Legal Document

507 U.S. 197 113 S.Ct. 1178 122 L.Ed.2d 548 Sandra Jean SMITH, Petitionerv.UNITED STATES. No. 91-1538. Argued Dec. 7, 1992. Decided March 8, 1993. Syllabus * After her husband was killed in Antarctica—a sovereignless region without civil tort law of its own—while he working for a private firm under contract to federal agency, petitioner filed this wrongful death action against the United States Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA). The District Court dismissed complaint lack subject-matter jurisdiction, holding that claim barred by FTCA's foreign-country exception, which states statute's waiver sovereign immunity does not apply "[a]ny arising foreign country," 28 U.S.C. § 2680(k). Appeals affirmed. Held: FTCA tortious acts or omissions occurring Antarctica. ordinary meaning "foreign country" includes Antarctica, even though it has no recognized government. If were so, 1346(b)—which waives certain torts committed "under circumstances where States, if person, would be liable . accordance with place act omission occurred " (emphasis added)—would have bizarre result instructing courts look order determine States' liability. Similarly, Antarctica included within coverage, 1402(b) provides claims may brought "only judicial district plaintiff resides wherein complained occurred"—would anomalous limiting venue cases claimant happened reside since encompasses This interpretation accords canon construction prohibits from either extending narrowing beyond what Congress intended, v. Kubrick, 444 111, 117-118, 100 352, 356-357, 62 259, and presumption extraterritorial application statutes, see, e.g., EEOC Arabian American Oil Co., 499 ----, 111 1227, 274. It is unlikely Congress, had expressly considered question when passed FTCA, desolate extraordinarily dangerous land such as scope. Pp. 1180-1183. 953 F.2d 1116, REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, WHITE, BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, JJ., joined. STEVENS, J., dissenting opinion. David J. Bederman, Atlanta, GA, petitioner. Christopher Wright, Washington, DC, respondent. Chief Justice REHNQUIST Court. 1 case presents whether (FTCA), §§ 1346(b), 1402(b), 2401(b), 2671-2680 (1988 ed. Supp. II), applies own.1 We hold not. 2 Petitioner Smith widow John Emmett duly appointed representative his estate. At time death, worked carpenter at McMurdo Station on Ross Island, company National Science Foundation, an agency States. two companions one day took recreational hike Castle Rock, located several miles outside Station. On their return, they departed marked route walk across snow field direction Scott Base, New Zealand outpost far stopping snack, three men step suddenly dropped sight. followed, he, too, disappeared. Both fallen into crevasse. Despite search rescue efforts, died exposure internal injuries suffered fall. 3 Oregon, she resides. alleged negligent failing provide adequate warning dangers posed crevasses areas paths. undisputed petitioner's based exclusively Upon motion 702 F.Supp. 1480 (1989), 2680(k), exception. Section 2680(k) precludes exercise jurisdiction over country." 4 affirmed, 1116 (CA9 1991). noted term admits multiple interpretations, thus looked language structure whole statute. Adopting analysis conclusion then-Judge Scalia, see Beattie 244 U.S.App.D.C. 70, 85-109, 756 91, 106-130 (1984) (Scalia, dissenting), ruled To otherwise, stated, render other provisions nonsensical. held, alternative, suit purposes FTCA. Because limited relinquishment common-law concluded absence any clear congressional intent subject liability precluded suit. granted certiorari resolve conflict between Courts Appeals,2 504 112 2963, 119 585 (1992), now affirm. 5 argues scope exception turns legitimacy another nation's land. Otherwise, contends, "country" points out recognize validity nations' portions She asserts, moreover, most consistent purpose underlying According petitioner, enacted insulate imposed pursuant law. own, conventional choice-of-law rules control require Oregon law, domicile. Thus, concludes, rationale compromised here, nation. 