Legal Document

515 U.S. 819115 S.Ct. 2510132 L.Ed.2d 700 Ronald W. ROSENBERGER, et al., Petitionersv.RECTOR AND VISITORS OF the UNIVERSITY VIRGINIA al. No. 94-329. Supreme Court of United States Argued March 1, 1995. Decided June 29, Syllabus * Respondent University Virginia, a state instrumentality, authorizes payments from its Student Activities Fund (SAF) to outside contractors for printing costs variety publications issued by student groups called "Contracted Independent Organizations" (CIOs). The SAF receives money mandatory fees and is designed support broad range extracurricular activities related University's educational purpose. CIOs must include in their dealings with third parties all written materials disclaimer stating that they are independent not responsible them. withheld authorization printer on behalf petitioners' CIO, Wide Awake Productions (WAP), solely because newspaper, Awake: A Christian Perspective at "primarily promotes or manifests particular belie[f] about deity an ultimate reality," as prohibited Guidelines. Petitioners filed this suit under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, alleging, inter alia, refusal authorize payment violated First Amendment right freedom speech. After District granted summary judgment University, Fourth Circuit affirmed, holding invocation viewpoint discrimination deny third-party Speech Clause, but concluding was justified necessity complying Establishment Clause. Held: 1. Guideline invoked support, both terms application these petitioners, denial free Pp. ____. (a) violates principles governing speech limited public forums, which apply under, e.g., Perry Ed. Assn. v. Local Educators' Assn., 460 37, 46-47, 103 948, 955-956, 74 794. In determining whether State acting within power preserve limits it has set such forum so exclusion class there legitimate, see, id., 49, S.Ct., 957, observed distinction between, one hand, content discrimination—i.e., against subject matter—which may be permissible if preserves forum's purposes, and, other speaker's specific motivating ideology, opinion, perspective presumed impermissible when directed otherwise limitations, see 46, 955. most recent apposite case area Lamb's Chapel Center Moriches Union Free School Dist., 508 ----, 113 2141, 2147, 124 352, held permitting school property used presentation views issue except those dealing religious standpoint constitutes discrimination. Here, case, State's actions properly interpreted unconstitutional rather than line-drawing based content: By very prohibition, does exclude religion matter, selects disfavored treatment journalistic efforts editorial viewpoints. (b) attempt escape consequences urging involves provision funds access facilities unavailing. Although regulate expression speaker enlists private entities convey own message, Rust Sullivan, 500 173, 111 1759, 114 233; Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 276, 102 269, 277-278, 70 440, discriminate persons whose subsidizes, Regan Taxation Representation Wash., 461 540, 548, 1997, 2002, 76 129. Its argument scarcity justify among speakers simply wrong. (c) Vital stake here. vast potential reach: term "promotes" would comprehend any writing advocating philosophic position rests upon belief (or nonbelief) reality, while "manifests" bring prohibition resting premise presupposing existence nonexistence) reality. It difficult name renowned thinkers writings accepted, save perhaps articles disclaiming connection philosophy. 2. violation following petitioners excused governmental program neutral toward religion. Such neutrality significant factor upholding programs face Clause attack, guarantee offended where, here, government follows criteria even-handed policies extend benefits recipients ideologies viewpoints, including ones, diverse, Board Kiryas Joel Grumet, 512 2481, 2491-2492, 129 546. There no suggestion created advance aid cause. SAF's purpose open various enterprises, publication newspapers, recognition diversity creativity life. Guidelines have separate classification for, do make of, "religious organizations," WAP did seek subsidy viewpoint; sought funding "student . communications grou[p]." Neutrality also apparent fact taken pains disassociate itself involved case. program's distinguishes here tax levied direct church group churches, violate This controlled principle special dangers exist where makes sectarian institutions, Roemer Public Works, 426 736, 747, 96 2337, 2345, 49 179, since undisputed flow directly into WAP's coffers issue. university grants religion-neutral basis wide spectrum groups, even some use devotional exercises. See Widmar, U.S., 274. upkeep, maintenance, repair paid out fund students required contribute. Id., 265, 272. difference logic principle, certainly constitutional significance, between using operate facility access, paying contractor behalf. That here: provides services newspapers. Were contrary view become law, could only avoid scrutinizing speech, lest contain too great message. censorship far more inconsistent Clause's dictates secular religion-blind basis. 18 F.3d 269 (CA4 1994), reversed. KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, SCALIA, THOMAS, JJ., joined. concurring opinions. SOUTER, dissenting STEVENS, GINSBURG, BREYER, Michael McConnell, Chicago, IL, petitioners. John C. Jeffries, Jr., Charlottesville, VA, respondents. Justice KENNEDY Court. 1 instrumentality Commonwealth named thus bound Fourteenth Amendments, publications. sole reason paper reality." promote manifest defined seems plain enough. challenge regulation authorization, raising issues Clauses Amendment. 2 corporation we refer "University" denominated law "the Rector Visitors Virginia," Va.Code Ann. 23-69 (1993), school, §§ 23-80. Founded Thomas Jefferson 1819, ranked him, together authorship Declaration Independence Virginia Act Religious Freedom, 57-1, his proudest achievements, Nation's oldest respected seats higher learning. 11,000 undergraduate students, 6,000 graduate professional students. An understanding requires somewhat detailed description campus. 3 Before eligible submit bills described below, Organization" (CIO). CIO status available majority members managing officers fulltime complies certain procedural requirements. App. Pet. Cert. 2a. file constitution University; pledge membership; disclaimer, CIO. 27-28. enjoy facilities, meeting rooms computer terminals. 30. standard agreement signed each opportunities afforded "should misinterpreted meaning organizations part organizations' contracts acts omissions, approves goals activities." 26. 4 All entitled (SAF). Established governed Guidelines, "are University." 