Legal Document

389 U.S. 258 88 Supreme Court Reporter 419 19 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 508 UNITED STATES, Appellant,v.Eugene Frank ROBEL. Number 8. Reargued Oct. 9, 1967. Decided Dec. 11, Kevin T. Maroney, Washington, D.C., for appellant. John Judge Abt, New York City, appellee. Mr. Chief Justice WARREN delivered the opinion of Court. 1 This appeal draws into question constitutionality § 5(a)(1)(D) Subversive Activities Control Act 1950, 64 Statutes-at-Large 992, 50 Code KF62 784(a) (1) (D),1 which provides that, when a Communist-action organization2 is under final order to register, it shall be unlawful any member organization 'to engage in employment defense facility.' In Communist Party versus Board, 367 1, 81 1357, 6 625 (1961), this sustained an SACB requiring register as Act. The Board's became on October 20, 1961. At that time appellee, Party, was employed machinist at Seattle, shipyard Todd Shipyards Corporation. On August 1962, Secretary Defense, acting authority delegated by 5(b) Act, designated 'defense Appellee's continued after date subjected him prosecution 5(a)(1)(D), and May 21, 1963, indictment filed charging with violation section. alleged substance appellee had 'unlawfully willfully engage(d) employment' knowledge outstanding against notice shipyard's designation facility Defense. District Western Washington granted appellee's motion dismiss 4, 1965. To overcome what viewed 'likely constitutional infirmity' read section 'the requirements active membership specific intent.' Because failed allege quality, dismissed. Government, unwilling accept narrow construction insisting broadest possible application statute,3 initially took its Appeals Ninth Circuit. Government's motion, case certified here properly direct 18 3731. We noted probable jurisdiction. 384 937, 86 1458, 16 537.4 affirm judgment Court, but ground unconstitutional abridgment right association protected First Amendment.5 2 cannot agree can saved from infirmity limiting members organizations who have intent furthering goals such organizations. relied Scales States, 203, 1469, 782 placing 5(a)(1)(D). It true we elements clause Smith Act.6 However, Aptheker State, 378 500, 84 1659, 12 992 (1964), Act's required defendant organization's illegal advocacy, requirement 'was intimately connected 'active' members.' Id., 511, n. 1666. involved challenge 785, registered or thereof apply passport. held '(t)he clarity preciseness provision make impossible indiscriminately cast overly broad scope without substantial rewriting.' 515, S.Ct., 1669. take same view precisely because statute sweeps across all types groups, regard quality degree membership, runs afoul Amendment. 3 Aptheker, too broadly infringed upon constitutionally rights. Government has argued despite overbreadth obvious face not controlling travel more basic freedom than facility. since decided Fifth But characterization essential issue case. disability imposed limit opportunities those fall within coverage, limitation serious implications. See Greene McElroy, 360 474, 492, 79 1400, 1411, 1377 (1959). operative fact job depends exercise individual's association, provisions Amendment.7 Whereever one would place scale values, clear rights Amendment are no less our democratic scheme. 4 seeks defend passed pursuant Congress' war power. argues given deference power national legislature. That argument finds support number decisions Court.8 phrase 'war power' invoked talismanic incantation congressional brought ambit. '(E)ven does remove limitations safeguarding liberties.' Home Bldg. & Loan Assn. Blaisdell, 290 398, 426, 54 231, 235, 78 L.Ed. 413 (1934). More specifically case, asserts 5(a)(1) (D) expression 'of growing concern shown executive legislative branches government over risks internal subversion plants depend(s).'9 Yet, concept 'national defense' deemed end itself, justifying designed promote goal. Implicit term notion defending values ideals set Nation apart. For almost two centuries, country taken singular pride enshrined Constitution, most cherished found indeed ironic if, name defense, sanction liberties—the association—which makes worthwhile. 