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403 U.S. 713 91 Supreme Court Reporter 2140 29 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 822 NEW YORK TIMES COMPANY, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. UNITED STATES, Petitioner, versus The WASHINGTON POST COMPANY et al. Nos. 1873, 1885. Argued June 26, 1971. Decided 30, Sol. Gen. Erwin N. Griswold, for the States. Alexander M. Bickel, New Haven, Conn., York Times. William R. Glendon, Washington, D.C., Washington Post company PER CURIAM. 1 We granted certiorari, 942, 943, 2270, 2271, 853 (1971) in these cases which seeks to enjoin Times and from publishing contents of a classified study entitled 'History Decision-Making Process on Viet Nam Policy.' 2 'Any system prior restraints expression comes this bearing heavy presumption against its constitutional validity.' Bantam Books, Incorporated Sullivan, 372 58, 70, 83 631, 639, 9 584 (1963); see also Near Minnesota ex rel. Olson, 283 697, 51 625, 75 L.Ed. 1357 (1931). Government 'thus carries burden showing justification imposition such restraint.' Organization Better Austin Keefe, 402 415, 419, 1575, 1578, (1971). District Southern case, 328 F.Supp. 324, Columbia Appeals Circuit, 446 Federal Reporter, 2nd 1327, case held that had not met burden. agree. 3 judgment Circuit is therefore affirmed. order Second reversed, 444 544, remanded with directions enter affirming York. stays entered 25, 1971, by are vacated. judgments shall issue forthwith. 4 So ordered. 5 Judgment affirmed; reversed directions. 6 Mr. Justice BLACK, whom DOUGLAS joins, concurring. DP & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions adhere view Government's should have been dismissed injunction vacated without oral argument when were first presented Court. believe every moment's continuance injunctions newspapers amounts flagrant, indefensible, continuing violation First Amendment. Furthermore, after argument, agree completely we must affirm reverse reasons stated my Brothers BRENNAN. In it unfortunate some Brethren apparently willing hold publication news may sometimes be enjoined. Such holding would make shambles 7 Our was launched 1789 adoption Constitution. Bill Rights, including Amendment, followed 1791. Now, time 182 years since founding Republic, federal courts asked Amendment does mean what says, but rather means can halt current vital importance people country. 8 seeking presentation Court, Executive Branch seems forgotten essential purpose history When Constitution adopted, many strongly opposed because document contained no Rights safeguard certain basic freedoms.1 They especially feared new powers central government might interpreted permit curtail freedom religion, press, assembly, speech. response an overwhelming public clamor, James Madison offered series amendments satisfy citizens great liberties remain safe beyond power abridge. proposed later became three parts, two set out below, one proclaimed: 'The deprived or abridged their right speak, write, publish sentiments; as bulwarks liberty, inviolable.'2 restrict general Executive, Legislative, Judicial Branches before original changed into charter under branch could abridge people's freedoms speech, assembly. Yet Solicitor General argues members appear adopted limit specific emphatic guarantees later. imagine greater perversion history. other Framers able men they were, wrote language earnestly believed never misunderstood: 'Congress law * abridging press *.' Both support left free news, whatever source, censorship, injunctions, restraints. Founding Fathers gave protection fulfill role our democracy. serve governed, governors. censor abolished so forever censure Government. protected bare secrets inform people. Only unrestrained effectively expose deception government. And paramount among responsibilities duty prevent any part deceiving sending them off distant lands die foreign fevers shot shell. view, far deserving condemnation courageous reporting, Times, Post, commended serving saw clearly. revealing workings led Vietnam war, nobly did precisely Founders hoped trusted do. 10 here based premises entirely different those guided has carefully emphatically stated: 11 'Now, (BLACK), your construction (the Amendment) well known, certainly respect it. You say law, obvious. only say, Justice, me equally obvious 'no law' law', seek persuade true. (T)here parts grant intended impossible function protect security States.'3 12 brief spite '(t)he authority Department nation information whose disclosure endanger national stems interrelated sources: President over conduct