Legal Document

438 U.S. 265 98 Supreme Court Reporter 2733 57 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 750 REGENTS OF the UNIVERSITY CALIFORNIA, Petitioner,v.Allan BAKKE. Number 76-811. Argued Oct. 12, 1977. Decided June 28, 1978. Syllabus The Medical School of University California at Davis (hereinafter Davis) had two admissions programs for entering class 100 students—the regular program and special program. Under procedure, candidates whose overall undergraduate grade point averages fell below 2.5 on a scale 4.0 were summarily rejected. About one out six applicants was then given an interview, following which he rated 1 to by each committee members (five in 1973 1974), his rating being based interviewers' summaries, average, science courses College Admissions Test (MCAT) scores, letters recommendation, extracurricular activities, other biographical data, all resulted total "benchmark score." full made offers admission basis their review applicant's file score, considering acting upon applications as they received. chairman responsible placing names waiting list discretion include persons with "special skills." A separate committee, majority whom minority groups, operated 1974 application forms, respectively, ed whether wished be considered "economically and/or educationally disadvantaged" "minority group" (blacks, Chicanos, Asians, American Indians). If applicant group found "disadvantaged," would manner similar employed general committee. Special candidates, however, did not have meet cutoff ranked against process. one-fifth invited interviews 1974, benchmark top choices could reject failure course requirements or specific deficiencies. continued recommend until 16 selections been made. During four-year period 63 students admitted under 44 No disadvantaged whites program, though many applied. Respondent, white male, applied both years only Though 468 500 score 1973, rejected since no scores less than 470 accepted after respondent's application, filed late year, processed completed. At that time four slots still unfilled. In respondent early, 549 600, again neither year name placed discretionary list. significantly lower respondent's. After second rejection, this action state court mandatory, injunctive, declaratory relief compel Davis, alleging exclude him race violation Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment, provision Constitution, § 601 Title VI Civil Rights Act 1964, provides, inter alia, person shall ground color excluded from participating any receiving federal financial assistance. Petitioner cross-claimed declaration its lawful. trial racial quota, because another, places reserved them. Declaring petitioner take into account making decisions, held violate Federal State Constitutions VI. Respondent's ordered, lack proof but Court, applying strict-scrutiny standard, concluded least intrusive means achieving goals admittedly compelling interests integrating medical profession increasing number doctors willing serve patients. Without passing constitutional statutory grounds petitioner's violated Clause. Since satisfy burden demonstrating respondent, absent admitted, ordered Davis. Held: judgment is affirmed insofar it orders invalidates reversed prohibits taking factor future decisions. 18 Cal.3d 34, 132 Cal.Rptr. 680, 553 Pacific Reporter, 2nd 1152, part part. Mr. Justice POWELL concluded: 1. proscribes those classifications if agencies. Pp. 281-287. 2. Racial ethnic sort are inherently suspect call most exacting judicial scrutiny. While goal diverse student body sufficiently justify consideration decisions some circumstances, forecloses like unnecessary achievement therefore invalid 287-320. 3. proving even there must admitted. KF135 P2 320. BRENNAN, WHITE, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN 328-355. strict Nonetheless, purpose overcoming substantial, chronic underrepresentation important remedial use race. Thus, used university admissions. 355-379. STEVENS, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, STEWART, REHNQUIST, view can ever policy issue here; applies; VI, concurs Court's affirms ordering 408-421. Archibald Cox, Cambridge, Mass., petitioner. Sol. Gen. Wade Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 McCree, Jr., Washington, D. C., States, amicus curiae, leave Court. Reynold Colvin, San Francisco, Cal., respondent. [Amicus Curiae Information pages 268-270 intentionally omitted] announced This case presents challenge petitioner, designed assure specified certain groups. Superior sustained challenge, holding 42 Code KF62 2000d et seq., Amendment. enjoined It refused, order School, carried violations. portions court's declaring unlawful enjoining applicant.** modified portion denying requested injunction directed admission. For reasons stated opinion, & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions believe so much holds directs affirmed. expressed my Brothers REHNQUIST STEVENS concur judgment. ** views limited prohibiting Bakke's application. Post, 408-411. remembered, here cross-complained lost. pro ram opinion left doubt reason candidate's Moreover, explaining scope holding, quite clearly prohibited way decisions: "In addition, may properly fact does, consider factors evaluating applicant, such personal recommendations, character, matters relating needs society, professional goals. short, standards constitutionally infirm except extent utilized racially discriminatory manner. Disadvantaged races eligible sympathetic consideration, race, favor another who qualified, measured without regard We reiterate, dissent's misinterpretation, we do utilize 'the highest objective academic credentials' criterion admission." 54-55, 693-694, 1166 (1976) (footnote omitted). explicit statement makes unreasonable assume reach suggested STEVENS. also conclude according process reversed. opinions, Affirmed I* 2 opened 1968 50 students. 1971, size increased students, level remains. existed when school opened, first contained three Asians blacks, Mexican-Americans, Indians. Over next years, faculty devised increase representation "disadvantaged" class.1 consisted system operating coordination 3 candidate submit beginning July preceding sought. Record 149. Because large applications,2 screened select further consideration. Candidates Id., 63. interview. Ibid. Following interviews, interviewers embraced average courses, (MCAT), data. 62. ratings added together arrive "benchmark" score. five perfect 500; candidate, 600. reviewed "rolling" basis.3 They numerical order; instead, 63-64. 4 163. On form, asked indicate applicants; form question group," apparently viewed "Blacks," "Chicanos," "Asians," "American Indians." 65-66, 146, 197, 203-205, 216-218. these questions answered affirmatively, forwarded formal definition produced, id., 163-164, see reflected economic educational deprivation.4 Having passed initial hurdle, fashion applicants. 1974.5 assigned presented latter rate compare applicants, 388, recommended 171-172. prescribed vote 50, 8; doubled 100, doubled, 16. 164, 166. 5 From size—1971—through 21 black 30 12 same period, produced black, 6 37 students.6 Although numbers, n. 5, supra, none received offer through Indeed, least, explicitly designated 171. Allan Bakke male 1974. His interview Dr. Theodore C. West, "a very desirable [the] school." 225. Despite strong 500, come 69. There unfilled considered. 70. wrote George Lowrey, Associate Dean Chairman Committee, protesting quota. AT 259. 7 completed early year. interviewer gave 94, finding "friendly, well tempered, conscientious delightful speak with." 229. was, coincidence, Lowrey written protest "rather approach" problems disturbing "very definite opinions more viewpoints study problem." 226. lowest ratings, 86; 230. Again, exercise place 64. averages, MCAT Bakke's.7 8 instant suit California.8 He sought School. alleged School's rights Amendment,9 Article I, 21, Constitution,10 78 Statutes-at-Large 252, 2000d.11 another. 388 295-296. challenged violative refused admission, failed carry existence 9 appealed decision processing applications. transferred directly court, "because importance issues involved." 39, 684, 1156 (1976). findings respect University's program.12 involved classification, itself bound apply 49, Cal.Rptr., 690, P.2d, 1162-1163. turned justifying agreed physicians groups interests, 53, 693, 1165, cited judgment, Amendment required "no race." 55, 694, 1166. 10 Turning appeal, ruled established discriminated shifted demonstrate absence program.13 63-64, 699-700, 1172. analogized situation plaintiff VII §§ 2000e-17 (1970 ed., Supp. V), see, e. g., Franks versus Bowman Transportation Co., 424 747, 772, 96 1251, 1267, 47 444 Cal.3d, 700, basis, initially remand determining whether, newly allocated proof, either App. Application Stay 48. petition rehearing below, conceded inability burden. B A19-A20.14 thereupon amended direct enter 64, That stayed pending 429 953, 97 573, 321 granted certiorari issue. 1090, 1098, 51 535 (1977). II 11 parties briefed nor argued applicability 1964. Rather, focused exclusively validity possible, might obviate resort interpretation, Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 346-348, 56 466, 80 L.Ed. 688 (1936) (concurring opinion), supplementary briefing statuto y 434 900, 293, 54 186 Atlantic outset face right private exists Respondent argues action, invoking test set forth Cort Ash, 422 66, 78, 95 2080, 45 26 (1975). contends statute creates favor, legislative history reveals intent permit actions,15 actions purposes statute, enforcement generally relegated States. cites several recognized assumed action.16 denies arguing sole function 601, 11, establish predicate administrative 602, 2000d-1.17 view, curtailment funds section sanction imposed recipients 601. points contains grant contrast Titles II, III, IV, VII, 2000a-3(a), 2000b-2, 2000c-8, 2000e-5(f) ed. V).18 13 find resolve case. bring decided courts has hesitant addressed below. McGoldrick Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, 309 430, 434-435, 60 670, 672-673, 84 849 (1940). See Massachusetts Westcott, 431 322, 1755, 52 349 (1977); Cardinale Louisiana, 394 437, 439, 89 1161, 1163, 22 398 (1969). Cf. Singleton Wulff, 428 106, 121, 2868, 2877, 49 826 address difficult Similarly, need pass claim plaintiffs exhaust remedies. assume, case, Lau Nichols, 414 563, 571 2, 94 786, 790, 39 (1974) (STEWART, J., concurring result). 