Legal Document

457 U.S. 800 102 Supreme Court Reporter 2727 73 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 396 Bryce N. HARLOW and Alexander Pacific KF135 P2 Butterfield, Petitionersv.A. Ernest FITZGERALD. Number 80-945. Argued Nov. 30, 1981. Decided June 24, 1982. Syllabus In respondent's civil damages action in Federal District based on his alleged unlawful discharge from employment the Department of Air Force, petitioners, White House aides to former President Nixon, were codefendants with him claimed have participated same conspiracy violate constitutional statutory rights as was involved Nixon versus Fitzgerald, 731, 2690, 349. After extensive pretrial discovery, denied motions petitioners for summary judgment, holding, inter alia, that not entitled absolute immunity suit. Independently President, appealed denial their defense, but Appeals dismissed appeal. Held: 1. Government officials whose special functions or status requires complete protection suits damages—including certain Executive Branch, such prosecutors similar officials, see Butz Economou, 438 478, 98 2894, 57 895, 349 are defense immunity. However, executive general usually only qualified good-faith The recognition a high executives reflects an attempt balance competing values: importance remedy protect citizens, also need who required exercise discretion related public interest encouraging vigorous official authority. Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 94 1683, 40 90. seeking personal liability unconstitutional conduct must bear burden showing policy exemption scope. Pp. 806-808. 2. Public does require blanket Presidential aides. Cf. Butz, supra. 808-813. (a) rationale Gravel States, 408 606, 92 2614, 33 583—which held Speech Debate Clause derivately applicable "legislative acts" Senator's aide would been privileged if performed by Senator himself—does mandate "derivative" President's chief Under "functional" approach law, extends no further than its justification warrants. 809-811. (b) While might be justified entrusted discretionary authority sensitive areas national security foreign policy, "special functions" warrant all performance duties. To establish entitlement immunity, first show responsibilities office embraced function so total shield liability. He then demonstrate he discharging protected when performing act which is asserted. record this case, neither petitioner has made requisite possibility remand, can satisfy proper standards foreclosed. 811-813. 3. Petitioners application standard permits defeat insubstantial claims without resort trial. 813-820 previously recognized "subjective" aspect "good faith" immunity—whereby available asserting "took malicious intention cause deprivation other injury," Wood Strickland, 420 308, 322, 95 992, 1000, 43 214—frequently proved incompatible principle should proceed Henceforth, government generally shielded insofar "clearly established" reasonable person known. 815-819. case remanded Court's reconsideration question whether showings insufficient withstand petitioners' motion judgment. 819-820. Vacated remanded. Herbert Judge Miller, Jr., Washington, D. C., Nixon. Elliot L. Richardson, Harlow Butterfield. John E. Nolan, respondent. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 issue scope senior advisers suit upon acts. 2 * Butterfield respondent Atlantic Fitzgerald. Respondent avers entered capacities Richard M. As 349, facts repeated detail. 3 joined role principally responsible congressional relations.1 At conclusion discovery supporting evidence remained inferential. Harlow's conspiratorial activity relies heavily series conversations discussed Fitzgerald's dismissal Force Secretary Robert Seamans.2 most supportive consists recorded conversation later voiced tentative recollection "all canning" Fitzgerald.3 4 Disputing contentions, argues exhaustive adduced direct involvement any wrongful activity.4 Seamans advised considerations efficiency removal reduction force, despite anticipated adverse reaction. asserts had reason believe existed. contends took actions good faith.5 5 Petitioner May 1969. Employed Deputy Assistant Chief Staff Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 R. Haldeman,6 circulated memorandum month learned Fitzgerald planned "blow whistle" some "shoddy purchasing practices" exposing these practices view.7 characterizes commenced efforts secure retaliatory dismissal. conceal prevent reemployment, cites communications between Haldeman December 1969 January 1970. promised at press conference inquire into dismissal, solicited Butterfield's recommendations. subsequent emphasizing "loyalty," counseled against offering another job administration time.8 6 For part, denies decision concerning until sought advice 1969—more after termination scheduled announced publicly Force. states never communicated views about Defense Department. nearly eight years failed turn up caused injury Fitzgerald.9 7 Together codefendant moved judgment February 12, 1980. denying upheld legal sufficiency Bivens (Bivens Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 91 1999, 29 619 (1971)) claim under First Amendment "inferred" causes Code KF62 § 7211 (1976 ed., Supp.IV) 18 1505.10 court found genuine issues disputed fact resolution It ruled App. Pet. Certiorari 1a-3a. 8 invoked collateral order doctrine Columbia Circuit. appeal opinion. Id., 11a-12a. Never having determined we granted certiorari. 