Legal Document

494 U.S. 259 110 S.Ct. 1056 108 L.Ed.2d 222 UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.Rene Martin VERDUGO-URQUIDEZ. No. 88-1353. Argued Nov. 7, 1989. Decided Feb. 28, 1990. Rehearing Denied April 16, See 1092, 1839. Syllabus After the Government obtained an arrest warrant for respondent—a Mexican citizen and resident believed to be a leader of organization that smuggles narcotics into this country—he was apprehended by police transported here, where he arrested. Following his arrest, Drug Enforcement Administration agents, working with officials, searched residences seized certain documents. The District Court granted motion suppress evidence, concluding Fourth Amendment—which protects "the people" against unreasonable searches seizures—applied searches, DEA agents had failed justify searching premises without warrant. Appeals affirmed. Citing Reid v. Covert, 354 1, 77 1222, 1 1148—which held American citizens tried abroad United States military officials were entitled Fifth Sixth Amendment protections—the court concluded Constitution imposes substantive constraints on Federal Government, even when it operates abroad. Relying INS Lopez-Mendoza, 468 1032, 104 3479, 82 778—where majority assumed illegal aliens in have rights—the observed would odd acknowledge respondent trial-related rights guaranteed Amendments, but not protection. Held: does apply search seizure property owned nonresident alien located foreign country. Pp. 264-275. (a) If there constitutional violation case, occurred solely Mexico, since is fully accomplished at time governmental intrusion whether or evidence sought use criminal trial. Thus, functions differently from Amendment, whose privilege self-incrimination fundamental trial right defendants. P. 264. (b) phrase seems term art used select parts contrasts words "person" "accused" Articles Amendments regulating procedures. This suggests refers class persons who are part national community otherwise developed sufficient connection country considered community. 264-266. (c) Amendment's drafting history shows its purpose protect people arbitrary action their own restrain Government's actions outside territory. Nor any indication understood Framers' contemporaries activities directed territory international waters. 266-268. (d) view every provision applies wherever exercises power contrary Court's decisions Insular Cases, which all provisions activity territories has sovereign power. See, e.g., Balzac Porto Rico, 258 298, 42 343, 66 L.Ed. 627. Indeed, claim extraterritorial under speaks relatively universal "person"—has been emphatically rejected. Johnson Eisentrager, 339 763, 784, 70 936, 946, 94 1255. 268-269. (e) Respondent's reliance Reid, supra, misplaced, case stands only proposition stationed could invoke protection Amendments. Similarly, those cases determined enjoy establish receive such protections they come within of, substantial connections with, Plyler Doe, 457 202, 212, 102 2382, 2392, 72 786. Respondent, however, no previous significant voluntary States, legal involuntary presence here indicate Appeals' also that, did expressly address question whether, States. Even assuming aliens—who voluntarily presumably accepted some societal obligations—would protections, situation differs respondent, might place him among people." according differing than undermine respondent's treating violates equal component Amendment. 269-273. (f) rule deleterious consequences conducting beyond borders. law enforcement operations abroad, other operations—such as Armed Forces actions—which result "searches seizures." Under rule, attachment bring damages remedy claimed violations countries waters, Members Executive Legislative Branches plunged sea uncertainty what reasonable way seizures conducted Any restrictions incident must imposed political branches through diplomatic understanding, treaty, legislation. 273-275. 856 F.2d 1214 (CA9 1988), reversed. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, WHITE, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. J., filed concurring opinion, post, p. 275. STEVENS, judgment, 279. BRENNAN, dissenting MARSHALL, joined, BLACKMUN, 297. Lawrence S. Robbins petitioner. Michael Pancer, San Diego, Cal., respondent. Chief Justice REHNQUIST Court. presented We hold not. 2 Respondent Rene Verdugo-Urquidez Mexico. He Agency (DEA) one leaders large violent Mexico Based complaint charging various narcotics-related offenses, August 3, 1985. In January 1986, officers, after discussions marshals, Border Patrol station Calexico, California. There, marshals arrested eventually moved correctional center California, remains incarcerated pending 3 Terry Bowen, agent assigned Calexico office, decided arrange Verdugo-Urquidez's Mexicali Felipe. Bowen reveal related alleged trafficking involvement kidnaping torture-murder Special Agent Enrique Camarena Salazar (for subsequently convicted separate prosecution. Verdugo-Urquidez, CR-87-422-ER (CD 22, 1988)). telephoned Walter White, Assistant charge office City, asked seek authorization Director General Judicial Police (MFJP). several attempts reach high ranking White contacted General, authorized promised cooperation authorities. Thereafter, concert officers MFJP properties Felipe particular, residence uncovered tally sheet, believes reflects quantities marijuana smuggled 4 during applied A divided panel Ninth Circuit (1988). It cited decision 1148 (1957), authorities "[t]he federal government, abroad." F.2d, 1218. our 778 (1984), Justices rights, found "difficult conclude lacks these same protections." 1223. position reasoned "[i]t indeed due process fifth amendment, fair sixth . deny afforded fourth amendment." Id., 1224. Having properties, went decide violated because procure Although recognizing "an validity Mexico," deemed "substantial value country," reflect magistrate's determination existed probable cause define scope search. 1230. 5 judge argued statement Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 304, 318, 57 216, 220, 81 255 (1936), "[n]either nor laws passed pursuance force unless respect citizens," foreclosed rights. More broadly, viewed "compact" limited certiorari, 490 1019, 109 1741, 178 (1989). 6 Before analyzing we think note different manner issue case. Malloy Hogan, 378 84 1489, 12 653 (1964). conduct prior may ultimately impair right, occurs Kastigar 406 441, 453, 92 1653, 1661, 32 212 (1972). differently. prohibits "unreasonable seizures" trial, "fully accomplished" intrusion. Calandra, 414 338, 354, 613, 623, 38 561 (1974); Leon, 897, 906, 3405, 3411, 677 (1984). For purposes therefore, if violation, Whether should excluded remedial existence vel non violation. U.S., S.Ct., 623; 3411. 7 provides: "The secure persons, houses, papers, effects, seizures, shall violated, Warrants issue, upon cause, supported Oath affirmation, particularly describing searched, things seized." 8 That text, contrast extends Contrary suggestion amici curiae Framers "simply avoid [an] awkward rhetorical redundancy," Brief Civil Liberties Union et al. Amici Curiae 12, n. 4, employed Constitution. Preamble declares ordained established People States." Second keep bear Arms," Tenth provide powers retained reserved Const., Amdt. ("Congress make abridging peaceably assemble") (emphasis added); Art. I, § 2, cl. ("The House Representatives composed chosen second Year States") added). While textual exegesis means conclusive, protected First whom ex rel. Turner Williams, 194 279, 292, 24 719, 723, 48 979 (1904) (Excludable "[h]e become secured attempt enter forbidden law"). language procedure cases. 9 What know restrict domestic matters. originally include like National lacked seizures. C. Warren, Making 508-509 (1928); Federalist 84, 513 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961) (A. Hamilton); Annals Cong. 437 (1789) (statement J. Madison). Many disputed original possessed narrow delegated over affairs, felt prohibiting necessary. Madison, example, "there clause granting Congress necessary proper carrying execution vested States," general warrants "necessary" collecting revenue. 