Legal Document

483 U.S. 522 107 S.Ct. 2971 97 L.Ed.2d 427 SAN FRANCISCO ARTS & ATHLETICS, INC. and Thomas F. Waddell, Petitionersv.UNITED STATES OLYMPIC COMMITTEE International Olympic Committee. No. 86-270. Argued March 24, 1987. Decided June 25, Syllabus Section 110 of the Amateur Sports Act 1978 (Act) grants respondent United States Committee (USOC) right to prohibit certain commercial promotional uses word "Olympic" various symbols. Petitioner San Francisco Arts Athletics, Inc. (SFAA), a nonprofit California corporation, promoted "Gay Games" be held in 1982 by using those words on its letterheads mailings, local newspapers, merchandise sold cover costs planned Games. The USOC informed SFAA existence requested that it terminate use description When failed do so, brought suit Federal District Court for injunctive relief. court granted summary judgment permanent injunction. Appeals affirmed, holding exclusive without requiring prove unauthorized was confusing regard defenses available an entity sued trademark violation under Lanham Act. also found USOC's property associated symbols slogans can protected violating First Amendment. did not reach SFAA's claim enforcement rights discriminatory equal protection component Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment, because is governmental actor which Constitution applies. Held: 1. There no merit contention § nothing more than precludes others only when tends cause confusion. Nor there any argument 110's reference remedies should read as incorporating traditional well. language legislative history indicate Congress intended grant whether confusion, does incorporate Pp. 528-530. 2. Also generic constitutionally cannot gain Act, Amendment prohibits from granting word. acquires value result organization expenditure labor, skill, money entity, may obtain limited reasonably could conclude product talents energy, end much time, effort, expense. In view origins associations "Olympic," Congress' decision falls within scope law protections, thus constitutional bounds. 532-535. 3. authorized user likely claims convey political statement about status homosexuals society, suppress such speech. However, prohibiting one particular purposes, neither nor has prohibited conveying message. restrictions expressive speech are properly characterized incidental primary congressional purpose encouraging rewarding activities. broad public interest promoting, through activities, participation amateur athletes Even though exceed owner circumstances, Act's application broader necessary protect legitimate interests therefore violate find other entities promote athletic event would directly impinge use. mere fact expressive, opposed purely commercial, give appropriate efforts have given 535-541. 4. enforced manner fails, whom corporate charter render Government agent. Moreover, intent help funding change analysis. perform functions traditionally prerogative Government. choice how enforce simply decision. 542-547. 781 F.2d 733 789 1319 (9th Cir.1986), affirmed. POWELL, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, STEVENS, SCALIA, JJ., joined, Parts I, II, III BLACKMUN O'CONNOR, joined. filed concurring part dissenting part, BLACKMUN, post, p. ----. BRENNAN, opinion, MARSHALL, Mary C. Dunlap, Francisco, Cal., petitioners. John G. Kester, Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice POWELL Court. 1 this case, we consider constitutionality provision 1978, 36 U.S.C. §§ 371-396, authorizes "Olympic." 2 * corporation.1 originally sought name "Golden Gate Association," but told Department Corporations appear title. App. 95. After incorporation 1981, nevertheless began Games," mailings newspapers. Ibid. games were 9-day begin August 1982, California. expected hundreds cities country all over world. Id., at 402. Games open with ceremony "which will rival Games." 354. See id., 402, 406, 425. A relay 2,000 runners carry torch New York City across Kezar Stadium Francisco. 98, 355, 357, 432. final runner enter stadium Torch" light Flame." 357. continue marching uniform into behind their respective city flags. 354, 404, 414. Competition occur 18 different contests, winners receiving gold, silver, bronze medals. 354-355, 359, 407, 410. To cost Games, T-shirts, buttons, bumper stickers, bearing title 67, 94, 107, 113-114, 167, 360, 362, 427-428.2 3 (Act), 92 Stat. 3048, 380, (USOC)3 symbols.4 late December executive director wrote SFAA, informing requesting immediately first agreed substitute "Athletic" but, month later, resumed term. became aware still advertising newspaper article May 1982. August, Northern enjoin temporary restraining order then preliminary Ninth Circuit further proceedings, 4 affirmed (1986). It 60 427, amended, 15 1051 et seq. manner, state bound constraints Constitution. "property righ[t] [in 'Olympic' slogans] Amendment." F.2d, 737. denied petition rehearing en banc. Three judges dissented, finding panel's interpretation raised serious issues. 