Legal Document

333 U.S. 683 68 Supreme Court Reporter 793 92 L.Ed. 1010 FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSIONv.CEMENT INSTITUTE et al. and eleven other cases. Nos. 23-34. Argued Oct. 20, 21, 1947. Decided April 26, 1948. Rehearing Denied June 7, [Syllabus from pages 683-685 intentionally omitted] Charles or Haw. Hawai‘i Reports KFH45 A2 Weston Walter baron Wooden, both of Washington, D.C., for petitioner. 1 William Judge Donovan, New York City, respondents Cement Institute others. 2 Edward Atlantic Zimmerman, Chicago, Ill., respondent Marquette Mfg. company 3 Wright, Jr., Detroit, Mich., Huron Portland 4 Herbert S. Little, Seattle, Wash., Superior Cement, Incorporated 5 Harold Shefelman, Northwestern 6 W. Clark San Francisco, Cal., Calaveras another. 7 Pierce Works, Los Angeles, Riverside 8 Nathan L. Miller, Universal Atlas cement co. 9 Alex Davis, California 10 No appearance Monolith 11 Mr. Justice BLACK delivered the opinion Court. 12 We granted certiorari to review decree Circuit Appeals which, with one judge dissenting, vacated set aside a cease desist order issued by Federal Trade Commission against respondents. Cir., 157 Reporter, 2nd Series 533. Those are: The Institute, an unincorporated trade association composed 74 corporations1 which manufacture, sell distribute cement; corporate members Institute;2 21 individuals who are associated Institute. It took three years trial examiner hear evidence consists about 49,000 oral testimony 50,000 exhibits. Even findings conclusions cover 176 pages. briefs accompanying p pendixes submitted parties contain more than 4,000 legal questions raised different many varied. Some contentions urged all can be jointly considered. Others require separate treatment. In keep our within reasonable limits, we must restrict record references minimum consistent adequate consideration discuss. 13 proceedings were begun complaint two counts. first charged that certain alleged conduct out at length constituted unfair method competition in violation § Act. 38 Statutes-at-Large 719, 15 United States Code KF62 45, Annotated KF65 U5 45. core charge was had restrained hindered sale distribution means combination among themselves made effective through mutual understanding agreement employ multiple basing point system pricing. this resulted quotation identical terms prices any given States. This worked so successfully, it further charged, prior filing complaint, buyers throughout nation, rare exceptions, been unable purchase delivery locality lower price on favorable 14 second count resting chiefly same allegations fact Count I, sales systematic discriminations between customers each respondent. These made, alleged, purpose destroying various Clayton Act, 730, as amended Robinson-Patman 49 1526. That section, conditions need not here out, makes 'unlawful person engaged commerce, * either directly indirectly, discriminate purchasers commodities like grade quality. *' 13, 13. Resting upon its findings, ordered 'carrying planned common course action, understanding, agreement, combination, conspiracy' do number things, 37 F.T.C. 97, 258—262, argues, effectively restore individual freedom action units industry. Certain reference will later detailed discussion terms. For present is sufficient say that, if stands, broad enough bar acting concert plan eliminates respondents' always 16 shall now detail numerous order's validity. A statement these best await give them. 17 Jurisdiction.—At very beginning met challenge Commission's jurisdiction entertain act it. contention pressed Manufacturing relied & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions drawn under provision Act declares 'Unfair methods competii hereby declared unlawful.' contends facts constitute 'unfair competition' meaning *s 5. Its argument runs way: reality charges restrain trade. Such constitutes offense Sherman outlaws 'Every restraint trade.' 26 209, 1, 1. Section provides attorney general institute suits behalf States, federal district courts have exclusive such suits. Hence, continue respondents, Commission, whose limited competition,' without power issue regard I. then argues since chief reliance II, latter also interpreted charging Assuming, deciding, hold does conclude may hence 18 As early 1920 considered engage practices 'against public policy because their dangerous tendency unduly hinder create monopoly.' versus Gratz, 253 421, 427, 40 572, 575, 64 993. 