Legal Document

428 U.S. 1 96 Supreme Court Reporter 2882 49 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 752 W. Judge USERY, Jr., Secretary of the Department Labor, et al., Appellants,v.TURNER ELKHORN MINING COMPANY al. TURNER Appellants, versus Nos. 74-1302, 74-1316. Argued Dec. 2, 1975. Decided July 1, 1976. Syllabus Title IV Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act 1969, as amended by Black Lung Benefits 1972, provides benefits to coal miners suffering from "black lung disease" (pneumoconiosis), survivors who have died from, or while totally disabled by, disease. Financial responsibility for payment is divided into three parts: (1) Under Part B claims filed between December 30, 1969 (enactment date), June 1973, are adjudicated Health, Education, Welfare (HEW), paid States; (2) under § 415 during transition period Government benefit provision B, Supra, state plan operator C, Infra (July 31, 1973), Labor States. payments these claimants terminate on claimant's mine employer assumes make continuing if Contract s 422 had applied (see (3), infra ); (3) after be processed an approved workmen's compensation law and, absent such plan, with d operators 422. that operator, entitled a hearing in connection claims, liable respect death total disability due pneumoconiosis arising out employment which responsible, operator's liability covering January 1974, 1981. Payments same category persons (a miner certain survivors) amounts baron A "totally disabled" thus "when prevents him engaging gainful requiring skills abilities comparable those any mines he previously engaged some regularity over substantial time," 402(f). The prescribes several "presumptions" use determining compensable disability: 411(c)(3) shown X-ray other clinical evidence afflicted complicated (the disease's incurable final stage) "irrebuttably presumed" disease; has died, it irrebuttably presumed was disease at time death, his thereto. There rebuttable presumptions (none may, 413(b), defeated solely chest X-ray): 10 more years' contracts pneumoconiosis, arose employment, 411(c)(1); respiratory 411(c)(2); miner, survivor 15 underground able, despite absence demonstrate disabling pulmonary impairment, attributable disease, thereby when 411(c)(4), sentence specifies "(t)he may rebut (this latter) presumption only establishing (A) does not, did (B) impairment not arise of, with, mine." number brought this suit claiming unconstitutional Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment insofar requires left before Act's effective date; statutory definitions, presumptions, limitations rebuttal unconstitutionally impair ability defend against claims; regulations promulgated regarding apportionment among inconsistent unconstitutional. District upheld each challenged constitutional, two exceptions: It held unreasonable arbitrary legislative finding "in terms than provided standards disability." Reading limitation 411(c)(4) apply defense transition-period case, court permitting showing case afflicting disabling. And, taking mean ground (rather responsible) found relevant proper 422(c). enjoined seeking provisions Held: 1. This Court's summary affirmance National Independent Operators Assn. Brennan, 419 955, 95 216, 42 172, foreclose rulings §§ (4), were appeal. Pacific KF135 P2 14. 2. do violate Amendment. Pp. 14-38. (a) bar provide former employee's its mines, even employee terminated passed. Retrospective application manner can justified serving spread costs rational allocating actual cost business, whose avoidance might thought enlarged profits. .Railroad Retirement Board Alton R. Co., 295 330, 55 758, 79 L.Ed. 1468, distinguished. 14-20, 24-27. (b) Though contend 402(f) definition because employable lines work compensated, 402(f)'s suffered health been rendered unable perform adapted himself, factors afford basis compensation. 21. (c) effect 411(c)(3)'s "irrebuttable presumption" establish entitlement where clinically diagnosable extremely ill clearly permissible, provision, being part statute regulating purely economic matters, invalid Congress' choice language. 22-24. (d) 411(c)(1) valid there "rational fact proved ultimate presumed," Mobile, & K. C. company Turnipseed, 219 35, 43, 31 136, 138, 78. In view medical Congress indicating noticeable incidence cases "purely arbitrary" select 10-year figure reference point presumptions; they fail account varying degrees exposure. 27-30. (e) 15-year durational likewise unassailable, particularly light testimony Senate Hearings Act. 30-31. (f) doubts about reliability negative That through adoption 413(b) ultimately resolved miner's favor render arbitrary. 