5 When enumerated powers clashes individual liberties Bill Rights, 'delicate difficult task' determine whether resulting restriction tolerated. Schneider State Jersey, 308 147, 161, 60 146, 150, 155 (1939). emphasizes purpose reduce threat sabotage espionage Nation's plants. interest prophylactic measure insubstantial. doubted means chosen implement governmental instance cut deeply association. Section put choice surrendering his organizational affiliation, regardless threatenened security facility,10 giving up job.11 refused choice, he subject criminal penalty five years' imprisonment $10,000 fine.12 quite literally establishes guilt alone, need establish poses feared proscribing it.13 inhibiting effect clear. become axiomatic '(p)recision regulation must touchstone area so closely touching precious freedoms.' NAACP Button, 371 415, 438, 83 328, 340, 9 405 (1963); see 512—513, 1667, 992; Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 488, 247, 252, 231 (1960). Such precision notably lacking casts net range associational activities, trapping punished14 proscribed.15 made irrelevant statute's operation may passive inactive organization, unaware airms, disagree aims.16 also penalties occupy nonsensitive position facility.17 Thus, 5(a) (1)(D) contains fatal defect bar both proscribed consistently Elfbrandt Russell, 1238, 321; supra; Alabama ex rel. Flowers, 377 288, 1302, 325 (1964); supra. Constitution will tolerate. 7 unmindful danger industries, nothing hold today should deny Congress narrowly drawn legislation keep sensitive positions facilities use their disrupt production facilities. recognized while protects invasions rights, withdraw safeguard vital interests. Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 160, 554, 563, 644 (1963). Spies saboteurs do exist, can, course, prescribe sabotage.18 access secrets information harm Nation.19 And declare industries off limits materials. told us Congress, passing considered alternative statute—an industrial screening program—would inadequate ineffective protect function examine validity judgment. Neither program exhausts alternatives review. concerned solely determining before exceeded bounds stake. task writing stay been committed Congress. Our decision simply recognizes legitimate concerns expressed imposes burden achieve goal 'less drastic' impact vitality freedoms.20 cf. Brown, 381 437, 461, 85 1707, 1721, 14 484 (1965). fabric demand less. 8 Affirmed. MARSHALL part consideration 10 BRENNAN, concurring result. 11 N Immigration Nationality Decisions affirmed reach result different reasons. Like only further Party's objectives. rejected reading passpart. U.S., 13 overbroad deprived they were intended objectives, therefore invalidly abridged, basis political associations, members' travel. treats active, know purposes, intend pursue purposes. Compare Keyishian Board Regents University N.Y., 385 589, 87 675, 17 629; 17, 1241, 782; Schneiderman 320 118, 136, 63 1333, 1342, 1796. Indeed, worked complaint known suspicion years, afforded opportunity prove presumption risk invalid applied him. importance whatever attached sensitivity jobs members, factor long relevant cases.1 Furthermore, like 6, affects '(T)he private follow profession free unreasonable interference comes 'liberty' 'property' concepts * *.' 1377. included among '(i)ndividual fundamental American institutions (which) destroyed pretext preserving institutions, even gravest external dangers.' 96, 1410, 625. Since denied associations potential curtailing persons establishing retaining associations. Wieman Updegraff, 344 183, 191, 73 215, 218, 97 216. 'Broad rules suspect. Precision area(s) 405; 231; Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 304, 900, 903, 1213. true, however, points out, often regulates indiscriminately, through preventive measures, e.g., Governors Federal Reserve System Agnew, 329 441, 67 411, 91 408; North company SEC, 327 686, 66 90 945, upheld where freedoms potentially affected, Hirabayashi 81, 1375, 1774; Cafeteria Restaurant Workers Union, Local 473 886, 1743, 1230; Carlson Landon, 342 524, 72 525, 96 547. Each examined terms sought necessity adopted. distinguished these factors. 'any facility,' every If applied, restrictions great placed 6.2 problems presented facilities, moreover, well involve greater hazards created allowing abroad. assume, too, justified conclusion inadequate.3 reasons, am persuaded Court's statute, agreed other contexts; see, 405. 15 acceptance distinctions recognition utilize device inquiry Even if there facilities' could exclude them—the delegation Defense designate creates overbroad, unauthorized, arbitrary sanctions therefore, my view, renders invalid. meaningful standard govern designations, procedures contest review facility' formulation insufficient mark field (Secretary) act kept compliance will.' Yakus 321 414, 425, 660, 668, 834. Secretary's role designating breadth designated, indiscriminate denial opportunities, punishment, A clear, manageable might significant discretion. indefinite meaningless. defines 'facility' enough include virtually States; includes plant, factory manufacturing, producing service establishment, airport, airport facility, vessel, pier, water-front mine, railroad, public utility, laboratory, station, establishment part, division, department foregoing.' 