452 959, 101 3106, 69 969 (1981).11 II 9 reiterated today our decisions consistently form damages. common officers them undue interference duties potentially disabling threats 10 Our defenses two kinds. suit, "absolute immunity." legislators, legislative functions, see, e.g., Eastland Servicemen's Fund, 421 491, 1813, 44 324 (1975), judges, judicial Stump Sparkman, 435 1099, 55 331 (1978), now well settled. extended Branch. These include 508-512, 2911-2916, 895 engaged adjudicative id., 513-517, S.Ct., 2914-2916, 11 general, however, cases make plain represents norm. 90 (1974), acknowledged greater those less complex responsibilities. Nonetheless, governor could receive 247-248, 1691-1692. supra, federal Discussing detail underlain Scheuer, explained reflected U.S., 504-505, 2909-2910, "the authority." 506, 2910. Without discounting consequences private lawsuits alleging violations—consequences sufficient Spalding Vilas, 161 483, 16 631, L.Ed. 780 (1896), Barr Matteo, 360 564, 79 1335, 1434 (1959), extension law—we emphasized expectation trial: 12 "Insubstantial quickly terminated courts alert possibilities artful pleading. Unless complaint compensable relief . ., it survive dismiss. Moreover, violations trial, properly supported responding motion, plaintiffs may play dog manger; firm Rules Civil Procedure will ensure harassed frivolous lawsuits." 507-508, 2911-2912 (citations omitted). 13 continued acknowledge But "federal seek scope." This reaffirmed 747, 2700. III 14 argue they incident offices deciding do write empty page. Agriculture—a Cabinet directly accountable President—asserted We rejected claim. doing did power Secretary's office. Nor doubt loyal efficient subordinates executing Yet factors, alone, justify "[T]he [high] officials," reasoned, "affords potential regime lawless conduct." Damages therefore "an important means vindicating guarantees." Ibid. concluded "untenable draw distinction purposes law brought state [42 U.S.C.] 1983 Constitution officials." 504, 2909. 15 Having decided Members ordinarily enjoy conclude equally untenable hold every subordinate House. frequently responsibilities, both Nation, staff. apply equal force case. disparagement aides, like Cabinet, B disputing controlling rely principles developed 583 (1972).12 endorsed view "it literally impossible Congress perform tasks help assistants" day-to-day work critical Members' treated latter's alter egos. ." 616-617, 2622-2623. done so, derivatively himself. 621-622, 2625-2626. 17 contend mandates States. Emphasizing delegate large measure execute office, derivative essential support Petitioners' argument force. Ultimately, sweeps too far. If immune because functioning Presidency, roles itself13—be absolutely immune. implicitly Butz.14 followed law. judicial, prosecutorial, warrant. Gravel, example, Senators "acts nature," taking acts even "in capacity." 625, 2627. See Hutchinson Proxmire, 443 111, 125-133, 99 2675, 2683-2687, 61 411 (1979). involving judges15 prosecutors16 line. undifferentiated reconciled characterized Court, indeed including itself.17 Contract 19 assert accords analytical cases. unhesitating vital interest.18 follows establishes official's reference mere station.19 20 identifies location proof. justifying rests course occasion identify how carry burden. requisites familiar liability.20 asserted.21 21 Applying advanced cannot before us either shown "public [for office] [absolute] Nor, assuming warranted, charged lawsuit—if taken all—would lie within area. not, foreclose claims. IV 22 Even least permit agree. 23 questions inherently evils inevitable alternative. situations abuse offer realistic avenue vindication guarantees. 2910; 410, 2011 ("For people Bivens' shoes, nothing"). officers. time, seriously run innocent guilty—at cost defendant society whole.22 social costs expenses litigation, diversion energy pressing issues, deterrence able citizens acceptance Finally, there danger fear being sued "dampen ardor resolute, irresponsible [public officials], unflinching duties." Gregoire Biddle, 177 Reporter, 2nd 579, 581 (CA2 1949), cert. denied, 339 949, 70 803, 1363 (1950). 24 identifying best attainable accommodation values, 2911-2912, 245-248, 1691-1692, relied assumption "[i]nsubstantial [to] terminated." 