Legal Document

505 U.S. 717 112 S.Ct. 2727 120 L.Ed.2d 575 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.Kirk FORDICE, Governor of Mississippi, et al. Jake AYERS, al., Petitioners, v. Kirk Nos. 90-1205, 90-6588. Argued Nov. 13, 1991. Decided June 26, 1992. Syllabus * Despite this Court's decisions in Brown Board Education (Brown I), 347 483, 74 686, 98 L.Ed. 873, and II), 349 294, 75 753, 99 1083, Mississippi continued its policy de jure segregation public university system, maintaining five almost completely white three exclusively black universities. Private petitioners initiated lawsuit 1975, the United States intervened, charging that state officials had failed to satisfy their obligation under, inter alia, Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment Title VI Civil Rights Act 1964 dismantle dual system. In an attempt reach a consensual resolution through voluntary dismantlement, State Trustees, 1981, issued "Mission Statements" classifying flagship institutions during period as "comprehensive" universities having most varied programs offering doctoral degrees, redesignating one colleges "urban" with limited research degree functions geared toward urban setting, characterizing rest "regional" which functioned primarily undergraduate role. When, by mid-1980's, student bodies at were still predominantly white, racial composition remained largely black, suit proceeded trial. After voluminous evidence was presented on full range educational issues, District Court entered extensive findings fact on, among other things, admissions requirements, institutional classification missions assignments, duplication programs, funding. Its conclusions law included rulings that, based interpretation Bazemore Friday, 478 385, 106 3000, 92 315 cases, affirmative duty desegregate higher education context does not contemplate either restricting choice or achievement any balance; current policies practices should be examined ensure they are racially neutral, developed implemented good faith, do substantially contribute identifiability individual institutions; Mississippi's actions demonstrate conclusively is fulfilling disestablish former segregated affirming, Appeals left undisturbed lower court's conclusions. Held: 1. The courts below did apply correct legal standard ruling has brought itself into compliance Clause. If perpetuates traceable prior system continue have segregative effects—whether influencing enrollment fostering facets system—and such without sound justification can practicably eliminated, violate Clause, even though abolished requirement races educated separately established neutral animated discriminatory purpose. supra, distinguished. proper inquiry asks whether existing attributable State, see, e.g., Freeman Pitts, 503 ----, 1430, 118 108, examines wide factors determine perpetuated facet e.g. Oklahoma City Dowell, 498 111 630, 715. Because ask appropriate questions, erred affirming judgment. Pp. ____. 2. When applied, it becomes apparent from factual there several surviving aspects constitutionally suspect; for may race-neutral face, restrict person's institution enter eight must justify these policies, well others susceptible challenge remand under standard, eliminate them. (a) Although State's requiring minimum composite scores American College Testing Program (ACT) historically than derived enacted 1970's redress problem unpreparedness, suspect because originally 1963 discriminate against students, who, time, average ACT score required minimum. also present effects, since much percentage high school seniors recently scored above necessary university. effect especially striking light differences entrance regional dissimilar programmatic missions, yet made little effort those disparities terms inquire practicable refusal consider grade performance along problematic, ACT's administering organization discourages use alone, disparity between students' averages narrower gap scores, grades indicators standardized test approach adequately justified shown unsusceptible elimination eroding policy. (b) treatment widespread problematic reasons. First, hardly denied represents continuation "separate but equal" holding could establish constitutional defect shifted burden proof away violation