Legal Document

501 U.S. 624 111 S.Ct. 2491 115 L.Ed.2d 555 Edward Harold SCHAD, Jr., Petitionerv.ARIZONA. No. 90-5551. Argued Feb. 27, 1991. Decided June 21, Rehearing Denied Sept. 13, See U.S., 112 S.ct. 28. Syllabus After he was found with a murder victim's vehicle and other belongings, petitioner Schad indicted for first-degree murder. At trial, the prosecutor advanced both premeditated felony theories, against which claimed that circumstantial evidence proved at most thief, not murderer. The court refused Schad's request an instruction on theft as lesser included offense, but charged jury second-degree convicted him of murder, sentenced to death. State Supreme Court affirmed, rejecting contention trial erred in requiring agree single theory also rejected argument Beck v. Alabama, 447 625, 100 2382, 65 392 required offense robbery. Held: judgment is affirmed. 163 Ariz. 411, 788 P.2d 1162, (1989) Justice SOUTER delivered opinion respect Part III, concluding 2382—which held unconstitutional state statute prohibiting instructions capital cases did entitle based concern convinced defendant had committed some violent crime guilty might nonetheless vote conviction if only alternative set free no punishment all. id., 629, 630, 632, 634, 637, 642-643, n. 19, S.Ct., 2385, 2386, 2387, 2388, 2389-2390, 2392-2393, 19. This simply implicated here, since given "third option" finding noncapital It would be irrational assume chose rather than its means keeping robber off streets, and, thus, court's choice sufficed ensure verdict's reliability. Pp. 645-648. SOUTER, joined by THE CHIEF JUSTICE, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, concluded II Arizona's characterization need one statutory theories or unconstitutional. 630-645. (a) relevant enquiry not, argues, whether Constitution requires unanimous cases. Rather, real question here it constitutionally acceptable permit reach verdict any combination findings. P. 630-631. (b) long-established rule overt act, among several, committed, provides useful analogy. Nevertheless, Due Process Clause does place limits State's capacity define different states mind merely committing offense; there point differences between those become so important they may reasonably viewed alternatives common end, must treated differentiating what separate offenses subject 631-637. (c) impossible lay down test determining when two are disparate exemplify inherently offenses. Instead, concept due process, demands fundamental fairness rationality essential component fairness, serve measurement level definitional specificity permitted Constitution. 637-638. (d) undertaken threshold presumption legislative competence. Decisions about facts material immaterial, or, terms In re Winship, 397 358, 364, 90 1068, 1072, 25 368, "fact[s] [are] necessary constitute crime," therefore individually, mere means, represent value choices more appropriately made first instance legislature court. There support such restraint this Court's "burden-shifting" cases, have clear, slightly context, States degree flexibility particular within meaning Winship. See, e.g., Patterson New York, 432 197, 201-202, 210, 97 2319, 2322-2323, 2327, 53 281. 638-639. (e) translating process into concrete judgments adequacy determinations, courts should look history widely shared practice guides values. 202, 2322-2323. Thus significant equation mental species blameworthy prove finds substantial historical contemporary echoes. People Sullivan, 173 N.Y. 122, 127, N.E. 989, 989-990; Buckman, 237 Neb. 936, 468 N.W.2d 589. Pp.640-643. (f) Whether everyone precipitates death course robbery moral equivalent premeditation, clear equivalence could found. Tison Arizona, 481 137, 157-158, 107 1676, 1687-1688, 95 127. enough out disparity bars treating satisfy element offense. 643-644. (g) Although foregoing considerations exhaust universe potentially relevant, sufficiently persuasive jury's options case fall beyond constitutional bounds rationality. 645. SCALIA same result plurality verdict-specificity claim, reason. has long been general can various ways, jurors upon mode commission. As observes, conceive novel "umbrella" crimes consistent submitted theories. But basic form existed our legal system centuries, category. Such traditional crime, submitting jury, do pass "fundamental fairness" analysis; justification event. 