Legal Document

376 U.S. 254 84 Supreme Court Reporter 710 11 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 686 The NEW YORK TIMES COMPANY, Petitioner,v.L. baron SULLIVAN. Ralph D. ABERNATHY et al., Petitioners, versus L. Nos. 39, 40. Argued Jan. 6 and 7, 1964. Decided March 9, [Syllabus from pages 254-255 intentionally omitted] William Pacific KF135 P2 Rogers Samuel R. Pierce, Jr., New York City, for petitioner in Number Herbert Wechsler, petitioners 39. M. Roland Nachman, Montgomery, Ala., respondent. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered the opinion of Court. 1 We are required this case to determine first time extent which constitutional protections speech press limit a State's power award damages libel action brought by public official against critics his conduct. 2 Respondent Sullivan is one three elected Commissioners City Alabama. He testified that he was 'Commissioner Public Affairs duties supervision Police Department, Fire Department Cemetery Scales.' civil four indiv dual petitioners, who Negroes Alabama clergymen, Times Company, corporation publishes Times, daily newspaper. A jury Circuit Montgomery County awarded him $500,000, full amount claimed, all affirmed. 273 Ala. 656, 144 So.2d 25. 3 Respondent's complaint alleged had been libeled statements full-page advertisement carried on 29, 1960.1 Entitled 'Heed Their Rising Voices,' began stating 'As whole world knows now, thousands Southern Negro students engaged widespread non-violent demonstrations positive affirmation right live human dignity as guaranteed Constitution Bill Rights.' It went charge 'in their efforts uphold these guarantees, they being met an unprecedented wave terror those would deny negate document looks upon setting pattern modern freedom. * *' Succeeding paragraphs purported illustrate 'wave terror' describing certain events. text concluded with appeal funds purposes: support student movement, 'the struggle right-to-vote,' legal defense Dr. Martin Luther King, leader perjury indictment then pending Montgomery. 4 appeared over names 64 persons, many widely known activities affairs, religion, trade unions, performing arts. Below names, under line reading 'We south struggling freedom warmly endorse appeal,' individual 16 other but two whom were identified clergymen various cities. signed at bottom page 'Committee Defend King Struggle Freedom South,' officers Committee listed. 5 Of 10 advertisement, third portion sixth basis respondent's claim libel. They read follows: Third paragraph: 'In Alabama, after sang 'My Country, 'Tis Thee' State Capitol steps, leaders expelled school, truckloads police armed shotguns tear-gas ringed College Campus. When entire body protested state authorities refusing re-register, dining hall padlocked attempt starve them into submission.' Sixth 7 'Again again violators have answered King's peaceful protests intimidation violence. bombed home almost killing wife child. assaulted person. arrested seven times—for 'speeding,' 'loitering' similar 'offenses.' And now charged 'perjury'—a felony could imprison ten years. 8 Although neither mentions respondent name, contended word 'police' paragraph referred Commissioner supervised so accused 'ringing' campus police. further claimed be imputing police, hence him, padlocking order submission.2 As paragraph, since arrests ordinarily made statement 'They (Dr. King) times' referring him; 'They' did arresting equated committed described acts 'Southern violators.' Thus, argued, accusing answering 'intimidation violence,' bombing home, assaulting person, charging perjury. six residents some or capacity Commissioner. 9 uncontroverted contained not accurate descriptions events occurred staged demonstration Capital National Anthem Thee.' nine Board Education, leading Capitol, demanding service lunch counter Courthouse another day. Not body, most it, expulsion, register, boycotting classes single day; virtually register ensuing semester. any occasion, only may barred eating there few preregistration application nor requested temporary meal tickets. deployed near large numbers occasions, 'ring' campus, called connection implied. times, four; although years earlier arrest loitering outside courtroom, denied such assault. On premise charges allowed prove participated described. fact twice when child there, both occasions antedated tenure Commissioner, implicated bombings, every effort