Legal Document

535 U.S. 302 TAHOE-SIERRA PRESERVATION COUNCIL, INC., ET AL.v.TAHOE REGIONAL PLANNING AGENCY AL. No. 00-1167. Supreme Court of the United States. Argued January 7, 2002. Decided April 23, CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT Respondent Tahoe Regional Planning Agency (TRPA) imposed two moratoria, totaling 32 months, on development in Lake Basin while formulating a comprehensive land-use plan for area. Petitioners, real estate owners affected by moratoria and an association representing such owners, filed parallel suits, later consolidated, claiming that TRPA's actions constituted taking their property without just compensation. The District found TRPA had not effected "partial taking" under analysis set out Penn Central Transp. Co. v. New York City, 438 U. S. 104; however, it concluded did constitute categorical rule announced Lucas South Carolina Coastal Council, 505 1003, because temporarily deprived petitioners all economically viable use land. On appeal, successfully challenged Court's takings determination. Finding only question this facial challenge was whether Lucas' applied, Ninth Circuit held regulations temporary impact petitioners' fee interest, no occurred; applied to relatively rare case which regulation permanently denies productive entire parcel, whereas involved temporal slice interest; First English Evangelical Lutheran Church Glendale County Los Angeles, 482 304, concerned compensation is appropriate remedy taking, or when has occurred. court also Central's ad hoc balancing approach proper framework analyzing occurred, but conclusion they could make claim factors. Held: ordered are per se requiring Takings Clause. Pp. 321-343. (a) Although physical jurisprudence, most part, involves straightforward application rules, its regulatory jurisprudence characterized "essentially hoc, factual inquiries," Central, S., at 124, designed allow "careful examination weighing relevant circumstances," Palazzolo Rhode Island, 533 606, 636 (O'Connor, J., concurring). longstanding distinction between makes inappropriate treat precedent from one as controlling other. Petitioners rely — both cases argue whenever government imposes deprivation property, matter how brief, effects taking. In English, 315, 318, 321, addressed separate remedial measured once established, different prior fact To extent referenced antecedent question, recognized denying owner her might if denial part State's authority enact safety regulations, were normal delays obtaining building permits, changes zoning ordinances, variances, like. Thus, approve, implicitly rejected, approach. Nor dispositive presented. Its deprives "all beneficial uses" his land, 1019 does answer prohibiting any economic land months must be compensated. attempt bring focusing exclusively during unavailing. This consistently rejected "denominator" question. See, e. g., Keystone Bituminous Coal Assn. DeBenedictis, 480 470, 497. sever 32-month segment remainder each simple then ask been taken entirety would ignore admonition focus "the parcel whole," 130-131. Both dimensions interest metes bounds describing geographic term years aspect considered viewing entirety. A permanent whole, restriction causing diminution value not, will recover prohibition lifted. carved "extraordinary case" use; default remains specific inquiry required context. Nevertheless, consider argument protecting bearing public burdens "which, fairness justice, should borne Armstrong States, 364 40, 49, justifies creating new rule. 321-332. (b) "Fairness justice" better served use, constitutes compensable That apply numerous obtaining, require practices have long permissible exercises police power. Such important change law product legislative rulemaking, adjudication. More importantly, reasons Justice O'Connor's concurring opinion Palazzolo, 636, requires careful circumstances length delay. narrower excluding processing covering more than year, less severe prevailing practices, still impose serious constraints planning process. Moratoria essential tool successful development. informed decisionmaking counsels against adopting interim measures regardless planners' good faith, landowners' reasonable expectations, moratorium's actual values. financial compensating moratorium may force officials rush through process abandon practice altogether. And decisional even stronger agency developing regional considering permit single parcel. Here, obtained benefit comments criticisms interested parties deliberations, tied deliberations' likely create added pressure decisionmakers quickly resolve questions, disadvantaging landowners groups organized familiar with Moreover, ban, there risk individual singled bear special burden shared whole. It true lasting year viewed skepticism, instant delay unreasonable. restriction's duration factor appraising claims, respect factor, temptation adopt rules either direction resisted. 