Legal Document

343 U.S. 495 72 Supreme Court Reporter 777 96 L.Ed. 1098 JOSEPH BURSTYN, Inc.v.WILSON et al. Number 522. Argued April 24, 1952. Decided May 26, [Syllabus from 496 intentionally omitted] Mr. Ephraim S. London, Clendon or Haw. Hawai‘i Reports KFH45 A2 Lee, Milton Spiero, and Leonard Pacific KF135 P2 Simpson, New York City, for appellant. Charles Atlantic Brind, Jr., Wendell Brown, Albany, N.J., appellees. Justice CLARK delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The issue here is constitutionality, under First Fourteenth Amendments, a statute which permits banning motion picture films on ground that they are 'sacrilegious.' That makes it unlawful 'to exhibit, to sell, lease lend exhibition at any place amusement pay in connection with business state York, film reel (with specified exceptions not relevant here), unless there time full force effect valid license permit therefor education department * *.'1 further provides: 2 'The director (motion picture) division (of department) or, when authorized by regents, officers local office bureau shall cause be promptly examined every submitted them as herein required, such part thereof obscene, indecent, immoral, inhuman, sacrilegious, character its would tend corrupt morals incite crime, therefor. If so authorized, officer submitted, he furnish applicant written report reasons his refusal description each rejected toto.'2 3 Appellant corporation engaged distributing pictures. It owns exclusive rights distribute throughout United States produced Italy entitled Miracle.' On November 30, 1950, after having picture, department, acting quoted above, issued appellant authorizing Miracle,' English subtitles, one trilogy called 'Ways Love.'3 Thereafter, period approximately eight weeks, Love' was exhibited publicly theater City an agreement between owner whereby received stated percentage admission price. 4 During this period, State Board Regents, made head department,4 'hundreds letters, telegrams, post cards, affidavits other communications' both protesting against defending public Miracle.'5 Chancellor Regents requested three members view make entire Board. After viewing film, committee reported basis claim January 19, 1951, directed show cause, hearing held why Miracle' should rescinded ground. appeared hearing, conducted same three-member had previously viewed challenged jurisdiction proceed case. With consent committee, various interested persons organizations briefs exhibits bearing upon merits constitutional statutory questions involved. February 16, determined 'sacrilegious' reason ordered Commissioner Education rescind appellant's exhibit picture. did so. 5 brought present action courts review determination Regents.6 Among claims advanced were (1) violates Amendment prior restraint freedom speech press; (2) invalid violation guaranty separate church prohibition free exercise religion; and, (3) term vague indefinite offend due process. Appellate Division all contentions upheld Regents' determination. 278 App.Div. 253, 104 N.Y.S.2d 740. appeal Appeals, two judges dissenting, affirmed order Division. 303 N.Y. 242, 101 North Eastern Reporter, 2nd Series 665. case appeal. 28 Code KF62 § 1257(2), Annotated KF65 U5 1257(2). 6 As we case, need consider only contention unconstitutional abridgment press. In Mutual Film Corporation versus Industrial Comm. Ohio, 1915, 236 230, 35 387, 59 552, distributor pictures sought enjoin enforcement Ohio required approval board censors before could state, approve adjudged 'of moral, educational, amusing harmless character.' assailed press guaranteed Amendments. District contention, stating first Amendments restriction action. D.C.N.D.Ohio 1914, 215 Federal KF105 F3 138, 141. Court, plaintiff brief abandoned contended merely question violated publication Constitution Ohio. affirming decree denying injunctive relief, stated: 7 'It cannot put out moving business, pure simple, originated profit, like spectacles, regarded, nor intended regarded Constitution, think, country, organs opinion.'7 8 series decisions beginning Gitlow People 1925, 268 652, 45 625, 69 1138, liberty guarantees federal government within safeguarded Due Process Clause invasion action.8 principle has been followed reaffirmed day. Since came decision, squarely us whether ambit protection Amendment, through Fourteenth, secures form 'speech' 'the press.'9 9 doubted significant medium communication ideas. They may affect attitudes behavior variety ways, ranging direct espousal political social doctrine subtle shaping thought characterizes artistic expression.10 importance organ lessened fact designed entertain well inform. said Winters 1948, 333 507, 510, 68 665, 667, 92 840: 10 line informing entertaining too elusive basic right (a press). Everyone familiar instances propaganda fiction. What man's amusement, teaches another's doctrine.' 