Legal Document

440 U.S. 648 99 Supreme Court Reporter 1391 59 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 660 State of DELAWARE, Petitioner,v.William Judge PROUSE, III. Number 77-1571. Argued Jan. 17, 1979. Decided March 27, Syllabus A patrolman in a police cruiser stopped an automobile occupied by respondent and seized marihuana plain view on the car floor. Respondent was subsequently indicted for illegal possession controlled substance. At hearing respondent's motion to suppress marihuana, testified that prior stopping vehicle he had observed neither traffic or equipment violations nor any suspicious activity, made stop only order check driver's license car's registration. The not acting pursuant standards, guidelines, procedures pertaining document spot checks, promulgated either his department Attorney General. trial court granted suppress, finding detention have been wholly capricious therefore violative Fourth Amendment. Delaware affirmed. Held: 1. This has jurisdiction this case even though held at issue violated Federal Constitution but also impermissible under Constitution. That court's opinion shows if would provided adequate basis judgment below, did intend rest its decision independently Constitution, holding instead depending upon reach Fourteenth Amendments. Pp. 651-653. 2. Except where there is least articulable reasonable suspicion motorist unlicensed registered, occupant otherwise subject seizure violation law, detaining driver registration are unreasonable 653-663. (a) Stopping occupants constitute "seizure" within meaning Amendments, purpose limited resulting quite brief. permissibility particular law enforcement practice judged balancing intrusion individual's Amendment interests against promotion legitimate governmental interests. 653-655. (b) State's interest discretionary checks as means ensuring safety roadways does outweigh privacy security persons detained. Given physical psychological visited random documents, cf. versus Brignoni-Ponce, 422 873, 95 2574, 45 607; Martinez-Fuerte, 428 543, 96 3074, 49 1116, marginal contribution roadway possibly from system cannot justify subjecting every roads unbridled discretion officials. 655-661. (c) An individual operating traveling lose all expectation simply because use government regulation. People shorn protection when they step their homes onto public sidewalk; those sidewalks into automobiles. 662-663. (d) preclude other developing methods involve less do unconstrained exercise discretion. Questioning oncoming roadblock-type stops one possible alternative. Pacific KF135 P2 663. 382 Atlantic Reporter, 2nd 1359, Charles M. Oberly, III, Wilmington, Del., petitioner. David Lukoff, respondent. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered Court. 1 question whether it Amendments automobile, being driven highway, checking driving operator car, probable cause believe contrary laws governing operation motor vehicles connection with applicable law. 2 * 7:20 Page m. November 30, 1976, New Castle County, respondent.1 smelled smoke walking toward vehicle, result stop, Characterizing "routine," explained, "I saw area wasn't answering complaints, so & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions decided pull them off." App. A9. 3 affirmed, noting first "[t]he legal validity systematic, number now before Court," 1362 (1978) (emphasis original). "a absence specific facts which indicating occurred constitutionally Constitution." Id., 1364. We certiorari resolve conflict between decision, accord decisions five jurisdictions,2 determination six jurisdictions3 prohibit kind here. 439 816, 76, 58 107 (1978). II 4 Because Article I, § 6, urged below based independent state ground we no case. Fox Film Corporation Muller, 296 207, 210, 56 183, 184, 80 L.Ed. 158 (1935). least, suggested, matter sufficiently uncertain should remand clarification rested. California Krivda, 409 33, 35, 93 32, 34 (1972). Based our reading opinion, however, satisfied judgment, 5 As understand will automatically be interpreted broadly Amendment;4 is, authoritatively determined will, without further analysis, 6. approach, consistent previous opinions Court,5 followed analyzed various interpreting concluded foreclosed automobiles, summarily infringed. cases "at very [state] felt compelled what understood federal constitutional considerations construe . own manner did." Zacchini Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co., 433 562, 568, 97 2849, 2853, 53 965 (1977). Had mentioned all, about jurisdiction, might ground. Ibid. same follow here depended If misapprehended "[i]t freed decide these suits according local law." Missouri ex rel. Southern R. company Mayfield, 340 1, 5, 71 3, (1950). III 6 implicated 556-558, 3082-3083, 1116 (1976); 878, 2578, 607 (1975); Terry Ohio, 392 16, 88 1868, 1877, 20 889 (1968). essential proscriptions impose standard "reasonableness"6 officials, including agents, " 'to safeguard individuals arbitrary invasions .' Marshall Barlow's, Inc., 436 307, 312, 98 1816, 1820 (1978), quoting Camara Municipal Court, 387 523, 528, 87 1727, 1730, 18 930 (1967).7 Thus, interests.8 Implemented manner, reasonableness usually requires, minimum, capable measurement "an objective standard,"9 cause10 stringent test.11 In situations balance precludes insistence "some quantum individualized suspicion,"12 safeguards generally relied assure "subject official field," U.S., 532, S.Ct., 1733. See id., 534-535, 1733-1734; supra, 320-321, 1824-1825; District 407 297, 322-323, 92 2125, 2139, 32 752 (1972) (requiring warrants). 