Legal Document

452 U.S. 161 101 Supreme Court Reporter 2242 68 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 751 COUNTY OF WASHINGTON et al., Petitioners,v.Alberta GUNTHER al. Number 80-429. Argued March 23, 1981. Decided June 8, Syllabus While VII of the Civil Rights Act 1964 makes it unlawful for an employer to discriminate in his employment practices on basis sex, last sentence § 703(h) Title (Bennett Amendment) provides that shall not be practice any differentiate upon sex determining amount its employees' wages if such differentiation is "authorized" by Equal Pay 1963. The latter Act, 29 Code KF62 206(d), prohibits employers from discriminating paying lower employees one than other performing equal work, "except where payment made pursuant (i) a seniority system; (ii) merit (iii) system which measures earnings quantity or quality production; (iv) differential based factor sex." Respondents, women who were employed as guards female section petitioner county's jail until this was closed, filed suit under backpay and relief, alleging inter alia, they had been paid male part attributable intentional discrimination, since county set pay scale guards, but at level warranted own survey outside markets worth jobs. District rejected claim, ruling matter law sex-based wage discrimination claim cannot brought unless would satisfy work standard Act. Appeals reversed. Held : Bennett Amendment does restrict VII's prohibition claims "equal work." Rather, can also even though no member opposite holds higher job, provided challenged rate exempted Act's affirmative defenses differentials seniority, merit, production, sex. Pp. 167-181. (a) language Amendment—barring Act—suggests intention incorporate into only prohibitory requiring "authorize" anything all. Nor construction render superfluous. Although first three are redundant provisions elsewhere VII, guarantees consistent interpretation like both statutes. More importantly, incorporation fourth defense could have significant consequences litigation. 168-171. (b) Amendment's legislative background fully with interpretation, support alternative ruling. 171-176. (c) some earlier interpretations Employment Opportunity Commission may supported view compensation except work" met, frequently adopted position. And Commission, capacity amicus curiae, now supports respondents' Pp.177-178. (d) Interpretation incorporating draws additional remedial purposes statutes, deprive victims remedy, without clear congressional mandate, must avoided. 178-180. (e) contention places structure virtually every entire economy risk subject scrutiny federal courts, inapplicable here. Respondents contend evaluated their jobs determined should approximately 95% much officers; them about 70% much, while officers full jobs; failure respondents proved discrimination. Thus, require court make subjective assessment value jobs, attempt statistical technique method quantify effect rates. 180-181. 9 Cir., 602 Federal Reporter, 2nd 882 623 1303, affirmed. Lawrence R. Derr, Portland, Or., petitioners. Carol Atlantic Hewitt, respondents. Barry Sullivan States, amici curiae special leave Court. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion 1 question presented whether 1964, 78 Statutes-at-Large 257, 42 2000e-2(h), restricts work. 2 * This case arises over petitioner, County Washington, substantially jail.1 four guard prisoners carry out certain functions jail.2 In January 1974, eliminated jail, transferred nearby county, discharged 20 Cases Fair Practice (BNA) KF3315 L32 788, 790 (Or.1976). 3 against petitioners 2000e seq., seeking relief.3 They alleged unequal performed alternative, discrimination.4 allegation that, because 4 After trial, found supervised more 10 times many per did females devoted time less valuable clerical duties. It therefore held those thus entitled pay. Cases, 791. affirmed issue, do seek review 5 dismissed discrepancy between 1963, 206(d).5 permitted evidence findings scales resulted 6 reversed, holding persons "are precluded suing protest . discriminatory practices" merely members 882, 891 (CA9 1979), supplemental denial rehearing, 1313, 1317 (1980). remanded instructions take difference We granted certiorari, 449 950, 352, 66 213 (1980), affirm. 7 emphasize outset narrowness before us case. Respondents' controversial concept "comparable worth,"6 plaintiffs might increased comparison intrinsic difficulty job same organization community.7 prove, direct evidence, depressed consisting setting warranted. narrow called "Bennett Amendment."8 II 8 "to individual respect compensation, terms, conditions, privileges employment, individual's ." 