Legal Document

480 U.S. 149 107 S.Ct. 1053 94 L.Ed.2d 203 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.Phillip PARADISE, Jr., et al. No. 85-999. Argued Nov. 12, 1986. Decided Feb. 25, 1987. Syllabus In 1972, upon finding that, for almost four decades, the Alabama Department of Public Safety (Department) had systematically excluded blacks from employment as state troopers in violation Fourteenth Amendment, District Court issued an order imposing a hiring quota and requiring to refrain engaging discrimination its practices, including promotions. By 1979, no attained upper ranks Department. The court therefore approved partial consent decree which agreed develop within one year procedure promotion corporal that would have adverse impact on comply with Uniform Guidelines Employee Selection Procedures (Guidelines), thereafter similar procedures other (1979 Decree). As 1981, however, more than after 1979 Decree's deadline, black been promoted. second parties Department's proposed test be administered applicants, results reviewed determine any under Guidelines, determination submitted if were unable agree thereon, promotions occur until or ruled method used (1981 Of 60 whom was administered, only 5 (8.3%) listed top half promotional register, highest ranked number 80. then declared it immediate need between 8 10 new corporals stated intention elevate 16 20 individuals before constructing list. United States objected use list making 1983, held blacks, ordered submit plan promote at least 15 qualified candidates manner not racial impact. 4 among corporals, but rejected proposal "for period time," 50% those promoted must black, available, imposed requirement ranks, there candidates, particular rank less 25% developed implemented without relevant rank. also realistic schedule development all above entry level. Subsequently, eight whites court's order, sergeant procedures, times suspended ranks. appealed ground violated Amendment's equal protection guarantee. Appeals affirmed order. Held: judgment is affirmed. 767 F.2d 1514 (CA11 1985), Justice BRENNAN, joined by MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, POWELL, concluded even strict scrutiny analysis, one-black-for-one-white permissible Equal Protection Clause Amendment. Pp. 166-186. 1. race-conscious relief justified compelling governmental interest eradicating pervasive, systematic, obstinate discriminatory exclusion blacks. contention unjustified because has found committed merit, since promotion, like hiring, central concern action's commencement. intentional profound effect force's precluding competing Moreover, record amply demonstrates itself discriminatory, resulting structure totally excludes 166-170. 2. Court's enforcement supported societal compliance federal-court judgments. consistent history resistance orders, failed live up court-approved commitments. 170-171. 3. one-for-one narrowly tailored serve purposes, both applied initial continuing contingent respect 171-186. (a) necessary eliminate effects long-term, open, pervasive discrimination, absolute ranks; ensure expeditious 1981 Decrees inducing implementation impact; eradicate ill delay producing such procedure. option proffered Department—to 11 stopgap measure, allow additional time submission nondiscriminatory procedure—would satisfied purposes. Furthermore, heavy fines fees suggested Government alternative never actually Court; likely ineffective imposition attorney's costs past prevented delays; compensated plaintiffs make immediately. 171-177. (b) flexible application applies when needs does require gratuitous may waived are troopers, and, fact, this already happened lieutenant captain positions. temporary, term being successful valid procedures. It was, timely sergeant. 177-178. (c) numerical bears proper relation percentage nonwhites work-force, each whereas constitute labor market. arbitrary compared minority pool, figure goal merely represents speed will achieved, some promptness delays. Although necessarily involves degree imprecision, informed attempt balance rights interests plaintiffs, Department, white troopers. 179-182. (d) impose unacceptable burden innocent applicants. temporary limited nature, once, again. bar, simply postpones, advancement whites, layoff discharge unqualified over whites. 182-183 (e) judges, having firsthand experience situation, given broad discretion fashion appropriate remedies cure Amendment violations, exercise entitled substantial respect. 