Legal Document

467 U.S. 431 104 S.Ct. 2501 81 L.Ed.2d 377 Crispus NIX, Warden, Petitionerv.Robert Anthony WILLIAMS. No. 82-1651. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Jan. 18, 1984. Decided June 11, Syllabus Following disappearance a 10-year-old girl in Des Moines, Iowa, respondent was arrested and arraigned Davenport, Iowa. The police informed respondent's counsel that they would drive back to Moines without questioning him, but during trip one officers began conversation with ultimately resulted his making incriminating statements directing child's body. A systematic search area being conducted aid 200 volunteers had been initiated before made terminated when guided Before trial an Iowa state court for first-degree murder, denied motion suppress evidence body all related evidence, including body's condition as shown by autopsy, having contended such fruit illegally obtained automobile ride. Respondent convicted, affirmed, later federal-court habeas corpus proceedings this Court's holding through interrogation violation Sixth Amendment right counsel. Brewer v. Williams, 430 387, 97 1232, 51 424. However, it noted even though could not be admitted at second trial, location might admissible on theory have discovered if elicited from respondent. Id., 407, n. 12, S.Ct., 1243, 12. At state-court were offered nor did prosecution seek show directed concerning admitted, concluded State proved continued within short time essentially same actually found. again convicted affirmed. In subsequent proceedings, Federal District Court, denying relief, also inevitably Appeals reversed, that—even assuming there is inevitable discovery exception exclusionary rule—the met exception's requirement act bad faith. Held: pertaining victim's properly ground or no any constitutional provision taken place. Pp. 440-450. (a) core rationale extending rule unlawful conduct course needed deter violations statutory protections notwithstanding high social cost letting obviously guilty persons go unpunished. On rationale, put better position than illegality transpired. By contrast, independent source doctrine—allowing admission has means wholly violation—rests society's interest deterring public juries receive probative crime are balanced putting same, worse, error misconduct occurred. Although doctrine does apply here, its consistent justifies adoption ultimate rule. If can establish preponderance information lawful means—here volunteers' search—then deterrence so little basis should received. 441-444. (b) Under exception, required prove absence faith, since result withholding relevant undoubted truth available absent activity. This worse transpired, fail take into account enormous societal excluding administration justice. Significant disincentives obtaining illegally—including possibility departmental discipline civil liability—lessen likelihood will promote misconduct. 445-446. (c) There merit contention because he waive assistance counsel, designed protect fair competing values may deciding whether challenged admitted. Exclusion physical adds nothing either integrity fairness criminal trial. Nor suppression ensure tends safeguard adversary system 446-448. (d) record here supports finding party clearly shows searchers approaching actual body, resumed led 448-450. 700 F.2d 1164 (8 Cir.1983), reversed remanded. Brent R. Appel, petitioner. Kathryn A. Oberly, Washington, D.C., amicus curiae, special leave Court. Robert Bartels, City, Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion 1 We granted certiorari consider whether, Williams' murder court, 2 * 3 December 24, 1968, Pamela Powers disappeared YMCA building where she accompanied her parents watch athletic contest. Shortly after disappeared, Williams seen leaving carrying large bundle wrapped blanket; 14-year-old boy who helped open car door reported "two legs skinny white." 4 found next day 160 miles east Later several items clothing belonging child, some clothing, army blanket like used wrap carried out rest stop Interstate 80 near Grinnell, between Davenport. warrant issued arrest. 5 Police surmised left somewhere Grinnell young girl's 26, Bureau Criminal Investigation large-scale search. Two hundred divided teams 21 covering north south 80. They moved westward Poweshiek County, which located, Jasper County. Searchers instructed check roads, abandoned farm buildings, ditches, culverts, other place small child hidden. 