Legal Document

395 U.S. 6 89 Supreme Court Reporter 1532 23 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 57 Timothy Federal KF105 F3 LEARY, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. Number 65. Argued Dec. 11 and 12, 1968. Decided May 19, 1969. [Syllabus from pages 6-9 intentionally omitted] Robert Judge Haft, New York City, for petitioner. John S. Martin, Jr., Washington, D.C., respondent. Mr. Justice HARLAN delivered the opinion of Court. 1 This case presents constitutional questions arising out conviction petitioner, Dr. Leary, violation two federal statutes governing traffic in marihuana. 2 The circumstances surrounding petitioner's were as follows. On December 20, 1965, petitioner left by automobile, intending a vacation trip to Yucatan, Mexico. He was accompanied his daughter son, both teenagers, other persons. 22, party drove across International Bridge between Mexico at Laredo, Texas. They stopped Mexican customs station and, after apparently being denied entry, back bridge. halted American secondary inspection area, explained situation inspector, stated that they had nothing declare. inspector asked them alight, examined interior car, saw what appeared be marihuana seeds on floor. then received permission search car passengers. Small amounts found floor glove compartment. A personal revealed silver snuff box containing semirefined three partially smoked cigarettes. 3 Petitioner indicted tried before jury District Southern Texas, counts. First, it alleged he knowingly smuggled into States, 21 Code KF62 § 176a.1 Second, charged transported facilitated transportation concealment which been illegally imported or brought with knowledge in, all again 176a.2 Third, transferee transported, concealed, without having paid transfer tax imposed Marihuana Tax Act, 26 4741 et seq., thereby violating 4744(a)(2).3 4 After sides presented their evidence defense moved judgment acquittal, dismissed first smuggling count.4 guilty tentatively sentenced maximum punishment, pending completion study recommendations used fixing final sentence.5 appeal, Appeals Fifth Circuit affirmed. 383 Reporter, 2nd 851 (1967). That court subsequently petition rehearing en banc. 392 220 (1968). 5 We granted certiorari, 903, 88 2058, 20 1362 (1968), consider questions: (1) whether failing comply provisions Act violated Amendment privilege against self-incrimination; (2) due process application part 176a provides defendant's possession shall deemed sufficient defendant knew illegal importation bringing unless explains satisfaction jury. For reasons follow, we hold favor bt h issues reverse Appeals. I. claim under self-incrimination. Atlantic 7 argues reversal is required our decisions last Term Marchetti versus 390 39, 697, 19 L.Ed.2d. 889 (1969); Grosso 62, 709, 906 Haynes 85, 722, 923 In Marchetti, held plea provided complete prosecution failure register pay occupational wagers, §§ 4411—4412. noted wagering crime almost every State, 6107 lists taxpayers furnished state local prosecutors demand. concluded compliance statute would have subjected "real appreciable"6 risk further recognized not "an essentially non-criminal regulatory area * *," U.S., 57, S.Ct., 707,7 but 'directed 'selective group inherently suspect criminal activities."8 inappropriate impose restrictions use information collected statute—a course urged Government means removing impact upon self-incrimination—because evident congressional purpose provide aid prosecutors. that, unlike Shapiro 335 1, 68 1375, 92 L.Ed. 1787 (1948), supply 'public aspect' contained records kind customarily kept. 8 Grosso, same considerations 4401, imposes an excise proceeds wagering. And assertion unregistered weapon National Firearms 5851, despite fact 'uncommon' instances registration incriminating. See 96—97, 99, 730—731. baron 9 order understand contention obliged him incriminate himself within meaning foregoing decisions, necessary familiar statutory scheme. has tow main subparts. transfers marihuana, second those who deal drug. It convenient begin provisions, 4751—4753. 10 Section 4751 persons 'deal in' subject annual tax. Subsections require specified categories persons, such importers, producers, physicians, researchers, millers varying rates per year. 4751(1)—(4), (6). Persons do fall any are $3 4751(5). 