Legal Document

541 U.S. 509 TENNESSEEv.LANE ET AL. No. 02-1667. Supreme Court of United States. Argued January 13, 2004. Decided May 17, Respondent paraplegics filed this action for damages and equitable relief, alleging that Tennessee a number its counties had denied them physical access to State's courts in violation Title II the Americans with Disabilities Act 1990 (ADA), which provides: "[N]o qualified individual disability shall, by reason such disability, be excluded from participation or benefits services, programs activities public entity," 42 U. S. C. § 12132. After District motion dismiss on Eleventh Amendment immunity grounds, Sixth Circuit held appeal abeyance pending Board Trustees Univ. Ala. v. Garrett, 531 356. This later ruled Garrett bars private money actions state violations ADA I, prohibits employment discrimination against disabled. The en banc then issued Popovich decision, it interpreted bar suits States based equal protection principles, but not those relying due process, therefore permitted proceed despite claim. Thereafter, panel affirmed dismissal denial case, explaining respondents' claims were barred because they process principles. In response rehearing petition arguing did control complaint allege violations, an amended opinion, protects right courts, evidence before Congress when enacted established, inter alia, barriers courthouses courtrooms have effect denying disabled people opportunity access. Held: As applies class cases implicating fundamental constitutes valid exercise Congress' authority under 5 Fourteenth enforce Amendment's substantive guarantees. Pp. 516-534. (a) Determining whether has constitutionally abrogated requires resolution two predicate questions: (1) unequivocally expressed intent abrogate; (2), if so, acted pursuant grant constitutional authority. Kimel Florida Bd. Regents, 528 62, 73. first question is easily answered here, since specifically provides abrogation. See 12202. With regard second question, can abrogate sovereign power Amendment. E. g., Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 456. That not, however, unlimited. While must wide berth devising appropriate remedial preventative measures unconstitutional actions, may work "substantive change governing law." City Boerne Flores, 521 507, 519. Boerne, set forth test distinguishing between permissible legislation redefinition: Section exhibits "a congruence proportionality" injury means adopted prevent remedy it. Id., at 520. Applying concluded I was historical record statute's broad sweep suggested I's true aim so much enforcement, attempt "rewrite" Court's jurisprudence. S., 372-374. view significant differences Titles II, left open power, id., 360, n. 1. 517-522. (b) enforcement power. 522-534. inquiry's step identification rights sought II. 365. Like seeks prohibition irrational discrimination. 366. But also variety other basic guarantees, including some, like here issue, infringements are subject heightened judicial scrutiny. See, e. Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 336-337. Whether validly enforces "must judged reference experience reflects." South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 308. backdrop pervasive unequal treatment persons disabilities administration services programs, systematic deprivations rights. reflects documented decisions identified agencies services. respect particular learned many individuals, States, being court proceedings their disabilities. A Civil Rights Commission report showed some 76% housed state-owned buildings inaccessible unusable persons. heard testimony describing inaccessibility local courthouses. And appointed task force numerous examples exclusion failure make accessible witnesses sheer volume far exceeds last Term's Nevada Dept. Human Resources Hibbs, 538 721, 728-733, approved family-care leave provision Family Medical Leave 1993 as legislation. finding "discrimination individuals persists critical areas . services," 12101(a)(3), together extensive underlies it, makes clear inadequate facilities prophylactic 522-529. (2) history pattern treatment. Unquestionably, accessibility chosen II's requirement program accessibility, congruent proportional object enforcing courts. long persisted several federal legislative efforts problem. Faced considerable shortcomings these previous efforts, justified concluding difficult intractable problem warranted added measures. 737. chose nevertheless limited one. Recognizing accommodate will often same practical outright exclusion, required take reasonable remove architectural accessibility. does require employ any all compromise essential eligibility criteria programs. It only "reasonable modifications" would fundamentally alter nature service provided, seeking modification otherwise eligible service. Ibid. implementing regulations satisfied various ways, less costly than structural changes. duty perfectly consistent well-established principle that, within limits practicability, State afford meaningful Boddie Connecticut, 401 371, 379. affirmative obligations flow principle. Cases Boddie, Griffin Illinois, 351 12, Gideon Wainwright, 372 335, ordinary considerations cost convenience alone cannot justify provide Judged backdrop, obligation measure, reasonably targeted legitimate end. 530-534. 