782(7). grants untrammelled discretion 'with respect determines requires *' there. easily specific.4 Instead, left completely large relevance weight accorded factors secrecy work being done there, indispensability facility's product security. ordinarily delegate standards. E.g., Dakota Central Tel. South Payne, 250 163, 39 507, 509, 910; FPC Hope Natural Gas Co., 591, 281, 333; NBC 319 190, 997, 1344. No general rule feasible desirable. Delegation directives inevitable consequence complex society, myriad, ever changing, highly technical problems. 'The never regarded denying necessary resources flexibility practicality perform Panama Refining Ryan, 293 388, 421, 55 241, 248, 446; Currin Wallace, 306 15, 59 379, 441. generally conferring appropriate authority, indicates policy, context conferred. See, Arizona California, 373 546, 584—585, 1468, 1489 1490, 542; FCC RCA Communications, Inc., 346 86, 998, 1470; Lichter 334 742, 68 1294, 92 1694; supra, 424, 667, 834; Bandini Petroleum Superior 284 8, 52 103, 76 136; FTC Gratz, 253 40 572, 993; Buttfield Stranahan, 192 470, 24 349, 48 525. Given situation, affected persons, procedural structure usually established purpose, heard implementing agency secure action courts, itself agent's correct departures intention. permissible indefiniteness narrows, invokes Barenblatt 109, 140, 7, 1081, 1100, 1115 (Black, J., dissenting). numerous deficiencies vague committee, Rumely, 345 41, 543, 770; officer, 93 judge jury, Cline Frink Dairy 274 445, 465, 47 681, 687, 71 1146; Bantam Books, Incorporated Sullivan, 58, 631, 584; Schechter Poultry Corporation 295 495, 837, 1570; far liberty Gojack 702, 1689, 870; Kunz People York, 340 290, 312, 95 280; Winters 333 665, 840; Thornhill Alabama, 88, 736, 1093; Hague CIO, 307 496, 954, 1423; Herndon Lowry, 301 242, 57 732, 1066. First. failure provide adequate standards reflects 'legislative judgment.' 307, 904, 1213, extent applied. Formulation policy legislature's primary responsibility, entrusted electorate, delegates standards, policy-making agencies, answerable responsive people. '(S)tandards statutory vagueness strict areas. 432, 337, 'Without explicit law-makers, import relegated default administrators who, system endowed decide them.' 1419, 20 inform forum conflicting pros cons considered. instead determination reflected guiding resolution own accord. presumably disposal expertise reasoned judgments important resolved statute. 1423. Rather, inactive, well- ill-intentioned, prohibited working them capacity, innocuous, prosecution. resolving conflict interests, judgment, colored overriding obligation acceptable substitute absence further, guidance.5 21 especially acute here, imperative unduly infringed. 903. Before undue infringement send person prison holding certain type ought least appear authorized proscription warranted necessary. determinations assumed. 'They explicitly assure individuals actually action, areas doubtful constitutionality, careful purposeful responsible enacting laws.' 1419. 22 Second. said Watkins 354 178, 205, 77 1173, 1188, 1273, steps 'respect liberties' preventing existence 'a wide gulf between responsibility actual power.' Procedural protections avoid regulated, Speiser Randall, 357 513, 1332, 1460; Marcus Search Warrants Property, etc., 717, 730, 1708, 1715, 1127; Quantity Copies Books Kansas, 213, 1723, 1727, 809; acts 'great powers,' 164, 565, 644. Without safeguards, regulatory schemes tend inhibit activity involved. Properties, 734—735, 1717—1718. 23 '(a) judicial asserted favored.' Lockerty Phillips, 182, 188, 1019, 1023, 1339. text history compel deliberately chose protest either courts contrasts strongly care determination. 'requires registration direction, domination, control foreign operate primarily advance finding full administrative hearing, opens record reviewing court's findings supported preponderance evidence.' 86—87, 1405, contrast, nowhere hearing designation, private, nor charged quit job; trial retains prosecuted.6 persuasive evidence matter purposely entirely discretionary Secretary. Unlike recourse courts. pointed distinction, befor Schilling Rogers, 363 666, 674, 80 1288, 1478, compelling 'that advertent kind participation participation.' indication plan, coupled flexibility—as regards boundaries discretion—so unguided unguiding, mean contemplated contend acted beyond powers, particular capricious. Cf. Estep 114, 423, 567. 