31-34. (g) improperly invalidated contained inapplicable applies HEW. Thus restrict presumption. 34-37. 385 F.Supp. 424, affirmed part; reversed vacated remanded part. RMcMahan, Chicago, Ill., Turner Elkhorn Mining Lawrence G. Wallace, Washington, D.C., John T. Dunlop Mr. Justice MARSHALL delivered opinion Court. Twenty-two (Operators) test constitutionality aspects 83 Statutes-at-Large 792, 86 150, 30 Code KF62 901 Et seq. (1970 ed. Supp. IV). Operators, potentially compensate miners, their sought declaratory injunctive relief Welfare, responsible administration promulgation 2 On cross-motions judgment, three-judge Eastern Kentucky, convened pursuant 28 2282 2284, constitutional face, except regard concerning determination pneumoconiosis. further provisions. 424 (1974). After granting stay court's order, 421 944, 1673, 44 99 (1975), we noted probable jurisdiction cross-appeals. 1010, 2413, 678 (1975). We conclude Act, interpreted, constitutionally sound Operators' challenges. 3 * workers' black affects high percentage American severe, frequently crippling, chronic impairment.1 caused long-term inhalation dust.2 (hereafter pneumoconiosis) generally dgnosed opacities nodular lesions lungs patient long history dust As Surgeon General stated, however, post-mortem examination data indicated greater prevalence diagnosis reveals. 4 According General, customarily classified "simple" "complicated."3 Simple ordinarily identified limited extent, regarded physicians seldom productive significant impairment. Complicated far serious, involves progressive massive fibrosis complex reaction (which include tuberculosis infection), usually4 produces marked disability. limits victim's physical capabilities, induce cardiac failure, contribute causes death.5 5 Removing source so means preventing contraction once contracted irreversible both simple stages. No therapy developed. Finally, progressive,6 least stage, mptoms become apparent mines. 6 order curb II 201 seq., 841 amount permitted ambient air Additionally, then-established insufficiency programs, passed 401 survivors. These subsequently broadened 1972. ed., 7 amended, divides financial parts. IV, 411-414, 921-924 IV), date enactment, States.7 8 421-431, 931-941 applicable set forth 421, 931 program, no program approved, operators. 422, 932 responsible. covers categories amounts, 422(c), (d); see 412(a), 922(a) IV).8 9 Claims is, 1973 925 Labor. until 1973. Responsible operators, having notified claim participate thereon, thereafter operator. shall considered disabled," consequently compensation, time." 402(f), 902(f) IV).9 also disability.10 411(c)(3), pneumoconiosis; 921(c)(3) event, operates conclusively benefits. 11 explicitly avoid liability. presumptions. First, rebuttably employment. 411(c) (1), 921(c)(1) Second, "respirable disease", 411(c)(2), 921(c)(2) presumes 921(c)(4) IV).11 Section specifically provides: "The Moreover, 923(b) none X-ray.12 12 initiating defendant Secretaries Parties), contended industry Act; operators' benefits, defective. 13 all issues validity within single district judge, entered remanding them. F.Supp., 426. exceptions. irrebuttable 430. reading 411(c)(4)'s respects. And Any mine, rather 932(c). 430-431. accordingly declaring unconstitutional, enjoining apply, evidence. 14 appeal, Number 74-1316, reasserts challenges rejected appeal Parties, seeks reversal declaration injunction respecting (4). Neither side here questions decision address raised Labor's regulations. already noted, uphold contentions properly presented here. Because read vacate portion invalidates limitation. III Parties direct our attention initially 372 16 (DC), summarily aff'd, 172 (1974), identical Our unconstitutionality us Several most notably retroactivity preclusion sole reliance decided but heard oral argument entertained full briefing together proceed treat them fully. Cf. Edelman Jordan, 651, 670-671, 94 1347, 1359, 39 62 violates employees passed, employees.13 accept imposed upon working now future recognize power create inactive miners. But complain impose employees' disabilities impermissibly charge unexpected past, completed acts legally part, unknown dangerous time. 17 well established Acts adjusting burdens life come constitutionality, burden one complaining process violation legislature acted irrational way. See, E. g., Ferguson Skrupa, 726, 1028, 93 (1963); Williamson Lee Optical 348 483, 487-488, 75 461, 464, 563 (1955). ago attack competence allocate interlocking rights duties employers principles analogous enacted here, regardless contravening arrangements employee. New York Central White, 243 188, 37 247, 61 667 (1917); Philadelphia, Schubert, 224 603, 32 589, 56 911 (1912). 