1319, 1326 5 We certiorari, 479 913, 312, 93 286 (1986), review issues statutory decided Appeals. now affirm. II 6 contends erred interpreting anything normal "[T]he 'starting point every case involving construction statute itself.' " Kelly v. Robinson, 36, 43, 353, 216 (1986) (quoting Blue Chip Stamps Manor Drug Stores, 421 723, 756, 95 1917, 1935, 44 539 (1975) (POWELL, concurring)). provides: 7 "Without consent [USOC], person who trade, induce sale goods or services, theatrical exhibition, performance, competition— 8 9 "(4) 'Olympic', 'Olympiad', 'Citius Altius Fortius', combination simulation thereof tending mistake, deceive, falsely suggest connection [USOC] activity; 10 "shall subject civil action provided [Lanham] Act." 380(a). 11 argues clause "tending confusion" apply But comma after "thereof," natural reading section modifies "any thereof." Nevertheless, conclusive. examine section. 12 Before passed punishable criminally. relevant statute, force since 1950, require confusing. Instead, made crime for: 13 . [the USOC] competition advertisement whatsoever attendance business charitable Fortius' these words." 64 901, 379 (1976 ed.) (emphasis added). 14 House Judiciary drafted ultimately adopted. explained previous "criminal penalty been unworkable requires proof criminal intent." H.R.Rep. 95-1627, (1978) (House Report), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News pp. 7478, 7488. changes "were response letter Patent Trademark Office Commerce," ibid., appended Report. This explained: "Section 110(a)(4) makes actionable thereof, confusingly similar derivation activity. 16 carries forward some prohibitions existing enacted 1950 adds new prohibitions, e.g. described (a)(4) deceive respect activity." 38 17 demonstrates provide control 1115(b).5 ignores clear Also, shorthand replaced earlier draft's specific list typically infringement, e.g., relief, recovery profits, damages, costs, attorney's fees. 34, 35, 1116, 1117. contained defenses. 124 Cong.Rec. 12865, 12866 (proposed 110(c)). already 378-382. Under interpretation, largely superfluous. sum, clearly 19 recognized "[n]ational trademarks desirable foster maintenance quality securing producer benefits good reputation." Park 'N Fly, Dollar Inc., 469 189, 198, 105 658, 663, 83 582 (1985). seq., established system protecting trademarks. 45 defines word, name, symbol, device adopted used manufacturer merchant identify distinguish his goods, including unique product, manufactured others." 1127 (1982 ed., Supp. III). 32 "likely deceive." 1114(1)(a). 33 several alleged infringer. 1115. 20 differs two respects: need contested defenses.6 argues, effect, differences between dimension. First, generic7 prohibition required Second, absent requirement address contentions turn. 21 always fungible, suppression "run[s] substantial risk suppressing ideas process." Cohen California, 403 15, 26, 91 1780, 1788, 29 284 (1971). principle views generic.8 Yet recognition balanced against "as money" News Service Associated Press, 248 215, 239, 39 68, 72, 63 L.Ed. 211 (1918). Trade-Mark Cases, 100 (10 Otto) 82, 92, 25 550 (1879). 22 decide ever private "own expense." Zacchini Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co., 433 562, 575, 2849, 2857, 53 965 (1977). USOC, together (IOC), least 1896, modern began. 348. Baron Pierre de Coubertin France, acting pursuant government commission, proposed revival ancient international understanding. D. Chester, Handbook (1975). De "spirit" had corrupted influence politics. M. Finley H. Pleket, Games: Thousand Years (1976).9 formed IOC, elaborate rules procedures conduct Olympics. Charter, Rules 26-69 addition, direct national committee flag, flame, motto Bye-laws 53.10 IOC olympic sole authority represent Games.11 Pursuant authority, extensively fulfill object Charter "ensur[ing] development safeguarding Movement sport." Rule 24. 23 meritlessness plucked out English vocabulary USOC. acquired what known secondary meaning—it "has become distinctive USOC's] commerce." 