61a. "recogni[tion] availability opportunities" "tends enhance environment." require administered "in manner consistent well federal law." fee $14 per semester assessed full-time student. Council, elected initial authority disburse funds, review faculty body chaired designee Vice President Affairs. Cf. 63a-64a. 5 Some, all, disbursement requests SAF. recognize 11 categories Virginia." 61a-62a. One news, information, entertainment, academic media groups." specify, however, will reimbursed excluded activities, philanthropic contributions political jeopardize exempt status, involve honoraria similar fees, social entertainment expenses. 62a-63a. "political activities" electioneering lobbying. provide "[t]hese restrictions intended preclude organization espouses positions ideological unpopular generally accepted." 65a-66a. activity," contrast, activity 66a. 6 prescribe amounts disbursements allowed organization: size group, financial self-sufficiency, University-wide benefit activities. If seeks pays organization's creditors expenses appropriate. No made groups. During 1990-1991 year, 343 qualified CIOs. hundred thirty-five them applied SAF, 118 received funding. Fifteen were funded 7 Petitioners' organization, Formed petitioner Rosenberger undergraduates 1990, established "[t]o publish magazine philosophical expression," facilitate discussion fosters atmosphere sensitivity tolerance viewpoints," unifying focus Christians multicultural backgrounds." 67. publishes Virginia. paper's evident first issue, editors wrote journal "offers personal community issues, especially relevant college 45. committed two-fold mission: "to live, word deed, according faith proclaim encourage consider what relationship Jesus Christ means." Ibid. had racism, crisis pregnancy, stress, prayer, C.S. Lewis' ideas evil will, reviews music. next two featured stories homosexuality, missionary work, eating disorders, music interviews professors. Each page Awake, end article review, marked cross. advertisements carried reveal journal. For part, advertisers centers study, bookstores. 1992, distributed 5,000 copies charge. 8 acquired soon after organized. important consideration been organization," accorded status. As organization" "an practice devotion acknowledged reality deity." At stage controversy contended organization. 9 few months being given requested pay $5,862 newspaper. Appropriations Committee Council denied request ground activity" i.e., newspaper "promote[d] manifest[ed] determination examining 54. appealed full contending met applicable magazine's Constitution. appeal without further comment, level, Committee. letter Dean Students, committee sustained 55. 10 Having recourse structure, WAP, three Western challenging action violative Rev.Stat. 1979, 1983. They alleged publication, viewpoint, rights press, exercise religion, equal protection law. relied Article I Constitution 57-2 (1986 Supp.1994), pursue theories appeal. damages paper, injunctive declaratory relief, attorney's fees. On cross-motions judgment, ruled concern over sufficient justification denying contractors. court definitive ruling reimbursement, 795 F.Supp. 175, 181-182 (WD Va.1992). 12 Appeals Circuit, disagreement content. that, need underwrite presumptive 279-281 (1994). affirmed nonetheless, "compelling interest maintaining strict separation state." 281. II 13 axiomatic substantive message conveys. Police Dept. Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 96, 92 2286, 2290, 33 212 (1972). Other follow precept. realm expression, favor another. City Los Angeles Taxpayers 466 789, 804, 104 2118, 2128, 80 772 (1984). Discrimination unconstitutional. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. FCC, 2445, 2458-2459, 497 These rules informed our offends imposes burdens expression. Simon & Schuster, Members N.Y. Crime Victims Bd., 502 105, 115, 112 501, 507-508, 116 476 (1991). When targets matter subject, blatant. R.A.V. St. Paul, 505 377, 391, 2538, 120 305 (1992). Viewpoint egregious form abstain regulating ideology rationale restriction. 955, 794 (1983). 14 framework forbidding exercising discrimination, creation. involving district's uses, declared "[t]here question District, like owner property, legally control dedicated." 2146, 352 (1993). necessities confining legitimate purposes reserving topics. See, Cornelius NAACP Legal Defense Fund, Inc., 473 788, 806, 105 3439, 3451, 87 567 (1985); supra, 957. Once opened forum, respect lawful boundaries set. "reasonable light served forum," Cornelius, 804-806, 3450-51; nor Chapel, 2147; 955; R.A.V., 386-388, 391-393, ---- - ----; cf. Texas Johnson, 491 397, 414-415, 109 2533, 2545, 342 (1989). Thus, limitations. 15 metaphysical spatial geographic sense, same applicable. 955-956 (forum analysis mail system); 801, 3448 charitable contribution program). decision supra. There, district hours social, civic, recreational purposes. district, enacted formal policy opening Invoking policy, rejected desiring show film series addressing child-rearing questions "Christian perspective." indication record "denied 2145. Our conclusion unanimous: "[I]t discriminates permit family standpoint." 16 acknowledge (as precedents) "ideologically driven attempts suppress point presumptively funding, contexts," insists present draw lines content, viewpoint. Brief Respondents 17, n. 10. noted, subset instance general phenomenon ----. And, acknowledged, precise one. is, something understatement speak thought just distinct comprehensive thought. nature origins destiny dependence divine subjects inquiry throughout human history. We conclude, proper way interpret objections Awake. Religion inquiry, provides, premise, perspective, discussed considered. resulted payments, approved category 17 dissent's assertion occurs entire viewpoints reflects insupportable assumption debate bipolar anti-religious response complex multifaceted discourse embraced contrived marketplace ideas. topic example, then several problem offensive objectionable theistic atheistic one, other, yet another political, economic, declaration skewed long multiple voices silenced wrong; ways. third- party unlike found invalid. civic Furthermore, pointed nothing excluding justifies participation contents avowed perspective. bears passing mention distinguish entirely Relying transcript oral argument, dissent argue Christian, atheistic, expressed there. Post, ____, 13. discriminating (which, advocate's statements law) inclusion antireligious bearing decision. 