II, U.S., 300, S.Ct., 756, progeny. Second, implicit finding "unnecessary" absence some if all practically eliminated. Finally, treating issue isolation, court combined effects unnecessary evaluating met duty. (c) 1981 mission assignments scheme antecedents perpetuate separation period. differential admission program duplication, likely designations interfere tend On remand, would consistent effects. (d) Also retention operation bring actually affects maintenance each educationally justifiable, more them closed merged institutions. Though certainly closure decrease system's record inadequate action required. (e) addition foregoing practices, activities, including funding schools, taking steps P. 914 F.2d 676 (CA5 1990), vacated remanded. WHITE, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., BLACKMUN, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinions. SCALIA, judgment part dissenting part. Alvin O. Chambliss, Jr., Oxford, Miss., private petitioners. Kenneth W. Starr, Washington, D.C., federal petitioner. William F. Goodman, Jackson, respondents. Justice WHITE Court. 1 1954, held concept " 'separate equal' no place field education. 495, 692, 873 (1954). following year, ordered end "with deliberate speed." 301, 1083 (1955). Since decisions, many occasions evaluate district elementary secondary schools. case we decide what standards determining context. 2 launched 1848 establishing University dedicated persons. succeeding decades, erected additional post-secondary, single-race facilities. Alcorn opened doors 1871 "an agricultural college youth." Ayers Allain, 674 F.Supp. 1523, 1527 (ND Miss.1987). Creation four followed: (1880), Women (1885), Southern (1912), Delta (1925). added two solely 1940 1950: Jackson University, charged training "black teachers schools," id., 1528; latter Valley whose educate rural schools provide vocational instruction students. 3 I continued. first admitted until 1962, then only order. See Meredith Fair, 306 374 (CA5), cert. denied, 371 828, 83 49, 9 66 enf'd, 313 532 (1962) (en banc) (per curiam). For next 12 years intact. Women, least years, white. During period, black; students 1968. 4 1969, Department Health, Welfare (HEW) efforts enforce 1964, 42 U.S.C. § 2000d.1 HEW requested devise plan formerly 1973, Trustees Institutions Higher Learning submitted Plan Compliance, expressed aims improving opportunities citizens setting numerical goals other-race universities, hiring faculty members, instituting remedial special recruitment achieve goals. App. 898-900. rejected failing comply go far enough areas enrollment, hiring, "a student's campus, henceforth, will criteria." Id., 205. reluctantly offered amendments, prefacing reform pledge statement: "With deference, position . 1964." 898. At changed marginally levels 1968, single-race.2 refused accept modified Plan, adopted anyway. F.Supp., 1530. But disestablishing constricted legislature, fund Fiscal Year 1978, half amount sought Board. 896-897, 1444-1445, 1448-1449.3 5 1975. They complained maintained post-secondary Fifth, Ninth, Thirteenth, Amendments, §§ 1983, 2000d. Shortly thereafter, complaint intervention, 6 filed, parties attempted dismantlement separated reviews curricula "mission" institution. identified extant purpose These "missions" clustered categories: comprehensive, urban, regional. "Comprehensive" classified greatest resources offerings. All (University Mississippi) authorized degrees assert leadership certain disciplines. sole university, assigned mission, both setting. It inception. designation something misnomer, envisioned role, rather geographical sense serving just localities based. Only desegregation, been white—Delta Women—or —Alcorn Valley. 7 By 30 after Brown, percent enrolled Women. averaging 80 91 Seventy-one attended Valley, where ranged black. 893 732, 734-735 1990) (panel decision). II 8 1987, concluded agree taken requisite Both sides issues spanning standards, administrative staff recruitment, on-campus discrimination, disparities, satellite campuses. Petitioners argued various ways reinforce historic, race-based distinctions Respondents generally fulfilled state-imposed implementing good-faith, nondiscriminatory admission, operations. Moreover, suggested, attracted significant numbers qualified composed mostly averred mere existence identifiable unlawful given freedom choose attend varying objectives features trial's end, testimony 71 witnesses 56,700 pages exhibits, fact. historical overview developments 1954 filing 1526-1530. specific recounting post-1975 developments, description time trial, attack plaintiffs: requirements recruitment; assignment missions; programs; facilities finance; land grant staff; governance. 