Legal Document

495 U.S. 182 110 S.Ct. 1737 109 L.Ed.2d 163 Alex NGIRAINGAS, et al., Petitionersv.Francisco Q. SANCHEZ, etc., al. No. 88-1281. Argued Jan. 8, 1990. Decided April 24, Syllabus Petitioners filed suit in the District Court under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 against respondents—the Guam Government, Police Department and its Director her official capacity, various police officers their individual capacities alleging that petitioners were arrested assaulted by forced to write sign confessions. The dismissed claims. of Appeals affirmed dismissal with respect government, department, defendants capacities. Analogizing Government an administrative agency, court ruled department are no more than federal instrumentalities thus not "persons" within meaning 1983, which current version relates "[e]very person who [acts] color any statute . State or Territory." also found officials could be sued capacities, because a judgment them such would affect public treasury essentially one government itself. Held: Neither Territory nor acting 1983. Pp. 186-192. (a) Since 1983's language affords clue as whether "person" includes Territory, indicia congressional intent at time enactment must sought. 186-187. (b) omission Territories from original shows Congress did mean subject liability. Rather, 1871, was concerned Ku Klux Klan activities going unpunished Southern States designed remedy combat this evil, recognizing need for federal-court jurisdiction means provide least indirect control over unconstitutional acts state officials. Territorial courts, contrast, Federal Government's general have engendered immediate concern. 187-189. (c) statute's successive enactments, context, further reveal lack include persons. In 1871 version, persons possibly included Territories, Fourteenth Amendment been law. Cf. Will v. Michigan Dept. Police, 491 58, 64, 2304, 2308, 105 45. This reading is supported next 1874, when first added phrase "or Territory," making it possible territorial law held liable. At same time, however, pointedly redefined word "Dictionary Act"—which supplied rules construction all legislation—to exclude Territories. 189-192. (d) person, neither capacity. P. 192. 858 F.2d 1368 (CA 9 1988), affirmed. BLACKMUN, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined, but Part II-B SCALIA, joined. BRENNAN, dissenting opinion, MARSHALL, post, p. 193. KENNEDY, took part consideration decision case. Jeffrey R. Siegel, Walnut Creek, Cal., petitioners. John Patrick Mason, respondents. James A. Feldman, U.S., amicus curiae, supporting respondents, special leave Court. Justice BLACKMUN Court.* 1 case we decide officer his capacity (1982 ed.). 2 * Ngiraingas, Oscar Ongklungel, Jimmy Moses, Arthur Mechol, Jonas Ngeheed, Bolandis Ngiraingas Guam, numerous constitutional violations seeking damages 1983.1 named Department, 3 on suspicion having committed narcotics offenses. complaint, finally amended, alleged taken headquarters Agana where statements confessing crimes. 4 claims ground immune Organic Act 64 Stat. 384, 3, 48 1421a ed.), unless Legislature waived Guam's immunity. App. Pet. Cert. A-4 A-6. action explaining individuals treasury, real party interest Guam. Ibid. 5 Ninth Circuit reversed part. (1988) (superseding 849 372). "no than" instrumentality, F.2d, 1371-1372. "For reasons," also, Id., 1372. Finally, may those Ibid.2 Accordingly, Court's capacities.3 6 Because importance question, other has advanced different view liability 1983,4 granted certiorari, 493 807, 48, 107 17 (1989). II 7 island little 200 square miles located west central Pacific, became United possession conclusion Spanish-American War Treaty Paris, Art. II, 30 1755. Except period December 1941 July 1944, Japan invaded occupied island, Navy administered affairs 1898 1950, passed.5 Among things, provided elected governor established unincorporated Territory. §§ 1422 It said status promise eventual statehood. See H.R.Rep. 1365, 81st Cong., 1st Sess., (1949). continues day military presence Air Force base, communications air weather stations, large complex serves Seventh Fleet.6 8 To determine constitutes examine purpose. Terri tory." itself obviously We