438. driving behind adoption suggested Madison's advocacy, widespread hostility former colonists issuance writs assistance empowering revenue suspected places goods, permitting private often uncover papers convict libel. Boyd 116 616, 625-626, 524, 529-30, 29 746 (1886). available historical data show, Government; never intended 10 There likewise Only seven years ratification French interference commercial vessels engaged neutral trade triggered came known "undeclared war" France. Act "protect Commerce States" 1798, President Adams "instruct commanders public armed are, service subdue, seize take vessel, jurisdictional limits elsewhere, seas." An Further Protect ch. 68, Stat. 578. naval consisted 45 vessels, so gave grant owners ships "special commissions," allow them license authority subduing, seizing capturing recapture goods effects have." 579; see 8, 11 (Congress letters marque reprisal). latter provision, 365 commissioned before March 1799, G. Allen, Our Naval War France 59 (1967); together, enactments resulted scores congressional authority. M. Palmer, Stoddert's War: Operations During Quasi-War France, 1798-1801, 235 (1987). Suspend Commercial Intercourse Between 613. Some liable unlawful authority, see, Little Barreme, Cranch 170, 177-178, 243 (1804); cf. Talbot Seeman, 31, 15 (1801) (seizure ship lawful captain believe vessel French), restrained this. global taken application 627 (1922) (Sixth jury inapplicable Puerto Rico); Ocampo 234 91, 34 712, 58 1231 (1914) (Fifth grand Philippines); Dorr 195 138, 808, 49 128 (jury Hawaii Mankichi, 190 197, 23 787, 47 1016 (1903) (provisions indictment Hawaii); Downes Bidwell, 182 244, 21 770, 1088 (1901) (Revenue Clauses Rico). Dorr, declared unincorporated territory—one clearly destined statehood—Congress required adopt "a system jury, not, legislation force, carry situated." 149, 813 "fundamental" inhabitants territories. 148, 812; Balzac, 312-313, 348; Examining Board Engineers, Architects Surveyors Flores de Otero, 426 572, 599, 30, 96 2264, 2280 65 (1976). true governed Congress, extend nations weaker. And certainly, open us light Cases endorse rejected 1255 (1950), enemy China imprisoned Germany World II obtain habeas corpus courts ground convictions war crimes provisions. Eisentrager acknowledged citizenry; accorded generous ascending scale increases identity society." 940. But rejection emphatic: 13 "Such organic innovation practice governments apprehended, scarcely excite contemporary comment. Not word can cited. No supports view. Cf. 244 [21 ]. None learned commentators hinted it. modern government opposed it." 947. 14 "person," seem more To support all-encompassing points plurality (1957). involved subject wives servicemen tribunals unconstitutional Uniform Code Military trials women capital crimes. Four "reject[ed] idea acts do free Bill Rights." 5, 1224 say: 16 entirely creature Its source. act accordance limitations When reaches out punish shield Rights life liberty stripped away just happens another land." 5-6, 1224-25 added; footnote omitted). 17 urges interpret discussion mean constrained whomever act. holding sweeping proposition: concurrences Frankfurter Harlan resolved much narrower grounds declined full range overseas prosecutions. id., 75, 1261 (Harlan, result) ("I agree my brother FRANKFURTER analogous, ultimately, issues process; say, fact, specific safeguards appropriately particular context reduced 'due' defendant circumstances case"). Since citizen, derive comfort holding. 