19 tries facilities. begins unremarkable proposition substantial discretion how allocate scarce resources accomplish mission. Citing decisions 233 (1991), (1983), 440 (1981), argues content-based inevitable lawful. reasoning urged, "would judicial juggernaut, constitutionalizing ubiquitous schools, colleges, routinely allocation funds." 16. 20 To relies assurance course striking down university's stated: "Nor judgments best resources." 277. quoted language speaker, choices. determines education speaking, permitted vein, upheld government's abortion-related advice planning counseling. create instead transmit information pertaining program. recognized appropriates say wishes. 194, 1773. disburses take appropriate steps ensure neither garbled distorted grantee. 196-200, 1774-1776. 21 follow, suggest viewpoint-based subsidize transmittal favors expends speakers. facilitates restrict different principles. Westside Community Schools (Dist. 66) Mergens, 496 226, 250, 110 2356, 2372, 191 (1990); Hazelwood Dist. Kuhlmeier, 484 260, 270-272, 108 562, 569-570, 98 592 (1988). reason, reliance inapposite well. Congress' choice grant deductions veterans' engaged lobbying, favorable charities pursued lobbying efforts. acknowledging Government fundamental rights, 545-546, 2001, reaffirmed requirement Government's observing "[t]he Congress invidiously subsidies 'ai[m] suppression dangerous ideas,' " 2002 (quoting Cammarano States, 358 498, 513, 79 524, 533, 462 (1959), turn quoting Speiser Randall, 357 519, 78 1332, 1338, 1460 (1958). preferential speakers—veterans —and messages groups' 2002; now before us, speech-based restriction operative principle. 22 favored us. sign. __. declares agents, control, responsibility. offered who messages, silence selected 23 urges standpoint, differs physical not. Beyond might true empirical underlying demand space exceeded wrong cannot economic scarcity. Had scarce, greater supply, different. incumbent State, course, ration acceptable principle; indicated give impermissible. 24 danger liberty lies granting examine determine idea classify second, corollary, chilling individual real setting, background tradition experiment center intellectual tradition. Healy James, 169, 180-181, 2338, 2346, 266 (1972); Keyishian Regents, Univ. N.Y., 385 589, 603, 675, 683-684, 629 (1967); Sweezy New Hampshire, 354 234, 77 1203, 1211-1212, 1311 (1957). ancient Athens, Europe entered new period awakening, places Bologna, Oxford, Paris, universities began voluntary spontaneous assemblages concourses write learn. R. Palmer J. Colton, History Modern World 39 (7th ed. 1992). quality creative life day remains vital measure school's influence attainment. regulation, cast disapproval risks nation's life, campuses. 25 effects sweeping context sponsored promot[e] manifes[t] ordinary commonsense meaning, reach. Webster's Third International Dictionary 1815 (1961) (defining "promote" contribute growth, enlargement, prosperity of: further, encourage"). And scope explicable presupposes 1375 "manifest" plainly: palpably showing displaying"). much vigor bar essays hypothetical contributors Plato, Spinoza, Descartes. covers, says does, Tr. Oral Arg. 18-19, primarily under-graduates Karl Marx, Bertrand Russell, Jean-Paul Sartre likewise major manifestation beliefs disqualifies writing, indeed Plato contrive essay making pasta peanut butter cookies, provided he (necessary) imperfections. 26 Based discussed, hold guaranteed considered Constitution's establishment question. III 27 brief merits argued stages litigation Indeed, prevailed Appeals. certiorari question: "Whether compels fund, Press nonreligious." i. abandoned position, objection implicates defeat ability levels 29; 27-29, 17; 14. longer presses claim lacks force; rested colleagues find determinative, addressed. 28 withholding contravened Amendment, proceeded avoiding compelling. F.3d, Recognizing regularly "sanctioned awards nonmonetary fora similarly situated invited," 286 (citing 277, 278), asserted monetary subsidization projects "a beast color," 286. 'a specifically substantially setting.' 285 Hunt McNair, 413 734, 743, 93 2868, 2874, 37 923 (1973) (emphasis deleted)). reasoned pervasively devoted advancement avowedly theological philosophy," "send unmistakably clear signal supports values wishes promulgation values." 29 retains force guarding prohibit, inquire object practical details operation. turning matters, can forth bear determination. 30 central lesson attack towards decided cases receipt implicated degree. modern jurisprudence Everson Ewing, 330 67 504, 91 L.Ed. 711 (1947). cautioned enforcing laws respecting "be sure inadvertently prohibit [the government] extending citizens regard belief." 16, 512. respected, offended, government, evenhanded policies, extends diverse. Village 2491, 546 (1994) (SOUTER, J.) ("[T]he grounded [and] frequently explicitly individuals aside challenges"); Witters Washington Services Blind, 474 481, 487-488, 106 748, 751, 88 846 (1986); Mueller Allen, 463 388, 398-399, 3062, 3069, 721 (1983); 274-275, More once justifies, less requires, participate broad-reaching design. 2147-2148; 248, 252, 2370-2371, 2373; 31 adopted ingenious device aiding "whose groups," 1990 year. journal, was. 32 churches. sort, run concerns dating earliest days Republic. apprehensions predecessors levying taxes exclusive establishing supporting sects. exaction reflect many dimensions includes wide-ranging integral mandatory, us objecting pro rata return extent expended she subscribe. Keller Bar California, 15-16, 2228, 2237, Abood Detroit Ed., 431 209, 235-236, 97 1782, 1800, 52 261 (1977). treat it, then, But raise revenue University. Butler, 297 61, 56 312, 317, 477 (1936) ("A tax, term, Constitution, signifies Government"); Head Money Cases, 580, 595-596, 247, 798 (1884). unlimited illegitimate Much arrangement goes mission; interested withdrawal cover whole view, neither. decision, read expenditure fund. dis- bursements go cost protected cry assessment effected church. overall scheme meaningful respect. respects critical "between endorsing forbids, Exercise protect." 2372 (opinion J.). willfully fostered encouraged" mistaken impression newspapers Capitol Square Review Advisory Bd. Pinette, --- 115 2440, 2448, (slip op., 10). Appeals' Awake's orientation attributed plausible fear, likelihood either endorsed coerced Lee Weisman, 577, 2649, 467 (1992); Witters, 489, 752-753 Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 688, 1355, 1367, 604 (1984) (O'CONNOR, concurring)); 493, 754-755 judgment) Lynch, 690, 1368 concurring)). 