Legal Document

514 U.S. 1115 S.Ct. 1185131 L.Ed.2d 34 ARIZONA, Petitioner,v.Isaac EVANS. No. 93-1660. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Dec. 7, 1994. Decided March 1, 1995. Syllabus * Respondent was arrested by Phoenix police during a routine traffic stop when patrol car's computer indicated that there an outstanding misdemeanor warrant for his arrest. A subsequent search car revealed bag marijuana, and he charged with possession. moved to suppress marijuana as fruit unlawful arrest, since had been quashed before The trial court granted motion, but Appeals reversed on ground exclusionary rule's purpose would not be served excluding evidence obtained because error employees directly associated arresting officers or their department. In reversing, Arizona rejected distinction between clerical errors committed law enforcement personnel similar mistakes predicted application serve improve efficiency criminal justice system recordkeepers. Held: 1. This has jurisdiction review State Court's decision. Under Michigan v. Long, 463 1032, 103 3469, 77 1201, state-court decision fairly appears rest primarily federal law, interwoven adequacy independence any possible state-law is clear from opinion's face, this will accept most reasonable explanation state decided case way it did believed required do so. standard determining whether rests upon adequate independent adopted (1) obviate unsatisfactory intrusive practice requiring courts clarify decisions satisfaction (2) provide judges clearer opportunity develop jurisprudence unimpeded interference yet preserve law's integrity. properly serves its should disturbed. are free both interpret constitutional provisions accord greater protection individual rights than Constitution experimental laboratories. However, in cases where they Constitution, final authority Court. case, based squarely interpretation discussed appropriateness applying rule, offered no plain statement references were being used only guidance compel result reached. Pp. __. 2. rule does require suppression seized violation Fourth Amendment erroneous information resulted employees. judicially created remedy designed safeguard against future violations through deterrent effect. issue exclusion separate violated. expressly preclude use commands, appropriate remedial objectives thought efficaciously served. same framework Leon, 468 897, 104 3405, 82 677, determine sound reason apply means deterring misconduct part judicial responsible issuing warrants applies case. historically misconduct, See id., at 916, S.Ct., 3417. addition, respondent offers inclined ignore subvert lawlessness among these actors requires extreme sanction exclusion. ibid. fact, Justice Clerk testified type occurred once every three four years. Finally, basis believing have significant effect informing quashed. Since adjuncts team engaged ferreting out crime, stake outcome particular prosecutions. Application also could expected alter officer's behavior, indication officer here acting reasonably relied record. 177 Ariz. 201, 866 P.2d 869 (1994), remanded. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, which O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, BREYER, JJ., joined. J., filed concurring opinion, SOUTER STEVENS, dissenting opinion. GINSBURG, Gerald Grant, Phoenix, AZ, petitioner. Carol A. Carrigan, appointed respondent. Chief REHNQUIST 1 presents question who acted reliance record indicating existence arrest warrant—a later determined erroneous—must suppressed virtue regardless source error. held even if employee office We disagree. 2 January 1991, Bryan Sargent observed Evans driving wrong one-way street front station. stopped asked see driver's license. After told him license suspended, entered respondent's name into data terminal located car. inquiry confirmed suspended Based warrant, Officer placed under While handcuffed, dropped hand-rolled cigarette smelled marijuana. Officers proceeded discovered passenger's seat. 3 possession When notified him, previously so advised police. argued 17 days prior incident "[t]he 'good faith' exception [was] inapplicable . error, caused invalid arrest." App. 5. 4 At hearing, Peace issued December 13, 1990, failed appear answer several violations. On 19, appeared pro tem notation file "quash warrant." Id., ----. 