7 case, urges patrol officers constraints deciding automobiles shall outweighs IV 8 recently considered legality investigative making criminal laws. Border Patrol agents conducting roving patrols areas near international border asserted statutory authority determine contained aliens involved smuggling operations. violate Amendment, invalidate warrantless than cause. "the importance stake, minimal brief practical alternatives policing border," 881, 2580, analogized roving-patrol on-the-street encounter addressed held: 9 "Except functional equivalents, may aware facts, together rational inferences reasonably warrant contain who illegally country." 884, 2582 (footnote omitted). 10 nature alien characteristics operations tend generate grounds identifying violators," 883, 2581, requirement allows Government guarding protects residents indiscriminate interference." 11 constitutionality again checkpoint slowing "to virtual, complete, halt," 546, 3078, highway roadblock, referring chosen secondary inspection. 558, 3077, 3083. Recognizing furthered stops, nonetheless sustained Patrol's crucial distinction lesser motorist's interests: 12 "[The] intrusion—the itself, questioning, visual inspection—also existed stops. But different light subjective generating concern fright part lawful travelers—is appreciably stop." 13 Although dispositive,13 undoubtedly provide guidance such agree ordinary city street intrusive major bears greater resemblance permissible border. regard, note Brignoni-Ponce limited-access roads, applied type suspicion. 882-883, 2580-2581; Ortiz, 891, 894, 2585, 2587, 623 (1975). assume documents moment occasioned patrol. Both entail signaling moving over side roadway, unsettling show authority. interfere freedom movement, inconvenient, consume time. create substantial anxiety. For purposes, see insufficient sporadic way through roadblocks brought halt halt, subjected power community. "At checkpoints can stopped, visible signs officers' authority, much likely frightened annoyed intrusion." 894-895, 2588, quoted V 14 intrude motorists more promoting entailed. record discloses statistics concerning extent problem lack safety, Nation whole, danger life14 property posed vehicular difficulties cautious experienced encounter. vital qualified permitted operate vehicles, fit safe operation, hence licensing, registration, inspection requirements observed. Automobile licenses issued periodically evidence drivers familiar rules road physically vehicle.15 and, pointedly, related annual Delaware16 designed keep dangerous off road. Unquestionably, provisions, properly administered, elements program. Furthermore, requires minimum amount insurance coverage condition registration,17 implementing seeing citizens accident.18 15 remains, service important ends productive mechanism entail. On us, must answered negative. alternative mechanisms available, both adopted, unconvinced incremental justifies 16 foremost method enforcing regulations, recalled, violations. Vehicle occur countless times each day; occasions, papers ascertained. presumably whose propensities well exhibit themselves.19 Absent some empirical data contrary, assumed among commit event choosing randomly entire universe drivers. were so, licensing hardly effective safety. It seems common sense percentage small licensed find large indeed. selected best. absent something mere assertion difficult deterred possibility having experience calling proof entitlement drive check. terms actually discovering deterring driving, appear qualify 17 Much said aspects distinguished Many vehicle-safety observable, done observing officer, directly immediately. Delaware, elsewhere, carry display current plates,20 themselves registered;21 pass inspection22 insured.23 appear, therefore, Delaware-registered necessary ascertain compliance requirements; nothing significant require plates concluding out-of-state cars substantially promotes interest. seizure—limited magnitude compared intrusions cognizable—at To insist appropriate factual directed rule govern "would invite guaranteed rights inarticulate hunches ." 22, 1880. By hypothesis, apparently presented observable time stop. When violating multitude regulations24—or amounting unregistered—we conceive could driver. standardless evil discerned insisted field circumscribed, extent. Almeida-Sanchez States, 413 266, 270, 2535, 2538, 37 596 (1973); 532-533, VI 19 "grave danger" abuse discretion, 559, 3083, disappear regulation numerous instances police-citizen contact, Cady Dombrowski, 433, 441, 2523, 2528, 706 (1973). Only last Term pointed out "if intrudes suffers government's motivation investigate breaches regulatory standards." 312-313, 1820. There certain "relatively unique circumstances," 313, 1820, consent restrictions presumptively concurrent participation regulated enterprise. Biswell, 406 311, 1593, (federal firearms); Colonnade Catering 397 72, 90 774, 25 60 (1970) liquor). Otherwise, inspections unaccompanied individualized, undertaken previously specified "neutral criteria." 