183-185. STEVENS Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Bd. Education, 402 1, 91 1267, 28 554 (1971), sets forth governing standards district remedial orders cases present involve racially actions violative Because here discloses egregious Clause, authority standards. There showing Judge abused his doing so. 189-195. J., announced delivered opinion JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion. STEVENS, judgment, post, p. ----. WHITE, dissenting statement, O'CONNOR, opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA, joined, Sol. Gen. Charles Fried petitioner. J. Richard Cohen, Washington, D.C., respondents. BRENNAN POWELL join. 1 question we decide whether awarded case, form interim measure trooper (Department), guarantee 2 1972 Middle Some years later, confronted failure did elevated rank, long acceptable challenges constitutionality order.1 3 * prior practices conduct during lawsuit bear directly remedy it, relate tortuous course litigation detail. A. National Association Advancement Colored People (NAACP) brought action challenging longstanding practice excluding employment. party plaintiff, Phillip Paradise, intervened behalf class plaintiffs. Frank M. Johnson, determined: "Plaintiffs shown contradiction defendants engaged blatant continuous pattern Safety, supporting personnel. thirty-seven patrol Negroes ever employed department nonmerit system laborers. This unexplained unexplainable officials unquestionably Amendment." NAACP Allen, 340 F.Supp. 703, 705 (MD Ala.1972). He concluded: 6 "Under circumstances . courts duty end correct discrimination. instance so permeated Department['s] policies mandatory prohibitory injunctive these progress toward eliminating their effects." Id., 705-706 (citations omitted). 7 result, (1972 order), enjoining hire hired constituted approximately force.2 Johnson enjoined "engaging recruitment, examination, appointment, training, retention personnel action, purpose discriminating against employee, actual potential applicant employment, race color." 706 (emphasis added). further required "eligible registers heretofore they hereby abrogated extent decree." 707.3 appealed,4 Fifth Circuit upheld requirement: "The bottomed chancellor's unlawful practices. mandating who object promptly operates change outward visible signs yesterday's distinctions thus, provide impetus process dismantling barriers, psychological otherwise, erected seeks spend can creating climate objective, neutral criteria successfully operate select public employees solely basis job-related merit." 493 614, 621 (1974). 9 applicants higher eligibility rankings denied due laws unvalidated selection disproportionately precluded argument "quota produces unconstitutional 'reverse' lowering standards, appointment persons." 618.5 1974, shortly Appeals' decision, seek Court. "defendants have, frustrating delaying full plaintiff class, artificially restricted size force hired." Paradise Dothard, Civ. Action 3561-N Ala., Aug. 5, 1975). addressed disproportionate achieve permanent status:6 "[T]he high attrition rate resulted best rosters, social official training academy, preferential treatment aspects testing, discipline harsher misconduct while force." Ibid. 12 reaffirmed attempts frustrate compliance. B 13 September 1977 again return supplemental relief, specifically Following extensive discovery, entered into Decree), February 1979.7 decree, fair "little seeking corporal." App. 40. conform 1978 Procedures, CFR § 50.14 (1978).8 Once place corporal, ranks—sergeant, lieutenant, captain, major. expressly provided might apply terms relief. 41.9 14 Five days approval Decree, sought clarification maintained goal—a force—applied officers entry-level positions responded: "On point, ambiguity. [1972] one-to-one carried out twenty-five percent black. perfectly clear distinguish rank." Shoemaker, 470 439, 440 Ala.1979) original). argued objective could achieved unless 37.5% "more applicants" passed constitutionally permissible. 441. argument, stating: 17 "To modify do law requires, just guilty One November 1978, 232 above, still [hiring] fashioned provides To focus ignore persist, manifest. case intolerable wrong." 442 18 April deadline set procedure, arguing validated impermissible resolve dispute executed Decree) August 18, 1981. 19 commitment made implement little administration "reviewed applicants." 