5 regarding procedure quashing warrant. clerk calls informs section Sheriff's Office then removes records. calling Office, makes note individual's made phone call person whom spoke. called records telephone 42-43. 6 close testimony, "the purposes making clerks court, office, whoever mistake, more careful about sure removed records." 47. motion concluded fault failing quash Presumably find "distinction action, happens department not," 52, factual finding continued presence 7 divided panel "believe[d] intended deter officers' department." 172 314, 317, 836 1024, 1027 (1992). Therefore, concluded, case." Ibid. 8 reversed. (1994). drawn appeals employees." 203, P.2d, 871. "hopefully those keep our system." 204, 872. "[e]ven assuming deterrence principal we disagree such carelessness results 9 certiorari resulting inaccurate record, record's computer. 511 ----, 114 2131, 128 862 (1994).1 now reverse. 10 first must consider argues lack 28 U.S.C. § 1257 never passed instead good-faith statute, Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-3925 (1993), ground. alternative, asks remand clarification. 11 1201 (1983), rested "a face so." 1040-1041, 3476. practice, part, "unsatisfactory Court." 1041, approach "provide interference, integrity law." 12 GINSBURG overrule supra, she believes "impedes States' ability laboratories testing solutions novel legal problems." Post, __.2 Long describes 60-year history differing approaches determination judgment highest nonfederal grounds. U.S., 1038-1040, 3474-3476. doubt, some occasions dismissed writ certiorari; other vacated remanded might latter always achieve desired burdened additional work. 13 believe it, absolutely Constitution. They laboratories, sense Brandeis term New Ice Co. Liebmann, 285 262, 311, 52 371, 386, 76 L.Ed. 747 (1932) (urging impose restraints efforts "serve laboratory"). today, remains seek whatever chooses problems posed advent computerization.3 Indeed, freer disabused view what requires. 14 courts, cases, merely bound to—interpret doing so, principle enunciated Cohens Virginia, 19 (6 Wheat.) 264, 257 (1821), presumably quarrel it.4 Minnesota National Tea Co., 309 551, 60 676, 84 920 (1940), recognized arbiter eroded clarity decisions. 15 "It fundamental left unfettered us interpreting constitutions. But equally important ambiguous obscure adjudications stand barriers validity constitution action. Intelligent exercise appellate powers compels ask elimination obscurities ambiguities opinions cases. For course assures issues, here, reach adjudication; arbiters issues constitution; encroach states." 557, 679. 16 therefore adhere supra. Applying conclude jurisdiction. reversing Appeals, stated "[w]hile may inappropriate invoke magistrate facially valid (a discretionary function) evaluation facts, both, 897 [104 677] (1984), useful proper negligent keeping purely Ariz., Thus, law. Nor offer "being guidance, d[id] themselves [it] reached." 18 states right people secure persons, houses, papers, effects, unreasonable searches seizures, shall violated, Warrants issue, probable cause, supported Oath affirmation, particularly describing place searched, persons things seized." Const. recognized, however, contains provision precluding commands. 906, 3411-3412, 677 (1984). "The condemned [Fourth] 'fully accomplished' seizure itself," (quoting Calandra, 414 338, 354, 94 613, 623, 38 561 (1974)), fruits past " 'work[s] new wrong,' 3411 623). context long regarded party seeking violated conduct." Illinois Gates, 462 213, 223, 2317, 2324, 527 (1983); Havens, 446 620, 627-628, 100 1912, 1916-17, 64 559 (1980); Stone Powell, 428 465, 486-487, 96 3037, 3048-3049, 49 1067 (1976); 348, 620. operates general 3411-3412; As device, restricted instances 908, 3412-3413; Where appreciable deterrence, then, clearly, unwarranted." Janis, 433, 454, 3021, 3032, 1046 (1976). 20 applied principles objectively neutral detached Magistrate, invalid. 905, 3411. factors, warrants. Krull, 480 340, 107 1160, 1166, 364 (1987) (analyzing supra ). First, noted 'to rather punish magistrates.' 1166 3417). Second, 'no suggesting magistrates exclusion.' Third, greatest importance, pursuant judge magistrate. 1166. 