333-342. 216 F. 3d 764, affirmed. Stevens, delivered Court, O'Connor, Kennedy, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. Rehnquist, C. dissenting opinion, Scalia Thomas, joined, post, p. 343. Scalia, 355. Michael M. Berger argued cause petitioners. With him briefs Gideon Kanner Lawrence L. Hoffman. John G. Roberts, Jr., respondents. brief Frankie Sue Del Papa, Attorney General Nevada, William J. Frey, Deputy General, Bill Lockyer, California, Richard Frank, Chief Assistant Matthew Rodriquez, Senior Daniel Siegel, Supervising E. Clement Shute, Fran Layton, Ellison Folk, Marshall, Lazarus. Solicitor Olson States amicus curiae urging affirmance. Acting Cruden, Kneedler, Malcolm Stewart.* Stevens Court. 1 presented devising Clause Constitution.1 actually respondent maintain status quo studying designing strategy environmentally sound growth. first, Ordinance 81-5, effective August 24, 1981, until 26, 1983, second restrictive Resolution 83-21 effect 27, 25, 1984. As result these directives, virtually substantial portion subject jurisdiction prohibited period months. we decide relates period, description events leading up comment plans adopted thereafter clarify narrow scope our holding. 2 * facts undisputed. Appeals, reversing law, accepted findings fact, party challenges those findings. All agree "uniquely beautiful," 34 Supp. 2d 1226, 1230 (Nev. 1999), President Clinton right call "`national treasure protected preserved,'" ibid., Mark Twain aptly described clarity waters "`not merely transparent, dazzlingly, brilliantly so,'" ibid. (emphasis added) (quoting Twain, Roughing 174-175 (1872)). 3 Tahoe's exceptional attributed absence algae obscures other lakes. Historically, lack nitrogen phosphorous, nourish growth algae, ensured transparency waters.2 Unfortunately, lake's pristine state deteriorated rapidly over past 40 years; increased (Basin) threatened "`noble sheet blue water'" beloved countless others. 2d, 1230. found, "[d]ramatic decreases first began noted late 1950's/early 1960's, shortly after lake earnest." Id., 1231. unsurpassed beauty, seems, wellspring undoing. 4 upsurge area caused "increased nutrient loading largely increase impervious coverage resulting development." Ibid. 5 "Impervious asphalt, concrete, buildings, packed dirt prevents precipitation being absorbed soil. Instead, water gathered concentrated coverage. Larger amounts flowing off driveway roof erosive scattered raindrops falling dispersed especially covered indigenous vegetation, softens themselves." 6 Given trend, predicted "unless stopped, lose trademark color, becoming green opaque eternity."3 7 Those areas steeper slopes produce runoff; therefore, usually "high hazard" lands. certain near streams wetlands known "Stream Environment Zones" (SEZs) vulnerable because, natural state, act filters much debris runoff carries. Because "[t]he obvious response problem ... restrict around SEZ lands, well already naturally prone runoff," id., 1232, conservation efforts focused high hazard areas. 8 problems associated burgeoning receive significant attention, Basin, occupies 501 square miles, California five counties, several municipalities, Forest Service Federal Government. 1968, legislatures Compact, see 1968 Cal. Stats. no. 998, 1900, § 1; Nev. 4, Congress approved 1969, Pub. 91-148, 83 Stat. 360. compact goals protection preservation created assigned "to coordinate regulate conserve resources." Country Estates, Inc. Agency, 440 391, 394 (1979). 9 Pursuant compact, 1972 Land Use divided into seven "land capability districts," based steepness consideration factors affecting runoff. Each district coefficient recommended limit percentage surface." limits ranged 1% districts 30% 7. 1, 2, "sensitive," 5, 6, "low "non-sensitive." though often treated category, subcategory 1. 1232. 10 ordinance allowed exceptions significantly construction residential housing. became so dissatisfied withdrew support unilaterally stricter located California. Eventually approval President, extensive amendment December 19, 1980. 96-551, 94 3233; Govt. Code Ann. 66801 (West 2002); Rev. 277.200 (1980). 