648-652. J., announced REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA, JJ., joined, Parts I II, O'CONNOR joined. filed concurring part judgment. WHITE, dissenting opinion, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, Denise I. Young, Phoenix, petitioner. R. Wayne Ford, respondent. KENNEDY join. 1 presents questions: under require agreement unconstitutional; principle recognized (1980), entitles all charged. We answer each. 2 * On August 9, 1978, highway worker discovered badly decomposed body 74-year-old Lorimer Grove underbrush Highway 89, nine miles south Prescott, Arizona. rope around his neck, coroner determined strangled victim left home Bisbee, eight days earlier, driving new Cadillac towing camper. 3 September 3, petitioner, Grove's Cadillac, stopped speeding York Police. He told officers transporting car elderly friend named Larry Grove. Later month, arrested Salt Lake City, Utah, parole violation possession stolen vehicle. A search still driving, revealed personal belongings Grove's, petitioner's wallet contained credit cards, begun using 2, 1978. Other items belonging were rental abandoned 89 1978; rented previous December never returned it. While custody visitor " 'deny being area Arizona particularly Tempe, Arizona.' 414, 1164 (1989). 4 Yavapai County, grand count extradited stand trial. applicable defined "murder . wilful, deliberate perpetration of, attempt perpetrate robbery." Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. § 13-452 (Supp.1973).1 Petitioner death, aside collateral review. 142 619, 691 710 (1984). 5 retrial, instructed "[f]irst premeditation. Murder commit murder." App. 26. "[a]ll 12 you verdict. All guilty." Id., 27. 6 defense requested refused, instruct gave them three forms reporting verdict: murder; guilty. after further hearing, judge 7 1162 explaining: 8 'In regardless occurs entitled criminal act precise manner committed." 417; P.2d, 1168 (quoting Encinas, 132 493, 496, 647 624, 627 (1982)) (citations omitted). 9 Ariz., 416-417, 1167-1168. 10 granted certiorari. 498 ----, 243, 202 (1990). 11 Petitioner's unconstitutional.2 urges us decide holding Sixth, Eighth, Fourteenth Amendments distinct from where penalties imposed. Johnson Louisiana, 406 356, 92 1620, 32 152 (1972); Apodaca Oregon, 404, 1628, 184 (1972). decline so, however, because suggested reasoning beg raised. Even assuming requirement unanimity arguendo, assumption fail address issue about. deciding what, law, prove: murdered either premeditation remains If was, then reaching verdict, proposed help him. combine findings will even without rule, allowed forbidden combination. words, challenge limited alternative, argues return verdicts. case, then, permissible defining conduct, reflected applying definitions, unanimity. A. 13 way framing Our reflect law indictment specify several named, committed. Andersen United States, 170 481, 18 689, 42 L.Ed. 1116 (1898), example, we sustained duplicitous charging occurred through shooting drowning. "the Government make charge alternative," 504, 694, explained immaterial caused other. Cf. Borum 284 596, 52 205, 76 513 (1932) (upholding codefendants failed actual killing); St. Clair 154 134, 145, 14 1002, 1006-1007, 38 936 (1894). proposition embodied Federal Rule Criminal Procedure 7(c)(1), "[i]t alleged unknown specified means." returning verdicts commission, indictments alone. these litigation generally, "different persuaded pieces evidence, bottom line. Plainly preliminary factual issues underlie verdict." McKoy North Carolina, 494 433, 449, 110 1227, 1236-1237, 108 369 (1990) (BLACKMUN, concurring) (footnotes 15 cited went, course, possibilities proving requisite actus reus, while present involves predicated possibility combining best described states, intent combined commission independently culpable felony. Serna, 69 181, 188, 211 455, 459 (1949) (in deliberation, design").3 see reason, why satisfying reus apply equally mens rea. 16 That say, places courses mind, thereby permitting defendant's actually occurred. axiomatic forbid conduct vague people intelligence relegated differing guesses meaning, Lanzetta Jersey, 306 451, 453, 59 618, 83 888 (1939) (citing Connally General Construction Co., 269 385, 391, 46 126, 127-128, 70 322 (1926)), carries practical consequence valid position understand basis justice 'so rooted traditions conscience ranked fundamental,' Speiser Randall, 357 513, 