Legal Document

540 U.S. 461 ALASKA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATIONv.ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY ET AL. No. 02-658. Supreme Court of United States. Argued October 8, 2003. Decided January 21, 2004. The Clean Air Act's (CAA or Act) Prevention Significant Deterioration (PSD) program, 42 U.S.C. § 7477, was designed to ensure that the air quality in "attainment areas," i.e., areas are already "clean," will not degrade, see 7470(1). program bars construction any major pollutant emitting facility equipped with "the best available control technology" (BACT). 7475(a)(4). Act defines BACT as "an emission limitation based on maximum degree [pollutant] reduction... which [state] permitting authority, a case-by-case basis, taking into account energy, environmental, and economic impacts other costs, determines is achievable for [the] facility." 7479(3). Two provisions vest enforcement authority Environmental Protection Agency (EPA Agency). Section 113(a)(5) generally authorizes EPA, when it finds State complying CAA "requirement" governing source, pursue remedial action, including issuance order prohibiting construction." 7413(a). Directed specifically PSD 167 instructs EPA "take such measures, an order.... necessary prevent construction" does conform "requirements" program. Because has classified northwest Alaska, region here at issue, attainment area nitrogen dioxide, applies emissions region. No "major facility," source more than 250 tons oxides per year, 7479(1), may be constructed modified unless permit been issued facility, 7475(a)(1). A issue proposed subject each CAA-regulated emitted from facility. In this case, authority" under 7479(3) acting through petitioner, Alaska Department Conservation (ADEC). 1988, Teck Cominco Inc. (Cominco), obtained authorization operate zinc concentrate mine Alaska. facility" 7475. Its initial authorized five diesel electric generators, MG-1 MG-5, operating restrictions. Under second 1994, added sixth generator, MG-6. 1996, initiated project expand production by 40% applied ADEC allow, inter alia, increased electricity generation MG-5. preliminarily MG-5 technology known selective catalytic reduction (SCR), reduces oxide 90%. Amending its application, seventh MG-17, proposed, BACT, alternative — Low NOx achieves 30% pollutants. May 1999, first draft preliminary technical analysis report, concluding MG-17. identified SCR most stringent then technically economically feasible. nevertheless endorsed Cominco's proffered emissions-offsetting fitting MG-17 all six existing generators NOx, rather SCR. This proposal, submitted, would achieve, similar could logistically less onerous Cominco. July objected had technology, but failed require BACT. responded report September again finding ADEC's abandoned agency's 1999 justification. further conceded that, lacking data Cominco, make no judgment SCR's impact mine's operation, profitability, competitiveness. It nonetheless concluded, contradicting earlier feasible, imposed "a disproportionate cost" mine. support conclusion, analogized rural utility have increase prices were required use Protesting adequately demonstrated site-specific factors supporting assertion economical infeasibility, suggested include adverse Expressing confidentiality concerns, declined submit financial data. December final approving Again conceding made competitiveness, advanced, cause decision, effect unique continuing region's diversity venture's "world competitiveness." reiterated analogy, compared cost costs other, stringent, technologies. three orders §§ Act. Those prohibited issuing without satisfactorily documenting why addition, beginning modification activities mine, limited exceptions. Ruling challenges these orders, Ninth Circuit held determine reasonableness adequacy State's justification decision. Appeals emphasized provision reasoned determination undeniably "requirement." properly exercised discretion held, because (1) demonstrate (2) provide elimination option. Held: stop permitted state authority's unreasonable light 7479(3)'s prescribed guides. Pp. 483-502. (a) holding constituted reviewable "final action" 7607(b)(1), correctly Bennett v. Spear, 520 154: To "final," agency action must "mark consummation decisionmaking process," either "rights obligations" occasion "legal consequences," id., 177-178. As noted, asserted position factual circumstances underpinning orders. If survived judicial review, escape practical legal consequences ADEC-permitted endeavored. P. 483. (b) stop-construction order, 167, if selection reasonable. 