Legal Document

512 U.S. 374114 S.Ct. 2309129 L.Ed.2d 304 Florence DOLAN, Petitionerv.CITY OF TIGARD. No. 93-518. Supreme Court of the United States Argued March 23, 1994. Decided June 24, Syllabus * The City Planning Commission conditioned approval petitioner Dolan's application to expand her store and pave parking lot upon compliance with dedication land (1) for a public greenway along Fanno Creek minimize flooding that would be exacerbated by increases in impervious surfaces associated development (2) pedestrian/bicycle pathway intended relieve traffic congestion City's Central Business District. She appealed Commission's denial request variances from these standards Land Use Board Appeals (LUBA), alleging requirements were not related proposed therefore constituted an uncompensated taking property under Fifth Amendment. LUBA found reasonable relationship between requirement dedicate greenway, since larger building paved increase thus runoff into creek, alleviating impact increased facilitating provision as alternative means transportation. Both State affirmed. Held: city's constitute property. Pp. ____. (a) Under well-settled doctrine "unconstitutional conditions," government may require person give up constitutional right exchange discretionary benefit conferred where sought has little or no benefit. In evaluating claim, it must determined whether "essential nexus" exists legitimate state interest permit condition. Nollan v. California Coastal Comm'n, 483 825, 837, 107 3141, 3148, 97 677. If one does, then decided degree exactions demanded conditions bears required projected development. Id., at 834, 3147. (b) Preventing reducing District are purposes; nexus first purpose limiting within creek's floodplain second providing (c) deciding question — findings constitutionally sufficient justify imposed on necessary connection Amendment is "rough proportionality." No precise mathematical calculation required, but city make some sort individualized determination both nature extent development's impact. This essentially "reasonable relationship" test adopted majority courts. (d) which relies do show easement building. Community Development Code already Dolan leave 15% open space, undeveloped have nearly satisfied requirement. However, never said why public, opposed private, flood control. difference loss ability exclude others property, yet attempted any support this part its request. also met burden demonstrating additional number vehicle bicycle trips generated reasonably relates easement. quantify finding beyond conclusory statement could offset demand 317 Ore. 110, 854 P.2d 437 (1993), reversed remanded. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. STEVENS, J., filed dissenting opinion, BLACKMUN GINSBURG, SOUTER, opinion. David B. Smith, Tigard, OR, petitioner. Timothy V. Ramis, Portland, respondent. Edwin S. Kneedler, Washington, DC, U.S., amicus curiae special Court. Chief Justice REHNQUIST 1 Petitioner challenges decision Oregon held Tigard condition portion control improvements. (1993). We granted certiorari resolve left our 677 (1987), what impacts 2 enacted comprehensive use management program 1973. Ore.Rev.Stat. §§ 197.005-197.860 (1991). all cities counties adopt new plans consistent statewide planning goals. 197.175(1), 197.250. implemented regulations integrated hierarchy legally binding goals, plans, regulations. 197.175, 197.175(2)(b). Pursuant State's requirements, community 30,000 residents southwest edge developed plan codified (CDC). CDC requires owners area zoned comply space landscaping requirement, limits total site coverage, including structures parking, 85% parcel. CDC, ch. 18.66, App. Pet. Cert. G16-G17. After completion transportation study identified particular problem, encourage alternatives automobile short trips. facilitate dedicating pedestrian pathways provided plan.1 3 Master Drainage Plan (Drainage Plan). noted occurred several areas Creek, near petitioner's Record, Doc. F, 2, pp. 2-5 2-8; 4-2 4-6; Figure 4-1. established continued urbanization exacerbate problems. To combat risks, suggested series improvements Basin, channel excavation next G13, G38. Other recommendations included ensuring remains free preserved greenways damage structures. 