Legal Document

463 U.S. 206 103 S.Ct. 2961 77 L.Ed.2d 580 UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.Helen MITCHELL et al. No. 81-1748. Argued March 1, 1983. Decided June 27, Syllabus Respondents—individuals owning interests in allotted lands on the Quinault Indian Reservation, an unincorporated association of such allotees, and Tribe—filed actions Court Claims seeking to recover damages from United States for alleged mismanagement timber reservation, asserting that constituted a breach fiduciary duty owed respondents by as trustee under various federal statutes regulations. The court ultimately held subject suit money most respondents' claims, ruling management statutes, other governing road building, rights-of-way, funds, Government fees, regulations promulgated these imposed duties upon its forested lands. Held: is accountable breaches trust connection with forest resources Reservation. Pp. 211-228. (a) Tucker Act provides States' consent claims founded or expressly implicitly create substantive rights damages. 211-219. (b) In contrast bare created General Allotment Act, v. Mitchell, 445 535, 100 1349, 63 607, which have based their clearly give Federal full responsibility manage land Indians' benefit. They thereby establish relationship define contours responsibilities. Moreover, necessarily arises when assumes elaborate control over forests property belonging Indians. All necessary elements common-law are present: (the States), beneficiary allottees), corpus (Indian timber, lands, funds). Because at issue obligation operation resources, they can fairly be interpreted mandating compensation sustained. Given existence relationship, it follows should liable duties. A remedy also furthers purposes regulations, require Secretary Interior so generate proceeds Prospective equitable remedies—declaratory, injunctive, mandamus relief—in context this case would totally inadequate. 219-228. 229 Ct.Cl. ----, 664 F.2d 265, 1981, affirmed remanded. Joshua I. Schwartz, Washington, D.C., rtz, petitioner. Charles A. Hobbs, respondents. Justice MARSHALL delivered opinion Court. 1 prin ipal question whether 2 * 3 1850s, undertook policy removing tribes large areas Pacific Northwest order facilitate settlement non-Indians.1 Pursuant policy, first Governor Superintendent Affairs Washington Territory began negotiations 1855 living west coast Territory. culminated treaty between Quileute Tribes, 12 Stat. 971 (Treaty Olympia). Treaty Indians ceded vast tract Olympic Peninsula State agreed set aside reservation 4 1861 about 10,000 acres was provisionally chosen tribes.2 This proved undesirable because limited size heavy forestation. Agency superintendent subsequently recommended since coastal drew subsistence almost entirely water,3 collected suitable fishing needs. Acting suggestion, President Grant issued November 4, 1873, designating 200,000 along reservation.4 bulk consisted rain covered huge, coniferous trees. 5 1905 allot Reservation individual 1887, ch. 119, 24 388, amended, 25 U.S.C. § 331 seq.5 See 1911, 36 1345. initially determined were not agriculture grazing. 1924, however, concluded character apart restricted Act. Payne, 264 446, 449, 44 352, 353, 68 L.Ed. 782 (1924). Thereafter, allotted. By 1935 entire had been divided into 2,340 allotments, 80 heavily timbered land. About third has gone out trust, but remained status.6 6 r sources long managed Department Interior, exercises "comprehensive" harvesting timber. White Mountain Apache Tribe Bracker, 448 136, 145, 2578, 2584, 65 665 (1980). broad statutory authority sale reservations. §§ 405-407. Sales "must consideration needs best owner his heirs," 406(a), sales used benefit transferred owner, 407. Congress directed adhere principles sustained-yield forestry all supervision. 466. Under detailed CFR Part 163 (1982). authorized deduct administrative fee services revenues paid allottees. 413. B 7 1,465 individuals allotments allottees, Tribe, now holds some portions 1971 filed four consolidated Claims. Jurisdiction 28 1491 1505. Respondents sought allegations pervasive waste More specifically, claimed (1) failed obtain fair market value sold; (2) basis; (3) any payment merchantable timber; (4) develop proper system roads easements operations exacted improper charges allottees maintenance roads; (5) pay interest certain funds insufficient funds; (6) excessive fees assert misconduct constitutes them statutes. 8 Six years after suits filed, moved dismiss lack jurisdiction, contending no trust. denied motion, holding part properly provided recovery against States. 219 95, 591 1300 (1979) (en banc ). 