Legal Document

532 U.S. 514121 S.Ct. 1753149 L.Ed.2d 787 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.BARTNICKI et al.v.VOPPER*, aka WILLIAMS, al. No. 99-1687. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Argued December 5, 2000Decided May 21, 2001 Syllabus During contentious collective-bargaining negotiations between a union representing teachers at Pennsylvania high school and local board, an unidentified person intercepted recorded cell phone conversation chief negotiator president (hereinafter petitioners). After parties accepted nonbinding arbitration proposal generally favorable teachers, respondent Vopper, radio commentator, played tape on his public affairs talk show connection with news reports about settlement. Petitioners filed this damages suit under both federal state wiretapping laws, alleging, among things, their had been surreptitiously by unknown person; Yocum, head organization opposed union's demands, obtained intentionally disclosed it to, inter alios, media representatives; they repeatedly published even though knew reason know illegally intercepted. In ruling cross-motions for summary judgment, District concluded that, statutory language, individual violates Act disclosing contents electronic communication when he she knows has information was through illegal interception, if not involved interception; found question whether interception intentional raised genuine issue material fact; rejected respondents' defense were protected First Amendment disclosures violated statutes, finding statutes content-neutral laws general applicability containing no indicia prior restraint chilling free speech. The Third Circuit interlocutory appeal, also petitioner, intervened defend Act's constitutionality. Applying intermediate scrutiny, court invalid because deterred significantly more speech than necessary protect private interests stake, remanded case instructions enter judgment respondents. 1 Held: protects respondents suit. Pp. 6-20. 2 (a) Title III Omnibus Crime Control Safe Streets 1968, as amended, prohibits wire, electronic, oral communications. 18 U.S.C. 2511(1)(a) applies who willfully intercepts such communications subsection (c) who, knowing having discloses its contents. 6-9. 3 (b) Because suit's procedural posture, accepts unlawful that. Accordingly, statutes. answering remaining statutes' application circumstances Amendment, submissions part access lawfully, conversations dealt matter concern. 9-10. 4 Section 2511(1)(c) law applicability. statute's purpose privacy communications, singles out virtue fact intercepted-by source rather matter. Cf. Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 781, 791. On hand, prohibition against fairly characterized regulation 10-12. 5 (d) New York Times Co. 403 713, upheld press' right publish great concern from documents stolen third party. so doing, focused documents' character consequences disclosure, stolen. Ibid. It left open whether, cases where acquired unlawfully newspaper source, government punish only acquisition, but ensuing publication. Florida Star B. J. F., 524, 535, n. 8. here narrower version question: Where publisher lawfully unlawfully, based defect chain? Court's refusal construe broadly consistent repeated answer categorically truthful ever punished Amendment. considers given facts here, served justify restrictions 12-14. 6 (e) first interest identified Government-removing incentive intercept conversations-does applying otherwise innocent disclosure information. normal method deterring conduct engaging it. would remarkable hold law-abiding possessor can suppressed deter non-law-abiding virtually all 2511(1)(a), (c), violations, interceptor's identity known. There evidence Congress thought interceptions, support assumption reduces number interceptions. 14-16. 7 (f) Government's second interest-minimizing harm persons whose have intercepted-is considerably stronger. Privacy important interest. However, suit, concerns give way balanced publishing matters importance. One costs associated participation attendant loss privacy. profound national commitment principle debate issues should uninhibited, robust, wide supported holding Sullivan, 376 254, neither factual error nor defamatory content, combination two, sufficed remove shield criticism official conduct. Parallel reasoning requires conclusion stranger's does suffice 16-20. 8 200 F.3d 109, affirmed. 9 ON WRITS CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR THIRD CIRCUIT NOTES: * Together 99-1728, Williams, al., certiorari same court. 