Legal Document

521 U.S. 702117 S.Ct. 2258117 2302138 L.Ed.2d 772 WASHINGTON, et al., Petitioners,v.Harold GLUCKSBERG al. No. 96-110. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Jan. 8, 1997. Decided June 26, Syllabus * It has always been a crime to assist suicide in State Washington. The State's present law makes " [p]romoting attempt'' felony, and provides: "A person is guilty [that crime] when he knowingly causes or aids another attempt suicide.'' Respondents, four Washington physicians who occasionally treat terminally ill, suffering patients, declare that they would these patients ending their lives if not for assisted-suicide ban. They, along with three gravely ill plaintiffs have since died nonprofit organization counsels people considering physician-assisted suicide, filed this suit against petitioners, its Attorney General, seeking declaration ban is, on face, unconstitutional. They assert liberty interest protected by Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause which extends personal choice mentally competent, adult commit suicide. Relying primarily Planned Parenthood Southeastern Pa. v. Casey, 505 833, 112 2791, 120 674, Cruzan Director, Mo. Dept. Health, 497 261, 110 2841, 111 224, Federal District agreed, concluding Washington's unconstitutional because it places an undue burden exercise constitutionally interest. en banc Ninth Circuit affirmed. Held: prohibition "caus[ing]'' "aid[ing]'' does violate Clause. Pp. ____-____. (a) An examination our Nation's history, legal traditions, practices demonstrates Anglo-American common punished otherwise disapproved assisting over 700 years; rendering such assistance still almost every State; prohibitions never contained exceptions those were near death; recent years reexamined and, most part, reaffirmed number States; President recently signed Assisted Suicide Funding Restriction Act 1997, prohibits use federal funds support (b) In light Court's decisions lead conclusion respondents' asserted "right'' committing fundamental established method substantive-due-process analysis two primary features: First, regularly observed specially protects rights liberties are, objectively, deeply rooted history tradition. E.g., Moore East Cleveland, 431 494, 503, 97 1932, 1937-1938, 52 531 (plurality opinion). Second, required "careful description'' Reno Flores, 507 292, 302, 113 1439, 1447, 123 1. Circuit's various descriptions here at stake-e.g., right "determin[e] time manner one's death,'' "right die,'' "liberty choose how "control final days,'' "the humane, dignified shape death''-run counter second requirement. Since statute "aid[ing] suicide,'' question before more properly characterized as whether "liberty'' includes itself doing so. This no place given country's consistent, universal, continuing rejection right, even competent adults. To hold respondents, reverse centuries doctrine practice, strike down considered policy State. Respondents' contention consistent cases, unpersuasive. refuse lifesaving hydration nutrition was discussed Cruzan, supra, 279, S.Ct., 2851-2852, simply deduced from abstract concepts autonomy, but instead grounded common-law rule forced medication battery, long tradition protecting decision unwanted medical treatment. And although Casey recognized many sound U.S., 852, 2807, follow any all important, intimate, are so protected, see San Antonio School Dist. Rodriguez, 411 1, 33-34, 93 1278, 1296-1297, 36 16. did suggest otherwise. (c) constitutional requirement be rationally related legitimate government interests, e.g., Heller Doe, 509 312, 319-320, 2637, 2642-2643, 125 257, unquestionably met here. These interests include prohibiting intentional killing preserving human life; preventing serious public-health problem especially among young, elderly, untreated pain depression other mental disorders; profession's integrity ethics maintaining physicians' role patients' healers; poor, disabled persons, persons vulnerable groups indifference, prejudice, psychological financial pressure end lives; avoiding possible slide towards voluntary perhaps involuntary euthanasia. relative strengths need weighed exactingly, important legitimate, issue least reasonably promotion protection. 79 F.3d 790 (C.A.9 1996), reversed remanded. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. J., concurring opinion, GINSBURG BREYER, joined part. STEVENS, SOUTER, GINSBURG, opinions judgment. William L. Williams, petitioners. Walter Dellinger, amicus curiae, special leave Court. Kathryn Tucker, Seattle, WA, respondents. Chief Justice REHNQUIST 1 presented case offends Amendment Constitution. We not. 2 1854, first Territorial Legislature outlawed "assisting commission self-murder.''1 Today, promoting Wash. Rev.Code 9A.36.060(1) (1994). "Promoting punishable up five years' imprisonment $10,000 fine. —§§9A.36.060(2) 9A.20.021(1)(c). At same time, Natural Death Act, enacted 1979, states "withholding withdrawal life-sustaining treatment'' patient's direction "shall not, purpose, constitute §70.122.070(1).2 3 Petitioners General. Respondents Harold Glucksberg, M. D., Abigail Halperin, Thomas A. Preston, Peter Shalit, practice doctors ban.3 January 1994, pseudonymous Compassion Dying, sued Wash (1994) Dying Washington, 850 F.Supp. 1454, 1459 (W.D.Wash.1994).4 4 existence Id., 1459. 674 (1992), Missouri 224 (1990), F.Supp., 1459-1462, concluded "places [that] interest.'' 1465.5 also decided violated Equal Protection Clause's ""all similarly situated . treated alike.''' 1466 (quoting Cleburne Living Center, Inc., 473 432, 439, 105 3249, 3253-3254, 87 313 (1985)). 5 A panel Appeals reversed, emphasizing [i]n hundred aid oneself ever upheld court jurisdiction.'' 49 586, 591 (1995). reheard banc, panel's decision, affirmed 790, 798 (1996). Like emphasized decisions. F.3d, 813-816. what described "historical'' "current societal attitudes'' toward assisted id., 806-812, Constitution encompasses due process controlling death-that there short, constitutionally-recognized die.''' 816. After [w]eighing then balancing'' held "as applied adults wish hasten deaths prescribed physicians.'' 836, 837.6 reach equal-protection holding. 838.7 granted certiorari, 519 ----, 117 37, 135 1128 (1996), now reverse. 