523, 78 1332, 1340-1341, 1460 (1958) Snyder Massachusetts, 291 97, 105, 54 330, 332, 674 (1934)), person punished criminally save proof specific illegal conduct. Just compromised joining offenses, UCO Oil 546 F.2d 833 (CA9 1976), cert. denied, 430 966, 1646, (1977), nothing suggests convict anyone "Crime" generic embezzlement, reckless burglary, tax evasion, littering, suffice conviction.4 17 To authority indispensable raise problem describing generally Note, 91 Harv.L.Rev. 499, 501-502 (1977). before attempted constitutes difference findings, federal circuits, deriving primarily decision Fifth Circuit Gipson, 553 453 (CA5 1977) (Wisdom, J.), addresses problem. Gipson violating U.S.C. 2313, prohibited knowingly "receiv[ing], conceal[ing], stor[ing], barter[ing], sell[ing] dispos[ing] of" aircraft moving interstate commerce, enumerated acts reversed, right "jury consensus [his] action"5 violated joinder "two conceptual groupings," receiving, concealing, storing forming grouping (referred "housing"), bartering, selling, disposing ("marketing") constituting second. 456-459. view, similar obviate whereas groupings unrelated separately each grouping. number lower adopted standard "distinct groupings" appropriate test. E.g., Peterson, 768 64 (CA2) (Friendly, 474 923, 106 257, 88 264 (1985); Duncan, 850 1104, 1113 (CA6 1988), denied sub nom. Downing 732, 751 (1990); Baldwin, 101 Wis.2d 441, 449-450, 304 742, 747-749 (1981). 19 approach really answers question, however. classification express alternatives, notion too indeterminate provide guidance faced questions. Rice State, 311 Md. 116, 133, 532 A.2d 1357, 1365 (1987) (criticizing criteria "not entirely clear" "provid[ing] little guidance"); Trubitt, Patchwork Verdicts, Different-Jurors American Jury Theory: Verdicts Are Invalidated Juror Disagreement Issues, 36 Okla.L.Rev. 473, 548-549 (1983) (same). identified levels generality, priori determine generality appropriate. Indeed, noted, itself, "[o]ther six possible. [One might] put group, namely trafficking vehicles." Manson 413, 438, 729, 741 (1981) (Abrahamson, concurring); accord supra, ("[I]t difficult how 'housing' 'marketing' ultimate metaphysical sense, thus prohibit including trafficking"). short, conclusory 20 dissent avoid indeterminacy adopting inflexible maximum specificity. dissent's whenever lists [must] indicate guilt," post, 656, indication seeks create crimes. rests erroneous ipso facto independent elements prosecution every crime. 656-658 368 (1970), Sandstrom Montana, 442 510, 99 2450, 61 39 (1979)). fact, demonstrates, legislatures frequently enumerate intending crimes.6 it, call tautology; rather, construction. F.2d, 835-838. 21 like one, involving statutes, "statutory alternatives" runs afoul substitute own interpretations statutes courts. certain liberty ignore determination conclude are, law. Mullaney Wilbur, 421 684, 690-691, 1881, 1885-1886, 44 508 (1975) (declining reexamine Maine Judicial that, intentional killings aspects felonious homicide); Murdock City Memphis, Wall. 590, 22 429 (1875). effectively decided rea element. choice," 657-658, authoritatively chosen treat B tempting, follow example extent searching criterion facing us. convinced, impracticability trying derive Constitution, think instead sense distillate see, Dowling 493 342, 352-353, 668, 672, 708 (1990), fairness. wide values, well narrower analytical methods testing competence relationship ends 23 necessarily follows recognition impossibility determining, matter, 1072-1073, Respect counsels judicial second-guessing, cf. Rostker Goldberg, 57, 65, 2646, 2651-2652, 478 ("lack courts" relative counsels), definitions question. "It goes saying preventing dealing much business Government, Irvine California, 347 128, 74 381, 384, 98 561 (1954) (plurality opinion), lightly construe intrude administration individual States." 201, 2322, 281 24 crime" Each arose exclude fact reasonable doubt, placing burden defendants mitigating Patterson, supra (extreme emotional disturbance); Martin Ohio, 480 228, 1098, 94 267 (self-defense); Mul- laney, (heat passion sudden provocation), allowing aggravating less McMillan Pennsylvania, 477 79, 2411, 67 (1986) (possession firearm). argued excluded "a offense" doubt though formally 90, 2418. presented similar, neither nor high culpability. essence despite unitary definition agree, Both burden-shifting inherent nature definition. 