Legal Document

402 U.S. 637 91 Supreme Court Reporter 1704 29 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 233 Adolfo PEREZ et ux., Petitioners,v.David or Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 CAMPBELL, Superintendent, Motor Vehicle Division, Arizona Highway Department, al. Number 5175. Argued Jan. 19, 1971. Decided June 1, Syllabus The provision that 'discharge in bankruptcy following the rendering of any such judgment (as a result an automobile accident) shall not relieve debtor from requirements this article,' contained Ariz.Rev.Stat. § 28 1163(B), part Safety Responsibility Act, which courts have construed as having 'its principal purpose protection public using highways financial hardship may use automobiles by financially irresponsible persons,' directly conflicts with 17 Bankruptcy states discharge fully discharges all but certain specified judgments, and is thus unconstitutional violative Supremacy Clause. Kesler versus Department Public Safety, 369 153, 82 807, 7 641, Reitz Mealey, 314 33, 62 24, 86 L.Ed. 21, no authoritative effect to extent they are inconsistent controlling principle state legislation frustrates full effectiveness federal law invalidated Pp. 644—656. 421 Federal Reporter, 2nd 619, reversed remanded. Anthony baron Ching, Tucson, Ariz., for petitioners. Robert Schlosser, Phoenix, respondents. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 This case raises important issue concerning construction Clause Constitution—whether Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 28—1163 (B) (1956), Arizona's invalid under clause being conflict mandate 11 Code KF62 35, providing receipt judgments. below, concluding was controlled 641 (1962), 21 (1941), two earlier opinions cthis dealing alleged between Act responsibility laws, ruled against claim upheld statute. 2 On July 8, 1965, petitioner Perez, driving car registered his name, involved accident Arizona. Perez covered liability insurance at time collision. driver second minor daughter Leonard Pinkerton, September 1966 Pinkertons sued Mrs. court personal injuries property damage sustained accident. October 31, 1967, petitioners confessed suit, order entered them on November $2,425.98 plus costs. 3 each filed voluntary petition District 6, 1967. Each duly scheduled debt Pinkertons. orders 1968, discharging both debts claims provable their estates, including Pinkerton judgment. 35; Lewis Roberts, 267 467, 45 357, 69 739 (1925). 4 During pendency proceedings, provisions came into play. Although only one relevant presented case, it appropriate describe statutory scheme some detail. statute based Uniform promulgated National Conference Street Safety.1 Articles deal, respectively, definitional matters administration. 5 substantive begin Article 3, requires posting security those accidents. Section 28—1141 article suspension licenses unlawful failure repot accidents, 28—1142 (Supp.1970 1971) provides within 60 days report Superintendent Division suspend driver's license operator registration owner 'unless deposit sum sufficient superintendent satisfy judgments damages resulting be recovered owner.' Under same section, notice amount required must sent less than 10 prior effective date suspension. section does apply if carried other covering bond accident, individual had previously qualified self-insurer 28—1222. Other exceptions requirement posted stated 28—1143.2 If none these applies, continues until: (1) person whose privileges were suspended deposits (Supp.1970—1971); (2) year elapses files proof has initiated action arising accident; (3) evidence release liability, adjudication nonliability, confession judgment, written settlement agreement been entered.3 As far record instant shows, invoked petitioners, constitutional validity is, course, before us decision. 6 includes here, deals registrations nonpayment Interestingly, when lawsuit usually owner-operator like Perez—fails respond him he overcome hurdles regain privileges. 