seek, therefore, enacted. Columbia Carter, 409 418, 425, 93 602, 606, 34 613 (1973) (analysis purposes scope "take cognizance events passions enacted"). Price, 383 787, 803, 86 1152, 1161, 16 267 (1966). B Our review history uncovers thinking enacted century ago 1871. historical background stark clarity only "stateside." "Section originally Civil Rights purpose enforcing provisions Amendment." Quern Jordan, 440 332, 354, 99 1139, 59 358 (1979) (BRENNAN, concurring judgment); see 423, S.Ct., 605 ("[Section] roots Apr. 20, 1871"). After Between States, race relations troubled. Klan, organized southern whites, commenced "a wave murders assaults both blacks Union sympathizers." 607. worried "about insecurity life property South," "primarily response unwillingness inability governments enforce own laws violating civil rights others." 425-426, 606-607 (emphasis added).7 "The debates replete references lawless conditions existing South There available during these report, nearly 600 pages length, dealing cope it. report drawn many speakers" (footnote omitted). Monroe Pape, 365 167, 174, 81 473, 477, 492 (1961) (overruled certain respects Monell New York City Social Services, 436 658, 98 2018, 56 611 (1978)). 10 directly unrest specifically focused legislation aimed solving problem. "As initially enacted, applied 'State.' 13."8 424, n. 11, 11. Persons included. Viewed "the time," id., evident concerned, instead, "hundreds outrages through agency organization [that had been] punished" States. Cong.Globe, 42d 505 (1871) (remarks Sen. Pratt). As Congress' failure "[w]e can conclude silence matter significant indication legislative 1." Quern, 343, 1146. demonstrates statute. 11 Further, perceived evil. "Congress recognized actions officials." 428, 608. " 'The courts above mere local influence county courts; judges act independence, cannot put terror, can; sympathies so identified vicinage. .' (quoting 460 Rep. Coburn)). judicial system unlike "Under organic acts, each territory three justices appointed president four-year terms. Sitting together, they constituted supreme court; sitting separately, acted district judges. cases arising law." E. Pomeroy, 1861-1890, Studies Colonial Administration 51 (1947). Thus, control, created Acts Congress, President, Government. C 12 enactments statute, exposed "any [acting]under State." 1, 13. Such "Territories 'States' Amendment," "person [acting] of" Any attempt interpret including "Territory" too strained lead far "awkward" interpretation what majority 45 (1989) (to read saying 'every State, who, ordinance, regulation, custom, usage, Columbia, subjects. decidedly awkward way expressing liability"). 13 enactment. Territory" without explanation, 1874 codification revision Statutes Large. Rev.Stat. 1979. But while amendment [law] expose amended Feb. 25, 431 (the Act"), "which legislation." 719, 2050 (REHNQUIST, dissenting); Will, 78, 2316 J. dissenting). Dictionary defined "bodies politic corporate."9 recodification omitted words substituted "partnerships corpora tions."10 liable clarified definition whose give rise Most asserted reason doing so: 14 reasons latter change [substituting 'partnerships corporations' 'bodies corporate'] partnerships ought included; even if politic' precisely equivalent 'corporations,' redundant; if, contrary, 'body somewhat broader, should understood "corporation" confined association natural whom conferred continuous succession, then provision goes convenient. requires draughtsman, employing 'person,' take care foreign governments, &c., appear excluded." Revision Drafted 19 (1872). 15 comments make clear, made liable, very clear included.11 intend encompass among "Just '[w]e liberty seek ingenious analytical instruments' avoid giving broad origins require, 801 [86 1160], recast expand application beyond limited reach gave it." 432, 610. conclusion, confluence language, purpose, together fact becomes concede, Brief 4, 50, agree, 18 hold 1983.12 ordered. KENNEDY 20 MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 21 Today holds I believe opposite compelled history, otherwise, surrounding passage absence immunity enactments. Therefore, respectfully dissent. 