affairs his Commander-in-Chief.'4 13 words, despite Amendment's command, Branch, Congress, Judiciary laws enjoining name 'national security.' even attempt rely act Congress. Instead makes bold dangerously farreaching contention take upon themselves 'make' equity, presidential security, representatives Congress adhered command refused law.5 See concurring opinion DOUGLAS, post, at 721—722. To find 'inherent power' resort wipe destroy fundamental liberty very hopes 'secure.' No read being convinced doubt like sought collaborators outlaw Nation all time. 14 word 'security' broad, vague generality contours invoked abrogate embodied guarding military diplomatic expense informed representative provides real Republic. fully aware both need defend abuses English Colonial Governments, give society strength providing assembly abridged. This thought eloquently expressed 1937 Chief Hughes—great man he punished attending meeting run Communists. 15 safeguarding community incitements overthrow institutions force violence, more imperative preserve inviolate rights maintain opportunity political discussion, end responsive will changes, if desired, obtained peaceful means. Therein lies foundation government.'6 16 BLACK . 17 While join necessary express views fully. 18 It noted outset press.' That leaves, room governmental restraint press.1 19 There is, moreover, statute barring material use. Title Code KF62 § 793(e) '(w)hoever having unauthorized possession of, access to, control document, writing relating defense possessor reason used injury advantage nation, willfully communicates same person receive (s)hall fined than $10,000 imprisoned ten years, both.' 20 suggests 'communicates' broad enough encompass publication. 21 eight sections chapter espionage §§ 792—799. 'publish' specifically mentioned: 794(b) applies 'Whoever, intent communicated enemy, collects, records, publishes, disposition armed forces).' 22 Section 797 whoever 'reproduces, sells, gives away' photographs installations. 23 798 cryptography whoever: 'communicates, furnishes, transmits, otherwise available publishes' described materials.2 (Emphasis added.) 24 Thus apparent capable distinguish between communication various Espionage Act. 25 evidence 793 apply rejected version 793. read: 'During emergency resulting war party, threat may, proclamation, declare existence and, prohibit communicating attempting communicate which, judgment, character useful enemy.' 55 Cong.Rec. 1763. During debates Senate cited provision defeated. 2167. 26 Judge Gurfein's Act preeminently sound. Moreover, September 23, 1950, amending states 1(b) that: 27 'Nothing construed authorize, require, establish civilian censorship way infringe speech guaranteed regulation promulgated hereunder effect.' 64 Statutes-at-Large 987. 28 faithful area. possesses come power.' 30 wage 'the successfully.' Kiyoshi Hirabayashi States, 320 81, 93, 63 1375, 1382, 87 1774. But declaration war. Article I, 8, President, '(t)o War.' Nowhere wars authorized. decide leveling effect have. 31 These disclosures3 serious impact. basis sanctioning previous press. As Hughes 719—720, 632, 1357: 32 'While reckless assaults men, efforts bring obloquy who endeavoring faithfully discharge official duties, exert baleful influence deserve severest opinion, cannot said abuse greater, less, characterized period took shape. Meanwhile, administration become complex, opportunities malfeasance corruption multiplied, crime grown most proportions, danger unfaithful officials impairment life property criminal alliances neglect, emphasizes primary vigilant cities. fact abused miscreant purveyors scandal less immunity dealing misconduct.' 33 day '(a)ny 'heavy presumption' 34 says inherent go court obtain interest, alleged security. 35 1357, repudiated expansive doctrine uncertain terms. 36 dominant widespread practice suppression embarrassing information. common knowledge use seditious libel punish dissemination powers-that-be. T. Emerson, System Freedom Expression, V (1970); Z. Chafee, Free Speech XIII (1941). present will, think, down dramatic illustration principle. A debate large proportions goes posture Vietnam. antedated documents. latter highly relevant progress. 37 Secrecy fundamentally anti-democratic, perpetuating bureaucratic errors. Open discussion issues health. On questions there 'uninhibited, robust, wide-open' debate. 376 254, 269—270, 84 710, 720—721, 686. 38 vacate stay direct 39 week constitute flouting principles Olson. 