1921, Beech Nut Packing Co., 257 441, 42 150, 66 307, 19 American Law 882, sustained resale maintenance 'necessarily scheme restrains natural flow commerce channels interstate has Anti-Trust Acts maintain.' Id., page 454, 154, 882. Court, holding before competition, noted question practically previously unlawful Dr. Miles Medical John D. Park Sons 220 373, 31 376, 55 502, Schrader's Son, Inc., 252 85, 251, 471, suit brought Again 1926 unfair-method-of-competition defendants price-fixing plain Pacific Paper Ass'n, 273 52, 47 255, 71 534. 1941 reiterated found conflict could suppressed competition. Fashion Originators' Guild 312 457, 465, 61 703, 707, 85 949. case only prohibited violated but 'combination entirety well inhibition policies itself.' cases pointed reasons support interpretation language including violations Act.3 Thus appears soon after creation began interpret prohibitions those restraints outlawed Act,4 consistently approved interpretatin Despite long administrative judicial construction 5, interpretations wrong term should construed embracing ambit contention, relies reading legislative history careful earnestness pressed. points particular statements some Act's sponsors taken context, might lend faint Congress did intend concern itself punishable But whole shows strong congressional enforcement Department District Courts supplement process new Commission. Far being regarded rival dissolving combinations trade, envisioned aid them specifically authorized assist drafting appropriate decrees antitrust litigation.5 All committee reports reveal abiding vest powers hit every practice, existing thereafter contrived, lead stopped incipient stages. purposes revealed cited below, most referred briefs.6 conceive no greater obstacle fulfillment inject into proceeding possible jurisdictional question. 20 adhere former rulings. declare tending even though selfsame violate There related disposed time. While pending Appeals, Attorney General filed civil Denver, Colorado, 88 companies, violating Much relevant case, informed, thus far trial. urges dismissed contrary interest force defend based largely misconduct. 22 find nothing justify requires termination proceedings. place, although violative likewise come practice converse necessarily true. recognized there assume proportions violations. R. KF105 F3 Keppel Bro., 291 304, 54 423, 78 814; 574, Hence conclusion mean activities would acts nowise us dismiss proceeding. Just permits bring simultaneous criminal defendant misconduct, provide Government cumulative remedies activity detrimental Both specific indicate purpose, confine narrow, mutually rather permit use types Marquette's objections overruled. 23 Ojections Jurisdiction Respondents Ground They Were Not Engaged Interstate Commerce.—One specially Portland. 'Northwestern shipments outside State Washington,' 'Superior Portland, few Washington Alaska.' contend they applies enter complaint. rely Bunte Bros., 349, 580, 881. argue reason lacked enforce discrimination II 24 cannot sustain contention. thee they, apart simply making intrastate sales. Instead, was, supported others agreed maintain eliminate commerce. found, includes companies located states. 'In general, said maintained, maintain, constant several States.' participants happen selling borders single state controlling determining scope jurisdiction. important factor concerted essential make wholly states.7 rendered helpless stop form conspiracies defeated mere showing conspirator carefully confined his illegal state. 25 Multiple Basing Point Delivered Price System.