14 language Clause, majestic sweep: 15 "No shall, color, national origin, participation in, denied benefits of, subjected discrimination activity assistance." concept "discrimination," phrase "equal protection laws," susceptible varying interpretations, Holmes declared, "[a] word crystal, transparent unchanged, skin living thought vary greatly content circumstances used." Towne Eisner, 245 418, 425, 38 158, 159, 62 372 (1918). must, therefore, seek whatever aid available precise meaning before us. Train Colorado Public Interest Research Group, 426 1, 10, 1938, 1942, 48 (1976), quoting Trucking Assns., 310 534, 543-544, 1059, 1063-1064, 1345 Examination voluminous congressional halt funding entities prohibition Constitution. isolated statements various legislators taken context, marshaled support proposition enacted purely color-blind scheme,19 comments read background problem Congress addressing broader emerges examination debates. 17 confronting Negro citizens hands moneys. blindness pronouncements margin 19, occur midst extended remarks dealing evils segregation federally funded programs. over again, proponents bill detailed plight Negroes seeking equal treatment programs.20 simply hypothetical preferences accorded citizens; real pressing how guarantee treatment. problem, supporters repeatedly declared principles. example, Representative Celler, House Judiciary Committee floor manager legislation House, emphasized introducing bill: 19 "The assurance hospitals financed money deny adequate care Negroes. prevent abuse food distribution whereby known surplus supplies food. now high[er] education funds. would, existing enjoyment destroy property freedom association." 110 Cong.Rec. 1519 (1964) (emphasis added). 20 Other sponsors shared Celler's embodied principles.21 Senate, Senator Humphrey "to insure spent accordance Constitution moral sense Nation." 6544. Ribicoff standard: "Basically, restriction funds; title spells procedure enforcing restriction." 13333. Senators views.22 Further evidence incorporation standard appears repeated refusals legislation's precisely define term "discrimination." Opponents sharply criticized failure,23 merely replied "discrimination" clear reference law. noted relevance Constitution: 23 "As said, simple purpose. give fellow citizens—Negroes—the opportunities people granted. what preached prophets, Christ Himself. our guarantees." 6553.24 24 intent, proscribe Fifth III 25 does origin faculties administrations universities reviewable See, Missouri ex rel. Gaines Canada, 305 337, 59 232, 83 208 (1938); Sipuel Board Regents, 332 631, 68 299, 92 247 (1948); Sweatt Painter, 339 629, 70 848, 1114 (1950); McLaurin Oklahoma 637, 851, 1149 (1950). part, argue per se invalid. Hirabayashi 320 81, 1375, 87 1774 (1943); Korematsu 323 214, 65 193, 194 (1944); Lee 390 333, 334, 88 994, 995, 1212 (1968) (Black, Harlan, Stewart, JJ., concurring); Jewish Organizations Carey, 430 144, 996, 229 disagree scrutiny erred scrutiny, inexact cases. review, asserts, should disadvantage "discrete insular minorities." SeeUnited Carolene Products 304 152 4, 58 778, 783, 82 1234 (1938). hand, correctly notion degree particular classification hinges membership discrete duly "rights [by Amendment] rights." Shelley Kraemer, 334 22, 836, 846, 1161 (1948). En route crucial battle review,25 fight sharp preliminary proper characterization prefers establishing "goal" echoing labels quota.26 27 semantic distinction beside point: undeniably background. To pool minimally qualified fill seats, compete seats class, rather open Whether limitation described quota goal, line drawn status.27 28 guarantees extend persons. Its explicit: . within jurisdiction laws." settled beyond created are, terms, guaranteed individual. S.Ct., 846. Accord,Missouri U.S., 351, 237; McCabe Atchison, T. S.F.R. 235 151, 161-162, 35 69, 71, 169 (1914). cannot mean thing individual something else color. protection, equal. 29 Nevertheless, males, minority" requiring extraordinary majoritarian political 152-153 783-784. rationale, never invoked prerequisite subjecting distinctions Nor discreteness insularity constitute necessary preconditions invidious.28 Skinner Williamson, 316 535, 541, 1110, 1113, 86 1655 (1942); Carrington Rash, 380 89, 94-97, 85 775, 779-780, 675 (1965). These characteristics relevant deciding add new types c assifications "suspect" categories survives close examination. Retirement Murgia, 427 307, 313, 2562, 2566, 520 (age); Antonio Independent Dist. Rodriquez, 411 93 1278, 1293, 36 (1973) (wealth); Graham Richardson, 403 365, 372, 91 1848, 1852, 534 (1971) (aliens). classifications, subject stringent additional characteristics. cases recognize suspect: "Distinctions between solely ancestry nature odious free institutions founded doctrine equality." Hirabayashi, 1385. 31 "[A]ll legal restrictions curtail civil single immediately suspect. say unconstitutional. them rigid scrutiny." Korematsu, 216, 194. 32 questioned pronouncements. thus 33 perception rooted Nation's demographic history. "one pervading purpose" "the slave security firm establishment freedom, newly-made freeman citizen oppressions formerly exercised dominion him." Slaughter-House Cases, Wall. 36, (1873). "[v]irtually strangled infancy post-civil-war reactionism."29 decades relative desuetude while Due Process short germinal flourished cornerstone defense liberty contract. Mugler Kansas, 123 623, 661, 273, 297, 205 (1887); Allgeyer 165 578, 427, 41 832 (1897); Lochner New York, 198 45, 539, 937 (1905). cause, Amendment's displaced. Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 1138, 256 (1896). era substantive due came close, Nebbia 291 502, 505, 940 (1934); West Coast Hotel company Parrish, 300 379, 81 703 (1937), began attain genuine measure vitality, Products, supra. 34 By longer possible peg Four eenth struggle equality minority. dormancy become Nation minorities.30 Each struggle31—and struggles still32—to overcome prejudices monolithic majority, "majority" composed said perhaps unfairly cases—that characteristic willingness groups.33 As filled stock lands, gradually official discrimination. Strauder Virginia, 303, 308, 664 (1880) (Celtic Irishmen) (dictum); Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 220 (1886) (Chinese); Truax Raich, 239 33, 41, 7, 131 (1915) (Austrian resident aliens); supra (Japanese); Hernandez Texas, 347 475, 74 667, 866 (1954) (Mexican-Americans). Wo, "are universal territorial jurisdiction, differences nationality; laws pledge 369, 1070. Framers conceived primary bridging vast distance "majority," framed condition prior servitude. recently remarked interpreting 1866 claims persons, 39th law principle immediate freed slaves." McDonald Santa Fe Trail 296, 2574, 2586, 493 And specifically broadened 1870 ensure "all persons," "citizens," enjoy Runyon McCrary, 160, 192-202, 2605-2609, 415 (WHITE, dissenting). unlikely among applauded reading states responsive racial, ethnic, cultural diversity Nation. Cong.Globe, Cong., 1st Sess., 1056 (1866) (remarks Rep. Niblack); 2891-2892 Sen. Conness); 40th 883 (1868) Howe) (Fourteenth "protect[s] classes legislation"). Bickel, Original Understanding Segregation Decision, 69 Harv.L.Rev. 60-63 (1955). past embarked mission Equ l assuring 1070, legacy slavery Brown Education, 483, 686, 873 (1954); Hills Gautreaux, 425 284, 1538, 792 landmark area arose response exclusion mainstream characterized involving But depending results. suffices "[o]ver consistently repudiated '[d]istinctions ancestry' 'odious equality.' " Loving 1817, 1823, 1010 (1967), urges us adopt restrictive hold "benign."34 clock liberties, back 1868. 492, 690; accord, 9, 1822. far too permits recognition wards entitled greater others.35 'two-class theory'—that is, 'white' Negro." Hernandez, 478, 670. Once artificial "two-class theory" put aside, difficulties entailed perceived "preferred" status intractable. concepts "minority" necessarily reflect temporary arrangements judgments. observed above, lay individuals. Not receive preferential corresponding tolerance terms nationality, Anglo-Saxon Protestants. principled merit "heightened solicitude" not.36 Courts evaluate prejudice consequent harm suffered Those societal injury exceed arbitrary tolerability expense individuals belonging desired effect, consequences undone, rankings necessary. kind variable sociological analysis produce lie competence—even otherwise politically feasible socially desirable.37 serious justice connected idea preference itself. First, always so-called benign. validate burdens advance group's interest. 172-173, 1013. (BRENNAN, part). Nothing supports suffer impermissible enhance standing Second, reinforce common stereotypes unable achieve success having relationship worth. DeFunis Odegaard, 416 312, 343, 1704, 1719, 40 164 (Douglas, Third, inequity forcing innocent position bear redressing grievances making. hitching transitory considerations, principle, touching ebb flow forces. Disparate exacerbate antagonisms alleviate Organizations, 173-174, 1013-1014 Also, mutability shifting social judgments, undermines chances consistent generation next, critical feature coherent interpretation. Pollock Farmers' Loan Trust 157 429, 650-651, 673, 716, 759 (1895) (White, expounding role discern "principles absolute roots throughout community continuity significant periods time, lift above pragmatic judgments place." Role Government 114 impinge rights, group, consistently. Political regarding necessity weighed balance, (1944), justification will remain constant. be, product rough compromise struck contending democratic process.38 When touch individual's background, determination tailored governmental every regardless 846; 237. Contract occasions approved Most relies areas: desegregation, employment discrimination, sex materially different facts 43 desegregation inapposite. remedies determined E. Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg 402 554 (1971); McDaniel Barresi, 1287, 582 Green County Board, 391 1689, 716 (1968). vindication entitlement.39 permitted Dayton Education Brinkman, 433 406, 2766, 53 851 Milliken Bradley, 418 717, 3112, 1069 (1974); Pasadena City Spangler, 424, 2697, 599 Austin 990, 991-995, 517-519, 603 (POWELL, concurring). Here, formulation classification. cause. retroactive award seniority truckdrivers victims discrimination—not just society large, employees, 'to make [the victims] whole injuries discrimination.' 763, 1264, Albemarle Paper Moody, 405, 2362, 2372, 280 Appeals fashioned violations resulting identified, race-based preference. Bridgeport Guardians, Incorporated Service Commission, 482 1333 (CA2 1973); Carter Gallagher, 452 315 (CA8 1972), en banc, 327. Such upheld where charged responsibility determinations industries affected, deemed appropriate rectify Contractors Association Eastern Pennsylvania Secretary Labor, 442 159 (C.A.3), cert. denied, 404 854, 98, (1971);40 Associated General Massachusetts, Altshuler, 490 (C.A.1 1973), 957, 307 cf. Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 1717, 828 (1966). proved violations.41 applicable supported gender-based E.G., Califano Webster, 316-317, 1192, 1194-1195, 360 Craig Boren, 190, 211, 451, 464, 397 Gender-based likely create analytical practical present premised criteria. With gender classifications. incidence clear. rival they, too, Classwide suffering previous fairly burdened relatively manageable reviewing courts. Goldfarb, 199, 212-217, 1021, 1029-1032, 270 Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 645, 1225, 1231, 514 resolution context complex intractable More importantly, stems lengthy tragic share. sum, comparable analysis. 46 (1974), favoring minorities approval inquiry ordinarily Lau, Francisco provide English instruction 1,800 oriental spoke amounted 2000d, regulations promulgated thereunder. understand children foreign 568, 789. meaningful opportunity participate program," ibid., remanded fashioning order. provides little argument. rested construed agency practices "which effect discrimination," ibid. stated: "Under state-imposed providing facilities, textbooks, teachers, curriculum; effectively foreclosed education." 566, 788. "preference" result denial benefit—"meaningful program"—to anyone else. deprived ability Francisco's system, assistance linguistic 570-571, 790 vein,42 recent (1977), indicates approve benefit minorities, denominating "suspect." York redrawn reapportionment plan objections Department Voting 1965, 1973c V). Specifically, voting districts electoral power "nonwhite" voters "dilution" original plan. remedy encompassed measures improve previously participate, excluding opportunity—meaningful unlike legislature engaged practice efforts. operation totally competition class. foreclosure, state-provided benefit—admission School—they receive. enjoyed others regarded 641-642, 853-854. IV "order show interest permissible 'necessary accomplishment' safeguarding interest." re Griffiths, 413 721-722, 2851, 2855, 910 (footnotes omitted); 1823; McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 196, 283, 290, 222 (1964). purports of: (i) "reducing historic deficit traditionally disfavored schools profession," Brief 32; (ii) countering effects discrimination;43 (iii) communities currently underserved; (iv) obtaining ethnically body. decide which, any, substantial enough * percentage insubstantial facially Preferring own sake. forbids. 290; (1954). certainly legitimate ameliorating, eliminating feasible, disabling identified cases, commencing Brown, attests commitment judiciary affirm lawful toward attainment. redress wrongs worked instances remedying "societal amorphous ageless past. aids victimized judicial, legislative, Teamsters 324, 367-376, 1843, 1870-1875, 396 155-156, 1004-1005; South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 803, 808, 769 made, preferring injured vindicated. judicially, legislatively, administratively defined. usually remains continuing oversight work competing benefit. violations,44 government helping refraining harming inflicting harm. purport make, findings. broad education, adjudication illegality. Part segments structures competent mandates legislatively criteria.45 Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 88, 1895, 495 (1976); Before relying sorts authority capability establish, record, 316-321, 1194-1197; 1029-1032. Lacking capability, 55 Hence, discrimination" imposes disadvantages beneficiaries suffered. convert heretofore privilege pleasure step approved. identifies, improving delivery health-care services underserved. situations State's facilitating health virtually record indicating needed geared promote goal.46 proof: concedes entered 'interest' practicing community, actually so. correct intention, doctor. (See Sandalow, Preferences Higher Education: Responsibility Judicial (1975) U.Chi.L.Rev. 653, 688). reliable ways identify genuinely interested An demonstrated concern declares contribute alleviation shortage chosen entirely disadvantage. empirical data selflessly oriented selfishly acquisitive." 56, 695, 1167. prefer better citizens. shown problem.47 Defendant fourth asserted attainment institution higher education. Academic enumerated right, long First includes selection Frankfurter summarized "four essential freedoms" freedom: 'It business atmosphere conducive speculation, experiment creation. prevail university—to determine teach, taught, study.' Sweezy Hampshire, 354 234, 263, 77 1203, 1218, 1311 (1957) 61 Our freedoms Keyishian 385 589, 603, 675, 683, 629 (1967): "Our deeply committed transcendent value teachers concerned. depends leaders trained wide exposure robust exchange ideas discovers truth 'out multitude tongues, [rather] authoritative selection.' Press, D.C., F.Supp. 362, 372." "speculation, creation"—so quality education—is widely believed promoted body.48 Keyishian, "nation's exposure" mores peoples. 64 "robust ideas," invokes countervailing interest, light, paramount fulfillment mission. force training centered primarily competency. graduate level, tradition experience lend contribution substantial. 634, 850, education: 66 school, learning practice, effective isolation interacts. Few practiced choose vacuum, removed interplay concerned." 67 Physicians heterogeneous population. background—whether geographic, culturally advantaged disadvantaged—may medicine experiences, outlooks, enrich equip graduates render understanding vital service humanity.49 Ethnic diversity, element range attaining sensitive limitations protecting disregarded. urges—and held—that dual impermissibly infringes university's program's u.s., s.ct., 2854-2855. V reservation preferred considerable argument serving seriously flawed. fundamental misconceives selected remaining undifferentiated aggregation furthers encompasses array qualifications element. Petitioner's hinder diversity.50 served expanding two-track multitrack aside identifiable category inconceivable pursue logic illogical end insulating 71 programs, valued demonstrates assignment fixed end. illuminating example Harvard program: 72 expanded th economic, recruits Californians Louisianans blacks Chicanos 73 meant reviews middle 'admissible' capable doing good tip balance geographic life farm candidates' boy Idaho Bostonian offer. [See Appendix hereto.] target-quotas musicians, football players, physicists awareness [of including token students] sets minimum west Mississippi choosing thousands academically qualities, criteria mind, pays attention students." Columbia University, Stanford Pennsylvania, Amici 2-3. 75 program,51 "plus" file, yet insulate comparison seats. examined potential decisive compared, Italian-American exhibit qualities beneficial pluralism. exceptional talents, unique experience, leadership potential, maturity, compassion, disadvantage, communicate poor, important. flexible pertinent elements light footing although weight. weight attributed "mix" incoming 76 treats loses last seat eceiving wrong surname. combined qualifications, included nonobjective factors, outweigh applicant. competitively, complain unequal Amendment.52 considers subtle sophisticated—but effective—means facial discriminate, evident infirmity element—to elements—in "A boundary line," connection, "is worse narrow." McLeod Dilworth, 322 327, 329, 1023, 1025, 1304 (1944). university, professing employ nondiscriminatory policy, operate cover functional equivalent system. faith presumed showing contrary Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 555, 450 Washington 229, 2040, 597 Swain Alabama, 202, 824, (1965).53 summary, involves countenanced tells Negro, Asian, Chicano matter quantitative extracurricular, educatio al afforded chance 79 fatal flaw disregard absolute. imposition person's skin, demonstration reason, legitimately competitive origin. enjoins entitlement directing that, injunction, affirmed.54 APPENDIX TO OPINION POWELL, Judge Program55 freshman "qualified" comparatively small. high records teachers' recommendations Harvard, distinction. Faced dilemma scholarly excellence attempt ikely perform best academically. adopted approach. belief predominant criterion, lose great deal vitality intellectual offered suffer. Final Report W. Bender, Admission Scholarship Financial Aid, Pages seq. (Cambridge, 1960). Consequently, selecting seem faculty—perhaps 150 1,100 seeks— variety choices. seemed adds ingredient effectiveness [in College]. students' affected importantly backgrounds career fine libraries, laboratories housing arrangements. (Dean Fred L. Glimp, Faculty Arts Sciences, Official Register 25, 93, 104-105 supplied). tenet Fifteen twenty ago, California, Massachusetts; city dwellers boys; violinists, painters players; biologists, historians classicists; stockbrokers, academics politicians. few attended College. Contemporary conditions continue first-rate ignored Admissions. "admissible" outlook aware truly heterogen[e]ous environment reflects rich provided numbers. sense, homes Mississippi. Comparably, begin classmates experiences Their small numbers themselves m ke develop potential. derived body, reasonable refinements sometimes help illustrate significance attached fill, forced A, child successful physician promise superior performance, B, grew up inner-city ghetto semi-literate parents energy abiding power. already B; vice versa. C, artistic talent, places, edge baron often dependent associated it. Opinion BLACKMUN, dissenting today, reversing Governments act affirmatively all. difficulty race-conscious discrimination— mature Brethren brought speaking mask central today's opinions: acts demean insult cast prejudice, bodies competence area. 90 JUSTICE amended, theory alone, Brother reaching concludes admissions, Bakke, Accordingly, Members affirming University." 