40 BRENNAN, 41 write separately emphasize apparent: taken indicate propriety, future, issuing temporary restraining orders block suppressed determine, newspaper possession. relative novelty presented, haste decisions reached, magnitude interests asserted, parties concentrated arguments question whether permanent proper justified least heretofore imposed cases. Certainly difficult fault several below assure involved preserved ultimate review assumed interim us, assumption propriety similar judicial action future. begin with, now ample reflection judgment; values preservation novel appellate More important, stands absolute bar circumstances kind II 42 error pervaded granting injunctive relief whatsoever, otherwise. entire thrust claim throughout enjoined 'could,' 'might,' 'may' prejudice interest ways. tolerates absolutely predicated surmise conjecture untoward consequences result.* cases, true, indicated single, extremely narrow class ban overridden. thus arise 'is war,' Schenck 249 47, 52, 247, 249, 470 (1919), during times '(n)o actual obstruction recruiting service sailing dates transports number location troops.' 716, Even world situation tantamount presently armaments justify peacetime motion nuclear holocaust, neither actions items cause happening event nature. '(T)he chief Amendment's) guaranty (is) publication.' supra, 713, S.Ct., 630. Thus, allegation proof inevitably, directly, immediately occurrence kindred imperiling safety transport already sea issuance order. mere conclusions sufficient: aid preventing publication, inevitably submit scrutiny judiciary. therefore, issued form, violated Amendment—and afford examine thoroughly. Unless until clearly made commands issue. 43 STEWART, WHITE 44 structure created Constitution, endowed enormous related areas international relations. power, largely unchecked Legislative1 Judicial2 branches, pressed hilt advent missile age. For better worse, simple vastly independence does, prime minister country parliamentary form 45 absence checks balances life, effective executive policy lie enlightened citizenry—in critical alone democratic reason, perhaps alert, aware, vitally serves 46 elementary successful diplomacy maintenance require confidentiality secrecy. Other nations hardly deal atmosphere mutual trust unless assured confidences kept. within own departments, development considered intelligent policies charged formulation each freely, frankly, confidence. area frequent secrecy course, self-evident. 47 think answer dilemma, dilemma be. responsibility where is.3 If degree unshared defense, then determine internal exercise successfully. awesome responsibility, requiring wisdom high suppose moral, political, practical considerations dictate principle insistence avoiding sake. everything classified, nothing becomes disregarded cynical careless, manipulated self-protection self-promotion. suppose, short, hallmark truly maximum possible disclosure, recognizing best credibility maintained. clear Executive—as matter sovereign prerogative know law—through promulgation enforcement regulations, carry fields relations defense. 48 play. Undoubtedly enact appropriate secrets. passed laws, colorable relevance prosecution instituted, applicability charge brought. pass authorizing civil proceedings field, likewise constitutionality facts proved. 49 us construe regulations nor laws. asked, instead, perform Judiciary. quite simply, insists not, published. am correct documents involved. surely result direct, immediate, irreparable damage so, resolution us. 50 WHITE, STEWART concur today's judgments, concededly extraordinary enjoyed system. do about plans operations.1 Nor, examining materials characterizes sensitive destructive, deny revelation substantial interests. Indeed, confident result. nevertheless satisfied meet warrant appropriately limited congressional authorization these. 52 position simply story whenever convince revealed threatens 'grave irreparable' interest;2 published lawful statutes enacted regardless came 53 At legislation investigations findings, unable reach authorize remedies sweeping potential inhibiting publications Much difficulty inheres danger' standard suggested decision little guidance Court's today burden, remains sealed records properly discussed opinions. poses dangers hazards sanctions, responsible choose materials. sustain start long hazardous road travel, direction. 