Legal Document

514 U.S. 334115 S.Ct. 1511131 L.Ed.2d 426 Joseph McINTYRE, Executor of Estate Margaret McIntyre, Deceased, Petitioner,v.OHIO ELECTIONS COMMISSION. No. 93-986. Supreme Court the United States Argued Oct. 12, 1994. Decided April 19, 1995. Syllabus * After petitioner's decedent distributed leaflets purporting to express views "CONCERNED PARENTS AND TAX PAYERS" opposing a proposed school tax levy, she was fined by respondent for violating § 3599.09(A) Ohio Code, which prohibits distribution campaign literature that does not contain name and address person or official issuing literature. The Common Pleas reversed, but Appeals reinstated fine. In affirming, State held burdens imposed on voters' First Amendment rights were "reasonable" "nondiscriminatory" therefore valid. Declaring is intended identify persons who distribute materials containing fraud, libel, false advertising provide voters with mechanism evaluating such materials, court distinguished Talley v. California, 362 60, 80 536, 4 559, in this invalidated an ordinance prohibiting all anonymous leafletting. Held: Section 3599.09(A)'s prohibition abridges freedom speech violation Amendment. Pp. __. (a) publish anonymously protected Amendment, and, as indicates, extends beyond literary realm advocacy political causes. (b) This Court's precedents make abundantly clear reasonableness standard significantly more lenient than appropriate case kind. Although concerned different limitation thus necessarily control here, Amendment's protection anonymity nevertheless applies. simply election code provision subject "ordinary litigation" test set forth Anderson Celebrezze, 460 780, 103 1564, 75 547, similar cases. Rather, it regulation core speech. Moreover, category documents covers defined their content—only those publications designed influence need bear required information. See, e.g., Nat. Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 776-777, 98 1407, 1415-1416, 55 707. When law speech, applies "exacting scrutiny," upholding restriction only if narrowly tailored serve overriding state interest. id., at 786, S.Ct., 1421. (c) ban justified Ohio's asserted interests preventing fraudulent libelous statements providing electorate relevant claimed informational interest plainly insufficient support statute's disclosure requirement, since speaker's identity no from other components document's contents author free include exclude, author's add little reader's ability evaluate document handbill written private citizen unknown reader. fraud libel (which vindicates means other, direct prohibitions) justify extremely broad leaflets. statute encompasses documents, regardless whether they are arguably misleading. might somehow demonstrate its enforcement limited identification has met burden here. (d) opinions U.S., 792, n. 32, 1424, 32—which commented dicta prophylactic effect requiring source corporate advertising—and Buckley Valeo, 424 1, 75-76, 96 612, 661-662, 46 659—which approved mandatory campaign-related expenditures—do establish constitutionality 3599.09(A), neither involved (1993) 67 St.3d 391, 618 N.E.2d 152, reversed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion. THOMAS, judgment. SCALIA, dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., David A. Goldberger, Columbus, OH, petitioner. Andrew I. Sutter, respondent. Justice STEVENS Court. 1 question presented "law . abridging speech" within meaning Amendment.1 2 On 27, 1988, McIntyre attending public meeting Blendon Middle School Westerville, Ohio. At meeting, superintendent schools planned discuss imminent referendum levy. expressed Mrs. McIntyre's opposition levy.2 There suggestion text her message false, misleading, libelous. She had composed printed home computer paid professional printer additional copies. Some handbills identified author; others merely purported PAYERS." Except help provided son friend, placed some car windshields parking lot, acted independently. 3 While handbills, district, supported proposal, advised unsigned did conform laws. Undeterred, appeared another next evening handed out handbills. levy defeated two elections, finally passed third try November 1988. Five months later, same complaint Elections Commission charging violated Code.3 agreed fine $100. 5 Franklin County Finding "mislead nor act surreptitious manner," concluded unconstitutional applied conduct. App. Pet. Cert. A-34 A-35. Appeals, divided vote, Notwithstanding doubts about continuing validity 1922 decision statutory predecessor majority considered itself bound precedent. Id., A-20 A-21, citing Babst, 104 St. 167, 135 N.E. 525 (1922). judge thought our intervening 559 (1960), we city leafletting, compelled adopt narrowing construction save constitutionality. A-30 A-31. 6 affirmed vote. ground "has purpose statements." 394, 7 154 (1993). believed should be upheld "nondiscriminatory." 396, N.E.2d, 155, quoting 788, 1570, 547 (1983). Under standard, valid: 8 "The minor requirement R.C. 3599.09 producing themselves thereof impacts content have disseminated. counterbalanced whom directed may better validity. serves engage advertising. Not sufficient overcome upon persons, these specifically acknowledged [First National v.] Bellotti [, 707 (1978),] regulations sort would survive constitutional scrutiny." St.3d, 155-156. 