6 Petitioner's argument governmental here faces significant obstacles addition but we turn first proviso. Though offers definition "country," commonsense undermines attempt equate "sovereign state." dictionary simply "[a] tract land." Webster's International Dictionary 609 (2d 1945). sure, only possible term, therefore appropriate examine parts statute before making final determination. But itself, think, 7 Our draws support "[t]he principal provision Act." Richards 369 1, 6, 82 585, 589, 492 (1962). That section employees occurred." 1346(b) added). construed determining should actions See Richards, supra. terms more than provision: delineates immunity. reason instruct States—surely result.3 Of course, quite balance intended then failure specify governing might treated statutory gap could fill decisional coupled seems us natural portion reinforces excluded coverage 8 not, however, contradicts provision, lead yet result: establish all exist unless States.4 As observed Brunette Machine Works, Ltd. Kockum Industries, Inc., 406 706, 710, n. 92 1936, 1939, 32 428 (1972), "Congress general intend create gaps, take away hand given way jurisdictional grant other." construing "reasonable prefer avoids leaving gap," ibid., especially comports usual disputed term. 9 decisions interpreting contain varying statements how construed. See, Yellow Cab 340 543, 547, 71 399, 403, 95 L.Ed. 523 (1951); Dalehite 346 15, 31, 73 956, 965, 97 1427 (1953); Orleans, 425 807, 813, 96 1971, 1975, 48 390 (1976); Kosak 465 848, 853, 9, 104 1519, 1523 79 860 (1984). also Nordic Village, --- 1011, 117 181 (1992). A recent statement sort, adhere, found 357, 259 (1979): "We mind upon ourselves extend intended. [Citations omitted.] Neither, assume authority narrow intended." Reading exclude construction. 10 Lastly, statutes requires lingering doubt regarding reach resolved encompassing "It longstanding principle 'that legislation contrary appears, meant territorial States.' 1230, 274 (1991) (quoting Foley Bros., Inc. Filardo, 336 281, 285, 69 575, 577, 93 680 (1949)). In applying principle, "[w]e legislates backdrop extraterritoriality." supra, U.S., 1230; accord, Argentine Republic Amerada Hess Shipping Corp., 488 428, 440, 109 683, 691, 102 818 (1989) ("When desires do knows high seas statute"). applicability defeated just because specifically addresses issue contrary, stated Spelar, 338 217, 222, 70 10, 13, 94 (1949), "[t]hat presumption, being overcome doubly fortified legislative it." assert, nor she, there evidence Antarctica.5 11 For these reasons, Some reasons are itself; others presumptions Acts waivers think norms likely led same 79th reached decide: judgment 12 Affirmed. 13 dissenting. 14 my Court's decision wise discretion. held responsible conduct agents vast "sovereignless region" ante, 1180, profoundly important, answer identifies character our concern about justice, places negligence cause physical injury. will surely parallels outer space astronauts continue explorations ungoverned regions boundaries familiar (FTCA) 1946. Moreover, jurisprudence relating unerringly correct disposition case. Unfortunately, ignored parsimonious "sweeping" immunity.1 15 theory limits consent sue defined four ways: (1) limit; (2) territory country exclusion; (3) excludes space; (4) "exclusive domestic focus" States."2 exclusion 2680(k)3 unquestionably eliminates possibility. opinion, second compelled text Act.4 third possibility rejected reasoning terse Government's unambiguous adoption fourth, narrowest, interpretation. I shall explain why rejection submission. 16 both broad 1346(b)5 2674.6 Neither sections limit Act. understood those demonstrated enactment express exceptions been unnecessary initial Government contends. One those, 2680(d) asserted Suits Admiralty Public Vessels Act.7 Without exclusion, party cognizable venerable right elect pre-existing remedy newly remedy. Quite obviously did expanses seas. 17 Indeed, 1946 subjected maritime maintained Act,8 particular, injury 1920, Death High Seas (DOHSA) provided parties contained immunity.9 changed waived DOHSA Gavagan, 280 319, 321 (CA5 1960), cert. denied, 364 933, 81 379, 365 (1961) (holding liable, DOHSA, resulting efforts seas); Blumenthal 189 439, 446-447 (ED Pa.1960) ("In manner person Act, Act"), aff'd, 306 (CA3 1962); Kunkel 140 591, 594 (SD Cal.1956) (same); Moran 275 (D Conn.1951) personal seas). McCormick 345, 349 1982) (citing approval); Roberts 498 520, 525-526 1974) (noting prior 1960 amendments DOHSA). 