Legal Document

536 U.S. 639 ZELMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION OHIO, ET AL.v.SIMMONS-HARRIS AL. No. 00-1751. Supreme Court of the United States. Argued February 20, 2002. Decided June 27, 2002.* CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT APPEALS FOR SIXTH CIRCUIT Ohio's Pilot Project Scholarship Program gives educational choices to families in any Ohio school district that is under state control pursuant a federal-court order. The program provides tuition aid for certain students Cleveland City School District, only covered district, attend participating public or private schools their parent's choosing and tutorial who choose remain enrolled school. Both religious nonreligious may participate, as adjacent districts. Tuition distributed parents according financial need, where spent depends solely upon enroll children. number assistance grants provided remaining must equal scholarships. In 1999-2000 year, 82% had affiliation, none participated, 96% scholarship were religiously affiliated schools. Sixty percent from at below poverty line. schoolchildren also have option enrolling community schools, which are funded law but run by own boards receive twice per-student funding magnet emphasizing particular subject area, teaching method, service, receives same amount per student it does traditional Respondents, taxpayers, sought enjoin on ground violated Establishment Clause. Federal District granted them summary judgment, Sixth Circuit affirmed. Held: not offend Pp. 648-663. (a) Because was enacted valid secular purpose providing poor children demonstrably failing system, question whether nonetheless has forbidden effect advancing inhibiting religion. See Agostini v. Felton, 521 U. S. 203, 222-223. This Court's jurisprudence makes clear government readily challenge Clause if neutral with respect religion directly broad class citizens who, turn, direct wholly result genuine independent choice. See, e. g., Mueller Allen, 463 388. Under such program, reaches institutions way deliberate numerous individual recipients. incidental advancement mission, perceived endorsement message, reasonably attributable recipients, government, whose role ends disbursement benefits. 648-653. (b) instant one true choice, consistent line cases, thus constitutional. It all respects toward religion, part general multifaceted undertaking provide opportunities failed district. confers individuals defined without reference permits participation — preference lowincome families, greater priority admission. Rather than creating incentives skew creates disincentives: Private half given one-third would two three times Families too disincentive, they copay portion tuition, pay nothing community, magnet, No reasonable observer think choice carries imprimatur endorsement. Nor there evidence fails select options: Their before, tutoring aid, obtain school, coercing into sending be answered evaluating options schoolchildren, then Cleveland's preponderance did phenomenon common many American cities. Eighty-two religious, 81% To attribute constitutional significance figure lead absurd school-choice might permissible parts percentage lower, Cleveland, deemed programs most sorely needed. Likewise, an identical States lower Respondents` additional argument should attached fact recipients flatly rejected Mueller. constitutionality simply turn why, time, use Finally, contrary respondents' argument, Committee Public Ed. & Religious Liberty Nyquist, 413 756 case expressly reserved judgment sort challenged here govern offer regard 653-663. 234 F. 3d 945, reversed. REHNQUIST, C. J., delivered opinion Court, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. O`CONNOR, post, p. 663, 676, filed concurring opinions. STEVENS, dissenting opinion, 684. SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, joined, 686. STEVENS 717. Judith L. French, Assistant Attorney General Ohio, argued cause petitioners With her briefs Betty D. Montgomery, General, David M. Gormley, State Solicitor, Karen Lazorishak, James G. Tassie, Robert Strayer, Attorneys Kenneth W. Starr, R. Gasaway. J. Young 00-1777. him Michael Reed Hessler. Clint Bolick, William H. Mellor, Richard Komer, Freedman, Tryon, Charles Fried 00-1779. Solicitor Olson amicus curiae urging reversal. brief McCallum, Deputy Kneedler, Gregory Garre, Loeb, Lowell V. Sturgill, Jr. Chanin respondents Simmons-Harris et al. cases. Andrew Roth, Laurence Gold, Steven Shapiro, Raymond Vasvari, Elliot Mincberg, E. Schaeffer. Marvin Frankel Gatton Strom, Donald Mooney, Jr., Marc Stern.â CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST Court. 1 established pilot designed reside District. presented this offends Constitution. We hold not. 2 There more 75,000 majority these low-income minority families. Few enjoy means send other inner-city For generation, however, been among worst performing Nation. 1995, declared "crisis magnitude" placed entire control. Rhodes, 1:73 CV 1300 (ND Mar. 3, 1995). Shortly thereafter, auditor found midst perhaps unprecedented history education." Performance Audit 2-1 (Mar. 1996). meet 18 standards minimal acceptable performance. Only 10 ninth graders could pass basic proficiency examination, levels performed dismal rate compared More two-thirds high either dropped out before graduation. Of those managed reach senior every four still graduate. graduate, few read, write, compute comparable counterparts 3 against backdrop enacted, initiatives, its Program, Rev. Code Ann. §§ 3313.974-3313.979 (Anderson 1999 Supp. 2000) (program). "under federal court order requiring supervision operational management superintendent." § 3313.975(A). fall within category. 4 kinds First, kindergarten through third grade, expanding each year eighth choosing. 3313.975(B) (C)(1). Second, 5 Any nonreligious, participate accept so long located boundaries meets statewide standards. 313.976(A)(3). Participating agree discriminate basis race, ethnic background, "advocate foster unlawful behavior teach hatred person group ethnicity, national origin, religion." 3313.976(A)(6). program. 3313.976(C). Adjacent eligible $2,250 grant accepted addition full per-pupil student. 3313.976(C), 3317.03(I)(1).1 All private, required accordance rules procedures superintendent. 3313.977(A)(1)(a)-(c). 6 need. incomes 200% 90% up $2,250. 3313.978(A) lowest income charge parental copayment $250. 3313.976(A)(8). pays 75% costs, $1,875, no cap. 3313.976(A)(8), 3313.978(A). These available scholarships exceeds participate.2 Where child. If checks made payable endorse over chosen 3313.979. 7 chooses Parents arrange registered tutors submit bills services payment. 3313.976(D), 3313.979(C). Students charged $360. amount. 3313.978(B). offered 8 operation since 1996-1997 year. 56 participated 46 (or 82%) affiliation. None districts elected participate. 