315 F. 3d 680, affirmed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, O'CONNOR, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. concurring joined, post, p. 534. SOUTER 535. REHNQUIST, dissenting KENNEDY THOMAS, 538. SCALIA, 554, 565, opinions. 1 CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR SIXTH CIRCUIT. 2 Michael Moore, Solicitor General Tennessee, argued cause petitioner. him briefs Paul G. Summers, Attorney General, Elizabeth Martin, Mary Martelle Collier. 3 William J. Brown respondents. brief Samuel R. Bagenstos Thomas Goldstein. 4 Deputy Clement urging affirmance. Olson, Assistant Acosta, Patricia A. Millett, Jessica Dunsay Silver, Sarah Harrington, Kevin Russell.* JUSTICE STEVENS Court. 6 (ADA Act), 104 Stat. 337, §§ 12131-12165, "no entity, subjected entity." presented case 7 * August 1998, respondents George Lane Beverly Jones counties, past ongoing Respondents, both whom who use wheelchairs mobility, claimed to, of, system alleged he compelled appear answer criminal charges floor county courthouse no elevator. At his appearance, crawled up flights stairs get courtroom. When returned hearing, refused crawl again carried officers courtroom; consequently arrested jailed appear. Jones, certified reporter, she been able gain courthouses, and, result, lost participate process. Respondents relief. 8 moved suit ground without appealed.1 intervened defend abrogation States' immunity. On April 28, 2000, after briefed argued, Appeals entered order holding our decision 356 (2001). 9 we ADA. We open, permits Following Appeals, sitting banc, argument brought hearing-impaired litigant child custody proceeding. Cuyahoga County 276 808 (CA6 2002). divided assertion majority rely 3d, 811-816. minority claims, 821, while 818. 10 Popovich, affirming case. Judgt. reported 40 Fed. Appx. 911 explained controlling opinion. Due Process Clause "established government buildings, themselves, vital guaranteed Clause." 682 (2003). Moreover, "record demonstrated entities' needs result directly animus impermissible stereotypes." 683. categorically reject submission. instead noted questions "cannot clarified absent factual record," remanded further proceedings. granted certiorari, 539 941 (2003), now affirm. 11 passed large majorities Houses decades deliberation investigation into need comprehensive address years immediately preceding ADA's enactment, 13 hearings created special gathered every Union. conclusions drew Committee Reports, described lengthy hearings, summarized preamble statute.2 Central among 12 "individuals discrete insular faced restrictions limitations, purposeful treatment, relegated position political powerlessness society, characteristics beyond resulting stereotypic assumptions truly indicative ability in, contribute society." 12101(a)(7). Invoking "the congressional authority, fourteenth amendment regulate commerce," designed "to national mandate elimination disabilities." 12101(b)(1), (b)(4). forbids three major life: employment, covered statute; activities, II; accommodations, III. 14 12131-12134, entity discriminating "qualified" operation activities. defines term "public entity" include governments, well instrumentalities. 12131(1). Persons they, "with modifications rules, policies, practices, removal architectural, communication, transportation barriers, auxiliary aids mee[t] requirements receipt provided 12131(2). incorporates 505 Rehabilitation 1973, 92 2982, added, 29 794a, authorizes citizens bring damages. 12133. III 15 renders immune "any law equity, commenced prosecuted Citizens another State, Subjects Foreign State." Even though "by terms State," repeatedly unconsented own citizens. 363; 72-73 (2000). Our To determine done given resolve first, immunity; second, did, authority." 16 "A shall eleventh Constitution Federal competent jurisdiction chapter." see 363-364, party disputes adequacy expression then, give intent. 17 445 (1976), guarantees acknowledged, "broad indeed." Mississippi Women Hogan, 458 718, 732 (1982), citing Ex parte Virginia, 100 339, 346 (1880).3 includes deter [by Amendment] prohibiting somewhat broader swath conduct, itself forbidden text." Kimel, 81. thus "Congress enact so-called proscribes facially conduct." 727-728 518 (1997).4 most recent affirmation breadth came considered male employee could recover comply (FMLA), 107 6, 2601 et seq. upheld FMLA combat sex discrimination, even there suggestion policy applied discriminatory purpose render rule Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 442 256 (1979). proscribing practices effect, intent, carry out objectives Equal Protection Clause. 