Legal Document

487 U.S. 654 108 S.Ct. 2597 101 L.Ed.2d 569 Alexia MORRISON, Independent Counsel, Appellant,v.Theodore B. OLSON, Edward C. Schmults and Carol E. Dinkins. No. 87-1279. Argued April 26, 1988. Decided June 29, Syllabus This case presents the question of constitutionality independent counsel provisions Ethics in Government Act 1978 (Act). It arose when House Judiciary Committee began an investigation into Justice Department's role a controversy between Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) with regard to Agency's limited production certain documents that had been subpoenaed during earlier investigation. The Committee's Report suggested official Attorney General's Office (appellee Olson) given false testimony EPA investigation, two other officials (appellees Dinkins) obstructed by wrongfully withholding documents. A copy report was forwarded General request, pursuant Act, he seek appointment investigate allegations against appellees. Ultimately, Act's provisions, Special Division (a special court created Act) appointed appellant as respect Olson only, gave her jurisdiction whether Olson's testimony, or any matter related thereto, violated federal law, prosecute violations. When dispute General, who refused furnish "related matters" Dinkins, ruled its grant broad enough permit inquiry conspired others, including obstruct Appellant then caused grand jury issue subpoenas on appellees, moved Federal District Court quash subpoenas, claiming were unconstitutional accordingly no authority proceed. upheld constitutionality, denied motions, later ordered appellees be held contempt for continuing refuse comply subpoenas. Appeals reversed, holding Appointments Clause Constitution, Art. II, § 2, cl. 2; limitations OF articLE III; principle separation powers interfering President's under Article II. Held: 1. There is merit appellant's contention—based Blair v. United States, 250 273, 39 468, 63 L.Ed. 979, which issues may raised person has failure subpoena constitutional addressed cannot this appeal from Court's judgment. that, because failed object consideration merits appellees' claims, she waived opportunity contend barred review those claims. Appellant's contention not "jurisdictional" sense it raise at proper time place. Nor sort claim would defeat showing III "Case Controversy" lacking. Pp. 669-670. 2. does violate Congress vest Division. 670-677. (a) "inferior" officer purposes Clause, which—after providing ("principal" officers) President Senate's advice consent—states "the Law Appointment such inferior Officers, they think proper, alone, Courts Law, Heads Departments." Although "subordinate" (and President) insofar as, possesses degree discretion exercise delegated her, fact authorizes removal indicates some rank authority. Moreover, empowered perform only certain, duties, restricted primarily and, if appropriate, prosecution crimes. In addition, office granted request General. Also, "temporary" essentially accomplish single task, task over terminated, either herself action 670-673. (b) argument even officer, empower place power appoint outside Executive Branch—that is, make "interbranch appointments." Clause's language officers admits limitation interbranch appointments, but instead seems clearly give significant determine "proper" of, example, executive "courts Law." history provides support position. concerned conflicts interest could arise situations Branch called upon own high-ranking officers, most logical put appointing Judicial Branch. light provision making judges ineligible participate matters relating have appointed, counsels run afoul "incongruous" appointments. 673-677. 3. vested do III, administrative duties nonjudicial nature imposed III. 677-685. can objection Division's power, counsel, since itself derives source judicial encompass define counsel's jurisdiction. When, here, creates temporary "office," will necessity vary factual circumstances giving rise need first place, office's scope incident Clause. However, decides must demonstrably particular case. 678-679. absolutely prevent vesting miscellaneous Act. One purpose prohibition courts' maintain branches ensuring encroach legislative undertake tasks are more properly accomplished branches. Here, powers—such passive "receive" (but act specifically approve) various reports General—do Branch's simply "supervise" investigative prosecutorial And, functions inherently "Executive," directly analogous contexts. 680—681. (c) terminate completed—although "administrative" extent requires monitor progress proceedings decide job "completed"—is encroachment require invalidated inconsistent termination anything approaching remove while proceeding still underway—this solely 682-683. (d) pose threat impartial adjudication claims within States. gives actions counsel. Accordingly, there risk partisan biased regarding court. prevents members participating "any concerning involves serving regardless office." 683-685. 4. principles impermissibly 685-696. restricting instances show "good cause," taken itself, interfere his constitutionally functions. attempted gain than established impeachment conviction. puts squarely hands Bowsher Synar, 478 714, 106 3181, 92 583, Myers 272 52, 47 21, 71 160, distinguished. determination Constitution allows impose cause"-type restriction turn classified "purely executive." analysis contained cases designed rigid categories removed President, ensure "executive power" duty "take care laws faithfully executed" Cf. Humphrey's Executor 295 602, 55 869, 79 1611; Wiener 357 349, 78 1275, 2 1377. imposition cause" standard unduly trammel congressional limit essential, Congress' view, establish necessary independence 685-693. whole, role. involve attempt increase expense Members apply although respond limit. Other receiving information oversight activities, recognized generally being incidental function Congress. Similarly, work usurpation undermine Branch, disrupt balance coordinate preventing accomplishing assigned Even though "independent" free supervision greater prosecutors, sufficient control able duties. 