3,700 whom (96%) 1998-1999 approximately 1,400 received aid. expected double during 9 broader enhance school-children response 1995 takeover. That includes governing Community boards, local 3314.01(B), 3314.04. academic independence hire teachers determine curriculum. They can affiliation lottery. During startup 1,900 enrolled. child $4,518, receive. Magnet operated board emphasize service students. $7,746, including $4,167, As 1999, able 23 together 13,000 grade. specialized methods, Montessori, particularized curriculum focus, foreign language, computers, arts. 11 1996, respondents, grounds. claims, held enactment procedural requirements Goff, 86 St. 1, 8-9, 711 N. 2d 211 (1999). legislature immediately cured defect, leaving provisions discussed above intact. 12 July action seeking reenacted August issued preliminary injunction barring further implementation 54 725 Ohio), we stayed pending review Appeals, 528 983 December respondents. 72 834. 2000, divided panel Appeals affirmed finding "primary effect" violation 945 (CA6). mandate disposition App. Pet. Cert. 00-1779, 151. certiorari, 533 976 (2001), now reverse Appeals. 13 First Amendment, applied Fourteenth prevents enacting laws "purpose" "effect" 222-223 (1997) ("[W]e continue ask acted [and] `effect` religion" (citations omitted)). dispute system. Thus, 14 answer question, our decisions drawn distinction between Mitchell Helms, 530 793, 810-814 (2000) (plurality opinion); id., 841-844 (O`Connor, judgment); Agostini, supra, 225-227; Rosenberger Rector Visitors Univ. Va., 515 819, 842 (1995) (collecting cases), individuals, 388 (1983); Witters Washington Dept. Servs. Blind, 474 481 (1986); Zobrest Catalina Foothills Dist., 509 (1993). While "changed significantly" past decades, 236, remained unbroken. Three confronted challenges challenges. 15 Mueller, Minnesota authorizing tax deductions various expenses, even though great program's beneficiaries began focusing beneficiaries, because included "all parents," "children [who] nonsectarian sectarian schools," S., 397 (emphasis original), "not Clause," 399 (citing Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 274 (1981) ("The provision benefits spectrum groups important index effect")). Then, viewing whole, emphasized principle noting funds "only numerous, school-age children." 399-400. This, said, ensured "no `imprimatur approval' conferred generally." Id., (quoting Widmar, 274)). irrelevant inquiry vast saying: 16 "We loath adopt rule grounding facially annual reports reciting extent classes claimed law." 401. 17 deliberately skewed sufficient survive scrutiny Witters, used reasoning reject vocational studying institution become pastor. Looking observed "[a]ny ... ultimately flows genuinely recipients." 487. remarked that, "[the] generally sectarian-nonsectarian, public-nonpublic nature benefited." 487 (internal quotation marks omitted). light factors, inconsistent 488-489. 19 Five Members separate opinions, channeled relevant inquiry. 490-491 (Powell, joined Burger, concurring) 398-399); 493 (O'CONNOR, 490 (White, concurring). Our holding rested chose expend but, rather, empowered 20 Zobrest, permitted sign-language interpreters assist deaf Reviewing earlier decisions, stated "government neutrally challenge." 8. once again "distributes qualifying `disabled.'" 10. Its beneficiaries," "disabled children, schools." 12. 21 "[b]y freedom statute ensures government-paid interpreter will present decision parents." focus neutrality attending 10-11. 229 ("Zobrest had, time litigation, using publicly parochial school"). ones best learning environment handicapped child, circuit broken, implicated. 22 make A shares features recipient, plurality recently observed: "[I]f choices, rather single distribution eligibility criteria, cannot, least cannot easily, special favors establishment." Mitchell, 810. 24 843 judgment) ("[W]hen supports school's mission guide `no likely draw facts inference itself endorsing practice belief'" judgment))). precisely reasons never 25 believe i. e., parent resides nonreligious. incentive do so. terms, anywhere admission 26 "financial incentive[s]" "ske[w]" 487-488. Such "[are] allocated neutral, criteria neither favor nor disfavor both nondiscriminatory basis." 231. disincentives receiving students, disincentive (religious nonreligious) tuition. nothing. Although necessary constitutionality, clearly dispel claim "creates incentive[s] school." 10.3 27 Respondents suggest "public perception practices beliefs." Brief 37-38. But repeatedly recognized 399; 488-489; 10-11; 842-843 ("In terms perception, differs meaningfully distributing decide schools"). particularly misplaced "the aware" "history context" underlying Good News Club Milford Central School, 98, 119 (2001) Capitol Square Review Advisory Bd. Pinette, 753, 780 judgment). objective familiar context view aspect schooling general. 28 range choices: condemn 29 SOUTER speculates currently somehow discourage Post, 703-705 (dissenting opinion).4 certainly arise program; Ed., National Center Education Statistics, Universe Survey: 1999-2000, pp. 2-4 (NCES 2001-330, 2001) (hereinafter Survey) (cited Amicus Curiae 24). Indeed, accounts captured remarkable cross-section Florida Amici Survey). figure, moreover, some Columbus, see Educational Directory (Lodging al., Clerk file), Reply Petitioners 00-1751, 12, n. needed, happens greater. Cf. ("[T]he percentages Florida's 67 vary zero 100 percent"). States, Maine Utah, less 45% Nebraska Kansas, 15-16 30 attach alone proves lack ever said need consider detail, taking expenses paid went ("Nor willing conclude happen otherwise aid" 401)); 812, opinion) ("[Agostini] proportion benefiting involving inquiry"); 848 (same) 229). organizations, "[s]uch approach scarcely certainty field stands of, perceive principled statistical evaluated." 31 point aptly illustrated here. rely discounts entirely (1) alternative (2) (3) assistance. 647-648. Including denominator nontraditional drops 20%. Greene, Racial, Economic, Context Parental Choice 11, Table (Oct. 8, 1999), 217a (reporting 16.5% schools). represents snapshot 1997-1998 contrast, 78% attended 5a. difference 15% electing instead register larger uncertain future generated litigation. 59a-62a, 209a, 223a-227a.5 Many 145a-146a, demonstrating arbitrariness counting type assess primary effect, 3314.11 1999) (establishing "office options" "provide facilitate project program"). spite repeated questioning oral convincing justification approach, relies arbitrary classifications. Tr. Oral Arg. 52-60.6 32 finally look (1973), disagree reasons. Nyquist quite different involved New York gave package exclusively enrollees. ostensibly purposes, 773-774, "function" "unmistakably desired support nonpublic, institutions," 783 added). genesis, faced "increasingly grave fiscal problems." 795. money 762-764. "unrelated actually expended tuition," ensuring windfall 790. similarly reimbursements explicitly "offe[r] 786. prohibited enrollee. 763-765. features. 