54 easy reject proposition urged good-faith claims work discomfiture considerably dispelled infrequency prior-restraint Normally, occur done either grounds suppression. here, begun threatened occurred. massive breakdown undeniable, efficacy equitable avert anticipated doubtful best. What more, terminating relatively few suppress requires invites others immune Prior unusually Amendment; failure measure entitlement conviction mistakenly chose proceed successfully another way. 56 consideration 1917, eliminated bill given proscribe, penalty, categories defense.3 unwilling clothe far-reaching monitor concomitant 'filter through man.' 2008 (remarks Sen. Ashurst). However, appeared subject insisted type itself determined revealed. Senator Ashurst, example, sure editor 'should movements fleet, troops, aircraft, powder factories, works, sort thing.' Id., 2009.4 57 Criminal contains numerous provisions potentially 7975 drawings 798,6 precise language, proscribes knowing willful concerning cryptographic systems intelligence activities operations.7 nature, presumably full notice face publish. sustaining convictions intervention equity restraint. 58 true casting wider net 793(e)8 'relating defense' (1) (2) retain fail deliver officer subsection added 1950 pre-existing provided penalty demand made.9 surrounding selfevident, deemed advisable surrender demand, unknown authorities demand.' S.Rep.No. 2369, pt. 1, 81st Cong., Sess., (1950). Of unpublished demanded import known counsel Gorin 312 19, 28, 61 429, 434, 85 488 (1941), words predecessor unanimous 'a understood connotation'—a 'generic concept connotations, referring naval establishments preparedness'—and 'sufficiently definite apprise prohibited activities' consonant due process. U.S., 434. Also, Gorin, 'connected obviously threatening States.10 59 addressed problems protecting damaging Cf. Youngstown Sheet Tube Sawyer, 343 579, 585—586, 72 863, 865—866, 96 1153 (1953); id., 593—628, 888—928 (Frankfurter, J., concurring). however, authorized remedy sanctions deterrent irresponsible saying yet committed commit await context proceeding instituted event, guilt innocence procedures standards purported govern proceedings. 60 MARSHALL, contends suit bars prohibiting pose immediate States." Brief 7. With respect, posed General. law. 62 problem President's classify 'secret' 'top secret.' recognized Presidential authority, formally exercised Exec. Order 10501 (1953), See, e.g., 798; 783.1 Nor regarding Commander disciplining employees disclose taking precautions leaks. particular invoke jurisdiction believes interest. re Debs, 158 564, 584, 900, 906, 1092 (1895). addition itself, him impose ability cavil virtue Chief. Chicago Air Lines Waterman S.S. Corp., 333 103, 68 431, 92 568 (1948); 1774 (1943); CurtissWright Export 299 304, 216, 81 255 (1936).2 situations have, implicit derived mandate Chief, invocation security,' however term defined. would, utterly inconsistent separation contempt behavior declined prohibit. co-equal branches adequate security' instead conduct. execute interpret (1952). provide 'make regard convenient judge ask enforce jury trial. politically wise get share arresting probable violating convenience moment departure 65 faced failed state occasions extensive strategic resulted enactment making receive, disclose, communicate, withhold, documents, photographs, instruments, appliances, bulk found U.S.C., 18, Censorship.3 chapter, penalties ranging fine death statutes. 66 seem enhance existing act. People Bennett Laman, 277 N.Y. 368, North Eastern 439 (1938). traditional axiom useless thing just commission crime. Chafee E. Re, Equity 935—954 (5th ed. 1967); Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Joyce, Injunctions 58—60a (1909). Here showing. mention considers conspiracy future crimes. 67 attempted show arguably applicable statute. stage Whether could, determined. 'having writing, code book, signal book note communicates, delivers, transmits it, retains fails employee conspire offenses listed 793(e). 69 Gurfein specified He *' refer stories. legislative conforms past using prosecute ordinary espionage. 103 10449 Humphrey). Statute plausible given. Brother WHITE's opinion. 70 good faith prosecutions passing activity unlawful. declines unlawful redecide issues—to overrule Youngtown 71 engaged case. 1917 Act, still 793, proposal directly proclamation enemy. Whoever violates prohibition imprisonment both: Provided, section comment, criticism acts same.' 73 Germany declared though grave leaks serious. gone requested reconsidered. Instead, asks give. 74 1957 Commission Security '(a) irplane journals, scientific periodicals, daily featured articles containing data deleted whole reasons.' authorization, whatever, secret,' knowing, reasonable believe, classified.' Report 619—620 (1957). After floor proposal, rejected. 10447—10450. Cotton championed enacted, refused, asking remake decision. power. Either statutory or, arguing crime, plain relief. fling breach perceived enacting pass. 76 affirmed insofar remands further hearings. 