apprehend were. Three took place before became indicted (he subsequently acquitted) counts perjury, each possible five-year sentence, nothing do procuring indictment. no suffered actual pecuniary loss result libel.3 One witnesses, former employer, if believed statements, doubted whether 'would want associated anybody party things stated ad,' re-employ 'that paper say did.' But witness others actually supposed reference 12 cost approximately $4800, it published advertising agency acting signatory Committee. submitted letter Atlantic Philip Randolph, Chairman Committee, certifying persons whose given permission. Randolph Times' Advertising Acceptability responsible accepting sufficient proof authorization followed its established practice. There testimony copy accompanied listed appearing text, statement, list thereunder, included added received. Each authorized use unaware until receipt demand retraction. manager approved publication because knew cause believe anything false, bore endorsement 'a number people well reputation' 'had reason question.' Neither anyone else confirm accuracy either checking recent news stories relating means. 13 law denies officer recovery punitive account concerning conduct unless makes written retraction defendant fails refuses comply. Code, Tit. § 914. served petitioners. None responded demand, primarily position name therefore him. publish response wrote stating, among things, 'we somewhat puzzled how you think way reflect you,' 'you might, desire, let us know what respect you.' filed suit days later without letter. did, however, Governor John Patterson asserted 'grave misconduct improper actions omissions Ex-Officio Education Alabama.' asked explain why respondent, Secretary testified: we didn't reflection was, far see, embodiment proper representative and, furthermore, learned more facts ad recite finally, refer presumably ex-officio chairman *.' hand, 'any language Sullivan.' 14 trial judge instructions 'libelous per se' privileged, might held liable found 'of concerning' instructed that, libelous se, implies injury bare itself,' 'falsity malice presumed,' 'general need pro ed 'punitive even though shown.' An damages—as distinguished 'general' damages, compensatory nature—apparently requires law, 'mere negligence carelessness evidence fact, does justify exemplary damages.' refused charge, must 'convinced' malice, sense 'actual intent' harm 'gross recklessness,' make award, also require verdict differentiate between damages. rejected petitioners' contention rulings abridged freedoms First Fourteenth Amendments. 15 In affirming judgment, sustained judge's respects. '(w)here words tend injure person reputation, profession, business, indictable offense, tends bring contempt,' se'; matter complained is, above doctrine, plaintiff'; actionable 'proof *, implied.' Id., 673, 676, So.2d, 37, 41. court's ruling find stating: common knowledge average municipal agents, firemen, others, control direction city governing particularly commissioner. measuring performance deficiencies groups, praise criticism usually attached complete body.' 674—675, sustaining determination excessive, court said inferred 'irresponsibility' printing while own files articles already demonstrated falsity allegations advertisement'; failure retract retracting Governor, whereas equally false parties'; apart padlocked, thought 'substantially correct.' 686—687, 50—51. reaffirmed 'There measure cases character.' 686, 50. contentions brief 'The Amendment protect publications' directed private action.' Because importance issues involved, granted separate petitions certiorari Times. 371 946, 83 510, 496. reverse judgment. hold rule applied courts constitutionally deficient provide safeguards Amendments conduct.4 hol presented insufficient judgment I. 17 dispose outset grounds insulate scrutiny. proposition relied Court—that That has case. lawsuit parties, impose invalid restrictions press. matters only, supplemented statute. See, e.g., §§ 908—917. test form but, whatever form, exercised. See Ex parte Virginia, 100 339, 346—347, 25 L.Ed. 676; American Federation Labor Swing, 312 321, 61 568, 85 855. 18 second guarantees inapplicable here, least concerned, allegedly part paid, 'commercial' advertisement. argument relies Valentine Chrestensen, 316 52, 62 920, 86 1262, where ordinance forbidding street distribution commercial business abridge freedoms, handbill having message side protest other. reliance wholly misplaced. Chrestensen protection communicating information disseminating opinion'; holding based factual conclusions 'purely advertising' evade ordinance. 