Legal Document

128 S. Ct. 1830 (2008) UNITED STATES, Petitioner, v. Michael WILLIAMS. No. 06-694. Supreme Court of United States. Argued October 30, 2007. Decided May 19, 2008. *1835 Richard J. Diaz, for respondent. Paul D. Clement, Solicitor General, Counsel Record, Department Justice, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Ophelia M. Valls, Luis I. Guerra, Coral Gables, FL, G. Strafer, Miami, Alice Fisher, Assistant Attorney R. Dreeben, Deputy Deanne E. Maynard, to the Deborah Watson, Attorney, Justice SCALIA delivered opinion Court. Section 2252A(a)(3)(B) Title 18, States Code, criminalizes, in certain specified circumstances, pandering or solicitation child pornography. This case presents question whether that statute is overbroad under First Amendment impermissibly vague Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment. I A We have long held obscene speechsexually explicit material violates fundamental notions decencyis not protected by *1836 See Roth States, 354 U.S. 476, 484-485, 77 1304, 1 L. Ed. 2d 1498 (1957). But protect has social value, we limited scope obscenity exception, and overturned convictions distribution sexually graphic but nonobscene material. Miller California, 413 15, 23-24, 93 2607, 37 419 (1973); see also, e.g., Jenkins Georgia, 418 153, 161, 94 2750, 41 642 (1974). Over last 25 years, confronted a related overlapping category proscribable speech: Ashcroft Free Speech Coalition, 535 234, 122 1389, 152 403 (2002); Osborne Ohio, 495 103, 110 1691, 109 98 (1990); New York Ferber, 458 747, 102 3348, 73 1113 (1982). consists visual portrayals feature children. which proscribes all pornography, even does qualify as obscenity, on its face violate id., at 751-753, 756-764, 3348. Moreover, government may criminalize possession though it mere involving adults. Compare Osborne, supra, 111, with Stanley 394 557, 568, 89 1243, 22 542 (1969). The broad authority proscribe pornography not, however, unlimited. Four Terms ago, facially two provisions federal Child Pornography Protection Act 1996 (CPPA). U.S., 258, 1389. first these banned "`any depiction'" "`is, appears be, minor engaging conduct,'" if contained only youthful-looking adult actors virtual images children generated computer. Id., 239-241, 1389 (quoting 18 U.S.C. § 2256(8)(B)). was invalid, explained, because child-protection rationale speech restriction apply materials produced without 249-251, 254, second provision issue Coalition criminalized had been pandered regardless actually that. 257, (citing 2256(8)(D)). person could thus prosecution possessing unobjectionable someone else pandered. this prohibition, did "more than prohibit pandering," also overbroad. Ibid. After our decision Congress went back drawing board legislation unlikely title Prosecutorial Remedies Other Tools end Exploitation Children Today 2003, 117 Stat. 650. shall refer Act. 503 amended 2252A add new provision, relevant portions now read follows: "(a) Any who "(3) knowingly . "(B) advertises, promotes, presents, distributes, solicits through mails, interstate foreign commerce any means, including computer, purported manner reflects belief, intended cause another believe, *1837 is, contains "(i) an depiction conduct; "(ii) actual conduct, "shall be punished provided subsection (b)." (2000 ed., Supp. V). 2256(2)(A) defines "sexually conduct" "actual simulated sexual intercourse, genital-genital, oral-genital, anal-genital, oral-anal, between persons same opposite sex; bestiality; "(iii) masturbation; "(iv) sadistic masochistic abuse; "(v) lascivious exhibition genitals pubic area person." Violation incurs minimum sentence 5 years imprisonment maximum 20 years. 2252A(b)(1). Act's express findings indicate concerned limiting child-pornography prohibition proved children, required, would enable many pornographers evade conviction. 501(9), (10), 677. emergence technology repeated retransmission picture files over Internet make nearly impossible prove particular image using real childreneven "[t]here no substantial evidence being trafficked today were made other abuse children," imaging prohibitively expensive. 