Legal Document

413 U.S. 266 93 Supreme Court Reporter 2535 37 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 596 Condrado ALMEIDA-SANCHEZ, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. Number 71—6278. Argued March 19, 28, 1973. Decided June 21, Syllabus Petitioner, a Mexican citizen and holder of valid work permit, challenges the constitutionality Border Patrol's warrantless search his automobile 25 air miles north border. The search, made without probable cause or consent, uncovered marihuana, which was used to convict petitioner federal crime. Government seeks justify on basis § 287(a)(3) Immigration Nationality Act, provides for searches automobiles other conveyances 'within reasonable distance from any external boundary States,' as authorized by regulations be promulgated Attorney General. General's regulation defines 'reasonable distance' 100 States.' Appeals upheld Act regulation. Held: petitioner's automobile, violated Fourth Amendment. Pp. 269—275. (a) cannot justified special rules applicable searches, lacking; nor can it analogy with administrative inspections, officers had no warrant reason believe that crossed border committed an offense, there consent petitioner. 269—272. (b) not functional equivalent thereof. 272—275. 452 Federal Reporter, 2nd 459, reversed. John Judge Cleary, San Diego, Cal., Philip Atlantic Lacovara, Washington, D.C., respondent. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion Court. 1 in this case, holding convicted having knowingly received, concealed facilitated transportation large quantity illegally imported marihuana violation 21 Code KF62 176a (1964 ed.). His sole contention appeal unconstitutional under Amendment that, rule Weeks versus States, 232 383, 34 341, 58 L.Ed. 652, should have been admitted evidence against him. 2 basic facts case are neither complicated disputed. stopped Patrol State Highway 78 California, car thoroughly searched. road is essentially east-west highway runs part its course through undeveloped region. At about point where meanders well east—but nowhere does reach border, at all points lies 80, major entirely within connects Southwest west coast. some when he stopped. It undenied warrant, kind stop subsequent search—not even suspicion' found sufficient street detention weapons Terry Ohio, 392 1, 88 1868, 20 889, Adams Williams, 407 143, 92 1921, 32 612. 3 conducts three types surveillance along inland roadways, asserted interest detecting illegal importation aliens. Permanent checkpoints maintained certain nodal intersections; temporary established time various places; finally, roving patrols such one searched car. In these operations, argued, agents acting Constitution they cars contain aliens, crossing. only justification extravagant license 287(a) (3) 66 Statutes-at-Large 233, 8 1357(a)(3), simply regulation, Regulations 287.1, 4 Ninth Circuit recognized 'border search,' but validity above-mentioned portion accompanying 461. We granted certiorari, 406 944, 2050, 331, consider search. 5 * No claim made, could be, constitutional previous decision involving automobile. settled, course, moving warrant. That narrow exception requirement first Carroll 267 132, 45 280, 69 543. approved Volstead providing contained alcoholic beverages. open presents situation 'where practicable secure because vehicle quickly moved out locality jurisdiction must sought.' Id., 153, S.Ct., 285. has followed line cases,1 doctrine declare field day police searching automobiles. Automobile search.2 As White wrote Chambers Maroney, 399 42, 51, 90 1975, 1981, 26 419: 'In enforcing Amendment's prohibition unreasonable seizures, insisted upon minimum permitted Constitution.' 6 seeking rationale thus understandably sidesteps cases. Instead, relies heavily cases dealing inspections. But fail support 7 Camara Municipal Court, 387 523, 87 1727, 18 930, held inspections enforce community health welfare less than particular dwellings were sites violations. 