18 To sure, bred retrospective although, 1974.14 anticipated employment.15 clear legislation readjusting unlawful upsets otherwise settled expectations. See Fleming Rhodes, 331 100, 67 1140, 91 1368 (1947); Carpenter Wabash 309 23, 60 416, 84 558 (1940); Norman Baltimore Ohio 294 240, 407, 885 (1935); Home Bldg. Loan Blaisdell, 290 398, 54 231, 78 413 (1934); Louisville Nashville Mottley, 467, 265, 297 (1911). true though new duty based past acts. Lichter States, 334 742, 68 1294, 92 1694 (1948); Welch Henry, 305 134, 59 121, 87 (1938); Funkhouser Preston 163, (1933). 19 follow, what legislate prospectively retrospectively. legislation, prospective aspects, must meet process, justifications latter suffice former. Thus, justification imposition take possibilities known danger contracting know conduct taken current law, pneumoconiosis.16 While aware 20 years,17 pressed contention would steps reduce eliminate them, nevertheless hesitate approve theory deterrence, cf. Peltier, 531, 542, 2313, 2320, 45 374 blameworthiness, Ibid.; DeVeau Braisted, 363 144, 160, 80 1146, 1154, 1109 (1960). find, effects measure profited fruits labor consumers. challenge conditions industry. They claim, spreads basing relationships, taxing presently business. note force declined faced disproportionate currently employed. argue scheme gives unfair competitive advantage entrants industry, saddled miners' disabilities. essence forces will prevent effectively passing consumer disabilities, unfairly leave early alone. 21 Of course, indicated, stemming prior enactment borne Government. face value, choose imposing including farsighted minimize dangers, profits increased expense health. unwilling assess wisdom chosen examining degree "cost-savings" enjoyed pre-enactment produced "excess" profits, consumer. enough say approaches problem spreading rationally; whether broader cost-spreading wiser practical circumstances question dimension. e. U.S., 730-732, S.Ct., 1031; Optic 488, 464. 22 rest Railroad 1468 (1935), 1934 Among employer-financed pensions who, employ railroads employed year. Assuming invalidating retains vitality,18 find distinguishable case. simply increase supplement salary generalized need funds. Rather, purpose satisfy specific created labored actual, measurable 23 sum, poses event V 24 turn next consideration evidentiary rules governing adjudications Atlantic 25 alternative methods "total disability," prerequisite complicated, 26 "prevents time."19 27 show (ordinarily evidence) stage then deemed 411(c)(3).20 mandated ways existence positive evidence, physically maintain untenable. 29 disability" up irrational, work, therefore truly mining-generated afflictions. think patent fail. ways: His impaired, kind himself. Whether interferences merit public policy matter primarily legislature. Geduldig Aiello, 417 484, 2485, 41 256 cannot insignificant Indeed, similar providing injuries depriving work. Bianc, 250 596, 40 44, 63 1161 (1919); Urie Thompson, 337 181-187, 69 1018, 1030-1033, 1282 (1949). Court, relying Stanley Illinois, 405 645, 1208, 551 (1972), Vlandis Kline, 412 441, 2230, (1973), 411(c)(3)' presumption, explained, "forecloses particular . extent purports making (§ 402(f)) disability, written, section (411(c)(3)) violative precluding opportunity present individual disabled." 429-430. erred equating mold Vlandis. 33 operational matter, employment.21 discloses precisely advanced certainly compensate.22 Were phrased directly bound demonstrating affliction could objection it. For, observed, destruction earning capacity legitimate compulsory employers. supra. alone warrants Since draft accomplish accomplished essentially result impermissible defining eligibility erecting factual necessarily this, language invalidate operation permissible. Weinberger Salfi, 749, 767-785, 2457, 2467-2476, 522 (1975); McDonald Election, 394 802, 809, 89 1404, 1408, 739 (1969); Carolene Products 304 154, 58 778, 784, 82 1234. 34 35 addition creating rise grant lifetime raise separate occasion comment separately general complaint viewed damages resulting unrelated conduct, difficulties encountered discussion retroactivity. serves damage hardly termed "cost" 36 clear, authorized intended Death, deferred injury illness itself. Report accompanying 1972 amendments makes award widows husbands "(gave) lives," "gave service nation's critical needs."23 Before serve endured dependents virtue illness. additional purpose: knowledge dependent receive endures. short, authorizes problems distinct discussion. 