4753 time paying taxpayer must 'register name style place places business' nearest district office Internal Revenue Service. 4741, 'upon section 4742 carried pursuance written odder forms.' registered $1 ounce, while so $100 ounce. 'at securing each form.'9 With certain exceptions here relevant,10 makes unlawful person, 'whether special sections 4753,' except pursuant form obtained transferee. regulation, Regulations 152.69, show address transferor transferee; numbers, if registered; quantity transferred. Another 152.66, requires submit these data obtain form. 4742(d) Service 'preserve' its duplicate copy issues. 12 provision, 4773, assures will available law enforcement officials. forms kept open Treasury personnel officials laws, payment fee copies forms.11 13 Finally, 4744(a) 4741(a) either acquire transport, conceal, facilitate of, acquired.12 convicted 4744(a). conceded trial C. 14 If read according terms, compelled expose 'real appreciable' self-incrimination, Haynes. Sections 4741—4742 him, obtaining form, identify only 4773 directed this conveyed request. 15 ample reason fear transmittal recent, 'would surely prove significant 'link chain' tending establish guilt'13 laws effect.14 When failed late one 50 including York, where claimed occurred, arrested convicted.15 true exe ptions making lawful, conditions, by: state-licensed manufacturers wholesalers; apothecaries; (3) researchers; (4) dentists, veterinarians, medical personnel; (5) agents employees common carriers; (6) whom durg prescribed given authorized person; (7) public officials.16 However, individuals four classes among 4751—4753;17 consequence registered, ounce 4741(a)(1). extremely unlikely remain unregistered, renders liable additional.$99 also severe penalties.18 mentioned above appear wholly exempt requirements.19 16 Thus, might legally possess virtually requirement. follows class possessors unrg istered constituted activities.' Since unmistakably member 'selective' 'suspect' group, can decide when terms created hazard incrimination. D. 17 Government, however, vigorously contends considered together accompanying regulations, light existing administrative practice, incriminatory aspect seen vanish shrink less than proportions. points 152.22, 152.23, added 1964, applicant 4751—4753 qualified jurisdiction operating, director permit until satisfied true. cites relating applications 4742. first, 152.67, '(g)enerally signed person signing registration,' impracticable 'they may another power attorney authorizing sign previously filed *.' 152.68, states receipt 'shall' compare signature 'with appearing attorney,' '(u)nless authentic honored.' 18 asserts regulations clearly signify no permitted activities permissible jurisdiction, prepay registered.20 result, contends, simply prohibit nonregistrants like dealing all. practice Bureau Narcotics always consistent interpretation, though concedes there never attempt nonregistrant does admit uncertaintly communicated officials; appears compel disclosure.21 effectively refute existence substantial incrimination acquired marihuana: because known could consequently applied; second, unsuccessful attention cannot accept Government's argument, find Congress did intend should able congrs sional intent language legislative history. words statute. 4741(a), conjunction 4742, few relevant.22 4741(a)(1) registrants 4741(a)(2) 4741(b) (s)uch addition price form.' (Emphasis added.) distinction nonregistrants, seems clear contemplated well registrant transferees history strongly indicates intended merely very high entirely. As taxing measure, bill originated House Representatives. At start hearing bill, Ways Means Committee, committee chairman announced introduced request Secretary Treasury.23 now.24 witness Committee Department's Assistant General Counsel, Clinton M. Hester. began stating bill's 'not raise revenue traffic, discourage current widespread undesirable smokers drug addicts *.'25 'synthesis' Harrison now 4701 5801 seq.26 Both dealers respective goods prohibited differed see 4705(g), $200 firearm covered Act. 22 generally followed plan insofar But testified doubts: '(a)t point, departs Narcotic limits right purchase