2000e-2(a). however provides: "It subchapter authorized 206(d) title 29." 2000e-2(h). To discover what prohibitions Amendment, we turn Act—which relevant part: 11 "No having discriminate, within establishment employed, he pays performance requires skill, effort, responsibility, similar working 77 56, 206(d)(1). 12 On face, contains restrictions pertinent First, coverage limited Labor Standards S.Rep.No.176, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., (1963). apply, example, businesses engaged retail sales, fishing, agriculture, newspaper publishing. See §§ 203(s), 213(a) (1976 ed. Supp.III). Second, restricted cases involving conditions." Third, exempt "any Ibid. 13 Petitioners argue purpose arising precluded. contrast, designed claims. "more persuasive." F.2d, 1311. recognizing history provision unambiguous, conclude correct. 14 suggests VII. bars word sometimes means simply permit," ordinarily denotes enabling action. Black's Law Dictionary 122 (5th 1979) defines "[t]o empower; give right authority act."9 Cf. 18 1905 (prohibiting release information extent law"); 28 1343 ed., Supp.III) (granting district courts jurisdiction civil action law"). question, then, affirmatively 15 divided two parts: definition violation, followed defenses. hardly said all: purely prohibitory. second part, however, essence "authorizes" otherwise violate these provisions, therefore, refer. 16 versus Menasche, 348 528, 538-539, 75 513, 519-520, 99 L.Ed. 615 (1955). already bona fide systems measuring production,10 defense—"any sex"—is implicit general 17 agree. offered "technical amendment" resolve potential conflicts infra, 173. defenses, has guaranteeing administrative agencies adopt Otherwise, develop inconsistent bodies interpreting sets nearly identical language. intended broadly inclusive, proscribing "not overt fair form, operation." Griggs Duke Power Co., 401 424, 431, 91 849, 853, 158 (1971). litigation, including presumptions, burdens proof, reflect approach. differently, confine application H.R. Rep. 309, (1963), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News Page 687. structured permit defend charges use "other factors sex."11 Under "substitute judgment [has] established applied rating system," so long 109 Cong.Rec. 9209 (1963) (statement Goodell, principal exponent Act). decide how litigation accommodate see n. supra, consider rendered 19 meaning B interpretation. 21 bill relating enacted Congress. Earlier, Congress passed remedy perceived serious endemic problem [sex-based] private industry," Corning Glass Works Brennan, 417 188, 195, 94 2223, 2228, 41 (1974). Any possible inconsistency surface late debate House Representatives, because, extended race, color, religion, national origin, 914, 2355, Just days voting Representatives amended proscribe discuss implications overlapping amended, 110 2577-2584 (1964). Senate took up consideration version reference committee. neither opportunity undertake formal analysis relation statutes.12 22 Several Senators expressed concern insufficient attention inconsistencies id., 7217 Sen. Clark); 13647 Bennett). rectify problem, Senator proposed amendment. Id., 13310. leadership approved proposal bill, taken floor 12, after cloture invoked. engendered controversy, recorded vote. discussion comprised few short statements: 23 "Mr. BENNETT. Mr. President, years yearning country, very careful study appropriate committees Congress, year so-called became effective yesterday. 24 "By time, programs administration act. Now, when rights consideration, 'sex' inserted places, N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions believe sufficient wholesale insertion 25 "The my amendment provide event conflicts, nullified. 26 "I understand charge agreed proper technical correction bill. If will confirm [sic], ask voted asking yeas nays. 27 HUMPHREY. Utah helpful. needed. thank him thoughtfulness. acceptable. DIRKSEN. yield myself minute. "We aware conflict develop, carries exceptions. 30 "All pending recognize exceptions, carried basic 31 "Therefore, necessary, interest clarification." 13647. 