Legal Document

20 United States Supreme Court Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 1189 88 Reporter 2186 392 U.S. 409 Joseph Lee JONES et ux., Petitioners,v.ALFRED or Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 MAYER CO. al. Number 645. Argued April 1 and 2, 1968. Decided June 17, [Syllabus from pages 409-410 intentionally omitted] Samuel Liberman, St. Louis, Mo., for petitioners. Israel Treiman, respondents. Atty. Gen. Ramsey Clark the States, as amicus curiae, by special leave of Court. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion In this case we are called upon to determine scope constitutionality an Act Congress, 42 Code KF62 § 1982, which provides that: 2 'All citizens shall have same right, in every State Territory, is enjoyed white thereof inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, convey real personal property.' 3 On September 1965, petitioners filed a complaint District Eastern Missouri, alleging that respondents had refused sell them home Paddock Woods community Louis County sole reason petitioner Jones Negro. Relying part sought injunctive other relief.1 The sustained respondents' motion dismiss complaint,2 Appeals Eighth Circuit affirmed, concluding 1982 applies only state action does not reach private refusals sell.3 We granted certiorari consider questions thus presented.4 For reasons follow, reverse judgment Appeals. hold bars all racial discrimination, well public, sale rental property, statute, construed, valid exercise power Congress enforce Thirteenth Amendment.5 I. 4 At outset, it important make clear precisely what involve. Whatever else may be, comprehensive open housing law. sharp contrast Fair Housing Title (Title VIII) Civil Rights 1968, Public Law 90—284, 82 Statutes-at-Large 81, statute deals with discrimination address itself on grounds religion national origin.6 It deal specifically provision services facilities connection dwelling.7 prohibit advertising representations indicate discriminatory preferences.8 refer explicitly financing arrangements9 brokerage services.10 empower federal administrative agency assist aggrieved parties.11 makes no intervention Attorney General.12 And, although can be enforced injunction,13 contains expressly authorizing court order payment damages.14 5 Thus, none exemptions included 1968,15 would serious mistake suppose any way diminishes significance law recently enacted Congress. Indeed, Senate Subcommittee Urban Affairs was informed hearings held after rendered its decision might 'a presently statutory ban against persons lease property.'16 told, however, even if should so construe existence 'eliminate need congressional action' spell out 'responsibility government rights protects.'17 point made that, light many difficulties confronted litigants seeking such their own, 'legislation needed establish machinery enforcement guaranteed under Section plaintiffs versus Alfred Mayer Company prevail Court.'18 6 10, Representative Kelly New York focused attention House present possible significance. She described background litigation, recited text then added: 7 'When General asked about effect old (§ 1982) compared pending legislation being considered floor today, he said somewhat different, remedies procedures were new still quite necessary.'19 8 Later day, passed Its enactment 198220 litigation,21 but underscored vast differences between, one hand, general applicable property enforceable parties acting own initiative, and, detailed law, broad range practices complete arsenal authority. Having noted these differences, turn consideration itself. II. 9 This last occasion 1948, Hurd Hodge, 334 24, 68 847, 92 L.Ed. 1187. That arose when owners Columbia racially restrictive covenants Negro purchasers several homes block. A district agreements declaring void deeds purchasers. enjoined further attempts properties question directed 'remove themselves belongings' premises within 60 days. affirmed.22 certiorari23 decide whether 1978 Revised Statutes 1874, barred case. 10 covered two-thirds lots single city block, preventing Negroes buying renting specific area ineligible do elsewhere city. been thought more than grant legal capacity buy rent free prohibitions wholly disabled because race, judicial at issue violated 1982. But took broader view statute. Although could without denying right purchase estate, those nonetheless denied 'the 'as * property." U.S., 34, S.Ct., 852. result, concluded, prohibited s To suggest otherwise, said, 'is reject plain meaning language.' Ibid. 11 supra, squarely held, therefore, citizen who opportunity wants '(s)olely (his) race color,' 852, has suffered kind injury designed prevent. Accord, Buchanan Warley, 245 60, 79, 38 16, 19, 62 149; Harmon Tyler, 273 668, 47 471, 71 831; City Richmond Deans, 281 704, 50 407, 74 1128. basic source was, course, individuals—white agreed exclude residential area. arm Government—in case, assisted agreement.24 Thus did purely unaided government, violate deny solely his color. 