484-496. rationally construed CAA's definition, U. S. C. 7479(3), statute's listing "[p]reconstruction requiremen[t]" 7475(a)(1) (4), mandate faithful definition. urges authorities' statutory constrained strong, normative terms "maximum" "achievable." accordingly reads empower federal check unreasonably lax designation. reading, notes Congress intended significant deterioration clean-air areas. Without surveillance role extends determinations, maintains, goal unlikely realized. legislative history suggests absent national guidelines, deciding set enforce strict standards lose industrial plants permissive check, new play one off against another threats locate whichever adopts pollution controls. agrees EPA's reading provisions. reflected interpretive guides several times published. Although interpretation presented internal guidance memoranda qualify dispositive force Chevron A. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 837, 865-866, cogent administrative warrants respect, Washington Dept. Social Health Servs. Guardianship Estate Keffeler, 537 371, 385. 484-488. arguments do persuade reject impermissible longstanding, consistently maintained interpretation. argues unambiguously assigns alone decision qualifying "best available." view, restricted assuring contain limitation. entrusts authorities responsibility determinations they positioned adjust local might "unavailable" particular area. According responsibility, however, signify there can determinations. vested explicit sweeping relating sources Having expressly expansive two independent provisions, implicitly precluded verifying substantive compliance requirement. Nor determining whether uttered key words "BACT." fact 7475(a)(8) requires approval category cases mean lacks supervisory cases. Sections sensibly simply authorize act unusual case determined arbitrarily. Also unavailing argument requirement enforced only processes allow development adequate record, carries burdens proof, promote certainty. declines read silence decisions enforcing law remitted solely court. interpreted own powers recourse before stopping facility's construction. persuaded concerns. There reason conclude appropriate record cannot developed informed federal-court review disputes decision's reasonableness. very ordered complete record. After did so, parties agreed record's adequacy. persuasion, holds bears both challenge well EPA-initiated civil action. underlying question reviewing court answer same case: Was given find compelling suggestion courts exclusive arbiters, free invalidate months years after issues. involves preconstruction postconstruction directives. itself regards imperative timely basis. Courts also likely accept conditions planning progressed. 488-496. (c) acceptance lacked evidentiary support. therefore, neither arbitrary nor capricious. 496-502. considers "arbitrary, capricious, abuse discretion, otherwise accordance law" applicable standard forth Administrative Procedure Act, 5 706(2)(A). While skeletal composed ideal clarity, ground together accompanying explanatory correspondence. See Bowman Transp., Arkansas-Best Freight System, 419 281, 286. determined, validly designation reasonable permit, concluded emission-control That should designated considerations justifying conclusion case. ADEC, selected suggestion. rejected longer relied Rather, candidly stated aimed contributions thus rested squarely "disproportionate cost." rightly switch feasible infeasible basis forthrightly disarmed reaching refusal relevant evidence SCR, obliged cut personnel raise prices. acknowledged information needed judge simultaneously proffer operation competitiveness reasons declaring infeasible. justified choice. bolster too expensive, invoked figures discussed four regard used primary power production. itself, previously found per-ton within what consider explanation retreat appears issued. selecting readiness justification, hardly meets source-specific demonstrates inappropriate lower aggregate result agreement install unpersuasive. offset MG-17's those generators. recognized treat falling "bubble" purposes every so aggregated part figured 496-501. impede revisiting determination. letters throughout process oral argument, repeatedly yet prepare take word. 501-502. 298 F.3d 814, affirmed. GINSBURG, J., delivered opinion Court, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, SOUTER, BREYER, JJ., joined. KENNEDY, filed dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA THOMAS, joined, post, p. 502. CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT. Jonathan Franklin argued petitioner. With him briefs John G. Roberts, Jr., Lorane F. Hebert, Gregg D. Renkes, Attorney General Cameron M. Leonard, Assistant General. Robert J. Mahoney, T. Connery, Marcy Glenn petitioner respondent Court's Rule 12.6. Deputy Solicitor Hungar respondents. brief Olson, Acting Johnson, Kneedler, James Feldman, Andrew Doyle, E. Fabricant, Carol Holmes, Juliane R. B. Matthews.* JUSTICE GINSBURG Court. 1 concerns Agency) 165, 91 Stat. 735, amended, defined CAA, means, . ." 2 Regarding oversight, includes general instruction geared prescription, construction, prescribe penalty, commence injunctive relief. seeking relief, requirements 7477. 