22 determination 1983," ante, 192, rests primarily "review 1871." Ante, 187. review, incomplete. (1973), set forth ample evidence mind predecessor Carter "State 1983: 23 "[S]ince seat National position observe and, extent, supervise rationale underlying enact similar officials—the assumption keep control—is equally applicable situation Columbia." 429-430, 608-609 24 noted, dramatically different. While acknowledging that, legal matter, possessed plenary power Territories," 430, 609, noted "[f]or practical reasons, effective virtually impossible." explained: 25 '[T]he territories immediately Washington; poor roads slow mails, unthinkable be. left municipal developed largely legislatures, framework retained veto. self-government exercised delegations enjoyed States.' 430-431, quoting Glidden Co. Zdanok, 370 530, 546, 82 1459, 1470-1471, 671 (1962) (opinion Harlan, J.). 26 contrary implication today, 189, term four years, "were peculiarly susceptible pressures, since reappointments often dependent upon favorable recommendations legislatures." supra, 431, 28, 609-610, 28; L. Friedman, A History American Law 142 (noting corruption common judges); pp. 52-56 (1947) (same). concluded "although Constitution vested 'confused ineffective,' problem enforcement existed 609 omitted), 4; Examining Board Engineers, Architects Surveyors Flores de Otero, 426 572, 596, 96 2264, 2278, 49 65 (1976) ("Congress lacked officials, although authority govern plenary"). 27 recognition protection fashioned fully years preceding turmoil racially motivated violence attention basic there. course, principal source friction between North before War.2 idea "squatter sovereignty," Stephen Douglas Illinois enshrined Compromise 1850, allowed citizens themselves join slave free State. 1850 admissions Utah Mexico governed Kansas-Nebraska 1854 extended principle well. resulting disputes abolitionist proslavery groups rampant violence, best illustration come known "bleeding Kansas." 28 1855 elections Kansas Legislature, several thousand "border ruffians" crossed Missouri stuff ballot boxes ensure election legislature would, did, pass drastic code. S. Morison, H. Commager, & W. Leuchtenburg, Concise Republic 260 (2d ed. 1983). free-state forces responded setting up rump "by 1856 two illegal." What followed "savage conflict" sides. "Into thronged Northern zealots, brawlers, adventurers, land jobbers. From England, financed Boston money, moved Abolitionist immigrants led ministers brought rifles them." Hacker, Shaping Tradition 468 Public buildings burned, supporters side murdered. retaliation slaying Abolitionists, Brown killed five men Osawatomie Creek. sum, "might almost regarded opening battle war," Blaine, Twenty Years Congress: Lincoln Garfield 121 (1884), order broke down completely. 29 examples turbulence Territories3 much discussed deliberations intended apply Proponents measure stressed important role played curbing prewar spread slavery See, e.g., 335 Hoar) ("[T]he great Northwest saved national power. If benignant interposition desire establish despotism, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin today slave-holding States"). Some legislators drew explicit linkage characterizing opponents "[t]he [who] wont ridicule 'bleeding Kansas.' 414 Roberts). Others emphasized extending "every citizen every extent guarantied him Constitution." Bingham) added); (referring "justice frontiers your widely domain").4 "to protect defend remedies wrongs people" "liberally beneficently construed." 68 Shellabarger) added). contemplated extend bolstered 1867 suffrage adult males Afro-Americans, still permitted deny right vote account race.5 39th Sess. 2600-2602 (1866). establishing that: 31 "[T]here shall denial elective franchise now, hereafter organized, thereof, race, color, previous condition servitude; parts either Legislative Assemblies inconsistent act, hereby declared null void." 380 (1867). 32 McPherson, Political America During Period Reconstruction 184 (1871); Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution 1863-1877, 272 (1988). passed Territory's protections embodied laws. 1891 (1874). 