2(f), 1052(f). U.S., 194, S.Ct., 661. adopt "to [of] whose mark is, exclusion persons, long recognized." supra, Otto), 92. Because distinguished own efforts, certainly B 24 acted concluded confuse public.12 extent applies "for trade [or] services," 380(a), Commercial "receives form protection." Posadas Puerto Rico Assoc. Tourism Company Rico, 478 328, 340, 106 2968, 2976, 266 (1986); Central Hudson Gas Electric Corp. Public Comm'n York, 447 557, 562-563, 2343, 2349-2350, 65 341 (1980). allows promotion events. Although many speech, go beyond "strictly business" context. Friedman Rogers, 440 1, 11, 99 887, 895, 59 (1979). society.13 Thus, suppresses By format names I" II" 1986, respectively. n. 2, supra. restricts "Olympic."14 activities.15 inquiry freedoms greater interest. O'Brien, 391 367, 377, 88 1673, 1679, 672 (1968).16 26 One reason trademarks, ensure receives benefit so incentive produce "quality product," that, turn, public. J. McCarthy, Trademarks Unfair 2:1, 44-47 (1984). special circumstance activities "the great four-yearly sport festival, goal 24(B), movement, aims: physical moral qualities basis sport"; educate young people spirit better understanding each friendship, thereby helping build peaceful world"; spread principles throughout world, creating goodwill." (aims IOC). promoting include purposes well specifically enumerated charter.17 advances supplying means raise support Olympics encourages ensuring receive efforts. 27 determined interests. primarily services. protects uses, respecting limited. most determine even if confusing, harm lessening distinctiveness marks. Schechter, Rational Basis Protection, 40 Harv.L.Rev. 813, 825 (1927) (one injury gradual whittling away dispersion identity hold upon mind name" nonconfusing uses). 28 sell items, emblazoned possibility confusion sponsorship obvious. exploit "commercial magnetism," see Mishawaka Rubber Woolen Mfg. Co. S.S. Kresge 316 203, 205, 62 1022, 1024, 86 1381 (1942), question undercut use, future, word's comes Such adverse effect contrary extends goods. 110, relates event. created excellent example. take place period locations around They relay, parade uniformed both sexes divided city, "Olympic anthem" Committee," award medals, advertised logo three overlapping rings. All features parallel modern-day Olympics, occurred Greece.18 image invoke exactly carefully cultivated divorced it. "appropriat[e] itself harvest sown." 239-240, 72.19 events core right.20 IV 30 Amendment.21 fundamental apply.22 "private corporationestablished law." 1101(46).23 charter, 371, imposed requirements USOC,24 symbols, grants.25 31 corporations act charters government, usually State. lose essentially character. extensive regulation transform actions regulated government. Jackson Metropolitan Edison 419 345, 449, 42 477 (1974). dispositive. enforceable act, common law. owners remain private. subsidize assuming responsibility actions. Blum Yaretsky, 457 991, 1011, 102 2777, 2789, 73 534 (1982); Rendell-Baker Kohn, 830, 840, 2764, 2770, 418 (1982). challenged performs 'traditionally prerogative' 842, 2772 454; quoted 2777) added Court). Certainly performed serve interest, objects indicate. 17, "[t]hat function serves make acts [governmental] action." 2772. correct disorganization factional disputes seemed plague sports States." Report, 8. Oldfield Athletic Congress, 779 505 (CA9 1985) (citing S.Rep. 95-770, 2-3 (1978)). merely coordinate entities.26 Neither coordination function.27 Most fundamentally, "normally responsible exercised coercive power significant encouragement, either overt covert, must deemed [government]." 1004, 2786; 2771. Flagg Bros., Brooks, 436 149, 166, 98 1729, 1738, 56 185 (1978); 456; Moose Lodge Irvis, 407 163, 173, 1965, 1971, 627 (1972); Adickes S.H. Kress 398 144, 170, 90 1598, 1615, 142 (1970). decision.28 evidence coerced encouraged exercise right. At most, Government, failing supervise rights, said "[m]ere approval acquiescence initiatives" 1004-1005, 2785-2786. enough 164-165, 1737-1738; 456.29 actor, fail.30 V 34 Accordingly, affirm Circuit. 35 ordered. joins, part. 37 I agree Court's "within bounds." Ante, 535. Therefore, join opinion. reasons BRENNAN Part I-B believe joint participants activity provisions reverse Appeals' remand determination petitioners' enforcement. MARSHALL dissenting. wholly fails appreciate congressionally interdependence States, infringes noncommercial here action, substantially overbroad discriminates content. dissent. For independent reasons, constitutes action. important considered actor. exists "a sufficiently close nexus [Government] action" latter fairly treated itself." 351, 453, A. 41 Examination powers bestowed true, course, "fact '[t]hat [governmental]' nature. 