9 dissent, Wright argued tested under severe because significant "on individual citizens freely writing issues." 398, 156-157. He "is compelling is, therefore, McIntyre." 401, 159. 10 away during pendency litigation. Even though amount controversy $100, petitioner, executor estate, pursued claim Our grant certiorari, 510 ----, 114 1047, 127 370 (1994), reflects agreement his appraisal importance presented. II 11 maintains review reasonable electoral process. suggest pernicious totally excluding them marketplace ideas wise (albeit implicit) concession, ordinarily reason exclude work product protections 12 "Anonymous pamphlets, leaflets, brochures even books played important role progress mankind." 64, 538, (1960). Great works frequently been produced authors assumed names.4 Despite readers' curiosity public's identifying creator art, generally decide disclose true identity. favor motivated fear economic retaliation, concern social ostracism, desire preserve much one's privacy possible. Whatever motivation be, least field endeavor, having enter unquestionably outweighs any condition entry.5 Accordingly, remain anonymous, like decisions concerning omissions additions publication, aspect 13 realm. Talley, protects urging readers boycott certain Los Angeles merchants allegedly engaging discriminatory employment practices. 536. Writing Black noted "[p]ersecuted groups sects time throughout history able criticize oppressive practices laws either all." 538. recalled England's abusive press licensing seditious prosecutions, he reminded us arguments favoring ratification Constitution advanced Federalist Papers published fictitious names. 64-65, 538-539. occasion, quite apart threat persecution, advocate believe will persuasive unaware Anonymity thereby provides way writer personally unpopular ensure prejudge do proponent. Thus, rhetoric, where "the speaker component many attempts persuade," City Ladue Gilleo, 512 2038, 2046, 129 36 most effective advocates sometimes opted anonymity. specific holding related boycott, reasoning embraced respected tradition causes.6 perhaps best exemplified secret ballot, hard-won right vote conscience without retaliation. III 14 California defended issue "aimed responsible libel." We rejected argument nothing legislative application evils.7 Ibid. then made "not pass prevent supposed evils." likewise contains language limiting fraudulent, statements; extent, seeks dissemination untruths, defense must fail given Talley. As facts demonstrate, when there hint falsity libel. 15 does, however, limitation: It election. contrast, prohibited handbilling "in place circumstances." 60-61, 536-537. For reason, correctly argues disposition case. must, what extent 16 places principal reliance cases (1983); Storer Brown, 415 724, 94 1274, 39 714 (1974); Burdick Takushi, 504 112 2059, 119 245 (1992), reviewed provisions governing voting process itself. See Anderson, supra (filing deadlines); Storer, (ballot access); Burdick, (write-in voting); see also Tashjian Republican Party Connecticut, 479 208, 107 544, 93 (1986) (eligibility independent party primaries). refused "any 'litmus-paper test' separate valid invalid restrictions." 789, 730, 1279. Instead, analytical comparable used courts ordinary litigation": relative injured voters, evaluated State's necessitated contested restrictions. 1570. Applying case, voters. 155 (1993), 17 apply Unlike challenged Code mechanics pure evenhandedly differing viewpoints,8 Every covered residence business chairman, treasurer, secretary organization same, issues, makes, therefor." Rev.Code Ann. (1988). Furthermore, markings.9 Consequently, faced restriction; "involves expression exacting Meyer Grant, 486 414, 420, 108 1886, 1891, 100 425 (1988).10 18 Indeed, explained prior occasions, regulated occupies afforded Amendment: 19 "Discussion issues debate qualifications candidates integral operation system government established Constitution. affords broadest order 'to assure [the] unfettered interchange bringing changes desired people.' Roth States, 354 476, 484 [77 1304, 1308, 1498] (1957). confined 'the exposition ideas,' Winters New York, 333 507, [68 665, 667, 92 L.Ed. 840] (1948), 'there practically universal major protect discussion governmental affairs, course includ[ing] discussions candidates. .' Mills Alabama, 384 214, 218 [86 1434, 1437, 484] (1966). 'profound national commitment principle uninhibited, robust, wide-open,' York Times Co. Sullivan, 376 254, 270 [84 710, 721, 686] (1964). republic people sovereign, citizenry informed choices among office essential, identities elected inevitably shape follow nation. observed Monitor Patriot Roy, 401 265, 272 [91 621, 625, 28 35] (1971), 'it can hardly doubted guarantee fullest urgent precisely conduct campaigns office.' " 14-15, 632, 659 (1976). 20 Of course, center candidate office. principles enunciated extend equally issue-based elections school-tax sought through (1978) (speech income-tax heart protection"). engaged—handing politically controversial viewpoint essence expression. International Society Krishna Consciousness Lee, 505 2701, 120 541 (1992); Lovell Griffin, 303 444, 58 666, 82 949 (1938). That occurred heat strengthens Ms. expression: urgent, important, less impotent lest speak relegated instances needed. Terminiello Chicago, 337 4, 69 894, 895, 1131 (1949). No form entitled greater McIntyre's. 21 uphold IV 22 Nevertheless, strictest review, legitimate interests. judges information sufficiently ban. These overlap useful separately. 