501(5), (7), (8), (11), 676-678; Dept. Office Community Oriented Policing Services, Wortley & Smallbone, 9 (May 2006), line hhtp://www.cops. usdoj.gov/mime/open.pdf?Item=1729 (hereinafter Internet) (as visited Jan. 7, 2008, available Clerk Court's file). B following facts appear Eleventh Circuit, 444 F.3d 1286, 1288 (2006). On April 26, 2004, respondent Williams, screen name, signed public chat room. Secret Service agent room moniker "Lisa n Miami." noticed Williams posted message read: "Dad toddler `good' pics her [sic] me swap your pics, live cam." struck up conversation leading electronic exchange nonpornographic pictures (The agent's fact doctored photograph adult.) Soon thereafter, messaged he photographs men molesting his 4-year-old daughter. Suspicious Miami" law-enforcement agent, before proceeding further demanded produce additional pictures. When room: "HERE ROOM; CAN PUT UPLINK CUZ IM FOR REALSHE CANT." Appended declaration hyperlink that, when clicked, led seven aged approximately conduct displaying their genitals. then obtained search warrant Williams's home, where agents seized hard drives containing least *1838 engaged some sadomasochistic. charged one count 2252A(a)(5)(B). He pleaded guilty both counts reserved right challenge constitutionality District rejected challenge, sentenced him concurrent 60-month sentences counts. 04-20299-CR-MIDDLEBROOKS (SD Fla., Aug. 20, 2004), App. Pet. Cert. 46a-69a. Appeals Circuit reversed conviction, holding vague. F.3d, 1308-1309.[1] granted certiorari. 549 ___, 127 1874, 167 363 (2007). II According overbreadth doctrine, invalid prohibits amount speech. doctrine seeks strike balance competing costs. Virginia Hicks, 539 113, 119-120, 123 2191, 156 148 (2003). hand, threat enforcement law deters people from constitutionally speech, inhibiting free ideas. invalidating applications perfectly constitutional particularly directed so antisocial criminal obvious harmful effects. In order maintain appropriate balance, vigorously enforced requirement statute's substantial, absolute sense, relative plainly legitimate sweep. Board Trustees State Univ. N.Y. Fox, 492 469, 485, 3028, 106 388 (1989); Broadrick Oklahoma, 601, 615, 2908, 830 (1973). Invalidation "`"strong medicine"'" "casually employed." Los Angeles Police Reporting Publishing Corp., 528 32, 39, 120 483, 145 451 (1999) 769, 3348). step analysis construe challenged statute; determine reaches too far knowing what covers. Generally speaking, offers provide requests obtain require existence respect, differs statutes prohibited Rather targeting underlying material, bans collateral introduces such into *1839 network. Thus, user who undercover statute, officer possesses Likewise, advertises depicting falls within reach statute. definition solicited precisely tracks Ferber Miller: (actual virtual) conduct. 245-246, (stating children); 256, (holding CPPA "cover[ed] beyond categories recognized Miller"). number features are important analysis: First, includes scienter requirement. word 2252A(a)(3)"knowingly"applies immediately subdivisions, previously existing 2252A(a)(3)(A)[2] here. think best reading term context applies every element provisions. grammar structure enables parts apart "knowingly" Here itself, making clear entirety; there grammatical barrier way. Second, string operative verbs"advertises, solicits"is reasonably transactional connotation. That say, penalizes accompanies induce transfer pornography via reproduction physical delivery another. For three verbs, obvious: advertising, distributing, soliciting steps taken course proposed product, typically exclusively commercial market. isolation, remaining verbs "promotes" "presents"are susceptible multiple wide-ranging meanings. context, those meanings narrowed commonsense canon noscitur sociiswhich counsels given more precise content neighboring words associated. Jarecki G.D. Searle Co., 367 303, 307, 81 1579, 6 859 (1961); 2A N. Singer Singer, Sutherland Statutes Statutory Construction 47.16 (7th ed.2007). "Promotes," list "solicits," "distributes," "advertises," most sensibly mean act recommending acquisition. American Heritage Dictionary 1403 (4th ed.2000) (def. 4: "To attempt sell popularize advertising publicity"). Similarly, "presents," verbs associated, means showing offering view 1388 3a: *1840 gift award of"). envisioned acquisition, course, one, example recipient's computer screen.) To clear, conclusion relate transactions say they transactions. One certainly "distribute" expecting payment return. Indeed, much file sharing each participant makes participantsas case. "Distribution involve sophisticated pedophile rings organized crime groups operate profit, cases, carried out individual amateurs seek financial reward." 