Legal Document

418 U.S. 323 94 Supreme Court Reporter 2997 41 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 789 Elmer GERTZ, Petitioner,v.ROBERT WELCH, INC. Number 72—617. Argued Nov. 14, 1973. Decided June 25, 1974. Syllabus A Chicago policeman named Nuccio was convicted of murder. The victim's family retained petitioner, a reputable attorney, to represent them in civil litigation against Nuccio. An article appearing respondent's magazine alleged that Nuccio's murder trial part Communist conspiracy discredit the local police, and it falsely stated petitioner had arranged 'frameup,' implied criminal record, labeled him 'Communist-fronter.' Petitioner brought this diversity libel action respondent. After jury returned verdict for District decided standard enunciated New York Times company versus Sullivan, 376 254, 84 710, 11 686, which bars media liability defamation public official absent proof defamatory statements were published with knowledge their falsity or reckless disregard truth, should apply suit. court concluded protects discussion issue without regard whether person defamed is as supra, figure, Curtis Publishing Butts, 388 130, 87 1975, 18 1094. found failed prove truth therefore entered judgment n.o.v. Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. publisher broadcaster falsehoods about an individual who neither nor figure may not claim protection on ground concern general interest. Pp. 339—348. (a) Because private individuals characteristically have less effective opportunities rebuttal than do officials figures, they are more vulnerable injury from defamation. voluntarily exposed themselves increased risk falsehoods, also deserving recovery. state interest compensating reputation greater figures. 343—345. (b) To extend persons whenever involved would abridge unacceptable degree legitimate occasion additional difficulty forcing courts decide ad hoc basis publications broadcasts address issues not. 345—346. (c) So long impose fault, define appropriate falsehood injures whose substance makes substantial danger apparent. 347—348. 2. States, however, permit recovery presumed punitive damages when based plaintiff establishes under demanding test recover compensation only actual injury. 348—350. 3. figure. 351—352. Neither petitioner's past service certain city committees his appearance attorney at coroner's inquest into death victim made official. Pacific KF135 P2 351. Absent clear evidence fame notoriety community pervasive involvement ordering affairs society, be deemed all aspects life. Rather, public-figure question determined by reference individual's participation particular controversy giving rise Petitioner's role affair did make 7 Cir., 471 Federal Reporter, 2nd 801, reversed remanded. Wayne baron Giampietro, Chicago, Ill., petitioner. Clyde Judge Watts, Oklahoma City, Okl., Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 This has struggled nearly decade proper accommodation between law freedoms speech press protected First Amendment. With decision we return effort. We granted certiorari reconsider extent publisher's constitutional privilege citizen. 410 925, 93 1355, 35 585 (1973). 2 * In 1968 shot killed youth Nelson. authorities prosecuted homicide ultimately obtained conviction second degree. Nelson Gertz, 3 Respondent publishes American Opinion, monthly outlet views John Birch Society. Early 1960's began warn nationwide enforcement agencies create stead national police force capable supporting dictatorship. As continuing effort alert assumed danger, managing editor Opinion commissioned Officer For purpose he engaged regular contributor magazine. March 1969 respondent resulting title 'FRAME-UP: Richard And War On Police.' purports demonstrate testimony false prosecution campaign police. 4 capacity counsel litigation, attended boy's initiated actions damages, but discussed played any proceeding. Notwithstanding remote connection Nuccio, portrayed architect 'frame-up.' According article, file took 'a big, Irish cop lift.' been 'Marxist League Industrial Democracy, originally known Intercollegiate Socialist Society, advocated violent seizure our government.' It Gertz 'Leninist' officer National Lawyers Guild, described organization 'probably other outfit plan attack during Democratic Convention.' 5 These contained serious inaccuracies. implication record false. member Guild some 15 years earlier, there no taken planning demonstrations Chicago. There charge 'leninist' never Democracy' 'Intercollegiate Society.' verify substantiate charges Instead, appended editorial introduction stating author 'conducted extensive research Case.' included photograph wrote caption appeared it: 'Elmer Red harasses Nuccio.' mespondent placed containing sale newsstands throughout country distributed reprints streets 6 filed Northern Illinois. He claimed injured lawyer Before filing answer, moved dismiss complaint failure upon relief could granted, apparently allege special damages. But ruled constituted per se Illinois consequently need plead 306 F.Supp. 310 (1969). answering complaint, pretrial motion summary judgment, claiming defamation.1 asserted concerned concern. these reasons, argued, entitled invoke 686 (1964). Under rule escape unless publication 'with 'actual malice'—that is, not.' Id., 279 280, S.Ct., 726. such showing submitted affidavit magazine's editor. denied concerning relied author's prior experience accuracy authenticity contributions Opinion. 8 memorandum September 16, 1970. dispute standard. might overcome making factual sufficient truth. During course trial, became acceped grounds applying case. thought depended contention either 1094 (1967), discounting argument arise presence issue. presented before submission case jury, effect added that, if were, application require directed law, instructions withdrew its consideration save measure awarded $50,000 9 Following further reflection, govern even though accepted status therein. Accordingly, notwithstanding jury's verdict.2 conclusion anticipated reasoning plurality Rosenbloom Metromedia, Inc., 403 29, 91 1811, 29 296 (1971). 