Legal Document

406 U.S. 205 92 Supreme Court Reporter 1526 32 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 15 State of WISCONSIN, Petitioner,v.Jonas YODER et al. Number 70—110 Argued Dec. 8, 1971. Decided May 15, 1972. Syllabus Respondents, members the Old Order Amish religion and Conservative Mennonite Church, were convicted violating Wisconsin's compulsory school attendance law (which requires a child's until age 16) by declining to send their children public or private after they had graduated from eighth grade. The evidence showed that provide continuing informal vocational education designed prepare them for life in rural community. also respondents sincerely believed high was contrary way would endanger own salvation complying with law. sustained respondents' claim application school-attendance violated rights under Free Exercise Clause First Amendment, made applicable Fourteenth Amendment. Held: 1. State's interest universal is not totally free balancing process when it impinges on other fundamental rights, such as those specifically protected Amendment traditional parents respect religious upbringing children. Pp. 213—215. 2. Respondents have amply supported enforcement formal requirement grade gravely if destroy exercise beliefs. 215—219. 3. Aided history three centuries an identifiable sect long successful self-sufficient segment American society, demonstrated sincerity beliefs, interrelationship belief mode life, vital role daily conduct play survival communities, hazards presented statute generally valid others. Beyond this, carried difficult burden demonstrating adequacy alternative terms overall interests relies support its program education. In light this showing, weighing minimal difference between what require already accept, incumbent show more particularity how admittedly strong be adversely affected granting exemption Amish. p(p). 219—229, 234—236. 4. empowered, parens patriae, extend benefit secondary regardless wishes cannot against nature revealed record, introduced convincing accommodating objections foregoing one two additional years will impair physical mental health child, result inability self-supporting discharge duties responsibilities citizenship, any materially detract welfare society. 229—234. 49 Wis.2d 430, 182 North Western Reporter, 2nd 539, affirmed. John William Calhoun, Madison, Wis., petitioner. baron Ball, Harrisburg, Pa., respondent. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 On petition Wisconsin, we granted writ certiorari case review decision Wisconsin holding convictions invalid Constitution For reasons hereafter stated affirm judgment Wisconsin. 2 Jonas Yoder Wallace Miller are religion, respondent Adin Yutzy member Church. They families residents Green County, required cause attend reaching 16 but declined children, ages 14 complete grade.1 enrolled school, within recognized exception compulsory-attendance law,2 conceded subject statute. 3 complaint district administrator schools, charged, tried, County fined sum $5 each.3 defended ground Amendments.4 trial testimony believed, accordance tenets communities generally, children's at private, life. sending only expose themselves danger censure church community, but, found county court, stipulated beliefs sincere. 4 position, expert witnesses scholars whose uncontradicted. expressed opinions relationship concerning general described impact could continued exist today. given some detail, beginning Swiss Anabaptists 16th century who rejected institutionalized churches sought return early, simple, Christian de-emphasizing material success, rejecting competitive spirit, seeking insulate modern world. As common heritage, today characterized community separate apart world worldly influence. This concept aloof values central faith. 