Legal Document

454 U.S. 464 102 Supreme Court Reporter 752 70 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 700 VALLEY FORGE CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, Petitionerv.AMERICANS UNITED FOR SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE, INC., et al. Number 80-327. Argued Nov. 4, 1981. Decided Jan. 12, 1982. Syllabus Pursuant to its authority under the Property Clause, Congress enacted Federal and Administrative Services Act of 1949 provide an economical efficient system for disposal surplus Government property. Under statute, property that has outlived usefulness is declared "surplus" may be transferred private or other public entities. The authorizes Secretary Health, Education, Welfare (HEW) (now Education) assume responsibility disposing real educational use, he sell such nonprofit, tax-exempt institutions consideration takes into account any benefit which accrued accrue from transferee's use formerly used as a military hospital was "surplus property" conveyed by Department HEW petitioner church-related college. appraised value property, $577,500, discounted HEW's computation 100% allowance, thus permitting acquire without making financial payment. Respondents, organization dedicated separation church State several employees, brought suit in District Court, challenging conveyance on ground it violated Establishment Clause First Amendment, alleging each member respondent "would deprived fair constitutional his (her) tax dollars." dismissed complaint respondents lacked standing sue taxpayers Flast versus Cohen, 392 83, 88 1942, 20 947, failed allege actual injury beyond generalized grievance common all taxpayers. Appeals reversed, holding although challenge conveyance, they had merely "citizens," claiming " 'injury fact' their shared individuated right government 'shall make no law respecting establishment religion,' sufficient satisfy "case controversy" requirement Article III. Held: Respondents do not have standing, either capacity citizens, question. Pp. 471-490. (a) exercise judicial power III restricted litigants who can show "injury fact" resulting action seek court adjudicate. 471-476. (b) are taxpayers, because source congressional but decision transfer parcel federal question Congress' conferred Taxing Spending Clause. Cf. supra. 476-482. (c) Nor sufficiently alleged basis bring suit. Although claim Constitution been violated, nothing else. They fail identify personal suffered consequence error, than psychological presumably produced observation conduct with one disagrees. That confer While firmly committed principle State, measured intensity litigant's interest fervor advocacy. 482-487. (d) Enforcement does justify special exceptions requirements There place our scheme philosophy business courts correcting errors "cases controversies" at best convenient vehicles doing so worst nuisances dispensed when become obstacles transcendent endeavor. And more palatable underlying merits concern 488-490. 3 Cir., 619 Reporter, 2nd 252, reversed. C. Clark Hodgson, Jr., Philadelphia, Pa., petitioner. Sol. Gen. Rex E. Lee, Washington, D. C., support Lee Boothby, Berrien Springs, Mich., non-federal respondents. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 * IV, § 3, cl. 2, vests "Power dispose needful Rules Regulations . belonging States." Shortly after termination hostilities Second World War, 1949, 63 Statutes-at-Large 377, amended, 40 Code KF62 471 seq. (1976 ed. Supp. III). designed, part, "an property." 378, 471. In furtherance this policy, agencies directed maintain adequate inventories control excess able it. See 384, §§ 483(b), (c).1 "surplus"2 generally 385, 484. 2 Education3) "for school, classroom, use." 387, 484(k)(1). Subject disapproval Administrator General Services, lease "any States" 484(k)(1)(A), (C).4 By regulation, provided "public allowance," discounts price "on benefits purposes." 34 12.9(a) (1980).5 spawned litigation acquired Army part larger tract approximately 181 acres land northwest Philadelphia. built Valley Forge Hospital, 30 years thereafter, medical care members Armed Forces. April 1973, plan reduce number installations States, Defense proposed close hospital, Administration 4 eventually assumed portions August 1976, 77-acre petitioner, Christian College.6 time $577,500.7 This discounted, however, Secretary's permitted payment deed fee simple certain conditions subsequent, required solely purposes described petitioner's application. description, stated intention "a program education meeting accrediting standards Pennsylvania, American Association Bible Colleges, Division Education Council Assemblies God Veterans Administration." 