1172 agree us, goes affirmance prohibit affirmative-action account. ante, 271 affirmative constitutional, reverse respects. agrees uses and, joins votes future.1 Men equal." Yet candor requires acknowledgment forge Colonies Nation, openly compromised antithesis: slavery. aptly called Dilemma." Still, recount been, come, principles flowered actuality embodiment human equality, land slightly half 200 years. half, largely moribund 1927, sum remarking "last arguments." Buck Bell, 274 200, 208, 584, 585, 1000 (1927). Worse desuetude, intended free, condemning "separate equal"2 law, seldom 1954—only ago—was interred (Brown ), progeny,3 proclaimed public facilities forbidden Even inequality eliminated deliberate speed." 294, 753, 756, 99 1083 19684 1971,5 remind boards obligation eliminate root branch. glance docket6 dockets today officially sanctioned Against "color-blind" datum seen aspiration description reality. denigrate aspiration; reality rebukes stigmatize oppress minorities. cannot—and, demonstrate, extends constraints funds—let myopia masks "created equal" treated lifetimes inferior threshold 1964 bars giving enable surmount obstacles discrimination.7 join Parts Postnominals Vice-Chancellor High POWELL's conclusion require VI.8 agencies; bar subsequent executive conclusion. None sources lends efforts historically life. VI—from President Kennedy's request departments agencies cut off discriminate final enactment incorporating proposals—reveals purpose: Executive Branch terminate disadvantaging government. 1963, message proposing subsequently became 1964.9 introduced words unequivocally expressing subsidize inconsistent Amendments action. Celler apart reached activities sufficient control invoke Amendments, criteria, treatment" later defined way: 101 general, seems anomalous abet granting kinds aid. shocking, moreover, hand 14th amendment, supposed away laws, aiding abetting persist 102 "It override provisions contemplate segregated institutions." 2467. 103 memorandum setting b sis reiterated theme oral remarks: exercising fix disbursed ., legislate Constitution." 1528. 104 Government's complicity conduct, particularly Negroes, antidiscrimination Lindsay, member candidly acknowledged, why necessary, 105 "Both discriminate. Many raised Does live mandate local especially 5th amendments?" 106 explained authorize termination expenditure institutions. Representatives Lindsay concerning House.10 Nowhere suggestion recipient incorporated 107 Senate's identical legislation. Humphrey, Senate manager, debate section-by-section succinctly VI: 108 sure seeks end, wherever go engages private, institutions, Simkins Moses Cone Memorial Hospital, 959 (C.A.4, 1963), [cert. 376 938, 793, 659 (1964)]. 109 accomplish uncertainty engaging statutes appeared grants realized conduct insufficient mig t Amendments. agreement Humphrey's 111 112 standards. Pastore, 7057, 7062; Clark, 5243; Allott, 12675, 12677.11 113 contention refuted type debates reveal motivated desire eradicate evil: facilities. Again speech presenting Senate: "Large sums contributed construction, operation, maintenance schools. 115 116 "Similarly, Hill-Burton Act, admit only. 117 also, colleges, forth, going "Nor agricultural extension services, funds, maintain offices whites. 119 ". Vocational limit skilled occupations. localities reported rolls, commodities, assisted retaliation v ter registration drives, sit-in demonstrations like." 6543-6544. 120 Pastore (id., 7054-7055); 7064-7065); Clark 5243, 9086); Javits 6050, 7102).12 121 foregoing acquiescence, administration support. involve questionable possessed Congress' solution condemned 122 Of course, understood neutrality blindness, enshrined rule Later interpretation clarification dislodge VI's hypothesis. colorblind. infra, 355-356. 124 conceivably surely codify unless itself, induce voluntary compliance requirement treatment.13 602 2000d-1 (no terminated "determined secured means"); H.R.Rep. 914, 88th pt. Page (1963), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 2355; 13700 (Sen. Pastore); 6546 Humphrey). encourage evil forbidding cure acknowledged obvious predicated adversely affects guilty await Branch. requirements. remarkable violations, Swann, 43, 1284, 586 (1971), unconstitutional implementation system: "Just occurred, formulating remedy." 46, 1286. Surely intend entity implemented remedy. remedies, unconstitutionality 125 shows eschewed static shaped necessity, evolving doctrine. ban specifically, constituted lost opponents. Ervin complained: 126 'discrimination,' reference, contextual explanation whatever, 'is against' benefiting specified. occurs unequally religion, What constitutes unfair treatment? Section say. department administering guideline intent." 5612 127 Abernethy 1619); Dowdy 1632); Talmadge 5251); Sparkman 6052). criticisms, prohibited. 128 Specific definitions undesirable, principal backers, judicially 5253, 6553); 13333); 7057); 5606-5607, 6050).14 emphasis flexibility Attorney Robert Kennedy testified rules defining differ meanings contexts.15 dete mination preserve supporters. Johnston amendment expressly authorized grantees adoptive foster homes, opposed ultimately defeated 56-29 vote, administrators trusted reasonably danger circumstances. 13695. 129 incorporate surprising. 1963 drafted debated, strike down America, Clause's nondiscrimination flux rapid evolution. questions, barred de jure facto resolution. evolutionary change undergoing 1964.16 130 equating commands refusal prohibit, expectation administered manner, statute's evolve plain fail cryptic then-prevalent absolutely '[w]hen construction words, available, "rule law" forbids use, however appear "superficial examination." ' when, here, literal assuming plain, lead results conflict purpose.17 2000d-1, instructs promulgate regulations, Presidential approval, deference construing Mourning Family Publications Service, Inc., 1652, 1660, 318 (1973); Red Lion Broadcasting FCC, 395 367, 381, 1794, 1801, 371 Health, Welfare (HEW), authorizing undertaking Regulations 80.3(b)(6)(i) (1977) provides: 133 discrimination." 134 80.5(i) elaborates requirement: 135 situations, attributable abandoned, impede availability 80.6(d), information regulation, consequences, 80.3(b)(6) steps fully nationality referrals adequately served." 136 exclusionary institution, objectives VI.18 consequently behalf explain history, compels recipient, HEW incongruous 137 80.3(b)(6)(ii) 138 "Even limiting origin." 139 explanatory regulation contemplates preferences: 140 policies, administers equally served. recruitment policies readily service." 80.5(j) 141 agency19 objectives.20 142 execution deserving unaltered. 1801; Zemel Rusk, 381 11-12, 1271, 1278-1279, 179 took Departments Labor appropriation 1978, restricted appropriation. originally submitted Ashbrook, "[n]one appropriated initiate, enforce quotas creed, age." Rec. 19715 measure, Ashbrook creation bureaucracy. 19722. stated, favored permitting identity Government. 19715. barring HEW: 143 "None obligated expended connection issuance, implementation, rule, guideline, issued ratio, related (1) hiring promotion entity, (2) entity." 144 House. bill, HEW's impose Conference urging HEW, deleted bill.21 purposes, imposing voluntarily 145 Finally, passage eliminates about permissibility assisting confirms extending 146 Just legislation22 "for works project gives satisfactory Commerce] centum amount enterprises." defines enterprise" business, owned or, publicly members." members" terms: "citizens Spanish-speaking, Orientals, Indians, Eskimos, Aleuts." exemption determines otherwise," escape clause possibility areas country contain enterprises" legislation.23 147 represents excessive unemployment development viable controlled enterprises.24 "set-aside" "new scene" "relatively small," larger companies underbidding enterprises. 5327 (Rep. Mitchell). mention during contractors modify purported escaped inadvertent "will enforced established, 1964." 6709 (1976 ed.). Thus projects. 10% enterprises reflecting ear ier earlier statute. 380381, 1801-1802; Erlenbaugh 409 239, 243-244, 477, 480-481, 446 (1972). 311 60, 64-65, 102, 105-106 (1940).25 148 Prior strongly suggest permissible. English-language Chinese English, Chinese, relied stipulates "may methods defeating substantially impa ring accomplishment 80.3(b)(2) interpreted Chinese-speaking English-speaking allegation city's purposeful design 149 depart cognizant impact Secondly, latitude question, presumably, analogy entrance correlated performance profession.26 wait adjudicated undertake corrective good-faith ultimate lingering disproportionate impact, alike Constitution's, doubts correctness premise decision. However, accepting Lau's implication alone contexts prima facie coextensive assist least. discussed 336-350, prohibitions fails indeed, rejection employing paragraph, violation, hat forbid attempting operation. 151 declined containing employer able job.27 significantly, employers acted intent.28 qualification abridges color," strengths comply gain others.29 indicative unwillingness construe objective. departing frustrating 153 turn, 154 assertion closely birth status, treated. "constitutionally irrelevance," Edwards 314 185, 172, (1941) (Jackson, concurring), summed shorthand "[o]ur color-blind," 559, 1146, (1896) (Harlan, dissenting), deed, occasions. 155 implied "overriding purpose," 192, (1964), ibid.; (1967); 194, 100-101, 1385-1386, (1943). recently, unanimously Georgia board, color-blind. North held, unanimously, mandating school-assignment plans stand "against segregation," "render illusory [I]." 