6 Meanwhile, surrendered local promptly arraigned. contacted attorney arranged Davenport meet station. pick up return him him. detectives then drove took custody, proceeded Moines. 7 During trip, policemen, Detective Leaming, saying: 8 "I want give you something think about while we're traveling down road. . predicting inches snow tonight, I feel yourself only person knows get top unable find it. And we going past [where is] way locate entitled Christian burial snatched away them Christmas [E]ve murdered. 9 [A]fter storm [we be] able all." 10 Leaming told knew Mitchellville—a town passing He saying do answer me. Just ." 11 Later, approached asked shoes. After replied unsure, point service station said shoes; As disposed blanket. joined charge Mitchellville, further conversation, agreed direct 12 called off p.m., Department join area. time, team County-Polk County line two one-half soon culvert ditch beside gravel road Polk 80, searched. B First Trial 13 February 1969 indicted murder. autopsy. "fruit" product ride prompted Leaming's statements. denied. 14 jury murder; judgment conviction affirmed 182 N.W.2d 396 (1970). sought release Southern That question wrongly Brewer, 375 F.Supp. 170 (1974); panel Eighth Circuit agreed. 509 227 (1974). 15 certiorari, 423 1031, 96 561, 46 404 (1975), what viewed 424 (1977). noted, however, although introduced "might well event, Williams." C Second 16 1977 offer found, articles photographs results post mortem medical chemical tests that, suspended victim, "within time" ruled located "the off, given extreme circumstances case [have] order." App. 86 (emphasis added). 17 freezing temperatures prevailed tissue deterioration suspended. 87. sentenced life prison. 18 appeal, 285 248 (1979). held fact "hypothetical source" rule: 19 "After defendant part police, burden (1) faith purpose hastening question, (2) means." 260. 20 first element, reviewed cases, stated: "The issue propriety case, earlier opinion, caused closest possible division views every appellate considered question. light legitimate disagreement among individuals versed law procedure opportunity calm deliberation, cannot actions faith." 260-261. 22 de novo1 activity materially changed. 23 1980 renewed attack seeking writ own review concluded, courts, discovery. petition. 528 664 (1981). 24 (1983); equally rehearing en banc. 1175. assumed, deciding, correctly stated require proof violation. reversing denial 25 "We hold requirement. It therefore unnecessary decide courts' anyway fairly supported record. must elements clear convincing argues, courts held. 26 suppress, Its mention seems proceed assumption—contrary laid Iowa—that event. expressly address presumption correctness attaches trial-court findings under 28 U.S.C. § 2254(d). conclude, shield 1169-1170 (footnotes omitted). 27 State's petition 461 956, 103 2427, 77 1315 (1983), reverse. II "vast majority" both federal, recognize rule.2 now urged adopt so-called 29 contends "fruit poisonous tree," i.e., plea help "a burial," already equated interrogation. admitting violated not. constitutionally permissible, include threshold showing good 30 requiring tainted governmental genesis Silverthorne Lumber Co. States, 251 385, 40 182, 64 L.Ed. 319 (1920); there, applies itself, derived primary evidence. carefully limited, emphasized automatically become "sacred inaccessible." 392, 183. 31 "If knowledge [such facts] gained source, others. Ibid. 32 Wong Sun 371 471, 83 441 (1963), extended indirect conduct, need always suppressed, stating: 'fruit tree' simply come illegal police. Rather, more apt 'whether, granting establishment illegality, instant objection exploitation instead sufficiently distinguishable purged taint.' " 487-488, 417 added) (quoting J. Maguire, Evidence Guilt 221 (1959)). 33 thus pointedly negated kind good-faith advanced 34 involved Fourth Amendment, tree" limited cases applied see Wade, 388 218, 87 1926, 1149 (1967), Fifth Amendment.3 35 consistently admittedly drastic socially costly protections. accepted argument exclude seized unpunished their crimes. 