23 Insofar informing buttress undermine document, think exclude.11 already compel newspaper prints editorials critical particular space reply candidate. Miami Herald Publishing Tornillo, 418 241, 2831, 41 730 (1974). simple disclosures otherwise omit. known recipient, adds little, anything, message. requirement. 24 stands footing. agree submission carries special weight statements, credited, serious adverse consequences large. not, rely solely Its Election includes detailed prohibitions against making disseminating campaigns. §§ 3599.09.1(B), 3599.09.2(B) both issue-driven ballot measures.12 prohibi- 25 "(3) Make statement professional, occupational, vocational licenses candidate, position received salary wages; 26 "(4) indicted convicted theft offense, extortion, crime involving financial corruption moral turpitude; 27 "(5) finding commission disclosing outcome legal proceedings resulting indictment finding; "(6) record treatment confinement mental disorder; 29 "(7) subjected military discipline criminal misconduct dishonorably discharged armed services; 30 "(8) Falsely statement, authorization, falsely endorsement publication; 31 "(9) official; 32 "(10) Post, publish, circulate, distribute, disseminate knowing reckless disregard promote election, nomination, defeat section, 'voting record' recorded 'yes' 'no' bill, ordinance, resolution, motion, amendment, confirmation." 3599.09.1(B) provides: 33 "No person, adoption proposition issue, material, including sample ballots, advertisement radio television periodical, release, otherwise, shall knowingly intent affect following: 34 "(1) tion weapon fraud.13 aid deterrent unscrupulous prevaricators. ancillary benefits assuredly legitimate, persuaded prohibition. 35 demonstrates, activities organized supporters, individuals acting independently using own modest resources.14 "(2) disseminate, issue." 37 provisions. quote emphasize addressed directly problem fraud. To indirectly vindicate goals, supplement above 38 Like forms then, attacks election-related libel; interest, supplement. officers, present substantial risk potential appearance corrupt advantage.15 eve opportunity limited, advance.16 matter Supp. IV) (repealed 1976), section (§ 608(b), upheld) ceiling contributions campaign. "By 608(e)(1) limits expenditures contributions, well assistance candidate's indeed prove counterproductive. absence prearrangement coordination expenditure agent undermines value alleviates danger quid pro quo improper commitments Rather circumvention contribution limitations, severely restricts despite substantially diminished abuse." 47, 648. character strength distributor forbidden being compliance code. Nor why easily enforce bans distributors wrongdoers use names addresses attempt avoid detection. recognize shown scant cause inhibiting leafletting V 40 Finally, vigorously (1978), (1976), amply Neither controlling: former scope corporations; portion latter expenditures. reversed judgment Judicial Massachusetts sustaining proposals. 1407. pertains corporation. 771-772, 1413. Consistently today, "inherent worth terms capacity depend source, corporation, association, union, individual." 777, 1416. perfectly deciding coextensive individuals.17 although advertising,18 footnote communications McIntyre. 42 reference "prophylactic effect" requirements cited earlier Buckley, stressed 'as money comes how spent candidate.' 66, 657. "sources alert voter likely responsive facilitate predictions future performance office." 67, Those comments authorized agent. They kind activity Required level various sources avoiding 43 True, approval "independent expenditures" excess threshold reported Federal Commission. 661-662. But entailed expended 157-159, 160, 699-700, 701 (reproducing portions statute19). Though reporting undeniably impedes activity, intrusion far cry self-identification writings. A document—particularly leaflet —is often crafted viewpoint. surely fit description. such, particularly intrusive; reveals unmistakably thoughts issue. Disclosure use, more, prefers keep secret, undoubtedly gives something spender's views. Nonetheless, "talk," specific, personal, provocative handbill—and result, supports precipitate 44 infringement intrusive rests powerful Campaign Act 1971, regulates referenda measures; construed mean "expressly clearly candidate." 80, 664. Government result lessens spend after Curriers deterred knowledge scrutinized just abuse.20 federal numerous organizations; seek evade routing supporters. 76, 662. short, permit drawn statute, authority open-ended provision.21 VI 45 Constitution, pamphleteering pernicious, practice, honorable dissent. shield tyranny majority. J.S. Mill, Liberty, Liberty Considerations Representative 3-4 (R. McCallum ed. 1947). exemplifies behind Bill Rights, particular: retaliation—and suppression—at hand intolerant society. abused shields nature unpalatable consequences, general, society accords dangers misuse. Abrams 250 616, 630-631, 17, 22, 63 1173 (1919) (Holmes, dissenting). misuse justifies uses may, punish directly. cannot indiscriminately outlawing based content, necessary relationship prevented. One hard pressed example pitfalls blunderbuss approach before us. 47 so ordered. 