6 begin, we do due-process examining practices. See, 849-850, 2805-2806; 269-279, 2846-2842; (1977) opinion) (noting importance "respect teachings history'''). State-indeed, western democracy-it suicide.8 States' bans innovations. Rather, longstanding expressions commitment protection preservation life. 280, 2852 (" [T]he States-indeed, civilized nations-demonstrate life treating homicide crime. Moreover, majority country laws imposing criminal penalties one assists suicide''); Stanford Kentucky, 492 361, 373, 109 2969, 2977, 106 306 (1989) reliable indication [a national] consensus pattern laws''). Indeed, opposition condemnation suicide-and, therefore, suicide-are enduring themes philosophical, legal, cultural heritages. See generally, Marzen, O'Dowd, Crone & Balch, Suicide: Constitutional Right?, 24 Duquesne L.Rev. 17-56 (1985) (hereinafter Marzen); New York Task Force Life Law, When Sought: Euthanasia Medical Context 77-82 (May 1994) Force). 7 More specifically, years, both suicide.9 294-295, 2859-2860 (SCALIA, concurring). 13th century, Henry de Bracton, legal-treatise writers, [j]ust man may felony slaying himself.'' Bracton Laws Customs England 423 (f.150) (G. Woodbine ed., S. Thorne transl., 1968). real property killed himself avoid conviction punishment forfeit king; however, thought "if slays weariness unwilling endure further bodily [only] his movable goods [were] confiscated.'' 423-424 (f.150). Thus, [t]he principle sane person, whatever reason, introduced into English law.''10 Centuries later, Sir Blackstone, whose Commentaries only provided definitive summary authority 18th 19th century American lawyers, referred "self-murder'' pretended heroism, cowardice, Stoic philosophers, destroyed themselves ills had fortitude '' W. *189. Blackstone ranked [suicide] highest crimes,'' ibid, although, anticipating later developments, conceded harsh shameful punishments imposed "borde[r] little upon severity.'' *190. 8 For early colonies adopted approach. example, legislators Providence Plantations, become Rhode Island, declared, 1647, [s]elf-murder agreed unnatural, Assembly that, wherein doth it, kills out premeditated hatred own humor: chattels king's custom, debts nor lands; infant, lunatic, mad distracted man, forfeits nothing.'' Earliest Acts Colony Island Plantations 1647-1719, p. 19 (J. Cushing ed.1977). Virginia ignominious burial suicides, estates crown. Scott, Criminal Law Colonial 108, n. 93, 198, 15 (1930). 9 Over abolished penalties. Penn abandoned criminal-forfeiture sanction Pennsylvania 1701, (and States) eventually followed example. 294, Zephaniah Swift, Connecticut, wrote 1796 10 [t]here can act contemptible, than punish offender crime, exercising mean revenge lifeless clay, insensible punishment. There greater cruelty, inflicting [of] punishment, forfeiture goods, must fall solely innocent offspring -[Suicide] abhorrent feelings mankind, strong love implanted heart, cannot frequently committed, dangerous society. course necessity punishment.'' Z. System Connecticut 304 (1796). 11 statement clear, movement away law's sanctions represent acceptance suicide; rather, Swift observed, change reflected growing unfair suicide's family wrongdoing. 2859 Nonetheless, moved Blackstone's treatment courts continued condemn grave public wrong. Bigelow Berkshire Ins. Co., 284, 286, 23 L.Ed. 918 (1876) (suicide "an self-destruction''); Von Holden Chapman, A.D.2d 66, 70-71, 450 N.Y.S.2d 623, 626-627 (1982); Blackwood Jones, Fla. 528, 532, 149 So. 600, 601 (1933) ("No sophistry tolerated seek[s] justify self-destruction commendable matter right''). 12 That remained grievous, though nonfelonious, wrong confirmed fact colonial state legislatures retreat treatise stated [i]f reason advice himself, advisor murder principal.'' Digest 270 (1823). well view, re Joseph G., 34 Cal.3d 429, 434-435, 194 Cal.Rptr. 163, 166, 667 P.2d 1176, 1179 (1983); Commonwealth Mink, Mass. 422, 428 (1877) (""Now self accessory equally aided abetted murder''') Parker's charge jury Bowen, 13 356 (1816)), similar consent victim "wholly immaterial guilt cause[d] [his death],'' J. Stephen, History 16 (1883); F. Wharton, §§451-452 (9th ed. 1885); Martin Commonwealth, 184 Va. 1009, 1018-1019, 37 S.E.2d 43, 47 (1946) (""The security sacred estimation law, inalienable'''). death. whom ha[d] burden-of hopelessly diseased fatally wounded-nay, criminals condemned death, under full tide life's enjoyment, anxious continue live.'' Blackburn State, Ohio St. 146, 163 (1872); 360 (prisoner persuaded could tried murder, scheduled shortly executed). earliest explicitly outlaw 1828, Dec. 10, ch. 20, §4, 1828 N.Y. (codified N.Y.Rev.Stat. pt. 4, tit. 2, art. §7, 661 (1829)), new Territories York's Marzen 73-74. Between 1857 1865, led Dudley Field drafted code prohibited "aiding'' "furnish[ing] deadly weapon poisonous drug, knowing intends drug taking life.'' 76-77. By ratified, Penal Code Dakota Territory 1877, 1881, language served model several statutes late 20th centuries. 76-77, 205-206, 212-213. California, codified 1874, using Code's.11 Model prompting enact revise bans.12 Code's drafters sanctity represented threatened expresses willingness participate another, accomplished consent, request, victim.'' Institute, §210.5, Comment 5, 100 (Official Draft Revised Comments 1980). 14 Though rooted, reaffirmed. Because advances medicine technology, Americans today increasingly likely die institutions, chronic illnesses. President's Comm'n Study Ethical Problems Medicine Biomedical Behavioral Research, Deciding Forego Life-Sustaining Treatment 16-18 (1983). Public concern democratic action therefore sharply focused best protect dignity independence life, result significant changes attitudes reflect. Many States, permit "living wills,'' surrogate health-care decisionmaking, refusal Vacco Quill, --- ---------, 2293, ----; 818-820; People Kevorkian, 447 Mich. 436, 478-480, nn. 53-56, 527 N.W.2d 714, 731-732, 53-56 voters part reaffirm case, §9A.36.060 (1994), 1975 revision code. Four passed specifically shall suicide'' [n]othing chapter construed condone, authorize, approve mercy 1979 Laws, 112, §§8(1), §§70.122.070(1), 70.122.100 (1994)). 1991, rejected ballot initiative which, passed, permitted form suicide.13 added provision expressly excluding 1992 98, §10; §70.122.100 California 1993. On hand, Oregon enacted, through initiative, "Death With Dignity Act,'' legalized adults.14 vote, proposals legalize legislatures, none enacted.15 just last year, Iowa overwhelming Ann. §§707A.2, 707A.3 (Supp.1997); R.I. Gen. §§11-60-1, 11-60-3 (Supp.1996). Also, April 30, Clinton Pub.L. 105-12, Stat. 42 U.S.C. §14401 seq).16 17 currently engaged serious, thoughtful examinations issues. Law-an ongoing, blue-ribbon composed doctors, ethicists, religious leaders, interested laymen-was convened 1984 commissioned "a broad mandate recommend issues raised advances.'' vii. past decade, recommended relating end-of-life decisions, pregnancy, organ donation. 