Legal Document

442 U.S. 228 99 Supreme Court Reporter 2264 60 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 846 Shirley DAVIS, Petitioner,v.Otto E. PASSMAN. Number 78-5072. Argued Feb. 27, 1979. Decided June 5, Syllabus Petitioner brought suit in Federal District alleging that respondent, who was a Congressman at the time this case commenced, had discriminated against petitioner on basis of her sex, violation Fifth Amendment, by terminating employment as deputy administrative assistant. sought damages form backpay, and jurisdiction founded provisions 28 Code KF62 § 1331(a) confer original federal district courts all civil actions wherein matter controversy exceeds sum or value $10,000 arises under Constitution. The ruled no private right action, Appeals ultimately held "no action may be implied from Due Process Clause fifth amendment." Held: A cause remedy can directly Constitution when Amendment is violated. Cf. Bivens versus Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 91 1999, 29 619; Butz Economou, 438 478. Pp. 233-249. (a) equal protection component Amendment's confers constitutional to free gender discrimination does not serve important governmental objectives substantially related achievement such objectives. Pacific KF135 P2 234-235. (b) term "cause action," used case, refers whether plaintiff member class litigants may, law, appropriately invoke power court. Since rests claim claiming rights have been violated she has effective means other than judiciary vindicate these rights, an appropriate party Court's general federal-question seek relief, therefore Amendment. erred using criteria Cort Ash, 422 66, 95 2080, 45 26, conclude lacked since question enforce statutory fundamentally different protected 236-244. (c) should able redress injury if prevail merits. appropriate, it "remedial mechanism normally available courts," Bivens, supra, U.S., 397, S.Ct., 2005, would judicially manageable without difficult questions valuation causation, there are alternative forms relief. Moreover, respondent's shielded Speech Debate Clause, principle legislators ought generally bound law ordinary persons applies. And explicit congressional declaration persons" petitioner's position injured unconstitutional "may recover money from" those responsible for injury. Ibid. To afford mean will deluged with claims, feared. current limitations upon functioning arising budgetary inadequacies permitted stand way recognition otherwise sound principles. 2276-2278. 571 Reporter, 2nd 793, reversed remanded. Sana KF105 F3 Shtasel, Washington, D. C., pro hac vice special leave Court, petitioner. Atlantic Richard Gear, Monroe, La., respondent. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 619 (1971), damages" Fourth issue presented decision also Circuit, en banc, concluded thus implied. 801 (1978). We granted certiorari, 439 925, 308, 58 318 (1978), we now reverse. 2 * At respondent Otto Passman Congressional Louisiana.1 On February 1, 1974, hired Davis assistant.2 subsequently terminated employment, July 31, writing that, although "able, energetic very hard worker," he "that essential understudy my Administrative Assistant man."3 App. 6. 3 Western Louisiana, Passman's conduct "on sex thereto." Id., 4. backpay. 5.4 Jurisdiction 1331(a), which provides pertinent part "district shall . States. ." moved dismiss Davis' failure state relief granted, Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 12(b)(6), arguing, inter alia, "the affords action" claim.5 8. accepted argument, ruling action." 9.6 panel Circuit reversed. 544 865 (1977). arose Amendment; taking true allegations complaint, Constitution, Article I, 6, cl. 1.7 4 sitting panel. banc court did reach merits, nor discuss application Clause. instead F.2d, 801. reached conclusion set out 26 (1975), determining statute.8 Noting Congress failed create position, proposed damage constitutionally compelled" so necessary "countermand clearly discernible Congress" remedy. 800. II 5 In agents allegedly arrested searched probable cause, thereby subjecting him great humiliation, embarrassment, mental suffering. guarantee "unreasonable searches seizures" could through redress. Updated: January Term, 478, 98 2894, 57 895 reaffirmed holding, stating established citizen suffering compensable interest obtain award monetary official." 504, 2910. 