19 here used Chrestensen. communicated information, expressed opinion, recited grievances, abuses, sought financial behalf movement existence objectives highest interest concern. N.A.A.C.P. Button, 415, 435, 328, 405. paid publishing immaterial newspapers books sold. Smith California, 361 147, 150, 80 215, 205; cf. Bantam Books, Incorporated Sullivan, 372 58, 64, n. 6, 631, 584. Any conclusion discourage carrying 'editorial advertisements' type, shut off important outlet promulgation ideas themselves access facilities—who wish exercise members Cf. Lovell Griffin, 303 444, 452, 58 666, 82 949; Schneider State, 308 164, 60 146, 155. effect shackle secure widest dissemination diverse antagonistic sources.' Associated Press States, 326 1, 20, 65 1416, 1424, 89 2013. To avoid placing handicap expression, otherwise contitutionally protected present forfeit advertisement.5 II. 20 Under case, 'tend 'bring (him) contempt'; standard 'injure office, impute integrity, fidelity trust plaintiff, plaintiff governmental hierarchy finding reputation affected charge. Once 'libel established, can persuade true particulars. Ride company Vance, 235 263, 178 S69 438 (1938); Johnson Publishing Davis, 271 474, 494—495, 124 441, 457—458 (1960). His privilege 'fair comment' expressions depends truth comment based. Parsons Age-Herald Co., 181 439, 450, 345, 350 (1913). Unless discharge burden proving truth, general presumed, injury. showing apparently prerequisite event forestall meeting statutory requirements. Good motives belief inference relevant mitigation chooses accord weight. supra, 495, 458. 21 question liability, conduct, abridges 22 heavily, courts, publications.6 Those foreclose our inquiry here. laws sanctions expression critical officials. dictum Pennekamp Florida, 328 331, 348—349, 66 1029, 1038, 90 1295, 'when defamation, remedy servants,' implied view afforded Beauharnais Illinois, 343 250, 72 725, 96 919, Illin criminal statute defamatory racial group 'liable violence disorder.' careful note 'retains exercises authority nullify encroaches utterance guise punishing libel'; 'public men, are, were, property,' 'discussion cannot right, duty, stifled.' 263—264, 734, 919 18. previous limitations official, divided decided. Schenectady Union Pub. Sweeney, 642, 1031, 1727. deciding compelled precedent policy give weight epithet 'libel' than labels' law. 429, Like insurrection,7 contempt,8 advocacy unlawful acts,9 breach peace,10 obscenity,11 solicitation business,12 formulae repression challenged Court, talismanic immunity limitations. measured standards satisfy Amendment. 23 questions secured long settled decisions. safeguard, said, 'was fashioned assure unfettered interchange bringing about political social changes desired people.' Roth 354 476, 484, 77 1304, 1308, 1498. maintenance opportunity free discussion end government responsive will obtained lawful means, essential security Republic, fundamental principle system.' Stromberg 283 359, 369, 51 532, 536, 75 1117. '(I)t prized speak one's mind, always perfect good taste, institutions,' Bridges 314 252, 270, 190, 197, 192, 'vigorous advocacy' less 'abstract discussion.' Amendment, Judge Learned Hand, 'presupposes likely gathered out multitude tongues, through kind authoritative selection. be, folly; staked all.' Press, 52 F.Supp. 362, (D.C.S.D.N.Y.1943). Brandeis, concurring Whitney 274 357, 375 376, 47 641, 648, 71 1095, gave classic formulation: 24 'Those won independence duty; should government. recognized risks institutions subject. merely fear punishment infraction; hazardous thought, hope imagination; breeds repression; hate; hate menaces stable government; path safety lies discuss freely grievances proposed remedies; fitting evil counsels ones. Believing discussion, eschewed silence coerced law—the force worst form. Recognizing occasional tyrannies majorities, amended assembly guaranteed.' Thus consider background profound national commitment debate uninhibited, robust, wide-open, include vehement, caustic, sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks Terminiello Chicago, 337 4, 69 894, 93 1131; De Jonge Oregon, 299 353, 365, 57 255, 81 278. grievance major time, seem clearly qualify protection. forfeits defamation 26 Authoritative interpretations consistently recognize exception truth—whether administered judges, juries, administrative officials—and especially puts speaker. Speiser Randall, 357 513, 525—526, 78 1332, 1460. turn popularity, utility beliefs offered.' 