Legal Document

129 S. Ct. 2294 (2009) Manoj NIJHAWAN, Petitioner, v. Eric H. HOLDER, Jr., Attorney General. No. 08-495. Supreme Court of United States. Argued April 27, 2009. Decided June 15, *2297 Thomas E. Moseley, Newark, NJ, for Petitioner. Curtis Gannon, Respondent. Peter C. Salerno, New York, NY, Elena Kagan, Solicitor General, Michael F. Hertz, Acting Assistant Edwin Kneedler, Deputy to the Donald Keener, Jennifer J. Keeney, W. Manning Evans, Holly M. Smith, Andrew Maclachlan, Saul Greenstein, Erica B. Miles, Washington, D.C., Justice BREYER delivered opinion Court. Federal immigration law provides that any "alien who is convicted an aggravated felony at time after admission deportable." 8 U.S.C. § 1227(a)(2)(A)(iii) (emphasis added). A related statute defines "aggravated felony" in terms a set listed offenses includes "an offense ... involves fraud or deceit which loss victim victims exceeds $10,000." 1101(a)(43)(M)(i) See Appendix A. The question before us whether italicized language refers element "offense" as forth particular defining alien was previously convicted. If so, then order determine prior conviction kind described, judge must look criminal see it contains monetary threshold $10,000 more. Taylor States, 495 U.S. 575, 110 2143, 109 L. Ed. 2d 607 (1990) (so interpreting Armed Career Criminal *2298 Act). We conclude, however, does not refer crime. Rather circumstances offender committed (more broadly defined) crime on occasion. I alien, immigrated States 1985. In 2002 he indicted conspiring commit mail fraud, wire bank and money laundering. 18 §§ 371, 1341, 1343, 1344, 1956(h). jury found him guilty. But because none these statutes requires finding amount loss, made no about loss. At sentencing petitioner stipulated exceeded $100 million. court imposed sentence 41 months prison required restitution $683 2005 Government, claiming had been felony," sought remove from Immigration Judge petitioner's crimes deceit; stipulation showed victims' $10,000; consequently fell within statute's definition. 1101(a)(43)(M)(i), (U) (including definition "attempt conspiracy commit" "offense"). Board Appeals agreed. App. Pet. Cert. 44a-51a. So did Third Circuit. 523 F.3d 387 (2008). Circuit noted were silent amounts, but, its view, determination amounts purposes "requires inquiry into underlying facts case." Id., 396 (internal quotation marks omitted). Courts have come different conclusions subparagraph (M)(i) factual surrounding commission specific Compare Conteh Gonzales, 461 45, 55 (C.A.1 2006) (fact-based approach); (same) (case below); Arguelles-Olivares Mukasey, 526 171, 178 (C.A.5 2008) (same), with Dulal-Whiteway Dept. Homeland Security, 501 116, 131 (C.A.2 2007) (definitional Kawashima 530 1111, 1117 (C.A.9 (same); Obasohan Atty. Gen., 479 785, 791 (C.A.11 (same). granted certiorari decide question. II interpretive difficulty reflects linguistic fact ordinary speech words such "crime," "felony," "offense," like sometimes generic crime, say, theft general, acts engaged occasion, defendant planned executed last month. Chambers 555 ___, 687, 690-691, 172 484 (2009). here, we said, statutory "offense $10,000" should be interpreted first sense (which shall call "categorical"), i.e., referring second "circumstance-specific"), way first, *2299 has appropriate threshold; if second, offender's conviction. basic argument favoring first "generic" "categorical"interpretation rests upon Taylor, Chambers, James 550 192, 127 1586, 167 532 (2007). Those cases concerned Act (ACCA), enhances certain firearm-law offenders also three convictions "a violent felony." 924(e). B, infra. ACCA "violent include, felonies elements involve use physical force against another; "burglary, arson, extortion" explosives; third, "otherwise involv[e] conduct presents serious potential risk injury another." 924(e)(2)(B). held ACCA's read naturally uses word "felony" generally committed. supra, S.Ct., 690-691 (discussing U.S., 602, 2143); James, 201-202, 1586. interpretation avoids "the practical trying ascertain" later proceeding, "perhaps paper record" containing only citation (say, by number) guilty plea, "whether [offender's] involve," violence. 