11 urged do fall Amendment's aegis because their production, distribution, large-scale private profit. We agree. books, newspapers, magazines published sold profit does prevent being expression whose Amendment.11 fail see operation have different 12 possess greater capacity evil, particularly among youth community, than modes expression. Even if accept hypothesis, follow disqualified protection. evil determining permissible scope community control, but authorize substantially unbridled censorship here. 13 For foregoing reasons, conclude means included To extent language Comm., supra, harmony views set forth, no longer adhere it.12 14 hold however, end our problem. requires absolute kind times places. much evident respect media ideas.13 Nor necessarily subject precise rules governing particular method Each tends own peculiar problems. But principles press, command, vary. Those principles, frequently enunciated rule. There justification making exception 15 involved seek punish, past offense, writing falling subsequent punishment. contrary, permission communicate ideas obtained advance officials who judge content words communicated. This recognized many years ago previous infringement especially condemned. Near Minnesota ex rel. Olson, 1931, 283 697, 51 75 1357. recounted history indicates major purpose restraints publication, although carefully pointed limited protection.14 even absolutely unlimited. limitation exceptional cases.' Id., page 716, 631. light heavy burden demonstrate presents 16 York's highest court says 'nothing mysterious' about provision applied case: simply this: religion, word understood ordinary, reasonable person, treated contempt, mockery, scorn ridicule *.'15 far narrow carve satisfy adverse demands interests society.16 seeking apply broad all-inclusive definition given courts, censor adrift boundless sea amid myraid conflicting currents religious views, charts those provided most vocal powerful orthodoxies, vest unlimited restraining control over censor. Cf. Kunz 340 290, 71 312, 328, 95 267, 280.17 Under standard careful tolerant find virtually impossible avoid favoring religion another, inevitable tendency ban unpopular sentiments sacred minority. Application test, these respects, might raise substantial worship all.18 However, standpoint enough point legitimate interest protecting religions distasteful sufficient justify views. nation suppress real imagined attacks doctrine, appear publications, speeches, pictures.19 17 sole attack here, necessary decide, example, clearly drawn showing obscene films. very now us.20 censor's conclusion 18 Reversed. 19 REED, concurring judgment 20 Assuming establish system licensing pictures, foreclosed Court's opinion, duty examine facts determine honored. seem me exclude view. 21 FRANKFURTER, whom JACKSON joins, Court; BURTON, concurred also joins opinion. 22 A practised hand thus summarized story Miracle':1 23 'A poor, simple-minded girl tending herd goats mountainside day, bearded stranger passes. Suddenly strikes her fancy St. Joseph, favorite saint, come take heaven, where she will happy free. While pleads him transport her, gently plies wine, tumult, apparently ravishes her. (This incident briefly discreetly implied.) 24 awakens later, finds gone, climbs down mountain knowing dream. She meets old priest tells quite possible younger scoffs notion. 'Materialist!' says. 25 'There follows sequence—intended symbolic, obviously—in reverently sitting villagers church. Moved whim appetite, snitches apple basket woman next When leaves church, cackling beggar tries share him, chases away habit munches fruit contentedly. 26 'Then, while village youngsters mothers work vines, faints women discover going child. Frightened bewildered, suddenly murmurs, grace God!' runs great excitement, looks th statue then prostrates herself floor. 27 'Thereafter meekly refuses menial housewives humor young people kind. scene brutal torment, flatter laughingly mock cruelly shove hit clamp basin halo head. abused beggars, poor gathers together pitiful rags sadly departs live alone cave. 