544 2772, (1982) added)). definition, might "all businesses providing arguably essential sweep too broadly. Jackson, 455. repeatedly held, however, "when individuals groups endowed State nature, they agencies instrumentalities limitations." Evans Newton, 382 296, 299, 486, 488, 373 (1966) Terry Adams, 345 461, 809, 1152 (1953) (private association elections constitute action); Marsh Alabama, 326 501, 66 276, 265 (1946) (privately owned "company town" actor). particularly "traditionally prerogative" Patently, enable function.1 43 distinctive, function: represents Nation world community. virtue 374 375, our country's representative highly visible influential body. overlooks extraordinary representational placed As grown visibility importance, role taken increasing significance. ideals avowedly nonpolitical, inescapably nationalist. Membership structured according sports, nations.2 selects viewed, group coincidentally team Nation. During debates Representative Michel expressed well: "American same [1980 Olympic] products way life. set life another. spectators, Moscow thought place. So nation us cooperation, individuality, personal freedom virtues allowed exert full games." 31662 (1978). 46 Every aspect pageant, procession costumed uniform, raising flags playing anthems medal ceremony, official tally medals won team, reinforces significance participation. Indeed, perception shortcomings Nation's performance led 1978. President's Commission, "[t]he competing less nations successfully excellence athletics priority." Final Report Commission 1975-1977, ix (1977) (Final Report) 47 Private organizations sometimes participate conferences resplendent billowing unique: stake stem pageantry Recent experience illustrates inherent decisions Union Address January 23, 1980 (a forum, hardly add, reserved matters import), President announced opposition American summer Moscow.3 premised on, financial straits implications foreign policy. Echoing concerns, Representatives resolution expressing participation.4 April 10, 1980, threatened "legal [if] send Moscow."5 Shortly thereafter, stakes forth reports press possible cuts federal aid USOC,6 Games.7 lesson learned before 1980,8 sequence laid bare impact interrelationship definition pursuit 48 representation. current born dissatisfaction competition. unprecedented administrative relating reveals, assumption, ante, 544—545, sector function, indeed never enabling legislation. 49 1975, Ford investigate deteriorating America's recommend solutions. traced problems lack central coordination, "recommend[ed] institution 11-13. 50 enacting gave Commission's recommendation, restructured9 assume "central organization." 8-9 greatly expanded giving "perpetual succession coordinating body competition." 375(a)(1). recognize "national governing body" sport, resolve conflicts arise among multitude sway. 375(a)(5), 382b.10 ability govern related 51 hearing reporting reflect nature mission. 375(b)(2), amend constitution byelaws unless "gives interested prior adoption amendment, opportunity submit written data, views, arguments concerning amendment days date publication notice." Similarly, matter. 391(a). institutionalizes yet another check annually "transmit simultaneously detailed report operations preceding calendar year, complete receipts expenditures comprehensive accomplishments during year." 382a(a). annual "detailed" funds "detailed comprehensive" descriptions programs expects finance coming year. 382a(b), 384(b). 52 obviously fundamentally nursing homes (1982), school (1972), utility Unlike entities, national, administrative, adjudicative, role.11 analogy, then, company town (1946), party (1953). Like inherently responsibilities. Its actions, like theirs, ought limits. Apart second minimum, Burton Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 715, 81 856, (1961), far insinuated position participant 725, 862.12 54 issue refusal restaurant leased space parking facility black customer. analysis later cases termed symbiotic relationship" facility. E.g., Lodge, 175, 1972; Rendell-Baker, 843, relationship "sufficiently [private] 453. 55 exist sufficient Burton, confers variety mutual benefits.13 discussed ----, responsibilities held. conferred resources authorizing seek up $16 million Secretary Commerce, 113(a), affording emblems additional funds, 110. obtained, time history, effective administer competition, program abroad. eye public, international, profound.14 served Honorary flag flies literally figuratively Team. lost athletes: imagine hopeful postponing lucrative professional career explanation, "I can't pass chance Committee"? More observed, display system." 57 importantly, link word-use success Government.15 "irony amounting grave injustice" if, system, free employ Government-created economic leverage 724, 861. petitioners allege. "normal trademark" "exclusive confusion," "incorporat[ing] 530; II-A, infra. discretion enhance fundraising puts 58 [promoting activities] efforts." 