18 relies series 211-212, 2391-92, 786 (1982) (illegal Equal Protection Clause); Kwong Hai Chew Colding, 344 590, 596, 73 472, 477, 97 576 (1953) (resident meaning Amendment); Bridges Wixon, 326 135, 1443, 1449, 89 2103 (1945) rights); Russian Volunteer Fleet 282 481, 51 229, 75 473 (1931) (Just Compensation Clause Wong Wing 163 228, 238, 977, 981, 41 140 (1896) Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 369, 1064, 1070, 30 220 (1886) (Fourteenth aliens). These cases, Plyler, 2392 (The Fourteenth " 'are application, territorial jurisdiction .' ") (quoting Wo, 1070); Chew, futile seeking admission first shores. once lawfully enters resides becomes invested borders") Bridges, 161, 1455 (concurring opinion) added)). avail 19 STEVENS' concurrence judgment takes though took nonetheless requirements "lawfully present brought will." Post, sort presence—lawful involuntary—is extent duration stay prolonged—by prison sentence, example—we need decide. house place, matter days. applicability turn fortuitous circumstance custodian owner made. 20 cannot fault placing gleaned below. Lopez-Mendoza exclusionary extended civil deportation proceedings; encompass grants certiorari while deciding antecedent propositions, compare, Maine Thiboutot, 448 100 2502, 555 (1980) (assuming State U.S.C. 1983), Will Michigan Dept. Police, 491 58, 2304, 105 (1989) (State "person"), assumptions—even issues—are binding future directly raise questions. 63, 2308, 4; Hagans Lavine, 415 528, 535, 1372, 1377, 39 577 (1974). statements therefore dispositive how squarely us. respondent's. obligations; contends treat somehow Graham Richardson, 403 365, 91 1848, 534 (1971), Foley Connelie, 435 291, 98 1067, 55 287 (1978), proposition. very previously claim. They citizens, based conclusion degree citizens. Mathews Diaz, 67, 79-80, 1883, 1891, 478 (1976) ("In exercise broad naturalization immigration, regularly makes rules unacceptable citizens"). 22 pointed accepting boundaries. adopted policy frequently employs country—over 200 times history—for security. Congressional Research Service, Instances Use Abroad, 1798-1989 (E. Collier 1989). Application significantly disrupt ability respond situations involving interest. Were prevail, well Bivens Six Unknown Narcotics Agents, 388, 1999, 619 (1971); Tennessee Garner, 471 1694, 85 (1985); Connor, 386, 1865, 443 Perhaps unavailable 'special factors counselling hesitation,' Chappell Wallace, 462 296, 103 2362, 2365, 76 586 (1983) Bivens, 396, 2005), still faced case-by-case adjudications concerning availability action. wholly activity, obviate problems attending aliens. sworn uphold Constitution, desire follow commands. plunge absent exigent circumstances, effect "search seizure" obtaining warrant—which dead letter States—from magistrate required, articulate facts giving undertake wished comply conceived Appeals. text history, discussing extraterritorially require At search, application. better worse, live world nation-states able "functio[n] effectively company nations." Perez Brownell, 356 44, 57, 78 568, 575, 603 (1958). violate borders regime quite obtains Situations threatening important interests arise half-way around globe, response force. occur action, 25 accordingly 26 Reversed. 27 concurring. 28 I reverse explanation views appropriate given difficulties depart respects join. care state person claiming alien, (1950). distinction between follows undoubted create, principles juridical relation undefined, limitless noncitizens note, absence depend ratified instrument formed Government. Though dispute assent irrelevant construction conferred As Story explained Commentaries: "A originate compact states, united, yet them, longer resting compact; executed constitution, law, mere league. difficulty asserting each state, states is, constitution itself contains expression, designation parties." Commentaries 335 (1833) (footnote 31 confined being immediate terms. somewhat similar reasons, weight reference source restricting protections. With respect, submit detract reach. Given Nation's concern warrantless explicit recognition interpreted underscore importance rather category assert observe depend, consequence, interpretation, inquiry mentioned correct, Covert sets forth, authorizes, domestic. 6, 1225. principle step resolving then standards acts, sphere operations. overruled either re Ross, 35 581 (1891), so-called (i.e., (1901); (1903); (1904); (1922)). authorities, stand legitimate made observation Covert: 33 "I always automatically applicable world. Ross proposition, me wise gloss course, 'does apply' overseas, necessarily place. words, basic teaching rigid abstract condition precedent exercising Americans guarantees conditions considerations adherence guarantee altogether impracticable anomalous." 