Legal Document

471 U.S. 386 105 S.Ct. 2066 85 L.Ed.2d 406 CALIFORNIA, Petitionerv.Charles R. CARNEY. No. 83-859. Argued Oct. 30, 1984. Decided May 13, 1985. Syllabus A Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agent, who had information that respondent's mobile motor home was being used to exchange marihuana for sex, watched respondent approach a youth accompanied the home, which parked in lot downtown San Diego. The agent and other agents then kept vehicle under surveillance, stopped after he left vehicle. He told them received return allowing sexual contacts. At agents' request, returned knocked on door; stepped out. Without warrant or consent, one entered observed marijuana. subsequent search of at police station revealed additional marihuana, charged with possession sale. After his motion suppress evidence discovered denied, convicted California Superior Court plea nolo contendere. Appeal affirmed. Supreme reversed, holding unreasonable exception requirement Fourth Amendment did not apply, because expectations privacy are more like those dwelling than an automobile. Held: warrantless violate Amendment. Pp. 390-395. (a) When is highways capable such use found stationary place regularly residential purposes, two justifications come into play. First, readily mobile, and, second, there reduced expectation stemming from pervasive regulation vehicles traveling highways. Here, while possessed some attributes it clearly falls within exception. To distinguish between ordinary sedan purposes would require be applied depending size quality its appointments. Moreover, fail apply as ignore fact lends itself easily instrument illicit drug traffic illegal activity. 390-394. (b) question unreasonable. It magistrate could have authorized if presented facts. DEA agents, based uncontradicted distributing controlled substance vehicle, abundant probable cause enter 394-395. 34 Cal.3d 597, 194 Cal.Rptr. 500, 668 P.2d 807 (1983), reversed remanded. Louis Hanoian, Diego, Cal., petitioner. Thomas F. Homann, respondent. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 We granted certiorari decide whether law enforcement violated when they conducted search, cause, fully "motor home" located public place. 2 * On 31, 1979, Agency Agent Robert Williams respondent, Charles Carney, Carney Dodge Mini Motor Home nearby lot. closed window shades including across front window. previously uncorroborated same by another person exchanging sex. Williams, assistance surveillance entire one-quarter hours remained inside. followed him. marijuana 3 identified themselves officers. plastic bags, scale kind weighing drugs table. took custody home. cupboards refrigerator. 4 Respondent preliminary hearing, moved Magistrate denied motion, upholding initial justifiable persons, routine inventory search. 5 renewed suppression also rejected claim, arrest automobile Amendment's requirement, seized without instrumentality crime. pleaded contendere charges against him, placed probation three years. 6 appealed order placing him probation. affirmed, reasoning 117 Cal.App.3d 36, 172 430 (1981). 7 conviction. (1983). disagree conclusion trial court believe contained crime; however, held no obtained, rejecting State's argument should apply.1 That reached decision concluding mobility "is longer prime justification exception; rather, 'the answer lies diminished surrounds automobile.' " Id., 605, Cal.Rptr., 504, P.2d, 811. primary function homes provide transportation but "provide occupant living quarters." 606, 505, 812. 8 certiorari, 465 1098, 104 1589, 80 122 (1984). reverse. II 9 protects "right people secure their houses, papers, effects, searches seizures." This fundamental right preserved pursuant issued independent judicial officer. There are, course, exceptions general rule must secured before undertaken; so-called "automobile exception" issue this case. first set forth 60 years ago Carroll v. United States, 267 132, 45 280, 69 L.Ed. 543 (1925). There, recognized interests constitutionally protected; ready justifies lesser degree protection interests. rested long-recognized distinction structures vehicles: 10 "[T]he guaranty freedom seizures has been construed, practically since beginning Government, recognizing necessary difference store, house structure respect proper official may ship, boat, wagon automobile, contraband goods, where practicable can quickly out locality jurisdiction sought." 