538—539 added).16 If petitioner allegation discriminate groups, situation here, "profits earned discrimination contribute to, indispensable elements in, agency." appears closer Burton. While able pursue policy impose nondiscrimination, selective affirmatively otherwise conclude, compels C examination reveals two. concern era passed. prestige single, organization. delegated actors perform—the representation abroad administration sector. my view, adhere meaningfully free, "privatize" perform. privatization automatically release obligations. inextricably intertwined proceedings.17 61 person" "[w]ithout competition."18 construes surpasses standard trademark. interpretation. holds regulates imposes 535-541.19 disagree. face susceptible amount vests unguided approve disapprove others' eliminating unconstitutionally expression. content neutral. justifications infringements flimsy. "manner" effectively construed withstand challenge presented 7, 110(a)(3) perpetuates infringement surplusage, something finds novel expansive authority.20 interpreted overbroad, conduct." Hoffman Estates Flipside, Estates, 455 489, 494, 1186, 1191, 71 362 respects. regulate refuses interpret These safeguards prevent infringing unconstitutional "promotion events," expressive. ----.21 trade" services." difference portion trademark: former affects speech,22 while not.23 Charitable solicitation advocacy SFAA24 consist law, element sheltered Without them, confined realm limitations danger diminished denying 1066. Confusion occurs consumers incorrect mental involved producers. E. Vandenburgh, Law Procedure 5.20, 139 (2d ed. 1968). contrast, example, draw attention similarities consumers. defendant's consumers, range speech.25 67 fair-use defense prevents regulating 1115(b)(4). term, descriptive faith describe users services party." Ibid.26 Again, wide array party, propose transaction. community although main social SFAA. failure 200-201, 664-665, (1985) (noting doctrine assists preventing "unprecedented" creation "an product").27 68 context, good-faith overbroad. Md. Joseph Munson 467 947, 959, 104 2839, 2848, 786 (1984); Schaumburg Citizens Better Environment, 444 620, 632, 826, 833, 69 key limits rule offending applied 1066 1127. similarly qualified. "allows events,"28 "go 'strictly business' context." 535; 540 (statute "even goods").29 necessarily sections statute.30 70 unquestioned gives ideas. sponsors number nonprofit-making events, concerts, film screenings, plays.31 aimed educating society's based sexual orientation, age, sex, nationality. 93-99. conjunction distributes literature describing meaning Gay References deleted injunction, 88-89, 97. belief 833. overbreadth unfettered affords Given large users,32 creates potential "[A] subjecting restraint license, narrow, objective, definite standards guide licensing unconstitutional." Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 394 147, 150-151, 89 935, 938, 162 (1969). Niemtko Maryland, 340 268, 272, 325, 327, 267 (1951). "Proof abuse requisite attack purporting license dissemination ideas." Thornhill 310 88, 97, 736, 741, 84 1093 (1940). discretion, abuse, renders face. 72 concedes "some" involve "[b]y message." 536 regarded place, however. violates message adequate translation. (1971), rejected very notion advanced today considering censorship single four-letter expletive: 74 "[W]e indulge facile assumption forbid running process. governments soon seize convenient guise banning expression unpopular views. discern little opening door results." 1787-1788. 75 deep Western culture. Here, intended, realistic homosexual men women them move mainstream communities. Judge Kozinski observed dissent Appeals, just jacket Strongly Resent Draft" conveyed Cohen's message, "The Best Accomplished Athletes Competition" translation 1321 1986). individual own," translations fully capture sense original.33 communicate 76 apparently wish express sociopolitical messages singles favorable treatment. observes, 542—543, 22, allow competitions youth ("Junior Olympics" "Explorer Olympics") handicapped persons ("Special Olympics"), 374(13), leaving See, Golden Age Opposition 62,426 (Patents Comm'n, 4, 1981) (reprinted 383) (denial senior citizens group); Federation Body Builders, 219 USPQ 353 (DC 1982) body-building). 77 endorse messages, others. scheme unacceptable Amendment.34 "[A]bove else, restrict ideas, matter, content." Police Chicago Mosley, 408 95, 2286, 2290, 212 (1972). Regan Time, 468 641, 648-649, 3262, 3266-3267, 82 487 (1984) (holding publishability photographs "newsworthy educational" content-based Amendment). D 78 proffered sweeping desire subsidy Brief Respondents adequately coextensive restriction 79 absence 110(a)(4), consumer loss mark's distinctiveness.35 record insufficient harm. barren conclusion noncommercial, nonconfusing, nontrademark dilutes weakens Stop Prison Committee, 489 F.Supp. 1112, 1123 (SDNY 1980) (dismissing dilution actual injury). No explanation offered, instance, disclaimer "not USOC]" harms Petitioners 12. "image USOC." 541. inadequately harmed speech.36 80 Language, belongs Government's asserted substantial, limitation 537, 16; 21, 672, (STEVENS, dissenting), citing Otto Roth Universal Foods Corp., 640 1317, 1320 (CCPA (recognizing importance "free language" context).37 crafted monopolization domain. 