Legal Document

428 U.S. 543 96 Supreme Court Reporter 3074 49 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 1116 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.Amado MARTINEZ-FUERTE et al. Rodolfo SIFUENTES, Petitioner, versus STATES. Nos. 74-1560, 75-5387. Argued April 26, 1976. Decided July 6, Syllabus 1. The Border Patrol's routine stopping of a vehicle at permanent checkpoint located on major highway away from the Mexican border for brief questioning vehicle's occupants is consistent with Fourth Amendment, and stops may be made reasonably checkpoints in absence any individualized suspicion that particular contains illegal aliens. Pp. 556-564. (a) To require such always based reasonable would impractical because flow traffic tends to too heavy allow particularized study given car necessary identify it as possible carrier Such requirement also largely eliminate deterrent conduct well-disguised smuggling operations, even though smugglers are known use these highways regularly. Pacific KF135 P2 556-557. (b) While need make great, consequent intrusion Amendment interests quite limited, interference legitimate being minimal operations involving less discretionary enforcement activity than roving-patrol stops. 557-560. (c) Under circumstances stops, which do not involve searches, Government or public interest making outweighs constitutionally protected private citizen. 560-562. (d) With respect involved Number constitutional refer motorists selectively secondary inspection area limited inquiry basis criteria sustain stop, since sufficiently no reason exist justify it. 563-564. 2. Operation fixed authorized advance by judicial warrant. Camara Municipal Court, 387 523, 87 1727, 18 930, distinguished. visible manifestations field officers' authority provide assurances officers acting lawfully. Moreover, purpose warrant preventing hindsight coloring evaluation reasonableness search seizure inapplicable here, turns factors checkpoint's location method operation. These susceptible distortion hindsight, will open post-stop review notwithstanding Nor substituting magistrate's judgment searching seizing officer applicable, this reduced when decision "seize" entirely hands deference administrative decisions higher ranking officials selecting locations. 564-566. 514 Federal Reporter, 2nd 308, reversed remanded; 75-5387, affirmed. Ballard Bennett, Weslaco, Tex., petitioner Mark L. Evans, Washington, D. C., 74-1560 respondent Charles M. Sevilla, San Diego, Cal., 75-1560. Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 cases criminal prosecutions offenses relating transportation Each defendant was arrested operated Patrol international Mexico, each sought exclusion certain evidence ground operation incompatible Amendment. In instance whether violated primarily stopped its there believe We reserved question last Term Ortiz, 422 891, 897 n. 3, 95 2585, 2589, 45 623 (1975). hold today 2 * Atlantic 3 respondents defendants three separate resulting arrests different occasions immigration Interstate 5 near Clemente, Rptr. California (West’s) principal between Diego Los Angeles, Clemente 66 road miles north border. previously have described follows: 4 " 'Approximately one mile south large black yellow sign flashing lights over stating "ALL VEHICLES, STOP AHEAD, MILE." Three-quarters further two signs suspended "WATCH FOR BRAKE LIGHTS." At checkpoint, State weighing station, red highway. state "STOP HERE U. S. OFFICERS." Placed number orange cones funneling into lanes where agent full dress uniform, standing behind white "STOP" checks traffic. Blocking unused official vehicles lights. addition, building houses office temporary detention facilities. There floodlights nighttime operation.' supra, 893, S.Ct., 2587, quoting Baca, 368 F.Supp. 398, 410-411 (SD Cal.1973). "point" visually screens all northbound vehicles, brings virtual, if complete, halt.1 Most allowed resume their progress without oral close visual examination. relatively small conclude order. He directs cars area, asked about citizenship status. informs us average length an investigation five minutes. Brief 53. A direction stop could something suspicious passing through but concedes none issue articulable suspicion. During period were made, operating under "warrant inspection," routine-stop location.2 6 turn now particulars procedural history case. Respondent Amado Martinez-Fuerte approached driving containing female passengers. women aliens who had entered Ysidro port entry using false papers rendezvoused transported northward. directed area. produced documents showing him lawful resident alien, his passengers admitted present country unlawfully. charged, Inter alia, counts illegally transporting violation 8 Code KF62 § 1324(a)(2). moved before trial suppress stemming Amendment.3 motion denied, he convicted both after jury trial. 