Legal Document

128 S. Ct. 2531 (2008) SPRINT COMMUNICATIONS CO., L. P., et al., Petitioners, v. APCC SERVICES, INC., al. No. 07-552. Supreme Court of United States. Argued April 21, 2008. Decided June 23, *2533 Carter G. Phillips, Washington, DC, for petitioners. Roy T. Englert, Jr., respondents. Thomas C. Goldstein, Patricia A. Millett, Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld, LLP, D.C., David P. Murray, Randdy J. Branitsky, Willkie Farr Gallagher Petitioner Sprint Counsel Record, W. Carpenter, Sidley Austin Wayne Watts, AT&T Inc., Senior Executive Vice President General Counsel, San Antonio, TX, AT&T. Donald Russell, Damon Taaffe, Robbins, Orseck, Untereiner Sauber Michael Ward, Ward P.C., Rolling Meadows, IL, Respondents. Justice BREYER delivered the opinion Court. The question before us is whether an assignee a legal claim money owed has standing to pursue that in federal court, even when promised remit proceeds litigation assignor. Because history and precedent make clear such long been permitted bring suit, we conclude does have standing. *2534 I When payphone customer makes long-distance call with access code or 1-800 number issued by communications carrier, pays carrier (which completes call), but not operator connects first place). In these circumstances, required compensate customer's call. See 47 U.S.C. § 226; CFR 64.1300 (2007). can sue court any compensation fails pay "dial-around" calls. And many done so. Global Crossing Telecommunications, Inc. Metrophones 550 U.S. ___, 127 1513, 167 Ed. 2d 422 (2007) (finding Communications Act 1934 authorizes suits). expensive, because evidentiary demands single suit are often great, resulting monetary recovery small, operators assign their dial-around claims billing collection firms called "aggregators" so that, effect, aggregators on behalf. Brief Respondents 3. Typically, individual aggregator collects from different operators; promises relevant (i.e., assignor claim) recovered; then pursues through settlement negotiations; paid fee this service. present involves group who taken assignments approximately 1,400 operators. Each signed Assignment Power Attorney Agreement (Agreement) which "assigns, transfers sets over [the aggregator] purposes all rights, title interest [payphone operator] operator's] claims, causes action `Dial-Around Compensation' ... due periods since October 1, 1997." App. Pet. Cert. 114a. also "appoints" as operator's "true lawful attorney-in-fact." Ibid. provides will litigate "in interest." Id., at 115a. further stipulates assignment "may be revoked without written consent [aggregator]." separately agreed would its services (typically via quarterly charge). After signing agreements, (respondents here) filed lawsuits seeking Sprint, AT T, other carriers (petitioners here). T moved dismiss arguing lack under Article III Constitution. District initially dismiss, Servs., Corp., 254 F. Supp. 135, 140-141 (DC 2003), changed mind light "long line cases treatises recognize well-established principle assignees entitled where [as here] transfer absolute claims." 281 41, 45 2003). consolidating similar cases, divided panel Appeals Columbia Circuit *2535 sue, held statutes do create private right action. Co., 418 F.3d 1238 (2005) (per curiam). This granted aggregators' petition certiorari latter statutory question, vacated judgment, remanded case reconsideration Crossing, supra. Services, 2094, 811 On remand, affirmed orders allowing go forward. 489 1249, 1250 asked consider question. We certiorari, now affirm. II begin most basic doctrinal principles: III, 2, Constitution restricts "judicial Power" resolution "Cases" "Controversies." That case-or-controversy requirement satisfied only plaintiff See, e.g., Daimler-Chrysler Corp. Cuno, 547 332, 126 1854, 164 589 (2006). order standing, must adequately establish: (1) injury fact "concrete particularized" invasion "legally protected interest"); (2) causation "`fairly trace[able]'" connection between alleged conduct defendant); (3) redressability it "`likely'" "merely `speculative'" plaintiff's remedied relief seeks bringing suit). Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 555, 560-561, 112 2130, 119 351 (1992) (calling "irreducible constitutional minimum" requirements). some sense, clearly meet requirements. They base upon concrete particularized "injury fact," namely, carriers' failure compensation. "caused" injury. "redress"  if suits successful, what they owe. argue, however, was (who plaintiffs), were "injured fact" operators, aggregators, whose injuries victory truly "redress": after all, Petitioners 18. Thus, whether, assignor's owed. said tradition offer meaningful guide types empowers courts consider. Steel Co. Citizens Better Environment, 523 83, 102, 118 1003, 140 210 (1998) ("We always requirement] mean controversies sort traditionally amenable to, resolved by, judicial process" (emphasis added)); GTE Sylvania, Consumers Union States, 445 375, 382, 100 1194, 63 467 (1980) ("The purpose limit business questions presented adversary context form historically viewed capable added internal quotation marks omitted)); cf. Coleman Miller, 307 433, 460, 59 972, 83 1385 (1939) (opinion Frankfurter, J.) (in crafting *2536 "the framers gave merely outlines them familiar operations English system manifestations side ocean Union"). Consequently, here carefully examined how treated assignors assignees. discovered us: Assignees claim, including collection, suit. A historical answer least reasons change. find no here, accordingly minor concession. Prior 17th century, law authorized like one. But because, limited exceptions, refused all. Lampet's Case, 10 Rep. 46b, 48a, 77 Eng. 994, 997 (K.B.1612) (stating "no possibility, right, title, nor thing action, shall assigned strangers" (footnote Penson Highbed's 4 Leo. 99, 74 756 (K.B. 1590) (refusing contract); see 9 Corbin Contracts 47.3, p. 134 (rev. ed.2007) (noting King excepted rule could, result, receive assignments). Courts strictly adhered "chose action" property immediately reducible possession (which, time, came include financial debt, money, contractual right) simply "could transferred another person strict rules ancient common law." 2 Blackstone, Commentaries *442. To permit transfer, feared, lead "multiplying contentions suits," supra, Rep., 997, promote "maintenance," i.e., officious intermeddling litigation, Holdsworth, History Treatment Choses Action Common Law, 33 Harv. L.Rev. 1006-1009 (1920). As century began, anti-assignment seemed inconsistent growing commercial needs. commerce trade expanded, began liberalize prevented choses Corbin, (suggesting "pragmatic necessities trade" induced "evolution law"); 1021-1022 (the "common law" "induced" change "considerations mercantile convenience necessity"); Ames, Lectures Legal 214 (1913) "objection maintenance" yielded modern spirit"). By beginning 18th routinely recognized equitable (but legal) interests chose action: equity had title. effectively allowed either equitable, title) legal, title). more specific, beneficial his own name. might, require party bind him whatever judgment reached. Warmstrey Tanfield, 1 Ch. 29, 21 498 (1628-1629); Fashion Atwood, Cas. 36, 22 835 (1688); Peters Soame, *2537 Vern. 428, 428-429, 23 874 (Ch. 1701); Squib Wyn, Wms. 378, 381, 24 432, 433 1717); Lord Carteret Paschal, 3 197, 199, 1028, 1029 1733); Row Dawson, Ves. sen. 331, 332-333, 27 1064, 1064-1065 1749). M. Smith, Law Assignment: Creation Transfer 131 (by "it became settled validity both debts things regarded action"). law, meanwhile, nonetheless obtain "power attorney" holder assignor, name Cook, Alienability Action, 29 816, 822 (1916) ("[C]ommon lawyers able, device `power attorney'... enable proceedings suing assignor"); R. Lord, Williston 74.2, pp. 214-215 (4th ed.2003). Compare, Barrow Gray, Cro. Eliz. 551, 78 797 (Q.B.1653), South Marsh's 234, 654 (Exch.1686) (limiting use power attorney debt), 1021 abandoned limitation end century). At same he away interest. circumstances precisely retained Winch Keeley, T.R. 619, 99 1284 (K.B.1787) (allowing bankrupt debtor benefit possessed though upshot time Blackstone published volume 1766, could "ancient prohibition assigning "nicety disregarded." B practice States largely mirrored England. half throughout 19th American regularly "exercised powers favor assignee," equity. 