Legal Document

512 U.S. 687114 S.Ct. 2481129 L.Ed.2d 546 BOARD OF EDUCATION KIRYAS JOEL VILLAGE SCHOOL DISTRICT, Petitionerv.Louis GRUMET et al. MONROE-WOODBURY CENTRAL Petitioner v. Louis ATTORNEY GENERAL NEW YORK, Nos. 93-517, 93-527 and 93-539. Supreme Court of the United States Argued March 30, 1994. Decided June 27, Syllabus * The New York Village Kiryas Joel is a religious enclave Satmar Hasidim, practitioners strict form Judaism. Its incorporators intentionally drew its boundaries under State's general village incorporation law to exclude all but Satmars. fell within Monroe-Woodbury Central School District until special state statute, 1989 N.Y.Laws, ch. 748, carved out separate district that follows lines. Although statute gives locally elected school board plenary authority over primary secondary education in village, currently runs only program for handicapped children; other children attend private schools, which do not offer educational services. Shortly before new began operations, respondents others brought this action claiming, inter alia, Chapter 748 violates Establishment Clause First Amendment. trial court granted summary judgment respondents, both intermediate appellate Appeals affirmed, ruling 748's effect was impermissibly advance religion. Held: affirmed. 81 N.Y.2d 518, 601 N.Y.S.2d 61, 618 N.E.2d 94, Justice SOUTER delivered opinion with respect Parts II-B, II-C, III, concluding Clause. Pp. ____. 1 (a) Because did receive governmental simply as one many communities eligible equal treatment law, there no assurance next community seeking own will one. anomalously case-specific creation leaves without any way review such purpose safeguarding principle government should prefer religion another, or irreligion. Nor can historical context furnish reason suppose Satmars are merely series similarly benefited communities, Act case being entirely at odds York's trend. 2 (b) Constitution allows State accommodate needs by alleviating burdens, crosses line from permissible accommodation impermissible establishment. There are, however, several alternatives providing bilingual bicultural implicate could an educationally appropriate public schools neutral site near village's parochial if legislature remain dissatisfied local district's responsiveness, it enact legislation tightening mandate districts on matters offerings. 3 SOUTER, joined BLACKMUN, STEVENS, GINSBURG, concluded Part II-A delegating discretionary group defined common religion, brings about "fusion" functions. See Larkin Grendel's Den, Inc., 459 116, 126, 127, 103 505, 511, 512, 74 297. That criterion defining test shown legislature's undisputed knowledge exclusively when adopted; fact small specialized ran uniquely counter customary districting practices State; origin unusual legislative rather than laws organization. result has delegated civic basis belief principles. 4 KENNEDY, agreeing Clause, real vice created drawing political See, e.g., Shaw Reno, 509 ----, ---- - 113 2816, 125 511. more fine between voluntary association leads comprised people who share faith, forced separation occurs draws explicit peoples' faith. In creating question, crossed line. 5 J., announced I, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined, II (introduction) II-A, joined. filed concurring opinion. opinion, BLACKMUN part judgment. SCALIA, dissenting REHNQUIST, C.J., THOMAS, 6 Nathan Lewin, Washington, DC, argued petitioners No. 93-517 93-527. 7 Julie S. Mereson, Albany, NY, petitioner 8 Jay Worona, respondents. 9 Court. 10 Orange County, York, passed district, following lines, serve distinctive population. 748. question whether Amendment, binding through Fourteenth act tantamount allocation power neither presupposes nor requires impartiality toward we hold prohibition against 11 Hasidic sect takes name town Hungarian Romanian border where, early years century, Grand Rebbe Teitelbaum molded into distinct community. After World War destruction much European Jewry, most his surviving followers moved Williamsburg section Brooklyn, York. Then, 20 ago, purchased approved undeveloped subdivision Monroe assembling since become Joel. When zoning dispute arose course settlement, presented Town Board petition town, right Law almost residents satisfy certain procedural niceties. N.Y.Village Law, Art. (McKinney 1973 Supp.1994). Neighbors wish secede objected strenuously, after arduous negotiations proposed were drawn include just 320 acres owned inhabited incorporated 1977, population 8,500 today. Rabbi Aaron Teitelbaum, eldest son current Rebbe, serves rov (chief rabbi) rosh yeshivah schools). 12 vigorously make few concessions modern world go great lengths avoid assimilation it. They interpret Torah strictly; segregate sexes outside home; speak Yiddish their language; eschew television, radio, English-language publications; dress ways headcoverings garments boys modest dresses girls. Children educated Talmudic Academy where they thorough grounding limited exposure secular subjects, girls Bais Rochel, affiliated curriculum designed prepare roles wives mothers. generally, W. Kephart & Zellner, Extraordinary Groups (4th ed. 1991); I. Rubin, Satmar, An Island City (1972). 