12 (other case) ever conspiracy among prevent leasing farm Morris, D.C., 125 Federal KF105 F3 322. true dictum toward 'governmental action,' 31, 851, neither nor before since presented precise adjudication Court.25 Today face first time. 13 charracterized Corrigan Buckley, 271 323, 46 521, 70 969, having 'held' '(t)he toaward provisions (are) governmental action.' 851. statement appears opinion, careful examination reveals cannot read authority proposition attributed Hurd. Corrigan, suits brought enjoin threatened violation certain Columbia. courts relief, see 55 App.D.C. 30, 299 899, reached appeal. As recognized, claim validly appellants raised lower courts, properly 330—331, 523—524. Fifth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth Amendments, §§ 1977, 1978, 1979 (now 1981, 1983). Addressing narrow question, relied individuals 'enter(ing) into (contracts) respect control disposition Id., 331, 524. Nor, added Court, claimed 'had, themselves, (the) effect' prohibiting contracts. 14 Even regarded (then Statutes) agreeing Negroes, settle prohibits actual refusal Moreover, argued sort there involved, treat issue. III. 15 begin language unambiguous terms, grants citizens, regard color, right' citizens.' evidently impaired effectively 'those place market'26 For, agents lend support wish communities grounds, fact remains whenever placed market whites only, Negroes.'27 So long turned away simply white, enjoy (and) (Emphasis added.) 16 face, public authorities. seem concede 'means says'—to use words brief—then must encompass motivated confined officially sanctioned segregationin housing. Stressing they revolutionary implications literal reading argue possibly intended result. Our relevant history, persuades us meant exactly said. IV. 17 original form, 1866.28 section cast sweeping terms: 18 'Be Representatives America assembled, born subject foreign power, hereby declared States; previous condition slavery involuntary servitude, Territory contracts, sue, parties, give evidence, full equal benefit laws proceedings security person like punishment, pains, penalties, other, ordinance, regulation, custom, contrary notwithstanding.'29 19 crucial our purposes *.' 1866, things infringed 'State local law' also 'custom, prejudice.'30 provided equally throughout alike, plainly secure interference whatever, private.31 nothing immunity interference, much sense all.32 section, fines prison terms deprived others 'secured protcted' 1, carefully drafted exempt violations criminal sanctions imposed.33 There would, 'right' officials. Hence structure 1866 Act, language, points conclusion urged deprivations enumerated perpetrated 'under color criminally punishable 2. 21 attempting demonstrate contrary, rely heavily approved wished eradicate Black Codes saddled 'onerous disabilities burdens, curtailed extent freedom little value Slaughter-House Cases, Wall. 36, 70, 394.34 evil eliminate former Confederate States. apply country,35 far necessary strike down statutes. 22 believe, mere slip legislative pen. disagree. wanted imposing body evidence pointing mistreatment unofficial groups, unrelated hostile legislation. 'Accounts newspapers North South, Freedmen's Bureau official documents, reports correspondence adduced' show 'private outrage atrocity' 'daily inflicted freedmen *.'36 debates replete references injustices Negroes—references employers t pay workers,37 planters hire freed slaves permission masters,38 assaulted Negroes39 combined drive communities.40 23 most studies stressed prevalence hostility negroes protect resulting persecution discrimination.41 report virtually owning towns,42 'mere isolated cases,' representing outcroppings spirit found everywhere'43—a expressed, example, lawless acts brutality traveled areas where wanted.44 concluded anti-Negro 'repealed lately rebellion,' treatment yet secured.45 24 setting, strange indeed viewed task encompassing merely nullification racist rebel assembled Nation's capital December 1865 vision became early session, three proposals invalidate statutes rejected 'to narrowly conceived.'46 From outset seemed clear, least Senator Trumbull Illinois, Chairman Judiciary Committee, stronger prove necessary. After Wilson Massachusetts introduced bill South,47 this: 25 'I reported Committee second (Thirteenth Amendment) very purpose conferring carried good faith & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions will authority, constitutional amendment adopted, pass Massachusetts, efficient freedman rights. sir, information South men whose liberties secured privilege go come please, contracts notice does, introduce urge passage through rights: freemen them. idle say man pleasure, (So) adopted trust bill, people southern necessary, consideration.'48 26 Five days later, 18, 1865, Secretary certified ratification Amendment. next day again rose speak. He decided, 'more efficient' spoken previously ought 27 'at quieting apprehensions minds friends lest prevailing sentiment some African continue oppressed *.'49 28 January 5, mind—the later 1866.50 objectives belie attempt narrowly: 29 'Mr. President, now measure adoption abolishing slavery. free. declaration practical freedom. importance abstract truths principles unless effect, affected means availing benefits.'51 30 Of Trumbull's pointed out, 'destroy discriminations' embodied Codes,52 more: affirmatively men, whatever 'great fundamental rights': 31 acquire inherit dispose property.'53 32 civil rights, 'break between black men.'54 33 seen great virtue friends55 danger enemies56 disputed none. Opponents charged regulate directly 'determine (would) States.'57 threatening ability members (their) communit(ies) *.'58 bill's advocates accuracy characterizations. Instead, defended propriety employing (who) invoke prejudice' Negro.59 February 1866,60 fully aware breadth approved. 