10 Stevens, J., delivered Court, which O'Connor, Kennedy, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. Opinion 11 Justice Stevens Court. 12 These raise concerning what degree protection, any, provides communication. That novel narrow. Despite prohibited since 1934,1 time we confronted issue. 13 hand involves cellular telephone did participate know-or least know-that unlawful. these present conflict highest order-on one full dissemination issues, and, specifically, fostering Framers surely foresee advances science produced conversation, gave rise action. therefore surprising judges, well Members come differing conclusions Amendment's Nevertheless, considered firmly convinced 14 1992 most 1993, State Education Association, Wyoming Valley West High School, engaged board. Petitioner Kane, then union, testified " 'contentious' received "a lot attention." App. 97, 92. petitioner Bartnicki, acting "chief negotiator," used her car call Kane engage lengthy status negotiations. An call. 15 Bartnicki discussed timing proposed strike, id., 41-45, difficulties created comment negotiations, 46, need dramatic response board's intransigence. At point, said: 'If they're gonna move three percent, we're go their, homes . To blow off front porches, we'll do some work those guys. (PAUSES). Really, uh, really truthfully is, you know, bad news. (UNDECIPHERABLE).' 16 early fall non-binding teachers. settlement, commentator critical past, show. Another station broadcast tape, newspapers filing Vopper representatives media, petitioners) learned discovery Jack taxpayers' demands throughout added defendant, mailbox shortly after recognized voices Kane. Yocum members later itself Vopper. II 17 amended complaint, petitioners alleged using device, individuals representatives. Thereafter, conversation. complaint each defendants "knew know" recording means interception. Relying provisions, sought actual damages, punitive attorney's fees costs.2 completed discovery, judgment. Respondents contended statute nothing event, actions might inadvertently. Moreover, argued, argument because, plain "know[s] ha[s] obtained" interception.3 Pet. Cert. 99-1687, pp. 53a-54a. involvement establish violation statute. With respect argument, agreed prove intentional,4 text intent. basis denial petitioners' motion. Finally, contained "no speech." Id., 55a-56a. 19 granted motion pursuant 28 1292(b). certified controlling questions law: "(1) imposition liability Defendants [wiretapping statutes] solely broadcasting newsworthy Defendant [Vopper's] radio/public program, agents [the] Defendants, Amendment; (2) aforesaid [wiretapping] providing anonymously Amendment." p. 76a. Appeals 2403 constitutionality 20 All panel Government "content neutral" "intermediate scrutiny." 121 (CA3 1999). standard, majority stake. dissent, Senior Judge Pollak expressed view interceptions preclude compounding caused wider dissemination. similar decided Columbia, Boehner McDermott, 191 463 (1999). See Peavy WFAA-TV, Inc., 221 158 (CA5 2000).5 We resolve conflict. 530 1260 (2000). 21 As pointed Berger York, 388 41, 45-49 (1967), sophisticated (and sophisticated) methods eavesdropping intercepting calls practiced decades, primarily enforcement authorities.6 Berger, held York's written authorizing police wiretaps Fourth Largely decision, our Katz 389 347 attachment listening device outside booth constituted search, "Congress undertook draft comprehensive legislation use surveillance specified conditions, prohibiting otherwise. S. Rep. 1097, 90th Cong., 2d Sess., 66 (1968)." Gelbard 408 78 (1972) (Rehnquist, dissenting). ultimate result efforts 82 Stat. 211, entitled Wiretapping Electronic Surveillance. 22 stated purposes title "to effectively wire communications." addition regulating purposes, regulated regulations, 2511(1), defined five offenses punishable fine $10,000, imprisonment years, both. Subsection applied "willfully communication." devices designed conversations; communications; unauthorized authorized purposes. original provision directly case, discloses, endeavors disclose, communication, subsection." "uttered exhibiting expectation justifying expectation." 2510(2). 