13 These not, services children, entitled federal even enrolled schools. Individuals Disabilities Education Act, U.S.C. § 1400 seq. (1988 Supp. IV); N.Y.Educ.Law, 89 1981 Starting 1984 provided annex year later ended arrangement response our decisions Aguilar Felton, 473 402, 105 3232, 87 290 (1985), Dist. Rapids Ball, 373, 3216, 267 (1985). needed (including deaf, mentally retarded, suffering range physical, mental, emotional disorders) then families found highly unsatisfactory. Parents these withdrew them citing "the panic, fear trauma [the children] suffered leaving whose so different," some sought administrative public-school placements. Ed. Wieder, 72 174, 180-181, 531 889, 892, 527 767, 770 (1988). 14 Monroe-Woodbury, part, declaratory barred regular Id., 180, N.Y.S.2d, N.E.2d, 770. disagreed, holding left free establish because authorities broad discretion fashioning program. 186-187, 895, 773. added, Satmars' constitutional exercise freely require school, parents had alleged trauma, inconsistency practice doctrine, treatment. 189, 897, 775. 15 By 1989, child attending Monroe-Woodbury's schools; received privately funded went without. It Legislature issue litigation, "is constituted . shall have enjoy powers duties union district. ." 748.1 thus empowered take opening closing them, hiring teachers, prescribing textbooks, establishing disciplinary rules, raising property taxes fund operations. N.Y.Educ.Law 1709 1988). signing bill Governor Cuomo recognized "all members same sect," said "a good faith effort solve th[e] unique problem" associated village. Memorandum Assembly Bill Number 8747 (July 24, 1989), App. 40-41. 16 enjoys legal elementary school-aged 3202 Supp.1994), children. stayed relying transportation, remedial education, health welfare If handicap seek would pay tuition send another nearby. Under like arrangements, neighboring Joel, two thirds full-time students come outside. all, 40 students, three times part-time basis. 17 Several months Boards Association Grumet Hawk Department various officials, challenging national constitutions unconstitutional establishment religion.2 Albany County allowed intervene parties defendant accepted parties' stipulation discontinuing original defendants, although Attorney General continued appear defend constitutionality statute. N.Y.Exec.Law 71 1993). On cross-motions judgment, ruled plaintiffs (respondents here), finding failed prongs Lemon Kurtzman, 403 602, 91 2105, 29 745 (1971), National Constitutions. Dept., 151 Misc.2d 60, 579 1004 (1992). 18 A divided Appellate Division affirmed ground advancing violation constitutions, 187 App.Div.2d 16, 592 123 (1992), while expressly reserving issue, 94 (1993). Judge Smith wrote be Hasidic, "symbolic church state" "likely perceived Satmarer Hasidim endorsement choices, nonadherents disapproval" own. 529, 67, 100. As result, majority, statute's advancement belief. Hancock purposeful, violated first well second prong Lemon. 540, 74, 107. Chief Kaye took different tack, applying scrutiny prescribed statutes singling particular privileges burdens; she invalid unnecessarily narrow problem, creates full instead 532, 69, 102 (concurring opinion). dissent, Bellacosa enable secular, education; was, indeed, effect; attenuated benefit reasonable cultural differences. 550-551, 80, 113. 19 We Appeals, 114 10, 762 (1993), certiorari, 510 544, 126 446 "A proper Free Exercise Clauses compels pursue 'neutrality' religion," Committee Public Religious Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 792-793, 93 2955, 2975, 37 948 (1973), favoring adherents collectively nonadherents. Epperson Arkansas, 393 97, 104, 266, 270, 21 228 (1968). District, departs command character community, been exercised neutrally. 297 (1982), provides instructive comparison litigation us. There, requested strike down Massachusetts granting bodies veto applications liquor licenses. governing body church, synagogue, located 500 feet applicant's premises could, submitting written objection, prevent Alcohol Beverage Control Commission issuing license. 117, ,S.Ct., 507. spite valid interest protecting churches, institutions " 'the hurly-burly' outlets," id., 123, S.Ct., (internal quotation marks omitted), respects wholesome Court's cases speak," Abington Schempp, 374 203, 222, 83 1560, 1571, 844 (1963). 'fusion functions' "important, powers" bodies, entangling U.S., (quoting supra, 1571); see also 613, 2111. And lacked "any 'effective means guaranteeing' '[would] used neutral, nonideological purposes,' 125, 511 780, 2969); this, along "significant symbolic religion" mere appearance joint Church State," led conclude 'primary' 'principal' 125-126, 511; 612, Comparable problems inhere A. 22 example united authority, rarely straightforward America, cf. Wolman Walter, 433 229, 263, 97 2593, 2613, 53 714 (1977) (Powell, part), core rationale underlying Clause," 512. Allegheny American Civil Liberties Union, Greater Pittsburgh Chapter, 492 573, 590-591, 109 3086, 3099, 106 472 (1989) (Establishment prevents group); 660, 3136 (Kennedy, part) (same); Everson Ewing, 330 1, 15-16, 67 504, 511-512, L.Ed. 711 (1947) "participat[ing] affairs organizations groups versa "); Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 493-494, 1680, 1682-1683, 982 (1961) (same). 