1530-1550. 10 followed. As overview, outlined common ground case: "Where previously law, assumes 'affirmative duty' contributed races." 1551. Noting unanimously hold structure governs context, observed disagreement Green New Kent County School Bd., 391 430, 88 1689, 20 716 (1968), applied systems education, i.e., "some level mixture learning desirable 'effectively' system." 1552. Relying Fifth Circuit three-judge decision, Alabama Teachers Assn. (ASTA) Public Authority, 289 784 (MD Ala.1968), our per curiam affirmance case, 393 400, 89 681, 21 631 (1969), understanding later decision (1986), "the balance." 1553. Thus, stated: "While patterns examined, greater emphasis instead placed order insure institutions." 1554. 11 addressed same covered fact-findings found "In summary, finds defendants education." 1564. reheard en banc affirmed 1990). With single exception, see infra, disturb law. majority agreed "Mississippi invidious 682. That duty, held, discharged makes clear race operating real wish. ." 678. 13 We granted respective writs certiorari 499 1579, 113 644 (1991). III 14 Appeals, respondents recognize acknowledge laws once mandated. Nor dispute applies remains Amendment. progeny clearly mandate observation. primary 15 Our discharge obligations eradicates foster segregation. Thus consistently asked 108 (1992) (slip op., 24); 407, 3012 (WHITE, concurring); Pasadena Educ. Spangler, 427 424, 434, 96 2697, 2703, 49 599 (1976); Gilmore Montgomery, 417 556, 566-567, 94 2416, 2423, 41 304 (1974); See, 638, 715 11); Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg Bd. Education, 402 1, 18, 1267, 1277, 28 554 (1971); 435-438, 1692-1694. 16 adopting governing seeking "real freedom" choice, need more. Even free Board, thought "differ character fundamentally" F.2d, sufficiently so conclusion dismantled 17 Like States, disagree Appeals' observation quite different very relevant respects Unlike attendance seek matter choice. particular like throughout country, fungible—they designated perform missions. Students who qualify enjoy choices attend. stated, "[i]t needs mention remedies pupil busing, quotas, zoning, unavailable when persons freely pursue advanced and, made, attend." 687. 18 however, adoption implementation alone suffice abandoned mean cures determined simply factors. cannot attributed be. dismantles policy, continues offended "sophisticated simple-minded modes discrimination." Lane Wilson, 307 268, 275, 59 872, 876, 1281 (1939). force too reformed extent practices. Freeman, 1446; 638; Green, 439, 1695; Florida ex rel. Hawkins Control Fla., 350 413, 414, 76 464, 100 486 (1956) ).4 properly relied (1986). neither requires nor justifies reached below.5 19 raised financing operational assistance provided university's extension service 4-H Homemaker Clubs inconsistent numerous all-white all-black clubs. 1965 clubs supported basis, existed lingering discrimination services membership; imbalance resulted wholly unfettered individuals. Bazemore, concurring). inapplicable insufficient satisfying ourselves fostered playing club chose join. plainly excuse satisfied proving Such run afoul whites blacks purpose.6 make inquiries, system.7 IV Had 22 important outset identify exclusive list unconstitutional remnants highlighting, below, readily Appeals,8 means suggest examine, now challenged articulate today. caveat mind, address system: 23 deal found, Mississippi—enacted entrants (ACT). 1531. described "discriminatory taint" 1557, obvious reference 7. 735. concluded, agreed, unpreparedness. 679; Obviously, mid-passage perpetuating less suspect. 24 purpose, Every resident take ACT. Any applicant qualifies automatic except unless 3.0 average. Those scoring automatically University. Without doubt, entering way 14, exceptions, excluded want junior hope transferring institution.9 Proportionately face choice: 1985, 72 achieved better, while earned score. 