—Since fixing nub controversy, helpful preliminary stage what how works. brief distinctive characteristics 'factory' 'mill prices' 'delivered importance involved. Goods sold seller's mill warehouse door free board (f.o.b.) trucks railroad cars immediately adjacent warehouse. event actual cost goods purchaser is, broadly speaking, price' plus purchaser's transportation. However, seller fixes he undertakes deliver where used, price.' amount quality delivers place (his mill) (price mill). He receives f.o.b. net money customers. creates complications result receiving returns goods. transporting 500 miles almost 100 miles. Consequently away pay price,' return less distant customer. difference producer's localities element crux II. 27 known example called 'Pittsburgh plus.' steel. Pittsburgh base price, therefore point. work, d prices. Under steel anywhere freight rate delivery.8 Take Illinois, illustration operation consequences system. Chicago producer profit. delivery. pricing arbitrarily required produced ship rail shipped. theoretical fictitious shipment became 'phantom freight.' economically Pittsburgh, merely actually Pittsburgh. circumstances (non-basing point) 'absorb' costs. smaller deliveries approached closer 28 Several results obviously plus' originally was. One producers regardless producers' Another non-base receipts vary amounts equivalent freight' included in, 'freight absorption' 29 commonly employed multiple. instead point, plus,' used. system, just absorption phantom governed mill.9 And sellers quote costs production expenses. systems function manner produce consequences—identity diversity returns.10 differences matters pertinent degree only. 30 Alleged Bias Commission.—One year taking concluded while still asked disqualify passing issues prejudged issues, 'prejudiced biased industry generally,' receive fair hearing After refused itself. repeated here, rejected court reviewed merits order. 147 589. introduced exhibits intended charges. main copies President, 46, 46. reports, committees, clear time, least them, studied decide assumption formed entire membership official investigations. agree court's belief 32 entertained views ex parte investigations minds irrevocably closed subject practices. Here, contrast investigations, legally hearings. volumes testimony, cross-examination witnesses, arguments, attack thought kept range permissible business activities. 33 Moreover, position, sustained, large extent defeat prompted passage Had disqualified e spondents, acted government agency. provided contingency. directed circumstances, substitute commissioners disqualify, agency hearings, orders practices.11 Yet right, studies obedience command, completely immunized investigated, 'unfair,' governmental 34 warrant reaching frustrate purposes. If opinions expressed congressionally proceedings, appear similarly ever See Morgan 313 409, 999, 1004, 1429. experience acquired work handicap advantage. intendment Congress. report stating: 'It manifestly desirable opportunity acquire expertness dealing special concerning comes experience.' Report Committee Commerce, Number 597, 1914, 63d Cong., 2d Sess. 10—11. 35 seems denial due having view industry-wide illegal. giving Tumey Ohio, 510, 437, 749, 50 1243, convicted offense, fined, committed jail direct, personal, substantial, pecuniary convict. conviction tribunal held procedural process. relating disqualification rise constitutional level. 523 U.S., 441 1243. 36 Neither decision nor sit whether law. fact, judges frequently try once involved law fact. Certainly, possibly stronger compulsions respect court.12 properly notr eview additional objection ground bias too late consideration. Errors re Introduction Evidence.—The July 2, 1937, maintained 'more eight yearts last past.' treated basis August, 1929, when organized. much over objections, however, showed back 1902. 1933 May 27, 1935, preparation administration NRA pursuant National Industrial Recovery 48 195, invalid Schechter Poultry Corporation 295 495, 837, 79 1570, 97 947. initiation, development, carrying 39 pre-1929 evidence, especially 1919, patently inadmissible 1929 non-existent 1919. urge during period improperly admitted Title compliance code provisions 'exempt laws involve provisions. tends show continuous efforts part industry, it, utilize fix uniform sold, evidence. erroneously existence admissible continuing poing system.13 41 post-1929 part, premise established rule subsequent transactions, barred forming suit, nevertheless reasonably character transactions scrutiny. Standard Oil 221 47, 619, L.R.A.,N.S., 834, Ann.Cas.1912D, 734; Reading 43, 44, 425, 428, 760. Here Respondents, hand, insisted basin represented evolution adopted