48 concurring. 49 dissent stirring appreciation democratic values. I unguided "bedrock principle," tradition, law. post, __,__,__. seems me, bears marked resemblance Gilleo's case1 Mary Grace's.2 All three decisions, believe, sound, sensational, applications jurisprudence. 50 calf always cow. finds unnecessary, overintrusive, inconsistent American ideals imposition leafleteer who, local community, spoke mind, name. hold larger circumstances, require Appropriately leaving open matters recognizes protecting "might requirement." Ante, convincingly lacks "cause here." 51 52 majority's conclusion law, apply, methodology Instead asking "an tradition" existed history, "value" determine phrase "freedom press," originally understood, did. 53 states "shall press." Const., Amdt. 1. interpreting Free Speech Press Clauses, guided original meaning, "[t]he instrument. alter. meant adopted, now." South Carolina 199 437, 448, 110, 111, 261 (1905). long recognized "must words constitution [and] intention convention framed conventions several states." Rhode Island Massachusetts, (12 Pet.) 657, 1233 (1838). INS Chadha, 462 919, 959, 2764, 2788, 77 317 understanding interpret read Religion Clauses Framers precise turned "what contemporaneous [the Establishment Clause's] guarantees." Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 673, 1355, 1359, 79 604 (1984). "[T]he line draw between permissible impermissible one faithfully Founding Fathers." Abington Dist. Schempp, 374 203, 294, 83 1560, 1609, 844 (1963) (BRENNAN, concurring); Lee Weisman, ---- - 2649, 2679, 467 (1992) (SCALIA, 54 Unfortunately, Congress, drafted ratifying conventions. analysis focus beliefs Founders articles pamphlets. initial matter, safely maintain implicate press. press, envision large, establishments modern world. employed term press" refer printers circulated small newspapers writer's pamphlets fee. B. Bailyn & J. Hench, Revolution (1980); L. Levy, Emergence (1985); Bailyn, Ideological Origins (1967). "It pamphlets—that characteristic occurred." Pamphlets (1965). practice continued struggle ratification. (P. Ford, 1888). Regardless designates here makes difference analysis, writing. doubt engaged essays Papers, pseudonym "Publius," famous outpouring fact forbade government. __ historical evidence indicates Founding-era Americans opposed reveal forced 56 example, earliest experience 1735 Zenger trial, centered around printer, John Peter Zenger, Crown governor York. council could discover authors, prosecuted himself Alexander, Brief Narrative Case Trial 9-19 (S. Katz 1972). colonies afire jury refusing convict defendant authorities, signified early moment intertwined mind. 57 During Revolutionary Ratification periods, Framers' became explicit. 1779, Continental Congress attempted article Pennsylvania Packet signed "Leonidas." Leonidas, actually Dr. Benjamin Rush, attacked members causing inflation embezzlement Letters Delegates 1774-1789, p. 141 (G. Gawalt R. Gephart eds. 1986). Elbridge Gerry, delegate moved haul answer questions Several rose oppose Gerry's motion invaded Merriweather Smith Virginia rose, quoted offending approval, finished declaration "[w]hen liberty restrained liberties People end." Henry Laurens, Notes Debates, July 3, 139. Supporting Smith, Penn North "no good designs," ought restrained." end, assembled delegates, "sat mute" response motion. 141. Rush ever publication. D. Teeter, Freedom Public Printing: Pennsylvania, 1775-83, Journalism Q. 445, 451 (1968). legislatures shared Congress' view Also upper house Jersey Legislature satirical attack Governor College (now Princeton) "Cincinnatus." Hixson, Isaac Collins: Quaker Printer 18th Century America 95 Attempting Legislative Council ordered Collins—the editor appeared—to Refusing, Collins declared: 'Were comply conceive betray trust reposed faithful guardian Press.' 96. Apparently, Assembly voted publisher frustrating Council's orders. 95. 59 By 1784, Jersey, William Livingston, part "Scipio," Livingston wrote attacking Legislature's failure lower taxes, accused officer stealing losing funds British invasion Jersey. 107-109; Scipio, Letter Printer, Feb. 24, New-Jersey Gazette. Responding allegations, called Scipio "to avow your give up real name." S. Tucker, Mar. 2, replied four-part series defending Press." first encouraged politics reprisal, ultimately invoked "I hope [Tucker] seriously bent total subversion system," wrote. "And pray man, country, convey thro' sentiments publick grievances obliged send certified copy baptismal register IV, Apr. 26, 60 sure, editors over publishing resolved manner tempest began Federalist, himself, "emissaries" "foreign enemies" scuttle "fill[ing] objections" proposal. Independent Chronicle, 1787, Documentary History 315 (J. Kaminski G. Saladino 1981) (hereinafter History). refrain "chooses concealed." Russell, prominent Centinel, immediately adopted policy Anti-Federalist pieces unless "handed publick, required." 10, 312, 315-316. few days Gazette announced emulate Centinel. Gazette, 16, 317. carried claiming leave anyone wished know informed, "appears reasonable, consistent Citizen, 316. Federalists Philadelphia. Philadelphia Mechanic, Gazetteer, 29, 318-319; Galba, 31, 319. Jewel, Nov. 320. 