34 (and dissent) correct extract citing Pub. Works Md., 179 (1976); Bowen Kendrick, 487 614-615, 2562, 2577, 101 520 (1988); 742, 2874; Tilton, 403 679-680, 2096; Central 392 236, 1923, 1060 (1968). error identifying believing controls Even assuming exercises conducted (two points doubt), was, essence, same. confront nonsectarian recipients, institution activity. Neither dissent, believe, takes cognizance coffers. 35 accompanied 274; 2373. uses usually spending money. room, Mergens expenditure, electricity heating cooling costs. Appeals, focusing undoubtedly recipient. whenever service pursuant program, overruled. Given holdings cases, maintain facility, printers, neutral, first-come-first-served, obtained compose copy machine print providing giving assembly hall. (1993); supra; latter membership. Any incidental Printing routine, secular, recurring attribute 36 attains degree avoids duties supervision, escapes repair, replacement attributable use, result, charge taxpayers whole, discrete formalistic forfeit advantages order comply church's subsidizing guard abuse. considerations advanced additional institution, least usual sense regulations. pure ideas, incomplete chilled officials courts scan ferret principally being. violation, scrutinize question—speech —contain fact, anticipates "crucial" distinguishing "works characterized evangelism merely happens express approve." eventuality raises specter censorship, meet baseline orthodoxy. impose imperil sources official 38 "[T]he fails establish [between 'religious' 'about' religion] intelligible 'singing hymns, reading scripture, teaching biblical principles' cease 'singing, teaching, reading'—all apparently forms 'speech,' despite matter—and unprotected 'worship.' "[E]ven drew arguably principled line, highly doubtful lie competence administer. Merely university—and ultimately —to significance words practices faiths, varying circumstances faith. inquiries tend inevitably entangle forbidden cases. E.g., Walz [v. Tax Comm'n York City, 397 664, 90 1409, 697 (1970) ]." 269-270, 6, 274, (citations omitted). 40 41 obey necessary eligibility commanded compromised action. inherent discern assumptions theory belief. risk fostering pervasive bias hostility undermine requires. honoring be, 43 ordered. 44 concurring. 45 "We time again people differently God gods worship, don't worship." 2497, judgment). insistence explains why schools all. Fenter (1981). Withholding leave perception disfavored: endorsement; refused let others, demonstrate religion." 2371, (1990) (plurality opinion). "The favoring warrant Joel, 2498 Neutrality, effect, hallmark 46 SOUTER demonstrates, post, exists axiom history precedent "Public endorse message." 642, 2592, (1988) (Blackmun, dissenting); 622, 2581 concurring). functions performed organizations. 617, 2578 (funding sex education); 741, 2342, (1976) (cash colleges "sectarian purposes"); Bradfield Roberts, 175 291, 299-300, 121, 124, 168 (1899) health care indigent patients). decisions, finance 47 intersection exchange expressive predictably divergent equally activity, fair precedents. Not sending 48 bedrock conflict, understandably answer. Reliance categorical platitudes Resolution depends hard task judging—sifting through challenged lines, sometimes quite fine, facts 598, 2661, (1992) ("Our line-drawing"). Holmes context: "Neither troubled line. pretty everything worth arguing Day night, youth age types." Irwin Gavit, 268 161, 168, 475, 476, 69 897 (1925) (citation (1986), unanimously may, blind student's tuition institution. held, emphasizing "vocational assistance student, transmits her choice." 487, 751. therefore, akin servant contributing paycheck resolved conflict trump relying elements peculiar case: result petitioner's choice. reasonable observer likely inference 755 Zobrest Catalina Foothills 509 2462, 2467-2468, 125 50 careful fine distinctions presents extreme (1947), strongest exposition no-funding principle: "No amount, large small, whatever called, adopt teach Yet reimburse parents children's bus fares attend Catholic schools. 17-18, 512-513. cynically dismiss Court's disposition protestations, 19, 513 (Jackson, dissenting) ("the fitting Julia who, Byron's reports, 'whispering "I ne'er consent," consented' "), reflected rely judgment—not simple —when principles, historical jurisprudential pedigree, come unavoidable conflict. 51 So dispute admit answers, should inferred today, ante, Instead, lead me conclude publications, First, organizations, insistence, remain strictly Contracted Organizations (CIO)—i.e., —provides: 53 corporation, operates independently understand agree Agreement source ." 27. 54 every letter, contract, disclaimer: 55 "Although (faculty) (employees), contracts, omissions." 28. reader notice publication's independence 14, 57 Second, ensures seeking requests; approved, vendor pass safeguard accompanying assistance, robust feature analogous press facilities), block 58 Third, improbable endorsement vacuum. competes magazines advertising readership. widely purveyors supported significantly diminishes perceived Besides news Yellow Journal, humor targeted Christianity satire, Al-Salam, "promote better Islam Community," 92. array non-religious, competing endorses illogical. harder threatens dominate forum. 2451 judgment); 275, 2385. 59 Finally, although presented note possibility susceptible compelled disagrees. 15, 2236-2237, Education, currently split lower successful. Compare Hays County Guardian Supple, 969 F.2d 111, 123 (CA5 1992), cert. 506 1067, 122 371 Kania Fordham, 702 480 1983); Good Associated Students 86 Wash.2d 94, 105-106, 542 P.2d 762, 769 (1975) (en banc), Smith Regents Cal., Cal.4th 843, 863-864, Cal.Rptr.2d 181, 194-195, 844 500, 513-514, denied, 510 126 140 While resolve opt-out generally, Abood, 259, 13, 1811, (Powell, judgment), proceeds assessments core ____; ____ (THOMAS, concurring); dissenting), generally. Unlike monies dispensed treasuries, collected themselves administer select qualifying originally fee. draws common pool, sort appears conducive proportional refunds. represents resources, derived revenue, sales assets, otherwise, belongs 60 today therefore trumpets supremacy signals demise jurisprudence. last Term, "[e]xperience proves easily reduced single test." 2499 collide, test obstinacy expose flaws Grand Unified Theory grand unified. cases—focus features discriminated program—such explicit vendors, vigorous opt out—convince carry 61 Subject comments, join djQ 62 full, separately my put forward dissent. starts path consulting original misleading yields allowing adherents programs. 63 so-called "Assessment Controversy" indicative embodied incident hardly actively glosses characteristic bill sparked controversy: imposed clergy performance function "Bill Establishing Provision Teachers Religion" collection appropriated "by Vestries, Elders, Directors society Minister Teacher Gospel denomination, none whatsoever." 