34 House, Senate, eliminating infamous Codes.61 But, moved larger objective—that giving content Thayer Pennsylvania put way: 35 '(W)hen voted abolish offering paper guarantee. And amendment, felt given gave 36 'The engages object carry guaranty reality measure. force. remaining dead letter page country. events four years changed (a) large class decided freemen. charter liberty American people.'62 37 Cook Illinois appropriate legislation, 'combination neighborhood (could) (a Negro) chance' benefits.63 Congressman him, evident including 'right property,' provide 'there discrimination' color.64 March 13, 1866,65 assumption prevailed Senate: too believed approving forbidding affecting Act. 39 President Andrew Johnson vetoed 27,66 brief debate followed, supporters characterized allembracing terms. One confer estate qualification restriction *.'67 Another predicted, corollary, preclude preferential hotel rooms church pews.68 Those observations elicited reply. overrode President's veto requisite majorities,69 law.70 40 concerns led adopt contents proceded passage, just suggest: therein—including property. 41 Nor altered re-enacted 1870, two Amendment.71 supported Amendment 'in doubt validity applied States.' 32—33, certainly follow subsequent readoption somehow limit application action. history furnishes slightest factual basis speculation, conditions 1870 highly implausible. time most, all, 'reconstructed' legislatures, formally repudiated focus concern clearly shifted activities groups Ku Klux Klan, operating outside law.72 Against background, obviously assume, historical silent operation 1866.73 cardinal rule repeals implication favored.' Posadas National Bank, 296 497, 503, 56 349, 352, 80 351. All re-enacted.' meant. 43 different setting Terms ago, 'We think leaves (the law) origins dictate, accord sweep Price, 383 787, 801, 86 1152, 1160. seek ingenious analytical instruments,' ibid., carve exception conduct—even though conduct context established precedent. oral argument lay partially dormant diminish force today.' V. 44 Constitution purports do: starting Amendment, pursuant originally consists parts. states: 45 'Neither except punishment crime whereby party duly convicted, exist jurisdiction.' provides: 'Congress article legislation.' reveals, prohibition establishing upholding slavery, absolute servitude 109 3, 20, 28, 835. never doubted, 'that vested legislation,' includes enact 'direct primary, individuals, not.' 23, 30.74 48 operates presents problem. If calculated achieve objective exceed reaches beyond individuals. comes Does 'by legislation' include barriers acquisition property? answer yes. 49 'By effect,' 'abolished universal freedom.' 28. Whether that—a involved case—it Enabling Clause empowered more. clause clothed proper badges incidents opposed authorized dissolve bond slave master.75 Yet earlier ground unlimited protection State.76 majority leaders Congress—who were, authors Amendment—had contemplated positive Their chief spokesman, 1864. defending narrower construction correct, 51 trumpet blowing land (uncertain sound,' promised delusion. Such intention proposed fair destroy discriminations man; cannot, amounts nothing. says Who be? proper, accomplish end.'77 52 Surely right. rationally translate determination effective irrational one. recognized ago encompassed, slavery—its 'burdens disabilities'—included restrations essence freedom, namely, 22, 29.78 Just Codes, War restrict substitutes salve system, exclusion substitute Codes. herds ghettos skin, relic 53 saw promise freedom—freedom 'go pleasure'79 'buy please'80—would left guarantee'81 powerless assure dollar hands thing man. least, buy, live wherever live. much, Nation keep. 54 Iowa manager 1866. urging ample recalled celebrated Chief Marshall McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 421, 579: 'Let end legitimate, let constitution, appropriate, adapted end, prohibited, consist constitutional.'82 legitimate,' 'because defined maintenance *. enjoys mentioned reduced settles appropriateness measure, constitutionality.'83 57 agree. reversed. 58 Reversed. 59 DOUGLAS, concurring. 9, 27, 61 abolished 'slavery' 'involuntary whereof convicted' removal 63 'Slaves men. They nothing; contracts; traffic property; out; legally marry constitute families; children; appeal master; punished will.' W. Dubois, Reconstruction (1964).1 64 curse man, done institution produced notion superior character, intelligence, morality. blacks livestock—to fed fattened economic benefits bestow labors, subjected often cruelty, master slave. 