26 difficulty deciding, abstract comprise. Recognizing "[o]ur inability 'bright-line' test," McMillan, 91, 2419, "stressed legislature's usually dispositive." 85, 2415; although recognize "there obviously go." 2327; 86, 2416. 27 use assumes importance indicators require. turning sources again often refer current exceeded discretion 207-209 nn. 10-11, 2325-2326 10-11; Martin, 235-236, 1103; Mullaney, 692-696, 1886-1888. Where history, widespread use, unlikely able demonstrate shifted multiple separate. Conversely, freakish analogue history7 jurisdictions lighten burden. 28 unlawful killing another human "malice aforethought." kill J. Stephen, History Law England 21-22 (1883). modified legislation classifying degrees, resulting retained (invariably perpetrating attempting robbery) presupposes. W. LaFave & Scott, Substantive 7.5, pp. 210-211, 23, (1986); ALI, Model Penal Code 210.2, p. 32, (1980). language identical respects degree, passed Pennsylvania Legislature 1794.8 29 series decisions, beginning leading 989 (1903), agreed "it design take life deceased, conclusion time engaged felony, one; sufficient juror statute." N.E., 989-990. Milan, Cal.3d 185, Cal.Rptr. 68, 507 956 (1973); Travis, Ill.App.3d 873, 121 Ill.Dec. 830, 525 N.E.2d 1137 (1988), 489 1024, 109 1149, 103 209 (1989); Fuhrmann, 257 619 (Iowa 1977); Wilson, 220 Kan. 341, 552 931 (1976); Commonwealth Devlin, 335 Mass. 555, 141 (1957); Embree, Mich.App. 382, 246 589 (1991); James 637 862 (Okla.Crim.1981); Tillman, 750 (Utah 1987); Brown 473 So.2d 1260 (Fla.), 1038, 607, 585 (1985). respect, Murray, 308 Ore. 782 157 (1989), acceptance persuade departed norm. 30 strong 'offen[d] 2322 Speiser, 1341), probability practices comporting them, endure long, retain acceptance, odds notions comprehended process. Jackman Rosenbaum 260 22, 31, 43 10, (1922) (Holmes, J.); Snyder, 111, 334. 31 say dispositive. many weapon) aggravated unwilling Pennsylvania's circumstance provable sentencing preponderance deviated far norm violate Clause. "That few States," observed, "does render unconstitutional." 2418; 1103 (relying practice); 211, 2327. 'neither antiquity steadfast adherence centuries insulates attack.' Pacific Mutual Life Ins. Co. Haslip, 499 1, 1032, 1043, 113 (1991) Williams Illinois, 399 235, 239, 2018, 2021, 586 (1970)). fine, regard fundamentally fair rational ways nevertheless always open critical examination. is, said, model us, scrutiny account function perform seriousness otherwise acts. 2.02(2) (1985) (defining states). If, supposed blameworthiness culpability, their perceived degrees culpability reason altogether. instance. 33 proper possible instances latter. murders compare 127 (1987), Enmund Florida, 458 782, 102 3368, 73 1140 (1982), examining diverge felonies predicate conviction. Compare, Tenn.Code Ann. 39-13-202 (Supp.1990) (theft felony-murder) with, 13-1105.A predicate). 34 ever equivalent. very considered Terms ago context jurisprudence Tison, supra. disregard implicit engaging activities known carry grave risk represents [such] highly [it] taken making causes natural, inevitable, lethal result." 1688. accepted occurs, "shoots someone robbery, utterly indifferent desire rob unintended taking property." 157, found, offense.9 35 warrant legitimacy suggest increased desirable, itself Smith, 160 507, 774 811, 817 hold command case. III second characterizes murder.10 Alabama Unlike Beck, option cannot, therefore, succeed strict contends principles underlying supported 37 misapprehends underpinnings Beck. explained: "[O]n hand, unavailability third convicting encourage impermissible reason—its belief serious punished. apparently mandatory penalty [in Alabama] acquit reason—that, whatever deserve [T]hese extraneous factors introduce uncertainty unreliability factfinding cannot tolerated case." 642, 2392 (footnote repeatedly stressed all-or-nothing presented. later Spaziano 447, 104 3154, 3159, 82 340 (1984), "[t]he absence increases setting free. goal eliminate distortion created forced innocence." Hopper Evans, 456 605, 609, 2049, 2051-2052, 72 367 (1982). central (capital murder) innocence. 40 makes Mr. (which conviction), property, else conviction, murder). theory, thought innocent unable expressed view. Because "rules diminish reliability guilt determination" 638, 2390, runs, opportunity "to conformity view evidence." Reply Brief 8. argument. Post, 660. 