118-119. studying unanimously [l]egalizing euthanasia pose profound risks individuals -[T]he potential dangers dramatic outweigh benefit might achieved.'' 120. 18 Attitudes changed consistently condemned, prohibit, Despite technology notwithstanding increased emphasis retreated prohibition. Against backdrop tradition, turn claim. II guarantees fair process, absence physical restraint. Collins Harker Heights, 503 115, 125, 1061, 1068-1069, 261 (1992) (Due "protects individual "certain actions regardless fairness procedures used implement them''') Daniels 474 327, 331, 662, 665, 88 662 (1986)). provides heightened interference certain interests. 301-302, 1446-1447, (1993); 851, 2806-2807. line addition specific freedoms Bill Rights, marry, Loving Virginia, 388 1817, 1010 (1967); children, Skinner Oklahoma ex rel. Williamson, 316 535, 62 1110, 86 1655 (1942); direct education upbringing Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 43 625, 67 1042 (1923); Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 45 571, 69 1070 (1925); marital privacy, Griswold 381 479, 85 1678, 510 (1965); contraception, ibid; Eisenstadt Baird, 405 438, 92 1029, 31 349 (1972); integrity, Rochin 342 165, 72 205, 96 183 (1952), abortion, supra. assumed, strongly suggested, traditional 278-279, 2851-2852. 20 But "ha[ve] reluctant expand concept substantive guideposts responsible decisionmaking unchartered area scarce open-ended.'' Collins, 1068. extending interest, we, great extent, outside arena debate legislative action. "exercise utmost care whenever asked break ground field,'' lest subtly transformed preferences members Moore, 502, 1937 21 Our "deeply tradition,'' 1938 opinion); Snyder Massachusetts, 291 97, 105, 54 330, 332, 78 (1934) ("so traditions conscience fundamental''), "implicit ordered liberty,'' "neither justice exist sacrificed,'' Palko 302 319, 325, 326, 58 149, 152, 82 288 (1937). cases 1447; 1068; 277-278, 2850-2851. thus provide crucial "guideposts decisionmaking,'' 1068, restrain exposition As "forbids infringe "fundamental' all, provided, unless infringement narrowly tailored serve compelling 1447. 22 relying Harlan's dissenting Poe Ullman, largely abandon restrained methodology, ask "whether [Washington's] sets "arbitrary impositions' "purposeless restraints' odds Amendment,'' post, __ Poe, 367 497, 543, 81 1752, 1776-1777, 989 (1961) (Harlan, dissenting)).17 development jurisprudence, briefly above, __, whereby outlines Amendment-never fully clarified, sure, capable being clarified-have carefully refined concrete examples involving found approach tends rein subjective elements necessarily judicial review. addition, establishing threshold requirement-that challenged implicate right-before requiring reasonable relation action, avoids complex balancing competing case. Turning claim here, [p]roperly analyzed, resolved determining 801, or, words, [i]s die?,'' 799. Similarly, respondents die'' Brief 7, describe 15, 18. noted formulating stake cases. often 799; 2307 (STEVENS, judgment) (Cruzan making about confront imminent death''), were, fact, precise: assumed "constitutionally nutrition.'' 2843; 287, 2856 (O'CONNOR, concurring) [A] refusing inferred prior decisions''). §9A.36.060(1) thus, us so.18 inquire traditions. Here, __-__, confronted universal continues reject today, Jackman Rosenbaum 260 22, 31, 9, 9-10, 107 (1922) ("If thing practiced will affect it''); 303, 1447 ("The mere novelty enough doubt "substantive process' sustains it''). 25 contend, practice. Pointing read jurisprudence reflecting general "self-sovereignty,'' 12, teaching "basic intimate exercises autonomy,'' 10; 847, 2804-2805 ("It promise realm enter''). According broad, individualistic principles reflects, make free interference.'' 10. protections another's assistance. mind, Cruzan. 26 Nancy Beth severely injured automobile accident persistive vegetative state, "ha[d] require hospital withdraw her parents' request. 269, 2846-2847. began observation [a]t touching without justification battery.'' Ibid. "informed generally treatment.'' reviewing relevant informed viewed encompassing 277, 2851. Next, reviewed subject, decisions.'' 278, Therefore, "for purposes assume[d] grant 2852; clear convincing evidence incompetent wishes concerning 280-281, 2852-2853. 27 contend "acknowledged dying removal 23, behind recognizing artificial applies impending death consuming lethal medication,'' 26. "Cruzan, food water, recognize[d] hastening death.'' 28 autonomy. Given treatment, assumption entirely enjoyed acts widely regarded quite distinct. 2298-2302. itself, suicide-and today-and certainly gave intimation somehow transmuted 2852. 29 rely Casey. There, essential holding Roe Wade should retained once again reaffirmed.'' 846, 2804. held, first, woman fetus viable, abortion "without State''; second, restrict post-viability abortions, made woman's health; third, throughout pregnancy health unborn child. reaching conclusion, some detail interpreting "personal marriage, procreation, relationships, child rearing, education,'' "involv[e] choices lifetime.'' 2807. 30 Appeals, like ""highly instructive''' ""almost prescriptive''' ""what inhere person's suicide''': "Like lifetime,' "central autonomy.''' 813-814. 32 emphasize that: 33 "At heart define existence, meaning, universe, mystery Beliefs matters attributes personhood formed compulsion State.'' 12. choosing language, described, way activities identified liberty, Amendment.19 recognition freedom belief ultimate considerations "though originate within zone belief, philosophic exercise. 2807 (emphasis added). autonomy warrant sweeping Independent 33-35, 1296-1298, (1973), 35 nearly efforts it. conclude requires, 257 305, 1448-1449. below recognized, 816-817,20 implicates interests.21 592-593; Amici Curiae 26-29; Amicus 16-27. "unqualified 282, 2853. laws, reflects other'').22 symbolic aspirational practical: "While longer penalized, shores notion limits relationships. gravity view take reluctance encourage promote 131-132. 38 admit contribute society enjoy 35, 23. "weight'' depends "medical condition stake.'' 817. sliding-scale ban, insists persons' lives, beginning end, condition, law. Rutherford, 442 544, 558, 99 2470, 2478-2479, 61 68 (1979) (". Congress determined less vast range self-styled panaceas inventive minds devise''). previously affirmed, "may decline judgments "quality' particular enjoy,'' remains true, 39 Relatedly, problem, groups. Annual Summary Vital Statistics pp. 29-30 (Oct.1992) leading cause between ages 54); 23-33 rate population percent, prevalent young elderly). studying, identifying, causes. 