65 Some remain today. While outlawed, remained hearts Cases depict spectacle unwilling die. contrivances thwart voting, e.g., Lane Wilson, 307 268, 872, 83 1281. excluded over juries account Strauder West Virginia, 100 303, 664, forced sit segregated seats courtrooms, 373 61, 1053, 195. attend inferior schools, Brown Board Education, 347 483, 686, 98 873, entrance colleges graduate schools Commonwealth Directors Trusts, 353 230, 77 806, 792; Sweatt Painter, 339 629, 848, 94 1114. prosecuted marrying whites, Loving 388 87 1817, 1010. districts, 149 residents neighborhoods entrance, Shelley Kraemer, 836, 1161. going daily lives, railway coaches, Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 1138, 256; parks, Orleans Park Improvement Assn. Detiege, 358 54, 79 99, 46; restaurants, Lombard Louisiana, 267, 1122, 338; beaches, Mayor Council Baltimore Dawson, 350 877, 76 133, 774; municipal golf courses, Holmes Atlanta, 879, 141, 776; amusement Griffin 378 130, 84 1770, 754; buses, Gayle Browder, 352 903, 145, 114; libraries, 131, 719, 637. judge Alabama convicted woman contempt she him addressed her 'Mary,' simple request 'Miss Hamilton.' Hamilton Alabama, 376 650, 982, 979. 66 sampling practices, stands almost annotation Frederick Douglass (1817—1895) wrote nearly century earlier: 67 'Of races varieties feeling, colored country endured most. resort disguises enable escape deadly aim. front marks persecution. stand extreme difference Caucasian origin instantly removes typical race. remonstrate Shylock—'Hath Jew eyes? hath hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions? food, hurt weapons, diseases, healed means, warmed cooled summer winter, Christian is?"—but eloquence unavailing. Negroes—and enough, eye unreasoning prejudice, justify indignity violence. department life insidious influence. fills air. meets workshop factory, work. church, hotel, ballot-box, worst jurybox. Without offense gospel, Jean Valjean society. escaped galleys, hence presumptions him. denies work, inn shelter; ballot-box vote, jury-box trial. ceased individual, become bought sold beast market, trammeled victim repress manly ambition, paralyze energies, dejected spiritless sullen enemy society, fit prey trouble generally.'2 protected host laws. forces strong. 69 member elected legislature, assembly views Vietnam war. Bond Floyd, 385 116, 339, 235. Real artifice avoid selling 'white property' blacks.3 travel country, entitled sleeping dining offered tourists, Heart Atlanta Motel 379 241, 85 348, 258, learn 'vacancy' sign mean says, especially motel swimming pool. entering half-empty restaurant find 'reserved' signs unoccupied tables. 72 labor union race.4 73 learns directing admission children obeyed 'with deliberate speed,' 349 294, 301, 75 753, 756, 99 1083 delayed numerous stratagems devices.5 laws, times, encouraged Reitman Mulkey, 387 369, 1627, 830. recital enough how prejudices, once parcel persist. sat trying remove 'customs'6 my Brother shows, so-called Open 1968 undercut rests. HARLAN, whom WHITE joins, dissenting. me ill-considered illadvised. house entitles relief separate grounds. First, acted 1982; second, assert amounted circumstances 'state action'1 therefore forbidden absence reaching alleged, holds 78 believe Court's applying surely wrong, doubt. issues construed liability alone, formidable difficulties. political processes era have, date birth statute2 embodying 'fair housing' provisions3 year available others, apparently themselves,4 type seek. seems latter factor wisest course refrain writ improvidently granted. lies heart opinion. state-authorized discrimination. Atlantic focuses statute's worthy note precedents distinctly 81 835, less decades derived, Act: 'This corrective counteract furnish redress proceedings, customs sanction wrongful specified. here referred analogous character impaired, bound contract refuse comply it, pretence invalid liable addition penalty up unjust unconstitutional defence.' 16—17, 25.5 prospective breaches covenants. jurisdiction petitioners' covenant contravened Amendments implementing reasoned, inter alia, statutes, immediate predecessor 1982,6 inapplicable 'they, Constitutional enacted, manner entered 5247 1187, process reasoning said: start achieved voluntary adherence (sic) holding Buckley 851.8 baron Like began analysis examining language. 89 finds 'plain unambiguous, ante, 420, forbids stateauthorized With respect, so. me, inherent ambiguity term 'right,' used eithe status state-sanctioned 'absolute' taken interpretation, latter.9 90 Further, intervening revisions alter substance, drawn enacted. 27. Sections part: 91 'That *, notwithstanding. 'Sec. who, subject, cause subjected, inhabitant deprivation act deemed guilty misdemeanor 93 wording indicates strongly (as limited) form 'law, custom.'10 deference implies 'was imposed,' 425, 1. C. rests chiefly endeavor not, overwhelmingly result drawn. largely chronological sequence, dealing separately debates. 