45-46, 156 conclude, turn articulating classifies consequently, weigh Davis' compelling. asserts inquire alternatives purposes. Petitioner, accept benign but, respects inapposite now, precision term, "strict 158 Unquestionably restricts "fundamental rights" "suspect classifications" scrutiny" justified then, alternative available.30 District Rodriguez, 16-17, 1287-1288, Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, here. Antonio, 29-36, 1294-1298. "traditional indicia suspectness: saddled disabilities, treatment, powerlessness command process." 1294; (1938).31 representations credited, "irrelevant prohibited." contravene cardinal stigmatize—because presumption behind hatred separatism—are more. 374, 1073, (1886);32 (1880); 223, 197; Oyama 633, 663, 269, 249 (1948) (Murphy, 191-192, 287-289; 1823-1824; Reitman Mulkey, 387 375-376, 1627, 1631-1632, 830 165, 1009, (UJO) (opinion JJ.); 169, 1011 part).33 160 fit neatly analytic framework analyzed loose rational-basis cases.34 '[T]he mere recitation benign, compensatory automatic shieldhich protects actual underlying scheme.' 317, 1194, 648, 1233, Instead, considerations developed gender-discrimination classifications—lead 'must objectives.' 457, (1976).35 161 like, "gender-based [has] inexcusably stereotype powerless society." Kahn Shevin, 357, 1734, 1738, 189 (dissenting opinion). carefully avoid vices, supra; Schlesinger Ballard, 419 498, 572, 610 (1975); nonetheless honest thoughtful appraisal paternalistic stereotyping patently stigmatizing women badge inferiority. 508, 577; UJO, 174, 3, 1014 part); 1035, (STEVENS, judgment). Stanton Stanton, 421 14-15, 1373, 1377-1378, ostensibly ameliorate obviously hazard stigma, separatism incapable succeeding own. 1013 298 J.). 162 illegitimacy, Weber Aetna Casualty Surety 406 1400, 768 (1972), immutable possessors aside. divides characteristic, 355-356, nevertheless true divisions deep "legal wrongdoing," Weber, 175, 1407; Frontiero 677, 1764, 1770, 583 JJ.), advancement sanctioned, sponsored, ideally achievement, 173, Kotch River Port Pilot Comm'rs, 330 552, 910, 917, 1093 (1947) (Rutledge, so: "natural consequence governing [may be] 'discrete insular' immediate, costs i limits majorities classify individualism process, weighing waive Lucas Assembly, 377 713, 736, 1459, 1473, 632 risk misused, causing invidious inappropriate conceivable sustain articulated shown. stricken stigmatizes singles represented brunt strict—not 'strict' fact,"36 stigma causes fatality—but searching nonetheless. sound concluding chronic, handicap impeding access 166 (1968), adjudged ending adopting neutral stance. Three later, companion Comm'rs Mobile County, 1289, 577 inadequate influence Charlotte-Mecklenburg, 1282. Montgomery Ed., 225, 1670, 263 (1969), express boards, creating pluralism ratios school. 16, 1276. instance, unitary systems, "eliminated branch," Green, 438, 1694, overt 167 account, finds outlawed disproportionately adverse unjustified enjoyed. individually against; 357-362, 1865-1868. objection upset expectations nonminorities. Franks, Congress, remove barriers opportunity, vis-a-vis nonminority 435, 2380, (1975).37 168 distinguished presence UJO; seeCalifano V. (1974). alsoKatzenbach self-defeating. severely undermine jurisprudence stressed intervention cessation illegal action.38 using 157, 1005 JJ.);39 167, JJ.);40 1194; irrelevant resolving claims. workers employees And, products hence "tainted," 776, 1270, easily upset, conclude—as was—that qualify procedures principally likelihood pervasive program.41 170 life, intentional accord case-by-case benefited discrimination.42 171 pursuant Commerce power, decisionmaking component Amendment.43 Therefore, rests implicitly impliedly empowered segregation, validly do. traditional recognizing initiate ngressional pre-emption matter. Acts remotely suggests furthering addressed. initiatives "To sword stultify Amendment." Railway Mail Assn. Corsi, 326 1483, 1489, 2072 (1945) (Frankfurter, concurring).44 admitting 172 Properly construed, disparate large. valid test. 173 Certainly, undisputed factual submissions believing handicaps Until fact, prerogative whites.45 1950, population, 2.2% physicians.46 overwhelming these, educated predominantly schools, Howard Meharry.47 1970, gap proportion population widened: remained frozen 2.2%48 11.1%.49 admittees 1955 Odegaard 19. 174 pattern perpetuated retained standard. 1969, used, statistics years.50 175 persistent depicted labor deliberate, generally, profession. inception disabilities impairing opportunity. slavery, penal sanctions educate Negroes.51 stamped inferior, (1954), institutions,52 intercourse advancement. criminal penalties well. 1908, conviction college teaching Berea Kentucky, 211 81. 176 habit cultivated centuries dissipated aspects massive resistance prevented, lesser , levels professions. 1968—most born decided—clearly decrees testify widespread California-born applicants;53 reared Southern law.54 separation school-children "generates feeling inferiority affect hearts minds undone," 494, 691, inescapable indeed endured debilitating fostered starting whites.55 177 rest handicapping Welfare, expert promulgating 341-343, caused 344-345, discussing (1971). accordingly, regulations. Department's regulatory gone unnoticed Congress. 346-347. appropriations prevented implicit regulations—that ensuring universities—deserves deference. (1966); 175-178, 1014-1016 part).56 178 prong test—whether objectives—is satisfied claimed operates insular, identifiable, group. not, exclusive bringing together. True, reduce percentage—less population57—of underrepresented applicants.58 180 him. schoolchildren Unlike inflict hey second-class justification; inflicted distinguishable actions, alone. 181 discriminates unintentionally ceiling inferior. rather, compensates uncontested medicine, state-fostered regularly students; taught classes; evaluated judged. degrees standing. justifiably virtue stigmatized 182 courts' objectives. argues, ends foreseeable measures. (such poverty family background) substitute indicator outnumber socioeconomic level.59 families $10,000 income, 71% white.60 1970 headed 18, 80% 20% minorities.61 positively GPA not. economically whites, whites.62 graphically integrate compensating achieved entire 183 equate she program; detected informal, insisted educators affairs adjudicatory proceedings, insistence misplaced. indirectly, matter, impossible, despite excellent exist. measurement impossible extremely impractical, nothing categorical ends, goal. Gaston 285, 295-296, 1720, 1725-1726, (1969); 1731, 828(1986). offering probability victimization great. E 184 predetermined positive adjudication, difference approaches. accords unavoidable, acceptable Furthermore, inevitably exceeds number. sensible, between, adding expression approximately done here.63 185 "Harvard" 316-318, concede, successfully employs scarce approach workings specific, number, condemn adjudication. "quota." State, alternative, concerned, abjure pursuing, proceeds apparent public. 187 WHITE. 188 write separately cause Justices exists, am unwilling answer. claim. it, obliged so, advisable jurisdictional Griffin, 303 226, 764 (1938).1 urged dispositive, adjudicate novel Title, "consistent schem intent. 2088, 2000a accommodations, 2000e employment, forbid. Both enforcement. 2000b 2000c suits areas. 1983, IV. pre-existing 2000b-2 2000c-8. 190 proscription person, incredible attending silently 191 refine, procedures. enforcement: Every furnishing implement President. Termination noncompliance authorized, hearing secure compliance. files committees report days elapsed thereafter. provided, terminating 192 step, replete assurances conciliation exhausted.2 allow sue circuit procedural President, layover failed, circumvent prerequisites themselves. 193 contemplated independent, section. litigation tool attack practices. follow, anticipated Wherever undertaking, statutes, unnecessary. fact. Significantly, frequent (C.A.4 deliberations. 6544 hospital "massive extensive state-federal sharing plan" "state action" F.2d, 967. unnecessary, discriminators not—and disclaimed "every subvention automatically beneficiary 'state action,' ibid.3—it believe, views, stricter requires, follows readily. banned discriminators, careful preserved (in IV) inference exceptionally concerned satisfaction preliminaries fund choice stopping discriminating pose widened whatsoever. 195 played major exist.4 "indication implicit, one," clearer imagined, Cort, "an [is] controlling." 82, 2090. Keating, proposed "right sue" "person discrimination"; acquiesced.5 neutral, ambiguous statements. nice enjoin would. post, 419-420, 26. odd did, identical. allegedly permitted, agency, refusing thereby escaping predicate.6 confront jeopardize processes structured 196 "that effectuation Act." National Railroad Passenger Corporation Passengers, 453, 458, 646 Securities Investor Barbour, 412, 418-420, 1733, 1737-1738, 197 colleagues assumes merits My regard, issue, joint filed.7 MARSHALL. 199 violates remembered ingenious forms Negro. Now, stands barrier. 201 hundred fifty dragged chains sold Uprooted homeland thrust bondage labor, rights. teach read; friends whim master; killing maiming crime. brutalized dehumanized master slave.1 202 etched Colonies' attempts self-government. colonists independence England, document cataloguing King proclaiming "self-evident" men endowed "with unalienable Rights," "Life, Liberty pursuit Happiness." self-evident truths intended, men. draft Declaration Independence, Thomas Jefferson Continental charges 203 "[h]e waged cruel war violating sacred distant offended him, captivating carrying hemisphere, incur miserable death transportation thither." Franklin 88. 204 delegation charge deleted; implicated trade, inclusion continuation once ties England severed. ensured perpetuation Independence three-fifths apportioning representatives taxes "Migration Importation" slaves 1808, fugitive returned master, "we people," designed, skins Professor John Hope Americans "proudly machinery safeguards insured enslavement blacks." 