Legal Document

492 U.S. 257 109 S.Ct. 2909 106 L.Ed.2d 219 BROWNING-FERRIS INDUSTRIES OF VERMONT, INC., et al., Petitionersv.KELCO DISPOSAL, al. No. 88-556. Argued April 18, 1989. Decided June 26, Syllabus Respondents Joseph Kelley and Kelco Disposal, Inc., filed suit against petitioners (collectively BFI) in Federal District Court, charging BFI with antitrust violations interfering Kelco's contractual relations violation of Vermont tort law. A jury found liable on both counts, awarded Kelco, addition to $51,146 compensatory damages, $6 million punitive damages the state-law claim. Denying BFI's post-trial motions, Court upheld jury's award. The Appeals affirmed as liability holding that even if Eighth Amendment were applicable, not so disproportionate be constitutionally excessive. Held: 1. Excessive Fines Clause does apply awards cases between private parties; it constrain such an award when government neither has prosecuted action nor any right recover a share awarded. Pp. 262-276. (a) primary concern which drove Framers was potential for governmental abuse "prosecutorial" power, extent or purposes civil damages. Nothing English history suggests Bill Rights 1689, direct ancestor Amendment, intended disputes parties. 264-268. (b) use England amercements, including fact Magna Carta placed limits Crown's excessive is no basis concluding ability aimed at putting excesses royal are clearly inapposite case where party receives exemplary from another party, recovery. Any overlap criminal procedure time insignificant all indications courts never have understood Carta's amercements clauses relevant kind. 268-273. (c) language nature our constitutional framework make clear places steps may take individual. imposed through aegis serve advance interests punishment deterrence insufficient support applying Here, taken positive step punish, context, used extract large payments forfeiture purpose raising revenue disabling some 273-276. 2. Because failed raise before either question whether under Due Process Fourteenth this will consider effect due process 276-277. 3. common law provide disturbing In performing limited function federal appellate court, perceives common-law standard, compelling policy, convinces should accord considerable deference district court's decision order new trial. properly instructed applied proper standard considering verdict excessive, correctly held did its discretion. 277-280. 845 F.2d 404 (CA2 1988), affirmed. BLACKMUN, J., delivered opinion unanimous respect Parts I, III, IV, Part II, REHNQUIST, C.J., BRENNAN, WHITE, MARSHALL, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. concurring opinion, joined, post, p. 280. O'CONNOR, part dissenting part, STEVENS, 282. Andrew L. Frey, Washington, D.C., petitioners. H. Bartow Farr, respondents. Justice BLACKMUN Court. 1 We face here questions applies civil-jury and, so, particular case.1 This held, intimated, serves check power case. Rather, concerns been actions initiated by inflict punishment. Awards do implicate these concerns. therefore hold, 2 * These weighty arise unlikely source: waste-disposal business Burlington, Vt. Petitioner Browning-Ferris Industries Vermont, subsidiary petitioner Industries, Inc. (collectively, BFI), operates nationwide ommercial waste-collection disposal business. 1973 entered Burlington area trash-collection market, 1976 began offer roll-off collection services.2 Until 1980 sole provider services area; year respondent Kelley, who, since 1973, had local manager, went into himself, starting Within obtained nearly 40% 1982 market risen 43%. During reacted attempting drive out business, first offering buy then cutting prices more approximately six months. orders given office regional vice president clear: "Put [Kelley] Do whatever takes. Squish him like bug." App. 10. salesman also put told "it meant give stuff away, away." Ibid. 3 four months predatory campaign, revenues dropped 30%. attorney wrote legal department asserting pricing strategy illegal, threatened initiate court proceedings continued. respond, continued price-cutting policy several remained stable 1984, but 1985 captured 56% market. That same sold third left 4 brought United States alleging § Sherman Act attempts monopolize They claimed interfered Kelley's claims severed Kelco's, tried jury. After 6-day trial counts. 