77 BURGER, dissenting. 78 limitations expression, (1931), recently (1971), occasion concerned involving reporting matters variation terms resistance Adherence principle, ones. unfettered collision imperative, functioning complex modern Executive. circumstances—a reject—can easy. 79 reason. knew facts. member knows 80 Why posture, judges permits really act? suggest conducted unseemly haste. HARLAN covers chronology events demonstrating hectic pressures processed restate them. prompt settling reflects universal abhorrence unjudicial 82 Here, frenetic manner proceeded date purloined reasonably precluded deliberate treatment warranted. precipitate aborting trials completed ought attend derivative denominate 'right know'; implication, asserts sole trusteenship journalistic 'scoop.' asserted absolute. absolute, Holmes ago pointed aphorism shout 'fire' crowded theater fire. exceptions, mentioned example exceptions describe discuss. Conceivably lurking flushed trial courts, unwarranted deadlines pressures. An tried heard conducive thoughtful, reflective deliberation, haste, hours, light choice, deferred publication.1 disputed four months, expert analysts studying them, digesting preparing time, capacity trustee public's know,' up purposes delayed. reason; analysis 7,000 pages drawn volume stories takes why Government, illegally acquired someone, along counsel, judges, placed needless pressure? months deferral, know' somehow suddenly vindicated instanter. Would unreasonable, anticipate objections release secret material, collection agreement reached publication? Stolen jeopardized, much declassified, spans ending 1968. approach—one practiced editorially honorable press—the narrowed disagreement publishable, leaving remainder resolved orderly litigation, necessary. believable regarded institution American duties citizen discovery stolen duty, naively—was report forthwith, officers. rests taxi drivers, Justices, course calculated removed possibility litigation issues. correct, sheer happenstance.2 86 writ certiorari final aborted complete record pursuant Circuit. consequence melancholy literally acting on. forced record, interesting sides, frequently respond factual points. Not surprisingly working 'around clock' rise familiar posture. generally BLACKMUN prepared merits.3 88 allow meanwhile preserving status quo post remand priority exclusion business arbitrary deadlines. 89 add penal retention 90 crave speedier processes pressured parody function. HARLAN, THE CHIEF JUSTICE join, forcefully call mind admonition Holmes, dissenting Northern Securities 193 197, 400—401, 436, 468, 679 (1904): 93 'Great hard bad called great, shaping futture, accident appeals feelings distorts judgment. hydraulic pressure previously doubtful, settled bend.' 94 consider almost irresponsibly feverish 95 rendered 23. Times' petition accelerated thereof, application filed a.m. 7:15 p.m. setting hearing a.m., joined avoid peremptory hours before. Clerk shortly 25; arrive o'clock night. briefs received 26. frenzied train place Due extraordinarily important litigations shun timetable. merits properly, following faced: 97 1. Attorney suits Compare (1895), involves validity singularly opaque statute—the 98 2. Minnesota, (1931) (dictum). 99 3. sufficient implication theory harm results demonstration 100 4. seriously impair 101 5. weight officers 102 6. notwithstanding seemingly uncontested originals duplicates, feloniously acquired. Liberty Lobby, Pearson, 129 U.S.App.D.C. 74, 390 489 (1967, amended 1968). possessory justifies of— 104 a. strong publication; b. statutes; 105 extent disseminated. 106 fact, erroneous enormous. lower courts,* wholly inadequate giving deserve. stability process issues—as arisen Court—should decided engendered th torrent publicity attended inception. 107 Forced dissent Within severe constraints required operate, telescoped felt constrained fuller sweep above. 108 observe rest conclusion elements discretion. 109 prepare; refusal rehearing conform stand—a furnishes additional ground reinstating aside Appeals. scope field narrowly restricted. dictated rests. 110 House Representatives, John Marshall, body, 111 organ external relations, nations.' Annals Cong. 613. 112 From Nation, this, challenge description Curtiss-Wright 319—321, 220—221, (1936), collecting authorities. 