534—536, 538, 1733—1734, 1735. Yet inspector obtain either supported physical demographic characteristics areas Ibid. See also City Seattle, 541, 1737, 943. present conducted unfettered discretion members Patrol, who did warrant,3 cause, consent. embodied precisely evil saw 'discretion official field' circumscribed obtaining prior inspection. Camara, supra, U.S., 532—533, 1733. Two inspection relied equally inapposite. Colonnade Catering Corporation 397 72, 774, 60, Biswell, 311, 1593, 87, both commercial enterprises engaged businesses closely regulated licensed Government. Colonnade, stressed long history taxation manufacture sale liquor, 76—77, 776—777. noted pervasive system reporting imposed gun dealers, 312 n. 315—316, 1594, 1596. 9 A central difference between those businessmen federally accept burdens benefits their trade, whereas here business. businessman industry effect consents restrictions placed stated Biswell: 10 'It plain compliance Gun Control pose limited threats dealer's justifiable expectations privacy. When dealer chooses engage pervasively business license, so knowledge records, firearms ammunition will subject effective Each licensee annually furnished revised compilation ordinances describe obligations define inspector's authority. . left wonder purposes limits task.' 316, 11 Moreover, knew certainty premises fact utilized liquor guns. contrast, assurance individual proper scope scrutiny—that is, whatever much guilty commission offense. II 12 Since Court's decisions provide we statute purports authorize searched, clear, Congress Constitution. familiar principles adjudication, our duty construe statute, if possible, manner consistent Ashwander Tennessee Valley Authority, 297 288, 348, 56 466, 483, 80 688 (Brandeis, J., concurring). 13 undoubtedly power exclude aliens country. Chae Chan Ping 130 581, 603—604, 623, 628—629, 1068. doubt effectuated routine individuals cross borders. States: 'Travellers may crossing international national self protection reasonably requiring entering country identify himself entitled come in, belongings effects lawfully brought in.' 154, Boyd 116 616, 524, 29 746. 14 Whatever permissible intrusiveness might circumstances take place itself, equivalents well. For example, station near marking confluence two more roads extend searches. another passengers cargo airplane arriving St. Louis airport after nonstop flight Mexico would clearly search.4 15 patrol, California least border,5 wholly different sort. absence right free 'unreasonable seizures.' 16 enough argue, Government, problem deterring unlawful entry across expanses boundaries serious one. needs law enforcement stand constant tension Constitution's protections exercises power. predictability pressures counsels resolute loyalty safeguards. recall words Jackson, soon return Nuremberg Trials: 17 'These (Fourth rights), & N Dec. Decisions protest, mere second-class rights belong catalog indipensable freedoms. Among deprivations rights, none cowing population, crushing spirit putting terror every heart. Uncontrolled seizure most arsenal arbitrary government.' Brinegar 338 160, 180, 1302, 1313, 1879 (Jackson, dissenting). decided sat during period Nation confronted small magnitude—the Prohibition laws. resisted pressure expedience guarantee Chief Taft's distinguished interior, controls bar: 19 intolerable agent chance finding persons using highways inconvenience indignity Travellers in. country, use public highways, passage interruption unless known competent official, believing vehicles carrying contraband merchandise.' 153—154, Accordingly, judgment Reversed. 22 POWELL, concurring. 23 While join sufficiently establishes supports add concurring elaborate my views meaning context. all-too-familiar necessity reconciling legitimate need government constitutionally protected rights. There question seriousness legitimacy respect thousands immigration related Nor necessity, society, safeguarding seizures proscribed resolution issue raised possible due recognition interests, compatible Court.1 24 involved carried area generally proximate fairly said 'functional equivalent' involve propriety permanent removed equivalent. Nor, based ordinary sense specific concerning passengers.2 posed, rather, whether what conduct far purpose apprehending convincing showing numbers borders places points, often assisted smugglers, foot met transported destinations automobiles, checks feasible means them. would, impracticable maintain patrol many foot, checkpoints, person riding stowed alien Thus magnitude clear. An answer, obvious relevant Government's argument sustain circumstances. now axiomatic proscription seizures' read conjunction command 'no Warrants shall issue, cause.' Under cases, concept bear reasonableness though required. 