820; 854 (Beezer, dissenting) recognizes manifestation anguish''); 107-146. 40 Those suicide-terminally not-often suffer disorders. 13-22, 126-128 (more 95% major psychiatric illness uncontrolled "risk factor'' contributes depression); Physician-Assisted Netherlands: Report Chairman Charles T. Canady Subcommittee House Committee Judiciary, 104th Cong., 2d Sess., 10-11 (Comm. Print 1996); cf. Back, Wallace, Starks, Pearlman, 275 JAMA 919, 924 (1996) [I]ntolerable symptoms request euthanasia''). Research indicates, treated. H. Hendin, Seduced Death: Doctors, Patients Dutch Cure 24-25 (1997) (suicidal, "usually respond depressive grateful alive''); 177-178. Force, expressed difficult diagnose, professionals fail adequately seriously needs. 175. depressed pain, suicidal impulses. 41 profession. contrast Appeals' profession [not] [physician-assisted suicide],'' 827, Association, groups, [p]hysician-assisted fundamentally incompatible physician's healer.'' Ethics §2.211 (1994); Council Judicial Affairs, Decisions Near End Life, 267 2229, 2233 interventions too great''); 103-109 (discussing views). could, argued, undermine trust doctor-patient relationship blurring time-honored healing harming. Hearing 355-356 (testimony Dr. Leon R. Kass) doctor's whole-hearted devotion hard sustain''). groups-including persons-from abuse, neglect, mistakes. dismissed disadvantaged pressured "ludicrous face.'' 825. risk subtle coercion influence situations. 281, warned harm greatest well-being already compromised poverty, lack access good care, advanced age, membership stigmatized social group.'' 120; 593 [A]n insidious bias handicapped-again coupled cost-saving mentality-makes them statutory protection''). If permitted, resort spare families substantial costs. goes beyond coercion; negative inaccurate stereotypes, "societal indifference.'' 592. reinforces disabled, elderly valued healthy, impulses interpreted anyone else's. 101-102; Canady, prejudice messages send handicapped patients). 44 Finally, fear permitting start path struck obtaining doctors.'' 838. insists, impact court's limited. 44-47. "every it.'' 591; Mich., 470, 41, N.W.2d, 727-728, 41. expansive reasoning, ample concerns. noted, "decision duly appointed maker patient himself,'' 832, "in instances, unable self-administer drugs administration physician able receive them,'' 831; physicians, loved ones, inevitably 838, 140. turns couched limited "physician-assisted likely, effect, much broader license, prove extremely police contain.23 prevents erosion. supported Netherlands. government's study revealed 1990, 2,300 (defined deliberate termination request''), 400 1,000 explicit latter additional 4,941 where administered morphine overdoses consent. 12-13 (citing study). suggests despite reporting procedures, Netherlands suffering, regulation prevented abuses including neonates dementia. 16-21; C. Gomez, Regulating Case (1991); Patients, (1997). citing experience, "assisted closely linked,'' 145, abuse neither speculative distant,'' 134. ensures banning, rather regulating, 200-ft Reels Super 8MM Film, 413 123, 127, 2665, 2668, 500 (1973) ("Each step, taken, appear[s] step preceded aggregate instance''). 46 weigh exactingly Amendment, either face 838.24 *** 48 Throughout Nation, earnest morality, legality, practicality permits continue, remanded proceedings opinion. ordered. 50 51 Three sometimes brought challenge "knowingly [to] ai[d] claiming behalf enforce doctor acceded taken impositions'' restraints'' Amendment. dissenting). I statute's application shown unconstitutional, write separately give my reasons analyzing claims do, rejecting one. Although original parties during pendency remain here1 declaratory injunctive relief discharging obligations help.2 Southern Pacific Terminal Co. ICC, 219 498, 515, 283, 55 310 (1911) (question repetition yet evading review). reaches order granting judgment, true undisputed allegations each prescribe "medications self-administered purpose Complaint ¶2.3. dispute faced passage agonizing physically, protracted help, chosen sake dignity, apart pain. Each encounter died, help self-termination ¶2.5-2.8. While unanimity professional obligation circumstances, accept representation providing prescriptions go would, standards Hence, say, "best judgment medications [such] dosages enable deaths.'' ¶2.6; App. 35-37, 49-51, 55-57, 73-75. 53 brief ought deaths, regarding bodies, fundamentally, future lives,'' responsibly anguished remainders lost virtually value them. embrace impose regulations ensure indeed obtain fatal drug. ¶3.2; 28-41. response, argues deep roots 21-25. aside disputing legitimacy doctors' contemplated entail adverse consequences entitled forestall. nub argument undeserving account, confine circumstances fail. 34-35, confined ill. Even assuming fixed definition term, observes say certainty live. 34. asserts principled basis [the right] prescription administer themselves'' right's justifying ""merciful suffering.''' Y. Kamisar, Are Unconstitutional?, Hastings Center 32, 36-37 (May-June 1993)). observing competence assessed certainty, 34, suggesting distinction acting independently surrogate, 46. according merge "other forms life-ending assistance,'' 46-47. believes easily distinguished others, friends, family, workers. 47. jeopardize others class defined claim, creating irresponsible suicides euthanasia, concededly address. 56 deprives falling scope denial law,3 sort procedural defect administered. Their substantively adequate barring sought offered physician. dealing unenumerated rights, breadth indeterminacy "due process'' serving claim's textual basis. accordingly arouse skepticism find unduly vague oxymoronic review invoke unenumerated, governmental rested single theory (or, articulated one), overview instructive counts. persistence points modern dissent Poe,4 dwell on, while acknowledged failures point caution difficulty 57 Before ratification resting occurred applying constitutions commonly clauses Fifth Fourteenth) antecedents clauses, repeating Magna Carta's guarantee land.''5 untethered evaluated constitutionality wide statutes. approved legitimating previous illegitimate marriages, terms "social compact,'' power terms. Goshen Stonington, Conn. 209, 225-226 (1822). period, specialized equity, created Tennessee hear bank debtors, authorization "partial'' legislation violating constitution's "law land'' clause. Bank Cooper, Tenn. 599, Yerg. 602-608 (1831) (Green, J.); Yer., 613-615 (Peck, 618-623 (Kennedy, J.). middle famous Wynehamer invalidating purporting render possession liquor immediately illegal except kept narrow, specified purposes, finding inconsistent state's People, 378, 486-487 (1856). deemed excessive threat "fundamental citizen'' property. 