33 doubt far removed here, "a form (e. scholarships) 782-783, 38. That, course, very us, answered, first 398-399 ("[A] Clause" 38)), ("Washington's `made benefited'" 12-13 function [program] hardly `to institutions'" 38)). scope open later like religion.7 34 sum, wide residence exercise religious. therefore keeping unbroken rejecting similar programs, 35 36 ordered. Notes: * Together 00-1777,Hanna Perkins Taylor certiorari court. â Briefs amici reversal A. Butterworth, Florida, Thomas Warner, Matthew Conigliaro, respective follows: Bill Pryor Alabama, Jane Brady Delaware, Don Stenberg Nebraska, Fisher Pennsylvania, Condon South Carolina, Randolph Beales Virginia; Wisconsin Stephen P. Hurley, Gordon Giampietro, Daugherty, Jr.; Gary Johnson, Governor Mexico, Jeffrey Bucholtz; Mayor Rudolph Giuliani Hess, Corporation Counsel York, Leonard Koerner, Edward X. Hart; Councilwoman Fannie Lewis Steffen Dow, Hutchison; Reform Council Louis Cohen, Boyden Gray, Todd Zubler; Civil Rights Union Peter Ferrara; Law Justice, Inc., Jay Alan Sekulow, Henderson, Sr., Colby May, Vincent McCarthy, Walter Weber; Association Christian Schools International McGlynn Gaffney, Epstein; Becket Fund Kevin Hasson, Eric Treene, Roman Storzer, Anthony Picarello, Garnett; Black Alliance Options Samuel Estreicher; Catholic League George; Destro Joseph Schmitz; Individual Freedom Erik Jaffe; Children America Harold (Tex) Lezar, Gilles; Legal Society Stuart Lark Baylor; Claremont Institute Constitutional Jurisprudence Edwin Meese III; Coalition Local Sovereignty B. Clark; Independent Allen Siegel; Jewish Commission Affairs Nathan Lewin, Dennis Rapps, Diament, Zwiebel; REACH Philip Murren; Rutherford John Whitehead, Aden, Melnick, Knicely; Solidarity C., Kelly Conference Bishops Mark Chopko, Liekweg, Hunter Moon; Hugh Calkins, pro se. affirmance Howard Kristol, Erwin Chemerinsky, Sinensky, Kara Stein, Arthur Bryant, Victoria Ni; Anti-Defamation Martin Karlinsky, Daniel Beller, Freeman, Frederick Lawrence; Lee Boothby Reinach; NAACP Defense Fund, Norman Chachkin, Elaine Jones, Theodore Shaw, Cott, Parker, Courtland Hayes; Geoffrey Aronow Stanley Geller; Boards Julie K. Underwood, Scott Bales, Martin; Patrick Farrell Timmins, Kimball Carey Susan Greenberger. California Robin Johansen Remcho; Vermonters Better Dean; Coons Mr. Coons, se, Sugarman, se; Jesse Choper Choper, Bassett, Teresa Collett, Forte, Garnett, Lino Graglia, Heise, Gail Heriot, Roderick Hills, Grant Nelson, Perry, Rice, Rosemary Salomone, Sisk, Steve Smith, Harry Tepker; Ira Paul Sharon Browne. parties precise suburban agreeing grantplus ordinary allotment 30, (suburban "on average, approximately, $4,750" student); 39 "about $6,544" student). determined annually Superintendent Instruction. 3313.978(A)-(B) suggests "neutral" spend vouchers schoolsPost, 697-698 opinion). objection mistaken: already $7,097 pupil $4,167 State. 56a. almost much Ibid. seriously differentiates based status providers services, touchstone 809 838 appears base unfounded assumption capping (at $2,500) 704-705 elsewhere he claims spends chides proposing raise 697-698, 710-711, 714-715. His finds record, shows operating seek substantial third-party contributions. 194a-195a; 00-1777, 119a. actual refutes SOUTER's afford participate: Ten when adopted. Directory, Year, Alphabetic List Nonpublic Schools, Ed.). continued day. 281a-286a. And while created several created, 144a-148a, 224a-225a, principal barrier entry new uncertainty caused protracted litigation plagued inception, 672 225a, 227a). 970 (CA6 (Ryan, part) ("There scintilla discouraged voucher `afford' so"). Similarly mistaken reliance low enrollment 704 15). figures ignore widely varied infra, 659; 5, underscoring why tallies thousands 659 388, 401 (1983)). fluctuations seen atypical. Experience Milwaukee, 1991 demonstrates mix fluctuates significantly persistent 218a, 229a-236a; asAmicus 10-13 Wisconsin) Instruction, Milwaukee Facts Figures 2001-2002). Since 1998, Jackson Benson, 218 Wis. 835, 578 602, entered market, represent 32% 11-12. Similarly, increased 2,048 3,582; 33% 12-13. nearly five-fold increase 1990. 218a; total grown 337 3,582 recent 234a-236a; numbers demonstrate wisdom refusal 401, depend "annual distinct include optionsPost, 698-701 (SOUTER, dissenting); 685 (STEVENS, dissenting). opinions explain how perceptible perspective looking what opportunity largely expense prefer 147a, 168a-169a; Nos. 00-3055, etc. (CA6), 1635-1645 1657-1673 (Cleveland typically explore state-funded school). BREYER invisible specters "divisiveness" "religious strife" find unconstitutionalPost, 719, 725-728 unclear exactly mind, considering ignited "strife" locate presumed authority deprive residents subjectively "divisive." rightly speculative potential divisiveness bears programs. 825 dissent resurrects concern political occupied post-Aguilar cases disregarded") cases); 825-826 ("`It curious indeed interpretation Constitution speculation likelihood create merely prosecuting lawsuit'" Aguilar 473 402, 429 (1985) dissenting))). 37 concurring. 38 holds (voucher program), survives challenge. I join write separately although takes step, today's decision, considered longstanding impact organizations prior jurisprudence, dramatic break past. emphasis places verifying exercised "true choice," worth elaborating conclusion alternatives parents. system functions. indirect significant appropriated restrictions funds. share resources not, suggest. 1-2. Data indicate 82 96 1679 (46 affiliated; 3,637 3,765 schools), data incomplete. statistics take account When considers falls 62.1 percent. mix, 16.5 2,087 16,184 40 Even paint complete picture. applicants $1,875 $4,518 pupil. Affidavit Caroline Hoxby ¶¶ 4b, 4c, assumes came voucher, $8.2 million flowed 1999-2000. just one-half fisc, $1 $9.4 Moreover, minor $114.8 41 small pales comparison federal, state, governments institutions. qualify exemptions corporate tax, 501(c)(3); see, Cal. Tax. 23701d (West 1992); property taxes 50 Turner, Property Tax Exemptions Nonprofits, Probate (Sept./Oct. 1998); clergy housing 1402(a)(8). addition, Government corporations, trusts, estates deduction charitable contributions qualified groups. 170, 642(c). credits education 25A (Hope credit); Minn. Stat. 290.0674 (Supp. 2001). 