41 unavailing, accept dissent, unconvinced loath completely (because robbery), choose streets. irrationality, satisfied instructing just evidence. Roberts 428 325, 334-335, 96 3001, 3006-3007, 49 974 (1976) opinion). concedes 18-19, adequate represented choice. 45 Affirmed. 47 1985 Anglo-American system, largely unchanged, least early 16th century, (1883); Moreland, Homicide 9-10 (1952). common-law aforethought" prepense," consisted intention grievously injure, knowledge omission probably cause grievous injury, resist lawful arrest. 22; Blackstone, Commentaries 198-201 (1769); M. Hale, Pleas Crown 451-466 (1st Am. ed. 1847). 48 malice aforethought received F. Wharton, 147 (3d 1907); 199. rigor led dissatisfaction country. McGautha 402 183, 198, 1454, 1462-1463, 711 (1971). 1794, divided thus: "[A]ll shall perpetrated poison, lying wait, kind willful, deliberate, killing; perpetration, arson, rape, deemed degree; kinds degree." 1794 Pa.Laws, ch. 1766, 2. 50 copied, killing. 1111; Cal.Penal 189 (West 1988 Supp.1991); Kan.Stat.Ann. 21-3401 (Supp.1990); Mich.Comp.Laws 750.316 Neb.Rev.Stat. 28-303 (1989).* variant challenges today. 51 Justices effect abolish declare Amendment subdivision (at least) rejects course—correctly, my correct (1903); H. Joyce, Indictments §§ 561-562, 654-657 (2d 1924); Clark, 99-103, 322-330 1918); Bishop, 434-438, 261-265 1872). constitutional, convict. When woman's charred burned house, ample her, absurd believe her (and fire accidentally hasty escape), others unconscious her. seems perfectly obvious, true, points out, ante, 633, (a consisting failure file return) 6-6 seem contrary falls former latter heavy weather issue, starts "neither attack," 642-643 (internal quotations true attacks, attacks procedural component, Insurance (SCALIA, judgment), so-called "substantive" Michael Gerald D., 491 110, 121-130, 2333, 2340-2345, 105 precisely "due." "Fundamental analysis applied departures conceptions process; judges "fairness" tradition deep broad continuing, judges. And here. Submitting composite subjected indignity country founded, 1868, Unless invent enforce old existence vast majority 55 dissenters Certainly satisfactory explanation (apart endorsement history) depravity morally Ante, 643-645. complain lack equivalence: complains know, believed participating intended kill. Perhaps condition stand, surely pretend sufficient. (We permit, assaulted X Tuesday Y Wednesday, "moral equivalence" acts.) Thus, approves meets conditions validity. them. With delivers "critical examination," 643, promises reliance practice. ultimately relies (whence requirement?)— acknowledge reality limitation power, bob-tailed examination" not. "Th[e] [due process] met according settled proceedings. land." Walker Sauvinet, 93, 678 (1876) (citation 56 claim asserted SOUTER's analysis, join opinion. For reasons, affirm 57 whom STEVENS join, dissenting. 58 disagree reached Court, deem alone warrants reversal respectfully dissent. mandates "proof [the defendant] charged." 1073. requirements ignores import Winship holding. addition, mischaracterizes 60 give great deference truism advances plurality's defer recognizing obvious: established. provides: "A poison torture killing, avoiding arrest effecting escape custody, perpetrate, rape kidnapping, mayhem, sexual molestation child age thirteen years, degree. (Supp.1973). 62 sets forth categories murder: "wilful, killing"; escape; during felonies. 63 Here, paths, murder/robbery. Yet paths lead divergent routes possessing except closing himself emphasized "There types [One] that. One, place, someone's Secondly, malice. disregarding killed. "And along malice, attached element, contemplated "The type members 66 components [sic] parts. caused, two, find killed 6-7. intend kill, involved murder—but murder—requires McLoughlin, 139 485, 679 Premeditated assertion, 2501, substitution another. contains mixed matched will.1 fanciful equate 68 Consequently, pronounces "guilty murder" clues agrees proven doubt. half murder/robbery, exactly reverse. matter way, affirms knowing let unanimously verdict—something get exists voted killing.2 attempts justify reaches withstand scrutiny. focusing vagueness 632-633, misses point. know criminalized. statute's renders inapplicable. statute, heading, criminalizes patterns construct violates invoke elements, guilt. "nothing 'Crime' conviction." 