5 A related feature devotion harmony soil, exemplified simple early era America during much our national make living farming closely activities. Broadly speaking, pervades determines entire adherents. Their regulated great detail Ordnung, rules, Adult baptism, which occurs late adolescence, time young people voluntarily undertake heavy obligations, unlike Bar Mitzvah Jews, abide rules community.5 6 objection beyond firmly grounded these concepts. object higher because teach marked variance life; view impermissible exposure 'wordly' influence conflict tends emphasize intellectual scientific accomplishments, self-distinction, competitiveness, social students. society emphasizes learning-through-doing; 'goodness,' rather than intellect; wisdom, technical knowledge, welfare, competition; separation from, integration with, contemporary 7 Formal places environment hostile increasing emphasis competition class work sports pressure conform styles, manners, ways peer group, takes away physically emotionally, crucial formative adolescent period During period, must acquire attitudes favoring manual self-reliance specific skills needed perform adult farmer housewife. learn enjoy labor. Once child has learned basic reading, writing, elementary mathematics, tratis, skills, fall category best through example 'doing' classroom. And, grow his faith he prepared accept obligations imposed baptism. short, teachers faith—and may even it—interposes serious barrier into Dr. Hostetler, experts testified equipped, curriculum environment, impart promoted 8 do first eight grades proposition agree 'three R's' order read Bible, good farmers citizens, able deal non-Amish necessary course affairs. acceptable does significantly wordly interfere development period. While wherever possible established schools many respects like small local past. learning develop reject influences alienate man God. 9 basis considerations, Hostetler psychological harm conflicts produce, also, opinion, ultimately destruction exists Donald Atlantic Erickson, witness education, succeed preparing productive He system doing directly relevant roles 'ideal' perhaps superior ordinary excellent record law-abiding 10 Although court careful findings determined 'does freedom Defendants act sincere belief' concluded 'reasonable constitutional' governmental power, therefore denied motion dismiss charges. Circuit affirmed convictions. Court, however, reversed majority failed adequate showing 'establishing maintaining educational overrides defendants' right religion.' 447, 547 (1971). 11 * There no doubt power State, having responsibility impose reasonable regulations control duration See, e.g., Pierce versus Society Sisters, 268 510, 534, 45 571, 573, 69 L.Ed. 1070 (1925). Providing ranks very apex function State. Yet paramount was, Pierce, yield equivalent privately operated system. held Oregon's compelling unreasonably interfered directing rearing off-spring, including church-operated schools. suggests, parental direction place See Ginsberg New York, 390 629, 639, 88 1274, 1280, 20 195 (1968); Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 43 625, 67 1042 (1923); cf. Rowan Post Office Dept., 397 728, 90 1484, 25 736 (1970). Thus, however highly rank it, interests, so they, words 'prepare (them) obligations.' U.S., 535, S.Ct., 573. 12 It follows compel interferes practice legitimate belief, appear either deny requirement, there state sufficient magnitude override claiming protection Clause. Long before acknowledgment need Religion Clauses fixed buttressing equally firm, less explicit, prohibition establishment government. underlying provisions relating been zealously protected, sometimes expense importance. invalidation financial aid parochial government grants salary subsidy extent courts gone regard, notwithstanding programs legislatively service sound policy Congress. Lemon Kurtzman, 403 602, 91 2105, 29 745 (1971); Tilton Richardson, 672, 2091, 790 Everson Board Education, 330 1, 18, 504, 513, 711 (1947). 13 essence all said written highest otherwise served can overbalance claims religion. We settled, therefore, that, means absolute exclusion subordination interests. E.g., Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 83 1790, 965 (1963); McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 459, 81 1101, 1122, 393 (1961) (separate Frankfurter, J.); Prince Marssachusetts, 321 158, 165, 64 438, 441, 645 (1944). II come then quality alleged encroachment forbears adhered almost centuries. evaluating determine whether are, claim, inseparable interdependent. virtuous admirable, interposed regulation based purely secular considerations; Clauses, rooted belief. determination 'religious' entitled constitutional present most delicate question,6 ordered liberty precludes allowing every person