95 First Session Thirty-ninth met 4, six months preceding sent few word received Amendment's ratification. invalidated discriminated statute.11 Wilson's proposal: 96 told to-day true. (U)ntil this, 97 inserted purpose, know purpose? Sir, Legislatures enslaving, pretense, free.'12 indicated bills enlarge powers founded both Amendment.13 Since stated nullify inferable aim bills. bill.14 strengthened greatly existing system exercised protective supervision numbers. Inter permitted Bureau, extend 'military jurisdiction' cases consequence police (denied refused) immunities belonging persons, *.'15 101 try convict another police, regulation custom generally limited Southern correspondingly bill,16 denials aegis locality. significant distinction occurred military criminal. corresponding companion parallel Nation, reference 'prejudice' omitted rights-defining section. imply widely legitimated sufficiently powerful deserve name 'custom.' 102 undercuts argument, 424, extending 'much (which) all.' similar hand structure, confirm limitation deliberate. 103 debated intermittently 12, until eventual 6. debates, Trumbull, leading spokesman number statements aimed alone. 29, citing depriving named bill. discriminations, amendment.'17 quoted full, 104 valuable protecting concerned. When understood parts deprive expose himself fine imprisonment, soon cease.'18 105 These contain hint 'rights' extended co-extensive following Cowan 'not (in bill) officers punished?' replied: 'Not especially, everybody violates punish law.'19 106 uttered remarkably 107 '(This assailed drawing Government belong 'States'; apprehend, rightly considered, obnoxious objection. equal, Kentucky code discriminating abolished.'20 108 times reiterated view. replying Davis Kentucky, 'Why, Kentucky. Are gone discriminate doing doing? draws perform obligation.'21 110 'If committed colored, affords anything adequate *.'22 111 interferes regulations protects alike York, Union.'23 112 remarks plainest activate attempted negate declarations operate everywhere See 426, n. 35. However, obvious natural reconcile sets ones nationwide bring there.24 weight reassure Northern Border Senators 113 additional indications state-sanction during defense 'of causes, criminal, locality 114 prevails State, statute-law Amendment).'25 115 defend dubious involving whatsoever. minutes introducing securing equality authorities inhabitants *.'26 116 explicit author, naturally looked explanation indicating 117 puts forward impressive quotations citations circumspect chosen give, appear either irrelevant consistent interpretation. mention, 427, workers' militate construction, 'custom,' strong 'custom' refusing work done. citation, 427-428, Negroes' point, cited concerned bill.27 forbade 'prejudice,' event remedy assault.28 118 quotation, 429-430, then-embryonic compatible unedited 455, check legislatures. forthcoming sentiment' 431, actions formal 119 senatorial opponents 431—433, scope, entirely ambiguous speakers well. surprising strenuously explicitly.29 remark 433, "the Negro,' context. quotation Lane's speech permitting noting occasions '(w)here organized resistance assumes shape execute writ,'30 'if man) prejudice override obedience country.'31 manifest context, beside 120 post-veto 435, inconclusive. Once ambiguous, Cowan's statement, *without qualification'32 inevitably share ambiguity. Davis, pews are, helpful thesis. comments immediately Davis' plaintive acknowledgment 'this proscribes 'ordinance, custom,' 'law statute."33 observed ordinances, regulations, conferred comfortable accommodations ships steamboats, hotels, churches, railroad cars, '(t)his declares distinctions criminals *.'34 tied efects 'customs' alleged wonder 'elicited reply,' supporters. 121 fuller state-endorsed sponsor House. debate, explaining bill: 122 '(I)f seeing colors, shut eyes legislate, regards immunities, troubles nation well-nigh over. entire relative 'account slavery."35 123 124 'Before formed, (which belonged family. designed, things, perfect enjoyment possess Governments do; State; permeates whole run riot existed unhindered '(b)efore formed.' 126 Other congressmen expressed views. Thayer, supporters, 127 freedmen) people. 128 'Sir, competent new-formed declare, purchasing demand know, *?'37 129 'Do you allow nature? (W)hat tyranny (those) *?'38 130 131 '(The guarantee secures life, liberty, exists why thatguarantee 132 'What necessity gives protection? rebellious reconstructed which, enforced, fatal blow *.'39 133 An opponent Bingham, 9: 134 '(W)hat, then, section? Simply constitution citizen.'40 135 Shellabarger, supporter discussed day. stating 136 'Its require obligations imposed Self-evidently deem races. citizens' 'color law,' &c. wrongs, (I)ts expended defeating attempt, act. it.'41 137 Shellabarger impact wrongs.' 138 Lawrence, supporter, 139 declare determine, inalienable pertaining citizen, abridged constitutions 140 'Now, ways undertake prohibitory failure 141 naturalized inheriting, buying, holding, native-born penal enactments, denial justice.'42 142 Lawrence conceived referring status, state-imposed 143 quotes cites passages aid close support. 