5 Petitioner nonprofit institution operating supervision religious order known God. own purpose "to offer systematic training collegiate level men women service ministers laymen." App. 34. Its degree programs reflect orientation providing courses study train leaders related ministries." Id., 102. Faculty must "have baptized Holy Spirit living consistent lives," id., 37, college administration affiliated God, 36. application tract, represented that, if obtained would "additions offerings arts humanities," strengthen "psychology" "counselling" services inner-city areas. 6 September Americans Separation Church Incorporated (Americans United), four learned through news release. Two months later, Columbia, later Eastern Amendment.8 Seeid., 10. amended complaint, itself composed 90,000 "taxpayer members." asserted dollar violation rights Amendment Constitution." Ibid. sought declaration null void, compelling back States. 12. 7 On motion, granted summary judgment complaint. Pet. Certiorari A42. found 947 (1968), "failed concrete taxpayers." A43. 8 appealed Third Circuit, reversed divided vote. Dept. HEW, 252 (1980). All agreed supra, since case extended qua only exercises spend I, 8, Constitution, authorized legislation 2. Notwithstanding significant factual difference Flast, majority religion.' F.2d, 261. majority's view, "citizen standing" One judge, perhaps sensing doctrinal difficulties extension wrote separately, expressing view necessary "the need available plaintiff," whom rendered virtually unenforceable" judiciary. 267, 268. dissenting judge expressed respondents' allegations constituted "generalized too abstract fact component standing." 269. He therefore concluded contest barred Court's decisions Schlesinger Reservists Committee Stop 418 208, 94 2925, 41 706 (1974), Richardson, 166, 2940, 678 (1974). 270-271. 9 Because unusually broad novel litigate substantive adopted Appeals, we certiorari, 450 909, 101 1345, 67 332 (1981), now reverse. II 10 limits "judicial power" resolution "cases" "controversies." cannot defined, indeed substance, reference necessity adjudge legal controversies." Liverpool S.S. company Commissioners Emigration, 113 33, 39, 352, 355, 28 L.Ed. 899 (1885). satisfied party requests declare rights, couched request forms relief historically associated terms familiar ring those trained process. defined unconditioned determine constitutionality legislative executive acts. individuals measure governments, said 90 ago, "is legitimate last resort, determination real, earnest vital controversy." Chicago & Grand Trunk R. Wellman, 143 339, 345, 12 400, 402, 36 176 (1892). Otherwise, sense Ferreira, 13 How. 40, 48, 14 42 (1852). 11 As incident elaboration bedrock requirement, always litigant "standing" adjudicated lawsuit. term subsumes blend prudential considerations, see Warth Seldin, 422 490, 498, 95 2197, 2204, 45 343 (1975), clear opinions whether particular features ex proprio vigore, erected were compelled language Constitution. 97, S.Ct., 1951. A recent line decisions, resolved ambiguity, least following extent: irreducible minimum, requires invokes court's "show personally some threatened result putatively illegal defendant," Gladstone, Realtors Village Bellwood, 441 91, 99, 99 1601, 1608, 60 66 (1979), "fairly traced challenged action" likely redressed favorable decision," Simon Kentucky Rights Org., 426 26, 38, 41, 96 1917, 1924, 1925, 48 (1976).9 manner limit disputes confine role separated powers traditionally thought capable process." U.S., "actual redressable court," Simon, serves "implicit policies embodied III," 96, 1950. It tends assure questions presented will resolved, rarified atmosphere debating society, context conducive realistic appreciation consequences action. purposes. assures setting asserts fact, decide confidence pave way lawsuits some, all, facts actually decided court. aspect also lso reflects due regard autonomy persons most directly affected order. abjured appeals convert process "no vehicle vindication interests concerned bystanders." SCRAP, 412 669, 687, 93 2405, 2416, 37 254 (1973). Were publicly funded forums ventilation grievances refinement jurisprudential understanding, concept quite unnecessary. But forecloses conversion versions forums. Sierra Club Morton, 405 727, 740, 92 1361, 1368, 31 636 (1972): 15 "The seeking review showing himself adversely serve rough attempt put hands direct stake outcome." 