9. run afoul need accompany Third, phrase "in belief" subjective objective components. "[A] quite different "a give believe." formulation suggests defendant must "belief" misdescription leads listener believe prong (It may, "manner believe" intentional.) There component belief." statement action objectively manifest belief pornography; accompanying lead reasonable understand holds insufficient. Fourth, key phrase, believe," contains element: "intend" select "advertising, promoting, presenting, soliciting" thinks will engender beliefwhether same. (Of ordinary proof defendant's intent matter, sought convey pornography.) Fifth, (the which, minor, covered obscene) very similar "sexual upheld against Ferber. defined "`actual simulated deviate bestiality, masturbation, sado-masochistic abuse, lewd genitals.'" 751, used essentially approved present If anything, here conduct," rather Ferber) merely renders immune facial constitutional attack. "[S]imulated intercourse" (a found well) less application *1841 sorts sex scenes R-rated movieswhich suggest intercourse taking place explicitly it, causing viewers intercourse. "Sexually connotes suggestion occurring. And "simulated" suggested, portrayed, (through camera tricks otherwise) occurred. portrayal viewer camera. Critically, unlike 2252A(a)(3)(B)(ii)'s "visual minor" although simulated, (unless obscene). change eliminates possibility might "simulated intercourse." turn construed criminalizes expressive activity. Offers engage illegal categorically excluded protection. Pittsburgh Press Co. Comm'n Human Relations, 376, 388, 2553, 669 Giboney Empire Storage Ice 336 490, 498, 69 684, 834 (1949). principle resolves case, since contrabandchild proscribed, 1466A(a), 2252A(a)(5)(B) V), proscription constitutional, believed exclusion protection extended receive contraband: "Because [the statute] extends non-commercial promotion, presentation, distribution, solicitation, subject content-based PROTECT strict scrutiny....." 1298. mistakes categorical exclusion. It based privileged status Central Hudson Gas Elec. Corp. Public Serv. Y., 447 562-563, 100 2343, 65 341 (1980), unlawful possess value thus, like enjoy Press, 387-389, 2553.[3] Many established criminal *1842 proscriptionssuch laws conspiracy, incitement, solicitation (commercial not) commence activities. See, ALI, Model Penal Code 5.02(1) (1985) (solicitation commit crime); 5.03(1)(a) (conspiracy crime). part similarly undeserving odd permitted drugs, them away free. sure, remains distinction proposal activity abstract advocacy illegality. Brandenburg 395 444, 447-448, 1827, 23 430 (1969) (per curiam); NAACP Claiborne Hardware 886, 928-929, 3409, 1215 us it. doubt well bounds. defect otherwise proscribed. sum, hold Since erroneously concluded otherwise, applied scrutiny 2252A(a)(3)(B), lodging fatal objections. address objections recast arguments gone exception. difficulty exist trigger view, punish "braggart, exaggerator, outright liar" rendered unconstitutional. seems strange calculus. Although can ban fraudulent offers, see, Illinois ex rel. Madigan Telemarketing Associates, Inc., 538 600, 611-612, 1829, 155 793 (2003), products, forbid punishing products. logic position; statements doubly Brandenburg, "non-commercial, non-inciteful promotion pornography" protected, therefore overreaches criminalizing As discussed earlier, advocacy, "I should legal" encourage you pornography." refers recommendation piece initiating transfer. "particularly objectionable" "reflects ensnare mistakenly believes objection conceptually distinct parts. *1843 thought unconstitutional distributing disagree. deal products do acquire offeror mistaken about factual predicate offer. inchoate crimesacts looking toward commission crime, delivery crimesattempt exampleimpossibility completing defense. "All courts agreement usually referred `factual impossibility' defense charge attempt." 2 W. LaFave, Substantive Criminal Law 11.5(a)(2) (2d ed.2003). author gives "the sale drug [that] involved substance." Ibid.) Hamrick, 43 877, 885 (C.A.4 1995) (en banc) impossibility citing holdings four Circuits); 5.01, Comment (in prosecutions measured according circumstances existed fact"). Under heading subjectively innocuous "lascivious." (Clause (v) "lascivious person.") so. (and estimation) meet statutory definition. Where harmless bathtub defendant, constitutes display genitals," application. amici raise objections, demonstrate nothing forcefully tendency summon forth endless stream fanciful hypotheticals. argues, example, young girls secretly expects contain Brief Respondent 19-20. hypothetical implicate intend recipient Amici contend advertisements