6 Today hold require reversal holding Appeals. Our inquiry proceeds three stages. first pretermitting asserts right; second, stated third, constitutes 7 "[n]o person deprived life, liberty, property, due process numerous decisions, "has forbids Government deny laws. g., Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 426 88, 100, 96 1895, 1903, 48 495 (1976); Buckley Valeo, 424 93, 612, 670, 46 659 Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 638 n. 2, 1225, 1228, 43 514 (1975); Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 500, 74 693, 694, L.Ed. 884 (1954)." Vance Bradley, 440 939, 942, 59 171 (1979). "To withstand scrutiny 'classifications must objectives.' Craig Boren, 429 190, 197, 97 451, 456, 50 397 (1976)."9 Califano Webster, 430 313, 316-317, 1192, 1194, 51 360 right10 cannot meet requirements.11 inquire next assert right. B 8 It clear consider claim. Bell Hood, 327 678, 66 773, 90 939 (1946). equally clear, held, illegal discrimination.12 Yet because action. meaning missing however, far apparent. 9 Almost half century ago, Cardozo recognized " 'cause action' one thing purpose something another." Memphis Cotton Oil Co., 288 62, 67-68, 53 278, 280, 77 (1933).13 phrase apparently became legal art New York Procedure 1848 abolished distinction between suits equity simply required include his complaint "[a] statement facts constituting ."14 N.Y.Laws, ch. 379, 120(2). By third 20th century, become encrusted doctrinal complexity authors Rules Civil eschewed altogether, requiring only contain "a short plain showing pleader entitled relief." 8(a). See Original Ballet Russe, Limited Theatre, Inc., 133 187, 189 (CA2 1943). Nevertheless, commentators continued use traditional sense Codes refer roughly alleged invasion "recognized rights" litigant bases relief.15 Larson Domestic & Foreign Commerce Corp., 337 682, 69 1457, 1463, 93 1628 (1949). 10 This below refused imply acknowledged discrimination.16 Instead appropriated many cases parsed enactments determine obligations created enforced particular "class litigants." Cannon University Chicago, 441 667, 688, 1946, 1953, 560 Securities Investor Protection Corporation Barbour, 421 412, 1733, 44 263 example, "Congress' primary creating SIPC investors," investors were intended beneficiaries [Securities Protection] Act [of 1970]," 84 Statutes-at-Large 1636, 15 78aaa et seq., nevertheless compel "to commit its funds act protection" investors. 418, 421, 1737. Exchange Commission enabling judicial authority perform obligations. hand, Texas N. O. R. company Railway Steamship Clerks, 281 548, 427, 1034 (1930), Labor 1926, 577, 152, railroad employees designate representatives "without interference, influence, coercion," "merely abstract right," but enforceable action.17 558, 567-568, 429, 432-43. 11 these, legislatively If courts, said statute, element "claim." So understood, analytically distinct prior what any, receive. concept employed specifically obligations.18 ascertaining statute expressly providing one." 78, 2088.19 error, 12 Statutory Congress, entirely obligations, addition, them manner. For often embedded complex regulatory schemes, they causes mechanisms, criminal prosecutions, see public actions. supra; National Railroad Passenger Assn. Passengers, 414 453, 457, 94 690, 692-693, 38 646 (1974). each nature legislative intent informing specific discerned. 13 "partake prolixity code." McCulloch Maryland, 17 316, 407, Wheat. 579 (1819). speaks majestic simplicity. One "its objects," ibid., designation rights. outlines," enforced. As James Madison Bill Rights Congress: 14 "If [these rights] incorporated into independent tribunals justice themselves peculiar manner guardians rights; impenetrable bulwark every assumption Legislative Executive; naturally led resist encroachment stipulated rights." Annals Cong. (1789). least absence textually demonstrable commitment [an] coordinate political department," Baker Carr, 369 186, 217, 82 691, 710, 663 (1962), presume justiciable courts. And, unless merely precatory, allege their own violated, same existing "The essence liberty," wrote Chief Marshall Marbury Madison, 137, 163, Cranch (1803), "certainly consists individual laws, whenever receives duties government protection." Traditionally, therefore, "it practice sustain injunctions protect safeguarded restrain officers doing 14th State do." 684, 777. 400, 2006 (Harlan, J., concurring judgment). Indeed, already settled favor right.20 plaintiffs (1954), claimed admission certain schools Columbia solely account race. They rested 1331. dismissed granted." 12(b)(6). Plaintiffs parties bring suit, equitable made available. 349 294, 75 753, 1083 (1955). 16 Like She claims rights.21 conclude, Amendment.22 Although might Rule 12(b)(6) determined proceed Contract 18 approach law. "[I]t well where invaded, sue invasion, any make good wrong done." 396, holds circumstances provide factors counselling hesitation affirmative Congress." 2909. 19 First, surely case. "Historically, regarded personal interests liberty." 