18 recognized line redefinition "not easy discern," latitude determining where lies." 519-520. confirmed distinction exists observed," observing it: proportionality prevented remedied end." 19 exceeded Religious Freedom Restoration (RFRA), 1488, 2000bb began noting RFRA "in direct response" Employment Div., Ore. Smith, 494 872 (1990), stated "restor[ing]" Smith rejected. 512, 515 (internal quotation marks omitted). Though respondent attempted statute Free Exercise "so proportion" objective understood protections." 529, 532. Indeed, very law. 20 defined contours Boerne's "congruence Prepaid Post-secondary secondary Ed. Expense College Savings Bank, 527 627 (1999). issue validity Patent Plant Variety Remedy Clarification (hereinafter statutory wake Atascadero Hospital Scanlon, 473 234 (1985), clarify patent infringement suits. Prepaid, 631-632. Noting virtually complete absence part Act's expansive coverage, apparent serve Article concerns "provid[ing] uniform plac[ing] footing parties regime," 647-648. 62 (finding Age Discrimination powers Boerne); Morrison, 529 598 (2000) (Violence Against Act). 21 employment. unsupported relevant violations. 368, 374. Although dissent pointed great deal disabilities, 379 (opinion J.), "overwhelming majority" related addressed III," rather 7. neither findings nor reflected concern engaging emphasized House Senate Reports focused "`[d]iscrimination [in] sector,'" made mention 371-372 (quoting Rep. 101-116, (1989), H. 101-485, pt. 2, 28 (1990)) (emphasis Garrett). Finally, scheme insufficiently Taken together, prohibitions 22 turn. IV 23 inquiry us identify command "all similarly situated should treated alike." Cleburne Living Center, Inc., 432, 439 (1985). observed, classifications violate lack rational relationship governmental purpose. 366 (citing Cleburne, 446). 24 more searching review. 336-337 (1972); Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 634 (1969); Skinner Oklahoma ex rel. Williamson, 316 535, (1942). These protected Confrontation Amendment, via guarantee defendant "right present stages trial might frustrate fairness proceedings." Faretta California, 422 806, 819, (1975). certain civil litigants "meaningful heard" removing obstacles full (1971); M. L. B. 519 102 (1996). defendants jury composed fair cross section community, "identifiable segments playing roles community squared concept trial." Taylor Louisiana, 419 522, 530 And, finally, members secured First Press-Enterprise Co. Superior Cal., Riverside, 478 1, 8-15 (1986). 25 308 (1966). 639-640; 530. legislation, appropriateness depends gravity harm prevent. "Difficult problems powerful remedies," 88, "[s]trong one unwarranted another, lesser one," 26 perceive address. For example, "[a]s 1979, disqualified `idiots' voting, capacity."5 laws remain books,6 legal challenge recently 2001.7 Similarly, prohibited continue prohibit marrying8 serving jurors.9 cases, settings, unjustified commitment, Jackson Indiana, 406 715 abuse neglect committed mental health hospitals, Youngberg Romeo, 457 307 (1982);10 zoning decisions, 432 too, document range penal system,11 education,12 voting.13 Notably, demonstrate justice.14 27 deliberations led enactment ADA, important existing rendered "inadequate facing." 18. 47.15 uncovered shortcomings, form hundreds subdivisions. (BREYER, dissenting). 391 (App. C concerned 7; Government's Lodging O. T. 99-1240 (available Clerk file). across country, taking account possibility restructured relocated parts buildings. Rights, Accommodating Spectrum Individual Abilities 39 (1983). Oversight Hearing 4498 Subcommittee Select Education Labor, 100th Cong., 2d Sess., 40-41, 48 (1988). visual impairments hearing service, governments interpretive impaired, permit adults developmental 99-1240. Task Force Empowerment Disabilities, From (Oct. 1990).16 Given demonstrating extent dissent's contention insufficient puzzling, say least. Just Term primarily disparate parenting leave, little conduct. 728-733.17 sex-based classifications, standard scrutiny, "it easier show violations" rational-basis 735-737. aimed rights, call review least searching, classifications. event, case— action, statistical, legislative, anecdotal widespread enjoyment services—far Hibbs. 30 conclusion body text itself: "[D]iscrimination education, transportation, recreation, institutionalization, services." 12101(a)(3) added). finding, peradventure V 31 remains outset, scope inquiry. II—unlike RFRA, Act, statutes reviewed 5—reaches array official conduct effort equally Petitioner urges examine applications once, treat mark law's invalidity. According petitioner, fact education voting-booth seating hockey rinks indicates appropriately tailored objectives. nothing consider applications, undifferentiated whole.18 Whatever said about failing rinks, voting booths, Because find unquestionably go further. Raines, 362 (1960).19 32 above, history, responses, "difficult proble[m]" "added response." 737 33 clear, ways. built altered 1992, compliance specific standards. CFR 35.151 older facilities, likely difficult, adopting measures, relocating alternative, sites assigning aides assist accessing 35.150(b)(1). Only ineffective achieving event undertake impose undue financial administrative burden, threaten historic preservation interests, alteration 35.150(a)(2), (a)(3). 