7 Jose Jiminez-Garcia attempted pass while passenger. picked passenger up prearrangement latter been smuggled across Questioning revealed status passenger, charged 1324(a)(2), conspiring commit offense, 371. His derived granted. Respondents Raymond Guillen Fernando Medrano-Barragan wife subsequent uncovered other trunk. led beach Tijuana, they Guillen, jointly indicted four aliens, inducing 1324(a)(4), conspiracy count, District granted defendants' suppress. 9 appealed conviction, granting motions respective Medrano-Barragan.4 Appeals Ninth Circuit consolidated appeals, presented common interrogations Amendment.5 held, judge dissenting, concluding only suspects presence facts. It Martinez-Fuerte's affirmed orders cases. 308 reverse remand. B 10 Petitioner Sifuentes, Highway 77 Sarita, Tex. originates Brownsville, running lower Rio Grande valley. Sarita 90 65-90 nearest points physical arrangement resembles generally differently customarily inquiry. Motorists whom recognize local inhabitants, however, waved Unlike conducted 11 Sifuentes drove When vehicle, observed passengers, front seat rear, slumped down seats. although met States, prearrangement, swimming Grande. 12 grounds stop. denied renewed argument appeal, contending unconstitutional. Fifth 517 1402 (1975), relying Santibanez, 922 ruled affirm.6 II 13 Courts Circuits conflict constitutionality law technique considered important those policing Nation's borders. Before turning question, we examine context arises. 14 has national policy many years limit States. Since 1, 1968, annual quota immigrants independent countries Western Hemisphere, including 120,000 persons. Act Oct. 1965, 21(e), 79 Statutes-at-Large 921. Many more can accommodated want live work Consequently, numbers seek enter remain noted "(e)stimates (already) vary widely. conservative estimate 1972 figure million, Immigration Naturalization Service suggests million country." Brignoni-Ponce, 873, 878, 2574, 2578, 607 (1975) (footnote omitted). estimated 85% drawn fact economic opportunities significantly greater Mexico. F.Supp., 402. 15 Interdicting entrants Mexico poses formidable problems. problem arises surreptitious entries. Id., 405. shares almost 2,000 long, much uninhabited desert thinly populated arid land. Although maintains personnel, electronic equipment, fences along portions border, remains easy individuals detection. alien unlawfully falsified lawfully violate restrictions effort unlawfully.7 Once within country, travel inland areas employment believed available, frequently meeting friends professional transport them vehicles. U.S., 879, 2579. 16 conducts kinds traffic-checking minimize immigration. Permanent checkpoints, maintained intersections roads leading They operate coordinated designed avoid circumvention others Temporary like ones, occasionally established strategic Finally, roving patrols supplement system. See Almeida-Sanchez 413 266, 268, 93 2535, 2537, 37 596 (1973).8 fiscal 1973, 175,511 deportable apprehended throughout Nation "line watch" agents stationed itself. Traffic-checking interior approximately 55,300 aliens.9 apprehensions precise figures available. 405, 407, 17 concerned here locations chosen factors. believes assure effectiveness, must (i) distant enough (ii) confluence significant (iii) situated terrain restricts passage around (iv) stretch compatible safe operation, (v) beyond 25-mile zone "border passes," see 7, Supra, valid. 406. record provides rather complete picture effectiveness checkpoint. Approximately year, actually 70% time.10 calendar year 17,000 there. eight-day 1974 included roughly 146,000 passed during 124 1/6 hours Of these, 820 referred found 725 171 cases, discovered conventional vehicle. similar rate resulted total 33,000, contends undetected. 75-5387 does comparable statistical information regarding appears fewer there, assumed undetected, every motorist questioned. III 19 imposes limits search-and-seizure powers order prevent arbitrary oppressive privacy personal security individuals. 2578; 895, 2588; 528, 1730, 930 (1967). delineating safeguards applicable contexts, weighed against individual, Terry Ohio, 392 20-21, 88 1868, 1879-1880, 20 889 (1968), process evident our previous dealing operations. unit simply general vicinity recognized stake held searches impinged so consent probable cause contained least authorizing random Compare 273, 2539, id., 283-285, 2544-2546 (Powell, J., concurring), 288, 2547 (White, dissenting). same limitations applied 21 practices balance appropriately subject stringent safeguards. what patrol residence "modest," 880, 2579, served needs. therefore justified undertaken "aware specific facts, together rational inferences suspicion" 884, 2582.11 IV 22 agreed "seizures" meaning contend invalid Brignoni-Ponce read proscribing alternatively permissible practice authorization Sarita. As reach required, first prerequisite valid resolved balancing stake. 