3 us, Alaska's respect Specifically, block prescribes? We hold confers checking EPA. 4 * enacted Amendments 1970, 84 1676, 7401 et seq., response "dissatisfaction progress programs." Union Elec. Co. 427 246, 249 (1976). amendments "to guarantee prompt maintenance specified standards." Ibid.; Currie, Pollution 1.13, 1-16 (1981) (summary 1970 amendments). Added amendments, 108(a) 109(a) publish lists "cause contribute reasonably anticipated endanger public health welfare," promulgate secondary ambient (NAAQS) 7408(a) 7409(a); Whitman American Trucking Assns., 531 457, 462-463 (2001). NAAQS "define levels achieved protect welfare." Belden, 6 published 1971, Elec., U.S., 251 (citing 40 CFR pt. 50 (1975)), 1985, dioxide. 50.11 (2002).1 110 plan provides implementation, maintenance, [NAAQS]." 7410(a)(1); cf. 7410(c)(1) shall implementation inadequate). Relevant approved plan. 48 Fed. Reg. 30626 (1983), 56 19288 (1991); 52.96(a) (2002). gain approval, "state plan" (SIP) "include enforceable limitations techniques meet [CAA] requirements." 7410(a)(2)(A). States "wide discretion" formulating their plans, 250, SIPs certain measures assure achieved," 7410(a)(2)(C). Among 7475, basic administration involved "Prevention Quality" 7 requirements, 1977 Title I, 160 731, "are `clean' degrade," supra, 43. 7470(1) (purpose "protect welfare actual potential [EPA's] anticipate[d] occur notwithstanding standards"). Before 1977, addressed where NAAQS. Alabama Power Costle, 636 F.2d 323, 346-347 (CADC 1979). Responding litigation environmental group,2 regulations 1974 requiring Id., 347, n. 18 39 42510 (1974)). Three later, adopted current Rep. 95-127, 11 (1977) (Congress delineate policy protecting clean air"). 8 imposes regime "designated pursuant [42 7407] unclassifiable." 7471.3 An "meets [a regulated pollutant]." 7407(d)(1)(A)(ii). unclassiflable "cannot meeting pollutant." 7407(d)(1)(A)(iii). Northwest unclassifiable 81.302 (2002), 2002, reported "[a]ll country once violated [nitrogen dioxide] now standard." Latest Findings National Quality (Aug. 2003). 9 165 installs 7479(1). prescribing 7475(a)(1); 7479(2)(C) (defining "construction" "modification"). SIP analogous Admin. Code 50.300(c)(1) (2003). Modifications facilities excess year permit. 51.166(b)(23)(i) (2002); 50.300(h)(3)(B)(ii) 10 sets out preconditions permits. Inter regulation described definitional (BACT) means: chapter results application methods, systems, techniques. event `best technology' pollutants exceed allowed established section 7411 7412 title [emission stationary sources]." 12 51.166(b)(12) (2002) (repeating definition). contains track 50.310(d)(3) 50.990(13) State, slightly variant terminology, represents contaminant, impacts, costs." Ibid. class advance 7475(a)(8). 13 "will cause, to, allowable concentration pollutant" 7475(a)(3). left increases, "increments," increments oxides. 51.166(c) Typically, exceeded, applicants mathematical models plumes, behavior, dispersion. Westbrook, Dispersion Models: Tools Assess Impacts Sources, & Env. 546, 547-548 (1999). 14 special relevance here. "[w]henever, information, [EPA] prohibition sources," 7413(a)(5), "issue applies," 7413(a)(5)(A).4 measure, trains program; [PSD] B 15 operates Red Dog Mine, approximately 100 miles north Arctic Circle close native Alaskan villages Kivalina Noatak. App. Pet. Cert. 3a; Brief Petitioner 8; Respondents 4. largest private employer. 9. supplies quarter area's wage base. leases land NANA Regional Corporation, corporation formed Native Claims Settlement 85 688, 43 1601 seq. Amicus Curiae 1-2, 16 SIP. 106. 5,000 kilowatt Wartsila restrictions; standby status. (ADEC) 1994 allowing addition full-time generator (MG-6), removing status MG-2, imposing operational cap run full time. 17 project, funding 40%. 10; Reply 11, Anticipating 472, 107-108; 33a. On March 3, (SCR),5 72, 108. response, amended add propose NOx6 5, 1; 84. 4, conjunction representative, 55-95. employed recommended top-down methodology, 61: 19 "In brief, technologies ranked descending effectiveness. applicant examines `top' alternative. demonstrates, agrees, considerations, justify `achievable' eliminated fashion, next considered, on." New Source Review Workshop Manual B.2 (Draft Oct. 1990) (hereinafter Manual); 61-62.7 20 Applying homed "[W]ith estimated 90%," stated, "is stringent" technology. 79. Finding "technically feasible," 65, characterized "overstated" estimate $5,643 ton removed 113. Using data, reached running between $1,586 $2,279 ton. 83. Costs range, observed, conside[r] feasible." comments engineering staff Permits Program pointed according provided "SCR installed diesel-fired engines world." 102. 