32 As shows, rather specific statutes.13 His explanation assured "shall nullified" read referring Indeed, emphasis "technical" nature disrupting "effective administration" compatible administratively interpreted, engrafting all restrictive features onto VII.14 33 Dirksen's comment "recognize" exceptions necessary applicable narrower class 167-168. clarified standards govern apply. So understood, remarks our interpretation.15 34 there returned final approval, Representative Celler explained each Senate's amendments immediately prior He stated "[p]rovides compliance satisfies requirement barring 15896 literally, severely suggest: actionable block well. Celler's precise, solution present problem.16 35 although references Members explicitly cases, reading, reading. Contract 36 agency entrusted VII—the Commission—do guidance U.S., 433-434, S.Ct., 854-855. Commission's 1965 Guidelines Discrimination Because Sex "the 'equal work' forth VII." Regulations 1604.7(a) (1966). 1972, EEOC deleted portion Guideline, 37 Fed.Reg. 6837 (1972). original Guideline petitioners' argument considerably steadfast. suggested several letters following years.17 During period, decisions For reasonable-cause determination issued 1968 existence separate different schedules hand, doing reasonably comparable establishes rates solely workers." Harrington Piccadilly Cafeteria, Case AU 7-3-173 (Apr. 25, 1968).18 38 current purport explain 1604.8 position curiae. light history, feel hesitation adopting seems most persuasive lieu once espoused, consistently followed, Commission. Defendant 39 Our Section 703(a) fail refuse hire discharge individual, employment" 2000e-2(a) (emphasis added). itself indicated, "broad approach" essential overcoming undoing S.Rep. 867, avoid mandate. 40 reading practical woman discriminatorily underpaid obtain relief—no egregious be—unless her man establishment, hired unique company then admitted salary she male, unable legal redress Similarly, used transparently sex-biased determination, men denied prove pretext Moreover, cite example recent case, Los Angeles Dept. Water Manhart, 435 702, 98 1370, 55 657 (1978), required workers pension program pay, bring establish work: auditor cause secretary not. surely intend insulate blatantly judicial VII.19 far-reaching consequences. Since rests proposition prohibited it, lead conclusion covered "authorized"—since prohibited—by Thus deny protection There result, least 1965. 1604.7 themselves apparently acknowledge broader apply impliedly admitting fallacy argument. Brief 48. Petitioners' flatly past "prohibit[ing] whatever form create inequality due origin." Franks Bowman Transportation 424 747, 763, 96 1251, 1263, 47 444 (1976). 707, 13, 1375, 13: "In forbidding individuals strike spectrum disparate treatment resulting stereotypes." (Emphasis added.) reject Amendment. III 43 strenuously approach courts." 99-100. raise specter "Title draw type imaginable concerning duties predominantly men." 101. But arguments contexts, here, comparisons describe manifestly claim. Washington correctional rates.20 44 precise contours lawsuits challenging note undercompensation barred perform guards. 45 Affirmed. 46 REHNQUIST, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE, STEWART, POWELL join, dissenting. today plaintiff state establishing males defined 1963 clearly proof work," dissent. 48 never comes grips argument, restate specifically addressed "comparable" further observe nothing just later reveals intent overrule determination. Quite contrary, adoption demonstrates Congress' claims, standard. satisfied standard, 49 rejecting ignores traditional canons statutory history. thought well settled statute useful guide "has bearing [Act]," ante, 173, n.12, "does problem," 176, "no weight." Ante, n.16. Instead, decision unshakable belief result unsounded public policy. insists beyond why so, nor be. And, course, charged sound 50 closest come giving reason "deprive mandate" 178. turns cannons head. rule legislature enacts protect persons, burden show coverage, defendant "clear excluding coverage. Such departure rules particularly unwarranted doctrine pari materia governed substantive previously legislation, 51 rest reasoned statement logic principle, little types correctly emphasizes narrow, indeed searches Court's vain hint pleadings adduced particular 180-181, paraphrase Jackson, enunciate criteria suits adjudicated lays "down passing impression ourselves successors." Bob-Lo Excursion Michigan, 333 28, 45, 358, 366, 92 455 (1948). All know when, intentionally wages. reasons go largely unexplained, available allege theories worth" theory. One sense treated railroad ticket, "good day train only." Smith Allwright, 321 649, 669, 64 757, 768, 88 987 (1944) (Roberts, J., dissenting). 