9 607 (1980), reversed Claims, stating "created only does impose resources." Id., 542, S.Ct., 1353. We "[a]ny right must found source than [the Allotment] Act." 546, 1355. Since considered assertion render answerable case, we remanded alternative grounds liability. id., n. 7, 1355, 7. 10 On remand, once again cla ms. ---, 265 (1981) ruled 406, 407, 466, building way, 318 323-325, government 162a 413, required sustained result Government's Thus, could proceed claims. 11 decision raises issues substantial importance concerning liability States,7 granted petition certiorari. 457 1104 affirm. II invoked jurisdiction 1491, counterpart brought tribes, 1505, known Act.8 states pertinent part: 13 "The shall judgment claim either Constitution, Congress, regulation executive department, express implied contract States, liquidated unliquidated cases sounding tort." 1491. 14 It axiomatic may sued without prerequisite jurisdiction.9 terminology employed our prior decisions unfortunately generated confusion waiver sovereign immunity. time come resolve confusion. For reasons forth below, conclude giving specified types States,10 immunity respect those 15 Before general statute gave damages; recourse available private claimants relief.11 relieve pressure caused volume bills avoid delays inequities bill procedure, February 24, 1855, c. 122, 612. empowered hear report findings submit draft each received favorable decision. 613. powers conferred "the laborious necessity examining merits bills." Glidden Co. Zdanok, 370 530, 553, 82 1459, 1474, 671 (1962) (opinion Harlan, J.). Union Message 1861, Lincoln final judgments. He declared "as much f prompt justice itself, favor citizens, administer same individuals." Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 2d Sess., app. (1862). adopted Lincoln's recommendation made court's judgments final. 3, 1863, 92, 765.12 16 1886 Representative John Randolph introduced revise several respects procedures replace provisions 1863 Acts. H.R. 6974, 59th 1st Sess. (1886). House Judiciary Committee reported "comprehensive measure heard determined." H.R.Rep. 1077, 49th designed "to people what every civilized nation world already done—the go courts seek redress grievances." 18 Cong.Rec. 2680 (1887) (remarks Rep. Bayne). 622 Tucker); 2679 (colloquy Reps. Townshend); Holman). eventual enactment thus "provide[d] bringing States." 359, 505. 17 similar history. An early amendment original creating excluded tribes. 9, 767. As result, eventually confronted "vast growing burden" resulting number special jurisdictional acts. 1466, 79th (1945). responded conferring tribal "of cognizable if claimant tribe." 13. sponsor stated, important goal ensure "never pass acts permit secure adjudication misappropriation officials might occur future." 92 5313 (1946) (statement Jackson). given "their day call agencies account obligations assumed." 5312.13 Report stressed point: "If fail meet denying access improperly dissipated violated, compromise national honor 4. decades consistently having eo nomine classes described See, e.g., Schillinger 155 163, 166-167, 85, 85-86, 108 (1894); Belknap Schild, 161 10, 17, 443, 445, 40 599 (1896); Dooley 182 222, 227-228, 21 762, 764, 45 1074 (1901); Reid 211 529, 538, 29 171, 172, 53 313 (1909); Sherwood, 312 584, 590, 61 767, 771, 85 1058 (1940); Dalehite 346 15, 25, 73 956, 962, 97 1427 (1953); Soriano 352 270, 273, 269, 271, 306 (1957). least two recent explicitly stated effects Army & Air Force Exchange Service Sheehan, 456 728, 734, 102 2118, 2122, 72 520 (1982); Hatzlachh Supply 444 460, 647, 651, 62 614 (1980) (per curiam). These confirm unambiguous thrust history 19 readily apparent "any Claims' recognized, viewed perhaps widest unequivocal suit." Developments Law—Remedies Against Its Officials, 70 Harv.L.Rev. 827, 876 C. Wright, Miller E. Cooper, Practice Procedure 3656, 202 (1976). unmistakably lies Otherwise, doubtful exist, contracting officer official States.14 true Indeed, makes absolutely distinction contracts law. 20 Testan, 424 392, 398, 400, 96 948, 954, 47 114 (1976), U.S., 1351, language suggesting effect Such case. infra, 217-218. Without way questioning isolated disregarded. If falls within terms presumptively consented suit. nonetheless remains " 'does enforceable damages.' quoting 953. law, department." Not invoking onstitution, statute, one see King, 395 2-3, 89 1501, 1501-1502, 23 52 (1969),15 demonstrate law he relies 'can sustained.' Eastport S.S. Corp. 178 599, 372 1002, 1009 (1967).16 22 example, supra, attorneys contended entitled higher salary grade Classification Act,17 award back Back Pay Act18 period during classified lower grade. neither nor requiring wrongful classifications. 