 1950 uncertain corroborated certain Strickland's references few Communists. However, too must past, Sands years. lawyer, represented 'murder case,' explanation indicate influence. 26 antipathy awareness passage antisubversion inference has, infiltrated, influenced, way used Indeed, gross improbability influenced denouncing communism, reasonable seem contrary. 27 uncertainly (Strickland) talk' chapter, past. 'talks' improper event, isolated incidents work influence true vague somewhat unspecific minor nondirective group.6 28 summary discloses utter failure activities. essence, indirect, unequivocal, mostly hearsay people been, 'affiliated organizations' occasional 'and/or' branch, total 1,000. 29 hand, hearings, since, Without in, on, reasonable, factual believe existed actively attempted present—in short meaningful illegal activities—we asked exist freedoms curtailed inhibited. cannot do. laid adequate membership; pointed out minimal ties strong maintaining trade infringed slender respondent.7 While, course, geneficiaries protections, espousing unpopular neighbors deterrent 'chilling' effect enshrined expression, consequently immediate substantial. What recently respect Virginia record, here: 'We close eyes militant Negro civil movement engendered intense resentment opposition politically dominant white community *.' 435, 339. 30 Of investigation—as proceed 'step step,' 130, step totality, proceeding manner intrude severely curtail rights. failed 31 Nothing say impairs denies underlying legislate anyone else; deals exercised hold themselves private Sweezy 234, 245, 1203, 1209 (opinion Chief Justice), compulsory process carefully circumscribed investigative tends impinge sensitive areas accociation, communication 32 To permit sanction unjustified unwarranted intrusions heart privilege secure associations rights; impose lesser standard inconsistent maintenance conditions basic democracy. 33 below reversed. 34 Reversed. 35 BLACK, concurring. 36 & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions concur reversing although, DOUGLAS concurring opinion, prefer reach approach. agree makes protects religion, assembly, force degree federal abridgment. That, cited show, held. Amendments encompass infinite People, committee. my view anti-Communists, Socialists anti-Socialists, matter, kinds beliefs, popular unpopular. expressed views adhere now.* Since, believe, People choose associates, answers abridge right. Accordingly, reverse But, assumes purposes freedoms, down Irvington, 150, 155 (1939), later following Schneider. 37 DOUGLAS, 38 join written framework decisions. matters involved touch Constitution dimensions reflected decisions, seems set views. 39 deal ideas, By Amendment1 restrictions2 Federal Government. 40 referee increased commerce field well. Today review action threatening individuals' increasingly Free Society envisioned Bill Rights ideal. times crisis, ideologies clash, easy engender dignity suspect minorities issues. President Yale University stated: 41 become nation lookers listeners, spectators. Amidst artificiality life, plethora substitutes learning thinking, innumerable devices avoiding delegating responsibility opinions, fine edge faith dulled, creative powers atrophied.' Atlantic Whitney Griswold, Baccalaureate Address, University, June 8, 1958 (Overbrook Press).3 42 When Government prohibited dealing subject, it. An legislature properly perform internal management allowed. Barry Cunningham, 279 597, 613, 49 452, 455, 73 867. adjunct legislate—an auxiliary 'necessary end.' McGrain Daugherty, 273 135, 175, 47 319, 329, 71 580. administered marks limitation. should passed. limits lawmaking passed, bounds, apart exception noted. Kilbourn Thompson, 103 168, 194—200, 377; 171—175, 329. 'could valid legislation subject' pale. Page 195, 377. misses whole point history assume 'government,' government, somehow attending performance functions. 43 Joining church, activity comes purview provides relevant part: 'Congress abridging press; peaceably assemble, redress grievances.' 'Peaceably assemble' involves coming together, regularly spasmodically. Historically assemble secondary petition, latter primary right.4 today, De Jonge Oregon, 299 353, 364, 57 255, 260, 278, peaceable assembly cognate press fundamental.' Assembly, indeed 'in opportunity discussion, end responsive changes, desired, peaceful means.' Id., 365, 260. proscribed.' A up almost institutions through opinions expressed, mobilized, economic, religious, educational, programs formulated.5 44 passion Americans. 