34 "within citation omitted).20 principle: waive filing fees family-law cases,21 transcripts convictions,22 counsel defendants.23 Each justice proportion supposed preventive responsive prevent, behavior." 532; 86.24 is, rather, 35 reasons, conclude judgment 36 ordered. Notes: ofamici curiae reversal Alabama al. Pryor, Jr., Alabama, Nathan Forrester, Gene Schaerr, Richard Sinkfield III, Attorneys respective follows: Jon Bruning Nebraska, Brian Sandoval Nevada, Wayne Stenehjem North Dakota, W. Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Patrick Crank Wyoming, Mark Shurtleff Utah. Briefs amici affirmance Kansas Phill Kline, Kansas, David Davies, Ralph James DeZago Harry Kennedy, Jane Brady, Delaware; Minnesota Mike Hatch, Minnesota, Gary Cunningham Kristyn Anderson, Blumenthal Lisa Madigan Reilly Massachusetts, Jeremiah (Jay) Nixon Missouri, Madrid New Mexico, Eliot Spitzer York, Sorrell Vermont, Christine Gregoire Washington, Peggy Lautenschlager Wisconsin; American Bar Association Dennis Archer Q. Wolfson; Blanche Fischer Foundation Sherril Nell Babcock; Lawyers' Under Law Charles Lester, Deborah Danzig, Barbara Arnwine, Henderson, Foreman, Kristin Dadey, Vincent Eng, Hayes, Elliot Mincberg, Lieberman; Paralyzed Veterans America Timothy K. Armstrong, McCallum, Ira Burnim, Jennifer Mathis; Honorable Dick Thornburgh Arlene Mayerson, Claudia Kristen. InPuerto Rico Aqueduct Sewer Authority Metcalf & Eddy, 506 139 (1993), "States entities claim `arms State' advantage collateral doctrine district immunity." 147. 12101; 1990); 101-116 (1989); 101-485 (1990); Conf. 101-558 101-596 cfBoard 356, 389-390 (2001) dissenting) (listing hearings). InEx "Whatever appropriate, adapted objects amendments view, whatever tends submission contain, secure perfect equality invasion, prohibited, domain power." 345-346. 517-518 (1997). InBoerne, observed: "Legislation deters remedies fall intrudes `legislative spheres autonomy previously reserved States.' 455 (1976). suspension literacy tests similar parallel provisions Fifteenth Const., Amdt. 15, measure racial (1966), facial constitutionality Lassiter Northampton Elections, 360 45 (1959). protecting Amendments, burdens placed supra (upholding Voting 1965); Katzenbach Morgan, [384 641 (1966)] ban schooled Puerto voting); Oregon Mitchell, 400 112 (1970) 5-year nationwide registering vote); Rome 446 156, 161 (1980) 7-year extension jurisdictions preclear `"standard, practice, procedure voting"'); Everard's Breweries Day, 265 545 (1924) medical prescription intoxicating malt liquors Eighteenth manufacture, sale, beverage purposes)." 518. 464, (1985) (Marshall, part) Note, Mental Disability Right Vote, 88 Yale 1644 (1979)). Schriner, Ochs, Shields, Democratic Dilemmas: Notes People Cognitive Emotional Impairments, Berkeley Emp. Lab. 437, 456-472, tbl. concerning disabilities) SeeDoe Rowe, 156 Supp. (Me. 2001). D. Code 46-403 (West 2001) (declaring illegal void marriage "an idiot person adjudged lunatic"); Ky. Rev. Ann. 402.990(2) 1992 Cumulative Service) (criminalizing disabilities); Tenn. 36-3-109 (1996) (forbidding issuance license "imbecile[s]"). Mich. Comp. Laws 729.204 2002) (persons selected inclusion list "infirm decrepit"); 22-2-304(c) (1994) (authorizing judges excuse "mentally physically disabled" service). undisputed inPennhurst School Halderman, 451 (1981), example mistreatment. ("Conditions Pennhurst dangerous, residents abused drugged staff members, `habilitation' retarded"). LaFaut 834 389, (CA4 1987) (paraplegic inmate unable toilet facilities); Schmidt Odell, 64 1014 (Kan. 1999) (double amputee forced around jail). also, Key Grayson, 179 996 (deaf offender therapy allegedly precondition parole). York Assn. Retarded Children, Inc. Carey, 466 487, 504 (EDNY 1979) (segregation mentally retarded students hepatitis B); Mills Columbia, 348 866 (DC 1972) (exclusion school system). Robertson Granite Community Unit Dist. 9, 684 1002 (SD Ill. 1988) (elementary-school student AIDS attending regular classes participating extracurricular activities); Unified Dist., 662 376 (CD Cal. 1986) (kindergarten class). Doe (disenfranchisement guardianship illness). Delaware, 82 (NDNY 2000) (mobility-impaired voters polling places). Ferrell Estelle, 568 1128, 1132-1133 (CA5) services), withdrawn moot, 573 867 (1978); Schaim, 65 Ohio St. 51, 64, 600 N. 661, 672 (1992) (same); Rivera, 125 Misc. 516, 528, 480 Y. 426, 434 (Sup. Ct. 1984) (same). Layton Elder, 143 469, 470-472 (CA8 1998) quorum session courthouse); Matthews Jefferson, 525, 533-534 (WD Ark. (wheelchair-bound courthouse, restroom obtain meal, arrangements downstairs end day); Pomerantz Los Angeles, 674 1288, 1289 (CA9 1982) (blind service); Galloway 816 1993) DeLong Brumbaugh, 703 399, Pa. 1989) Green, 148 666, 669, 561 130, 133 (Cty. 1990) (prosecutor exercised peremptory strike prospective juror solely impaired). discussion