33, dialogue Loan, exchange went follows: 144 LOAN. Speaker, ask chairman committee Why committed? 145 WILSON, Iowa. grows Therefore punishment. 146 What inflict wrongs citizen? 147 making 148 abrogate instead inflicting penalties writs them? 150 Then directly? do.'43 151 interpretation places remarks, conceivable one.44 likely participants professed Loan abrogated officers, punishable. 152 reliance mention workers, masters, communities.' Ante, 427-428.45 (Footnotes omitted.) discussion supra 462, men's 'masters" consent reflected assaults whites. Windom,46 Texas 'pass system,' whipped abroad passes, Carolina insolence.47 allusion assaults, combinations communities, Lawrence.48 shortly preceded quoted, 468, followed comment authorize offenses, them, inquire destroyed fore aft Lawrence's receive sanction. 153 428, 40, Eldridge, 'individual wrong *.'50 discrimination,51 conclude cases' Eldridge 'cases discrimination.' 154 reference52 434, 'Representative enjoy' was: 155 vagrant sells community, sold, nominally Constitution, depend. Any combination chance labor. supporting vagrant, sold.'53 156 effectuated such, D. 157 foregoing thesis doubt, render untenable. Another, albeit tangible, direction. Many legislators shared individualistic ethic time, emphasized freedom54 distaste culminate laissez-faire.55 intrusion individual take enter transaction reflect bias. remembered uncommon South.56 accommodations,57 ride Philadelphia streetcars58 City.59 Only five accorded voting Negroes,60 allowed serve Massachusetts.61 Residential segregation pattern North.62 proposed.63 conceive transactions criticism feature. kind64 far. 158 sum, assurance probably envisioned official, community-sanctioned engaged recent regulations.65 Acts id., 21, 25, Adoption merit bringing line consistently desirable wide agreement major proponents, Congress.66 159 foregoing, think, amply demonstrates resolve according loosely worded strongest challenge history. sufficient interpreted, decides importance. contemporary aims doubted goals constitutionally Amendment,67 twice doubts. Hodges 203 16—18, 6, 8—9, 65; 330, 521. cf. 18. today entails resolution difficult issues. 160 apparent deciding alternative advanced them: route obstacles differs substantially F.2d, 40—45. 161 'hard' relieve duty it. Since, vote hear normally myself obligated rely. mature reflection, rare instances occurs hearing case's significance, difficulty presented, dismissing 162 occurrence 73. VIII provisions, 803 1969, petitioners, houses developers. Under damages developers able dispute means. seven months' presumptively Congress.68 circumstances, lost importance, wiser particularly unfortunate persist questionable sweeping, century-old acknowledges, 415, regulating relationships nature. coverage wisdom chose field, am loss understand or, proceed precipitate insecure strides. dissuaded circumstance amici curiae invested money anticipation merits, entitle seek.69 'merely defeated hearing,' Magnum Import company Coty, 262 159, 163, 531, 532, 922, 'for particular litigants,' Rice Sioux Memorial Cemetery, 74, 614, issues, settlement distinguished parties,' Layne Bowler Corporation Western Well Works, Inc., 261 387, 393, 422, 423, 712. avoid, possible, unusually fulfill expectations litigant us. 164 prior suggests dismissal unusual circumstances. privately owned cemetery suit breach bury decedent Winnebago Indian restricted burial privileges Caucasians. considering petition rehearing initial affirmance divided came cemeteries benefited 'pending litigation.' Frankfurter, speaking dismissed. 'evident difficulties,' 77, 618, '(h)ad assumed hardly instance.' 76—77, 618. substantial Rice. Compare 72—73, 615—616; Bell 226, 1814, 822. after, rather before, venture 'isolated significance,' comparison difficulties, 165 reasons, vindicate invoked award 'damages equitable providing 1343(4). cases, amount controversy $10,000. Cf. Douglas Jeannette, 319 157, 161, 880, 1324; Hague Industrial Organization, 496, 507—514, 527—532, 954, 960—963, 969—971, 1423. 255 F.Supp. 115. Reporter, 2nd 33. 389 968, 479, 459. Because unnecessary Equal Protection Contrast 804(a). 804(b). 804(c), (d), (e). 805. 806. exhaustively matters (see nn. supra), intimate ancillary situations 'property' employed 78, infra. 808—811. 813(a). requiring 'Hyde Park' Lot 7147, 'some lot subdivision accommodate selected requested disposing 7147 while litigation pending, permanent injunction future subdivision.' couched declaratory method fashioning remedy. See, N.O.R. Brotherhood Ry., etc., Clerks, 548, 568 570, 1034; Deckert Independence Corp., 311 282, 288, 233, 189; Republic Steel 362 482, 491—492, 884, 889—890, 903; Judge Case Borak, 377 432—435, 1555, 1559—1561, 423. Ex parte Young, 209 123, 441, 714; School Board, 218, 1226, 256. 812(c). 'suffered $50.00,' facts explain allegation. Upon receiving entitled, presumably price 1965—substantially less, concede, current question. uncompensated injury, whether, implied compensatory damages. Pacific R. Rigsby, 241 39—40, 484, 874; Steele Louisville N.R. Co., 323 192, 207, 234, 173; Wyandotte Transportation 191, 202, 204, 379, 385—387, 407. Hood, 327 678, 684, 773, 777, 939. 