narcotic drugs act. 24 '(I)n obviate possibility (an) attack constitutionality it, permits nonregistered heavy anyone, purposes dangerous harmful *.'27 25 Hesterw subcommittee Senate Finance Committee. There detail, different 'to addicts,'28 render difficult acquisition desire illicit uses,'29 prevent undersirable purposes,'30 'through coming hands put uses.'31 reports describe largely Hester's testimony. report declares addicts,'32 'render uses,'33 uses.'34 discussing issue constitutionality, recites '(t)he settled enact transactions taxed'35 '(t)hese cases sustain persons.'36 report, otherwise report.37 confirm account purposes. short, fully accords language. 27 Upon evidence, hesitation concluding interpretation give is, contrary manifest taxed, forbidden. Insofar comparison signatures necessarily result regarded hence beyond scope regulation-making authority delegated Congress.38 promulgated 1937, re-enacted entire 1954, effect. scanty re-enactment gives hint particular much indirect ascribes them.39 recently Massachusetts Trustees Eastern Gas Fuel Associates 377 235, 241, 242, 84 1236, 1241—1242, 268 (1964), statute, even apparent 'strengthen some extent' regulation's validity, save regulation 'contradict(s) requirements' itself. conflicts subsequent 'is immaterial, add expand (the) impliedly approving regulation.' Commissioner Acker, 361 87, 93, 80 144, 148, 127 (1959).40 28 Nor persuaded argument construction ever since passage 'long-standing' agencies administering controlling. often general matter, long-standing, contemporaneous 'entitled great weight,' FTC Mandel Bros., 359 385, 391, 79 818, 823, 893 (1959), 'show(n) deference,' Udall Tallman, 380 16, 85 792, 801, 616 (1965).41 instance admits term Haynes, made through themselves, Moreover, brief Sanchez, 340 42, 71 108, 95 47 (1950), plainly took position prohibition nonregistrants,42 implying unknown representing circumstances, furnish additional support argument. 29 shows confronted face legally, gave incriminating information, simultaneously system which, acquiring conditions. keeping ultra vires. Faced conflicting commands, think justified giving precedence higher authority: statute.43 "(L)iteral full compliance' requirements'44 entailed supra, 16—18. 30 us, avoid difficulty placing gained provisions. declined furnishing interested 'significant element Congress' adopting' involved. 59, 708 (1968).45 text disclose similar purpose. noted, officials, objective 'the development adequate publicizing dealings control effectively.'46 conclusion inescapable aimed transgressions laws. Hence, Term's cases, decline conclude timely proper 4744(a)(2). E. 31 waived. timeliness, assert count motion new trial. evidently timely, rejected merits original denial rehearing. F.2d, 870; 221 222. contend untimely. Petitioner's occurred identical self-incrimination claim. 339 (1964). Although preferable asserted trial, amount waiver privilege. 70—71, 714—715, 32 denying Leary's rehearing, Appeals, holding inapplicable prosecutions 4744(a), improper 'took stand affirmatively waived testifying details relying proposition statement decision shield 'outside privilege's protection,' 61, misconceived thrust dictum. involved here, undoubted accused silent instead criminally one's previous obey asserting mute t 1965. His admission indeed perfectly omission excused 33 suggests plead yet way, entirely unrelated portions testimony indicate noncompliance motivated, least part, religion cpursuit knowledge'47 belief described above, tax.48 parts influenced apprehension trying himself.49 say testimony, taken whole, amounted invocation third indictment. Accordingly, II. 34 Next, whether, case, presumption law. 35 relevant, punishment who: 36 'Knowingly, defraud imports brings *, receives, conceals, buys, sells, manner facilitates transportation, concealment, sale knowing 37 paragraph establishes scrutiny: 38 'Whenever subsection, shown possession, authorize jury.' 39 indictment 'transportation' 'concealment' 176a.50 admitted York; driven Texas; continued bridge station; returned States. know grown.51 40 view instructed s alternative theories. Under 'South-North' theory, based solely own transport it. 