51. Whether determined reference "four-fifths" rule Guidelines. See (1978).10 If proved No "parties writing impact." 53. 262 (23%) took test, register; candidate 119. response inquiry States, indicated construction Record 222. 21 rank-ordered list, stating "would result requirements Decrees. 220-221. submitted, next nine months. 22 returned enforcing two decrees. Specifically, requested "at same hired, procedure." 112. contended "encourage soon possible," "help alleviate gross underrepresentation supervisory Department"11—an caused exacerbated refusal 23 opposed requirement, decrees should enforced. offer "any reason[s] why made," nor offered explanation halted "progress towards remedying discrimination." 199-201. observed produce "suggests continuing." 200.12 24 After motion enforce filed, intervene composed corporal's examination through 79. 81-87. They "unreasonable, illegal, policy." 99. 25 October 28, Prescott, 580 171, 174 Ala.).13 Observing 79 rather contemplated, none "[s]hort outright based race, hard conceive greater 173.14 submit, 10, "a persons 175. 26 subsequently addition, 27 oppose proposal, did. "totally disregards injury suffered defendants' four-and-a-half [since Decree] fails mechanism insure scenario reoccur." 382. On December 15, granted plaintiffs' 585 72 Ala.). Confronted parties' inability agree, summarized situation: 29 1984, months today, 30 twelve condemned Safety. Nevertheless, remain conspicuous position. majors, captains, 35 lieutenants, 65 sergeants, 66 Thus, every obtained position persons. structure, appear near future. preceding continue. now arrived take affirmative steps open troopers." 74 31 issue here. available. "if future orderly path enter address department's developing ranks." 75. "will wither away own accord" "without quotas cannot eliminated." 75 76. highlighted nature design ordered, "specifically tailored" lingering delayed decrees, prompt lawful 32 Finally, "based expectations" intended "the one-time occurrence." reasoned entered, prerogative time, procedures." 33 Numerous motions reconsideration alteration amendment motion, "new contention" legal sufficiently trained procedures" "this function allocated statute Personnel." Jan. 13, 1984). responded signed counsel represented January hearing "it anticipated few months." judge 34 "It later entertain excuse meet obligations [T]he Personnel, proceedings, assured [1984] work closely meritless, frivolous. "Moreover, advance dramatically court. Such frivolous arguments prolong 37-year 36 pursuant 37 Four corporal. utilizing purpose. 163-164. following sergeant, similarly 176-177.15 38 appeal Eleventh designed discrimination—"effects which, demonstrates, 'will accord.' " 1514, 1533 (1985) (quoting F.Supp., 75). deemed "exten[d] accomplish 'egregious' imbalances Department." F.2d, 1532-1533. 39 We certiorari. 478 1019, 106 3331, 92 737 (1986). affirm. II 40 maintains violates Constitution States.16 41 well established government bodies, courts, employ classifications essential ethnic groups subject Sheet Metal Workers EEOC, 412, 480, 3019, 3052, 344 (1986), cited therein. Wygant Jackson Board 476 267, 286, 1842, 1853, 90 260 (1986) ("The agreement weighty warrant carefully constructed program") (O'CONNOR, part judgment). But although consistently level distinction yet reach consensus constitutional analysis.17 conclude survives analysis: "narrowly "compelling [governmental] purpose." 274, S.Ct., 1847 (opinion J.). 42 actor. ibid.; id., 1853 concurring); Workers, supra, U.S., 3052 Franks Bowman Transportation Co., 424 747, 763, 96 1251, 1263, 47 444 (1976) (prevention national policy "highest priority"). found, affirmed, decades positions, jobs "unquestionably 705. concedes, Brief 21, created firm justification Court.18 43 intervenors, maintain argue context discriminatory. merit either premise. 44 Discrimination promotions, departmental hierarchy dominated exclusively nonminorities. lower situation explicable conduct.19 "not 442. historical "as black." explained "an positions" "[t]o manifest." crafted 75, n. too late segregate 45 belied record. faced allegations adopt year. 1532. 1983 voluntary 1533, 16. despite commitments 174, operate[d] appeal, summarily intervenors: 46 "[I]t answer say proven discriminated [I]t gainsaid specific beneficiaries blacks." Promotion, commencement action; included strictures effect. alike.20 48 485, 3055 (POWELL, judgment), "supported [the Department's] judgments federal courts." defendant III 49 While conceding serves interest, insists purposes—to effects, bringing about speedy agree. 