27 Before deciding required, address threshold exist type case. ascertaining probable-cause context sort measurably 930 (1967), heavily. concerned nature housing code violations persuaded workable method periodic structures: 28 debate focused, agency's unavoidably appraisal conditions whole, each building.' 536, 1734. concluding general circumstances, took note 'long judicial acceptance,' methods vindicating preventing abating dangerous conditions, invasion privacy occasioned 'neither personal aimed discovery crime.' 537, 30 Roving regions likewise, consistently judiciary. impression uniformly sustained courts appeals whose jurisdictions include severe. See, e.g., Miranda, 426 283 (CA9 1970); Roa-Rodriguez 410 1206 (CA10 1969). above, alternative solution possible. 31 further argues resemble undertaken primarily rather prosecutorial purposes, function locate deport Brief 25. This assertion 3% apprehended prosecuted. low rate prosecution offers great solace innocent few prosecuted, serve differentiate class random 'fishing expeditions' prosecutions. possibility distinguish Camara. Despite 'aimed crime,' 1735, violators criminal penalties. 527 2, 1730. Of perhaps greater weight according concentration high, absolute terms proportion number legally present. conventional sense, incidental draw measure extraordinary responsibilities powers Finally, significantly, buildings. intrusive one's building. 'has home office.' 48, 1979 (1970). demonstrated, affected surely know, makes attempts smuggle into 33 factors—consistent approval, problem, modest intrusion searched—persuades me appropriate limiting adequate vehicular areas. III conclusion end inquiry, 'except carefully defined classes private property 'UNREASONABLE' UNLESS IT HAS BEEN AUTHORIzed warrant.' 528—529, Term clause reflects important policy determination: 'The 1731. expressed view last contemplate executive neutral disinterested magistrates. Their responsibility laws, investigate, prosecute. charged investigative judges utilize sensitive pursuing tasks.' District 297, 317, 2125, 2136, 752 (1972). Coolidge New Hampshire, 403 443, 481, 91 2022, 2046, 564 (1971); Chimel 395 752, 763—764, 89 2034, 2040—2041, 685 (1969). 35 To like presented several recognizing exceptions requirement. brief review illuminates considerations 889 (1968), policeman 'pat down' grounds taken taking armed dangerous. (for a) officer others nearby ..' 29, 1884. Nothing here. 36 60 (1970), (1972), relies, standards govern licenses guns, Biswell. 'When firearms, inspection.' 38 Biswell cover type. One merely travels hardly thought submitted exchange perquisite. 39 More E.g., 543 (1925); supra; supra. while allow principal 'it today correctly While, indicated satisfy possessing information follow very supporting relates activity renders irrelevant progeny. Quite simply, experience obviously nonmobile sections embracing roads. 40 None foregoing requirement, then, applies procedure affirmatively 943 (1967). reasons outlined ruled shown nonetheless required obtained unconsented approach requirement: 41 assessing demands creation justifies question, authority evidenced turn depends burden likely frustrate governmental behind search.' 42 533, 43 315, 2135. 44 distinguishable true building refused admission easily building, member opportunity permission inspect envisioned reconsideration 'the agency canvass area,' 532, 1733, necessarily passing just decision. distinctions constructed meaningful.' 36. papers before us demonstrates advance approval time.3 According incidence predictable, apparently planned predetermined schedule. 'frustrate entail inconvenience, alone never abrogating 321, 2139. 46 Although relatively unstructured (cf. id., 322, 2139), factors merit consideration: (i) frequency believed area; (ii) proximity border; (iii) extensiveness geographic area, including therein extent use,4 (iv) degree interference persons, account proposed duration, traffic relation area. 47 short, determination issued involves balancing interests delicate ought resolved Judiciary Executive. 48 'This invade party 49 novelty posed undermine importance determination. faced similarly unconventional focus 'less precise directed '(d)ifferent citizens.' 