42 Most policies well established, (1983) (upholding expenses); Walz Comm'n 664 (1970) exemption tax), yet confer relative benefit large sums annually. example, Colorado's lowers State's revenues $40 annually, Rabey, Matter Faith: Proof Required Tax-Free Churches, Colorado Springs Gazette Telegraph, Oct. 26, 1992, B1; Debates Church, Nonprofit Tax-Exempt Status, Philadelphia Enquirer, 4, 8; Maryland's $60 million, Maryland Assessment Taxation, 2001 SDAT Annual Report (Apr. 25, 2002), http://www.dat.state.md.us/sdatweb/stats/01ar_rpt.html; Wisconsin's $122 Revenue, Division Research Analysis, Summary Exemption Devices 2001, http://www.dor. state.wi.us/ra/sum00pro.html ($5.688 billion exempt property; average $21.46 $1,000 property); Louisiana's exemption, city Orleans, $36 Bureau Governmental Research, Administration Orleans Parish: Recommendations (Dec. ($22.6 houses worship $14.1 Government, reduces $25 Commerce, Census, Statistical Abstract 344 Abstract), reported 60 household go charities, 397. relatively receipts amounts. parsonage around $500 million. Diaz, Ramstad Prepares Retain Break Clergy's Housing, Star Tribune (Minneapolis-St. Paul), 2002, 4A. 43 exemptions, "much [cash grants] [avoided]," Regan Taxation Representation Wash., 461 540, 544 859-860, esp. (THOMAS, concurring), dollars health Medicare, 1395-1395ggg, Medicaid, 1396 seq., Pell 1070a, I. Rights, 3451, 3698; childcare Child Care Development Block (CCDBG), 9858 (1994 ed., V). Medicare Medicaid healthcare elderly poor, respectively, Furrow, T. Greaney, Jost, Schwartz, Health 545-546 (2d ed. 2000); 2; subsidize higher veterans, Mulleneaux, Failure Provide Adequate Higher Incentives Lower-Income Individuals, Akron (1999); CCDBG finances care parents, Pitegoff, Policy Welfare Act, Affordable Housing Dev. 113, 121-122 (1997). well-established social welfare 756, substantial, 92 (Table 120) ($211.4 $176.9 1998), 135 208) ($9.1 Department $280.5 1999); Bush On Welfare: Tougher Work Rules, Control, Congress Daily, Feb. ($4.8 44 institutions, subsequent use. hospitals, hospital beds nationwide, revenue. Merger-Watch, Study Details Funding Hospitals (Jan. http://www.mergerwatch.org/inthenews/ publicfunding.html. hospitals $45 fisc 1998. substantial. available, Minnesota, college Roughly $27.1 4-year colleges. Services Office, Financial Aid Awarded, Fiscal Year 1999: Grants, Loans, Student Earning Institution Jobs 24, $23.5 45 Against atypical existing observation intended justify Clause, 709-710, dissenting), alarmist about implications 685-686 715-716 717 (BREYER, II signal major departure jurisprudence. central tool analysis area Lemon test. originally formulated, passed test legislative purpose," "principal "neither advance[d] inhibit[ed] religion," excessive entanglement Kurtzman, 403 612-613 (1971) 218, 232-233 (1997), folded sense inquiries evidence, ibid., degree advances inhibits Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 688 (1984) today basically set forth Dist. Abington Township Schempp, 374 222 (1963) Everson Board Ewing, 330 (1947); McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 442 (1961)), years ago. 47 focuses narrow related test: apply effects prong cases? Specifically, clarifies trying distributes providers, 613-614, or, put it, "endors[ing] disapprov[ing]... 691-692 (concurring Wallace Jaffree, 472 38, 69-70 ante, 652. Courts instructed factors: first, administers fashion, differentiation services; second, importantly, determining organization query "no," struck down 652-653. 48 portrays Everson. 687-688 fair reading opposite. Justice Black's "[First] Amendment requires relations believers non-believers; require adversary." Everson, 18; 222. How else upheld transportation alike? What flowing hands direction beneficiaries. refinement surely betray III 49 little my mind 653-654. rejects notion neutrality, gauged presents effects. particular, "neutrality [should] category directed scheme direction." 697 doubts view. He surmises cap encourages 704-705. law. "made non-discriminatory superior respect. adequate substitutes eyes record compete effectively 656-657, 4. selected all. Supra, 663-664. voucher-eligible turned away let 969 part); Brennan ¶ 147a. 51 his hunch cites cost advantage types 705-706, ignores level, target market different, higher, quality education. smaller, Survey, 60) (87 269 elementary respectively); smaller sizes, ibid. (9.4 18.8 teacher highly educated teachers, States: Profile, 1993-1994 97-459, 1997) 3.4) (37.9 29.9 Master's degrees); principals longer job tenure 3.7) (average 8.2 4.7 years, respectively). 52 Additionally, theory 647. 53 rejects, correctly, necessarily Ante, 656-660. mere associated faith own, says options. known Supra page. impressive Declaration Zanotti 10, 227a. demonstrated above, establish undertake persuasive. considered. option, minimum, Yet 3d, 958. incorrect. Focusing indicates previously served prompted convert concerned surrounding transferred 145a, 147a; 4-10, 225a-227a. incident strong alternatives. 55 Considering vouchers, array 655. Not surprisingly, candidates denied slots opposite unavailable others scores. 702-703, unreasonably limits undisputed 701-702, http://www.cmsdnet.net/administration/EducationalServices/magnet.htm (June 2002). correct (Life Skills Cleveland). Puckett 162a. (Horizon Science Academy, Alternative Learning, Preparatory School) classes, targeted disciplinary problems, middle catering impoverished attractive closed location years. 162a; Education, Office Options, 22, http://www.ode.state.oh.us/community_ schools/community_school_directory/default.asp. Two scheduled after 13, 163a. 57 six admits notes (the Broadway, Cathedral, Chapelside, Lincoln Park campuses Hope Academy) scores report cards prepared Education. (One, Old Brooklyn Montessori better Ibid.; Card, (community scored five subjects 1999-2000).) underestimate value Academy Before capacity, highest rates satisfaction Peterson, Howell, An Evaluation Voucher Years 6, Peterson). Harvard University study attracted "poorest educationally disadvantaged students." Lessons 15, 1997). evaluation measure suppose, inner discipline safe dimensions derides ably. 7. 58 Ultimately, conclusions. One Cleveland. confirms refusing assessing constitutionality. 658. motivate desire limiting 700, goal whether, free direction. 655-656. regardless formally section 59 Based realities am persuaded affords 61 Douglass "[e]ducation emancipation. liberty. uplifting soul man glorious truth, men free."1 Today deny emancipation urban Despite ago Brown 347 483, (1954), "it doubtful succeed life education," forced continually them. example failures. Besieged escalating problems declining achievement, emergency 62 dissents wish invoke incorporated Fourteenth, constrain efforts underprivileged Today's properly upholds constitutional, full. 63 often conflict limitations. Attempts allow involvement controversy try navigate Illinois ex rel. McCollum 71, Champaign Cty., 333 237-238 (1948) (Jackson, (noting tell judges "where begins education"). decided challenging 793 (2000); 203 807-808. easily passes muster stringent test, matter principles, 64 states "Congress shall respecting establishment face, limit protected extension citizens, imposition Government.2 Whether difficult question. 65 fundamentally restructured relationship liberty due process guarantees citizenship born naturalized "[n]o enforce abridge privileges immunities States; life, liberty, property, law; jurisdiction protection laws." Harlan noted, "added greatly dignity glory citizenship, security personal liberty." Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 555 (1896) rights advance, constrain, 66 Consequently, evaluated Government. "States, bound observe strict freer experiment [in religion] Government." 