'When feels coming starts back towards village. sees crowds streets; dark memories haunt her; turns high hill instinctively struggles it, crying desperately God. goat companion. drinks water dripping rock. And comes door locked, attracts small side door. Inside braces labor pains. dissolve, sad face, close-up, tender light. cry unseen baby. reaches 'My son! My love! flesh!" 29 Miracle'—a lasting forty minutes—was Roberto Rosselini. Anna Magnani played lead demented goat-tender. shown Venice Festival August, combined another 'L'Umano Voice,' into diptych 'Amore.' According affidavit Director Festival, 'blasphemous' barred Committee. L'Osservatore Romano, Vatican, critic, Piero Regnoli, wrote: 'Opinions vary arise—even serious ones—of nature (not diminished portrayed mad (because) author attributed madness mad). *'2 acknowledging 'passages undoubted cinematic distinction,' Regnoli criticized 'on pretentiously cerebral plane reminds early d'Annunzio.' Vatican newspaper's critic concluded: 'we continue believe Rosselini's art look forward achievement.'3 October, month Rome premiere Vatican's agency, Catholic Cinematographic Centre, declared 'constitutes abominable profanation moral view-points.'4 By Lateran agreements Italian Government bound bar whatever religion. Centre invoke governmental sanction thereby afforded. Government's agency gave regular nulla osta clearance. freely Italy, success.5 movie critics divided Il Popolo, speaking Christian Democratic Party, party, profusely praised 'a beautiful thing, humanly felt, alive, true without someone said, meaning characters clear possibility misunderstanding.'6 again reviewed O'Osservatore Romano.7 criticising fro technical faults, found courageous interesting passage work' contrasting portrayals film; added: 'Unfortunately, concerning morals, note some slight defects.' He objected 'carnality' representation illegitimate motherhood. suggest tone Regnoli's critique Rosselini, illustrious producer.'8 30 March 2, 1949, licensed subtitles.9 never until second trilogy, Love,' combining French films, Jean Renoir's Day Country' Marcel Pagnol's 'Jofroi.'10 All subtitles. Both liMotion Picture Department. 'issue license' 'unless (the) crime.' Law, 122. opened December 12, Paris Theatre 58th Street Manhattan. attacked sacrilegious blasphemous mockery truth'11 National Legion Decency, organization censorship, objectives intermittently approved non-Catholic groups since formation 1933.12 Review nonindustry lay devoted raising level mobilizing slogan 'Selection Not Censorship')13 recommended 'especially worth seeing.' whole Miracle'; dispraised sacrilege.14 selected best foreign 1950.15 Meanwhile, 23, Edward T. McCaffrey, Licenses city, 'officially personally blasphemous' withdrawn risk suspension operate Theatre.16 week later program restored theatre decision License exceeded authority powers censorship.17 31 Upon failure Commissioner's effort cut off showings controversy took new turn. Sunday, 7, statement His Eminence, Francis Cardinal Spellman, condemning calling 'all thinking citizens' unite tighten laws, read masses Patrick's Cathedral.18 32 Spellman aroused dissent devout Christians. Protestant clergymen, representing denominations, seeing nothing 'sacrilegious immoral men women,' few agreed 'unquestionably unusual merit.'19 33 estimate laymen concurred.20 Their represented comment Otto L. Spaeth, American Federation Arts prominent activities: 34 'At outbreak controversy, & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions immediately arranged film. invited group Catholics, competent respected writings cultural subjects. essential unanimous. indeed 'blasphemy' picture—but blasphemy villagers, stopped nothing, singing hymn Virgin, badgering tragic woman. scathing indictment behavior, implicit seemingly overlooked critics.'21 36 William Clancy, teacher University Notre Dame, wrote Commonweal, well-known weekly, obviously either intention execution.'22 Commonweal itself questioned wisdom transforming Church dogma Catholics obey act' state-enforced all.23 Allen Tate, poet seems superior photography inferior dramatically. long run what succeeded doing insulting intelligence faith assumption second-rate way undermine shake faith.'24 37 At filmed, positions production—producer, director, cast—were Catholics. 