693-696. 267 U.S.App.D.C. 178, 838 F.2d 476 (1988), reversed. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, BRENNAN, WHITE, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined. SCALIA, J., filed dissenting opinion, post, p. 697. KENNEDY, took part decision 1 Morrison, Washington, D.C., pro se. Michael Davidson, Senate, amicus curiae, supporting appellant, leave Court. 3 Thomas S. Martin, 4 Sol. Gen., Charles Fried, U.S., 5 Chief REHNQUIST 6 us challenge 1978, 28 U.S.C. §§ 49, 591 et seq. (1982 ed., Supp. V). We hold today these nor II violation powers. 7 * Briefly stated, Title VI (Title Act), 591-599 V),1 "independent counsel" violations criminal laws.2 receipt determines "sufficient constitute grounds [covered Act] law," conduct preliminary matter. completed 90 days elapsed, required (the Division) "for counsels." 49 V).3 If "there reasonable believe further warranted," notify result. case, division shall counsel." 592(b)(1). If, however, determined "reasonable "shall counsel."4 application contain assist [court] selecting defining jurisdiction." 592(d). Upon application, appropriate 593(b).5 8 With all jurisdiction, grants "full Department Justice, employee Justice." 594(a).6 include conducting investigations, civil litigation, appealing participates capacity. 594(a)(1)-(3). Under 594(a)(9), "initiating prosecutions competent framing signing indictments, filing informations, handling aspects name States." employees, 594(c), obtain assistance 594(d), accept referral falls defined Division, 594(e). also states "shall, except where possible, written policies respecting enforcement laws." 594(f). whenever referred suspend investigations 597(a). An dismiss [his her] without subsequent before prosecution, so consistent" policy. 594(g).7 9 Two statutory govern length tenure office. defines procedure removing Section 596(a)(1) provides: 10 "An chapter office, conviction, personal good cause, physical disability, mental incapacity, condition substantially impairs performance duties." 11 section, submit both Committees Senate "specifying facts found ultimate removal." 596(a)(2). current version States Columbia. "may hear action." reviewing authorized reinstatement "other relief." 596(a)(3).8 12 governing procedures "terminating" 596(b)(1), terminates notifies undertaken acting suggestion finds . complete prosecutions." 596(b)(2).9 13 Finally, activities send statements activities. 595(a)(2). "appropriate committees Congress" cooperate 595(a)(1). inform Representatives "substantial credible [the counsel] receives impeachment." 595(c). committee "request writing 592(g)(1). specified accede request. 592(g)(2). 14 provide example how works practice. 1982, Subcommittees issued directing produce efforts Land Natural Resources enforce "Superfund Law."10 At time, appellee Assistant Legal Counsel (OLC), Deputy Dinkins Acting Department, Administrator invoke privilege withhold ground "enforcement sensitive information." obeyed order withheld response, voted contempt, after together lawsuit House. conflict abated March 1983, administration agreed access 15 following year, During testified Subcommittee 10, 1983. Both complied several requests withheld, eventually disclosed learned their existence. 1985, majority published lengthy Investigation Role Withholding Documents 1982-83, H.R.Rep. 99-435 (1985). criticized dispute, misleading Committee, thus obstructing Chairman 592(c), Olson, Schmults, 16 directed Public Integrity Criminal Section's concluded warranted three After consulting officials, chose Olson.11 requested "regarding completeness [OLC's] response OLC documents, knowledge EPA's willingness disputed Congress, 18 1505, 1001, law." Report, 2-3. allegation." Id., 11. 17 On 23, 1986, James McKay "whether revision 1505 allegation evidence law Theodore developed above, connected arising out violation." Order, Div. 86-1 (CADC 1986). 19 resigned May Morrison replacement, same 20 January 1987, asked 594(e) refer matters, concluding final unreviewable 592(b)(1), therefore referral. re 260 168, 818 34. ruled, original 181-182, F.2d, 47-48. 21 Following ruling, serve ad testificandum duces tecum All claiming, among things, July 20, motions quash. Sealed Case, 665 F.Supp. 56 (DC). subsequently 1826(a) See App. Juris. Statement 140a, 143a, 146a. stayed effect orders pending expedited appeal. 22 divided (1988). "inferior Officer" invalid nominated confirmed "principal" officers. went consider alternative conclusion statute unconstitutional. majority's violates empowers performs core functions; delegation restrictions powers; finally, interferes prerogative Laws executed," judge view constitutional. U.S.App.D.C., 238, 536. sought we noted probable 484 1058, 1010, 98 976 now reverse. 23 Before get merits, deal reviewed relies 979 (1919), rather sharply individual witness subpoena. find unnecessary narrowed our recent decisions, another 264 125, 827 776 (1987). result, Blair. see reason why entitled conclude refusing it, likewise decline it. "Case" "Controversy" Appellees subject burden complying result order, legitimate adversarial relationship parties, courts possess redress resolve controversy. Bender Williamsport Area School District, 475 534, 541-543, 1326, 1331-1332, 89 501 (1986). 