33 extension concomitant enforcement6 demonstrate considered Of specific reference until some after initial Act. moment. Although there explain addition,7 aim insure residing denied, law, guaranteed States." 582-583, 2271-2272. overriding concern lay providing strong few measures suing damages, Owen Independence, 445 622, 650-656, 100 1398, 1415-1418, 63 673 (1980); 357-365, 1153-1157, judgment), fall class potentially urges create 190, "under do find awkwardness determinative, extends under-color-of-law requirement private gives method avoiding redundancy complains replace catchall detailed list separate category defendants. That approach ultimately chosen Congress. event, thought enforced statutes drafted flowed "trippingly tongue." 35 my undermined Act, altered replacing corporate" corporations." (1872) (hereinafter Draft). suggests covered abuses notion simultaneously directions implausible. rate, authoritative support view, accompanied commissioners revise Code. 190-191 (citing remarks commissioners). canons statutory construction, 'it will inferred revising consolidating laws, effect intention clearly expressed.' Finley 490 545, 554, 2003, 2009, 104 593 (1989), Anderson Pacific Coast S.S. Co., 225 187, 199, 626, 630, L.Ed. 1047 (1912). surely does evince preface explains definitions merely presumptive sense Title provisional experimental. They forward questions, decisions. guide commencing task revision, turn revised proceeds." Draft, 1. think undertaken tentatively substantial alterations described majority. 36 Even accept premise analyzed light conclusion. eliminated "body politic," 'person' corporations," generally political entities 2d 451 (1867) Nebraska corporation"). largest sense, extensive people aware of. body (sole aggregate) restricted transcendent 'a corporation.' Chisholm Georgia, Dall. 419, 447, (1793) (Iredell, J.).8 qualify 37 Respondents argue belied our "in enacting override well-established immunities defenses 67, 2310, (1989); 341-343, 1145-1146. note relied heavily rule holding reasoned deciphering Eleventh consideration," "Congress, passing disturb States' alter Federal-State balance respect." 66, 2310. 38 concerns animating interpretation, absent here never type force 384 (codified 1421 seq. ed.)), makes sections Bill Rights, expressly confer 1421b(u) ed.).9 reflects common-law sovereign court—a accept, Atascadero Hospital Scanlon, 473 234, 258-302, 3142, 3155-3177, 87 171 (1985) dissenting)—the certainly embody form 39 nature dispels suggestion assert claim court. Clause provides qualification Power dispose needful Rules Regulations respecting Property belonging Const., IV, cl. 2. An "exists behest By simple exists repealed self enjoys nullified." Virgin Islands Amicus Curiae 8.10 derive powers [a Territory] owes existence wholly [T]erritory inhabitants, legitimate paramount." Grafton 206 333, 749, 755, 1084 (1907). "entire dominion sovereignty" "full power" Simms Simms, 175 162, 168, 60, 44 115 (1899); Binns 194 486, 491, 816, 817, 1087 (1904); Late Corp. Church Jesus Christ Latter-day Saints 136 42-43, 45, 792, 802-803, 478 (1890). "[Congress] void valid, valid void. words, full complete People departments governments." Bank County Yankton, 101 129, 133, 1046 (1880); Sere Pitot, Cranch 336-337, 240 (1810); Ins. 356 Bales Cotton, 511, 542-543, 242 (1828). Whatever limits imposes exercise Verdugo-Urquidez, 494 259, 1056, 108 222 (1990) (discussing Insular Cases), them. 40 concept "on logical depends." Kawananakoa Polyblank, 205 349, 353, 526, 527, 834 understanding superior governmental authority. 647-648 30, 1413, 30. addition, afford consent, another sovereign's courts." Nevada Hall, 410, 416, 1182, 1186, 416 (1979). These principles ineluctably retain raised Puerto Rico Shell (P.R.), 302 253, 262, 264, 58 171, 172, 235 (1937); Porto Rosaly, 227 270, 273-274, 352, 57 507 (1913); Kawananakoa, 353-354, particularly destined statehood, 274, like here—a based law.11 41 abrogated immunity, exemplified Amendment, clearer statement so; finds lacking grace, either. conclusions tension. presumably so, presumption case: (except insofar grants immunity), presume suits therefore SCALIA opinion. ed.) reads full: "Every subjects, causes subjected, thereof deprivation rights, privileges, secured injured equity, proper proceeding redress. For section, exclusively sought 1981, 1985, 1986 Inasmuch Amendment. 