Legal Document

442 U.S. 653 99 Supreme Court Reporter 2529 61 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 153 Roy Tibbals WILSON et al., Petitioners,v.OMAHA INDIAN TRIBE al. State of IOWA Petitioners, versus OMAHA Nos. 78-160, 78-161. Argued March 21, 1979. Decided June 20, Syllabus Pursuant to an 1854 treaty, the reservation Omaha Indian Tribe (Tribe) was established in Territory Nebraska on west bank Missouri River, with eastern boundary being fixed as center river's main channel. In 1867, a General Land Office survey that certain land included but since then river has changed course several times, leaving most area Iowa side river, separated from rest reservation. Residents ultimately settled and improved this land, these non-Indian owners their successors title occupied for many years prior April 2, 1975, when they were dispossessed by Tribe, assistance Bureau Affairs. Three federal actions, consolidated District Court, instituted respondents, trustee lands, against petitioners, including individuals. Both sides sought quiet names, respondents arguing movement had been avulsive thus did not affect reservation's boundary, whereas petitioners argued disputed formed gradual accretion belonged riparian owners. The held state rather than law should be basis decision; 25 Code KF62 § 194—which provides "[i]n all trials about right property which may party one side, white person other, burden proof shall upon person, whenever make out presumption himself fact previous possession or ownership"—was applicable because could prima facie case it possessed past without proving its merits; under law, changes accretive area. Appeals reversed, ruling applicable; made sufficient showing invoke 194; applying common avulsion evidence, evidence equipoise thus, 194, judgment must entered Tribe. Held: 1. partially correct 194 is here; terms, applies private petitioner Iowa. view history purpose protecting Indians claims squatters even tribe litigant more individual Indians. But, while Congress aware would interpreted cover artificial entities, such corporations, well individuals, there nothing indicate intended word "white person" include any Union. Here, seems no question once lying River long part set apart consequence enough bring into play. statute use term "presumption" man" overcome, contemplates non-Indian's shouldering persuasion producing possession. Pp. 664-669. 2. properly concluded governs substantive aspects dispute, erred arriving at standard, independent determine whether accretion. 669-679. (a) general rule that, absent overriding interest, laws ownership banks shores waterways, Oregon ex rel. Board Corvallis Sand & Gravel Co., 429 363, 97 582, 50 550, does oust litigation. never yielded terminated interest property, and, circumstances, Indians' depends "wholly application principles normally separately protect valid possession." Oneida Nation County Oneida, 414 661, 677, 94 772, 782, 39 73. 669-671. (b) However, borrowed decision here. There imperative need develop body decide cases this, where interstate dispute (the location between having Compact 1943). Furthermore, given equitable little likelihood injury trust responsibilities tribal possessory interests. And also have substantial own resolve controversies these; considerable merit reasonable expectations, real landowners upset vagaries located adjacent across reservations other interest. Cf. Comm'rs States, 308 343, 60 285, 84 L.Ed. 313; Arkansas Tennessee, 246 158, 38 301, 62 638. 671-676. (c) Under construction 1943 Iowa, 406 117, 92 1379, 31 733, applied determining moved accretive. 676-678. 575 Federal Reporter, 2nd 620, vacated remanded. 1 Edson Smith, Omaha, Neb., Number 78-160. 2 George Bennett Cullison, Jr., Harlan, 3 William Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Veeder, Alexandria, Va., respondent 4 Sara S. Beale, Detroit, Mich., States. 5 [Amicus Curiae Information pages 655-657 intentionally omitted] 6 Mr. Justice WHITE, delivered opinion Court. 7 At issue here tract east Respondent supported Tribe's lands,1 lands created treaty. argue movements washed away soil accreted vesting them landowners.2 8 Two principal issues are presented. First, we faced novel questions regarding interpretation scope Rev.Stat. 2126, forth 145-year-old, seldom used, provides: 9 "In ownership." 10 Second, determines critical avulsive. 11 * 1854, ceded aboriginal treaty exchange money enable cultivate retained lands. Treaty Mar. 16, Statutes-at-Large 1043; see Indians, 253 275, 277-278, 40 522, 523, 64 901 (1920). proved unsatisfactory exercised option those 300,000 acres designated President acceptable Blackbird Hills area, Missouri, Nebraska, selected. channel thalweg.3 That modified subsequent statutes4 remained home 12 T. Barrett large peninsula jutting toward opposite, around flowed oxbow curve known Bend.5 Over next few decades, sometimes moving east, west.6 Since 1927, 1867 position, 13 As now dried out, residents on, improved, farmed it. These 14 Four lawsuits followed seizure, three court court. Northern severed damages outside issued temporary injunction permitted continue tried jury. trial, Government avulsive, therefore change affected Petitioners gradually eroded bank, east-bank owners.7 names. 