24 reads follows: 25 "[The President] nominate, Advice Consent Ambassadors, public Ministers Consuls, Judges Supreme Officers whose herein otherwise provided for, Law: Const., 26 parties "[t]he divides classes." Germaine, 99 (9 Otto) 508, 509, 482 (1879). As stated Buckley Valeo, 424 1, 132, 96 612, 688, 46 659 (1976): "[P]rincipal selected consent Senate. Inferior allow heads departments, Judiciary." initial accordingly, officer.12 latter, concluded, 27 line one far clear, Framers little guidance should drawn. See, e.g., J. Story, Commentaries 1536, pp. 397-398 (3d ed. 1858) ("In practical course government seem exact drawn, deemed constitution, necessarily concurrence senate"). here exactly types officer" side line. Several factors lead conclusion. First, higher official. Second, Admittedly, delegates Justice," 594(a), formulate policy operate possible Department. 29 Third, Not applicability suspected serious crimes, tenure. concededly Nonetheless, Unlike ongoing responsibilities extend beyond accomplishment mission undertake. "ideas tenure, duration duties" supra, Otto, 511, sense. 30 consistent few previous decisions considered officer. Eaton, 169 331, 374, 42 767 (1898), approved State regulations allowed "vice-consul" absence consul, terming "subordinate notwithstanding specific reference "Consuls" principal stated: "Because subordinate charged superior conditions thereby transformed permanent official." 343, S.Ct., 379. Ex parte Siebold, 100 (10 371, 717 (1880), "supervisor[s] elections," involving local elections, id., Otto 379-380, Go-Bart Importing Co. 282 344, 352-353, 51 153, 156-157, 75 374 (1931), "United commissioners officers." 352, 156. These powers, arrest imprison trial, warrants, institute "laws elective franchise rights." 353, n. 156, Nixon, 418 683, 694, 696, 94 3090, 3100, 3101, 41 1039 (1974), Watergate Prosecutor—whose similar 8, 8—as officer." 31 not, end argue They contemplate authorization appointments," branch branch. relevant worth repeating. reads: ". face, "excepting clause" Indeed, inclusion "as proper" much area, "It doubt usual department government, judicial, appertain. But absolute requirement Constitution; were, difficult many belonged. 32 "But stands, selection functionaries named, resting looking light, perhaps better rest there, country harassed endless controversies direction might rise." Otto), 397-398. 33 Our suggest otherwise, Hennen, Pet. 230, 138 (1839), sentence above quotation Siebold derived, discussed distinguished "not intended regard, express rule governed." 398. Outside cases, very little, any, discussion propriety appointments depart proscribed excepting clause. 34 note Throughout process drafting Convention concentrated problem judges. Madison, adopted proposal authority, Records 1787, 232-233 (M. Farrand 1966), attempts transfer rejected. 42-44, 80-83. August 6, draft reported Detail retained Judges, ambassadors, "appoint Constitution." 183, 185. scheme maintained until September 4, Eleven suggestions Convention. amended state nominate Ministers, [United States], for." 498-499. addition list, adopted, 539, Style. 599. point, 15, Gouverneur Morris add Excepting 627. comment made motion felt did go "Superior below vote Morris' ended tie. forward second urging "some [was] too necessary, omitted." adopted. 627-628. shows, debate nothing having power. 35 mean say officers" unlimited. separation-of-powers concerns, potential impair branches, improper "incongruity" normally performed appoint. 398 ("[T]he thereto courts; present incongruity excuse performance, render acts void"). impermissible specially disagree Appeals' inherent about officers.13 private attorneys prosecutor judgments. Young ex rel. Vuitton Fils S.A., 481 787, 107 2124, 95 740 commissioners, exercised well, indicated marshals, officer[s]," inappropriate. Lower interim Attorneys, Solomon, 216 835 (SDNY 1963), district courts, 546(d) V).14 course, 49(f) V) runs IV 36 next Constitution. long "Cases" "Controversies." Muskrat 219 346, 356, 250, 253, 246 (1911). general rule, broadly Buckley, 123, 684 (citing Ferreira, How. 40, 40 (1852); Hayburn's Dall. 409 (1792)).15 help encroaching areas reserved Parole Comm'n Geraghty, 445 388, 396, 1202, 1208, 479 (1980). mind, address 37 Most importantly, vests choose 593(b). Clearly, once accepted Law," III.16 contend, disagree. "Appointment" may, circumstances, official's Particularly when, "office" said, unlimited definition truly "incidental" appoint, case.17 38 relation said derive granting extensions 592(a)(3); 593(c)(2)(B); referring 594(e)18; expenses incurred, 594(h)(1)(A); 596(a)(2); attorney's fees individuals investigated indicted 593(f); 594(h)(1)(B); deciding release determining protective issued, 594(h)(2); terminating completed, 596(b)(2). Leaving aside moment observed nature," 684, described trespass Some allegedly "supervisory" conferred passive: merely "receives" them approve disapprove contents. judgment discretion,19 themselves ministerial. "Executive"; indeed, contexts, disclosure occurring jury, Fed. Rule Crim.Proc. 6(e), 6(g), awarding fees, see, 1988.20 doubtful suggest, terminate, especially motion, come "completed." typically "judicial," analogues court's traditional Appeals, overstated "broadsword rapier" enables "control pace depth activities." 