398-407, 953-957. Particularly light "established rule position until appointed it," 402, 955, support While provide basis "in carefully circumstances" reductions grade, 404, apply 405, 956. Similarly, confer hold trust" 348, creates relationship. thereof, prevents improvident alienation assures state taxation. 544, 1354. "founded department," inquire undertaking inquiry, need find separate provision, just Ibid. itself consent. Of course, determining scope lightly inferred 4-5, 1502-1503, (1969) (Court lacks declaratory judgm nt); 276, (1957) (non-tolling limitations beyond provisions). although refers reach opposed fact. Merritt 267 338, 341, 278, 279, 69 643 (1925). 26 there simply category, clear. analytically distinct: compensation. supplies nature, second immunity, construed manner appropriate waivers Emery, Bird, Thayer Realty Co., 237 28, 32, 35 499, 500, 59 825 (1915). 'The exemption involves hardship enough where withheld. add rigor refinement construction announced.' Aetna Surety 338 366, 383, 207, 216, 94 771 (1949), Anderson L. Hayes Constr. 243 N.Y. 140, 147, 153 N.E. 29-30 (1926) (Cardozo, J.).19 III 27 Acts department begin describing then examine impose. Interior's role 1910, 431, 7-8, 855, 857, 406-407. Prior time, sell land,20 existed 'no unallotted, granted.' 1135, 61st (1910) (quoting letter Interior). recognized situation 'because many instances valuable allotment obtained improvement allotment.' 1910 unallotted Indians, disposed benefit, 8. conserve reservations, namely, Indians." 6087 Saunders). From outset, supervise cutting Department's Office covering esponsibilities "managing greatest revenue consistent protection forests." Affairs, Regulations Instructions Officers Charge Forests Reservations (1911). addressed virtually aspect management, including sales, procedures, advertisements methods billing, deposits bonding requirements, deductions, minors, allowable heights stumps, tree marking scaling rules, base top diameters trees cutting, percentage left seed source. 8-28. applied well Secretary's approval conditioned compliance 9. 30 Over deficiencies performance responsibilities became apparent. Accordingly, Reorganization 1934, 576, 48 984, even stricter management. codified "on principle management." Howard, co-sponsor Chairman explained purpose provision assure permanent Forest" modern "assure will permanently productive yield continuous tribes." 78 11730 (1934). Anderson, 625 910, 915 (CA9 1980), cert. denied, 450 920, 101 1367, 67 347 (1981). Referring "sacred trust," Howard "[t]he failure governmental guardian assets consequent loss income earning power, principal cause present plight Indian." Cong.Rec., 11726.21 31 preservation perpetually state, forbade clear-cutting contiguous areas, called development long-term working plans major adequate new growth mature removed, run-off minimization erosion.22 regulatory scheme receive 'the whatever profit forest] capable yielding.' 149, 2586 141.3(a)(3) (1979)). 32 1964 amended emphasizing April 30, 1964, 186. consider heirs." 406(a). performing duty, specifically take account: 33 "(1) maintaining capacity heirs, highest use land, advisability practicality devoting uses future financial 407 (timber lands). 34 406-407, thereunder, (1982), managing 2584. Interior—through Bureau Affairs—"exercises literally daily supervision timber." 2585.23 Virtually stage process control.24 comparable grants rights-of-way trust.25 grant across 323, obtains landowner, 324,26 owners compensation, 325. detail 169 (1982).27 applicant right-of-way deposit amount less granted, plus cover potential associated activity right-of-way. determine adequacy amounts deposited distribution landowners. 169.12, 169.14 (1982).28 1353, limited. read establishing lands." before us 37 directly supports mandates heirs" "or benefit." earliest "expressed firm desire retain benefits derived 2586.29 38 funds).30 "[W]here takes monies properties, normally exists properties (unless otherwise) though nothing said authorizing underlying (or fundamental document) fund, connection." Navajo 224 183, 624 981, 987 39 Our reinforced undisputed people. previously emphasized distinctive incumbent dealings dependent sometimes exploited people." Seminole Nation 316 286, 296, 1049, 1054, 86 1480 (1942). dominated Mason, 412 391, 93 2202, 2207, (1973); Minnesota 305 382, 386, 292, 294, 83 235 (1939); Shoshone 304 111, 117-118, 58 794, 798, 1213 (1938); Candelaria, 271 432, 442, 46 561, 563, 1023 (1926); McKay Kalyton, 204 458, 469, 346, 350, 51 566 (1907); Hitchcock, 185 373, 396, 650, 659, 954 (1902); Kagama, 118 375, 382-384, 1109, 1113-1114, 228 (1886); Cherokee Georgia, Pet. (1831). naturally established Restatement (Second) Law Trusts 205-212 (1959); G. Bogert, Trustees 862 (2d ed. 1965); Scott, 205 (3d 1967). tribe includes incident injured sue trust.31 41 recognition anomalous enactments lives up duties, performed. "Absent retrospective remedy, little deter violating judicial decree trust." 