standards matters whole important asserted subjective evaluation rejection accepted majority, Thoreau isolated himself Walden Pond, rest basis. Thoreau's choice philosophical personal religious, rise demands Clauses. Giving weight see abundantly supports merely matter preference, deep conviction, shared organized intimately living. That stem shown fact response literal interpretation Biblical injunction Epistle Paul Romans, 'be conformed . ..' command Moreover, Amish, simply theocratic explained, virtually regulating Talmudic diet strictly enforced shows attitude toward family, home remained constant say static—in unparalleled progress human knowledge changes education.7 freely concede, indeed assert article faith, call 'life style' altered fundamentals church-oriented separated outside 'worldly' influences, attachment inherently uncomplicated, albeit preserve conform. telephones, automobiles, radios, television, dress, speech, habits set society; customs both symbolic practical. 17 around become populous, urban, industrialized, complex, particularly century, affairs correspondingly detailed pervasive. thus increasingly requirements exerting hydraulic insistence conformity majoritarian standards. So laws confined imparted nearby schoolhouse, large proportion students little fear reject. But areas now largely consolidated often remote student's alien strongly shows, sharp mandated religion; requiring accordingly engendered concern conflict.8 conclusion inescapable schooling, exposing attitudes, goals, substantially interfering stage development, contravenes parent child. 18 severe, inescapable, affirmatively compels them, threat criminal sanction, acts undeniably odds Braunfeld Brown, 599, 605, 1144, 1147, 563 (1961). Nor grave interference point view. carries precisely kind objective prevent. real undermining today; abandon assimilated large, forced migrate tolerant region.9 19 sum, unchallenged acknowledged history, 300 consistent practice, pervading III Neither nor challenged Its position undisputed youth essential part practice. meet indeed, practices confessional, sabbath 21 concedes absolutely control, argues 'actions,' though religiously grounded, Amendment.10 decisions idea always true activities individuals, based, undoubted promote health, safety, Federal Government delegated powers. Gillette States, 401 437, 828, 28 168 (1961); Massachusetts, (1944); Reynolds 98 145, 244 (1879). broad police applicability. Murdock Pennsylvania, 319 105, 63 870, 87 1292 (1943); Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303—304, 60 900, 903, 84 1213 (1940). case, easier 'actions' refusing school; context action neatly logic-tight compartments. Cf. 612, 2111, 745. 22 disposed grounds applies uniformly citizens not, face, discriminate religions particular motivated concerns. neutral face may, application, nonetheless offend neutrality unduly burdens supra; Walz Tax Commission, 664, 1409, 697 ignore obligation citizenship run afoul Establishment Clause, allowed prevent exercise. By preserving doctrinal flexibility recognizing sensible realistic 23 'we chart preserved autonomy bodies while avoiding semblance 'tight rope' successfully traversed.' supra, 1413. 24 turn, then, broader contention give way. Where stake, sweeping claim; despite admitted validity generality cases, searchingly examine seeks 16, impediment objectives flow claimed exemption. Martin City Struthers, 141, 862, 1313 Schneider 308 147, 146, 155 (1939). advances primary arguments notes, Thomas Jefferson pointed out degree participate effectively intelligently open political independence. Further, prepares individuals self-reliant participants propositions. 26 However, adduced persuasively effect long-established serve Respondents' trial, without challenge, value assessed capacity thing year goal preparation live, quite another viewed agrarian keystone 400, 627, 1042. 27 attacks fostering 'ignorance' No question duty protect ignorance argument square facts disclosed record. Whatever idiosyncrasies seen unit conventional 'mainstream.' usual forms. Congress itself self-sufficiency authorizing groups pay security taxes.11 neither fair correct suggests opposed level. What type provided certified comes development. example, learning-by-doing 'ideal system' adults 'I inclined better job us do.' put 'These aren't purporting people, seems me & N Immigration Nationality Decisions to—whatever being done well.'12 forget Middle Ages civilization World orders obstacles. assumption today's 'right' others 'wrong.' odd erratic condemned different. 