217, 515. tested practice, adventurous reasonably construe Appeals; save infirmities, Commodity Futures Trading Schor, 833, 841, 3245, 3251, 675 (1986), narrow construction here. "termination" occur "completed" "so completed" remains counsel.21 basically device payroll served purpose, unwilling acknowledge fact. So construed, intrusion Executive's believe, poses "impartial 850, 3256. reach reasons. currently stands (emphasis added); 596(a)(3) (preventing counsel). sufficiently isolated avoid taint 43 emphasize, nevertheless, take gradual expansion context bureaucratic success story, ramifications. record indicate times advisory opinions examples cited "orders" ostensibly exempted conflict-of-interest laws. 216, 60, 514, 60 Deaver, 86-2 1986), 18, 1986)). reportedly postpone completion proceedings. H.R.Rep.Conf.Rep. 100-452, (1987), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 2150, 2192. such, nonetheless point unauthorized risks transgression just discussed.22 V 44 addressed: whether, reducing ability wielded A. 45 Terms ago occasion pass removable what powers." 730, 3190, 583 "Congress reserve execution 726, 3188. primary antecedent ruling 1926 160 (1926). postmasters "by Senate." too, invalid. Bowsher, essence "draw[ing] right To words implications [Appointments Clause] infringe governmental Myers, 161, 40. Branch; "only cause." 596(a)(1).23 approval decision, review. 596(a)(3). 1611 (1935), 1377 (1958), Bowsher. Executor, Commissioners Trade Commission (FTC) "inefficiency, neglect duty, malfeasance office" 619, 870. "condition [President's removal] fixing definite term precluding depend character 631, 875. Contrary implication dicta Myers,24 "all-inclusive exception judiciary 629, 874. least "quasi-legislative" "quasi-judicial" agencies FTC,25 creating [such] agencies, discharge independently includes, incident, fix period continue forbid cause meantime." Ibid. "plain" "illimitable removal" agencies. Were FTC will, "coercive influence" "threate[n] [the] commission." 630, unfettered member War Claims Commission, 1948, 62 Stat. 1240. Commission's receive adjudicate compensation suffered injury property damage enemy World entrusted adjudicatory control. context, wish hang Damocles' sword preferred men choosing." 1279. rejected Commissioner "merely wanted appointees Commission," stating "no none impliedly him statute." 48 distinguishable "core function." rests distinction executive" involved, precedent Executor. 628, "purely" will. 132-134, 30-31.26 undoubtedly rely terms distinguish involved executive."27 President,28 correct holding, broader role.29 30-31. Wiener: 50 "The assumption short-lived tenure." 1277. spectrum characterization Wie- ner large reflected essential headed up will.30 irrelevant. real impede analyzed light. 52 Considering isolation parts trammels "executive" lacking policymaking exercises small amount carry central functioning terminable President.31 53 burdens supervise official, completely stripped means "faithful execution" Rather, terminated Executive, through retains ample assure competently performing manner comports Act.32 encompassed makes clear "misconduct." H.R.Conf.Rep. conferring court, presently deprives obligation faithful laws.33 B 54 Time again reaffirmed importance 725, 3187 629-630, 874-875). (1976), system separated checks balances regarded "a self-executing safeguard aggrandizement other." 122, 684. hesitated invalidate principle. hand, never "operate independence." 707, 3107; Nixon Services, 433 425, 442, 97 2777, 2789, 867 (1977) Madison Federalist 47, Joseph Story 525 Bigelow, 5th 1905)). often-quoted Jackson: "While diffuses secure liberty, contemplates practice integrate dispersed workable government. enjoins separateness interdependence, autonomy reciprocity." Youngstown Sheet Tube Sawyer, 343 579, 635, 72 863, 870, 1153 (1952) (concurring opinion). observe 856, 3259-3260. recently "dange[r] functions." 727, 3188; INS Chadha, 462 919, 958, 103 2764, 77 317 (1983). impeachment—which applies 529(g). 595(a), McGrain Daugherty, 273 135, 174, 319, 328, 580 (1927). 57 apparent sense, sua sponte; prevented appointment, 592(f). pointed supervisory administrative, well Judiciary. 58 "impermissibly undermine[s]" 3260, "disrupts [by] prevent[ing] functions," 443, 2790. undeniable reduces him, class alleged activity. choice; jurisdiction; limited.34 supervising controlling already substantial "faithfully No warranted" committed discretion. initiate submitted abide unless "possible" so. Notwithstanding features 59 sum, Division; Reversed. 61 KENNEDY dissenting. proud boast democracy men." Many Americans familiar phrase; know derivation. comes Part XXX, Massachusetts 1780, full 64 "In Commonwealth, them: 65 similarly viewed guarantee Government. Federalist, wrote "[n]o political truth certainly intrinsic value, stamped enlightened patrons liberty." 301 (C. Rossiter 1961) (hereinafter Federalist). Without structure Bill Rights worthless, bills rights nations world improved upon, mere ours. 66 expressed section each Articles. I, "[a]ll Powers consist Representatives." Power supreme ordain establish." And America." 67 self-effectuating, insufficiency parchment delineation boundaries" achieve 73, 442 (A. Hamilton). "[T]he great security," "against concentration consists administer motives resist encroachments others. defense this, commensurate danger attack." 51, 321-322. continued: 68 equal self-defense. republican predominates. remedy inconveniency divide legislature different branches; them, modes election action, common dependence society admit. weight divided, weakness require, fortified." 322-323. 69 major "fortification" provided, veto fortification, Founders conspicuously consciously declined sap strength way weakened Legislature: dividing Proposals multiple executives, council advisers separate M. Farrand, 66, 71-74, 88, 91-92 (rev. 1966); 335-337, 533, 537, 542. Thus, Representatives," added), States," added). 