Legal Document

423 U.S. 411 96 Supreme Court Reporter 820 46 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 598 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.Henry Ogle WATSON. Number 74-538. Argued Oct. 8, 1975. Decided Jan. 26, 1976. Rehearing Denied March 22, See 424 979, 1488. Syllabus A postal inspector received from an informant of known reliability a stolen credit card that respondent had given the to be used for their mutual advantage, and was told by agreed furnish additional cards. At inspector's suggestion, meeting arranged between few days later, which took place at restaurant. Upon prearranged signal cards, officers made warrantless arrest respondent, removed him restaurant, gave Miranda warnings. When search respondent's person revealed no consented his nearby car (after been cautioned results could against him) two cards in names other persons. Following unsuccessful motion suppress, these were as evidence trial, resulted conviction possessing mail. The Appeals reversed, ruling Fourth Amendment prohibited use because (1) notwithstanding probable cause arrest, unconstitutional failed secure warrant though he time do so, (2) based on totality circumstances (including illegality arrest) consent coerced thus invalid. Held: 1. having acting strict compliance with governing statute regulations, did not violate Amendment. Pp. 414-424. 2. Since comported Amendment, not, contrary holding Appeals, product illegal nor there any indicating own "essentially free unconstrained choice" "will ha(d) . overborne capacity self-determination critically impaired," Schneckloth versus Bustamonte, 412 218, 225, 93 2041, 2046-2047, 36 854. 424-425. 504 Federal Reporter, 2nd 849, reversed. Andrew L. Frey, Washington, D. C., petitioner. Michael Nasatir, Beverly Hills, Cal., respondent. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 This case presents questions under legality ensuing arrestee's automobile carried out purported consent. 2 * relevant events began August 17, 1972, when informant, one Khoury, telephoned informing Watson possession asked Khoury cooperate using advantage. On five 10 previous occasions provided reliable information inspection matters, some involving Watson. Later day inspector. learning arrange meet being scheduled 22.1 canceled engagement, but noon 23, met restaurant designated latter. instructed if give signal. given, closed in, forthwith arrested. He street where warnings required Arizona, 384 436, 86 1602, 16 694 (1966). person, look inside Watson's car, standing within view. said, "Go ahead," repeated words "(i)f & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions find anything, it is going go you." Using keys furnished Watson, entered found floor mat envelop containing These basis counts four-count indictment charging mail violation 18 Code KF62 § 1708.2 3 Prior moved suppress claiming want involuntary ineffective withhold denied, convicted illegally seized car.3 4 divided panel Ninth Circuit 849 (1974), admission In reaching this judgment, court decided issues favor. First, its agreement District arresting held although concededly so. Second, circumstances, hence valid ground automobile. We granted certiorari. 420 924, 95 1117, 43 392 (1975). II 5 major part Appeals' violated Although expressly may have intended overturn independent inadmissible fruits arrest. Cf. Brown Illinois, 422 590, 2254, 45 416 However be, treated important factor determining voluntariness car. therefore deal first issue. 6 Contrary view, invalid executed without warrant. Title 3061(a)(3) empowers Board Governors Postal Service authorize employees "performing duties related matters" 7 "make arrests felonies cognizable laws they reasonable grounds believe arrested has committed or committing such felony." 8 By regulation, 39 Regulations 232.5(a)(3) (1975), identical language, exercised power authorized arrests. Because 1708, subordinates, strictly accordance regulations. effect judgment invalidate applied all situations fails exigent justifying reverse judgment. 