1949 filming life Francis, using cast Franciscan Order, cabled boycott Miracle': 38 'In Miracle still pity God, God already faith, confused, persecuted woman; wherever human suffers misunderstood, occurs birth child regains sanity maternal love.'25 39 Chairman appointed Motion granting licenses. Jan. 15, four days licensees licenses cancelled Feb. saying 'mockery profaning beliefs portion citizenship abhorrent laws State.' holding 'that fairly deemed adherents directly related peace order' denial freedom, 'substantial evidence act.' 257, 258, 260, 740, 743, 744—745, 747. 40 others concluding acted 'one mind reach', id., pages 250—255, 256—257, 670—671, majority held, first, adequately definite standard, quoting Funk Wagnalls' Dictionary referring opinions passing used 'profane,' synonym 'sacrilegious'; second, State's assurance selling entertainment pictures' violate guarantee Amendment; third, immunities regulation enjoyed 552. 255 256, 258—260, 260—262, 672—674. dissenting judges, dealing matter law reviewable unconstitutionally vague, finally, equally prevented censorship. 264, 675, 676. 41 Arguments parties amici invite pursue farthest reach problems Positions abstract event properly controversy. See Ashwander Tennessee Valley Authority, 297 288, 341, 346 348, 56 466, 480, 482—483, 80 688. asked decide choosing mutually alternatives: subjected unrestricted must allowed circumstances. tyranny absolutes rely alternatives meet generated accommodate diverse affected compact modern communities. startle Madison Jefferson George Mason, adjust themselves told espoused Bill Rights authorizes windows facing Cathedral forenoon Easter Sunday,26 just theme expression, commercially exhibited. general speech, expressed encroachments Congress, binding States, placed historical legal contexts. recall often, organism, literary composition. 42 Appeals Thomas Aquinas formulated scope, sustained finding broader regarding relation industry reflected Fourteenth. confine technical, Thomist limits, specific, specified, limits. self-defining term, carries well-known, settled common men. 43 So support notion precision enjoins statutes regulating men's activities, relied Dictionary: act violating anything sacred'. defines turning adjective noun bringing undefined. wide open persons, doctrines things 'sacred.' sheds representations screen constitute 'profaning' 44 criticize assail wound quick attached profoundly cherish it. pictorial discussion non-conformists rule sects. terms 'educational, harmless' leave 'decision arbitrary judgment'. Such 'get sense experience men'. 245, 246, 392. thing conflicts shows, 'sacrilegious'—if implied offense deep convictions sects, mean precisely gain 'precision 46 vast apparatus indices digests, mirrors law, affords clue judicial sacrilege. barring present, uncovered considers context. practice contributed Department explanatory statements specific advised public. Of fifty-odd appeals denials Division, concern category 'sacrilegious.'27 cases, Act, Board's confines bare 'sacrilegious,' allegedly offensive matter, enlighten inquirer. Well-equipped libraries niggardly reflection men,' search elsewhere gives 'sacrilege' meaning. 47 Sacrilege,28 restricted ecclesiastical concept, history. Naturally enough, protect priests anointed symbols physical injury.29 demonstrates hopelessly goes beyond definiteness large punishing deviation doctrine. 48 Etymologically church-robbing: sacer, sacred, legere, steal pick out. 'already Cicero's grown include popular insult injury (sacred things).'30 primitive (sacrilege is) inclusive almost offence fields *.'31 concept 'tabu' society close 'sacrilege.'32 Theodosian crimes accounted sacrilege include—apostasy, heresy, schism, Judaism, paganism, attempts immunity churches clergy privileges desecration sacraments, etc., Sunday. Along went treason emperor, offences counterfeiting, defraudation taxes, seizure confiscated property, conduct imperial officers, etc.'33 Middle Ages considerably delimited application term. classified objects places, thing.34 injuries 'SACRILEGE' RECEIVED SPECIFIC AND DETAILED ILLUSTRATION.35 teaching is, believe, official Thus, Roman Church, meaning, one, general, injurious acts.36 Apostasy, coexisted alongside sacrilege; peculiarly realm not. Spelman, History Fate Sacrilege' 1632, acts Deity invaded, profaned, robbed glory. sin blasphemers, sorcerers, witches, enchanters.'37 main 'spoil lands done Henry VIII' misfortunes subsequently befell families recipients former property divine 49 punish 'sacrilege,' meant stealing otherwise damage property.38 special damage, granted Established Church.39 repeal less century little sects accorded non-religious property.40 up known wider property. taken departures accepted opinions, 'offenses' denominated 'sacrilege.' offenses blasphemy, Lord's Day, distinct criminal offenses, characterized Blackstone 'offences religion.'41 These invidious reflections susceptibilities covered Appeals' Anyone doubting dangerous uncertainty definition, overlap 'offenses religion,' Blackstone's account varying offenses. 