445, 344, Madison 'Some degree abuse inseparable thing; instance press.' Elliot's Debates Federal (1876), Page 571. Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 310, 900, 906, 1213, declared: 27 realm religious faith, belief, differences arise. fields tenets man rankest error neighbor. point view, pleader, know, resorts exaggeration, vilification men been, prominent church state, statement. nation ordained light history, spite probability excesses liberties enlightened citizens democracy.' 28 erroneous inevitable debate, 'breathing space' 'need survive,' 433, 338, 405, Appeals District Columbia Sweeney Patterson, 76 U.S.App.D.C. 23, 24, 128 Reporter, 2nd 457, 458 (1942), cert. denied, 317 678, 63 160, 87 544. Edgerton spoke unanimous affirmed dismissal Congressman's newspaper article i-Semitism opposing judicial appointment. said: 29 'Cases liability reports officials obsolete doctrine governed criticize governors. outweighs appellant individual. information. Political views respectable approve, condemn, constantly imputed Congressmen. Errors regard man's mental states processes, inevitable. Whatever field taken debate.'13 30 Injury affords warrant repressing error. Where concern contempt decision. 192. This contains 'half-truths' 'misinformation.' 342, 343, 5, 1295. Such justified, all, clear danger obstruction justice. Craig Harney, 331 367, 67 1249, 91 1546; Wood Georgia, 370 375, 1364, 569. If judges treated 'men fortitude, able thrive hardy climate,' U.S., S.Ct., 1255, 1546, surely same officials, commissioners.14 Criticism lose effective diminishes reputations. 31 content suffices remove shield combination elements inadequate. lesson drawn great controversy Sedition Act 1798, Statutes-at-Large 596, crystallized awareness central meaning Levy, Legacy Suppression (1960), 258 seq.; Smith, Freedom's Fetters (1956), 426, 431 passim. crime, punishable $5,000 fine five prison, 'if shall write, print, utter scandalous malicious writing writings house Congress President intent defame o them, disrepute; excite hatred States.' provided facts. Despite qualifications, vigorously condemned unconstitutional attack joined Jefferson Madison. famous Virginia Resolutions General Assembly resolved 32 'doth palpable alarming infractions Constitution, late 'Alien Acts,' passed last session *. (The Act) delegated contrary, expressly positively forbidden amendments thereto—a which, other, ought produce universal alarm, levelled examining characters measures, communication thereon, ever justly deemed effectual guardian right.' Debates, Pages 553—554. 33 prepared Report protest. created people, government, possess absolute sovereignty.' structure dispersed people's distrust concentrated power, itself levels. 'altogether different' British Crown sovereign subjects. 'Is natural necessary, different circumstances,' asked, contemplated?' 569—570. Earlier, House Representatives, 'If advert nature Republican Government, censorial Government Annals Congress, 934 (1794). press, probably, Union, exerted canvassing merits measures description, confined strict limits footing stood; foundation yet stands 570. stewardship thus, Madison's government.15 34 never tested Court16 validity day history. Fines levied prosecution repaid ground unconstitutional. July 1840, chapter 45, 802, H.R.Rep.No. 86, 26th Cong., 1st Sess. (1840). Calhoun, reporting Senate February 1836, assumed invalidity 'which doubts.' bill 122, 24th Sess., 3. Jefferson, President, pardoned convicted sentenced remitted fines, 'I discharged sedition & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions considered, consider, nullity, ordered fall down worship golden image.' Letter Mrs. Adams, 22, 1804, Jefferson's Works (Washington ed.), 555, 556. Justices Holmes, J., dissenting Abrams 250 616, 630, 40 17, 1173; Jackson, 288—289, 919; Douglas, Right People (1958), 47. Cooley, Constitutional Limitations (8th ed., Carrington, 1927), 899—900; Chafee, Free Speech 27—28. These broad consensus Act, restraint imposed inconsistent 35 implicit history apply States. originally addressed one, denying 'to controul press,' 1804 Abigail Adams quoted Dennis 341 494, 522, 857, 95 1137 (concurring opinion). distinction eliminated adoption Amendment's restrictions. Gitlow York, 268 652, 45 625, 1138; 155; 268, 192; Edwards South Carolina, 229, 235, 680, 697. 