36 derivative analysis ensures allows doctrine, closely here; indeed whole story. teaches us society occurred.4 See Murphy Waterfront Comm'n New York Harbor, 378 52, 79, 84 1594, 1609, 678 (1964); Kastigar 406 441, 457, 458-459, 92 1653, 1663-1664, 212 (1972). When exclusion functional similarity these doctrines government position, Thus, justify our 37 implementing "begin premise sense activity." Crews, 445 463, 100 1244, 1250, 63 537 (1980) Of course, end inquiry. received.5 Anything less reject logic, experience, common sense. 38 imposed Appeals, view And, equal importance, fails Nothing prior holdings formalistic, pointless, punitive approach. 39 analysis, absence-of-bad-faith imposed, temptation risk deliberate too great, deterrent effect Exclusionary Rule reduced far." F.2d, 1169, 5. view. officer faced obtain rarely, ever, calculate discovered. Cf. Ceccolini, 435 268, 283, 98 1054, 1064, 55 268 (1978): "[T]he concept effective assumes consciously realizes probable consequences presumably impermissible conduct" (opinion concurring judgment). 41 hand, aware discovered, try avoid engaging questionable practice. situation, gain taking dubious "shortcuts" liability—also lessen Bivens Six Unknown Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 397, 91 1999, 2005, 619 (1971). circumstances, costs far outweigh benefits produce. 42 balance argues unlike context, essential misconduct, factfinding process. those interests stake, responses presumed involuntary irrelevant determining excluded. disagree. 43 protects against unfairness preserving process reliability proffered tested cross-examination. Ash, 413 300, 314, 93 2568, 2576, (1973); Schneckloth Bustamonte, 412 241, 2041, 2055, 854 (1973). Here, impugn question—the No seriously contend presence appealed decent human instincts bearing Suppression, whatever process, inflict unacceptable 44 To assure pretrial confrontations [cannot] cure a[n otherwise] one-sided confrontation prosecuting authorities uncounseled defendant." supra, 315, 2576. Fairness assured placing accused positions and, therefore, regardless overreaching rational keep order proceedings. advantage suffered prejudice. Indeed, operate undermine occupied constitutes balancing merit. 45 More half century ago, Judge, Justice, Cardozo seminal observation "[t]he free constable blundered." People Defore, 242 N.Y. 13, 21, 150 N.E. 585, 587 (1926). Prophetically, went "how far-reaching upon society" pettiest peace power overzeal indiscretion confer immunity offender crimes most flagitious." 23, N.E., 588. 47 Some day, speculated, press outer limits logic—or beyond—and relating "body murdered" victim 23-24, Cardozo's prophecy fulfilled Killough 114 U.S.App.D.C. 305, 309, 315 245 (1962) (en banc). But when, reference nexus sufficient provide taint admissible. 48 necessary volunteer three independently reviewing searchers. challenges findings, asserting contains "post hoc rationalization" efforts 49 challenge hearing preceding testimony Agent Ruxlow Investigation. organized searching Tr. Hearings Motion Suppress CR 55805, p. (May 31, 1977). "to culverts. came onto property buildings places secreted." 35. testified marked highway maps Counties grid fashion, four six persons, assigned each specific areas. 34. promised cooperation, using system. 36, 39-40. previously grids Counties, map manner continue. 39. 50 commenced approximately a.m. volunteered cooperate sent word Special truck time. 51-52. "under impression possibility" lead 61. once learned id., 57, stopped easternmost searched additional five hours discover continued, 41; culvert, kinds specifically parties satisfied, along earlier, asserted newly certain deposition connection federal proceeding, demonstrate material facts inadequately developed full, fair, adequate present hearing.6 52 remanded opinion.7 53 ordered. 54 WHITE, concurring. fully write separately many Stevens' remarks recalled (1977), 5-4 decision Members myself, done wrong all, let alone anything unconstitutional. Three observed: "To anyone lost intricacies prophylactic rules Miranda Arizona, utterly senseless. 438, 1259. unjustified reflection say "decide[d] dispense requirements law," post, page, decided procedural short-cuts complying 457. doubt acting competent acted similar then-existing law. Justices thought mistaken call villain lecture resulting society. 56 STEVENS, judgment. 