395, 2004. Relief manageable, presents focused remedial causation. 409, 2011 Litigation Title VII 1964 given experience evaluating backpay discrimination. 42 2000e-5(g). Moreover longer Congressman, reinstatement unavailing. Davis, nothing."23 410, Second, putatively taken course official raise concerns counseling hesitation, coextensive protections afforded Clause.24 11, supra. apply "legislators [the law] persons." Gravel States, 408 606, 615, 92 2614, 2622, 33 583 (1972). Doe McMillan, 412 306, 320, 2018, 2028, 36 912 (1973). Economou last Term: 20 "Our system jurisprudence individuals, whatever government, subject law: 21 'No man country high above No officer defiance impunity. All highest lowest, creatures obey it.' Lee, 106 [196,] 220, 240, 260, 27 [(1882)]." 506, 2910-2911.25 22 Third, 2005. (Emphasis supplied.) interpreted 717 1964, 86 111, 2000e-16, prohibition remedies position. When added discrimination, extend competitive service.26 2000e-16(a). There evidence, meant foreclose covered statute. Such silence perceived Appeals' permits patently inconsistent (1976), challenge constitutionality Service regulations excluding aliens employment. That prohibit alienage27 prevent authorizing similar manner, do interpret unprotected contrary, leaves undisturbed possess. Finally, appeared concerned petitioner, danger existed "of deluging .." perceive potential deluge. virtue 1983, injuries occur color seeking demonstrate tort redressed damages. Wheeldin Wheeler, 373 647, 83 1441, 605 (1963). course, remedies, need obviated. But perhaps most fundamental answer expressed provided Harlan Bivens: 23 "Judicial resources, N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions am aware, increasingly scarce days. Nonetheless, automatically close courthouse door basis, implicitly express judgment comparative importance classes legally interests. principles." 411, 2012. 24 damages, courts." III 25 today consider, Accordingly, question. merits complaint. remanded further proceedings consistent opinion. ordered. BURGER, whom POWELL REHNQUIST join, dissenting. dissent because, me, grave separation powers, rather issues, two common roots. could, Bivens-type staff employees—and employees—but done so. historically treated differently arrangements employees. Historically, staffs Members considered intimately policymaking being selected, compensated, tenured others Government. vulnerability derives hazards elections imperative loyalty, confidentiality, compatibility—not party, institution, administration, Member. 30 Member expect give total loyalty positions Member, support. occasion, lead employ racial, ethnic, religious, thought acceptable constituency represented, even though branches Government—or sector selection prohibited. decide filled Catholic Presbyterian Mormon, Mexican-American Oriental-American—or woman man. Presidents consciously select—and dispense with—their appointees beginning Republic. commission Presidential appointee defines tenure "during pleasure President." 31 altered ancient "spoils system" Executive Branch prescribed standards some limited segments Judicial Branch, allowed Members, Presidents, Judges select limit restraint—in practical effect pleasure" 32 level Government—staff assistants long-accepted concepts powers dictate, until legislates staffs, area circumscribed. encroaches barrier. Sinking-Fund Cases, 700, 718, 496 (1879). relation constituents, performance defined functions, House Senate occupies comparable President Branch; purposes selecting uninhibited except itself, otherwise. 34 intimation still House, command him, pain contempt, re-employ represents astonishing break separate, coequal branches; categorically reject notion Congress. 35 STEWART, joins, Few concerning plaintiff's more basic states present involves preliminary completely dispositive, for, recognizes, [Speech Debate] shields absolute immunity 'not consequences litigation's results burden defending themselves.' Dombrowski Eastland, 387 82, 85 [, 87 1425, 1427, 577] (1967)." Ante, 236 11. Eastland Servicemen's Fund, 491, 503, 1813, 1821, 324. 37 If, within end regardless existence seems me addressed litigation claim—a frivolous. vacate remand directions issue.* 39 POWELL, 40 join Justice, write separately emphasize justifies today's intrusion legitimate 41 analysis starts proposition [constitutional] enforced," ante, 241. leaps generalization, unexceptionable individuals suffered interest, lack "effective" alternative, "must 242 (emphasis supplied). Apart dubious logic reasoning, know precedent supports judiciary's obligation entertain authorized. exercise principled discretion called infer language reasons summarized principles comity stay hand. sure, clear—at (1971)—that inferred Constitution.1 responsibility discretion, weighing relevant concerns. observed addressing point, "take [a range policy considerations] broad legislature respect authorization remedy." 