21 Leon examined behavior officers. concluded: 22 "[W]here conduct reasonable, 'excluding further ends way; painfully apparent act circumstances. Excluding can affect unless make less willing duty.' 919-920, 3419 539-540, 3073 (White, dissenting)). 23 Massachusetts Sheppard, 981, 990-991, 3424, 3428-3429, 737 (1984) ("[S]uppressing all necessary corrections despite assurances changes function achieve"). "marginal nonexistent benefits produced suppressing subsequently invalidated cannot justify substantial costs exclusion." 922, 3420. 24 relies Hensley, 469 221, 105 675, 83 604 (1985), victim violation. Brief 10-12, 21-22. uncovered Terry admissible flyer another possessed suspicion stop. 231, 681-682. Because Hensley violation, 236, 684, considered excluded. contradict earlier pronouncements 2324; 3048-3049; 25 Whiteley Warden, Wyoming Penitentiary, 401 560, 91 1031, 306 (1971), evidence. Whiteley, recovered inculpatory radio report two suspects involved robberies. 568-569, 1037-1038. Although "police entitled strength bulletin," initial complaint, bulletin based, insufficient support assessment cause. 568, 1037. "an otherwise illegal insulated challenge instigating rely fellow "arrest [Whiteley's] Fourteenth Amendments; secured thereto excluded trial. Mapp Ohio, 367 643 [81 1684, 1081] (1961)." 26 clearly retains relevance Amendment, 230-231, 681-682, precedential value dubious. treated identification synonymous 1037-38. Subsequent reflexive rule. Cf. supra; (1984); These emphasized e.g., served, 27 Our consistent Justices' position major Sheppard involving found conducts constitutionality statute declared unconstitutional. 346, 1165. Even Justices Krull agreed provided analyzing applied; simply "application Leon's rationales le[d] contrary result." 362, 1173 (O'CONNOR, dissenting). sum, persuade abandon framework. reasoning facts "support employees," 871, "even responsibility follow facts," 29 holding and, If sufficiently severe sanction. 3417; 350, 1167. 3417, n. 14; 350-351, 1167-1168. To contrary, hearing 37. 30 important, circumstances often competitive enterprise Johnson States, 333 10, 14, 68 367, 369, 92 436 (1948), 917, 3417-3418; 352, 1168. threat individuals inform officials 31 indeed entry computer, officer. stated: "I think I [have been] derelict duty 51. 920, (" 'Excluding [the officer's] quoting 540, "on[c]e years." immediately corrected 30, files occurred, There supports categorical 916-922, 3417-3420; 3428-3429.5 32 reversed, proceedings inconsistent 33 It ordered. BREYER join, concurring. 35 strongly suggests employee's departure established record-keeping procedures remain after Prudently, limits itself kind apply. holds agree conclusion join reaffirms imposes society's interests thus "most served," ante, 36 limiting single question, hold mistake necessarily innocent recordkeeping itself. Surely rely, say, system, own agency's, mechanism ensure accuracy over time routinely leads false arrests, years cause ceased exist (if ever existed). 37 saying nothing new. said respect sources use, informants obvious example. informant provides certain activities specify knowledge, upheld "known [his] unusual reliability." 233, 2329, citing Sellers, 483 F.2d 37, 40, (CA5 1973) (involving accurate "in one hundred matters investigation"); generally W. LaFave, Search Seizure 3.3(b) (2d ed. 1987 Supp.1995). Certainly reliability systems deserves scrutiny informants. Of course, comparison instructive opposite well. So informant's pass muster, defeated after-the-fact showing mistaken. id. 3.5(d), 21, 73 (citation omitted); 3.2(d), 575 ("It axiomatic hindsight employed cause"). recent years, witnessed powerful, computer-based facilitate arrests ways possible. police, enjoy advantages technology confers. not, blindly. With efficient mechanisms comes burden corresponding responsibilities. djQ joins, 39 joining share O'CONNOR's understanding narrow scope today. her concurrence, well, add due is, how far, dealing computerized very concept extend government whole, expectation number within acceptable minimum limit. 40 dissenting. 41 written explaining why unwisely departed settled interpreted expansively (1983). dissent dismissed. addressed merits, comment holding. 