30 providing possibility choose leave ill-equipped should making available requires. speculative. loss adherents attrition, upon leaving practical agricultural training industry self-reliance, shortcomings. Indeed, appears primarily mistaken assumption, noted, grade, allow 'ignorance.' To contrary, necessity schooling level, continue educators years. 31 nothing suggest qualities reliability, dedication fail find ready markets Absent supporting unwilling assume persons possessing valuable doomed warrant finding eliminate problem might exist. Insofar rests brief imperative enable democratic process, fall. enabled day-to-day self-imposed limitations relations world, survive prosper separate, sharply 200 country. capable fulfilling compelled price jeopardizing belief.13 When emphasized bulwark tyranny, indicate mind singularly parallel reflect virtues Jefferson's ideal 'sturdy yeoman' form considered society.14 Even idiosyncratic separateness exemplifies diversity profess admire encourage. 33 relatively recent history. Less ago, satisfied completion grades, least where regularly lawfully employed.15 independence functioning approaching country speculative gain, meeting Against background particularized justify severe entail. 34 note labor historical origin humanitarian instincts, limits coordinated achieve objectives.16 anything, position. origins falling entirely clear. reflected movement prohibit culminated Fair Labor Standards Act 1938.17 true, 16-year limit derive impression age. same time, conversely, reflects, substantial measure, employed conditions hazardous performed adults. 35 aimed opportunities undesirable consequence unhealthful displacing workers, or, hand, idleness.18 kinds statutes—compulsory laws—tend keep certain off market regimen turn provides opportunity livelihood pursue protects adolescence. 36 terms, emerges somewhat generally. For, employment concerns laws, guidance family farm ancient tradition lies periphery laws.19 intimation farms deleterious exploit tender Any inference us. economic aspects eliminating jobs IV 37 Finally, authority exempting Amixh fails recognize substantive due regard patriae parents. Taken broadest sweep, Court's language Prince, confronted situation comparable record; characterization evils thought legislature legitimately associate labor, company adult. 169—170, 443—444. later took care confine narrow scope stated: 38 'On challenges overt prompted principles, 'even accord one's convictions, (it) legislative restrictions.' 603, 1146, 563. actions invariably posed peace order. 244; Jacobson 197 11, 358, 643; 402—403, 1793. 39 course, peace, order, properly inferred.20 reliance theory evidence. 40 Contrary suggestion dissenting DOUGLAS, depends assertion contrasted prosecution here failing exercise, penalties parent. dissent expresses desire prevented so. reason consider since issue case. parties litigation. tried preventing attending desires, contrary.21 outset empowered apply manner parents—that is, 41 Our proper resolution competing parents, appropriate proceeding minor desires contrary. Recognition would, concepts over past decisions. clear intrusion area questions raised reach decide issues. 42 proceeds actual potential compulsory-education foreclosing intelligent could, short college. experience consult 14—16 placed parents' Indeed 'save' measure influence, determine, future markedly involves guide culture nurture debate enduring tradition. If first, significant statements observed: 44 'Under doctrine 1042, Law think plain 1922 guardians direct control. heretofore out, guaranteed abridged legislation relation purpose competency governments Union repose excludes standardize forcing instruction only. mere creature State; him destiny right, coupled duty, 534—535, 'additional obligations,' referred include inculcation moral standards, elements citizenship. involved, dispute 'reasonably' constitutionally prescribed 46 However read, stands charter parenthood combined State' sustain sure, parent, linked limitation jeopardize safety burdens. persuasive advanced whole. indicates forgoing one, two, 47 scheme government, all-encompassing unforeseeable urged V 48 hold, Amendments 16.22 disposition alters recognition obvious boards legislatures, 'necessity' discrete move circumspection performing sensitive task faced requirements. overemphasized dealing group recently discovered 'progressive' enlightened convincingly organization, probably few sects make, supra. 