Legal Document

538 U.S. 343 VIRGINIAv.BLACK ET AL. No. 01-1107. Supreme Court of United States. Argued December 11, 2002. Decided April 7, 2003. Respondents were convicted separately violating a Virginia statute that makes it felony "for any person . , with the intent intimidating or group to burn cross on property another, highway other public place," and specifies "[a]ny such burning ... shall be prima facie evidence an intimidate group." When respondent Black objected First Amendment grounds his trial court's jury instruction by itself is sufficient from which required "intent intimidate" could inferred, prosecutor responded was taken straight out Model Instructions. Respondent O'Mara pleaded guilty charges statute, but reserved right challenge its constitutionality. At Elliott's trial, judge instructed as what Commonwealth had prove, did not give meaning word "intimidate," nor statute's provision. Consolidating all three cases, held cross-burning unconstitutional face; analytically indistinguishable ordinance found in R. A. V. v. St. Paul, 505 U. S. 377; discriminates basis content viewpoint since selectively chooses only because distinctive message; provision renders overbroad enhanced probability prosecution under chills expression protected speech. Held: The judgment affirmed part, vacated remanded. 262 Va. 764, 553 E. 2d 738, 1 JUSTICE O'CONNOR delivered opinion respect Parts I, II, III, concluding State, consistent Amendment, may ban carried intimidate. Pp. 352-363. 2 (a) Burning States inextricably intertwined history Ku Klux Klan, which, following formation 1866, imposed reign terror throughout South, whipping, threatening, murdering blacks, southern whites who disagreed "carpetbagger" northern whites. Klan has often used burnings tool intimidation threat impending violence, although have also remained potent symbols shared identity ideology, serving central feature gatherings. To this day, however, regardless whether message political one meant intimidate, "symbol hate." Capitol Square Review Advisory Bd. Pinette, 515 753, 771. While does inevitably convey intimidation, burner intends recipients fear for their lives. And when few if messages are more powerful. 352-357. 3 (b) protections affords speech expressive conduct absolute. This long recognized government regulate certain categories Constitution. See, e. g., Chaplinsky New Hampshire, 315 568, 571-572. For example, permits State "true threats," Watts States, 394 705, 708 (per curiam), encompass those statements where speaker means communicate serious commit act unlawful violence particular individual individuals, see, ibid. need actually intend carry threat. Rather, prohibition true threats protects individuals disruption engenders, well possibility threatened will occur. V., supra, at 388. Intimidation constitutionally proscribable sense type threat, directs persons placing victim bodily harm death. do contest some fit within speech, rightly so. As country shows, intimidating, intended create pervasive victims they target violence. 358-360. 4 (c) outlaw done particularly virulent form intimidation. Instead prohibiting messages, choose subset light burning's pernicious signal A fully Court's holding Contrary ruling, hold prohibits forms content-based discrimination area specifically stated violate consists entirely very reason entire class proscribable. S., permissible prohibit obscenity most patently offensive prurience — i.e., involves lascivious displays sexual activity. Ibid. Similarly, Virginia's run afoul insofar bans Unlike issue single opprobrium directed toward "one specified disfavored topics." Id., 391. It matter burns victim's race, gender, religion, "political affiliation, union membership, homosexuality." Thus, just obscene due prurient content, so too likely inspire harm. 360-363. 5 O'CONNOR, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, STEVENS, BREYER, concluded IV V provision, interpreted through given Black's case applied therein, face. Because same Commonwealth's Jury Instruction, opportunity expressly disavow it, instruction's construction binding precise words been written into statute. Terminiello Chicago, 337 1, 4. construed instruction, strips away why convict every defendants exercise constitutional put defense. even defendant like presents defense, find facts case. arrest, prosecute, based solely fact itself. interpreted, would unacceptable risk suppression ideas. Secretary Md. Joseph H. Munson Co., 467 947, 965, n. 13. mean engaging engaged core blurs line between these meanings, ignoring contextual factors necessary decide permit shortcut. conviction cannot stand, him affirmed. Conversely, receive O'Mara's he guilty. severable, so, Elliott retried left open. Also open theoretical that, remand, interpret manner avoid objections described above. 