398 (Comstock, E. Corwin, Liberty Government 58-115 (1948) Civil War); Cooley, Limitations *85-*129, *351-*397. 59 anticipated developments presage War occasions judiciary's conflicted government. after declaring invalidate property, nevertheless went uphold Wilkinson Leland, Pet. 627, 656-661, 542 (1829); Calder Bull, Dall. 386, 386-395, 648 (1798) (opinion Chase, Corfield Coryell, Cas. 546, 550-552, 3,230 Fletcher Peck, Cranch 87, 162 (1810), further. Georgia legislature purported rescind sale land ab initio reclaim title deprive subsequent, good-faith purchasers conveyed grantees. invalidation alternative sources authority: bills attainder, post facto impairing contracts Article I, §10 Constitution; "general institutions,'' Marshall meant simple deprivation authentically "legislative'' act. Fletcher, Cranch, 135-139, 162. 60 though, telling example salient instance adoption was, course, overturn, Dred Scott Sandford, How. 393, 691 (1857). Unlike textually based clause (in applicable national government), reliance clause's invalidated Compromise. How., 449-452. owner's slave territories traced enumerated Constitution, 451-452, implication earlier congressional compromise. ensuing needs recounting interpretation words "property'' became sustained enterprise, describing criterion converse reasonableness arbitrariness. standard fairly traceable Bradley's Slaughter-House Cases, Wall. 36, 394 (1873), said calling element (as calling, chosen, aspect property) declared truly "arbitrarily assailed,'' Wall., 116.6 comparable consistency question. Bartemeyer Iowa, 129, 133-135, 929 (1874); Munn Illinois, 94 113, 123-135, 77 (1877); Railroad 116 307, 1191, 636 (1886); Mugler Kansas, 659-670, 273, 295-302, 205 (1887). Government, 121-136 (surveying authorized statutes). Allgeyer Louisiana, 165 578, 427, 832 (1897), Louisiana contract, 588-593, 430-433, "liberty,'' aftermath so-called Lochner Era scaled back respects, expanded repudiated principle. citizen enjoyment faculties; lawful ways; live work will; earn livelihood calling; pursue avocation; enter proper, necessary carrying successful above mentioned.'' 589, 431. [W]e intend power,'' added, [w]hen far legitimately exercised regard subjects left determination arises.'' 590, 432. 63 unobjectionable, season economic legislation, echo Scott. succeeded decade York, 198 45, 539, 937 (1905), era name, striking arbitrary sorts post-New Deal uniformly sound. Compare, 62, 545 (finding maximum-hours bakers "unreasonable arbitrary'') Adkins Children's Hospital D.C., 525, 559, 394, 401-402, 785 (1923) (holding minimum wage "so clearly product naked, allowed stand States'') West Coast Hotel Parrish, 300 379, 391, 581-582, 703 (1937) (overruling approving minimum-wage "regulation subject community process''). parentheticals suggest, routinely invoked correct arbitrariness review, harbored spirit absolutist implementation espoused. 64 deviant repudiated, durable precursors reaffirming conduct (1923). Without referring precedents Cases engage occupations acquire useful knowledge, establish home bring worship God dictates conscience, privileges orderly pursuit happiness men.'' 399, 626. included teacher's teach parents children's unreasonable 400, Nebraska's foreign languages lower grades competency State,'' 403, 628. 534-536, 573-574, (1925) private schools lacked "reasonable State''); 327-328, 152-153, ("even field duties oppressive arbitrary, overridden courts''; "Is [injury] subjected appellant] hardship acute shocking polity it? Does lie base civil political institutions?'') (citation internal quotation marks omitted). 65 Pierce, took steps equal protection, (1942), "fundamental'' nature procreation foreshadowed prominence corresponding "strict scrutiny,'' 541, 1113. Skinner, list loosely gloss arbitrariness, scrutinize impingement care. doing, suggested Harlan develop, kind degree sensitive judge demand depend individual. 1776-1777. 66 cited, (1965), (1992). things responsibilities today. respect acknowledgement Judiciary's carry on. courts, content breadth. understood repudiation Lochner's progeny, notably segregation education, Bolling Sharpe, 347 500, 74 693, 694-695, 98 884 (1954), interracial 1823-1824, (1967), privacy Carey Population Services Int'l, 678, 684-691, 2010, 2015-2019, 675 (1977), 481-486, 1679-1683, 849, 869-879, 2805-2806, 2816-2822, (joint JJ.), Wade, 410 152-166, 705, 726-733, 147 control 287-289, 2856-2857, (1990) concurring); 2863-2864 (Brennan, dissenting); 2879 2851 (majority opinion), confinement, Foucha 504 71, 80-83, 1780, 1785-1787, 118 437 nothing construe text conformity text. Marbury Madison, 137, (1803). judges him followed, impossible substantive, merely procedural, limitations. "Were safeguard situations operating fairest procedure individuals, destroy three.'' 1775.7 imposes law.'' Following dissent, dissent's third implicitly address virtual disastrous mistakes lessons reminder business identification extratextual absolutes scrutiny resolution (perhaps unconscious) clashing principles, possibly worthy values people. comparison opposing informs task, deduction premise. Thus informed, substitute contending positions supplant balance contenders falls reasonable. Part III, below, deals point, takes object lesson attention intellectual discipline understanding basic account sides controversy reasonableness. III My wake subsequent failing older embracing opposite pole equating very level. 847-849, 2804-2806, begins "ordered 549, 1780 Griswold, 1690, comprising continuum impositions purposeless restraints,'' 1777 "Due reduced formula; reference built postulates individual, demands organized supplying rational felt roam unguided speculation speak country, having teaches developed broke. living thing. radically departs survive, builds survived No formula substitute, area, restraint.'' 542, 1776. 70 Powell, J.) ("Appropriate come drawing lines careful [and] solid underlie society''') 501, 1691 concurring)). 