23 enacted apply monitoring transmissions. Communications 1986, 100 1848, however, enlarged coverage prohibit "electronic" By amendment, 1994 amendment cordless 108 4279, now over phones.7 Although lesser criminal penalty transmissions, civil remedies available "oral," "wire," "electronic," 2510 (1994 ed. Supp. V). IV 24 constitutional us validity specific case. posture appropriate make certain assumptions facts. accept submission intentional, unlawful, minimum, "had board subsequent public, Under provisions statute, analog, thus recover Amendment.8 25 question, serve distinguish arisen 2511. First, Rather, occurred, never Second, tapes someone else. 536 (1989) ("Even assuming Constitution permitted proscribe receipt information, taken step"). Third, If statements labor arena-during bargaining session, example-they newsworthy. true party inadvertently overheard making two alone. V 26 agree 2511(1)(c), "Deciding particular content neutral always simple task. rule, terms favored disfavored ideas views based." Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. FCC, 512 622, 642-643 (1994). determining neutral, look behind regulation; typically, "[g]overnment expressive activity long 'justified without reference speech.' 791 (1989).9 27 basic "protec[t] wire[, electronic,] (1968). conversations, justified conversations. singled naked pure Unlike "use" 2511(1)(d),10 delivery regarded conduct, provide recipient statements, like handbill pamphlet, such, kind "speech" protects.11 below put it, "[i]f acts 'disclosing' 'publishing' constitute speech, hard imagine within category, distinct category conduct." F.3d, 120. VI 29 matter, "state action seldom satisfy standards." Smith Daily Mail Publishing Co., 443 102 (1979). More "if obtains significance officials constitutionally absent order." 103; see 524 (1989); Landmark Communications, Virginia, 435 829 (1978). 30 713 (1971) (per curiam), press decision resolved rule restraints preserving secrecy disclosed, seriously impair security Nation. resolving conflict, attention every Member disclosure. undisputed intended noted Harlan's 754, dissenters placed weight fact. 31 raised, "whether, well."12 Star, U.S., still-open question. Simply put, this: "Where manner lawful chain?" Boehner, 484-485 (Sentelle, 32 Our presented "[o]ur carefully eschewed reaching mindful future bring scenarios prudence counsels anticipatorily. continue believe sensitivity clashes rights counsel relying limited principles sweep context instant case." 532-533. 33 838. consider 34 identifies statute-first, removing second, minimizing assume adequately 2511(1)(d) own violating follows punishing initial illegality acceptable serving ends. 35 impose punishment engages sanctions presently attach sufficient deterrence, perhaps severe. But quite there rare occasions suppressing party's another, see, e.g., Ferber, 458 747 (1982),13 36 handful exceptions, violations described litigated motivated either financial gain domestic disputes.14 cases, known.15 cite viewed difficulty identifying improper scanners accordingly conduct,16 empirical interceptions.17 37 demonstrates occasional situation anonymous scanner will risk prosecution passing reward praise, exceptional imposing upon continuing surreptitious Unusual far short showing "need order" supplementing traditional antisocial justification burden expression must "far stronger mere speculation serious harms." Treasury Employees, 513 454, 475 (1995).18 suggested plainly insufficient.19 38 interest, Harper & Row, Publishers, Nation Enterprises, 471 539, 559 (1985),20 III's thereby "encouraging uninhibited exchange ." Brief 27. fear effect 39 "In democratic society essential citizens think act creatively constructively. Fear suspicion one's being monitored stranger, reality activity, inhibiting willingness voice constructive ideas." President's Commission Law Enforcement Administration Justice, Challenge Free Society 202 (1967). seems sides calculus. considering balance, acknowledge intrusions offensive others, greater intrusion itself. result, valid independent message, play significant role preventing occurring place. 40 decide strong enough 2511(c) trade secrets gossip purely Time, Hill, 385 374, 387-388 (1967) (reserving unrelated proscribed). words, outcome turn enforced offending implicates core imposes 41 Warren Brandeis classic review article: "The interest." Right Privacy, Harv. L. Rev. 193, 214 (1890). "Exposure self others varying degrees concomitant life civilized community. exposure incident places primary value freedom press. 