1524-1525. surprising remain race. 25 (MUW) 18; Yet MUW Valley—that providing quality fall disproportionately might wish MUW; disparate impact great, true university—as compared suffices admission. 26 find inadequately before us absent accompanied identifiable. here continuing effect, "to follow assignments," 692. differing assignments. 1970's, prepared imposing decimate stated modest function Certainly comprehensive also, educating undergraduates. think regionals, further 27 Another aspect denying fails earn specified institution, resorting applicant's factor predicting performance. produced (ACTP), ACT, criterion gives incomplete "picture" ability college. 1209-1210. One ACTP report suggests "it foolish" substitute 3- 4-hour 193. indicated thereby suggesting formula increase number eligible universities.10 insists information better predict irrational States' scores. concerned inflation lack comparability grading course offerings diverse concern ample failure view, purposes, seemingly show "ACT-only" 29 A second necessitates programs. "Unnecessary" refers, definition, instances offer nonessential noncore program. Under bachelor's nonbasic liberal arts sciences work master's considered unnecessary." 1540. 34.6 "unnecessarily duplicated" 90 graduate unnecessarily duplicated 1541. point, nevertheless "there proof" "is directly associated institutions," justifiable standpoint substantial choice." 1561. perspectives. appeared impose plaintiffs meet acknowledged formulated. parcel education—the whole notion duplicative sets schools—and practice. progeny, falls aggrieved plaintiffs, 756. therefore, improperly State. Indeed, "cannot economically stating identifiability, affect promote directed develop points, so, revealed. 31 classification, segregation, received funds, specialized widest curricular functions. inception, restricted 1526-1528. (DSU), contrast, counterparts legalized DSU fields music, art, home economics. 1527-1528. founded, academic example, serve 1527. train teachers. 1528. point explicit, reasonable infer curriculum purposes established. 32 existed. degrees. Two institutions, devoted defined location. 33 regime. expressly disagreed recognizing "inequalities designations, assignments." upheld acceptable good-faith procedures. surely limits admittance. While "supports plaintiffs' argument scope universities." 690. raise equal protection become system; 34 Fourth, Constitution maintain operate lesser undoubtedly occasioned forbidding mingling races. And recognized, wasteful irrational. pointed facts 35 miles apart separate 1563-1564. evident undertake financial available state," 1564, fiscal irresponsibility legislature feature subject scrutiny. Unquestionably, larger smaller choices, particularly admissions, designations. Louisiana, 718 499, 514 (ED La.1989), unable say required.11 Elimination revision criteria unnecessary. However, carefully explored inquiring 36 impeded prospective dismantling truly free. mind. out violation. leave rooted officially-segregated eliminated policies. 37 understand press upgrading publicly financed, enclaves reject request. provides separate, "more one. Whether outlined, question, remand. 38 duties light, cases To shall adjudged proceedings conducted. vacated, remanded opinion. 39 ordered. 40 concurring. join affirmatively create environment individuals whole. 299, 755, (1955) ); Milliken Bradley, 418 717, 746, 3112, 3128, 1069 (1974). write emphasize prove undone circumstances practice narrow. long history lost career stigmatic harms caused systems, 494, 691, (1954) Sweatt Painter, 339 629, 634-635, 70 848, 850, 1114 (1950); McLaurin Regents Ed., 637, 640-641, 851, 853, 1149 (1950), examine proffered justifications remnant rationales merely mask perpetuation Where accomplish legitimate means, faith; "at places heavy upon [State] explain preference apparently effective method." 1694, (1968). my follows "take[n] steps" 1443, (1992), shows essential goals, counteracted minimized possible. eliminating negating insofar possible should, now, distant memory. 43 "We rally defense repudiate unbearable assumption right kill conform narrow standard." W.E.B. Du Bois, Schools, Crisis 111, (1917). 