664, 699 (Harlan, "make touch matters impede interest. By right alleged invaded State, courts strike proper balance demands hand federalism prerogatives other.3 Whatever textual historical merits incorporating protects rights.4 oppose incorporation tragic irony converting Amendment's guarantee prohibition 68 allowing latitude dealing appreciated context. advocate handcuff ability civic, political, freedoms Amendment. Faced severe crisis, wide-ranging reform allows voluntary educating condemned force indoctrination manner educate children.5 routinely exercised. 69 variety choices. privately Currently, church (35 Catholic), 281a-286a; 949 2000). disallow inclusion 70 increasing performance opportunities. achieve results counterparts. score tests 95 whereas passed. 75 math success end beside point, promote opportunity. successful improved 71 purposes democracy egalitarian culture,6 disproportionately affect At Reconstruction, blacks liberation society." Anderson, Blacks South, 1860-1935, (1988). Today, promise blacks. everyone, varies across Just supported minorities greatest struggling communities.7 Opponents formalistic concerns core romanticized ideal universal resonates cognoscenti want high-tech advanced society. Sowell noted ago: "Most black people grim, concrete romantics. tangible results, achieved developing specific abilities." Education: Myths Tragedies 228 (1972). today. individual's prospects dramatically successfully completed phase instance, dropout earns $13,500, $21,000. bachelor's $37,500, $75,500 professional degree. 140 218). Staying earning generates real benefits, failure essentially relegates and, often, crime.8 perpetuates vicious cycle poverty, dependence, criminality, alienation continues remainder lives. society racial discrimination, arm defend themselves discrimination's 73 74 raising children.9 address root problem Society's solution failures preferences preferences, afoul distinctions race. Plessy, involve appear unconstitutional twist expansively Converting obstacle distorts values disserves poignantly bestowed benighted people, giving them, earnestly day endeavoring do, education."10 Blessings Address Delivered Manassas, Virginia, September 1894, Papers 623 (J. Blassingame McKivigan eds. 1992) Papers) See,e. 309-310 (Stewart, dissenting) primarily attempt insure powerless church, unable interfere establishments"); 113 (REHNQUIST, Several Justices suggested stated, "[t]he inappropriateness standard restricting Nation indicated disparity functions duties relation freedoms."Beauharnais Illinois, 343 250, 294 (1952) noted: "The areas human conduct regulation powers substantive governments, instances, distinct. called interest expression interests, seems me keep forefront interests federal." Roth 354 476, 503-504 (1957) Gitlow 268 652, (1925) (Holmes, inhere Free Exercise unlike liberties worship. "That embodied particularly, `liberty' contained safeguarding consistently recognized."Schempp, 312 Amar, Constitution, Yale 1131, 1159 (1991) clause paradigmatically citizen rights, rights; invites incorporation. specially plight religions, meshes especially minorityrights thrust Amendment"); Lietzau, Rediscovering Clause: Federalism Rollback Incorporation, DePaul 1191, 1206-1207 (1990). fundamental repose excludes power standardize forcing instruction only. creature State; nurture destiny right, coupled duty, recognize prepare obligations."Pierce Sisters, 510, 535 (1925). Troxel Granville, 57, 80 Edwards, Social Order: Dynamics 360-362 (1947). Minority express interested placing "[T]he appeal income, minority, live low-performing districts: current system." Moe, Vouchers, 164 (2001). Nearly three-fourths $20,000 $60,000. Seeid., 214 7-3). Hispanic 1997, prisoners correctional Sourcebook Criminal Statistics-2000, 519 6.38) schooling. charter 2001: What's Happening xxv (R. Moffitt, Garrett, Smith 1) 76 dissenting. 77 Is authorizes grammar faiths "law meaning Amendment? answering factual length colleagues. 78 crisis appraisal relief district's disastrous conditions prevented 90 body meeting obviously massive improvements unrelated program.1 powerful motivation leave avoided, reason upholding 79 bearing does, "respecting divide dozen label whatever decides call fund obligation issue cases.2 Third, character government's constitutionally permissible. family wants 81 convinced profoundly misguided. Admittedly, reaching influenced understanding strife forbears migrate continent, neighbors Balkans, Northern Ireland, Middle East mistrust another. Whenever remove brick wall risk weaken foundation democracy. respectfully dissent. undergoing overhaul financing inDeRolph 93 309, 754 1184 ought, least, effort experimentation relying financed "largely expense."Ante, 660, 6. do. 83 join, 84 bar payment systematically schools' missions. occasion legislation condition serve objective, needed excuse short shrift probably excuse. limitations preserve hard these. "[C]onstitutional lines drawn, side sympathetic provokes impatience price government." 254 85 applicability Clause1 settled (1947), inaugurated modern era doctrine. words dissent: "No amount, small, levied activities called, 16. 87 repudiated statement, alone, words, overruled 88 offended transferable overwhelming appropriations all, amounts cover students' well, fairly characterized founded doctrine imbue dimension.2 systemic level covenant Israel Mosaic primacy Apostle Papacy truth reformed Christianity Protestant revelation Prophet Muslim speak groupings Republic. 89 books approve vouchers? cannot. ignoring rest invocation sanction is, pretend criteria. majority's statements announced education, repudiation set. My object give nuanced exposition tried classify detail 873-899 opinion), doctrinal stages era, show bankruptcy reached 91 Viewed generality, categorized period 1947 1968, unquestioned. Thereafter termed attempts divertible secular, activity institutional beneficiary. starting 1983, divertibility gradually lost approving unlikely evenhandedly recipient's character, individual. Now, succeeded fourth, significance, espoused offering directing shown examples verbal formalism. Ewing development behest taxpayer "tax-raised bus fares pupils" regular buses reimburse public-transportation costs nonprofit 17. split, disagreed quoted, institutions,... Member tension Jersey aims strength religious-school 17-18, thought entitle "general servic[e]" treated "ordinary police fire protection, connections sewage disposal, highways sidewalks," significantly, "state-paid policemen, detailed protect going hazards traffic," dissenters, pronounced establishment, described running counter ban: Jersey's tax-raised "contribut[e] propagation disbelieves religions differ," omitted); exposed threat dependence money, 53; sparked conflicts opponents funding, 54.3 difficulty drawing preserved obvious 392 236 (1968), lend textbooks self-evident Everson's services" rationale. relied in-kind 243, furnished [directly] 243-244.4 Black, wrote led dissenters. Textbooks, "`secular,' realistically inevitably tend propagate views favored sect," 252, wrote, Douglas raised objections ban, 254-266. request faiths, final approval power: "If supinely submits supplying sectarian-oriented textbooks, struggle lost. resists, battle ...." 