36 What means likewise beyond reach libel.17 damage awards invoked markedly inhibiting Chicago Tribune 307 Ill. 595, 607, 139 Northeastern N59 (1923). example, subjects speaks, writes, prints accusation falsely maliciously importing commission felony, offense involving moral turpitude,' allows conviction exceeding $500 prison sentence months. 14, 350. Presumably violation enjoys ordinary criminal-law requirements reasonable doubt. available action. case—without loss—was thousand times greater maximum statute, hundred Act. n double-jeopardy limitation applicable lawsuits, publication.18 Whether survive succession judgments, pall timidity voice atmosphere survive. Plainly regulation creates hazards attend law.' 70, 639, 37 saved allowance truth. honestly requirement guilty 205, indispensiable valid bookseller possessing obscene sale. 38 'For criminally contents, restrict sells inspected; thus restriction literature. bookseller's become public's burden, restricting restricted. (H)is face forms printed suppress directly. self-censorship, censorship affecting public, hardly virulent privately administered. Through books, obscene, impeded.' (361 153—154, 218, 205.) 39 compelling critic guarantee assertions—and pain judgments unlimited amount—leads comparable 'self-censorship.' Allowance defendant, mean deterred.19 Even adequate safeguard difficulties adducing proofs Post Hallam, 59 KF105 F3 530, 540 (C.A.6th Cir. 1893); see Noel, Defamation Officers Candidates, 49 Col.L.Rev. 875, 892 (1949). rule, would-be deterred voicing criticism, true, doubt proved expense so. 'steer wider zone.' 526, 1342, dampens vigor variety debate. require, think, federal prohibits recovering falsehood proves malice'—that reckless disregard not. oft-cited like adopted courts,20 Kansas Coleman MacLennan, Kan. 711, 98 281 (1908). Attorney General, candidate re-election member management school fund, sued publisher purporting school-fund transaction. pleaded judge, plaintiff's objection, 41 'where circulated voters sole purpose giving wha believes truthful office enabling cast ballot intelligently, thing done faith principal untrue derogatory character plaintiff; show article.' 42 answer special question, returned defendant. Kansas, Burch, reasoned follows (78 Kan., 724, P., 286): 43 utmost consequence qualifications candidates suffrages. society discussions vast, advantages derived counterbalance inconvenience reputations individuals yield welfare, great. publi benefit publicity chance small privileged.' 44 instruction correct saying: occasion gives rise qualified extent. claiming defamed go remediless. extends includes concern, office.' 723, 285. 46 conduct21 appropriately analogous accorded citizen. Barr Matteo, 360 564, 575, 79 1335, 1341, 1434, absolutely privileged 'within outer perimeter' duties. officers, lesser enjoy.22 proved. threat suits 'inhibit fearless, vigorous, administration policies government' 'dampen ardor resolute, irresponsible, unflinching duties.' 571, 1339, 1434. Analogous considerations citizen-critic much duty official's administer. 1095 Brandeis), 270. 275, servants unjustified preference serve, fair equivalent themselves. conclude III. 48 today delimits Since action,23 requiring applicable. While damages,24 concerned 'presumed.' presumption rule. create presumptions escape restrictions,' Bailey 219 219, 239, 145, 151, 55 191; '(t)he forfeiture presumed Lawrence Fox, Mich. 134, 97 North Western 719, 725 (1959).25 instruct impossible returned. uncertainty, reversed remanded. 367—368 535, 1117; Williams 287, 291—292, 207, 209—210, 279; Yates 298, 311—312, 1064, 1073, 1356; Cramer 325 36, 918, 935, 940, 1441. seek new trial, deem review record Court's limited elaboration principles; principles applied. trespass across unconditionally legitimately regulated.' 525, drawn, 'examine ourselves issue circumstances Due Process Clause protect.' 335, 1295; One, Inc., Olesen, 355 371, 364, 352; Sunshine Book Summerfield, 372, 352. 