10 appealed contest applicability Although Seventh Circuit doubted correctness Court's determination overturn finding.3 agreed assert because matter interest, citing intervening supra. read broadcast significant position, fame, anonymity defamed, issue.4 reviewing endorsed show convincing acted malice' defined Times. knew accusations article. fact, nothing except what learned correctly noted mere investigate, more, cannot establish must act "high awareness . probable falsity." St. Amant Thompson, 390 727, 731, 88 1323, 1325, 20 262 (1968); accord, Beckley Newspapers Corporation Hanks, 389 81, 84—85, 197, 199 200, 19 248 (1967); Garrison Louisiana, 379 64, 75 76, 85 209, 212, 216—217, 13 125 reveal cause awareness. affirmed, 801 (1972). reasons below, reverse. II principal newspaper provilege inflicted those statements. considered rather different set facts Rosenbloom, distributor nudist magazines, arrested selling allegedly obscene material while delivery retail dealer. warrant seized entire inventory 3,000 books magazines. sought injunction prohibiting interference business. then sued locl radio station failing note two newscasts items 'reportedly' 'allegedly' broadcasting references 'the smut literature racket' 'girlie-book peddlers' coverage proceeding injunctive relief. station, Third held applicable reversed. 415 892 12 affirmed majority agree controlling rationale. eight Justices5 participated announced five separate opinions, none commanded three votes. several disagreement result case, reflect divergent traditions problem reconciling One approach expanding variety situations. Another vary level defamed. third view grant absolute immunity place holding context, preface review opinions antecedents. affirming court's instant Brennan's 'all communication involving matters concern,' U.S., 44, 1820, accorded intended free criticism restraints imposed common ran political advertisement endorsing rights black students Alabama impliedly condemning performance law-enforcement officials. commissioner established misstatements referred law. left single defense good faith reasonable care protect liability. 'rule compelling critic conduct guarantee assertions' deter speech, id., 279, 725, designed counter effect: 14 'The guarantees require, think, federal prohibits recovering relating proves statement 279—280, 726.6 Three after Times, 'public figures.' extension Butts companion, Associated Press Walker, 162, 1995, (1967). first Saturday Evening Post's Coach Wally University Georgia conspired 'Bear' Bryant fix football game respective schools. Walker erroneous account former Major General Edwin Walker's Mississippi campus riot. paid alumni association resigned Army, classified official' Harlan both cases, Chief Warren's figures' well officials.'7 extended nonpublic 'are nevertheless intimately resolution important questions or, reason shape events areas society large.' 164, 1996 (Warren, C.J., concurring result). 16 (1971), Brennan one step further. abjured suggested distinction figures hand other. focused instead society's learning issues: 'If subject suddenly become so merely involved, sense 'voluntarily' choose involved.' 43, 1819. Thus, opinion, citizen involuntarily associated recourse can satisfy requirements test. 17 Two members concurred departed plurality. Black restated view, shared Douglas, Amendment cloaks news indefeasible 57, 1826. White narrower ground. Ibid. gives report comment servants full detail, requirement privacy affected spared view.' 62, 1829. declined reach broader addressed Justices. dissented. joined contested argued governmental office allowed 'on highly unreasonable constituting extreme departure standards investigation reporting ordinarily adhered responsible publishers.' 155, 1991. distinguished primarily 'lay close seditious .' 153, 1990. Recovery office, 'be viewed vindication policy.' 154, Additionally, intimated most enjoyed own utterances Barr Matteo, 360 564, 79 1335, 1434 (1959), lacked strong courts. modified views. acquiesced obtain where harmed individual. likelihood 'of securing access channels rebut him' 70, 1833 himself spotlight. constitutionally allow fault. Marshall dissented Stewart. 78, 1836. plurality's interest' determining involve dangerous business deciding 'what information relevant self-government.' 79, 1837. contended position inadequately served 'society's protecting being thrust eye distorting light defamation.' reached conclusion, Harlan, 'essentially continue evolution articulate whatever fault best suits State's need,' 86, 1841. point among dissenters Whereas amounts bearing purposeful relationship harm done .,' 75, 1835, size unpredictability awards exemplary unnecessarily exacerbated problems self-censorship forbidden. III 21 begin thing idea. However pernicious seem, depend correction conscience judges juries competition ideas.8 value fact. intentional lie careless error materially advances 'uninhibited, robust, wide-open' debate issues. 270, 721. They belong category essential exposition ideas, slight social benefit derived clearly outweighed order morality.' Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 572, 62 766, 769, 86 L.Ed. 1031 (1942). 22 fact worthy protection, inevitable debate. James Madison pointed out Report Virginia Resolutions 1798: 'Some abuse inseparable use every thing; instance true press.' Elliot, Debates Constitution 1787, Page 571 (1876). punishment runs inducing cautious restrictive exercise guaranteed press. Our decisions recognize strict compels assertions lead intolerable self-censorship. Allowing avoid proving injurious does accord adequate liberties. 725: 'Allowance burden defendant, mean will deterred.' requires matters. 23 societal If embraced ago publishers broadcasters enjoy unconditional See 293, 733 (Black, J., concurring); 80, 218 (1964) (Douglas, 170, 1999 (opinion Black, J.). Such would, indeed, obviate fear prospect dissuade timorous freedoms. Yet communications total sacrifice competing 24 underlying falsehood. lightly State abandon purpose, for, Stewart reminded us, right name 25 'reflects basic concept dignity worth human being—a root decent system ordered liberty. personality, like life itself, Ninth Tenth Amendments. recognition system.' Rosenblatt Baer, 383 92, 669, 679, 597 (1966) (concurring opinion). 