16 power, profoundly affect lives, liberty, extends, 17 affects relationships between coequal arms National Government. effect is, course, vivid declares unconstitutional act Legislative Executive Branch. "ultimate supreme function," formidable means vindicating individual employed unwisely unnecessarily ultimate threat continued effectiveness performing role. propriety recognized Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, (1803), tool resort judiciary throughout nearly 200 existence: 18 "[R]epeated essentially head-on confrontations life-tenured branch representative branches not, long run, beneficial either. essential former vitality critical latter well erode self-restraint utilization negative actions branches." 188, 2952 (POWELL, J., concurring). 19 Proper complex nature structure neither Judicial Branch shrink confrontation two Government, nor hospitably accept adjudication claims where claimant cognizable injury. Thus, "refrain[ed] passing upon [of branches] unless obliged proper performance function, raised whose entitle him raise it." Blair 250 273, 279, 39 468, 470, 979 (1919). importance precondition should underestimated "defin[ing] assigned tripartite allocation power." 95, Beyond requirements, adhered set principles bear standing. held plaintiff assert interests, rest third parties." 499, 2205.10 addition, even meet III, refrained adjudicating "abstract wide significance" amount grievances," pervasively appropriately addressed branches. 499-500, 2205-2206.11 Finally, plaintiff's fall within zone protected regulated statute guarantee question." Data Processing Service Orgs. Camp, 397 150, 153, 827, 830, 25 184 (1970).12 21 Merely articulate these demonstrate relationship reflected amenable remedy. counsels prudence implicit mistaken rigorous themselves. Satisfaction substitute demonstration 'distinct palpable injury' requested granted." 100, 1608 (quoting 501, 2206). states limitation factor balanced weighing so-called "prudential" considerations. 22 We mince words say "Art. complete consistency various cases discussed it, very probably proof reduced one-sentence one-paragraph definition. thing sure: Those possess suitors States.13 every bit important circumscription granting troublesome hurdle overcome possible reach "merits" lawsuit desires adjudicated; basic charter promulgated Framers Philadelphia 1787, created general government, interaction governments enhance respect both individuals. 23 "depriv[ation] [their] dollar." 10.14 result, discussion begin Frothingham Mellon, 262 447, 43 597, 1078 (1923) (decided Massachusetts Mellon). taxpayer Maternity 1921, funding improving maternal infant health. she consisted burden taxation regime, characterized deprivation "Looking substance [the] complaint," "injury" "that officials department executing execute unconstitutional." 488, 601. Any tangible "remote, fluctuating uncertain." 487, rejecting establish admonished: 24 review] invalid sustained immediately danger sustaining enforcement, suffers indefinite people generally. Here parties case." Following Frothingham, confirmed expenditure funds allegedly though contributes coffers taxpayer. Doremus Board 342 429, 72 394, 475 (1952), plaintiffs citizens New Jersey school teachers classroom read passages Amendment. appeal lack standing: 26 "This moneys treasury indeterminable, remote, uncertain indirect furnish preventive over expenditure. Without disparaging availability remedy taxpayer's restrain acts pecuniary injury, reiterate what equally true state assailed: 'The generally.' 433-434, 601) (citations omitted). 27 short, plaintiffs' "not dollars-and-cents difference." 434, 397. controversy did exist, "clash [was] strong." 436, 398 (Douglas, dissenting). again visited problem (1968). enjoin Elementary Secondary 1965, being schools developed two-part test sue. First, alleges virtue liability taxes, unconstitutionality taxing spending clause 102, 1954. Second, enactment exceeds specific limitations simply delegated 8." 102-103, 29 "[t]heir made welfare," 103, 1954, rested, "operates 8," 104, distinguished Mrs. relied, spend, based Due Process 105, 1955. reaffirmed unsatisfied "where seeks employ forum air about System." 106, 1956. Unlike first prong Their deficient respects. action, property.15 limited challenges "only [at] 228, 2935 (denying "did rather Branch"). redundantly, complain 8. authorizing legislation, evident 2.16 dispute conclusion, Brief 10, decisive precedent.17 32 doubt once might existed concerning rigor exception ought applied erased argue Central Intelligence Agency withhold detailed information expenditures Accounts Constitution.18 rejected "his statutes regulating CIA." 175, 2945. "mere recital" "demonstrate[d] how far [fell] short criteria neatly left undisturbed." 