71 enforceable bar relatively trivial levels restraints undeniably irrational unsupported imaginable rationale. Carolene Products 144, 778, 783, 1234 (1938) (economic "not facts preclude rests basis''); 545, 548, 1778, 1779-1780 (referring usual "presumption constitutionality'' ordinary test "going plausibility statute's] underlying rationale''). Such instances suitably rare. mark requir[ing] particularly abridgment. Cf. [ex (1942)]; [347 (1954)],'' 1777; sufficiently judged "fundamental,'' 1779-1780; 1775-1776 C.C. 371, 380 (C.C.E.D.Pa.1823)). powerful rest rationality presumption constitutionality, prevail recognize asserted. (an "enactment involv[ing] "liberty' [is] subjec[t] scrutiny''') 1113);8 (1993) (reaffirming interest'').9 calls assess "weights'' dignities extent familiar Common constraints hands bound deserving stature, text, exemplified Nation] developed,'' broke.'' 1776 ""We draw notions disregard derived fused whole [,] profession.''' 544-545, 1778 170-171, 208-209, (1952)); 152 (looking ""principle[s] fundamental''') (1934)). 73 constraint, again, lawmaking, weighing valuing sphere forming inside resolves conflict 553, 1782 Youngberg Romeo, 457 320-321, 102 2452, 2460-2461, (1982). intervention identify differs legislation's principle, critically valued, commensurate arbitrarily pointlessly way. Only claimant right. 2851-2852 [D]etermining interest' inquiry; individual's] interests''') 321, 2461).10 reminds limitations entailed cautions error well, method: reasoned 542-544, 1776-1778, close criticism going details relationships historically lend weight value. 75 disclaims possibility (beyond analytic structure described), 1776, 1777-1778, adjudication Clauses dependent method, persuasive canons critical discourse. 2805-2806 inescapable call capacity exercised: judgment''). identifying assessing authority, expression litigant selects stating outcome dispositive. argumentation, accepted challenged, attack succeed. principle's defenders will, indeed, try characterize broadside, couching defense broadside occurred. So slavery assault 76 Just results tied selections statements acceptability function made. becomes apparent, thinking suspicious all-or-nothing produce petrification evolving boundary domains old principles. Common-law pay detail, understand afresh counterexamples. "tradition thing,'' dissenting), albeit moves moderate taken. "The apparently novel grounds well-accepted criteria. [cut] channel come.'' (internal Exact characterization result. So, plaintiffs' claimed contraceptives bedroom. complementary functions, rescued individuals' contraception relations; extramarital intimacy, privately practiced, 552-553, 1781-1782. moreover, restriction intrusions provisions Third Fourth Amendments, then-prevailing status marriage sole locus relations. 551, 1779-1780, 1781.11 peak force areas traditionally regulated (sexual relations marriage) (private intimacies), cover hand shot-through exceptions. side balance, sexual regulating contraceptive devices. astray speaking nuance contract labor, immune distinctions turning (at potentially) precise pursued collateral means 547-548, 1779-1780. divorce annulment, tax policy, ibid., justified criminalizing bedroom, consequence authorizing enquiry married couple chose door, 548-549, 869, 2816 (strength varies depending context character pursuing interest). insistence exactitude lies questions, current terminology, proper level generality analyze counter-claims, fitness tailoring restrictive testing justification.12 classify ways: normal pointing attend countervailing stated, ostensible justifications. categories stands marked reasoning comparatively discrimination, evaluating detail. else narrow set circumstances. claimants assertion, jeopardy regulations. IV 80 facing anticipates indignity, choice, counsel promptly. ¶3.1. aid, contrary such. acknowledge historically, history. this, open door accorded options different, cognizable deciding bodies seek option services devoid advise PCS1 dominant codes accomplishment subjecting penalties, penalizing survivors designating forfeited *188-*189 (commenting "ranked crimes'' persuading murder); Crone, Duquense 56-63 (1985). improperly 98-99, unpunishable 67-100, 148-242.13 widespread, here.14 principal significance eliminating prohibitions. argue further, imply discourage limit encouragement. decriminalization, difficulties enforcement shift ascribed perceived own. Last Bridge Active Voluntary Euthanasia, Examined 225, 229 Keown ed.1995); CeloCruz, Aid-in-Dying: Should Decriminalize Physician-Committed Euthanasia?, Am. J.L. Med. 369, 375 (1992); Balch __-__. sense off such, prohibit easier. (1980). Decriminalization then, such; opens assertion associated inapposite offense. 83 phrased then-Judge Cardozo said, [e]very mind determine done body'' Schloendorff Hospital, 211 N.E. 92, (1914). derive battery invasions body, 2846-2852, resist enforced medication, Harper, 494 210, 221-222, 229, 1028, 1036-1037, 1040-1041, 108 178 (1990). [i]t settled interfere integrity.'' 2806 (citations omitted); 2851; 288, 2856-2857 1036-1037; Winston Lee, 470 753, 761-762, 1611, 1617-1618, 84 (1985); 172, 209-210. underlies terminate support, ("we assume nutrition''), affirmative 857, 896, 2810, 2830; 153, 726-727. recognitions concomitant plaintiff contended Texas "procure abortion,'' 117, 709, pregnant insofar "terminat[ing] "performed licensed physician, safe, clinical conditions,''' 120, 710, stressed 156, 726-727, 728. analogies several. discouraging 871, 2817 JJ.) Roe, 162, 731, abort irresponsibly fit assistants. amounted self-mutilation, dying, crude methods causing painful decedent's survivors. finally, society, obvious illustration point. performance restricted For, perform called assistance, mechanic body bearing moral choices, symptoms, ministers patient. 726-727; 482, 1680-1681 ("This operates directly husband wife relation''); Cabot, Ether Day Address, Boston Surgical (1920). idea source high placed relationship. Its surely apparent directed correcting pathology, seeks (which had, price stupor) short remaining believed denied consciousness dependency helplessness approached period imminent, closest norm. demonstrate strength authorizes artificially water §§70.122.110, 70.122.051 Notes Uniform Rights Terminally Ill 9B U.L.A. 168-169 (Supp.1997) (listing alleviate anxiety discomfort withdrawing life-supporting devices administering terminal conditions intent chooses understanding. §70.122.010 P. Rousseau, Sedation Care 156 Archives Internal 1785 (1996); Truog, Berde, Mitchell, Grier, Barbiturates Ill, 327 Eng. 1678 (1992).15 PCS2 supporting position progresses increasing forcefulness. emphasizes decriminalization Reliance sanctioned looks retained, society's occasional past. aiding self-inflicted see, 92-93, (1980), leaves criminality questioning appropriate. gives individual's One these, spite all. counsel, limiting analogy available course. stronger implied moment 89 interests'' demanding gainsaid. Whether seen am satisfied following section defeat purposeless. B 90 put forward choices: 33, voluntary, 37-38, nonvoluntary, 34-35. 