5, 5-16 5-21. concluded cost should shared based direct indirect benefits, waterways paying more due they receive. 8, p. 8-11. Chapters 18.84, 18.86 § 18.164.100 Park carry out recommendations. 4 owns plumbing electric supply located Main Street city. covers approximately 9,700 square feet eastern side 1.67-acre parcel, includes gravel lot. flows through southwestern corner western boundary. year-round flow creek renders 100-year virtually unusable commercial system. 5 applied redevelop site. Her called doubling size 17,600 feet, paving 39-space existing store, opposite razed sections construction progressed phase project, build structure northeast complementary businesses, provide parking. expansion intensified zoning scheme 18.66.030. Brief C1-C2. 6 subject CDC. establishes following standard review approval: 7 "Where landfill and/or allowed adjacent floodplain, shall adjoining floodplain. include portions suitable elevation accordance plan." 18.120.180.A.8, Respondent. 8 Thus, lying improvement storm drainage system she 15-foot strip pathway.2 encompasses 7,000 roughly 10% practice, rely dedicated meet mandated scheme. G28-G29. bear maintaining landscaped buffer store. G44-G45. 9 requested standards. Variances only can shown that, owing circumstances specific piece land, literal interpretation applicable provisions cause "an undue unnecessary hardship" unless variance granted. 18.134.010. Respondent B-47.3 Rather than posing mitigating measures expected development, simply argued conflict policies plan. E-4. denied 10 made concerning project. First, "[i]t assume customers employees future uses utilize their recreational needs." Final Order 91-09 PC, G24. rack front expect users will if constructed." Ibid. addition, creation convenient, safe "could [nearby] streets lessen congestion." 11 went note intensify given surface. stated "anticipated water strained basin add need manage stream purposes." G37. Based anticipated flow, "the applicant's site." Council approved final order, minor modification; reassigned responsibility surveying marking engineering department. G-7. 12 (LUBA) ground and, therefore, those federal assumed about supported substantial evidence. 91-161 (Jan. 7, 1992), reprinted D-15, n. 9. Given undisputed fact amount "there 'reasonable relationship' greenway." D-16. With respect pathway, significantly retail sales attract numbers vehicles. It again 13 affirmed, rejecting contention we had abandoned favor stricter test. 113 Ore.App. 162, 832 853 (1992). court disagreed "reasonably related" 118, P.2d, 442. Instead, read mean "exaction exaction serves same serve." 120, 443. essential 121, Therefore, business. Ibid.4 certiorari, 510 ----, 114 544, 126 446 because alleged Court's Nollan, supra. II 14 Takings Clause Constitution, Fourteenth Amendment, Chicago, & Q.R. Co. 166 226, 239, 17 581, 585, 41 L.Ed. 979 (1897), provides: "[N]or private taken use, without just compensation."5 One principal purposes "to bar Government forcing people alone burdens which, fairness justice, borne whole." Armstrong States, 364 40, 49, 80 1563, 1569, 1554 (1960). Without question, rather conditioning grant such dedication, occurred. supra, 831, S.Ct., 3145. Such access deprive others, "one most sticks bundle rights commonly characterized property." Kaiser Aetna 444 164, 176, 100 383, 391, 62 332 (1979). 15 On other ledger, authority local governments engage been sustained against challenge long ago Euclid Ambler Realty Co., 272 365, 47 114, 71 303 (1926). "Government hardly go values incident diminished every change general law." Pennsylvania Coal Mahon, 260 393, 413, 43 158, 159, 67 322 (1922). A regulation does effect "substantially advance[s] interests" "den[y] owner economically viable his land." Agins Tiburon, 447 255, 260, 2138, 2141, 65 106 (1980).6 16 discussed cases cited, however, differ two relevant particulars present case. involved legislative determinations classifying entire city, whereas here adjudicative individual Second, limitation might own deed governmental exact was circumscribed Amendments. receive compensation when See Perry Sindermann, 408 593, 92 2694, 33 570 (1972); Pickering Ed. Township High School Dist., 391 563, 568, 88 1731, 1734, 20 811 (1968). contends forced choose easements. quarrel forms permit, showing exactions. argues "no benefits" her, "special quantifiable burdens" created dedications large. III 18 determine "legitimate interest" exacted 3148. find exists, decide reach did even loosest standard. 