Legal Document

367 U.S. 203 81 Supreme Court Reporter 1469 6 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 782 Junius Irving SCALES, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES of America. Number 1. Reargued Oct. 10, 1960. Decided June 5, 1961. Rehearing Denied 19, See 366 978, 1912. [Syllabus from pages 203-204 intentionally omitted] Mr. Telford Taylor, New York City, for petitioner. John Federal KF105 F3 Davis, Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice HARLAN delivered the opinion Court. 1 Our writ issued in this case (358 917, 79 289, 3 237) to review a judgment Appeals (4 Cir., 260 Reporter, 2nd 21) affirming petitionr § conviction under so-called membership clause Smith Act. 18 Code KF62 2385, Annotated KF65 U5 2385. The Act, among other things, makes felony acquisition or holding knowing any organization which advocates overthrow Government by force violence.1 indictment charged that January 1946 date its filing (November 18, 1954) Communist Party was such an organization, and petitioner throughout period member thereof, with knowledge Party's illegal purpose specific intent accomplish 'as speedily as circumstances would permit.' 2 validity is challenged on statutory, constitutional, evidentiary grounds, further basis certain alleged trial procedural errors. We decide issues raised upon fullest consideration, having had unusually long history Court.2 For reasons given we affirm Appeals. I. Statutory Challenge. 4 Petitioner contends fails state offense against States. claim 4(f) Internal Security Act 1950, 64 Statutes-at-Large 987, 50 781 et seq., constitutes pro tanto repeal excluding reach organization. Section provides: 5 'Neither office nor person shall constitute per se violation subsection (a) (c) section criminal statute. fact registration 7 8 title officer not be received evidence prosecution statute.' To prevail his contention must, course, bring himself within first sentence provision, since second manifestly refers only exclusion registration, thus assuming may take place. turn provision itself, find that, petitioner's construction it, language at best ambiguous if suggestive contrary conclusion. provides office-holding 'per most plainly correct statute he indicted purported proscribe organizations, such, punish engaging proscribed advocacy. But face, much less construe it case, does do this, neither proscribes but organizations advocacy violent overthrow, punishes kind except one 'knowing purposes thereof,' and, have interpreted clause, those (infra, 219—222, 1481—1483). also held must active, nominal, passive theretical 222—224, 1482—1484). Thus words no means unequivocally demand result argues. When their context, both whole scheme they are part, whatever ambiguity there resolved, our view, contention. In context whole, (f) appear provisions repealing part Subsection crime 9 'for knowingly combine, conspire, agree perform act substantially contribute establishment totalitarian dictatorship * direction control vested in, exercised domination of, foreign government, individual *.' 10 'Communist organization' obtain classified information. should hesitate before operates either these found same part; indeed argue quixotic result. natural tendency specifically mentioned provide clarification meaning provisions, is, made out proof mere As particularly immunity, granted only, where said admitted evidence. Yet argues when come last phrase sentence, tag 'or statute,' operative 'membership (not) violation,' has altogether different purport effect. What operated guide identified argues, partial repealer statutes referred omnibus end sentence. 11 It seems apparent foregoing import taken immunize members rather mandate courts subsections statute' two named construed so make 'membership' violation.' Indeed, read 4(f), even could punishing naked membership, then duty accordance mandate, certainly strike down. Although think face goes beyond making violation, requires showing member's purposes, regard clear warrant construing requiring active purposive organization's ends. (Infra, 219—244, 1481—1484.) By terms, then, effect clause; modifies it. 12 bar becomes meaningless, federal sort crime. argument assumes answer. intended clarify, repeal, 4(a) parity reasoning, 'any clarification, repeal. 13 Petitioner's contentions stop, however, itself. supposed claimed, consequence latter's illuminated legislative history. runs follows: core (§§ 8), disclosure following valid final determination Subversive Activities Control Board status Party. 12, ante, 1, 1357, 625. requirement rendered nugatory plea selfi ncrimination save grant immunity reason disclosure. However, provided insufficient, forbids use 'fact registration' future prosecution, employment 'lead' Counselman versus Hitchcock, 142 547, 195, 35 L.Ed. 1110; Blau States, 340 332, 71 301, 95 306. Therefore effectuate congressional necessary consider thereby assuring effective consequences instance. 14 will often strain legislation constitutional attack, carry point perverting Certainly us cannot significant investigatory lead prosecutions equally probably let alone 4(c). Thus, accepted led extraordinary conclusion Congress what prohibited passed time. Furthermore, thrust limited applicable host might elements crime.3 attribute sweeping attenuated inference offered 15 Presented every indication itself 1950 see indicated. 16 product fusion contained measures conceived House Senate deal problem subject present Primarily, Senate's efforts. 1949 Senator Mundt reintroduced bill, Mundt-Nixon died committee year before. S. 2311, 81st Cong., 1st Sess. Committee judiciary, similar statute, 4(a), identical 4(a). response enquiry, letter eminent lawyer, late W. Davis York, although primary bill appears 'ventilation than prohibition,' question whether 'mere political required register (might) proscribes? If so,' continued, 'is inherent contradiction between sections, called involuntarily incriminate doing?' (Emphasis supplied.) Rep. 1358, Sess., Pages 43—44. seemed address elf self-incrimination proscriptions extent disclosed without more 17 narrow objection drafted predecessor 4(f). That section, numbered that: section. amended. 