50 student lexicography despair court.42 Most dictionaries define abuse objects. definitions 1742 1782 typical. Bailey's defined Sacred Things, Robbing; Alienation Laymen, profane Purposes, Persons, pious Uses.'43 Barclay's crime taking dedicated worship, sacred,' profane' uses. irreverent things.'44 'blasphemy,' verbal encompassed Barclay 'an offering indignity person Trinity, messengers holy writ, revelation.'45 hardly limits remain uncertain constraining creative efforts imagination fear pains penalties imposed subjective earlier assigned 'abusing Sacraments Mysteries,'46 more indefinite, less. Noah Webster 1828. Merriam Company, Webster's International Dictionary, gone dozens editions printings, revisions expansions. 125 years, echo narrow, British collected Appendix, 533, 796.47 dictionary 'furnishes definition', justifying surely regard lexicographic fact, straight 18th Century dictionaries, Doctor Johnson's.48 uses historically not, been, reads sense, provide gloss, inevitably left deems 'sacred' assume 'profane' widely arouse protest. 52 Examination successive Encyclopaedia Britannica nearly centuries day help dictionaries. From 1768 eleventh edition 1911, dictionary-type 'sacrilege.'49 edition, article, introduced follows: things, religions. naturally dreadful play part, highly spiritualized disappear. idea exists, possible.50 article current 1911 edition. 53 indefiniteness respect. countries existed established 'sacred,' protected 'profaning,' designated authority. controlling detailed scheme observances becomes impossibly confused hundreds disparate often sacredness, enjoy, discrimination equal measure, constitutionally freedom. late emperors, England James I, Geneva Calvin, today Spain, Mohammedan Saudi Arabia, country monolithic definable America multiplicity 'sacredness' fervor number based fairness. 54 bans below, 'blasphemous.' England's treacherous give pause, apart requirements separation State. Seventeenth dogma.51 King I's 'Book Sports' reading churches; copies consigned flames. mass once blasphemous; perform became during century, shifts attitude Trinity (e.g., Unitarians, Universalists, etc.) divinity Christ, observed Sabbath Saturday, denied witchcraft, repudiated baptism methods sprinkling, charged books burned banned blasphemous. Blasphemy chameleon phrase criticism ruling moment orthodox doctrine.52 prosecutions continued England—although lessening numbers—into century,53 existence contours can possibly country. Moreover, common-law declaration 'if decencies observed, fundamentals attacked.'54 power declare 55 Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 310, 60 900, 906, 84 1213, Roberts, said: belief, sharp differences arise. tenets man rankest error neighbor.' Conduct dear another. examples suffice difficulties conscientious producer condemns sacrilegious. portraying Christ divine—for medieval art—would several denominations non-Christian faith. Conversely, ethical millions Christians denominations. Which 'sacrilegious'? transubstantiation, veneration relics stone wood embodiments saints divinity, Protestants, therefore saacrilegious court. Is treating subject, sympathetically, unsympathetically, neutrally, answer say definite, subjects interpreted offending 300 States55 York. allow undefinable exercised stultifying consequences process literature art—for derived largely literature. encourage reliance moderation safeguard drastic minds know condemnable tell, how governed tell? impossibility explained proscription vague.56 stop short proscribing conceivably religious, creates situation outcry group. fair inference drawn, experience, happening Consequently industry, normally guided artists, cautious putting capital hazards courage, notions feelings likely certainly ones. function enhance culture labored. 