74, 539, (1947) (appendix Rutledge, J.).1 64 James Madison's Memorial Remonstrance Against Assessments (hereinafter Remonstrance) understood context. Contrary suggestion, rest never Nor Madison embrace linchpin dissent: constitutionally comments inexplicably discards. According Madison, flawed "violate[d] equality ought ¶ 4, reprinted Everson, 66, 536 "equality" singled benefits. ibid. (arguing subjecting burdens" others exemptions"). 65 commentators disagreed Assessment Controversy. some, experience Framers saw preferences faiths others. Cord, Separation Church State: Historical Fact Current Fiction 20-23 (1982); Smith, Getting Off Wrong Foot Back Again: Reexamination Framing Critique Reynolds Decisions, Wake Forest L.Rev. 569, 590-591 forbids sects irreligion. Laycock, "Nonpreferential" Aid Religion: False Claim About Original Intent, Wm. Mary 875, 875 (1986). 66 commend former view. restricted fourth paragraph above. extended sects, seized defect: "Who Christianity, Religions, ease sect Christians, Sects." 3, 65, 535-536. 68 addition paragraphs Remonstrance, "Madison's seventh, ninth, eleventh, twelfth arguments speak, way, intolerance, bigotry, unenlightenment, persecution previous establishments." 21. nonestablishment barring more-relevant House debates Wallace Jaffree, 472 38, 98, 2479, 2511, (1985) (REHNQUIST, (Madison's "as floor 1789, [indicate] [First] national prevent sects," requiring irreligion"). Moreover, notions clearly stem "arguments reflecting concepts natural contract civil society," 22, event, man resolution decide Under Controversy, cited "categorically condemn[s] beneficiaries. believed precluded se (in targeting religion), framing took subsidies.2 early legislative proposals cut suggestion. 1776, Virginia's Revolutionary Convention drafting Rights, prepared amendment disestablished Anglican Church. (which went adopted) nearly version disestablishment; wanted declare "no men ought, account religion[,] invested emoluments privileges. Amendments Rights (May 29-June 12, 1776), Papers 174 (W. Hutchinson Rachal eds. 1962) added). Likewise, stressed "just government" "best protecting citizen enjoyment hand protects person property; invading Sect, suffering Sect invade another." 8, 68, 537; Terrett Taylor, Cranch 43, 650 (1815) (holding "aiding votaries perform duties," "establishing ministers, charities, endowment sepulture dead"). 71 Stripped permits funds. purports locate "direct funding" "heart" examples date back founding. famous Houses chaplains, S. Jour., 1st Cong., Sess., (1820 ed.); H.R. (1826 ed.), legislation annual salary $500 Treasury, Sept. ch. Stat. 70, 71. himself member recommended chaplain system House. 11-12; Annals Cong. 891 (1789); 25. congressional chaplains "continued interruption ever session Congress." Marsh Chambers, 783, 3330, 3334, 1019 (1983).3 72 evidence exemptions overwhelming. concedes, bodies "have place 200 years disruption interests represented Clause." 676-680, 1415-1417, (1970)).4 acceptance puts notion bars exemption economically functionally indistinguishable subsidy.5 instance, relieves (along others) tax; burden returning cash subsidy. Whether front taxation process, undeniable. same: "Few deeply embedded fabric beginning pre-Revolutionary colonial times, kind benevolent churches exercise. Walz, 676-677, 1415. 73 Consistent "no-aid" police fire departments, sidewalk kept repair.' 2466, (1993) (1981)). admits "evenhandedness ensuring inhibited." 5. Surely concede, obtain populace reimbursing smoke detectors overhead sprinkler systems department. department extinguish fires churches—then Though hopeless disarray, opportunity reaffirm basic enjoyed uncharacteristic consensus: compel participants. Zobrest, Monthly, Bullock, 489 890, (1989); owned party. surprisingly, offers logical conclusion, text 75 receive in-kind subsidies. demands judged "neutrality" religion," surely depend fortuitous surrounding aid. rule absurd results jettison centuries government-funded "essential benefits" identified broader traced Congress, ratified Northwest Ordinance 1787. Aug. 7, 50. enactment Confederation provided: "Religion, morality, knowledge good happiness mankind, means learning shall forever encouraged." 52, (a). subsequently lands Territory territories Mar. 1803, 21, 225-226; 26, 1804, 35, 5, 279; Feb. 10, 621; Apr. 18, 1818, 67, 430; 20, 126, 2, 467. Many land church-affiliated institutions "public." Antieau, A. Downey, E. Freedom From Federal Establishment, Formation Early 163 (1964). Nevertheless, Congresses (noting "almost universally[,] Americans 1789 1825 accepted practiced religiously oriented institutions"). Numerous traditionally terms. Several work Congresses, copyright author authors map, chart, book books," May 31, 1790, privilege "every [to] send postage," 1792, 232, 238. numerous printers manifested deity. answer posed identifies disable participating opposite direction ample today's whom GINSBURG BREYER join, dissenting. time, arm State. so, erroneous familiar implementing Amendment's Clauses, viewing beyond reach such. Because applying establishment, affirm. 81 dwell recognizes sufficiently scrutiny. stress enough satisfy requirements Ante, Something Some least, think indirect, printer, checking account. principal reliance, valuable permissible. commit approving anything justifiable sake speaking forums. implicitly circumvent Different novel financed barred, involuntary Fee tax. O'CONNOR'S sharing assumption; enterprises benefit, consequent resulting unmistakable tension continues avow. 82 difficulties closer look affords. character candidly disclosed editor-in-chief announces mission readership signed, "Love Christ": masthead Paul's exhortation, hour you awake your slumber, salvation nearer believed. Romans 13:11." 83 contained editor's promise echoes Apostle's call accept salvation: 84 Him confessing repenting sin. Christian's duty sinners aware salvation. condemn sin, else fail love." Mourad Prince, Love/Hate Relationship, November/December p. 3. 85 "When get final gate, Lord handing boarding passes, He ticket. If, lifetime, seat His Friendly Skies Flyer trusting asking pilot, list reserved know not). You able buy ticket then; amount desire trick. chosen pilot flown straight Hell jet (without air conditioning toilets, course)." Ace, Plane Truth, 'Go world preach creation.' (Mark 16:15) Great Commission prime-directive lives Christians. Liu, Five-legged Stool, September/October 1991, Spirit intimate Universe, awakens minds spiritual truth empowers serve effective ambassadors earthly lives." Buterbaugh, Spiritual Advantage, March/April quote tenor, poetry, Macpherson, Have Started Searching Angels, 18; textual commentary, Colossians 1:1-14: Abundant Life, 20; 14-16: March/April, pp. 20-21; instruction practice, Early, Thanksgiving Prayer, (providing readers suggested prayers posing contemplative texts); Hope Spirit, (similar). 