1-day followed, submitted evidence regarding profits lost result prices. urged return asking jurors "deliver message Houston [BFI's headquarters]." Id., 53. stressed total $1.3 billion previous year, noting figure broke down $25 week. appropriate, made argument amount. 5 could convincing conduct "revealed actual malice, outrageous conduct, constituted willful wanton reckless disregard plaintiff's rights." 81. It determining amount account "the character defendants, their financial standing, acts." raised objection charge returned federal-antitrust state-tort 6 moved judgment notwithstanding verdict, trial, remittitur. denied motions $153,438 treble $212,500 attorney's fees costs claim, or, alternative, $6,066,082.74 appealed. Second Circuit affir ed (1988). On issue noted showed "wilfully deliberately attempted market," indication prejudice bias. 410. Addressing issue, applicable "to nominally case," "so cruel, unusual, excessive," importance, we granted certiorari issue. 488 980, 527, 102 559 II 7 reads: "Excessive bail shall required, fines imposed, cruel unusual punishments inflicted." Although considered application Clause, interpreted entirety way Given addressed bail, fines, punishments, long primarily, perhaps exclusively, prosecutions punishments. See, e.g., Ex parte Watkins, Pet. 568, 573-574, 8 L.Ed. 786 (1833) ("The eighth amendmentis exercising jurisdiction"); Fong Yue Ting v. States, 149 698, 730, 13 1016, 1028, 37 905 (1893) (Amendment inapplicable deportation because crime); Ingraham Wright, 430 651, 664-668, 97 1401, 1408-1411, 51 711 (1977). "Bail, traditionally associated process, subjecting three parallel limitations text intention limit those entrusted criminal-law government." 664, S.Ct., 1408.3 To decide instant case, however, eed go far hold just cases. Whatever outer confines Clause's reach be, now only money receive otherwise, believe, would ignore illuminated history.4 9 received little debate First Congress, see Weems 217 349, 368, 30 544, 549, 54 793 (1910), less attention. surprising; least eight original ratified Constitution equivalent respective Declarations State Constitutions,5 matter likely source controversy extensive discussion. prohibition mentioned complaint unnecessary imprecise, U.S., 369, 550, Congress discuss what term "fines," context. absence Congress' meaning, think significant drafting ratification word "fine" mean payment sovereign offense.6 Then, now, assessed criminal, rather than civil, actions.7 10 But there inferential conclusion undisputed generally, specifically, confirm reading. adopted intent placing powers Government. "At ratification, criticized Massachusetts Virginia Conventions failure protection persons convicted crimes. criticism provided impetus inclusion Rights." 666, 1409 (footnote omitted). See generally Barron Mayor City Council Baltimore, 243, 250, 672 ("In almost every convention constitution adopted, amendments guard recommended"); 372, 551 (the "predominant political impulse" proponents "was distrust they insisted abuse"). Simply put, focus 11 Moreover, specific persuasive reading comes pedigree itself. As other cases, "based directly Art. 9, Declaration Rights," "adopted verbatim Solem Helm, 463 277, 285, n. 10, 103 3001, 3007, 77 637 (1983). Section states "excessive Bail ought imposed; Punishments Wm. & Mary, 2d Sess., ch. 2, Stat. Large 440, 441 (1689). recounted Ingraham, 1408: "The version, after accession William curb judges reign James II." reigns Stuarts King's heavy enemies, much Star Chamber done abolition 1641. Schwoerer, Rights, 91 (1981). 1680's "became partisan," opponents King forced remain prison pay huge monetary penaltie assessed. Ibid.8 group drew up 1689 firsthand experience; subjected bench. 91-92, 198. 12 aware took abuses led Rights.9 history, coupled accepted definition appears identical colonial America Rights,10 seems us limiting prosecutorial collect improper ends. Providing clearer view law, immediately prior enactment difference fines. Lord Townsend Hughes, Mod. 150, 86 Eng.Rep. 994 (C.P.1677). short, nothing Instead, by, payable to, government. B Petitioners, argue "derives penalties exacted punish deter misconduct." Brief Petitioners 17. recognize thus espouses view. find support, turn clock hundreds years further back Carta, "amercements." According petitioners, essentially forerunners Rights' view, must reaching beyond did. Punitive suggest, within scope modern-day analog 13th-century amercements. 