11 1980 Compact (Compact) redefined structure, functions, voting procedures TRPA, App. 37, 3235-3238; 1233, directed develop "environmental threshold carrying capacities" embraced "standards air quality, soil conservation, vegetation noise." 3235, 3239. provided "shall adopt" standards within 18 "[w]ithin after" adoption (i. e., June 1983), "shall" amended achieves maintains capacities. 3240. contained finding Nevada "that order revised [TRPA], necessary halt works region otherwise absorb further direct harmony ultimate plan." 3243. Accordingly, final ("or May whichever earlier"), itself subdivisions, condominiums, apartment city county granting permits 1982, 1983 granted 1978.4 12 During working quality comply Clean Water Act, 33 1288 (1994 ed.). Despite performed obligations "good faith best ability," few meet deadlines Compact. therefore enacted 81-5 imposing proceeding. become remain pending 159, 191. 13 made detailed ordinance, noting prohibit hiking picnicking construed essentially banning activity removal creation class lands 1233-1235. Some made. 1235. undisputed, residences State 14 complexity task defining division governing board, "unsurprising" failed thresholds roughly deadline. Under liberal reading plan. "Unfortunately, again surprisingly, place date." 83-21, "which completely suspended project reviews approvals, including acceptance proposals," remained 8-month State. combination, effectively sensitive (other lands) eight issue case. 15 same day 1984 adopted, action seeking enjoin implementation ground establish controls sufficiently stringent protect Basin. 1236. entered injunction upheld Appeals 1987. 1987 provisions comes us, occasion validity provisions. II 16 Approximately plan, defendants federal courts ultimately consolidated trial Nevada. include Tahoe-Sierra Preservation Inc., nonprofit membership corporation about 2,000 improved unimproved parcels some 400 vacant lots parts 3. individuals purchased properties date 34, primarily purpose constructing "at time choosing" single-family home serve permanent, retirement vacation residence," 36. When purchases, understanding authorized "they complied requirements building." Ibid.5 17 Petitioners' complaints gave rise protracted litigation produced four opinions published opinions.6 For present purposes, need describe courts' disposition three compensation.7 Indeed, before us implementing rather itself, post-1984 injuries allegedly suffered, rulings encompassed limited grant certiorari.8 discussion lower claims 2-year (Ordinance 81-5) ensuing (Resolution 83-21). constitutional identifying appropriation owner's produces "nearly appropriation." 1238. "are `regulatory takings' variety." 1239. Citing decision Agins City Tiburon, 447 255 (1980), stated "regulation either: (1) substantially advance legitimate (2) land." alternative "further [petitioners'] lead additional damage lake." 1240.9 alternative, 104 (1978), taking," "total taking."10 19 Emphasizing nature testimony "average holding lot purchase twenty-five years," failure offer evidence harm, "consideration clearly leads taking." 1240. regarding plaintiffs, evaluated "average" purchasers' intent purchasers "did reasonable, investment-backed expectations able build homes six-year lawsuit." 1241.11 20 difficulty issue. satisfied retain moratoria,12 1245. "categorical" 1003 (1992). "reasonable moratoria" excluded thought "fairly clear" decisions 304 (1987), "[z]oning boards, cities, counties agencies used them `maintain study governmental making.'" 1248-1249 Williams 907 P. 701, 706 (Colo. 1995)). After expressing uncertainty automatically takings, so, partly neither nor resolution, intended beginning, express termination date. 1250-1251.13 pay damages 1984, owning 1255. 21 appealed. determination, unsuccessfully dismissal plans. conclusions concerning Central. expressly disavowed Central" "dispute restrictions means securing forth Compact."14 "whether applies is, occurred denied plaintiffs `all land.'" 773 (2000). brought challenge, mere enactment 22 Contrary properties, reasoned: 23 "Property interests many dimensions. example, dimension (which describes size shape question), functional dispose interest). At base, plaintiffs' conceptually plaintiff's discrete segments least distinct purposes analysis. theory, segments." 774. 24 Putting side "cases invasion occupation," read involving view "planning restricts type across parcel." 776. situation, affects time, space deprive use.15 25 distinguished applying "`relatively rare'" involve "temporal `slice'" form widespread established. 