38 suggested wholly likely shared suffering. Nor time.24 difficult applying die completely unaware unaffected illness; or, affected illness, facial condition serious activate way condition, family noticed circumstances, decline engage speculation arise.25 Turning proof focus (2). suffers employment.26 411(c)(2) dies pneumoconiosis.27 Each rebuttable, shift going forward claimant Fed.Rule Evid. 301. consistently tested civil statutes involving matters regulation, standard articulated (1910): "That another constitute denial equal protection essential presumed, inference mandate." 43 Coast Line Ford, 287 502, 53 249, 77 457 (1933); Bandini Petroleum Superior 284 8, 19, 52 103, 107, 76 136 (1931). Leary 395 6, 29-53, 1532, 1544-1557, 57 Tot 319 463, 467-468, 1241, 1244, 1519 (1943). recognized: rationality nature, highly empirical, specialized judicial commonplace, weight should accorded amass stuff experience cull conclusions it." Gainey, 380 63, 67, 85 754, 757, 658 (1965). Judged standards, valid. presumptions' bases duration agreed breathing dust, likelihood developing rests concentration exposed Against scientific background, beyond authority refer exposure throws mines,28 mathematical precision required. Lindsley Natural Carbonic Gas 220 61, 78, 337, 340, 369 46 insist, arbitrary, exposure, pose lesser dangers others. reject contention. shifting constrained require preliminary exposed, historical prove, bear infection. worth repeating years itself along presumptively cause "rough accommodations," Metropolis Theatre 228 69, 443, 730 (1913), surely exclusion factors, signaling be. excluding operate manner. supra, 138. 47 press provides, Inter alia, able marshal pneumoconiosis.29 Particularly General's hearings marks beginning linear spent underground,30 equally unassailable. 48 "no denied results roentgenogram (X-ray)."31 Congress, plenary federal courts. Hawkins 358 74, 125 (1958); 1244; 81, 341. contend, denies pneumoconiosis.32 that, given reasoned reservations preclude exclusive testing fails disclose depended trustworthy indicator disease.33 particular, findings others although important diagnostic tool identifying presence reliable Absence autopsy disclosed none;34 masked detection disease.35 50 Taking indications unreliability unreliability. hand, risk success nonmeritorious uncorroborated meritorious cases. addressed adopting rule which, preserving utility, avoided worst inadmissible, ineligible persuasive example, low level relatively short cause.36 prohibition rejecting claim. 51 suggesting conclusion unsupportable. Relying submitted 1972,37 consensus judgment good quality reliably indicate essence, seek reconsideration issue. debated forcefully sides suggest nothing add debate; dissatisfied conclusion. recognized comes "not commonplace," "to 757. sufficient showed determined resolve miner"38 appropriate legislation. Defendant 411(c)(4). section, herein) erects establishes medically demonstrable mild product emphysema. Disability diseases, note, concluding quoted recognizing inherently sense, judged deprived second aspect well. urge cross-appeal judgments erroneous. inquire construction By "the Secretary" plain fortified history. states nowhere suggests binds operator.39 apparently determination, believed period, "(s)ince (415) Secretary's B." concluding, error. appear, again statute, contrary, 402(c), 902(c), quite plainly defines "Secretary" used 411, meaning referred above confirms Even assuming, bind required Pay 415(a)(1), similarly Adjudicate 415(a)(5). cases, contrary 415(a)(5), "shall (on claim) C." limit Accordingly, limiting Van Lare Hurley, 338, 344, 1741, 1746, 208 Munsingwear, Inc., 340 36, 71 104, (1950). 411(b) authorization, Regulations 410.414, 410.454 determinations 422(h), expressly adopted pt. 718 authorize appear never regulations.40 mention briefs arguments parties, inappropriate consider stage.41 VI provisions, construed, attack. appealed 74-1316 affirmed. 74-1302 reversed, declares enjoins respect, vacated, directions dismiss. ordered. THE CHIEF JUSTICE concurs judgment. STEVENS took 64 POWELL, concurring 65 Appellants retroactive obligations (Act), rejects opinion. N Immigration Nationality Decisions concur portions views herein expressed. 