44 future administration Today, "[i]f policies." Ante, statement defines higher-education govern grade-school particular, compel imbalance, portends destruction severing distinctive histories traditions. 45 freedom-of-choice fail decrease, eliminate, within 441, 1696. Constitution, indulged presumption, often irrebuttable practice, presently proximately intentional era. Dayton Ed. Brinkman, 443 526, 537, 2971, 2979, 61 720 (1979); Keyes Dist. No. Denver, Colo., 413 189, 211, 93 2686, 2698, 548 (1973). result, repeatedly reassign despite facially imbalances. 22-31, 1279-1283, 442, n. 6, 1696, 6. 46 Whatever merit adopt today explicitly "radical" reassignment—i.e., "remedies akin Green." ____, 4; ante, Of necessity, then, focus alleged produce itself. plaintiff obtain relief identifying persistent reassignment remedy designed directly. Plaintiffs able identify, identified, era imbalance. practical matter, spend justified—a narrower, manageable task imposed Green. 47 survive announce began era, produces adverse impacts, persists justification. elements met, believe, intent discriminate. safe assume reflects intent. remains, course, continue. initially tainted eminently bear risk nonpersuasion respect created own conduct, Keyes, 209-210, persist Hazelwood 433 309-310, 15, 97 2736, 2742-2743, 53 768 (1977). formulate shift intent, background impact, plausibility asserted defense—are precisely Washington Davis, 426 229, 2040, 48 597 (1976). Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 429 252, 266-267, 555, 564, 50 450 force, adequate roots appears clear—clear presume conclusively—that disprove occasion elaborate constitutes recognized otherwise serves "important ends," Dayton, 538, "practicable," SCALIA points out, post, mirror formulations closely. Nonetheless, encouraging "sound practices," ____ (emphasis added); 2737 ("sound justification"); policy"). From beginning, desegregation price, display flexibility" facility adjusting reconciling needs." Quite obviously, compelling benefit crafted. foreclose possibility exists justification" such. shameful state-enforced survived flourished. expanded expanded. Between 1980, increased 70,000 200,000 awarded 13,000 32,000. S. Hill, National Center Statistics, Traditionally Black 1860 1982, pp. xiv-xv (1985). accomplishments gone unnoticed: "The founded Negroes source pride families benefits children. exercised developing young instruction, South, regarded key enhancing general lives Americans." Carnegie Commission Isolation Mainstream: Problems Colleges Founded (1971). 51 undisputable succeeded traditions; many, symbol highest attainments culture." J. Preer, Lawyers Educators: Desegregation (1982). traditions closing groups. assortment institutions—including institutions—open appeal another. No one, imagine, argue diversity justification," remotely sake separating hints importance value distinguishes "are fungible." such, forbidden doing so. ironic, least, sustained themselves destroyed combat vestiges. 52 says today, agree. agree, compels remove barriers state-funded ). (HBIs) (HWIs). review. reject, effectively unsustainable imposes operated I. requirement, resembles prescribed application genuine guidance courts, subvert interests behalf brought. 54 Before handiwork, small comprehend it. forth tests ascertaining I—though last analysis come same. announces test, Part opinion: (i) "traceable [the State's] [de ] system" (ii) "that "must (iii) "practicabl[e]" (iv) educational" comes applying opinion, "influencing decisions" example "segregative effec[t]," elevated independent own. legacies "contribute identifiability" (the III), "substantially restrict[s] added). 55 What restrict[ing] enter" clear. discussion changes strong coercion ("substantially restrict," "interfere," ____), middling pressure ("restrict," "limi[t]," slight inducement ("inherent[ly] self-selec[t]," 9, "affect," ____). words meaning, stage decrepitude frail anything overcome open-admissions short ensuring unaffected action. results "restricting-choice" toothless. Nothing else how colleges. aimed "affects" implicate these, (Indeed, opposite effect; multiply, restrict, limit, impede choices.) day, dilutes potentially useful insignificance adds nothing confusion. fertile litigation. 