838, 3149. Here, question. A. 19 addressed Nollan. lateral across Nollan's beachfront demolish bungalow replace three-bedroom house. 828, 3144. designed connect beaches separated asserted promote diminishing "blockage view ocean" caused agreed concern protecting visual ocean interest. 835, "even consisted Nollans viewing spot passersby whose sighting house interfere." 836, resolved, regulatory set completely adrift moorings claimed existed requiring How enhancing public's "traverse shorefront" served "visual roadway countenance. absence position trying obtain gimmickry, converted valid out-and-out extortion." Ibid., quoting J.E.D. Associates, Inc. Atkinson, 121 N.H. 584, 432 A.2d 12, 14-15 (1981). 21 gimmicks Undoubtedly, prevention reduction qualify type upheld. Agins, 260-262, 2141-2142. seems equally obvious preventing proposes double now-gravel lot, thereby expanding surface increasing stormwater run-off Creek. 22 attempt reduce theory, provides useful workers shoppers: "Pedestrians bicyclists occupying spaces walking bicycling . remove potential vehicles streets, resulting overall flow." Nelson, Public Provision Pedestrian Bicycle Access Ways: Policy Rationale Nature Private Benefits 11, Center Development, Georgia Institute Technology, Working Paper Series 1994). also, Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act 1991, Pub.L. 102-240, 105 Stat.1914; (recognizing facilities components strategy congestion). B 23 analysis us 3147, Penn Central, 438 104, 127, 98 2646, 2660, 57 631 (1978) (" '[A] restriction effectuation purpose' "). Here deferred termed "city's unchallenged factual findings" supporting them Ore., 120-121, 24 Greenway fall [of Creek] above [the floodplain] boundary." so intrude area. tentative "can [floodplain] purposes" conclusion "requirement 25 pathway: 26 "In expanded generate vehicular nearby collector arterial streets. Creation 24. 27 permit. Since courts dealing good deal longer have, turn representative decisions them. 28 very generalized statements seem suffice. See, e.g., Billings Properties, Yellowstone County, 144 Mont. 25, 394 182 (1964); Jenad, Scarsdale, N.Y.2d 78, 271 N.Y.S.2d 955, 218 N.E.2d 673 (1966). think too lax adequately protect purpose. 29 exacting correspondence, described "specifi[c] uniquely attributable" Illinois Pioneer Trust Savings Bank Mount Prospect, Ill.2d 375, 380, 176 799, 802 (1961).7 standard, cannot demonstrate directly proportional specifically need, becomes "a veiled exercise power eminent domain confiscation behind defense police regulations." 381, N.E.2d, 802. Federal Constitution scrutiny, interests involved. 30 intermediate position, municipality Typical Nebraska's Simpson North Platte, 206 Neb. 240, 245, 292 N.W.2d 297, 301 (1980), stated: 31 "The distinction, appropriate improper being merely used excuse moment landowner asking license permit." 32 obtaining "occasioned permitted." 248, N.W.2d, 302. Some form many jurisdictions. Jordan Menomonee Falls, Wis.2d 608, 137 442 (1965); Collis Bloomington, 310 Minn. 246 (1976) (requiring planned subdivision municipality's land); College Station Turtle Rock Corp., 680 S.W.2d 802, 807 (Tex.1984); Call West Jordan, 606 217, 220 (Utah 1979) (affirming relation test). Despite semantical differences, agreement among "that needs [development]." generally, Morosoff, Take My Beach Please!: Rational Nexus Constitutional Analysis Exactions, 69 B.U.L.Rev. 823 (1989); see Parks Watson, 716 F.2d 646, 651-653 (CA9 1983). 