137. McCullum Coxe, Dall. 139, 72 (Pa.1785) (protecting debt against collusive assignor); Dennie Chapman, Root 113, 115 (Conn.Super.1789) (assignee nonnegotiable note original promisee administrator"); Andrews Beecker, Johns. 411, 411-412, n. (N.Y.Sup. 1800) ("Courts are, justice, bound protect rights assignees, much equity, may still brought Riddle Mandeville, 5 Cranch 322, 114 (1809) (assignees promissory notes equity). Indeed, 11 Judiciary 1789 specifically take "cognizance recover contents favour assignee" jurisdiction lie himself Stat. 79. *2538 1816, Story, writing unanimous Court, summarized follows: "Courts following respect notice exert themselves afford every support protection." Welch Wheat. 233, 236, He "disregarded rigid strictness action," noted "now substantially valid, preserving, certain commenced assignor." 237, It bears noting, founding (and well then) did name, law. Va. Large XXXIV (W. Hening ed. 1823) (reprinted 1969) (Act Oct. 1705) (permitting "assign bond bill person" providing asignee executors administrators virtue commence prosecute names"); May 28, 1715, XXVIII, Gen. Laws Penn. 60 (J. Dunlop 1849) "bonds, specialties, notes" authorizing persons, whom bonds, specialties notes, assigned" "commence his, her, actions Patent 1793, ch. 11, 4, 322 ("[I]t inventor, executor administrator invention, anytime, thereafter stand place responsibility"). C specific here: give back During state level less formalistic merger generously permitting pass assignee, adoption "real interest" 6A Wright, Kane, Federal Practice Procedure 1541, 320-321 (2d ed.1990) (hereinafter Wright Miller); pre-existing nothing than naked Since increasingly should alike respect. rather abolish basis alone, instead extended assignee. Clark Hutchins, Real Party Interest, 34 Yale L.J. 259, 264-265 (1925) changes "naked title" during entertained virtually identical individuals *2539 only, collect turn those secured litigation. Webb Hepp Morgan, McClung 14 Mo. 431 (1851) (holding note, "creates interest, thereby become persons sue"); Meeker Claghorn, 44 N.Y. 349, 350, 353 (1871) cause "`expected amount recovered action,'" "legal claim," real Searing Berry, 58 Iowa 20, 24, N.W. 708, 709 (1882) (where enabling enforce collection" plaintiff-assignee "prosecute judgment"); Grant Heverin, Cal. 263, 265, 19 493 (1888) lacked bond, adopting "account assignor" "a part proceeds" "is account whole (internal McDaniel Pressler, Wash. 636, 638, 637, 209, (1892) "for notes"); Wines Rio Grande W.R. Utah 228, 235, 1042, 1044, 1045 (1893) based "simply sue" "would deducting assignors'] proportion expenses suit"); Gomer Stockdale, Colo. 489, 492, 39 355, 357, 356 (1895) noting doctrine "prevails Colorado" "although there annexed condition sum collected assignor"). Appendix, infra (collecting numerous approving collection). Of course, dissent rightly period assignee-for-collection suits, otherwise equivocated matter. post, 2555-2556. 1876, distinguished procedure scholar John Norton Pomeroy declared "settled great preponderance authority, although conflict" "entitled name" whenever vests notwithstanding "any contemporaneous, collateral agreement thus [to assignor] proceeds." Remedies Remedial Rights 132, 159 omitted emphasis added). Other contemporary scholars reached conclusion. Bliss, Treatise Pleading 51, 69 1887) "[m]ost negotiable paper indorsed, *2540 assigned, concern defendant made" giving examples added)). 