23 Our maintenance program cannot controlled effectively note substantiality identifies most Pages 19-20.12 highways; offer quick route interior. Routine inquiries apprehend succumb lure highways. And prospect forces onto efficient heavily traveled, slowing movement vulnerable detection patrols. Cf. 883-885, 2581-2582. 24 routes enable identified particular, 25 limited. intrude extent motorists' right "free interruption," Carroll 267 132, 154, 280, 285, 69 L.Ed. (1925), arguably security. But involves travelers 26 '(a)ll required response possibly production document evidencing States.' 27 Neither nor searched, seen search. This objective itself, questioning, existed view light subjective generating concern fright part appreciably case noted: 28 "(T)he surrounding far intrusive attending Roving often night seldom-traveled roads, approach frighten motorists. stopped, authority, likely frightened annoyed intrusion." 894-895, 2587. 29 analysis take account overall degree 882-883, 2580-2581. concluded tolerated "would residents . (border) potentially unlimited highways, solely discretion officers. (They) day night, anywhere 100 air 2,000-mile city street, busy highway, .." Ibid. grave danger unreviewable abused some field. 30 similarly motoring public. First, potential minimal. taken surprise know, obtain knowledge of, elsewhere. Second, appear activity. regularized manner evidence, reassuring law-abiding motorists, duly serve interest. field, responsible effective allocation resources. assume unlikely locate bears arbitrarily oppressively class. room abusive harassing claim exercise locating unreasonable review.13 31 suggest extra element intrusiveness percentage thereby "stigmatizing" diverted reducing provided equal treatment think overstate consequences. Referrals sole conducting feasibly heavy. thus Selective referral annoyance, true should frightening offensive nature. selective referrals tend minimizing Contract 32 correctly accommodate quantum usually seizure.14 21, 18, 1880. irreducible clear concurring); dissenting); Colonnade Catering Corporation 397 72, 774, 60 (1970); Biswell, 406 311, 92 1593, (1972); 285. "area" support inspecting residences code violations, "specific condition dwelling" residence. 538, 1736. holding, examined government advanced intrusions "upon citizen," 534-535, 1734, outweighed 33 conclusion appropriate deal neither sanctity dwellings, ordinarily afforded protection. See, e. g., McDonald 335 451, 191, 153 (1948). earlier, one's expectation automobile freedom traditional 896 2, Cardwell Lewis, 417 583, 590-591, 94 2464, 2469-2470, 41 325 (1974) (plurality opinion). procedures followed makes On hand, interest, demonstrated records us. Accordingly, checkpoints.15 34 Thus, apparent ancestry,16 perceive violation. 885-887, 2582-2583. it, follows wide involved.17 V 35 Sifuentes' alternative draws Camara, that, absent consent, inspection, violations searched.18 36 think, apt model. residences, traditionally required. E. developed fully above, strong here. upon occasioned house hardly compared minor mere little contribution. said: "(W)hen (an) inspector (without warrant) demands entry, occupant way knowing municipal requires premises, inspector's power search, himself proper authorization." 532, 1732. 38 assurance scores. substantially 39 Other purposes One seizure. Watson, 423 411, 455-456, 22, 820, 843, 46 598 (1976) (Marshall, Another substitute magistrate officer. 407 297, 316-318, 2125, 2136-2137, 752 (1972). seize" officials. VI 40 summary, routinely warrant.19 protection rights lies scope 24-27, 1881-1883; Brignoni-Ponce,, 881-882, holding type opinion. "(A)ny cause." 882, 2580. None argues exceeded limitations. affirm Circuit, conviction Sifuentes. remand directions proceedings. ordered. 42 BRENNAN, MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 43 Today's ninth marking continuing evisceration protections seizures. Early Term, Texas White, 67, 304, 209 permitted warrantless police custody despite unreasonableness opportunity (1976), regardless exists warrant, arrest place committed felony never result certainly fairly supported either precedent. 