70 That suit about. Power. allocation fashion preserve equilibrium establish—so department," 321 (J. Madison), effectively resisted. Frequently clad, speak, sheep's clothing: asserted important change immediately evident, discerned careful perceptive analysis. wolf wolf. Legislative Branches became "embroiled investigatory power," 556 150, 152 (DC 1983), which—as often conflicts—became quite acrimonious. hearings Superfund (EPA), numerous internal responded personally Memorandum November 30, Reagan Administrator, Agency, reprinted 99-435, 1166-1167 (1985), assertion privilege, Letters William French Smith Hon. John D. Dingell Elliott H. Levitas, reprinted, 1168-1177. assert counseled post traditionally responsibility legal (subject General). House's resolution citing possession contempt. Contempt offense. 192. Attorney, initially steps citation. Instead, immediate Third asking declare acted lawfully privilege. ibid. (in my correctly) controversy, urged try "[c]ompromise cooperation, confrontation." F.Supp., 153. haggling, reached agreement contested things there. Certain remained angered confrontation, particularly played Justice. Specifically, disturbed possibility persuaded despite reservations EPA; "deliberately unnecessarily precipitated confrontation Congress"; asserted; certification prosecution; sue Representatives; adequately advised represented EPA, Administrator. (1985) (describing unresolved "questions" basis investigation). staff commissioned (apparently members, 731) lasted 21/2 years, produced 3,000-page vigorous dissent minority-party members. report, charges questioned truthfulness front early stages sent along formal Mr. 73 matter, so, warranted." surprising choice (assuming constitutional) pursue Olson. Merely consequences (to seeming break substantial. How be, ask, indictment drawn representatives years believe" culprit? establishes compulsion. asserts [congressional] request," ante, 695, entirely accurate. He believe," warranted, "further " 592(b)(1) 90-day prohibited using routine techniques juries, plea bargaining, immunity, 592(a)(2). 592(f)." Ante, 695. Yes,1 acrid smell threatened impeachment. Where, must, explain why. 595(c) (independent "that impeachment"). 74 compelled high-level appointee connection bitter guilty crime; know. commenced, subordinates warrants diversion resources efforts, cost money interests; even, leaving factors, likely unearth prosecuting; affirm, demands, warranted. duration, ensue, subordinates. describe concept longer meaning. devotes attention relatively technical details addressing briefly prologue suggests, I backwards. recognition inseparable corollary department's "defense attack," 322 comprehensible content discuss jurisprudence today's begin fountainhead jurisprudence, equilibration 76 call mind unusual premise underlies deliberations, expressly contradicted observed. rare dealing, does, passed anywhere usual, almost formulary caution owe deference done constitutional, Rostker Goldberg, 453 57, 64, 2646, 2651, (1981); Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 472, 2758, 2771, 902 (1980) (opinion Burger, C.J.); Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc. Democratic National 412 94, 102, 93 2080, 2086, 772 (1973); Dairy Products Corp., 372 32, 83 594, 597, 561 (1963), presumption overcome, Fullilove, 473, 2772; Broadcasting, 103, 2087. recited apply. Where citizen challenges unrelated harmonious demands ordinarily deference, validity, agreed, least, respective spheres. pertains (as here) disagreement, neither presumed correct. concisely Madison: departments perfectly co-ordinate commission, pretend exclusive settling boundaries ." 314. playing field words, level one. interested underlying benefit doubt. repeat, outset me, therefore, invalidating fundamental questions answered affirmatively: (1) Is prosecute) purely power? (2) Does deprive Surprising say, appears concede affirmative answer questions, seeks inevitable void. 80 concedes "[t]here 'executive'," qualifies concession adding "in Branch." 691. qualifier adds atmosphere. identify Power" supposed (unless includes everything do) always everywhere—if conducted all—been legislature, executive. fit description. She [and] General." 594(a) Governmental crimes quintessentially function. Heckler Chaney, 470 821, 832, 105 1649, 1656, 84 714 (1985); 138, 691, (1976); 693, (1974). 81 question, activity: possibly, not. indeed whole statute. points alone statute, refrain pointing greatly exaggerates "some" Presidential "Most importan[t]" controls, asserts, "power 'good cause.' 696. somewhat like shackles effective locomotion. (1935)—indeed, about—limiting impediment to, "an agency departments," "wholly disconnected 875, "it evident holds pleasure another, depended attitude latter's will." What eliminating control, considers "most assuring operated illusion enacted describing "protecting direct control" permits 82 Moving presumably "less important" controls retains, notes renders mandatory (inability warranted) insubstantial severely confined. made, 593(b) event, irrelevant directs policy, "possible." 594(f) shows empty promise. hard "policies" (other law) absolute. Almost found, balancing innumerable considerations. considerations nonpartisan sense) considered, exemplified former Ambassador Canada, producing considerable tension relations country. N.Y. Times, A12, col. Another pre-eminently getting conviction national security necessary. intelligence disagreement win. goes away 594(a)(6). legal, practical, considerations, absolute, function, ultimately acknowledges, "[i]t activity." 