363-368. 6 SCALIA agreed should vacate remand respondents court can authoritatively construe prima-facie-evidence 368, 379. 7 SOUTER, KENNEDY GINSBURG, saved exception 377, therefore concurred affirms invalidation conviction. 380-381, 387. 8 J., announced REHNQUIST, C. SCALIA, JJ., joined, V, STEVENS joined. filed concurring opinion, post, p. 368. dissenting THOMAS, I part 380. 9 CERTIORARI TO SUPREME COURT OF VIRGINIA. 10 William Hurd, Solicitor Virginia, argued cause petitioner. With brief Jerry W. Kilgore, Attorney General, Maureen Riley Matsen Thro, Deputy Solicitors, Alison P. Landry, Assistant General. 11 General Dreeben amicus curiae urging reversal. Olson, Boyd, Barbara McDowell, Jessica Dunsay Silver, Linda F. Thome. Rodney Smolla respondents. James O. Broccoletti, David Baugh, Kevin Martingayle.* 12 BREYER join. 13 In we consider banning "an persons" violates Amendment. Code Ann. § 18.2-423 (1996). We conclude while treating current form. 14 * Barry Black, Richard Elliott, Jonathan 18.2-423. That provides: 15 "It persons, burn, burned, place. Any section Class felony. 16 "Any persons." 17 On August 22, 1998, led rally Carroll County, Virginia. Twenty-five thirty people attended gathering, occurred private permission owner, attendance. located field off Brushy Fork Road (State Highway 690) Cana, 18 sheriff County learned occurring county, went observe side road. During approximately hour present, about 40 50 cars passed site, "few" stopped ask happening property. App. 71. Eight ten houses vicinity rally. Rebecca Sechrist, related owner took place, "sat watched see wha[t] [was] going on" lawn her in-laws' house. She looked prepared gathering subsequently conducted 103. 19 rally, Sechrist heard members speak "what were" believed in." 106. speakers "talked real bad blacks Mexicans." 109. One told assembled "he love take .30/.30 random[ly] shoot blacks." talked "President Clinton Hillary Clinton," how tax money "goes black people." testified language made "very scared." 110. 20 conclusion crowd circled around 25- 30-foot cross. 300 350 yards According sheriff, "then sudden up flame." played Amazing Grace over loudspeakers. feel "awful" "terrible." 21 observed burning, informed deputy needed "find who's responsible explain them Virginia." 72. then down driveway, entered asked "who cross." 74. responded, "I guess am I'm head rally." "[T]here's law you I'll place arrest this." 22 charged violation motivation intentionally Such must arise willful accused rather than mere temperamental timidity victim." 146. "the infer intent." last grounds, "taken [Virginia] Instructions." 134. guilty, fined $2,500. Appeals Rec. 1581-99-3 (Va. App., Dec. 19, 2000), 201. 23 May 2, O'Mara, third individual, attempted yard Jubilee. Jubilee, African-American, next-door neighbor Beach, Four months prior incident, Jubilee family moved California Beach. Before spoke mother inquire shots being fired behind home. explained son shot firearms hobby, backyard firing range. 24 night drove truck onto Jubilee's property, planted cross, set fire. Their apparent motive "get back" complaining shooting backyard. 241. affiliated Klan. next morning, pulling car noticed partially burned feet After seeing nervous" "didn't know phase," "a your tells it's first round." 231. 25 conspiracy burning. both counts, reserving constitutionality sentenced 90 days jail suspended 45 sentence $1,000 fine. 26 originally ruled "that 221-222. prove burning," direct commission 250. instruct acquitted $2,500 convictions O'Mara. Commonwealth, 33 525, 535 175 (2000). 27 Each appealed arguing facially unconstitutional. consolidated 738 (2001). "is [v. 377 (1992)]." 772, 2d, 742. held, "selectively message." 774, 744. "[t]he speech." 777, 746. 28 Three justices dissented, passes muster proscribes constitutes noted unlike (1992), "on color, creed, religion gender." Va., 791, 753. applies provided intimidate." dissenters majority's analysis inference alone clearly insufficient establish beyond reasonable doubt 795, 756. dissent burden proof still remains granted certiorari. 1094 (2002).1 II 29 Cross originated 14th century Scottish tribes each other. See M. Newton & J. Newton, Klan: An Encyclopedia 145 (1991). Sir Walter Scott dramatic effect Lady Lake, signified summons call arms. Scott, canto third. country, ago became unmoored ancestry. 30 began Pulaski, Tennessee, spring 1866. Although started social club, soon changed something far different. fought Reconstruction corresponding drive allow freed participate process. Soon veritable terror" South. Kennedy, Southern Exposure 31 (1991) (hereinafter Kennedy). employed tactics threatening stake, murder. Wade, Fiery Cross: America 48-49 (1987) Wade). Klan's included activities prompted legislative action national level. 