'Freedom discussion, fulfill historic function nation, embrace needed enable cope exigencies period.' (quoting Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, (1940)).21 42 254 (1964), reviewed many decisions settled "general proposition secured 269; Roth 354 476, 484 (1957); Bridges California, 314 252, 270 (1941); Stromberg 283 359, 369 (1931). Those relied "profound robust wide-open," Times, 270; Terminiello Chicago, 337 1, (1949); De Jonge Oregon, 299 353, 365 (1937); Whitney 274 357, 375-376 (1927) (Brandeis, concurring); Roth, 484; Stromberg, 369; Bridges, 270. overriding importance 273; NAACP Button, 371 415, 445 (1963); Wood Georgia, 370 375 (1962); Craig Harney, 331 367 (1947); Pennekamp Florida, 328 331, 342, 343, 345 (1946); 43 clear parallel concern.22 months proper level compensation School unquestionably concern, clearly mundane Communist rhetoric inspired Brandeis' 372, less worthy protection. 44 45 ordered. 46 concurring opinion, 47 Rehnquist, dissenting Scalia Thomas, 48 1069, 1103. Either "statutory whichever $100 day $10,000" recovered 2520(c)(2); Act, amount $1,000, plaintiff reasonable fees. Pa. Cons. 5725(a) "intentionally oral, subsection; shall contains provision. provides: Except specifically provided chapter [2510-2520 V)] who- "(a) intercepts, intercept, procures endeavor communication; intercepted, defendant responsible how done 465. majority, acted accepting media. 476. Apparently couple eavesdrop "for direct indirect commercial advantage gain," fined $500. Department Press Release, Apr. 23, 1997. another involving claim 2000), participated particular, telephones easily phones. Shubert Metrophone, 898 F.2d 401, 404-405 1990). phones often take From 1997, prosecuted charging Statement James K. Kallstrom, Assistant Director Charge Division FBI February 1997 Subcommittee Telecommunications, Trade, Consumer Protection, Committee Commerce, House Representatives Regarding Cellular Privacy. techniques publications, magazines, sites Internet, 6, set congressional hearings scanner, purchased shelf minimally modified, Congress. See, Nix O'Malley, 160 346 (CA6 1998); McKamey Roach, 55 1236, 1240 1995). draw distinction Yocum. 265-266 (1964); Nat. Bank Boston Bellotti, 765, 777 "But while content-based based, cases. Nor assertion save which, face, discriminates content." 642 Solicitor General catalogued (d): "it company business rival create competing product; investor trading securities; management (or vice versa) prepare strategy contract negotiations; supervisor discipline subordinate; blackmailer extortion. 1968 Senate Report 67 (corporate labor-management uses); Fultz Gilliam, 942 396, 400 (6th Cir. 1991) (extortion); Dorris Absher, 959 F. 813, 815-817 (M.D. Tenn. 1997) (workplace discipline), aff'd part, rev'd 179 420 bar socially valuable re Grand Jury, 111 1066, 1077-1079 (3d 1997)." 24. Put way, communicated tapes. 463, (CADC 1999) dissenting) ("What dependent nature origin tapes; contents"). subsequently reserved 829, 837 rationale, moreover, minimal value. Osborne Ohio, 495 103 (1990); 762 ("The permitting live performances photographic reproductions children lewd sexual exceedingly modest, de minimis"). points areas law-namely, mail theft property-in ban possession item illegality. 14; post, 11. Neither examples, though, involve prohibitions relevant analysis. included list 143 63 (d)-which (a)-in appendix brief. Reply describing latter group. 206 listed appendices, 14, supra, 17, infra, interceptor wholly unknown. legislative history indicates Congress' "in relations industrial espionage situations." 225 Similarly, enactment 1986 senator referred protecting corporate spy, officer probable cause, just snoop." 131 Cong. Rec. 24366 (1985) (statement Sen. Leahy). dissent argues "congressional findings" 'Congress' predictions.' Post, 10. foundation record. argue assumptions, nor, real vast Instead, minor disagreement numbers, stating nine "involved unproved eavesdropper." 13-14, (emphasis added). includes interceptor, suspected, "proved" insufficient. interceptors 2511, mystery. If, proponents dry up market theory difficult identify responsibility for, illegality), expect (and, concomitantly, fewer remained anonymous). Thus, dearth record theory, postenactment cuts Indeed, "mere conjecture." Greater Orleans Assn., 527 173, 188 holding, course, obtaining unlawfully. "It frivolous assert-and cases-that securing otherwise, confers license reporter sources violate laws. stealing could immune conviction whatever impact flow news." Branzburg Hayes, 665, 691 (1972). 'The thrust voluntary ideas; shields man wants speak wish him quiet. necessarily, suitably areas, publicly, serves end affirmative aspect.' Estate Hemingway Random House, N. Y. 341, 348, 244 E. 250, 255 (Ct. 1968)). "our circumstances, reputational alone cannot proscription Butterworth Smith, 494 624, 634 (1990). 