14 somewhat intriguing, hesitate place great emphasis particulars practice, particularly interpretation adopt conflict lessons recent history. Even understanding development convince petitioners' seek. 15 Amercements Crown, required individuals who "in mercy," act offensive Crown. Those acts ranged today minor offenses, breach peace force arms, "civil" wrongs King, infringing "a final concord" court. e F. Pollock Maitland, History Law 519 (2d ed. 1905) (Pollock Maitland); 284, 8, 3006, (an amercement most sanction England"); W. McKechnie, 285-286 1958) (McKechnie) (discussing law). "all-purpose" penalty; plaintiffs follow complex rules pleading11 defendants tort, entire township live obligations, sheriff neglected his duties.12 widespread; one commentary said men expect amerced once year. Maitland 513.13 16 response frequent, occasionally abusive, included provisions circumstances person amerced, amercement.14 barons John agree sought reduce arbitrary revenue, weapon enemies Crown.15 ways: requiring genuine harm Crown; proportioned wrong; larg deprive livelihood; fixed one's peers, sworn amerce proportionate amount.16 17 commentators,17 agree. uncertainties surround compact signed Runnymede "tyrannical extortions, name oppressed people," T. Taswell-Langmead, Constitutional 83 (T. Plucknett 10th 1946), exercised oppressing opponents, unfair ways, use. Holdsworth, 214 (4th 1936). Cf. Halper, 490 435, 1892, 104 487 (1989) (Double Jeopardy Clause). 18 ultimately rely distinction cloudy (and nonexistent) Carta. amer ements kind, later time. Mod., 151, Eng.Rep., 994-995 (Magna cases). developed point decrease eliminate altogether, predicated theory somehow overstepped bounds. perceived error jury, determined reference common-law, constitutional, standards. Whether based reasoning bias prejudice, Wood Gunston, Sty. 466, 82 867 (K.B.1655); Leith Pope, Bl.W. 1327, 96 777 (C.P.1780), misconstrued evidence, Ash Ash, Comb. 357, 90 526 (1696), was, still is, behavior difficult understand how viewed lens compels read Amendment's documents themselves applied.18 C 19 Our expressly intend juries necessarily complete inquiry. jurisprudence inflexible. stated: "Time works changes, brings existence conditions purposes. Therefore principle vital capable wider mischief gave birth. true constitutions." 373, 551.19 aspect might strictly modern creation, without solid grounding pre-Revolutionary days. practice awarding excess compensation quantifiable injuries well recognized produced Amendment. double authorized statute date 13th century, Statute Gloucester, 1278, Edw. 5, 66 (treble waste); 522, doctrine early 1763.20 Despite recognition nature, include scope. earlier noted, points deal 20 Furthermore, prepared extend context apply, persuaded too afield animate clear, framework, individual, keeping prison, imposing sanctions, using ask take. While deterrence, among advanced fail requires Here obviously forfeitures individual.21 based, damages.22 III 21 review determine parties imposes disputed product passion, reached lacking basic elements fundamental fairness. claim unfair, biased blinded emotion prejudice. seek protections, size There authority opinions pursuant statutory scheme, see, St. Louis, I. M. S. R. Co. Williams, 251 63, 66-67, 40 71, 73, 64 139 (1919), precise presented here: undue discretion express limit. Bankers Life Casualty Crenshaw, 486 87, 108 1645, 1655, 100 62 (1988) (O'CONNOR, judgment). inquiry await day. Appeals, mention petition award.23 IV 22 Rather directing body merely repeat standards role excessiveness, substitute erred finding refusing grant motion, Rule Civil Procedure 59, Applying stand. 23 Review Court's involves state diversity action, lawsuit provides decision, propriety question, factors amount, law.24 control issues involving appeals. Donovan Penn Shipping Co., 429 648, 649-650, 835, 836-837, 112 (1977); 6A J. Moore, Lucas, G. Grotheer, Moore's Practice, ¶ 59.04[1] 1987). 