323, 1826. regulation.25 travel basic, pervasive, often mode transportation one's home, workplace, leisure activities. people spend hours day streets. Undoubtedly, many exposing pedestrian modes travel. Were unfettered entered seriously circumscribed. recognized, sidewalks. Nor Adams Williams, 143, 146, 1921, 1923, 612 VII 21 Accordingly, hold except discretion.26 reason alone interfered officers. 22 So ordered. 23 BLACKMUN, whom POWELL joins, concurring. 24 ante, page, carefully "that discretion." roadblock given example. necessarily Court's reservation includes purely (such 10th point) equate with, than, 100% And regard present precedent throws shadow somewhat perhaps largely examinations game wardens performance duties. situation type, me, process, value factors consideration, different. With understanding, join judgment. 26 REHNQUIST, dissenting. 27 holds, successive sentences, articulable, unlawful conduct, check, free develop "methods discretion," "[q]uestioning Ante, motorists, like sheep, "frightened" "annoyed" en masse, needs thoroughfare, motorists. thus elevates adage "misery loves company" novel role jurisprudence. becomes "curiouser curiouser" attempts explanation it. 28 correctly points out, highways owned maintained uncover vehicles.* No questions highways. requirements, obviously take steps enforce compliance. measure tested weighing motorists' E. g., 29 executing concludes "sufficiently mechanism" admittedly "vital observed." 659, 658. Foremost violations, "drivers themselves." 659. Noting "finding drivers," ibid., primary interest, apprehending sake whole point regulations remove demonstrates why unlicensed. prefer registrations wreckage towed away. 30 impressed deterrence rationale, inconceivable prospect incident requiring him produce arrives conclusion benefit shred suggesting fail deter violators. evidence, serve function stand. 31 balance, advances most diaphanous citizen Indeed, say never infringed State, just infringe masse rather citizen. comply need "anxiety" "inconvenien[ce]" subjects few. action officer e. Ex parte Virginia, 100 339, 346-347, 676 (1880), acts accompanied presumption until shown otherwise. See, McDonald Board Election, 394 802, 89 1404, 739 (1969). conceivably abused, us contains showing likely. adequately Nevertheless, "[o]n us" entail." think approach reverses accorded States. burden demonstrate not. "On record" failed make demonstration. 33 Neither suggests carried inconsistent Equal Protection Clause equal violation, fact authority," 657, "may anxiety," distinguish purposes reverse Delaware. referred 1361 However, arresting testified: don't [respondent] recall, back seat ," A12; ruling four "occupants" A17. registered A10. Montgomery, 182 U.S.App.D.C. 426, 561 875 (1977); Ingle, 36 N.Y.2d 413, 369 N.Y.S.2d 67, 330 North Eastern 39 Ochoa, Ariz.App. 510, 534 441 (1975), rev'd grounds, 112 Ariz. 582, 544 1097 Commonwealth Swanger, 453 Pa. 107, 307 Nicholas, 448 622 (CA8 1971). Cupps, 503 277 (CA6 1974). Holmberg, 194 Neb. 337, 231 Western 672 Allen, 282 N.C. 503, South Palmore 290 573 (D.C.App.1972), aff'd jurisdictional only, 411 389, 1670, 342 Leonard 496 576 (Tex.Cr.App.1973); Jenkins, 528 713 (CA10 1975); Myricks 370 901 (CA5), cert. dismissed, 386 1015, 1366, 474 (1967). stated: "The similar latter former. A.2d, 1362, citing Moore, 55 Del. 356, 187 807 (1963). Moore two years after Mapp 367 643, 81 1684, 1081 (1961), limitations imposed Government. setting forth reiterated noted wording provision, overriding effect 362-363, 810-811. found solely upholding search seizure, Del.Const. issuance warrant. Rossitto 234 438 Moreover, provision relies simultaneously provision. Young 339 723 Freeman 317 540 (1974); Bertomeu 310 865 315, 1822 (1978); 439, 2527, 20-21, 1879, (1968); 539, 1736, 554, 3081, 895, Beck 379 89, 97, 85 223, 228, 142 (1964); 335 451, 455-456, 69 191, 193, 153 (1948). Ramsey, 431 606, 616-619, 1972, 1979-1980, 52 555, 3081; cited n. supra. 21, 1868. Scott 128, 137, 1717, 1723, 168 96-97, 228. Santana, 427 38, 2406, 300 Watson, 423 411, 820, 46 598 Ker California, 374 23, 83 1623, 726 (1963) (warrantless arrests cause); supra; Warden Hayden, 294, 1642, 782 (1967); Carroll 267 132, 280, 543 (1925) searches cause). Gerstein Pugh, 420 103, 854, 43 54 addition, Warrant neutral detached magistrate requisite met, see, Mincey Arizona, 437 385, 560, 3084. addressing practices, reserved officials questioning detention, 560 14, 3084, operations, 883 8, 2581 8. 1977, 47,671 died accidents country. U. S. Dept. Transportation, Highway Safety A-9 Del.Code Ann., Tit. §§ 2701, 2707 (1974 Supp. 1977); 2713 (1974) (Department Public "shall examine applicant mental qualifications jeopardize "). 2143(a) (1974). 2118 (Supp. Department Safety, Division Motor Vehicles, Driver's Manual (1976). additional apprehension stolen influence alcohol narcotics. subsumed former remaining controlling thefts distinguishable general crime control. Cf. 2581. 2126 2121(b), supra ; 2109 4101-4199B 1977). 305 (warrant required interstate commerce health workplace); Seattle, 541, 1737, 943 (1967) warehouse municipal fire code violations); residence violations). today cast doubt roadside truck weigh-stations checkpoints, others. expressly recognized (1975): "Our takes account special Patrol, area, character availability unsupported regulate use, activities inquiry entitled, virtue usage, Our imply agencies conduct regarding drivers' licenses, weights, matters."

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