690-691. Thus clear courts "categorical method" "attempted burglary" that, language, "involved 924(e)(2)(B)(ii). That method "examine, unsuccessful burglary attempted but burglary." 204-206, 1586). categorical always easy apply. separately numbered subsection will several crimes, each described separately. And can happen some violence while others do not. single Massachusetts section entitled "Breaking Entering Night," example, criminalizes breaking "building, ship, vessel vehicle." Mass. Gen. Laws, ch. 266, 16 (West 2006). instance, violent, rather than nonviolent, break-ins this five-word phrase describes (e.g., building vessel), examining indictment information instructions," or, plea issue, agreement, colloquy "some comparable judicial basis plea. Shepard 544 13, 26, 125 1254, 161 205 (2005). Petitioner argues interpret requiring same "categorical" approach. He says *2300 adds reading determining nature what may brief record, perhaps noting number plea; there more extensive combing through record evidence conduct. Also, approach, since covers relevant threshold, assurance point, assures opportunity present B Despite arguments, conclude "fraud deceit" provision calls "circumstance-specific," "categorical," interpretation. part differs general ACCA, issue Taylor. specifically provisions. 1 Consider, general. "violent" include "crime[s]" "as element" threatened force. 924(e)(2)(B)(i)-(ii). This directly crimes. statute, other, ambiguous covering "involv[e] Ibid. While poses greater difficulty, too generically defined. 202, Now compare us. 1101(a)(43). concede resembles respects. lists "offenses" Subparagraph (A), "murder, rape, sexual abuse minor." See, e.g., Estrada-Espinoza 546 1147, 1152 (en banc) (applying approach "sexual abuse"); Singh Ashcroft, 383 144, 164 (C.A.3 2004) Santos 436 323, 324 2005) (per curiam) (B) "illicit trafficking controlled substance." Gousse 339 91, 95-96 2003) Fernandez 862, 871-872 (C.A.7 Steele Blackman, 236 130, 136 2001) (C) firearms destructive devices." Other sections in" Code. subparagraphs (E), (H), (I), (J), (L). More importantly, other using almost certainly circumstances. For (P), offense" "falsely making, forging, counterfeiting, mutilating, altering passport," adds, "except case purpose assisting... alien's spouse, child, parent... violate chapter" (for example) "forging passport[s]" well exception cannot possibly *2301 crime; exception. meaning all, (N) (similar exception). provisions contain qualifying seems circumstance-specific application. (K)(ii), "offense[s] . 2421, 2422, 2423 title (relating transportation prostitution) commercial advantage" Of one (namely, 2423(d)) anything advantage. Thus, unless "commercial application, explicit references 2421 2422 would pointless. Gertsenshteyn Justice, 137, 144-145 2008). (M)(ii) yet another example. It "described 7201 26 tax evasion) revenue Government There 26" element. Again, "revenue loss" tax-evasion upshot unlike category belongs. 2 consistent "in which" modify "offense") involved "in" conviction, offense. Moreover, appears just (M)(ii), internal discussed, identical structure provision. Where, Congress similar two adjoining provisions, normally intends interpretations. IBP, Inc. Alvarez, 21, 34, 126 514, 163 288 apply here leave little, any, meaningful widely applicable federal threshold. 1341 (mail fraud), 1343 (wire 1344 (bank 371 (conspiracy defraud States), 666 (theft federally funded programs), 1028 (fraud connection identification documents), 1029 access devices), 1030 computers), 1347 (health care 1348 (securities fraud). those thresholds $10,000, $100,000 $1 million, 668 artwork worth more), 1031(a) (contract where contract least *2302 million), 1039(d) (providing enhanced penalties obtaining telephone records, scheme $100,000). Why intend statutes, choose face, nonexistent well? recognize, argues, might intended exclusively state statutes. examined law. C, found, 1996, when added (M)(i), Illegal Reform Immigrant Responsibility 321(a)(7), Stat. 3009-628, 29 major 13 remaining 21 significantly higher leaving respect (M)(i)'s categorically interpreted, full effect. believe so limited haphazard manner. Cf. Hayes, 1079, 1087-1088, 816 (reaching conclusion reason involving "domestic violence"). next points 1326, illegal entry removal imposes maximum "subsequent 1326(b)(2). could create constitutional problems subsequent prosecution under beyond reasonable doubt proceeding. stated oral jury, during reentry trial, find doubt, Brief Respondent 49-50; Tr. Oral Arg. 39-40, eliminating concern. 