2911-2912; Hanrahan Hampton, 446 754, 765, 100 1987, 1993, 64 670 (1980) (POWELL, J., concurring part dissenting part).23 advance persuasive arguments trial—a factor presupposed interests struck prior cases—requires adjustment established decisions. 25 Qualified affirmative pleaded official. Gomez Toledo, 635, 1920, 572 (1980).24 Decisions "objective" aspect. objective element involves presumptive knowledge respect "basic, unquestioned rights." 1001, 214 (1975). subjective component refers "permissible intentions." Characteristically defined elements circumstances available. Referring elements, defeated "knew reasonably known sphere responsibility [plaintiff], injury. (emphasis added).25 26 admonition Rule 56 provides judgment.26 And faith considered regarded requiring jury.27 27 context Butz' attempted balancing clear substantial attend litigation officials. Not subjecting risks trial—distraction governmental duties, inhibition action, service. There inquiries kind. Immunity functions. contrast thought processes accompanying "ministerial" tasks, judgments surrounding almost inevitably influenced decisionmaker's experiences, emotions. variables explain why intent rarely frame background often end relevant evidence. Judicial inquiry motivation entail broad-ranging deposing numerous persons, professional colleagues.28 Inquiries kind peculiarly disruptive effective government.29 28 Consistently aimed bare allegations malice suffice subject trial burdens broad-reaching discovery. clearly Procunier Navarette, 434 555, 565, 855, 861, (1978); 1001.30 Reliance reasonableness conduct, measured law,31 avoid excessive disruption many On judge appropriately determine, currently time occurred.32 established, expected anticipate developments, nor fairly said "know" forbade identified unlawful. Until threshold resolved, allowed. fail, since competent know governing conduct. Nevertheless, pleading extraordinary prove knew standard, sustained. again, primarily factors. 30 By defining limits essentially terms, provide license compensation victims remains test focuses Where rights, hesitate; suffers action.33 where legitimately implicated, better served "with independence consequences." Pierson Ray, 386 547, 554, 87 1213, 1217, 288 (1967).34 31 asked judgment.35 think appropriate, remand light opinion.36 more far situated findings necessary. V 32 vacated, consistent So ordered. 34 BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL, BLACKMUN join, concurring. 35 & N Dec. Immigration Nationality agree substantive today, imposing public-official known" constitutionally violative effect actions. Ante, , 815, 819. allow actually knows violating escape actions, "reasonably expected" what know. 819, n.33. Thus clever unusually well-informed violator evade just punishment crimes. applies "across board," "government functions." 818. separately note given seems inescapable me sometimes determine exactly very addressed Lando, 441 153, 1635, 60 115 (1979), observed "[t]o erect impenetrable barrier plaintiff's use side matter substance, particularly defendants themselves prone goo[d f]aith. 170, 1645. Of course, already noted, ante, 818-819, readily whenever ambiguous violation "known" then, thus ensue. my view, plaintiff prove, matter, occurred. defendants' "knowledge" deferred pending grounds these. 180, n.4, 1650, n.4 concurring). 36 WHITE, MARSHALL BLACKMUN, 37 join but, dissented disassociate ourselves implication present correctly decided. 38 REHNQUIST, 39 majority willing re-examine holding shall undertaking alacrity. comes, disposes presented, it. BURGER, dissenting. 41 decides 190 years, implicit arising out Executive. fully is, privilege, "fundamental operation inextricably rooted separation powers Constitution." 418 683, 708, 3090, 3107, 1039 (1974).1 42 President. am loss, reconcile (1972). reads resolving question; not. distinguishable.2 relation function. viewed aides' deriving Clause, "for House, [Senators Representatives] questioned Place." Article I, 6, cl. added). Read literally, would, limit Member speech debate Chamber. read much language. says nothing outside Chambers, grants House" committees conferences reports activities. mention Yet, going beyond words itself, Member's implement policies Member. hardly overstatement say avoided "literalistic approach," 617, 2623, instead looked structure evolution Legislative short, drew functional analysis process whole 20th-century realities. Neither Presidents can, once did, personally.3 45 central purpose "diminished frustrated" broad Speaking WHITE agreed 46 impossible, complexities modern process, constantly session matters concern proliferating, assistants; egos; recognized, Clause—to intimidation legislators accountability possibly hostile judiciary .—will diminished frustrated." 2622-2623 47 continue it, "elbow aides," "alter egos," effectively assigned legislator. 