61 Ordinarily, decided seem shed light framers do. widespread criticism raised Anti-Federalists, driving force demand pamphlets.1 reflected Federalists' hasty retreat withering assault 62 Opposition Russell's Three papers "Citizen" piece run 318-320.2 response, leading writers, "Federal Farmer," policy: "What gentlemen Boston, countenanced Printers shutting fair investigation usual way?" From Farmer 5, 13, Complete 254 (H. Storing 1981). Another Anti-Federalist, "Philadelphiensis," launched Russell defenders undermining "In desperate situation affairs friends despotic scheme government, driven last alternative probability success; namely, abolition Philadelphiensis, Essay I, 7, 102. Philadelphiensis' eyes, suppress authors' foreshadowed oppression permitted new "Here pretty Federalists'] excellent things constitution." 103. According policies ruined Massachusetts: now completely abolished; hence privileges short destroyed." 104. Philadelphia, repeated widely States. exclaimed effort "reverse doctrine whose "truth" "universally acknowledged." Detector, Journal, 25, 318. "Detector" proceeded proclaim introduction trait slavery into country!" editorial policy, wrote: Press, every Person enjoys Privilege infinite Importance fought bled," "our aristocratical Gentry, Person's Name write Alarm." Argus, Providence 8, 320-321. Edward Powars, Herald, proclaimed pages "free parties." 15, Chronicle 18, "Solon" attempting independence sentiments" "should never checked country" "so essential existance Governments." 313. 64 prohibit reasons. First, Anti-Federalists Second, printers' constitute action, flexing powers fully exercise Constitution's Third, significantly, appears critique. strongest, non-anonymity aside Centinel papers' bark worse bite. face criticism, retreated put it, 'readily' reprinted show claims suppressed 'had foundation truth.' 313-314. Likewise, release writers requested. followed sharp, conclude included revealing 65 complete full desire. that, attach documents. indication Republic squashed described above, viewed belief firmly innovation times 66 large quantity crises generation remarkable relied break Britain, revolutionaries pseudonyms conceal authorities impart Often, choose signal point invoke classical "crusaders agelong tyranny." Schlesinger, Prelude Independence (1958). leaders descriptive "Common Sense," "Farmer," "A True Patriot," ones "Cato" (a Roman Cato Cato's letters), "Mucius Scaevola." xii-xiii. prevalent great commentary accompanied Besides "An Citizen," "Marcus," Landholder," "Americanus"; "Cato," "Centinel," "Brutus," Impartial Examiner." 1-2 Debate (B. 1993). appear reasons so.3 If fell disuse Ratification, infer custom arose unusual conditions 1776-1787 period. all, "elections," per se, discrete issues. Records indicate, remained favorite medium expressing "Numa," "Pompilius," Friend Agriculture, Trade, Good Laws," Centinel," "Freeman," Real Federalists," Mechanic," "Justice," German Federalist," on. 1788-1790, pp. 246-362 (M. Jensen Becker 1976). records today. 446-464 (Massachusetts); 108-122, 175-229 (Maryland); 387-397 (Virginia); 204-216, 436-493 (New York). actual rarely, usually wanted explain positions electorate. 68 extended discussed via writings James Madison Alexander Hamilton, resorted "Helvidius" "Pacificus" debates President Washington's neutrality war French. Pacificus June 1793, Hamilton 33-43 Syrett 1969); Madison, Helvidius Aug. 66-73 (T. Mason et al. 1985). Anonymous Aurora organs until Thomas Jefferson. generally, Freedom's Fetters (1956). leads me reasoning. fails instead resorting approaches. recalls Shakespeare's Mark Twain. __, expressive disclosure. strict scrutiny "content-based" 70 join deviates settled superimposes theories text. Whether "great literature" Voltaire George Eliot irrelevant sheds phrases ratified Similarly, types today significance; 1791 valuable deserve Rights. And follows regulations, undertake answer. 71 While, am loath overturn century almost framing recent tradition. it. Clauses. reviewing evidence, understood fashion. Because largely unconnected concur 72 THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, dissenting. 73 branches parties reflect popular decisionmaking today's moves opposite direction, adding legacy inflexible central mandates (irrevocable Congress) reads addressing peculiar municipal invalidates species exists, variety forms, except pedigree dating back end 19th century. Preferring English utilitarian philosopher Stuart ante, people's representatives coast coast, discovers hitherto right-to-be-unknown while politics. free-speech imperatives demonstrably inadequate begat Fourteenth. 