50 Nothing hold intended undermine applicability statutes promulgate impairing similarly situated. amicable effective relationships church-sponsored assuming context, content guidance, inconsistent opinion.23 51 Affirmed. 52 POWELL REHNQUIST consideration 53 STEWART, whom BRENNAN joins, concurring. 54 constitutionality imposing punishment refusal brand criminals following rightly holds 55 regarding institutions learning, wish points whatever concerned differ Only testified. last answers her cross-examination accurately up testimony: 56 'Q. take Frieda, you going did go September, your religion? 57 'A. Yes. 58 reason? 59 Yes.' (Emphasis supplied.) me, interesting discussed Part DOUGLAS. With observation, join 61 WHITE, STEWART join, 62 Cases inevitably conflicting ninth tenth outweighs importance concededly sect. different forbade Since permitted tools literacy deviation slight, conclude prevail, 'religious freedom—the believe strange and, be, foreign creeds—has classically society.' 1150, (Brennan, J., concurring dissenting). denigrated, however: 65 'Today, governments. Compulsory expenditures demonstrate performance responsibilities, armed forces. foundation Today principal instrument awakening cultural values, professional training, helping adjust normally environment.' Brown 347 483, 493, 74 686, 691, 873 (1954). 66 Term, reemphasized legitimacy enforcing 613, (1971).1 (1925), lends replace views needs happy military compliance set, posit pre-empt schools.2 maintenance end itself, attempting non-Amish: expand broaden sensibilities, kindle imagination, foster spirit inquiry, increase understanding tolerance. adequately equip role. Others, nuclear physicists, ballet dancers, computer programmers, historians, occupations, necessary. desert age.3 latent talents style choose, option led circumstances although close, am unable intellectually stultified new academic later. statutory minimum all, 16. Decision cases administration involve close repeated scrutiny practices, anxious avoid. entanglement create forbidden implement threatened instituted permissible, nonreligious objective. uncontested, potentially adverse great, spent school. 68 part. scruples yet disagree dispensation alone. analysis assumes stake other. difficulty approach vindicate claims, high-school-age 70 argued defy affirmative 71 First, expressly asserts, adults, defense prosecutions. standing defendants defense.1 lower identity treated factor analysis. 72 Second, squarely dismiss, religious-liberty vacuum. exemption, inevitable notions mature enough express invasion permit imposition canvassing views. 645, resulting forum, litigation considered. respected, well objections. 73 individual experience. necessary, appropriate, single Crucial, suit. Frieda high-school Yoder. Yoder's Vernon Barbara Miller. dissent, liberty. never full talk about Cociety 1070; And analyzed similar Recent clearly protectible 75 These 'persons' meaning Bill Rights. again. Haley Ohio, 332 596, 302, 224, extended 15-year-old boy. re Gault, 387 13, 1428, 1436, 527, 'neither Rights alone.' Winship, 1068, 368, 12-year-old boy, charged crime committed adult, procedural safeguards contained Sixth 76 Tinker Des Moines Independent Community School District, 503, 89 733, 731, dealt 13-year-old, 15-year-old, 16-year-old wore armbands disciplined gave reflief, saying abridged. 77 'Students Constitution. possessed respect, just State.' Id., 511, 739. 78 West Virginia Education Barnette, 624, 1178, 1628, school-children, collided rule salute flag, sanction included expulsion id., 630, 1181, vice regime said: 'Here compulsion declare belief.' 631, 1182. emphasizing 79 'That educating scrupulous Constitutional freedoms individual, strangle source discount principles platitudes.' 637, 1185. 