Legal Document

336 U.S. 440 69 Supreme Court Reporter 716 93 L.Ed. 790 KRULEWITCHv.UNITED STATES. Number 143. Argued Jan. 10, 1949. Decided March 28, Mr. Jocob W. Friedman, of New York City, for petitioner. Robert Ginnane, Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice BLACK delivered the opinion Court. 1 A federal district court indictment charged in three counts that petitioner and a woman defendant had (1) induced persuaded another to go on October 20, 1941, from City Miami, Florida, purpose prostitution, violation 18 United States Code KF62 § 399 (now 2422); (2) transported or caused her be Miami purpose, 398 2421); (3) conspired commit those offenses 88 371.) Tried alone, was convicted all indictment. The Appeals affirmed. 2 Cir., 167 Federal Reporter, 2nd Series 943. And see disposition prior appeal, 145 76, 156 American Law Reports 337. We granted certiorari limiting our review consideration alleged error admission certain hearsay testimony against over his timely repeated objections. challenged elicited by Government its complaining witness, person whom allegedly Florida prostitution. narrated following purported conversation between witness petitioner's co-conspirator, defendant. 'She asked me, she says, 'You di n't talk yet?' & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions 'No.' 'Well, don't,' 'until we get you lawyer.' then 'Be very careful what say.' can't put it exact words. But said, 'It would better us two girls take blame than Kay (the defendant) because he couldn't stand it, it." time more month half after date gone Miami. Whatever original conspiracy may have existed co-conspirator cause October, no longer when reported took place December, 1941. For this latter trip not only been made—the left returned York, resumed residence there. Furthermore, at place, arrested. They apparently were District with offense which here convicted.1 3 It is beyond doubt central aim conspiracy—transportation prostitution—had either never long since ended success failure if made statement attributed her. Cf. Lew Moy versus States, 8 237 KF105 F3 50. plainly implied guilty crime trial. absence effort whatever show authority. thus stands as an unsworn, out-of-court declaration guilt. This declaration, pursuant furtherance objectives indictment, made, failed achieved. Under these circumstances, admissible theory criminal transportation undertaking. Fiswick 329 211, 216—217, 67 224, 227, 91 196; Brown 150 93, 98—99, 14 37, 39, 37 1010; Graham 15 740, 743. 4 Although recognizes chief objective prostitution purposes—had before nevertheless argues admissibility one continuing subsidiary conspiracy. Its argument runs way. Conspirators about crimes always expressly implicitly agree collaborate each other conceal facts order prevent detection, conviction punishment. Thus even succeeded failed, implicit phase survives, has concealment sole objective. adopted view. viewed conspiracy, part 'the agreement conceal.' 943, 948. consequently held properly admitted. 5 cannot accept Government's contention. There are many logical practical reasons could advanced special evidentiary rule permits statements conspirator used another. howver cogent reasons, fir ly established where going such exceptions rule. prerequisite admissibility, some conspirators others must charged, scrupulously observed courts. now asks expand narrow exception hold but uncharged aimed preventing detection No case cited suggests so hospitable reception use evidence convict cases. contention does find support state opinions brief.2 none them there appear recognition any broad urged. contended far-reaching results. under plausible arguments generally cases most offered tended shield co-conspirators. adopt create automatically further breach general evidence. 6 merely cumulative evidence, without strong should harmless 28 391.3 In Kotteakos 328 750, 66 1239, 90 1557, said statute upon record grave whether substantial influence bringing verdict. here. grand jury indict. After tried four times results: mistrial; conviction; recommendation leniency. revolting type charges makes difficult believe convinced him recommended corroborative phases case. vital phases, involving sordid features, compelled choose believing witness. persuades jury's task best. say erroneous weight tipped scales 7 Reversed. JACKSON, concurring judgment 9 illustrates present drift law warrants comment characteristic evolution elastic, sprawling pervasive offense. history exemplifies 'tendency principle itself limit logic.'1 unavailing protest courts growing habit indict lieu prosecuting substantive itself, addition thereto,2 loose practice constitutes serious threat fairness administration justice. 