74 posed easiest adhere (and society's) traditional unchanging. view, "[o]n construction, [we should] carry ourselves adopted; recollect spirit manifested debates; trying [to find] squeezed text, invented probable passed." T. Jefferson, Johnson (June 1823), Writings Jefferson 439, 449 (A. Lipscomb 1904). technique violate Rights Fourteenth shown, investigation, objection very adopted. doubt, obscenity refers; universally 1791. Application unchanging enough extreme, adoption, ample embodied guarantee. Racks thumbscrews, instruments inflicting pain, regarded cruel punishments. lies extremes. electioneering 1868. fact, practiced date, understandable revolutionary era produce reprisal. dwell length concurrence. ____ (THOMAS, judgment). general 1868, late 1837 respectable Abraham Lincoln. Beveridge, Lincoln 1809-1858, 215-216 (1928); Uncollected Works 155-161 Wilson 76 right. Quite obviously, exist 1868 ipso facto unconstitutional, else Burson Freeman, 191, 1846, prohibited, (to mention categories) antinoise Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 513 (1949), Ward Rock Against Racism, 491 781, 109 2746, 105 661 (1989), parade-permitting Cox Hampshire, 312 569, 762, 85 1049 (1941). Evidence sparse, aware nonexistent. concurrence points objections refusal (on foreign agents). ___ partisan accepted valid, unrecognizable; generalize cries, them. Leaving aside, action involved, point, inasmuch proscription them, vice discrimination. (Hence comment concurrence: 'Here constitution.' (quoting 1981)).) 78 recounts pre- post-Revolution examples single involves context restrictions connection free, moreover, 1779 "Leonidas" Collins, incidental (unquestionably free-speech) punished state. sum marshalled entitlement election) viewpoint-based violates testimony remarkable. (as publication general) arose. probably abstract openness regularity normal idea close phenomenon, arriving country 1800's. supra, 203-205, 1852-1854. What have, difficult determining existence demonstrates constitutionality, nonexistence attributed objections. adjudication judgment: challenge consonant concept (in press) accorded. absent inclined regularly regard moderate improve (I would, want further common time-warped post-Civil War Revolution.) 81 indication, weighty sort: longstanding traditions people. Principles fundamental guarantees readily erased Nation's consciousness. become validation long, usage, strong presumption enacted General years ago. May 1915, 1915 Leg. Acts 350. unique extraordinary 1890, ratified. World I,1 Union one,2 District Columbia, D.C.Code 1-1420 relating concerned, U.S.C. 441d(a). Such universal3 precedence, think, academic speculation regarding go said ignored old, widespread, Texas Johnson, 397, 2533, 342 desecration flag. Eichman, 496 310, 110 2404, 287 (1990). stand post-adoption alter "[i]f bedrock underlying offensive disagreeable." 2545. Prohibition contempt flag, contemptuous words, Street 394 576, 89 1354, 572 (1969), burning came, said, principle." forbids idea, requires uttered context. periphery Burson, took guidance vicinity polling places, 204-206, 1853-1856 (plurality opinion); 214-216, 1859-1861 foregoing suffices me. Where (such speech") unclear, long-accepted enshrine. my eyes exclusively deductive reach result. 84 basic answered Two precedents; sense decent practical familiar are. limitations constitutionally generally. (If flat controls here.) affirmative—indeed, justification "Other rights, basic, illusory undermined." Wesberry Sanders, 526, 535, 481 "compelling preserving integrity process." Eu San Francisco Cty. Democratic Central Comm., 489 231, 1013, 1024, 271 (1989). So found entirely areas impede opinion). second "right anonymity" purchased expense. answer, again, clear: no. circumstances person's unconstitutionally deter associational rights. Brown Socialist Workers '74 Comm. (Ohio), 459 87, 416, (1982); Bates Little Rock, 361 516, 412, 480 (1960); NAACP Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 449, 1163, 1488 acknowledge anonymity, ignore challenge. exemption someone "reasonable probability" "threats, harassment, reprisals officials quotation 74, 661, (1976) (per curiam), prescribed safety-valve Act. "tyranny majority," '[p]ersecuted all,' 538). still enjoyed utterly destroying feared reprisals"; indeed, fliers 36-40. 86 generalized Lewis Morgan, 229 288, 867, 1190 (1913), desiring privilege class postage Postmaster General, editors, publishers, managers owners. 299, 869. gave rise 3685, enforced Postal Service. seemingly 87 unprecedented virtue establishing erroneous) rule "burdens speech," scrutiny" "narrowly interest," (ordinarily kiss death), goes soothingly unhelpfully) "a (GINSBURG, concurring) ("We identity.") Perhaps, statutes alluded invalid, them; maybe "larger circumstances"! take decades newly expanded right-to-speak-incognito, field. areas, whole boutique wonderful litigation opens doors. Must parade permit, issued group refuses identity, agrees assurance public? municipally owned theater leased productions book sponsored presentations? periodical "letters editor" column disavow letters? university facilities available Louis Farrakhan Duke refuse on-campus off-campus speech? "public-access" cable channel masked) performers? silliness end. 88 campaigning enhancing elections. answering no, Justices views—on closely real-life politicians unelected judges—up 50, supra) Congress. list side democracies: Australia, Canada, England, campaigning. Commonwealth Electoral 1918, 328 (Australia); Canada Act, R.S.C., ch. E-2, Representation 1983, (England). How wonder, legislators, world, six willing entire Nation it: quality campaign? says "why detection." sure complicated comparison means. (1) lie anonymously, (2) unlawful runs immediate detection punishment false. observe signing naked falsity" requirement; signed. 