80 heard. absent speak decided want pianist astronaut oceanographer. break tradition.2 student, imperiled decision. keeps forever barred entry amazing preferred rebel. judgment, parents', masters destiny.3 harnessed truncated, stunted deformed. heard gives honor 82 canvassed courts. explicitly reserved hearings remand case.4 'law order' irrelevant. irrespective misdemeanor felony records be. sure Catholics, Episcopalians, Baptists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Unitarians, my Presbyterians subjected test. perpetuate motive, startling problems akin back operating fraudulent Ballard, 322 78, 822, 1148. factors here, low record,5 certainly qualify historic rejects notion actions, ruling, departs teaching 164, 244, 'Congress deprived left violation subversive order.' polygamy Mormons. said, 'It (in polygamy) professed religion: still only.' 167, 244. 85 Action, deemed antisocial, punished deeply today, opens base ever enjoyed; promises overruled. 86 way, retreats reference Henry says 'choice Clauses.' Seeger, 380 163, 850, Selective Service Act, conscientious objector claims. 'Within phrase being, else subordinate dependent. test words: meaningful occupies possessor filled God qualifying definition. construction avoids imputing intent classify excluding others, well-established congressional equal treatment opposition tenets.' 176, 859. Welsh 398 333, 1792, 308, vein, saying: 'In Welsh's war perception politics. letter board, wrote: "I according see. complex wastes resources, fosters disregard (what concern) ends; employ 'defend' 'way life' profoundly change failure political, social, realities we, nation, nation." 342, 1797. philosophy, itself; living; injure kill being. (and corresponding 'duty' abstain violence person) 'superior arising relation.' contrary: relation. cannot, conscientiously comply Government's feel immoral repugnant." 343, 1798. 93 adhere exalted 'religion' Nation sects, representing diversities race. 192—193, 867—868 (concurring opinion). Yoder, aged Miller, Yutzy, 14, graduates Wis.Stat. § 118.15 (1969) pertinent part: '118.15 '(1)(a) Unless legal excuse shall hours, holidays excepted, session term, quarter semester becomes '(3) section condition exempted board resides completed 4-year course. certificate reputable physician proof '(4) Instruction elsewhere substituted attendance. Such approved superintendent reside. '(5) Whoever violates $50 imprisoned months both.' Section 118.15(1)(b) containing 'vocational, school,' concedly inapplicable involved. Prior attorney wrote Superintendent Public effort explore possibilities compromise settlement. Among possibilities, suggested administratively satisfy establishing plan Pennsylvania. Supp.App. 6. Under Pennsylvania plan, hours week, taught subjects English, studies teacher. balance household supervision, journal major portion projects agriculture homemaking. Judge G. Huntington, Children Society: Socialization chapter Indiana. Ibid. Iowa Code 299.24 Kan.Stat.Ann. 72—1111 (Supp. 1971). proposal afford 'substantially education' offered area. provides: respecting prohibiting thereof Littell, Sectarian Protestantism Pursuit Wisdom: Must Technological Objectives Prevail?, Controls Nonpublic Schools (G. Erickson ed. 1969). 351—361, 1802—1807, (1970) (Harlan, result); 882, 1148 R. Butts L. Cremin, History Culture (1953); Transformation n. 5, 9; 5. Some developed working arrangements 3, existence ignored able, considerable sacrifice, relocate accommodations prosecution. Forced migration minorities evil lay heart 9—10, 508—509, (1947); Memorial Remonstrance Religious Assessments, Writings James Madison 183 Hunt 1901). apparent several previous here. Garber, Kan. 567, 419 Pacific 896 (1966), cert. denied, 389 51, 236, (1967); Hershberger, 103 Ohio App. 188, 144 Eastern 693 (1955); Commonwealth Beiler, Pa.Super. 462, 134 (1951). Title KF62 1402(h) authorizes Secretary Health, Welfare exempt 'a sect' existing times December 31, 1950, taxes sect, receipt benefits waive finds makes provision dependent members. enacted H.R.Rep.No.213, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., 101—102 (1965). establishes contradiction known commit crimes, none receive assistance, unemployed. previously written: 'Many elated fact, schoolmen strive outlaw approach, emulate features.' Showdown Schoolhouse: Description Analysis Controversy, (D. 61. All involved study indicating achieved comparably skills. 