18 1960, amended so bring including purview Continental Tuna 164, 176, 14, 1319, 1326, 47 653 (1976). There can disputing fact, enacted, extended reaches Since geographic never amended, submission confined untenable. 19 extends does, undermine premise analysis: supports itself acknowledges, 1183, operates "unless appears." Here, unmistakable. 2674, well bearing II 20 Government, therefore, prevail subsection (k). Properly, view, inquires construe Ante, 1183. Instead answering question, cites nebulous (1979), asserts deny recovery somehow intent. 1182-1183. 21 thought canons constructions tools used divine intent, empty phrases ratify whatever desired particular event, poses, ignores. And read cases, clear: Exceptions 'sweeping' be, been, "narrowly construed." 503 1014, (1992) 402, (1951)).10 Accordingly, choice acceptable interpretations "country"—it designate nation expanse land—it duty adopt former. 22 Even rule construction, favor previously endorsed. Referring stated: know accurate phrase common English usage 'foreign country' denote sovereignty nation." 219, 11, (1949). scheme imposes "in extent individual like circumstances", explained Spelar: "[T]hough ready lay aside great sovereign's ancient unquestioned suit, unwilling liabilities depending laws power." 221, 12. precisely tailored make (k) coextensive justification. III 23 seeks buttress returning 1346(b). noted, "for loss property, caused employee while acting office employment, occurred."11 Emphasizing last dozen words, essentially "a law" "bizarre" predicate 1181-1182.12 24 Although words italicized indicate actually regions, conclusion. Those conjunction defendant, circumstances, complainant. fails ask possibly obvious maintain whose husband's wrong suggest, law," 1182.13 25 relevant substantive State settled founded, own citizens transitory sovereign. Mostyn Fabrigas, 98 Eng.Rep. 1021, 1032 (K.B.1774). Dutton Howell, 17, (H.L.1693). doctrine cases. Holmes Banana Co. Fruit 213 347, 29 511, 53 826 (1909): 26 "No sovereign, seas, civilized countries adequate, [civilized nations] treat some relations governed keep old notion alive." Id., 355-356, S.Ct., 512. 27 referring assertion extra-territorial rather State, ample power abroad Skiriotes Florida, 313 69, 61 924, 85 1193 (1941): "If Florida likewise govern respect matters legitimate interest Congress." 77, 929.14 Surely forum substantial involving allegedly spouse residents. Certainly facts. Oregon's various agents. perfectly defendant party, party's Given plain basis refusal follow command "liable circumstances." IV 30 resides", authorizes; is, objection comparable nonresident alien, contains stranger identified examples "cases proper" reasonable gap." suggest avoided adopting action. Yet perverse solution 31 hypothetical handful aliens seek relief decides narrowly derives whatsoever basic include protection statute, particularly overwhelming majority who occasion invoke Judge Fletcher accurately Appeals: "Those problem foreclosed bringing cannot, primary which, seen, expand courts." 1122 33 most, imperfections consider likelihood view fact authorize 1184-1186, am bewildered speculation equally area case, distinguished two. entirely central entire 34 imposing course hand, employer responsible, amendment adopted 1988 sheds light presented unfounded findings explaining immunize performance duties recognizes practical value justice generous FTCA.15 thoroughly interpretative approach unusually panel Circuit Judges who, shortly after passed, wrote: 35 "When many years discussion debate length established policy generosity toward claimants, seem set hampered niggardly formal made obsolete very itself. Particularly true employed itself." Spelar 171 208, 