90 usefulness promoting observance falsehoods (though alone sustain it). civil dignified debate—which power command, encourage undemanding measures signature Observers past increase assassination—"mudslinging" colloquial term—engaged supporters detriment this, consists actionable untruth; innuendo, demeaning characterization, mere items personal life bearing suitability Imagine done anonymously. impediment reluctance organizations publicly associated uncharitable uncivil Consider, increased "dirty tricks." unheard-of operatives circulate material opponents opponents' laws) attract alienate groups. Felknor, Political Mischief: Smear, Sabotage, Reform 111-112 (fake Mine Workers' Congressional Committee); Duryea, Misc.2d 948, 351 N.Y.S.2d 978 (Sup.1974) (letters "Action Committee Liberal Party" sent Republicans). easier—and sanction-free!—it (for really tasteless, actionably candidate) expectation to, against, side. 91 contends demanding pamphleteer's reduce persuasiveness pamphlet's cites (1974), furnish reply. forward him so. Whereas usual—it expected—for (at present) virtually all. onerous report advocating primary rationale served "informational interest" "increas[ing] fund candidates," 81, interests, above. distinguish unconvincing, accurate "reveals information" statement. happens accurate, "[d]isclosure more," required, things: each calendar year aggregate amount, of, by, behalf made." 434(b)(9) (1970 ed., (emphasis added). 434(e) IV). (Both reproduced Appendix 158, 700, 701). Surely cases, would-be-anonymous campaigner sponsored. complying provision, filing quarterly reports, infinitely remains easy derives perception "anonymous dissent." imagine honorable, phone call letter. facilitates wrong eliminating accountability, exceptions, needed reprisals" Cf. strike down application—and Government—on communication traditionally sacrosanct, distortion lead coarsening future. respectfully syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience Detroit Lumber Co., 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. "liberty" applicable reads, part: deprive life, liberty, property, due ." 14, Referring Clause Whitney 274 357, 641, 1095 (1927), Brandeis stated "all comprised teach assembly are, rights." 373, 647 (Brandeis, concurring). "Congress .," Brandeis' embedded since. 779-780, 1417-1418, (1978); Stevens, Rights: Progress, U.Chi.L.Rev. 20, 25-26 (1992). following typeface: VOTE NO ISSUE SCHOOL LEVY Last Westerville Schools, asked yes buildings expansions programs. asked. knew crowded growth district. Now find million dollar deficit—WHY? told middle split over-crowding, yet closed—WHY? magnet operating school, specials school. Residents member formulate boundaries. weeks worked came workable plan. Their plan disregarded—WHY? WASTE payers dollars stopped. children's education welfare come first. CAN LONGER BE TOLERATED. PLEASE THANK YOU. CONCERNED PAYERS (1988) write, print, written, printed, posted, distributed, notice, placard, dodger, advertisement, nomination financing newspapers, magazines, outdoor facilities, mailings, advertising, flyers, nonperiodical conspicuous contained therefor. disclaimer 'paid advertisement' meet division. constituted executive committee party, Chapter 3517. Revised chairman treasurer. firm, corporation print reproduce section. transmittal correspondence machine distribution. rule, exempt, division, kinds buttons, balloons, pencils, items, size unreasonable disclaimer. identification, committee, by' title." 3599.09(B) unidentified broadcasting station. discusses particularly, distributed. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. FCC, 2445, 2456-2472, 497 (1994) (discussing radio). alleged violations charges dismissed Twain (Samuel Langhorne Clemens) O. (William Sydney Porter) pseudonyms. W.C. Bruce, Self-Revealed: Biographical Critical Study Based Mainly His Own Writings, (2d 1923). Distinguished French (Francois Marie Arouet) Sand (Amandine Aurore Lucie Dupin), (Mary Ann Evans), Charles Lamb (sometimes "Elia"), Dickens "Boz"), Shakespeare Earl Oxford rather Shaksper Stratford-on-Avon. C. Ogburn, Mysterious Shakespeare: Myth Reality 1992); Schoenbaum, Lives 1991) (adhering author). Canon Statutory Construction, 140 U.Pa.L.Rev. 1373 (commenting competing theories). critics significance writing, indispensable. analogy nonliterary context, now-pervasive grading examination "blindly" (i.e., professor paper grading) evaluations possible—indeed, reliable —when bias prescinded. famously authored Jay, "Publius." Publius's opponents, tended pseudonyms: Clinton; Samuel Bryan father, legislator Bryan; Richard signer Declaration Independence; Robert Yates, justice walked Constitutional Convention. H. Storing, (1981). forerunner pre-Revolutionary pamphleteer "Junius," mystery. J.M. Faragher, Encyclopedia Colonial 220 (1990) (positing "Junius" Sir Phillip Francis). "Letters Junius" "widely colonial lent considerable cause." Powell McCormack, 395 486, 531, 1944, 1969, (1969). Harlan added words: aimed prevention 'fraud, deceit, negligent obscenity, libel,' spreading character. say circulation obnoxious showing Angeles' generality too remote acceptable all-embracing have." 66-67, 539-540, (1960) (footnote omitted). Arguably, causes status quo. purposes assume speakers remaining anonymous. Covered "designed Meyer, unanimously invalidate illegal pay petition circulators obtaining signatures initiative ballot. 