433, 832. Santana, 427 38, 2406, 300 went approved person porch her Miller, 425 435, 1619, 48 71 narrowed Amendment's denying existence protectible compilation checks, deposit slips, pertaining individual's bank account. Stone Powell, 465, 3037, 1067 precluded assertion claims federal collateral relief Janis, 3021, 1046 unconstitutionally seized admissible civil proceeding South Dakota Opperman, 364, 3092, 1000 sweeping inventory automobiles irrespective Andresen Maryland, 463, 2737, 627 practical effect, weakened prohibition warrants. 44 Consistent debilitate protections, Court's virtually empties manning stations standardless seizures persons squared recent (1975); (1973). & N Dec. Nationality Decisions dissent. requisite justification permitting compare Beck 379 89, 85 223, 142 (1964), (1967), exceptional situations cause, long settled measured standards. Thus seminal justifying less-than-probable "The scheme becomes meaningful assured point enforcing laws subjected detached, neutral scrutiny evaluate circumstances. assessment imperative facts judged Objective standard Anything invite guaranteed nothing substantial inarticulate hunches, consistently refused sanction." 21-22, 1880 (emphasis added, footnote 47 "This demand specificity action predicated central teaching jurisprudence." sense teaches: Conduct, reasonable, muster standards told today, individually questioned, inspected, then detained suspicion, ante, 547, let alone heretofore minimum permits rest "nothing hunches." defacement arrived overwhelms unwarranted governmental said convenient cover condoning conduct, relied warranting Absent difference nature intrusion, imposed 50 assumes, agree, "seized" "visual clearly exceeds restraint, able traveling normal speeds concedes, 558, essentially yet principled distinguishing 51 Certainly reasoning patrol. nowhere bases intrusion. event, aspects just restraint conduct. whose innocent overwhelmingly surely resents own inspection. unlike detain thousands dragnet-like procedure sensibilities free citizens. Also, delay hundreds particularly irritating. 52 addition overlooking dimensions explanation, ignores source vexation. abandoning renders meaningless, "standing (Mexican appearance) Mexican-Americans ask aliens."1 887, 2583. officials, uninhibited explanation excuse, wholly whim, perforce target appearance. inescapably discriminate citizens ancestry unavoidably possess "suspicious" grooming characteristics 53 Every American citizen know today's travels risk interrogation, prolonged non-Mexican appearing singled out interrogated upsetting motorist. wonders actual experience supports my Brethren's "should nature." Ante, 560.2 fact, referrals, viewed context, routine; otherwise pass. selected suffer humiliation obviously upsetting.3 vexing referred, alien. That deep resentment stirred unfair discrimination difficult foresee.4 54 short, struck, act cannot, ignoring reasonableness, unguided checkpoints. argues, practicalities necessitate otherwise: "A aliens." 557. 55 initial matter, whatever force have, apply detentions occurred 74-1560. slowed ample formulate which, exists, detention. Indeed, "any (the of) impose 56 rationale persuasive several rely establishing readily ascertainable, For example, "(a)spects itself suspicion." 885, 2582. relevant station wagon, loaded, extraordinary persons, trying hide. ibid. If satisfactory permit imposition reasonable-suspicion demanding patrol, initially traveling, crawl, speeds, suffice 57 fails basic reasons. principle jurisprudence fundamental dispensed merely conveniently satisfied. Dispensing inconvenience impossible justifiable dispensing individual high-crime concealed weapons. needs stand constant tension Constitution's exercises power. precisely predictability pressures counsels resolute loyalty safeguards." 2540. 58 attempts approval "involve activity" 559. odds later revealing statement "officers involved." 564. Similarly unpersuasive "since stops." 559.5 admits personnel however infrequent. Action pique curiosity antithesis avoiding abuse harassment. action, permits, expressly condemned contrary principles. removed proposition emphatically 317, 2136, (1972), "those investigative prosecutorial duty judges utilize sensitive means pursuing tasks. historical judgment, accepts, unreviewed executive yield incriminating overlook invasions ." affirmation "the protect liberty officials." 2588.6 59 cornerstone society, indeed orderly procedure. Constitution, originally adopted, therefore, great measure, document. reasons drafters Bill Rights placed faith action. enforces understanding erecting buffer government. permit, supplant objectivity and, thereby, expediency reign order, undermine threaten erosion system government, for, Frankfurter reminded us, "(t)he is, procedure." Malinski New York, 324 401, 414, 65 781, 787, 89 1029 (1945). parties disagree brought halt "roll" slowly Resolution dispute assume, Arguendo, "seized." reveal explicitly why sought. Shortly application, unconstitutional Bowen, 500 960 (1974), aff'd grounds, 916, 2569, 641 Juarez-Rodriguez, 498 (1974). Soon issued, Esquer-Rivera, 313 15, Infra. suppress, among things, testimony 876 2577, "(t)here voluntary witness trial, opposed agent's objects statements overheard, suppression again prosecution Judge significance inspection" stopped. Government, preserved Government's petition writ certiorari 822, 35, argued tandem. 