256 (Douglas, sure fuel well: "we assured contest dominant concludes reflect theocentric philosophy church." 265. 94 Transcending sharp disagreement, consistency deciding .... Neither facile application `test' simplistic generality evenhandedness Disagreement concentrated intent inferrable behind law, feasibility distinguishing reality sham lending pupils schools.... [T]he stress practical 876 B pursue goals, 245; restricted retrenchment followed, saw intertwined secondary segregated, intrusive monitoring state. 620 (striking supplementing salaries avoid entanglement, post-Allen divertibility, discerning susceptible uses. diversion (and it), legitimate no-aid principle. hand, practical, "pervasively sectarian" inextricably intertwined, earmarked Roemer Works Md., 426 736 (1976); Hunt McNair, 734 (1973); Tilton Richardson, (1971). nondivertibility enforced strictly, being seemed face. Compare, Levitt Liberty, 472, 480 (1973) reimbursing administrative teacher-prepared compulsory subjects), Wolman Walter, 433 229, 255 (1977) standardized tests); Meek Pittenger, 421 349, 369-372 (1975) (no staff materials "auxiliary guidance counseling speech hearing services), Wolman, 244 (permitting diagnostic speech, hearing, psychological testing). 97 suspicion reflected substance apparent rejection stratagems invented dodge it. affluent sent dismissed warranties "statistical guarantee," 787-788, presumably matched child's idea path dispositive: "far se immunity examination disbursed factors considered." 781. unmistakably institutions." 783.5 bought disbursement. C 98 Like judicial assessment risk, invitation arguments provoked always realistic aimed (1983), fade, started road realism 99 indistinguishable 396-397, substantively distinguish 399. availability 397-398. principles (1986), student's training subsidy blind college, characterizing derive "large" benefit: [are not] limited, 488. Grand Rapids Ball, 373, 395-396, (1985), clarified notions employees remedial 30-year-old presumption "supplement[ed]" "supplant" 210, 230. viewed "directly 229. 101 Ball uses, circumstances isolated insubstantial. (1993), (to signlanguage interpreter). reasoned "[d]isabled [were] ...; ..., beneficiaries." 819 (1995), insubstantial print evangelical magazine). 102 sure, arguably bare "supplement." controlling case, (2000), "portion" budgets, 860 feel uncomfortable jettisoning form, virtual "first (literally figuratively) elsewhere." 816. 103 Hence say until substantiality majority, plurality, purely formal suffice scrutinizing coffers notable stark illustration inadequacy analysis. 104 taken century twin hands, convincingly legitimize scheme. 105 Consider criterion neutrality. Terms ago, conceived satisfy 838-839 884 limited purpose. employs renders impossible understand. 106 Neutrality refers, setting money. 809-810 878-884 (three senses "neutrality").6 recipient practically unlimited universe 488; depending chose, indication maximum insufficient Zobrest's interpreter's 107 then, Here, provisions, district), written 108 asks. looks 3313.976 opportunity: [as districts], nonreligious." 653 original). confirmation "participation schools" satisfies expenditure goes 654, showing 109 illogic patent. regular, (which get payments) "participate" can, predominantly "Neutrality" term literally, more. indeed, gloss nonneutral feature covering schools": $324 extra (that $360), 166a, mostly religious) $2,250, 56a.7 110 Why generous judge odd. odd, recognizes applying criterion, immediate second consideration helpful position. 111 addresses asking Again, asks wrong misapplies criterion. confused spending menu possible placements, anyone "confused" frames negatively "whether 655-656, having enquiry place. Cases parents.8 whole one. transformed channeling selecting (on education) circumstance. cut loose 112 Defining "choice" whenever endorsed, formulation criterion). easy generate suggesting fact, kind rhetorical accepts (129 students), (roughly (13,000 (1,900 fewer 20% 659. (In seem favorable considered, thinks enquiry, 655.) O'CONNOR 6% ($9.4 million) ($114.8 variations shift pick comparisons, dependably comfortable yield identification open. one, proponents win, somewhere bulk secular. diluted screen nothing, 114 Confining vulnerable criticism. selection open, would, virtually negative case. may, enough desks ones, levels. 704-707. But, choice-to-spend muster, understood order, principle.9 Otherwise one.10 115 task teaching; discussion Part III, wishes define capacity something out. 116 If, influencing direction: (only 1999-2000), religious; 96.6% 3.4% ones. Unfortunately position, explanation statistics, operating, avail view, render Evidence shows, embrace 147a.11 wished proselytized opportunity.12 117 so, 2,270 281a-286a, "chose" options, impermissible possibilities fact. 129 attend, grade 510 seats.13 $2,500 curtailing schools: "nonreligious (about $4,000) accommodate students."14 comparison, $1,592, cap.15 118 fix non-Catholic educators presently exist. robust seminarian choice" unrealistic presume Witters. hypothetical disserve does. III-B, infra.16 interpret reflecting vouchers. reflects, instead, handful assertion, has.17 scheme, design network sake choose, Hobson's Hobsonian. 120 misapplied assumed arguendo satisfied facts, odds circumstantial, discarded symptom violation, dimension direct, defiance supposed establishment. 121 scale approved unprecedented, supported. Each attention previous sheer quantity suspect expenditures, supporting instruction. Meek, role" comes "substantial amounts." 365. 787-788 (rejecting Conversely, "attenuated [the] eventually 400.18 122 gross unhelpful afforded individual, however him, cf. channels series subsidies observations irrelevance 651, involves considerable Cleveland.19 123 taxpayers $33 1996 ($28 payments, $5 costs), exceed $8 2001-2002 People Way Foundation, Counting: Closer Look 1-2 (Sept. Program) 9). top tutors, laboratory equipment, roughly $600 2.20 124 contributed symptomatic taxpayers' buys paying students,21 781-783 (state amounting 50% unconstitutional), purchase everything purchases, faith. consequences "substantial" hypothesized realized here: pretense underwriting indoctrination. 125 superfluous betrayed enormity violation. anticipated objectives earlier, 689-690, discussing cataloged conscience. Jefferson "shall compelled worship, place, ministry whatsoever," Establishing Freedom, Founders' (P. Kurland Lerner 1987), "teacher persuasion," Madison "`authority contribute pence establishment.'" Memorial Remonstrance reprinted 65-66. "Any antithetical command minds free," 871 citations omitted).22 Madison's 126 save corruption, "`experience ecclesiastical establishments, maintaining purity efficacy Religion, operation.'" 