535 (acknowledging "the 'timidity self-censorship' allowing information"). whom O'Connor joins, concurring. 49 I join "narrow" ante, 1-2, special here: (1) broadcasters (up final disclosure); publicized unusual namely threat potential physical others. write separately explain why, my view, imply broader immunity 50 recognizes, us-a statutorily imposed liability-implicates concerns. Ante, 17-18. interfere prevent time, help personal privacy-an "right let alone," Olmstead 277 438, 478 (1928) dissenting), speech," 2. Given "on equation, key becomes fit." 520 180, 227 (1997) (Breyer, part). Nixon Shrink Missouri PAC, 528 377, 402 (2000) concurring). 51 ask strike balance speech-restricting speech-enhancing consequences. Or instead disproportionate measured corresponding speech-related benefits, taking into account kind, importance, extent secure benefits? What called "strict scrutiny"-with presumption constitutionality-is normally place where, implicated. (recognizing "conflict order"); ("important calculus"); ibid. ("balanc[ing]" "against importance"); 18-19 (privacy outweighed cases). 52 enhance (describing 'freedom publicly' Y.2d E.2d (1968))). ensure much trespass ensures home. assurance helps overcome natural reluctance discuss become public. And consequently encourage 53 restrict directly, deliberately, necessity. They include scope simply means, say, end. Media intimate entire community cause speakers above 51-52 widespread powerful disincentive privately comparatively Insofar dissemination, resemble award bedroom. Brandeis, 193 (1890) Brandeis). Restatement (Second) Torts 652D (1977). 54 despite Federal tolerate objectives. 196 (arguing protection privacy). 347, 350-351 ("[T]he person's privacy-his people-is, property very life, largely States"); (protecting promoting "interests order"). Rather forbid enactment, tailor reasonably reconcile personal, Nonetheless, looked disproportionately freedom. For thing, previously obtained. "neither encouraged indirectly interception." 33a. No claims ordered, counseled, encouraged, aided abetted intermediary, tape's still intermediary (criminalizing aiding abetting offense); W. LaFave A. Scott, Substantive Criminal 6.6(b)-(c), 128-129 (1986) abetting). And, out, 9. adds "does unlawfully." 56 little legitimate maintaining suggestion "blow[ing] porches" "do[ing] guys," raising safety constitutes wrongful act, recognizes privilege reporting threats safety. 595, Comment g (1977) (general report "another intends kill rob commit crime person"); 652G (privilege invasion tort). (Third) Unfair Competition 40, c (1995) (trade secret permits health safety, commission tort, substantial concern); Lachman Sperry-Sun Well Surveying 457 850, 853 (CA10 1972) (nondisclosure agreement binding activity); Tarasoff Regents Univ. Cal., Cal. 3d 425, 436, 551 P.2d 334, 343-344 (1976) (psychiatric presence danger others). Even passed publication, legitimize speaker's earlier expectation. editors, quickly, determine continued threat. 57 Further, themselves, teacher's negotiator, "limited figures," voluntarily controversy. subjected themselves somewhat scrutiny affairs. (respondents Wolston Reader's Digest 157, 164 (1979); Hutchinson Proxmire, 111, 134 Gertz Robert Welch, 418 323, 351 (1974). 215. 58 say anyone, including figures, entirely i.e., taps removed situations publicizes truly matters. Michaels Internet Entertainment Group, 823, 841-842 (C.D. 1998) (broadcast videotape famous actress rock star Keeton, Dobbs, R. Owen, Prosser Keeton 117, 857 (5th 1984) (stating "portrayal characteristics conduct" "quite different matter"); concern"). Firestone, 424 448, 454-455 (despite divorce wealthy "public controversy"). ("[S]ome others"). 59 issue, interest" exception swallows privacy-protecting rule. finds kind. Here, speakers' expectations unusually low, defeating high. along behavior, 60 emphasize legislatures respond flexibly challenges technology pose individual's Clandestine pervasive invasions privacy, unlike bedroom, possibilities continuously advancing technologies. Eavesdropping ordinary street (which callers seem tolerate) encrypted carried technologies allow former permit latter. Legislatures revisit us, creating better tailored encourage, example, effective 61 reasons, avoid adopting overly broad rigid rules, unnecessarily flexibility. Constitution, extend beyond circumstances. 