26 Some tension necessarily exists vigorous uninhibited redressing wrongful stated, 'some antithesis freedom persists, remains premised content limits express sentiments, least guaranteeing legal accuracy.' 152, concerns, especially anxious assure 'breathing space' fruitful exercise. NAACP Button, 371 415, 433, 83 328, 338, 405 (1963). end strategic 27 defines context person. Those who, achievements vigor success seek public's attention, properly classed hold administers extremely powerful antidote inducement common-law slander. exacts correspondingly high price victims Plainly many plaintiffs, including intentionally subjected injury, unable surmount barrier Despite abridgment hurt one's reputation, available supra; think correct, find holdings justified solely believe states limited present persons. conclude respect them. 28 Theoretically, course, balance needs struck case-by-case basis. hypothesized, 'it purely abstract matter, utilitarian scrutinize carefully ascertain final leaves fully values transcend prevailed.' 63, 1829 (footnote omitted). unpredictable results uncertain expectations, render duty supervise lower unmanageable. interests stake each feasible, lay down broad rules application. treat alike various cases differences similarities. Thus often considerations justify adoption given authority. caveat distinguishing plaintiffs. remedy victime self-help—using contradict correct thereby minimize adverse impact reputation. Public usually significantly hence realistic opportunity counteract normally enjoy.9 Private correstpondingly greater. 30 More lack rebuttal, normative decides accept necessary consequences affairs. closer scrutiny otherwise officers government strictly formal discharge duties. 77, 217, extends 'anything touch official's fitness office. Few personal attributes germane dishonesty, malfeasance, improper motivation, characteristics affect character.' 31 stand similar position. Hypothetically, possible someone through own, instances truly involuntary exceedingly rare. attain roles especial prominence society. occupy positions persuasive power influence purposes. commonly, forefront controversies involved. event, invite attention comment. 32 Even foregoing generalities instance, assumption No rpivate 'influential society.' relinquished name, call redress figures; 33 retain latitude efforts enforce proposed unacceptable. 'general not—to determine, words Marshall, doubt wisdom committing task judges. Nor us draw thin line drastic alternatives error. serves stake. hand, meet rigorous despite factors distinguish analogous deems unrelated liable precaution ensure assertions. far exceed plaintiff, permitted presume loss award 34 individual.10 provides equitable boundary concerns here. recognizes strength yet shields rigors At obtains where, here, 'makes apparent.'11 phrase places perspective announce today. inquiry somewhat above purported condition misstatement reasonably prudent potential. Cf. Time, Incorporated Hill, 385 374, 534, 456 now intimate resolution. IV allows required belief prompted wholly inapplicable individuals. endorse countervailing 36 oddity tort purportedly compensatory loss. traditional pertaining libel, existence publication. Juries sums supposed damage actually occurred. largely uncontrolled discretion compounds potential inhibit doctrine invites punish unpopular compensate sustained point, plaintiffs gratuitous money excess 37 not, invalidate simply wisdom, here attempting reconcile grounded command remedies farther restrict injury,' wide framing actions. Suffice say out-of-pocket Indeed, customary types include impairment standing community, humiliation, mental anguish suffering. Of instructions, supported competent although assigns dollar 38 justification allowing state-defined jurisdictions over gentle excessive. Consequently, assess relation caused. remain selectively expressions Like exacerbates self-censorship, but, unlike rule, irrelevant justifies negligence fines levied reprehensible future occurrence. short, V 39 refusal individuals, contends affirm below little assertion. Several incident, briefly housing appointed mayor time remunerative admits argues rendered 'de facto official.' recognized concept. Respondent's suggestion sweep lawyers distort plain meaning beyond recognition. decline follow it. 40 characterization raises question. That designation rest alternative bases. achieve becomes purposes contexts. injects drawn range assume questions. active professional civic groups organizations, articles subjects. circles, achieved community. None prospective jurors called ever heard offered response atypical population. citizen's personality preferable reduce meaningful looking nature 42 minimal inquest, related representation client. Moreover, quoted having so. plainly vortex issue, engage attempt outcome. persauded err refusing characterize litigation. 43 erred entering new necessary. reverse remand proceedings opinion. 44 ordered. 45 Reversed 46 BLACKMUN, concurring. 47 & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions (1964), progeny (noted Court, ante, 334—336, n. 6), extending event logical inevitable. evidently otherwise, particularly evidenced White's dissenting 48 today refuses individual, contrasted thus withdraws pre-Rosenbloom cases. fixes outer says boundary, itself my joinder Rosenbloom's intimate, illogic this. 49 seeks strike assumptions behavior color result. departs rationale plurality, conditions negligence, willful disregard, am willing join, reasons: 50 By removing specters absence malice, eliminates motives action. doing, breathing space What done, believe, little, any, practical functioning journalism. 51 sadly fractionated Rosenbloom. kind inevitably leads uncertainty. feel profound importance come area unsureness engendered diversity. vote needed majority, adhere view. definitive ruling, paramount. 398, 547, (1967) Vuitch, 402 97, 1294, 1311, 601 (1971) (separate statement). 52 join 53 BURGER, dissenting. 