89 facially topics platforms fulfill tenets lives. piece racism interpretation texts counsel thing do: "God calls voluntarily stepping comfort zones joy richness inheritance Christ. love share peoples world. "Racism disease heart, soul, mind, extirpated consciousness replaced peace communal healing begin." "Eracing" Mistakes, progression descriptions anorexia bulimia ends message: "As thinking profess God, grasp firmly truth, Bread Life (John 6:35). Through Him, full. alone fulfillment permeates emotional, psychological, Ferguson Lassiter, Calorie Calvary, 94 descriptive examination doctrine ideal confronting life's problems. incidentally coincides ethics obligation. straightforward exhortation enter revealed Christ, moral obligations teachings communicatio[n] criterion, 61a), "challenge means" founder, 45). scholar's study seminar evangelist's station pulpit. preaching word, sacraments) branches offer 95 Using categorically meant else, Evidence antedates Bill itself, seen settled, Liberty Nyquist, 756, 770, 28, 2955, 2964, 948 (1973); 510, Four proposed gave legitimacy Assessments, played role 1786 framed stand: pence him conform whatsoever?" Remonstrance), 65-66 [67 524] Colony exacted 509, having "so commonplace shock freedom-loving colonials feeling abhorrence," 11, (footnote captured colonists' "conviction achieved stripped assist religions, interfere group." Ibid.1 Their sentiment led bill, passage Jefferson. bill's preamble furnish propagation opinions disbelieves, sinful tyrannical," Jefferson, Founder's 84-85 (P. Kurland Lerner 1987), "[t]hat frequent place, ministry whatsoever. .," 510. "previously provisions adoption leading roles, objective intrusion statute." Ibid.; 921, (1986) ("[I]f 1780's proposition, opposed substitute small taxes; bad larger sum. mattered. With money, wholly voluntary. Churches not, help interfere") omitted); T. Curry, Freedoms 217 (At taxes, history"); Choper, Securing (1995) ("There consensus threat groups—indeed, serious infringement liberty—is forcing activities") (footnotes omitted; internal quotation marks omitted).2 patently contested fee.3 Like threepence. Jefferson's Preamble, strikes repeatedly heart establishment. 511 ("The 'establishment clause' this. religion"); Rapids Ball, 373, 385, 3216, 3223, 267 ("Although absolutes, absolutely government-financed government-sponsored indoctrination faith"); Education 780, 2968 ("In absence guaranteeing exclusively nonideological invalid"); 772, 2969 ("Primary evils" guards sponsorship, active involvement sovereign activity") 640, (SCALIA, coercion establishments orthodoxy penalty") Flast Cohen, 83, 103-104, 1942, 1954-1955, 947 (1968) adequate outcome standing requirements, "[o]ur vividly illustrates evils feared drafted fought taxing general"). 99 accordingly, proselytizing published condemned 395, 3228-3229 (striking nonpublic premises "indistinguishable Clause"); Wolman Walter, 433 229, 254, 2593, 2608-2609, 714 (1977) field trip constituted education"); Meek Pittenger, 421 349, 365, 1753, 1763, material equipment loan inability "channe[l] sectarian"); 774, 2966 maintenance "[n]o expenditures upkeep Levitt Liberty, 472, 480, 2814, 2819, 736 state-mandated tests failed "assure state-supported indoctrination"); Tilton Richardson, 672, 683, 2091, 2098, 790 (1971) opinion) insufficient 20-year limit construction unrestricted "is effect value body"); 689, 2101 (Douglas, Black, Marshall, part). 100 performing functions, always searching enquiry flowing latter. (upholding premarital adolescent sexual relations "used grantees 746-748, 755, 759-761, 2344-2346, 2349, 2351-2352, restricting only); 742-745, 2873-2875, bond purposes); 679-682, 2096-2098 seeps facilities"); 244-248, 1926-1929, textbook books purposes). Reasonable differ reached questioned repudiated. faith." 3223. B Why do, violation? preceding section. Throughout refers uninformatively viewpoint," perspective," church, maintains "[Wide Awake] sense," ____;4 Saint awaken nearness salvation, enjoining verses, analyses, prayers. easy lose sight obvious, blanch frankly evangelistic unrevealing allusions encumbrance detail actual pages, finds ask unequivocal focuses subsidiary correctly states misapplies. accounts attention "neutral," applicants alike. evenhandedness "significant factor" analysis, dispositive ("Neutrality, hiding behind formally remaining studiously oblivious actions. [N]ot form"). appreciation rules: affirmative part; accomplished strike protection. ("We activity"); concurring) ("[Our] activities"). sound unsound explore does. foregoing quotations indicate, marginal criterion. stands occur margins application. Is unconstitutional? Would burning parochial allow grantee spend college? drawing becomes important. However past phrased test, relevant, addresses aspect truly (that "advance[s] [or] inhibit[s] Allegheny Greater Pittsburgh Chapter, American Civil Liberties Union, 492 573, 592, 3086, 3100, (1989)). noted [a] [religious nonreligious] index effect." (those funding), initially room law's serves weed impermissibly channelling exclusively. Evenhandedness prerequisite constitutionality law,5 further. success Three indirect latest illustrate relevance obvious individuals, another, institutions.6 each, condition 751; Mueller, 397-399, 3068-3069; 2467-2468. stopped satisfying sufficient, dispositive. importantly, render constitutional. Quite contrary. Critical indirect; "only genuinely choices recipients," 752; 399-400, 3069-3070; 2468-2469. noting 2468-2469; 3069-3070. little extensions employees, donate barrier. 486-487, "attenuated benefit[s], individual[s]," found, contemplation prohibition. 400, J.).7 element permissibly attenuated proselytization, unsurprisingly repudiated mere unequal 682-684, 2097-2099 portion possible activities);8 252-255, 2608-09 trips "provided district," unacceptable foster religion). nowhere adherence preeminence no-direct-funding 520. 107 Adolescent Family (AFLA), counseling sexuality pregnancy. litigation, 141 awarded AFLA affiliated institutions. 597, 2567-2568. brought parties, pre-trial motion insofar receiving Act. reversed facial 602-618, 2570-2579, said intimation statute point, grantees, permitted." 614, 2577. contrary, looking regulations, safeguards 615, applied, remanded "for appellees sheds presently administered." 