52 end, flaw today's narrowly written meaningless, wrong. obviously interested discerning reaching desired conveniently persistently instead relies wholly believes enacted. 53 starting point 1938, 201-219 months exhaustive study, states responsibility. formula, carefully considered ultimately advanced amici. amply demonstrates, realized comparable-worth ignore economic realities supply demand involve governmental impossible task ascertaining area expertise. 54 begins 1962 Green Zelenko introduced bills, 8898 10226 respectively, representing Kennedy administration's legislation. Both bills "SEC. 4. No employee character skills, increase 8898, 87th Sess. (1961); 10226, (1962) supplied).1 56 extensive hearings proposal, urged language, comparability through evaluation procedures. Hearings Select Subcommittee Committee Education Labor, 16, (testimony Secretary Arthur Goldberg Assistant Esther Peterson). A containing comparable-work denominated 11677, reported reached House. Once there, St. George objected "for skills." 108 14767 (1962). explained, limit claimsto situation differently job. 57 "What want exactly says. committee hearings. great 'comparable' 'equal.' 58 59 ". opens vistas. gives tremendous latitude whoever arbitrator disputes." supplied.) 60 Landrum echoed remarks. stressed prevent trooping around country Department harassing business various term 'equal' capable throughout States." 14768. administration, represented vigorously observed existing cited correspondence key proposal." 14768-14769. House, advice When too theory favor 61 Conference failed report Committee, enactment legislation delayed amendment, reintroduced beginning session. leaves doubt notion cosponsor significance change work."2 62 think important point. Updated: changed whole concept. went involved identical, is, alike closely related other. 63 expect equal. hear say, 'Well, thing,' evaluate skill equal." 9197 supplied). Frelinghuysen 65 "[W]e concept, effective, excessive excessively wide ranging. What insure, conditions[,] receive either equipped hunting licenses. 67 [The EPA ] compare unrelated historically normally industry different." 9196 supplied).3 unwilling Government broad determine recognized major restructuring American economy. concluded intervention equalize undertaken circumstance: men's women's hence unarguably worth. defies common Congress—which, debates, decided involvement claims—intended sub silentio abandon limitations later, 69 2000a 2000e-2(a)(1). completely back later. 70 answers affirmative, concluding holding, majority repeated adherence materia, namely, "[w]here otherwise, controlled nullified one, regardless priority enactment." Radzanower Touche Ross 426 148, 153, 1989, 1992, 540 (1976), citing Morton Mancari, 535, 550-551, 2474, 2482-2483, 290 (1974); Continental Tuna Corp., 425 164, 169, 1319, 1323, 653 Tuna, Suits Admiralty allowed sue stringent Public Vessels amounted repeal implication. evasion reflected absent statute. Train Colorado Interest Research Group, 1, 434 Control altered regulation scheme Atomic Energy indication intent." 24, 1948. 71 principles construed materia. piece dealing product study. antidiscrimination provision, General Electric Gilbert, 429 125, 143, 97 401, 411, 343 (1976) (the "notable primarily brevity").4 Most significantly, absolutely implication subject—such comments Clark Celler, contemporaneous EEOC—indicates alone. 190-197. 72 order reach desperately desires, neatly solves contrary 172, n.12; doubted Chief Marshall correct mind labours design legislature, seizes thing aid derived. Fisher, Cranch 386, 304 (1805). pieces toto, barely plausible, say convincing. 73 added floor. bypassed directly Senate. ban response questions Dirksen, Clark, manager prepared memorandum attempted put objections believed unfounded. Clark's answer Dirksen Act: 74 "Objection. duplicate this, extend far scope include act skills establishments, thus, cut across "Answer. hour law, numerous exemptions unlike Furthermore, longer classified rational ground occupational qualification. wages, (1964) 76 passage, asserted notwithstanding businesses, access (e. g., assignment promotion) compensation. addition, continue concern, standard—the standard—would unfounded unnecessary Notwithstanding explanation, remained concerned explicit cross-reference "wholesale assertion" "sex" nullify conceived Accordingly, offered, accepted, VII: [§ 6(d) Act]." 79 ambiguous, plausible incorporates Act—the standard—into number considerations view. place, with, fact confirms, amendment—the cloture—he purpose.5 80 81 Now 82 nullified." 