concert, separately response customers' needs demands. contended, inevitable long-continued On contended despite shifts ownership 1902 date continued develop improve automatically Government's up old aided member carry straight beyond period. Fort Howard 156 899, 906. Furthermore, agencies never restricted rigid rules Commerce Baird, 194 25, 563, 568, 569, 860. quasi-criminal this, effect punish fasten liability past ban future accordance mandate 43 foregoing answers error admission letter written Treanor 1934 chairman authority Treanor, died time president active trustee stated things 'above stand systematically ruined.' criticism industry's publicity campaign defense relevance indicating official's informed judgment obvious. render 44 introduction None refusal 45 Old Case.—This Court's Mfrs.' Protective Association 268 588, 586, 592, 69 1194, present. think little relevance, all, case. 46 enjoin s Manufacturers Association, four officers, nineteen manufacturers. injunction justices reversed 'any placing limitations production,' 'But fails establish, inference, gathering dissemination information whc h referred, except naturally influence action.' 606, 592 S.Ct., 1104. Maple Flooring 578, 1093, decided day, attention focused rights association, openly gather disseminate statistics costs, output, prices, merchandise job contracts, rates, etc., attempts foster agreements production, sale. associations guiltless 'in found.' Corn Products Refining 324 726, 735, 65 961, 966, 89 1320. inconsistent sustaining day. quite shown there. unlike issue, covers thousands conduct, falls short matter major said, enable 'unfair' yet grown dimensions would, likely left unrestrained. determine violation, competition.' deliberately 'Commission courts' definition 'There limit human inventiveness field'; consequently, fitted towards today fit tomorrow's inventions field; precise definitions abreast 'endless task.' 310—312, 426, 814, quoted. marked duty classified inapplicable problem reviewing basic practiced menace Findings Ei dence.—It strongly failed find, counts agreements, understandings utilized accomplish subsidiary assuming substantial finding. 51 great painstaking carried way quality, nonexistent, discounts, continuously maintained. instances immediate control groups Among collective used purposes, according boycotts; discharge uncooperative employees; organized opposition erection plants; recalcitrant cutter's territory low forced prices; discouraging truck barge; preparing distributing books similar figures 'phantom' factors, guaranteeing (base factors) open bids sealed bids. done reduce destroy cement. followed finding 'the capacity, tendency, herein aforesaid promote delivered-price obstruct threatens threaten uniformity created use.'14 'The thereto connection therewith, hereinabove forth, intent Act.' 'from entering into, continuing, cooperating conspiracy enumerated. 52 designed technique achieve end, finally prohibiting continuance combination. impossible anyone doubt collectively suppressing sufficient. substance. 53 Disposition brings findings. dispose Sugar 297 553, 601, 56 629, 643, 80 859: 'After extraordinary length, permitted escape consideration, subjected thorough acute analysis slight room debate Our examination discloses overruling decision.' involves see upsetting necessary refer voluminous Although following record, dispute, action. When manufacturing operating 150 mills. Ten controlled half mills affiliations concentration productive capacity difficult otherwise been. prevalent standardized nature cement, reasons, unsuited historic. devise measures industy . Out came Evidence handy instrument elimination kind coincident situation whereby years, offered producers. Thousands secret received corresponded down fractional penny.15 Occasionally foreign imported, dealers below domestic product. Dealers persisted boycotted Officers securing pledges furnished own trucks, seriously disruptive structure 57 During depression 1930's, slow deviate fixed Meetings producers; devised recalcitrants line. simple successful. Other recalcitrant's plant involuntary driven relatively insignificant losses imposed punitive heavy basis. instance, bid, put reduced 10¢ per barrel; reductions quickly until dropped 75¢ barrel, scarcely one-half $1.45. Within six weeks 75 capitulation occurred joined association. bounced $1.15, $1.35, $1.75. 