34 closer norm either previously discussed. But such, partly term confusingly similar "rational basis" describes minimal level scrutiny Equal Protection proportionality" best encapsulates hold development.8 35 STEVENS' dissent law article proposition conditional demands species business heretofore warranted strong presumption validity." Post, denominating measure "business regulation" immunize grounds violates Bill Rights. Marshall Barlow's, Inc., 436 307, 1816, 56 305 (1978), statute authorizing warrantless search premises order detect OSHA violations violated Fourth Air Pollution Variance Colo. Western Alfalfa 416 861, 94 2114, 40 607 (1974); New York Burger, 482 691, 2636, 96 601 (1982). And Hudson Gas Electric Corp. Service Comm'n N.Y., 557, 2343, 341 Commission, cut down electricity fuel shortage, First insofar prohibited advertising utility company electricity. reason much Rights relegated status poor comparable circumstances. now relied here, easement, path, requirements. 36 axiomatic quantity rate storm-water 4, 4-29. keeping likely confine pressures fact, lies District, wanted one, 37 petitioner, course, others. As noted, Aetna, 391. difficult visitors trampling sufficiently problems 38 ancillary chief controlling hazards. further asserts unlike residential issue character compromised. 41, Orito, 413 139, 142, 93 2674, 2677, 513 (1973) 'The extends safeguards privacy home' maintains "[t]here nothing suggest [petitioner] prohibiting easements] unreasonably impair value [her] [retail store]." PruneYard Shopping Robins, 74, 83, 2035, 2042, 64 741 (1980). 39 Admittedly, wants bigger members wants, able time manner enter. different state-protected expression petition permitted PruneYard. PruneYard, major shopping center attracted 25,000 daily patrons persons exercising distribute pamphlets ask sign petitions. 85, 2042. decision, part, "may restrict expressive activity adopting time, place, interference functions." By contrast, impose permanent borders lose regulate entered onto Greenway, regardless pose regulated, eviscerated. somehow encroached elsewhere. 3148 ("Although constituting continuous considered attached forbid beach surely concession owner, rights, end"). case here. conclude doubt correct facility estimates 435 per day.9 Dedications sidewalks, ways generally avoid excessive use. record before us, relate congestion."10 42 Peterson explained "[t]he 'could demand' far cry will, to, demand." (emphasis original). effort generated. IV Cities engaged commendable task planning, particularly metropolitan Portland. goals hazards congestion, greenways, laudable, there outer how done. "A desire improve [will not] warrant achieving shorter way change." Coal, 416, 160. 44 judgment reversed, remanded proceedings 45 ordered. 46 whom GINSBURG join, dissenting. tell dollar excluding hardware mountain briefs nevertheless makes pecuniary victory less important rule establish. unquestionably 48 Certain propositions dispute. enlargement unit chain stores adverse minimizing Tigard's district. That outright expansion. conditions, each admittedly mitigate effects disputed refusing allow proceed met. 49 concluding attach arbitrary rightfully deny outright. I agree ordinances govern municipal guidance kind. Yet description doctrinal underpinnings phrasing fledgling proportionality," run contrary traditional treatment break considerable unpropitious ground. 50 Candidly acknowledging lack precedent rulemaking, purports "representative" decisions. certainly appropriate.1 consults, fail decidedly undermine conclusions key respects. 51 although discussion permeates apply case, settles naturally derived courts' recognizes initial matter satisfy announced serve floods congestions. Ante, ____.2 goes on, erect hurdle path conditions. addition rational harm obtained decides establishing constitutionality making "individualized determination" satisfies proportionality ante, 52 Not cited announces anything akin For moreover, invalidated unspecified equivalent 245-248, 301-302 (1980) (ordinance lacking property's Nebraska constitution); Town 583-585, (1981) (state grounds). purporting strict "specifically 799 (1961), legislature park parks. 33-36, 182, 187-188 (1964). seven upholding losing certiorari. Village (1965), appeal dism'd, 385 87 36, (1966) (want question). Although opinions mention passing quite neither nor litigants imagined participating law. lend reaffirmance role accords announcement newly minted inquiry remarkably inventive. 