9 Under people are "secure persons, houses, papers, effects, unreasonable searches seizures, Warrants shall issue, upon ." Section 3061 represents Congress inspectors so.4 isolated quixotic legislative branch. Other federal law enforcement many years make felony true marshals, 3053, agents Bureau Investigation, 3052; Drug Enforcement Administration, 84 Statutes-at-Large 1273, 21 878; Secret Service, 3056(a); Customs 26 7607.5 "strong presumption constitutionality due Act Congress, especially turns what 'reasonable,' " "(o)bviously should reluctant decide unconstitutional." Di Re, 332 581, 585, 68 222, 224, 92 L.Ed. 210 (1948). Moreover, nothing Court's prior cases felony. Indeed, decisions uniformly contrary. 11 "The usual rule police officer believed guilty Carroll States, 267 132, 156, 280, 286, 69 543 (1925). Henry 361 98, 80 168, 134 (1959), dealt FBI agent's 3052, authorizes declared "(t)he states constitutional standard Id., 100, S.Ct., 170. necessary inquiry, therefore, whether get one, Abel 362 217, 232, 683, 693, 668 (1960), sustained administrative "a judicial scope Amendment." crucial question Draper 358 307, 79 329, 327 If was, "the warrant, lawful 310, 331. Ker California, 374 34-35, 83 1623, 1630, 726 (1963) (opinion Clark, J.), reiterated lawfulness turn, must went sustain over claims mode entry. Just last Term, while recognizing maximum protection individual rights assured requiring magistrate's review factual justification we stated "such requirement would constitute intolerable handicap legitimate enforcement" noted "has never invalidated supported solely warrant." Gerstein Pugh, 103, 113, 854, 862, 54 (1975).6 12 construing reflect ancient common-law peace permitted misdemeanor presence well making Halsbury's Laws England 344-345 (3d ed. 1955); W. Blackstone, Commentaries *292; Judge Stephen, History Criminal Law 193 (1883); M. Hale, Pleas Crown *72-74; Wilgus, Arrest Without Warrant, 22 Mich.L.Rev. 541, 547-550, 686-688 (1924); Samuel Payne, Doug. 359, 99 Eng.Rep. 230 (K.B.1780); Beckwith Philby, Barn. Cress. 635, 108 585 (K.B.1827). also prevailing state constitutions statutes. common law, private citizen felon generally courts several force punishable civil tribunals." Kurtz Moffitt, 115 487, 504, 148, 154, 29 458 (1885). 13 Rohan Sawin, 59 Mass. 281 (1850), false-arrest case, Judicial Massachusetts obtained State. Given authority constable, felony, most fully established elementary books, adjudicated cases." 284. observed: 14 "It sometimes contended, character, great fundamental principles our national constitutions, forbidding arrests, except founded complaint oath. Those provisions doubtless another different purpose, restraint general warrants searches, issue only They conflict constables peace-officers, persons proper limitations, those who felonies. public safety, apprehension criminals, charged heinous offences, imperiously require law." 284-285. 15 Also rejected, id., 285-286, trial court's view justify State show "an immediate necessity therefor, arising danger, plaintiff otherwise escape, secrete property, before procured him." ruled "authority restricting constable exercise 286. early similar Wakely Hart, Bin. 316 (Pa.1814); Holley Mix, Wend. 350 (N.Y.Sup.Ct.1829); Brown, Del. 505 (Ct.Gen.Sess.1853); Johnson State, 30 Ga. 426 (1860); Wade Chaffee, R.I. 224 (1865). Reuck McGregor, 32 N.J.L. 70, 74 (Sup.Ct.1866); Baltimore O. R. company Cain, 81 Md. 87, 102, 31 Atlantic 801, 803, 804 (1895).7 authorizing prevailed present purposes note 1792 invested marshals deputies same powers executing sheriffs respective states." May 2, 1792, chapter 28, 9, 265. Second saw inconsistency legislation giving local warrant.8 provision equating times re-enacted9 today 570 28 Code. That provision, however, supplemented 1935 504a Code,10 essential elements now 3053 empowered cause. It enacted vagaries laws, Committee Report remarking existing "marshal deputy marshal district sheriff might so statutes." H.R.Rep.No.283, 74th Cong., 1st Sess., (1935). Riggs, 474 699, 702-703, n. (CA2), cert. 414 820, 94 115, 38 53 (1973). 