664-665.38 protection. entitled nonmisleading event, resultant president, Dr. petitioner. I." 473. total 1,300 countries, 179 participated. 475. 1986 approximately 3,400 participating countries. 1990 scheduled Vancouver, B.C. "(1) symbol consisting interlocking rings; "(2) emblem escutcheon having blue chief vertically extending red white bars base rings displayed chief; "(3) trademark, sign, insignia representing with, authorization by, [USOC]; July 5, 1946 (60 427; popularly [Lanham Act] ) [15 seq.]. actually subsection (a)(2) section, words, lawful September shall continuing used, assignor subsections (a)(3) (4) "(b) authorize contributors suppliers insignia, contributions, donated, supplied, furnished of, approved, selected, Pan-American members. "(c) 'United Committee'; (a)(1) section; preexisting (a) section." Specifically, "is may, equitable defenses, laches. 20, 17. service generic. registered 14(c), 1052, 1064(c). 12:1, 520 unique. Violation statutes penalties. 705 (veterans' organizations); 706 (American National Red Cross); 707 (4-H Club); 711 ("Smokey Bear"); 711a ("Woodsy Owl"). FTC A.P.W. Paper 328 193, 932, 1165 (reviewing Cross statute). Others, 18c (Daughters Revolution); (Boy Scouts); (Girl 1086 (Little League Baseball); 3305 III) Theater Academy). 776 until A.D. 393, abolished Roman Emperor Theodosius I. "circuit" sporting festivals. included Pythian Delphi, Nemean Nemea, Isthmian Corinth. festivals grew turned amateurs true professionals, training year gifts home cities. 68-82 (1976); Encyc. Brit. 198 (15th 1984). Paris 1914. background five center. rings, colors blue, yellow, black, green, red, order, "symbolize union continents meeting fair frank ideal preached Coubertin." alone symbol. flame formally lit Olympia auspices IOC. "Citius, Altius, Fortius," "Faster, Higher, Stronger," "expresses aspirations Movement." originated conference amateurism organized 1894 Sorbonne Paris. French delegate, Pere Henri-Martin Didon suggested engraved entrance lycee (school), Albert le Grand. founded motto. Guttmann, Must Go On 13-14 1921, replacing informally received 1950. "deceptive misleading" Virginia Pharmacy Bd. Consumer Council, 425 748, 771, 96 1817, 1830, 346 9-10, 893-894, According offered "very opportunities": "1) healthy recreational alternative suppressed minority. "2) towards reasonable characterization gay women. "3) attempt, athletics, bring positive assimilation women, gays non-gays, diminish ageist, sexist racist divisiveness communities regardless orientation." 93. His expectations persuasions drawn 'serious fun' create climate friendship co-operation[;] false images misconceptions decline participatory [sic ] educational process, ALL communities." 93-94. He term best describe[d] SFAA's] undertaking" embodied concepts "peace, interaction." 99. poster conversion Village Lake Placid, prison. fit 1118-1121 1980). face, questionable. Ohralik Ohio Bar Assn., 447, 462, 1912, Bates Arizona, 350, 2691, 2707, 810 (1977)). infringe significantly rights. bounds, "realistic compromise protections parties Court." Council Los Angeles Taxpayers Vincent, 466 789, 801, 2118, 2126, 772 case. justified government's 566, 2351, Both test O'Brien balance magnitude restriction. facts similar, together. to: establish goals encourage attainment goals; develop productive working relationships sports-related organizations; jurisdiction, constituent members committees, pertaining games, States; delegation body, competent Games; "(5) nations; "(6) fitness activities; "(7) assist concerned athletes; "(8) swift athletes, bodies, organizations, athlete, coach, trainer, manager, administrator, competition; "(9) facilities making "(10) technical information training, equipment design, coaching, analysis; "(11) research, development, areas medicine safety; "(12) assistance women; "(13) individuals, including, where feasible, expansion opportunities meaningful able-bodied individuals; "(14) racial ethnic minorities eliciting underrepresented." 374. lasted days, whereas last days. took southern Greece; normally four years. (As effort reduce nationalism, cities, host Games.) Greece burning fire religious sacrifice, festival. Odes Pindar, 8, 11. 