53 ignores willingness consider gains Wisconsin, example, significant village's plat "enables subdivider profit financially selling lots home-building sites realizing greater price he sold unplatted lands." 619-620, 442, 448 (1965). permissible "[i]n return benefit." 11-13, 19, 23-24 (citing ); 806 (Tex.1984) (dedication triggered developer chooses develop land). acceptance benefits well advantage gets pointed oral argument, contemplates widen reinforce slopes carrying capacity during serious floods, "confer[ring] immediately creek." Tr. Oral Arg. 41-42. 54 enlightening parcel importance. All involve developers percentage (usually percent platted subdivision) cash certain lot) help finance roads, utilities, schools, parks playgrounds. assessing legality gave indication transfer realty objectionable payment. (1966); supra; Collis, None surrender fee owner's "power exclude" having significance. uniformly examined economic transaction. 55 cases, well, focus action City, takings jurisprudence "does divide single discrete segments segment entirely abrogated." 130-131, 2662. focuses "both Andrus Allard, 51, 318, 210 (1979), reaffirmed nondivisibility principle outlined stating "[a]t least possesses full 'bundle' destruction 'strand' taking, aggregate viewed entirety." 65-66, 327.3 recently last Term, again. Concrete Pipe Products, Construction Laborers Pension Trust, 508 2264, 2290, 124 539 (1993) (explaining claimant's [cannot] divided left" compensable taking). undoubtedly constitutes infringement ownership, 179-180, restrictions event "unreasonably use" 82-84, 2041-2042, narrow strand misguided involving Professor Johnston noted: manufacturer, processer, marketer product; raw materials. disputes, defending hearth home king's intrusion, attempting maximize profits sale finished product. him, actually Johnston, Constitutionality Subdivision Control Exactions: Quest Rationale, Cornell L.Q. 871, 923 (1967).4 58 likewise validity. 59 Johnston's view, "if assessment financial subdividers rational, impartial, conducive fulfillment authorized objectives, extreme presumably rare great deter proceeding development." 917. demonstrated impartial "conducive objectives." Dolan, hand, offered evidence profitability Following teaching rely, isolate evaluation enlarge 60 assurances leaves ample room pursue "commendable planning," ____ twice avowing "[n]o required," wanting result compels approach, "quantify findings," ____, determination[s]" impact, "proportionality." instead concentrate venture considerations condition's germaneness concededly germane grossly disproportionate manifests motives city.5 heightened imposes unjustified tools needed questions presented garnered 61 Applying finds defects while maintain generate, failed offsetting decrease bike produce. Even rule, are, most, harmless error. objections condition, onerous simple prohibition "trampling floodplain," valuable useless vacant land. Moreover, duty pay taxes tort liability ownership asset. explain conceded prevented Attorney absent "build land" "with money" storage runoff. 30-31. apparently "did option," chose seek it. 31. entitled confining accept, failure narrower relief stage administrative judicial clearly preclude now. 63 rejection amounts play words. Everyone agrees "could" unequivocally so, cyclists motorists. Predictions matters inherently estimates. Certainly assumption suffice percent, otherwise occur. judiciary micro-manage kind, indeed extending welcome mat class litigants. believe rise task, friend today. error abandoning imposing novel proof implementing consequential incorrect disposition resurrection substantive process firmly rejected decades ago.6 begins citing "applicable Amendment." contains Amendment;7 protection afforded Due Process substance procedure,8 enjoined secured State." 