57 litigation exceptional least reasons. unusually tragic; involves rights; graphically illustrates incurred Because adequately discuss aspects am opinion. 58 unconstitutionally obtained, Stewart, writing 59 pressures executive judicial charged especially child. precisely predictability makes imperative resolute loyalty guarantees Constitution extends 406, (1977) (Williams I). 60 character impact decisional hold, permit condone rights.1 Today's ad response engendered I. majority recognized "evidence author today's characterized "remarkable" "unlikely theory." 416-417, 1, 1248-1249, (BURGER, C.J., dissenting). adopts today merely hydraulic associated hard strong words. 61 gave rise neither acknowledged explained Yet evaluated identified. 62 recent escapee mental hospital just abducted murdered posed threat safety. Acting lawyer's advice, lawyer notified imminent surrender, officials, questioned brought advised agreement attorney. conferred another reminded questioned. arrived stressed custody respondent, counsel's request Williams. "Christian speech" occurred ensuing trip.2 POWELL succinctly observed, "in deliberately inherently coercive setting contrary express agreement." 414, 2, 1247, (concurring opinion). adversarial rather ex parte investigation determination prosecutor.3 grew protected undermined strategems Spano York, 360 79 1202, 1265 (1959), dealt confession prolonged indictment Four indicated noting otherwise totally proof: 65 "Our man orderly courtroom, presided over judge, public, safeguards Surely promises much vouchsafe midnight inquisition squad room station." 327, 1209 (Stewart, J., concurring, Douglas BRENNAN, JJ.). 66 asked: "[What] use defendant's stage if, awaiting until confesses? event secret precincts effectively supplants guaranteed Bill Rights." 326, (Douglas, Black 67 ripened Massiah 201, 1199, 246 (1964): petitioner basic [the Amendment] words, agents counsel." 206, 1203. Massiah" eliciting pendency outside U.S., 399-401, 1239-1241. aggravated breached promise role process.4 attempt substitute parte, inquisitorial clash adversaries commanded Constitution.5 Thus now-familiar plaint '[t]he blundered,' ante, 447 (1926)), entirely point. pertinent wrote occasion: "This where, 'the rather, 'constable' planned interference Henry, 264, 274-275, 2183, 2188-2189, 115 (footnote citation omitted).6 III 68 Once identified, answers questions presented follow readily. Admission anyway, process; untainted illegality. irrelevant. received type envisions. Morrison, 449 361, 101 665, 564 (1981); Weatherford Bursey, 429 545, 837, (1977); 240-243, 1939-1941, (1967). Generalizations employed majority, 443-448, case. 69 correct insist incentive commit Constitution. Ante, provided permitting uncertainties inherent guarantee inconsistent purposes rule.7 placed prosecution, 444, bear uncertainty resolved favor because, explains 448-450, adduced demonstrating which, natural events, escape responsibility speculation; extent created resolve proof.8 Even risk; forces assume risk. adduce discharge burden, difficulty sufficient, officials 70 refers "societal cost" 445. my view, shortcuts What consequence shortcut wait hour Moines?9 years litigation. Instead routine still alive later. Thanks expended vast sums money countless professional labor defense. expenditure surely provides violations; lies Constitution, constable. 71 Accordingly, concur 72 whom MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 73 set aside based Fourteenth Amendments. "[w]hile themselves describing event." 74 "inevitable discovery" rule, acknowledges akin "independent 183, (1920). 242, 1940, (1967); 487, 417, (1963). particular, concludes pursued addressing issue, 440-441, agree 75 zealous emasculate loses sight crucial difference derived. applied, was, fact, means. violence meant enforce. likewise compatible differs key respect kin: specifically, matter investigations allowed proceed. 76 distinction satisfy heightened necessarily implicates hypothetical factual precedes application narrowly confined functionally equivalent fundamental rights served concluding issue. 