57 paraphrase Johnson, licensors approved, power, yea-or-nay-saying officials, permissible. Prohibition convey permitted prohibited want appropriate objective standards, offends ways. First, sufficiently apprise bent obedience reasonably foreseen illicit law-enforcing authority, jury administrative agency. Secondly, rested instance, available rendered inoperative. portmanteau judiciary standards validity involves, least determinations. step last step. compelled stream encrusted specialized, strictly confined pertaining space mind. calculable content. mind, undefined, large, patently disregard requirement definiteness, proscriptions sanctions disobedience, measures condemned violative Cohen Grocery Co., 81, 298, 65 516; baron Small company Sugar Refining 267 233, 295, 589; Connally General Construction 269 385, 126, 70 322; 840; 291, 280. seeks fetter unascertainable bounds varieties experience. APPENDIX.* 58 Blasphemy: No entry. Sacrilege: robbing abusing Mysteries.' Sacrilegious: 'Abominable, wicked.' 61 Blount, Glossographia (3d ed., 1670). 62 63 consecrated place, 64 robs Church; wicked, extremely bad.' Law-Dictionary (London, 66 67 Phillips, World Words 1671). uttering reproachfull words, dishonour hurt disgrace mans name credit.' 'committing Sacriledge, i.e. Churches, things.' Cowel, Interpreter Terms (Manley 1701). Lay-Men, purposes, Religious Pious Uses, etc.' 73 Rastell, Law 1708). 74 'is steals Vessels, Ornaments, Goods Holy felony, Cro. 153, 154.' 76 Kersey, ed, 1721). 77 reporachful Words, Dishonour &c.' 78 robbing.' 79 Cocker, 1724). 81 'robbing thereto.' 82 Bailey, Universal Etymological 1730). 83 reproachful &c. vile, base language.' Church-Robbing; Crime alienating Uses Persons.' Coles, An 1732). 85 'reproach.' 86 87 Bullokar, Expositor (14th 1731). 88 89 Robbing Stealing Abusing 90 Defoe, Compleat (Westminster, 1735). 91 'vile opprobrious Language, God.' 93 1742). 94 'Cursing Swearing, vile Uses.' Martin, 1754). 97 'cursing, religion.' 98 Language (2d 1755). 99 'strictly properly, indignity, injury, unto himself, writing.' 100 appropriating himself heaven; sacred.' Rider, 1759). 102 God; revelation, ill them, ascribing inconsistent natures reverence them.' 103 devine worship. Profane: use. things. wrong use.' 105 Gordon Marchant, Complete 1760). 106 himself.' 107 Heaven.' 108 Buchanan, 1769). 109 'Language 110 place.' Cunningham, 1771). 111 part: 'Is offered belonging attributing agreeable nature.' 112 robbery, place; vessels, ornaments, goods robbery service. 154. 113 '* alienation lay-men, uses.' 114 Kenrick, 1773). 115 'Treating attributes Being indignity.' 116 Johnson; 117 'To violate; pollute.—To 118 Ash, 1775). 119 reproachfully Divine Being, creature belongs Creator.' 120 one's self Dyche, (London 1777). 121 reproaching dishonouring 122 appropriated designs.' 123 profane, thievish nature, sort, disposition.' 124 Barclay, 1782). revelation.' 126 127 128 Lemon, Etymology (1783). 129 Blaspheme: speak one; injure fame, reputation.' 130 131 Entick, Spelling 1786). 132 'indignity 133 Blasphemer: abuses 134 chapel.' 135 'violating 136 Burn, (Dublin, 1792). 137 'See Prophaneness.' 138 Profaneness: reproduced 139 140 Sheridan, (6th Phila., 1796). 141 'Offering 142 church.' Scott, (Edinburgh, 1797). 143 144 145 Richardson, 1839). 146 attack, assail, (the name, attributes, ordinances, revelations, God).' 147 away, consecrated, 148 Bell, Digest Scotland 1861). 149 vilifying Deity, 150 offices 151 Staunton, Ecclesiastical (N.Y., 152 153 subjecting profanation; graves, vessels altars employing unhallowed plundering misappropriation alms donations, sacrilege, ancient punished severity.' 154 Bouvier, (11th 1866). 155 attribute contrary belong deny does; false uttered malicious design reviling temples articles 156 Shipley, Glossary 1872). 157 'Denying providence contumelous reproaches Jesus Christ; scoffing Scriptures, exposing contempt ridicule.' 158 solemnly service Vict. chapter 96, s. 50.' 159 (Sprague 1875). 160 revile truth Christianity established, punishable law. *' 161 holy. purposes laymen, termed sacrilege.' McKinney's N.Y.Consol.Laws, 1947, 129. license. N.Y.Laws, 101; N.Y.Const. Article V, 4. Stipulation appellee, R. 86. Civil Practice Gilbert-Bliss' N.Y.Civ.Prac., Vol. 6B, 1944, Supp., 1283 seq. 124. 244, 391, 666, 1138; Stromberg California, 359, 368, 532, 535, 1117; 707, 627, 1357; Grosjean Press 1936, 444, 446, 660; De Jonge Oregon, 1937, 299 353, 364, 255, 259, 278; Lovell Griffin, 1938, 450, 668, 949; Schneider Jersey (Town Irvington), 1939, 308 147, 160, 146, 150, 155. 