'North-South' depended partly Texas challenged presumption.52 41 established elements offense object instructions ground advanced, foreclosed raising point thereafter. agree. Even assuming valid nevertheless told alternatively convict theory. know, rest ground. long submitted theories unconstitutionality set aside. See, e.g., Stromberg California, 283 359, 51 532, 75 1117 (1931). 42 basis presumption's unconstitutionality.53 rely verdict close prosecution's trial.54 motions denied. merits, 868—870. question properly us.55 43 By criteria judged? 44 Early forth number standards mes ure validity presumptions.56 Tot 319 463, 63 1241, 87 1519 (1943), singled tests controlling, rule adhered presented. statute57 construed, violence receive ammunition interstate transaction. presumptive shipped received, be, Act.' 45 Court, prior civil case,58 'controlling' test determining 'that rational connection proved presumed.' 467, 1245. stated: 46 'Under sustained ultimate presumed, inference proof arbitrary lack experience. relation broader take specific case. strained reasonable circumstance life competent legislature create procedure courts.' 467—468, (footnotes omitted). reduced status 'corollary' decisions:59 more inferred. convenience admissible 469, 1246. suggested backing law,60 legitimately commit basic act allowed drawn.61 'for whatever reason' chosen make crime. Id., 472, 1247. 48 Applying e 'rational connection' test, unconstitutional. most forbade intrastate firearms record transaction ownership inferred meet requirements interstate, noting possibilities shipment beginning regulation. id., 468, 1245.62 49 ruled presumptions, Gainey, 63, 754, 658 (1965), Romano, 382 136, 86 279, 210 companion stills. Gainey worded similarly here; infer presence still 'carrying on' business distiller 'unless 5601(a)(4), 5601(b)(2). tested standard Tot. added: 'The determination rationality nature, highly empirical, matters specialized judicial competence completely commonplace, weight accorded capacity amass stuff actual experience cull conclusions it.' 67, 757. 52 principles, presumption, finding 'did 'accord unexplained, natural probative force." 71, 759. 53 custody, controll still. 5601(a)(1), 5601(b)(1). invalid. While '(p)resence operating charge anyone present site probably connected enterprise,' 141, 282, concluded: 54 'Presence relevant charge; absent showing function still, too tenuous guilt—'the 1245, 1519.' Ibid.63 55 upshot Tot, Romano think, 'irrational' 'arbitrary,' unconstitutional, said assurance presumed likely flow depend.64 assessment favoring r esumption must, course, weigh heavily. 56 How fare standards? So far quoted 30, authorizes crime: illegally; in.65 neither valid, citing undisputed effect grow anywhere actually grown here.66 hand, inferences permissible. unconstitutional relates importation. Consequently, reach 'illegal importation' inference. 58 regard 'knowledge' believe value ask insufficient 'knowledge,' rather inquire itself crime.67 thus determine inference, direct circumstantial regarding beliefs users about source consume. Such commonplace,' Indeed, enacted relieve burden adduce none 'highly empirical,' ibid., canvass available, pertinent data. 59 Of mind Ibid. quickly becomes judge soundness presumption. therefore materials well, effort doing, confined ourselves 1956, recent background ascertain intervening years witnessed changes mih bear validity.68 60 constitutional. paucity desirable survey concerning proportion domestically consumed foreign origin, absence better deciding 'know' imported. 61 subsidiary one, up beginning, 176a. debates relatively unhelpful.69 More informative extensive hearings committees.70 Near outset hearings, Narcotics, Harry Anslinger, estimated 90% seized authorities Mexico, although 'there considerable volunteer growth old plantings Middle West (t)here little land just advantage summer growing, (domestic marihuana) potent drug.'71 responsible enforcing narcotics various localities areas origin.72 62 material inserted included former experienced agent committee, high-quality near cities Laredo Brownsville.73 Ohio Attorney recited 'may unnoticed along roadsides vacant lots many country,'74 Philadelphia Police Academy bulletin that: 'Plenty (marihuana) growing city.'75 Examination periodicals books