17 balance struck cause, survived substantially intact. appears almost form express statutory authorization. 1963, American Institute undertook task formulating model practice criminal aspects pretrial procedure. 1975, after discussion, Model Pre-arraignment Procedure proposed. Among 120.1 take into custody petty presence.11 commentary section said: adopts traditional universal warrant."12 long directed principal follow. plainly conditioning proof circumstances.13 wise seek practicable judgments about more readily accepted backed issued magistrate. Ventresca, 380 106, 85 741, 744-745, 684 (1965); Aguilar Texas, 378 108, 111, 1509, 1512, 723 (1964); Wong Sun 371 471, 479-480, 407, 412-413, 441 (1963). But decline transform preference Nation rather than encumber prosecutions endless litigation respect existence suspect flee, like. 19 erred III 20 To extent resolved premise illegal, error. satisfied addition remaining factors relied inadequate demonstrate that, impaired." 2047, 854 There overt act threat proved claimed. promises indication subtle forms coercion flaw custody, street, confines station. fact alone enough itself confession search. Similarly, Schneckloth, absence knew consent, overall controlling significance. record newcomer law,14 mentally deficient, unable face custodial choice. further him. persisted hold failure inform arrestee consistent distort reaffirmed case. 23 consequence, Appeals. 24 So ordered. 25 Reversed. STEVENS consideration decision 27 POWELL, concurring. concur Court, write views. outset disposed voluntary. will overwhelming voluntary even assumption preceding unconstitutional, doctrine (1963), applicable. route result requires, inquiry validity itself. Respondent six learned source possessed 1708. Government effort precluded obtaining relying instead showing contends, held, exigency procure renders violative reversing concludes supports position See, e. g., fair say, think, assumed addressing reasoned way analysis advanced respondent.1 Today's square permits duly adequate opportunity developing face, creates certain anomaly. basic area makes "jealously carefully drawn" exceptional circumstances. Jones 357 493, 499, 78 1253, 1257, 1514 (1958); see Almeida-Sanchez 413 266, 279-280, 2535, 2542-2543, 37 596 (1973) (Powell, J., concurring); 407 297, 314-321, 2125, 2135-2139, 752 (1972); Coolidge New Hampshire, 403 443 454-455, 91 2022, 2031-2032, 564 (1971). occasion rejected argument officer's contraband crime excuse unexplained beforehand. 450, 2029-2030; Katz 389 347, 356-358, 88 507, 514-515, 576 (1967). short, course development remained expressed Jackson: "Any sufficient support disinterested determination reduce nullity leave people's homes discretion officers. right privacy reasonably yield is, rule, officer, policeman agent." 333 10, 14, 367, 369, 436 33 speaks equally both since taking one's quintessentially seizure, seem impose limitations does searches. abstract matter can restrictions perhaps greater. annoyance temporary inconvenience law-abiding citizen, assuming serious dimension up criminality. An personal intrusion regardless innocent. cannot significant period neutral Gerstein, supra, come quickly erase invasion already occurred. Chimel 395 752, 776, 89 2034, 685 (1969) (White, dissenting); cf. Robinson, 237-238, 467, 477-478, 427 concurring). Logic dictate subject least 34 logic defer history experience. emphasizes historical sanction accorded knowledge warrants. Lord Coke seriously questioned justice peace, receiving secondhand knowledge, E. Coke, Institutes 177 (6th 1681). late 18th century firmly intervening assist Sir Matthew magistrates supplied others. *290; *108-110. recognition cast doubt continued practiced upheld before. *282; Chitty, *14-15. Framers proponents outspokenly opposed infamous writs assistance, concerned N. Lasson, Development Constitution 79-105 (1937); U.S., 114-116, 863-864. As notes, Congress' passage arrests2 soon adoption underscores probability restrict entirely practices. 