62 Chief Thomas join, dissenting. Technology millions confidential occur system networks. advances, uncomfortable position e-mails, medical records, attempt egregious communications.1 holds insofar touches concern," amorphous concept define. diminishes, enhances, Amendment: Americans rely communicate day. 64 Over years ago, "[t]remendous scientific technological developments last century possible today abuse techniques. developments, jeopardized surveillance" longer possible, short, retreat home Every spoken word relating man's marital, religious, political, unseen auditor turned speaker auditor's advantage." (1968) 1097). inseparably bound desire frank cramped fears clandestine purposeful disclosure: 65 effectuate interests, proscribed communications.2 (placing "any communication"). correctly observes "content-neutral law[s] applicability" "highest order": 10, nonetheless subjects strict governmental attempts censor viewpoints ideas. (holding established requisite 'need order' ") (1979)). scant support, precedent reason, tacit scrutiny. A sustained 68 'it furthers interest; suppression expression; incidental restriction freedoms furtherance interest.' 662 (1994) O'Brien, 391 367, 377 (1968)). 69 Legislature 'without Renton Playtime Theatres, (1986). intimation seek suppress unpopular manipulate debate" "distinguish expressed." Broadcasting, 641, 643. antidisclosure acquired, speakers. impunity. Seattle Rhinehart, 467 20, (1984) (upholding protective during disseminate identical gained court's processes"). motivating absent, pass 70 precedents reliance string unpersuasive. information-the name rape victim, Cox Corp. Cohn, 469 (1975), proceedings judicial commission, (1978), juvenile Mail, supra; Oklahoma Cty., 430 308 curiam)-violated further 103. aspect justifies here. 71 Each trigger Playboy 529 803, 813 ("[A] stand satisfies scrutiny"), suffices provisions. But, synthesis clear, unique factors informed principle. 72 itself.3 entrusted government, drastic almost exists guarding facts." 534. 841, (noting steps confidentiality proceedings, contempt breached duty confidentiality). State's ability control undermined necessary, "[b]y placing domain presumed served." 495. factor relevance deal kept domain. 73 already "publicly available," advanced purported confidentiality. 535. Such "disclos[ure]," 2511(1)(c); 5703(2) (2000), "disclose" Black's Dictionary 477 (7th (defining "disclosure" "[t]he process known something unknown; revelation facts"); 93 'public information' 'common knowledge' prohibited"). axiom fade appears record." 494-495. 74 concerned information." "timidity self-censorship" upholding, striking down, provisions: transpire inhibition. scienter requirement, address knowingly disclose conversation.4 inquire negligently liability. 75 sum, obvious relies clear: settle well." 8; 105 ("Our [conduct]"); ("We secures thereafter divulges it").5 76 Undaunted, inordinate criminalized. 13-17. hardly renders receive "law-abiding," certainly them transmission eavesdropper illegal; committed. likened reporters consensual interviews documents. 77 neutral; regulate obtained; republication domain; burdens media; requirement fair warning; promote telephones. narrowly distorts fatal standard do. overwhelming sanctioning itself, extremely detect. estimated million capable transmissions currently operation, Thompson, Cell Phone Snooping: Why Goes Unpunished, Am. Crim. 137, 149 (1997), notwithstanding marketing eight 302a(d).6 recognized, "[a]ll too Only aspects problem protected." 69. Hearings H. 3378 Courts, Civil Liberties, Judiciary, 99th 1st Sess. 290 ("Congress illusion [of Justice], investigations, able successful prosecutions"). 79 faults interceptions," 15-16, insists "there 16. reasoning, numerous regarding necessity disappoints. 80 "quantum heightened judgments vary down novelty plausibility raised." "[C]ourts accord deference predictive Congress." 665 (citing Columbia Democratic National Committee, 412 94, (1973)). institution, equipped judiciary evaluate amounts data bearing complex "[s]ound policymaking legislators forecast events anticipate likely deductions inferences complete unavailable." 665. independently findings performing review, "is reweigh novo, replace predictions own." 666. 81 "dry market" posits wrongdoer enjoying fruits crime, implausible. time-tested undergirds goods. 