54 doctrines gradual field. 55 Agreement evolved alter orderly development consistent today's abandons thread ordinary introduces publishing much WHITE states, doctrinal quite way does. frank know parameters 'negligence' applied media. Conceivably editors, dissents DOUGLAS BRENNAN suggest. prefer evolve up citizens embark theory jurisprudential ancestry. 56 performing representative advocate highest tradition invidiously identified policy underlies tradition—the counsel—would gravely jeopardized takes 'unpopular' criminal, automatically fair irresponsible reporters editors might, example, describe 'mob mouthpiece' representing client 'ambulance chaser' claimant 57 reinstatement entry verdict. 58 DOUGLAS, 59 describes struggle 'defin(ing) Amendment.' indeed struggle, once same quagmire' 'is helplessly struggling field obscenity.' 171, 2000, suggest hopeless one, Amendment, 'accommodation' 'proper' Framers themselves. 60 Unlike which, terms Fourth accommodated searches seizures warrants issued magistrates, verbiage prescription seems clear. bar Congress passing law.1 Thomas Jefferson2 challenged enactment statute. sole congressional muzzle Sedition Act 1798—a tested expired enactment. President, Jefferson pardoned Act, repaid Congress.3 consensus regrettable legislative violation Amendment.4 61 Fourteenth,5 see how ability 'accommodate' Congress. form since '(w)hat bring means statute likewise libel.' 277, 724, 686. Congress, 'to discussing affairs.' 295, 734 concurring).6 Continued possibility honored Fourteenth diluted version protection. accepts Due Process Clause Fourteenth, due process deem 'implicit liberty.'7 frequently rested generally8 alone. speaks 'privileges immunities' citizenship. conceive higher regimes, infringement illusory. identity oppressor relative indifference oppressed. 63 impinges open sanctions imposition laws. Discussion marked charged emotions, jurymen, all, emotions. very type arouses emotion vehicle controversial periodical disseminates offensive. 'Communist plots,' 'conspiracies agencies,' killing amalgam elements pressing determination, neutral circumstances, venture discuss heated issues, virtual roll dice separating massive claims damage. 64 hardy face risk, preoccupation proliferating increases risks. articulated 'malice' 'reckless truth' 'negligence,' determinations criteria virtually unreviewable. delineation variegated mantles publisher, speculation findings influenced minds viscera jury. 'define broadcaster' circumstances simple option, finding man.' continued erosion man refrains speaking. 65 Since Amendments prohibit affairs, below. 66 BRENNAN, 67 expressed Part figure'; instead, dealing forces, 'an interest." 31—32, 1814, (1971); 331—332 4. agree, robust debate—so government—is space,' Contract P (1963), when, holds, party apparent." Ante, 348.1 avoidance reputations York, knowing-or-reckless-falsity reports 68 persons' self-governance perseveres 'profound commitment principle uninhibited, wide-open.' 721 (emphasis added). 'far activities levels government,' 41, 1818 '(f)reedom discussion, fulfill historic function nation, embrace enable cope exigencies period.' Thornhill Alabama, 88, 102, 736, 744, 1093 (1940). 69 teaching distilled times '(t)he primary (,) participant content, effect, significance Matters 'suddenly 388, 542, 70 acknowledging concern, provide, afforded laws figures—that shown truth—is apt, comments scrutiny. 71 While arguments forcefully eloquently presented, them, Rosenbloom: 72 give (First) Amendment's encourage ventilation prominent people, rare denial overtakes original charge. Denials, retractions, corrections 'hot' news, rarely receive story. When minor functionary, put ., loses force. vast libels respond complex factor depends: media's unproved, improbable, generalization (not defined) class better able too insubstantial reed distinction.' 46—47, 1821. 73 knowing-or-reckless freely arena 'bears 47, 1822. Social interaction exposes observed exposure incident 543. Therefore, 74 '(v)oluntarily 'public' men Conversely, lives fall outside Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 1678, 510 (1965). idea inspection, kept theirs shrouded best, fiction. easily produce paradoxical dampening happen encouragement concern.' 48, 1822 sure, commends defame person: 'In ideal world, responsibility match trust it.' 51, 1823.2 agrees, tolerated insure would-be commentators 'deterred voicing criticism, believed true, proved expense so.' 725. fortiori Brother WHITE's views, 1, deny expression space.' Today's exacerbate utterance 'steer wider unlawful zone,' Speiser Randall, 357 513, 526, 78 1332, 1342, 1460 (1958). 76 requiring contentions publishers, fearful bear so, eschewed printing articles. Adoption, reasonable-care interest—the decision—will weigh myriad 'elusive,' 389, 543; saddles guessing reasonableness steps picture portrait.' regime, prepublication judgments juror assessment diverse size, operating procedures, financial newsgathering system, costs benefits instituting frequent costly accuracy. 1970 Term, Harv.L.Rev. 3, 228 contrast test, doubtless preponderance evidence. 77 normal suit (the evidence) employed, 'we defendant's favor plaintiff's favor.' re Winship, 397 358, 371, 90 1068, 1076, 368 (1970) (Harlan, concurring). serious. Not mulct defendant innocent error, vagueness impetus toward tolerate.' 50, 1823. And, hazardous, flexibility inheres convert instrument suppression 'vehement, caustic, sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks,' prevail.' Monitor Patriot Roy, 401 265, 621, 628, discount altogether opinions. probability accounts limitation truth.' 348. want poses threat suppressing broad-ranging examples suffering, bent punishing formidable weapon doing Finally, injury'—however reduces frequency recoveries—will provide elbowroom expression. 80 'It expensive protracted process, enough zone' keeping cognizance. Too, small suffers equally award, label 'actual' 'punitive." 52—53, 1824. 