45 Schlesinger, Rise City (1933), reviews zeal Americans century became world's greatest 'joiners': 46 'Now turned furious creation secret societies pattern. large cities form organized commingling seemed replace spontaneous friendliness small rural towns. Liberty equality generation willing take granted, fraternity filled human need. romantic posture mystic brotherhood glory robe, plume sword sense self-importance bruised anonymity amidst great crowds. If inducement needed, supplied provision most lodges sickness death benefits 'As expected, urbanized sections country notwithstanding energy Negroes South aped brethren increasing Western farmers lodge period million rosters fraternal bodies. America possessed larger 'joiners' nations.' Pages 288—290. 48 surprising, therefore, least thousand States.' Robison, Protection Associations From Compulsory Disclosure Membership, 58 Col.L.Rev. 614, 622. together often communication—for speak. Demosthenes, said, went seashore declaimed waves correct stammer. normally implies audience. expression utterance itself. Registering student school joining faculty church religion. critical hiring reporters establishment press. Some thought academic preferred position due version Amendment. 261—267, 1220, 1311 (concurring opinion). broader cover spectrum ideology art, journalism, teaching, 50 view, powerless organization; precluded probing intimacies spiritual intellectual relationships myriad regardless served. provisions limit investigations.' 126, 1092, barrier newspapers, churches, parties, clubs, societies, unions, political, philosophical, religious If, quest enforced ascertain criminals regulation, inexorable probe appropriate' pursued! 51 suggest pursuing objective determined appropriate. For, Laurent Frantz, Balance, L.J. 1424, 1441, persuasively shown, 'it ever weighed express limitation pursuit. suppression crime, example, accused denied counsel.' unconstitutional application. Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 220. investigations, '(A)ny serves function insofar stands something thinks ought done. else needs prohibited.'6 1445. 52 us phase problem emerged Rumely, 345 41, 57—58, 543, 551, 97 770 opinion), several problems posed. Can damand publisher purchasers publications? Would spectre agent look shoulder everyone reads? Might purchase book pamphlet tomorrow? fear criticism every bookstall? light publicity student, teacher, discouraged? always books pamphlets preach domestic foreign disrepute orthodox thought? readers harassment reports, club Recognition dangers prompted Talley California, 362 60, 536, 559, ordinance handbills address distributor printer. Plainly behind distribution massive propaganda campaign. 53 exposed Russell 749, 1038, 240, investigated. germane Since editor writes Government's business—except, punish breach drawn security law; Near Minnesota, 283 697, 715—716, 625, 631, 75 1357—it capacities, ideology, prejudices, politics write news. 54 tighter 'security' made. proves much. give roving legislate. infiltrated churches reason. Are pulpits promote cause? Were clergy Party? How governing board? assist pastor perhaps help prepare sermons research? Who confession she Communist?' 777, 1054. 55 Bryant Zimmerman, 278 63, 61, 64, 184, prevent Ku Klux Klan. 1928 unnecessary decide vitality survived Louisiana 293, 1333, 301, distinguished 465, saying, inter alia, Klan's acts unlawful intimidation violence.' incorporation adumbrated (see Gitlow York, 268 652, 666, 629, 69 1138) full exposition periphery yet Indeed Pierce Sisters, 510, 571, 1070, parents avoid schools put children parochial schools, rested property schools. 534—535, 573. 56 bundle (see, supra), pervasive intrusion recognized, recognition deserves.7 Unpopular (N.A.A.C.P. supra) ones protected. forced suffer reprisals hostility. unpopular, implicit creates enter. 