153, S.Ct., 285 (emphasis added). 11 capacity "quickly moved" basis Carroll, our cases consistently principal bases See, e.g., Cooper California, 58, 59, 87 788, 789, 17 730 (1967); Chambers Maroney, 399 42, 52, 90 1975, 1981, 26 419 (1970); Cady Dombrowski, 413 433, 442, 93 2523, 2528, 37 706 (1973); Cardwell Lewis, 417 583, 588, 94 2464, 2468, 41 325 (1974); South Dakota Opperman, 428 364, 367, 96 3092, 3096, 49 1000 (1976). In Chambers, example, commenting rationale exception, we noted "the opportunity fleeting car movable." U.S., 51, 1981. More recently, States Ross, 456 798, 806, 102 2157, 2163, 72 572 (1982), once again emphasized "an immediate intrusion necessary" nature transit. . ." automobiles, observed, "creates circumstances exigency that, practical necessity, rigorous impossible." supra, 3096. 12 However, although alone perhaps original later made clear only reasons said, twofold. "Besides element mobility, less requirements govern one's significantly relating office." Ibid. 13 Even immediately resulting justified application vehicular supra. cases, configuration contributed lower privacy; 590, 2469, passenger compartment standard relatively open plain view, privacy. But even enclosed "repository" areas involved, concluded context locked trunk, sealed package dashboard, Cham bers Yv. interior vehicle's upholstery, packages inside covered pickup truck, Johns, 469 478, 881, 83 890 (1985). 14 These derive area searched 440-441, 2527-2528. As explained case: 15 "Automobiles, unlike homes, subjected continuing governmental controls, periodic inspection licensing requirements. everyday occurrence, stop examine license plates stickers expired, violations, exhaust fumes excessive noise, noted, headlights safety equipment working order." 368, 16 aware accorded automobiles compelling need regulation. Historically, "individuals always [have] notice movable vessels facts giving rise contains contraband, afforded magistrate's prior evaluation facts." n. 8, 8. short, schemes regulation, necessarily lead privacy, exigencies attendant justify recourse authority so long overriding met. highways, purposes—temporary otherwise—the play.2 obviously turn ignition key, actually moving. Second, licensed subject range inapplicable fixed dwelling. least these circumstances, societal effective occupants become unavailable. 18 While true some, many equally scope laid down succeeding cases. Like mobile. Absent prompt seizure, beyond reach police. Furthermore, "operate streets; [was] serviced places; extensive inspection." Rakas Illinois, 439 128, 154, 2, 99 421, 436, 58 387 (1978) (POWELL, J., concurring). And situated objective observer conclude residence, 19 urges us functioning increasingly society, shelter, i.e., "home" "residence." upon ignores 822, 2171, declined "worthy" "unworthy" containers, noting central purpose forecloses distinction." decline today either roads reasonable residence. 20 Our never turned uses might put. historically presence setting objectively indicates transportation.3 ensure officials unnecessarily hamstrung efforts detect prosecute criminal activity, legitimate protected. Applying allows essential served fulfilled, assuring will acknowledge III 21 remains whether, apart lack warrant, Under "[o]nly approval waived; otherwise [must such] authorize." 823, 2172. 22 unreasonable; plainly authorize fresh, direct, possible offenses. thus crime notwithstanding 23 judgment case remanded further proceedings inconsistent opinion. 24 ordered. 