7, 67. manifestations "pride indolence Clergy; ignorance servility laity[,] both, superstition, bigotry persecution," ibid.; 21st century, "corrosive secularism" 385, faithful unaltered precepts compromised reshape religion's beliefs purposes; largesse brings regulation." Weisman, 505 577, 608 (1992) (Blackmun, 127 realized. "discriminate 3313.976(A)(4) members patron faith; parish consigned lotteries nonbelievers, 3313.977(A)(1)(c)-(d). exact amendment repealing predecessor allowed "[c]hildren discretion 3313.977(A)(1)(d) 1999). antidiscrimination restriction policies: member layperson claiming qualification job.23 Association, Balance Sheet Elementary Schools: Income Expenses ("31% [reporting middle] full-time sister"). 3313.976(A)(6) subsequently broadened) prohibit traditionally articles error, sinfulness, others,24 128 foot-in-the-door regulation, remember barely begun flow. Prior assistance, alter structure schools; welcome, indispensable. 802 (federal supplement nonfederal sources); 210 (federally "`supplement, supplant, services'" provided). becoming bigger businesses budgets enhanced fit stream income. Painful Price 9, (Feb. 14, 2002) (of payments excess averaged $185,000 overpayment justified "raise salaries"). administrators following politics move Senate ($4,814 year). Bloedel, Analysis 89, 124th Gen. Assembly, session (Ohio Legislative Service Commission). replicating experience Wisconsin, induced creation Forum, Brief, vol. 90, no. 23, which, safely surmise, pegged start, increases bring threshold closer expensive up, it; thing independence. agencies, groups, use, 265 wonder effective veto content curriculums? come learn leverage politicians getting lesson 130 Increased sole portent growing mandates moderate ban inextricable link conflict. 872 8-11. rise, competition tap discord. "Public devoted other, quest sect any. Here most, another." 53. (Rutledge, 131 addressed intensity expectable friction realizing scramble energize contending sectarians, conscience seriously. cordoned politics, espouses positions provoke intense opposition. taxpaying underwrite Church condemning death penalty.25 America's Muslims acquiesce Zionism taught combines nationalistic sentiment" "deeply religious" element.26 differential treatment sexes,27 matter, espousal wife's obedience husband, adopting Southern Baptist Convention.28 Views these, innumerable others, pulpits classrooms directly, exercise, private. arrival privacy go, along confidence disagreement stay moderate. 132 133 avoided term, branches Legislatures driven desperation negotiable Perhaps cities danger, know 134 course hope us decision. statement sound read away. True, clumsy silenced. silent, reconsider Const., Amdt. 319a (Saint Jerome Parent Handbook ("FAITH dominate life"); 347a (Westside Parent-Student Handbook, 7) ("Christ learning. Biblical God's truth"). SeeEverson, 54, eight, "three sects, labor union, Liberties Union, Indiana, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan York"). contains students," "[t]here not."Allen, 244, distinction: stead freed allocation including, potentially, inWolman (1977), 349 (1975), lent "Despite technical change legal bailee," explained, before," exalt Meek." 250. state-mandated testing, dismissing proffered dichotomy finance." Regan, 444 646, 658 (1980). apparently distinguishes free-exercise inEverson. Compare 669 839 (opinion ("Even `neutrality' descriptive refer requisite equipoise antagonism evolution hesitate equating old"). "direct school,"ante, decisively (1973): suggestion analogous endeavor nonpublic `totally expense.' event, much, subsidization fully equalize position elect variance Clause." "private sensibly beyond formalism path, ensure predestined government-funded him. stripped bite, follows argues factor calculusAnte, 672-673 fair, exhibit autonomously interference histories be, count municipality, outside stopping progression. characterize "nontraditional" school" "traditional" thematic creative marketing. Municipal Thematic Programs/Schools (including, "[f]undamental [e]ducation [c]enters," employ "[t]raditional methods skills"; "[a]ccelerated [l]earning" "[i]nstructional strategies [that] build strengths, talents"). "choices" "genuine" theoretically open? showcase trumpet 162a, contemplating 3313.975(C)(1) ("[N]o unless kindergarten, two, three"). "in operation" event line, 21,infra. Another population "numerous suspensions, behavioral peers," points out, "more 674, fourth-grade (unavailable school) indicate: tested examinations, subject, arguable competitor, scoring slightly subjects, somewhat two. 2002 Park, 5; Cathedral Campus, Chapelside Broadway 1. 26-28 (for 34.3% proficient math, 3.3% 0% Cathedral). excellence benchmark comparing test; prefers subjective "parental satisfaction," 675, plausible ways evaluate "genuine choices." Until now, talked standard, "choice," 652 Court), means, Clause? 40% Baptist, 118a, Baptist,id., 284a. surveyed motives 96.4% cited 95% children's safetyId., 69a-70a. asked specifically identify 60% mentioned quality, (presumably secular); consideration. "there program."Ante, 671. equally assertion "many alternatives," contrary, Accounting 01-914, Vouchers: Publicly Funded Programs (Aug. (GAO Report). seven enrolls "low income," drastically increased, constitute fraction GAO 25. ($1,572), ($2,213), ($3,773). Improvement, 1993-94 1997-459 1.5). explained parishes 24.1% revenue 2000-2001 priests communities principals, 550 reporting study,id., 21; salary sisters serving $28,876, lay $45,154, $72,587. 670-671. eight supra. true, she suggests, spurious cater commensurate low-end high-end comparative subsidies, donations faithful, like. "third-party contributions," 656, affidavit backs "emotionally disabled developmentally delayed children" 11% budget organization, 194a-195a, supra note. argue wellAnte, dead this, inconsistency requirement egregiously required. out,ante, 645-646, out-of-district participates normal funding. though, drop bucket student, presumptively standards) taxes. 19-21. close contribution (local contribution, $2,019, 2), public-school classified "academic emergency" onMueller, relevance 658, inapt benefited. 391 ($112 bracket taxpayer, Becker O. 1982, 82-195, 5); (aid "must `supplement, supplant'"); 866 ("de minimis"). 694-695. irrelevant, lacking O'CONNOR's "pales institutions,"ante, 665. pervasively sectarian, church-related colleges universities); Bradfield Roberts, 175 291 (1899) hospitals); deduction, (property-tax exemptions); (tax plausibly university (1986) Bill). teaching. "greater justifies lesser" aforementioned completely swallow aid-to-school onward: acceptable, de minimis uses? startling: estimate, $73 billion, 25% public-education budget. Voice Captive Right? Most, 1679), 2002); 10% shortfall "in-kind services," permit," costs. Feldman, Intellectual Origins Y. 346, 398 (May proposal predominant, exclusive, churches violate conscience") will, disputes employment statute. involvement, prohibiting discrimination race origin. Rayburn Seventh-Day Adventists, 772 1164, 1170 (CA4 1985) Title VII intolerably level"); EEOC America, 455, 470 (CADC 1996); Ill. Methodist 184, 187 (CA7 1994). blocked provision, covers "race background." Testament (2 Corinthians 6:14) (King Version) ("Be ye unequally yoked unbelievers: fellowship hath righteousness unrighteousness? communion darkness?"); Book Mormon Nephi 9:24) ("And repent name, baptized endure end, damned; Lord God, Holy Israel, spoken it"); Pentateuch (Deut. 29:19) (The Publication Translation) converts another faith, LORD forgive him; LORD's anger passion rage man, till recorded book blots name heaven"); Koran 334 Cow Ch. 2:1) (N. Dawood transl. 