675. effects revolution fully proceed sit counsel's] Branch" 693 conferral someone else "sufficiently [his] laws," give[s] duties," 696 determine, President. prescribes are. utter incompatibility approach traditions perhaps, applying conceivable depriving less entire insignificant area legislation, inquire really surrogate legislator duties"? Of that. Once exercised, wholly entirely, Or bring closer home, non-Article tiny bit field, total courts—perhaps "clear error" review, fair equivalent pause decided "constitutionally power—or, plurality Northern Pipeline Construction Marathon Pipe Line Co., 458 50, 58-59, 102 2858, 2865, 598 (1982): inexorable command [Article III] definite: attributes prescribed III." 85 unthinkable close associates issue? exemption Civil 1964, VII, 2000e (prohibiting "employers," discriminating race, color, religion, sex, origin). pronounce justiciable controversies, pertaining salaries Justices. Will, 449 200, 211-217, 471, 478-482, 392 acceptance theoretically abused. reiterate day, truism protections costs." Coy Iowa, 1012, 1020, 2798, ----, 857 While righting every wrong, lose liberty. branch's abuse twofold: retaliation use powers: impeach willfully fails laws; statutes, cf. Lovett, 328 303, 1073, 1252 (1946); malicious prosecutions. ultimately, check people replace "dangerous Constitution," 78, 465) abuse. Political pressures prosecutors—for Teapot Dome Watergate, example—long Feb. 1924, ch. 16, 5-6; Fed.Reg. 30738 (1973). 86 has, nonetheless, replaced prescription belongs "balancing test." standards struck, much? countries weaker ours—in fact, dependent continued legislature. text short stop? amazing feature purport answer. announces, analysis, closest advisers, himself, Apparently Having abandoned decision-making craft substitute criterion—a "justiciable standard," Baker Carr, 369 186, 210, 706, 663 (1962); Coleman Miller, 307 433, 454-455, 972, 982, 1385 (1939), however remote Constitution—that governs, future govern, questions. Evidently, wisdom revealed obedient case-by-case basis. established; all. 87 moreover, hoc, standardless wrong. passed, taking disagreeable testifying odds, assured adjudged concerned—in forum attuned interests Presidency. natural advantages Presidency, staffs) advantage prosecutable capacities. 1; Gravel 408 606, 2614, (1972). legislation eliminate assurance sympathetic forum. Unless honestly ensue; prosecute, President—who assemble finding out, presumably, willing whatever doing, indeterminate named administration. prospect frightening opinion) bitter, dispute. Perhaps boldness himself affected—though am sure (How easier accepting attendant commencement trivial grounds—or, easy foes trigger debilitating law.) assistants, base support, utterly unrealistic intimidated prospect, advocacy hostile affected, staffs unaffected replacing Speech Debate provision. deeply wounds protect staff. imagine believes succeed. 88 Besides weakening Presidency zeal staff, obvious institution enfeebles constant confrontations eroding support. Nothing politically charge one's opponent wrongheaded, naive, ineffective, but, probability, "crooks." appearance validity better, prosecution. attack, massive occur, for. statute's highly visible assure, unlike widely known prominently displayed. nine publicized administrations. remotely "normal" prosecutory demonstrated by, ("no believe"), facts: appropriates approximately $50 million annually salaries, 1989 Budget Request Hearings Appropriations, 100th Cong., 2d Sess., pt. 284-285 (1988) (DOJ Request). used "[f]ederal appellate activity," "[o]rganized crime prosecution," "[p]ublic integrity" "[f]raud" "[n]arcotic dangerous drug "[i]nternal "[g]eneral litigation advice," "special investigations," "[p]rosecution support," enforcement," "[m]anagement administration." 284. By comparison, 1986 four (not whom operating time) spent $5 (1/10th appropriated Division), spending $1 month 1987 alone. Washington Post, Oct. A21, 5. For fiscal year 1989, $52 DOJ 285, $7 25. affect possibly demonstrates system, reduced impairment irrelevant, President; folly new adopt today. earlier, basic life unconstitutionality plainly areas. 91 Because (who agree 671, 12) meaning law. inquiries, "decide exactly" confident "clearly 'inferior officer' side" 671. reasons: "is official," namely, "empowered "limited jurisdiction" 672. lends incapacity. contrast, (if all) fail helps difference status designated inferior; subordinate. usage offered Court—that duties—may mischaracterizes states: "Admittedly, 'full Justice.'" Ibid., quoting added).2 range enumerated possesses: "contes[t] security." 594(a)(6).3 "admitted," me impossible "limited" brush asserting "formulate Government, spheres responsibility—as possible. set reasons emphasizes Taking latter first, unusually contrary, continues (or completed. (b)(2). Cabinet officials. (though unimportant). Luxembourg small. sits authority." fragmentation compartments suffices chief number "lesser" functionaries. More fundamentally, discusses—even applied correctly case—are determinative status. statement 511 (1879) (discussing Hartwell, Wall. 385, 393, 830 (1868)), [officer] embraces ideas emolument, dictum, dictum distinguishing characteristics versus relevant, "officer States" applied) opposed employee. Rather erect theory foundation irrelevancy, preferable look establishes. demonstrate, think, (indeed, President). Dictionaries Constitutional word "inferiour" meanings bears today: "[l]ower station, life, value excellency," "[s]ubordinate." Johnson, Dictionary English Language (6th 1785). document dealing constitution) naturally expect bear meaning—indeed, unpardonably careless subordination intended. meant "lower station rank," "lesser appears, connotes subordination. "one 81, Hamilton pauses 485, n., 490, evolution originally Style, "exception" (President Senate) 498-499, 599 1966). last day proposed signed, midst host minor changes exceptions ensued; Nobody thought change, excluding confirmation category own, cumbersome fashion. brief mentions contrast covered provision) Officers." 