21 Despite staff's clear view "that (the effective individual technology) [was] technologically, environmentally, plant engines," 103-104, achieve reductions commensurate 90% impact, NOx. Ibid.8 net 396 fitted seven (MG-5 MG-17) choosing them unit. 87. proposal hinged "assumption ... typical due standby-generation capacity." ran continuously, 79 year. Accepting submission, solution "achieve[d] controls; [could] potentially greater reduction; Cominco." 87-88. 22 day comment period, 2, Interior, Parks Service (NPS), submitted ADEC. 33a; 97, NPS projected Letter Notar, Division, Jim Baumgartner, (June 1999). Such offset, commented, SCR." 3. observed production-increase remove restrictions placed MG-1, MG-3, MG-4, 34a. Due alteration, urged, too, became production-expansion 23 Following NPS' lead, wrote 29, commenting: "Although states [SCR], level control, technologically SCR.... [O]nce unit imposition limit BACT." 96-97. NPS, "by controls units" 97. reduced covered authorization. 285-286. 24 receiving comments, 1, 105-117. Abandoning advanced "emission action," MG-6, considered 111; 199 (same).9 25 "no [SCR] Mine." 116. Contradicting 10, "cursory review," lead 20% price increase, comparison technologies, came "significantly higher" cost. appeared analysis. 26 protested revised 15, letter, stated: "Cominco claim installation Mine. Therefore, cost-effectiveness grounds supported clearly erroneous." 127; 138 (ADEC's departure feasible). 27 suggested, upon specifically." 127. Stating inquiry unnecessary expressing "concerns related confidentiality," 134. regard, asserted, detail, company's "overall debt remains quite high" despite profits. 134-135. need "[i]ndustrial Alaska." 135. 28 report. Once again, "[t]o Mine Production Rate Increase Project, region." 208. suggested. 152-246. Indeed, judgment. [SCR's] 207. Nonetheless, "unique th[e] region" explain how inferences effects economy competitiveness" showing "operation, 207, 299. Instead, 205-207. 29 day, 7413(a)(5) "unless documents [MG-17]." 36a. letter "ADEC's supports therefore 149. 30 February 2000, invoking time "construction mine." 49a. third 7, superseding vacating summer 62a-64a. April 25, withdrew order. 300; 6a. explained, utility. 16, 2003, granted construct Theodore General, William K. Suter, Clerk ceases "if currently pending America decided favor Control Construction Permit, Final Technical Analysis Report, Permit 9932-AC005, Revision 7. 31 petitioned 11. initially moved dismiss, urging subject-matter jurisdiction. released 27, 2001, adjudicatory lodges jurisdiction over "any Appeals. 244 3d 748, 750-751.10 32 resolved merits 30, 2002. 814 (CA9). contested doing so. 820-823. Concerning meet" correct be. 821 (emphasis original). Concluding "authority state's decision," "provision justification" ultimately "demonstrat[e] infeasible," "ADEC option." 823. certiorari, 1186 (2003), resolve important law, i. e., scope affirm Circuit's II 33 7607 (b)(1), renders appeals action." Circuit, unsuccessfully urged "interlocutory," unreviewable until chose action.11 pre-enforcement contest presented, actions requisite finality. 34 undisputed, spoken "`last word'" generator. 3d, 750. Further, effectively halted risk criminal penalties defied valid directive. 35 finality 16-20; Tr. Oral Arg. 43-44. satisfied we 154, 177-178 (1997) (to `consummation' consequences" (some quotation marks omitted)). "asserted circumstances" Agency's 750, (lost vulnerability penalties) endeavored, ibid. 36 raised here, note, about preorder procedures Process Clause Cf. Vermont Yankee Nuclear Corp. 435 519, 544 (1978) (agencies "fashion rules procedure," even statute specify use). Furthermore, contention incomplete, gave opportunity supplement thereafter stood [ADEC's petition]." 818. III 37 Centrally oversight role, 473-474, ensuring lodge encompassing notably capacious terms, armed [the program]," 38 enumerates requirements" Absent these, "[n]o constructed." One express inclusion 7475(a) (4). out, [a] formulation, exercises identifying line definition term. All agree "many enforce" limitation." 34; 22, (same). 23. undisputed requiremen[t]," designation, keeping broad permits moored 24. hold, elaborated below, text our approbation. 41 BACT's "achievable "energy, instruction, submits, cabins granting determinations," original), fidelity purpose insure growth manner consistent preservation resources," 7470(3). Noting "achievable," 7479(3),12 27. stresses Congress' enacting neighboring 7470(3), (4); 33. aim, urges, realized House Report observation: "Without guidelines prevention resources face double threat. prospect real But additionally become target `economic-environmental blackmail' controls." H.R. 95-294, 134 (1977). 44 community enforces still polluted State." 135 (quoting 116 Cong. Rec. 32909 (1970)). Federal needed, asserts, restrain interjurisdictional pressures alert. 33-34, 43; al. Amici ("If consistency among nationwide, feel confident maintaining fear losing industry alienating prospective industry."). 