35 momentum acceptance strong gained strength during centuries. Both judiciary bodies repeatedly placed imprimaturs and, emphasizes, agencies developed investigative procedures virtually unprecedented.3 Of course, inconsistent protections saved merely appeal uncritical acceptance. preferred unimpeached practice. revolutionary implications holding, declaration date constitutionally infirm rest reasons substantial desire harmonize rules 230, 474. permitting severely hamper effective enforcement. Good often requires postponing established, order surveillance develop prove guilt jury.4 work imperil entire prosecution. Should fail obtain initially, later unforeseen immediately chance last-minute risk subsequent interim attempted contingency procuring then investigation, grown stale used.5 personnel caught squeeze ensure existed, thereby foreclosing possibility gathering vital suspect's actions. sum, policy sketched above sustaining despite resulting divergence applicable seizures person.6 Finally, share STEWART. clear consider lawfully home expectation privacy.7 STEWART, concurring result. 40 broad daylight. holds agree. decide, enter 113 13, 863, 54; 443, 474-481, 2042-2046, 564; Davis Mississippi, 394 721, 728, 1394, 1398, 676; 499-500, 1257-1258, 1514. 41 MARSHALL, whom BRENNAN joins, dissenting. 42 granting sharply reverses modern Warrant Clause next consent-to-search acknowledgment analysis, extends situation reserved Schneckloth's analysis. takes steps remarkable lack either facts deciding. unfortunate because, my decides wrongly, shown raised us, second here, posture respectfully dissent. Before today, do. narrow presented. fundamentally, simple 44 afternoon Awad reliability, inspectors. instructions light cigarette watching lit cigarette, ultimately, discovered formed appeal. separate distinct relating offense earlier, Whether ordinarily present. moment evidence, exist. Delay escape destruction evidence. Accordingly, recognized exigent-circumstances exception requirement, necessary.1 conclusion properly dispose us. observes, ante, 414, heavily supposed coerced. Neither briefs parties here address deemed complex think inappropriate resolution benefit views vacate remand proceedings. 47 Since, leaves unexpressed, am constrained unnecessarily decides. reaches place, committed, precedent history. Brother POWELL correctly 426-427 (concurring), spurious. None cited squarely confronted today. examination shows laid it. After why, rationale today's result, examine suggest provides: 48 violated, Oath affirmation, particularly describing searched, things seized." 49 reference seizure apply Ex parte Burford, Cranch 448, 495 (1806). 79-82 (1937). considered conformity Beck Ohio, 379 89, 223, 142 (1963); (1959); Giordenello 480, 1245, 1503 (1958). Admittedly, passing (1925); John Bad Elk 529, 534, 729, 731, 874 (1900); 498-499, 151-152, However, none mandates announced Frequently present, required. supra ; Many bypassing need reach question. (1959). Elsewhere simply propriety grounds. (1969). 476, 2043, And cases, noted, reach, warrantless-arrest supra. case-by-case undertaken demonstrates, dicta just dicta. (concurring). substitute relationship 50 relies English statutes following flaws approach. substance provides far-reaching fashions model. doctrine, longstanding immunize scrutiny mandate Constitution. 51 indeed it: 52 "(A) arrest." Ante, 418, sources cited. supra; blindly much sense attempting interpret Hamlet's admonition Ophelia, "Get thee nunnery, go,"2 understanding meaning context age.3 For bear slight resemblance, relevance interpretation minimal. definition penal consequences nature recognized, 55 "No total forfeiture offender's lands goods both." 152. 