2010. Among policies certainly deciding toward branch government.2 Waite over ago: "One encroach domain another danger. safety our institutions depends small degree strict observance salutary rule." Even exclusive, properly accept dispute, continues force policy. Nixon, 418 683, 3090, 1039 (1974), hand privilege conversations advisers resolved judiciary, separation-of-powers considerations qualified privilege. Whether decisions falls scope today,3 up duties. observes, 249, necessarily relies heavily discharging office. Because office, rely extraordinary extent compatibility everyone works him. Elrod Burns, 427 347, 377-388, 2673, 2691-2696, 49 547 (1976) (Powell, dissenting). effectively, constituents properly, supported confidence. foregoing seem self-evident indicated intention reserve select, employ, promote, discharge personnel interference. unmistakably view subject. took pains exempt itself coverage VII. Unless abandoning modifying sub silentio Brown GSA, 425 820, 1961, 402 VII, amended, "provides exclusive employment," id., 835, 1969, exemption bar sum, discretion. avoids take ponder enacted. fails weigh ignores doctrine powers. view, serious choose control justified.4 47 affirm defeated 1976 election, office ended 3, 1977. avers "salary $18,000.00 per year expectation promotion defendant's assistant salary $32,000.00 imminent retirement assistant." service. 92. full text letter follows: Dear Mrs. Davis: My Washington joins saying miss you much. But, probability, inwardly agree injustice asking assume trying your work. fair you, please note following: You able, worker. Certainly work; unusually heavy work load Office, diversity job, believe conclusion. unfair ask waste talent Monroe low junior Therefore, advantage organization extremely capable secretary, desire payroll 1974. arrangement gives year's vacation month, plus additional month. May say limited, come salary, actually offense you. secretaries ability much demand Monroe. recommendation advantageous hesitate let know. Again, assuring humble feel contribution helped us. With best wishes, Sincerely, /s/ OTTO PASSMAN 6-7. reinstatement, increase. 4-5. argued "not violative Constitution," barred "by reason sovereign doctrine." doctrines immunity" justify dismissal grounds defendant Constitution." 9. individually, trial defense immunity. Ash are: "First, 'one whose especial benefit enacted,' Rigsby, 241 33, 39, 482, 484, 874 (1916) supplied)—that is, plaintiff? indication intent, implicit, either one? See, e. 458, 460, (1974) (Amtrak ). underlying scheme Amtrak, 423, 1740, Calhoon Harvey, 379 134, 292, 190 (1964). finally, traditionally relegated basically concern inappropriate based law? 652, 1445, (1963); cf. Judge I. Case Borak, 377 426, 434, 1555, 1560, 423 (1964); 394-395, 2003-2004, (1971); judgment)." 2088. difficulty applying eventually concluded, (1) amendment here infringe as" 797; (2) "[c]ongressional legislation carefully avoided position," 798; (3) unlike violations breadth indicates manageable," 799; (4) implying redressable Before Amendnent undertaken "important objectives," served gender-based staff. 21, infra. views outcome inquiry. personal; after all, suffer effects 677, 690-693 13, 1954-1955 (1979); Monongahela Navigation 148 312, 326, 622, 626, 463 (1893). Respondent argues nonjusticiable review involve "lack government." (1962). disagree. While acknowledge gravity concerns, 1. Senators Representatives, "for questioned Place." protects Congressmen "within 'sphere activity.' 501, 1820, 324 (1975). integrity insuring independence legislators." Brewster, 507, 2531, 2535, 507 Thus "[i]n American structure clause serves function reinforcing deliberately Founders." Johnson, 383 169, 178, 749, 754, 681 (1966). paradigm example department." 710. raised would, Powell McCormack, 395 486, 548-549, 89 1944, 1978, 491 (1969), "require interpretation determination role accorded 'lack [a] government,' 'initial kind non-judicial discretion.' 710." decision, intimate note, themselves." 