25 STEVENS, whom BRENNAN MARSHALL join, dissenting. character searched"1 plays important role analysis. case, officers Dodge/Midas Home. correctly characterized "hybrid" combines attribute most characteristics house."2 27 hybrid places crossroads generally forbid invasions Payton New York, 445 573, 585-590, 100 1371, 1379-1382, 63 639 (1980), support 820, 2170, (1982). By choosing follow latter route, errs respects: new territory prematurely, priority rather rule, abandoned limits imposed 28 recent Terms, displayed little confidence state federal decisions purport enforce Unless suppressing correct, petition likely garner four votes required grant plenary review—as did. Much Court's "burdensome" workload product own aggressiveness area. promoting High every practice burdened docket presenting fact-bound errors minimal significance.3 encouraged legal file petitions frivolous seizure cases.4 29 trust resulted improvident exercise discretionary jurisdiction.5 what modest extension precedents, conduct nonexigent supported cause. State filed contending below conflicted jurisdictions.6 cursory examination alleged conflict consider here.7 30 "in American citizen deprived Constitution statute. Rather, upheld citizen's assertion right, finding protected both law." Michigan Long, 463 1032, 1067-1068, 103 3469, 3490, 77 1201 (1983) (STEVENS, dissenting). unusually perceptive study stated reference Ramos, 992, 3446, 1171 "this situation rarely presents reason review absence percolated conflict."8 forge ahead established searching Nation. If merely allowed stand, governed single State. breadth mandate counsels greater patience offer binding meaning Constitution. 31 Premature resolution novel stunted natural growth refinement alternative principles. Despite age countless applied, defining contours hybrids trailers, houseboats, yachts. barely glimpse diverse lifestyles associated recreational quarters.9 line lines separating permanent drawn various ways, consideration given moving rest, rests land water, form attachment location, potential speed departure, serve domicile, method locomotion. Rational decisionmaking strongly divining abuses vacuum raising us. 32 Of abdicate responsibility clarify field. Some caution, requires resolve vexing "conflict individual's interest enforcement." 804, 2161. "The certainty supposed speedy prove illusory premature raises questions answers."10 rules governing formulated refined painstaking scrutiny case-by-case adjudication. Consideration matter courts series litigated surely facilitated reasoned accommodation conflicting identify endure, rely debate evaluate different approaches difficult unresolved constitutional law.11 Deliberation over time winnows unnecessary discordant elements doctrine preserves "whatever pure sound fine."12 33 guarantees effects interpreted language bright-line standard: "searches outside process, judge magistrate, per se Amendment—subject few specifically well delineated exceptions." Katz 389 347, 357, 88 507, 514, 576 (1967) (footnotes omitted); Arkansas Sanders, 442 753, 758, 2586, 2590, 61 235 (1979). reaffirmed importance condemning searches, permitting narrow one. 824-825, 2172-2173. expressly endorsed rule," 156, 286, (1925), '[i]n securing reasonably practicable, used.' 807, 2163. Given warning presumption regularity attaches warrant,13 hardly unrealistic expect experienced obtain secured. 35 ascendancy system justice bullied aside extravagant claims necessity: 36 'The inconvenience somehow "weighed" efficiency. is, be, part machinery government, operating course check "well-intentioned mistakenly overzealous executive officers" any enforcement.' [Coolidge Hampshire, 403 443, 481, 91 2022, 2045, 564 (1971).] ". requiring conclusions concerning 'be neutral detached instead judged officer engaged often competitive enterprise ferreting crime' Johnson 333 10, [68 369, 92 436] (1948), minimize risk assertions authority." 758-759, 2590. 38 were exact middle intersection 39 intersection. teach inherent sufficient fashioning especially face heightened location searched. common construction, afford owners substantial dwell within. removed highway, I society prepared recognize Warrantless streets exigent expenditure warrant. 40 history: "[S]ince earliest days Congress impracticability involving goods. impracticability, viewed historical perspective, provided decision. transit, substance. class unreasonable." 