mainstream Hollywood movies depict underage characters having et al. Curiae 9-18. implausible reputable distributor movies, Amazon.com, films camera; Amazon.com customers thing. average understands use nonchild actors, way rise level necessary or, both. raised oral argument turning police "present[ing]" Tr. Oral Arg. 9-11. An interpretation "presents" include *1844 authorities self-defeating looks effectively nullify 2252A(d), provides affirmative promptly delivers agency. offense simply replaced delivering officers.) event, verb "present" along "advertise," "give," "lend," "deliver," "transfer"was "promote" 3348 Ann. 263.15 (McKinney 1980)). Despite inclusion, concluding survived challenge. period despite definitions state statutes, Alaska 11.61.125(d) (2006), Del.Code Ann., 11, 1109(5) (2007), aware giving police. hardly therefore, "realistic danger" deter Club Assn., Inc. City York, 487 1, 108 2225, 101 (1988) Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 97-98, 60 736, 84 1093 (1940)). suggested cover documentary footage atrocities committed countries, soldiers raping 5-7. Perhaps so, rises high explicitness required. sort as-applied presumably weigh educational interest dissemination information government's preventing constitute permanent record" children's degradation whose increases harm child." 759, Assuming favor documentary, exception establish substantially "mere conceive impermissible sufficient render challenge." Members Council Taxpayers Vincent, 466 789, 800, 104 2118, 80 772 (1984). vast majority applications, raises problems whatever. Finally, dissent accuses silently overruling prior decisions Coalition. post, 1854. dissent, end-run around Amendment's prohibiting proposals transact themselves. offer request speaker intends transaction depicts true expression [will] inevitably suppressed," 1855. Simulated ever, offered such, when, unbeknownst parties proposal, completed *1845 (we said) fail served defendants contraband, whom happens contraband nature acquire. Is forbidden national-security documents, fakes? ask answer. general attempting exonerated facts. III alternative ground invalidation, void vagueness. Vagueness outgrowth Amendment, conviction fails comport due process intelligence fair notice prohibited, standardless authorizes encourages seriously discriminatory enforcement. Hill Colorado, 530 703, 732, 2480, 147 597 (2000); Grayned Rockford, 408 104, 108-109, 92 2294, 33 222 (1972). ordinarily "[a] plaintiff engages clearly proscribed cannot complain vagueness others," relaxed permitting plaintiffs argue unclear regulates Hoffman Estates Flipside, Estates, 455 489, 494-495, nn. 1186, 71 362 (1982); Reno Civil Liberties Union, 521 844, 870-874, 2329, 138 874 (1997). "perfect clarity guidance never required regulations restrict activity." Ward Rock Against Racism, 491 781, 794, 2746, 105 661 (1989). phrases "`in belief'" ... believe'" "so said left measure behavior conformed." 1306. court gave examples. email claiming attachments says "`little Janie bathhubba, hubba!'" Government "virtually unbounded discretion" deem violation "`reflects prong. court's e-mail entitled "`Good kids bed'" attachment toddlers pajamas asleep beds. described senders: proud grandparent, "chronic forwarder cute photos racy tongue-in-cheek lines," molester trade 1306-1307. "manner" sent identity sender irrelevant *1846 senders arguably prosecuted pandering. 1307. neither hypotheticals, facts, juror find, doubt, spoke reflected displayed thrown threshold. Circuit's error selection unproblematic Its basic mistake lies close cases Close imagined virtually problem poses addressed, vagueness, doubt. re Winship, 397 358, 363, 90 1068, 368 (1970). What sometimes difficult incriminating establishes proved; indeterminacy is. down tied culpability "annoying" "indecent"wholly judgments definitions, narrowing settled legal Coates Cincinnati, 402 611, 614, 91 1686, 29 214 (1971); Reno, 870-871, n. 35, 2329. requires hold, reflects, communicate believe. Those questions fact. Whether true-or-false determination, judgment "indecent." Similarly false determination requirements met. "But juries day pass upon knowledge, intentthe men's mindshaving human experience, mental condition inferred." Communications Assn. Douds, 339 382, 411, 70 674, 925 (1950) Wigmore, Evidence §§ 244, 256 seq. (3d ed.1940)). import statementswhether, fairly representation, 1621 (criminalizing perjury), injury, 115(a)(1) threats assault officials). contention officials unfettered merit. No