264 ("many, probably most, jurisdictions" "an Even Ferguson's California Review Comment cites argument about divergent practice" among courts, 2556 recognizes "[a] majority Comment, Interest Rule Revitalized: Recognizing Defendant's Determination Proper Parties Plaintiff, 55 1452, 1475 (1967) added); id., 1476, "[t]he few wavered ended up camp majority" period, similarly indicated approval only. Bradford Jenks, 1132, 1134 (No. 1,769) (CC Ill. 1840) plaintiff, receiver bank, bank sued bank's receiver, ultimately holding diversity jurisdiction); Orr Lacy, 18 834 10,589) Mich. 1847) (affirming endorsee exchange, ground endorsee, right" turned endorser); Murdock Emma Graham, 17 1012, 1013 9,940) SD Ohio 1878) "float barge" when, "under assignment," creditors litigation); Rupert City, 213 266-267 (W.D.Wash.1914) maritime vest[s] [an] entitle sue"). ago properly For example, Waite Santa Cruz, 184 302, 327, 46 552 (1902), municipal bonds coupons vested only." 324, 327. decision, hear amount-in-controversy bondholders coupon holders individually. 328-329, However, reaching holding, expressly stated "if objection invested collection." 325, Next, Spiller Atchison, S.F.R. 253 117, 40 466, 64 810 (1920), large cattle shippers secretary Cattle Raiser's Association) reparation railroads charged excessive rates. *2541 passing reversed. wrote shippers' "assignments form" "plainly" "vest[ed] Spiller." 134, 466. conceded "beneficial Spiller. "this necessary award owners Spiller's alone sufficient allow aggregated assignors. Similarly, Titus Wallick, 306 282, 557, 653 (1939), unanimously (under New York law) "dominion suit" purported "`sell, assign, set over' 289, 557. More importantly purposes, assignment's effect curtailed recital accounted another." clear, suggest Court's decisions Waite, Spiller, conclusively resolve us. cite additional powerful proposition seen "amenable" process. U.S., 1003. Finally, considerable, recent authority showing court. Miller 1545, 346-348 considered result "federal holds according governing substantive action"); 6 Am.Jur.2d, Assignments 184, 262-263 (1999) ("An security within meaning her she consideration" omitted)). Rosenblum Dingfelder, 111 F.2d 406, 407 (C.A.2 1940); Staggers Otto Gerdau 359 292, 294 1966); Dixie Portland Flour Mills, Feed Seed 382 830, 833 (C.A.6 1967); Klamath-Lake Pharmaceutical Assn. Klamath Medical Serv. Bur., 701 1276, 1282 (C.A.9 1983). D precedents found ways suit; issue, strong collection. "well nigh *2542 conclusive" issue Lawsuits "cases process." Vermont Agency Natural Resources ex rel. Stevens, 529 765, 777-778, 120 1858, 146 836 (2000) omitted). offered convincing reason why depart event, satisfy requirements articulated suffered "do suffice operators' injuries." is, true originally suffer caused carriers; did. lock, stock, barrel. F.3d, 1243 (there believe anything complete aggregator" claim); 114a (Agreement each over" "all claims). past decade injuries. Agency, qui tam relator possesses False Claims Act, remedy (fraud) party, suffered. possess "effect[s] partial Government's damages claim" "United States' suffices confer relator]." 773, 774, 1858. quite unequivocally assert next argue cannot successful petitioners misconstrue nature our inquiry. inquiry focuses, should, alleges likely redressed intends recovers. 771, 1858 (to demonstrate redressability, show "substantial likelihood requested Lujan, 561, 2130 favorable decision" Here, unquestionably redress relate prevail write check *2543 What matter afterward? donate charity, build new corporate headquarters. Moreover, statements prior made need consistent authorities context, might disagree authorities. provided good reconsider them. argues analysis wrong," "[w]e never approved federal-court entire run Never." Post, 2551 ROBERTS, J.). entertain parties directly Trustees trusts; guardians ad litem wards; receivers receiverships; bankruptcy estates; testator forth. dissent's view seriously, work