42 seems assume Amendment—and effectuates Amendment's commands—has limited misconduct. Both text adoption identify majestic conception. protects "right effects," official seizures unreasonable. constraint power sovereign, agents. Olmstead 277 438, 472-479, 48 564, 570-573, 72 944 (1928) (Brandeis, motivating train avoid Stewart, Road Ohio Beyond: Origins, Development Future Exclusionary Rule Search-and-Seizure Cases, Colum.L.Rev. 1365, 1400 43 characterized "extreme sanction," Stewart cogently explained, implementation constitutionally mandated places Government conducted place.1 Given undisputed fact prohibited warrantless petitioner, "extreme" permitted profit 44 accepts sole rationale correct merits. majority's misplaced. authorized presumptively California Superior Judge. contrast, involves doubt "that magistrate." assumed warrant; was, remains, wholly seizures.2 45 Warrant Clause check invasions privacy. E.g., Harris 331 145, 195-196, 67 1098, 1118-1119, 1399 (1947) (Jackson, dissenting); Kamisar, Does (Did) (Should) Rest "Principled Basis" Rather Than "Empirical Proposition"?, Creighton L.Rev. 565, 571-579 stands dubious proposition look behind good faith. exemption ambit rested, consistently emphasis requirement, officials' role 915-917, 3416-3418. Taken terms, logic issued; nor functionaries, work building regular direct contact magistrates. 46 Police Department chain petitioner's unlawful, presume officials, best monitor influence mundane communication order prevent errors. That presumption comports notion exists systemically. See, 492, 3051, Dunaway York, 442 200, 99 2248, 2261, 824 (1979) (STEVENS, concurring); 659-662; 1400. extends officer." Compare __, 1037, (1971). Consequently, faith diminish invalidating 47 seeks minimize impact security citizen referring testimony chief East Number One "particular court" 'maybe [once] years.' Apart promptly contradicted herself,3 post, slim base poses interests. support, cites 1948. (1948). overlooks reality changed nature threats citizens' privacy half century. What fraction redressed. Jackson observed: "There be, am convinced are, many turn up incriminating, made, nothing, hear." Brinegar 338 160, 181, 69 1302, 1313, 93 1879 (1949) (dissenting opinion). Moreover, rare, cost enforcing like this. premature adjudication unwise much learn consequences well efficacy preventive measures, post 7-8, consequence obvious. Its serious minor infraction wrongfully base. immune liability 1983 respondeat superior unavailable imposing municipality. Monell York City Dept. Social Services, 658, 663-664, 98 2018, 2021-2022, 56 611 (1978). discourage kind, Crown's revenue laws understandably outraged authors Bill Rights. Lo-Ji Sales, Inc. 319, 325, 2319, 2323-2324, (1979); Weeks 232 383, 389-391, 341, 343-344, 58 652 (1914). 'It power, liberty man hands petty officer.' James Otis, quoted Works John Adams 524 (C. Adams, 1850), 363, 1174, offense dignity arrested, searched public bureaucrat maintain strikes me outrageous. led fortuitous detection prosecution crime. cost, weighed interest protecting other, citizens unwarranted indignity. my judgment, amply offset appropriately "jealous regard maintaining rights." 643, 647, 81 1687, 1081 (1961). reason, set forth respectfully dissent. 50 STEVENS 51 portrays increasing enforcement; illustrates evolving problem need resolve too hastily.1 society" reaching reviews reverses assumption Arizona's sought assiduously jurisprudence. follows announced (1983): unclear court's dictates assumption, asserts presumption, impedes problems. ruled people, recognition intrusion. Accordingly, dismiss certiorari. 53 Isaac erroneously identified name. analysis precedents. relevant decision, "not helpful." Evans, 869, 871 Instead, comprehension curtailment personal inherent 54 Specifically, saw growing development presenting dangers liberty; incorrect data, anticipated, reduce incidence uncorrected records: 55 laments 'high costs' 'purposeless' offsetting benefits.' Such assertion ignores denial human liberty, documents. repugnant society taken custody precipitated carelessness. automation increasingly invades modern life, potential Orwellian mischief grows. circumstances, 'cost' afford without." involve slip communicate oversight received employee. "potential mischief" government's enforcement. loses force where, derives function, inattentive recordkeeping. Evans' presents, said, "will hopefully 57 Invoking majority presumes