8.10(a), 422 ("Without receivers, ceases profitable. receiver principal target anxious stamp various forms"). ourselves adopted exclusionary believing "deter unreasonable searches," Oregon Elstad, 470 298, 306 (1985), officer's "incentive disregard [the Amendment]," Elkins 364 206, 217 (1960).7 logic Were wanted launder detection. demand increase repercussion. agrees valid, utterly ineffectual 83 challenge distribution child pornography. (1982). Just policing "low-profile, industry" pornography production concurred expeditious practical severe penalties selling, advertising, product." 760. demand, provide, buttress syllogism. reaffirmed theory's vitality 103, 109-110 (1990), "surely conclude decrease penalizes possess product, decreasing demand."8 84 base, unconstitutional rests bald substitution prognostications reasoned bodies Congress.9 obtain statistical effectiveness "[s]ince easy negative, conclusive assembled." Elkins, 218. Reliance logical eminently reasonable, speculation." (1995). 85 involuntary Samuel Louis intensity complexity civilization, rendered world, man, refining influence culture, sensitive publicity, solitude individual." "There aspect." (internal quotation marks citation omitted). speaks words utters mouthpiece world." 352 (1967); cf. (compelling testimony grand jury proceeding "compounds adding injury insult disclosure"). 86 undeniably venerable Concomitantly, "At heart lies himself herself beliefs deserving expression, consideration, adherence." 641. "protecting expression," Dist. Eastern Mich., 407 297, 302 (1972), "uninhibited, wide-open" parties, (1964). identities select group individuals, people electronically daily basis. great: 49.1 analog operation. Hao, Nokia Profits Surge Phones, Fla. Today, July 18, 1999, E1. 87 extols virtues 17-18, words," Shakespeare, Troilus Cressida, v, sc. 3, overridden newfound concludes Gloria Anthony somehow "debate protection." 20. Perhaps correct newsworthy." intention contributing "debate" all, perverse another's "worthy Hurley Irish-American Gay, Lesbian Bisexual Group Boston, 515 557, 573 ("[O]ne manifestation chooses 'what say' "). figures matters, forgone lives screened follow abandoned disclosed. 88 inviolable importance" enjoys precedents. above, qualified holdings, bear them. mystifying "Pentagon Papers" States' Defense Vietnam War. controlled fell squarely 'a heavy constitutionality.' 714. Justices Stewart White 6-to-3 per curiam decision. 730-731 (White, joined Stewart, concurring) ("I concur today's judgments, concededly extraordinary enjoyed system"). stretch imagination dubbed "prior restraints." "parallel reasoning" inapposite fails persuade. 89 Surely privacy," 2, narrowest on, of, subordinates right, speak, effort marginal freely naught. 2511(1) V); Ala. Code 13A-11-30 seq. (1994); Alaska Ann. 42.20.300(d) (2000); Ark. 5-60-120 (1997); Penal 631 (West 1999); Colo. 18-9-303 Del. Ann., Tit. 11, 1336(b)(1) (1995); 23-542 (1996); 934.03(1) (Supp. 2001); Ga. 16-11-66.1 Haw. 803-42 (1993); Idaho 18-6702 Ill. Comp. Stat., ch. 720, 5/14-2(b) (1999 Supp.); Iowa 808B.2 Kan. 21-4002 Ky. 526.060 (Michie La. 15:1303 (1992); Me. 15, 710(3) 2000); Md. Cts. Jud. Proc. 10-402 Mass. Gen. Laws 272:99(C)(3) Mich. 750.539e 1991); Minn. 626A.02 Mo. 542.402 Neb. 86-702 (1999); Nev. 200.630 570-A:2 2A:156A-3 M. 30-12-1 15A-287 Cent. 12.1-15-02 Ohio 2933.52(A)(3) Okla. 13, 176.3 (2000 Ore. 165.540 5703 I. 11-35-21 39-13-601 Tex. 16.02 Utah 77-23a-4 (1982); Va. 19.2-62 62-1D-3 Wis. 968.31(1) Wyo. 7-3-602 "Electronic communication" transfer signs, signals, writing, images, sounds, data, intelligence transmitted whole radio, electromagnetic, photoelectronic photooptical system." 2510(12) ed., defendant's witnesses crime. 99. blanket 98-99. contrast, comes legal source. culpable face increased "willful" "intentional." 99-541, ("In underscore inadvertent reception subcommittee changed mind [Title III] 'willful' 'intentional' Tellingly, "[t]o hands, nonconsensual bringing acquired." 534; ("[I]t highly anomalous sanction release"). "radio [may be] modified calls." 1999), recently Radio Shack. Rev., 152 Stratton, Scanner Wasn't Supposed Pick Call, Did, Orlando Sentinel, Jan. A15). crafting require evidence. 218 ("Empirical statistics inhabitants states suffer lawless searches seizures admit obtained"). When awesome power unconstitutional, "do do." Ferber ground low-value reasonableness theory. 14. back-seat advice undermine belief users. ha[ve] known." 15. Of cited interception-disclosure course unremarkable pursued brought (d), eavesdropper, pen register, recordings surreptitious. relevant, eavesdroppers. Whatever gleaned figure, practicing voodoo undermines 16, 17. absolutely deterred.

Classification Label: 2