637. "superior responsibility, obvious, relative brevity received, discussion, (what 627) subordinates, would, chain interpretation admittedly sketchy area. "vice-consul," temporarily doing repeatedly 879. (comparing bureau department, "mere subordinates") (dicta); 394 clerk Treasurer Secretary Treasury office[r]") (dicta). recently, Prosecutor 3100 citation supported reading explicitly office[r]," ibid., because, end, amending revoking regulation 3101. "Judges Election," overseeing elections. assertion, 673, probably contended represent assisting judging elections exercising assuredly entertained they, marshals assisted 380, 397. plain commissioner time." 354, 157. sure, head exchange clause responded: all—Superior Departments ought lesser offices." Convention, 627 1966) surely 104 much, noting "appellant 'subordinate' Act." V), subject. reader scholarly Judge Silberman below. commenting, established, restricted, 127, 28-29, (1926), consent, ibid.; Perkins, 116 483, 449, 450, 700 (1886).4 resolved relying erroneous extending restricted. unjustified extension, chosen, worse. 109 Since 1935 1611—which product activist, anti-New Deal bent Franklin Roosevelt—it permissible lies lawful so-called regulatory agencies," 41, Interstate Commerce 10301(c) IV), Consumer Product Safety 2053(a), engage "quasi-legislative activity" rulemaking, Military 867(a)(2), adjudication. observed, rational 689-690; 761, 3, 3206, (1986) (WHITE, dissenting); Ruberoid 470, 487-488, 800, 810, 1081 (Jackson, dissenting). permitted identification aware legislation. Today, swept dustbin repudiated principles. "[O]ur view," says, cause'-type 'purely executive.' 689. ) means, told, "rigid President," "interefere 'executive power' 'take executed,' 689-690. 110 hardly grieve shoddy treatment which, all, accorded indignity (with justification) Taft's (1926)—gutting, six quick pages devoid textual historical novel forth, carefully researched reasoned 70-page opinion. comforting reality lives ipse dixit dies dixit. decency formally repository 627-628, 874, explained, according liking. 'it fear functions, obey.' 3188, Synar 626 1374, 1401 1986) (Scalia, Gasch, JJ.). "our view" officer's "able role." 690. lines. prosecutor, virtual embodiment cannot? open invitation experiment. State, foreign restrictions? Could "[un]able role"? Defense Procurement? possibilities endless, understand "[a]mbition counteract[ing] ambition," (Madison), about, them. discern season superficially principled cover. says President: "Trust us. you your President—and people—more protection 111 general, unitary particular, freedom. Those offices us, considering fairness receive. 112 Only worked appreciate vast immense placed objects Robert Jackson, Roosevelt, memorable speech 113 "There have, nearly detached groups community. automatic. isn't blind. greatest difficulties position pick complaints. pretense reaching ten inadequate. police force strictly traffic laws, half driving population morning. practically select offense flagrant, harm greatest, proof certain. 114 "If obliged follows defendants. Therein prosecutor: thinks get, prosecuted. books filled assortment chance anyone. discovering commission man picking searching books, putting investigators work, pin him. realm—in picks dislikes desires embarrass, selects group unpopular persons looks offense, prosecuting lies. becomes personal, predominant group, attached wrong views, obnoxious himself." R. Prosecutor, Address Delivered Second Annual Conference 1940. 115 prosecutors awesome trusted elect. prosecuted fairly, nonselectively, proportion, pays "pick [they] thin[k] prosecuted," amass prominent individual, protesters, party, gravity offenses successful warrant, unfairness home roost Oval Office. recall years. precisely Executive. ingredients safety due people, responsibility." 70, 424. responsible. blame, whereas weightiest objections tends conceal faults destroy 427. justice consisting officials? (except Class C misdemeanors infractions) attention. objectionable. if, normal tools, unable "dependent people," flaws blamed selected, prescribed, panel partisan, antagonistic administration, treatment? surefire enthusiastic impeachable selection, blame. proceeds lawyers lay careers permanence promotion. thing however: investigating individual. Can equitable fulfilling prosecute? reaction posted notice inviting applicants person? invite Jackson "picking him"? relate life-tenured being) broad—and something scope, expand or, whereupon recommence likelihood assign conducive fairness. result—the old foe refugees defeated administration—there accountable blame assigned. 117 self-selection staff) occurred highest woman accomplishment, impartiality, integrity. happen, true, list horribles attributed ordinary prosecution—a vindictive etc. envisioned people: punished. 