25 confirms conclusion. neither reasons publicized. emerged President Truman vetoed original form 'designate proclaim, revise, list promptly published Register 5(b). commented veto message, '(s)pies willingly spend years effort seeking find out bill require hand silver platter.' H.R.Doc.No. 708, 81st Cong., Sess. (1950). Shortly amended request eliminate Register. 91. classified information. Whether classification practically meaningful—in light posted facility—the intention hearings attended undesired publicity. imply safeguards obviously omit. Cole Young, 351 536, 861, 100 1396; Ex parte Endo, 323 283, 299, 65 208, 217, 89 243; Japanese Immigrant Case (Kaoru Yamataya Fisher), 189 101, 611, 614, 721; 26 Third. results persons. Although provided affords reasonable conform behavior engaged arguably reasonably advised actions regulation. Persons compelled commands, how unambiguous, agents whose commands unclear. 1718. directive delineate command fiat. Cramp Public Instruction Orange County, Fla., 368 278, 82 275, 285; Scull Commonwealth Virginia, 359 344, 838, 865; 208—209, 1189 1190. There way fair disobedience activities normally protected. 27 denies punishment claim Robel risk. He shipyards many now. invited assume law abiding citizen, earning living trade. justification urged punishing conclude though nominal believing change lawful means, likely citizens harmful so. freedoms, based mere proof misconduct unlawfully, accompanied sufficient sefeguard application. 'If law-making functions (a)nd delegated, pass scrutiny accepted tests.' Kent Dulles, 116, 129, 1113, 1120, 1204. 28 WHITE, whom HARLAN joins, dissenting. 29 holds knows barred establishments Nation. refuses enforce contrary Legislative Executive Branches Government. Respectfully disagreeing dissent. 30 override defined remain notified adjudication organization. Nothing mentioned Constitution. construct appended speak freely, assemble, petition redress grievances.1 While deep roots inescapable group republic ours, recently blossomed litigation; contours yet lack delineation. official close scrutiny, now apparent absolute State. conspiracy restricts purposes men associate plans. Labor unions, them, intricately controlled statutes, federal state, parties corporations. 31 cases uniformly reveal accommodating interest. Patterson, 449, 1163, 1488 (1958), contained first discussion exemplifies approach. There, noting associate, inquired 'whether demonstrated obtaining disclosures petitioner justify deterrent concluded petitioner's association.' 463, 1172. path evident Bates City Little Rock, 361 516, 412, 480 (1960); Brotherhood Railroad Trainmen Virginia Bar, (1964). Only last week Mine America, Dist. Illinois Bar Assn., 353, weighed furnishing salaried legal services State's insuring personal representation, restrictions. 32 Nor mandate course Apparently commitment aims exclusion us, effect. Also, seem permit barring although 'sensitive' establishment. Here, anticipating outweigh disqualification. correctly, associating times deterred nonmembership condition engaging work. disagrees Department, ruling present choose Having confidence majority prescience remote body dealing threats country, much prefer Branch remaining knowing adjudicated excluding critical industries. 33 real substantial. After study, prefaced 987, §§ 781—798, exists international movement treachery, deceit, espionage, overthrow existing governments; operates domination seek including force viollence; thousands adherents, rigidly disciplined, operating secrecy, employing tactics manner evasive laws. things, characteristics Communistaction organizations, SACB, litigation, meaning Appeals, 107 U.S.App.D.C. 279, 277 Reporter, 2nd (1959), (1961). Also underlying determinations, directed world movement, sufficiently satisfies criteria specified 792(e), recognize discipline appraisal posed 'not sovereign, independent nation 95, 1410. 34 Against background protective measures clearly appropriate. One 784(a)(1)(D), activated affirmance '(f)or (the Defense) requires' employed. overthrow, exercises propensity sabotage, 35 entitled suitable precautionary measures. Some all, undoubtedly are, exceedingly identify very events avoid. 'sensitive positions,' reason excludable consider country. 36 prohibit Party. Communists excluded touchstones security, amount about percent States. 37 minimal, impermissible. dampening keeping groups joining share. unenlightened, others programs identified appraised Robel's formless notions constitutes 38 says pursues prosecution, passport, some smaller passport spies disloyal Americans traveling abroad committing prison. difficult' refers thus reached cases.2 motives worthy. widest consistent doing arrogates These matters judges wary. James Madison wrote: 'Security primitive objects civil society. 