15 decision. Wilson, 433 F.Supp. 57 (1977). Rules Decision Act, 28 1652, requiring disputes, though claimants,8 unless Constitution, Act specifically supplanted law. found indication sources govern. It went conclude impossible merits. Thus, significance "inextricably entwined merits." F.Supp., 66.9 16 Applying law,10 places seeking title, key accretive, riparians, 67 (1977).11 17 reversed. 620 (CA8 1978). began two distinct reasons. coincidental time moved. Therefore, 375, 589, 550 (1977), governing 18 "[t]he rendering 'press back' sufficiently implicates interests states require law." 628. 19 construed our 73 (1974), asserted based directly arising protected 20 ruled refusing apply 194. Because within survey, "previous ownership" place petitioners. Adopting Court's "would negate statutory pleading simply recites destroyed erosive action river." F.2d, 631. 21 Reviewing what perceived passing reference issue, too narrow definition avulsion.12 equipoise. placed non-Indians, however, 22 We granted separate petitions certiorari filed Conservation Commission 78-161 limited circumstances litigation, particular respect cases. 439 963, 448, 58 420 (1978).13 partial, serious, disagreement Appeals, vacate judgment. II 23 challenge grounds Appeals' cases.14 plain language section tribe, litigant. think argument untenable. provision first appeared slightly different form 1822, May 6, 683, amending 1802 Trade Intercourse 30, 1802, 139, series Acts originating 1790 designed regulate trade forms intercourse North American tribes non-Indians.15 recurring trespass illegal occupancy territory, major developed rights properties. Among things, non-Indians prohibited settling properties, force authorized remove persons who violated restrictions. 1822 design; only slight wording, incorporated 1834 consolidation various statutes dealing affairs. 1834, 729. Section already opinion. Although "Indian" second line replaced "Indians" provision, meaning intended; none implied late date, particularly light 1, context indicates otherwise, "words importing singular persons, parties, things." 24 Even plural, urged literally provisions distinguish But it, proves much. enactment predecessors primarily ownership; right, recognized extinguishable agreement consent U.S., 669-670, S.Ct., 778. Typically, accomplished typically reserved otherwise aside itself. " 'Whatever although equal benefit members.' Jim, 409 80, 82, 93 261, 263, 34 282 (1972), quoting Cherokee Hitchcock, 187 294, 307, 115, 119, 47 183 (1902). clear enacted, To limit drain significance, historical virtually tribally held. Legislation affairs "cannot isolation read notions day assumptions drafted [it]." Oliphant Suquamish 435 191, 206, 98 1011, 1019, 55 209 (1978). 'statutes passed dependent . liberally construed, doubtful expressions resolved favor Indians.' Bryan Itasca County, 426 373, 392, 96 2102, 2112, 48 710 (1976), Alaska Pacific Fisheries 248 U.S 78, 89, 40, 41, 63 138 (1918). argument, presented acute antagonist adverse claimant entity.16 cannot accept broad submission. "person" purposes construction, contrary, "corporations, companies, associations, firms, partnerships, societies, joint stock individuals." terms protective part, sense construe so subject burdens, escape reach merely incorporating carrying business usual. said Monell New York City Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 687, 2018, 2034, 56 611 (1978), "by 1871, understood corporations treated natural constitutional analysis."17 stands reason re-enacting Revised Statutes, codified Code, fully entities 26 nevertheless follow persons" whom will shifted litigation sovereign "[I]n usage, 'person' sovereign, [and] employing phrase ordinarily exclude it." Cooper Corp., 312 600, 604, 742, 743, 85 1071 (1941); accord, Mine Workers, 330 258, 91 884 (1947). Particularly true imposes limitation, distinguished conferring advantage. Knight, 315, Pet. 465 (1840). "no hard fast exclusion," supra, 604-605, 743; much context, matter, legislative history, executive interpretation. uninformative, unhelpful dormant statute. preventing providing remedies lands—it anticipated threats themselves handicap offset unfair Indeed, 22, identical present "intended whole country, defined section." H.R.Rep. 474, 23d Cong., 1st Sess., (1834). country "all Mississippi, Louisiana, territory Arkansas, also, Mississippi extinguished ." discarded 5596, apparent adopting mind disputes arise involve 27 Nor discovered anything passage connection contained Criminal 1151, indicating words original newly admitted hesitate, therefore, hold necessarily disadvantaged litigating ownership, opposition organized help America. State, like litigants case, often bear estate. operates regardless champion, demonstrated dispute. defend refusal precondition involves merits turns—whether better regard. triggered makes usual way describing identifying surface earth through monuments. 