'Freedom religion guaranteed worship, write, speak chooses; chooses. conscience honors sanctity belief. think chooses, wishes aspects let alone.' Public Utilities Comm'n, etc., Pollak, 343 451, 467—468, 72 813, 823, 96 1068 (dissenting consistent envisoned citizen entertains, harbors, utterances makes, associates government.8 article main difference espouse dictatorships Left Right. Black (dissenting) supra 150—151, 1105: allow aims driven ballot battle men's minds bad tenets illegal, safe. suspected 1920, Assembly suspended duly elected legislators Socialists, disloyal country's 1830's Masons hunted outlaws subversives, abolitionists considered revolutionaries dangerous kind North South. Earlier still, universally unlamented alien sedition laws, Thomas Jefferson's attacked derisively 'Jacobins.' Fisher Ames 'French faction' guilty 'subversion' 'officered, regimented formed subordination.' Its claimed, 'take arms soon dare.' History teach high emotional excitement minority advocate extremely innovations typed criminal gangs attempts drive out. knowledge dangers, caused Founders land hinder destroy capacity individuals seek converts votes cause, radical unpalatable accepted notions time.' 61 engaging criminal, prosecuted, investigated, save Self-Incrimination Fifth sets barrier. enforcement law, saying where, 231, emphasized, eslective survive challenge Amendment.' 296, 1335. added: 62 'At extreme shelter measures sophisticated, employed stifle, penalize, curb rights.' 297, 1336. 63 requirement nondisclosure provide 'ideological asylum violence foundations sanctuary stands.' 132. whatsoever. Graham Committee, 133, 136, conceded 'an perfectly community.' Whether committed crimes immaterial. One man's invaded another's perversity. files ransacked joined walls broken down. confessional implicated. ideological stray minister's sermon paralleled line. society seized 64 sum, Governments, person's summoning society, club. 65 intervene thought, moves realm society. view. Establishing Religious spoke primarily liberty terms mind aspects. government. Only brigaded move them. Jefferson said:9 66 '* men jurisdiction; magistrate restrain profession propagation supposition ill tendency fallacy, detroys judge rule judgment, approve condemn sentiments others square own; enough rightful break overt peace good order; finally, truth left herself; antagonist error, nothing unless interposition disarmed her natural weapons, argument debate; errors ceasing permitted freely contradict 67 Madison knew tolerance across mind:10 68 'Whilst derived parts, classes citizens, minority, little danger interested combinations majority. multiplicity interests, sects. depend sects Once guide, 'ravenous,' Cromwell, bent destroying More, Bolt, Man All Seasons (1960), 120. mirrors episodes men, harried harassed refuge conscience, lines More show: 70 'MORE: stand God, you sent Paradise doing according your am damned mine, come me, fellowship? 'CRANMER: damned, Sir Thomas? don't know, Your Grace. window another conscience. one. Then capable question? 74 Certainly. owe obedience King question. doubt certainty—and sign. 76 Earth round, flat; flat, King's round? flatten it? No, sign.' 132—133. Where Big Brother,11 gives surveillance. commitment otherwise. staked kindred spirits, defy precincts.12 HARLAN, CLARK, STEWART, WHITE join, dissenting. difficulties deflated size. these. convicted Legislature, 'infiltration' Florida, Branch People.1 activity, developed indicating connected organizations,2 'participated affairs' Having witnesses, investigator, data falsity information, summoned testify, branch. Petitioner, clergyman, custodianship conceded. appearance consult so, any, individually Branch. declined grounds. First, undertaken 'excluding ranks tendencies.' substantiate this, furnished copies 'Anti-Communism' Association's convention. Second, protested violate 'a legal ours, association.' willingness testify recollection nonmembership him. vel non mentioned above, exhibited unable supply disclaiming names. testimonial aid, earlier propose records: '(By counsel). Now, aware Reverend, we're actually asking turn records, consulting yourself telling us, oath, them, organization? 85 witness). I'm it.' 86 Petitioner persisted refusal. charge conviction, affirmance followed. 87 rests reversal finding justification investigation—that, language (Uphaus 79, 1045, 1090), 'nexus' lacking 88 grasp. basically premise overcome countervailing Ante, 547—549. never claimed ante, 554—555, relating attribute dominated, 'by Communists.' 895—898. 89 until suggesting 1115 (infiltration education); 633, 653 industries); 773, 1052, 240 newspaper business). 90 Considering congressional conducted 'Communist infiltration' War II, affecting diverse 'labor, farmer, veteran, professional, youth, motion picture groups' (Barenblatt, 119, 1089), strange strength impugned. amiss recall Smith Act prosecutions relations long prime target efforts Scales 367 203, 235, 249 n. 26, 251, 255—256, 1469, 1500, 782. 