'make independent examination record,' 683, 697, constitute intrusion expression.26 50 Applying standards, lacks convincing clarity demands, sustain little discussion. assuming aware regard. support. similarly malice. allegation, correct,' 'cavalier ignoring (from which), impressed bad maliciousness inferable therefrom.' indicate publication; correct'—although was—that impeach witness' it. retracted purposes. evidence, reasons First, reflected reasonably all. Second, final refusal, explanation point—a request chose ignore. Nor supply necessary proof. retroactively virtue subs quently party. happen impeached. Finally, files. mere presence not, course, establish 'knew' mind organization responsibility With check, shows sponsors individual, authorized. handling saw render unacceptable rejecting advertisements containing 'attacks personal character';27 reject unreasonable. supports failing discover misstatements, recklessness Charles Parker Silver Crystal 142 Conn. 605, 618, 116 440, 446 (1955); Phoenix Newspapers, Choisser, Ariz. 271, 277 278, 154—155 (1957). 53 defective respect: incapable supporting jury's witnesses himself. states: 54 commissioner addition, heard editor *; real estate insurance sales men's clothing store food equipment station operator truck formerly worked (Citations omitted.) position. statements—the bombed, assaulted, instituted him—did police; despite ingenuity arguments attach significance 'They,' plain involvement question. principally functions: 'truckloads Campus' 'arrested times.' 'deployed near' 'ringed' gone demonstration, times. discrepancies raise problems, oblique Support must, therefore, witnesses. none suggested himself attacked overall conduct; ordering approving personally involved notion solely unsupported assumption position, been.28 position29 explicit court, 'did err overruling demurrer (of Times) aspect (plaintiff,)' that: 56 disquieting implications For reason, 'no resort country held, suggested, prosecutions system jurisprudence.' 601, 88, Law 1368 sidestep obstacle transmuting however impersonal face, potential libel, composed. alchemy 'reflects me community.' Raising possibility good-faith penalized strikes very center area expression.30 utilized operations operations. exclusively connect remanded proceedings opinion. Reversed BLACK, DOUGLAS joins (concurring). concur reversing half-million-dollar Company defendants. holds conduct.' Ante, 283. base my vote 'delimit' conduct' completely prohibit exercising power. goes subject malice' them. 'Malice,' defined elusive, abstract concept, hard disprove. provides best evanescent critically affairs certainly up sturdy embodied Unlike defendants absolute, unconditional criticisms agencies aimed City's purposes assume reversal size is. criticizing perform fail duties, provision impliedly bars fixing dramatic proof, threaten virile enough unpopular bold emphasizes imminence enormity threat. acute highly emotional arises including continue state-commanded segregation races schools places, several holdings practice localities hostility desegregation manifested. extended favor desegregation, so-called 'outside agitators,' term fit papers York. scarcity suggests feelings rendition appraisal Viewed realistically, lends instead damaged Sullivan's political, social, prestige enhanced publication. Moreover, claimed. huge verdicts lurking just around corner broadcaster dare briefs eleven local seeking $5,600,000, Broadcasting System $1,700,000. technique harassing press—now shown overtones; out-of-state news-papers easy prey seekers. dealt deadly leaving open destruction—by granting duty. Compare Stopgap adopts enough. rendered 'malice,' 'truth,' 'good motives,' 'justifiable ends,' formulas theory legalistic caused below set aside reduce amount. agree States.1 discussing precisely nil. since.2 challenge viewpoint passing pass 1798,3 crime—'seditious libel'—to Government. correctly points out, ante, 273—276, came ignominious consent generally unjustificable regretted Fourteenth, permits would, faithfully interpret leaves impunity. Nation elects officials; municipalities, counties, precincts. kinds writings, 'obscenity,' 1498, 'fighting words,' Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 766, 1061, within Amendment,4 discus unquestionably, holds, designed keep punish penalize needed. Nation, suspect, peace suffer physically financially actions, democracy ceases exist moment functionaries absolved constituents; happens whenever constituent restrained manner speaking, writing, opinions measure, advise execute it.'5 pleases minimum Amendment.6 regret stopped short indispensable preserve destruction. GOLDBERG, result). 