452, 669, 949. Inglis, Freedom Movis (1947), 20—24; Klapper, Effects Mass Media (1950), passim; Note, Pictures Yale L.J. 696, 704—708 (1951), sources cited therein. Collins, 1945, 323 516, 531, 315, 323, 430. Paramount Pictures, Inc., 334 131, 166, 915, 933, 1260: 'We doubt newspapers radio, Amendment.' significance talking 1926, eleven decision. Hampton, Movies, 382—383. E.g., Feiner 303, 295; Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 448, 513; Chaplinsky Hampshire, 1942, 315 568, 766, 1031; Cox 1941, 312 569, 762, 1049. 713—719, 630—632, 451—452, 668—669, 245—250, 447—449, Patterson Colorado Attorney General, 1907, 205 454, 462, 556, 558, 879. 672. following definition: 670. Division's interpretation: 'As below question, 'All purports visual caricature sect *." Judge Fuld, concluded criterion appears treats manner persons. effect, 'offered entertainment,' falls regardless sincerity good temperate treatment theme, unlikely disturbance breach peace. highlighted on, of, principle, claimed scurrilous, intemperate abusive.' 271—272, 680. Thornhill Alabama, 1940, 88, 97, 736, 741, 1093; 369—370, 535—536, 1117. Niemotko Maryland, 325, 280; Saia 1148, 1574; Largent Texas, 1943, 318 418, 873; 1213. unanimous 1213: neighbor. persuade view, pleader, know, times, resorts exaggeration, vilification are, statement. ordained history, that, spite probability excesses abuses, liberties enlightened citizens democracy. characteristic shield types life, character, belief develop unmolested unobstructed. Nowhere composed races creeds.' primary decency enforced publications.' 631, 571—572, 769, 1031, Murphy Court: certain well-defined narrowly classes prevention punishment Constitutional lewd libelous, 'fighting' words—those utterance inflict immediate peace.' 82, 451, 513: ordinances undertake practices permitting exercise, forbids enforcement.' Crowther, Strange Case Miracle," Monthly, April, Pages 35, 36—37. Aug. 25, Page col. 1, translated Mar. 593, 2. Ibid. Times, 11, 4, cols. 4—5. Time, 60—61. Nov. 3, 9, Camille M. Cianfarra, 5. passed customs. import 'any lewd, lascivious, filthy motion-picture film' Statutes-at-Large 1088, (Supp. IV) 1462, 1462; importation 'print' 'picture' barred. 590, 688, 1305, 1305. Compare provision, photographic-films imported Secretary Treasury.' 114, (1913), 858, 920 (1922), repealed 762 (1930). 68. Life, 63; Sat. Rev. Lit., 27, 28—29. 31, 74—82. Howard Barnes, Herald Tribune, 13, 1—3: 'it wise visit skip ('The Miracle'). Altogether bad taste mouth.' Bosley 50, 2—3: 'each items stacks achievements respective directors *. Miracle') overpowering provocative lot.' 17, 7—8: 'a. mounting intensity wrings pang emotion hits dramatic peak vastly compassionate comprehension suffering triumph birth.' Wanda Hale, Daily News, 'Rosselini's piece direction, greatest, 'Open City.' beautifully star director.' Archer Winsten, Post, 80, 'Magnani's performance impressive. reviewer's personal marked disturbingly unpleasant slow.' Seymour Peck, Compass, 3—5: "The really Magnani. exciting solo performances known.' Alton Cook, World-Telegram, 1—2: '('The overwrought hysteria ran 'Stromboli.' preoccupation filth squalor exceedingly trying experience.' 8, 72, Rosselini despite virtuoso Magnani.' Newsweek, 18, 93—94, 3: 'Strong medicine audiences. shows artist scarcely explored story.' Hollis Alpert, 29—29: 'pictorially gem, sensitive evocation town surrounding countryside near Salerno. magnificent qualities acting. role difficult. 'But my quarrel improvisation result extraneous detail adds little, harms, over-all effect.' 28, 22, 1. 2—3. Joseph Burstyn, Incorporated 198 Misc. 884, 892. harmful picture,' despicable affront Christian' ('We miracles. ridicules belief'), finally vicious womanhood.' consequence, declared: 'we, guardians summon you refrain supporting venal purveyors *.' 14, completeness' sake, incidents noted. Picketers War Veterans, Name Society, organizations—about 1,000 Sunday—paraded Theatre. 29, 36, 3; 2; 34, 7; 10, 6; 3. smaller counterpickets days. 20, 21, 8; 7. evenings emptied threat bombing. 2—3; Coincidently proceedings started Fire curious development incidents, 53, 4—5; 6, 33, Excerpts letters clergymen Record 140. representative quotations text C. DeWindt, Minister West ParkPresbyterian W. Beeners Princeton, Jersey, 98, respectively. generally, supported Decency Spellman. See, (New York) 10; 12; 351, 1; (Brooklyn) Tablet, 4; 3—4; Martin Quigley, Miracle'—An Outrage'; (San Francisco) Monitor, 3—4 (reprinted Herald, 1951); (Boston) Pilot, doubtless comments diocesan papers circulate parts file Library Congress library America. 