19 reporting abundantly objections could, overcome wit: overt prohibitions 4. This amendment inserted bill.'4 supra, Page 2. drafters original version perforce together adequate letter. There mention yet, scope relation statutes. 20 subsequent reinforces broad meet reasoning Hitchcock. incorporated body measure, McCarran bill. 4037, reported majority report Judiciary sections consideration. Kilgore's minority squarely presented questions insufficiency 4(f): (1) inadequate rule, (2) respect S.Rep. 2369, Pt. 2, 12—13. These grounds were urged debate opponents. Humphrey into Record 'brief' prepared Department restated report. 96 Cong.Rec. 14475, 14479. Lehman stated objections, suggested well latter vigorously denied proponents measure.5 though clearly now lie ral reading prosecutions, comparable 21 measure likewise relevant issue Wood regstration, did prsent 4(c), forbidding obtaining H.R. 9490, included declared 22 '* section.' 23 Once again, demonstrates view evidenced Congressmen Cller Marcantonio, opposing pointed twofold inadequacy provision: failure Counselman, reachingo ther 13739—13740. responded adding abovequoted provision. 13761. therefore, clearer action attempt complete least members, House's terms dealt admission perhaps explained equivalent need clarification. 24 conference, substance conferees, including amended form addition sentences subsection, se' asked hold preconference bills insofar concerned, possibly produce (see note 3, supra), amalgamation intended, notification conferees conference reports, No advance argument. On seem simply explicit clarifying worries criminal, statements unfounded fear purely apparent. finally emerged word about important departure Houses.6 25 Finally, worth noting after returned floor attacked Kefauver precisely been againt Houses prior conference: conferred too narrowly drawn attack Counselman. 15198 15199. renewed President's veto, overridden Congress.7 15553—15554. 26 far weakening flowing analysis fortifies point. conclude Congress' desire protect pleas over advertent assure expense wiping applied Communists, require disregard purpose. Whatever concerned here solely barred 1950. II. 27 Constitutional Challenge Membership Clause Face. 28 applied. At aspect challenge aspect. balance latter, essentially concerns sufficiency evidence, discussed next opinion. 29 focus notice premises submitted jury. jury instructed order convict three-year limitations period8 advocated Government, sense 'advocacy action' soon wer propitious; 'active' Party, merely 'a passive, inactive technical' member, 30 construed, offends Fifth Amendment,9 impermissibly imputes guilt associations sympathies, because some concrete personal involvement conduct; First Amendment,10 infringes free expression association. Subsidiarily, argued intepreted absence fortiori unconstitutional.11 contended adjective properly implied qualification term 'member,' nonetheless unconstitutional, vague Sixth Amendments,12 event infringe Amendment, Scales 31 Construction. 32 Before reaching claims, ascertain permissibly bears put below. does. 33 court's definition organizational fully accord Yates 354 298, 77 1064, 1356.13 And defendant 34 crime, defined below, controversy therefore 'specific intent' membership. former, Dennis 341 494, 499—500, 857, 862, 1137, 'advocacy' 'organizing' unlike 'literature' (note expressly contain element, fairly implied. applies left unpersuaded distinctions seeks draw organizing hardly greater difficulty interpreting members. decline nominal accompanied 'knowledge' 'intent,' close raise (cf. infra, page 228, 1486; Yates, 319, 1077), reasons: o lightly inferred visit heavy penalties imposed Act.14 Nor can assume allow quality punishable measured varying standards relationship subjectively viewed organizations. reasonable believe contemplated objective standard fixed law evenhanded application 36 passing deportation aliens who become Party—a rested plenary power aliens, hence press nearly closely limits constitutionality enactment—had voluntary listing person's name rolls. Galvan Press, 347 522, 74 737, 98 911; Rowoldt Perfetto, 355 115, 78 180, 140; Bridges Wixon, 326 135, 65 1443, 89 2103. A here.15 37 particular misconceived. defective failing charge factor discrete element element. matter indictment, elucidating instructions 'member' meant. score vagueness tenable one. distinction 'nominal' understood common parlance Boyce Motor Lines 342 337, 72 329, 367; Petrillo, 332 67 1538, 91 1877; Sproles Binford, 286 374, 52 581, 76 1167), shades something adequacy guidance way case. 29, infra. Moreover, abstract doubts exist matter, presents problem. actions behalf amounted reasonably anticipate, considered acted unadvisedly score. 38 suggestion expected anticipate activity intent, duly warned cruiminal. lower courts' narrower, broader, defining character forbidden conduct according own construction, right rely statute's, being unconstitutional. Assuming, arguendo, unreasonable, light traditional avoidance constructions dubious role statute—there ways statute's warning constructions. additional entitled render sum, 'right' literal boils down below violence Of course litigant always prejudiced court errs, erred met merits, reference interpretation. 39 correctly courts, basic challenge. 40 Amendment. 41 jurisprudence personal, imposition punishment justified concededly (here overthrow), sufficiently substantial satisfy concept withstand Due Process Membership, more, engaged advocacy, said, heretofore recognized relationship.16 stands, examine independently 42 Any thought due process puts all associational relationships, unless commission acts criminality, dispelled familiar concepts conspiracy complicity. While commonplace landscape law, features. Rather legal manifesting general principle society, dangerous behavior, powerless work behavior.17 resorted enquiry direct underlying substantive conduct, determine tenuous permit liability. instance engages activity,18 perceive why actively works ranks intending success activities, immune whom assigned task carrying act. focussed 'membership,' characteristic type conspiratorial quasi-political whose activities legislature traveled outside permissible bounds imputability. truth, specificity neces arily vice; instruction warning.19 43 met, affords insufficient quantum participation activity, insufficiently aid encouragement sanctions basis. 