1871, Grant sent Congress indicating rendered life insecure." Jett Dallas Independent School Dist., 491 701, 722 (1989) (internal quotation marks alterations omitted). response, now known Act. "An Act enforce Provisions Fourteenth Constitution Purposes," Stat. (now codified 42 §§ 1983, 1985, 1986). President new powers suppress South Carolina, severely curtailed well. By end 1877, no longer existed. 32 genesis second 1905, publication Thomas Dixon's Clansmen: Historical Romance book sympathetic portrait depicting heroes "saving" "horrors" Reconstruction. never practiced depicted crosses celebrate execution former slaves. 324-326; 770-771 (1995) (THOMAS, concurring). thereby associated D. Griffith turned movie Birth Nation 1915, association indelible. addition movie, poster advertising film displayed hooded Klansman riding horse, hand reins horse above head. Wade 127. thereafter, November began. From inception ideology. initiation ceremony Stone Mountain near Atlanta, Georgia. 40-foot mountain, oaths loyalty. Kennedy 163. recorded instance little month before initiation, Georgia mob celebrated lynching Leo Frank "gigantic cross" "visible throughout" Atlanta. 144 34 ideology differ much emphasized, "We avow distinction [the] races, ever faithful maintenance White Supremacy strenuously oppose compromise thereof things." 147-148 Violence elemental September 1921, York World newspaper documented 152 acts including murders, 41 floggings, tar-and-featherings. 160. 35 Often, 1939 1940, front synagogues churches. 175. synagogue, member "shut Jews up, we'll cut throats happens." Miami 1941, four proposed housing project, declaring, here keep niggers town.... fails you, us." 176 Alabama 1942, whirlwind climax weeks flogging terror," hall leader's home eve labor election. 180. These embodied whom deemed antithetical goals. special force 36 continued use after War II. African-American "school teacher recently block formerly occupied protection city police yard." Richmond News Leader, Jan. 21, 1949, 312. Suffolk, during late 1940's, Governor "not our race subjected terrorism organization." Chalmers, Hooded Americanism: History 333 (1980) Chalmers). incidents among others, helped prompt enact version 1950. 37 decision Brown Board Education, 347 483 (1954), along civil rights movement 1950's 1960's, sparked another outbreak bombings, beatings, shootings, stabbings, mutilations. Chalmers 349-350; 302-303. Members lawns movement, assaulted Freedom Riders, bombed churches, murdered viewed movement. 38 Throughout symbol constitution (called kloran), "fiery "emblem sincere, unselfish devotedness klansmen sacred purpose principles espoused." Hearings House Committee Rules, 67th Cong., 1st Sess., 114, Exh. G (1921); 419. published newsletters magazines name Cross. id., 226, 489. 39 gatherings across initiation. Posters upcoming featured N. MacLean, Behind Mask Chivalry: Making Second 142-143 (1994). Typically, start prayer "Klavern" minister, followed singing Onward Christian Soldiers. fire, raised arm sang Old Rugged 185. history, ritual ceremonies. own members, sign celebration ceremony. joint Nazi-Klan proceeding wedding two "were married full regalia beneath blazing 271. response antimasking bills introduced state legislatures protest. 340. March 26, 1960, rallies attempt recruit million members. 305. Later debate Nixon John candidates renouncing debate, reiterated support crosses. 309. prominently move nonviolent stop integration. 323; cf. 368-369, 371-372, 380, 384. short, unity. 771 sometimes carries message, times conveyed. serves designed Moreover, shows injury death hypothetical. making coerce comply wishes unless willing wrath Indeed, cases indicate, without affiliation wish threaten menace sum, III 43 applicable provides "Congress make abridging freedom hallmark free "free trade ideas" ideas overwhelming majority might distasteful discomforting. Abrams 250 616, 630 (1919) (Holmes, dissenting); Texas Johnson, 397, 414 ("If there bedrock principle underlying idea simply society finds disagreeable"). "ordinarily" denies power dissemination social, economic doctrine vast citizens believes false fraught evil consequence." Whitney California, 274 357, 374 (1927) (Brandeis, symbolic actual City 382; 405-406; O'Brien, 391 367, 376-377 (1968); Tinker Des Moines Community 393 503, (1969). 44 afforded absolute, 571-572 (1942) ("There well-defined narrowly limited classes prevention punishment thought raise Constitutional problem"). "restrictions upon areas, `of slight value step truth benefit derived outweighed interest order morality.'" 382-383 (quoting 572). punish "which utterance inflict tend incite immediate breach peace." 