9—11. 88—96. reluctant force 'in parent.' Instead proposed conditioned ability 'read readily tongue, native acquired.' Letter Joseph Cabell, Sept. 9, 1817, 417, 423—424 (Mem. 1904). far mass concerned, envisaged sufficiently 'those destined engage business agriculture, enter apprenticeships handicraft art choice.' Peter Carr, 7, 1814, Republic 93—106 (Arrowood 1930). 60—64, 70, 83, 136—137. Dept. Interior, Bureau Bulletin 47, Digest Laws Relating 527—559 (1916); Joint Hearings S. 2475 H.R. 7200 Senate Committee House Labor, 75th pt. 2, Page 416. fully satisfies six States. Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 15—321, subsec. B, par. (1956); Ark.Stat.Ann. 80—1504 299.2 S.D.Comp.Laws Ann. 13—27—1 Wyo.Stat.Ann. 21.1—48 (Supp.1971). (Mississippi law.) number flexible permitting excused lawful employment. Colo.Rev.Stat.Ann. §§ 123—20—5, 80—6—1 80—6—12 Conn.Gen.Stat.Rev. 10—184, 10—189 (1964); D.C.Code 202, 36—201 36—228 Ind.Ann.Stat. 28—505 28—506, 28—519 (1948); Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., 76, (Supp.1972) 149, Mo.Rev.Stat. 167.031, 294.051 (1969); Nev.Rev.Stat. 392.110 N.M.Stat.Ann. 77—10—6 (1968). An 1933. Wis.Laws 1927, 425, 97; 1933, 143. (Prior continuation maintained question.) discussion KF105 F3 Ensign, Attendance Child 203—230 (1921). Hearings, 185 187 (statement Frances Perkins, Labor), 381—387 Katherine Lenroot, Chief, Children's Bureau, Department Labor); National Committee, 40th Anniversary Report, Road Abbott, 259—269, 566 (Greenwood reprint 1968); School, Steinhilber C. Sokolowski, 3—4 (Dept. 1966). Statutes-at-Large 1060, amended, 201—219. materials cited Casad, Individual Rights, Giannella (1969). 266. 1938 definition '(o)ppressive labor' employing occupation manufacturing mining sixteen eighteen detrimental well-being.' 203(l). 643 (1905); Wright DeWitt 238 Ark. 906, 385 South 644 (1965); Application President Directors Georgetown College, Inc., 118 U.S.App.D.C. 80, 87—90, 331 1000, 1007—1010 (1964) (in-chambers opinion), 377 978, 1883, 746 (1964). corresponded Testimony Tr. 92—94, guided discontinue called side. constituted saw main 'sponsorship, support, active involvement sovereign activity.' 668, 1411, Accommodating hardly sponsorship involvement. favor, advance, assist centuries-old advent impose. accommodation 'reflects differences, represent forestall.' 409, 1797, (1963). Several adopted plans accommodate, 'Amish school.' sense word. attempted patterned efforts productive. satisfactory impinging pose order; did, Cleveland 329 (1946); 'No reasonably regulate inspect, supervise pupils; character patriotic disposition, plainly taught, manifestly inimical welfare.' gradual total years, 'at lost (of) church' turnover rate 'probably two-thirds (of Amish) people.' 110. Heffernan, below, opined '(l)arge numbers each thereafter world.' 451, 549 Witness nine-year-old niece ward circulate literature streets. There, But, Brennan, speaking 'The Prince) implicitly custodian asserting herself.' Eisenstadt Baird, 405 446 6, 1029, 1034, 349. Here, alternate rights. question, Order. Professor notes '(t)he limited districts others.' 226 church, observed defection 30%. Rates 50% reported High Amish: Commentary Kan.L.Rev. 423, 434 below brushed aside students' offhand comment '(w)hen reaches 440, 543. demanded student capacity. younger 14- 15-year-olds testify custody proceedings. hearing reversible error. Callicott Callicott, 364 455 (Tex.Civ.App.) (reversible error judge refuse hear eight-year-old battle). agreement among psychologists sociologists maturity 14-year-old approaches Piaget, Moral Judgment D. Elkind, Adolescents 75—80 (1970); Kohlberg, Schools: Development View, Muuss, Adolescent Behavior 193, 199—200 W. Kay, 172—183 Gesell Ilg, Youth: Years From Ten Sixteen 175—182 (1956). youth, identify childhood, M. Goodman, Childhood 92—94 (1970), population. Canvassing school-age insurmountable difficulties. 1968 survey indicated 256 Comment, 1971 Wis.L.Rev. 832, 852 132. observation portrayed leading 'idyllic agrarianism,' So, too, portrayal 'mythological basis.' noted '(d)rinking settlements.' 283. '(i)t suicide high, higher, nation.' 300. unfortunate 'preoccupation filthy stories,' 282, 'rowdyism stress.' 281. traits peculiar

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