'act' doing nothing signifying assent hand, providing, other, moral comes others doing. fall short concrete, practical impetus enterprise lent b commitment conspirator furtherance enterprise. distinguished conspirator, indicate approval very necessarily committing whatever. 44 area indicated once demands watchful scrutiny Dennis, 516, 870, 1137; 328, 1081, 1356; Noto 290, 1517, 836), factors weight20 overborne total assessment think, guilty prevents otherwise regarded sympathy enterprise, unaccompanied support undertake action. 45 already discussed, rendering criminally responsible established, presumably 46 3. 47 Little remains concerning Amendment freedoms. settled constitutionally protected speech, established combination promote albeit aegis purports party, association discern purposeful complicity group receive degree protection guarantees 48 existence enactment tends inhibit exercise rights, engenders unhealthy unwittingly embroiled liability, answer surely proven convicted. true quasi-plitical parties groups embrace aims differ technical conspiracy, purpose, proper proscription liberties concerned. blanket prohibition aims, real danger legitimate impaired, cut deeper freedom 'the evils prevent.' Schenck 249 47, 52, 247, 249, 63 470. shown engage 'specifically intend(s) (the organization) resort violence.' post, 299, 1522. vehicle advancement policies fallw ithin ban statute: lacks requisite 'to government Such foolish, deluded, optimistic, criminal. 49 overruled.21 III. Evidentiary 51 Only rare instances conviction, ordinarily function belongs ends 9, 836 convictions Act—not sure thwarted, borders rights. phase principal establish accomplishment immediately proved propitious, uttered calculated 'incite' 318—322, 1076—1078. rests largely proposition materially there. 53 sought California branch nexus various individuals charged, Upon reversal error nature Court, powers 2106, 2106,22 went determining defendants acquittal ordered, ones new open. Government's Party-conspiratorial-nexus theory unavailing fell establishing constituted call forcible immediate contrast teaching 'abstract doctrine' favoring end. 1082. time, record reflected episodes which, considered, lend themselves id., 331—333, 1083—1084). concluded, 'sporadic' remote (id., 330, 1082) justify attribution casting classics' mold. Accordingly, directed connected episodes. 54 age e controlled large Yates. decision (not articulated opinion, been) offenses, involving subtler crimes, strict assessing needed premise 55 impact limited, decision's proof. articulates criteria evaluation met. through characterizations portions described detail record, indicates (b) 56 First, sufficient show category includes following: Marxism-Leninism Marxist 'classics' textbooks; official resolutions pronouncements past conventions; dissemination literature, outlines Marxism; structure; secrecy meetings clandestine generally; officials evidencing alliance U.S.S.R. predominance several defendants, comment 'made single remark someone else tend prove charges them.' while sustain irrelevant. value 57 Second, sufficient. series events denial acquittals nine defendants. noted seven San Francisco witness Foard systematic condemned 331, 1083. meetings, small taught revolution inevitable, techniques achieving example, reveals convert Negroes prepare them revolution. Los Angeles 'which amount action" linked. Id., 331—332, Here participants stop inevitability eventual revolution, explain techniques, illegal, employed preparation connection 'surreptitiously indoctrinated methods moving 'masses people time crisis"; told adopt Russian prerevolutionary development special communication system newspaper Pravda. Viewed together, describd patterns advocacy: forceful directions reached; contemporary, legal, undertaken later advocated. Compare 297—299, 1520—1522. 58 indicating, implication, attach liability discussing 'conspiratorial-nexus theory' incidents infrequent, sporadic, related covered indictment. addition, tied spoke such. 59 short, imposes proof, standard, sufficient, pattern With mind, proceed examination 60 begin doctrines, tactical procedures exposited Lautner, foundational Together documentary Lautner's testimony, based high-level affairs 1929 furnished background terminology crucial appreciation tenor pronouncements, larger harmless peaceable reality so. theoretical rule basic, carried vocabulary, vocabulary understanding teaching. 61 pre-war 1945 reconstitution Prior Political Association, adhered position change society achieved peaceful, democratic means. reconstitution, approved National Convention July 1945, involved return principles Marxism-Leninism. classics, adoption program industrial concentration, increased effort Negroes, especially South, repudiation former leader, Browder, doctrine 'revisionism,' signified, Lautner testified, henceforth exception teachings Lenin communism industrialized nation belief peaceful foolishness treachery. testified concentration program, emphasis Negro minority, articulation doctrine, believed damage, crisis, existing social fabric numbers, victory polls concern. resolved implement reconstitui on, thorough re-education undertaken, District Organizer State Chairman. testimony devoted detailed description elaborate underground 'apparatus' setting up country them. 62 Mrs. Hartle her primarily Pacific Northwest area, 1934 approximately 1952. confirmed, many respects, period. After she sent Training School thirty 'officers functionaries' parts 're-educated' decisions Convention. She 'dialectical materialism,' struggle capitalist class working class. They 'and quotation revolutionary try gloss compromise unravel help unfold, clash proceed.' 'it Marxist-Leninist reformist.' 