91 discuss exact dispositive me. different two, addresses features opposes respondents', nonresponsible describe. mistakenly involuntarily guarding Leaving coming mistaken inadequate palliative prognosis error; stem large bear unreimbursed hospitals shoulder. instance, pointless distinguish to, compassion obscure progression occur, obscuring influenced, until ultimately yielding impulse propose. argues, essentially, sounds, vindicating affecting others. says practical doubt, prevent. sick friends alone telling. Of possible, costs naturally someone love. restricting qualified detect dependence vigilance enough. proposed (particularly patient) rights. Limiting prosecuting couples posed regulate ways legitimate; trimester measurements viability easy certainty. harder assess.16 combining plausibility, assiduous preserve line. compassion, willing susceptible patient, technically Physicians, hospitals, incentives, too, age managed influence, himself; so, barrier porous, well.17 slippery slope plausible readily containable gatekeepers temptation, noble propose answer teeth. Legislation authorize confirm diagnosis, prognosis, competence; repeated requests witnessed span; requirements coercion. Legislators 1a-2a. 95 predicting effectiveness teeth proposed. proposals, out, guidelines Netherlands, experience yielded empirical actual consultation proceeding, decide considered, stable, once, involve unacceptable suffering. 40-43 (1991). shows. Some commentators marshall failed impunity. 75-84 intended consulting patient); Keown, Sliding Down Slippery Slope?, 289 ed.1995) (guidelines "proved signally ineffectual; non-voluntary practised condoned Netherlands''); 104-113. contested. Epstein, Mortal Peril 322 ("Dutch enthusiasts slow cases''); Posner, Aging Old Age 242, (1995) "doctors' rushing death'' "has substantiated appear realistic''); Van der Wal, Eijk, Leenen, Spreeuwenberg, Suicide, Do Family Doctors Prudently?, Practice practice). day assurance substantiality factual disagreement, alternatives resolving matter. me, time. displacement bars acted met: feasibility undoubtedly power; resolve ascertainable process; discovery factfinding experimentation. be, entitles intending How, far, deny genuine question, underscored disagreement experience. predicate disqualifies Courts captiousness, trial court. those. independent front-line investigation soundly undertaken courtroom litigation. extensive literature raise hopes understanding, nascent. issue, whichever events overtake assumptions, experimentation jurisdictions discredited concerns Legislatures, superior opportunities controversy. Not flexible mechanisms experiment, moving pulling emerge jurisdictions. suppose attempted States. Ore.Rev.Stat. §§127.800 seq. —(Supp.1996); 1a foot-dragging ascertaining claimed. Sometimes institutional preferability branches forums addressing claims. (1954). Now, consider obviously fault uncertain happen prevailed institution, court, deal emerging unknown preferred. well. claimed, required, differ guaranteed enumeration definite process.'' effect displacing ordering things, differently derived. lesser create regime expectation finality central 864-869, 2813-2816. 101 constrained. highly desirable, stay allow consideration. better syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 337, 499. Apr. 28, §17, 1854 ("Every deliberately self-murder, manslaughter''); 1869, 1869 201; Nov. 1873, §19, 1873 184; Code, 249, §§135-136, 1909 11th sess., 929. Under "adult withheld withdrawn permanent unconscious condition.'' [a]ny execute directive directing withholding condition,'' §70.122.030, who, accordance directive, participates civil, criminal, liability. §70.122.051. Glucksberg Declaration, 35; Halperin 49-50; Preston 55-56; Shalit John Jane James phases desired lives. Declaration 23-25; 27-28; 30-31; 1456-1457. Casey's "undue burden'' standard, 874, 2818-2819 Salerno, 481 739, 745, 2095, 2100, 697 (1987) (requiring showing "no exists [law] valid''), governed facial 1462-1464. Although, STEVENS observes, 2302, 2304, ---- judgment), court's] eventual it,'' note [d]eclaring group atypical uncommon.'' 798, validity statute],'' 797-798, 8-9. "class patients,'' 2309 note, relied Court] insubstantial,'' F.3d., 139, criticized separate pending Circuit, Lee Oregon, 891 1429 (Ore.1995) (Oregon's violates safeguards abuse), vacated, 1382 1997) (concluding standing). us, offer courts' reasoning. 10-13 1996) ("In total, forty-four states, Columbia suicide'') cases); Rodriguez British (Attorney General), D.L.R. (4th) 342, 404 (Can.1993) blanket norm democracies'') Austria, Spain, Italy, Kingdom, Denmark, Switzerland, France). bans. La.Rev.Stat. §14:32.12 (Supp.1996); (Supp.1997). detailed statutes, 148-242 (Appendix) Marzen). emerged expansion pre-Norman institutions sometime 12th century. Baker, Introduction Legal (2d ed.1979). ecclesiastical earlier, year 673 Hereford, King Edgar 967. G. Sanctity (1957). 59. Other late-medieval writers restated Bracton; "man-slaughter'' [o]f [one]self; hang hurt themselves, kill felony'' others; beating, famine, punishment; man-slayers.'' Horne, Mirrour Justices, §9, 41-42 (W. Robinson ed.1903). mid-16th Bench observe Offence Nature, God, -[T]o Thing horrible.'' Hales Petit, Plowd. Com. 253, Rep. 387, (1561-1562). 1644, Edward Coke published lodestar lawyers. Plucknett, Concise 281-284 (5th ed.1956). category chattels-but Coke, lands-of forfeit. Institutes *54. Hawkins, 1716 Treatise Pleas Crown, "our abhorrence crime.'' 27, 164 (T. Leach 1795). 1850, 13, 95, 1850 Cal. Stats. 219. 