806-807, 2163 omitted).14 42 developed ameliorate problems transporting contraband. Until today, decided transit way force near detained issued.15 43 off-the-street blocks courthouse Diego dozens magistrates available entertain application.16 surprise them, curtains covering windshield, offered indication imminent departure. record, inexplicable why eschewed safe harbor warrant.17 44 relies create conclusive exigency. Court, squarely abandoning requirement. Chadwick, 433 1, 97 2476, 53 538 (1977), footlocker though ample Government argued containers general, limited "core" See id., 7, 2481. categorically Government's argument, observing automobiles,18 temporary detention container 2484, 7. analysis Ross: Chadwick 'reasonable' automobiles. 'a person's personal luggage substantially automobile,' [433 2484], piece during period [97 7]." 811, 2165-2166. 46 perfectly obvious much footlocker. "inherent mobility" does cannot rationally 47 Unlike brick bungalow frame Victorian, seldom serves lifetime abode. designed accommodate living. Photographs record indicate height, length, beam space inside: stuffed chairs surround table; room storage effects; bunk beds sleeping space; refrigerator provides food beverages.19 large opaque walls inhibit viewing activities exterior establishes size, shape, mode construction indicated containing quarters. 48 contends field impossible task determining contain unanswered English usage suggests already "equipped self-contained home," "camper" equipped "casual travel camping," "designed transportation."20 Surely exteriors clues about functions alert necessity warrant.21 Vehicle Code refutes exclusion homes" practice. definitional section, distinguishes campers cars wagons, special categories terms—motor vehicles.22 "house car" "a originally designed, permanently altered, human habitation, camper attached."23 Alcoholic beverages opened consumed except "living quarters housecar camper."24 definitions Amendment, do descriptive distinctions humanly possible. They reflect Legislature's cars" kinds 50 my opinion, wide private activity fundamentally primarily function.25 Although castle, usually functional equivalent hotel room, vacation retirement hunting fishing cabin. spartan humble cottage compared majestic mansion, 2171; ante, 393, highest abodes command Stoner 376 483, 490, 84 889, 893, 856 (1964); 585, 1379; Karo, 468 705, 714-715, 3296, 3302-3303, 82 530 (1984).26 "presumptively absent circumstances." 51 respectfully dissent. state-court adequate ground, refers Federal Constitutions. Respondent's foreclosed 1040-1041, 3476-3477, held, "when fairly appears rest law, interwoven adequacy independence ground accept explanation believed so." read resting law. With exceptions, hesitated Rollins, 699 F.2d (CA11) (airplane), cert. 464 933, 335, 78 305 pass Among factors relevant circumstance instead, instance, elevated blocks, licensed, connected utilities, convenient access road. provides: seizures, shall violated, Warrants issue, Oath affirmation, particularly describing searched, persons things seized." 812 E.g., (1985); Sharpe, 675, 1568, 605 Oklahoma Castleberry, 146, 1859, 112 Cf. Florida Rodriguez, 12-13, 308, 165 (1984) dissenting, joined BRENNAN, J.). Caponi, Ohio St.3d 302, 466 N.E.2d 551 (1984), 1209, 1174, 324 inventiveness emboldened orders explicitly grounds. Jamison State, 455 So.2d 1112 (Fla.App.1984), 1127, 804 Ex parte Gannaway, 448 (Ala.1984), 1207, 1168, 320 Burkholder, 205, 176, 1062, 545, 432 (1984); People Corr, 682 (Colo.), 855, 181, 115 Von Bulow, 475 A.2d 995 (R.I.), 875, 233, 162 1065, 3489, dissenting); 1029, 3468, Watt Western Nuclear, Inc., 462 72-73, 2218, 2238-2239, 76 400 Alaska, 451 259, 273, 101 1673, 1681, 68 (1981) Stevens, Thoughts Judicial Restraint, 66 Judicature 177, 182 Pet. Cert. 15-17, 21, 24-25. acknowledged consistent dictum Ninth Circuit decisions. Wiga, 662 1325, 1329 (1981), 918, 1775, 178 (1982); 630 1322, 1326, 449 865, 197, (1980). Only Cadena, 588 100, 101-102 (CA5 1979) (per curiam ). Analogizing oceangoing ship "exception" exigency, increased measure expected aboard vessel mandates careful excusing failure warrant." 