945, 355, 277. Subsequently Solicitor General consolidate argument. 931, 1660, 173. occurs passes" issued simplify interrelated communities passes authorize 72-hour period. Regulations 212.6 (1976). All pursuant statutory authorizations empowering interrogate inspect §§ 1357(a)(1), (a)(3). current regulations conferred 1357(a)(3) exercised 287.1(a) used statistics, term "deportable alien" "a judge, deportability agents." 404 deported prosecution. prosecutes thought smugglers, proportion time. "Down" periods caused shortages, weather conditions, peak loads. case, impermissible lacking. argue maintaining asserted legislation prohibiting logic elaborate less-restrictive-alternative arguments raise insuperable barriers powers. go impermissible, premise reject. persuasively reliance 883, 2581 (effectiveness defeated requirement), infra, page. choice left accordance statutes applicable. incidents Infra, 565-566. Stops dissimilar widely levels enforce drivers' licenses, safety requirements, weight limits, matters. relevance travel; position, realistically pursued, might matters violated. intimate respecting briefly utility accepted incident use. addressed 5, Supra. 318 location. 321-322. reaching conclusion, (low) frequency checkpoint," distance address holdings specifically, needed. deem whether, Clemente. answer negative. indicated Patrol, 13, Supra; cf. 1735, reasonable. meets prescribed 553, furthered absolute high, 554, confirming regularly point. lightest No raised trained diverting Page 9; 884-885, 2581. finds record. Less 1% whereas legally constitute larger population southern California. 1970 census figures, reflect show 19,958,000 3,102,000, 16%, Spanish-speaking Spanish surname. equivalent percentages metropolitan Angeles 13% 18% respectively. Department Commerce, Census Population, vol. pt. Tables 48, 140. statewide ratio eight days 23,400 expected contain ancestry, refute suggestion relies extensively referring 20% 554. 16, served. 886-887, 2583, likelihood high appearance factor ," create Different considerations arise if, put Canadian concurring dissenting opinions (1973), commanded votes Justices. 2544-2545 burden opinions, searches. function discussed BRENNAN's reflects suggesting marks radical new citizens' rights: speaks "evisceration protections," states "virtually requirement." Post, 567, 568. 1952, June 27, 233, Congress residence, "within distance" searched 8, intervening years. prior congressional authorization, requiring 555-556. approving (a familiar motorists) confined understand, course, long-standing prevailing justifies suggest, background decisions, rhetoric dissent unjustified concern. warns: "Every (his) 572. stated misplaced. showing, courts powerless misuse harass ancestry. "(Mexican ancestry) belief country. Large native-born naturalized factor, 2583 Today specifically 563. Even matter degree, emphasis tolerate probative repugnant "selective public," 560, stands head. starting unannounced assumption permissible; hence, minimization serves interests. quo nonintrusion, property lessens aggravation interests; 442 selectivity embarrassment: "Nor reduce embarrassment. reassured seeing well." 2588. Though takes comfort detentions. 563 16. 566-567, 19. Good sufficed tribunal safeguard freedoms remit effectuate guarantees. regard 1880, "simple ' "good arresting enough." good test, evaporate, people "secure houses, papers, effects," police.' Ohio (379 89,) 97, (223), 229 (13 (1964))." assumed, affront dignity diminished. still targeted examination lie heaviest them. That, observes, "(l)ess questioning," 16% surname, bearing or, integrity practices. indication how identifiable Mexican. portion Given socioeconomic portion, 16%. lengthier others, secondarily detained. ancestral makeup If, Mexican, felt enhanced. empirical proposition, observation self-evident. better 1,000 hour abundant harassment easier already observe chase travelling anything, more, less, "not persuaded officer's select search." fortiori, searching. court's result. Contrary characterization, 561, condoned "routine intrusions." proceed according satisfied dwelling searched. 1735. whim permitted. today. Instead, "no justify" paraphrase apposite 270, 2538, "(checkpoints) embodied evil saw insisted 'discretion field' circumscribed

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