1-9, (R. Lattimore transl., 2d 1976). innovation closest chariot race. chariots entered arena judges, herald called owner, father, city. supra 9, 27. general locality, naked, uniformed. eligible male, freeborn Greeks. indication Committee." awards wreaths wild olive, rather generally Olympics: Book Lists 10-13 (J. Beilenson N. eds. 1984); 8; 197-201 superior corporation gain. distinction inapposite. noted analogous context "fair use" Copyright Act: crux profit/nonprofit motive monetary stands profit exploitation [protected] material paying customary price." Harper Row Publishers, Enterprises, 471 539, 2218, 2231, 85 588 attempt imagery goodwill production closely production, implicate invokes Fourteenth claim. claimed apply. contains component. Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 499, 693, 694, 884 (1954). "This approach precisely Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 638, 1225, 1228, 514 Buckley Valeo, 424 612, 659 (1976) (per curiam ). respondents briefed fully. merits note, compelling. began, oppositions applications cancel. 61. registration Olympics." 383. litigated numerous suits bringing Foundation, 392, shoe company, 395, 443, bus 439. Since companies Dimes Birth Defects 437, 41, 58. sponsor Olympics"). 33, 181. relate charter. 374(7), (13), reprinted 538—539, consented 33. files applications, institutes suits. strongly indicates strictly accord discrimination. such, listed federally Legion, Big Brothers—Big Sisters America, Daughters Revolution, Veterans Foreign Wars Academy Sciences, Ski Patrol System, 1101. viewed actors, consequences reaching. presumably—by analogy—similar types Equal Protection notice hearing, 375(b); membership 376(b); 377; moneys 382a. Commerce yearly million, 384(a), done so. 46. $10 disaster payment" recover losses resulting boycott S. Rep. 96-829, 241 (1980); 94 857, 898. recommended "made want directing country." 7482. rely chartered Post, attempts ground "distinctive, function" "represent[ing] community." control, governmental. sorts representatives" competitions. select group, others, Davis Cup Competition, Cup, Miss Universe Pageant, widely country. representational" "administrative [and] adjudicative role[s]," selecting presenting representatives. acknowledges dissent, "unique [because] politics." relies demonstrating interest." vast majority decisions. confirms agency. indicated necessary" sending Moscow. Papers Presidents, Jimmy Carter 1980-1981, 636 (1981). Previously, Attorney General believed he Emergency Powers 1701 bar travel area pose threat emergency. Washington Apr. A1. directly. confronted noted: chartering officers. Furthermore, type 'de facto ' secret ballot Delegates. voted participate, vote way. persuasion. equate control. usher courts nonjusticiable realm, themselves untenable determining level, intensity, 'Presidential' 'Administrative' 'political' pressure amounts jurisdiction." DeFrantz 492 1181, 1194 (DC), aff'd mem., 226 U.S.App.D.C. 210, 701 221 unconvinced "governmental" fact, provides "must autonomous resist pressures kind whatsoever, political, nature." above, reject "joint participant" 861, (1961). demonstrate Absent "close [USOC]," "fairly argued "state actor" "selecting diverse speech-suppressing invidiously motives." Pet. Cert. i. Shelley Kraemer, 334 836, 1161 (1948), entry injunction motivation seeking theory encompassed questions 21.1(a). 544. (see discussion infra, ----), past implied follows 352-353, 454, expressly circumstances. imprudent, freeze static conception judicial cease resemble contemporary experience. point. discussed, reshaped role—that coordinator competition—which filled. 24(B) ("NOCs [National Committees] authorities countries patronage IOC"), 196 (1981) (Public Papers), 126 380 562-580. comments Ritter debate illuminating: "Moving boycotting strong step direction, seen Americans overall strategy deal intelligently U.S.S.R." 575. "Under principles—and important—athletes nations. compete represented invading subjugating human decency legal Moscow, actions." Dewar Scannell, White Looks Tax Status, A1, A14. Olympian (March (reprinting Carter's capacity "Honorary explains "deeper stake" decision); Paul, Historic Colorado Springs USA (May/June (hereafter decision) (describing meetings officials "Cabinet military leaders" discuss Games). Resolution Delegates 12, stated part: "Resolved, advised security threatened, Summer Moscow." Kane's "[o]f accept country"). ramifications evident 1968, suspended medalists Tommie Smith Carlos troubles America black-gloved fists ceremony. 177 inescapable era. Jesse Owens' dramatic 1936 perceived rebuke Hitler Nazism. 90-94. labeling 1960 Taiwanese "Formosa" China prompted member march protest. 