1854. This enough, us, Of course, foreclose offering prove prevailing affirmative defenses have. 29 assert if operative going forward persuasion, State. Therefore they, prevail "burden proof" ambiguous connoting either both. evident courts below III Atlantic 30 waterways. expressive incidents grants: 'We principle federal, is, passed, States; whenever, according laws, state, legislation; far legislation consistent admission vested States.' Id., 377, 590, Wilcox Jackson, 498, 517, 264 (1839) (emphasis added Court). 32 conclusion before governed owner claim equal-footing origin State's title. 33 held, case. titles derived grant, Omahas permanent home. continues recognize pursuant Reorganization 1934, 984, 461 seq. parted continues, 782. rudimentary "Indian matter can consent" termination protection treaties, extend "exclusively province 670, 779. Insofar concerned, "clearly distinguishable grantees taken responsibility." 684, 786 (REHNQUIST, J., concurring). patented manner terminates subjects grantees' determination longer entitled concededly originally established. question, decide.18 B 35 determined controls still "[c]ontroversies do inevitably resort uniform rules. Whether adopt fashion nationwide judicial policy 'dependent variety considerations always relevant nature specific governmental effects law.' Kimbell Foods, Inc., 440 715, 727-728, 1448, 1458, 59 711 (1979), Standard Oil 332 310, 1604, 1609, 2067 (1947).19 noting existence adjudicating border navigable stream, purported find doctrines legal standards deciding involved nature. 36 cases, furnish appropriate rules govern No near ground further 733 (1972). satisfied, except extent itself this. advises juncture consider nationally situations comparable frustrate functions, impact might existing relationships An factors suggests us 37 perceive national affecting owned For purpose, why same holding virtue differ among identify avulsions accretions, standard applied, evenhandedly discern "generalized pleas uniformity substitutes concrete adversely [federal interests]." 730, 1459. On some occasions, lose avulsion, likely occasions stand gain. rule, announced fears hostile unfavorable treatment hands but, said, jurisdiction hear them. (1974). Adequate means available insure fair these. Private rely purchasing not. expectations Borrowing avoid answer avulsive-accretion riddle involving possibly quite answers neighboring disputants. hundred fee, property. tracts Appeals. before. 313 (1939), recover taxes improperly levied political subdivision observed "[s]ince enforced Treaty, plainly whatever attributable treaties owe authority law-making agencies Kansas." 349-350, 287-288. nevertheless, elected beneficiaries privileged position over aggrieved taxpayers, "[t]o Kansas wise impinges exemption 1861 commanded vindicate."20 41 importance attending determined, underlined 638 Tennessee bottom local law: 42 "How emerges stream disposed public each familiar doctrine establish deem expedient waters borders dispositions press back located." 175-176, 305. 43 Likewise, river; best creature involved. Contract 44 quoted above approval 126-127, 1385, central Interstate entire Iowa.21 Our instructive refer 45 Compact, relinquished 3, "Titles, mortgages, liens" "good in" ceding "shall good State.22 came jurisdiction; obligated new Nebraska. Accepting Special Master's recommendations respect, claiming show title" boundary. ruled, Master, claimants line, disentitled bearing ownership.23 46 parties plaintiffs, unquestionably accordance Compact. Proceeding adjudicate Judge Government, here, failed Bend defendants, aid applicable, instead conclusion, relying rejected Government's later embraced contrary carried decree quieting concluding indicated incorporate reached result noted wrong wholly rejecting applicability incumbent plaintiff quiet-title action, preponderance shoreline. Apparently reason, trial judge end his memorandum he findings conclusions altered allocation persuasion." KF105 F3 Supp., 67. IV sum, By agree error Instead, which, controlling correctly facts tasks performed, remand proceedings 49 ordered. POWELL took consideration 51 BLACKMUN, THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, concurring. 52 N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions join opinion, write briefly add comment my views 53 person." hand, nine See 622 holds includes entity corporate Ante, 666-667. Contrariwise, 667-668, 678. court, expressly discuss 194's claimants. 54 "§ petitioners" exception, ante, 678, proceeding assumptions. assume, first, Caucasians, hence record, race Brief Page 30; n. 25; Tr. Oral Arg. 13. factual predicate presumably rests seek possible assumption. second, refers, Caucasian, "non-Indian" individual. assumption, (so Indians) irrelevant applicability. assumption suggested ignore adjective "white" person," Perryman, 100 235 (1880), used another Non-Intercourse Negro. 