41 '* regulated attack. They determined rules, others. vain oppose barriers impulse self-preservation. worse vain; usurpations power, precedent germ unnecessary multiplied repetitions.'3 Truman. Department Justice, Intelligence Agency, me seriously damage intelligence operations responsible. hope law.' H.R.Doc. Sess., observed language penalizing people loyal citizens.' 3. 3(3)(a) 782(3)(a), 'Communist-action organization' as: (other diplomatic representative mission accredited State) (i) substantially directed, dominated, contolling (ii) objectives persisted arguments Brief 48—56. oral November 14, 1966. June 5, 1967, entered following order: 'Case restored calendar reargument counsel brief argue, addition questions presented, pertinent standards.' 387 939, 2071, 1325. additional arguing Amendment, offended substantive due process Amendment; (2) Defense; (3) attainder. arguments. 2385. leave little doubt 1664; Gibson Florida Investigation Committee, 539, 889, 892, 929 522—523, Patterson. 460, 1170, (1958). Emerson, Freedom Association Expression, 74 Yale L.J. 754 772, 1301—1310, 1694 (1948); 93, 1382, 1774 (1943). 15. shipyard, apparently incident concealing years. arrest, 'he released recognizance, immediately returned Shipyards, since.' Appellee As determine, attempted prosecute 1377, Amendment.' 794(c). insisted 5(a)(D), punish 'Communist-action' organizations.' 53. asserts, regulate membership. (1966). motivations impel align himself gibson 562 902—903, (1963) (concurring opinion). presence rolls impute goals. 868, 1396 (1956): '(I)t summary suspensions unreviewable dismissals loyalty grounds employees situated bring discernible adverse effects security.' already stiff conduct 792—798 (espionage); 2151—2156 (sabotage). Order 10865, 10909, detailed industry jobs, Regulations Part 155. regulations suggested 'balancing' interests decline do. substantial, deem inappropriate label other. circumscribed. Faced enacted confined analysis adopted achieving concededly making prohibitions 'balanced' respective ruled accommodated conflict. is, novel analysis. enunciated Marshall declared: 'Let legitimate, let constitution, appropriate, plainly adapted end, prohibited, consist letter spirit constitutional.' M'Culloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 579 (1819) (emphasis added). 'letter spirit' 1396: applies 'Communist-front' contends dangerous definitions, dangerous. distinction open doubt. 'front' dominated operated aiding supporting 'action' fashion dangerous, discriminate bases respects members. 'must drastic purpose.' 231. another ground, aside prevent serious, possibly catastrophic consequences. suggestions slight modifications. 679, (1950); Hearings Legislation Outlaw Certain Un-American House 2122—2125 Those cover governing access. 155.5. subversive acts. screened 3,000,000 contractor 1956, Loyalty Security 179 180 thereby providing capacity handle problem discriminating manner. fact, originally proposed facilities.' H.R. 9490, Senate, each plant' 3(7) difference version conference H.R.Conf.Rep. 3112, Congressional Service, Page 3902: 'Under plant factory, manufacturing thereof, furnishing, commodity character affect military 'Section 3(7), relating modified broaden appropriately producing, foregoing. broader changed define facility." guide applying statute: comprised projects; weapons systems, subassemblies components; common components, intermediates, materials raw materials; (4) utility facilities; (5) research laboratories contributions defense. list, necessary, Release 1363—62, Aug. 1962. major discretion, amendment. contemplates four liability attaches: organization'; Party; facility'; Board. third finding—that facility'—was fourth posting employer Thus effectively member. reach, defendants shadow trial, violates process. individuals, well. assemble petition, extent. sense extends protection exercised rather alone. advancement beliefs ideas 'immaterial advanced pertain political, economic, religious cultural 1171, propagation litigation petition. latter element 426. Eastern R. Presidents Conference Noerr Motor Freight, 365 127, 523, 464 commercially motivated, aimed influencing action. carrying credentials carried implementation awaits definitive answer. connection dismissed, presenting question, challenging forbid accountant work, partner employee, nonresident accountant; out-of-state unless qualified accountant, practice residents Mercer Hemmings, 46, 236, (Oct. 23, 1967). Brother Brennan improperly (defense facilities) subsection (a) section.' Rather think sort facts administrator's today's frequently upheld. 834 (1944). reject contention 462, 1722, (1965) (White, Federalist Pages 269—270 (Cooke ed. 1961).

Classification Label: 2