instructs discussing precedents deemed absent 1040-1042, 3476-3477.2 reasons illustrates, choose presume, ground.3 II Widespread computers store convey generates, along manifold benefits, possibilities malfunctions operator mistakes. Most germane computerization greatly amplifies error's effect, correspondingly intensifies prompt correction; infect agency, agencies access data-base. databases FBI's Crime Information Center (NCIC), take conspicuous example, contain million records, identifying, things, vehicles nationwide. Hearings Subcommittee Departments Commerce, Justice, State, Judiciary, Related Agencies House Committee Appropriations, 102d Cong., 2d Sess., pt. 2B, p. 467 NCIC available approximately 71,000 federal, state, local agencies. 103d 1st 2A, 489 (1993). spreads nationwide instant. 59 exemplifies risks Though warrantless—the having weeks episode suit—the reported otherwise. idiosyncratic. Rogan Los Angeles, 668 F.Supp. 1384 (CD Cal.1987), similarly indicates problem. There, Angeles Department, 1982, suspected robbery murder. suspect impersonating Dean Rogan, named Rogan. Compounding include description suspect's physical characteristics. During next incomplete times, times gunpoint, stops infractions Oklahoma. 1387-1389.4 genre, District "Because listing defendant 'marked man' five months defendant's booking, detention. happen anywhere information. Defendant subject deprived without basis." Mackey, 387 1121, 1124 (Nev.1975). 61 instant features encountered Ante, __ (citing 37). witness recounted that, concerning came light, immediate day." Ibid.; B 62 diverse views correction. Observing "court crime," "there quashed." view, evidence, capable errors, governmental actors.5 Whatever indicate—an voice opinion—the lesson inevitably experience. 63 electronic age, recordkeeping, neatly compartmentalized actors. together carry State's information-gathering objectives. Whether maintained dispositive database calls. Not artificial distinguish slips; difficult pinpoint official, employee, another, officer, persist. supply powerful incentive promote updating hardly expectation. update diminished court-initiated exempt sway. C debate reveals empirical logical one. happy incidents courageous may, choose, laboratory; try social economic experiments risk country." facet federalism mind, select jurisdictional encourages explore different times. 65 Historically, source, arbiters, rights. Linde, First Things First: Rediscovering Bills Rights, U.Balt.L.Rev. 379, 382 (1980). drafters Rights looked constitutions models. 381. 1789 modeled bills pre-existing constitutions, And Amendment—which constrains actions States—incorporates rights, imposed primary constraints Brennan, Constitutions Protection Individual 90 Harv.L.Rev. 489, 501-502 (1977). 66 situated enforce States. Institutional constraints, observed, limit guarantees. Sager, Fair Measure: Legal Status Underenforced Constitutional Norms, 1212, 1217-1218 Prime institutional reluctant intrude deeply areas traditionally regulated aspect touch concern III engage essential process developing insulate intent option pleas reconsideration ado nothing.6 practical symbolic level, chosen matters. imperfect barometer courts' intent. easy enough say requisite magic words, recognize triggers Long's requirement. "[A]pplication depends whole series 'soft' requirements: 'fairly appear' 'primarily' 'interwoven' 'not clear' self-applying concepts." P. Bator, D. Meltzer, Mishkin, & Shapiro, Hart Wechsler's Federal Courts System 552 (3d 1988) (hereinafter Wechsler); cf. Coleman Thompson, 501 722, 735-740, 111 2546, 2556-2560, 115 640 (1991) (declining summary dismissal order). Can satisfy "plain statement" requirement advance, blanket disclaimer? Hampshire declared: "We hereby construing statutes, decisions." Ball, 124 N.H. 226, 471 A.2d 347, 352 Kennedy, 295 Ore. 260, 267, 666 1316, 1321 (1983) ("Lest Oregon finds expressed persuasive, considers doctrines."). reluctance beneath beyond 1040, 3476, render declarations ineffective. Wechsler 553 ("[T]he protestations—that shows asking them opinions—ring hollow: puts clarification advance."). 