3d, 773-774. controlling. According 778. Faced squarely 26 Over dissent judges, petition rehearing en banc. 228 998 dissenters' panel's faithful Lucas, Holmes Pennsylvania Mahon, 260 393, 416 (1922), "`a strong desire improve condition enough warrant achieving shorter cut way paying change.'" 1003. importance case, certiorari beginning opinion. 948 (2001). We now affirm. III 27 attack 83-21. They contend that, effect, gives unqualified obligation compensate period. Hence, "face uphill battle," 495 steep proposed rule, evaluate individual, regulation, restriction. petitioners, trigger assert endorsed view, logical principle "designed bar Government forcing people alone which, whole." 49 (1960). 28 shall explain why do indeed, fairly read, reject it. Next, rejection extreme position advanced oral argument. abstract "yes, always" "no, never"; depends upon particular case.16 Resisting what amount direction," (2001) concurring), conclude analyzed framework. IV 29 text Fifth Amendment provides basis drawing takings. plain language payment acquires private purpose, acquisition condemnation proceeding appropriation. But Constitution contains comparable reference making uses property.17 Our condemnations old Republic and, rules. contrast, recent vintage circumstances." (O'CONNOR, 30 physically takes possession duty former owner, Pewee Co., 341 114, 115 (1951), thereof. mandated leasehold own temporary. Motors Corp., 323 373 (1945); Petty Motor 327 372 (1946). Similarly, appropriates rooftop provide cable TV access tenants, Loretto Teleprompter Manhattan CATV 458 419 (1982); planes airspace airport, Causby, 328 256 (1946), share small. prohibits landlords evicting tenants unwilling higher rent, Block Hirsh, 135 (1921); bans Village Euclid Ambler Realty 272 365 (1926); 470 (1987); forbids airspace, "The category clear rule; necessarily entails complex assessments actions." Yee Escondido, 503 519, 523 See Loretto, 440; Keystone, 489, n. 18. 31 acquisitions hand, uses, other, precedents evaluation "regulatory taking,"18 vice versa. reason advances valuable context claims. Land-use ubiquitous values tangential unanticipated ways. Treating transform luxury governments afford. By appropriations rare, easily identified, represent greater affront rights.19 "This `classi[c] taking' directly use," Eastern Enterprises Apfel, 524 498, 522 (1998); instead interference rights "arises program adjusting benefits life promote common good," 124. Perhaps recognizing fundamental distinction, wisely emphasis analogies cases. principally (1992) nevertheless, inapplicable here. review led help Holmes' 393 (1922),20 birth jurisprudence.21 subsequent repeatedly observation "if goes too far 415. standard determining "too far," he expressed Brandeis' appropriated public.22 ever component decades following decision, "generally eschewed" formula far, choosing engage "`essentially inquiries.'" 1015 124). resist partial preferring examine "a number factors" "mathematically precise" formula.23 Brennan's did, multiple whole": 35 "`Taking' divide determine entirely abrogated. deciding focuses character whole here, tax block designated `landmark site.'" 36 requirement aggregate entirety" explains why, commercial transactions eagle feathers, restraint them, Andrus Allard, 444 51, 66 clarifies portions setback Gorieb Fox, 274 603 (1927), coal pillars left prevent mine subsidence, cases, affirmed "where possesses full `bundle' rights, destruction `strand' bundle Andrus, 65-66. 37 While foregoing "gone far" invalid, none San Diego Gas & Elec. Diego, 450 621, (1981), Brennan identified explained it: 38 I propose finds power `taking,' entity commencing ending chooses rescind amend regulation." 658. 39 subsequently 321. certainly nothing say today qualifies Nonetheless, recognize address quite logically unambiguously decided "compensation question" "remedial question." 311 ("The grounds isolates consideration"); 313, 318. statement equally unambiguous: "We hold where government's activities worked can relieve effective." 321 added). ruling merits assumption alleged. 312-313 ("We appellee's suggestion independently adequacy complaint reach question"). remand, 210 1353, 258 Rptr. 893 (1989), declined 493 1056 (1990). 41 First, avoid establishing insulated regulations." 313. Second, presented" questions arise like [were] us." surely submission advocating. 42 propose. 1988 $975,000. These rendered "valueless" statute later. $1,232,387.50, estate, plus interest. trial, "was unconditional permanent." 1012. appeal pending, authorize obtain permit. opportunity ripeness grounds, resolved reversed. Since "Lucas proceed `temporary theory trial," addressed. 