10 modern vague almost defies definition.3 Despite elementary essential elements,4 also, chameleon-like, takes coloration independent overlaid.5 'predominantly mental composition' consists primarily meeting minds intent.6 11 comes down wrapped unpleasant connotations. sounds historical undertones treachery, secret plotting violence scale menaces social stability security itself. 'Privy conspiracy' ranks sedition rebellion Litany's prayer deliverance. Conspiratorial movements do indeed lie back political assassination, coup d'etat, putsch, revolution, seizures power times, they history.7 12 concept also superimposed concerted having motivation. intended question basic law, unite, strength, opportunities resources obviously dangerous police efforts lone wrongdoer.8 trivialized, here, concert loathsome panderer prostitute ply their trade, 337, details, simple Mann Act prosecution vindicate majesty law. However, appropriately invoked, looseness pliability doctrine inherent dangers background judicial thought wherever sought extend meet exigencies particular 13 Conspiracy aggravates degree unconcerted offending. act confederating misdemeanor, followed innocent overt execution, felony misdemeanor consummated.9 radical proposition well-established common statutes combination contemplates acts perpetrated individual acting severally.10 will incriminate persons fringe offending who aiding abetting becoming accessory, actually committed.11 Attribution criminality confederation carried out peculiar Anglo-American 'There can little wide definition originates equity administered Star Chamber.'12 fact, advised 'The entirely result manner treated Chamber.13 commend jurists civil-law countries,14 despite universal organized society legal weapons combatting criminality. Most countries devised consider discriminating principles prosecute gangs, associations subversive syndicates.15 16 recent tendency appeared elastic facilitate proof. Pinkerton 640, 1180, 1489, sustained proof participation knowledge novel dubious equivalent abetting. 17 Doctrines invoked prosecution, civil proceedings damages injunction, administrative apply regulatory statutes. resorted military commissions least notable occasion open punish offense.16 employed laborers combining raise wages formed basis abuse labor injunction.17 National Labor Relations Act, 29 Annotated KF65 U5 151 et seq., found necessary provide activities otherwise lawful rendered unlawful mere concert.18 fields still though lawfully own. interchangeable well penal opens danger, absent crimes, mind sanctions approve lax practices later imported into proceedings. frankly end test means, saying, 'To require greater showing cripple Act,' Griffith, 334 100, 68 941, dispensing necessity specific intent produce violative statute. Further, dispensed infer definite agreement, although gist often simultaneous action conspirators. * *' Masonite Corp., 316 265, 275, 62 1070, 1076, 86 1461. One might reports lower together decisions condoning demonstrate minimum required establish extremely low, expect pronouncements ones also. 19 Of course, prosecutors rather determine scatter gun bring defendant, procedural advantages using add danger unguarded extension concept. 20 An accused, Sixth Amendment, right trial 'by impartial State wherein shall committed.' leverage charge lifts limitation reduces protection phantom, considered vagrant committed did acts, however innocent, accomplish object.19 may, does, compel defend great distance ever accused confederate trivial chosen district. Circumstances enable fix partly wholly up employees accuses him. Frazier 335 497, 201. 21 When starts, feels full impact strategy. Strictly, first prima facie identify co spirators, declarations course execution all. judge control. As matter, confronted hodgepodge authorized known about, help persuade existence words, proved assumption existed. naive prejudicial effects overcome instructions jury, cf. Blumenthal 332 539, 559, 248, 257, practicing lawyers know unmitigated fiction. See Skidmore Baltimore Ohio R. Co., 54. 