83 obvious way "nullified" allow meet proceed asserting worth." showing criterion file "broader" would, purposes, constitute implied nullity. precisely sought avert embraces. 84 confirmed understanding 85 practice: nonexempt employees, 86 "Simply stated, [Bennett] account violates Act." 111 13359 (1965) 87 "precisely" he, Humphrey, staffs 13360. added: trust suffice minds anyone, elsewhere, accepted." Ibid.6 glean insight Chairman Judiciary sponsor sent record met [EPA] sex—[§ 703(h)]." discounts somewhat "imprecise." 176. find difficult understood amendments, whatsoever inquiry us.7 89 Finally, EEOC, weight still fresh administrator's mind, buttresses Udall Tallman, 380 792, 801, 616 (1965); 142, 411. incorporated explain: 90 harmonized (section 206(d)) conflicting requirements situations statutes applicable. interprets mean However, coextensive 703, Three weeks Guidelines, Counsel official letter.8 explained: indicated November 1965, Register 14928, 703(h), enumerated Counsel's December 29, App. 7a. 93 EEOC's room doubt: VII.9 blithely chooses interpret requirement.10 That survive scrutiny. distinction liability work—and Congressman close suggesting itself. draftsmanship examine words manner " 'reconstitute[s] gamut values uttered.' National Woodwork Manufacturers Assn. NLRB, 386 612, 620, 1250, 1255, 357 (1967) (quoting L. Hand, J.). stands head suppose surprising reverse predicate preserve 95 terms unpersuasive. defenses: permissible (1) system, (2) (3) (4) defenses.11 opening protects production. These defense, "a sex," statute's applies mere surplusage. (1955) ("It duty 'to effect, possible, clause statute,' Montclair Ramsdell, 107 147, 152 [2 391, 394, 431], emasculate section").12 curious. repetition ensures interpreted courts. 170. speaks statute, stating twice Courts quite dense assumes. sum, together, balanced resolving qualified assures equally. standards, emerges serves insure judged. Perhaps unacceptable argues apart issue properly left Court, wrong policy matter. parade horribles occur distinct reaches. contends admits worker, position, male. 178-179. Stated isolate category arbitrarily currently available. violation greater unlikely admission bullpen employer's "if males, males" admissible Overt unremedied Bourque Powell Elec- trical Manufacturing 617 (CA5 1980); Peltier City Fargo, 533 374 (CA8 1976); International Union Electrical Workers Westinghouse 631 1094, 1108, (CA3 1980) (Van Dusen, insofar hiring placement caused isolated category, remedies (such backpay, transfer, constructive seniority) resort comparisons. short, low will, adequate opportunities next 179-180. misapprehends memorandum, 191-192, standard—not provisions. 194-195. bringing choose deprived 100 course "comparable," to, men. foreclosed received dissimilar best, chose cases. suggestion forms recently emphasized substantial legislators Houses traditionally resisted business. Those demanded price 'management prerogatives, union freedoms undisturbed greatest possible.' Steelworkers Weber, 443 193, 206, 2721, 2729, 480 (1979). Mohasco Corporation Silver, 447 807, 820, 532 (1980) (a 90-day "represented sacrifice enacted"). need desire associated structures. formula reflects outcome balancing. construing indifferent sort political compromise. IV Even reaches perhaps saving feature. endorse theory: indicate prima facie suggest allegations unequal, comparable, relief granted. repeatedly 166, relates, criticism, Lemons of- Denver, 620 228 (CA10), cert. denied, 888, 244, 114 distinguishable. 7. nurses community. Christensen Iowa, 563 353 1977) (no plaintiffs, university, physical plant). 102 Given repeals disfavored, TVA Hill, 437 189, 2279, 2299, 117 surprised disassociates enacting comparing jobs: reveal strive harmonize Where, expressed, "transfuse successor gloss choosing." De Sylva Ballentine, 351 570, 579, 974, 979, 1415 (1956). 103 logical underpinnings opinion, woman's woman. approve 104 foregoing reasons, superimposed "gloss Prior February 1973, $476 $606 month, $668 $853. Effective $525 $668, salaries ranged $701 $940. 789 Oregon inmates guarded women, Or.Rev.Stat. 137.350, 137.360 (1979), indicates prisoners. 789, 792 nn. 9. concede gender qualification positions. 2000e-2(e)(1); Dothard Rawlinson, 433 321, 2720, 786 (1977). municipal passage Amendments 55, 58-62. 