322—323, abandon commitment warrants whenever regard affected. 50 think rational kind. here, agree express 51 WHITE, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE, BLACKMUN, REHNQUIST join, dissenting. 52 Trial conviction Southern indictment charging petitioner, contrary ed.), concealed, approximately 161 pounds marihuana. He sentenced five years' imprisonment. appealed ground erroneously denied motion suppress allegedly seized 53 heard stipulated Officers Shaw Carrasco shortly midnight traveling Calexico, California-Mexico toward Blythe, California. Glamis, Calexico. 'about northsouth coming checkpoint.'2 Because commonly evade check marijuana smugglers.' On occasions 'but times,' 'maintain highway.' Pursuant practice 'they checking aliens.' Petitioner's identification revealed resident Mexicali, Mexico, permit States. Petitioner picked up Calexico way Blythe deliver it. intended Mexicali bus.3 advised bulletin sometimes themselves sitting upright back seat rest car, legs folded springs removed. looking rear discovered packages them arrest then additional substantial amounts. 54 evidence, denied, convicted. divided affirmed, 459 1971), relying Naturalization Service power, States.4 dissent reversal judgment. 55 protects people 'in houses, effects, magistrate cause. overriding nevertheless 'unreasonable' seizures; legality searching, enter since beginning. 746 (1886), much; 285, (1925), repeated 'Travelers undisputed Persons dutiable articles contraband. Conveyances same determine carry Neither, apparently, disputed fixed away centers operating from, near, These majority holds unreasonable, although Justice, uphold traditional sense. POWELL Amendment, expect readily issued. disagree him reaffirmed Cady Dombrowski, 433, 2523, 706, governing standard reasonableness, view, flexible 57 proceeding 'general seizures,' 20, (footnote omitted), weighed claimed citizen. 20—21, 1879—1880. "need search" balanced "against entails" quoting 534—535, 536 Terry, 1879. event, put Warren, 'question on-the-street encounter, security seizure.' 9, 1873 (emphasis added). Warrantless immediate surroundings deemed incident arrest, see (1969); suspected pat-down structure entire codes suspicion house law, issuable violation, nonconsenting owners. Also, Douglas, writing bars historic control suspicion, quality sold, solely collection excise tax.5 1968 authorization dealers. regulatory program establishments 59 particularly broad 'reasonableness' where, authorizing statutes challenged 'Congress design laws deems necessary meet evils hand,' 76, 777, congressional procedures played system. 315—317, 1596 1597. us, authorizes officers, States' access lands, 'for patrolling prevent least, represents considered requires '(u)ntil 1875 migration unrestricted.' Kleindienst Mandel, 408 753, 761, 2576, 2581, 683 National undoubted sweeping. 'That action legislative department, territory proposition do controversy. Jurisdiction over own independent nation. independence. If power.' 629, 1068 (1889). congress altogether prescribe declared enforced exclusively settled adjudications.' Lem Moon Sing 158 547, 967, 970, 1082 (1895). Fong Yue Ting 149 698, 711, 1016, 1021, 905 (1893); Yamataya Fisher, 189 86, 97—99, 611, 613—614, 721 (1903); ex rel. Turner 194 279, 289—290, 719, 722, 979 (1904); Oceanic Steam Navigation company Stranahan, 214 320, 335—336, 671, 674—675, 1013 (1909); Volpe Smith, 289 422, 425, 665, 667, 77 1298 (1933). 61 1875, given 'almost continuous attention problems excludability pattern increasing 761—762, 2581. multiplied addressed itself mechanisms. 1917, authorities board being Feb. 5, 16, 886. authority, substantially unchanged, incorporated 1225(a). 62 1946, represented '(i)n times desirable legal conferred law.' H.R.Rep.No.186, 79th Cong., 1st Sess., (1945). House Committee 'of legislation highly desirable,' ibid, counterpart Senate, S.Rep.No.632, (1945), '(t)here step direction.' result statutory Aug. 7, 865, 1952, 163, onto excluding dwellings, 287(a)(3), 233. 63 necessary, locations invalidate 1357(a)(3) face comported am quite unwilling do. 64 extensive. Canadian almost 4,000 length; Mexican, 2,000. Surveillance channels routes communication. regular infallible, physically impossible vast stretches crossings ports numerous recurring. hope intercepting entrants maintaining credible deterrent, essential borders, discover intercept filter attempt move random, spot traffic. 