235, 236-241, 584-586. kind frequently better known accorded baker's liberty working hours week day. Lochner York, 198 45, 539, 937 (1905).9 66 Later interpreted Amendment's deprivations though incorporated text Clause. Keystone Bituminous Assn. DeBenedictis, 480 470, 481, 10, 1232, 1240, 472 (1987). There problematic enforcing actual physical invasion Loretto Teleprompter Manhattan CATV 458 419, 427-433, 102 3164, 3172-3175, 73 868 (1982); 178-180, 392-393, Holmes charted opined "commercially impracticable mine coal" "very appropriating destroying it." 414, so-called "regulatory takings" dictum10 kindled kinship line exemplified. Besides ancestry, doctrines potentially open-ended sources invalidate Members unwise unfair. inaugurates recent innovation doctrine: conditions" label mutually beneficial transaction tells refusal infringes refused "where benefit."11 settled basis protected "especially [one's] freedom speech," 597, 2697, (1972) inadequate framework analyze case.12 68 compensated acquires surrender. occurred, compensation. Preseault ICC, 494 1, 11-17, 110 914, 921-925, 108 (1990) (finding claim premature Tucker Act); Hodel Virginia Mining Reclamation Assn., 452 264, 294-295, 101 2352, 2370, (no "identified allegedly taken"). accept seeks, necessarily follow "just compensation" receipt compensation." 415, 160, (1922) (noting "average reciprocity advantage" deemed laws); Irving, 481 704, 715, 2076, 2082, 95 668 (1987) (such " 'reciprocity advantage' weighed statute's constitutionality). Particularly point, presume retain option. trifling "little fails present. respect, reliance assuredly novel, arguably incoherent. immune scrutiny. approximate insisted hope today 2317 (1968)), candid disavowal describe review, signify reassertion superlegislative exercised era. 70 enables enterprise flourish urban environment. intangible worthy like grandmother's relatives share Moore East Cleveland, 431 494, 1932, 531 (1977). is, curious irony almost insurmountable saddling case.13 process, confuses past November 13, 1922, village Euclid, Ohio, ordinance effectively confiscated 75 owned Company. recognition "would oppressive" earlier date, (over Justices Van Devanter, McReynolds Butler) upheld ordinance. Today's heed words Sutherland: 72 "Such sustained, complex day, reasons analogous regulations, advent automobiles rapid transit street railways, condemned fatally unreasonable. inconsistency, meaning guaranties varies, scope contract constantly coming field operation. changing world, impossible otherwise." 387, world thing certain: uncertainty characterize predictions developments risks earthquakes, environmental harms. When magnitude impacts, averting outweigh entrepreneur. land-use fulfilling aims plan, validity impaired belongs squarely shoulders party challenging action's constitutionality. allocation past. stumbled badly reversing 74 respectfully dissent. 76 invites examine permits, landowners declared (a easement) interests. treats raising nature, degree, address facts, raise addresses. 77 acknowledges (and five improvements) control, "permanent easement" related, effect, analysis. notes, "[i]f public." whatever foot side, incidental 8-foot-wide relocation bank river feet. me stand justified reference congestion. examines, put forth justification unsurprisingly recreation unrelated 78 "theor[etically]" [a path] transportation," "correct" District." faults saying "would" again, tell, holds ("could offset") paths tenuous; amount, 79 sound appears placed producing despite usual presumed acted constitutionally.* Having assigned burden, concludes loses word ("could" "would"), shows looks for. forward granting nor, calculated Comprehensive Plan, studies link modes transportation, paths, reduced A-5, 'Bicycle systems community' satisfied, rough devised limits. before, common accord traditions Pennell San Jose, 485 20, 849, 862, 99 (1988) (SCALIA, concurring part). fundamentally these. event, my reading, vulnerability gone already, point. enunciation hard spot. Lucas South Carolina Council, 505 112 2886, 2925, 120 798 (1992) (statement J.). syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. 18.86.040.A.1.b circulation designated bikepaths greenway/open space/park. Specific items [include]: (i) efficient, convenient systems, linking connections made, funds deposited account constructing paths." (App. B-33-34). conditions: "1. applicant (i.e., below 150.0) (to east of) 150.0 area." G-43. 