'that objectively stage Proletarian revolution,' proletariat conditions economic crisis coincided 'subjective condition' enough, enough 'influence' classes, give leadership seizure power.' Much summarized relate descended level generality. 'role' 'preparing workers ready able power, know how power' 'revolutionary situation arose.' plan seize smash Bourgeois machine.' task, told: machine smashed seizing armies, police, prisons inoperative matters, matters replacing the, state, administrative apparatus longer taking things like reorganizing banking system, done somewhat process.' pressing toward fulfillment conditions' action, struggles power,' Revolution school constantly contemporary coalition peasants successful Russia counterpart America South. Following classes School, helped recruit organize 'undergroud fashion' employees Boeing Aircraft Plant State. schools area. herself taught: 66 ultimate goal attained forcible. teaching, road socialism, growing capitalism socialism betrayal leading arm place forcibly. 'The preparing & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions taught, build vanguard party class, theoretically equipped Marxism-Leninism, highly organized unit, monolithic centralism, guiding millions winning confidence allies as, people, poor farmers, national groups, way, struggle, constant forms strikes demonstrations picket lines marches kinds train battle.' 68 Duran, attended 1951, Moreau, Education Commission Party: 69 'He divided explanation Proletariat groups. Those industry agriculture follow, speaking Professor Moreau emotional manner gun S.O.B.'s science Marx Lenin. 70 'In thoroughly Bolshevik rank file, sincere get teach, teach desirability changing necessity them, you Socialist successfully, way; erupted from, away violence, entire machinery Bourgeoisie smashed, F.B.I., Army Navy, what—the instrumentality substituted machinery. during transition, mass masses join counterrevolution movement. 'It meant vanguard, satisfied, control, collect guns themselves. 73 'Q. Do understand, (sic) guns? Atlantic Yes, sir. understand go around people? sir; 75 'm mediately Proletariat, became Red country, secure maintain proletariat, well, civil rights whatsoever, voting anything; dished felt, dictatorship. Now, what, anything, played overthrown violence? Bolsheviks play role, role; scientifically overthrowing Revolution, ripe stampede class.' Duran Art Berry, Colorado 1952: scientific transition demonstrated kettle water, quantitative water set somewhere, happen, just masses, happen. (he) amount, fire underneath changes, eventually reaches nodule qualitative abrupt steam. He American themselves, teaches leads point, socialism. 80 'Substantially, barricades, central participate from; 'we' literally 'we', ebb, retreat battles, learn way. essential ebb flow ebbing enemy wiped everybody out. Ebbing barricaded, reorganization, start forward revolution.' 82 Obadiah Jones St. Louis 1947. solved Revolution.' army: 83 'A. staff army safe spot behind line distance, forth fought workers. 84 Did say anything techniques? couldn't good leader fighting. 85 instructions? 86 di connection? capitalists full, Communists did, irregardless cost be, completely.' 87 session, students instructor pledge: 88 pledge each responsibility interests recipients full fight kill, witnesses Clontz, Childs, Reavis dealings Scales. finds directed, importance ways: supplies strongest unequivocal man deeds, virtue high position, weight standpoint Act; dispositive him case.23 90 1948 Ralph C. Jr., student Duke Law undertook furnish F.B.I. information gained North Carolina, volunteer services attempting penetrate acquire result, September year, Clontz postcard petitioner, informing interested communism. replied sending cardborad box filled literature.' An accompanying letter, headed 'Carolina U.S.A.' notation 'Junius Scales, Chairman,' explained: 'Under separate cover varied sample literature. hope attention. discuss relating my person, glad so.' 92 Several days began intimate contact teachings, activities. 93 early meeting two, impossible succeed educating gaining votes polls, necessary. meeting, discussion 'basic strategy' using foundation theory, i.e., bringing revolution: 94 (petitioner) basically strategy bottomed used foment termed born leaders described, nation. Black Belt, thirteen Southern nation, Government. 97 'Now never change, tactics altered changed.' invitation, joined 17, 'at large,' continue instruction, repeatedly Dictatorship Proletariat. analogized 1917 Revolution. 'easier' Russia: 99 Soviet Union started, benefit mother Russia, international naturally started country.' 100 land troops here. procedure unsuccessful China. Rather, fighting it,' endeavor furnishing 'with experienced revolutionaries Russia.'24 added 'if war troops, bloody all.' occur, 'depression greatly accelerate coming revolution' people. 101 arranged awarded scholarship study th Jefferson .social Science, month August Because arrived few scheduled courses offered, bulk training private Doxey Wilkerson, teacher communicated arranging Clontz' scholarship.25 expressed means, pretense intelligent people's election government.' stated, had, combining forces vanguard.' 102 strategy, Wilkerson advised known, remaining 'under cover' 'would helpful came.' undercover infiltrate achieve respectability' 'toward undermining States.' lose 'got isolated (his) efforts pretty wasted.' instructions, 'one frightened knew contend China Communist-dominated countries, within.' 103 School. informed wished move York. remain pay dues him, effecting formal transfer. moved March 1951. 'get A.C.L.U. associate 'infiltrate Civilian Defense setup.' 104 Childs attendance followed Clontz.26 1952 'Party School' director. outstanding cadres South Carolina Virginia Districts Party.' farm security taken. school. preliminary 'broad coalition' 105 key shops industries determined designated plants. plant cell, effectively union plant.' 106 And, compulsory recreation period, gave demonstration jujitsu explaining 'might line,' kill pencil. According Childs' 'what showed pencil, pencil palm your hand back rest base thumb, quick jab (demonstrating), enter heart, w grab throat.' 