56 Almost inscrutable facto "likely" says, designating disposition (HWIs) encouraged integration; suggested alternative elevating HBI status (so HWIs) invitation 1562 (N.D.Miss.1987) ("Approximately 30% attending four-year universities"). appears, moreover, not, rise minimal aggregated ones, condemned. ("by [the] [of duplication] [district] standards"); ("when system"). interesting speculate administrators going guess judge aggregate; judges disaggregation lawful. 57 condemned disaggregated approved "perpetuat[e] system," seems, negate aggregating place. says: 58 "Elimination [O]n Perhaps "educationally justifiable," none "practicably merged." unclear. 60 Besides ambiguities inherent "restricting choice" am sanguine comprehensible content to-be-defined-later (and, mistake about it, outcome-determinative) notions "impracticable elimination." short, (which so), slightest idea analysis—and doubt anyone will. consults purports doing, III, does, IV, conclude essentially amorphous today's ordinarily negative proposition responsible enrollment. boards consequence past action, 1281, (in impromptu "aggregation" strike fancy judge) over This imperil virtually challenge—just —so remains. disproving "existing State," assure proportionality Failing practice—either impracticability elimination, theoretical regime, ---- - ---, (1991), value, (presumably) ends" (1979). 62 Application (or standards) announced precedent, runs contrary decided six ago, relies citations cases. open question merits distinct Beyond I, ), reliance mistaken. 63 evil regime confronted told set Plessy Ferguson, 163 1138, 256 (1896). "even-handed" partitioning offensive stigmatization minority students: "To [black students] similar age qualifications generates feeling inferiority community hearts minds unlikely ever undone." 691. where, derivations bygone limit access bases; potential generate harm condemned, deny best offer. Legacies permit incidentally facilitate) schools—while assuring whatever he wishes—do consequences. 64 immediately sustain approach. They, too, duty: obstacles nonracial basis," 300-301, Cooper Aaron, 358 7, 78 1401, 1404, (1958); Goss Knoxville, 373 683, 687, 1405, 1408, 632 (1963). 65 support done. involved school, sure. one-paragraph supports said: non-discriminatory criteria. 464 ("He entitled prompt rules regulations applicable candidates"). Establishment eradication "policies hav[ing] effects," about. Gilmore, simply, inapposite. uphold enjoining city granting parks recreational groups affiliated 569, 2424. Notably, declined Gilmore. 408, 3013 concurring) ("Our desegregated lend done case"). looking precedent guide back read lines Hawkins, conjure authority (Gilmore ) exist. parallel youth North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service, division affiliations dictated race; governed great clubs" filed. 3012. nonetheless Green's "affirmative [be taken] integrate" segregated-by-law/still segregated-in-fact 3013. confined "schoolchildren school" "school customarily power designate "[T]his case," said, "presents Service discontinued violation." Ibid. 67 asserts result "only join," implying assured there, here, carried days played thing. An accurate Richmond J.A. Croson Co., 488 469, 109 706, 102 854 (1989): "mere integrate," said "in exclusion race," 503, 726 added)—not join." thing "satisfied ourselves" members' "wholly unfettered," 3012—which "play[ed] [no] however mush concepts together things entirely unbelievable characteristics (where example) play people's 68 Bazemore's ought control here: discontinuation nomenclature, modern "vestige" mandated identification enroll—just affected Bazemore. tolerated vestigial squarely rejecting view obliged resulting [its prior] practice[s]." 417, 3017 (Brennan, part). require holdover clubs, role ago was, well. (and unlike voluntary, obligation, [who] appealing adhering approach, served "organized schools" early 1960's. 3017. 