81 uncertainties avoided reject improperly commits interest.'3 always easy. 17, surely courts, ultimate arbiters disputes clashes values, functions undertaking duty. Also, substantially lessened 'sizable body employed figure.' Comment, Expanding Constitutional Protection News Media Liability Defamation: Predictability Synthesis, Mich.L.Rev. 1547, 1560 broad; residual contours occasioned imposing negligent 82 failed, opportunity, disputed 329—330 2, Appeals. WHITE, 200 years—from founding Nation—the almost exclusively legislatures. typical hatred, contempt, ridicule. Given publication, presumed, facts. governing remained untouched until relatively recently, libelous constitute unprotected exceptions carved 1964. now, using chosen instrument, few printed pages, federalized major declaring unconstitutional respects prevailing States. accomplished culpability recovered malice ill will; knowing required. sweeping changes popular press, road salvation it, insufficient scuttling wholesale fashion, deprecating rendering powerless illegitimate bounds judicial review, ill-considered entrusted briefs decides. respectfully dissent. Lest mistake wrought cut deeply. 1938, Restatement Torts reflected written material—material tending 'so another estimation associating him'1 proved.2 § 569 (1938).3 Truth defense, privileged; circulation, damage, along pecuniary emotional distress. least, nominal actionable performed vindicatory enabling publicly brand salutary preventive character permits expose groundless rumor resulted therefrom.' 569, b, 166. 89 slander, imputed offense; venereal loathsome communicable disease; lawful business; unchastity woman. 570. actionable, slanderous distress, kind. 575 Pages 185—187. Damages slander 'harm caused harm, 621. heart libel-and-slander-per-se scheme history likely 'in subtle indirect impossible directly trace effects thereof defamed.' a, 314.4 Proof support se. proved, proof. caused, reputation.' 575, 185.5 distress 623. Punitive recoverable amounting malice. 908 555. Preparations mid-1960's (Second) defamation, trend limiting apparent face, i.e., innuendo extrinsic inducement.' (Tent. Draft 12, Apr. 27, 1966). Libels sort slanders reputation.6 All defamations Whether change heavily debated,7 unquestioned recurring situations 92 surveying current '(a)ll ..' (Tent.Draft 11, 15, 1965). Ten old depends be. Twenty-four said treated 86. six unsettled (Second). 88. consider regardless face. 89. therefore, categories se.8 raised loss, Unquestionably, absolute, conditional, privileges publish materials, situations, prima facie defeated truth.9 immediately obvious indisputable. longer historically addition, culpable negligence. succeeds respect, faces still obstacle: conditioned 'competent' traditionally damaging rejects inherently difficult prove, borne victim. Plainly, difficult, perhaps impossible, vindicate declaration lose, negligently made. 95 too, eliminate worked period time, se, proved. inflexible injure. 96 radical severe invasions prerogatives necessitated circumstances. demonstrated. 97 (1964); (1966), conform decisions. Thereafter Members urged foreclose liability, today, proposition amount 98 brief decided, appeals felt obliged to, 1820.10 Apparently, satisfied. Except concerned, repudiates appears espouse forth Justices discern ill-defined concepts 'liability fault' fashion novel briefed parties workability seriously explored. Nevertheless, yielding irresistible impulse interpretation discards precedent rush refashion accordance inclinations evanescent 99 contend, hardly Government, within sphere Territories Columbia, providing peaceful already developed, Roth 354 476, 482, 1304, 1307, 1498 (1957), ratified 1792 provided expression, libels. Prior Revolution, Colonies adopted libel.11 Contrary notions, sharply curtailed colonial America.12 Seditious punished contempt legislatures offense courts.13 100 Scant, abolish depriving defamers. contrary, 101 '(i)t conceded sides libeler scandal disorder conduct, abolished constitutions.' T. Cooley, Limitations 883 (8th ed. 1927). 102 Blackstone formula,14 generally L. Levy, Legacy Suppression: Freedom Speech History 247—248 (1960); Merin, Libel Wm. Mary L.Rev. (1969); Hallen, Fair Tex.L.Rev. (1929). Alexander Meiklejohn, generous acknowledged: 103 'No well-governed legislature forms speech. Libelous be, forbidden punished. necessities Constitution. unknown writers amendment, then, take forbid abridging But, solving paradox, self-contradiction, summoned if, men, wish is.' Political Freedom, Powers People 104 Leflar, Freeness Free Speech, Van.L.Rev. 1073, 1080—1081 (1962). 105 Professor Zechariah Chafee, scholar, persuasively 1791 'do arbitrarily division time.' (1954).15 notes prevent prosecutions Government Government,16 clauses wipe obscenity, profanity, individuals.'17 106 debates Bill Rights unclear inconclusive intention guarantee.18 Benjamin Franklin, Adams, William Cushing favored truthful statements, others Wilson restatement standard.19 Madison's formula 'Congress shall press' suggested: 107 people deprived speak, write, anything affecting injuriously life, liberty KF105 F3 Mott, (1943).20 108 Doubt envisioned reaching far. §§ 379—380 109 bygone repeatedly dealt Columbia Territories. expressly discussed, unmistakably revealed classic firmly controlled. e.g., Washington Post Chaloner, 250 290, 448, 987 (1919); Baker Warner, 231 588, 175, 384 (1913); Nalle Oyster, 230 165, 1043, 1439 Dorr 195 138, 808, 128 (1904); Pollard Lyon, 225, 308 (1876); Nicholls, How. 266, 591 (1845). 110 Patterson Colorado, ex rel. Attorney General, 205 454, 462, 556, 558, 879 (1907), Constitution, provisions subsequent contrary welfare.' repeated Near Minnesota, Olson, 283 697, 714, 625, 630, 1357 (1931), adding: 111 'But public, commonlaw offense, Constitutions.' 715, 630. 112 571—572, (1942) (footnotes omitted), view: 113 'There well-defined narrowly classes prevention raise problem. lewd obscene, profane, libelous, insulting 'fighting' words—those inflict tend incite immediate breach peace. 114 Beauharnais Illinois, 343 250, 254—257, 729—731, 919 (1952) statement, noting nowhere 'was crime abolished.' 