1087. applied categorically, defined Rather, applies III alternative argument, nonetheless borrow called "modified approach." reasons fairness, insist verdict, judge-approved equivalent, embody amounted $10,000. To says, applying examine charging documents, instructions, special (if requested). trial equivalent judge-made findings. (and trial), written documents colloquy. authorize broader examination proceedings, *2303 impose unreasonable administrative burden judges unfairly permit deported judicially determined opportunity, dispute. agree foresees fundamentally fair procedures, including procedures give dispute claim victims. fairness evidentiary limitations proposes. thing, nothing limits court. Shepard, developed list points, very purpose, namely (contained crimes) covered 2299-2300; 2143; 1254. another, proposal itself prove impractical insofar verdict (given our Part determination) Further, deportation proceeding civil "beyond doubt." offers meet "clear convincing" standard. 1229a(c)(3)(A). And, out, "loss" "be tied counts conviction." 44; see, Alaka General 456 88, 107 (loss tethered conviction; based acquitted dismissed conduct); Knutsen 429 733, 739-740 "sole purpose" "is ascertain invitation relitigate itself." 44 Finally, Appeals, too, recognized assess findings "with eye losses are proof employed." re Babaisakov, 24 I. & N. Dec. 306, 319 These considerations, taken together, mean opportunities contest earlier hearing itself. They show convincing evidence, uncertainties caused passage likely count favor. unfair judge's having relied sentencing-related material. defendant's own stipulation, produced purposes, shows considerably court's same. absence conflicting mentions none), convincing. concluded *2304 falls scope (M)(i). affirm judgment. ordered. APPENDIXES Section 101(a)(43) Nationality Act, 1101(a)(43), provides: "The term `aggravated felony' means "(A) murder, minor; "(B) illicit substance (as 802 21), drug 924(c) 18); "(C) devices 921 18) explosive materials 841(c) title); "(D) 1956 laundering instruments) 1957 engaging transactions property derived unlawful activity) funds "(E) in "(i) 842(h) (i) 18, 844(d), (e), (f), (g), (h), offenses); "(ii) 922(g)(1), (2), (3), (4), (5), (j), (n), (o), (p), (r) 924(b) (h) "(iii) 5861 "(F) purely political offense) imprisonment year; "(G) receipt stolen property) "(H) 875, 876, 877, 1202 demand ransom); "(I) 2251, 2251A, 2252 child pornography); "(J) 1962 racketeer influenced corrupt organizations), 1084 1955 gambling offenses), year imposed; "(K) that relates owning, controlling, managing, supervising prostitution business; advantage; 1581-1585 1588-1591 peonage, slavery, involuntary servitude, persons); "(L) 793 gathering transmitting national defense information), 798 disclosure classified 2153 sabotage) 2381 2382 treason) 18; 421 50 protecting identity undercover intelligence agents); "(M)  *2305 "(N) paragraph (1)(A) (2) 1324(a) smuggling), except affirmatively shown assisting, abetting, aiding parent individual) chapter "(O) 1325(a) 1326 paragraph; "(P) either falsely passport instrument violation 1543 1546(a) document fraud) (ii) 12 months, chapter; "(Q) relating failure appear service punishable 5 years more; "(R) bribery, forgery, vehicles numbers altered "(S) obstruction justice, perjury subornation perjury, bribery witness, "(T) pursuant answer dispose charge years' "(U) attempt paragraph. State foreign country completed previous 15 years. Notwithstanding effective date), regardless entered before, on, September 30, 1996." (Footnotes omitted.) 