23 problem subtle, resembles raised extent earlier teaches may delegate chosen according criterion. Authority belongs State, N.Y. Const., XI, 1987), cannot order grant control group. What makes delegation here "qualified voters Joel," leader rov, institution formally parish council Larkin. light circumstances case, distinction turns lack significance. 24 is, first, dispositive recipients individuals group's leaders officers. franchise voters, manipulation Satmars, giving exclusive subdivision. difference vesting officers sectarian organization form, substance. true (or people) denied opportunity rights citizens affiliations commitments, disability violate exercise, McDaniel Paty, 435 618, 98 1322, 55 593 (1978), Amendment guarantees certainly bars But McDaniel, held individual activities, office, point here. happen office does mean deliberately individual, institution, identity. Rebbe," obviously invalidation (even though run for, board), delegates reference Where lies government's purposeful principles identities incidental receipt authority. 25 Of course, express "territory Joel." Thus (and arguably important) identification civil terms religious. analysis end text Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. Hialeah, 508 2217, 2227, 124 (1993); Wallace Jaffree, 38, 56-61, 2479, 2489-2492, 86 (1985); Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 341-342, 110 (1960), persuades us effectively identifies doctrinal adherence, expressly. find better view facts boundary lines divide affiliation, act. 26 those negotiated aware remained adopted Brief p. 20; Respondents 11. significance indicated further carving State. Indeed, trend dividing consolidating them. thousands laid 19th century combined recombined, larger central districts, tenth Univ. Reorganization, Pamphlet 14, pp. 8-12 (1962) (hereinafter Pamphlet); Woodward, Legal Organizational History Reorganization 10-11 (Aug. 1986). Most cover towns, cross county boundaries, remains precisely coterminous Pamphlet, 24. object consolidation large enough provide comprehensive affordable cost, thought least pupils junior-senior high school. Master Plan (rev. 1958).3 contrast, local, including out-of-area number 200), offering programs pretense full-service 27 legislature, reorganization,4 likewise anoma lous. established existing act, only, having serving institutionalized tax bases student populations placed agencies. 3601-a (Statutory Notes), §§ 4001 4005 Supp.1994); ("These fiction"). formed whole heterogeneous built land straddled districts. 1972 928 (authorizing Gananda District). exceptional singularity, coming notice single residents. Clearly "cannot seen fulfillment [a village's] destiny independent entity," Scotland Neck Bd. Ed., 407 484, 492, 92 2214, 2218, 33 75 (1972) (Burger, result).5 28 practice, dictated reasons treat reflection identifying Not explain responded concerns implicating detail on. therefore substantially equivalent hence qualification test, resulting forbidden "fusion functions." citation omitted).6 B concern equally nonreligious) groups. This malady identified it, absence "effective guaranteeing" neutrally employed. omitted). whereas might interests adherents), threat neutrality antecedent stage. 30 fundamental source itself fail religiously way. nature direct heart 52-54, ____; 270; 216-217, 1568. law,7 situated one; unlike agency's denial exemption generally applicable "would judicial audience," Olsen Drug Enforcement Admin., 878 F.2d 1458, 1461 (CADC 1989) (R.B. Ginsburg, J.), failure unreviewable. receiving laws. Early development rejected localized promoted allow schooling Roman Catholic R. M. Sedlak, 162, 167-169 (1976). recent history, stands alone. 31 must manner recognized, discuss specific possibility favoritism assembled applicant license, 120-121, n. 3, 508-509, category grounded frequently relied explicitly availability turning aside challenges. Walz Tax Comm'n City, 397 664, 673, 90 1409, 1413, 697 (1970), example, sustained properties "not singled churches such," exempted class nonprofit, quasi-public corporations." Accord 696-697, 1425-1426 (opinion Harlan, J.). Bowen Kendrick, 487 589, 608, 108 2562, 2573, 101 520 (1988), upheld enlisting "wide spectrum organizations" addressing adolescent sexuality "neutral grantee's status purely institution."8 Texas Monthly, Bullock, 489 890, (striking sales publications); 14-15, 899 (plurality opinion); 27-28, 906 (BLACKMUN, judgment); Estate Thornton Caldor, 703, 711, 2914, 2918, 557 (1985) (O'CONNOR, judgment) (statute "singles Sabbath observers protection similar ethical beliefs employees"); Witters Washington Dept. Services Blind, 474 481, 754, 88 846 (1986) concurring). Here flows sect, aiding single, causes less follow whole, Larson Valente, 456 228, 244-246, 1673, 1683-1684, C 32 requirement extending franchise, deny burdens. Our leave doubt commanding Religion oblivious impositions legitimate exercises place practice. Rather, "ample room 'benevolent permit exist sponsorship interference," Corporation Presiding Bishop Jesus Christ Later-day Saints Amos, 483 327, 334, 107 2862, 2867-2868, 273 (1987) Comm'n, 1413); "government sometimes must) violating Clause." Hobbie Unemployment Fla., 480 136, 144-145, 1046, 1051, 190 (1987). facilitates what renders Cf. Lee Weisman, 505 112 2649, 2676, 120 467 (1992) (SOUTER, concurring) ("That foreclose ever taking account"); 299, 1612 (Brennan, ("[H]ostility, neutrality, characterize refusal chaplains places worship prisoners soldiers cut off civilian opportunities communion"). limits, adjustment preferences9 countenance. Prior interference, 336-337, 2868-2869 (government favor hiring, employment); Zorach Clauson, 343 306, 679, 96 954 (1952) release during day off-site education), never hinted otherwise saved accommodation. Petitioners' singles treatment,10 whatever limits accommodations be, compare supra exempting publications taxation), (upholding employers Title VII), clear among religions honored. 