'Fogged Screen,' Magazine Art, Feb., 44; N. Y. Philistine,' 567—569. 507—508. Much FrankGetlein Messenger, 1—8, headline: 'Film Critic Gives Some Aspects Story: Raises Questions Concerning Tactics Organized Resistance Groups York,' also, 'Miracles Do Happen,' Leader, 5, translation Chworowsky, Cardinal: Censor,' Churchman, exploitation publicity fanciful 1952, Matter Puritan,' N.Y.St.Dept. 163 (1939); 'Polygamy,' 217 'Monja y Casada—Virgen Martir' ('Nun Married—Virgin Martyr'), 488 (1935). latter 1730), 'Sacrilegious'—'of, to, guilty Sacrilege'; Standard (1937), 'Sacrilegious'—'Having committed ready commit as, deeds.' discussions Religion Ethics (Hastings, 1921), 'Sacrilege' 'Tabu'; Slater, Manual Moral Theology (1908), 226 230; Encyclopedia (1912), 'Sacrilege'; Britannica, 'Sacrilege.' 'Tabu.' Aquinas, Summa Theologica, II—II, 99. Codex Juris Canonici 'shall Ordinary proportion gravity fault, prejudice Bouscaren Ellis, Canon (1946), 857. Woywod, Practical Commentary (1929), par. 2178, 477—478, sacrilege: 'Sacrilege consists unworthy use Certain Sacraments); become blessing consecration legitimately bestowed places Church. Persons ordination forms dedication tonsure, profession).' objections refuting defends including anyone 'who disagree(s) sovereign's doubt(s) chosen sovereign worthy honor' (who) Jews offices.' 99, art. S.J., VI, classifies illustrates theological 'sacrilege': Sacrilege persons: violence member clergy; privilege civil jurisdiction, force'; vow chastity. places: 'as homicide, suicide, bloody there; break sexual chastity bury infidel, heretic, excommunicate cemeteries canonically established; use, secular courtroom, market, banquet hall, stable, etc. things: treat irreverence, obscenity sacraments (particularly Eucharist), relics, images, places; simony; steal, confiscate, wilfully Encyclopedia, Sir 1853), 121—122. Two Anglican prepared prefatory essay bring Spelman's data date 1853 understanding sense. 120. Russell, (10th 1950), 975—976; Stephen, Criminal (9th 348—349. Hen. VIII, III; Edw. X; Mary, §§ IV—VI. Geo. IV, X, marginal 'Sacrilege, capital,' read: Person enter Chapel, therein Chattel (he) suffer Death Felon.' buildings Rex Nixon, Car. 442 (1836). Vict., c.95. Larceny Act Malicious Injuries Property 1861, 50; 39, superseded 1916, 24. Blackstone, bk. 41—64. starting Cockeram's 1651 Appendix. 1742), 'Sacrilege'. 1782), 'Blasphemy.' Compendious (1806): 'Sacrilege'—'the 'Sacrilegious'—'violating (1828): things; 'Sacrilegious' 'Violating polluted (1890) G. 'Sacrilege'—'The involving profane; impious.' (1st 1909) specif., alymen, 'Sacrilegious'—' Violating with, involving, Repeated 1913, 1922, 1924, 1928, 1933 others. 1934) stealing, misusing, violating, desecrating holy, Specif.: R.C. Ch. conditions reception sacrament. b Robbery church; stolen. c 'Committing robbers, depredations, acts.' copyrighted 1890, 1895 printing: '1. sacred. Eng. larceny breaking intent felony. Formerly, layman remained unchanged printings dictionary. printing exactly except expanded sacramental vows.' (1895) irreverence abuse; unholy; desecrate; pollute. Hence, degrading use; debase.' third meaning: '3. vulgarize; crowd.' 2d 1782: 3d 1797: 8th 1859: 'Sacrilege'—same 1797. 9th 1886: 'Sacrilege'—A relatively 'robbery churches,' 'breaking defacing altar, crucifix, cross,' 1911), Schroeder, Free Speech (1919), 178—373, lengthy 'Prosecutions Crimes Against Religion.' taxt Schroeder. Social Sciences, 'Blasphemy'; Ethics, Nokes, (1928). Yorke, Life Lord Hardwicke writes prosecution Woolston blasphemy: offence, consisted 1725 tract Moderator Infidel Apostate, accuracy Resurrection Virgin Birth. speculations, however feeling nation, apprehensions government, incur penalties; writing, stable secure narrower foundations audacious considered, reason, menace, state.' e.g., Boulter, J.P. 188 (1908); Bowman Secular Ltd., (1917) A.C. 406. Reg Ramsay, Cox's C.C. 231, 238 (1883) (Lord Coleridge's charge jury); latest statistics Bureau Census returns 256 denominations; report, listed. Census, Bodies: iii, mere fantasy sect. industry's self-censorship distorting influence portrayal figures. 'Pressure forced deletion clerical background Richelieu Three Musketeers. (Motion Production) appealed section providing ministers villains.' 'Motion Amendment,' n. 42. recently plans 'Life Luther.' Could Luther sympathetically some; others? Mathews, Survey Dictionaries (1933). Cockeram, Dictionarie 1651).

Classification Label: 2