621, 2580. Specifically, told remand, "consider 'specifically activit[ies] Ibid., 2874. guidance turned "that inculcate breadth distribution basis, pegged Act's inevitable. O'CONNOR's underscored point: fully '[p]ublic message.' __, 2591-2592 [ ]. [A]ny doctrines 622-623, 2581-582 (concurring original). sport; pedigree line 16-18, 511-513, 243-249, 1926-1930, 678-682, 2095-2098, 2351-2352. plurality exactly: enough, lending actually education, though alike." 2345 Blackmun, Bowen, separated ones alone. expressly exhibited often. distinguished contrasting aid, thereby preserved 2468-2469 (distinguishing 267, '[t]he kind, school' ") 751); ibid.; 399, 3069. perfectly primacy short "any belief(s) reality."9 C Since conformity limiting reaches identify permissibility. sent itself. brings (discussed ____), misread non-religious 2467-2469. Here beneficiary break circuit use. option gets doing precisely that. formalism Constitutional distinction, institution;10 purported credit cards honor monthly (so someone devise umbrella scheme). way. probable, reference payment. justification, step eligible. (1990), buildings reasons (the built maintained building, saved rent hall); value, say, equipment; goes, unduly publishers done equipment. simple, troubles emerges it. factual thread running college, large, messages. 45-46, 954-955, (1983) analysis). struck Mergens) infra, ____). sure, passed muster plan purpose, entailing entanglement inferred. unexceptionable treating evangelist, Salvation Army, millennialist Hare Krishna preservation model street corner supplied going evenhandedness. 117 forum-access holdings. speakers, (even paves roads everyone street) analogy classroom space. engage traditional too, (like corners) breaks entirely, broadly them, forums literal speaking. comers, lifted plane generalization admitting equivalence recognizing mitigated Absent printers. must, indeed, leads tack, coming up existing recasting ways unnecessary. O'CONNOR distributed. She concludes sharply treasuries falls purview present). ____-____ (O'Connor, expansively legal applies revenue. already fanciful 3; fee), repeat again. novelty taxation, response. 119 moved spoken revenues. 3223 2965 history"). Allowing non-tax spent would, fly Leaving revenues violating 593-594, 3100-3101, ignore dual objectives protect republics destructive mixing corrupting Government. Engel Vitale, 370 421, 431, 1261, 1267, 601 (1962) "first immediate union tends destroy degrade 53, 529-530 (Rutledge, sustenance, interferences, state. comes foundation vanishes resting") &Par; 63-72, 534-539 J.)); Abington Schempp, 374 203, 1560, 1591, (1963) (Brennan, ("It nonbeliever fears injection controversies polity, high devout believer secularization creed dependent government") 84-85. gift sale lands, relax vigilance implicated. Accordingly, forthright disavowal, assume mean eliminate half justification. D 121 Nothing ordering flat magazine, done. 271, 275 (university's compliance compelling justifying restriction). application, unremarked. acknowledges, taught decides, responsibilities. 277-278; Perry, 957 (subject identity inescapable process non-public compatible property"). allocating enjoys spacious discretion. 1773, (1991) ("[W]hen define program"); partial speaker).11 bases speech; infirmity citing, 957; 2144-2145 controlling neutral); (similar); Regan, 2002.12 turns explained 3439 denies includible subject"). deciding content-neutral, consideration." Ward Rock Racism, 781, 791, 2746, 2754, 661 (content on, "justified regulated speech") (internal citations So, city enforces excessive noise ordinance pulling plug rock band amplification guilty espouse antiracist views. Accord, municipality's placards candidate. Lehman Shaker Heights, 418 298, 304, 2714, 2717-2718, 770 (1974) skewing debate. things equal, allows prohibiting reasonably expected respond. Nat. Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 785-786, 1407, 1420-1421, 707 (1978) ("Especially legislature's suggests side debatable advantage expressing people, plainly offended") Joint Wisconsin Employment Relations Comm'n, 429 167, 175-176, 426, 376 ("to monopoly antithesis guarantees") Kokinda, 720, 3115, 3124, 571 (viewpoint "inten[t] discourage another") taking sides pernicious assists espousing opposing activit[y]," 62a, Letter Rosenberger. reviewing Productions, determined activity"). shows repentance, commitment character. 127 advocacy evangelical compete authorizes; Muslim Jewish Buddhist Christian. promoting manifesting "in" "about" agnostics atheists deists theists recognizes, skew competitors. hortatory manifests" religion; apologetics. 128 reads differently, believe construing breadth, attempting potentially universities, describes inquiry," disentitling "those works writers Descartes barred interpreted, tolerate "making cookies. Now, protests. "primarily" ("primarily reality") whereas obviously crucial approve, informing But, said, point. restriction's stringency prior species wished cookie preparation, someone's absent controversial cookies exist. upshot instructional universe enriched above 130 heavily finding addressed board's after-hours purposes," 2144 "Religious" believer, purport wishing exhibit assertedly issues"); 2144, Evansville-Vanderburgh Corp., 787 1105, 1114 (CA7 1986).13 131 understanding, restriction, discuss (considering as-applied only). Equally conversion observances eviscerated 132 equating concluded grouped together, related) topic. nonreligious rejection aimed repentance desirability conversion. reformulation precedents expand limited-access Greer Spock, 424 828, 1211, speeches military base); 812, 3454 (exclusion fundraising drive charitable, welfare agencies); 49-50, 9, 957-958, (ability teachers' bargaining representative citizen's personnel"); Lehman, 2718 nonpolitical forum) 133 future tell portends shambles colleges. Still, apprehension whetted Chief Burger's warning Lemon Kurtzman, 602, 624, 2105, 2116, 745 (1971): adjudication steps, approach 'the verge,' platform steps. momentum develops 'downhill thrust' retard stop." 134 respectfully syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Lumber Co., 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. "generally program" comparable respondent's characterization squarely odds teachers." 