66 1950's, victims 1969. significantly redefined respective pneumoconiosis.1 collect Government, IV).2 Miners filing 1981, Ante, n. 24, 415, 925, IV).3 class includes (i) (ii) longer (former miners). unprecedented feature eligible coal-mining concern enactment. made initial decades ago.4 accords familiar compensation.5 guarantee discriminatory see, Richardson Belcher, 404 254, 257, 231 (1971), owners. recognizes evaluation employers' nature liability: 70 law. ." 17. acknowledges "on deterrence blameworthiness." 17-18. nonetheless sustains liability, reasoning follows: 72 "We consumers." 18. 73 'cost-savings' 'excess' rationally. 18-19. 74 my considerably closer treatment suggests. device questionable. If concerns actually preenactment nonliability quantified discernible way, rationally concerned. But, context, term "excess profits" aside operations funds obligation so. unlikely existed. prices normally market forces. One expect increment added operating costs, consumers, leaving profitability unaffected. talk realistic sense speculative. without onto Firms burdened production sales firms burdened. obligations, less competitors. pass earlier years.6 industries retroactively seems unlikely, notable mining employs 150,000 persons, whereas 1939 nearly 450,000. Brief 24. reduced scale combined survivors, almost operations.7 distributed randomly across dictated patterns contours Two examples illustrative: Some business decades, competitors commenced recently. group separated active companies much larger many currently. unusual situation "depleting asset" smaller often lack resources continue acquisition development properties. Stronger competitors, operated constant increasingly large scale.8 competitively disadvantaged considerations unrealistic consumers," 18, Despite foregoing, record us. broad discretion formulating deal affecting (1971); Constitution compatible economics normal fairness. result, remedial social enactments carry strong 148, 781, 1234 (1938), heavy turns sophisticated above, facts vary widely Operators.9 failed showings support sweeping assertions irrationality. Although strongly suggestive irrationally pursuing end, am satisfied override constitutionality. agree parties record. STEWART, whom REHNQUIST joins, dissenting 81 respects joining conclusion, 36-37, "transition" 415(a)(5) 925(a)(5) "operator transition) subchapter title operator." correctly observes, "if reads "plain language" (of Welfare)," 'the Secretary' (30 925) 932)." 35. reading, concludes, "fortified history" "Senate (4) (which) Ibid. analysis omits 430, 940 shall, appropriate, (Part C): Provided, applicability 1971, fifteen mines." "amendments 1972," seem follow determinations. reinforced Report, stated: "New 430 applied, wherever "Questions Committee deliberations automatically applicable, 88 "Although govern, concluded best specify. "It contemplated following sections C: (except last subsection thereof), 413, 414." S.Rep.No.92-743, Page U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 2325. 90 Id., 33. play tight linkage afforded proviso phrase appropriate" appears section. remove limitation, alter allocation crucial respect: purposes underscores basic demonstrates knew how place chose care drafting qualifying bears propriety obliquely parcel elaborate reallocation proving Social Security procedure (did) sabling processing (was) allowed. allowed show(ed) negative." 11, 2315. unfortunate consequences inability examinations detect instances. responded "prohibiting X-ray, worked Administration tests pneumoconiosis." embodied perhaps response. Based "(f)or periods underground, underground," 13, 2317, congressional "giv(e) doubt," 2315, impairments prove resulted respondent either "(A) believe withdraw retaining integral Such interpretation displayed proviso. leads improbable results. approach, instance, implies extended "surface, (in specified circumstances)," 2306, intention lapse soon came play. "(t) Welfare) requirement paragraph determines substantially (Emphasis added.) operative principle Welfare)" "inappropriate" proceedings, surface stripped enters transitional stage. anomalous overall structure primary goal framing transfer adjudicatory responsibilities tribunals, "standards equivalent 421(b)(2)(C), 931(b)(2)(C) ). empowered contain "substantially equivalent" 97 delegation backstop measure, forum presentation included list laws 421(a), 931(a) 19-21. very reason withholding approval "substantial equivalence" state-law B," substitute deviate 98 yield result. refers relevance adjudicative responsibilities. references "appropriate" transfers alternative, obvious accommodate minor linguistic variations responsibility. interaction entire proceedings; merely renders urged party suit. Parties' position refute correct. IV) ("and ."). addition, ruled places owner erroneous, overlooks 932(c), defeat arise, Again, 422(c) showing, irrelevant. reverse ruling Constitution. House placed retired 100,000. S.Rep.No.91-411, (1969), H.R.Rep.No.91-563, 2503. 