142. And tragic, politically motivated Israeli Team 1972, Arabs, German policeman killed, forever dispelled illusion apart violent vicissitudes 175. Avery Brundage become, pressure." "gave (USOC)," maddening complex unwieldy make-up structure." "was [originally] conceived fill sports. simply, ability, vacuum unmet needs sports." concluded: "It goes saying crucial. recommendations Congressional approval." 130 9-10 (1978), 7483 (summarizing "enlarge[d] [that] permit role"). attributes "69 States," 543, presumed here. mention heavily relies. principally relied today, 357-358, 456-457, (1974); 842-843, 2771-2772, 1010-1011, 2788-2789, "confer[red] benefits." location dining building generate demand service. improvements restaurant's leasehold lead increased taxes fee tax-exempt public's eye. obvious operated integral devoted service," Authority located places [on facility] signs indicating character building, flew mastheads roof flags," 720, 859. perceptions "grave ignore. "ignor[e], especially restaurant's] affirmative Negroes injure business, profits Intelicense 737 263, 264 (CA2) (Section safeguard critical class massive subsidies enjoyed competitors nations"), cert. denied, 982, 387, 321 1120 (footnote omitted) ("[S]ection [110], whole, evidences market licenses shown inducement contributions corporations, drafters (b) mind"). evaluated regarding 733, 736-737 1986); 271. recognizes this, 542, proceeds offer "claim compelling." stage proper forum evaluation 'Olympic ', seq.] )" (emphases extend 536, 14. consistent plain emblems, tradenames Significantly, refers matter separate 6, 37-38, 7479, 7480, 7483, 7488, 7495, 7496. Nowhere hint equated power. selectively incorporates (requirement confusion) 1115 (statutory defenses), 531. "used explain, inconsistency (which uses) (including events). recognized: "You're trouble with. You're talking policies philosophies takes typical trademark-type litigation. [Section liability "Olympic"] U.S.O.C. ". plaintiffs situation. ." 265-266. (1979) (trademark more"). permitted ban 201, 665, (Lanham monopolization" domain). engages solicitation, (1980) (charitable committed "involve[s] interests—communication information, propagation causes—that Amendment"). nonprofit, inform "gay movement" 93, 102. solicited donations distributed posters complaint, 14330 Business Professional Code (1987), holders dilute 7-14. explained, why insufficient. worth noting carried extreme forbidding however remote owner's usage." 24:16, 229 Gilson, Practice 5.05[9], 5-42 Only "strong" statutes, plaintiff's previously diluted 24:14, 224; 150 show similarity "likelihood" 5-42. descriptive, words. note meaning, 11:16, commentator speech: "Virginia [State Board [v. [425 underlying favor branch dealing phrases. followed half century legislatures applying terms monopolized availability, impaired, reduced, advertisers freely products, deprived purchase defendant presumably reliance policies." 5.09[5], 5-88 5-89 (footnotes omitted). Noncommercial reviews performances, anticipatory notices media competitions, distribution Elec. 580, 2358, judgment) (promotional encompasses speech). excised literature, cautioned phone operators refrain representatives articles cultural sponsored 88-92, 94-115. concluding justified, 541, states 536. vagueness suggests dangerously chills instant edition 89. 28, passages precede 110(a)(3). remaining governed 110(a)(4)'s Consistent remedies, descriptive. age-groups mixed genders emphasizes improvement winning, promotes toward ages, sexes, races. 98. 40-41. Manhattan alone, 200 enterprises telephone directories start 1323 1986) (Kozinski, dissenting). James Boyd written: "When look statements equivalence possibilities changing operate ordinary restatable own. definitions, parts closed resources, value, destroy Their resides reducibility irreducibility. gestures, restated." White, Words Lose Meaning harshest debilitating birth defects, CA 83-539 (Colo., 1983), aged, 62,426. Cf. 763, 1826, (1976). litigation, causes statute. caused reputational image. Spence 405, 2727, 842 (1974), integrity 'an unalloyed country,' contended "preserving nationhood unity.' 421, 2735. withdraw roster materials communications." 423, 2736 (REHNQUIST, reviewed forbade exhibition distorted marked. 422, 2728, 2736. appellant convicted displaying upside down window apartment peace attached Eight Members appellant's "There mislead viewers endorsed viewpoint," "his direct, understood, contours 414-415, 2732. "significantly impaired," conviction violated 415, direct. symbolic Spence, Bada Montgomery Ward 426 (CA9) ("[O]ne competitor impoverish commerce fellows goods"), 400 916, 174, 155 "provides secure producers." 663.

Classification Label: 2