statutes, Colker Milani, Post-Garrett World: Insufficient Discrimination, 53 1075 (2002). CHIEF dismisses "irrelevant" portions nonstate governmentsPost, 542-543 (dissenting opinion). rests mistaken premise always predicated themselves. operate particularly inappropriate area typically "arm[s] State" purposes, Mt. Healthy Doyle, 429 274, 280 (1977), enjoy precisely Callahan Philadelphia, 207 668, 670-674 (CA3 (municipal "arm entitled immunity); Kelly Municipal Courts, 97 902, 907-908 (CA7 1996) Franceschi Schwartz, 57 828, 831 1995) Cf. 368-369. actors sure, themselves when, Postsecondary (1999), (2000), sole reliance place amenability suit. 312-315 favorably refers, 548, involved city officials, what calls "extensive documenting gender policies" 721 contained private-sector employers Government. 730-735. 745-750 (KENNEDY, Specifically, relied Report Bureau Labor Statistics survey revealing disparities men women; submissions sources Parental 1986, predecessor bill FMLA, public-sector parental polices "`diffe[r] little'" policies; (3) women year extended maternity paternity leave; (4) Report's study found implement standards "`leav[e] employees discretionary possibly treatment,'" 103-8, (1993)Hibbs, 728-733. Contrary JUSTICE,post, 551-552, lends support proposition "measur[e] purported enforce." fact, severed purposes inquiry, demonstrates statute" once. narrowly single right; reason, speaks Nor JUSTICE's approach asks—whether piece attempts substantively redefine guarantee—logically focuses manner operates guarantee. unclear what, anything, examining application booths tell redefines InRaines, 1957 contended person," just actors, interfering rejected argument, "if called clearly constitutionality." 24-25. implicates implicate onlyCleburne's 372. 371 (1971) (divorce fee); (record fee termination action); Bennett, 365 708 (1961) (filing habeas petitions); Burns Ohio, 252 (1959) case). (1956). 335 (1963) (trial charged felony offenses); Douglas 353 (counsel appeals right). contends "subjects liability vast accommodations,without results wrong." Post, 553 original). "is confined merely parrots precise wording Amendment," statutorily mandated weeks' Amendment). 37 GINSBURG joins, concurring. 38 join caveats 740 (2003) (SOUTER, concurring). concur applying congruence-and-proportionality note engaged enquiry suggests, 551 opinion), underscore situation judiciary endorsed basis 5. Buck Bell, 274 200 (1927), grudging sustaining once-pervasive practice involuntarily sterilizing ("It better world, waiting execute degenerate offspring crime, let starve imbecility, society manifestly unfit continuing kind. Three generations imbeciles enough"). compelling sterilization accompanied others indiscriminately requiring marrying, schools, appearing public. One along lines judicially sustained precaution sight cerebral palsy, lest "produc[e] depressing nauseating effect" upon others. Beattie Antigo, 169 Wis. 231, 232, 172 153 (1919) (approving school).1 Many quondam science eugenics, peaked 1920's, yet vindications sat books eugenics lapsed discredit.2 19-20 Quite apart fateful inspiration behind them, fault reflect "amount flexibility freedom" variation abilities needs" Instead, invidious classified capacities, harm. today, takes welcome away judiciary's prior endorsement blunt instruments imposing handicaps. generallyCleburne 463-464 part); Burgdorf Burgdorf, History Unequal Treatment: Qualifications Handicapped "Suspect Class" Clause, Santa Clara Law. 855 (1975); Brief 17-19. shows, persist day,ante, 524-525, lingering effects society. 41 BREYER join, reasons mindful enacting Act—the reduction social structures impede present, past, perceived contributing, according talents, Nation's social, economic, civic life—I 43 12101-12213, expected advance equal-citizenship stature Bagenstos, Subordination, Stigma, "Disability," 86 Va. 397, 471 aims "guarante[e] baseline citizenship stigma opportunities, [to] protec[t] loss valuable talents"). relates, ante, 516-517, comprises parts, (Title I), II), accommodations III). controls administrators undertakings. 44 Including count composing "We People," shaping sometimes blindfolded equality, responsiveness difference; indifference, accommodation. primary objective, reach 12132 [public actors'] practices," 12131(2)-12132 II). 12112(b)(5) (defining accommodations") I); 12182(b)(2)(A)(ii) (requiring accommodations'] procedures") III); supra, 435 supporters eliminate combine conditions create `disability.' society-wide universal rules function macro level, individualized accommodation fill gaps micro level." (footnote omitted)). Olmstead C., 581 responded fidelity theme accountable residential placements impartially, 598. Congress, advanced discrimination," ibid., embraced failures accommodations," 601. today faithful demand avoid exclusion. 