58 illustrations product, 'cement cement,' existed usefulness, demanded quotations high transportation dealer. had, eliminating variations sometimes exist cements.16 economists alone product testified above inferences collusion, fc t invariably country. considerable economic experts contravened accepted principles collusion. 59 adopt tend drive products level, account perfect identity containers prevailed absence entered true, testified, will, express implied explicit tacit, times (for substantially here) precisely, penny, competitors charge. Certainly counter people believed, namely, vary—that desire willing take chances. compelled accept economist-witnesses bound implied, actively worked, cooperation members, system; calculated produce, produced, country; accord pattern system.17 60 respondn ts particularly crucial participation testimonial support. seek contentions; consider opinion. deserve mention central southern companies; Company Company, Washington; Great Lakes region; plants Illinois Missouri. particularized pointing Each says direct connect uniformity. 62 suggested. correct say, therefore, perhaps well, precisely example, points. Institute's extend states business. Southern modified elaborate zone applicable areas,' calculations destination, complete lists published assert theirs, bid contracts formulas, frowned endangering success plan. emphasizes follow anticompetition plan, rightly occasion undercut competitors, abandonment cutting combined pressure 63 What emphasize serve underscore influential others,18 probably unwillingly abandoned competitive none distinctions mentioned, justifies cooperated ultimate objective all—the illustrate resolve factual light whatever differencs practices, abundant justified cooperative officers already 'customs usages' participated were, competitors. sections California, mutiple portion Marquette, objectives Unfair Methods Competition.—We doing weight conclusion, 314, 63, 258, intention experienced, coming experience. persuaded close fits performance statutory duty. specialized knowledge wanted threshold practice—that alone, 'destroys establishes Raladam 283 647, 650, 587, 591, 1324, 1191. 316 149, 152, 968, 86 1336. 67 concluding destruction establishment monopoly anti-competitive illustrated cases: Gypsum al., 364, 525, 859. uphold conclusio suppress.19 Discrimination Charge Two.—The effected 1526, 2(a) 'be lessen line injure, destroy, prevent grants knowingly benefit discrimination, 2(b) proof (selling cheaper another), prima facie rebut good faith meet equally competitor *.' varying nets 'discrimination purchasers' prohibition 2(a), lessening count. insofar collection freight, involving 'good faith' proviso 2(b). 70 2(a). 'made competitor.' Practically arguments presented 1945 1320, E. Staley 746, 971, 1338. 963 1338, 'questions involved' 'of widespread systems.' Consequently, again decided. reserved legality 2(b), companion thata adoption competitor's attempt latter's price. forbid true not, allege holdings forbids deny, passed urge. 72 manufacture glucose. plants, Kansas City. 'only computed adding tariff delivery, factory City factory.' 729, 963, corresponding collected absorbed. 'price situations 'usually include item unearned consequent Since differentials bear relation whenever defined supra, 750, 751 973 violates shipped fiction manifested sanction systems; Mfrs' 1104; 73 distinguish neither absorption, correct; absorption. condemned mill, relieve application modification So mills, customer sells another i constantly getting 'speaks 'lower' places emphasis situations, 753 975 determined formula Thus, discriminatory 2. employment effort 'individual situations,' correctly Nor discern distinction applied discriminations. lessened Accordingly, issuing continuation 76 Order.—There mind understood whom directed. Thomson, 318 675, 685, 839, 87 1075. wide discretion generally choice cope problems entrusted Jacob Siegel 327 608, 611—613, 758, 759, 760, 90 888. 