174-175, 33 marred same deficiency. Plaintiffs argued Incompatibility I19 prevented Members commissions Forces Reserve. summarily assertion Reserve status." (footnote therefore, plainly apparently reached conclusion. remains seen IV 35 properly doubted ability status, considered "essentially role." "Plaintiffs reason expect, about, saving prevail. crux stake, argue, supposed loss money such. matter primary identity, much separationists ." established 'citizen standing' such." 262. could governmental observance "set forth instead injury" "personal right." 265. 38 surely correct recognizing nonobservance citizens." 223, n. 13, 2933, 13. repeatedly predicated 'the right, possessed citizen, require administered according .' Fairchild Hughes, 258 126, 129 [42 274, 275, 499] [1922]." Baker Carr, 369 186, 82 691, 705, 663 (1962). 216-222, 2929-2932; Laird Tatum, 408 1, 2318, 154 (1972); Ex parte Levitt, 302 633, 58 493 (1937). Such little attempts government." finding something governance," Schlesinger, 217, 2930, relied differences think distinctions. differed predicated, respectively, Clauses, "it arguable creates citizen 'personal right' religion." 265 unnecessary "arguable" proposition correct, judged mere allegation reasoning disguises, thin veil, inconsistency results Richardson. right" accordance views Constitution; indeed, barrier provision. kind conduct, acting differently, alone draining meaning. Richardson Clauses less "fundamental" Each establishes norm bound honor—to greater lesser extent inscribed To burdens diminish "importance" increases, reject notion. "focuses get before issues wishes adjudicated." 1952. Moreover, know principled create hierarchy values complementary "sliding scale" permit invoke States.20 provisions enforceable beneficiaries boundaries." 227, 2935. shares deficiency them disagreement phrased terms. "[T]hat adverseness sharpens presentation issues," 204, 703, anticipated proceedings commenced injured fact; permissible itself.21 reaching retreat earlier holdings noneconomic See, e. g., 686-688, 2415-2416; 153-154, 829-830. kind, economic otherwise, standing.22 located Chester County, Pa. named reside Maryland Virginia;23 organizational headquarters D.C. license roam country search wrongdoing reveal discoveries court.24 ombudsmen welfare. V ignored unambiguous appears done out conviction enforcement demands himself,' derived precedential comfort Cohen: justification seems, recognition including expenditures." 262.25 concurring direct. "statutes violate impact traditional sense." 267-268. thereby review, because, "as practical matter, better suited vindicate freedoms Clause," 266. 44 Implicit foregoing errors, scheme. Respondents' implicitly rests presumption violations typically cause "traditional" "[t]he assumption sue, find observed satisfied. unwilling nonexistent joined averages case, there confining relying Ultimately, derives idea invocation litigants.26 existence wish becomes irrelevant. countenance departure contained 46 ordered. 47 BRENNAN, MARSHALL BLACKMUN join, dissenting. jurisdictional courts, "threshold question" turning attention "substantive" issues. Linda S. Richard D., 410 614, 616, 1146, 1148, 536 impulse difficult obliquely course purporting labels "standing"; accounts phenomenon opinions, today, tend obfuscate, inform, understanding meaning law. serious by-product practice disregards when, failing acknowledge protections afforded uses "standing slam courthouse door against entitled full merits."1 49 stark example unfortunate trend resolving "threshold" while obscuring stake. waxes eloquent considerations combine misguided jurisprudence. word enforce. despite pat recitation utterly fails, except sheerest form ipse dixit, explain why unlike controlled (1923). 50 settled doctrine injury-in-fact At core minimum "such outcome largely depends. Duke Power Carolina Environmental Study Group, Inc., 438 59, 72, 98 2620, 2629, 57 595 (1978). Cases identified components stake" requirement. Plaintiff suffered, with, "distinct injury," 2206, (1975). causal connection defendant's (1976); Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 261, 97 555, 561, (1977). ascertain met proceeding behalf plaintiff, equitable monetary. 51 "often turns asserted." 