113 primacy affairs, necessarily follow. Some concisely declining request Representatives papers leading negotiation Jay Treaty: 114 nature negotiations caution, success often depend secrecy; brought measures, demands, eventual concessions contemplated impolitic; pernicious negotiations, produce inconveniences, mischief, relation powers.' Richardson, Messages Papers Presidents 194—195 (1896). 115 evaluate 'pernicious influence' premature lodged alone. that, performance pressures, judiciary initial determination point satisfying dispute compass Constitutional forbid abandonment control.' Reynolds, 345 528, 532, 727 (1953). Moreover insist irreparably head concerned—here Secretary State Defense personal officer. analogous privilege state. n. 20, 532; Duncan Cammell, Laird Co., (1942) A.C. 624, 638 (House Lords). 116 inquiries redetermine impact 117 judicial. confided departments government, Legislative. delicate, involve prophecy. undertaken welfare advance imperil. aptitude, facilities belong domain intrusion inquiry.' Lines, Steamship 111, (1948) (Jackson J.). 118 override determination, exceedingly narrow. indication opinions deference owing administrative agency, operating prerogative. 119 Accordingly, Before commencement proceedings, afforded procuring ensuing accordance above 120 Pending hearings rules, continue reaches maintaining responsibly here. 121 BLACKMUN, 122 dissent. accord admonition, 123 focus comparatively critical. material—vast amount—is concerned, let forthwith newspapers, once strain sensationalism eased, feel urge 124 volumes. Almost celebrated observed: 125 (1904). 126 unusual implications, observation pertinent application. 127 clandestinely devoted volumes Once volumes, emerged. assumed, ever maintained, pace character. Seemingly started, fast enough. Seemingly, on, deferral delay, otherwise, abhorrent violative know.' stood professed lodging protest earlier Monday telegram Sunday 128 same. Two district appeals, Court—within weeks inception today—have hurried profound inadequately developed careful deliberation hope, characterize digestion appellate, examined done, accomplished remand, axcuse trying source information, initially refusing reveal actually possessed, assumptions 130 contrary try lawsuit importance. adjudicate, allegedly concern Nation's welfare. none worse quickly, sure, customary deliberative manner. recent said, 1968, ago, formulate plan procedure thus, period. 131 all, vests places safety. Each subscribe unlimited absolutism cost downgrading provisions. commanded majority 708, 628, (1919). needed weighing, standards, print prevent. developed. concede constitutional. suggestion Schenck, 132 'It proximity degree. things peace hindrance effort utterance endured fight right.' 249. 133 expeditiously, schedule permitting discovery, necessary, preparation briefs, quality seen point. last statement, criticize lawyer judge. experience agony litigation. one, produced far. 134 allowed develop developed, lawyers hear panic sensationalism, shed considerations, me, prevail. 135 decides comment. 136 urge, sincerely America. Wilkey, affidavits party), concluded examples published, 'could nation,' defined 'harm' soldiers, destruction alliances, greatly increased enemies, inability diplomats negotiate cursory affidavits, itself. regreat examination fear Wilkey's statements foundation. concern. hope done. If, if, today, therefrom negotiate,' list factors prolongation delay freeing prisoners, sad introducing said: '(B)ut mass Constitution), disliked contain effectual encroachments 433. Congressman Goodhue added: '(I)t wish constituents, something secure stronger inroads 426. were: account religious belief worship, religion established, equal conscience manner, pretext, infringed.' restrained peaceably assembling consulting good; applying Legislature petitions, remonstrances, redress grievances.' Tr. Oral Arg. 76. 13—14. Madison, author speaking 'If amendments) incorporated independent tribunals justice peculiar guardians rights; impenetrable bulwark Legislative Executive; naturally resist encroachment expressly stipulated rights.' 439. De Jonge Oregon, 353, 365, 255, 260, 278. Beauharnais Illinois, 250, 267, 725, 736, 919 (dissenting Black), 284, 744 (my opinion); Roth 354 476, 508, 1304, 1321, 1498 Black joined); Yates 298, 339, 1064, 1087, 1356 (separate 293, 733, 686 (concurring Garrison Louisiana, 379 64, 80, 209, 218, joined). communications sanction sets controlled custody. sent wide distribution destined publicity, camera history, events. None Freedman Maryland, 380 51, 734, 649 (1965), obscene 'obscenity 481, 1307, whether, presence Similarly, copyright pertinence here: asserting chosen ideas therein. expressed. treaties appoint ambassadors requirement II, 2, advice consent Senate. empowers 'raise Armies,' 'provide Navy.' And, World War II. Since 1945, Armed Forces suffered approximately half million casualties world. 