1886. issue—forbidding feet entrance place—was restriction, plurality facially content-based forum." 1851; 1859 (KENNEDY, 1861 (STEVENS, "Of helpful ideas. truth get competition market' (Abrams [250 630, dissenting) ] ). Don't underestimate man. intelligent along message, permitted, once so, 'responsible', valuable, truth." 966-967, 978, 996 (1974) (striking overbroad). Use title currently implies 're-elect' primary, candidate; formal schooling training completed degree, diploma, certificate, scholarship, grant, award, prize, honor received, earned, period attended college, community technical institution; "libel," above-quoted underinclusive, common-law tort defamation. Varanese Gall, 78, 518 1177 (applying 686 (1964), official's state-law arising advertisement). distinction 37, 643, (1976): "Treating expenses incurred volunteers] direction staff forecloses avenue abuse actions voluntarily undertaken campaign." (Footnote omitted.) Again, striking perceived Automobile Workers, [352 567, 529, 563 (1957) ]; CIO, [335 106, 1349, 1849 (1948) ], 790, 1423, Illinois White, 116 Ill.2d 171, 180, Ill.Dec. 229, 234, 506 1284, 1288 (1987), struck statute: "Implicit misinformed swayed eleventh-hour smear meaningfully respond. ground, sweeps net deal unrelated concern. place, limit before. supporting candidates, referenda. victim assassination." temporal breadth distinguishes Tennessee place. day. state's intimidation enhanced last-minute misinformation geographically 100-foot no-solicitation zone. wherever occurs. novel restrictive gloss comports survey outer boundaries corporations measure enjoy Amendment." 777-778, passage, continued: "Nor occasion consider whether, suffice corporations, unions, entities." 1416, 13. "Corporate unlike methods participation campaigns, highly visible. Identification disclosure, subjected. 66-67 [96 657]; Harriss, 347 625-626 [74 808, 815-816, 989] (1954). addition, emphasized disclosed. 657]." 32. provisions, committees, requires: (reprinted 700). 701), file 989 (1954), lobbyists. lobbyists access representatives, undisclosed, corruption. note face, applications. 88, 418, (1982) (holding historically object harassment parties"); (exempting party's contributors' threats, parties"). homeowner display sign, lawn window, Persian Gulf. Grace "lone picketer" stood sidewalk front sign prompting sidewalks "flag, banner, device" grounds. Grace, 461 183, 1702, 1710, 736 difficulty problem, preview Government. earlier, newspaper, Gazetteer. Freeman's Journal. "preventing enquiry honour dreads, tyrants endure." History, 317-318. Mason, Objections 345 1993); Martin, Genuine Information, Maryland Dec. 28, 1787-Feb. 1788, 631. Both men exception Convention, fight ratification, owed explanation constituents sign. 9, Ala.Acts 250, 254-255; 1917, 1917 Ariz.Sess.Laws 62, 62-63; 1913, 308, 6, 1913 Ark.Gen.Acts 1252, 1255; 1901, 138, 1901 Cal.Stats. 297; 6470, Fla.Laws 268, 272-273; Ill.Laws 456, 456-457; 1911, 137, 1911 Kan.Sess.Laws 221; 11, 1912, 213, 1912 La.Acts 447, 454; 381, 1890 Mass.Laws 342; Ex.Sess. Minn.Laws 23, 26; 21, 1906, S.B. 1906 Miss.Gen.Laws 295 (enacting Miss.Code 3728 (1906)); Mo.Laws 272, 273; 35, Mont.Laws 593, 608; 34, Nev.Stats. 486-487; 169, N.H.Laws 236; 188, N.J.Laws 329, 334; 164, 1(k), N.C.Sess.Laws 259, 261; 350; 1908, 1909 Ore.Laws 30; 1895, 275, 1895 Pa.Laws 389; 92, Utah Laws 258, 267; 1909, 82, Wash.Laws 177-178; W.Va.Acts 246, 255; 650, 94-14 94-16, Wis.Laws 883, 890. Ala.Code 17-22A-13 (Supp.1994); Alaska Stat.Ann. 15.56.010 (1988); Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 16-912 Ark.Code 7-1-103 (1993); Colo.Rev.Stat. 1-13-108 Conn.Gen.Stat. 9-333w Del.Code Ann., Tit. 8021, 8023 Fla.Stat. 106.143 106.1437 Ga.Code 21-2-415 Haw.Rev.Stat. 11-215 Idaho 67-6614A Ill.Comp.Stat. 5/29-14 Ind.Code 3-14-1-4 Iowa 56.14 (1991); Kan.Stat.Ann. 25-2407 25-4156 (Supp.1991); Ky.Rev.Stat.Ann. 121.190 (Baldwin Supp.1994); La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 18:1463 (West Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., 21-A, 1014 Md.Ann.Code, Art. 33, 26-17 Mass.Gen.Laws, 53, (1990); Mich.Comp.Laws 169.247 1989); Minn.Stat. 211B.04 (1994); 23-15-899 Mo.Rev.Stat. 130.031 Mont.Code 13-35-225 Neb.Rev.Stat. 49-1474.01 Nev.Rev.Stat. 294A.320 (Supp.1993); N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 664:14 (Supp.1992); N.J.Stat.Ann. 19:34-38.1 (1989); N.M.Stat.Ann. 1-19-16 1-19-17 N.Y.Elec.Law 14-106 (McKinney 1978); N.C.Gen.Stat. 163-274 N.D.Cent.Code 16.1-10-04.1 (1981); Okla.Stat., 1840 (Supp.1995); Ore.Rev.Stat. 260.522 Pa.Cons.Stat. 3258 R.I.Gen.Laws 17-23-2 S.C.Code 8-13-1354 S.D.Comp.Laws 12-25-4.1 Tenn.Code 2-19-120 Tex.Elec.Code 255.001 20-14-24 Vt.Stat.Ann., 2022 Va.Code 24.2-1014 Wash.Rev.Code 42.17.510 W.Va.Code 3-8-12 Wis.Stat. 11.30 Wyo.Stat. 22-25-110 Courts declared years, relying Burgess, 543 So.2d 1332 (La.1989); Dakota Ed. Assn., 262 N.W.2d 731 (N.D.1978); (Sup.), aff'd, App.Div.2d 663, Other pre-Talley Evans, 156 Pa.Super. A.2d 137 (1944); 143 Kan. 315, P.2d (1936); insofar judicially unconstrained universal. Cal. Stats. 297, abandoned (then Ohio's) Sept. 1983 2621, Appeal, primarily Schuster Imperial Municipal Cal.App.3d 887, 167 Cal.Rptr. 447 (1980), cert. denied, 450 1042, 101 1760, 239

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