1874 advises, encourages felony.'' Mar. 614, §13, 255 Cal.Penal §400 Hittel 1876)). purposely solicits misdemeanor.'' §210.5(2) Initiative 119 amended "aid-in-dying'', "aid service conscious dignified, painless humane manner, requested voluntarily written provided.'' H Cert. 3-4. (Oregon sufficient Clause), 1997). Alaska H.B. 371 Ariz. S.B. 1007 A.B. 1080, 1310 (1995); Colo. 1185 1308 6298 Ill. 691, 948 (1997); Me. H.P. 663 552 Md. 933 3173 6205 556 4134 Miss. 1023 N.H.H.B. 339 N.M.S.B. 446 N.Y.S.B. 5024 N.Y.A.B. 6333 Neb. L.B. 406 1259 R.I.S. 2985 Vt. 335 5596 Wis. 174, Senate Canada, Death, Special A-156 (June 1995) (describing unsuccessful 1991-1994, suicide). countries embroiled debates: Canada Canadian Charter Freedoms establishes Lords Select refused Great Britain's prohibition, Lords, Session 1993-94 Ethics, Issues 193, 202 ("We permitted''); Zealand's Parliament Bill'' August 1995, Graeme, MPs Throw Bill, Dominion (Wellington), Aug. 17, 1; Northern Australia 1995. Shenon, Australian Get Right Assist Times, July A8. February ended Territory. Mydans, Faces Grim Reality, Febr. A3. March 24, voted overturn Territory's Thornhill, Repeals Post, 25, A14; 1997 (Austl.). May Colombia's Sentencia C-239/97 (Corte Constitucional, Mayo 1997); Top Legalizes Orlando Sentinel, A18. SOUTER's supplies "modern justification'' (SOUTER, judgment). cited fundamental-rights-based analytical method. Terms ago, six Justices sitting 301-305, 1446-1449, cited. Poe; (1990); 287-288, True, 848-850, but, Flores demonstrates, jettison radical move seem fly opinion's stare decisis. 854-869, 2808-2816. Quill Vacco, 716, 724 (C.A.2 ("right finds Constitution's design''); alleged oneself''); 476, 47, 730, [C]onstitution assistance''). precisely institution tradition'') added); 485-486, 1682-1683, (1965) (intrusions "sacred precincts bedrooms'' offend "older Rights''); 495-496, 1687-1688 (Goldberg, (the "disrupt[ed] family-a entire civilization''); (1967) marry vital happiness''); Turner Safley, 482 78, 2254, 2265, right''); 140, 720-721, (stating Founding substantially pregnancy''); 1113, (1942) ("Marriage fundamental''); 626-627, (liberty "those men''). interests: (1) (2) (3) involvement unfair, influence; (4) ones; (5) profession; (6) abuses. 816-832. 28-39, regulation, inquiry, express well: [N]early disapprove powers attorney situations, will' illness, nondeadly thwart attempts.'' 478-479, 53-56. SOUTER concludes not.'' agree but-bearing Cardozo's tendency logic,'' Nature (1932)-we confining ("Once abandons categorical stopping point''); Dead Yet 21-29; Bioethics Professors 23-26; 133, 140 [I]f allowing euthanasia''); 132; "Right Die'': Drawing Erasing) Lines, Suicide-Even Very Limited Form, U. Det. Mercy 735 conceive challenge-addressing —--- 2305 applied'' class. 6, agrees holding, 2309, "foreclose sought, particularized challenge,'' ibid. absolutely foreclose However, ones corporation known appellee party indicate as-applied, narrower Clause, essentially (1961), acknowledgment 848-849, 320, 2460, (1982) individual'' society''); Roberts Jaycees, 468 609, 619, 104 3244, 3250, 462 (1984); 500-506, 1936-1939 ing explication methodology Clause). indicates deprivations law'' originated "rendred'' (1797); 90-91 (1948). Privileges Immunities handful 74-80. degree, look Twining Jersey, 95-97, 14, 17-19, (1908), Slaughter-House's frequent Ely, Democracy Distrust 14-30 (1980) (arguing oversight legislation). antedated seen, see. Judge Johnson obliquely deprived law,' imports secured occasion depriving them, belong law.' import absolute.'' And, "To ascertain [any] indirectly forbidden directly, reduces nullity.'' 420 plain, incidentally somewhat counterinterest. 872-876, 2817-2820 JJ.); 685-686, 2016, [constitutionally protected] automatically area. manufacturing selling [even] choices''). creates "substantial obstacle,'' 877, 2820, requires commensurably assumes, insisting puts right) anything "complex entails. ante, refer (""basic liberty''') (1942)); 1776-1777 ("certain "particularly scrutiny''); 848, 2805 ("protected liberty''); 2851, ("constitutionally interest''); 315, 2457 ("liberty interests''), times 153-154, (1973); 686, 688, 2017, 5; 1775 ("rights "which (C.C.E.D.Pa.1825)). Precision favors reserving label actually trumps interests; legally regulation. illustrates, task ambit generalized wants arguably belonging strands degrees scrutiny. Tribe Dorf, Levels Generality Definition Chi. 1057, 1091 (abortion conceivably assimilated women's reproductive general, fetuses, embodied feticide mother, State). Selecting characterizations fits dual dimensions succinctly captured "compelling test,'' (or "fundamental'') "narrowly interest,'' also, 155, 727; 2016. How depend, 871-874, 2817-2819 Carey, minority criminalized Members Legislatures colony Const. 1777, Art. XXXV, crimes 1788. Feb. 21, 1788, §2, 1788 664 242) (Jones Varick 1789). offense manslaughter degree. (1829). penal prison, fine, both, retaining 676, §§172-178, 1881 (3 Code), 42-43 Consolidated §§2300 2306, 2809-2810 (1909)). 1919, repealed 414, §1, 1919 1193. Revision Commission "traceable ancient felo se chattels.'' 1937, 830. removed "all stigma [of suicide] crime'' [s]ince liability hinge principal, offense.'' 831. 1965, revised "person intentionally 1030, 1965 2387 §125.15(3) (McKinney 1975)). territorial designated self-murder'' manslaughter, re-enacted Wash.Code §794 (1881)). 1909, Minnesota, L.Rev., 206, prison manslaughter. §§133-137, Sess. 890, Remington Ballinger's §§2385-2389 (1910)). 1975, provisions, Wash.Crim. code, 260, §9A.92.010 (213-217) 817, 858, 866, Rev. §§9A.36.060 (1977). compelled proved unsuccessful. 1464, (W.D.Wash.1994) Legislative Judiciary Committee, 153 (Dec. 3, 1970)). Numerous §11.41.120(a)(2) Ariz.Rev.Stat. §13-1103(A)(3) (West Supp.1996-1997); Ark.Code §5-10-104(a)(2) §401 1988); Colo.Rev.Stat. §18-3-104(1)(b) Gen.Stat. §53a-56(a)(2) Del.Code Tit. 11, §645 §782.08 Ga.Code §16-5-5(b) Haw.Rev.Stat. §707-702(1)(b) Comp. Stat., 720, §5/12-31 Ind. §§35-42-1-2 35-42-1-2.5 (1994 Supp.1996); §707A.2 Supp.1997); Kan. §21-3406 Ky.Rev.Stat. §216.302 (Michie 1994); Me.Rev.Stat. Ann., 17-A, §204 §752.1027 Supp.1997-1998); Minn.Stat. §609.215 Miss.Code §97-3-49 §565.023.1(2) Mont.Code §45-5-105 Neb.Rev.Stat. §28-307 N.H.Rev.Stat. §630:4 N.J. §2C:11-6 1995); N.M. §30-2-4 §120.30 1987); N.D. Cent.Code §12.1-16-04 (Supp.1995); Okla. §§813-815 §163.125(1)(b) Cons.Stat. Purdon §2505 §§11-60-1 11-60-5 S.D. Codified §22-16-37 (1988); Tenn.Code §39-13-216 Tex. §22.08 §940.12 (1993-1994). P.R. §4009 (1984). categorically Ind.Code §35-42-1-2.5(a)(1) (Supp.1996) (ban apply provider administers dispenses relieve discomfort, death); §707A.3.1 Supp.1997) (same); §216.304 §609.215(3) §§2133.11(A)(6), 2133.12(E)(1) §11-60-4 §22-16-37.1 §752.1027(3) §39-13-216(b)(2) sign directives hastens 18-A, §§5-804, 5-809 §§24-7A-4, 24-7A-9 S.C.Code §62-5-504 Va.Code §§54.1-2984, 54.1-2988 incidental disconnection punctilio responsibility instances. requesting giving presumably unequivocally implicated practice; likelihood relieving run choose, expectancy. weaker preserves not; offensive intrusion, remove responsible. Where, writes equip (even probably characteristically equipped decision). Again, shortening calculus above.

Classification Label: 4