572; 383 (listing areas restrictions speech). consequently fighting "those personally abusive epithets addressed ordinary citizen, are, common knowledge, inherently provoke violent reaction" generally Cohen 403 15, (1971); 572. Furthermore, guarantees press forbid proscribe advocacy except inciting producing imminent lawless produce action." Brandenburg Ohio, 395 444, 447 (1969) curiam). threat." curiam) omitted); accord, 388 ("[T]hreats outside Amendment"); Madsen Women's Health Center, Inc., 512 774 (1994); Schenck Pro-Choice Network Western Y., 519 373 (1997). 46 "True threats" individuals. ("political hyberbole" threat); "protect[s] violence" "from engenders," protecting occur." Part B 47 content-neutral manner, viewpoint. 771-776, 742-745. true, expression. rallies, someone else's lawn, represents communicate. Individuals opposed communication effective manner.2 48 expression, resolve question. relied once disagree. 49 local banned conduct, knowledge "`arouse anger, alarm resentment others gender'" 380 Paul Bias-Motivated Crime Ordinance, Minn., Legis. 292.02 (1990)). pass discriminated targeting "provoke law. cover "[t]hose `fighting words' connection express hostility, allowed "to impose prohibitions views subjects." types Amendment: 51 "When proscribable, significant danger exists. reason, having adjudged neutral enough exclusion protection, class." 52 threat: "[T]he Federal Government criminalize against reasons President." "choose i. e., activity." (emphasis original). Consequently, "offensive messages," ibid., "only mention policy aid inner cities," "based proscribable," 393. 53 factual burners racial religious minorities. 355 (noting instances members); Miller, Kan. 432, 629 748 (1981) (describing lawyer previously represented currently prosecuting him). least unclear animus. 753 (Hassell, dissenting) "these angry complained presence firearm range yard, animus"). 54 55 alternative unconstitutionally stating added 1968. below reach severable rest 1-17.1 ("The provisions statutes operate accord another"). Court, argue them. contend 56 has, alone, nonetheless suffice insulate motion strike case-in-chief." 778, case, means: "The itself, 196. Instruction Instructions, Criminal, 10.250 (1998 Supp. 2001). 57 ruling question us though into" (1949) (striking ambiguous facial jury); Ferber, 458 747, 768, (1982) involved statute); (1984); Note, Overbreadth Doctrine, 83 Harv. L. Rev. 844, 845-846, (1970); Monaghan, Overbreadth, 1981 Ct. 10-12; Blakey Murray, Threats, Free Speech, Jurisprudence Criminal Law, 2002 B. Y. 829, 883, 133. 58 "`would ideas.'" Council Los Angeles Taxpayers Vincent, 466 789, 797 (1984)). But meanings prosecute potentially somebody lawful protect. 59 indicates, always statement solidarity. gatherings, represent "[b]urning almost certainly expression." 402, (White, judgment) (citing 445). Cf. National Socialist Party Skokie, 432 (1977) occasionally either appeared movies Mississippi Burning, plays stage adaptation Scott's Lake. 60 effort distinguish different burnings. creating anger victim. neighbor's lawn. treat differently like-minded believers. allows owner's acquiescence permission. extent agree SOUTER "skew deliberations relatively weak arguably ideological burning." Post, 385 (opinion part). 61 arouses hatred Gerald Gunther stated, lesson drawn my childhood Nazi Germany happier adult walk difficult path denouncing bigot's hateful power, yet time challenging community's law." Casper, Gerry, Stan. 647, 649 (2002) ignores 62 reasons, recognize refuse speculate interpretation satisfy invalid point. court, forth described. leave possibility. 63 affirm further proceedings. 64 ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici reversal Bill Lockyer, Manuel Medeiros, Frank, Chief Angela Sierra, General; Jersey et al. Samson, Jersey, Carol Johnston, Attorneys respective follows: Janet Napolitano Arizona, Blumenthal Connecticut, Miller Iowa, Curran, Jr., Maryland, Reilly Massachusetts, Jennifer Granholm Michigan, Don Stenberg Nebraska, Frankie Sue Del Papa Nevada, Roy Cooper North Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Hardy Myers Oregon, Mark Shurtleff Utah, Sorrell Vermont; Justice Legal Foundation Kent Scheidegger. amici affirmance Conservative Citizens Edgar Steele; Rutherford Institute Whitehead Steven Aden; Jefferson Center Protection Expression Robert O'Neil Joshua Wheeler. Martin Karlinsky, Howard Goldstein, Freeman, Frederick Lawrence, Elliot Mincberg Anti-Defamation League curiae. certiorari, enacted remedy problems identified court. 18.2-423.01 (2002). Section object" "with contain 18.2-423.01, repeal 18.2-423, THOMAS argues "conduct, expression."Post, 394. course equally pure 358. recognized, hate," white supremacy." (concurring opinion). 65 concurring. 66 intimidate," (1996), unquestionably qualifies kind unprotected separate opinions wrote simple proposition upholding basic conduct. observation, join O'CONNOR's opinion. 