240, 1939. Increasing serves impress factfinder importance thereby reduces Addington Texas, 418, 427, 99 1804, 1810, 323 (1979); Santosky Kramer, 455 745, 764, 102 1388, 1399, 599 (1982) ("Raising standard practical symbolic consequences"). lower impose requirement, remand instance. novo legal determinations raising challenges. See, e.g., Armento Baughman, 290 (Iowa 1980); Ege, 274 350, 352 1979). Every jurisdiction matters, endorsed doctrine. Wayne 234, 238, 318 205, 209, cert. denied, 860, 125, (1963); Bienvenue, 632 910, 914 (CA1 Fisher, 780, 784 (CA2 1983); Government Virgin Islands Gereau, 502 914, 927-928 (CA3 1974), 420 909, 95 829, 839 (1975); Seohnlein, 1051, 1053 (CA4), 399 913, 90 2215, 570 (1970); Brookins, 614 1037, 1042, 1044 (CA5 Papp Jago, 656 221, 222 (CA6 1981); rel. Owens Twomey, 508 858, 865-866 (CA7 1974); Apker, 705 293, 306-307 (CA8 Schmidt, 573 1057, 1065-1066, (CA9), 439 881, 194 (1978); Romero, 692 699, 704 (CA10 1982); Roper, 681 1354, 1358 (CA11 1982). (1964), witness compelled unless fruits him." added, "[o]nce demonstrates testified, grant immunity, matters establishing independent, disputed evidence." 18; 103, 1616 (WHITE, concurring). Application context reaffirmed 460-461, 1664-1665, harmless-error Chapman California, 386 22, 824, 827, harmless-constitutional-error "serve[s] very useful insofar [it] block[s] convictions errors defects little, any, changed trial." block quantum proof, established guidelines. Matlock, 415 164, 178, 14, 94 988, 996, (1974) added), controlling hearings greater Lego 477, 488, 619, 626, 618 (1972), observed "from experience [that] substantial accumulated admissibility evidence" voluntary. unwilling added burdens difficult task proving guilt enlarging barrier unquestioned juries. preponderance-of-the-evidence in-court identification, weight identification "crystalliz[ing] witnesses' future reference." lineup "may sole unequivocal courtroom identification," ibid., recollection unaided 240-241, 1939-1940. speculative focuses demonstrated historical capable ready verification impeachment departure usual hearings. consisting "previously overlooked site investigative [Ruxlow]." F.Supp., 671, 6. Ruxlow's credibility. heard credited "neither subtracts Stone Powell, 428 465, 3037, 1067 (1976), bar claim, time: "Nothing write, how reasoned forcefully expressed, bring tragedy undo official neglect institution. emotional make dispassionately, qualify obligation eye concern particular us." 415, 1247 These 390-393, 1235-1237. Professor Kamisar demonstrated, number unexplained ambiguities Kamisar, Foreward: Williams—A Hard Look Discomfiting Record, Geo.L.J. 209 Nevertheless, I, seeks reexamination findings. Strickland 466 668, 685-687, 2052, 2063-2064, 674 (1984); Cronic, 648, 655-657, 2039, 2044-2046, 657 Dodson, 454 312, 318, 445, 449, Herring 422 853, 862, 2550, 2555, 593 Anders 738, 743, 1396, 493 trust experienced turn trusted enforcement honor commitment negotiations apprehension potentially dangerous person. critical proceeding participation vital stage—as others profoundly affects individual—the medium demands commitments sovereign communicated citizen. If, long run, concerned individual's representation permitted dishonor lawyer." (STEVENS, concurring) 401, 8, 1240, 8. prevention sixth amendment attach. speech itself prohibits. violates mandate proceed, point, accusatorial manner." Grano, Rhode Island Innis: Need Reconsider Constitutional Premises Underlying Law Confessions, Am.Crim.L.Rev. (1979) original). 409, 1244 (MARSHALL, theme Justice's dissenting permeate written today, familiar Defore. Compare discussion Judge "grim prophecy," 1248-1249 (dissenting opinion), 447-448. 502, 3056, (1976) concurring); 413, 3, 2013 (1971) dissenting); 323, 259 banc) (Burger, Stovall Denno, 297, 1967, 1970, 1199 Gilbert 263, 272-273, 1951, 1956-1957, 1178 Moore Illinois, 434 220, 458, generally, 484, 3047; Janis, 433, 443, 3021, 3027, 1046 (1976); Calandra, 414 338, 347-348, 613, 619-620, 561 Terry Ohio, 392 29, 88 1868, 1884, 889 (1968); Tehan Shott, 382 459, 453 (1966); Mapp 367 643, 656, 1684, 1692, 384 (1961); Elkins 364 217, 1437, 1444, 1669 (1960). majority's 444-445, An objective scope ongoing objectively verified impeached. Hence extraordinary preserve ability subject prosecution's meaningful testing Amendment. 2044-2046. connection, worth noting, apparent intended learn client reveal 407-408, practically non-existent.

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