24 reviewing set determine, remittitur ordered. appeals determination abuse-of-discretion standard.25 amici craft excessiveness relies notions proportionality makes similar matters state, federal, Adopting rule along lines suggest require federal-law issues. For obvious reasons decline invitation. 25 perceive continue trial.26 24, supra, denying remittitur, convinced consistent standards, light broad range permits V 26 sum, conclude Accordingly, 27 28 whom MARSHALL joins, concurring. 29 I join leaves door open constrains imposition ante, Several decisions indicate sets possible litigant, forbids "grossly Waters-Pierce Oil Texas, 212 86, 111, 220, 227, 53 417 (1909), severe oppressive wholly disproportioned offense unreasonable," (1919). Southwestern Telegraph Telephone Danaher, 238 482, 491, 35 886, 888, 59 1419 (1915); Missouri Pacific Humes, 115 512, 522-523, 110, 113-114, (1885). that, anything, scrutiny benefit legislature's deliberation guidance indulgent consideration fall limits. 31 Without (or common-law) appropriate largely making important, potentially devastating, decision. Indeed, sent room following terse instruction: "In . you Guidance scarcely better all. instruction itself error; indeed, correct statement rather, reveals deeper flaw: guided admonition best. " '[t]he touchstone individual government,' Daniels 474 327, 331, 662, 665, 88 662 (1986), quoting Wolff McDonnell, 418 539, 558, 94 2963, 2976, 41 935 (1974), look longer harder skeletal situated responsible officials deliberated agreed. 32 Since concludes Browning-Ferris' challenge us, leave fuller discussion 33 STEVENS part. 34 skyrocketing. recently decade ago, largest products $250,000. Owen, Damages Products Liability Litigation, 74 Mich.L.Rev. 1257, 1329-1332 (1976). then, times high sustained appeal. Ford Motor Durrill, 714 S.W.2d 329 (Tex.App.1986) ($10 million); Stubblefield, 171 Ga.App. 319 S.E.2d 470 (1984) ($8 Palmer A.H. Robins 684 P.2d 187 (Colo.1984) ($6.2 million). threat enormous detrimental research products. Some manufacturers prescription drugs, example, decided avoid uncertain introduce pill vaccine Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Amici Curiae 5-23. Similarly, designers airplanes motor vehicles abandon projects fear lawsuits can often lead P. Huber, Liability: Legal Revolution Its Consequences 152-171 trend toward multimillion dollar exemplified Browning-F rris (BFI), waste (Kelco). $51,000 (later trebled) over 117 suffered exceeds highest reported Coty Ramsey Associates, 451, 546 A.2d 196 (punitive $380,000 $187,500), cert. denied, 1236, 2903, 101 936 36 holds compelled supported precedent, respectfully dissent opinion. do, claims—either procedural substantive—are overturned BRENNAN's 280-282, forecloses method adhere my comments 86-89, 1654-1656, (opinion judgment), vagueness problems unbridled impose Before merits two preliminary addressed. First, Amendment? Second, corporation protected Clause? A. 38 404, 409 1988). Almost States. O'Neil 144 323, 332, 693, 697, 450 (1892). Pervear Commonwealth, Wall. 475, 608 (1867). O'Neil, ban Territory. Wilkerson Utah, 99 130, 345 (1879) (holding execution firing squad prohibited Amendment). Louisiana ex rel. Francis Resweber, 459, 462, 67 374, 375, 422 (1947), assumed, deciding, confusion created Wilkerson, eliminated Robinson California, 370 660, 666-667, 1417, 1420-1421, 758 (1962), albeit discussion, reversed conviction narcotics addiction constituting being repugnant Robinson, Cruel Unusual regularly notably capital sentencing addition, assumed Schilb Kuebel, 365, 92 479, 484, 502 (1971). reason distinguish incorporation, 39 words Chief Marshall, "an artificial being, nvisible, intangible, existing contemplation law." Dartmouth College Woodward, Wheat. 