500, 2206.2 Neither "palpable "causation" unvarying "mutual understandings" "common-law traditions" necessarily guides definitional inquiry.3 Congress, impart new, occasion unique, statutory contexts. makes fundamental mistake determines two-pronged "injury-in-fact" test, "standing," determining defines redress precisely circumstance 52 happen person believing obscure provision relies, invasion another person's "rights."4 rhetoric deprive person, clearly law, opportunity prove violated. dissembling enterprise indulges today. 53 overrides Constitution.5 construe deny 'to class sake [a] protection given,' Jones 362 257, 80 725, 731, 697 (1960), quoting York rel. Hatch Reardon, 204 152, 160, 190, 415 (1907), head. designed hospitable enjoying rights. How discern courts? modern vocabulary clear: drafters Bill intended legacy enjoy legally law.6 West Virginia Bd. Barnette, 319 624, 638, 1178, 1185, 87 1628 (1943). 54 With observations mind, N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions turn general, particular. Atlantic 55 (1923), involved 224, grants cooperate mortality. Appellant contended enacting program, exceeded intruded reserved Frothingham's follows: 56 "[T]his States; her contention, clear, seems appropriations complained increase future take execution appropriation act, purposes, never passed Court." 486, 600. conceded treated municipal municipality's immediate warrant injunctive prevent misuse. Bradfield Roberts, 175 291, 121, 168 (1899), present construction buildings rule appropriate treat Columbia municipality.7 States: "[T]he relation different. His Treasury—partly realized partly sources—is millions others; comparatively minute indeterminable; taxation, funds, uncertain, equity. 59 produce additional imposed vast constantly changing, concern." After noting restraint, concluded: 61 [judicial] generally." 62 obscure.8 principal interpretive difficulty lies chose policy seemingly absolute statements jurisdiction. For example, commented significance sheer similar Frothingham. Yet hardly bars others similarly aggrieved. "[S]tanding denied many suffer injury." draws distinction injuries large, small. dollars valid measure. Everson 330 48-49, 504, 527, 91 711 (1947) (Rutledge, guaranteeing justice recognize none all.9 stressed indirectness But, certain, length chain irrelevant.10 505, 2208. unlawful qualitatively different attacking local More importantly, dependent recognizes continuing disposition Treasury contributed lawful uses. Until precedents indicate concept, comfortably inconsistent framework remedies 64 explanation realms. Harlan, came identifying consider unstated premise rule: 65 "[The] consist been, shortly be, expended ask return portion previous payments, collection existing debt, demand taxation. payments received are, receipt, lost revenues." 128, 1967. vein, suits involve revenues committed, disagreements entrusted 98, arguments Harlan phrased, "legal rights" "justiciable issues." founded precipitate interference activities avoided. Alternatively, construed resting unarticulated, constitutionally analytically impossible mount assault latter. thatFrothingham affairs analogous shareholder's corporation. 68 Whatever provenance, displays sound judgment: Courts circumspect dealing avoid intrusion functions Branches. ordinarily validity tax. Unless operates unconstitutionally, see, e.g., Murdock 870, 1292 (1943), object funds. argument, unauthorized amounted process, Fifth protect increases liability. States' prerogatives," ibid., third-party barred.11 faced sort claim, payments. understand bar gave face examine claim. B 69 1947, nine Justices impose definite restriction tax.12 15, 511, 'establishment religion' this:" "No amount, large small, levied institutions, whatever called, adopt, teach 16, 511. explicit. "One free transgression command authorities religion, prohibiting thereof.' 22, 514 (Jackson, "[A]part efforts inject sectarian schools, maintaining permanent religion civil commands establishments, establishments having foundation function. [M]oney taken given another's belief, one's own." 44, 525 (Rutledge 71 "respecting religion," historic language, "particularly imposition taxes." 508. Rutledge pointed dissent: closely tied content generating history refined product terse summation history." 520. bears brief repetition context. Many early settlers Nation here escape tyranny laws government-sponsored churches inflicted punishments failure pay taxes tithes. 8-9, 507-508. inhabitants Colonies soon displayed recreate oppressive practices countries fled. Once minority faiths persecuted, subjected—this colonial governments—to tithes religion. 509, 8; Reynolds 145, 162-163, 244 (1879). 