1683. 34 conclusion bring parents, road respond parents' concerns. Just observed meeting "readily accomplished means," 124, 510, Such perfectly offered District. Since claim separatism mandated, instruction already Or turn made difficulty scheme, administered accordance necessarily confine 247-248, 2655. 35 To sure, disagree actually late 1980's appropriately tailored relevance provided, adjustments made. understand child's recourse proceedings (a process appears prior resort N.Y.2d, 770), responsiveness III 36 Cardozo once cast dissenter gladiator making last stand lions." B. Cardozo, Literature (1931). Scalia's dissent work gladiator, he thrusts lions imagining. disable homogeneous exercising conferred regard post, Unlike states Utah Mexico (which traditional methodologies account latitude longitude topographical features, F. Van Zandt, Boundaries 250-257 (1966)), purposely non-Satmars. impugn motives Legislature, ____, intended Clause; refuse ignore method chose aids such, 19-20 (Assembly sponsor thrice describes Act's beneficiaries "Hasidic" community), interested schooling. protests novel insist "up front" tailor benefits apply group, so, turned differently, 28, judgment), language purporting rely breadth statutory schemes surplusage. dissent's theory, pass buses Christian constrained uphold attack faced request non-Christian family patently unequal law. 17, bus service pupils). SCALIA begins, license suggesting holds symptom inability accept long reaches classic, 18th establishments. 492-495, 1682-1683. job, easier position prevailed Framers years. diminished dimensions acceptable enforced simple docket requiring application sects. blind history precedent, accordingly recognition comprehend obligates courts necessary 38 clearly fails neutrality. "ranks very apex function Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 213, 1526, 1532, (1972), electorate favoritism. 39 Affirmed. concurring. 41 For stated opinions I join, agree write separately note my disagreement suggestion today's decision signals departure described (1971). plurality II-A) relies upon decisions, rested criteria set forth constitutionally essentially third criteria. ante, Larkin, 126-127, (finding fusion functions" Lemon's "entanglement" prong); employed "principal effect" prong). 42 quarrel observation principles, articulated Lemon, sensitive contexts. convinced validity basic guided cases. 4, 2663, djQ whom GINSBURG 43 parental "panic, trauma" "leaving different." Ante, meet concerns, taken steps alleviate children's teaching schoolmates tolerant respectful customs. Action kind raise strong promoting diversity understanding 44 Instead, solution affirmatively supports sect's segregating preventing associating neighbors. isolation protect trauma," unquestionably increased likelihood fold, faithful specifically shield contact "different ways," official support cement attachment young telling, regard, school's village; far wider village—one geography 5. 45 Affirmative aid segregation evenhanded distribution service, "release time" involving funds, burdensome rule. believe, fairly characterized establishing, accommodating, reason, SOUTER's am persuaded 46 is: do, consistently people's beliefs? especially involved problems, recent. 47 related shortly 1970's. Though area lived zoned single-family homes, subdivided houses apartments, apparently traditionally close-knit extended basements buildings synagogues, violation. Times, Oct. 1976, 53, col. 1; 10-14. 48 Fortunately accommodating virtually incorporate self-government. followed incorporating least, solved. 49 need mid-1980's. pervasively religious, afford educate educating difficult expensive business. Moreover, business moneys everyone else. 1984, therefore, environment secular. sort available throughout country. 50 1985, publicly classes 267; 290. Based stopped site, required This, satisfactory hard time dealing immersion non-Satmar world. going school—the getting either privately-funded all. tried reach resolved. 51 difficulties came create covering operate wanted use handicapped. advantage encountering sent now called decide. 52 situations outlined above shed important aspect Amendment: accommodated living arrangements right—a shared York—to themselves From not. Other examples abound: itself, instance, accommodates desires opposed oaths allowing officeholder—of none —to oath affirmation. II, cl. 8; VI, 3; Amdt. 4. Likewise, selective exemptions conscientious objectors objection based beliefs. Welsh States, 398 333, 356, 1792, 1804, 308 (1970) (Harlan, result). again differently God gods worship, don't worship. "The clearest denomination officially preferred another." 