100. 206 likewise protect promulgation Slave Codes, defend owner slave. confirmed Dred Scott Sandford, How. 393, 691 (1857), Holding Compromise—which Louisiana Purchase Territory north Missouri—was owners property, "[t]he traffic ordinary article merchandise guarantied ." 451. "regarded beings altogether unfit associate relations; man 407. 207 erased emancipation War. long-awaited emancipation, freeing citizenship way. Slavery replaced "laws colored onerous burdens, curtailed liberty, value." 70, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth systematically secure. inactions maintained century re-enslave Immediately War, provisional legislatures Black things, rent imprisonment breach contracts. decades, managed disenfranchise spite techniques, poll taxes, deliberately complicated balloting processes, literacy finally primary. 209 responded Reconstruction Acts. War Bureau Refugees, Freedmen, Abandoned Lands, Freedmen's Bureau, supply food, hospitals, land, slaves. protected relieved citizen. 210 short-lived. rapidly stripped Vann Woodward: "By narrow Court's] whittled presumably Woodward 139. protections. Reese, 563 (1876); Cruikshank, 542, 588 (1876). Then notorious 835 (1883), equality. invalidated sections 1875 crime "inns, conveyances, theatres amusement." 20. According State. invasion individuals, that. 24-25, 31. "When emerged beneficent shaken inseparable concomitants state," concluded, "there stage progress elevation takes rank citizen, ceases favorite Harlan dissent, Amendmen favorite" instead "sought Union race—to freemen more." 61, 57. 212 blow upholding railway separate" accommodations abolish social, commingling unsatisfactory either." 544, 1140. Ignoring realities positions races, remarked: 213 "We fallacy plaintiff's consist assumption stamps anything act, chooses it." 551, 1143. 214 Harlan's bankruptcy reasoning. "real meaning" degraded allowed sit coaches occupied citizens." 560, 1147. fear mischievous." 1148. disappeared, retain interfere blessings freedom; regulate citizens, race; 215 fears soon realized. wake Plessy, Jim Crow passenger trains residential areas, parks, theaters, rooms, bathrooms. ordinances phone booths textbooks kept other, prostitutes districts. 1898, Charlestown News Courier printed parody laws: 216 'If cars railroads, street railways. Also boats. cars, saloons stations, eating houses. jury box, dock witness court—and Bible witnesses kiss.' 68. 217 irony passed, exception stand, improbable editor derision practice—down Bible." 218 restricting Northern juries, restaurants, hotels, inns. Wilson, equire buildings; desks curtained off; bathrooms tables cafeterias provided; galleries segregated. segregationist attacked, Wilson 'not humiliating benefit' 'rendering Negroes] safe possession office against.' Kluger 91. 219 20th century. World Wars, confined military units; 1948 Truman. repeating schools—and doctors, lawyers, engineers, like—is established. (which helped foster) series leading Morgan 328 373, 1050, 1317 (1946); move eliminated. America inevitable Measured comfort dream 221 expectancy shorter child.2 child's mother times die complications childbirth,3 infant mortality nearly twice whites.4 median income 60% family,5 incomes whites.6 reaches working age, counterpart. adults, whites,7 teenagers teenagers.8 completes expect annual $110 diploma.9 represent 11.5% population,10 1.2% judges, 2% physicians, 2.3% dentists, 1.1% engineers 2.6% professors.11 223 figures denied. 224 sorry devastating lives forever divided society. 225 fate. Neither cumulative society's effort doctors. ago 226 "in fair [Civil War] amendments, look spirit all, .." Wall., 72. 227 1866, ch. 173; 391. refugees, measures, 174; Mar. 1865, 90, 507, regarded, dismay Congressmen, "solely freedmen, 544 Taylor). 634-635 Ritter); 80-81 Chanler). bitterly "undertakes negro favors poor get." 401 McDougall). 319 Hendricks); 362 Saulsbury); Willey); bill's defended it—not rebutting treatment—but pointing treatment: 228 'destitute suffering' negroes, destitute paupers, omitted immunities necessitates protection." Phelps). 421, 688. Johnson vetoed modifications; bills Messages Papers Presidents 3596, 3599, 3620, 3623 (1897). Rejecting concerns opponents, overrode President's veto. 3842, 3850 (1866). 230 endment "would distortion manifested perpetuate color." 1487, (1945), pervert substituting abstract achieve. 231 constitutionality Beginning board 1276, 1288, noted, 232 "flat duty authorities disestablish systems. mixing, found, useful shaping device—even point—contravenes [88 716] formulate 1286, 233 observed, "[a]ny freeze quo target processes." 1289. 234 Only Term, Puerto Ricans; diluting strength Hasidic community. UJO "innocent" Social Security longstanding women.' 1195, quotingCalifano 8, 1028, (plurality similarly discrimination.12 Webster ample universi 236 applaud ironic class-based declining hold, ignores against, skins. 20th-century discrimination; racism none, wealth position, impact. kind, degree, marked mark endured. melting pot Negro; pot. 237 me emerging cease 31, 392. yield view. Had "do citizenship, masters slaves," wards." 238 1896, faced remember, "Constitution color-blind" lone dissenter. 1146. color-blindness, ours where, "special" skin. influence, affluence, prestige America. long, doors shut integrated her, doors. America's impermissible. 240 individual, University. doubt, computer told 'affirmative origin.' Supplemental Amicus guess governments 241 circle. started "affirmative Cases Ferguson destroyed movement complete almost taken, nonaction tacit followed numerous stepping stop California. 242 BLACKMUN. 243 fully, bears myself. observations me, protection. 244 1970's, 2%, attorneys, refer three-fourths situation, professed conscious. earnest hope truth, relic decade most. story quarter slim one. transitional inequality, maturity along ugly instructive 246 highly available. Wholly Obviously, deserving. focus himself disadvantaged, historical One theoretical enlarge enter, talk vanish. Unfortunately, realistic. resources wou d graduates, 248 84-16 division theoretical, philosophical, legal, somewhat disturbed consciousness, learning, albeit athletic skills, alumni, affluent bestow largess connections celebrities, famous, powerful. 250 Programs basically academicians specialists employ. judiciary, contrast, ill-equipped poorly this. management judges educators, bounds. interference rare rule. 251 propositions (a) personal; (b) scrutiny; (c) Amendment; (d) 1868 states, Transp. embraces "broader principle." 252 enlargement broken moorings aims persist. distinct action," facts, about. conflicts idealistic tension tension, imposed, shield. 253 emphasize brushed Many, point, point. sure, "distinguished" present. degree. petitioners complained "remedy" improve" describes 305. Nichols looked ethnicity. 254 convinced, profound cons itutionally significant. thin indistinct each, subjective work. professed. formulated cynical, Harvard's covertly openly. far, aspect, bounds, barely infer violation. 255 worth noting, perhaps, stranger veterans' preferences. aid-to-the-handicapped progressive tax. Indian excuse exist ignored. field, indicated, geography, ability, largess, alumni pressure, kind. components edges MARSHALL gratifying know factor, many, presume there, world sooner get road world, shutting vanish scene. 257 arrange successful. ask demand impossible. racism, treat equally, differently. cannot—we dare let supremacy. 258 So litigation, is: Among choose? 259 Chief Justice, wise farsighted, said: 260 forget, constitution expounding." McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 407, 579 (1819) original). 261 Great observed: 262 "Let legitimate, constitution, appropriate, plainly adapted prohibited, letter constitutional." 421. destined 264 generalities age Cardozo, Nature (1921). educator 266 "But lawyers' document: veh cle Constitutional (1911). 267 precepts breadth ever-present modernity basic Today, governed McCulloch's 1819 govern 268 join, 269 controversy Court.1 identification petitioner's. litigants. claiming illegal, unlawfully legality paragraphs, importance.2 Paragraph paragraph process; application.3 significance. 272 challenged, incorrectly [could] admitted."4 admission.5 superseded outstanding 273 perfectly discussion inappropriate.6 ground. "If ought unavoidable." Spector Motor McLaughlin, 101, 105, 152, 154, 101.7 doctrine.8 undoubted unusual importance. Since, dispositive squarely 275 276 277 acknowledges assistance.9 misstates enforceable warranted. 278 integral far-reaching "reverse "glaring Nation,"10 facilities.11 genesis legislation, adopted. enacting 279, 2578, 493,12 answer lem "on Report, H.R.Rep.No.914, 2401 echoed spokesmen Act.13 279 contends, carries stigma. 601's "exclusion" clear; follow "excluded from" outlawing grounds. reinforces reading. opponents "discrimination."14 feared "racially balanced" colleges universities, pressed possibility.15 response, "colorblind" application.16 follows: 281 "[T]he 'discrimination' really religion 282 [what 'discrimination'] worry Internal Revenue pay months everyone else." 5864 283 "[I]f Americans, fat ones, tall brown green yellow Americans. 5866. 284 answers colorblind government,17 codifies prohibition. projects paraphrasing require. Act's weapon view.18 distillation demanded Governments, independent force, addition Constitution.19 285 independently not.20 congruence—or congruence controlling crystal clear: Race 286 justifies natural meaning. prohibition, mind; won debate, appendage.21 unmistakable race.22 phrased "permissible 'yes' person; 'no' skin."23 287 Belatedly, litigant. unpersuasive injunctive VI; asking statute.24 state-court 434, 672, 849. were, Act. date, courts, VI.25 position; curiae brief available,26 action.27 amply itself.28 tardy propriety 288 289 else, respectfully dissent. opinion. WHITE III-A Material distributed subcommittee evaluates backgrounds. designate requests evaluation. categorically Task Force Program are: 1) near future, 2) long-range stimulate professions junior "After inviting Medicine conducted Committee. Recommendations Some "Long-range approached meeting counselors populations, youth adult "Applications awarded registration. scholarships loans. Regents' Scholarships participates Health Professions Program, awards eligibility qualifications. Federally Insured Student Foundation Program. from: "Admissions Office 95616" 195. identical, third omitted. 