77 reason, why lightly modify safeguard economy. felt needed assistance men trained combat monopolistic framing litigation. commission type functions it.20 To end might, entitled 'to commission, master chancery, ascertain therein.' reject report. exhibited familiarity anticipated prepared comprehensive. At perpetuating merit surplusage Most rest another, competitor. disclaims understood. understand read order, paragraphs subparagraphs, preamble. preamble directs 'do forthwith conspiracy, hereto, perform things. Then prohibitory sentences. apparent solely concerted, objected phrase 'planned action' two-fold; first, adds words it; second, add anything, novel words.' means. emphatic action—planned chose readily businessmen import. 81 'others hereto.' objection. secured program preserving suppress changes anticipated. facts, combining themselves. 82 noted. Paragraph prohibits 'quoting u otations using prevents advantage respondents.' paragraph refers harmony national fashion result. ambiguity abandon proper Beech-Nut 1922, 456, read: '* utilizing co-operative accomplishing company.' 83 Many examined, merit. 84 Appeals. cause remanded directions ordered. Reversed remanded. DOUGLAS JACKSON BURTON, dissenting. dissent apply 23—34, together. note disagreed material constituting respective conclusions. principal reached below. complaint.1 doubted clearly existed. send clarification assumed finding.2 basis, aside. conclusions.3 sufficiently record. accordingly resulting Act4 Act,5 Sections relation, any, statutes participating Commission.6 complaint.7 position to, did, judicially examine extended pass contained. recent field law, described 'long study situation,' charged. weaknesses combination.8 91 impressive group, Washington-Oregon group9 Company. dependent however attenuated be.10 unique 'abundant uniformity.' me, Unlike majority faced unsupported led today. lies long-established bona fide declined interfere, so.11 producer, often ships who, charges, nearer himself. customer, obvious disadvantage. competitor, reduces area sum absorb reasons. volume yield fixedc harges resultingly increased business, differential loss profit raising profitable losing solvency bankruptcy. derived customer's sufficient, itself, differential, reduction earnings affecting Whether absorbing increasing customers, freight-advantage area, raises validity increase. reach independent absorptions competitors' areas 93 conclude, f setting affirmed, important—that hinder, lessen, sold. prejudice Castalia went Respondent Valley Forge affiliation company. 310, 649, 590, 1191; Alkali Export 325 196, 1120, 1554 Eugene Dietzgen 142 321, 326, 327, cited, subject. October 1939, total 267 cooperation, combination.' Beer, Practice, 94 (1942). writers commented recognition Handler, Competition G.W.L.Rev., 399, 416, 417, 419. Montague, Over Practices Restraint Trade: Large-scale Method Mass Enforcement Antitrust Laws, G.W.L.Rev. 365; Competition, Chapter XI (1941); Henderson, Study Administrative Procedure, 22—28 (1924); seq. empowered request courts, chancery general. 6(c) investigate recommendations him. 722, §§ 46(c), 46(c). Cong.Rec. 11083, 11104, 11528—11533, 12146, 12622—12623, 12733—12734, 12787, 13311—131 14251, 14460, 14926, 14929; H.R.Rep.No.533, Sess., (1914); H.R.Rep.No.1142, 18—19 Sen.Rep.No.597, 12—13 (1914). Ramsay Bill Posters 260 501, 511, 167, 168, 368; Stevens Foster Kleiser 311 260, 261, 210, 212, 213, 173; Frankfort Distilleries, 293, 297, 298, 661, 663, 664, 951. Birmingham, Alabama. Birmingham arbitrary addition $5 ton. minor described. Steel governs, inside mill's adopts absorbs becomes mill. explained affects 'Substantially price; location purchaser. location, mut iple basing-point operative lowest all-rail freight. Mill $1.50 barrel figure, uses locations recovers lower, shrinks equal highest recovered shrink match recovery $1.50.' 147—148. motion concurrent 593. 'Section Five private persons remedy wrongs.' court. judgment, criminal. Klesner, 280 19, 3, 138, 838; Humphrey's Executor 602, 628, 869, 874, 1611; Louisville N.R. Garrett, 231 48, 51, 229. protection afforded exemption conferred unconstitutional. exempted press here. follows: concludes finds performed thereunder therewith herein, restrain, among, States; deprive benefits artificial distributo n factors useful motor water carriers obtaining accrue agencies; purchases avoid requirement; landgrant rates available purchasers; requirements higher manufacturers; establish classification manufacturers thereof; sale; imported deal use.' 257—258. bids: An abstract 6,000 barrels Engineer Office Tucumcari, Mexico, opened 23, 1936, following: Name Bidder Bbl. Monarch. $3.286854. Oklahoma. $3.286854 Ash Grove. 