73 "These became commonplace shock freedom-loving colonials feeling abhorrence. ministers' salaries build aroused indignation. feelings expression Amendment." Everson, 11, 509 (footnotes 74 1784-1785, adoption conflict saw aid natural "commonly shared" sentiments, notion culminated battle fought House Delegates bill establishing religion."13 Reynolds, 162-163. introduction assembly prompted James Madison prepare circulate famous "Memorial Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments," imploring legislature authority, bill. end, Legislature, succeeded securing "A Establishing Freedom," introduced Assembly seven Thomas Jefferson. 163; 11-13, 509-510 (majority opinion); 35-40, 521-523 Jefferson played leading roles events hesitate reproduce partial text objectives, protections, concise phrasing 12-13, 28, 509-510, 517; 163-164. Extracts repeating preamble provided, part: 75 "[T]o compel man contributions propagation disbelieves, sinful tyrannical; forcing teacher persuasion, depriving comfortable liberty giving pastor, morals pattern." Hening's 85. 76 operative emphatically stated: 77 "That shall frequent worship, place, ministry whatsoever, enforced, restrained, molested, burthened body goods, otherwise belief. 86.14 78 summed up Madison's terms: 79 "In phase unrelentingly opposing Not 'three pence' contribution exacted purpose. Tithes life-blood compulsions disappeared. coworkers abridgments [between state] created. objection small whatsoever. 'If admission levies.' assessment wrong.' 40-41, 523-524 (citation light history, beneficiary prohibition religion.15 explains appellant's merits, perceived issue did. appellant sued "in district taxpayer," reimbursement parents cost transporting children parochial aside." Appellant's "statute forced help maintain" schools. 5, 506. obvious participated Jackson's succinct statement presented: "Is complainant carrying pupils specified denomination?" 21, (dissenting opinion). Given issues, fairly actionable?16 Contract 81 Welfare's 1965: specifically Department's allowing distributed finance instruction Appellants urged Free Exercise Act, authorized, "unconstitutional void." further injunction appellees approving 86-88, 1945-1946. stood maintenance held, "nexus" test. unaware federally funds— had, gone unquestioned Everson.17 aware taxpayer, raising involving holding, responding, acceptance exposition 103-104, 83 apparent formulated reconcile developing historical prohibit using advancement imperative pursuant offered language,18 understood determinant Amendment," principles. 238, 2963, (1974) (BRENNAN, dissenting); 1953. attacked someone and, ruling possibility provision, differently bounds allocating largesse. Doremus, required, logical status type attacked. Appellants' second prong, advanced appellants precise infringement alleged. requirement: jealously protects diversion offices 84 nexus "announced," 1953-1954, continuity prior cases, guide depart issue. supply rationale decision, exposition: supplied restrictions restrictions. 85 almost reason, all. discern, authority. church, encourage forbidden exaction." 45, 526 dissenting) (emphasis added). 115-116, 1960 (Fortas, clear. History singularly "proper jurisdiction" bestowal largesse Each, every, guards directs pocketbooks citizenry placed ministry. 86 asked pays Apart unlikely announced advance levy subsidies, until lent venture. reasonable address charged taxes. redress—there segregate complaining devoted Surely, then, learns Government's halt intolerable pocketbook, conscience, Blind distinguish wrenching snippets perfunctorily applying color tortuous distinctions specious, best: worst, pernicious heritage. finds "source [plaintiffs'] Ante, 479 withstand scrutiny. Commissioner disbursing 1965 "religious sectarian" disclaimed intent[ion] Act." 87, 1946. Rather, claimed defendant-administrators' approval alternatively, grant "from [defendant] Clause." adequacy pleading; words, "Federal void actions." narrowly. 89 fundamentally, division drawn sure, authority; assigns legislate Congress. conceive actor, implementing will, scope legislatively official. binds whole, regardless work instance. purported unavailing. "decisive" "was 2," ante, 480, relies deviations 9, 7, 6, respectively. defect Clause; rather, distribution largesse, Doremus. us donation cash facility, Tilton Richard- son, 403 672, 2091, 790 (1971), gift facility already built. meaningless illustrated Tilton. assurance financed converted uses, receive requires. purpose, received, demanded, payment.19 Whether undertaken breach breach, same.20 Plainly hostile Framers' vents hostility guise [as intended] [Establishment Clause] merits." Barlow Collins, 159, 178, 832, 844, 192 (1970) Therefore, dissent. STEVENS, Parts