68 announces 'ACTUAL MALICE'—THAT IS, WITH KNOWLEDGe not.' 279-280. rules 'conditional privilege' immunizing nonmalicious misstatements regarding officer. impressive array history1 marshaled confirms citizen criticism. afford flow abuses. mind,' needs space depend probing motivation2 express ts speaking unwise, unfair, malicious. democratic society, assumes act executive, legislative, expect commented criticized. cannot, muzzled label 70 'prosecutions (no) 1368. fully agree. abstraction; individuals—of governors governed. ballots necessarily governors' meaning, Constitution. clean slate.3 notes, 'statements publications (n)one officials.' 268. careful, adequately urged deliberately conceivable value speech. argument, effectively safeguarded allowing imposition evaluation speaker's mind. strong words, finds motivated, constrained. newspapers, advertisments dealing issues, thereby risk ability minority groups causes greatly diminished. Farmers Educational Coop. WDAY, 1302, 1305, 1407. conclusively demonstrates chilling race relations. Colonists willing, take '(m)en oppress (and) provoke cry complain' empowered oundation oppressions prosecutions.' Trial Peter Zenger, Howell's St. Tr. 675, 721—722 (1735) (argument counsel jury). critical, albeit malicious, comments resurrect governors.' Our experience teaches repressions breed government.' (Brandeis, concurring). mindful wise Chief Hughes: 73 '(I)mperative inviolate rights speech, maintain changes, desired, Therein 260, 74 protects insures respond Purely ends self-governing society. Amendment.4 This, involved. (O)ne main function ensure ample resolve issues. doubts rather it.' jurisdictions, legislators, executive clothed uttered d.2d 1434; Ill., 610, N.E., 91. Hand ably summarized underlying rule: 'It indeed saying using powers vent spleen motive connected good, injuries cause; confine complaints guilty, monstrous recovery. justification doing founded tried, submit innocent outcome, dampen Again calls mistake, put faith. truant duties; quite exposing mistaken errors. often balance evils alternative. better leave unredressed wrongs dishonest try constant dread retaliation. decisions have, indeed, scope powers; argued powers, cover aim, dishonestly overstep bounds. moment's shows, defeating doctrine. meant justified act, vested Gregoire Biddle, Cir., 177 579, 581. immune serve dampened 'fearless, inhibited, applaud employees jobs, important.'5 safely faint vigorous soon agencies, criticisms, friendly juries conduct.6 defenses unsubstantiated deliberate misstatements. 'Under counterargument education weapons expose matters, abridgment 389, 1372, equal media communication. event, abuses unremedied, (certain) 1213. Brandeis observed, 'sunlight powerful disinfectants.'7 reasons, strongly accords this, related sustained. Appendix. expelling rests Education.' Approximately 394 copies edition these, distributed County. total circulation 650,000 copies. decide claims contend offends Equal Protection Clauses violated bias courtroom. contends jurisdiction corporate overreaches territorial Clause. latter foreclosed entered appearance waived jurisdictional objection; substantial support' prior Thompson Wilson, 224 299, 140 439 (1932); compare 449, 454—458, 1163, 1488. Institute, Restatement Torts, 593, Comment b (1938). Konigsberg Bar 366 49, 10, 997, 105; Film Corporation 365 43, 48, 391, 403; 486—487, 1498; 266, Hamphire, 572, 1031; Near Minnesota, 715, 1357. Herndon Lowry, 301 242, 732, 1066. 354, Mill, Liberty (Oxford: Blackwell, 1947), 47: '* (T)o argue sophistically, arguments, misstate misrepresent opposite aggravated degree, continually respects deserve ignorant incompetent, rarely possible, grounds, conscientiously stamp misrepresentation morally culpable; still presume interfere controversial misconduct.' climate operate, during campaign, commentator following terms: 'Charges gross incompetence, interest, communist sympathies, filled air; hints bribery, embezzlement, infrequent.' 875 description earlier, Chase, Candidates Office, Am.L.Rev. 346 (1889). stated: manifestly administer disrepute contempt, striking measures; again, exposed animadversions intrenched penal statutes effects culpable administration, easily faithful 'Let recollected, lastly, electing constitutes essence efficacy comparative demerits trust, freedom, consequently, respectively.' 