45 advances 268-269 (1983 memorandum noting "oversight function"); 274 (1988 stating deficient "not analysis"); 281-282 (1993 "EPA acts bounds (internal omitted); intervene decision" Approval Promulgation Implementation Plans; Commonwealth Virginia Program, 63 13797 (1998) "review requirements"). "normally accord deference `longstanding' duration," Barnhart Walton, 535 212, 220 North Haven Bd. Ed. Bell, 456 512, 522, (1982)), recognizing "well-reasoned views" expert administrator rest "`a body experience litigants resort guidance,'" Bragdon Abbott, 524 624, 642 Skidmore Swift Co., 323 134, 139-140 (1944)). 46 accorded ambiguous provision. U.S.A. 865-866 (1984); 256. memoranda, Chevron. Christensen Harris County, 529 576, 587 (2000) ("Interpretations statements, manuals, lack warrant Chevron-style deference."); accord, Mead Corp., 533 218, 234 Cogent "administrative interpretations products formal rulemaking respect." 385 7470(4), 7475(a)(4), measure respect. 47 assails grounds. us 21-26. places authority," excludes substance 22-25. 34. 49 Understandably, entrusted "case-by-case." agency, doubt, differences raw materials configurations, reduction, yield "single, objectively `correct' determination," 23, surely sensitivity necessarily imply design preclude context meaningful 167. claims prerogative designate BACT; asserts guard designations. ("the meet," original)).13 interpretation, inquires 34, "was record," Reg., 13797. Congress, fail having and, instead, superintendence insubstantial 51 emphasize, rendition crystalline leaves "permitting considerable leeway. acknowledges deference" States' designations, 43, disclaims intention "`second guess' decisions," Only analysis," 274, step honored.14 adhered explaining "arbitrary" contrary findings. 149-150. vital scheme "places responsibilities States, backed Government." 29. 52 points 7475(a)(8), requiring, cases, constructed. 25; 6. Had said mandating all, merely some, 25-26. overlooks obvious difference requirement, e. g., recognizes unreasonable; contrast, withheld come different merits. See, 57 28095 (1992) ("EPA administering various components largely successful effort, involvement interpretative issues small number cases."). 53 Even determination, argues, processes. 34-38.15 decisions, allows burden persuasion promotes 36-37. Unless channeled forums, suggests, "there nothing invalidating months, years, issued." 35. 54 unusual, say least, remit decline uncommon silence. charged 485-488. rational agree, permissible.16 55 contends reviewed incomplete record." 37. offers particulars back up proceeded inadequate note declared complete, "all appeal." gains proof-related tactical advantage instead relief 510 creates anomaly shifting pleading initiating State"). Correspondingly, today invites unfair choice forum. exercising stop-construction-order 492, nowhere allocation proof differ depending route selected. point ought doubt. Accordingly, court, remain resolves same: Whether reasonable, 485-486, 491.17 reduce carry electing invoke authority. showed report: "(1) demonstrating [to ADEC] infeasible; conclusions, them, Appeals' "arbitrar[y] capriciou[s]." Our analysis, infra 497-502, similarly hinges one. taken path 113(a)(5)(C), suit consideration 58 suggestion, dissent, "months, 35; 512-514. threatens development. 481, "imperative" "less farther progressed." 273 (July memorandum). instance untimely identifies, proceed. AM 475 (CA7 1994) (affirming District dismissal received completed modifications). confident, indulge inequitable conduct dissent hypothesize while sit actions. Walz Tax Comm'n City York, 397 664, 678-679 (1970); Panhandle Oil Mississippi ex rel. Knox, 277 223 (1928) (Holmes, dissenting), overruled King Boozer, 314 8-9 (1941). 59 sum, interprets review. credit longstanding confirm rule authorities. IV 60 turn finally, particularly, acted impermissibly instance. 39-48. first, threshold objection. petition questioned 13-22. present, discrete assuming abused countermanding expansion. 44-45; 15-16, overturn `arbitrary unreasoned' Thus, `fairly included' presented[.]"). Treating case-specific embraced sole arbitrarily furnished tenable accounting 61 instance,18 apply familiar default 706(2)(A), ask law." explains clarity," upset discerned." 286 (1974). clarity. These correspondence EPA; read, facts found. 62 formally followed EPA-recommended methodology done application. 61, 109, 175; 475-476. Employing 65; 476. "technical justif[ying] [SCR was] [this] case." Manual, B.2; 61-62. emissions. 87, 111-112; 476-477. equipping 478-480. rounds, 116; 112-117, 203-208; 64 138. analyses, [could then] 116, threaten Mine's diversity" stressed employer "historical high unemployment permanent year-round job opportunities." 65 "[could] [mine]," ibid., indeed, explained whether, extent, adversely affect profitability: disputing citing "confidentiality" 134; 479-480; 823 ("Cominco infeasible."). personnel, control's 66 production; cost, instances, ranged $0 $936 removed. 