244, 1683, (1982). "Just subject exacting classifications race too strictly scrutinize religion." Employment Div., Human Resources Ore. Smith, 494 872, 886, 1595, 1604, 876 (1990). "[T]he prohibits abandoning purposes organization." Gillette 401 437, 450, 828, 836, 168 "Neither Federal Governments] impose requirements non-believers, existence founded beliefs." 495, (footnote 8-9, 895-896, 26, 28-29, 905 (Blackmun, Welsh, 1804 concurring); 1425-1426, 54 emphasis think, eminently sound approach. view, Clauses—the Test Equal Protection applied religion—all voice point: Absent circumstances, one's ought affect benefits. previously noted, infringed adherence relevant person's standing community." 2496, (O'Connor, judgment). acting change analysis. permissible, praiseworthy, life such. deeply Accommodations justify treating not; discriminations sect. prohibiting consumption alcohol exempt sacramental wines, wine Catholics Jews. draft objectors, objections theistic (such Quakers) non-theistic Buddhists) atheistic result); 335-344, 1794-1798 (reaching interpretation grounds); Seeger, 380 163, 85 850, 733 (1965) permits "nondiscriminatory religious-practice exemption[s]," 1606 (emphasis added), ones. 56 join think accommodation, favorable surrounding me this. 57 face, group—the given seems legislatively classification. realize close favoritism, ask get impossible sure judiciary decisionmakers, obligation requests. petitioning definite response, "no" merits press influential sponsor. normally reviewable court. dangerous validate preference. 58 accommodated. nothing improper intention implemented legislation. may, villages want broadly, own; agency, judiciary. scheme coincides consciously contrary. 59 permissible: discontinued Aguilar. prohibit warrant discriminating All government-funded education. on-site nonsectarian fair well. 60 Aguilar, 421-431, 3242-3247 dissenting), still believe demand hostility ideas, people, Lamb's Chapel Center Moriches Union Dist., 2141, 352 insistence disfavoring should, prepared reconsider jurisprudence back track—government impartiality, animosity, towards IV 61 One worth noting: Like cases, (1992); Zobrest Catalina Foothills 2462, one, focus 62 always appealing look Unified Theory resolve arise clause. Speech Fourth Craig Boren, 429 190, 211, 451, 464, (1976) (STEVENS, 63 have, test. tests content-based speech restrictions, content-neutral restrictions imposed employer, nonpublic fora, reflects inquiry—personal liberty, informed citizenry, efficiency, order, present degrees each context. 64 setting unitary harm good. Any deal widely disparate risks vague useless. say regulation asserted stronger speaker listeners," hardly serviceable formulation. Similarly, has, justification, criticized score. 65 shoehorning reflect tends deform Relatively phrases "primary advances inhibits "entanglement," 612-613, 2111, acquire complicated definitions stray literal meaning. Distinctions Latter-day 2868-2869, (1987); 347, 2874 (discussing point). Assertions authorizing areas "can "Entanglement" discovered monitoring performance employees—surely —on premises, employees cooperating scheduling details. 413, 3238. Alternatives suffer failing lead "coercive pressure" pray asks listeners—with sanctions silent graduation prayer. 2658, Some results perhaps reasoning right. cited above, Lee, continue correctly decided. useful recognize terms, trying squeeze really 66 Finally, danger keep mind bad drive Rather derive narrower, precise tend continually try patch up amorphous distorted. afraid, happened Experience proves easily reduced categories call approaches. involve actions targeted groups, imposing Cases topics, see, supra; (1989); Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 104 1355, 79 604 (1984); Stone Graham, 449 39, 192, 199 (1980), seem fall focusing endorses disapproves 623-637, 3117-3124 68 Another encompasses doctrine Serbian Eastern Orthodox Diocese Milivojevich, 426 696, 2372, ). often contract institutions, questions situations. 721, 2386 (looking aspects determine structure refusing ultimate dispute). Government delegations yet category. suggested, situations: distance hospital valid, be. 123-124, 510. additional categories, opportune draw categories. 69 today shows, slide away approach return possible, likely futile, regardless substantive questions. covers narrower area, apply. attention nuances area. hope, consensus framework insights reflected, 70 Perhaps eventually indeed distill unified, Clark Community Creative Non-Violence, 468 288, 298-299, 3065, 3071-3072, 82 221 (1984) (uniting strands doctrine). able evolve freed test's rigid influence. would, asked; asked carefully distorted framework. stated, affirm 73 correct, reservations implies sufficient writing. recognizes, discriminates interpreted risk burden. precedents needless restriction ability estimation, decide confront accord observations case. part. (1988); (1986); Mueller Allen, 463 388, 3062, 77 721 (1983). seeks burden demands careful ensure discriminate disagree, contravenes commands. attempt valid. "Government policies acknowledgment, heritage." ACLU, 657, 3135, (KENNEDY, part). Before Revolution, colonial governments frequent McConnell, Origins Historical Understanding Religion, Harv.L.Rev. 1466-1473 (1990) (recounting requirements, compulsory military assessments, legislation). 