18.134.050 criteria whereby decisionmaking approve, approve modifications, request: "(1) materially detrimental title, Code, standards, properties district vicinity; "(2) exist peculiar shape, topography over district; "(3) title maintained greatest possible, permitting land; "(4) Existing natural limited traffic, drainage, dramatic adversely affected occur specified title; "(5) hardship self-imposed minimum alleviate hardship." 49-50. consequences mitigation take comes us. Accordingly, pass provisions. suggests grounded "substantive" later Transp. 122, 2658, (1978); 827, 3143, Nor result. 2658 ("The issu[e] [is] appellants' exploitation Terminal 'taking' course (1897)"). argument "economically us[e]" currently operates derive Carolina, 2893, (1992); 175, 390, (1979); 124, 2659, (1978). minority Associates., (1981); Divan Builders, Bd. Twp. Wayne, N.J. 582, 600-601, 334 30, (1975); McKain Toledo Ohio App.2d 171, 270 370, 374 (1971); Frank Ansuini, Cranston, R.I. 63, 69, 264 910, 913 (1970). takes placing dedication. He arguing properly rests prove rights. situation, not, suggests, undermined (1977), struck housing occupancy dwelling family violating intruded choices living arrangements, deference inappropriate. 499, 1935. weekday average trip 53.21 1000 Additional Trips Generated = X (17,600-9720). G15. omitting section policy implement condemnation added shown. Cf. 513-521, (1977) (STEVENS, judgment). recognized agency police-power unconstitutional "utterly fails" goal refusal. obstructed "Although end." Similarly, 498-499, 1249, million tons coal separate treating 2% petitioners' sets fair summary L.Q., Like observed especially (1965) "stee[r] moderate course" "judicial obstructionism" "excessive deference" attorney overstated danger proportionality, Mrs. day [and] 75, widening Street." 52-53. Ferguson Skrupa, 372 726, 83 1028, (1963). An "well settled" "is government, States." Pumpelly Green Bay Wall. 166, 177, 557 (1872). agencies, disregard prohibitions Its authorities keep letter prescribing procedure parties interested fullest opportunity heard, inconsistent amendment. determining regard substance, form." 234-235, (1897). health. 60-61, 544. identify enlarged proves fatal approach. Assn 484, 1241, "advisory"). explanation reads: "Under 'unconstitutional conditions,' history, Home Ins. Morse, 445, 451, 365 (1874), suffered notoriously application; overarching equal force powers Sunstein, Why Unconstitutional Conditions Doctrine Anachronism, 620 (doctrine "too crude contested cases"); Sullivan, Conditions, Harv.L.Rev. 1415, 1416 (1989) "riven inconsistencies"); Hale, Rights, Colum.L.Rev. (1935) exertions after announcing broad them"). majority's citations suggest, 2317, modern invoking liberties, Connick Myers, 461 138, 143-144, 103 1684, 1688, 708 (1983); Elrod Burns, 427 347, 361-363, 2673, 2684, 547 (plurality opinion); Sherbert Verner, 398, 404, 1790, 1794, 965 (1963); Speiser Randall, 357 513, 518-519, 1332, 1338, 1460 (1958). Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates Tourism Rico, 478 328, 345-346, 2968, 2979, 266 (1986) ("the ban casino gambling lesser gambling"). breadth municipalities' together fragile easily "chilled" speech, clear really writing clean slate applying "well-settled" doctrine. 2316. author today's joined Stewart's dissenters sufficient, response 'the preserving neighborhoods,' Young American Mini Theatres, 50, [96 2440, 2452, ] (opinion Stevens, J.), [47 (1926) ], Nectow Cambridge, 277 183 [48 447, 842 (1928) ]." 540, 1956, 10. calling failing enacting "place[d] wrong party." added). Recently, severely criticized holding Moore. Carlton, ---- 2018, 2027, --- (1994) judgment); id., 2020 judgment) (calling oxymoron"). Goldblatt Hempstead, 369 590, 594-596, 82 987, 990, 130 (1962); Sperry 493 52, 60, 393-394, 290 (1989). characterizes "adjudicative decision" pursuant Code. 18.84.040, B-26. adjudication raises discriminatory, "reverse spot" zoning, "singles different, favorable neighboring ones." 132, 2663,

Classification Label: 3