483, 1308 examined Amendment: 115 history, phrasing utterance. concluding 735, 919. obscenity developed sufficiently contemporaneous press.'21 116 generality (and, later, occupying semiofficial influential, private, positions) recover, knowingly falsity. side reged turn nineteenth century22 mirrored later scholars.23 117 central me relates laws, officials—falls State. 273—276, 722 724.24 democratic ours, criticizing suggests deprive precedent, interpreted. Simply put, confer 'license citizen.' W. Right 118 labor contend foreclosed reconsidering interpretations Amendment.25 finds clean slate instructive historical dating settlors, notions freedom, journeyed land. rich background deal fundamentals construe proceed jettison settled extent.26 119 concedes dangers override helpless defend citizen, libeled circulation 348.27 Furthermore, hurdle surmounted, awarded. 120 proceeds writing tabula rasa mediate choices thinks and, utterances. Totally ignoring arrive 'equitable compromise,' rejecting considers faultless insisting intermediate arrived considerably 121 evinces deep-seated antipathy fault.' catch-phrase talismanic meaningless addressing aware notwithstanding, knowledge, intend excuse privileged so—that turns out, circulated Is 'faultless'? Perhaps faith, launched ruin 122 heretofore invoked. shift victim, calumny, resistance employing revolutionize public. robust. me, incredible threats causing refrain hard proposition, furnishes none. 123 industry increasingly concentrated hands lucrative businesses across Nation home.28 whole components intimidated, fortunate Requiring pay occasional play existence. 124 large judgments, appear ample Why feels compelled escalate threshold fathom, false, rules, accompanying wrong unjustified, dismissed publisher. distribute manner injury; two, defamer party. publish. understand why carry suffer circulating information. serve whatsoever furthering search frustrate great defenseless owners stockholders enterprises burden. cannot, somehow essentially expense. Atlantic 126 escalating establishing abolishes undisturbed sought. Apparently unspecified number suffered deserve, dismisses 'oddity law.' dissemination survive 127 before, bears repeating, monetary prevail literally centuries shortchanged reputations. shown, made, specific proof.29 rooted catches lie.' 344 9. ignores teaches, viz., recurringly destroy chance compensation. Eminent authority warned 129 fact.' Prosser, Law 112, 765 (4th 1971).30 130 fears juries, denigrates jurors—it fails appellate excessive verdicts sustained.31 Available tends confirm ably discharged responsibility.32 131 slanders, except, gather, disregard. same, rule. apt negligent, fail understand. live incomprehensible B 132 flourish pen, "(a)ctual fraud consequences.' C. McCormick, 118, 431 (1935); 113, 772; Hanson, Related 163, 133 Note, Developments Defamation, 875, 938 (1956); Cal.Civ.Code 48a(4)(d) (1954). stead, again complains saying 'private occurrence.' 350. difference permitted, allowed. assessing departing followed industry, shown. questionable premise 'juries caused.' represents inaccurate practice, 'another judges, unfamiliar rely really going behind ..'33 certainly unpredictable, vigilant ensuring 'based rational Reynolds Pegler, 36, (S.D.N.Y.1954), aff'd, 223 429 (CA2), cert. denied, 350 846, 754 (1955). nn. 31—32. award.34 Still print retraction.35 134 immoderate verdicts, real criterion judge setting reducing concededly vague subjective one. Nevertheless twice complaining trained minds, appeal, unjustifiable escapes correction.' 278. 135 points absolutely empirical premise. part, something undifferentiated unduly burdensome retooling experiment methods guarding abuses. 136 assuming 'excessive,' subscribe remedy. example overkill. abandoning "independent examination record' ourselves intrusion expression,'36 substitutes barring majestic people's dedication issues,37 grave disservice needlessly spend force.38 years, peacefully coexisted. demonstration relate necessitate majority's response. inaudible, 'only (with) voice power, reason.' Mapp Ohio, 367 643, 1684, 1081 (1961) dissenting). 137 disagreeing persons, repudiate 'rests widest antagonistic sources welfare 326 20, 1416, 1425, 2013 (1945); Miami Herald Tornillo, 241, 260, 2831, 2840, 730 (White, My quarrel stems willingness syllogism'39—to infinite elasticity. Unfortunately, expansion latest manifestation destructive carried extreme. 138 enjoys community,' 'pervasive(ly) involve(d) society,' 'thrust (a given) outcome,'40 study group way: 139 'Accountability, subjection net subtraction liberty.' industry.' Commission Press, Responsible (1947). 140 quality quantity promoted emasculation media.41 anything, provoke imbalance process. Barron, Access Press—A Right, 1641, 1657 inconceivable unrestrained remarks discourage speaking problems. head. Scope Good-Faith Defamatory Error, Yale L.J. 642, 649 (1966); L.Rev., 418. David Riesman, midst World fascists' attacks opponents, commented: 'Thus ecclesiastic domestic character, aura heart-balm crusading nineteenth-century modern survival.' Democracy Game Comment I, Col.L.Rev. 1085, 1088 141 comes attaches 'pervasive preventing 676. From seen, miscalulated assaults individuality otherwise.42 debatable, heavy tampering laws.43 142 concomitant civilized 542 bargain falsehoods. unfair 143 fallacy guidepost 144 unjustified invasion reflects 679 (Stewart, 145 razing mass awesome select few.44 Surely, 'system regimentation hold.' Utilities commission Pollak, 451, 469, 813, 824, 1068 method vindicating names.45 146 decency antithetical. Both exist side-by-side precarious balance, threatening over-whelm testifies institutions harness dynamic tension. mechanisms accommodate forces tried average citizens. fulfilled role. 147 juristic philosophy bottom pragmatism. Its relative, absolute. produces deed recognition.' Cardozo, Selected Writings 149 (Hall ed.1947). 148 room approaches vexing 'continue forbear fettering adamant embarrass coping peculiar 681, 1706 dissenting); Murnaghan, Figment Fiction Philosophy—The Requirement Actions, Cath.U.L.Rev. Younger Harris, 37, 44—45, 746, 750—751, 669 wise, indicated doubts acquitting obey Finding shirked responsibility, transition, await diminution acting. reinstate cross-motion specified record. 