72, 539. section "disposed General Assembly, encouragement seminaries Counties whence sums arise," 540. disposing undesignated transformed beneficiaries appropriation diffusion knowledge," 539; "seminaries learning" depended legislators adhere directive appropriating revenues, founding (1964), until decades proposed, Morrison, Beginnings 1776-1860, (1917); Status Church-State Relationships (1982) parish transported England agencies. home tutors, minister vestry poor children write") Further, tenor seem residual learning." historians focused provision, viewed program; 63, 534-535, "equality," decried "cognizance" 64, 535, Respondent's creates problem. activities," fall category. contravenes encouraging cleanse overtones, "degrad[ing] rank Citizens bend Legislative authority." Id. 69, 537. number appear Acts Congress. e.g. 1833, 42, 618-619 (authorizing Ohio sell "all heretofore Company's purchases invest arising thereof, productive fund; annually townships apart, whatsoever"); 86, 538 (granting Georgetown College—a Jesuit "lots Washington, twenty-five thousand dollars," directing College lots proceeds, thereafter dividends endow professorships fit); 103, 2514, ("As 18th 19th century, moneys Indian organizations"). during Controversy rigid 1777, legislature authorized belonging "commonwealth, county, town, houses seminary Jan. 23, 1800 Va.Acts. founder champion disestablishment advocated theology conjunction Padover, Complete 1067 (1943); 958 divinity [of] science"). literature, "tax expenditure," concept "based special, narrowly deduction exclusion, mechanisms. income wanting add $7,000 spendable preacher top rate 30%, him. check $10,000 income, reduce taxable $23,333.33 [resulting saving $7,000]. alter bracket, payment." Wolfman, Expenditures: Idea Ideology, Harv.L.Rev. 491, 491-492 (1985). expenditure" Internal Revenue Code 'minister gospel' rental furnished allowance 492, 6. Professor Bittker scholar field, Bittker, misplaced Adler, Code, Courts: Use Expenditure Analysis Judicial Decision Making, 855, 862, (1993): "Early criticism difficulty dividing provision. Boris inclusive, equivalent I. Churches, Taxes Yale L.J. 1285 (1969). wholesale short-lived attracted supporters. Rather, literature accepts current items incentive efficient structured [numerous authorities]." THOMAS satisfied Nowhere claims "funding 72-74, 538-540, taxpayer designate levy paid, 73, refuse society, unappropriated 540 (contrary THOMAS's unsupported assertion, obligatory other). character, been, academy, university, young instructed qualify employments." N. Webster, English Language (1st 1828); Oxford 956 (2d ed.1989). scholars agreed ("Any phrase 'seminaries learning,' almost training ministers"); Buckley, 1776-1787, carefully preferred so"); ("[T]hose designated denomination [were] allocated education"). beside "there proposed," passed, materialized. soften opposition treated unequally. complain exemptions, 536, unfaithful Remonstrance's text. strongly inveighed host numbers paragraphs, containing opposition), ("[I]n matters Religion, man's abridged Society, cognizance"); 536-537, contradiction itself; disavows powers world"); ibid., ("[E]xperience witnesseth ecclesiastical establishments, purity efficacy operation"). supplemented petitions lack flaw. L. Levy, 63-67 ed.1994). petition largest signatories motivated voluntarily. 63-64. distributing religions outgrowth bill; rather, which, text, proscribed dollars recast "governmental faiths," original), wage battle lost ago, "this unequivocally contention preference another," 216, 1568, (1963); 900-901, (1989) opinion); 906-907 52-53, 2487-2488, Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 495, 1680, 1683, 982 (1961); 430, 1266-1267, (1962); 511; 609-616, doubt largely inapposite. elsewhere, scarcely authoritative guide clauses, "like politicians, [members Congresses] ideals backs next. [For example,] [t]en proposing Alien Sedition Acts, measures standards. Congress's gut censorship." 626, 2676, Ordinance, interpreting persuasive, untested mid-19th innovative gloss Framers' intent. references legislator disestablish inveigh however. goal eliminating privileges Anglicans, effort lay came later. expansive 1776 surprising proposal defeated gone far. Similarly, tenure counter settled previously out, retirement, "insisted 'it approbation, deviation immunity jurisdiction] Congs., appointed Chaplains, Natl. Treasury.' Lee, 625, 2675, Livingston (July 1822), Founders' 105. problem, address 3335-3336, singular, 200-year "[t]his unique history" carving exception facts, stand head facts: charged times herein charges compulsory $14.00 semester. mechanism decline fee." 37; perceives dissemination [its] unexplained opinion. narrow polar essential commonly associated living organized protection, example), inhibited. deaf interpreter, disabilities, accompany Roman school. handicapped persons, college. deduction, schoolchildren, incurred (1970), example defining deem sufficient. nonprofit quasipublic corporations," 673, 1413, "It 'establishment' connoted activity." 1411. emphasized sponsorship transfer abstains demanding context, "exemption[s] creat[e] minimal remote churches," operation "ten[d] complement reinforce desired insulating" state, 676, 1415; 1415-1417. "[a] subsidy," omitted), assumes "natural" "correct" base self-evident excusing subjected departure definition (asserted ____) liability avoided (because defines exclusion) tested dispatched ago "reliance context," reasonable, subsidies, 1414, distinction. prevail necessarily holding. coherently removing relies. main plurality, unanimous 692, 2102 joined Black part); 659-661, 2125, 2134-2135, Brennan, J.); 665, 2137, White, did, excludes 1062(b) (federal education; chapter divinity"); 1069c (certain "may worship ."); 1132c-3(c) (1988 ed., Supp. V) renovation facilities; subsumed mission"); 1132i(c) (grant project assisted subchapter 1213d ("No 3306(a) programs; "[n]one 776(g) (grants rehabilitation persons; 3027(a)(14)(A)(iv) (requiring elderly plans assurances facilit[ies] [are] place[s] worship"); 5001(a)(2) volunteer elderly, "projects construction, operation, 9858k(a) (no child development "shall instruction"). acknowledges "if it," concedes "we abuse." contends, concession institution's really significant. "at presumably stop suggesting content-related powerful undertakes former. 270-273, 569-571, (1988), reveals encountered communicative act Buckley Valeo, 15-19, 612, 632-635, 659 (per curiam ), choose clean former, irrelevant because, determinations subject-matter violation. forum" viewpoint-neutral. 3439. unreasonable, reasonableness criterion 51, admitted anyone 47, 57-58. complete follows: "QUESTION: statement earlier supposing communist waste Sunday definitely antireligious, permitted, context? "[COUNSEL]: Yes. Yes, Your Honor, that's correct. Counsel, discussions Court] communists family. I—I theirs rules. Honor."

Classification Label: 2