II, opinion, BRENNAN demonstrates worth $1,300,000 hold depends money, hand, other, trivialize doctrine. Stewart Fortas forming firm conclusion case. point directly: "I agree enact 'respecting thesis, slender provides 'nexus,' puts here. unique my judgment, far-fetched 'establishment' enough, think, allow suit, coupled, church-state intimate, pervasive, life taxpayer—and citizens. "Perhaps issue, acceptable challenge. this. certainly, believe, scrutiny presented—the church—which Founding Fathers regarded system—should subjected testing. we, faithful trust, consign limbo, unacknowledged, unresolved, undecided. "On urgent necessities precarious opening confront open power. accepted launching pad attack target affecting 1960-1961. Today holds, effect, Judiciary enforcing "norm[s] honor," 484, 678, 706. Ironically, realty significance. respect, am persuaded Cohen attaches drawing tenuous 100 reasons BRENNAN's affirm Appeals. "excess "property agency needs discharge responsibilities." 472(e). responsibilities agencies, determined Services]." 379, 472(g). 3411, 3441(a)(2)(P) ed., Supp.III). "be awarded applicant provides, Education], greatest benefit." 12.5 Applicants willing implement approved use. 12.8(b). calculating considers factors applicant's accreditation, sponsorship training, plans introduce new instructional programs, commitment student health welfare, research, handicapped. pt. Exh. remaining districts aside park recreational Northeast College. appraiser fixtures situated tract. constructed expense render useful offset "Congress Watt Energy Action Educational Foundation, 151, 161, 205, 212, 309 (1981); (1978); 262, (1977); 2205, (1975); 218, 220-221, 2931-2932, (1974); 179-180, 2947-2948, O'Shea Littleton, 414 493, 674, 674 R.S. 617-618, 1148-1149, (1979); 80, 2634; Singleton Wulff, 428 113-114, 2868, 826 (1976). 1608; 2634. 6; 19, dissent task "tend[ing] law." Post, 490. operate national interested litigants, criticism carry weight. teaching prescribed among "overrides Constitution," post, just wax wane harmony desire "hospitable forum," 494. obligates assured so, called resolve controversy. Then, presume Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 466, 482, 688 (1936) (Brandeis, Respondent organization, distinct members. represent. "its members, them, suffering justiciable themselves suit." 2211. 1925; 739-741, 1368-1369, (1972). itself, arguably Act. simplify procurement, utilization, achieve "efficient, businesslike management." S.Rep. 475, 81st Cong., 1st Sess., (1949). H.R.Rep. 670, 1-2 Among central "maximum owned purchasing 4. recognized, particular, wartime contingencies. well-recognized priorities, education. 4-5; 5-6. note speculative nonexistent. facilities transfer. expenditure, perceive raised. useless disposed productive manner. transfer, benefit. Assuming, arguendo, true, purchaser added receipts. argues, would, likelihood, non-profit cash." 30. year delay depleted amounts Even outer still encountered "personally intervention." 508, 2210. U.S.Const., ("[A]nd regular Statement Account Receipts Expenditures Money published time"). ("[N]o Person Office Member during Continuance Office"). premised revisionist reading leads contends largesse," uses." 497-498. reads taxpayers' claims. explained expenditures. 499. divines largesse" 509. extends instance," 512. However appealing reconstruction precedent resemblance purports rest. turned largesse." dissent's lead satisfying substitution interest," enhances "our law," Logically, shoulder explaining interest" Clause: yet so. interpretation adequately According dissent, "continuing taxes," 497-498, seem follow budget CIA, 170, 2943, 211, 2927. Of rejected, spent unlawfully. argument adverse sharply conflicted supported briefs arguments." 225, 2934: "We sincerity objectives depth them. essence 'is motivation possession requisite conduct.' 435 [72 397, 475] (1952)." 225-226, 2934. rely 154, "[a] family spiritual give Abington School Schempp, 374 203 [83 1560, 844] [1963]." mean asserting possesses "spiritual apart accompanying 203, 844 (1963). invalidated attended question, parents. noted: "It goes saying complain. parents, complaints directed. These suffice complain." 1572, 9. drew comparison identical raised, "dismissed graduation child appellants' 1573, extensive, error phrase stake." Schempp rested Clause—for demonstrated, insufficient—but impressionable schoolchildren unwelcome comparable unidentified Pennsylvania. explain, before. obligated belief Procedure 702, instance "adversely aggrieved relevant statute." enactment, lower threshold 2206. standing," 617, arguing alters rules applicable believed openly acknowledging position status. below out, accord facts. 