322 997 (1970). asserts surprise gave denying reveals privilege. part: 'When improper. infer (respondent's) investigate allegations, coupled receipt challenging past, amounted disregard' allegations (Co.) (376 254,) 279—280 (84 726, (1964)).' Mem.Op., Sept. outcome hinge trial. initially presented. incentive, could, attempted supports observation 'did (both 'constitutional' 'ill will' type) excluded 807 stated: '(Petitioner's) considerable lawyer, author, lecturer, import undermine(s) validity figure' term used availability article.' 805. ingenious unavailing participate privilege, rejected argument. integral thesis harass police: '(W)e article's undermine determine 'If, contents entirely (petitioner) thesis. standard.' 806. acceptance arbitrary unwise differentiation kinds misstatements. illustrates point. inaccuracy defamatory. prosecution. seemingly innocuous confusing calling Communist-fronter. alerted warning. Assuming Douglas explicated newspaper's check stories files 287—288, 729—730. (1968), equated falsity: entertained publication.' emphasized ill-will. governed office.' 217. 85, 676, applies hierarchy employees have, control unusual libel. unwanted publicity. inaccuracies, complete defense. nondefamatory errors akin privacy. plaintiff. Speaking declared parallel discrete context: 'This statutory principles pronounced guide context. Were action, germane. 91, concurring).' 390—391, Kalven introduced heading, 'You Can't Tell Players Score Card.' Kalven, Reasonable Man 1967 Sup.Ct.Rev. 267, 275. Only Harlan's analysis Warren stand—that reaches reiterated Justice's Inaugural Address: dissolve Union republican form, let monuments safety combat seldom suffices undo lie. self-help alone, inadequate inquiry. prime target WHITE'S proof, conceivable offending dissemination. Post, 388—392. 'without sense, publish.' 392 characterizes 387. four connected Government. abide vote, post, dissent—as it—contradicts suggestion. 1827, voted His 'comment servants,' S.Ct, 'trivializes reputation,' 262, 2842 opinion), 'scuttle(s) fashion' renders 'powerless themselves.' 370. progressive detailed preceding paragraph, comprehensive reputational presently affords. co. See, 90, 678, (concurring). 1798 '(The Amendment) guard(s) sentence, words, religion, press: insomuch, violates either, throws sancturary covers others, libels, falsehood, heresy withheld cognizance tribunals. Works 464—465 (Ford 1904) July 4, 1840, chapter 45, Statutes-at-Large 802, accompanied H.R.Rep.No.86, 26th Cong., 1st Sess. (1840). Senator Calhoun invalidity 'which doubts.' Senate 122, S.Doc. 24th Sess., (1836). Stromberg California, 359, 368—369, 532, 535—536, 1117. involves 'An pleases minimum 297, concurring) affairs' includes science, economics, business, art, literature, etc., prompt affair. Certainly killings, conspiracies,' qualify. 'A regressive surfaced gained acceptance. Solicitor Bork 'Constitutional explicitly political. intervention scientific, literary pornographic. political, obstruction advocates forcible overthrow Bork, Neutral Principles Problems, Ind.L.J. painting aesthetically displeasing poorly revolutionary scientific unsound exhibition painting, distribution book theory. proscribe advocacy law's constitutionality. pass blatantly invalid editorials critical advocating violation. Similarly, late Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., advising blacks sit front buses ask restaurants segregated Palko 302 319, 325, 149, 288. noted, 'whether importance, government's unequivocal abridgement shows drafted 'balancing' field.' Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Faith Bridges 314 252, 263 6, 190, 194, 192 J.); Murdock Pennsylvania, 319 105, 108, 870, 872, 1292 Saia 334 560, 1148, 1149, 1574 Talley 362 60, 536, 537, 559 DeGregory 825, 828, 1150, 292 Elfbrandt Russell, 18, 1238, 1241, 321 Mills 214, 218, 1434, 1436, 484 Mine Workers Bar Ass'n, 221—222 353, 355—356, 426 disagree rein respected commentator constraints operate 'Traditions, attitudes, controls. opening credibility gap, lessening influence, holds participants check. Institutional pressures effect; accusations.' Emerson, System Expression 538 Typical ongoing self-evaluation proposal council, composed journalism profession, examine complaints fairness largest sources. Twentieth Century Fund Task Force Council, Responsive 1569—1570 taking step, limit 48—49, 1822—1823 leave standard, person's scope Parenthetically, mine plaintiff—unable fault—from overlooks statutes, retraction activities. Vindication Reputation Official, 1730, 1739—1747 constitutionality there) imply secure him. (1938); 111, 739 1971); 21—22 Harper James, 5.1, 349—350 (1956). observations partially Torts, Tentative Drafts Nos. (Second), released 1965 1966, respectively. recent transmittal dated April 1974, Institute elimination previously earlier Drafts. draftsmen's 'sense stand.' vii 1974). evident extent, colored xiii, 580, 581A, 581B, indication draft, conclusions accurate reflection developments infra, 374—375. 752 85; 11—13 evidence, natural words. Gatley, Slander 1004 (6th 1967); M. Newell, 721, 810 1924; 116, 422—430 (1935). impossibility affixing exact wounded feelings consequential physical illness pain. 761; 5.14, 388; 939—940 Also imputation, spoken written. 