46 Legislation calling dignity entirely compatible Constitution's commitment federalism, properly conceived. seems me conducive harmonious exercises essentially indict each disregarding 564 (SCALIA, ("Congress violations."); 743 (to controlled "can shown acting Amendment" original)). Members understandably reluctant condemn violators, complicit maintaining isolated status disarm National Legislature resisting adversarial lawmaking suited 47 documents, 524-529, showing diverse Nation, levels government, encounter record, rightly holds, bears sufficed warrant barrier-lowering, dignity-respecting solution People's representatives elected order. THOMAS dissenting. 49 (2001), 12111-12117. Today, concludes immunity, insofar "as courts." Ante, 533-534. today's irreconcilable principles embodies, dissent. 50 lawsuits unconsenting State. 726 (2003); 73 overcome authorize unmistakably expresses do "acts Amendment." 726. correctly holds prerequisite, 518, disagree 51 grants enforce, legislation," familiar 14, ("No deprive life, liberty, property, law; deny laws"). "`appropriate'" "mere repetition" "remedy" "deter" "prohibiting 727 Such "prophylactic" `an obligations.'" 88); 525 (1997) (enforcement "corrective preventive, definitional"). ensure usurp responsibility define meaning exhibit "`congruence end.'" 728 520). pays lipservice proportionality'" test, 520, inconsistent precedents. 52 conducted three-step enunciated test. reveals too "`substantively redefine[s],'" permissibly enforces, 728. "identify precision issue." right. free ("The [Family (FMLA)] protect gender-based workplace"); 83 (right age employment); religion). right, explained, quite limited; indeed, classify doing so. 366-368 (discussing (1985)); 522. 54 identifying purports panoply persons: 522-523. However, ultimately upholds courts," 533-534, proper cites four access-to-the-courts purportedly enforces: trial, 819 proceedings, 55 Having traced "metes bounds" next "identified pattern" 368. crucial actual illegitimate rewrite enforce. "Congress' transgressions." identifies shows responding 56 Rather limiting relies, sets wide-ranging societal 524-526. digression recounts through institutionalization laws, marriage, forms Some considering whole; rejects favor narrower "as-applied" inquiry.1 discounted type outdated, generalized unsupportive 368-372; (noting "legislative lacks modern instances religious bigotry"). likewise irrelevant category evidence, bulk themselves.2 privilege enjoyed 368-369; 627, 640 (1999); 89. Garrett. 526 dissenting), 391-424 (chronicling "unequal treatment" "administration programs")). "unexamined, anecdotal" suffice. 370. Most anecdotes involve all, sufficiently detailed irrational, Cleburne. 370-371. Therefore, outside "access courts" context, few, any, perpetrated persons.3 58 striking. indicate systematically trials, unconstitutionally attend trials.4 59 disguise documentation few citations retroactively fails terms. 368 ("[W]e violations); ibid. (emphases added)). occurs connection litigation, telling person's violated.5 525-526, (CA5), 1984)).6 60 Lacking real relies items decision: 1983 inaccessible" 527; subcommittee regarding "physical inaccessibility" ibid.; submitted designated contains "numerous programs." 61 closer examination, Commission's consists conclusory sentence report, part, witnesses, proceedings.7 witnesses' testimony, Report, access, either alternative locations involving 4, (describing offered Lane). Based majority's description, 527, sounds promising. says court. apparently general 99-1240, which, amidst thousands pages, handwritten reports moreover, force, persons' 370-371 (rejecting reasons). "had [task force] information reflecting behavior expect findings." 371. Yet findings, contain seemingly topic courts.8 (observing (Patent Act) "contains unremedied become import"). contrary, observed "[a]ll states currently newly constructed buildings." (1989). 63 statements considered, mere existence architecturally "inaccessible" — i. e., utilize assistance—does violation. actually never way courtroom external assistance. bearing successfully unless "accessible." almost furnish decline alterations. employer "conserve scarce resources" hiring making employees). Thus, near-total reminiscent wherein minimal "f[e]ll short suggesting [state action] based." 91 ("Congress' uncover confirms believe necessary"); 645 suggests respond `widespread persisting deprivation rights' sort legislation" 526)). barren fatal gains nonexistent compared 729-732 (tracing policies); 312-313 (1966) (same rights). Accordingly, "rewrite laid down Court," 374.9 66 third removes doubt stage, ask adduced Congress. 737-739; 372-373. 67 "meets requirements" entity's 12131(2) believed attacking "discrimination" "discriminatory effects" "architectural, communication barriers." (a)(5). sum, requires, pain damages, interaction 68 "Despite subjecting liability," "d[o] limit coverage arguable violations." 646. By impact disabled, invalidated "[i]f required, come positive 368; 372-373 (contrasting disparate-impact requirements). reason. laudable policy, seriously disputed legislatively "redefine obligations" 88. 