22 doubtless imposes heavy burden especially situation hazard application rules aggravated institutes mass trials.20 Moreover, uncorroborated accomplices, jurisdictions, comfort follow 'better practice' caution 'too much reliance accomplices.' Caminetti 242 470, 495, 192, 198, 61 442, L.R.A.1917A, 502, Ann.Cas.1917B, 1168. 23 co-defendant occupies uneasy seat. wrongdoing somebody. make own merits jurors ready birds feather flocked together. If silent, taken admit if, happens, co-defendants prodded accusing contradicting other, other. diffidulties defending enumerate.21 24 Against inadequately sketched background, think decision below introduced ominous expansion accepted allowed means prostitute's recital defendant's accomplished, arrested, falling out. grounds stated follows: '* violate among illegal plan consummated. continue , purposes concealment, primary aims accomplished. protect appellant concealing role Consequently, fell within appellant. Goldstein, 135 359; Murray 409, denied, 271 673, 46 486, 70 1144. While Bryan 741, implication directly contrary, decline it.' 25 suppose planning collaborator rely caught, fact inference purpose. understanding continuous aid proven, embraced need imply agreement. Only convincing implied. 26 'implied conspiracy,' duration nor express credible existed, way presumption once raised terminate imputed agency associates Conspirators, contemplated complete, perhaps fallen become enemies, deliberately harmful, unsworn declarations, unintentionally casual conversations court. On impute confederates defeat justice, conceivably bound another's unauthorized unknown commission perjury, bribery juror putting incorrigible damaging information 27 indefinitely indeterminate limitations. implies cooperate defeating continues possibility, possibility continue. slightest warrant judicially introducing constructive conspiracies. adds new extends old one. True, largely evolved judges. wisely settled judge-made every statutory authority.22 authorizes judges imply, presume construct except To seems approximate creation doubtful constitutionality created Congress.23 And, events, fundamentally irreconcilably war innocence. is, temptation relax rigid standards sustain convictions evildoers. authorize evildoing liberty indivudal integrity j dicial process charges. disapprove emplied entirety manifestation. straining uphold adequate served adding chiefly prodecural ease conviction. 30 reversal trials regrettable, overlook concur less sure prejudice resulted, unwhipped justice continuance lodgment affirmance tolerance. Few instruments injustice equal presumed crimes. odious oppressions mask 31 FRANKFURTER MURPHY join opinion. 32 BURTON, dissenting. 33 admissible, regard admission, circumstances case, absolutely error. 34 speaking errors said: 'Errors sort causes altogether face clear same turn level, constantly appears policy 2691 questions evidence.' 763, 1247, 1557. 35 Again, determining judgment, is— 36 'what effect reasonably decision. 'If, done, slight effect, verdict stand, departure constitutional norm command Congress.' Id., pages 764—765, page 1247. 38 issue involves Congress. concerning personal conduct issues fact. covers 800 pages. thoroughly familiar dependability, any, placed oral witnesses involved them. supporting cumulative, repetitive corroborated point rights parties appreciably affected attached snatch b tween people negligible dependability demonstrated extended fourth trial, set aside bit me unrealistic procedure tends travesty system neither deserved. affirm below. closed February, 1942. indictments until January, 1943. Commonwealth Smith, Mass. 491, Northeastern KF135 N59 677; People Mol, 137 Mich. 692, 707, 100 Northwestern N69 913, L.R.A. 871, Ann.Cas. 960; Hooper State, 187 Ark. 88, 92, 58 South Western 434; Gauthier, 113 Or. 297, 307, 231 Pacific P2 141; Emory, 116 Kan. 381, 384, 226 754; Carter 106 Ga. 372, 376, Southeastern S6 345, 71 Am.St.Rep. 262; Watson 166 Miss. 194, 213, 146 Southern S69 122; Baldwin Fla. 115, 120—121, 220; Strait, Mo.Sup., 279 Southwestern S79 109. Repealed June 25, 1948, chapter 646, Statutes-at-Large 992. Rules Civil Procedure, Rule 61, U.S.C.A.; Criminal 52, phrase Judge Cardozo's—The Nature Judicial Process, Page 51. Conference Senior Circuit Judges, presided Chief Taft, 1925 reported: 'We note prevalent converting joint felony; both purpose—or effect—of improper being abused. 