633. close Allowing following embezzlement driving. statement "[i]n murder," recognizes resolves 71 likewise mark concerned regarding 631-632. entering crime; details pried window screwdriver crowbar. would, broke entered, crime." 1073.3 Nor concerning shifting burdens creation presumptions cause. consistently having remove prosecution. (1979), "under Montana purposely homicide," shift defendant. 520-521, 2457-2458. 205-206, 2324-2325, establish affirmative extreme disturbance, causation No presumed inferred order "must flexibility" 638. Surely deference. establishing containing other, choice.4 Evitts Lucey, 469 387, 401, 838-839, 821 allow consequences interpretation actions rudimentary suggestion murder/robbery equivalent, 644, unbelievable, flow sentencing. Assuming exists, imposed 13-703 occur felony; killer. killed, force used, 797, 3376-3377, major participant exhibited indifference life, 158, 1688, (1987). instant rendered declared, however: 75 "[T]he consider mitigation, however incidental belies Grove, 77 ligature drawn tightly neck tied double knot. notwithstanding instruction." Tr. 8-9 (Aug. 29, 1985). Regardless phase premeditated. Contrary suggestion, 644-645, fails information impose sentence. lacking, judge's direct contravention creates intolerable subsequently sentence contradict phase, 79 "when unquestionably establishes serious, offense—but leaves offense—the 'third option' inevitably enhance unwarranted 2389. 646-648. provided acquitting completely, because, concedes, Oral Arg. 51-52, declared '[t]he where, robbery.' Clayton, 587, 595, 514 720, 728 (1973), quoting Kruchten, 186, 196, 417 520 (1966), 385 87 784, 687 (1967) (emphasis added). events path legitimate acquittal. 80 asserts offenses.5 completed, result, robbery.6 reversed error matters vital consideration Knowledge properly theory." 620-621, 711-712 81 applies charged, "[w]here detracts from, enhances, process." crimes, limits. compound must, greater. tried. acknowledged robbery," 417, prerequisite rationally yet greater." Schmuck 705, 716, 8, 1443, 1450, 734 Keeble 412 208, 93 1993, 1995, 844 (1973). Stevenson 162 313, 319-320, 839, 841, 980 (1896). prosecution's chooses proceed Anything guarantees, meaningless. 84 full provided: revised, Respondent waived failing 8-10. addressed merits, preserving Orr Orr, 440 268, 274-275, 1102, 1109-1110, (1979). Wechsler, Rationale Homicide: I, Colum.L.Rev. 701, 702-703 (1937); Perkins, Mens Rea, 905, 926 (1939). justice, dependent concerns vagueness. problems specifically defined. concomitant Sixth subsequent characterization. Beros, 455 (CA3 1987). reasons accurately characterized Amendment. (chiefly, defendant, (1972)), go necessary. clearly adoption produce results. prohibited, inter alia, killing." (Supp.1973) Under approach, juries prosecutions brought presumably deliver three: wilfullness, note, perhaps obvious yardstick modern lacking roots deal focus "risks punishment," 658, 4, 13-453 (Supp.1973), authorized (death) 87-88, 2416-2417, weapon alters calling penalty"). Moreover, premise penalty, 658-659, permissibility circumstances, currently "insufficient information" remain unless additional step committed) purposes decide, judge. theft, respondent waived. Given respondent's concession preserved instruction, scope infra, 646-648, resolve waiver issue. Still established "murder" encompasses S.C.Code 16-3-10 Changes date clearer involve mentes reae. now First, "[i]ntending premeditation." 13-1105(A)(1) Second, "[a]cting persons commits [any felonies], furtherance immediate flight person." 13-1105(A)(2). antecedent used substantially language, took October months 1977 Ariz.Sess.Laws, Ch. 142, 60. validity proceeds exemplified danger. proceeded theories: murder/kidnapping. felonies, error. 620, 710, tell deficient. 621, 712. 526, 2460, statutorily 636, 6, misplaced. generic, risks significant. (1975), "heat provocation," expressly stated "homicide," reduce category manslaughter. 697, 699, 1888-1889. rebut 703-704, 1892. discussed below, life-or-death said homicide supplied felony." Arias, 131 444, 641 1285, 1288 (1982) Recent omitted crucial word "homicide." LaGrand, 153 29-30, 563, 571-572, 484 872-873, 207, 158 recent "elements" "necessarily included" 31(c). "Under test, 'necessarily included' subset offense." Schmuck, 1450. Berra 351 131, 685, 687-688, 1013 (1956). Here met,

Classification Label: 3