205-206; 480. $2,279, "well 84; 204 (estimating $2,100). ("[SCR's falls] range seen nationwide except site specific indicate otherwise."). Tellingly, examples low-cost acknowledged: "The cited took place ago purposes." 233-234 (footnote omitted). indeed "permitted [Alaska] projects 234. utility, 479, exist suggest `economic impact' incrementally higher world's producer concentrates anything like rural, non-profit pass base consumers," 49; 138-139 (similar observation Nov. letter). 67 "source-specific impac[t] demonstrate[s] 177. short, 68 justifies "agree[ment] generators." 42, added); 29; 19, 16. dwell attempt resurrect 477, dropped. acknowledges, installations 12; "bubble"19 "part 111, 199. Offsetting agreed, "[was] guidelines," remained outside permit's compass. 112, plainly not, rationale drawing 111-112.20 By time, 69 emphasize today's disposition question. process, commented open record" 127 (attachment Sept. 28, specifically" infeasibility); 150 (letter Dec. noncompliance reiterating willingness additional analyses Cominco" BACT); 36a inviting "document[ing] [for MG-17]"); 49a statement Feb. order). At counsel reaffirmed "absolutely," reconsider matter "appropriate endeavor 35.21 70 71 capriciously 72 Affirmed. Notes: Briefs ofamici curiae reversal Dakota Wayne Stenehjem, Dakota, Lyle Witham, Patrick Crank, Wyoming, Preston, Attorneys respective follows: H. Pryor, Alabama, Jane Brady Delaware, Thomas Miller Iowa, Jon Bruning Nebraska, Brian Sandoval Nevada, W.A. Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Larry Long South Mark L. Shurtleff Utah, Jerry W. Kilgore Virginia; Torgerson Matthew Cohen; Development Association Janet Pitterle Holt; Pacific Legal Foundation Reed Hopper Robin Rivett. amici affirmance Sorrell, Vermont, Kevin O. Leske Erick Titrud, Bill Lockyer California, Richard Blumenthal Connecticut, Steven Rowe Maine, Reilly Massachusetts, Michael Cox Michigan, Peter Heed Hampshire, Harvey Jersey, Eliot Spitzer Hardy Myers Oregon, Lynch Rhode Island, Peggy Lautenschlager Wisconsin; Sean Donahue; Village Kivalina, Frank Van Tuyn. Center Energy Economic Paul Seby; Donald Potter. Emissions quantities nitrogen. 47, term refers family compounds oxygen. principal component present atmosphere dioxides. Combustion emit mostly nitric oxide, some Upon entering atmosphere, changes rapidly, dioxide." Nitrogen Oxides, 40656 (1988). termed "NOx." Sierra Club Ruckelshaus, 344 Supp. 253 (DC 1972), aff'd curiam, 1815, 20656 equally divided sub nom. Fri Club, 412 541 (1973) (per curiam). visibility 7491-7492, extended solid waste combustion nonattainment 111(a), 685. 1990 cover areas, encompass requirements. VII, 104 2672 injections "ammonia urea exhaust enters catalyst bed vanadium, titanium, platinum. reaction occurs flue gas passes ammonia combine nitrogen, oxygen, water...." improve fuel atomization modify space enhance mixing fuelId., 75. Nothing implementing mandates 7479(3); 52.21(j) "commonly" methodology. called Fuel Injection Timing Retard 75-76, 86 Rather "agreed low limits reflect previous `bubbled' limits. approach, units."Id., ADEC-Cominco agreement. confirmed questions met "new obligations 43-44 (punctuation omitted) lie district 7413(b) Formulations definition's "maximum achievable" appear 7501(3) 7503(a)(2) ("lowest rate" omitted)), technology-based hazardous emissions, 7412(d)(2) ("maximum achievable") admonishes whole."Post, St. Vincent's Hospital, 502 215, 221 (1991)). give unexceptional principle attending unequivocal grant contained is, moreover, cardinal construction' `a ought, whole, prevented, clause, sentence, word superfluous, void, insignificant." TRW Andrews, 534 (2001) Duncan Walker, 174 (2001)). identify "best," technique, costs. something constraint discretion. Ultimately, essential requirement: constraints." Post, 505 added). enlightening "determines" 503-504. dissent's "conclusiv[e] authoritativ[e]." 504 citation develops length, sought 509-512; 44.62.560 And actions, course, 503, empowered provide, 7607(b)(1). 482-483. Agency, "[i]t proven relatively rare put exercise [its] concern occasioned faulty (citingAllsteel, 312 (CA6 1994), Solar Turbines Seif, 879 2d 1073 (CA3 1989)). restrained moderate speculation "displac[e]" "degrad[e]" agencies relegate performance "ministerial" functions. 516, 518. ever override state-court 511. Preclusion principles, unquestionably officers. e.g., Montana 440 147 (1979). From availability concludes, "follows procedural steps," filing person entity permitPost, 509. Interpreted otherwise, "loophole" "end around process." designing often measures. For example, options address failure comply Compare 7413(a)(5)(A) source") 7413(a)(5)(B) penalty order") 7413(a)(5)(C) "bring action"). Other sections options. 