69 majority, vindicates addition courts—that 522-523 (1972) (voting); (1969) move new jurisdiction); (1942) (marriage procreation)). rights; instead, program, activity entity. Its affect health, recreation others, accorded scrutiny amusement park sports stadium, enabling 1967 unlikely "that actions] affected [Title II] [any] likelihood unconstitutional." Viewed whole, immunity.10 70 massive overbreadth cured (1960)). grave doubts importing applied" context. course correct normally considers progeny different. measuring remedy. 71 conducting as-applied analysis, posits hypothetical statute, rig artificially constricting closely mirror susceptible carved manner; "services," "programs," "activities" really assessment "appropriate added), conceive enough constitute 72 precedents approach. measured If arbitrarily constricted match core differently. discrimination; intentional, uncompensated infringements. surprising cited decided test.11 fear adoption eliminates incentive craft remedying deterring simply enforced All while, substantial litigation piecemeal vindicate precedent role Judiciary. 74 courthouse-access depth utterly failed Without showing, hypothesize viewed transgressions"). 75 substantially subjects if, fail "architectural 12131(2), occasions modify results, inability triggered building "subjected discrimination" presumably encompasses inconvenience facility, 76 (1971), indigent litigants, unavailing. exercising certainly wrong. respect, analogous Prepaid. monetary act infringement. 646-647. limit" [due process] violations," nonnegligent uncompensated. Similarly authorized readily ever violated. "indiscriminate offends [the congruence-and-proportionality] principle," light 647.12 77 foregoing respectfully propriety approach, seeinfra, 551-552. (irrational board)); lawsuit county)); boards' actions); prison jail inmate); (referring "hundreds subdivisions" obscures referring treatment." Of course, generic treatmentvel non applies. 370 Certainly, admits initial trialAnte, 514. assistance dispatched help preliminary first-floor library Lane's App. Pet. Cert. 16, handicapped-accessible nearby town. facts, hardly violated trial; contend suffered injury. Justices inGarrett, violating persons, "one joined balance refer arisingafter 469 (post-ADA only); 661 (remanded issue); 130 constitution 399 (statute challenge; 1973 Angeles County, 1288 (Rehabilitation claim; challenged jury-service amended)). offer whatsoever notion 40-41 (1988) (statement Emeka Nwojke) (explaining encountered difficulties rudeness employees);id., Ellen Telker) attorney "know[s] Haven elevators tactile markings"). peculiarly points "`discrimination asaccess services'" Court)). usually proceeding [a] servic[e]." over issues highly obliquely refers explains "`it [i]s violations'" targets triggers higher level scrutinyAnte, 736 (2003)). attest dispense altogether 645-646 (1999) (invalidating 530-531 (RFRA)). demonstrates, sanctioned here. devoid proof all-encompassing regulating contrasts starkly InHibbs, "narrowly targeted" availability family leave. 738-739 (distinguishing ground). "limited scheme[s]" voting. 373 301 (1966)). Unlike incongruous scant intended remedy." 647. Raines inapposite event. 1957—a Amendment—whose "unquestionably" (like therein). 25, 26. invalid read constrain well. 20. declined entertain challenge. 24-26. different: indiscriminate petitioner avoiding conjuring imaginary pass invocation ofHibbs unpersuasive. 533, 24. Hibbs Congress" FMLA's 12-week family-leave necessary "achiev[e] object." 748. included perpetuate stereotypes eradicate entirely. comparable necessity uphold special-accommodation requirements. 78 79 "shall provisions" Amendment—including, Clauses. 384 could, provision, forbid English Rican met educational criteria. "legislation conduct," determines proscription desirable "`to fully effective,'" 648 345 (1880)). `appropriate legislation' flexible "necessary proper" McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 342, 421 (1819). 651. authorizing discretion needed 80 Morgan followed close worded "enforce" (§ 2) 1965. unlike Fifteenth, franchise race. 507 (1997), confronted Congress's inevitable expansion field discrimination.1 There sought, 1993, seq., interpretation explicitly placing hands effective Bill medium 5, formulated "appropriate." enacts said, "proportionality achieved." 533. 81 misgiving. generally malleable "proportionality," turning vehicles implementation judges' preferences. Ewing 11, 31-32 judgment) (declining apply "proportionality" Eighth cruel unusual punishment); Stenberg Carhart, 914, 954-956 "undue burden" Planned Parenthood Southeastern Casey, 833 (1992)); BMW America, Gore, 517 559, 599 "reasonableness" punitive Clause). signed adhered cases: 271(h), 296(a), "`so [they] behavior,'" 646 532); 1967, 602, amended, 621 (1994 ed. III), imposed "disproportionate conceivably Act," 83; Violence 1994, 13981, lacked officials proscribe," 626; 12111-12117, raised Boerne," soon 2612 weeks unpaid (for purposes) annually, "congruent [of preventing discrimination], KENNEDY'S dissent, established (conclusively, thought) response. remediation face demonstration opposite JUSTICE'S yield lessons experience. standard, flabby tests, standing invitation arbitrariness policy-driven decisionmaking. Worse still, casts taskmaster. (and Court) regularly check homework sure sufficient proportional. matter, ill advised adopt adhere constant conflict coequal branch unavoidable, battle armed ("congruence proportionality") demonstrable objectively failed. wrote earlier "low walls vague distinctions defensible heat interbranch conflict." Plaut Spendthrift Farm, 514 211, 239 (1995). 