7, examination, rate 10% For then-active 20% Other estimates run higher. S. 355, Subcommittee Public 91st Cong., 1st Sess., 641 (1969). entity, type remarks reproduced 15, pathological dusty materials, cotton fibers silica. 7-8; 15-16. sometimes exhibited "mild function changes little N. 858. 556,200 date, 400 decided, 509,900 individuals beneficiaries Annual 50% minimum monthly Grade GS-2 entitled. 412(a)(1), 922(a)(1). At rates, $196.80 per month, $2,361.60 Fed.Reg. 56886-56887 410.510 dependents; maximum 100% Is available dependents. 412(a)(4), 922(a)(4) 922(a)(3), (5) $393.60 $4,723.20 income. 422(g), 932(g). claimants' expenses. 422(a), 932(a) incorporating 907 full: 'total disability' restrictive criteria 423(d) 42." "pneumoconiosis" "a 402(b), 902(b) HEW, indirectly 422(h) 411(b), 932(h), 921(b) 2305. 422(f)(2), 932(f)(2), regards pertinent part: "(N)o roentgenogram." IV. (with here) (C)." history, moreover, 4(f) H.R.Conf.Rep.No.92-1048, 2338, concede. simplicity discussion, maintained survivor. nor distinguished survivors' attacks since discovery (or death), 422(f)(1), 932(f)(1) maturing 932(f)(2) hold true, nonunderground 3, 153, amending 401, 402(b)(d), 411(c)(1), (2), (h), 423(a), 901, 902(b), (d), 921(c)(1), 932(a), 933(a) unnecessary contended, defective Present stem person potential attaching course altering line 1935 1933 dividend income exempted. Adopting stockholder continued corporate dividends taxed, taxation gifts donor refrained gift tax. 147-148, 126. Great Britain 1943. entity silicosis 1950's. Chief Hughes, joined Justices Brandeis, Stone, Cardozo, dissented altogether, allowances 374, 389, 773, 779. text 9, Supra. "(I)f diagnosed roentgenogram, yields (greater centimeter diameter) A, International Classification Radiographs Pneumoconioses Organization, biopsy autopsy, lung, (C) means, reasonably expected described clause prescribed (B), be." premise "chronic lung," hence well, mine. "(shall) original bills gave Conference bill H.R. 13950, 112(b)(1), (7)(B), House, 115 Cong.Rec. 32061 disabling" compensable. 2917, 501-504, floor, 27632 28243, interim directed develop 2312. scheme, limit. 422(e), 932(e) "(n)o 1974; twelve 1969." terms, eight years. payable approximately $18,900. liable, four $37,800. fully construed (c), 412(a)(2), (5), 411(a), 922(a)(2), 921(a) ten employment." deceased respirable 699 (testimony Dr. Werner Laqueur). miner's, widow's, child's, parent's, brother's, sister's, dependent's interpreted requirements subsection, living wife's affidavit (1972). 12, frame saying irrebuttable. dressing adds nothing. Once permissible generally, irrelevant thrown affirmative showing. authoritative Presence untrustworthy. Evidence study "approximately percent random sample 200 records coal-worker's post mortem disease." 2316. 9-16; H.R.Rep.No.92-460, Pages 8-10 (1971). directs additionally "(i)n considered, including, relevant, blood gas studies, electrocardiogram, performance tests, physician, affidavits, affidavits supportive materials." Administration, designed overrule, credited minority Education 22, 29-30. 12. Similarly, running Secretary." S.Conf.Rep.No.92-780, (1972); follows stand administrative interpretations role interpretative; instead designedly creative substantive authorized. Mourning Family Publications Service 411 356, 1652, 318 (1973). upheld, sense. remand granted amend judge complaint, pending judge. motion maintenance hazardous future. simplify distinguishing 13. concerns. Liability arises recourse 421-422, 931-932 programs approved. 8-9. Favorable 1923, 1927, 1931, 1932, 1937, 1943, 1946, 1948. parties' suggestion combination passage blameworthy. Senator Javits, played individual-employer 34, "blame" neglect "all us," profession, Service." Legislative History/Federal 338 (Committee Print 1970), 27627 (1969) (floor remarks). insufficient justification. application, schemes disadvantage precautions protect employees. creates incentive occupational safety measures. impossible "coal consumers" "profited employees') labor." customers benefited pre-1969 labors therefore, purchase free pay reparation add-on readily obtainable lower price. obliged employer's force. skewed artificially regulation previous companies. 725.311 remains considered. possibility concern, impact Its irrational. 26-27.

Classification Label: 3