43 states 1019. "wholly eliminated value" title qualified extraordinary circumstance permitted." 1017. word "no" was, reiterated footnote explaining 95% 100%. 1019, 8.24 Anything "complete elimination value," loss," acknowledged, kind 1019-1020, 8.25 44 Certainly, "obliteration legal effect. seek arguing landowner's moratoria. Of course, terms very circular. divided, every total ban; alike "conceptual severance" unavailing ignores Concrete Pipe Products Cal., Construction Laborers Pension Trust Southern 508 602, 644 (1993) ("To taken, always entirety; all, of, erred disaggregated corresponding 1242-1245. starting point court's parcel; framework.26 45 An defined Restatement Property §§ 7-9 (1936). causes not. Logically, cannot valueless soon Cf. 263, ("Even appellants' ability sell pendency proceeding, appellants free proceedings ended. Mere fluctuations decisionmaking, absent delay, `incidents ownership. "taking" sense'" Danforth 308 271, 285 (1939))). 46 Neither compels accept submission. value; context, inquiry. circumstances.27 V 47 Considerations "fairness arguably theories. previously done announce property. craft cover landuse except "normal like" put Third, suggested supporting "allow short fixed deliberations take maximum requirements" "kick in."28 Fourth, hindsight, characterize successive "series rolling equivalent taking.29 Fifth, acted diligently stalling promulgating environmental capacities Monterey Monte Dunes Monterey, Ltd., 526 687, 698 (1999). Sixth, apart represented proportional harm lake, Monterey. Finally, parcels, prevailed 48 last theories available. "rolling certiorari, encompass issue, (2001); tried reviewed 769. And, noted, recovery bad insubstantial foreclosed unchallenged fact. Recovery answer. theories, concepts underlie From perspective, sustained. broad like," orders crime scenes, businesses violate health codes, fire-damaged foresee. undoubtedly warned "[g]overnment hardly go incident diminished general law." 413. render routine processes prohibitively expensive encourage hasty decisionmaking. rulemaking adjudication.30 50 JUSTICE O'CONNOR persuaded "requires O'Connor specifically role relationship acquisition" play claim. 632. permanent. Her are, instructive: 51 "Today's mean timing regulation's relative immaterial error expunge accord exclusive significance. polestar principles govern examine.... 52 guarantee `"designed whole."' [438 S.], 123-124 (1960)). `fairness justice' Clause, fully determinate. eschewed `any "set formula" "justice fairness" compensated government, disproportionately persons.' supra, 124 Goldblatt Hempstead, 369 590, 594 (1962)). outcome `depends "upon [in that] case."' Eureka Mining 357 155, 168 (1958))." 633. 53 rejecting precludes taking; simply given significance 54 process.31 Unlike circumstance" 1017, widely among planners preserve strategy.32 consensus community appears "interim controls" called, development.33 Yet weak version planners, landowners, values.34 55 facilitating costs deliberations. Otherwise, communities forced using incentives enacted, thereby fostering inefficient ill-conceived presumably bodies participated enactment, attests concern. 3243 find agency, plan"). 56 KENNEDY underlies strict asserting claims: 57 "These stand landowner opportunity, procedures, regulation. alleged burdening having followed steps exercise discretion variances waivers law. ordinary yet Suitum [v. 520 725, 736, (1997)] (noting demonstrating `mere enactment' restricting taking)." 620-621. 58 perverse system wait ripen well-reasoned while, 59 enabled parties, deliberations.35 quick resolution disadvantage who ban lesser "singled out" Nollan Comm'n, 483 825, 835 (1987). "reciprocity advantage," 415, protects immediate inconsistent adopted. "While burdened somewhat restrictions, we, turn, greatly placed others." 491. believe continue despite moratorium. Growth Properties, Klingbeil Holding 212, 218 (Md. 1976) expected 20% 5-year development). 177 1360, 1367 (CA Fed. 1999) (record showed market fill lake-bottom property). sense throughout reflect assurance state. 