sea extent trustees, litem, "obligation" vindicate 2552-2553, here. obligation (And somehow violate obligation, say, agreeing settle providers exchange kickback providers, able breach contract.) conceptual argument. point "personal stake" III. Baker Carr, 369 186, 204, 82 691, 7 663 (1962). add actually case, litigation's outcome. problem general (injury fact, causation) flip sides coin. descriptions effort assure, controversy, "that adverseness sharpens presentation issues depends illumination." Massachusetts EPA, 549 1438, 1453, 248 ("At bottom, gist personal stake outcome controversy assure adverseness" Courts, two centuries, appear brings lawsuit. grounds contrary purely functional argument, well. Read whole, constitute contract services. think overstated. There important distinction *2544 hiring lawyer (on lawyer's promise proceeds). confers attach); former not. practical matter, particularly unwise abandon resolving Were agree easily overcome. rewritten tiny portion itself, perhaps dollar two. Or "Dial-Around Compensation Trust" trustee (perhaps aggregator) behalf trust. Accordingly, far sensible course abide IV deny prudential reasons. Elk Grove Unified School Dist. Newdow, 542 124 2301, 98 (2004) (prudential "embodies judicially self-imposed limits exercise jurisdiction" First, invoke limitations imposed sought third parties. Warth Seldin, 490, 501, 95 2197, 343 (1975) (expressing "reluctance rests parties"); Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Development 429 252, 97 50 450 (1977) ("In ordinary denied persons"); Secretary State Md. Joseph H. Munson 947, 955, 104 2839, 81 786 (1984) (a ordinarily "`cannot rest parties'"). These third-party point. plaintiffs seek others. Warth, 499, 2197 (plaintiff "generally interests, parties" Kowalski Tesmer, 543 125, 125 564, 160 519 (lawyers defendants deprived appointed counsel appeal); Powers Ohio, 499 400, 1364, 113 411 (1991) criminal juror discriminated race); Craig Boren, 190, 451, 397 (1976) beer vendors prospective male customers aged who, unlike females ages, barred purchasing beer). "rights, us, own. words, asserting first-party, third-party, rights. none cited *2545 involve purport overturn longstanding claim. Second, represents circumvent Civil 23's class-action understand "circumvention" denying one thing, class permissive, mandatory. importantly, several methods aggregation multiple situated get forum. 20(a) joinder plaintiffs); 42 consolidation related district court); 28 1407 (authorizing pretrial districts); 1404 (making possible pending consolidated D. Herr, Annotated Manual Complex Litigation 20.12, 279 "[r]elated district" 1404(a)); Tidmarsh Trangsrud, Adversary System 473-524 (section "Transfer Devices Aggregate Cases Single Venue"). permits means, method another. various problems arise suing. particular, say comply discovery requests served them, honor judgments bring, counterclaims 46-48. assuming so, arise. Regardless, helpless face problems. can, appropriate, compel produce discovery-related information necessary. Fed. Rules Civ. Proc. 26(b)(1), 30-31, 33-36. grant motion join "required" 19. file complaint 14(a). ask Commission administrative solutions remaining Cf. 276(b)(1)(A) FCC "prescribe regulations" "ensure service fairly compensated completed [dial-around] call"). calls procedural device. mention explain obvious propose, denial allegation bad faith. well, purposes. *2546 V affirmed. ordered. APPENDIX Examples References "Pomeroy's rule" references statement forth Pomeroy, (1876). 1. 2. Castner Sumner Minn. 44, 47-48 (1858) proper plaintiffs, regardless arrangement "can raise defect appears Plaintiffs preclude being enforced, subjected risk subject-matter" Cottle Cole, 20 481, 485-486 (1866) possibility "beneficially interested decision establishes rule, viz.: instrument agent trustee, liable recovery"); 4. Allen Brown, 231, 234 (1870) Hunt, Comm'r) "[e]ven make"); 5. Earl, 6. Hays Hathorn, 486, 490 (1878) paper, acts "equitable trustee" maintains paper); 7. 