7413(a)(1)-(a)(3). logic, bring "loophole," Moreover, existence concurrent odds concedes, instead. Experience, seesupra, 490, 14, affords grounding predictions "rewor[k] balance Governments" courts' independence. 511-512. "[L]ooking foolproof guide proof. latter invariably follow pleadings." Strong, McCormick Evidence 337, pp. 411-412 (5th ed. "single solve[s] afford[s] test ascertaining incidence" burdens. Wigmore, 2486, 288 (J. Chadbourn rev. 1981) deleted). "[I]n impression," today, "reference party pleaded help all." McCormick,supra, 412. allocations depend plaintiff defendant, "affirmative allegation" "presumably peculiar means knowledge." 288, 290 (emphases deleted); Campbell 365 85, 96 (1961). referred 7607(d)(9)(A) 822 (CA9 2002). 7607(d)(9), "subsection" concerning embedded CfChevron 853-859 (1984) (upholding pollutant-emitting devices though encased single "bubble"). adding 86-87. MG5 exceeding restrictionId., MG-2 MG-6 increases alone. daunted hypothesis "[b]ecause always procedure preceding followed," "may never reach" 515 ("The majority sort Zeno's paradox agencies."). Again, indulged piling process. 493, 73 whom CHIEF JUSTICE, SCALIA, THOMAS join, dissenting. 74 majority, my respectful rests mistaken premises, reasoning conflicts language Act), sound principles preserve integrity system. promulgated (EPA). I understand parties' submissions, disagreement point. flat. errs, judgment, failing discretionary exceeded setting aside 75 explains, begins CAA. meaning "requiremen[t]," though, consulted. "preconstruction "subject [BACT] from, turn, 76 77 "initial term" "broad role" "reasonably provisions." Ante, 484-485. statute, contemplates arrangement. directs "determine" constitutes recommendation later overturned. decide settle conclusively authoritatively." Heritage Dictionary 495 (4th 2000). 554 ("to hearing"). 78 presumes presumes, criteria. Contrary majority's holding, direct abstract. 485 mandatory criteria ignore statute. comprehensive "tak[e] account" contextual costs" "on basis." reaches narrow wresting adjectives, context. ignores whole." (1991). sure, latitude making judgments. complied implicated supply separate altogether backwards "because exemption involve discretion," 820 exemption. nature place. affirming Appeals, repeats analytical error. ante, 490 ("We ."). When commits objecting party, prevails conclusive. 80 Here detailed reports interested Oxide (NOx) weigh list factors, study constraints full. acknowledged, "provid[ed] then, refused quarrel conclusion. disagreeing contention, titled "Findings Fact," "[selective reduction] 30a, 34a allege using violate Ambient Standards, increments, standards, deviation result, 81 intends says terms. grants polluting 7426(b), (c)(1), 7410(a)(2)(D)(i). Outside likewise knows establish unambiguous language. 1396a(a)(13)(A) (1994 ed.) (requiring, Medicaid reimbursement rates "State finds, makes assurances satisfactory Secretary [of Human Services], incurred efficiently operated facilities"); Wilder Hospital Assn., 496 498 (1990). 82 insists needs "race bottom," jurisdictions compete attract industries keep businesses borders. Whatever matter, distrust inconsistent bear controlling "cho[osing] dictate balancing sometimes conflicting goals" expense "[m]aximum flexibility 146 (1977), overriding responsive strike right preserving advancing competing objectives. assigning functions assumed stake objectives limits, 7475(a)(3), Nation takes steps pollution. 83 presumption trusted unwarranted respect: large, seriously, sees vast 9; ("States [`administering program'], limited..."). concession, overcome good faith, Alden 527 706, 755 (1999) unwilling assume refuse honor obey binding laws States"), admit fears race bottom little relation real-world word"). safeguards capricious occur. approves review." 1882 (1996). "interested persons," "representatives Administrator," on, things, "control 7475(a)(2). facilitate participation inform Administrator "every course 7475(d) ("Each transmit copy notice permit"). Any who participated appeal followed, mentioned, courts. none normal period expired seek opt unilateral everyone spoken, complains intervened proceedings courts" forced scant agrees. 492 ("It silence"). problem, protestations, proceedings. persons" comments. "[I]nterested care Administrator." 46.14.990(20) "person" States"). Given requires, condition culminate courts, 1882, follows subset evade painstaking mere stroke pen letterhead. 87 fundamental level, confuse (APA). roving commission ferret equivalent APA. task Idaho Coeur d'Alene Tribe Idaho, 521 261, 276 ("[T]he elaboration judiciary"). 88 Like comport rationality 706(2)(A); 44.62.570(b)(3) Counsel respondents unable identify, "does rationally." 30. bypass judiciary go directly 1345, defeats Government's vacuum 89 Requiring overturned fiat, avoids State. option available, 509 page, alleging tables turned. seeks concede enjoy substantial convoluted unwieldy 493-494, belongs 90 palatable, this. purports rely proposition "`looking proof.'" 