56 Wilson, 114 417, 423, 935, 938, (1885); *95 (Lewis 1902).4 hand, 57 death imprisonment term exceeding year 1(1).5 58 difference reflects changing notions penology. substantive change kinds crimes called 158, 287.6 Only classified misdemeanors. Profess Wilgus summarized documented cases: "At assault still intent rob, murder, rape. Affrays, abortion, barratry, bribing voters, challenging fight, compounding felonies, cheating false weights measures, escaping eavesdropping, forgery, imprisonment, forcible violent entry, forestalling, kidnapping, libel, mayhem, maliciously killing valuable animals, obstructing justice, nuisance, perjury, riots routs, etc. misdemeanors 572-573 (1924) (footnotes omitted). 60 450-793 (1909).7 unless presence.8 commonly today9 longer needed contravention law. 61 Thus lesson country ambiguous one. Applied original context, allow some, all, call felons historically wrong tells us intact." 421. substance, accommodating suspects magisterial oversight protect mistaken insults decreed dispensed with. unthinkingly transposed classifications offenses. draws: far 62 mean precisely analogous misdemeanors, inapplicable analogues Rather, point unblinking literalism replace interests involved. While learn provide answer directly transferable system. Thus, considering applicability scheme, rule's opposing constructs: favoring warrants, allowing dangerous criminals. recognize tension drains 63 Lastly, numerous codifying rule. this, too, True enough, legislatures steadily ratified drift past bounds intent. well, attaches every Congress. neither observation determinative deference invokes Marbury Madison, 137, (1803). error score misreading history, settled mere practice, standing, defense "(N)o acquires vested protected use, span covers predates it." Walz Tax Comm'n, 397 664, 678, 90 1409, 1416, 697 (1970). (1973); Roe Wade, 410 705, 147 Furman Georgia, 408 238, 2726, 346 Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 1362, 506 (1964).10 Our function weightier suggests: obligation Constitution, 64 foundation. precedents precedents. offers impose, conflicting balance. constitute, best, aid construction. grapples announces, ipse dixit, rejecting favored long. 65 My concludes: "Logic searches." 429 66 One absolutes absent exceptions, (1958), search.11 "(E)xcept defined classes property 'unreasonable' (within Amendment) Camara Municipal 387 523, 528-529, 87 1727, 1731, 930 Cady Dombrowski, 433, 439, 2523, 2527, 706 315-316, 318, 2135-2136, 2137, 2031-2032; 762, 2039-2040; Terry 1, 1868, 889 (1968); 357, 514, 67 announces essence, Rabinowitz rule: test (an (arrest) reasonable." Rabinowitz, 339 56, 66, 70 430, 435, 653 (1950). overruled, 764-768, 2040-2043, thoroughly discredited, see, 315, 16, 2136. approach codified infrequent abuse, arrest," Su 479, 413, are, terms, governed logical Analysis involved confirms supposition. typically engaged two-part deciding previously clearly Utilizing citizens better arrested; unduly burden governmental interests. 2135-2136; 1733. easily answered. requirement. protects people, places." 351, 511. guaranteed personal. Doe Bolton, 179, 739, 201 Griswold Connecticut, 381 1678, 510 (1965). high regard individual, interest possessions person. breaking doors, rummaging drawers, constitutes essence offense; indefeasible security, liberty, forfeited offense, sacred underlies Camden's (in classic Entick Carrington, How.St.Tr. 1029, 807 (1765))." Boyd 116 616, 630, 524, 532, 746 (1886). 71 Not addressed citizens, indistinguishable terms freedom seizures. less himself, searched seized. unjustified forces temporarily forfeit control movements interrupts daily business intrusive 72 "Being police, hours, awesome frightening. Unlike authoritatively somewhere something, abruptly subjects constraint, removes unfamiliar threatening surroundings. depends willingness comply impersonal directive, summons subpoena, spot stands ready back force. security abrupt officials guarded basis." ALI, Procedure, Commentary 290-291 73 would, minimize individual's sphere occur Primarily reason, Surely reason greater trust partisan assessment exists search.12 Updated: January Term unanimously detention prolonged probable-cause determination. best possible less-than-probable-cause stake here. followed release offensive uncover sought, instrumental protecting other. recognizes realized "by 863. test: Dicta affirmative, concerns somewhat amplified concurrence POWELL. 