28—1161, first 4, clerk judge, judgment4 remained unsatisfied after entry, forward certified copy superintendent.5 done present March 13, served drivers' pursuant 28—1162(A).6 continue until paid,7 28—1163(B) specifically '(a) article.' In addition requiring satisfaction debt, 28—1163(A) 'shall remain renewed, nor thereafter issued name * gives responsibility' future period.8 Again, limited drivers post questioned here. Nor broader whether State require precondition granting anyone What here power include comprehensive enactment designed secure compensation victims tort debtor's obligation repay creditor, least insofar repayment enforced withholding State. It question among others, raised filing complaint seeking declaratory injunctive relief requesting three-judge court. They asserted several violations, also s28—1163(B) direct Constitution.9 support complaint, affidavits stating worked physical upon children. Judge granted leave proceed forma pauperis, respondents' motion dismiss could granted, citing Reitz.10 Appeals affirmed, relying decisions. 619 (CA9 1970). We certiorari. 400 818, 71, 27 (1970). Deciding hence essentially two-step process ascertaining statutes then determining conflict. authoritatively construed. Schecter Killingsworth, 93 Ariz. 273, 380 Pacific 136 (1963), held '(t)he Financial its persons.' 280, P.2d, 140. consistently adhered legislation, see Camacho Gardner, 104 555, 558, 456 925, 928 (1969); New York Underwriters company Superior Court, 544, 914 Sandoval Chenoweth, 102 241, 243, 428 98, 100 (1967); Farmer 44, 47, 424 172, 175 Hastings Thurston, 302, 306, 413 767, 770 (1966); Jenkins Mayflower Exchange, 287, 290, 145, 147 we bound rulings. See, e.g., General Trading Tax Comm'n, 322 335, 337, 64 1028, 1029, 88 1309 (1944). dissent seems unwilling accept Court's expressive Act's primary purpose11 indeed characterizes unfortunate, post, 667, reading outlined above leaves impression description logical persuasive. sole emphasis leverage collection who either admit fault adjudged negligent. victim another carelessness, so desires, can exclude entirely 'deterring' repetition negligence.12 Further, litigated special verdict defendant negligent plaintiff contributorily entered, Arizona, many States, there Heimke Munoz, 106 26, 470 107 (1970); McDowell Davis, 69, 448 869 (1968). apparent consequences visited although found driven carelessly. See §§ 1143(A)(4), 28—1144(3). Moreover, proved careless stay off roads period time. caused accidents attend kind improvement technique unfamiliar sentencing traffic offenses. 8 Turning statute, similarly clear. numerous occasions '(o)ne purposes Act' give debtors 'a new opportunity life clear field effort, unhampered pressure discouragement pre-existing debt.' Local Loan Hunt, 292 234, 244, 54 695, 699, 78 1230 (1934). Accord, Harris Zion's Savings Bank & Trust Co., 317 447, 451, 63 354, 87 390 (1943); Stellwagen Clum, 245 605, 617, 38 215, 218, 507 (1918); Williams Fidelity Guaranty 236 549, 554—555, 35 289, 59 713 (1915). There doubt, given (1925), Congress intended 'new opportunity' freedom most kinds preexisting II 9 With clearly established, immediately protects creditors 'financially persons' discharged start 'unhampered early Gibbons Ogden, Wheat. 23 (1824), Chief Marshall governing principle—that 'acts Legislatures (which) interfere with, contrary laws Congress, made pursuance constitution,' Id., 211 (emphasis added). Three decades ago Black, reviewing precedents, wrote similar vein that, while '(t)his considering light treaties touching subject, ha(d) expressions: conflicting; to; occupying field; repugnance; difference; irreconcilability; inconsistency; violation; curtailment; interference(,) (i)n final analysis,' our function determine challenged 'stands obstacle accomplishment execution objectives Congress.' Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 67, 61 399, 404, 85 581 (1941). Since frequently articulation meaning Nash Florida Industrial 389 235, 240, 362, 366, 19 438 Sears, Roebuck Stiffel 376 225, 229, 84 784, 787, 661 (1964); Colorado Anti-Discrimination commission Continental Air Lines, Inc., 372 714, 722, 83 1022, 1026, (1963) (dictum); Free Bland, 663, 666, 1089, 1092, 180 (1962); Hill Florida, 325 538, 542—543, 65 1373, 1375—1376, 89 1782 (1945); Sola Electric Jefferson 173, 176, 165 (1942). Indeed, Lime Avocado Growers, Incorporated Paul, 373 132, 1210, 248 recent closely divided, nine Justices accepted test. 141, S.Ct., 1217 (opinion Court), 165, 1229 (dissenting opinion). Both Kesler13 Reitz, however, ignored principle. conceded Utah's left 'the bankrupt burdened debt,' U.S., 171, 'it more probable will paid despite discharge,' id., 819, thereby 'some inroad bankruptcy. *' 818. short, frustrated Congress' policy giving start. But majority concerned frustration. upholding did look simply 'not Relief Mulcted Creditors,' 174, aid enforce driving. 169, 817. majority, looked because circumvent promote highway safety; dissent, whatever Utah 'plain inevitable (was) create powerful weapon (the) (had) relased law.' 183, 824. Such result, argued, free impair historic Nation embodied laws.' 185, 825. concerned, fact York's operation law, divined promotion safety. said: 12 'The penalty 94—b imposes injury due creditor merely not, impunity, allowed injure fellows. would reckless permitted escape simple expedient bankruptcy, and, accordingly, legislature declared should derogation Act. Rather enforcement permissible safety.' 37, 27. 13 dissenting Douglas himself three others noted put creditor's mercy,' results '(i)n practical bad, even worse, position possible attach wages' '(b)ankruptcy (was not) sanctuary hapless intended.' 41, 29. 14 longer adhere aberrational doctrine frustrate long passing mind Apart odds approach taken nearly cases, enable legislatures nullify unwanted publishing legislative committee articulating interest policy—other frustration objective—that tangentially furthered proposed law. view consequences, certainly cases. argue somehow confined cases involving safety, analysis discloses reason why fields others. Thus, conclude rendered stand. III 15 Even accepting Reitz—that looking rather laws—those decisions dispositive case. Just went step beyond broadened holding 184, 825 opinion), respondents asked below expand holdings previous distinction lies State's expressed purpose. 16 treatment well. assumed, without citation authority indication precedent unavailable, attack deterrence assumption was, effect, enacted concluded uninsured motorist about embark careful road available what cavalierly characterized 'easy refuge bankruptcy.' 819.14 Passing gave attention binding interpretations conceding employed proper divining obvious face aim enactments, doubts correct basic assumptions. 'has hardship' involvement motorists unable able declare, source unclear, Creditors' 'designed debts.' urge uphold precisely sort stricken down—one protect 'from force bankrupts pay discharge. Whereas Acts frustrating had, said, purpose, Believing do harmony sound principle, extended cover distinguishable IV One argument merits discussion. points out Columbia contains anti-discharge included Columbia, D.C.Code, Ann. 40—464 (1967), 68 Statutes-at-Large 132. decision today, draw District's Constitution confers '(T)o establish uniform Laws subject Bankruptcies throughout States.' U.S.Const., I, cl. 'Congress regarded consistent compatible,' 665, assumes modicum consistency. D.C.Code does, refer discharges, passage viewed evidencing general interpreted 1925. supra. fact, initial amended version interaction Act.15 history quite dealt District, work efforts commissioners won States.16 18 Had focused subsection lengthy act legislators method defining scope amendment terms applicable Territories, Columbia. 