269-270. amici strongly adopt "perceived pleadings," merit vision consisting 265, dictate capital sentence cruel unusual punishment, affirmative-action equal laws, choose examples creating exist could, did, Frankfurter sources assist inquiry injury: courts. Or Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee McGrath, 341 123, 817 (1951) (concurring opinion) types felt draw "common 152-153, 157-160, 641-642. press obviously realm guard against. "third-party situations, "palpable" contemplation If founds then allowed 80-81, 2634, evaluating definition, direction, wisdom peculiarly character—to elaborate weigh along gleanings intent, concerns requisites met," 81, rarely interposed particularly Indeed, permissive attitude toward suits. 79-81, 2633-2634. When "right" action; infringed, noted, "incorporated independent tribunals peculiar guardians rights; impenetrable bulwark Executive; naturally led resist encroachment expressly stipulated rights." Annals Cong. 439 (1789). afford municipality, treatment persuasive force. ban origin, analogy sufficed cure defect. resident Columbia." 295, 122 deemed Ellis Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Treasurer Roberts Bradfield, App.D.C. 453, 459-460 (1898), barrier. 79, 25, 2633, 25; 181, 196, 18, 2948, 2956, 92, 101, 1948, 1953, 130, 1968, limitations. Perhaps usefully spending, coupled parties. construction, noted 94, major corporate trivial. Indeed $10 billion $150 million corporation Motors. Hearings 2097 Subcommittee Constitutional Senate Judiciary, 89th Page (1966) (letter K. Davis Sen. Sam Ervin); Note, Yale L.J. 895, 917, 127 (1960). pocketbook formed denying Compare (1973); supra; obstacle inability "likely decision." 1924. above-cited denied, intermediate link chain—a court—might effective relief. acceded decree ineffectual relieve party. 41-42, 1925-1926; 505-507, 2208-2209. situation intervening cause. defendant concludes redress, sure. restrictions, overly elegant defining Only required. recently contention outside suits, substantial likelihood 2633. 225 2934, Nevertheless, suggest abandoned. evinces prudence, conceptions event, embedded cases. pierced, Black, Chief Vinson, Reed, Douglas, Murphy, activity religion; Jackson Frankfurter; authored Jackson, Frankfurter, Burton joined. Both dissents affirmed 514, bill, Remonstrance, appended Everson. 63-74, 534-539. pronouncement body, proscription transcend temporal bounds. concludes: "And Assembly, ordinary only, succeeding assemblies, own, irrevocable law; declare, hereby mankind, hereafter repeal present, narrow operation, 86. incorporation Rights, transformed hortatory expression, lasting binding exemption objecting subsidy. subsidy involves monies subsidized resources whole. An exemption, assists exempted passively, relieving privately venture paying '[i]n subsidy, forcibly diverts income believers nonbelievers churches,' refrains diverting independently generated voluntary contributions.' Walz Tax commission City, 664, 690-691, 1409, 1422, concurring) omitted), Gianella, Liberty, Nonestablishment, Doctrinal Development, Harv.L.Rev. 513, 533 irrespective controversy, qualitative exemption. writing explored selected Bible, declaratory "There separate paid adds sum conducting school. No averment possibly pocket 433, distinguishing : "Everson showed measurable disbursement school-district occasioned of. not." especially alternatively: comprehended not. anomaly Fourteenth exempting wisely contains However, whenever found, believe assuring breached Consequently, derogation restrict extracted abuses 105-106, announcement tax, none. like remain reluctant possibility. uncontested initially purchased mark improvements. market $1.3 million. 253 (CA3 1980). possible, provisions. 484(e)(1), 484(e)(3)(G). Proceeds sale, lease, covered miscellaneous 485(a). buildings, equipment thereon" designated "school, "nonprofit institution." 484(k)(1)(A). fixing 484(k)(1)(C). college, value. entirely obtain commences. viewed objectionable learn purchase construct order, undertake construction. So concerned, situations interchangeable. Surely nice vetoed church: reserving [church] comprises societies, contrary article 'Congress establishment.' Judge Messages Papers Presidents 490 (1897). 1896 included Appropriation declaring founding, maintaining, aiding services, expenses, denomination, society ecclesiastical control." 411. Lemon Kurtzman, 602, 648, 2105, 2129, 745 (1971) (opinion J.).

Classification Label: 8