91 Given unsoundness surely weight. requires agency prove advance things trying out, preliminarily satisfy, test, 'nexus.' 92 Apart issue N.A.A.C.P.'s resolution, first curtain came examination: 93 'ANTI-COMMUNISM 94 'Whereas, branches rocked conflicts line not, threaten confidence inevitably eventual disruption; 95 numerous attacks official organs Daily Worker' 'Political Affairs' officials well-organized, nationwide conspiracy capture split wreck NAACP; therefore 'Resolved, Forty-First Convention unequivocally condemning fellow-travelers officials, safeguard good-name Association, develop unity, eliminate friction, increase build effectively wage fight herewith, call instruct Board Directors appoint study composition trends leadership units determining causes aforementioned conflicts, confusion loss directing instructing eradicate infiltration, suspend reorganize, lift charter expel unit, Directors, findings combination.' (Emphasis added.) 98 meets suggest, (ante, 554), influences self-investigation block 99 really presents serious interference memberships germaneness use sought—as aid refreshing recollection, divulgence (supra, 577—578)—this bears resemblance 1488, 480. justifying partial inaccurate testimony, me today. 100 scrutinized care unfairness proceedings detected. none. treatment explanations pertinency, rulings objections, perceive savors decorous attitude lawyer considerate demeanor counsel. slightest conscientious application this. 101 judging challenges respecting executive utmost circumspection courts, recognized. Comm., 135. carries reciprocal field. With respect, deciding fully responsibility. 102 affirm. WHITE, 104 represents previous Although classic recurring openly clandestine manner, holds assault sounding alarm, nevertheless forbidden reveal assigned infiltrating task. 105 While purports saving consideration, today's communist performing job required fails articulate why State's endangered belongs confirm deny well, successfully shield Thus marked departure 1115, cases. 106 ostensibly reliable penetration placed weighty refuse verify brand false. officer memory root using serve goals Party. Unbending resistance answering, other, face reduces association's secrecy sterile doctrine. entitled promoted, hindered, associating affords intelligent choice allowed continue circumstances, weight concealing case. 107 net insulate preventive time-proven skills subverting eventually Until group, chosen action, reduced vassalage, bodies attack dutybound hollow recording victory direction power, dedicated overthrow violence. respectfully dissent. prefatory portions predecessor committees, recited 'been prevented' 'the deliberate unanimous resorting frustrate investigations' 'mired down' lawsuits; committees' reports abuse judicial processes,' violent conduct, 'agitate ill-will races.' enactment concluded 'there exists grave pressing above work, participate contest referred whittle away sovereignty, ready agitator interim (between sessions).' 127 128, 'has aimed context certainly raised gravest character.' Subversive Activities Control Board, 1, 88—105, 1357, 625. companion characterized Interestingly, Graham, arose days involved, court, connections, going took notice 'considerable' possible resulting involuntary 134—135. Interrogation confined ascertaining persons, significantly, counsel lot people' wanted ask about. impetus garnered identification card-carrying evidentially locally nationally. mere extant guarantees meaningless. retaking 'delivered' 'leaflets'; separate believed 'at These statements scattered allusions 'possibly' 'seen' obviously infringement 1311, relevant, Justice, writing four improper. Attorney General, witness who, Communist, General House Un-American Committee,' 261, 1214, 1217 contested related, third Progressive 'considerable sworn (had) (the) heavily Party.' 265, 1219 (quoting Frankfurter, Harlan joined, supporting inviolability belonging citizen's loyalties overwhelming importance encroached meagre counter-vailing argumentatively remote, shadowy presented contributing elements these.' 