1-year assumes 60 lasts skepticism. formulate Plan unreasonable, possibly constitutionally unacceptable.36 Formulating suitable legislatures.37 appraisal claim, factors, "temptation resisted." There longer interfere illustrates, blunt instrument" 628. conclude, relying this, attempting 61 judgment 62 ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici reversal American Association Small Owners et al. Martin Kaufman; Farm Bureau Federation Rademacher Nancy McDonough; Institute H. Mellor, Clint Bolick, Scott Bullock, A. Epstein; National Home Builders Christopher David Crump; Pacific Legal Foundation R. Radford, Babiracki Barlow, Sonia Younglove; Washington Popeo, Samp, Douglas B. Levene. amici affirmance Vermont Sorrell, Vermont, Bridget Asay, Attorneys respective jurisdictions follows: Bruce Botelho Alaska, Janet Napolitano Arizona, Blumenthal Connecticut, Robert Butterworth Florida, Earl I. Anzai Hawaii, Thomas Miller Iowa, Ieyoub Louisiana, Joseph Curran, Maryland, Reilly Massachusetts, Mike McGrath Montana, Farmer, Jersey, Eliot Spitzer York, Roy Cooper North Carolina, W. Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Hardy Myers Oregon, Anabelle Rodriguez Puerto Rico, Sheldon Whitehouse Barnett Dakota, Paul Summers Tennessee, Cornyn Texas, Christine O. Gregoire Washington; Freilich; Council Governments Ruda Timothy Dowling; Audubon Society D. Echeverria; Dunne Karl Manheim. Nancie Marzulla Defenders Rights curiae. Often referred "Just Compensation Clause," provides: "... compensation." GovernmentChicago, Q. Chicago, 166 226, 239, 241 (1897); Webb's Fabulous Pharmacies, Beckwith, 449 160 Senate Report: "Only sizable lakes world Crater Park, Baikal [former] Soviet Union. Only Tahoe, readily accessible large metropolitan centers adaptable urban Rep. 91-510, pp. 3-4 (1969) added: "Or least, very, time. Estimates turn green, 700 return possible all." 1231 104-107. vested CompactId., 107-108. Two effective, 81-1 broadly "project" residence 3, get 1233 1999). above,supra, 309, amidst heavily regulated scheme. Their classified classification degree artificial disturbance safely sustain. 911 1331 (1990); 938 153 (1991); 753 (1994); 764 (2000); 611 110 (1985); 808 1474 (1992); 1484 1991, allege unconstitutional Ultimately barred California's limitations Nevada's limitations. 785-789. note litigants applications SeeSuitum 725 (1997). dissent, contends proximate injuries,post, 343-345. Appeals' causation merits, understood "[w]hether properly determined Constitution," (2001), today. Throughout phrase "temporary moratorium" refers things only: dissent's novel briefed, discussed explained: "There connection potential suffer Further, adequately facing. Thus difficult application, aimed landowner, appear proof point. met really attempted so. stipulate seriously contest trial." 1240 (citation omitted) ThePenn interferes action." 617 "had plenty went almost everyone knew 1970s crackdown works." addition, introduced weighs property." 1241 pretrial purchases periods 215 average price $19,000 $39,000; 167 $29,000 $41,000. 76-77. sold sewer allocations "for $15,000 $30,000."Id., 77. specified terminate finalized. 90 days, renewed term. "temporary" terminate. 1250-1251 773. "Below, ruled underPenn approach, (1992)]. 1238-45. appealed latter holding, former. arguments test defendants' explicitly Central." "Each types parcel's value, affect `use' occur, occur. Prior (1980)], eliminating breadth 130-31 ...; Ass'n, 498-99 365, 384, 397 (1926) (75% law); Haas Francisco, 605 1117, 1120 (9th Cir. 1979) (value reduced $2,000,000 $100,000). `uniformly reject[ed] proposition standing alone, "taking."' 131 Products, Trust, 645 (1993). plausible distinguish similar results suspension 776-777. refusal never CHIEF accuses "allow[ing] `... it,'"post, 349. due. Supra, 317, 14. ownership Just interpret "taken." condemns typically When, tantamount appropriation, predicate self-evident, illustrate inLoretto, 430, compared wartime 116 "actual control" mine, 155 (1958), "by issued nonessential gold mines cease operations ...." 431. relied dismissing landlord-tenant laws. "So landlord occupation third party, multifactor generally applicable nonpossessory activity." (citing Central). JUSTICE's temporary, use-prohibiting governed underLucas 1017 (1992), "from view," leasehold, 348. standpoint critical differences Condemnation admit exclude others, purpose. give dispossess stretches "equivalence" far. minor infringement may, exception use. partially justified cited dissent. "relatively situations uses," realistic assume secure reciprocity 1017-1018. explain, infra, 339-341, assumptions bill equity Company mining remove supports subsidence surface house."Mahon, 412. Mahon sought statute, undermine foundation home. company InLucas, "Prior Holmes's exposition reached `direct appropriation' Tender Cases, Wall. 457, 551 (1871), `practical ouster [the owner's] possession,' Transportation 99 635, 642 (1879) .... meaningfully enforced, redefine range included constrained limits. 