1(29). To follow course obviously legislate way means thing something else States—depending law—a explicitly prohibited uniformity authorization enact legislation. V From foregoing, think constitutionally invalid. remanded further proceedings opinion. 20 ordered. Reversed 22 BLACKMUN, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, HARLAN, STEWART. N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions concur Emma Perez. 24 slaughter exceeds death toll wars.1 country fragmented current Southeast Asia, detect little genuine concern takes place very midst daily travel routes. Tate Short, 401 395, 401, 668, 672, 130 (1971) (concurring 25 so, matter deep me today lightly brushes aside overrules where representative attempt regulate considered rejected now discovers persuasive.2 26 desirable stress factual details. facts, alleged, dismiss, true. Cooper Pate, 378 546, 1733, 1030 (1964). community state. husband wife. resident citizens Tucson 1965. name. He alone. nothing her husband's day. automobile, marital community. Accompanying, supposedly supportive of, These Perezes four children ages 17; housewife otherwise gainfully employed; Emma's inability drive older children, aged 14, walk half miles high school third child, 9, mile elementary school, consequent nosebleeding; inconvenience injury; Adolfo's rely transportation facilities walk. Statutory Plan plan regulation vehicles highways. Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann., Tit. 28. Among assure area increasing national Operators' Chauffeurs' License (c. 4), Regulating Traffic Highways 6), 7).3 30 unfamiliar. imposed duty operator, owner, motor vehicle bodily excess $100, except, situations, responsibility, presence minimum coverage, afforded. (Supp.1970—1971), 28—1143, 28—1167. suspension, once imposed, remains deposited elapsed instituted. 28—1144. registrant fails, days, adverse defined 28—1102(2) notify latter debtor. 1161(A) 28—1162(A). consents writing retain registration, discretion grant privilege. 28—1162(B). Otherwise satisfied. 1163(A). Payments amounts deemed 28—1164 court-approved installment payment preserve 28—1165. 31 Inasmuch defendants alone, collision, favor Pinkertons, purposes, negligence vehicle. 32 emphasizes, recognize, Constitution, possessed 'uniform States'; power, exercised, since 1800, 'exclusive,' Lamp Chimney Ansonia Brass Copper 656, 661, 336 (1876), 'unrestricted paramount,' International Shoe Pinkus, 278 261, 265, 49 108, 110, 73 318 (1929); 'relieve honest weight oppressive indebtedness permit afresh *,' (1915); receives 33 principles argued 28—1163(B), insistence post-discharge condition restoration, thus, 34 acknowledges brief new. respect five-to-four vote: vehicles, dangers, renders reasonableness necessity apparent. universal practice register ownership drivers. Any adopted insure competence care licensees consonant process. 36 merely, 36—37, 37 Left unanswered acknowledged 'serious question,' 38, 27, interim amendments control over initiation duration violated dissenters, speaking through Douglas, 'cannot escaped unless overlook realities methods.' 43, 30. Nine years ago, again advanced, rejected. 158—174, 811—820, (1962). There, relating stringent York, challenged. claimed 'collecting agent furthering safety,' perpetual 'only effective.' troublesome jurisdictional later overruled, Swift Wickham, 382 111, 124—129, 258, 265—268, 194 (1965), five-to-three vote, attack:4 39 'But lesson Zavelo (v. Reeves, 227 625, 365, 57 676 (1913)) Spalding ex rel. Backus, How. 858 (1845)) teach forbid consequence whatsoever discharged. 40 debt. Certainly exert recoup it, licensing power. exercise vital well-being, point interests, wholly unrelated considerations propelled overlapping interests cannot uncritically resolved exclusive regard money enforcing widely measure safeguarding 41 '* At heart complicated demands federalism. 