published enactment leaves doubt dozen extent nature country. respect quantity, readily statistic indicative: country jumped 3,400 pounds 1956 b 61,400 1967.76 use, 1955 portray smoking activity exclusively unemployed menially employed members racial minorities.77 Current books, become college campuses voluntarily 'dropped out' society protest values, include sizeable young professional persons.78 64 Despite changes, quite origin. During six 1962—1967, 79% attempted ports borders.79 informs us internally bore indications origin.80 possible facts reflect deployment forces, domestic consulted preponderance Mexico.81 65 statistics acres destroyed annually authorities, pointing harvested acreage year accounted States,82 knows how escape destruction. several factors weaken growth. factor 1959 1967,83 during period consumption measured seizures, rose twenty-fold.84 Assuming constant diligence destruction, 1967 smaller share market supplied 1959. total large enough marihuana,85 state-by-state breakdowns 1964 reveal 95% midwestern states, Illinois Minnesota.86 large, recurrent acreages discovered plausibly ascribed 'volunteer West' Anslinger testified,87 cultivators choose sparser populations favorable climates.88 Third last, far-reaching investigations encountered distributing quentities marihuana.89 contrast, large-scale distribution systems sources Mexico.90 66 urges once comes abroad—a warranted examined—we uphold Court's Yee Hem 178, 470, 69 904 (1925). forbidden substance opium said: 67 'Legii mate (of opium), medicinal improbable obtains outlawed commodity, 'since you bound all, your peril prepared rebut, tend importation, it,' unreasonable requirement cause outside Congress.' 184, 471. smoker notice imported, possessor marihuana's origin unfair point. approach, closely resembles comparative production evidence,91 implicitly abandoned (1943). previously, commerce. unrecorded firearms, notifying weapons transactions, seem dictate. Instead, recognizing defendants else commerce,' 1246, danger overreaching incumbent demonstrate forward placed defendant. matter thought unnecessary assumed 'natural.'92 detail supports 70 assume assembled justify 44, majority 'know'93 depend intermediate premise: aware level deduced abroad. step sense Short showing, present, 'importation' Once percentage longer postulated, proof, roughly cognizant rate 72 imagine five ways knowledge: abroad deduce imported; himself; learned locality supplier abroad; 'buy', supplier; tell appearance, packaging, taste 73 treat seriatim, materials, record. note discover good best possible—testimony studies interviews matter. preceded smokers, smoked. 'occasional' 'regular' drug,94 disproportionately often, inexpertness taking precautions.95 'Occasional' informed smoke;96 hence, probable ways. 74 assistance evaluating possibility. considerably lower case.97 himself. unhelpful estimating whof class. Other 'smuggle own,' suppliers country.98 76 uninformative means. usually passes reaching consumer, secret.99 consumers 77 fourth somewhat helpful possibility, contain statements Maxican preferred smokers.100 contains 'good' Mexico.101 Most greater intoxicating temperatures humidity Mexico.102 prefer marihuana,103 purchasers commonly specify 'buy.' occasionally origin,104 done, volunteered buyer reluctant ask, informer.105 unable estimate accuracy, data, way. certainly majority; small minority tell. 78 fifth taste. species experts eye sample grown.106 Ninth Caudillo 253 513 (1958), 'unmanicured' 'rough' marihuana—that stems, leaves—was come California; implied plant mature showed California growers stage. holds country, realize significance. compressed distinctive 'bricks' wrapped characteristically paper.107 Yet bears sistinguishing marks indication normally reaches consumer. packaging method quantities mrihuana. 'brick' kilogram marihuana,108 sales involve amount, 3,300 cigarettes.109 Smokers 'bag'—about one-fifth ounce; 'can'—about pound.110 wholesalers repackage packages, ways.'111 learn drug's packaging. taste, 'A bad.'112 seen, domestic.113 One product 'buy.'114 sampling custom tasting ritual '(u)sually intoxication differ cigarette *.'115 again, mrihuana capable 'placing' done arrested. G. 81 upheld serious incursions teachings Romano. context determined discussed above. 