8. Haysler Mo.App. 531, 536 (holding, "recognized state," accounts "with [be][he]ld solely litigation]," *2547 maintained 9. 264, endorsing Pomeroy's correct explication 10. Young Hudson, 106, 12 S.W. 632, 633 (1889) merchandise sold, remitted "[a]n arising out contract, passed collection"); 11. Jackson Hamm, 58, 61, 88, 88-89 (1890) name," someone else); 12. Saulsbury Corwin, 373, 376 "had note" theory "[o]ne name"); 13. Anderson Reardon, 185, 48 777 (1891) "understanding" "amount already rendered, rendered" "already demand enough time," "[i]t receives 14. 15. Minnesota Thresher Mfg. Heipler, 49 395, 396, 52 (upholding plaintiff-assignee's "held demand" "there [assignor] took [assignment] 16. (adopting 17. Greig Riordan, 316, 323, 913, 916 collection," stating [a] knowledge saving expense associations others resort method" repeating "[i]n becomes recover"); *2548 Cox's Executors Crockett 92 50, 57, S.E. 840, 843 adverse res judicata person, residue, 20. Sroufe Soto Bros. Ariz. 10, 12, 43 221 (1896) maintain only" "holders accounts"); 21. Ingham Weed, Unreported Cases, 645, 649, 318, 320 (1897) outcome, "agents citing "to effect," contemporaneous agreement" proceeds"); 22. Citizens' Bank Corkings, S.D. 614, 615, 616, 70 1059, 1060, rev'd grounds, 98, "took formal terms, understanding company thereof "rule verbal assignment, vesting apparent unaffected respecting 23. Chase Dodge, Wis. 70, 73, 86 548, (1901) York's "holds existence implied understanding" concerning 24. Roth Continental Wire 94 262-264, 68 594, 602 (1902) Missouri adopted trial err excluding evidence only); 25. Manley Park, Kan. 402, 75 558 (1904) (overruling 26. Eagle Mining Improvement Lund, N.M. 417, 420-422, 949, 950 (1908) note); 27. Harrison Pearcy Coleman, 174 Ky. 485, 488, 487, 192 513, 514-515 *2549 (1917) note"). 28. James Lederer-Strauss 32 Wyo. 377, 233 137, 139 ("By weight thereon statute name"). Chief SCALIA, THOMAS, ALITO join, dissenting. concludes litigant despite having "pass litigation," 9, depriving reaches conclusion, flat contravention interpreting reference best, equivocal. contradict sense tell difference something nothing. gain Under principles requires dismissal complaint.[1] confines actual recently reaffirmed, "[n]o fundamental judiciary's role government controversies." DaimlerChrysler 341, (2006) (quoting Raines Byrd, 521 811, 818, 117 2312, 138 849 (1997); Unlike political branches, elected people, derive review, necessity carrying function deciding cases." 340, 1854. `as necessity,'" sure 468 737, 752, 3315, 556 Chicago Grand Trunk Wellman, 143 339, 345, 36 176 (1892)). "If dispute it, expounding doing so." Given importance assuring court's merits insisted compliance th[e] jurisdictional requirement." Raines, 819, 2312. until today, lacking direct, courts. 573, [the] Lance Coffman, 1196, *2550 "directly tangibly benefits him" 574, 2130; added; Larson Valente, 456 244, 15, 102 1673, (1982) (Article "will relieve discrete himself" Art. exists complaining party" years, elaborated terms three-part test traceable challenged decision. 102-103, (1998). articulated, same: `personally tangible way intervention.'" 103, 5, 1003 508, 2197; An acquired bare today unprecedented. (2000), it. recognizing dispense essential suit." 772, relator's bounty establish represented "partial encompassing recovery. "relator lawsuit," addition retain recovery." respondents tied way. payphones telephone lines operated clients, 198, measure awarded settlement. received willingness assume remitting assignors, arrangement. 114a; share collected. absence means "When you got nothing, lose." Bob Dylan, Like Stone, Highway 61 Revisited (Columbia Records 1965). sure, doubtless just agencies, *2551 willing threat clients' `byproduct' itself rise cognizable purposes." goodwill verdict, ability clients byproduct current Such 107, costs investigating prosecuting Diamond Charles, 476 54, 106 1697, 90 (1986) (an recovering attorney's fees underlying claim). undeniable consequence today's longer Instead, replaced completely impersonal exact opposite marketable commodity. severing anyone second, third, on. But, "commutative." 