67 joins part. 68 may, infringing Accordingly, I-III write separately, describe believe correct justification plurality's invalidate 69 view "shall determine component Constitution, necessary, first, precisely presentation accomplishes. 70 "prima evidence" defined as: 71 "Such as, law, rebutted contradicted, remain sufficient. [Such evidence], unexplained uncontradicted, sustain favor supports, [it] contradicted evidence." Law Dictionary 1190 (6th ed. 1990). 72 embraced canonical understanding pivotal statutory language. E.g., Babbitt 192 372, 379-380, 718, (1951) ("Prima appearance presumption rebutted"). Nance 203 428, 124 900 (1962), (1) prohibited possession "burglarious" tools burglary, robbery, larceny ...," (2) burglarious robbery larceny." 18.1-87 (1960). "cuts defense interposes obstacle facts, `relieves neither duty questions weight whole evidence.'" 903-904; 904 "`is merely rule determination ...'"). 73 established then, term appears perfectly orthodox: suffices, own, fact. hornbook goes unrebutted. "Prima fact; and, rebutted, purpose." 7B Michie's West (1998) added). 74 sure, free, wishes, discard Its courts permitted phrase ways purposes statutes. nothing sort. tribunal spoken deviated whit practice legal words. 746 Put otherwise, demonstrated chief view, sufficient, until come forward rebuttal evidence, element offense. 75 important note suggest (as instructions infra, 377) ignore presented showing Nor, crucially, say get jury, verdict shown if, evidence. Instead, according limited. suffices "insulate case-in-chief," more. is, automatically comes rebuttal. 76 presented, whether, evidence," constitutional. answered negative. "§ sweeps ambit prosecution, sufficiently render overbroad." 77 approach overbreadth unprecedented. engage subject overbroad. jurisprudence consistently focused prohibitory terms extend conduct; inquired prosecution. Houston Hill, 482 451, 459 (a make[s] substantial amount invalid" added)); Grayned Rockford, 408 104, 114 (1972) "if conduct" 397 (deeming "fatally criminalizes Amendment" added)). 78 Unwilling embrace novel mode analysis, today's properly focuses convicted, arrested prosecuted, notes defense."1 Ante, 365 plurality explains, itself." this, plurality, problematic nonintimidating prohibited. particular, serve ideology" solidarity" rituals, artistic Burning. Ante. 365-366. 79 convictions, assuming unconstitutional, challenged case-by-case basis. way explanation, leaps justifies 80 deeming invalid, presumably rely species doctrine.2 rare indeed. "[i]n vagueness task enactment reaches conduct." Hoffman Estates Flipside, Estates, 455 489, 494 (1982). If looks "[i]t ..." capture holding, ante, 363, prohibit. identify affected compelled focus prohibition, hence process jury.3 context, claim improper result operation alone. concedes, impermissibly adopt strategy, wit, abstaining 81 thus strikingly attenuated argument invalid. contemplates includes (3) (4) present defense"). 82 Conceding (quite generously, view) exists, possibly rise viable challenge, doctrine. emphasized repeatedly "where regulates scope real, well, judged relation plainly legitimate sweep." Osborne 495 103, 112 (1990) omitted; emphasis ("Only substantially invalidated face"); 800 (1984) ("[T]he conceive impermissible applications susceptible challenge"); ("[A] number ..."). notion improperly obtained large fanciful. potential complains appropriately classified sort "marginal applications" "facial inappropriate." Parker Levy, 417 733, 760 (1974).4 Perhaps alarming, 364, 365, premised good invalidates 367 face"). aware cites none troubling instruction.5 altogether unsurprising precedent holding. ambiguous, interpretations cede enormous measure judges. judge's idiosyncratic reading trigger invalidation. intent," 196 verbatim Instructions promulgated legislature formally adopted Court. elsewhere, "[p]roffered correctly erroneous refused." 10A (Supp. 2000). 84 willingness (and basis) shocking offered guidance proper ordinarily decline State's highest construction. Arizonans Official English 520 43, rule, possible not. situation, applying maxim "ut res magis valeat quam pereat" opposite remarkable dissonance implicit suggested rebut inference. contrary, keeping black-letter hint permitted, strictly prosecution's conditions, unjustified invalidating 85 performance, paper unprecedented errant states: 86 provision.... possibility." 367. 87 Now truly baffling. Having declared, immediately preceding sentence, "unconstitutional face," added), holds offer saving go saying possible, inappropriate. Harrison NAACP, 360 167, (1959) ("[N]o clear federal adjudicate enactments fairly them"). So, happened hypothetical remanded learn Words wonderment virtuoso performance. 