107 1942. 'Negro History' students, align with, gains avenue faction seek Western Electric Winston-Salem. stated: 108 'I bumped Harvey's home I—the advice I'd getting confirmed him. advanced Electric, a, work, sign papers, same, signing Taft-Hartley affidavit, ahead me signed papers didn't remember any.' 109 sufficed definitely laid doubt satisfies statutory requirements 509, 867, 321, 1078, 1356. Hence deficient contains overthrow. 110 Since amply continuously preaching one: infer preaching, 'was aimed building seditious maintaining readiness propitious indoctrination preparatory Dennis.' 321—322, 1078. score, jury, satisfied Yates,27 explicitness concreteness, previously, prudent, revolution—elsewhere historical predictability conduct—was tone, calculating, audience occasion required; in. 111 broadly was. 226, 1485, casual.28 authorized condoned witnesses, credibility, us, indicating utterances councils himself, entitle tenets schools, officials, Further, 'democraticentralism' whereby adopted unquestionably conformity views advocating Missouri, manifestation 'democratic-centralism.' Another illustration circumstance almost speaker likewise. All combine adduced truth policy 112 imputability adequately record. (See supra.) 113 exposition. Scales' indisputable, entirely adequate.29 (ante, 376 220, 1481) 299—300, 1521—1522. bear little resemblance fragmentary equivocal Nowak 356 660, 666—667, 955, 959, 1048, Maisenberg 670, 673, 78S.Ct. 960, 962, 1056. 114 fail IV. 115 Alleged Trial Errors. 116 number errors committed, vitiating fairness trial. (260 38—46), none points meriting reversal. 117 Admission Remote Prejudicial Evidence. 118 complains purposes. particular, objects 'Black Belt' pamphlet Saw Truth Korea,' gruesome atrocities Korea. petitioiner eyes asserted prejudicial outweighed probative sound discretion judge. Particularly damaging material emanated 38), abuse conclusions judge 119 complained-of legally admissible. favor population susceptible propaganda Surely, irrelevant stand plank platform baitf battalions hoped-for array. supra; yet seriously charge. Similarly Korea incitement finding possible undermine sympathetic reception 120 Whether not, independent offense, renders admissible sense. 23, Doubtless defendant's becoming cogent brought But, all, 121 'Jencks' Claim. 122 reversed authority Jencks 353 657, 1007, 1103. enacted 3500, 3500. Petitioner, incorrectly case; attacks, violate Constitution assumed Palermo 360 343, 1217, 1287. complaint opportunity relevance impeach persons unconnected prosecution. appellate review. determined, useful impeachment rests, himself. 123 limitation written verbatim transcription oral statement witness. assert document requested withheld 124 claims. Congressional Findings 1954 125 asserts congressin al findings deprived fair precluding impossible, Delaney 199 107, A.L.R.2d. 1300, afterthought. prejudice, voir dire jurors attempted juror heard enactments, disqualified ground. 126 Appeals, 44—46, waived method choosing grand comply Rule Fed.Rules Crim.Proc., impropriety shown. 127 128 Affirmed. 129 BLACK, dissenting. 130 convicted clause' penalty twenty years' imprisonment fine $20,000 anyone 'becomes affiliates group, assembly (who advocate, encourage violence), thereof *.'1 Rejecting numerous reversal, upholds six-year States2 States.3 My dissenting BRENNAN—that Act4 bars Act—and DOUGLAS—that absolutely outlaw philosophical distant permit. are, mentioned. 131 cases, practically rewritten stands treating 'activity' implicit include upheld requirements. ever guessed mean holds mean. reason, best, unconstitutionally worst, ex post facto.5 tried defined, pre-existing 'law land' guaranteed ground.6 132 Secondly, re-emphasizes freedom-destroying 'balancing test' presently refusal apply protections Bill Rights. recent cases 'balanced' 'test' abridgment freedoms involved, being, Court's 'an incident governmental function.'7 implication confronted enforce terms. causes justified. jail express associated entertained unlawful ideas speech assembly—under term. Nevertheless, admittedly abridgment, relies abridge interest outweigh protecting freedoms.8 133 This, unlimited breadth currently Under 'test,' right, intentional uld lawful aim invasion rather, abridging so, importance, least, capable wish suppress 134 DOUGLAS, 135 sentenced prison six years sharp break serious Mark Twain's lighthearted goodness God three unspeakably precious things: conscience, prudence practice them.'1 136 Even Alien Sedition Laws—shameful reminders chapter intolerance—never today. insurrection publication 'false, scandalous malicious' writing 596. 'in chief sources disaffection sedition.' Miller, Crisis Freedom (1951), 56. 'well-knowing' 'said falls conspiracy. Conspiracy intention agreement project. Falcone, 311 205, 210, 204, 206, 128; Direct Sales company 319 703, 713, 1265, 1270, 1674. hitherto embraced 137 legalize today guit association, committed Today's tradition borrows philosophy. O'Brian, Individual (1955), 27—28: 138 1940 affiliate teaches, advocates, encourages destruction violence. 1920 Law, 1920, 1008, §§ 1101, 1182), imported alien abhorrent Justice, perils excitements World War.' 139 saved member. None Chairman recruited promoted education selected young secret schools. director FBI agent posed joining articles criticized vivid 'aggression' describe 'atrocities' Korean citizens. remarked communication, 1951 'went underground.' director, (by else) weaknesses positions. One college. presence, device handy line. Other distributed literature containing implicating passages. Among comments revolution; voted media, newspapers, military, educational systems, depression closer predicted William Z. Foster; generation; easier assistance Communists. times goals internally classes. 140 Not essence belief2—belief proletarian creed. 141 Spinoza summed speak believes: 'Laws decree believe, forbid utterance confirm enlarge dared suffer inquiry made, perversion turned superstition mob opponents.' Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (London 1862) 349. 