352, fungible commodities. source mistake easy identify. goes awry asserts focuses redressed, party's redressed. ante, 2542-2543. wrong. Never. commits treating elements separate strands interlocking meant ensure stake. Our condone approach. rejected argued "suing States." dismissed hand, party." 771-772, Agency; Although section concerned injury, axiomatic redound relator. imposition civil penalties "payable Treasury," plaintiff. observed "not remediation injury," "vindication Importantly, "[r]elief bootstrap into court; very *2552 essence Again, rejecting majority's incompatible 849. Members Congress contest constitutionality Line Item Veto Act. Congressmen personally entitled." 821, Rather, ran office, person. retire tomorrow, claim; successor instead. claimed runs sense) Member's seat, seat Member constituents, prerogative power." therefore `personal stake' dispute" challenge. 506, (denying record devoid indication" "relief petitioners"); Simon Eastern Welfare Organization, 426 26, 39, 42, 96 1917, "stand profit "purely speculative" respondents' receiving hospital desire" finds "[w]hat afterward?" Ante, 2543. assertion implies, incorrectly, have, ever had, choice independent pledge another, hypothetical "original owner signs charity obligating herself penny recovers divest direct disposition recovery; sue. chooses contrast, secure charity. She sue; sees fit. situation, satisfied.[2] believes principles, embodying "core component *2553 derived Constitution," Allen, 751, "particular ensuring respects democratic society," "crucial maintaining tripartite allocation 1854 omitted), yield "as matter" prospect "holding overcome," 2544. elevate expediency above strictures tradeoff allow. 820, 2312 ("[W]e put aside natural urge proceed `settle' sake efficiency"). Perhaps "dollar two," 2544, worth dollar. ease precedents; adhere this, understandable opts minimize reliance retreat broad, generalized reading assignments. lies identifying tradition. Much generic undisputed) eventually claims. 2535-2539. treat stare decisis, historic King's Bench Chancery. says particular aspect case: recovery, precise sources nonexistent None common-law relies *2554 discussion systems 2536-2537. times, remained subject champerty maintenance. 535-536 (1926).[3] constituted maintenance per se, 536, open "[b]are [r]igh[t] [l]itigate" fail "[s]avouring" maintenance, 321 sustain incident subsidiary. 321-322; Prosser Edmonds, Y. Exch. 196 (1835); Dickinson Burrell, 35 Beav. 257, 894 (1866); Equity Jurisprudence 1040h, 234-235 (8th 1861); Megarry Baker, Snell's Principles (25th ed.1960). understood "valuable property." Traer Clews, 528, 541, 155, (1885). surveying sources, concluded performance defendants' agreement, amounts undertaken former's exclusively." Williams Boyle, Misc. 364, 367, N.Y.S. 720, 722 (Ct. Pleas 1892). held, assignee's prosecution susceptible enjoyment him...." So while doubt protecting exclusion age-long least, severed *2555 incidental subsidiary itself. 538 till classes freely assignable distinguish not; little times").[4] supplies concedes, "courts here." 2538. granting starting point, recitation 19th-century deep divergence regarding concedes "some 2539, refusal widespread acknowledges. Robbins Deverill, 142 (1865); Bostwick Bryant, Ind. 448, 16 N.E. 378 (1888); Moses Ingram, Ala. 483, So. 374 (1893); Brown Ginn, 66 St. 123 (1902); Coombs Harford, Me. 426, (1904); Martin Mask, 158 N.C. 436, (1912). Several enlisted majority, taking positions issue. unsettled Kansas reversed twice span years. Compare Krapp Eldridge, 372 (1885) interest), Stewart Price, 191, 67 553 sue), 557 again). flinty posed Hoagland Van Etten, Neb. 