69 compelled integration (whether assignment, itself, nonintegrated options, decrees) eliminated: standards. achieved. Once done, unprecedented, illogical well, unimpeded barriers. Unless takes them, is, noncompliance "equal" Plessy, establishes Having will, convicted discriminating anew—which causation. brings me reversed part—for reason (quite Court's) borne demonstrating intentionally assessments excluding HWIs. 1555; 676, 690 Given finding, exclusionary effect—a insubstantial task, 1437, (SCALIA, add few unanticipated consequences decision. Among petitioners' contentions claim HBIs rejects guaranteed laws. 635, Missouri Gaines Canada, 305 337, 351, 232, 237, 208 (1938). prohibits used blacks, equally. Ironically enough, seems prevent conscious duplicate funding: "was funding, facilitates segregation—enabling predominates paying penalty equal-funding saved basis calls justification." conceivable furthers receive "majority" setting; "value" contradict compulsory-integration philosophy underlies Just vulnerable, facilitating institutions: (but inexplicably required); so-called Afrocentric curriculum, experimental Jarvis, Curriculum, 101 Yale L.J. 1285, 1287, (1992); preserving perhaps HBIs, Pub.L. 99-498, 301(a), Stat. 1294, 1060-1063c, that. 73 predictable impairment surprise: facilitating—indeed, tolerating about, never 1696 ("The new fashion promise realistically convert promptly 'white' 'Negro' school") (footnote omitted). social petitioners, suspect, agree; perception Ayers, "if [state] student] his severe disservice which, maximize integration, minimize vitiate choices." antagonism unintegrated schooling assuredly There "black" sense, cannot, residence selection, contains, contained, large majority. 641, (1950). (The this, appear 4). perverse way, fact, insistence, explicit implicit, permitted endure stigma destroy. Not Congress step drum beats judging passage "Strengthening Historically Universities," authorizes money grants 1060-1063c. recipients. CFR 608.2(b) whether, provision satisfies removing admissions. (as, part, does) free-choice plans confusion engendered something-for-all, guidance-to-none dissipated, compare (O'CONNOR, concurring), (THOMAS, essentially, predict, succeed producing Green—viz., "balance" schools—because imperfections: deprives efficient effective) remedy, mandatory contradictory (its suggestion, foster, deter, segregation) clarity application; standardless discretion conferred (see supra pretty please. litigation-driven destabilization whites, ones. judicially ordained turmoil, recognition knowingly hate making point. syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 282, 287, 499. states: "No person shall, race, color, national origin, participation in, of, subjected activity receiving Federal assistance." 1974-1975 comprised 4.1 full-time enrollments Mississippi; 7.5 percent; 8.0 12.6 13.0 percent. percentages 96.6 percent, 99.9 respectively. Brief According counsel respondents, period—the mid- late-1970s —that came "compliance law" Tr. Oral Arg. 45. urge addressing flow position. contend cease legally "eliminate practicable." 90-6588, p. 44. seem disavow radical 66, "student employment patterns, [and] citizens' college-going degree-granting rates," 63, standard. clear, inappropriateness irrelevant deciding satisfactorily ameliorate identifiability. Similarly, aff'd, (1969) misplaced. ASTA, association enjoin construction campus Auburn Alabama. allegation reasons acted faith faculty, staff. 789. noted "reasonable Negro school." incorrect suppose ASTA validates regardless altered reduce traditional principles. (1991); misanalyzed claim. "we regulations." 687-688, 11. "discuss regulations" Supreme controls cases." recalled, agency specifically regulation 409, Insofar avoid conducting inappropriate. reiterate assertion violates VI, citing statute states "take 100.3(b)(6)(i) disagree, VI's extends California Bakke, 438 265, 2733, 2746, 750 (1978) (Opinion Powell, J.); 328, 2767 Brennan, Marshall, part); Guardians Comm'n York City, 463 582, 610-11, 103 3221, 3237, 77 866 (1983) (Powell, judgment); 612-613, 3238 639-643, 3252-3254 (STEVENS, dissenting). thus treat implicated Constitution. antecedents, showing ----. "[v]ery any, first-time freshman score," 1523 Miss.1987), ignores self-selection accompanies announcement "automatic" logical whereas mark, difference nearly 21/2 times. wide. 43.8 30.5 averaged 3.0, 62.2 49.2 2.5 factfindings evidence, dispute, fairly encompassed "[b]lack somewhat [than students]." 1535. correspondence official "overall objective" letter "would presumption being Mississippi." 206.

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