1691, Quakers testify affirmation T. Curry, Freedoms: America Passage (1986). Later, Continental Congress conscription. Resolution July 18, 1775, reprinted Journals 187, 189 (1905) ("As who, bear arms intend violence consciences ."). framing Constitution, variety practices. Selective Draft Cases, 245 366, 389-390 (1918) (military objectors); (New permitting hour week observance instruction); (1971) (exemption VII's discrimination); 1606, drug peyote use) (dicta). 76 District—to children—is validated emerge precedents. First, identifiable life, springs beliefs, conflicts mainstream culture. watch television listen radio; homes read hairstyle dress. Attending exposed caused understandable anxiety distress. relieve significant conflict tenet VII Bishop, obliged employ co-religionists every instance. 1413-1414, ("The co-extensive noninterference mandated Clause"); accord, (legislatures not). Second, increase non-Satmars, compared lifted disqualify genuine Gillette, exemption, war (the chance drafted battle) substantial. permitted employment discrimination nonpractitioners organization's point, becomes 709-710, 2917-2918, (invalidating mandatory "no exception honoring dictates cause employer substantial economic burdens employer's compliance imposition observers"). argued, theory non-Satmars 78 Third, born said, alone, exclusion other. (1982); 3. breaches command. insists here, "anomalously action" interdenominational "Because law," maintains, "we unreviewable." ____ reverses usual presumption and, essence, adjudges guilty innocent. No party adduced evidence analogous circumstances. judiciary, sworn presume future indicates uniqueness plight. normal legislatures arise—no CFR 1307.31 (1993) listing controlled substance nondrug bona fide ceremonies Native Church"); 11.87H ("[I]t unlawful member transport Navajo country, buy, sell, possess, connection practices, sacraments Air Force, Reg. 35-10, ¶ 2-28(b)(2) (Apr. ("Religious head coverings authorized wear uniform headgear authorized. worn underneath interfere wearing, functioning, headgear. Jewish yarmulkes exceed inches diameter"); Prohibition Stat. ("Liquor nonbeverage manufactured, purchased, sold, bartered, transported, imported, exported, delivered, furnished possessed"), repealed Liquor Repeal 872. thereby invalid. 80 facing insulated challenge courts. burdened sue contending discriminatory claim, 1463-1465 J.) (rejecting Ethiopian Zion Coptic marijuana Church); Iowa, 808 652 (CA8 1986) While relief, Olsen, F.2d, 1464 ("Faced choice extension controlled-substances branches choose? bolder predict extension, invalidation, probable choice"), Califano Westcott, 443 76, 89-93, 99 2655, 2663-2665, 382 (1979) (curing gender AFDC unemployed mothers denying fathers), beyond remedy. typical infirmities invalidate attempted ordinary problems. Without bearing particularity acted intent. cast, electoral boundaries. supersede limitations limitation Whether gerrymanders faiths, forbids line-drawing respect, mirrors race, stigma stirred animosities acute racial. Douglas put statement quoted approval Term: "When racial multiracial, multireligious weld together separatist; antagonisms relate issues generated; best representative partisan. system democratic ideal, footing here." Wright Rockefeller, 376 52, 84 603, 611, (1964) (Douglas, dissenting) (quoted 2827-2828, (1993)). insofar invalidates observes, knew determined included imposing, effect, serious configured precision, gerrymandering principle. formation differ critical respect. notes, 7, pursuant religion-neutral self-incorporation scheme. territory five square miles percent voting owners territory's property. 2-200, 2-202 Aside ensuring complies supervisor reject petition. 2-206; Decision Sufficiency Petition, 8, ("[T]he hollow provisions niceties itself"). vote election. 2-212 1973). complete hand accomplishing segregation. indicates, "whose derived geographic criteria, happens comprise coreligionists." 6. People lifestyle live sacrificing self-governance enjoy, flourishes construed homogenizing solvent forces unconventional choose assimilating culture losing rights. line, rare exert documented care carve addressed attributable measure unfortunate rulings attended attended. handicaps (ranging mental retardation deafness spina bifida cerebral palsy), funds annexes Then companion Rapids, invalidated teachers supplemental day. City's funding salaries taught deprived low-income city. suspended enroll ensuing difficulties, recounts, erroneous. us, elaboration date. nonreligious alike, preferable address suffered. Witters, 490-492, 753-754 deficiencies described. misjudgment excuse, compounding another. comes bending rules predicament concur THE CHIEF JUSTICE THOMAS dissenting. finds Powers Be, conspired Hasidim. know surprised discovery: Founders Nation founder Satmar. astounded learn escaping brutal persecution hope toleration ascetic Judaism, powerful, closely allied Mammon, "establishment" Empire Founding Fathers astonished Clause—which "to insure powerful combination sects punish dissenters," 319, 686, (Black, dissenting)—has characteristically admirably precisely, peculiarities) tiny minority surprised. Once abandoned guides, calling funding, however slight indirect, students. superintendent 20-year veteran system, expertise bilingual, bicultural, therapists profoundly segregated sex, co-ed building bland unadorned symbols