3.286854. Consolidated. 3.286854 Lehigh... Trinity Southwestern. Lone Star. U. Universal. Colorado. discount payment days. (Com.Ex. 175-A.) 576. 600, sugar commodity, opportunities impaired.' 'combination' persons, contemplated invited, adherence participate scheme. 306 208, 226, 227, 467, 474, 610; Masonite Corp., 265, 275, 1070, 1076, 1461; Bausch Lomb 321 723, 805, 813, 1024; 393, 394; 525. Maltsters 152 161, 164: 'We accepted. Any violence sense realities situation. petitioners enabled malt destination exactly persuasive circumstance Especially petitioners' barley manufactured procured nine states.' Milk Ice Cream Can 478, 481; 907. Huron's officials meetings respondent's deemed inimical non-competition. meeting offending 'play game 100%'; countenance 'chiseling'; invade 'tear structure.' indispensable ingredient 455, 155, speaking decrees, Senate said: 'These powers, partly quasi judicial, expert training regarding expected proficient. 'With exception Knight (United C. 249, 325), condemn break organization attention; court, declaring satisfactorily dissolution combinations, apparently accomplishment reassembling divided elements spirit law.' past, producing employ, of, forth Paragraphs Seven inclusive, Count.' Four, Five, incorporates full verbatim Pages 102, 117. 'highly controverted issue' 'sustain complaint.' 533, 543. if—'this ordinary revising desired said. confronted termed observed, ten initiated. down. proceed involved.' 553. represents development systems. especially, 1338; 1320; 859; Fairmont Creamery Minnesota, 274 506, 893, 163; 1093; Linseed 262 371, 607, 1035; Aetna 533 (this below); 899; 161. 'Sec. (a) deceptive unlawful. partnerships, corporations, '(b) Whenever believe person, partnership, corporation thereof public, stating containing notice day therein *. port writing served requiring practice. 111, 112, Sec. them: Provided, contained diferentials allowance sale, differing quantities delivered: Upon services facilities furnished, burden rebutting prima-facie justification unless affirmatively shown, terminating discrimination: furnishing final section disclaimers breadth Court: party something specified numbered qualification paragraphs. leaves free—provided individually variability respecting characteristic genuine endeavor market—to 'What adopting, implementing operates aimed uprooting flourished virtue stifle epitomized 'this (multiple delivered-priced) se, basis' attacked; attacked implement inferred loosely se. did. searching inquiry disclosed 'that Act' accompanied citation highly decisive Twenty-six 'Findings Facts Conclusion': governmental, Page 257. law: Act; subsection 'An monopolies, purposes,' 15, 1914 (the Act), 1936 Robinson- Patman Act).' 258. insufficiently value By illustration, emphasized barrel. face, inference explain, figure reflected chag e, $2.10 land grant nearest bidders $1.1865854 ($1.186854) barrel.' 567. group respondents: Santa Cruz Yosemite Corporation, to: Southwestern (Victorville, plant). Beaver Lehigh (Metaline Falls, plant), Oregon Spokane indicated conclusive 'Some activities; lesser degree, fully partially shorter periods time; followers, adopting supporting associates; reluctantly occasionally opposed Conclusion.' Six (a). 144. 'Furthermore, century. economists, lawmakers bad. Numerous bills seeking outlaw use. Countless spent hearings Congressional assailed defended. Record mute indisputable repeatedly relate history. knowledge. commenting (324 737, 967, 1320): indicates unwilling pricing, se.' Notwithstanding attitude rests domain. know forcibly propensity usurping steadfastly illegal, vigorously mark tide usurpation.' 573. 1890, 2; September 719; 730; 13; amended, March 1938, 'To Prevent Unnecessary Wasteful Cross-Hauling' Senator Wheeler banning statute, reported Committee. Hearings 4055, 74th (1936), 325. also, H.R.Rep.No.2287, debates Bill, 8102, 8118, 8140, 8223—8224 (1936).

Classification Label: 3