143 tried, devil knoweth man,' Chief Brian Y. baron Pasch, Edw. IV, f. pl. belief—presently prosecuted—is carryback old treason men punished compassing death King. 'suppression opposition beliefs distasteful Hurst, Historic Background Treason Clause, Fed.B.J. 305, 307, rejected here, 'most praised prevented trials instrument faction.' 307. realm politics heresy eccelesiastical field ha centered side rid peace Nation. Cramer 325 28—30, 918, 931—933, 1441. Montesquieu, thinking 15, n. 21), proclaimed thoughts words: 144 'There England Henry VIII, whoever king's treason. extremely vague; terror despotic great recoils illness, physicians venture danger; right. Marsyas dreamed Dionysius's throat. Dionysius death, pretending thing night day. tyrannical action: thoughts, towards laws acts.' Spirit Laws (1949), Vol. 192—193. 145 'Words act; idea.' 193. 146 notions restrictive treason, Article III, Constitution, acts. Haupt 330 631, 645, 874, 880, 1145 (concurring opinion); Harv.L.Rev. 395. painful experience wholly apart again prosecuting beliefs. 147 philosophy West Barnette, 624, 641—642, 1178, 1187, 1628: 148 'We intellectual individualism rich cultural diversities owe exceptional minds price occasional eccentricity abnormal attitudes. great. much. shadow freedom. test touch heart order. 149 'If star constellation, official, petty, prescribe orthodox politics, nationalism, religion, citizens confess faith therein. exception, occur us.' 150 Nothing unpopular revolting. dogmas faiths framework Barenblatt 109, 145—152, 1102—1106, 1115 (dissent). creed truer Bar Charles E. Hughes protested Assembly seat five Party:3 151 institutions liberty attributed 152 Belief deep traditions. Declaration Independence4 proclaims it: 153 'whenever Form destructive Ends, Right People alter abolish institute laying Foundation Principles, Powers Form, likely Safety Happiness.' 154 institutions.5 Updated: century invaded Hungary subdued her, Kossuth came enlist support. 8, 1852, Lincoln Hungarian cause Resolutions Behalf Freedom. read: 155 'That independence, throw off, revolutionize, stead choose.' Basler, II, Collected Works Abraham (1953), 115. 156 1848, Representatives 'Any anywhere, inclined rise up, shake off suits better. valuable,—a sacred right—a liberate world.' I, 438. 157 arms self-preservation. legality beliefs, speaks prevention 'dangerous behavior' 'who behavior.' formula returns dark behavior 'dangerous' policed dissidents tell-tale signs suppressed talk-stage continent. British colonial Sir Berkeley, served 1641 1677 Virginia's Governor: God, printing, hundred years; learning disobedience, heresy, sects world, printing divulged libels government. keep both!' Hening's Stat.Va. 1660 1682, 517. familiar; reviewed Chafee, Blessings Liberty (1956). states paragraph Jeffersonian conception case: 158 choose fear—we both. persist afraid, rulers fanatics fired zeal grown objectionable putting care nursemaids.' 156. 159 departing, 'balancing' values we, judges, feel 508—509, 866—867, Communications Ass'n, C.I.O. Douds, 339 382, 399 400, 674, 684—685, 928; N.A.A.C.P. Alabama, 357 449, 463—466, 1163, 1172—1174, 1488; Uphaus Wyman, 72, 78—79, 1040, 1045, 1090; 126—134, 1092—1097, 1115; Bates City Rock, 361 524, 412, 417, 480; Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 231; Wilkinson 365 399, 567, 633; Braden 431, 584, 653; Konigsberg Bar, 36, 997, 105; re Anastaplo, 82, 135. approach, treats commands 'no admonitions moderation' Hand, (1960 ed.), 278), counter decisions. Lovell Griffin, 303 444, 450, 666, 668, 949; Murdock Commonwealth Pennsylvania, 105, 108, 872, 1292; 639, 1186, 1628. 160 Madison's biographer, Brant: 161 'When Madison wrote, 'Congress law' infringing expect decide, balance, true, observed presenting proposals, bodies violated valuable judging effectiveness proposed amendments: 162 "If tribunals justice peculiar guardians rights; impenetrable bulwark assumption Legislative Executive; resist encroachment stipulated declaration rights.' 163 'This Madison, along devastating 'balance discredit authenticity. Annals Congress, document, compilation stenographic reports shorthand reporter purpose) published partially caught meaningless. general, truly reported. all-important notes, notes handwriting Library Congress. parallel end, scantily, leaving fundamental faithfulness report.' Heritage, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 882, 899—900. 164 Brant opposed resolution censure societies creating turmoil Whiskey Rebellion. 900. opinions legislation. advert Republican censorial people.' 165 trend history, noted, man. wrote progress yield gain ground.'6 flourished unorthodox enlightenment masses. December 20, 1787:7 166 own, am friend energetic oppressive. places governors ease, rebellion Massachusetts alarm, done. Calculate eleven years, half. hands prevent insurrections. England, heavier seldom half dozen insurrection. France, still heavier, despotic, Montesquieu supposes, thousand crush insurrections, numbers Massachusetts, blood spilt. Turkey, sole nod despot insurrections ferocious depredations insurgents, order, moderation self-extinguishment ours. say, finally, preserved giving energy certain, engine Educate inform Enable preserve convince this. reliance preservation liberty.' 167 consistent idea today, sacrifice ideals substitute alien, stead.8 168 indifferent arguments,' Bismarck 'are bayonets.' votes. 169 vote reclaimed dissent, nonconformity cast us. 170 Appendix Opinion DOUGLAS. 171 constitutions have, another, reserving 'alter, reform abolish' frame Pennsylvania Const. 1873, P.S.Const.; Maryland 1867, Rights, I; 1902, 3; Alabama 1865, 2; Arkansas 1874, 1; Idaho 1889, Kansas 1958, Kentucky 1890, 4; Ohio 1851, Oregon 1857, Tennessee 1870, Texas 1876, Vernon's Ann.St.; Vermont 1793, 7; 1872, Wyoming Some slightly Hampshire Const., 10; M.G.L.A.; Part VII; Connecticut C.G.S.A.; Jersey N.J.S.A.; Delaware Preamble, Del.C.Ann.; Rhode Island West's Ann.Cal.Const.; Florida F.S.A.; Indiana Iowa I.C.A.; Maine Michigan 1835, Minnesota M.S.A.; Mississippi 6; Missouri V.A.M.S.; Montana Nevada Dakota Oklahoma O.S.A.; VI, 26; Utah older add shows roots nonresistance arbitrary oppression absurd, slavish, happiness mankind,' recites. 