414-415. If, instead, unbridled, uncompensated qualification power, `the tendency human [would be] extend disappear[ed].' considerations oft-cited maxim `while extent, taking.' Ibid." 1014 omitted). Brandeis argued: "Every theretofore enjoyed, sense, abridgment health, morals dangers here noxious restricted owner. paramount public."Mahon, 417 (dissenting opinion). inPalazzolo, 633, reaffirmed approach: "Our examine." "Penn supply mathematically precise variables, guideposts determination required." 634. context." 636. concurred "reasonable, expectations." 1034 worth thatLucas underscores difference 322-325. irrelevant maintained 5% mistake carving 6-year treating analogous underLucas, 351. Armstrong, 48-49. nevertheless perfectly Black's oft-quoted underlying Brief asAmicus Curiae 30. cutoff proposal "better primary overruled, ("All prima facie time"). 44. Pet. Cert. i anomaly applyPenn 8, anytime days. scheme odd inversion adage: "A tide passing trouble, justify change." 135, 157 (1921). fail persuasive explanation differently delays. applicant expect end process, wait, 28. Setting aside basing course know breaks down closer granted, year. See,e. Dufau Cl. Ct. 156 (1990) (holding 16-month taking). modified delayed Fairness justice penalized result, disclosure. Santa Fe Venture Albuquerque, 914 478, (N. 1995) (30-month Petroglyph Monument taking); 703-706 (10-month gaming city's Woodbury Place Partners Woodbury, 492 N. (Minn. 1993) (moratorium adjacent interstate highway years); Zilber Moranga, 692 1195 (ND 1988) (18-month completion open compensation). Wayman, Leaders Consider Options Town Growth, Charlotte Observer, Feb. 2002, 15M (describing 10-month town leaders development"); Wallman, Put Reins Beach Projects, Sun-Sentinel, 16, 2000, 1B (2-year beachfront Fort Lauderdale height, width, dispersal regulations); Foderaro, Suburbs, They're Cracking Down Joneses, Y. Times, Mar. 2001, A1 Eastchester, town's code oversized homes); Dawson, Commissioners recommend Aboite lifted, Wayne News Sentinel, 1A (3-year improvements sewage treatment systems). Juergensmeyer T. Control Law 5.28(G) 9.6 Garvin Leitner, Drafting Interim Development Ordinances: Creating Time Plan, Zoning Digest (June 1996) ("With protected, establishment nonconforming respond fashion problems. permitted run citizen input involvement, debate, issues points view"); Freilich, Controls: Essential Tools Implementing Flexible Zoning, Urb. 65 (1971) offers another suggesting six asper However, years. emphasizing harsh. directs Petitioner "through representatives, actively action, attended views concerns, orally writing, hearing Defendant herein, Revised herein." theFirst lasted replaced (1989). Several statutes authorizing ordinances 65858 2002) (authorizing Colo. 30-28-121 (six months); Ky. 100.201 (one year); Mich. Comp. Laws 125.215 2001) (three Minn. 394.34 (2000) (two 674:23 Ore. 197.520 (1997) (10 Codified 11-2-10 Utah 17-27-404 (1995) (18 Wash. 35.63.200 Wis. 62.23(7)(d) years). Other although statutory authority, enacted. Freil Triangle Oil 76 Md. 96, 543 863 (1988); Jersey Shore Dover Twp. Comm., 191 Super. 627, 468 742 (1983); SCA Chemical Waste Servs., Konigsberg, 430 (Tenn. 1982); Sturgess Chilmark, 380 Mass. 246, 402 1346 (1980); Lebanon Woods, Conn. 182, 112 (1965). 63 whom join, dissenting. 64 half decade homes, structures, resemble traditional device, gone `too far' unless knows goes." MacDonald, Sommer Frates Yolo County, 477 340, 348 (1986) 415 (1922)).1 failing undertake inquiry, respondent's conduct relies flawed 1981 Ante, 312, 313-314. Regulation (hereinafter Plan) anything standpoint. disregarded post-April "cause" plaintiff demonstrate defendant's actionable claimed injury." 783 (CA9 2000). Applying principle, residences. immediately restraining order, 1987, projects Plan. "1984 injunction, 784. correct injury. wrong injury; 67 suggests elaboration "moving force" behind inability Monell Dept. Social 436 658, 694 (1978) (§ established violation). pursuant responsible regulations. 68 82-11. preservation, wildlife, fisheries, noise, recreation, scenic 766 1308, 1311 1985). enjoined 42,000 metric tons erode residences, excess 82-11 conservation. 1315; 1312. Another article V(g) finding, "with project, [environmental] exceeded." itself. 69 charged administering Art. I(c), 3234. follows Without 82-11, foreseeable exceeding prohibited; enacting thresholds. 70 71 "frequently expressed" "when called sacrifice name good, leave idle, suffered 255, 258-259 resolutions deny 1245 overturn finding. idle dispute ante, 312. refuses "temporary." 