568; 1774; 255; cf. Mora McNamara, 389 934, 282, 287 (Stewart, dissenting). embarrassment—perhaps embarrassment—is avoided aims achieved, inquiry discretion restriction admissible domestic he, conditions prevail countries, confidential sources agents diplomatic, consular officials. gathered productive harmful results. accede lay instructions, correspondence Treaty—a doubted. 320, 221, 255. private instances. National Labor Relations Board routinely cease-and-desist employers finds coerced rights. 160(c). Trade empowered unfair methods competition. 45(b). can, do, spoken written circumstances. NLRB Gissel Packing 395 575, 616—620, 1918, 1941—1943, 547 (1969). authorizes 'exclusive right' authors writings, denies copyrighted works another. L. Atlantic Westermann Dispatch Printing 100, 194, 499 Newspapers accounts parties, press; complainant holder enforcing right. distinct admittedly remanding five directed particularity 'pose enjoined.' prescribed hereby promulgate, movement, numbers, description, condition, forces, ships, operations, measures connected fortification place, 2100. Ashurst "freedom press' censor, you wish; chances punishment libel, slander, treason.' 2005. provides: 'On thirty days defines installation equipment category 795 title, reproduces, away photograph, sketch, picture, drawing, map, graphical representation installations defined, obtaining permission commanding camp, station higher thereon censored $1,000 year, knowingly person, uses prejudicial benefit detriment information— '(1) preparation, code, cipher, government; '(2) design, construction, use, maintenance, repair device, apparatus, appliance planned purposes; '(3) '(4) processes— 'Shall purport clear. bill, identical terms, speak furthering explaining '(t)his methods, techniques, mate riel transmission enciphered coded messages. Further, breaking codes nation. prohibits divulging hands code-breaking.' H.R.Rep.No.1895, explained covering 'only small matter, vulnerable unique degree.' Existing inadequate. 'At (40 217) 10, 1933 (48 122). Under first, penalized proved injure second, messages transmitted protected. designed affecting operations ciphers.' Ibid. cover non-employees ease convictions. Report, parallel text footnote, S.Rep.No.111, 1st Sess. (1949). '(e) photographic negative, blueprint, plan, model, instrument, appliance, causes communicated, delivered, transmitted, attempts deliver, transmit it;' guilty offense punishable prison, fine, both. 793(g), (see 1004; S.Rep.No.2369, (1950)), '(i)f persons violate foregoing section, object conspiracy, conspiracy.' amendment (e) Subversive Activities Control turn Internal 1950. Committee explains amendment: 'Section amends title (espionage statute). paragraphs designated subsections (a) (g) reference. significant changes follows: Amends fourth paragraph (subsec. (d)), 'information nation.' phrase 'which nation' modify enumerated subsection. therein therefor. Those treated separate (e)), possessors thereof demand. self-evident, difference (d) element lawful, whereas unauthorized.' 8—9 (1950) (emphasis added). foregoing, intimations prosecuting withholding 'document' contrasted 'information' prove relied arose 21—22, 430—432—parts repeated 793(d) 793(a), (b), (c). part, undeniable newspaper, unconnected withhold covered section. ruled 'communication' intimate correctness conclusion. Also 794. Subsection (b) forbids 'or enemy 3, infra. Kent Dulles, 357 116, 1113, 1204 (1958); punishing sufficiently imperiled include 2161 2166 Atomic Energy declassify 'Restricted Data' ('Restricted art employed uniquely Act). Specifically, 2162 2274, (a), discloses (restricted data) 2274 lesser discloses' 'with utilized atomic energy acquisition, removal, concealment, tampering alteration, mutilation, incorporating former Commission, services, contractors licensees Commission. 2276, 2277. U.S.C.App. 781, 390, sketch located installation, specified; indeed 1940, 676, amended, 179, conferred 'to violation' thereof. 1152(6). 783(b) corporation owned 'classified' agent Communist organization. elsewhere envy. essential, enterprise others. Meanwhile publisher copyright. Paradoxically protection, restraint, others—a Interestingly substance compromise informants! guard while denying papers, secret, unavailable exposure, enforcement, analogy utmost deliberations records. required. Gesell began 21, rendered, hammer deadline Appeals, day. 19. Courts Circuits, sitting en banc, 22. afternoon.

Classification Label: 2