431-432, (POWELL, believe, suggested wholly illusory. onerous chore seems anomalous Government's concession "it Investigation (FBI) Attorney, Brief 15. past, experience taken presented proposed 483-486, 1632-1634, accord here.13 75 assertion stems, large part, specious supposition procurement ripens. 22-24. undertaken.14 Fed.Rule Crim.Proc. 41. Berger York, 388 41, 59, 1873, 1883-1884, 1040 sense. Certainly, prompt situation. search, once continue exist indefinite future, exculpatory light. Wilson 117 U.S.App.D.C. 325 1005, 1941, 1053 (1964), 342 782 (CA2 1965) (both upholding delay months formation issuance warrant). Hoffa 385 293, 408, 417-418, 76 sensible obviates difficulties Police cut investigation short undercover forced suddenly terminate covers. Godfrey 123 219, 850 demand fear unconstitutionality, unanticipated avoid Hamphshire, 469-471, 2040-2041 (evidence plain discovery inadvertent). Likewise, tying crime, demands it, full why improper.15 attempt evade obvious situation: set suspect. Such void, develops validate it; reduced toothless prescription. 77 burdensome, burdensome undertake new procedure dictates (1975); 1926, 1149 (1967); Gilbert 263, 1951, 1178 Gideon Wainwright, 372 335, 792, 799 suggested, application confused nonetheless prone "would used." 432 concurring) (footnote groundless. above, application. themselves "squeeze." "squeeze" nonexistent. impossible grow procured, become arrest.16 affect arrest.17 Carlo 286 841, 846 366 944, 1672, 855 (1961); Joines, 258 471 (CA3), 880, 118, 109 241 575 (CA5), rev'd grounds, staleness worries.18 practical marshaled unimpressive.19 virtual nonexistence problem gain imposed. conclusion, then, answers posed choosing law's prescription suspected crimes, offenses, intervention necessarily favor former IV dissent holding. always disheartening ignores body eschews "leave(s) mercy officers' whim caprice," Brinegar 338 160, 176, 1302, 1311, 1879 (1949), "persons" nullity. casually adopted clear. 480-481, 2045, namely, "whether 863.20 Brothers STEWART read resolve indeed, purports open. 418 6. utilized reliance answer, hints extended discussion 120.6 ALI commentary. 825 Mich.L.Rev., 800 ("For break dwelling house ."); 558, 803; 307 (1909); *23; *292. Unless fundamentally difficult, impossible, follow entry permissible. 82 paying attention whatever labeled "felony," guise "constitutionalizing" actually away altogether, replacing may, anyone sort all. Certainly redenominated "felonies." event surely intend status distinction changed fiat.21 surrenders put teeth oft-expressed 96, 228, 142; 479-482, 412-415. incentives remain,22 indirect assuring routine permit conceded optimal method affront unlawful remain ideal, espouse enforce. V Having suggestion seize attention, briefly, voluntarily complexity briefed initial finds simplicity applies "totality circumstances" (1973), treats obtained. decisional importance distinguished custody. 240-241, 29, 246-248, 36, 2050, 2054-2055, 2058. held: "Our attempts Fourteenth Amendments duress coercion, implied." 248, 2059 (emphasis added). once, twice, reserved: "(T)he assessing alleged custody." 2055. 247 adhere 277, 2073, knowing refuse. position, consents apparently, prompted reserve Most significantly, non-custodial contacts. 1629-1630. Miranda's articulation conclusion. 2050. interrogation inherently coercive, suspect, (and Schneckloth) reject notion anything coercive noncustodial interrogation. 