2,464 117. 3,737 submitted. 289. received, filling months, normally checked if, waiver school's fee, test; interrupted family; 65-66. white. 628 133-134. table year-by-year School: Total --------------------- ---------------------- ----- Blacks 1970.... 0 1971.... 1972.... 1973.... 1974.... Sixteen Asian withdrew start classes, vacancy 5. compares 210, 231, 234: Class Entering (percentiles) SGPA OGPA Verbal Quantitative Science Infor. Bakke.... 3.44. 3.46 Average admittees. 3.51 3.49 2.62 2.88 (Percentiles) Bakke...... 3.36. 3.29 2.42. Applicants credit "disadvantage." 181, 388. filing suit, intentions Peter Storandt, Assistant 259-269. Storandt sympathy advice strategy. Several amici imply discussions "collusive." indication, Storandt's correspondence conversations Bakke. "[N]or privileges altered, revoked, repealed Legislature; 44, 687, 1159. aspect placement lacks standing, showed injury—exclusion School—will redressed favorable decision, "fabricated" conceding proof. object inasmuch concession. stipulate disguise record. Swift Hocking Valley R. 281, 287, 722 (1917). prove lacked Warth Seldin, 490, 2197, 2204, injury, 323. Hence met. vel non relief. enrollment secondary White devising enrollment. 5255 Case). Bossier Parish Lemon, 370 847, 851-852 (CA5), 911, 2116, 1350 Natonabah 355 724 (NM Lloyd Regional Authority, 548 1277, 1284-1287 (C.A.7 1977) (Title Rehabilitation ed.)); Piascik Cleveland Museum Art, 779, 780 (N.D.Ohio 1976) IX 1972, 1681 ed.)). reads "Each activity, grant, loan, contract insurance guaranty, effectuate issuing rules, taken. Compliance effected hearing, requirement, thereof, law: Provided, advised means. terminating, continue, section, head progra thirty report." Gill contemplated: "Nowhere you feels Nowhere. claim." 2467 Accord, 7065 Keating); 6562 Kuchel). "Racial disaster shocking; offensive play. Human draws lines, sufferers not." 654 12675 Allott); 6561 Kuchel); 2494, 6047 Pastore). 15893 MacGregor); 13821 Saltonstall); 10920 Javits); 5266, 5807 Keating). 7064-7065 Ribicoff); 7054-7055 6543-6544 Humphrey); 2595 Donohue); 2467-2468 Celler); 1643, 2481-2482 Ryan); H.Rep.No.914, 24-25 2355. Lindsay). 2766 Matsunaga); 2731-2732 Dawson); 1527-1528 Celler). 12677 7064 Pell); 7062-7064 5243 Clark). 6052 Johnston); 5863 Eastland); Ervin); 5251 Talmadge); 1632 Dowdy); 1619 (re arks Abernethy). 13333 7057 5606-5607 5863-5864, 13442 generated controversy. Ely, Constitutionality Reverse Discrimination, 723 Greenawalt, Scrutiny "Benign" Preference Law Admissions, Colum.L.Rev. 559 Kaplan, Unequal World: Equality Nw.U.L.Rev. 363 Karst Horowitz, Affirmative Action Protection, Va.L.Rev. 955 O'Neil, Larger Context, 925 Posner, Case Preferential Treatment Minorities, Sup.Ct.Rev. 1; Redish, Clause: Analysis Competing Arguments, UCLA L.Rev. 343 Role, 653 Sedler, Pr ference, Reality Regents Clara 329 Seeburger, Heuristic Argument U.Pitt.L.Rev. "quota" met exceeded, "floor" admitted; completely unqualified "ceiling," unlimited found—and deny—that purposeful, 264-265, 562-563, 242, 2048, (1886). "discreteness insularity" Minersville Gobitis, 586, 606, 1010, 1018, 1375 (1940) (Stone, 1970. Oregon Mitchell, 400 112, 295 14, 260, 349, aliens. Tussman tenBroek, Laws, Calif.L.Rev. 341, (1949). M. Jones, 177-246 (1960). Higham, Strangers Land (1955); G. Abbott, Immigrant Community (1917); Roberts, 66-73, 86-91, 248-261 (1912). Fenton, Immigrants Unions: Study 561-562 "Members religious Eastern, Middle, European ancestry, Jews, Catholics, Italians, Greeks, Slavic executive, middle-management, job 60-50.1(b) 75; 270-271. pliable "stigma" analyzing 361-362. "stigma." Certainly standardless. All rearrange resentment burdened. outrage invidious. deprivation endure price dominant inspired supposedly others. lightly dismiss inherent unfairness mistreatment accompanies, allocating malevolent stigmatic post hoc declarations entity—a faculty—unadorned particularized Bickel self-contradiction view: lesson contemporary generation: immoral, unconstit tional, wrong, destructive Now unlearned ox gored. Morality Consent V, infra. petitioner's, findings: "society large," 2789 (it discrimination), believe" rectified "product" discrimination: program." 365-366. hypothesis unprecedented regrettable speculative leap: admission" applicants—nothing cf., 374 57—would scores. conclusion, authors st ndard causation grave one, presumption, dozens intercourse. IV-B, Douglas inquiries: fraught dangers, excluded, proportions [Cf. 549, 1142, 1143, (1896).] reached, buffeted Filipinos, Japanese; Chicanos. wash leaving overruled 620, 'zero' allocation. Japanese brings group? Japanese, Bar, handicapped 5% 20%. Or, alternatively, assess grievously allocate accordingly; current fall, Western evenhanded 220; Terrace Thompson, 15, 255; 249. wartime 1774, curfews relocations Japanese-Americans. solved Norwegians Swedes, Poles Ricans Hungarians, complaints." 337-340, 1716, opinion) Dahl, Preface Democratic Theory (1956); 27. deviating cases: Offermann Nitkowski, 378 (C.A.2 1967); Wanner 357 1966); Springfield Barksdale, 348 1965). maintaining segregation; districting 454. Barksdale Offermann, attendance patterns. neither, planned pupil threaten privacy interests. Keyes 189, 240-250, 2686, 2713, 2718, wholly dissimilar bused neighborhood decree. attend desegregate School; Exec. Order 11246, (1964-1965 Comp.), Pennsylvania; Illinois Builders Ogilvie, 471 680 1972); Joyce McCrane, 1284 (NJ 1970); Weiner Cuyahoga District, Ohio St.2d 35, 907, 1004, 554, (1970). Rosetti Contracting Brennan, 508 1039, 1041 1975); Northeast Constr. Romney, U.S.App.D.C. 383, 390, 485 752, 754, 761 (1973). congressionally consent 308-310, 808-809, (1966) (§ 5), monitoring detect 103, 1905, occasion powers Thirteenth Jones Alfred Mayer 392 409, 2186, 1189 Morton Mancari, 417 2474, 290 Indians Affairs Interior (BIA). BIA sui generis. 2484. self-government constituent fashion. subgoals advanced falling rubric "compensation compensate personally, attained forebears. 581-586. Another "compensation" serves reparation whole. Bittker, Reparations criticism. 581; 33. "compensate" examples emulate, advancing encouraging generations frustrations separately. fifth purpose, articulate: bias grading testing curing inaccuracies predicting biased rrect biases. unbiased prediction success, inexplicable. misconceive holdings "disparate impact" analogy, 363-366, 42. seminal area, Griggs Duke Power 849, (1971): "Discriminatory proscribed. removal artificial, arbitrary, invidiously classification." 431, 853 "business necessity," manifest n question," 432, 854. McDonnell 792, 802-803, 805-806, 1824, 1825, 1826, 668 —as literature BLACKMUN—even grades justification. —that statute—was determinations, traced "[Congress sought] employees. practices, procedures, tests face, 'freeze' practices." Griggs, 429-430, 853. (1963) ("Testimony supporting overwhelming"). Vaas, VII: Legislative History, B.C.Ind. Com.L.Rev. hired group." 430-431, 703(j) "imbalance" VII. 2000e-2(j). precede embodying groups—Negroes, American-Indians, Asians—for curious 37, underservice newspaper article. 473. country, Sleeth Mishell, Under-Representation Schools, Med. 1146 lies traceable premedical undergraduates, remedied developing college. president Princeton body: "[A] informally. interactions sexes; religions, backgrounds; cities rural countries; perspectives; able, learn reexamine assumptions world. commenting 'People surrounded likes themselves.' hard how, informal 'learning diversity' occurs. everyone. unplanned, casual encounters roommates, organic chemistry library, teammates basketball squad, participants powerful improved growth." Bowen, Relevance Race, Alumni Weekly (Sept. 26, 1977). Graduate "assessing contributions her graduation—contributions broadest doctor poet, active participant keenest critic things organized, solitary scholar parent." 10. Manning, Pursuit Fairness Carnegie Council Policy Studies Selective 57-59 "While helpful enabling officer accomplished—and odds. relevant, conjunction (with associated) own." 48, 8-9. 57-59. individualized Universities, prosecutor Swain, plays individualized, warrant adhere comparisons, systematic results, overcome, correspond assures universities. opportunities, cherished ethic. worthiness fairness "[j]ustice appearance justice." Offutt 13, remanding reconstruct happened Mt. Healthy Ed. Doyle, 274, 284-287, 575-576, Healthy, "but for" Doyle's protested discharge. rejection—purposeful hypothesize result. 265-266, 563-564. how—or revealing existed, Healthy. fictitious recasting conduct. Curiae. plan, approach, necessitated Orleans Park Improvement Detiege, 358 54, 99, (1958); Muir Louisville Theatrical Assn., 971, 1112 Mayor Baltimore Dawson, 350 877, 133, 774 Atlanta, 879, 141, 776 Gayle Browder, 352 903, 145, (1956). d.2d collected Monell Dept. Services, 436 658, 663 2018, 2022, 611 (1978). 2000d. believes private-right-of-action stating 379. "Simple taxpayers contribute, encourages, entrenches, subsidizes Direct Federal, indirect invidious; responsibilities uphold .. "Many assistance, Administrator's amounts remaining—which withhold ended—is questionable. administrator opposition unconditionally—as proposed—the withdrawal urgently whites; penalize deserve "Instead device exploited progress, comprehensive required, furnish assistance—by contract, insurance, otherwise—to punishing occurring therein—but clarify 11161 (1963). 2732 Donahue). 2000d-5, 1966, 2000d-5 [Title VI], covered simultaneously segregation. seen, concern. (110 (1964)); Ryan 2481-2482); Additional Views Seven 382-383, core concern—the programs—was 333-336; 340-342, 17. Testimony Hearings S. 1731 1750, 398-399 6544, 13820 6050 Allott). undue passages 6547 6047, 7055 f agmentary fall conscious place, speakers incidental nonminorities legislators, one's Significantly Kuchel, proscribing outlaw 339-340; 2494 MacGregor "Your mail mine, your contacts mine constituents, misunderstanding bill. People 'balancing' occupancy housing, employment. mistaken legislating controversial handled spelled specifically." 