fraud, solicitation. * harms debases defenseless citizens. Both Federal Governments suppress find proliferating medium Internet. Congress's previous threat, *1847 responded carefully crafted eliminate identified. concerned, effort successful. reversed. ordered. STEVENS, BREYER joins, concurring. My buttressed interrelated considerations finds unnecessary rely. result compelled "every construction resorted to, save unconstitutionality," Hooper 648, 657, 15 207, 39 297 (1895); Edward DeBartolo Florida Gulf Coast Building Constr. Trades Council, 485 575, 1392, 99 645 (collecting cases). extent text alone unclear, duty avoid especially look ascertain drafters. abundantly provision's legislative history Congress' aim target advertised, promoted, presented, distributed, purposethat intention inciting arousal. throughout deliberations Houses "pandering," "pandering solicitation" "pandering" nowhere 149 Cong. Rec. 4227 (2003) ("[T]he bill creating respond recent ruling [in (2002)]" (statement Sen. Leahy, bill's cosponsor)); H.R. Conf. Rep. 108-66, p. 61 ("[The bill] (internal quotation marks omitted)); S.Rep. 108-2, 10 ("S. 151 creates offenses .... pornography"); 16 pornography"). Oxford English "pander," "to minister gratification (another's lust)," 11 129 ed.1989). Black's provides, relevant, "pandering": "The selling textual (such magazines videotapes) openly advertised appeal interest." 1142 (8th ed.2004) Black's).[1] Consistent dictionary explained "`the business purveying matter erotic interest,'" Ginzburg 383 463, 467, 86 942, 31 (1966) 495-496, (1957)).[2] *1848 backdrop uphold today. surrounding enactment convince addition limitations properly concludes constrain heightened ante, 1840-1841, lasciviousness. argues undermines precedents insofar covers pornographic representation side line. concerns arise score surely answered provisions; proposing liability unless believed, depicted Accordingly, protectedparticularly serious literary, artistic, political, scientific valueis lawful nonlascivious purpose, captured prohibition. Cf. 24-25, SOUTER, GINSBURG dissenting. Dealing penalized violating lacks justify If, (to take kind case) shows subject, criminal. 765-766, 110-111, (1990). rule rests foil exploitation subjects, 759-760, justification limits exception: 763, 764, 3348; (2002). just six ago outlawing represented necessarily 257-258, 2003(Act), 650, enacted wake responds avoiding direct pornography[1] minors *1849 pictured; instead, manifestly prospective party child, impersonated, "virtual" composite created spliced together. specifically types proposals. outlaws kinds offers: "advertis[ing]" "promot[ing]" prosecutable recommend implication available, "distribut[ing]" anyone chooses proposals, point particular, accept explanation unrelated extant image. ways Court, regulation regard specific, representations. law, elements same, show consistently maintaining fake limit law's criminalization failing confront tension ostensibly protecting while approving allowing reasoning result. significant today's holding, respectfully easy applying supply supposedly (that "material" "purported"). 1838 ("The speaking (absent disclaimer qualification) understood photo child; assumption desiring speak Hence, (having specific artifact mind) "solicits" contraband. 2252A(3)(B). transaction, non-expressive purports present, distribute, advertise, promote proposes transaction. traffic suppressed, mislead others, square unprotected 1842; non-fraudulent *1850 accepted validly convicted consistent punishable (or would) fact, 1842-1843. over, gets objects, dealer's inventory, example. These common attest. 501(1)-(15), 676-678. catch unsuccessful solicitors offerors sell; rather, feared "[t]he prospect exists create computer-generated depictions indistinguishable allow escape threatens unenforceable." 501(13). incorporates understanding 1842 ("[`Promotes'] ..."). referring child's independent 2252A(a)(1), (2). occasion finding shown setting violation. (apparently Congress) instances, fake, simulation young-looking convincingly passed off itself criminal, absence model protected. 