1629-1630; 247, appropriate interrogation, however brief. Miranda. means, quite obviously, circumstances."23 And, means obligated accept surrender altogether ignore disturbing, distortion pretend seemed difficult three ago meantime verified stolen. 1708 punishes theft punishment fine $2,000 years, both. acquitted count. fourth dismissed trial. approval June 1955, 203, 3523(a)(2)(K) (1964 ed.), inspectors' thought Compare Helbock, F.Supp. 985 (D.Or.1948), Alexander, 415 1352 (CA7 1969), 1014, 1246, (1970); Kelley Dunne, 344 129 (CA1 1965); Bell, 294 1314 (N.D.Ill.1968). resort citizen's DeCatur, 430 365 Neggo 390 609 Ward 375 1968 confusion generated others striking down Alexander 101 (CA5 1968); Moderacki, 280 633 (D.Del.1968), Public 90-560, 5(a), 998; H.R.Conf.Rep.No.1918, 90th H.R.Rep.No.1725, Sess. Cong.Rec. 20914-20915, 26928, 28864-28865 (1968), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1968, Page 3988. restrictive standard. 3050, Prisons. heavily, mistakenly, 2045-2046, (1971), unsettled midday recommends premises thereupon 120.6(1) necessity, notification 120.6(2). Authority nighttime restricted execution necessity. 120.6(3). Columbia), whenever 696-697. jurisdictions prior-notice requirements entries 3109 imposes execute Code, 310-313. Professor observed article 549-550 omitted), "(i)t argued (to Constitution) forbade warrant; according equal import officers, determines validity." 589, 226, Accord, Miller 301, 305, 1190, 1193-1194, 1332 5, 370, (1948); 535, (1900). discussed text, Sept. 24, 1789, 20, 33, 91, providing offender judge "agreeably process offenders state" found. 589 226. Feb. 1795, 425; July 1861, 25, 7, 282; Rev.Stat. 788 (1874); 1948, 549, 912. 15, 1935, 259, 378. provides, pertinent part: "(1) Warrant. "(a) felony; "(b) misdemeanor, "(i) apprehended "(ii) injury himself damage "(c) presence." 289 goes say 120.1: "This exists. novel. Moreover urgent, indeterminate difficult." 303 Georgia Ga.Code Ann. 27-207(a) (Supp.1975). Colo.Rev.Stat.Ann. 16-3-102 "when practicable," Mont.Rev.Codes 95-608(d) "existing require" North Carolina statute, N.C.Gen.Stat. 15-41 (1965), replaced 1975 15A-401(b)(2) Until 3052 conditioned 1221, 1239, eliminated condition. House explained purpose amendment, H.R.Rep.No.3228, 81st 1-2 (1950), 1950, 4322, amendment terms. Coplon, 185 629, 633-636 1950), 920, 362, 688 (1952), Coplon 108-109, 191 749, 753-754 (1951), 926, 363, 690 (1952). contrary, 1971 theft. charges dropped cooperated During authorities. faced example agent "states standard." presence. 313, 333. earlier danger innocent ensnared, observes culprit eyes; particular Trupiano 334 1229, 1232, 1663 Another (1925), challenge Nor refused petitioner's raise lower courts. 230-232, 692-694. reasonable; arose 18, 265; 570. decision, federal, petition below aware place. 2045-2046 places. Miles, 468 482, 486-487, (CA3 1972); Bazinet, 462 982, 987 (CA8), sub nom. Knox 409 1010, 453, (1972). precise U. S., 161, 288, affirmed "facts man (reasonable) prudence caution believing committed" offender. 100-102, 169-171. Whatever establish rise level beyond doubt. 171; 311-312, 4, 332-333. standards society's earliest criminals arbitrary interference liberty. (1949). ultimate establishing doing pending investigation. 120.1, Commentary, Pages 289, 292-296 normally objects. someone bring supporting disproved theory. discredited information. understand retreat receive careful challenged. "An bypasses safeguards objective predetermination substitutes after-the-event ., too likely subtly influenced familiar shortcomings hindsight judgment." (1964). Dorman 140 318-319, 435 385, 390-391 (1970) (en banc) (warrant required, arrest), People Eddington, Mich.App. 210, 178 Western 686 (1970), aff'd, Mich. 551, 198 297 (1972) (only belief there). 