88 demonstrates, unproblematic. Nevertheless, authoritative concur stand. above, Where given, impossible must) body or, instead, chosen exclusively cross.6 Still, Black. judgment, erroneously overbroad, conviction, dismissed indictment 779, defect rooted dismiss retry interesting let make-believe extends supports dismissal Logically, asserts "even case."Ante, 365. There assertion. 900, 903-904 states, uncertain terms, "`relieves (Emphasis added.) was, course, framework 777-778, 745-746 (2001) (examining labeled "OVERBREADTH ANALYSIS" overbroad"). Likewise, submissions parties' analyses overbreadth. Brief Petitioner 41-50 (confining discussion titled "THE VIRGINIA STATUTE IS NOT OVERBROAD"); 39-41 (arguing render[s] [the statute] overbroad"); Reply 13-20 (dividing sections "There Is No Real Overbreadth" Substantial Overbreadth"). reliance understandable. succeed challengewithout relying doctrine, challenger circumstances exists valid." Salerno, 481 739, 745 (1987). covered proscribed, 363. Unquestionably, elements criminal offense concerns. concerns sound process, overbreadthE. Ulster Cty. Allen, 442 140, 156-157 (1979); Barnes 412 837, 838 (1973); re Winship, 358, 359 (1970). Due Process Clause, relies declaring Confronted incontrovertible easily driven startling assertion nevertheless invalidatedeven footnote dictum 5-to-4 965-966, (1984). 975 (REHNQUIST, Burger, Powell dissenting). Stare decisis newfound affection (even stare dictum), later (joined six Justices) flatly repudiated it. White, Blackmun, Powell, JJ.) (to valid"). Even willing, apparently repudiation dictum, foundation whatever conditions here. Our applications. "there identifiable prohibits." Munson, 965-966. flaw sweep applications, operates fundamentally mistaken premise high solicitation costs accurate fraud." 966. Unless abandon contention takes great pains violence," 360—it bearing onTerminiello (1949), mistaken. review, infirm. valid quite Insofar concerned, repeated references as-applied nature challenge. "maintained violated "[a]s provision] contains parts unconstitutional" pinch application" record petitioner him" Isserles, Overcoming Overbreadth: Facial Challenges Valid Rule Requirement, Am. 359, 433, (characterizing "adopting narrowing peace ultimately confining overturning defendant's Though (constitutionally permissible) duties, dissipate cloud doubt. SeeSandstrom Montana, 510, 517 (1979) (refusing assume instruction: "[W]e discount [improperly]"). 89 GINSBURG join, category punishable considered (1992). disagree save unconstitutionality acceptable variation 91 struck (including cross) equivalent words, provocative "`on gender.'" "basis of" limitation matter, specific selects essentially victim, probably physical way, historical identification arson, beating, lynching. terrify, further, Protestant supremacy. accompanies many uses symbol, expressed symbolize supremacist solidarity espouse points out, broadcast together, choice 354-357, 92 restricted falls exceptions V.'s general condemnation proscription broader generally. cross's extraordinary method mentioned there, called "consists proscribable." speaks covering "particularly virulent" 93 think virulence fits poorly illustrative examples fact, moves flexible conception reserve doctrinal development, pragmatic muster, obvious hurdle essential tendency disqualifies rescue rule. 94 defines barring subclasses categorically way: subcategory "entirely" "basis" reason" proscribable" all. confined obviously instances, "no exists," explanation rounded examples. None them, resembles us.1 95 example unusually "in prurience," deleted), citation Seventh Circuit discussed difference depictions simulations. noted, distinguishing publications Kucharek Hanaway, 902 513, 517-518 (1990). rejected distinct selected threaten, singled disapproval supremacy, supremacy dramatic, espousal civic embarrassment. kinship example. 96 Nor analogy President, upon. 362. relates addressee reflects risks President. Again, reference accompany viewpoint, correlation message. Millions day standpoint; integral others. Differential treatment risks, messages. hand, subtle intensity causes nonthreatening 97 read things, necessarily flexible, original illustrations suggest. Actually, looking modification exception, "nature" realistic official afoot." 390. recognizing show ostensibly punishing ruse suppression, greater (but exclusive) impact adherents 362-363. 98 My concern here, event, merit move. practical survive recasting "official afoot," stands finding 99 highway, amendment earlier portion criminalizing 363 (plurality opinion), crosses, respondents' counts 100 significance primary skew understand work, recall more, aim threaten. 354-357. tell wholly circumstance. world, real-world prosecutions, circumstances, factfinder isolated Sometimes equivocal, visible public. 