246, Act, irrelevant. matters inclusion image, validity forbidding proposed; to. obvious. reaffirmed non-obscene concern safety disentitles (but simulations, adults) non-obscenity 251, featuring Salcido, 506 729, 733 (C.A.9 2007) curiam) ("In [Free Coalition], `virtual' offense. result, burden proving images"); cf. *1851 255, difficulties seeking impose unlawful"). punishes regarding prosecution, all; this, meant dispense with, all. crimes materials? answers, none comes grips question. first, 1845-1846, wrong propose inducement go point. protected) demonstrated prohibited. photographs, requisite (manifested encouraged) reality subjects correct belief. Prohibited lawful, unlawful, Much answer, enjoys Ante, 1841. reason given, answer source difficulty: contemplated turns photograph. good suffice (perhaps simulated), outside bounds reason, enough crimes. Why pornography? third analogizes relies impediment complete possible advanced age, character child-figure). mind goes, believes[2] *1852 minors, invoking Coalition's real-child incoherent fit paradigm version rule. incoherence scheme 2252A(b)(1) conspiring substantive prohibitions, 2252A(a)(3)(B). Treating species statutory, crime. metaphysician imagine system universe expandable indefinitely principles let threatened. 11.2(a), 208 ed. 2003) ("[W]here terms either doing persuasive"). failure analogy, unjustifiable extension classic frustration rule, completed. intending killer grabs pistol loaded blanks homicide bullets gun; shooting prevented completion identified how exactly actions conform mind, photos, was, respectively, owing about, precludes acts. acts intended, *1853 committed. (thus "proposal" liability, analogy)? response demur, dealer sells something else. (A package baking powder, powder cocaine, example.) doubts attempted didn't know selling. Yet suffice, overlooks difference lawfulness Powder sales privileged. rationality transactions, regulating discharge pistol. Virtual fall privilege, affirmatively allowed course. stands: why standard liability? next deals spy, passes national security documents thinking classified secret, declassified inspection. 1845. unclassified privilege claim cannot. assumes document publication state-secret restrictions assume too); attempt-proposals deterrent justifies prosecuting spy (like killer) validate differences blank cartridges, involved, deterrence promoted compromising policy, dispositive differences. attempts cocaine turned lose sufficiently suppressed after (requiring pictured, 1389); prosecute manifesting inducing child. enforced, function do, merging whole *1854 dispensing subject. eliminating loss consequence. possibly greater ease prosecuting, segment gone. great pains draw Coalition; worth respecting facing treating differently follows first. deluded liable risk commodities. disclose worry consequence; quoted newspaper, circulate, analysts politics policy able rely them. relates class disappear. True, lost short merit, intrinsic unpopular expression. stands identifiable, practical fall. They empty overruled formally, considered recently decided put aside (after years) ought reason. Another pair come compare Minersville School Dist. Gobitis, 586, 1010, 1375 (1940), West Bd. Barnette, 319 624, 63 1178, 87 1628 (1943). set abrupt Gobitis 635-642, explained. Attempts damage confidence precedent; suppressing be. dispositive. Eliminating guaranteeing suppression reducing shells heavy prices, paid offset, missing my saving get holdings. better understood, incomplete series in. upshot relationship frustrating mistake. Not frustrated punishable, assumptions bar legitimacy consequences *1855 protects When, here, safeguard pointless, Untethering power assessment likely effects unsettling significance going grain pervasive tolerates tendencies expression, private understandings speakers listeners, critical consequences. milestones political liberty curiam), seen culmination half century's development began Holmes's Abrams 250 616, 40 17, 1173 (1919). dominated World War sedition espionage behind Schenck 249 47, 52, 247, 470 (1919), insisted guarantees press permit force except producing imminent lawless incite action." 447, 1827. Stone, Perilous Times: Wartime 522 (2004) ("[E]xactly fifty Schenck, finally unambiguously embraced Holmes-Brandeis danger"). unmistakably insists grounded realistic, harm. cry now, speaker's own desire foster heavily "First freedoms danger control end. beginning freedom, thought." 253, Hurley Irish-American Gay, Lesbian Bisexual Group Boston, 515 579, 115 2338, 132 (1995) idea noncommercial thoughts acceptable indeed, people, grates amounts service orthodox antithesis"). IV pay price justification, am sees grounding suppose uncritical acceptance *1856 forum argued jury's appreciation prevent thing, raising shown. voices fear skeptical jurors effective limitation, skirt not. needs salt. time raised. Long passed, models adulthood, yet indication ever crippled underage. Still, convinced Government's stemming simulation, willing reexamine Conditions change, stop professional amateur exploiting degree yield whenever claims worthy curtailing claimed "almost universally rais[e]" alleged virtual, 501(10), 677, nor citation single acquittal attributable defense.