42 'Are differences significant make decisive difference? A properly decide, forty-five done, prospect serves substantial deterrent unsafe might impose discharge, exempt safety easy reflects interest. thought amending Columbia; believe identical either. 43 'Utah police devious collecting agency organized creditors. Victims diffused group shifting uncertain composition, remotely united common Creditors. directed such. Though particular wants rightfully restored bearing tangential.' 170—174, 818—820 (footnotes omitted). 44 dissented ground 41—12—15 (1953), operated deny immunity hence, 182—185, 824—825. brief, Page 7, acknowledge 'are unlike ones discussed Kesler.' Accordingly, forced remaining portion bears overruled. bows argument. 46 am prepared overrule undermine Perez' posture rulings hold legitimate (that harm unsatisfied) licensees, well legislation; counterpart, tangential operate rightly said violate 47 factors significance noted: 48 1. struggles explain away paralled situation installed itself. (1967) pertinent parts 28—1163(B). difference word, namely, 'article' 'chapter' District's. Pub.Law 365 May 25, 1954, later, placed books indeed, Surely, Kesler, 173 Columbia.' Lee England, 206 F.Supp. 957 (DC 1962). compatible, last years.5 truly tension, suppose one, 40—464, prevail. Gibson 182, 192, 613, 616, 926 (1904). But, States' commands, (and, overruling Utah) Unfortunately, dilemma us. 2. counterparts States.6 all, purports be, suspect astonish members responsible provision, equally absorbed assurance withstands attack. 50 3. rationalizes today's saying goes too much. justify noting characterization concluding, description, measure, protective, assume implication companies. court's concede, fortunate one. However, doubt court, evolving idea wrought today. willing say embraced constitute isolated subchapter well-being negligence. event, makes clear, Arisona described 51 4. While stare decisis 'is immutable principle,'7 glance years, almost matter, disclose, application confronting Here peculiarly Government. serious conscientious problem civilian alarming. legitimately assumed lawmakers rooted positive, albeit once, twice. And itself, author therewith. fear meaningless downgrades level tool used cast convenience dictates. Stone, Reed, Frankfurter, Murphy, Warren, Clark, Harlan, Brennan, Stewart, constituted respective majorities wrong. 52 5. affidavit protestation assert reliance friends neighbors walking seven home work; inconvenience, perhaps modern day inclined equate eschew generations routinely day's labor, falls short 'great harm' 'irreparable injury' asserts conclusory terms. professed stands vividly starkly contrast victims' injuries. often victim, damaged, seemingly concern. become perpetrator's inconvenience. 53 6. prescribe issuance registration. different. Except emotional strain predicament, she She occurred nonfeasance contributed it. finds herself where, wrong, nevertheless deprived operator's license. comes concededly 25—211(A), because, reason, husband. amicus describes Emma, fault-free driver, solely impecunious wife impecunious, state.' 55 system indicated. nominal lawsuit, Donato Fishburn, 90 210, 367 (1961), necessary party there. First Mesa 508, 517, 234 KF135 P2 556, 560 (1925); Bristol Moser, 190—191, 99 706, 709 (1940). committed wife's knowledge consent bind separate property. Ruth Rhodes, 66 129, 138, 185 304, 310 (1947). would, 33—1124. 56 during coverture disposed 25—211(B). personalty dominance management control. Mortensen Knight, 81 325, 334, 305 463, 469 (1956). contracts 25—214(A). Her contract necessaries 25—215. parties appear agree, neither enter purchase acquire except posture, innocent connection conduct led entry logic difference' though 'she alternative.' 622—623. opined spouse funds business call spouse. legal status 'closely analogous' permits drive, right revoke owner's unsatisfied. described, managing integral ball wax, basis loss price vehicle' paid. F.2d, 624. 