4th rev. 1974) ("As unbelievers, you forewarn Allah seal hearts ears; sight dimmed grievous punishment awaits them"). Martino, Abolition Death Penalty (Nov. 2, therefore, authorities, serious crimes, non-lethal punishment") II,Evangelium Vitae, 56). Donin, Be Jew (1972) Martin, Islamic Studies 224 1996) (interpreting mean "[m]en responsible earn living families; women bear household") Faith Message, Art. XVIII, www. sbc.net/bfm/bfm2000.asp#xviii ("A wife herself graciously servant leadership husband willingly headship Christ") 136 substantially STEVENS. separately, pose protecting Nation's fabric poses overriding well-intentioned explaining concern, alleviate problem. IV, infra. 137 prohibition, guarantee, thereof." Clauses embody understanding, 17th decades war, stability demand tolerance "worship God way," "teach characters" wish. Radcliffe, Compass (1960). Framers' vision nations Europe. Freund, Parochial Harv. 1680, 1692 (1969) "one evils forestall"); Kosmin Lachman, God: Religion Contemporary (1993) (First "part prevent wars Europe entering States"). Framers 18th-century practices, undeniably implement objective. 138 reason, 20th-century focused conflict, potentially becomes Engel Vitale, 370 (1962), forbids prayer "anguish, hardship bitter zealous struggl[e] Government's stamp 429. added: 139 governmentally England country, showed allied inevitable incurred hatred, disrespect contempt 431. 588 school-sanctioned graduation ceremony "potential divisiveness" "particular relevance" environment); 307 (Goldberg, (Bible-reading rise "to divisive influences inhibitions freedom" impose influence "young impressionable [school] children"). 141 602 (1971), supplements, teachers. "threat" harm process." 622. explained: 142 "[P]olitical debate division healthy democratic [the clauses were] protect." 143 794 "assistance continuing 144 clear-cut church/state separation compatible tranquility. historians early Republic, character. recited prayers, King version Bible, learned ideals. Tyack, Onward Soldiers: Common History 217-226 Nash 1970). Those wrongly discriminated threaten (Catholics constituted 2% church-affiliated founding). 145 aware, immigration growth changed 1850, 1.6 Catholics lived 1900 rose Jeffries Ryan, Political Mich. 279, 299-300 population. 45-46. numbers, non-Protestant Catholics, resist domination Scholars mid-19th Bible "grew intense," resisted Protestants fought back domination. 300. "Dreading domination," native "terrorized Catholics." Hamburger, Separation 219 (2002). "Catholic suffered beatings expulsions crowds rioted released classroom reading." Rev., 146 aware failed; exacerbated "Protestant position" scholars report, "was `nonsectarian' usually observances) `sectarian' meant Catholic)." 301. sentiment played movement amend constitutions (often successfully), (unsuccessfully) help "sectarian" (i. Catholic) 301-305. 287. 147 society, interpretive dilemma practical. diversity contemporary 240 (Brennan, quo others. (among things) favoritism. objective? Did chance introduce "equal opportunity" Or, favoritism insisting "separation" removing business children? arose 148 concluded "separation," workable. prayers treat diverse spiritual virtue training. difficult, impossible, devise meaningful forms treatment" 149 equivalent popular strife? Rutledge recognized: 150 [religious sect] [of adherents] societies dissident groups." 53-54 (1947) 151 upshot reads avoiding strife, (say, secure pray heartland belief, issue. 152 remains concern. exponentially boasts subgroups members. Graduate Kosmin, Mayer, Keysar, Identification Survey Major include, Protestants, Jews, Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, Sikhs. contain subsidiary sects beliefs. Lester, Oh, Gods!, Atlantic Monthly Newer immigrant "expressing languages, customs, recognizable, controversial, European-ancestry Protestants." Ebaugh Chafetz, Immigrants: Continuities Adaptations Immigrant Congregations (abridged 153 modern-day circumstances, work risking "struggle sect" warned? finance young. And, adopted, billions about, influence, channel schools? examine determine, biased adequately fulfilling criteria? resolve resulting controversies provoking fears Nation, dissension? 154 insists religions. Does so? "revoke registration if, superintendent determines violation" rules. 3313.976(B). argues, imagine activity" appointment officials referees "teaches advocates lawlessness." 23. 155 adjudicate advocating, civil disobedience unjust laws, illegal drugs ceremony, resort immoral practice? casts light? react controversial topics say, war terrorism? application, divisive. Efforts respond entangle Lemon, 622, legitimately) unfair government. 156 nations, Great Britain France, reconciled strife. British French homogeneous waves well. Foreign (1996) (describing exemplified expulsion teenage girls wearing scarves); Ahmed, Extreme Prejudice; Britain, Times London, May connection Britain). 157 ours, belief shaping, next generation's spirits. Webster, Youth (1790), Essays Early Republic 43, 53, (F. 1965) ("[E]ducation youth" "of consequence making preaching gospel, lays gospel success"); Pope VI, (1965) fulfillment fostering dialogue mankind, retains utmost importance"). 158 concede texts. (2000). certify Life Longmeadow, 885 940 (CA1 1989). turmoil. Charter School's Tone; Operation Bay Raises Church-State Questions, San Francisco Chronicle, Dec. 17, A1 complaints "studying Islam praying teachers," complaining "`post-Sept. anti-Muslim sentiment'"). 159 differ, differ church: truths young 592 ("heightened concerns" education); Edwards Aguillard, 482 578, 583-584 (1987) ("Court vigilant compliance 160 importance pronounce goals "communicate gospel," community," prayer," values." 408a, 487a. undesirable, contentious training, adults university. 720-722. Contrary 665-666 contributions, exemplifying distinguishes, monetary other. 666 lies belief. 161 Vouchers permit combined put, exacerbates peripheral items, prohibitions teaching, division. conceivable have, statute, 864 judgment), camel's nose, camel itself. IV 162 sufficiently offsets mentioned. inadequate teachings own. preclude government-sponsored ignored doctrines ameliorate II, describes. cash check V turns clock back. adopts, "neutrality," offers overcomes concord. insufficient; 783. composed creeds, fear risks harmful fabric.

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