70 increased nondispositive determinations—instances remand, reinstated judgments clarifying Westling, Advisory Opinions "Constitutionally Required" Adequate Independent Grounds Doctrine, Tulane 389, (1988) (pre-Long, i.e., 1978, June 1983, 14.3% (2 14) potentially grounds remand; post-Long, July 1988, 26.7% (4 15) remand). reinstatements technically "advisory," 537, suggest unnecessarily spent resources better left, solution. 71 departs traditional "every 'without jurisdiction' 'the affirmatively record.' Delaware Van Arsdall, 475 673, 692, 106 1431, 1442, 89 674 (1986) dissenting) King Bridge Otoe County, 120 225, 552, 623 (1887)). sync questions alternative Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 346-347, 466, 482-483, 80 688 (1936) concurring). critically, shows, interferes prematurely endeavors facing society. "[s]ince repeatedly followed [its] 'plain statement' requirement," Reed, 255, 261, 109 1038, 1042, 308 (1989), precedent ought overruled strong ruling virtual about-face guidelines reviewability situations bases rests. lacked faced uncertainty, occasionally commonly, deny uncertainty." G. Gunther, Law (12th 1991). 74 Restoring main "deny[ing] [is] uncertainty," ibid., asserting belonging, least domain. Erie R. Tompkins, 304 64, 77-80, 817, 822-823, 1188 (1938). Recognizing "adequate otherwise," 1066, 3489 dissenting),7 settlement questions. submission telling regard. filing acknowledges occasioned "erroneous contained computer-information systems," vehicle pathmarking "await characteristics pose thoroughly explored." Amicus Curiae 13. 75 "repugnant society," 872, "into carelessness." Few, believe, Whether, guard without," rush decide. errs, presuming applicable obligation establish satisfied. syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. Petitioner conceded Amendment. 10. decline determination. 3411, 357, 1171, (1987). certainly notes '[s]ince requirement.' (1989) (opinion Blackmun, J.)); Rodriguez, 497 177, 182, 110 2793, 2333, 148 (1990) J.); Pennsylvania Muniz, 496 582, 588, 4, 2638, 2643, 528 Maryland Garrison, 79, 83-84, 1013, 1016-17, Caldwell Mississippi, 472 320, 327-328, 2633, 2638-2639, 86 231 (1985) Marshall, Carney, 2066, 2068, 85 406 Burger, C.J.); Johnson, 493, 497-498, 2536, 2539-2540, 425 Oliver 466 170, 175-176, 5, 1735, 1739-1740, 214 740, 2559-60, J.) expand "where law"). "state grounds." statistics). vacate clarification, Abie Bank Bryan, 282 765, 773, 252, 690 (1931). Solicitor General, amicus curiae, argument adequately present consideration." address question. 1392 fully aware statements distinct twice quotes __,__. eminent members Holmes, Brandeis, Harlan, view. 470, 570, (Holmes, 477-479, 572-573 (1971) (Harlan, Elkins 206, 1437, 1669 (1960) (Stewart, 1383-1385. today candidly Harlan's "treated violation." O'CONNOR (1987), explicitly tradition concluding until presented relatively little authorize unconstitutional searches." 365, 1175. joined dissent, pronouncement today's "consistent with" it. "Q. your eight Peace, notified? "A. rare occasions. you occasions, clerk? maybe something happens, anything done problem? Well, happened, ones there, day happened. Fortunately, weren't arrested." frontier presented, periods "percolation" in, from, yield informed enduring McCray 461 961, 963, 2438, 2439, 1322 respecting petitions writs certiorari) ("My vote reflect disagreement Marshall's appraisal importance underlying issue. discretion allow various receives study Court."). becomes operative conditions met: "fairly appea[r] law"; [must] [be] opinion." recognize, point, yield, exceptional vacation order. 6, 3476 ("There desirable, foreclosed taking action."); Capital Cities Media, Toole, 378, 2144, 378 (per curiam ) (post-Long vacating remanding deem decision). Finch Chapman, 785 1277, 1278-1279 (ND Ill.1992) (misinformation retained plaintiff's detention), aff'd 991 799 (CA7 1993). suggested carelessness, intentional reckless suggestion runs counter premise negligence law—that negligence, care, creates care. worker value. Just employers supervise closely employees' conduct, policymakers managers performance install operate systems. words "perhaps office. still State." generated pages academic commentary, supportive, critical presumption. 553, commentary). arguably ground, embodies misconstruction threatening gravely mislead, engender disuniformity, confusion, instability, suffice. 554; 3.

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