[3] *1857 21-23; National Center Families 10-13. short; highly successful convicting pornographers, overwhelming plead try luck jury virtual-child defense.[4] little changed assertion interest. *1858 254-255, solution, runs, images. argument, essence, upside down"); 259, (THOMAS, J., concurring judgment) ("At asserts defenses, done successfully. points acquitted `computer-generated images' defense"). Without convincing contrary, experience tells faith capacity system, expected way, books. attempts, carry introducing evidence; figures looked prima facie demonstration element.[5] expert testimony effect came in, cross-examination witness seemingly authentic simulated. direct), questioning basis truth, proper; victimized govern trial abusing personally). failed entertain showed wrong, rendering unpunishable, excuse cutting NOTES [1] resentencing light Booker, 543 220, 125 738, 160 621 (2005). 1307-308. affirmed reversing 1309. reduced appeal, moot. Benton Maryland, 784, 2056, 707 (1969), "there jurisdictional consideration challenges convictions, imposed." 791, 2056. [2] 2252A(a)(3)(A) V) reads: "reproduces computer." [3] newspaper afford help-wanted ads information-exchange function. replied: "Whatever merits contexts, unpersuasive Discrimination employment activity, activity.... publish want ad narcotics prostitutes." 2553. recruiting prostitute, prostitute." 1142. elsewhere, FW/PBS, Dallas, 493 215, 249, 596, 107 603 (1990) (opinion dissenting part) ("Ginzburg withstand Pharmacy Citizens Consumer 425 748, 96 1817, 48 346 (1976)"). case's explication meaning instructive. "child photograph, "True" "real" directly settings minors; "fake" components together, adults minors. leave largely passing fraud separate independently changes dictate conclusion. placed policing cuts Riley Federation Blind C., 787-795, 2667, (invalidating fundraiser scrutiny). Also consumer-protection cared interests would-be purchasers, penalties onerous compared laws. Booksellers Foundation Expression 8 (identifying misdemeanor civil penalties). legitimately apparently disproportionate cause. During hearings passage presented examples purportedly Hearing 1104 1161 Subcommittee Crime, Terrorism, Homeland Security House Committee Judiciary, 108th Cong., 1st Sess., Daniel P. Collins, Associate General). Bunnell, CRIM.02-13-B-5-S, 2002 WL 927765 (D.Me., 2002), withdraw plea (2002), decision. jury, acquitted; indeed motion dismiss, Docket Case 1:02CR00013 (D.Me.). docket report indicates continued during court, moving dismiss receipt commitment court. ibid.) Reilly, 01 CR. 1114(RPP), 31307170 (S.D.N.Y., Oct. issuance founded involvement issue. (After congressional hearings, dismissed charges motion, transportation 1462. 1:01CR01114 (SDNY).) Sims, 220 F. 1222 (D.N.M.2002), contended, agreed, bear soon afterward, filed post-trial acquittal. met another, latter count, observing cautionary approach strategic so." F.Supp.2d, 1227. review appeal. short, short-term transition burden-of-proof occasioned decision; judge's Nor identify employments amicus spawned prosecutorial problems, partial Ohio bench judge minor's Tooley, No.2004-P-0064, 2005-Ohio-6709, 2005 3476649 (App., Dec. 16, 2005)). cross-appeal acquittals, considering hearsay irrelevant, "[Free Coalition] evidentiary 114 St. 3d 366, 381, 2007-Ohio-3698, 872 N.E.2d 894, 908 Rather, fact-finder judge, capable reviewing children." N.E.2d, 909. bespeaks crisis. [4] Bureau Statistics, 1,209 2006, 95.1% convicted. Statistics Bulletin, Prosecution Sex Offenders, (Dec.2007), online http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/ fpcseo06.pdf 8, By comparison, 161 1996, 96.9% Of 2006 92.2% ended plea. 4.9% 4.5% dismissed, 0.4% trial. statistics crisis ability prosecute. 2,376 Attorneys 58.5% prosecuted, 37.8% declined 3.7% disposed magistrate. 2. rate 59%. weak prosecutions. 24.3% inadmissible 22.7% lack intent; 18.7% suspects charges. 3. accounted 53% 20.4% transportation, easily admit None data, isolates current breaks post-Act numbers reference generality problem, Government, necessity claim. [5] Courts consider authenticity images, generally themselves 733-734

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