65 reports fiscal year 1972, operations located 39,000 deportable 30,000 entered port entry. represent nearly 10% throughout States.6 Section property. section. extended assure conveyance country; extensive Roa-Rodriquez 1969); Fumagalli 429 1011, 1970). Guided treat exterior zone, line, recurring itself. 67 Courts daily concern Mexican-American who, commands are, better vantage Potomac judge practicalities border-area statutes. 68 Circuit, circuits, recognizes stopped, identified, likewise subjected seems proposition. Away narcotics cause; portions capable concealing immigrant. court. checkpoint Imperial, boundary. truck entrant, odor detected discovered. contended trunk examined entrant absent person. court, composed Judges Merrill, Hufstedler, Byrne, rejected position, stating '(w)hat make clear omitted) person's Appellant confused graft justifying F.2d, 1013. Fernandez 321 (1963), Oceanside, 101 70 conducted, seized, statute. Service, noted, running years, there, dozen bordr Mexico.7 Appeal Fifth Tenth Circuits share Both void permits, permissible. 71 De Leon, 462 170 (CA5 1972), Leon driving leading Laredo, Texas, opened requested false bottom immediately noticed heroin seized. Wisdom, Godhold Roney, concluded that: 72 'Stopping ten reasonable. McDaniel, (463 129 1972)); Warner, Cir. 1971, 441 821; Marsh 1965, 344 §§ 1225, 1357; 482, 1581, 287.1 (1973); 23.1(d), 23.11 Once pursuant empowered vehicle, trunk, 171. 73 Similarly, 463 ensuing Goldberg, Wisdom Clark, careful out, however, still exercised 'Once frontier crossed, facts, border.' 133. appears years.8 74 similar views. Roa-Rodriquez, Relying speaking Breitenstein, initial proper.' 1208. However, determined occupants elsewhere, court examining contents jacket trunk. excluded. circuit, so.9 75 frontiers order aid So, also, best positioned intelligent sensible assessments requirements controlling entries reversed today.10 76 validly applied smugglers checkpoints. sometime midnight, town California; matter Given entry, likelihood prearranged reasonable, suggesting experience. law.11 affirm Appeals. 419; Dyke Taylor Implement Mfg. Co., 391 216, 1472, 538; Bringar 1879; Husty 282 694, 240, 629. '(n)either Carroll, require suggest conceivable circumstance auto extra affords.' 50, 1980. 458 464, 2033—2037, 564. Justices described POWELL'S opinion. With aircraft, 281.1 'any paragraph section.' Paragraph Commissioner approve 'because unusual circumstances.' occurred common route travel, 195 year. hand, telling how perfectly drivers trunks, hoods, seats accord nothing serves otherwise Solicitor states explicitly 'We position believe, checked, contains alien. Apart establishment operation record indicate examine car.' 9—10. why series days weeks. Experience considering applications renewal Depending designated tracks. Particularly uninhabited desert arid land traversed few, any, main afford opportunities—by virtue isolated character—for smuggling except oral stipulation App. 11—14. Complaint 12:15 a.m., 4, testified trial 'stopped 1:00.' Tr. Rec. 62. West Glamis prevailing direction east-west. parallel East proceeds sharply northeast miles. appears, 12, 13, informed initiating hence Title 1357(a) pertinent part: 'Any employee (Immigration Naturalization) prescribed General warrant— '(3) vessel territorial waters railway conveyance, twenty-five provides: '(a) (2) Reasonable distance. term distance,' section shorter district director, or, aircraft concerned, set aside Congress, inspectors force warrantless, nonprobable-cause dissent, joined Black Stewart, saying: 'I assume valid, forfeiture, prohibited imposing restraints apart sees violation; agree.' 78, 777. separate Black, emphasized ultimate test 79—81, 778—779. 398,000 officers; 39,243 one-third, 11,586, smugglers. 2,880 operations. Ninety-nine percent Mexico. Mienke 1076 Marin, 444 86 Duprez 435 1276 (1970); Sanchez-Mata, 1391 Avey, 428 1159 Elder, 425 1002 Valenzuela-Garcia 1170 Barba-Reyes Kelly 197 162 (1952). Bird, 456 1023, 1024 (1972); Ramirez 263 385, (1959); Haerr 240 535 (1957). Anderson, 468 1280 McCormick, Without exhaustive survey, constitutional. Only view. contend, Oral Arg. pass muster. invalidity

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