518, 636, 629 (1819). such, entitled 'purely personal' guarantees" whose 'historic function'. individuals." National Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 779, 14, 98 1407, 55 707 (1978). Thus, Fifth privilege self-incrimination, Wilson 221 361, 538, 771 (1911), privacy, Morton Salt 338 632, 70 401 (1950). hand, freedom speech, Pharmacy Bd. Citizens Consumer Council, 425 748, 1817, 48 346 (1976), cannot property compensation, Central Transportation New York City, 438 104, 2646, 57 631 unreasonable searches seizures, Marshall Barlow's, 436 307, 1816, 56 305 (1978), plead former jeopardy bar prosecution, Martin Linen Supply 564, 1349, 642 Helicopteros Nacionales de Colombia Hall, 466 408, 1868, 80 (1984), equal protection, Metropolitan Ins. Ward, 869, 105 1676, 84 751 (1985), guarantee corporations "depends purpose" guarantee. Boston, 14. penalties, unlike silent, something entity, reviewed 111-112, (1909). Louis If overbearing Clause. Whitney Stores, Summerford, 280 F.Supp. 406, 411 (SC) (three-judge court) (ENTERTAINING EIGHTH AMENDMENT CHALLENGE BY COrporation fiNE vIolation Sunday closing laws), summarily aff'd, 393 89 44, (1968). Language (1977), (1833), confined acknowledges, 262-263, 3, dispositive here. 42 disciplinary corporal public school. "text [Eighth] government," 1408, controlling. "is jurisdiction," Pet., dictum, jurisdiction entertain challenge, writ habeas corpus, upon defend nt: "[T]his revise sentences inferior cases; cannot, fine apparent record, reverse sentence." 574. sweeping statements Watkins. inconsistent Carlson Landon, 342 524, 544-546, 72 525, 536-537, 547 (1952) (immigration deportation). Salerno, 481 739, 754, 107 2095, 2105, 95 697 (1987) (recognizing case"). none precedents foreclose 43 thoroughly canvassed articles, Amendment: Application Cooley L.Rev. 667 (Boston); Massey, Damages: Lessons History, Vand.L.Rev. 1233 (Massey); Jeffries, Comment Constitutionality Damages, Va.L.Rev (1986) (Jeffries); Note, Under 85 1699 (Note). chronological antecedents demonstrates derives misconduct. aside, doubt deterrence—as present precisely evil exorbitant designed prevent. 44 story begins "early days justice, crime distinct." Jeffries 154. Saxon system pre-Norman England, victim wrong would, vengeance retaliation "blood-feud," accept injury wrongdoer. wrongdoer additional sum "on ground deed inflicts society general." 284-285 (1958) (McKechnie). 45 At Norman Conquest 1066, settling engaged Crown mercy" satisfy them. 285. 512-516 1899) Maitland). clemency, "amercement" representative, feudal lord. Tumey Ohio, 273 510, 47 437, 442, 71 749 (1927); Massey 1252-1253, 111. cf. Stringham, Carta: Fountainhead Freedom (1966) (a victim's family). originated "neither sanction." 1716. Blackstone, thought Commentaries *372 ("amercements misbehaviour right"). commentator "amercement commonly wrongfully bringing defending lawsuit." 1251. list meriting voluminous: t espass, false pleading, default, appear, economic wrongs, torts, Beecher's Case, Co.Rep. 58a, 59b-61b, 559, 564-567 (Ex. 1609). 46 arbitrarily, according officers "chose relax offender's goods." 154-155. 725. frequency sometimes abusive Chapter Hen. (1225), means livelihood: "A Free-man small fault, manner fault; fault greatness thereof, saving contenement; Merchant likewise, Merchandise; other's villain ours likewise wainage, he mercy. And amerciaments assessed, oath honest lawful vicinage. Earls Barons Peers, offence. No man Church quantity spiritual Benefice, Lay-tenement, offence" (numbers initially party's peers assembled accordance pay. McKechnie 288-289. Le Gras Bailiff Bishop Winchester, Y.B.Mich. pl. (C.P. 1316), reprinted 52 Publications Selden Society (1934), pleading vacated, bailiff ordered "take moderate magnitude offence." Granucci, "Nor Inflicted:" Original Meaning, Calif.L.Rev. 839, 845-846 (1969) (Granucci) (listing examples reduced aside). 49 very functions. century voluntary sums paid indefinite sentence displeasure. 517; 1261. operated imprisonment. Having fine, prison. "To imprisonment, 'make fine' 'voluntarily' contracting money, thereby ending matter. gradually wrongdoers effectively fine. Once voluntary, became amercement." 1715. 719-720. while not, equivalent, surprising two. 50 By 17th bargain replaced preferred penal sanction. ordinary usage. 