29—45, 47—48 1966); Applying Communist. (N.D.Ill.1969). Brewer Hearst Co., 185 846 (CA7 1950); Hotz Alton Telegraph Printing 324 Ill.App. North Eastern (1944); Cooper (1920). West 487 1305—1306 (Alaska 1971) (article linking taxicab companies illegal liquor sales minors); Gallman Carnes, 254 Ark. 987, 992, 497 South Western (1973) (matter school professor assistant dean); Belli Cal.App.3d 384, (Cal.Rptr. (1972) reputation); Moriarty Lippe, 162 Conn. 378 379, 294 326, 330—331 (publication officers); Firestone 271 So.2d 745, 750—751 (Fla.1972) (divorce concern); Snyder, 277 660, 666 668 (La.1973) (criminal mayoral candidate candidate); Twohig Boston Herald-Traveler Corp., Mass. 807, 291 400—401 candidate's votes legislature); Priestley Hastings Sons Lynn, 628 town build school); Harnish Herold-Mail 264 Md. 286 146, 151 substandard rental property owned authority); Standke E. Darby Sons, Minn. 468, 476—477, 193 139, (newspaper grand jurors); Whitmore Kansas City Star 499 (Mo.Ct.App.1973) juvenile officer, operation detention home, investigation); Trails West, Wolff, N.Y.2d 207, 214—218, N.Y.S.2d 863, 867—871, 298 52, (suit Congressman schoolchildren bus accident); Twenty-Five East 40th Street Restaurant Forbes, 595, 331 282 (magazine restaurant's food); Kent Buffalo, 818, 327 653, (television film captured robber); Frink McEldowney, 720, 325 755, 275 337 town); Mead Horvitz (9th Dist. Ohio Ct.App. 13, 1973) (unpublished), 416 985, 2388, 762 (1974) (financial apartment numerous contractors); 506 913 (Okl.1973) contract party's county chairman); Matus Triangle Publications, 445 Pa. 395—399, 357, 363—365 (radio 'talk show' host's gross overcharging snow-plowing driveway Autobuses Internacionales S. De R.L., Limited El Continental 483 (Tex.Ct.Civ.App.1972) company's raising fares notice law); Sanders 213 Va. 369, 372—373, 754, 757—758 English college); Old Dominion Branch 496 Austin, 377, 737 (1972), rev'd, 264, 2770, 745 (plaintiff's union Chase Daily Record, Wash.2d 515 156 port district commissioner); Miller Argus 816, 827, 490 101, backer candidates); Polzin Helmbrecht, Wis.2d 578, 586, 196 685, 690 (letter reporter financing pollution measures). following Courts Cantrell Forest 150 (CA6 1973), pending, 5520 publicized bridge disaster malice); Porter Guam 475 (CA9 arrest theft cash box interest); Cervantes 464 986, 991 (CA8 1972) organized connections 460 712 (CA5 detectives electronic surveillance divorce); Davis Broadcasting 447 981 1971), aff'g 320 1070 (E.D.La.1970) caught surrounding assassination President Kennedy interest). However, Appeals, faced appeal Philadelphia retailer, 'discom- fort accepting Gordon Random House, 486 1356, 1359 (CA3 1973). draft anticipates 'that inconsistent free-speech provision 1974), demise rules. 285—288. 373 Sutherland, Constitutionalism America: Origin Evolution Fundamental Ideas 118—119 (1960). steeped England. Blackstone, States' oracle Hurst, Growth Law: Makers 257 (1950); 7. 13; m. 124—125; Schick 65, 69, 826, (1904). accomplishing restraints, injurious. Commentaries *150—153. Absolute, 1961 245, 264: 'First, revolution world. Second, revolutionaries, foresee 'novel idea' exercised domination rapidly developing nation fundamentally changing doing. experience, self-government People' loose world transforming men's conceptions governed.' 272, 738, Brant, interprets Framers' liberally saw I. 236 Z. Annals Cong. 729—789 (1789). 224; 224. 377. observed: Liberty understood Propriety Measures you please: affronting, calumniating, defaming another, myself Share Legislators please Law, cheerfully consent exchange Abusing Privilege abus'd myself.' (Smyth 1907). Jefferson's opposition Moot, 43. prosecutions. Hudon, America Konigsberg 366 49—50 10, 997, 1005—1007, (1961); Film 365 391, 394, Pennekamp Florida, 328 331, 348—349, 1029, 1038 1039, 1295 (1946); cf. Paris Adult Theatre Slaton, 413 49, 67, 2628, 2640, 446 (1973); Stanley Georgia, 394 557, 561 5, 1243, 1245, 247—248. Abrams 616, 22, 1173 (1919) (Holmes, Case: Note Central Meaning Amendment,' 1964 191, 208—209. language barren dictionary symbols illumined presuppositions crystallized technical concepts, self-defining self-enforcing impairs usefulness paralysis living instrument.' Dennis 341 494, 523, 857, 873, 1137 (1951) (Frankfurter, '(T)he England, colonies immemorial. maintained predecessors hundred precedents overruled.' Rutledge, Recent Developments, Lawyer 409, England commonwealth nations. Pedrick, Libel: Modern Revised Translation, Cornell L.Q. 581, 583—584 Committee 'though modification, founded amiss.' Cmd. 7536, 222, (1948). correctly, implies 'substantial apparent,' actual-malice apply. imputation comprehensively Nation. Geo.L.J. 867 99% households radio, 77% hear newscast daily. 1970, yearly home television viewing hours day. 53. 'Sixty ago, 2,442 newspapers daily nationwide, 689 cites dailies. Today, cities 1,748 papers ownership. Total passed million copies, percent controlled ownership groups. 'Newspaper profited greatly consolidation industry. profits tens millions dollars, tax ranging seven revenues. base narrows, variation received limited. Newspaper leading Through direction, dominated economic. magnified intermedia Sixty-eight newspaper, 160 stations affiliations. completely lacking control.' 892—893 FCC Consider Control Local TV, Cong.Q. 659—663 (1974). Having hastens add: 'Suffice suffering.' 'special damage' required, insufficient; recoverable. latter, former, pain real, possibility. recipients recipients, witnesses causal connection, reluctant testify relationships presumptions adequately compensated.' Law—Defamation, 891—892 'On plays instruct arriving substantive recover. keep guard dictated passion prejudice remittitur ordered, reduction submit damages.' 5.29, 467 (1956) 26, 587 23. 29. Harv.L.Rev., 443. 939, 941—942. 48a(2) 285, 1708. 710. Judicial excessiveness considerations, discard useful time-tested misapplied O. Holmes, Common (1881). 351, 352. 601—602: ideas. discussion. How minority sway?' (of 519 omitted): '(O)n erratic.' minute need, thought, desire, fancy gratification scrutiny, dignity. merges mass. different; aspirations, known, conventionally ones; feelings, openly exhibited, lose unique warmth man. being, sentient, fungible; individual.' Bloustein, Privacy Aspect Human Dignity: Answer Dean N.Y.U.L.Rev. 962, 1003 evisceration removes arsenal assault establishment. Goliath accentuated 730, joined, criticized precluded reply attack. candiate 'intrusion editors,' 258, 2839, observes restraint judgment,' choice go limitations paper, treatment (Emphasis added.) must, hapless enjoin advance story him, Minnesota (1931); compel reply; retraction, judicially 'remedy enforceable access,' entails 'governmental coercion' 'at brings confrontation gloss years.' 2838; (Brennan, activities.' standards. 28, democracy, indefinitely tolerate concentrations thwart aspirations prople. Eventually break regulate power—if irresponsible.'

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