172 courts. deprive amendments peacefully passed. Wells Bain, Pa. 39, 46—49; Koehler Lange Hill, 543, 614—617, Northwestern KF135 N69 738,1 609, 614—616; Bennett Jackson, 186 Ind. 533, 538—541, Northeastern N59 921, 922—923; Erwin Nolan, 280 Mo. 401, 406—407, 217 Southwestern S79 837, 838—839. More recently, persecution Widovich, 295 311, 317—318, 295, 297 298 (State Act); Nelson N.H. 33, 50—51, 756, 770—771 (legislative investigation); Braverman Association Baltimore, 209 Md. 346—347, 473, 481 482 (disbarment lawyer Act). relied Deennis 501, 863, 1137: 'Whatever merit revellion dictatorial governments structure orderly change.' 173 *,' 'embrace known recognised modes consent alteration viz.: 174 '1. mode constitution. 175 '2. instrumental raising revision conveying 176 '3. 177 obtained, consents displaced gives consent, pursuing constitution, convention. remedy third mode—revolution.' 178 helplessness armed resistance, institutions. 49. ultimately reserved formal, useless, remedies offer. Legislatures appropriate propriety there, Locke says, judge.' Second Treatise Civil 240. believes lesson, hinder sovereign 581—586, 903—905, 1137 (dissenting opinion). 179 Lincoln's statement, 1848 to, reads: 180 world. confined portion can, teritory inhabit. intermingled near oppose tories revolutions lines, laws; both, ones.' 438—439. 181 BRENNAN, wo m CHIEF JUSTICE DOUGLAS join, 182 legislated is: restricted, holds, theoretical. extends 'active ends,' restricts 183 approach asks wrong question. 'repeal' connotes erasure books. suspends withdrawn. recently decided Reina 507, 260, Narcotic 1956, 1401 federal, narcotics laws, remotely suggest effected 184 faced dilemma legislating represented, prohibition.' forced expose public menace effectively. vitals measure. compel link invoke silence wrecked rock Self-Incrimination disparagement deliberations reflect uncertainty resolve dilemma. privilege solid barrier fiat. murky emerges extend safeguard frustration embodied provisions.1 185 describes bent conspire Sections Penalties registering imposed. Plainly introduced Eighty-first Congress2 afforded registering. bill,3 forbade receipt reached floor, Congressman Celler insufficient. place, registrant statutes, granted.4 secondly protective complete; 1110, thesis.5 During debates Celler, manager Wood, extending statute.'6 House. 187 juncture obvious restricting supra. 564, 198: 188 'This, property property, proceeding, search proceeding court. attributable directly compulsion, convicted, otherwise, refused answer, convicted.' 189 Meanwhile bill7 Committee8 'involuntarily himself.' accordingly bill; provisions. Kilgore report9 House—that avoid essential. 190 floor:10 191 "In Illinois register, law-enforcement register—because liable incrimination Act?' 192 'Mr. Douglas. 'Certainly.' 193 Lehman. 'So virtually pleading penal offense; not?' 194 'Yes; be." 195 another day debate:11 196 'What dyed-in-the-wool run nearest list Mundt-Ferguson bill? Obviously, Communist, besides subjecting top fact, self-incrimination, register.' 197 voiced objection:12 198 testimony; interpretation prominent attorneys,13 prosecuted Act.' answers wide mark. immunized bill.14 relevancy recognized. Ferguson noted15 overlooking dogma. 200 Senate. changes 4(f)—the critical here—took Conferences.16 sweep revised motivation earlier versions 201 Conference Multer 'vitiate law.'17 reply comments. brief said,18 registers Act.'19 apparently realize differed nullified Act.20 statement. 202 From tolerably registrants violation." phraseology extended se,' se.' '(n)either restricted. short-term, long-term, dues-paying, non-dues-paying, inactive, Every included. saying (that se) 'shall nature, violation. transposing modify plausible. entails drastic dilution 204 True, today's Board, 625, conflict Amendment; dissent complete, sign, file membership' Communist—active nominal—could compelled supply chain conviction. 159, 161, 223, 224, 170: 205 'Whether admissions immaterial. Answers (or violate) circumstances, silent. testify beginning.' 206 decided. 207 law. Disclosure controls stemmed. Report stated,21 'central provision' '(a) movement innocent unwitting collaboration it; expose, against, unlawful.' 208 objection. 'constitute effected. harmony activity. passed, prosecutions. dismissal ths 2385 (whose italics) 'Whoever willfully abets, advises, treaches duty, necessity, desirability, destroying State, Territory, Possession subdivision therein, assassination government; 'Whoever, prints, publishes, edits, issues, circulates, sells, distributes, publicly displays printed advocating, advising, attempts so; organizes helps violence; persons, thereof— 'Shall fined imprisoned ineligible department agency commit conviction.' Middle 1955. 227 certiorari 1955 Term. 350 992, 542, 858. 1956 Term, reargument 1957 reversed, Solicitor General's concession intervening 1103, retried 1958. affirmed, 21, 358 237. Argument 1958 Term propounded counsel 924, 1444, 1540. (361 951, 502, 536) Cot rol interrelation deemed advisable 952, 500, 536. E.g., 159(h), repealed Labor-Management Reporting 1959, 519, 201(d) (non-Communist affidavits filed officers); offenses created 4, 6. 'Nowhere restrict impair fifth amendment. (w)ith records, statements, etc., regulate, therefrom *. academic, 4(f).' 20—21. Lehman, arguing books penalize subversive prima facie intent. (R)egistration 14190. Long said: impression hearing yesterday, previous belong (such) 'Senator Ferguson. Judge Medina, convicting Act? (The Act.) bill). Precisely. So Mundt. conceivably apply. (I)t incorrect (Smith) *' 14235. McCarran, bore, Act: arresting hear declare Tuesday that—' (t)he intent.' (O)f fact. Medina's scholarly affiliation President, 'neither whole), fit tell thinks obviously indictable 4(a).' 14442—14443. Perhaps closest repeals, tanto, Representative opponent bill: 'Another bad new—to House—first (of 4(f)) predict vitiate defense crimes law,' 15289, Kilgore, 15192. 