50 determining appropriate, look several factors, necessity efficacy remedies; flexibility duration availability waiver provisions; relationship goals market; third parties. 481, 3053 J.); 486, When considered light established, find 51 evaluate enforce, examine purposes serve. First, "long term, pervasive" Second, needed far possible urgent see 173, served ordering class. 52 options proposed, argues allowed round candidates. 53 inadequate completely above. ad hoc ignored adopted alacrity. early employee 706. promised 1980. Given delay, astonishing suggest settle another promise forthcoming possible." 358. 54 complying Decrees.21 pointed out, 1979; Decree Department; finally, "were permit decisionmaking continue slots filled irretrievably lost opportunities.22 adoption fallen short ensured impact, vitiated defendant's delay.23 55 suggests trial pending pay throughout lengthy litigation; done prevent foot-dragging.24 See, e.g., Frazer, 317 1079, 1093 (1970); 708-710. nothing compensate delays implementing expressed consideration remedy.25 last Term, cases, compromise alternativess ban [or] continued procedure," or, add, all.26 56 1984 plainly chosen. Any allowing entirely unacceptable. Cf. Green School Board, New Kent County, 391 430, 438, 88 1689, 1694, 716 (1968) ("[A] date meaningful assurance effective disestablishment dual intolerable. school board today come forward promises realistically work, "). Not essential, but, judicial oversight end, eliminated.27 57 doubtful, litigation, available remedy." judgment).28 58 features operation indicate has, example, permitted Further, external forces, budget cuts, necessitate freeze, order.29 59 Most significantly, ephemeral; conduct. endures comes blacks—something noted taken account difficulty validating validation prerequisite suspension requirement. evaporated demonstrating disguised means balance. 487, 3056 reveals flexible, waivable, application. provision, hope believed fulfilled: Personnel pledged devote resources assisting future." 141. consequently appears nullification quota." 1538, 19. chosen flexible. C 61 force. original blacks; latter reflects restrictive: requires place. remained survived 62 pool ignores goal; achieved. (had continued) how quickly progressed ultimate goal. analogous date, regulated fulfillment 487-488, 63 representation time. deadlines dates ineffective. circumstances, flexibly, 64 accept representation, minorities. Had so, approximated figure.30 Again, fact Here possibility promoting "[i]n severity existing imbalances." alternatives behavior served, intermediate figure. ratio "necessarily involve[d] approximation imprecision," Teamsters 431 324, 372, 97 1843, 1873, 396 (1977), Court, first-hand resistance, recalcitrance, unduly burdening troopers.31 improper default obligation commencing three selected involved delicate calibration concedes one-to-three lawful, Tr. Oral Arg. 43; stringent measures necessary. second-guess choice many especially hedged qualifying unfair arise rigid application.32 D extremely substantially limits promotion. once utilized Nor "absolute bar" advancement. 3053. employed, white. 67 burdens sort concerned plurality Wygant, 283, 1851 J.) ("[L]ayoffs entire achieving equality individuals, often serious disruption lives"); 295, 1858 (WHITE, concurring) (same). scope duration, postpones Consequently, goal, "impose[s] diffuse burden, foreclosing opportunities." 1852. "Denial opportunity intrusive loss job," 282-283, J.), postponement imposes lesser still.33 68 basic limitation, qualified, remains. Qualified compete sure, applied, receive advantage. amelioration itself. 69 Accordingly, harm interests, unnecessarily trammel rights, individuals. E 70 tailored," acknowledge owed judge's specified A power render bar Louisiana 380 145, 154, 85 817, 822, 709 (1965). "Once right shown, equitable powers wrongs broad, breadth inherent remedies." 1275, (1971). 71 situations "required plans restrictive implementation. recognized redress 'a balancing left, statutory limits, sound court.' Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 508, 100 2758, 2790, 902 (1980) 794, 1278 part)). 