488 Pacific 1347 (Okl.Cr.1971) (search residence third party suspect), 151 365, 467 419, plus onto party's premises). petitioner, testified contemporaneous, offense. App. 23-24. testimony limit contemporaneous Where good faith closely related, subjective measure Ramirez Rodriguez, 822 (CA10 Martinez, 465 Atkinson, 450 835, 838 1971). demonstrably justified facts. Shakespeare, Hamlet, iii, scilicet line 142. Nunnery Elizabethan slang prostitution. Oxford Dictionary 264 (1933). "those bootless prosecuted offer battle, felon's lord king, chattels confiscated, life members forfeited, guilty, fled became outlaw 569 (1924). prison 571. also, Ark.Stat.Ann. 41-103 Fla.Stat.Ann. 775.08 (Supp.1975); Ill.Ann.Stat. 2-7 Ky.Rev.Stat.Ann. 431.060 Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., 274, Okla.Stat.Ann., Tit. 21, Wash.Rev.Code 9.01.020 (1974). "In very great. statutes, relatively wide classing offenses misdemeanors." 287. wilfully discharge pistol near King England. 459 (1909). 871 (felony threats President States); 1751 States). essentially narrowly drawn exception. 6, 157, 286-287. example, equivalents, felonies: assault, §§ 111-112; commit rape 113; forging securities 471; 597; 751; kidnaping, 1201; obstruction congressional executive investi- gations, 1505; investigations, 1510; 1621; riots, 2101; interception wire oral communications, 2511. 41-606 (1964) (assault kill); 41-607 rape); 41-1805 (forgery); 41-3005 (perjury); 41-2308 (Supp.1973) (kidnaping). 787.02 (Supp.1975) (false imprisonment); 831.01 837.012 843.14 (compounding felonies); 870.03 (riots routs). 10-1 (kidnaping); 14-4 (eavesdropping); 33-1 (bribery); 32-2 (perjury). Ky.Rev.Stat. 520.020 (1975) (escape); 516.020 509.020 (kidnapping); 515.020 rob); 523.020 265, felony); 268, 13B (obstructing justice); 267, 272, (interception communications); (kidnapping). Okla.Stat.Ann. 499 (1958) 1312 (riot); 1621 (forgery). 9.11.010 (1974) 9.27.050 9.31.010 9.44.020 9.52.010 9.72.010 clear, Constitution." 2539, "(S)earches conducted outside process, magistrate, per se specifically well-delineated exceptions." fact, itemized appear (1948), Jackson lines: grasped zealous denies inferences men draw Its consists detached magistrate judged competitive enterprise ferreting crime. Any Crime, quarters, grave concern society, allows reached showing. thrust concern, society chooses dwell surveillance. 13-14, 369. Substitute "arrest" "search" references compellingly emerges. irrelevant deals 486, 1634, 694. will, encounter problems "staleness" seeking Sgro 287 206, 138, 260 (1932); Sawyer, 213 38, (ED Pa.1963). Annot., 100 Reports, 525 Wright, 367 611, 786 (1962). relates, object remains mandated Mascolo, Staleness Probable Cause Affidavits Search Warrants: Resolving Issue Timeliness, Conn.B.J. 189 bearing, connection anticipated occurrence until formed, moments premature void. Roberts, Tenn.1971). unlike specified "forthwith." 41(c) Rules 9. Pre-arrest defendant's dismissal impair ability defend deliberate unjustified. Feinberg, 383 60, 1967), 1044, 788, 836 Harbin, (CA4 1967); (1966); Powell 122 229, 231, 352 707 delay, completely unrelated undercut inculpatory Why baffles me. exists, void thereafter again exigency, obtained, somehow resurrected. (1932). "endless litigation" credited 423-424. Recognition inevitably enforce right. lose successfully guarantees ignored begin assert them. language Watson: "Indeed, correct man's re-examine assumption. ". Warden Hayden, (387 294, (1967),) elaborated 'hot pursuit' certainly negative implication proposition circumstances." 2045. relates 54, calls officer. re Kellam, Kan. 700, KF135 P2 960 (1895); Robison Miner, Northwestern N69 (1888); Pinkerton Verberg, 573, 579 (1889); Gunderson Struebing, 125 Wis. 173, 104 149 (1905); Rhodes, 202 Ala. 68, Southern S69 (1918). (or, herein) constitution. Oregon Hass, 714, (MARSHALL, dissenting). primary stronger (1965) (searches). two-tier slippery application, imprecise itself, 543. What intends, subjected closer underlying warrant-supported incentive sure lacking, gather suppression Courts kind stiff Rothman, 492 1260, 1265 (CA9 1973); Nikrasch, 740, 744 1966); Judd 64, 190 649, 651 (1951).

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