666 16. implicitly, prefer explicit. view, raise serious questions. black oriental create irrational racial classification highly questionable Fifth Amendment's guarantee. result, mean entity, interpret today. Perryman inconsistent reading, regard overruled sub silentio. Heckman 224 413, 424, 820 (1912), explained source relationship. exercise plenary affairs, power restrictions alienation Where so, guardianship "[d]uring continuance guardianship, duty enforce security gainsaid. A transfer [Indian land] violation proprietary Indian. violates States." 437-438, 431-432. Accordingly, go rights. "It [is] essential pecuniary controversy." 439, 432. Morrison Work, 266 481, 485, 149, 151, 69 394 (1925); Choate Trapp, 665, 565, 570, 941 (1912); Cohen, Handbook Law 94-96 (1942). deeded quitclaim bed thalweg (see infra ) ordinary high-water mark, islands portion abandoned channels. latter doctrine, Pollard's Lessee Hagan, 212, How. 565 (1845), Boundary infra. commonplace See, e. g., Minnesota Wisconsin, 252 273, 282, 313, 319, 558 (1920): "The Thalweg, modification ancient required division adopted order preserve equality beneficial communication. middle navigation commonly accepted Equality defeated, promoted, fixing connects points greatest depth. Deepest water same. direct actual probable experience shows vessels crooked close shore, however deep proceed safer water." 1865, 667; 1874, 146, 170; Aug. 7, 1882, 341; 1885, 362, 370, amended Jan. 1925, ch. 34, 726. actually marked occupying during period. 67, 69, 74 (ND 1977). appear 75. 143 359, 396, 186 (1892), decided caused wanderings Missouri. "[T]he fickle River," "refused bound decree," Eriksson, Boundaries Hist. Pol. 163, 234 (1927); location. ratified July 12, 1943, 220, 494. Army Corps Engineers largely successful taming river. 1381, stated common-law 57, (1977): "Simply stated, parcels moves processes erosion accretion, follows Independent Stock Farm Stevens, 128 Neb. 619, 259 Northwestern KF135 N69 647 (1935). abruptly old event remains Railroad company Coulthard, 607, 148 328 (1914). River. DeLong Olsen, 327, 88 512 (1901)." resolving bordering streams. 173, 304, (1918); 196 23, 34-36, 155, 157, 372 (1904); 360-361, 397, 400. relied Mason 260 545, 200, 396 (1923); Francis Francis, 203 233, 129, 165 (1906); Fontenelle 298 855 (Neb.1969), aff'd 430 1970). quality trigger shifting contemplated occurred date Iowa-Nebraska permanently indisputably course. 60, hewed closely insofar definitions significant difference presumed, defendants favored accretion-avulsion substantially different. see, differed respect. Veatch White, (CA9 1927), Uhlhorn Gypsum 366 211 1966), cert. denied, 385 1026, 87 753, 674 (1967), "the sudden, perceptible channel, bed, factor defining avulsion." 637 broader described follows: "an occurs sudden shift cuts off 'so after identifiable existed became bed.' 634, evident, employed permits finding bed. 78-161, Commission, "Whether 'a person', 'an Indian' requires divestiture Iowa's boundaries." following questions: Eighth Circuit erroneously Title U.S.Code case." arguments, single discussed inapplicable briefs petition rehearing reversed background, development explored exhaustively Prucha, Policy Formative Years: 1790-1834 (1962). supra 68-75. cite 235, 645 support Caucasian. dealt Nonintercourse today decide. They certiorari, 78-162, RGP, Incorporated yet Rules, party-respondents certiorari. Rule 21(4). Oklahoma Texas, 258 574, 406, 66 771 (1922), mandates patents granting former conveyed completely resulting recognized. claimed remain Neither Gas Electric 318 534, 716 (1943), presents holding. There, refused permitting Secretary Interior grant permission opening highways "in state" prohibiting establishment highway right-of-way consent. 208, 535. understand uses authorize Compare P2 Bator, Mishkin, D. Shapiro, Wechsler, Hart Wechsler's, Courts System 768 (2d ed. 1973): 'command' command; choice absence command implication, 'govern' furnishes convenient measure content 351-352, 288-289: "Having left framework nature, Stone 301 532, 851, 852, 81 1265, free take account 'public convenience.' Virginian Ry. Federation, 300 515, 552, 592, 601, 789. Nothing due institutions concerned interplay repercussion heedless situated, reflected laws. Allotment 1887, 388, 389. With rights, absorbed, were, recognition deemed policy. Brown 263 92, 68 171; Seaboard Air Line R. 261 299, 354, 664. explicit cutting interests, draw tax-payers relation subdivisions. vindicate." Master difficult, agreed-upon accuracy. Report O.T.1964, Orig., 50. Acts, 306,, 494: "Sec. hereby cedes relinquishes westerly contiguous 3. Titles, liens cede pending suits actions concerning prosecuted final judgments accorded full effect Iowa." ruling, disentitled, defendant, invoking 174-175.

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