82 impossible determination. disposal leave way inconsiderable 'known,' anything, speculation 'knew' marihuana.116 83 deficiencies foundation overcome paying, do, utmost deference warranted. Congress, we, requirements, falls shorter examined. duty setting aside Part & N Immigration Nationality Decisions outright Count II, remand proceedings opinion. constrained today implies disability Reversed remanded. Chief WARREN joins II considering (1968); concurs STEWART, concurring. join I, expressed my guarantee compulsory originally confer testimonial proceeding.1 drifted mooring; cases2 line marking drift. Perhaps day fundamental re-examination meaning. Until comes, me authoritative precedent reached judgment. 90 BLACK, concurring result. 91 concur indictment, import receive, law, goes mere 'deemed alone forced baseless juries guilt drawn. Thompson Louisville, 362 199, 624, 654 (1960). separation powers, incompetent instruct courts policies adopt writing therefore, violates accordance commands Constitution. deprives punished independent judge, grand jury, representation counsel, opportunity summon witnesses behalf, confront him. full-fledged guaranteed Article III Constitution, Sixth Amendment, Fourteenth Amendments' promises deprived life, liberty, property law—that land, statutory. 93 reasons, "irrational' unconstitutional,' ante, invalidate am firmly profoundly opposed construing 'due process' nebulous grounds. My deny benefit 'law land,' opinions, including, illustration, 473, dissenting 74, 761, (1965). 2(h) Drugs Import Export Statutes-at-Large 570, 176a, provides: 'Notwithstanding provision whoever, knowingly, smuggles clandestinely introduces invoiced, whoever conspires acts, imprisoned *. n. supra. 'It 4741(a)— '(1) tax, '(2) obtained.' scheme analyzed 14—16, infra. contradiction reasoned article 'smuggled' Appendix 60a; Transcript Record 520, 523—526; cf. Claybourn, 180 F.Supp. 448, 451—452 4208. prison $20,000 fine 4744(a)(2) (see 7237(a)), sentences run consecutively. lowest penalty years' imprisonment, suspension sentence, probation, parole following conviction. 7237(d). 48, 702, quoting Reg. Boyes, 311, 330 (1861). 707, Albertson SACB, 70, 79, 194, 165 secondarily 4741(b). prescription practitioner; legal exportation countries; government 4753. 6107, list 'persons taxes' subtitles Defendant E principal request, apply payors taxes. 99—100, 731—732, 3, 703, (the reproduced supra). plain need explored further. Columbia Uniform Drug 9B Laws Ann. 409—410 (1966). states: drug, (14) defines 'narcotic drugs' ('cannabis'). remaining Pennsylvania, Rptr. (West’s) Health Safety 11530 (1964); Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 35, 780—2(g), 780—4(q) substantially N.Y.Pub. Law, McKinney's Consol. Laws, chapter 45, 3301, subd. (Supp. 1968—1969), 3305 (1954); Tex.Pen.Code, 725b, 1(14), (1961). misdemeanor punishable year's imprisonment. N.Y.Pen.Law, Consol.Laws, 40, 1751—a(1) 1966). 1751, (Supp.1966). felony imprisonment life. Tax.Pen.Code, 23(1) 3—11, 472—496 (1966); Law 3310, 3320—3325, 3330—3333 (1954 Supp. 1968—1969); 5—12 4751(b)(1)—(6). 4755(a)(1), 7237(a). 4742(b)(1)—(2) directly practitioner. Title 4742(b)(4) exempts design delivery employee 'transfer' himself, 4755(b)(3), 152.41, 152.42, carrier addressee. 4755(b)(2), 152.127(c). civilly engaged transfers. Brief 29. (1950). directors disclosed applicants. 17, 16. 10, Hearings H.R. 6385 Means, 75th Cong., 1st Sess., (1937). 3—5. 7. doubts occasioned opinions Doremus, 249 86, 95, 214, 216, 493 (1919), Nigro 276 332, 354, 357, 388, 395—396, 600 (1928). 6385, 9. 6906 Finance, 6. H.R.Rep.No. 2. 3. S.Rep.No. 900, 2—3 18-19, limit whose themselves Government. fact, strong entitled register. Hester state, language, '(u)nder bill's) legitimate handlers taxes H.R.Rep.No.792, (1937); S.Rep.No.900, explicitly 'those consume eligible H.R.Rep. 1337, 83d A325 S.Rep.No.1622, 482—483 (1954) U.S.Code Admin.News, Pages 4025, 4629. K. Davis, Administrative Treatise 5.07 cited. 5.06. 81, O.T.1950, 28—29. Any rise knotty questions, nonpayment reliance erroneous pay. Cf. James 366 213, 1052, 246 65, 712, fro 78, 198, 69, 714; 99 100, 731—732 S.Rep. 87a—88a, 89a. 86a—89a. consideration 43, supra: Whether defense. examination why 'Well, couldn't get applied (transfer tax) stamp myself investigation 86a. response question, 'I away action.' 