74, 1260. requirement anomalous. Just implement "wholly dissimilar traditions institutions," home alien. little doubt apply. local judges magistrates warrants, perhaps unascertainable conceptions reasonableness privacy prevail cooperate reason, addition persuasive justifications stated continuing obligations, imply, decided, prosecuting Article III, proceedings All agree, instance, dictates Due Process defendant. put it, case." 1261. Nothing approaching 36 judgment. 37 "people" Rights, including surely will. join opinion.* submission approval "unreasonable" Warrant noncitizens' homes jurisdictions authorize searches. concur MARSHALL joins, dissenting. Today holds although nationals abide countries, investigates laws. respectfully dissent. 40 * Particularly past decade, sought, successfully, criminally committed nevertheless Foreign now drug laws,1 antitrust laws,2 securities laws,3 host statutes.4 enormous expansion boundaries led commentator suggest country's three largest exports "rock music, blue jeans, law." Grundman, New Imperialism: Extraterritorial Law, Int'l Law. 257, 257 (1980). Congress' criminalize conduct, Executive's investigate prosecute conduct. prescribes investigate, prosecute, noted 1224-25, (1957): Constitution." (Footnotes omitted.) ante, 277 (KENNEDY, concurring) ("[T]he domestic"). violated; 43 today creates antilogy: authorizes enforce travel them. be. least, unavoidable correlative law. A. 44 provides presentation oath affirmation demonstrating seized. According majority, community." Ante, 265. admits citizenry, leaves precise contours "sufficient connection" test unclear. point hints develop connections" 271. junctures, alien's voluntary5 "accepted obligations."6 273. points, implies States.7 266, 274-275. ignores, most obvious States: investigated prosecuted spend rest prison. supplied investigating attempting accountable laws, treated member enforcing become, literally, governed. Fundamental fairness ideals underlying compel impose "societal obligations," 273, obligation nationals, obliged 46 By disregards notions mutuality. expect obey will recognized mutuality Framers. James universally primary architect emphasized spoke Alien Sedition Acts less decade Amendment: "[I]t follow, parties whilst actually conform Aliens Constitution; owe, hand, temporary obedience, entitled, return, advantage." Report Virginia Resolutions (1800), reprinted Elliot's Debates 556 (2d 1836). Mutuality essential ensure underlies Rights. vulnerable oppressive behavior violations. claims conspiracy, codefendants, charged statutes facing penalties convicted. pursuant codefendants well. serves inculcate values order. respecting encourage Moreover, Nation increasingly concerned about crime, forget sends powerful message individuals everywhere. Brandeis warned Olmstead 438, 564, 944 (1928): 50 "If lawbreaker, breeds contempt law; invites man unto himself; anarchy. declare administration end justifies terrible retribution. Against pernicious doctrine, resolutely set face." 485, 575 (dissenting opinion). nationals. order, ourselves. Lawlessness lawlessness. 52 Finally, disregard values. years, world's foremost protector liberties. sanctity tenets moral, philosophical, judicial beliefs.8 interest defined preserve institutions. pride commitment cannot, whim, break down doors invade personal places. exhort example. How explain others—and ourselves—that long cherished suddenly consequence door broken belongs foreigner? 53 brushes aside central conscience. articulates refuses discuss interpretation rest. B 54 effort refusing these, majority's cramped applicability. looks 'the people' art." "textual conclusive." Ibid.9 One Member "cannot 276 concurring). restrictive people," counterpoint Government," Government." Jersey T.L.O., 469 325, 335, 733, 739, 83 720 (1985) spoken strictures restraints 'governmental action' "). governed." 