1372, respondent entitled determined virtue 1373. court's perhaps, Nevertheless, defendant invoke qualified Harlow Fitzgerald, 457 800, 102 2727, 73 396 (1982). directed partially reinstate complaint consider 1374. Frett Islands, 839 968 (CA3 1988) (Government entity). Fleming Safety, Commonwealth Mariana 837 401 (CA9), cert. 488 889, 222, 212 (1988), instant case, 1371, Leibowitz, Defining Status: Comprehensive Analysis Relations 313, 323 348. grew out message sent President Grant March 23, said: "A now rendering insecure carrying mails collection revenue dangerous. proof localities Senate. correct evils authorities doubt; Executive sufficient present emergencies clear." 244. 172-173, 476, (1961). 13, read: "That usage subject, cause shall, notwithstanding, redress; prosecuted circuit ." bodies corporate. 431. "In determining statutes, resolution subsequent February twenty-fifth, eighteen hundred seventy-one, corporations. "revised statutes" refers, look definition. reasoning consistent (1978). municipality State," concluding municipalities liability, relied, indications contemplated, treatment corporations (including corporations) "persons," 686-689, 2033-2035. explained, address revisions previously expressed More recently, attempts amend bills Committee. Sagafi-Nejad, Proposed Amendments Section Introduced Senate, St. Louis U.L.J. 373, 374, 376, (1983). unnecessary provides: 1820 admitted statehood pairs, free, forever prohibited Louisiana Purchase north boundary (36x 30'). Following pattern, 1837 Arkansas respectively. 1845, Florida South, 1846, Iowa Texas entered 1845 California 1850. Thereafter, impossible: Minnesota 1858 Oregon 1859 (" 'A signifies order, disorder' "), Colorado Springs Gazette, June 10, 1876. Critics proposal quick point "th[e] bill applie[d] punishment offenses country," "offenses mob character" [also extended] West, undetected unprincipled perpetrators crimes, singly couples, larger numbers, ha[d] remarkable ingenuity dark criminal transactions." Biggs) (also discussing possibility Mormons Utah, standing insurrection fundamental policy, law"). Fifteenth prohibiting racial discrimination ratified 1870. 452 Dawes) ("[N]ever citizen, distinction guarant[eed] protected, hour [the Nebraska]. bill, adverse supreme, peril he high low, white black, whatsoever name nation clime, to-day enjoys, decisions, right, political, fanfare technical correction meaning, bolstering meant along. "artificial perso[n] endowed perpetual succession" consisting single (termed "corporation sole") (a aggregate"). Stephen, Commentaries Laws England 166, 168 (1st Am.ed.1845). corporation. 170; Blackstone, 467. Under contemporary dictionaries, classified "corporations" (and hence "persons") recodified. Anderson, 261 (1893) ("All modeled nation"); Bouvier, Adapted 318-319 (11th 1866) ("In termed corporation"); Van Brocklin Tennessee, 117 151, 154, 670, 672, 845 (1886) corporation ordained people' ") Maurice, F.Cas. 1211, 1216 (No. 15,747) (CC Va.1823) (Marshall, C.J.)); Cotton How. 229, 231, 675 (1851) (United Trustees Dartmouth College Woodward, Wheat. 518, 561-562, 629 (1819) (explaining "corporation"). "shall sue" name. 1421a. silent concerning ability sued. 1959, "with consent evidenced contract into to, tort incident lawful powers." contend 1959 exceptions otherwise universally bestowed disagree. authorization waiver refers solely scheme 1950 corresponded carved potential nowhere suggest 214, 86th 1-3 (1959); S.Rep. 969, (1959), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 2659; 1677, (1950); 2109, (1950), Cong.Serv.1950, 2840. Congressional supremacy, Appeals' outside coverage instrumentality approach, 1983—a result flatly 582-584, 2271-2272, availability "acting rejecting analysis. House Committee Interior Affairs, Report Commission Application H.R.Doc. 212, 82d (1951) (listing codified 43 (1946 Guam). Cases cited respondents Doty, Wis. 396, 407 (1844); Langford King, Mont. 33, (1868); Beachy Lamkin, Idaho 52 (1866); Fisk Cuthbert, 593, 598 (1877), irrelevant involve rather

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