87a. 'an honest (an form),' replied: lot publicity trouble myself. count. Supra, 4. 90a. end jury: 'Now, mention confused 'We talking York. throughout 103a—104a. Recond 612—614. 198—200; 492, 649. irrelevant affirmative knowledge, knowledge. rebuttable, implication disbelieved 513, 518 (9 Cir. 1958). fact. Mobile, K.C.R. company Turnipseed, 219 (1910); McFarland Sugar Rfg. Co., 241 498, 899 (1916); Western Atl. R. Henderson, 279 639, 445, 884 (1929); thing Ferry Ramsey, 277 88, 443, 796 Morrison 291 82, 281, 664 (1934); Rossi 289 89, 1051 (1933); 2(f) 1251, 902(f). (1910). 56, ibid. example, argued regulate commerce crimes violence. declared effective date Like limited defined. observed itself, 'declar(ed) doubt,' '(t)his approach obviously fails traditionally legislation.' 284. standard, muster judged satisfy 'reasonable doubt' essential thereof depends use. Adams, 293 776, 783—784 (D.C.1968). 140—144, 281—284. Comment, Constitutionality Statutory Criminal Presumptions, U.Chi.L.Rev. 141 element: permissibility branch occasion 165, 186—187. introduce inadmissible. 517. 63. declaration exist; ruling challenge free re-examine factual declaration. Block Hirsh, 256 135, 154—155, 458, 459, 865 (1921); Communist Party 367 110 114, 1357, 1417—1420, 625 1997, 84th 7, (1956); 2388, H.R.Conf.Rep.No.2546, 102 Cong.Rec. 269, 271, 9015, 10688, 12166; Page 3274. Traffic Control Barbiturates, Amphetamines Subcommittee Cong. (1955—1956) (hereinafter cited Hearings); Illicit Improvements Judiciary, Sess. (1955) Hearings). 18. 618, 1071; 2384, 2471 2472, 4370, 4630. 889; 2893, 3488—3490; 271. 3488—3489. 4814. 599. 4167. Compare Report Opium Dangerous (1956), These seizures represent 10% 92a. Rosevear, Pot: Handbook 118 (1967); Bouquet, Cannabis, Parts III—V, U.N.Bull. 32—33 (1951); Mayor's Marihuana, Problem City 17—25 (1944); Blum, Mind-Altering Behavior: Drugs, President's Commission Enforcement Administration Justice, Task Force Report: Abuse 21, 117—131; 2, 24; Cahn, User Simmons (ed.), Marihuana: Myths Realities McGlothlin, Toward Rational View 195—198, 195—198. (1962); (1963); (1965); 40. Mandel, Pushing, 58—110 Challenge Crime Free Society 213 233; Working Treaties 24—25 Contra, Pretrial Hearing, July 15, 1968, 776 (D.C.1968), (testimony Richard Schultes, Director Harvard Botanic Museum) (hereafter Transcript). 119—120 1967, 1,466 destroyed. Accepting Narcotics' yield acre, 38, over 1,200,000 1,800,000,000 infra, 109. steady. 39. hot, dry climate. 102. 1956—1967; 24, 37—45 Transcript); 3488—3490. (1965) (seizure 1,800 marihuana), 23—24 ton 1/2 tons marihuana); id. (1966), marihuana). largest reported seizure definitely eight pounds. 56. refusing follow reasoning Hem, intimate 'hard' narcotics, 174. appear, rests detailed inquiry users. significantly different. Nothing determinin word 'knowing,' section. determination, guide definition Proposed Official Draft Model Penal Code, (1962). 'When offense, probability existence, believes exist.' 94 124—125 500,000 1,000,000 3,000,000 5,000,000 232 236; 121—125. 96 97 780—781, 784 785 98 Becker, Sociological Overview, Solomon Papers 33, 47—50 58—110; 27—37, 231—234. remembered 3,500,000 94, 98, 100 Anslinger); 1071—1072, 4354—4355 (statements Supervisor Aman). 101 288. referred Hodapp, Review Literature Analytical Chemists (1959); I—II, U.N. Bull. 4, 14, 21—22 (1950); Ciba Foundation Study Group Hashish: Its Chemistry Pharmacology 230. 103 supra; 32—33, 68; Boughey, Pot Scenes East West, 33—34; 233. 104 32—33. 105 33. 106 16—18, Museum). 107 19—33 Agent William Durkin). 108 237; 159; 3489. 109 29; 78; 28. 78. 111 112 3489 (prior Customs Lawrence Fleishman). 113 114 31—33. 115 32. 116 careful lower-court suggest contrary. All appeals (C.A.9th 1958); Costello 324 260, 263—264 1963); Soto, 729, 735 (C.A.7th Borne 332 565, 566 (C.A.5th 1964); Gibson, 310 (C.A.2d 1962). tht fraction considered; instance, expressly decision. conducted comparable (D.C.S.D.N.Y.1968). 76, 718, (concurring opinion); re Gault, 387 , 80, 1428, 1471, 527 (dissenting opinion). 906.

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