1694 always been, assess effectiveness desegregation. universal complex problems desegregation; obviously job case. matter assessed instance"). deal "flinty, intractable realities day-to-day commands." Swann, 6, 1271. "[the] remedy, simple injunction, ending [the] practices." S.Ct, concurring). demonstrated His proximate mandate judgment. 73 Plainly deeply rooted violations properly balanced individual collective stake, eligible shaping remedy. 16, 1276 task correct, condition offends Constitution"). tailored, remove decree.34 IV effective, measure. product knowledge resources, strong shameful resistance. legitimate laudable Appeals, upholding 76 Affirmed. 77 concurring. 78 respects 421, Here, contravention repeated decisions Ala.1972); 1975); Ala.1979); 72, Ala.1983). differences. Title VII, below Clause.1 Also, finally union contempt. difference importance where, here, beyond persistent repeatedly carry orders. sufficient justify classified 3055. I protracted justifies conclusion "one-for-one" appropriate. reasonable "powerless remedy" lacked establish benchmark 3056. 80 affirmative-action drawn thought five factors relevant: (i) (ii) planned remedy; (iii) workers group members population force; (iv) provisions met; (v) 485-486, 3055; 510-511, 514, 2791, 2793, J.).2 makes view plurality's thorough mention certain us. 81 occasion, 1984. urgently 173 Ala.1983), met then-existing need. findings remedies, exigent presented violate Clause. 82 contains significant elements fairness. appeared thus "realistic expectations," be, intended, "one-time 75-76. enforced reimposed. "[a]n what occurred plain [a] manner." 489, 4, 3057, 83 particularly important, relatively diffuse. Unlike requirements, "impose individuals," disrupt seriously lives 1851, J.).3 prescribed diffused society generally, shared nonminority delayed, uncertain trooper, different 84 indeed explicit language court-ordered government-adopted, most scrutinized. this. join 86 1971, State persistently deliberately segregated police force, unanimous setting guidelines judges fashioning segregation schools. theme 87 standard, guidance guide our deliberations. Chief BURGER wrote: remedies. 89 'The essence equity jurisdiction Chancellor mould necessities Flexibility rigidity distinguished it. qualities mercy practicality instrument nice adjustment reconciliation private claims.' Hecht Co. Bowles, 321 321, 329-330 [64 587, 591-592, L.Ed. 754] (1944), Brown [v. 349 294, 753, 99 1083 (1955) ], 300 [75 756]." 1276. follows, therefore, violation—exactly opposite Solicitor General's unprecedented suggestion constricted interest" standard. 17.1 notion craft special narrow rules reviewing soundly Swann. wrote Court: "[A] desegregation differ fundamentally involving framing repair denial right. Constitution. 93 "In authorities proffer assure unitary system." 15-16, 1275-1276. 95 equally unambiguous rejection standard review employs mathematical ratios. "We ratios starting point inflexible From proceeded frame discretionary powers, circumstances. said County Bd., (1968),] authority's judged effectiveness. Awareness composition whole useful violations. sum, very Court." 1280. 98 "Absent judicially assignment students basis. All things equal, desirable assign pupils schools nearest homes. segregation. administratively awkward, inconvenient, bizarre some; awkwardness inconvenience avoided adjustments systems." 1282. searching define 'reasonableness.' Green, 'feasible' implication, 'workable,' 'effective,' 'realistic' now.' facts reasonable, feasible workable. However, area sensitive words poor instruments convey sense fairness equity. Substance, semantics, govern, limitations equity." 31, 1283. efforts exceed bounds "reasonableness."2 proof precisely (1980), law.3 decisionmaker overcome presumption them. rests unit him 101 unavoidably consider race. North Carolina Education 43, 1284, 586 decided day State's Anti-Busing Law, prohibited student schools, conflicted observed: 102 exploits apparently control directing 'color blind'; background segregation, illusory 347 483, 686, 873 (1954). Just occurred, formulating forbid, stage, assignments deprive tool absolutely systems. 103 "Similarly, flat prohibition inevitably conflict disestablish compel mixing, points 45-46, 1285-1286. 104 may, instances must, resort vindicate guarantees. instant "does right," 1275-1276, concur judgment.4 105 dissenting. Agreeing much O'CONNOR written evident exceeded devising dissent affirmance. THE CHIEF JUSTICE SCALIA join, 108 273, 1846, "scrutiny challenged classification historically evaluating undertake two-part inquiry. 