84 replace test—one enforceable limitation supported notwithstanding, normal term, issuing still directed 55-mile-per-hour speed 45-mile-per-hour limit—even indeed automotive safety undoubtedly fewer limit. 531, "services, activities" furnished means—or meant. 1860 edition Noah Webster's Dictionary Language, current adopted, as: "To put execution; effect; as, laws." 396. Worcester, Language 484 (1860) ("To force; executed; `To law'"). Nothing allows proscribe, So-called "prophylactic reinforcement enforcement. 85 asserted commonsense "would confine insignificant abrogating prepared adjudge unconstitutional, informing particularizing `majestic generalities' 648-649. remember 1866 lower Constitution." Berger, Government Judiciary 247 (2d 1997). If, ratified, racially (different different races) citizen prejudiced asserting pieces Ku Klux Klan 20, 1871, "An Provisions Purposes." codified 1983, who, color law, ordinance, regulation, custom, usage subject, subjected, privileges, immunities States." 13. restrict facilitation "enforcement" —for reporting enable identified.2 impediment stare decisis. lot water gone bridge well-accepted assume Carolina. Prof. Archibald Cox Foreword: "The etymological reading. Literally, `to enforce' compel performance imposed; linguistic once embraces effectuating state's duty." Constitutional Adjudication Promotion Harv. 91, 110-111 87 except suggest dicta, exclusively against, used remedy, (see infra); 339 (1880) (dictum penalties officials' selection); Strauder West 303, 311-312 black man's manner); Virginia Rives, 313, 318 statute). 173-178 sweeping Alfred Mayer Co., 392 409, 439-441 (1968) 1982, banning sale rental property Thirteenth Giving accords distinctively violative principal priority attention envisioned beginning, Slaughter-House Cases, Wall. 36, (1873), confrontation following Clause: 89 negroes class, race, purview provision. race emergency, strong other." 90 Racial early (cited Morgan) gave description Virginia); 651 Rives).3 days, bear mind, sex, age, categories covers. Also developed incorporation (which Duncan 145, 147-148 (1968)) process" unenumerated liberties, Lawrence Texas, 558 (1992)). provides. interpret broadly. Broad evil directed, stubbornly ignored. former true, latter remained late Morgan. regulation (1970), upheld, Amendments 1970, 314, voter-eligibility requirements—classic tools forbids; lowered elections. 124-130 Black, J.); 153-154 (Harlan, 293-296 (Stewart, Burger, Blackmun, part). forbade disqualifying residency requirements, upheld— adequate Justice Black's exactly am drawing broadest goal eliminating race." 130. reached compass afforded principally decisis, henceforth permissive abandon 741-743 dissenting); 626-627; 666-667, 670-671 dissenting).4 large. 625-626. Constitution. met, constraints tighter Necessary Proper decide 93 analysis Rather, unlimited above. goes prophylaxis, ultra vires. plainly sort. 94 95 Requiring remotely "enforcing" accepted distortion language removed War Amendments. seductive plausibility steps chain evolutionary development until third, fourth, fifth `logical' occurs. step, taken, appeared relation preceded although aggregate instance. kind gestative propensity `line drawing' judicial, process: `thus beyond.'" 200-ft. Reels Super 8MM. Film, 413 123, 127 (1973) (Burger, time draw uncontrolled spread well-intentioned textual distortion. 318, elections rejected, separate opinions, none commanded Seeinfra, 563. Professor Tribe's treatise gives facilitate context Amendment: 1957, 634, seek injunctions interference vote grounds. 1960, 86, joinder defendant, records, register systemic 1964, 241, expedited three-judge ." Tribe, 931, (3d 2000). inMorgan, 545, 558-563 (1924), (1819), within, importation thereof into, exportation purposes" concurrent article legislation." Supplemental Prohibition 1921, 222, "only spirituous vinous liquor prescribed medicinal purposes." went hence "enforcement." Thirteenth, Fourteenth, discussed text, Maryland applied. respects consequence going incursion States—which addressed. Dicta seemed evennonprophylactic violations: "When guilty Amendment's] provisions; abridging privileges States; departments deprived laws; construed administered executive departments, recognize imposes confers Congress." Harris, 106 629, 639 (1883). interpretation. 96 agree Not 541-548, regulates 548-554. wrongly decided, write separately disavow reaching conclusion.

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