102. all defendants challenged claiming Coolidge (1971). Montgomery, 620 760 (CA10) ("camper"), 882, 232, 106 (1980); Clark, 559 420, 423-425 (CA5) ("camper pick-up truck"), 434 969, 98 516, 54 457 (1977); Lovenguth, 514 96, (CA9 1975) ("pick up top"); Cusanelli, 472 1204, 1206 (CA6) ) (two trucks), 412 953, 3003, 1006 Miller, 460 582, 585-586 (CA10 1972) ("motor home"); Rodgers, 902, 904 1971) truck"); Million, 120 Ariz. 15-16, 583 897, 902-903 Sardo, 509, 513-514, 1138, 1142 (1975) home"). Sardo involved depart premises. Two Courts claim Mower, 407 729, 732 (Me.1979); Lepley, 343 N.W.2d 41, 42-43 (Minn.1984). Those cases—which cited factually distinguishable here. among here desirable means exploring refining problem. Estreicher & Sexton, York University Project, Managerial Theory Responsibilities (to published 59 N.Y.U.L.Rev. 677, 761 (1984)). elaborated: hear invalidated action heard treat major pronouncement percolation, ordinarily recurring national significance. correction error, regarding intervention. last category differs court's invalidation structural intervention missing, vertical federalism difficulties built-in assurance significant political constraints invalidate lightly [The Court] correct perceived error." 738-739 (footnote omitted). Samuel Roberts, Retired, Pennsylvania expressed similar concerns. Adequate Independent Ground: Practical Considerations, IJA Rep., pp. 1-2 Trailer Life, 2; Home, R V Lifestyle Magazine, Hellman, Proposed Intercircuit Tribunal: Do Need It? Will Work?, Hastings Const.L.Q. 375, 405 "Although roles uniformity think act eradicate disuniformity soon appears. Disagreement facilitates percolation—the courts. process percolation exploratory experimentation ends nationally rule. decides benefit experience Irrespective capacity, compelled intervene desirable. "Our committed principle percolation. intercircuit stare decisis. Similarly, daily engage 'dialectical federalism' wherein bound holdings geographical past supports policy awaiting managerial conception embraces affirmative value. views particular identifying rulings experimental base doctrinal materials fashion occurrence acts signaling device help issues. encourages responsible development supra 716, 719 B. Cardozo, Nature Process 179 (1921). Leon, 913-914, 3405, 3415-3416, 677 Illinois Gates, 213, 236-237, 2317, 2331, 527 "As stated, appraisal considerations perspective history." 2170. (1971), plurality refused driveway suspect's house, towed compound, searched: word 'automobile' talisman whose fades away disappears. nothing invoke —no alerted bent flight, highway hazardous chase, stolen goods weapons, confederates waiting move evidence, detail guard immobilized stretch imagination 'it warrant.' [267 285,] 'automobile exception' despite label, simply irrelevant." 461-462, 2036 (opinion Stewart, Douglas, MARSHALL, JJ.). (1974), approved parking lot, exterior. 592-594, 2470-2471 BLACKMUN, concerned reasonableness seizure. result. Suppression Hearing Tr. 7; Oral Arg. 27. addition, telephonic cents nearest phone booth away. Cal.Penal Ann. §§ 1526(b), 1528(b) (West 1982); Morrongiello, 145 9, 193 105, 109 willingness seek properly roughly comparable prudence electrical wire grasping it." Mitchell, 1230, 1233 1976) (en banc), 945, 1578, 792 (1977). diminish aspects Luggage contents condition border entry carrier travel; nor regular inspections basis. transportation, intended repository effects. sum, automobile." 2484. Record, Ex. Nos. 102, 103. Webster's Collegiate Dictionary 118, 199, 775 refusing extend context, Appeals difficulty distinguishing Ford van, Chestnut, 151 721, 726-727, 198 cab-high shell back Gordon, 156 74, 82, 202 566, 570 trained make vehicles, laws so. Cal.Veh. 243, 362, 415, 465, 585 1971 Supp.1985). § 362 1971). 23221, 23223, 23225, 23226, 23229 2469 J.): "One residence escaping scrutiny. travels thoroughfares view." "At belaboring obvious, residences individual normally expects free justifiable. deviated basic principle. Searches presumptively 3303.

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