'Whatever, proof history, notice, regarding conventional far weightier intimations warrant precludes resisted 266, 1220. Precisely applies clearly associations, stronger here; anything, itself—rather ties—is objects scrutiny worthy more—not protection. E.g., American Communications Assn. Douds, 339 382, 445, 674, 707, 925 (1950); Dennis 341 494, 579, 857, 902, 1137 (1951); 134, 1097, (1959); 137, 1437, 625 (1961). Brennan, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 761, 770—778. restraints restrictive Brother Harlan. Roth 476, 501, 506, 1304, 1320, 1498; 169, 215, 227, 205. Jackson Beauharnais Illinois, 250, 288, 725, 746, 919. compare Justices Holmes Brandeis 672, 632, 1138, 274 357, 372, 641, 647, 1095. prevailed. requirements Speiser Randall, 513, 530, 1332, 1352, 1460 opinion): particulars States. Staub Baxley, 355 313, 277, 302; Poulos 395, 396—397, 760, 762, 1105; Everson Education, 330 504, 507, 711; Collins, 323 315, 430; West Education Barnette, 319 624, 639, 1178, 1186, 1628; Douglas Jeannette, 157, 162, 877, 880, 1324; Martin Struthers, 141, 862, 1313; Murdock Pennsylvania, 105, 870, 873, 1292; Chaplinsky 315 568, 766, 768, 1031; Bridges 314 252, 263, 190, 194, 192; Cantwell Connecticut, 310 303, (60 900, 1213); 160, 155; Lovell Griffin, 303 444, 450, 668, 949; 259, 278; 1138.' invasion watered-down guarantees. Reich, Living Constitution, Harv.L.Rev. 673, 727—750. Corwin, Means (1958), 203; Arendt, Revolution (1963), 25. grand design included division 'into hundreds'—a ward sovereignty. Letter John Tyler, May 1810: heart, republic strength. 1. education, enable man endanger freedom. 2. divide county hundreds, size central looks provisions. Every hundred, besides school, justice peace, constable captain militia. officers, corporation manage concerns, roads, poor, police patrols, etc. (as selectmen eastern townships). hundred elect jurors requisite, elections hundreds separately, together. Our captaincies present, alter occasionally. republics vigor revolution Eastern enabled repeal embargo Middle, Southern lubberly counties assembled. orders centre foreman sergeants army, thrown energetic instance man, becomes absolutely irresistible. Could consider dawn salvation republic, old Simeon, 'nunc dimittis Domine." Writings (Mem. ed. 1904) 393—394. letter Cartwright, 5, 1824, Jefferson, op cit., 42, 44—46; Samuel Kercheval, July 12, 1816, 32—44; September 1816. 70—71. 'But 'judicial restraint' insist room body) violates amendment, legislature's) precedence. excellent not. all, *' obvious effort (legislative) power. effective, legislature) world accorded final word means. while desire re-wage review, reasonably amendment expectation intention enforce 1447—1448. Beaney, Constitutional Right Privacy 1962 Review, 212; Dykstra, Most Valued Civilized Man, Utah L.Rev. 305; 614; 1424. philosophical roots common law. Warren Brandeis, Privacy, 193, 196, intensity complexity attendant advancing civilization, rendered retreat world, refining culture, publicity, solitude individual; modern enterprise invention have, invasions privacy, subjected mental pain distress, greater inflicted bodily injury.' Olmstead 277 438, 471, 472—479, 564, 572, 944 J.); Poe Ullman, 497, 509, 515—522, 1752, 1759, 989 alone home attainment purposes, individual's same, 'probable cause' believing government's disability complete. required, Works (Fed. 1904), Vol. 2, 440—441. Federalist, 51. 'Outside, shut pane, looked cold. Down street eddies wind whirling dust torn paper spirals, sun shining sky harsh blue, color posters plastered everywhere. black-mustachio'd gazed commanding corner. house immediately opposite. BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU, caption dark deep Winston's own. level poster, corner, flapped fitfully wind, alternately covering uncovering INGSOC. distance helicopter skimmed roofs, hovered instant blue-bottle, darted curving flight. Police Patrol, snooping people's windows. patrols however. Thought mattered.' Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), 4. 'Those won independence faculties; deliberative forces arbitrary. They valued bolieved happiness courage liberty. spread truth; discussion futile; ordinarily dissemination noxious doctrine; menace inert people; duty; principle cowards. change. exalt cost courageous, self-reliant fearless processes flowing incidence evil apprehended imminent befall discussion. expose falsehood fallacies, avert silence. emergency repression. Such reconciled 375, 377, 648, 1095 Brandeis). contradiction Casper, Klan, Seaboard White Citizens Council.

Classification Label: 2