2(1), 103. contended rehired retaliation demands Respondent Vander Zanden medical demands. contentions, 168. scholarly debate, elements merits principle. e. E. Livernash, Comparable Worth: Issues Alternatives (1980); Blumrosen, Wage Discrimination, Job Segregation, U.Mich.J.L.Ref. 397 (1979); Nelson, Opton, Wilson, "Comparable Worth" Theory Perspective, 231 conducted BNA Daily Report Nos. 83-85 28-30, 1980), commissioned systems, D. Treiman, Evaluation; An Analytic Review (1979) (interim report). distinguish hospital, value—other nurses—in community, cf. 1977), lay down conduct sole precludes proceeding Webster's Third New 147 "indicates endowing formally power act, usu. discretionary privileges." (Examples deleted.) "Notwithstanding subchapter, production differences examined 198-201, 2229-2231, versions define add job-evaluation disrupted. 199-201, 2230-2231. evident legislators. Griffin, principle," "makes legislation." 9203 (remarks Frelinghuysen); 9197-9198 Griffin); ibid., Thompson); 9198 Goodell); 9202 Kelly); 9217 Reps. Pucinski Thompson). raised spokesman drafted printed Congressional Record. objection "Objection: "Answer: constitutes relates dissent finds "obvious" "principal way" standard" Post, 193. history: discussing during debates mentioned Bennett's preserving "programs" "been focus enforcement procedures, limitation. repealed nullity, post, mistaken. Not affect 170-171, procedural characteristics remain significant. generous filing complaints awaiting conciliation efforts. advantages, prefer baron Babcock, Freedman, Norton, S. Ross, 507 (1975). exchange Randolph asked Humphrey industrial retirement plans, options permissible. responded: "Yes. unmistakably amendment; it." 13663-13664 Apparently, referred plans fall parties Committees "compensation Act"); 18263 criticizing post hoc adding interpretation); 95-331, (1977) (stating authorizes hesitant attach Teamsters 431 324, 354, 39, 1843, 1864, 396 contradictory statements, 7a; May 4, 1966, 11a-13a; Commissioner's July 16a, 171, Pages A-3 A-4 (Sept. 1966); Acting Memorandum 6, 1967, 21a-22a. 6-6-5762, Commerce Clearing (1973) ¶ 6001, 4008-4009, (1968); 71-2629, 6300, 4538-4539 attempts minimize hold 201-202. dissent's remediless supra 35-36 EEOC); Multiple Regression Legal Proceedings, Colum.L.Rev. 721-725 278-288; Schwab, Evaluation Setting: Concepts Practices, 49, 52-70. new idea. World War regulations Board (NWLB) regulations, evaluations inequities existed plant Lab.Rep. 666 (1945). 1945 mandating substituting NWLB. Statements sponsors "deserv[e] accorded statute." FEA Algonquin SNG, Inc., 548, 564, 2295, 2304, (1976); Schwegmann Brothers Calvert Distillers 341 384, 745, 750, 1035 (1951). Goodell relief. stated: Labor's going saying, 'Look you here $1.75 $2.10. Come Employer, sex.' doing." 9208 Griffin noted meant inspector assembler compared, inspectors inspect complicated parts compared making simple cursory inspections. 9197. Thompson, Griffin's examples. 9198. originally Negroes. prohibit speculated thwart day, attenuated thereby crafted designated amendment." insignificant one. evinced invocation cloture, leaving expeditious introducing this. (1965). undoubtedly danger relying subsequent irrelevant, where, clarifying ambiguous Galvan Press, 347 522, 526-527, 737, 740, 911 (1954) (Court relied 1951 McCarran 1950 sponsored). discounted criticized them. 16. criticize Bennett, dispute, placed letter "Our best [Bennett Amendment] sure commended reasoning letter. foregoing, mystifying. 174, 13. discussed twice. 191-192; supra. theory—that VII—that "so mentioned" "Senator Congressman." 198-199. Other 1960's violated performed. explains: follows California minimum [W ]hatever compels test 1604.7." 11a-13a. stresses "where comply [under VII]." 9a-10a. "[a]ssuming laborers [Title 16a. i. e., etc., phrase "authorize": "Differentiations [703(h)] differentiations responsibility harmonization [Act] which, 70[3](h), 'authorize' differentiations." relationship "an guideline varies change". Trans Airlines, Incorporated Hardison, 432 63, 76, 11, 2264, 2272, 113 given 1972 addressing pregnancy benefits regulations). conclusion, heavily "authorize." Rather "make fortress dictionary," Cabell Markham, 148 739 (CA2), aff'd, 326 404, 165 (1945), implement dictionary definitions guide, contend. 169 (4th 1968) done future." Act—and VII—are "skill, conditions" 7, rely brief "exceptions highly thin reed concedes, 175, "exceptions" probably refers objection, answered requirement. third, 194. analysis, consists sentences: "[1] locations. [2] [except sex]." himself "[the defenses] 703(h). subsection (h), effect."

Classification Label: 1