58 For worth, persuasive Adolfo's. relates family medical needs purchasing distant discount stores. need decide representations affidavit. reasoning Appeals, license, comport effects subordinate community's property, complete lack occasioned strange accompaniments deprival nexus exist marriage character vehicle, me, elusive unconvincing. prompts Reitz-Kesler rationale Adolfo, drained persuasion applied Emma. Despite underlying theory, incident acquired coverture. 'control' deterring undeserved punitive personally penalized automobile. therefore circumstances action, witholding language 'to (Emma) others' highways, 36, interferes paramount violates APPENDIX TO OPINION OF MOTOR—VEHICLE DEATHS AND WAR 1900 1969, motor-vehicle deaths totalled 1,800,000. Deaths military personnel wars shown below. making comparisons, kept everyone exposed relatively few war deaths. Military Casualties Principal Wars Deaths____________________________________________ Nonfatal War Total Battle Others* Wounds ***1,146,000 643,052 ***503,200 **1,540,000 Revolutionary (1775-83) 4,435 N.A. 6,188 1812 (1812-15) 2,260 4,505 Mexican (1846-48) 13,283 1,733 11,550 4,152 Civil (1861-65) Union Forces 364,511 140,414 224,097 281,881 Confederate 133,821 74,524 59,297 Spanish-American (1898) 2,446 385 2,061 1,662 World (1917-1918) 116,708 53,513 63,195 204,002 (1941-45) 407,316 292,131 115,185 670,846 Korean (1950-53) 54,246 33,629 20,617 103,284 Viet Nam (1961-69) 47,251 40,028 7,223 262,799 ----------- Source: Office Secretary Defense.*** Rounded.* Includes disease, etc.** Incomplete rounded. Not available. Accident Facts 63, published Council (1970 ed.). publication, page 59, annual exceeded 52,000 five calendar years. carnage approximates total number lives lost entire Vietnam beginning 1961. Reviser's Note, 28—1101. 28—1143(A), (Supp.1970—1971): person; parked illegally carry legally complement lights; express implied permission; (4) release, non-liability, payment, installments, agreed (5) owned, operated, leased employer employer's owner-employer's bond. employ default obligations agreement. 28—1144 (3). 28—1102 (Supp. 1970—1971) defines 'judgment,' 'any *, cause ownership, maintenance damages.' 28—1161(B), forwarded officials nonresident 'A. forthwith operating privilege whom rendered, provided 28—1165.' 28—1163(A). 1164 (Supp.1970—1971) 'paid.' 28—1165 sets forth procedure paying installments. 28—1162 furnishes 28—1167, superintendent's discretion. After six months, revocable unpaid. Sections 28—1167 28—1178 set various forms proof. 28—1178, apparently him, received notice—and come conviction forfeiture bail revocation litigation posted. requets permission cancel security, cancellation. VI, involuntary servitude violation Thirteenth Amendment, denied Fourteenth Amendment equal protection. portions bill attainder 10, Constitution. Judge, refusing request convening 'obviously insubstantial.' agreed. 625 Because resolution substantiality petitioners' claims. seemed by, for, constructions them. infra, 652—654. cursory examination conclusion unusual. Sullivan Cheatham, 264 Ala. 76, So.2d 374, (1955) ('The (Motor Safety-Responsibility) every 'in manner accident.' persons accidents.'); Escobedo Dept. Vehicles, Cal.2d 870, 876, 222 (1950) ('(T)he chose allow licensed operators became (financial law) irresponsibility brought department, licenses.'); People Nothaus, Colo. 215—216, 363 180, 183 (1961) C.R.S. '53, 13—7—7, director revenue, (an) 'sufficient awarded, show ability indemnify loss, health, morals welfare. device designated bring private slightest exists person. gets security. find met issue. public. particularly attention, 13—7—7 unconstitutional. fundamental additional required. reach notwithstanding jurisdictions overlooked guarantees raching opposite conclu- sion.'); Dempsey Tynan, 143 Conn. 202, 208, 120 Atlantic 700, 703 (1956) enacting keep inflict, securing retaining furnish adequate satisfying him.'); City St. Paul Hoffmann, 223 Minn. 