1847. scrutinize tailored." 109 read concluding undertaken amounted "pervasive, conduct." Ante, 167. Federal obligated purports scrutiny, concludes adopts standardless dissent. 110 notes, unrealistic assume gravitate exactitude employer absent 494, 3059. precise prediction happen absence 494-495, 3060. Even "goals," Racially nonvictims, "where truly necessary." 496, creation preferences quotas, sparingly where manifestly 496-497, 3061. 111 my view, characterized quota, "manifestly necessary" previous clearly purpose, only—to "eradicat[ing] producing" ante, subsequent defended 112 complied certainly Consistent quota. Under (23.1%) 160. purported fewer least, strains credibility 113 [promoted] force" vital considering validity evidence extreme delay. defend affecting attains justification, eviscerates stopping point; 100% "determined toward" meaning, closer benefited demands justification. Court—and Court—provide stand fall coercing 114 singular terrorem survive scrutiny. "[r]acial pernicious exact connection classification." 537, 2805, (STEVENS, dissenting). fit precision Ely, Constitutionality Reverse Racial Discrimination, U.Chi.L.Rev. 723, 727, trammeling court, appointed trustee satisfy trustee's preferences. Alternatively, recalcitrant contempt stiff penalties Surely, combination compelled 115 discuss single mentioned opinion—with exception objectionable Ala 1983). What disturbing implicitly explicitly options, alternatives. "considered remedies" 3052; 486-487, 3055-3056 able claim "necessary." Without exploration evaluation possible. Remarkably, purporting "strict scrutiny"—concludes 116 states "respect[ing]" "balancing process" ----, wholly For if, insists, 'was practices,' ibid. judgment)), meaning. 117 quarrel recalcitrance reprehensible. understandable frustration conduct, first respectfully Director, Colonel Byron briefs support themselves petition 1079 Ala.1970), agencies, department, supplies staff systematic employees. 703 Ala.1972), Frazer amended personnel, knew understood Amendment" consequence, "their defense th[e] amount[ed] unreasonable obdurate necessitated expense litigation." 708. pending, supplement reconsider decree. alter injunction prohibiting supra: contrast Allen striking indeed. though agencies affected draw applicants—that is, processed Personnel—Allen seen slow instances, nonexistent. "[T]his contain goals; otherwise achieved." 373 504, 506-507 Ala.), aff'd sub nom. 614 (CA5 1974). None certiorari constitutional. At order; retained presided he assumed former 1979. transferred Varner; subsequently, reassigned Myron Thompson "designed framework tests [employee] law." 50.14, pt. (1978). utilize details "Agreement Counsel Parties." 46. According "[a] racial, sex four-fifths (4/5) (or eighty percent) generally regarded words, 60% pass 48% pass. counsels' sidebar Decree. 9, supra. unconstitutional. demonstrate adversely meaning separate day, intervenors participate prospective only. intervention untimely judgments, 116. "special program" insulate 174. yet, 1985). framed "[w]hether guarantees Amendments Constitution." I. coextensive Fourteenth, provision. 1847, (the interest"); 285, 1852 (same); 301-302, 1861-1862 (MARSHALL, dissenting, (remedial 'important objectives' 'substantially related achievement ") University California Regents Bakke, 438 265, 359, 2733, 2783, 750 (1978)); 313, 1867 dissenting) (both disadvantaged group); 507, 2789, (expressing articulated 362, 2784, 'strict' theory fatal fact"). Amici, city Birmingham, Detroit, Los Angeles, Columbia, operations departments crippled believe restores community trust facilitates service encouraging citizen cooperation. 314, 1868 ("[I]n recent unrest, superintendent reasonably integrated better maintaining officers"); ("This visibility Black patrolman advantage segments divisiveness plaguing enforcement" (citation omitted)). Amicus Legal Defense Educational Fund, Inc., amplified perceptions of, reactions role active opposition civil movement. generalized particularized impediments arising compelling. determinations prong test. Compare described 276, 1848 ("There numerous explanations disparity faculty, them unrelated kind"). reject punish balance, fulfill 3056, judgment) Union's facilitate goal"). contends reality acted diligence devise examination" "failed appreciate difficult rigorous expensive time-consuming usually extending years" tests, besides validated, 24-25, 13. merit. Since rendered, tentatively approved, 163-164, 176-177. (and, according Government, 41-42), inevitable reimposition implements apparent difficulties initially year; Surely proposal. O'CONNOR's Post, overlooks goals, dominate others. indicating willingness immediately follow future, preferably design. conditional raise doubts discrimination; interfering illustrated tactic. 