56 both strove create form decidedly British heritage. Whereas Parliament unconstrained, powers. B. Bailyn, Ideological Origins Revolution Complete Anti-Federalist (H. Storing 1981). dangerously omnipotent. all, declaration 1688 enacted people, Parliament. 439 (M. Beloff 1987). vehemently attacked notion matters 'favor grace,' 187 John Dickinson). purport "create" Rather, designed prohibit infringing liberties presumed pre-existing. enumeration construed disparage others people"). new security violated. ." focus do, act, taken. Bestowing delineating groups inconsistent Drafters' conception limitation seeks govern. thus extremely unlikely majority. First, Drafters chose limit ways. "citizens," "freemen," "residents," conventions called ratify York Virginia, recommended amendment stating, "That freeman W. Cuddihy, Search andSei zure Great Britain Colonies, pt. 571, 129, 574, 134 instead provided broadly effects." Second, materials contain expressed Amendment.10 introduced floor Committee, debated Senate, submitted approval. Throughout entire process, speaker commentator, pro con, referred limitation. dealing procedural "not power." 268. purports read limiting none gives content analysis. shed nonenemy nation court—is 60 mischaracterizes having "rejected 269. Johnson, German engaging continued surrender Japan II. confer immunity punishment hostile 785, 947 wrote: 61 "It exposes relative vulnerability status. enjoyed allegiance amity greatly impaired up arms disabilities lays temporarily alienage." 771-772, 62 nationals' efforts soldiers. 63 (1922), (1914), (1904), (1903), inapposite. accused prosecutions courts. ago, 14, 1229 (plurality ("[I]t neither reasoning further expansion"), analytical prosecution court.11 C 64 apparently motivated fear "could interest." 273-274. doomsday scenario—that mission objective "would seizure," 274—is fanciful. him, 284, 287. Accepting governed," hardly requires accept wartime governed" supra. non-law-enforcement implicating security, doctrinal exceptions likely lessening purported tension affairs sensitive involve excused. Warden Hayden, 387 294, 87 1642, 1645-46, 782 (1967). Therefore, assessed standard, depends context. Montoya Hernandez, 531, 537, 3304, 3308, 381 ("What surrounding nature itself"). addition, "reasonable" unclear, Branch "plunge[d] uncertainty," 274, materially affairs. Doctrines official undue chill discretion. Butz Economou, 438 478, 2894, 895 (1978). offensive limited. Fed. 2005, (1971) (precluding suits hesitation"). concerns interfere traditional prerogative occasion constitutionality decides introduce ongoing investigation, fails get warrant, fruits 67 Because governs residences, properly suppressed warrant.12 BLACKMUN STEVENS lack searches.13 297 (BLACKMUN, dissenting); 279 (STEVENS, judgment). serve domestically, reason distinguish 68 assurance neutrality. Jackson 333 10, 13-14, 367, 436 (1948) (footnotes omitted): 69 grasped zealous denies usual inferences men draw evidence. consists requiring drawn detached judged officer competitive enterprise ferreting crime. assumption disinterested making reduce nullity leave people's discretion officers. reasonably yield officer, policeman agent." Welsh Wisconsin, 466 740, 748-749, 2091, 2096-2097, 80 732 (1984); Coolidge Hampshire, 443, 449, 2022, 2029, 564 (1971). defines inspecting Burger, 482 691, 703, 107 2636, 2644, 601 (1987); Marron 275 192, 196, 76, 231 (1927). served 71 ignored simply Rule Crim.Proc. 41(a). applies, excise failing Best 184 131, 138 (CA1 1950) ("Obviously, nullify simple expedient warrant"), cert. denied, 340 939, 480, 95 (1951). merely "authorize" function domestically: assures scope. unbridled home.14 III conducts territories, Absent consent, court. tell be, breath same. until 74 conclusion, echoed portions BRENNAN's dissent, characterized seizure. acting generally contact. relationship fundamentally residing am inclined ordinarily implicate paradigmatic sovereignty compelled obey. event, notes, (though involuntarily) occurred. renders noncitizen's "reasonable." procurement prosecution, consistently reasonable, cause. Neither addressed reliable basis record vacate remand proceedings. interesting comment aliens' entitlement resolve written enough permit proscribing manufacture, distribution, possession intent manufacture distribute controlled substances board U.S.C.App. 1903(h) (1982 ed., Supp. V) ("This section States"), possession, distribution substance importation, 959(c) (same), conspiracy Chua Han Mow 730 1308, 1311-1312 1984) (applying §§ 846 963 Malaysian Malaysia), 470 1031, 1403, 790 (1985). Sherman corporations, corporations least years. Aluminum Co. America, 148 416, 443-444 (CA2 1945). 