349-350, tilting jury's thinking What factfinder's acted indication, indication presented. encourage err point clarity one. distortion remedy, sufficiency review "viewing favorable [no] rational trier crime doubt." Jackson 443 307, 319 (1979). draw notes. 365-366 101 skews suppressing appropriate term, definition amenable severance proscriptions, warranted afoot. look purpose, mechanism bringing doubtfully distasteful. 102 easier suggesting present. unnecessary seeks bars ground [or realistic] 390.2 Since based, tailored compelling interest, 395-396, stringent test pass; achieve object singling content. 103 prosecuted activities, respondent's eliminate vacating dismissing indictments. skipped covers misleading industry fraud great, deals commercial standardsR. 388-389. secondR. relating "`secondary effects.'" 389 Renton Playtime Theatres, 475 41, (1986)). "secondary effects" presupposes regulation "unrelated dissenting. culture, things acquire outsiders comprehend. sacred, 422-429 unique position American flag Nation's 200 years history), profane. paradigmatic latter. "ban intimidate,"ante, errs imputing activity question, 362 (relying Amendment's outlined (1992)). undertaken means. zone overlooks reality. "In intimidate] Holmes' familiar aphorism `a page worth volume logic.'"Texas 421 Trust Co. Eisner, 256 345, 349 (1921)). world's oldest, persistent terrorist organization European Middle Eastern origin. Fifty Irish Republican Army organized, Al Fatah declared holy war Israel, actively harassing, torturing, Today fanatically committed opposition progress equality States." vii Newton). me, reinforces organization, endeavor dislikes, brutal methods. methods typically include harassment minorities, Catholics, Jews, Communists, groups hated Klan." 770 frightened, extreme measures, beatings Williams, Eyes Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965, recent history. Amicus Curiae 3-4, 2.1 ingrained, lower recognized: "After saw she crying knees living room. [She] felt feelings frustration feared husband's life. symbolized American: `Nothing good. Murder, hanging, rape, Just anything name. worst thing happen person.' Mr. Heisser probation officer occurrence, leave, return murder.... Seven lived fear.... reaction reasonably anticipated Skillman, 922 1370, 1378 (CA9 1991) perception precursor worse blacks. modern expanded list enemies "radical[s]" immigrants, unions, ix, widely lawlessness. wholeheartedly observation Virginia: "A white, conservative, middle-class Protestant, waking home, him. His find, say, circle square. latter fire department. former, police." 26. invariably lawlessness understandably instills well-grounded experience exception. facing widespread 1920's, developed localized strength southeastern reports scattered raids floggings. 585. disbanded level 1944, series 1949 1952. 771, 742, (collecting accounts period); Fired Near Suffolk Stirs Probe, Past Week, Times-Dispatch, 23, 313, 314-315 (The reported week "brought eight past year. Six Nansemond County. Spring, 150 Whaleyville. arrests incidents"). Most families, business owners predominantly neighborhoods. Police Aid Requested Teacher, Burned Negro's Yard, 312; 313; Reedville Home, Apr. 14, 1951, 321. accompanied shooting. Manakin, Third Area, supra 318. residences five tall, "huge reminiscent days" "atop hill" secret Knights Kavaliers tall. Huge Hill Covington, 1950, 6, 316. were, time, "terroristic [sic]" "un-American act[s], Negroes seeking citizens." February 1952, attendant "long dead revitalized Richmond," Battle "Virginia `might passing legislation' restrict "State Might Well Consider" Restrictions Comments, Feb. newspapers bill similar evidences terrorism." Name Rider Approved House, 325 Delegates FBI agent future two-term Governor, Delegate Mills Godwin, Jr. "Godwin said organized intimidation." Curb KKK Passed Action Taken Without Debate, Mar. 8, 5, early intolerable atmosphere surprising: 1920's connected clergy, postwar period reverted function "as instrument 185, 279 Strengthening Godwin's conclusion, sought terrorizing enacted, segregation prevailing practice, Virginia.2 And, Assembly embarked campaign "massive resistance" (1954). Griffin Prince Edward Cty., 218, 221 (1964); Day, 439, 448-454, 106 636, 644-648 massive resistance legislatively mandated close schools desegregate). strains credulity litany segregationist laws self-contradictorily squelch segregationists, terroristic Siamese twin intolerable. demonstrates segregationists understood racist belief Legislature concerned penalizing vicious. someone's house seek refuge hate terrorize addresses analyze tests. implicates problems. Therein lies disagreement plurality. threshold inquiry ascertaining [a involving presumption] describes."Francis Franklin, 471 313-314 (1985) categorized presumptions permissive inferences mandatory presumptions. 