markings; regulations suggestion, moreover, gone 312-315, 683-685 (approving instruction). sum, thing None suggested anything wrong that. fact, adjacent 2605, (1977). argument isolates impermissible," 246, 2604, that, "[t]he unit occasion provoke [constitutional] concerns," 247, 2605. Term, assist 2469, (sign-language translator deaf student). how defect school? noted Wolman, dangers "from pupils," 248, reasons, His arguments, intermingled, two: reposing group; enacting i.e., others. arguments turn. 95 thesis unconstitutionally extensively, exclusively, believes "resembles" Den "teaches criterion," added). misdescribes ), involves characteristics). gave establishments vicinity church. little unconstitutional. important, institutions." concedes "presented America." stemmed directly focused remarking transfer "churches" (10 times), "governing churches" (twice), "religious institutions" (twice) bodies" (once). Astonishingly, dismisses organization"—the factor "rar[e]"—as "one substance." steamrolling breathtaking. portions unconstitutional, populating North story sharing heritage striking communities. Sweet, Story (1950). preposterous suggest suspect. were, surely inclusion nonbelievers eliminate vice. conferral (rather belong institution) invalidity, why overwhelmingly dominated suffice invoke entire admission Union,1 undoubtedly units today.2 boils quite proposition (say, Joel) invested power, positively antagonistic Clauses, before. amendment persons participate conventions, except ministers. James Madison's 'punis[h] profession privation right.' 626, 1327 Burger, C.J.), quoting Writings Madison 288 (G. Hunt 1904). Brennan judgment: "Religionists afforded speech, association, activity generally." 641, 1326; Widmar Vincent, 454 269, 440 (1981). pernicious deprive appreciating startling implications collapsing members, tries limit "unconstitutional authority" pointing features supposedly case: "boundary affiliation," added); legislature," years, Assuming points not), motivation discussion reply arguments). institution. can, transformed. 100 turn, next, justification religion: facile Legislature's motivated. Land Free, democratically impeached unelected judges. unconstitutionality facially preferential discriminatory) effects—or conformity precedents—Justice "must show basis" 452, 837, (1971); Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 252, 555, 564, 450 (facially race-neutral effects "unexplainable grounds race"). possible Joel: non-handicapped physically disabled distinctiveness. troublesome peculiarly dressed, accompanied clad unimpaired classmates. kept home Surely target addressed, hospital. 1970 Laws, 843 Blythedale Children's Hospital). obvious presence inadequate forward preference objective. scarcely weaker. consists, briefly, this: purpose, (1) extraordinary manner—by school-district reorganization; (2) districts; (3) includes indictment, jury convict. true. "special" Legislature. (creating districts), 559 Abbott House), Acts. event proves, (countering consolidation),3 regarded measures. did, have. true), done consolidate past possibly demonstrate mind? favoritism; logical proof more, dress, customs, culturally (The recognizes 'to facilitate maintain social, values,' 'against religion' interact others." 9, Petitioners 1.) theological distinctiveness decision? assumption latter, theology language, alienation posed adopt assumption, give doubt. level analysis: "Not [by means]." words, motivated desire met rational proving objective pursued available. laud humanitarian commune-dwellers, Indians, gypsies. special, one-culture pose problem. demanded indulgence characteristics teach virtue disabilities." 1335 Even successfully addressed) essential accompaniment belief, discharge heavy legislators disadvantage (i.e. city knowing potential Santeria animal sacrifice, ordinance frequent, municipal garbage collection carcasses dead animals, produced addressed. 2229-2230, extends distributed. ineffective remarkable stretch disfavor analogy hypothetical extra rural predominantly Southern Baptist). At intimates, say, He refers, ., subdivision," "giving" "manipulation." geographical selected (quite logically) existed shady "manipulation" occurred formed, infected says, "[i]t Satmars." indeed. excluded, (as intimates) but—as O'CONNOR describes, high-density favored. classic communality desires, former infect suggest. Entirely (zoning district) (indeed, plausible suspicion) so; instead, insinuate. (not including, entity), "This "there ample 338, 2869, (1987), "play joints productive benevolent 669, 1412, (1970). Accommodation deals 683-685, commanded Walz, 1413-1414. 111 acts particularly "it traditions." Zorach, 314, 684. contains sorts. Article prescribes executive, Governments bind "by Oath Affirmation." populous swearing God, Quakers, Moravians, Mennonites refused Matthew 5:34's injunction "swear all." option added government. Stokes, 524-527 Congress, earliest sessions, refunding paid importation plates printing Bibles, 116 (1813), vestments, 346 (1816), bells, 675 (1836). assessments levied Columbia; 676-678, 1415-1416. acknowledged permissibility program, released hours devotional exercises. 683-685. "accommodates spiritual needs," "show callous indifference groups." organizations, observing salutary tradition "permissible 672-673, Rights 1964 antidiscrimination VII. interference define carry missions." 