48 reality jurisprudence. How conceivably vastly larger constituency Congress, egos" comparable immunity? "literally [Executive] assistants."4 616, 2623. reflect precise primary layer President—like elbow, few feet hundred own desk. times one day. They "arms" "fingers" aid duty "that laws [are] faithfully executed." Like scale, personally fraction decisions.5 49 inexplicable declines recognize realities workings Office cogent Congress. Absent free "intimidation [Congress] judiciary?" today's Presidency 50 Precisely recently points awareness vulnerability "frequently distract detriment Nation designed serve." 753, 2703. negative incentive permeate inner Executive's addition, exposure result constant questioning, through proceedings necessary maintain traditional checks balances structure.6 51 challenge dissenters instant effectiveness "inevitably frustrated," weigh future lawsuits. aides: stress long hours, heavy harassment political arena. Is suggesting stresses aides? construing give key lawsuits, winable perhaps, nonetheless, effort disperse drain energies purses.7 52 witness new filing week, utterly bizarre. defending party spent become liable thousands dollars expense. Hundreds disposed reaching When myriad regularly filed American courts, magnitude attending emerges. Those discouraging men women entering 53 We—judges collectively—have acts, however erroneous ill-advised. See, (1978). Are lowest ranking 27,000 prosecutors, aides—an aggregate 75,000 all—entitled President? 54 dictate officer exercising immunity; abandon holding. A works intimately daily basis officer, implementing hour hour. dissent "Court President." 764, 2709. suggests officers, serve "during pleasure President," plane constitutionally. wholly fails distinguish aides" department heads rather egos." sense inconsistent demonstrates depend person's rank position hierarchy, relationship superior. outrank Attorneys, yet accorded latter; extent determines performed. integral, inseparable President.8 correct stating "perform [and] egos ignoring engaging wooden significantly undermines derives comes source. Can rationally rule simply initial each different aspects Constitution? find makes assured staff Senate. beginning 20, 1969, November 4, latter date designated Counselor status. capacity 9, 1970, returned life. resumed period July 1, 1973, April 14, 1974. appears allege throughout various changes assignment. reveals called likely reaction draft reorganization plan According Seamans' testimony, "[W]e [the Force] didn't ask [Harlow] pass itself. impact Congress." 153a, 164a-165a (deposition Seamans). Through responded "this item Hill [his] recommendation change time." 152a. persisted. spoke during spring shortly announcement impending again 186a. 284a. (transcript Ronald Ziegler, 26, 1973). 31, Ehrlichman recalled 218a-221a. Ehrlichman, himself asserted spoken 218a, parties dispute Mr. Nixon—at moments discussion—was confusing employee. explicitly stated point confused. 220a. Defendants Memorandum Points Authorities Support Their Motion Summary Judgment Civ. 74-178 (DC), Page (Feb. 1980). version events deposition testimony Seamans, abolition "to improve efficiency" Financial Management received instruction regarding 159a-160a. disputes probative value Nixon's remark firing. emphasizes tentativeness statement. query canning [Fitzgerald], wasn't he?", Press Ziegler gave reply: "No, way." respond Ziegler's comment. worked immediately adjacent oval contact March left Administrator Aviation Administration. 274a. reported information referred Bureau Investigation. "by word several mouths, allegedly AFL-CIO originally Evidently, attended recent meeting National Democratic Coalition and, while there, revealed intentions labor representative who, fortunately us, unsympathetic." 99a-100a, 180a-181a. memorandum, quoted 735-736, 2694-2695, sent Judgment, 26. history recounted named second amended 5, 1978. statutes, Supp.IV), "[t]he right employees furnish committee thereof, interfered denied." second, 1505, criminal statute making crime obstruct testimony. expressly creates sue erred finding inferred statute, factors" employer-employee preclude Amendment. presented posture n. 36, infra. jurisdiction challenged appealable final Appeals' "in" meaning 1254. discussion well, consider challenges provided Representatives Clause. (1975); Doe McMillan, 412 306, 93 2018, 912 (1973). U.S.Const., II, ("The Opinion, writing, principal Officer Departments, Subject relating Duties respective Offices. ."). Justice, post, 828, "more officer," controlling. Henry Kissinger James Schlesinger advisory positions. posts simultaneously. generalize "offices" individual particular officeholders Economou distinguished basis. Virginia Consumers Union 719, 731-737, 1967, 1974-1977, 641 (1980); 362, 1107, 1107. Imbler Pachtman, 424 409, 430-431, 96 984, 994-995, 128 (1973), reserved extend "those prosecutor's cast administrator investigative officer." Since Courts capacities. Mancini Lester, 630 990, 992 (CA3 1980); Forsyth Kleindienst, 599 1203, 1213-1214 1979). drawn extending quasi-prosecutorial 515-517, 2915-2916. way abrogates rule. opinion, factors unique station. Suits aides—generally invoke separation-of-powers 710-711, 3108-3109, (1974) ("[C]ourts traditionally utmost deference responsibilities" military affairs, privilege area higher degree invocations "a generalized confidentiality"); Katz 389 347, 364, 88 507, 518, 576 (1967) (WHITE, concurring) ("We procedure magistrate's Attorney General, requirements authorized electronic surveillance reasonable") (1972), conclusion. assume 2622-2623, "essential business," 2911. 