462, 755 (1888), overruled Archer Musick, 147 1018, 25 N.W.2d 908 (1947); Freebourn Merchants' Credit Serv., Mont. 76, P.2d 337 (1937), Rae Cameron, 159, 1060 (1941). survey ignores substantial period. "entertai[n] us." reality, *2556 hotly contested live spawned diverse decisions. confusion remarked sided prevailing practice. ("There states almost universal provision, prosecuted Compton Atwell, 207 (C.A.D.C. 1953) ("[W]hether produced variance opinion" "has courts"). Commentators attention obligated name." (1876) Ferguson, ("Nowhere manifest Note, 51 587, 588 (1953) (observing "[t]here [real interest] provisions" construed prevent suing"). notable commentators Kerr, 586, 791-792 (1919) ("[T]he `real interest' benefited injured .... restricted affected decree"). conflicting affairs given transformation immediate creation provisions intended reconcile forms actions. 231 provision "abolishe[d] equity"); 2538-2539. fusion forced confront novel enforce. system, suit? surprising provide answer. difficult characterize "traditionally process," added), self-conscious break relied unbroken informer 14th prevailed *2557 "period framing Constitution." 776, Colonies "pass[ed] First "enacted considerable statutes." Framers 1787 "case" "controversy" mean. "[j]udicial come play matters traditional Westminster arose expert feel `Cases' `Controversies'").[5] certainly comparable belated innovations mid- late-19th-century too late insight sometimes looked postdating era traditions, self-consciously confronted tradition, later divergent. equivocal fill where, plainly lacking. Nor 2540. (If believed expect placed front center analysis, afterthought.) addressed constitutes binding precedent. 91, ("[D]rive-by rulings precedential effect"); Lewis Casey, 518 343, 116 S.Ct. 2174,135 L.Ed.2d 606 (1996) repeatedly unaddressed defects effect"). then-existing "improperly collusively joined... creating removable act." individually requirement. "suit court," 2540, assignment; instead, joined," *2558 Raisers' Association, reparations Interstate Commerce Commission, shipping rates members association. lower ruling reserved association vest "so [to] authorize commission agency "absolute form." reparation" appropriate (not constraints III) enter endorse initial address (1939). There, suit," part) render invalid failed full faith credit earlier, valid judgment. If significant stood balance used discharge (plaintiff's brother) wife. 286, conclusion restrictions operate, permissible confirm jurisdiction, firmly entrenched application principles. 774-778, illustrates converse contradictory override bar heed counsels hope despair. purports precedents, 2541-2543, government" day. 818,117 more, finding "history clear" "have permitted," 2535-2536, tradition" "during centuries," 2541-2542, forth, achingly wrong *2559 daunting. fuss avoided dollar, 2543-2544 price, readers happy contribute. price higher future cases. really look vacate remand proceedings. NOTES [1] reach considerations [2] receivers, pertinent "A guardian friend nominal only; ward ...." 1548, 373-374 ed.1990). officer parties, appointment primary sought." 2981, 9-10 ed.1997) hold assets trust estate fiduciary preserve assets. trustee's independent, supports response "contractual litigate," 2543, unavailing, place. reasoning perfectly circular: pursuant satisfies proceeds. executors, settled, continuous "of shown below, infra, 2539-2541. [3] defined "officious belongs one, assisting otherwise, defend offense public keeps alive strife contention, perverts remedial process engine oppression." *134-*135. Champerty species maintenance,... bargain campum partire, divide land law; whereupon champertor carry expense." *135. [4] creditor, 2537 (citing (K.B.1787)), case. obligation. explained above, [5] Exceptions (some created statute) early exceptions estates, bankruptcy, instruments, involving sovereign. for, acknowledges, attract century.

Classification Label: 8