293. nomenclature caused confusion. Griesley's 38a, 530 (C.P.1609) ("fine" constable analyzed "amercement"). Shakespeare, astute observer politics, plays late 16th century. Romeo Juliet, published 1597, Prince Escalus uses "amerce" interchangeably warning Montagues Capulets shed blood streets Verona: "I interest your hate's proceeding, My rude brawls doth lie a-bleeding; I'll strong repent loss mine." scene 1, 186-189. preeminence 1253. offenses Hampden's Tr. 1054, 1126 (K.B.1684), during Charles advantage newly acquired ruinous critics fled Glorious 1688-1689, House Commons, attempt end crisis precipitated vacation throne, appointed committee draft articles concerning essential laws liberties Orange. notes, II. pp. 30-33, 91-92 (1981) (Schwoerer). Articles Commons. Article Baile "only declaratory old *372. Schwoerer (excessive provision "reaffirmed ancient law"). Of course, predating contained "Since incorporated settings—as forms punishment, [Article 10's limitation fines] extends sanctions contexts." 1717. usage simply shorthand "whether judge proceedings." 1256. adoption Lords referring Earl Devonshire's 1367, 1372 (H.L. 1689) (ruling £ 30,000 striking exorbitant, Charta, subject, land"). argues concerned power. assumes exacts penalty. assumption, recalls historical accident mid-18th filled coffers barons. 58 1275, Westminster, allowed statute. 274. However, "[i]t prevalence diminished report entitlement." 1266. One allowing Wilkes Wood, Lofft. 18-19, 489, 498-499 (K.B.1763): "[A] received. satisfaction injured p rson, guilty, proceeding future, proof detestation itself." link gradual disappearance emergence 728-732. 994, (C.P.1677), cited 268, 272, Hughes decided, injury. Blount, Law-Dictionary (1670) (Blount) (unpaginated) (defining "damages" recompense Plaintiff Demandant hath suffered, Defendant Tenant") (emphasis added). involved slander, plaintiff sustained. entirely contain element whatsoever. stand proposition reasons, commentaries differentiating 265, 7, 270, 13. referred compensatory, punitive, nature. Introduction Curia Regis Rolls, 1199-1230 A.D., (C. Flower 1944) (damages "represented incurred litigant unlawful act") compensate plaintiff, society's displeasure act. Compensatory ensure sums, measure proportionality. 60 Rookes Barnard, [1964] A.C. 1129, 1221-1231, Devlin, them certain Rights. Ante, 273, 18. point, mistaken reliance lack citation Rookes. need cite documents, principles forth ingrained Holt, (1965) ("[I]t indeed justifiable lawyer compose general survey Carta"). Queen Asif, Cr.App.R. 123 (1985) (upholding 25,000 fraudulent evasion taxes); Farenden, (S) (finding 250 careless driving "too heavy" reducing 100). Devlin "used liberty. past seem me greater criminal. allow assessment prevent seeing restraint." A.C., 1227. suggested damages: "It [of Lords] necessary Exhortations enough." 1227-1228. 61 Consideration followed deciding confine benefits Self-Incrimination proceedings, turned attention proposals Mr. Smith South Carolina Livermore Hampshire, indefinite. Granucci 842; 368-369, 549-550, (1910). Exactly significance silence debate, compare, Tribe, Choices 42-44 with, Powell, Rules Originalists, 73 Va.L.Rev. 659, 671-672 (1987), address 1776, "There guaranteed privileges Englishmen." 285-286, Howard, Road Runnymede: Constitutionalism 205-207 (1968) (Howard). anything above, penalty Solem, fine"). thinks emphasizes enacted, 'fine' offense." 6. meaning ambiguous willing concede. defining "fine," 18th-century dictionaries paid. Sheridan, Dictionary (6th 1796) ("a mulct [or] pecuniary punishment"); Johnson, (7th 1785) punishment," "penalty," "money exemption liberty"). 19th-century dictionaries. C. Richardson, 796 (1839) ("any thing (as money) end, termination suit, prosecution"). broader 18th illustrated Body Liberties instituted proportionable defendant, accused person." B. Schwartz, Rights: Documentary 76 (1971) noteworthy entity. 714. 1646, General ruled Howard 401, 404. 63 finds 19th centuries, "fines actions." 7. Again, recitation complete. "fines" litigants proportional. 17th-century sources unequivocally linked proceedings. Blount "sometimes amends, recompence offence committed laws, Mannor") Nor American exclusively Supreme Judicial "forfeitures recoverable actions, inflicted Hanscomb Russell, Mass. 375 (1858). explained meanings" besides "inflicted exercise language, defined forfeiture, penalty, [etc.]" 374-375. Iowa say about fines: terms, loosely, confusedly. (perhaps always) collected form. 