118 irresponsible acceptability process. rarely average different. behalf ex-Attorneys administrations: 119 spectacular worrisome. institutional environment Counsel—specifically, supplies—is heighten, check, occupational hazards dedicated prosecutor; focus, loss perspective, preoccupation pursuit suspect exclusion interests." Brief Levi, Griffin Bell, Amici Curiae 120 additional uniform achieved, mechanism mini-Executive discretion, intentionally cut off unifying influence perspective provide. (there rules things), assume proportions indictable pursuing picayune year. worthwhile—with worthwhile depending judgments usually hinge on, competing responsibilities. decide, bad enough, willful provable warrant indictment. admirable distortion. unfortunate 121 122 notion prosecuted, including—indeed, especially—every high places, attractive one, risky campaign overriding value. Fiat justitia, ruat coelum. Let done, heavens fall. hope realities spared campaigns. thoughtful women realize benefits outweighed harmful received enact, repeal, called, appropriately controlled party belongs, incentive repeal it; dare shortsighted today, permanently encumbered Republic harm. 123 Worse rules. Today's ungoverned hence extends heart "totality circumstances" mode become fond of. account, much. conclude, confined rule. describe, accurately) authoritatively announce: [subject officer's] control." analysis; hoc true that—as seemed expect, past uniformly assumed—all 124 attraction, apart work-saving potential. guaranteed happy definition, thinks, be. prefer wise constructed centuries shown sound. Like plainly, Pub.L. 95-521, 1867, twice reenacted, amendments. 97-409, 2039; 100-191, 1293. exceptions, "cease five date enactment Reauthorization 1987." 591(a) misdemeanor infraction." 591(c) ("any infraction"). 591(b) sets forth target Vice Director Central Intelligence, Internal Revenue, campaign. Pursuant 591(c), financial, interest." Circuit. circuit justices Circuit, 2-year terms, vacancy remainder period. elapse triggering 592(c)(1). 592(f), reviewable court." lieu "expand 593(c). 593 fill vacancies death, resignation, 593(e). 592(a)(3), award unindicted 593(f) 101-191, 1293). "direction 2516 title 18." 594(a). amendments specify pay costs establishment operation expended 594(d)(2). file months. 594(h)(1)(A). enacted, commenced "based error fact," "reinstatement Sections 596(b)(1)(B) 596(b)(2) compliance 594(h)(1)(B). Comprehensive Response, Compensation, Liability 1980, 96-510, 2767, 9601 lacked requisite "criminal intent" 592(c)(1) Regarding Allegations Against Officials 22, (Apr. (CADC) (Attorney Report). "officer" "employee." 126, 162, 685, 162. experience qualified prosecutors. expertise, in, authorizing Agriculture Energy Regulatory Commission. longstanding afford representation, 3006A(b) attorney appear "judicial empowering pensions disabled veterans Revolutionary War. Mar. 1792, 11, 243. "undertook devolve Circuit examining proofs, monthly disability ascertained, certify War." Muskrat, 252. War, reject findings. margins reflect understanding How., 50-51. Florida losses responsible 1819 treaty Spain ceded 45. results Treasury, 47. "judgment discretion." 48. Ferreira 51-52. per se, functional participated magistrates, (1931); 631(a), disruption clerk. 593(c)(2). most, "relate[d] defined. extension 596(a)(2), (b)(2); 593(f). variety trial supervised juries "investigative function" compelling witnesses. Brown 359 545-546, 609 (1959). issuance search Crim. Proc. applications wiretaps, 2516, 2518 affidavits proceeding. 793-802, 2130-2135, disobedience orders, below, "intended measure resort." 224, 13, 476, 522, "This paragraph unlikely situation remain drastic obviously executed caution." S.Rep. 95-170, (1977). impropriety (Special 1987). 594(e), running "reinterpretation" "reinterpret" clarify seen grant. supra. previously refer. noted, "physical performance" 596(a)(1). disapproved "are harmony" views 626, 873. actually postmaster class, Congress." 873-874. body embodied accordance therein aid." Such arm eye executive," "without executive, quasi-judicial." Solicitor WHITE time. 738-739, nn. 1-3, 3206-3207, 1-3. imposing wield chosen department. 161-163, 164, 40-41, 41. situation, saw congressionally (1886) (" 'The [of departments] implies limit, restrict, regulate enact appointed' ") (quoting Claims' case). difficulty illustrated comparison 140-141, 692-693, 732-734, 3191-3192. Election "administrative," "more "of kinds 692-693. Comptroller nature, "exercise Act," "interpret budgetary calculations required." 733, 3191. Compare description FTC's "occupie[d] department": [FTC] "executive," degree. 705. demarcation—a demarcation incapable altered slightest degree, applicable tens thousands holders foreseen Framers—depends extrapolation bear. contrary century ago. inclined afforded standard, desire 45(m) (giving recover penalties unfair competition); 2061, 2071, 2076(b)(7)(A) injunctions seizure hazardous products). 1982 "would branch." Amendments Hearing Oversight Management Affairs, 97th (1981) (Associate Giuliani). decision. inject amendment existing [other] officials" removal. diminished cites, Quite obviously, sternly avoided "construing" problems. event nonreviewable omits sphere [with wiretap authorizations] Justice[.]" square 'inferior' authority" following: "(1) investigations; "(2) engaging deems necessary; "(3) capacity; "(4) documentary available source; "(5) contest testimonial privilege; "(6) clearances contesting security; "(7) immunity sections 6003, 6004, 6005 General; "(8) inspecting, obtaining, tax return .; "(9) initiating States; "(10) occurred." 594(a)(1)-(10). hire size "deems necessary," enlist "where [her] assistance, personnel 594(d). misunderstands "every executive] 690, 29. demonstrates, otherwise. assert—and prescribe—is plenary are, described, i.e., (being will) confidence, enough—at officer—that include, supervision. Perkins views.

Classification Label: 12