1988. event, complaint, punitive Philadelphia, Wilmington, Quigley, How. 213—214, Barry Edmunds, 550, 562—565, 501, 507—509, 729; Wills Trans World Airlines, 200 360, 367—368. view, awarded arising 803(b), 807. Hearings S. 1358, 2114, 2280 Banking dCurrency, 90th Cong., 1st Sess., 229. frequent Cong.Rec. 1387 (Feb. 1968), 1453 1641 26, 1788 1968). Hearings, 230. 129, 162—163, 251. 1026, 1318, 1359, 1362, 1462, H.R. 2516, 10805 Judiciary, 416. H 2807 (April 2808. 'would complicated scheme, administrative, judicial, effectuation potential effectiveness,' added, greater provides.' independently.' is, correct. assume change, substantive procedural, Borden 308 188, 198—199, 182, 181. 815 'Nothing title effective, grants, guarantees, any, litigation. General, development 1969; where, here, 11, law; 180-day period 810(b) 812(a). 897, dissent, post, unlike belatedly sustaining petitioner's merits. markedly U.S.App.D.C. 180, 233. 332 789, 100, 371. 831, invalidating ordinance "except written opposite inhabiting portion affected." 841, Two opinions dicta Virginia Rives, 313, 317—318, 667; 24—25, actually 641 1874 (derived currently 1443(1)) prosecution defendants, uncorrected 319—322. Georgia Rachel, 384 780, 797—804, 1783, 1792 1796, 925. 1875, 335, involve all. 43. chapter Enforcement May 114, 140, 144, codified 1977 1981 immaterial ended 'any notwithstanding.' phrase qualify 'like other,' emphasizing supremacy inconsistent any. deleted, surplusage, 1874. Several weeks (S. 60) (created 90, 507) (including Cong. Globe, 39th 209. Both Houses 688, 748, 775), failed 915—916, 943) recognition purchase' 'refused denied' 'custom law.' accompanying 59, 'abrogation easily activity armed ordinance.' tenBroek, 179 (1965 ed.). Bingham Ohio spoke duplicate territorial 1292. th dissent notes, 457, nobody premise encompassed vetoed. author remarked 'extend country,' basis, 'equal rights' territory former, 322, 'all abolished.' 323. provided: act, prescribed misdemeanor, conviction, exceeding thousand dollars, imprisonment year, both, discretion court.' added) evolution 242, Screws 325 91, 98—99, 1031, 1033 1034, 1495; 804, 1162, 267. Missouri Iowa, 'why (does) 1120, inquiring Specifically, asked: 'Why 2) committed?' reply revealing. If, violative short Congressman's query. mr. want laws' confine officials, oath-bound supreme allowing remedies—or perhaps preventive relief—against violators. Or abridgment interfered 1758, 1785. 30—31, reason, repeatedly 'reached punished' 1294 (emphasis added), 'done authority.' 458, (at) remark, charge 'exceedingly objectionable' singling civilized 500. 39, 474, 516—517, 602—603, 1123—1125, 1151—1153, substance codes operation, H.R.Exec.Dec. 118, Sess.; S.Exec.Dec. Fleming, Documentary History 273—312 (1906); E. McPherson, Political During Period 29—44 (1871); Morison Commager, Growth 17—18 (1950 ed.); K. Stampp, Era 79—81 (1965). supra. true, emphasizes, 460, 'could Union,' Negroes. 1761. observing (interfere) 476, 505, 600. nondiscriminatory States,' disagreed complained Congress' expand Union.' suggestion Page Act's future. insisted, 'be time.' Brock, Crisis (1963); Struggle Equality (1964); 75, 131—132. 95, 1833. 339—340, 1160, 1835. proceeded understanding mistreatment, 41, infra, illustrative evils Wisconsin, 'Gentlemen thereof. ask, submitted there, late cheerfulness grace expect? deprecate measures heretofore intend wrong. ill-treatment exceptional cases.' 1156. 'opponents minimized asserted' 'did contend (Civil Act) exist.' Report Schurz, S.Exec.Doc. 17—25. 40—42; 73—75. 23—24. 25. 177. proposals, sponsored 'laws, acts, rules, regulations' maintaining inequality immunities' 'color, slavery.' 39. Sumner struck destablishing oligarchical disinction race' required 'recognized 91. 46, seeks neutralize above free.' 462—463. fact, contention Saulsbury Delaware interfering subjects 42. responded That, 'and emphasis, avowed purpose. spent nullified else,' 'appropriate' effective. Part V 77. 129. 474. dissenting 458. 475. 599. add 'perform obligations.' 1758; Indiana, 602—603; 1117—1118. infer 460) refrained actively 'obligations' area, fulfilled. Senator's concern, 49, 'oppressed freedom' 'prevailing sentiment,' 'unless States) slaves.' Ohio: absolute, inherent, them.' Howard Michigan. 504. Pennsylvania, 500, Hendricks Indiana. 601. Delaware. 478. Van Winkle Virginia. 498. 603. 606—607. 1118—1119, 464—467. 1151. 1124. import diminished heated 1290 1294, portions 467—468, opposing kinds 1367. 15, concurred technical amendments 1413—1416. 1679—1681. Pennsylvania. 1781. Appendix, 183. expansive unchallenged expression press. Daily Intelligencer (Washington, D.C.), col. 1; Herald, 3; Cincinnati Commercial, 2; Evening Post (New York), 7, Indianapolis 1809, 1861. 'Never over-ridden issue, gratification feeling matter material interest, tariff, disinterested justice.' 144: 'And vindication, nine, eighteen hundred sixty-six, Mosley, 238 383, 387—388, 904, 905—906, 1355; 804—805, Flemming, 285—288 (1907); 171, 185, 198—204; G. Stephenson, Race Distinctions (1910). derived 667, asserted re-enactment Neither explained so, each dictum. unanimously upheld compel discharge debt. Clyatt 197 429, 726. 