'forfeiture' loses rights property." Gosselink Campbell, 296, 300 (1856) Hence, around framing commentators believed encompassed penalties. D constitutes subject current usage, comprehends action. Black's 569 (5th 1979); Webster's Third International 852 Not buttressed precedents. "private levied juries." Electrical Workers Foust, 442 42, 48, 2121, 2125, 698 (1979) injury, aims law: 'to reprehensible future occurrence.' 1655 Restatement (Second) Torts 908(1) (1979). Their "runs counter normal reparative contract remedies." K. Redden, 2.1, (1980). abound Tull 412, 422, 1831, 1838, 365 (1987); Memphis Community School Stachura, 477 299, 306, 2537, 2542, 249 (1986); Silkwood Kerr-McGee Corp., 464 238, 260-261, 615, 627-628, 78 443 (BLACKMUN, dissenting); Wade, 461 30, 1625, 1641, 75 632 (1983) (REHNQUIST, Newport Fact Concerts, 453 247, 266-267, 2748, 2759-2760, 69 616 (1981); Gertz Robert Welch, 350, 2997, 3012, 789 (1974); Rosenbloom Metromedia, 403 29, 82, 1811, 1838-1839, 296 (MARSHALL, Lake Shore M.S.R. Prentice, 147 101, 107, 261, 263, .Ed. (1893). 65 plethora me, sufficient applicability penal, looked factors: (1) affirmative disability; (2) historically regarded punishment; (3) play scienter; (4) operation promote retribution deterrence; (5) already crime; (6) alternative it; (7) relation assigned. Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 168-169, 554, 567-568, 644 (1963). easy Mendoza-Martinez factors. Grass, Penal Dimensions Hastings L.Q. 241 (1985). changed mode inflicted, prosecution." Chouteau, 603, 611, 246 (1881). recently, fairly solely remedial purpose, serving retributive deterrent purposes, punishment." 448, 1902, evade teachings Choteau determines becomes entity seeking reap 275-276. disagree formalistic analysis. furthering Lugar Edmondson 457 922, 937, 2744, 2753-2754, 482 (1982). note relying heavily involvement purely suits, (despite 275-276, 21, open) recovered Fla.Stat. 768.73(2)(b) (60% State). know, depended vagaries (1885), insignificance administered recovered. Humes providing railroad's maintain fences cattle guards. violate id., said: 68 valid sufferer instead requirements coeval government; enforced, public, disposition amounts collected, legislative discretion." teaches identity recipient irrelevant consti utional validity From standpoint defendant sanction, hardly remaining "excessive" Using analysis, wealth matter, setting Navistar Corp. Amicus 9-25. fails substantive ceiling primer best goals deterrence. Just enact Herbert Spencer's Social Statics, Lochner York, 198 45, 75, 551, 937 (1905) (HOLMES, dissenting), incorporate views Economics School. "Constitution subscribe theory." CTS Dynamics America, 69, 92, 1637, 1652, (1987). weak indeed. destroy person's livelihood. Blackstone remarked "quantum, particular, can, ascertained invariable value changes thousand causes; events, ruin man's fortune, indifference another's." *371. Determining task. offers guidelines. 290-292, 3009-3011. Busher, 817 1409, 1415 (CA9 1987) (applying RICO). adapt manner. "substantial deference" judgments examine gravity defendant's harshness Third, compare different types jurisdictions conduct. identifying sanctions. term. F.2d, 410, sort remand could, instance, above violates grounds. "Roll-off usually performed industrial locations construction sites truck, compactor, container larger typical 'dumpster.' 406 controlling insights highly instructive. possibility 669, 37, 1411, 37. possibilities—persons mental juvenile institutions—do event, specifically 546, 537, (1952), suggesting implicated allowed" cases: prohibits bail. well. Bail, restraint personal liberty, proceeding. guards instances, protects assesses contexts. origins directed framers. always demonstrated derivation." 670-671, 39, 1412-1413, 39. emphasize, applied; indicates, approach relied Trop Dulles, 356 590, 598, 630 (plurality opinion) draw evolving decency mark progress maturing society"). Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, prohibiting 235 (Virginia), 272 (Pennsylvania), 278 (Delaware), 282 (Maryland), 287 (North Carolina), (Georgia), 343 (Massachusetts), 379 (New Hampshire) "fine signifieth percuniarie offence, contempt king." E. Coke, Institutes *126b. second edition Cunningham's Law-Dictionary, 1771, offences" "amends, manor." Cunningham, Complete (unpaginated). Tomlins, 796-799 (1836) (same); Bouvier, 525 1852) (same). come forward argument, drafted ratified, Cunningham follows: Common inquire of, bring in, passeth plaintiff: [Damages] comprehend demandant tenant." supra; 498 360 dichotomy clear. refer partial (1858); (1856). dissent's Bard, 290, observe: Though Knew time, He foremost poet, search rhyme. examples, 1683 Trial Thomas Pilkington, others, Riot, 187, 1684 Sir Samuel Barnardiston, 1333. Story departments national government, warn violent Stuarts." Story, 624 4th 1873). discussed nn. hold. "damages," Treatise Laws Customs Realm Commonly called Glanvill 127-128 (G. Hall 1965) (written 1187-1189); 465 1944). Defendants justices occasion arose." 466. wide variety parties, Rep. 59b-60a, Eng. 564-565 1609); Select Pleas (A.D. 1200-1225), 4, 5-6, 7-8, 9-10, 13, 43-44, (F. 1888); Society, 464-467. 467; County Gloucester: A.D. 1221, xxxiii 1884) (Pleas Gloucester); Society. discussing detail, 522-525; 473-479, confidently same. rare, 523, usual relief relief. "[t]he known. crown ineptitude course; latter represented [the litigant]." 463. occur Assize Novel Disseisin, recovery land chattels, 156; 44-56, 523-524. amerciable disseisin peace, possession another's property. 44. Along lines, 478-479 comparison seldom remitted, good king liked own careful show mercy expense wronged subject"). falls (1769), confirmed, (1297), 131-132. 278; Smith, 129, 131 (1955). large, 287; 513, meant, theoretically, estate hands, forfeit. 463; 71-72 (one service mercy, forfeiture). resembled form taxation, townships. Gloucester xxxiv. pledge yet amerced. session men, offender (two enough) 'affeer' each pay; 513; indicates "jury" So, awarded, Devlin's restrictions above. 1221-1231. fact, alterations departure traditional 1226. countries heritage Rookes, substantial interference. Uren Fairfax Sons, [1967] A.L.R. 25, (Australia) (declining ); Bahner Marwest Hotel D.L.R.3d 322, (Canada) Fogg McKnight, [1968] N.Z.L.R. 330, 333 Zealand) Weems, McKenna conti ued writing Court: "[Constitutions] ephemeral enactments, meet passing occasions. are, 'designed immortality human institutions it.' care events bad tendencies prophecy made. constitution, therefore, be. deficient efficacy converted precedent impotent lifeless formulas. declared reality." 551. Among explicit Huckle Money, Wils. 205, 768 (K.B.1763), refused aside compensated 20. Upholding "exemplary damages," laid tort; vague uncertain, depending vast causes, facts, circumstances," declined "intermeddle" determination. "[I]t glaring mankind blush induce damages." 206-207, 768-769. Another stated clarity: "Damages person, (K.B.). Other approach. Roe Hawkes, Lev. 97, 316 (K.B.1663); Grey Grant, 252, 253, 794, 795 (K.B.1764); Benson Frederick, Burr. 1846, 1130 (K.B.1766). (1989), Double Government punished process. Halper implies concerns, materially one, exacting whereas party. "precludes filing previously prosecution protections triggered litigation parties." 1903 qui tam shares 11, 1903, 11. today, answer otherwise antecedent briefed individuals. "clear intendment" throughout shows violated argued arguments. assume nonconstitutional includes stretch cover advance, Braniff Airways, Nebraska Equalization Assessment, 347 598-599, 757, 762-763, 967 (1954), arguments judgment. Revere Hospital, 239, 244, 6, 2979, 2983, 605 (1983); Dandridge 397 471, 475-476, 1153, 1156-1157, 491 (1970). record inquiry, enlargement" analysis track closely Appeals. jurisdictions. standing. 1862, "long settled state." Nye Merriam, 438, 446. supports acted Appropriate Technology Palma, 146 643, 647, 508 724, 726 "malice wantonness shown act," Rogers Bigelow, 41, 49, 417, 420 (1916). grossly manifestly Glidden Skinner, 142 644, 458 1142, 1145 Pezzano Bonneau, 133 88, 661 Allard Credit 162, 164, 940, 942 'the him.' Lent untoon, 143 1162, 1170 (1983), Kidder Bacon, 274, 324 (1902). apparently Vermont; awards, State. ($380,000 damages), Seventh allows denial motion instances Neese Southern 350 77, 131, (1955) (even assuming justified reversing facts case); Grunenthal Long Island 156, 158, 309 course operate strictures result, reluctant stray interfere

Classification Label: 7