575. expired terms 1801. Cooperative America Alabama; $500,000 trial; $2,000,000. valuable contribution brings clearer perception livelier impression produced collision error.' 15; ilton, Areopagitica, Prose (Yale, 1959), Vol. II, 561. E.g., Ponder Cobb, 257 N.C. 281, 126 Eastern 67, (1962); Mich, (1959); Stice Beacon Newspaper Corp., 185 61, 65—67, 340 396, 400—401, Reports, 687 Charleston Mail Assn., W.Va. 292, 307, 837, 844, 150 348 (1943); Salinger Cowles, 195 Iowa 873, 889, 191 Northwestern N69 167, 174 (1922); Snively Record Rptr. California (West’s) 565, 571—576, 198 (1921); McLean Merriman, S.D. 394, 175 878 (1920). Newspapers 276—277, 154 (1957); Friedell Blakely Printing 163 Minn. 226, 230, 203 974, 975 (1925). Chagnon Union-Leader 103 N.H. 438, 825, 833 (1961), 369 830, 846, 795. scholarly favors adopted. Harper James, 5.26, 449—450 (1956); 891—895, 897, 903 (1949); Hallen, Fair Comment, Tex.L.Rev. 41, (1929); Charges Against Mich.L.Rev. 115 (1919); 346, 367 (1889); (7th Lane, 1903), 604, 616—628. 598, (1938) (reversing Tentative Draft 13, 1041(2) (1936)); Veeder, Discussion, Harv.L.Rev. 413, 419 (1910). honest 'conditional' distinguish 'absolute' judicial, proceedings. Prosser, Torts (2d 1955), 95. 5.23, 429—430 (1956). 612—613; (1938), 591. lower ranks official' designation extend specify categories included. 573—575, 1340—1341, boundaries 'official concept. Department. alleging considered involve perpetrating assault bombing. acts; connects supervising assaulting. 487, 450 libel.' refused, Times: indicates, corporation, you, jury, convinced preponderance motivated illwill, harm, wanton rights.' unnecessary sufficiency Accord, 741, 292; Gough Tribune-Journal Idaho 502, 275 663, 668 (1954). Seventh contends, preclude providing tried reexamined according law,' coming Q.R. 166 242—243, 581, 587, 979; Murray, Wall. 274, 658. ban re-examination determining properly '(T)his intermingled analyze facts.' Fiske 380, 385—386, 655, 656—657, 1108. Haynes Washington, 373 503, 515—516, 1336, 1344, 513. forth booklet 'Advertising Standards.' Listed accept 'fraudulent deceptive,' 'ambiguous wording mislead,' contain replying interrogatories 'as acceptability promulgated,' supervise feel life (a statement) describes activities.' 'by Affairs,' activity Department.' 'When action, reflects individual.' feeling Grove C. Hall government—the Commissioners,' 'now ask naturally constabulary.' phrase starvation' led association; hit particular force.' Arnold Blackwell force. hall, heads competent position.' responsibility.' Harry W. Kaminsky police' 'because Commissioner.' 'implicates that—arrest folks speeding that.' Asked associate report 'beat somebody streets Montgomery,' replied: working directly hink something general, look Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Price, Sr., because: automatically Mortgomery approval Parker, Commissioner,' 'thought first.' told counsel: Horace White, 'truck-loads head ringing tear-gas, 'Well, department yes, sir. understand unwilling (1962). Insofar implicitly run precluded comment. 607. recognition conditional fact. Bot course defeasible collected 1460 Tucker, Blackstone's Commentaries (1803), 297 (editor's appendix). George jurist, Annapolis Convention 1786, sat 596. 155, 205 opinion); 508, 1321, 1498 (dissenting appendix; Brant, Seditious Libel: Myth Reality, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 1. Meiklejohn, Its Relation Self-Government (1948). 'has history,' 276, declared pointed proscribed 'false, malicious.' (Emphasis added.) Matthew Lyon (1798), Wharton, Trials (1849), 333; Thomas Cooper (1800), id., 659; Anthony Haswell (1800) 684; James Callender 688. mallice may, add falsity, recognizes safeguard. Jackson Ballard, 322 78, 92—93, 882, 88 1148, here: '(A)s philosophy believable. experience. Likewise, knowingly falsified happened happen.' infra. 1138, decided 1925, intimated Other intimations followed. 1095; 1931 Hughes 368, 1117, determined conception liberty due process clause embraces speech.' deal enunciated decades ago, arising cases, bar, difficulty distinguishing recognize, gray area. applying public-private certainly, genre attending differentiation shaped concept speaker takes inaccurately elusive 2, supra. Black 577, observed functioning ours largely informed understanding quality elective appointed employees. unders anding depends, important.' notes Freund, (1949), 61. 305-Continued (APPENDIX.)

Classification Label: 2