1954, 841 3706, 83d modifications hurried confused Houses. amendment, Humphrey, wilfully others, name, tantamount Halleck, (W)e worked careful consideration indictments sixty-some convictions, (T)he Attorney-General (s)peaking 'Essential plan, indirect self-incriminating nullifying act, operation jeopardized words, permits outlawing realistically conspiracy.' 14658. clause. illogically misapprehension defeated integrity repealed, November 1954. 3282, 3282. 'No life, press; peaceably assemble, petition redress grievances.' undertakes defend elements, presence accused enjoy accusation 27, allows $10,000 ten imposed, years. ingredient affairs, whereas linking compare Whitney California, 274 357, 641, 1095; Burns 650, 1077, sustaining Criminal Syndicalism Ann.Cal.Pen. Code, 11400 seq. Complicity thus: 'A accomplice if: promoting facilitating '(1) commanded, requested, encouraged provoked '(2) aided, agreed planning '(b) acting knowingly, facilitated Institute, Model Penal 2.04(3), tentative draft (1953). formulation restates generally jurisdictions See, e.g., 2(a), 2(a); Ariz.Code Ann., 1939, 43—116, A.R.S. 13—137, 13—139, 13—141, 13—143; Stat., 1952, Pen.Code, 70; cf. Canada, Tremeear's, 1944, 69. considerable overlap genuine problems arise offense. ALI, 20—33; Developments Law—Criminal Conspiracy, 922, 993—1000 (1959). pointing imputation guilt, exploring attributing entity specified individuals, difficult theoretically, successfully depend occasions took frequency occasions, 253—254 U.S., 1498—1499 S.Ct., infra.) Understood difference unknown difficulties inhere ascribing cured, Hart, Aims Contemp.Prob. 401 (1958). concurring Brandeis 372, 373, 647, 1095. sides 'clear danger' 508—511, 866—868, tenders applying 'direct entry circumstances.' emanating Hartle, Jones, inadmissible confuses created, adverting entail conclusive illogical deeds weighty strong Clontz: 'Scales finish disastrous, China, generals Chinese licked completely, Union, example Mao, Mao-Tse-Tung, Mao instead military instruct leaders, professional revoluntionaries count drawing Russia.' instructing 'M-L=F&V' illustrated equalled testified: 'Doxey conceal doctrines out, U.S.A. disowning disclaiming outlines, texts, publications ordered date—I don't recall exact date—had henceforth, recognize publications. accomplished things. They, technicality attorneys, because, secondly, unduly hamper unsaid previously unwritten written, bare outline, given, fill references spelled outline. naturally, 'One discussion, pamphlet, outline White Chauvinism, me, technically disclaimed actually." tasks, Organizer, serve bodyguard visiting Rights Chapel Hill February War. His theme, War oppressing trying South.' official's 'exact words' were: niggers. Niggers court-martialed refusing slaughtered. Lieutenant Gilbert example. nigger yellow. Yellow, niggers Georgia rifles man, seen before.' charged: 'Moreover, objectively, discussing, explaining, expounding author, classrooms, object Marx, Lenin, Stalin, lawful. privately persuade espouse idea, transgressing benefit, wr 'All guaranteeing speech. 'However, further, one, advantageous thereafter incite overthrow; outlawed 'To actiion, tomorrow, month, year. nonetheless, unnamed future, signal ready, summons favorable, opportune permit, urging spur for, towards, addressed something. doctrine. addressed.' particularized toe vents open contrary. admits 1137. 783(f), 783(f). rewriting narrowed broadened originally condition companion communist burden guess tremendously 'implied' placed 'balance' questionable determined. Cohen Hurley, 117, 131, 954, 972, 56, 1010, 51, 105. 388, 153, 148; disagreed, do, majority's characterization 'incidental,' significance cases. 68—71, 1016—1018. test.' 506—511, 865—868; Equator (1903), 198. prototype lands. Czechoslovakia October 6, 1948, promulgated provided: Whoever instigates Republic, unity, territorial government), minor rigorous confinement months manner: gross negligence instigative easy.' N.Y.L.Doc., 143d 30, honest impelled withdraw allegiance custom community, persuaded iniquitous tolerated, valid, 'law' higher authority, community. appeal justification community condemns immoral formulate rationally defensible. 'true' brings rightly universe, enables chosen nobler withdrawn corrupt world Humanity highest good.' Becker, Independence (1942), 277—278. 275, 1509. Writings Thomas (Memorial ed. 1903) 37. 391—392. Gellhorn, (1960), commenting 1356, states: aftermath interesting. 114. Many pending announced 1957. ground aside dropped number, available. Most significantly dismiss charges, abandoned distinct clamor, alarm peril plunged handful misguided fanatics, felt unable persuasively spokesmen incitements illegality. stimulate sober look surface attractions programs suppression coercion. Occasionally supporters scoundrels falsely parade upholders democracy; men. Men genuinely worthy sometimes endorse unanimity sentiment, consciously u thoritarianism, maximum intentioned create graver overcome. regularly overestimated. History excessive fears generations, shuddered menaces hindsight, shadows. induce modern generation prudent skepticism recurrent alarms fatal potentialities dissent. event, torn merits blandishments lovers afford superiority adopting self-deluding security. Suppression, spread. herd urge orthodoxies kinds—religious, economic, political.' Pp. 82—83. Senate, exposure 'principal objectives' 14174. Nation (H.R.Rep. 2980, 14174—14175) combat threat subversion within. comprehensive. prohibits power. 4(b) governmente mployee authorization communicate representative 4(c) mails broadcasting radio television station designating, envelope announcement organization.' registered disclose seeking accepting facility. facility Communist-action 5(a). passport. 6(a). modified dealing subversives espionage expand coverage. extensive belie main arsenal antisubversive weapons. allusions covert major campaign domestic Sess.; H.R.Rep. 8. 13739. 13740. 14421. 14500. Evans Hughes, Jr. Davis. Hearings 5852, Judiciary, 80th 415—420. chairman leans backward self-incrimination; safeguards measure.' 14175. 14443. Long. impression, (Sen. Lehman) Is junior Louisiana correct, act.' H.R.Conf.Rep. 3112, 15289. 15198. Ibid.

Classification Label: 2