15893. elementary compelled communities. 5807, 5266 (Sens. Saltonstall). 13695 Much scattered 2000e-2(a)(1) (unlawful refuse hire" sex, ."), 7214 Case); 6549 2560 Goodell). indication remnants composition imply, u e ends. former (where involved), considerations. 353, 767-768, 1265-1266, own, 762-770, 1263-1267; 353-355, 28. specify equitably Fed.Reg. 23494 14. delegated reponsibility coordinating 'assist accomplishing implementation.' 11764, (1971-1975 Comp.). Solicitor General, respect. Details Management Budget, 1977 Catalogue Domestic Assistance 205-206, 401-402. 13.375, 'Minority Biomedical Support.' objectives: faculty, investigators biomedical research. oaden research Eligibility 50% enrollments; encouragement minorities; (3) two-year enrollment; (4) Tribal Councils. Grants estimated $9,711,000 13.880, "Minority Access Careers," "assist train scientists fields." H.R.Conf.Rep. 95-538, Cong.Re 26188 H.J.Res. 662, 95th Sess. 95-205, 1460. 117, 6705 (f)(2) 7156 5327-5330 Brooke). experienced bearing undercuts 7(a) Authorization 1977, Director intensive search women, Foundation. subsection, organizations utilization scientific technical capabilities advisory committees, panels, mechanisms Foundation." 2056, note 1873 Perhaps authorizes Minority Centers Education. 7(c)(2) Centers: "(A) "(B) geographically located centers; "(C) researchers, faculty; "(F) regional resource engineering Center serve; "(G) nearby enrollment." elsewhere saw inconsistency extreme commanded expend Revitalization Regulatory Reform 1976, 801 ed.), 1657a ed.); Emergency Aid 1601 Ibid.; Executive, conclusively 1972 amendments (Equal Employment Opportunity 103) Heat Frost Insulators Asbestos Workers Vogler, 407 1047 (C.A.5 1969); Electrical Workers, 149-150 (C.A.6), 943, 245, (1970); Sheet Metal (C.A.8 1969). 11375, 684 (1966-1970 low industry. consciousness 11246 nondiscrimination, obliviousness indifference outwardly criteria." Op. Atty. agreed. Pa. VI); 1972). reje ted proposals alter prevailing interpretations permitting, requiring, Comment, Philadelphia Plan: Dynamics Power, 723, 747-757 undertaken H.R. 1746 (as now) VII." History 1844 (Comm.Print. 167-168, 1010-1011 pause "two-tier" analysis, "sliding scale" altogether. inappropriate. Castaneda Partida, 482, 499-500, 1272, 1282-1283, 498 501, 1283 (MARSHALL, resisted, Chinese] hostility belong condemned. 544-551, 1140-1143. Paradoxically, (1943), responding rational, double negative "could afford differentiating States." 1386. mode 224, "immediately suspect" suggestion, "rival distinguishes favored. pronounce done. But, German-Americans example—must "principled basis," status. Ante, 274. German-Americans, singled differential German-Americans. 238-241, 2046, shown, calls closest scruti inapplicable," 657, 1727, (1966), rational compensation excluded. 38-39, 1299-1300, (applying opportunity). thorny problems, Gunther, 1971 Term—Foreword: Search Evolving Doctrine Changing Court: Model Newer Albemarle, "differential validation" tests. 2380. implication, corresponded "potential employment" hire 60. employers, voluntarism 336-338. Commission guidelines 64826 [Voting Rights] apportionments [not] minimize polls." suggesting, benefit." 304. choice; nondiscriminating expectations; Hassidim bloc strength. cognizable Yet, corporation "judicial, violations." 307. reversal w uld fortiori mandated refrain think adjudged. Generally, delegate functions decide. 256, provision, Regents. Cal.Const., 9(a). Control legislature, vested (including policymaking), administrative, adjudicative Ishimatsu Cal.App.2d 863-864, 762-763 (1968); Goldberg 867, 874, 463, Op.Cal.Atty.Gen. 162, ("The rule-making policy-making University"). choice, Sweezy, we, narrowly wielded Assembly. plenary elevates substance insist For, predicate, 370. "Equal Buckley Valeo, 612, (per curiam citing 638 1228, abridge Association's 1487. questionnaire sent (all then-accredited Meharry), 1968. earliest involvement 34% schools; 66% 1969 1973. Minorities Medicine: Receptive Passivity Positive Action, 1966-1976, Odegaard). p rcentage M.D. graduates. 3.3% 5.0% 1975. Significant increases Mexican American, American-Indian, mainland Rican recorded 40. statistical notes compiled officials briefs. alluded discussion. Reitzes, Medicine, xxvii, (1958). Between graduated ranged 69.0% 75.8%. Women Fields (Pub. (HRA) 75-22, May 1974). Commerce, Census, vol. Table Wade, Cities: 1820-1860, 90-91 Soria Oxnard 386 542 (CD Cal.1974). Kluger, Simple Crawford 280, 724, 551 Spangler 501 (C.D.Cal.1970); Wollenberg, Deliberate Speed: Exclusion 1855-1975, 136-177 40% American-born males aged residing South, statistic females 48%. computed 6, Tables 139, 140. Admissions: Equalizing Groups Yale L.J. 699, 729-731 348-349. 22% California's sec. 6-4, buttressed 16% 67. putting raise excess proportional inadequately allusion figure universe benchmark. allotment unconstitutionally high. Sources Structure Income, 1-12. Waldman, Economic Disadvantage Reflected Traditional Selection Factors: 1976 U. Schools (Table A-15), A-23) (Association Colleges 1977.) Summary, 209. 10-14 (Figures 1-5). contrary, 52, receives "individualized consideration" his. Griffin "lack waived 602. Mount Bd. 278, 571, Nashville Mottley, 149, 42, (1908); Mansfield, Swan, 382, 510, 511, 462 (1884). STEWART's contested, third-party 790. 1983 undoubtedly instance bypassed parties. silence litigants foreclose reasoned affords "Yet, [that 'Federal discrimination'] detriment notice effective, "Once travel whatsoever imposed. Formal occurred: first, unsuccessful obtain compliance; second, hearing; third, Senate; fourth, postponed irreparable injury. concoct procedure." 6749 Moss). hedged restrictions. [There details steps.] reasonable, moderate, cautious, action." "Actually, failed." Celler) 7066-7067); Proxmire 8345); Kuchel 6562). 2000d-1. receipt actor. Norwood Harrison, 455, 2804, (19 3), "tangible aid" "significant tendency facilitate, reinforce, 2811. Burton Wilmington Parking 365 715, 722, 856, 860, (1961), sift involved, abandoned Contemporaneous 218, 1226, Tuition tax concessions racially. presented: "[C]losing Prince Edward meanwhile contributing 1234. spoken, Appeals. Greco Orange Hospital 423 1000, 433, certiorari). Gill). victim "Parenthetically, facility Connecticut grateful suggestions Department." "Sometimes elect aid, requirement. theirs." 7067. III-A, recounted documentation. acknowledge rely retelling Franklin, Freedom 4th 1974) Franklin); Kluger); Woodward, Strange Career (3d Woodward). Statistical Abstract 94). 102). Current Population Reports, P-60, 107, 1). 14). Statistics, Earnings, January 44). 47). Abstract, 24). 407-408 662) (based census). announce 324-325. hardly "central read, entirety, "IT IS HEREBY ORDERED, ADJUDGED AND DECREED: "1. Defendant, plaintiff, mandatory "2. defendants hereby restrained admission; "3. Cross-defendant cross-complainant, Se tion [42 2000d]; "4. recover incurred herein $217.35." Pet. Certiorari 120a. "plaintiff [Bakke] broadly "his" refers "any applicant." pronoun unpersuasive, suit. A19-A20. ADJUDGED, DECREED Court[,] Yolo[,] above-entitled invalid; "Bakke appeals." "This opinions." Cutter Laboratories, 351 292, 827, 1188. "From Hayburn's Case, Dall. Alma Timken-Detroit Axle Co.[, 129, 128,] Hatch [United 75, 556, 754] disposing issues. exemplifications, limitation. U.S.Const., III. determinations. developed, governance confessedly avoided decision.' listed quoted, affecting friendly, nonadversary proceedings; them; ruling applied; disposed of; availed benefits; avoided." Rescue Army Municipal 331 568-569, 1409, 1419, 1666 482-483, (Brandeis, enduring owe Branches solutions problems. Least Dangerous (1962). 29. 2393. 1521 "Title 2579. Quoting 853, reaffirmed "prohibit[s] '[d]iscriminatory [racial] majority.' 2578 1520 (Representative managers VI.) Abernathy's typical: harsh proposal aimed guideposts yardsticks aided "Presumably 'racially balanced' staff dean's cafeteria title, interject selectio 'racial imbalance' hover cloud transaction 1619. 5611-5613 9083 Gore). 5863, 5874 Eastland). 8346 Proxmire) ("Taxes discrimination"); Pastore) ("[Title VI] collectors colorblind"); 6543 Humphrey) (" 'Simple subsidizes, discrimination' ") (quoting Message 1963). 5253 7102 Javits). parallel clearest Act—an Monroe [v. Pape, 473, 492], 'reach municipalities liable officers individuals.' [167], [81 492]. task 1871 municipalities; impressions Ries Lynskey, 175." Moor Alameda, 709, 1785, 1795, 596. "meeting minds" Los Angeles Water Manhart, 435 702, 1370, 1376, 657 ("[T]he VII] classes"). opposition. "Private prejudices, overnight. room prejudices. prophetic 256. 'Our colorblind.' "So—I Senators—must closes democracy cuts healing. understanding. parts loss values money." 7063-7064 "noncontroversial" Pell duties restraints depend outcome [T]he relief." Curiae, O.T. 72-6520, 15. pains distinguish "rested statute." 238-239, 2046-2047, 597; Allen Elections, 393 588, 817, 843, expresses imbedded times. unpersuasive. Where policies." sheds Sen 30-31. 847 1967), 1350; Uzzell Friday, 547 1977), 558 727, pending, 77-635; Serna Portales, 499 1147 (C.A.10 1974); Chambers Omaha 536 222, (indicating obtained VI). assumption: O.T.1973, 24-34. supplemental 28-30. rsonal 602—the provision—establishes elaborate mechanism agencies." Brief, Arguably, "elaborate mechanism" scheme, 380-383. funding; states: terminated, forces programs; implicate led 602." 25. Rosado Wyman, 397, 420, 1207, 1221, 442. 794 ed.) (the 1973) particular, 1285-1286 1977)); 1617 (attorney fees Act); 1244 (private Act). enactments Framing four-part Ash test, 2087, satisfied. definitely 'class especial enacted,' "traditionally law." excerpts intention with, to, scheme. Ribicoff: crux dispute—how [to discrimination] protected. becomes dispensed categories: payment Obviously preferable basis. persists vindicated nonpayment funds?" 5090, 6543, 7103, 12719 7062, 7063 clea protect. ("no ."); "severely hampered" supplement 826, Allen,

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