72 distinction. thing, "permanent" prohibitions tenuous. years.2 1011-1012. does, changed. Legislature 1990 Beachfront Management Act issuance "`special permits' reconstruction habitable structures seaward baseline." Landuse irrevocable. condemned Dow, 17, (1958). today, turns initial label meaning. incentive "temporary," fix designation preclude extending long-term holds conclusive exceeds initially specified. Apparently, 10-year "permanent." 73 rejects " English's deprivations problematic developments potentially 1011-1012 supra); 1033 (Kennedy, judgment) ("It ones" 318)). 74 fundamentally, practical plausible, odds justification derived "practical equivalence" i. condemnation, equivalence," leasehold. situation: contemplating Park beauty. decides prohibited, request Park. 75 Surely series World War II-era war effort, conceded interest.3 (1946); 373, 376 (1945). standpoint, happened lease doing, allows "do eminent domain it." 999 2000) (Kozinski, banc). Instead acknowledging analogizes appropriations, 321-324. whatever distinctions contexts addition perspective implicate differentiating appropriations. permitted," legislature `adjusting life' manner secures `average advantage' concerned," 1017-1018 415), "is pressed service guise mitigating harm," 1018. 77 reads fundamentally 329-331, land," 1015. discusses "no 1017; ("[T]otal appropriation"); 1016 ("[T]he violated land"); 1018 permitting uses"); options carry heightened service"); ("[W]hen taking"). sine qua non proves much. Surely, retained contingency, came fruition (see 347), amended. 78 implicated agrees, "temporarily" "`all 316. rationale strongly 79 worries array traditional, short-term, devices 334-335, 337-338. since enjoyed implied limitation." coastal nonetheless inquired "inhere[d] background nuisance ownership." 1029. purported term, limitation achieve something "achieved (or uniquely persons) nuisance, complementary abate nuisances generally, otherwise." 80 deemed thus "in like." Term: enforcement valid restrictions." 627 existed back colonial Boston, Treanor, Original Understanding Political Process, 95 Colum. 782, 789 (1995), 1916, Anderson's 3.07, 92 (K. Young rev. 4th ed. 1995). short-term attendant regimes feature expectations. judgment). 81 longstanding, law.4 `freezing' existing allowing contemplated Ziegler, Rathkopf's 13:3, 13-6 (4th 2001). Typical categories development, fast-food restaurants, Schafer Orleans, 743 1086 (CA5 1984), adult businesses, Renton Playtime Theatres, 475 (1986), Arnold Bernhard 194 152, 479 801 (1984). lineage acquired "implied limitation" unlike conditions satisfied, definition uses. 82 "moratorium" recognizes, 342, moratoria's duration. located, days adoption," caps extension exceed 65858(a) 462.355, subd. (limiting extension, 120 possibility 6-month extension. 197.520(4) Others 40:55D-90(b) (1991).5 device. Holdsworth Hague, Misc. 715, 892 (1931). reflected limiting resulted nearly bears resemblance examples 84 said 85 86 national treasure, doubt preventing degradation furtherance But, furthers large, targeted citizens. ago rings true: danger forgetting 416. bound ed., V) respondent) injury 27-30. petition's presented, formulated question: "Whether Constitution?" 948-949 Rule 14(1)(a) "question comprise subsidiary therein." subsumed otherwise. argues "effectively blocked decades." Even mistaken exceeded inLucas. disagreement calculate InUnited (1945), "long-term rental [should sole measure occupancy," 380), personal warehouse, reduction equipment fixtures warehouse. 380-381. Six "cutoff point,"ante, 338, 34; "explanation" 353-354. exacting discern exactly (assuming, 353). laws 17-27-404(3)(b)(i)-(ii) (temporary "may duration," extensions "two six-month periods"). 337, 31. joins, join write separately majority's "taking whole.'"Ante, 332. questionable rule* various my 318 kind" rest notion "relevant denominator" land's infinite life. Consequently, effecting so-called slice" No doubts unsusceptible ofany inception moratorium, families singlefamily retirement, purchased. assures use" "[l]ogically lifted." "logical" cold comfort "[i]n dead." Keynes, Monetary Reform 88 (1924). toLucas' retains theoretical useful if, when, mind, future due place. regrettable charted markedly path embrace "parcel whole" doctrine assettled puzzling. 631 times discomfort logic whole] rule"); (recognizing "uncertainty composition denominator Court's] `deprivation' fraction pronouncements Court," calculus "difficult

Classification Label: 3