924(e), "(1) person violates 922(g) referred 922(g)(1) offense, both, occasions fined imprisoned less fifteen years, and, notwithstanding law, suspend of, grant probationary to, *2306 922(g). "(2) As used subsection `serious offense' Controlled Substances (21 801 et seq.), Import Export 951 705 46, ten prescribed law; manufacturing, distributing, possessing intent manufacture distribute, 102 802)), `violent means exceeding year, act juvenile delinquency carrying firearm, knife, device adult, use, burglary, extortion, explosives, otherwise `conviction' C effect 3009-628. questions raised below benefit treat relevant. plus District Columbia, main 1996 lower even most grade Alabama: Ala.Code 13A-8-2, 13A-8-3, 13A-9-14, 13A-9-14.1, 13A-9-46, 13A-9-47, 13A-9-73 (1996). Arkansas: Ark.Code Ann. 5-36-103, 5-37-203, 5-37-204, 5-37-207, 5-37-211 California: Cal.Penal Code 484, 487, 502.7 1996). Columbia: D.C.Code 22-3821, 22-3823 Georgia: Ga.Code 16-8-3, 16-8-12, 16-9-33 Idaho: Idaho 18-2403, 18-2407 (Lexis Kentucky: Ky.Rev.Stat. 514.040 Louisiana: La. 14:67, 14:67.11, 14:70.1, 14:70.4, 14:71, 14:71.1 Maryland: Md. Ann.Code, Art. 340, 342, 145, 230A, 230C, 230D Massachusetts: 37C Michigan: Mich. Comp. Laws 750.218, 750.271, 750.280, 750.219a, 750.356c Mississippi: Miss.Code 97-19-21, 97-19-35, 97-19-39, 97-19-71, 97-19-83 *2307 Missouri: Mo.Rev. 570.030, 570.120, 570.130, 570.180 Montana: Mont.Code 45-6-301, 45-6-313, 45-6-315, 45-6-317 Nebraska: Neb.Rev. 28-512, 28-518, 28-631 Nevada: Nev.Rev.Stat. 205.0832, 205.0835, 205.370, 205.380 Hampshire: N.H.Rev.Stat. 637:4, 637:11, 638:5, 638:20 North Carolina: N.C. Gen.Stat. 14-100, 14-106, 14-113.13 Oklahoma: Okla. Stat., Tit. 1451, 1462, 1541.1, 1541.2, 1541.3, 1541.4, 1550.2, 1662, 1663 Pennsylvania: Pa. Cons.Stat. 3903, 3922, 4110, 4111, 4117 (1996); 4105 (bad check amended introduce $75,000 threshold). Rhode Island: R.I. 11-18-6, 11-18-7, 11-18-8, 11-18-9, 11-41-4, 11-41-5, 11-41-29, 11-41-30 South S.C.Code 16-13-240 Dakota: S.D. Codified 22-30A-3, 22-30A-10, 22-30A-17 Utah: Utah 76-6-405, 76-6-412, 76-6-521, 76-10-1801 Vermont: Vt. Ann., 2001, 2002, 2024, 2531, 2582 Virginia: Va. 18.2-178, 18.2-95, 18.2-195 Washington: Wash. Rev.Code 9A.56.020, 9A.56.030 West 61-3-24 Wisconsin: Wis. 943.20, 943.395, 943.41 Wyoming: Wyo. 6-3-407, 6-3-607, 6-3-802 qualify offensesthat is, satisfy requirement (M)(i)were Additionally, targeted kinds without Alaska: Alaska 11.46.120, 11.46.180 (1996) ($25,000); 11.46.285 (fraudulent credit card, Arizona: Ariz.Rev.Stat. 13-1802 1989), 13-2109 2000) 13-2103 (receipt value fraudulent card), 13-2204 (defrauding secured creditors), 13-2205 judgment 13-2206 1989) insolvency), all Colorado: Colo.Rev.Stat. 18-4-401 (Supp. 1996) ($15,000), 18-5-205 check), 18-5-207 (1986) (purchase defraud), both Delaware: Del.Code 11, 841, 843 (1995) ($50,000); 903 (unlawful 913 (insurance 916 (home improvement Hawaii: Haw.Rev. 708-830, 708-830.5 1994) ($20,000); 708-873 708-8100 708-8100.5 encoding 708-8103 (credit card provider goods services), Indiana: Ind.Code 35-43-4-1 1993), 35-43-4-2 ($100,000), 35-43-5-7.1 Supp.1996) 35-43-5-3 (deception), 35-43-5-4 1993) 35-43-5-7 (welfare 35-43-5-8 *2308 financial institutions), Kansas: Kan. 21-3701 (1995), 21-3707 (Supp.1996), 21-3729 21-3846 (Supp.1996) ($25,000). Minnesota: Minn.Stat. 609.52 ($35,000). Jersey: N.J. 2C:20-2, 2C:20-4, 2C:21-13, 2C:21-17 1995) ($75,000); 2C:21-6 cards), 2C:21-12 Mexico: N.M. 30-16-6, 30-33-13, 30-44-7, 30-50-4 30-16-33 York: N.Y. Penal Law 155.05 1988), 155.40, 158.20 Supp.1998), 176.25 190.65 (scheme 185.00 185.05 security interest), Ohio: Ohio 2913.02, 2913.11, 2913.21, 2913.40, 2913.45, 2913.47, 2913.48 ($100,000). Texas: Tex. 31.02 1994), 31.03, 35.02 Supp.2003) 32.31 debit abuse, 3 eight However, Connecticut: Conn. 53a-119, 53a-122 53a-128c, 53a-128i Florida: Fla. 812.012, 812.014 817.234 817.61 cards) (1996), Illinois: Ill. 720, 5/16-1 1996); 5/17-6 (state benefits 5/17-9 (public aid 5/17-10 5/17-13 land sales), Iowa: Iowa 714.1, 714.2, 714.8, 714.9 Maine: Me.Rev.Stat. 17A, 354, 362 902 creditor), 908 repair thresholds. N.D. Cent.Code 12.1-23-02, 12.1-23-05 Oregon: Ore.Rev. 164.085, 164.057; 165.055 165.692, 165.990 (false claims health payments), Tennessee: Tenn.Code 39-14-101, 39-14-105, 39-14-118, 39-14-133

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