139. Indeed, willing sacrifice great money avoid 1975) outlined establishes finds heads perceived troopers—a critical; appropriated funds excess $3 million, portion salaries ancillary expenses troopers; spent critically went unspent diverted uses. These findings, combined considerable testimony regarding reluctance placing state's highways, hired"). Fining lacks lone virtue blacks: step eradication elevating hierarchy. authority, responsibility "eliminate supervise progress. Again neither judge. suggestions beside presumably vacancies created, suggesting batch solution deficiencies justified. corporal-promotion ratio, expectations." complied, proposing periods ranging 569-570. Thus far, preventing indicates one, repetition prompted formulation. proposed. reason corporal: event anticipate occur. "after alternatives," 201, asserts imposed, note "alternatives" And, repeat detailed, supra think Judge's patient accommodation asserted preceded text, inadequate. 478, 3051 [district] twice adjusted [membership] continually changes apprenticeship classes economic conditions petitioners meeting membership targets; administrator accommodate petitioners' orders"); ("Additional evidenced originally 1987"). promoted, (16% black). (9.2% Neither raised mark impact). Obviously, accelerated approach previously expediting elimination vestiges Montgomery 395 225, 1670, 263 (1969), black-to-white faculty modifications saying "was spirit [391 'promises panel would, think, capacity expedite, commands, unified, unitary, becomes instead hope. ." 235, 1675. disagree. confines remains Constitution, obtain mandate. one—where litigation. seniority counted 10% candidate's score. 56. But, differences affect scores 3%. 50-51. Greater not, create expectation Fullilove, 527, 2800 (STEWART, (contrasting legislative branch "dispassionate objectivity" "flexibility" "to mold around discrimination"); International Salt 332 392, 400, 17, (1947) (JACKSON, Appellate Courts. invested large model exigencies case") footnote analysis VII cases—though similar—are identical. Our government-imposed, scrutinized 2805 inherently suspect legislature measured court-ordered, demanding STEVENS' relies primarily 194-195. broadly relevant, significantly decisions. pupil bused neighborhood comparable inconvenienced. "[e]xtensive transportation threaten liberty privacy interests." Washington Seattle 458 457, 492, 3187, 3206, 896 (1982). laid off Court-ordered busing education. 300, 39, 2753, (1978) (distinguishing admission medical school). common districts country. 29-30, Keyes Dist. Denver, Colo., 413 189, 243, 22, 2686, 2714, 548 (1973) part). Fallon & Weiler, Firefighters Stotts: Conflicting Models Justice, S.Ct.Rev. 28-32 (contending allocating raises issues fairness). advances novel 'supported purpose.' 196 (1986)). substitution word "governmental" "state" quotation emphasizes novelty executive established—the all-white illegitimate. contrast, consequences arguably inconsistent "overinclusive" "underinconclusive," metaphor tailoring merits claims Inevitably, illegal "innocent victims" individually responsible incongruous imply, does, "victims" hiring. disclosed record, presumptively valid; invalid. violator party; wrong leveled non-participant course, impinge protected, protections remedying" Society Professional Engineers 435 679, 697-698, 1355, 1368, 637 400-401, (1947); Teachers Hudson, 475 292, 309-310, 1066, 1077 include commands large") reasons me, assumes agency. 187, Dismissing inconsequential by-product fully applicable case; seems regard 188-189, exacting review. applicability depends detailed imprecise calculations hardship. me directed uniform govern claim, Craig Boren, 429 190, 211, 451, 464, 397 concurring), courts. principles cases. right." "be guided principles. Traditionally, practical facility adjusting reconciling needs. call traditional attributes power." 756, (footnotes wrong. 537-539, 2805-2806,

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