10(b) Securities Exchange 1934, 78j(b), transactions stock registered listed exchange "detrimental investors." Schoenbaum Firstbrook, 405 200, 208 (CA2), rev'd rehearing grounds, 215 1968) (en banc), 395 1747, 219 (1969). 32(b) (violence individual aboard destruction "civil aircraft flight"); 111 (assaulting, resisting, impeding employees); 115 (influencing, impeding, retaliating injuring family member); 1114, 1117 (murder, attempted murder, murder 1201(a)(5) (kidnaping employees 1114); 1201(e) internationally person," offender "irrespective offense nationality victim offender"); 1203 (hostage taking national, States"); 1546 (fraud misuse visas, permits, immigration documents); 2331 (terrorist nationals); 1472(n) (aircraft piracy special States). numerous falling maritime includes "[a]ny 7(7). direct contact anyone anything Ford 273 593, 619-620, 539-540, 793 271, "voluntary" benefits 77, 1890, (1976), explicitly rejects individual's sustained qualify Furthermore, voluntariness sensible guaranteeing aliens, (holding education legally documented aliens), chooses others. discussion, implicitly Numerous lower courts, single contrary. Benitez-Mendez INS, 760 907 1985); Rodriguez, 532 834, 838 1976); Au Yi Lau 144 U.S.App.D.C. 147, 156, 445 217, 225, 404 864, 64, Yam Sang Kwai 133 372, 411 683, 686, 396 877, 90 135 express implied limitations, analysis "developed [our] community" regardless location Certainly nothing questions question, Conroy, 589 1258, 1264 (CA5), 444 831, 60, (1979); Rose, 570 1358, 1362 1978). warrantless, Mexicali, traced origins independence England Otis' impassioned argument 1761 assistance, allowed whenever wanted. Otis "[a] man's castle," Works 524 1850), "[t]hen child Independence born." 248 1856). unsupportable fact using respectively, 265-266. purposely "accused." recognizes, 264, intrusion, formally wrongdoing. ignores begun awkwardly: persons. forth involves 1798 1799. opinions two Supreme (1804), (1801), "never this," 268, deduces alive decisions, runs admonition truly "expressly address[es]." 272 (discussing (1984)). commander statute authorizing rendering superfluous. Ashwander TVA, 288, 347, 466, 483, 688 (1936) (Brandeis, Talbot, vessel's purely factual French. mentions "probable cause" suggesting informed Little, 179; 31-32 (declaring "where met capture, her, her examination adjudication courts"). last (1901), equally irrelevant. Downes, Rico "all Duties, Imposts Excises uniform throughout 1. 249, 772. Unlike Duties Clause, limitations. custody southern begin preparations residences. On night arrested, next morning p.m. team drove arrived dark. 1214, 1226 1988). approximately day custody. App. Pet. Cert. 101a. time, awaiting communications easily Magistrate. concurs "was 'unreasonable' Amendment." understand why instance remanding unreasonable. unconstitutionally scope, oral descriptions type documentary sought. 102a. demonstrated increased intrusiveness a.m., day. prepare contemporaneous inventories items receipts inform residents reviewed alternative required. agreed consideration Barring detailed review record, inappropriate reached contradicts findings KENNEDY protection, 278 country"). explains Reasonableness already adopting Department Army regulations "judicial warrant" intercept wire Regulation 190-53 ¶ 2-2(b) (1986). request meet probable-cause standard interceptions 2518(3). 2-2(b). interception communications, alone Nevertheless, order regulations, conceded "dead letter" country, plays vital indispensable role circumscribing

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