335, 2868. uncomfortable tradition. acknowledges concept quickly limits," exceeds water. "[W]e hinted," "that accommodation." Putting circularity inherent referring "otherwise unconstitutional" true, replay supra. astoundingly, future, preserved. Returning ill fitted crutch suggests eliminated employed." How misleading. expression suggests) courts' assure transferred power. inapposite here; capacity transpires 115 bottom, guarantee neutrality" assertion comparable assurance," one," judgment).4 technical irrelevant) sense denial, directly. "even [an agency is] litigant] audience. Ultimately escape [a] plea [sought] amendment's clauses." (R. assurances role. described, Congress's items. (1816) (exempting vestments imported "bishop Bardstown"). efforts applies religions. uses sacraments, wine-use impermissible, 2, 2241, dispensation services, exempts desirable, Dept (1990), substances provided. record Kennedy Bureau Narcotics Dangerous Drugs, 415 (CA9 1972) (accepting sacraments).5 117 Contrary "state" more. believed, consistent attacks straw. legislatures. Making exceptions) time, adjudication particularized rulemaking legislation, violates, ex fairness, protection, announce disposed of. proceeding presumptuous impose—out nowhere —an unheard-of heard principle, anyone else, again. done, rule govern V 118 words concurrences: STEVENS adopts, limit. problematic 'panic, trauma,' faith." So values. incidentally helps religious-instruction choice, supra;6 physical fellows synagogue. STEVENS' manifesto secularism. surpasses rejection announces positive religion—which, noncriminal values, transmitting offspring. 119 KENNEDY's "political-line-drawing" founders terms. forming defect. notes geography. then, mirror (an line), infirm, Constitution. Thus, KENNEDY purports criticism (Part IV, ) unprecedented different. says (albeit sect) law; product enactment. end, Court's. expresses (1985)—the provision schools—"may erroneous," date." goes overruled. heartily hostile overruled opportunity; meanwhile, lose ground, anti-accommodationist direction. 121 observes so-called urges abandoned, "unitary approach" claims, convenient relationship cites useful, 2149-2150, (SCALIA, longer comfort mistakenly 2685, dissenting). snub (it receives "see also" citations, opinion's description noteworthy below (who precedent will) (also bound law) dedicated pages briefing vitality addition Edwards Aguillard, 482 578, 636-640, 2605-2607, dissenting); 108-112, 2516-2519, (REHNQUIST, inefficient Court, reaching heavily lesser extent, lower courts, mislead Compare ante (ignoring despite reliance) Chapel, (applying mention it). 122 replace nothing, let "evolve" situation-specific etc.) unconstrained "rigid influence," allure of) "rigid," utterly meaningless, validating desire. 2685 Wallace, 110-111, 2517-2518 bold feel pretend haphazard governed foremost fidelity longstanding traditions seeks, devices. astounding. casts aside, flimsiest evidence, attaches laws, trust (presumably Hasidim) future. unprecedented—except continues, extremes, tendency repealer Nation's toleration. dissent. syllabus constitutes Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber Co., 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. full: "Section 1. Monroe, county, date hereby known 2. composed nine qualified exceeding succeeding law." Messrs. sued capacities Association, 19, citizen-taxpayers. Fin. 1989). Commissioner updates consolidate, N.Y.Educ. 314 1988), published superseding version. initiative superintendent, 1504 1510-1513, 1522-1524, 1902, Education, 1801-1803-a, depending authorizes "organize district," 1504, secession played facial challenge, pattern interdistrict transfers, presently occurring, confirm organizing 490, passed, non-Hasidic move Village, arisen, handicapping conditions Joel's nearby East Ramapo persuade imply suffers infirmity. distinguishable coreligionists. contrasts created, involving, incorporate. "sectarian" refer akin operated affiliation; flow 'in pervasive portion functions subsumed mission,' 610, 2574 McNair, 734, 743, 2868, 2874, 923 (1973)). explains values," transferring census 1906, statehood Utah, Mexico, showed 87.7% Mormon, 88.7% Catholic. Census, Special Reports, Bodies, (1910). level, smallest data available, counties overwhelming majority churchgoers Rich (100% Mormon); Catholic); Emery (99.2% Franklin Counties, Idaho (99% Graham Carolina (93.7% Baptist); Mora (92.6% Catholic). Bradley, N. Green, D. Jones, Lynn, L. McNeil, Churches Membership 1990 46, 112-113, 265, 283, 365, 380, constitute 95% total smaller counties, hundreds towns jeopardy "[e]arly children." Both implication localism policy, (like today) source. 1841 proposal Catholics; state's code, taxing City." 167 triumph keeping King version Bible concludes: Whigs swept elections [1842] reading—the —mandatory monies. build money." 168-169. hints, fears allayed attacked invalidated) one: antecedents. around chicken-and-egg four pectore. likens narrowness struck (1989). Monthly bears resemblance misinterpreted 33-40, 909-913 (Scalia, publishing companies across-the-board non-religious publishers accorded publishers; discriminated decision, remotely approaching automatically bald logic.

Classification Label: 2