77—78, North Western 662—663 (1946) objective provide suffered traffic. seeks achieve licenses. announced travel, take happens owners 'licenses' coverage equivalent injured persons.'); Rosenblum Griffin, N.H. 314, 318, 197 701, 704 (1938) ('Two reasons avail sustaining capacity dangerous agencies operations. slight support. Certainly, absence known experience statistics, doubtful insured car, another, carefully uninsured. redress travelers regulation, injured. reasonable welfare cars, regardless competency themselves drivers.'). statements victims, see, Alaska 28.20.010 Gillaspie 152 Tex. 459, 259 South 177, (1953) (quoting emergency Texas Legislature law); S.Rep.No.515, 83d Cong., 1st Sess., (Report Senate Committee District). 40—43, 28—30, (Douglas, J., dissenting). cut executing agreeing damages, installments otherwise. 28—1143(A) n. 2, Assuming payments superintendent, prevents suspending determines necessary; defaults installment, coerce 28—1144(3), chosen reduce maintains entry. suspended, still future. delegating choose 179—182, 822—824, (Warren, C. discretionary permitting (A), satisfied notifying 28—1165(C). 28—1165(B). decided question, challenge heard district 2281. 155—158, 809—811. overruled 116, (1965). occurred, omission reasoned depriving afforded prompt foundation Third Circuit facts: 'Even fiction drivers, just much contend vicariously liable sub-agent, anything judgments.' Miller Anckaitis, 436 115, 118 (CA 1970) (en banc). S.Rep.No.10, 74th Sess. (1935); H.R.Rep.No.208, (1935) (both presenting summary 'Financial Operators Columbia,' failing mention judgment); H.R.Conf.Rep.No.799, (Conference Report provision); 79 Cong.Rec. 272—273 (Senate); 3416—3417, 4621—4629, 4631—4641, 6556—6564 (House). Some House, debated aspects concept extensively 1935, demonstrated debate totally unaware driver. 4624 (remarks Reps. Fitzpatrick Sisson); 4625 Rep. Hull). When reports House Committees brief. bill, provision. S.Rep.No. 515, (1953); H.R.Rep.No.1448, (1954); 8950—8951; 6281—6287, 6347—6348. 4626 4627 Norton, Chairman Committee). reference act, 6287 Talle); 6347 Sen. Beall). Appendix opinion, 672. 1943 'withdrawn active promulgation pending study' Commissioners Laws. 9B U.L.A. Table III, xix, xxii, xxiii. Frankfurter's detailed review development 158—168, 811—816, part, 'which *.' 179, 822. Law replaced 166, Owners' provided, 167, judgment's distinguished Ala.Code, 74(55) (Supp.1969); 28.20.350 Ark.Stat.Ann. 75—1457 (1957); Cal.Vehicle 16372 (1960); Colo.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13—7—25(2) (Supp.1965); Conn.Gen.Stat.Rev. 14—131 Del.Code Ann., 2943 Hawaii Rev.Stat. 287—17 (1968); Idaho 49—1514 Ill.Ann.Stat., chapter 95 1/2, 7—310 (1971); Iowa 321A.14(2) Kan.Stat.Ann. 8—744(b) Ky.Rev.Stat. 187.420 La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 32:893 (1963); Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., 29, 783(6) (1964) (10 years); Md.Ann.Code, 7—315 Mich.Comp.Laws 257.513(b) (Supp.1956); Minn.Stat. 170.33, subd. Miss.Code 8285—14(b) (1942); Mo.Rev.Stat. 303.110 (1959); Mont.Rev.Codes 53—431 (1961); Neb.Rev.Stat. 60—519 Nev.Rev.Stat. 485.303 N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 268:9 N.J.Stat.Ann. 39:6—35 (Supp.1971); N.M.Stat.Ann. 64—24 N.Y.Veh. Traf.Law 337(c) N.C.Gen.Stat. 279.14 N.D.Cent.Code 39—16.1—04(5) Ohio Rev.Code 4509.43 (Supp.1970); Okla.Stat.Ann., Pa.Stat.Ann., 75, 1414 R.I.Gen.Laws 31—32—15 S.C.Code 46—748 (Supp.1960); S.D.Comp.Laws 32—35—58 Tenn.Code 59—1236 Tex.Rev.Civ.Stat.Ann., 6701h, 14(b) Vt.Stat.Ann., 23, 802(b) Va.Code 46.1—444(a)(4) (Supp.1970) (15 Wash.Rev.Code 46.29.380 W.Va.Code 17D—4—6 Wis.Stat. 344.26(2) (cf. Zywicke Brogli, Wis.2d 685, (1964)); Wyo.Stat.Ann. 31—299 (1967). Fla.Stat.Ann. 324.131 (1968) Op.Atty.Gen., 059 200 Ga. 92A—605(e)(3) Ind.Ann.Stat. 47—1049 (1965) Op.Atty.Gen.1936, 272; Mass.Gen.Laws 90, 22A Ore.Rev.Stat. 486.211(5) dissenting, 133, 270, 194.

Classification Label: 7