314. statutorily supplied inference," added); 755 ("Code creates inference" Under "inference" "presumption." Phillips, 235 523, 526, 369 399 (1988). compels finder facts.1 shift opposing party tending presumption.2 presumption, ultimate persuasion cast. "1 contrast, inference, loosely referred compel conclusion. potency probative evidentiary attach deems best. Wigmore, Evidence Trials Common 2491(1), 304 (Chad. rev. 1981). "2An invoke procedural consequence shifting production. Id." (some citations Both clause "inference," disagree, requiring guilt caused persons," 796, 756 case). characterized label attaches corresponds categorization clauses. respect, crucial calls termed "permissive presumption." 157 (1979).3 Given definitions "mandatory presumption" track "presumption," "inferences": flags inference." irrational. containing irrebuttable intent, concern. instance, scienter requirement rape. Tenn. 39-13-506 (1997); Ore. 163.365 (1989); Mo. 566.032 (2000); Ga. 16-6-3 arrested, sex minor, proving doubt, minor consent. "[f]or child molesting consent irrelevant. determined children age sixteen (16) cannot, performed (16)." Warrick 952, 954 (Ind. 1989) Ind. 35-42-4-3 (1988)). behavior reprehensible satisfied perpetrator. Considering horrific victims, presume Statutes drugs distribute rape laws. statutes, effectively drugs. Del. Ann., Tit. 16, 4753A (1987); Mass. Gen. Laws, ch. 94C, 32E (West 1997); 44-53-370 (or "trafficking") quantity drugs, mount intent. However, reveal controversy drug precedents troubled laments fate innocent fears chill because, First, least, play trial. Second, rebuttable demonstrate, requires existence element, upheld regulations initially culpable results charges. pornography illegal, 764 (1982), pornography, obscene, allowed, 413 (1973). result, pornographers trafficking images adults minors deterred possessing materials. "chilling" not, grave gives interests proposition. depends prevent, aims. Colorado, 530 703 (2000), restriction protests abortion clinics, explaining tailored, services establishments "unwanted advice" communication," 708, 716, 717, 729. concluding, placed heavy "vulnerable emotional conditions" patients. came abortions, advice," notably, distance prospective patient, justified countervailing obtaining abortion. Yet, strikes anyone. subjects targets, sometimes, unintended audience, 782, 748-749 93-97, distress, virtually rather, Henceforth, safety valued less unwanted communications. uphold validity respectfully dissent. Guest, 745, 747-748, (1966) charging 241 (1964 ed.) interfere federally secured by, inter alia, "burning view," "shooting Negroes," "beating "killing "damaging destroying "pursuing automobiles guns"); Pospisil, 186 3d 1023, 1027 (CA8 1999) (defendants victims' slashed tires, guns), cert. denied, 529 1089 Stewart, 918, (CA11 1995) (cross precipitated exchange gunfire perpetrators), denied sub nom. Daniel 516 1134 (1996); McDermott, 404, 405 1994) discourage using park park, "waving baseball bats, axe handles, knives; throwing rocks bottles; veering towards persons; physically chasing park"); Cox 585 So. 182, 202 (Ala. Crim. (defendant participated evening murder), 503 987 (1992); Caro, Years Lyndon Johnson: Master Senate 847 (referring wave "southern sniper cross-burnings" 1956 efforts desegregate schools, buses, parks); (observing "Jewish merchants boycotts, threats, burnings, sympathizers); 361-362 refused demands sell home); 382 incident brick Jewish officeholder); 583 damage Vietnamese immigrant fishermen); 262-263 kidnaping, "terrorism" organizers South); 376 cars); assaults blacks); Kluger, Simple 378 (1975) at, subsequent into, issued desegregation decisions); Rubinowitz Perry, Crimes Punishment: Neighbors' Resistance Entry, 335, 342, 354-355, 388, 408-410, 419, 420, 421, 423 (Fall 2001-Winter 2002) "escalating eject [minority] family" neighborhood begin "cross window breaking, telephone calls," culminate bombings; describing violence); 4, 318 1951 gunfire). See,e. 18-327 (1950) (repealed 1960) (required separation "white" "colored" entertainment assemblage; misdemeanor); 20-54 (1960) 1968) (prohibited intermarriage); 22-221 1972) ("White colored taught school"); 24-120 1970) listings "white failed pay poll tax); 38-281 1952) fraternal associations "both members"); 53-42 (1967) (amended remove "race" prison); 56-114 (1974) 1975) (authorized Corporation Commission require "separate waiting rooms" races"); 56-326 motor carriers "separate" passengers," 56-390 56-396 (same railroads); 58-880 personal books "white[s]" "colored"). inAllen, "allows places defendant. situation constitute fact.... leaves credit reject proof, affects application `beyond doubt' standard (citations "[a] affect `no placement burden; presumed facts."

Classification Label: 2