113, 318, 499, 507, 576, 600—601. 38th 1366, 2616, 2940-2941, 2962, 2986; 178—180, 195, 239, 241—242, 480—481, 529. 503. owner inn, conveyance amusement, accommodation' 'justly badge applicant.' 31. 'It running ground,' thought, guests entertain, coach cab car, admit concert theatre, intercourse business.' Harlan, dissented, expressing 'such practised corporations quasi-public functions imposition congress thirteenth amendment.' 43, 44. position issue—a academic II 1964, 243 258; Katzenbach McClung, 377, 290)—we proposition: authorizes outlaw forms vestiges society half free, 35, (dissenting opinion). 65, group terrorized working sawmill. terrorizers 5508) conspiring exercising employment, supra). provides, closely 1978), 'shall reversed conviction. 'one indicia existence, lack contracts.' 9. defendants victims, contract. 'no assault trespass appropriation reduce slavery,' enslaves someone Contra, Cruikshank, Fed.Cas. 14,897, Pages 707, 712 (dictum Bradley, circuit), aff'd, 542, 588; 324, 330—331. joined Day, dissented. 'entirely land.' 37, 17. far, 'towards neutralizing common theretofore enjoyment, essential appertain citizenship rested concept irrecon cilable incompatible Insofar overruled. 48, 62, Cong.Globe, 1118. collected volumes Catterall, Judicial Concerning Slavery (1926 1937). T. Cobb, Inquiry Slavery, XIV (1858); Ostrander, Man 1606—1861, 252 (1960); Stroud, Sketch Laws Relating 45—50 (1827); Wheeler, 190—191 (1837). Except Douglass, Color Line, Review, 1881, Life Writings 343—344 (1955). Kamper Department N.Y.2d 690, 291 N.Y.S.2d 914. O'Hanlon, Unions, Fortune, Jan. 170. concocted command Education legendary. Monroe Commissioners, 391 450, 1700, 733 (Tennessee 'free-transfer' plan); Green 430, 1689, 716 (Virginia school board 'freedom-of-choice' Raney 443, 1967, 727 (Arkansas Bradley 382 103, 224, 187 (allocation faculty allegedly basis); 256 (closing Price Edward County, tuition tax concessions attending schools); Goss 683, 1405, 632 rezoning transfer plan students race); Jefferson 372 aff'd en banc, 380 (C.A.5th Cir. 1967) ('freedom-of-choice' plans Fifth Circuit); Northcross 302 818 (C.A.6th 1962) pupil-assignment law); Parish Bush, 242 1957) (Louisiana Hall Helena 649 (D.C.E.D.La.1961), 368 515, 529, 521 closing extensive Danner, 191 394 (D.C.M.D.Ga.1961) (Georgia cutting off funds admitted university); Aaron McKinley, 173 944 (D.C.E.D.Ark.1959), sub nom. Faubus Aaron, 361 197, 291, 237 integrated districts); James Almond, 170 331 (D.C.E.D.Va.1959), schools). Rogers Paul, 198, 358, 265; Calhoun Latimer, 263, 1235, 288; Cooper 1401, 5. My HARLAN'S listing shows newly blacks. states, '(r)esidential North.' Post, 474-475. Certainly, 'customary.' suggest, room (post, 475, 65) product longstanding widespread customary pervert problem mind draw lines jurisprudence striving rejoin human emphasizes role continuing suburban complex 1,000 inhabitants. 801—819. 417, 21. 667. Statutes. 78—79, 149. dictum, 419, holding. finding Despite flies terms' identical 1982: '(C)ivil aggression, unsupported individual; invasion injured party, *; insome state, force, vindicated redress. may, fraud, interfere case; but, shield injure deletion notwithstanding' effect. 29. 39—42. ibid. 7. (1871). veto. 742, 775, 915 916, 943. specified denied, concurrent actions. exclusive expected affect 'officers' spite color' 476. 1758. 36—39 (1910); L.Litwack, Slavery: Free 1790 1860, 93—94 (1961). 1759. 1760. 339—340. prominence, 428-429, Carl Schurz South. figured relatively 473—475. 1119. 1152. 1153. 1291. 1293—1294. speech, briefly ('I ordinary violating Congress.'). 1294. 1832—1833. 1120. note, differed author. reliance, *,' misplaced version Shellabarger's found, 467 468. 1115—1124, 1151—1155. emphasis 433-434, evaporates conjunction Thayer's 466—467. Earlier vagrancy 1123—1124. eminent historian third 19th framework pioneer mores Morison, Oxford People 788 Parrington, Main Currents Thought 7—22 (1930). suggested effort radicals program reform favor smacked 'paternalism' 126—131 M. Konvitz Leskes, Century (1961); L. Litwack, 1790—1860 12—17; Maslow Robison, Legislation Fight Equality, 1862 1952, U.Chi.L.Rev. 363 (1953). Kronvitz 155—156; 1864—1865 Mass.Acts Resolves 650. platforms cars. 112. compelled 1864 officials separate, children. 121, 133—134, 136, 151; 185; N.Y.Laws 1883, Brooklyn ex rel. King Gallagher, N.Y. 438. 1900, finally repealed forbidden. 1900 N.Y.Laws, Vol. II, 1173. 91—92. Rhode Island, Maine, Hampshire, Vermont. 94. 168—170. 'Residential housing, despite states willing attack.' 236. 1953, 'Bills legislatures forbid religious 'multiple dwellings' (those families), seriously body.' 408. contrast, vehemently attacked, emphatic sponsors, types laws: intermarriage. 598, 600, 604, 606, 1121, 1157, 1263. argue, Flack, (1908); James, Framing 126—128, (1956); (4th ed. 1950); 136; 224 (1965); Warsoff, (1938). 504—505 (Senator Johnson); 1291—1293 (Representative Bingham). us,

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