85, 577 (1967). Defenses ordinarily priority, exempted fact decline before decided These us imposing litigative burdens. Refusal increase restraints enough embrace hiring dismissing suffice transform "[P]ower, once disappear like magic gift wrongfully used." 392, 2002. Home Tel. Los Angeles, 227 287-289, 314-315, 510 (1913). Dickinson, 331 745, 748, 67 1382, 1384, 1789 (1947); Arnold, "Cause Action" Clarified A.B.A.J. 215 (1933). Clark, Cause Action, Yale L.J. 817, 820 (1924); Blume, Scope Mich.L.Rev. 257 (1943). Employing Plasterers Assn., 452, 618 (1954); 2A Moore, Practice ¶ 8.13, Pages 1704-1705 (2d ed. 1975) ("Perhaps accurate say, said, 'it pleadings action.' substituted 'claim' 'claim relief' lieu older troublesome action,' pleading show 'that relief.' indicate grievance sufficient detail defendant, court, idea complaining, recovery") (footnotes omitted). was, exact Codes. Parctice 2.06, Page 359 1978); Pomeroy, Remedies 459-466 (4th 1904); Wheaton, Action": Its Definition, Cornell L.Q. (1936); supra 14, 837. found supplied 1983. Chapman Houston Welfare Org., 600, 1905, 508 (1979), Term 1983 ensure [has] "does substantive all." 617, 618, 1916. Section deprivations "under ordinance, regulation, custom, usage, Territory," Clerks understood having phrase. 13. power, laws hear Mansfield, C. L. M. Swan, 111 384, 510, 512, 462 (1884); Montana-Dakota Utilities Northwestern Public Serv. 341 246, 71 692, (1951); standing sufficiently adversary controversy, overcome prudential federal-court jurisdiction, Warth Seldin, 490, 498, 2197, 2204, 343 court; various as, sues declaratory injunctive fulfill "preconditions" remedies. Trainor Hernandez, 431 440-443, 1911, 1916-1917, 52 486 confuse asserted proper 465 696, right, 797-798, inflicted unreasonable search Webster offended fourth 797. injury, "alleged stake assure concrete adverseness sharpens presentation issues largely illumination questions." 204, 703. Duke Power Carolina Environmental Study Group, 59, 72, 2620, 2630, 595 out, suit. true, shown "personally actual threatened result defendant." Gladstone Realtors Village Bellwood, 91, 99, 1601, 1608, quality issue. focus asserts. 8, Jacobs 290 54 78 142 (1933), property just compensation XLIII Representatives prohibits Official Conduct House: "A officer, employee refuse hire individual, discriminate compensation, terms, conditions, privileges individual's race, color, religion, national origin." adopted 1975 121 Cong.Rec. 22, approximately six months discharge. 1977, Review ("Obey Commission") termed anti-discrimination unenforceable." Review, Recommendations Rationales Concerning Units Work Management, 95th Cong., 1st Sess., (Comm.Print 1977). recommended establishment Fair Employment Practices Panel non-binding conciliation H.Res. 766, 504 (1977); 52-53. proposal prevented reaching floor, governed consideration Obey Commission's resolution. 123 33435-33444 (Oct. 12, September 25, 1380 introduced calling implementation creation Relations Board, procedures hearing settling complaints 1380, referred Committees Administration Rules, languished. 124 31334 (Sept. 1978). adjournment. presently exists voluntary Agreement. signed Agreement elect Committee, investigate among participating Members. Committee enforcement Five Courts Apton Wilson, 165 U.S.App.D.C. 506 (1974); Sullivan Murphy, 156 28, 478 938 (1973); ex rel. Moore Koelzer, 457 892 (CA3 1972); Loe Armistead, 582 1291 (CA4 1978), cert. pending nom. Moffit Loe, 78-1260; Marine Lines, Incorporated Shultz, 498 1146 1974); Green Carlson, 581 669 (CA7 pending, 78-1261; Jacobson Tahoe Regional Planning Agency, 566 1353 (CA9 1977), affirmed Lake Country Estates, 391, 1171, 401 Bennett Campbell, 564 329 dispute Louisiana law." Brief 19. Clearing 23,548 (Aug. conduct, grounded Tarble's Case, 80 Wall. 597 (1872). Deference state-court adjudication event federalism, particularly forum awarded. reasoning appropriateness consequently foreclosed "from asserting officials. Wood Strickland, 992, 214 Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 1683, (1974)." 865, 881 issue, accordingly disposition service, her. guaranteed "race, fully briefed court's why it. wider latitude interpreting construing greater derived it, definition 2010 exists, variety rooted Juidice Vail, 327, 1211, 376 Huffman Pursue, Ltd., 592, 1200, 482 Younger Harris, 37, 746, Alabama Southern 341, 762, 1002 Douglas City Jeannette, 319 157, 63 877, 1324 (1943); Burford 315, 1098, 1424 Pullman 312 496, 61 643, 971 (1941); Hawks Hamill, 52, 610 arisen context Concerns govern dealings play asked interfere suggests embodies principle, prerogatives 246. assertion marks striking departure precedent, non sequitur. checks balances; check negate others. quite doubtful threshold applies, includes harassment litigation. chooses claim, addresses cause-of-action accordingly. so, propriety issues. justification duty rights—a disputes. never blind regard surprising unwarranted reassert balance branches. reaction limiting conceivably frustrate vindication

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