'Although preconcert plan, excepting necessarily action, exclude definitions conspiracy; yet call aborted completed supposes substantially continued group scheme cooperative breaking. observe prosecutions base fear impression, harmful enforcement, method arbitrarily harshly. Further try defendant.' Annual Report Attorney General 1925, Pages 6. Fifteen years Learned Hand observed: seek sweep drag-net associated main offenders. That oppression plain, circumscribing scope comprehensive avoided.' Falcone, 109 579, 581. Harno, Intent Conspiracy, 89 U. Pa.L.Rev. 624: 'In category none, attempt, confine boundaries definitive conspiracy.' English author—Wright, Conspiracies, 11—gives remark: 'But intelligible 'conspiracy' established.' Holmes supplied oversimplified working Kissel, 218 601, 608, 124, 126, 54 1168: 'A partnership purposes.' recently restated crime.' 644, 1182, 1489. inaccurate, purposes, establishes Carson offers re sume cases: object; object means: or, criminal, mischief public involved; unlawful, injury individuals result.' Cases, 123. See, example: 47, 47 interfere rights: Preventing officer performing duties; Obstructing intimidating party, juror; Depriving privileges. 1566, service defraud 1138d(f), Farm Credit Banks, Administration, etc. §§ 1—3, restraint trade; 8, import trade. 6, Seditious 11, impair loyalty armed forces advocate overthrow force; 51, injure exercise rights; 54, 83, government obtaining payment false claim; U.S.; 242, obstruct justice; 252, riots institutions; 408c, transport kidnapped interstate commerce; 418a, stolen property counterfeiting 420a(d), Anti-Racketeering Act; 483, incite mutiny shipboard; 487, cast away vessel. 234, foreign government. 231, obtain claims. 749a, bid collusively construction naval aircraft. 715, falsify pension 50 34, disclose national defense espionage. App.U.S.C. 311, U.S.C.A.Appendix, Selective Service Act. 624, 632. Senturia, Conspiracy-Political, IV Encyc. Soc. Sci. 238 (1937). German courts, May 30, 1924, adjudged Nazi Party organization. 1928 Leadership Corps Communist organization 1930 entered Union Red Front Fighters Party. 15. Holdsworth, History Law, 383. Miller, 110. 371. Until recently, punishment far excess provided 645, 683, 701, provides exceed maximum misdemeanor. applicable antitrust prosecutions. conception perversion, particularly cases, Sayre; Harv.L.Rev. 393. O'Brian, Loyalty Tests Guilt Association, 592, Note, Dilemma; Prosecution Group Crime Protection Individual Defendants, 276. statement, leaves account subject attempts allied. 382. 379. utterly Roman law: Continental codes; few heard it. fortunate circumstance encrusted deep jurisprudence past unable slough off altogether. evil genius touched Sayre, 393, 427. Counsel representing Kingdom, French Republic, Soviet Union, defendants, indulged comparisons relevant laws several nations International Military Tribunal Nu rnberg connection organizations criminal. Trial Major War Criminals (GPO 1947), 353, seq.; Aggression 1946), 1; Jackson, Case, 95. Assassination President Lincoln 1865. however, Ex parte Milligan, Wall. 2, 281. 403. U.A.W. Wisconsin Employment Board, 245, 516. Hyde 225 347, 793, 56 1114, 1914A, 614. Holmes, behalf himself Justices Hughes, Lurton Lamar, wrote vigorous hesitate brand oppressive 'one wrongs forefathers meant prevent.' 387, 809. example afforded Allen 688. At height prohibition frenzy, seventy-five defendants newspaper reporter testified drinking talked woman, behind bar, whose name give. identification knew bar showed and, hence, He relate incriminating courtroom technique defense, O'Dougherty, Defense Indictments, Brooklyn L.Rev. 263. His survey, accords observation, hardly convince kind highest exemplification process. Hudson, Cranch 32, 259; Worrall, Dall. 426; Coolidge, Wheat. 415, 124; Eaton, 144 677, 687, 764, 767, 591; Bathgate, 246 220, 225, 269, 270, 676. Warren, Judiciary 1937, 49, 73. Tot 319 463, 63 1241, 87 1519. Section 269 Code, instant entry below, provided: 'Sec. 269. hearing certiorari, writ error, motion give examination entire court, technical errors, defects, affect parties.' 40 1181, 391. 52(a) U.S.C.A., continuously during provides: 'Rule 52. Harmless Error Plain Error. '(a) Any defect, irregularity variance disregarded.

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