494, 1999)). example affirmative defense passage treatise, far afield fact, treatise "[i]n producing persuading jury well." 411. "[t]he assigned change affairs naturally expected persuasion." changed quo ante upsetting accepted opposed fait accompli production, reallocation work practice. event, accepts pleading. burden-shifting benefit alone, procedure, participating end sure undermine it. fool's errand, loophole goes inconsistency approach scheme. 92 further, serious, flaw ruling. Suppose, error announce unreasoned nullifying court's reworking Governments, mention Executive Judicial Branches, shows implausibility reasoning. 93 arrangement well-established judgments Article Legislative Branches. Hayburn's Case, Dall. 409, 410, (1792) ("`[B]y Constitution, [of] War, officer, Legislature, errors opinions .'"); Plaut Spendthrift Farm, 514 211 (1995). reopened whim Legislature separation Judges cannot, sacrificing autonomy office, onto scales justice predictive probability reverse rulings. 94 denies systems independence long guarded injury worse. being overturned, just sovereign. reluctant interpret congressional deny guaranteed constitutions. Buckalew Holloway, 604 240, 245 (Alaska 1979) ("There doubt paramount delegates Constitutional Convention]"); also, Cal. Const., Art. government legislative, executive, judicial. Persons others Constitution"); Witkin, Summary California Law 107, 159-160 (9th 1988) ("[Under] ., [department] interfere others"). Government free, impose standards. respected. York 144 (1992). If, reasoning, live insult least insist Congress. directive Gregory Ashcroft, 501 452, 460 (1991) ("[I]f alter usual constitutional Government, unmistakably statute" 95 deficiency prevents later. result. involvement, sooner establishing preauthorization procedure. misses faults "overlook[ing] authorization." 491 overlook fact. unlike underscores implausible post hoc veto upsets reliance expectation interests. "[t]his [because] [i]t directives," 495, assurance logic future belated interventions. confronts concludes "EPA, actions." cites proposition, consists religious part. dictum risk. 97 reassurance avail. bound limitations, barred laches officers, however gross, brought sovereign right, assert interest, past controversy doubt." Beebe, 338, (1888); Summerlin, 310 414, 416 (1940) settled statutes rights"); Utah Light 243 389, 409 (1917) ("[L]aches neglect duty officers interest. maintain stands plane respects ordinary suit. mandatory. violation found, precedents hard pressed otherwise. 98 consequence quoting respondents' "absolutely" arrive pile layer "`appropriate record.'" 501-502 35). prior gives solace States: 99 hardship itself. money. licensee spend attempting satisfy elaborate, array he borrow fortune pay lawyers, economists, accountants, archaeologists, historians, engineers, recreational consultants, biologists others, revenue, near-term certainty revenue. Meanwhile, politics, laws, interest rates, alternatives change. Undue uncertainty sufficient thwart proceed." Sayles Hydro Associates Maughan, 985 451, 454 1993). look, spent analyzing fourth look permissible. agencies. many toward objective, reach 101 regrettable proper discharge implement localities staffs employees, pride resourcefulness, expertise, commitment officials directed case-by-case, site-specific, Regulated persons entities able consult confidence, giving recommendations guidance. represent body. much consultation negotiation, great backward developing 102 applications forwarded structure undercut. displaces agencies, degrades way. elaborate submissions half, ensued constructive discourse object believing dispositive. participate waited closed 103 advised $500,000 complex years. 8. multiple-tiered expenditures justified, credible, certain. illusion remitted, remits official. denial 105 realize weakness asks defer expertise purported ambiguity. 41-43 (asking 837 (1984)). credit, inapplicable. Deference recites, 487-488, plus more: way ambiguous. proceed further. 106 Actions, speak louder words, ends denied. chock Chevron-like 843 ("whether permissible statute"); 845 Administrator's one"), 488 ("[EPA's] [them] impermissible"); 493 ("That permissible"). So hide behind Chevron's vocabulary, apply. applying de facto circumstances, undermines distinction draw deferential forms 107 broader implication unfortunate still. relies equal partnership accomplish (listing examples). statutes, confer ultimate relegating provinces political corporations, coequal sovereigns entitled dignity 706 cooperative federalism, Hodel Surface Mining Reclamation 452 264, 289 (1981), governments accountable democratic policies, consign ministerial tasks gathering recommendations, reserving themselves guise oversight. 108 reasons,

Classification Label: 7