620, 2624 (derivative "central role" permitting debate). analogy strongest "central" domains security, singularly delegating own. Here elsewhere encompass confirmed or, likely, heritage structure. 747-748, 2700-2701. 508-517, 2911-2916; 994-995. Cases inquired activities (1979); (1973); Schuck, Suing Servants: Liability Officials Damages, 1980 S.Ct.Rev. 281, 324-327. consideration needs emphasis. noted risk imposed defend motives jury. Lake Country Estates, Incorporated Tahoe Regional Planning Agency, 440 391, 405, 1171, 1179, 59 401 Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 377-378, 71 783, 788-789, 1019 (1951). Tenney: "In passion, dishonest vindictive attributed believed." 378, 789. Although 1983, indicates "immunity" 640, 1924. decide bore proof faith. 642, 1924 (Rehnquist, limited school board member, specific discipline," stripped 1983. Subsequent cases, formulation statement standard. 562-563, 566, 859-860, 862, Baker McCollan, 137, 139, 2689, 2692, 433 56(c) "shall rendered forthwith pleadings, depositions, answers interrogatories, admissions file, together affidavits, any, material moving law." determining proper, look favorable opposing drawing inferences party. E.g., Poller Broadcasting System, Inc., 368 464, 473, 82 486, 458 (1962). Landrum Moats, 1320, 1329 (CA8 1978); Duchesne Sugarman, 566 817, 832-833 1977); cf. 120 n.9, 2680, n.9 (questioning existence "actual malice," fact, libel figure). closest implicate concerns. 3107: "A assist explore alternatives shaping unwilling express except privately. communications. fundamental Gesell Halperin Kissinger, 196 U.S.App.D.C. 285, 307, 606 1192, 1214 aff'd pertinent divided 713, 3132, 367 (1981): "We close eyes increasing frequency country damage awards torts. Each invariably results colleagues subjected areas, deliberations preparatory intimate presidential cabinet levels. Such discover [sic ] wide-ranging, time-consuming, considerable involved. difficult ingenious counsel create subtle mental sentence casual document difference regard ago usually, normal standards, [to trial]. development willingness individuals obvious." previously, diminishes expressed impose "no fault" tort statutes Constitution. define here law" "evaluated opinions Appeals, local Court." quoting 1001 ("Because aware declared, disregard 'cannot faith' "). emphasize conditions injunctive declaratory admonished "insubstantial" allowed supra n.22, reiterate admonition. Insubstantial undermine contemplated structure, "firm Procedure" warranted 508, urged "implied" 1505 insubstantial. Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner Smith, Curran, 353, 1825, 1838-1839, 72 182 (1982) (controlling affirmatively intended remedy); Middlesex County Sewerage Auth. Sea Clammers Assn., 453 2615, (1981) (same); Texas Industries, Radcliff Materials, 451 630, 638-639, 2061, 2065-2066, 68 500 (same). question. Bush Lucas, 647 573, (CA5 1981) (holding "unique service counsels hesitation inferring remedy"). resolve doctrine. appropriate leave fuller necessary, Appeals. recently. 758, n.1, 2706, n.1. (BURGER, C.J., irreconcilable conflict obligation try harmonize holdings—or tender explanation. neither. allotment varies significantly, range over addition Members. S.Doc.No. 97-19, Pages 27-106 (1981). roughly assistants H.R.Doc.No. 97-113, 28-174 early Republic, staffs assistants. Washington Jefferson plantations. funds clerk 1857. Lincoln opened mail, Cleveland answered phone Wilson typed speeches. S. Wayne, Whatever situation Adams, Jefferson, exercises wide spectrum assists carrying WHITE's expresses great "cause serious number though violates What overlooks, remedies check abuses comparatively small group removed Congressional scrutiny pervasive abuses, prosecuted criminally. 757, 2705-2706. prosecution absent careful grand jury request prosecutor; commencement advocates accountability. Branch grace supply assistance. longstanding representing employment. retention Senate Subcommittee Administrative Practice Committee Judiciary, Retention Private Legal Counsel Represent Employees Lawsuits, 95th Cong., Sess. (Comm.Print 1978). pays trouble reconciling Kilbourn Thompson, 103 168, 377 (1881). Sergeant-at-Arms share enjoyed ordered act.

Classification Label: 7