209 (CA2 1948).16 36 wisdom prompted reflected Rather, reflects vision electronic eavesdropping Fourth Amendment satellites Commerce Clause. international community Majestic judge, enlightened through opaque green eye-shade cloistered bookkeeper. President Lincoln Union Message: 37 much prompt citizens, administer individuals."17 38 respectfully dissent. syllabus constitutes part prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 50 499. indigenous human population containing roughly one-tenth world's mass, best described "an continent territory." F. Auburn, Antarctic Law Politics (1982). Seven nations—Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, Zealand, Norway, Kingdom—presently assert pie-shaped total percent expanse. Boczek, Soviet Regime, 78 Am.J.Int'l L. 834, 840 (1984); Hayton, Settlement 1959, 54 (1960). although maintains claim. Lissitzyn, Position Outer Space 126, 128 (1959). suspended Treaty, 1959. 1959 [1961] U.S.T. 794, T.I.A.S. 4780. Article Treaty enforced, expanded, force, id., art. IV, U.S.T., 796, freezing date Treaty's execution. Compare 91 FTCA). Nor plaintiff's domicile, substituted determined occurred. ." contend Oregon. history reveals declined enact earlier versions differentiated "arising behalf alien." S. 2690, 76th Cong., 1st Sess., 303(12) (1939) added); H.R. 7236, suggestion Attorney General, five proposed bills dropped. Hearings 5373 6463 House Committee Judiciary, 77th 2d 29, 35, 66 (1942). 220, 12, superseded draft traditional fortuitous circumstance injured citizenship." version, "identified sovereignty." 220-221, least insofar concerned, effectively resurrect Congress; residents recover. instead extraterritoriality serves avoid 'unintended clashes nations discord.' Brief (1991)). rooted number considerations, common-sense generally concerns mind. "The sweeping language." (1951). 16, 21-22. chapter title — "(k) Any short, agree Fletcher's Wilkey's Columbia persuaded viewed "desolate dangerous" lands falling squarely Title provides: "Subject title, courts, together Canal Zone Virgin Islands, exclusive money damages, accruing January 1945, 2674 provides, pertinent part: respecting claims, punitive damages." 741-752, 781-790 46, suits admiralty States." 172, 1325, (1976) ("Maritime deemed side Act"). Pub.L. 69-165, 41 Stat. 537, codified at, 46 U.S.C.App. 761 et seq. Block Neal, 460 289, 298, 103 1089, 1094, 75 67 (1983) Aetna Casualty & Surety 366, 383, 207, 216, latter: "In Appeals, relied waiving must strictly attitude passing Cardozo's .: 'The exemption involves hardship enough withheld. add rigor refinement announced.' Ibid. Anderson Hayes Construction 243 N.Y. 140, 147, 153 N.E. 28, 29-30 (1926)). inaccurately refers "waives States," 1181. providing: circumstances. quote 2674. Apparently assuming contracts unenforceable redress regions. Fortunately legal system primitive. reference "the occurred" identify place. long constrained certainly infra, 1187-1188, "law place" borders absurd nothing jungle. exercises criminal 7(7), taxing 863(d)(2)(A), approximately 2,500 Americans live work around each year. Facts About Program (July 1990). Foundation year-round stations largest comprised buildings harbor, landing strips sea ice shelf ice, helicopter pad. Transportation frequent during summer months. 2. Again, explained: "[T]he bare [of Unit ed States] belonging accepted theory. No doubts England France ships seas." Hamilton, 207 398, 133, 134, 52 264 (1907). enacting Employees Liability Reform Compensation 1988, "to protect providing persons 2(b), 4564, 2671 note, following findings: "(1) 40 mechanism compensating employment. "(2) historically responsibility "(3) protected immunity, served sole means employees. "(4) Recent decisions, Supreme Westfall Erwin, seriously eroded available "(5) erosion created immediate crisis prospect threat protracted litigation workforce. "(6) morale employees, impede ability agencies carry missions, diminish vitality proper torts." 2(a), 4563, note. members Learned Hand, Judge, Augustus N. Hand Charles E. Clark, Judges. Cong. Globe, 37th App. (1861).

Classification Label: 7