550, 1357 (WHITE, J., dissenting). Cf. 42 contends violations cured declaratory, injunctive relief Secretary, concedes barred 76.32 Brief 40. context, prospective remedies To with, monitor basis. Many poorly educated, absentee owners, do know exact physical location allotments. very inability oversee led place. trusteeship mean beneficiaries day-to-day estate else precluded mismanagement. 43 addition, becomes apparent, damage severe next worthless. destroyed through mismanagement, nature restore observed, "Once logged off, value. longer serves allottee's] ancestors, him. serve him finally competency independence." Squire Capoeman, 351 76 611, 617, 883 (1956). here property. Claims33 therefore trusts. IV affirmed, further proceedings opinion. ordered. 49 POWELL, whom REHNQUIST O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 50 controlling Speaking (Mitchell I ), reaffirmed action 'cannot unequivocally expressed.' 1351 (quotingUnited 1502, (1969)). Hopkins, 427 123, 128, 2508, 2511, 361 (1976) ("specific command regulations"); Lehman Nakshian, 453 156, 170, 2698, 2706, 548 (BRENNAN, Where, here, predicated violation, unless 'in . 1008-1009 (Ct.Cl.1967)). 739-740, 2125, (1982) ("Testan [held] ") (emphasis added); 739, 2125 (damages "specifically authorize awards damages"); 741, 2126 (reaffirming premised "regulations awards"). sum, turns intent inclinations courts. Shaw, 309 495, 60 661, 84 461 (1940) consent"); Munro 303 36, 41, 421, 423, 633 (1938) ("only permission"). Today, appears disinterested Congress. effectively presumption absent "affirmative authority," Fidelity Guaranty 506, 514, 653, 657, 894 (1940), substituted contrary presumption, applicable conduct affairs, departures rules govern fiduciaries. dissent Court's departure long-settled principles. not—and cannot—contend standing alone reflects legislative authorization remedy. None contains "provision liable" "with specificity." 399, 954. timber-sales 407,1 466,2 318a, 323-325,3 162a,4 addresses institution Nor indication intended enacting provisions.5 suggest otherwise. rests implausible proposition view cannot reconciled Testan Mitchell nonmonetary duty,6 more, overcome "presumption" Eastern Transportation 272 675, 686, 289, 291, 71 472 (1927). 54 occasion emphasize congressional ultimate standard not, terms, action.7 Those instructive, too, "ultimate intent, thinks improve enacted Touche Ross Redington, 442 560, 578, 99 2479, 2490, (1979). free dispense principles" explicit "because thought responsive particular conception enlightened policy." 502, 662. today adduces "evidence anticipated remedy." California Sierra Club, 451 287, 298, 1775, 1781, 55 defends precedents ground rely "construed immunity." Ante, 219. overruling sub silentio, discussion clear, ante, 216-219, "accepted government's strict construction, deciding interpreting legislation Hughes, Can Trustee Sued Breach? Sad Saga S.D.L.Rev. 447, 473 "does unambiguously undertaken responsibilities." 1353 added). ("explicitly reject[ing] argument violation automatically damages' 401, 954). hardly "unambiguously" imposing Government. 56 pretense following doctrine heretofore established. analysis, concludes: "Because sustained." 226. conclusion dubious assumptions. First, decides recognize imports breach, perceived inadequate, perform properly. relevancy questionable, departs precede ts, chiefly 57 asserts "clearly obligations." 225 ("a arises"). agree "there kind bootstrap quality reasoning saying States'] expressed trustee, and, therefore, look Scott Government] consequences authorities, derives status erring nongovernmental trustee." 283 (Nichols, concurring power different origin caution taught using mere label reading assent expressed." Ibid.8 trusteeships referred past manifested more life high attribute sovereignty infringe control. Ibid.9 shield sword. my view, clear "[n]othing face" issue, Santa Clara Pueblo Martinez, 436 49, 59, 98 1670, 1677, 106 (1978), histories, "fairly [can] compensation" Some involved sure, fulfill. But equally Testan. requires classification ratings employees carried pursuant equal substantially work." 5101(1)(A). Although employee back-pay unavailable, rejecting implies 400-403, 954-955. Ignoring concludes establishes told accept faith action: "Given duties." 226 ibid. "fundamental incident" relationship); (it "anomalous" remedy). dissenting at.10 say influenced inadequate alleged—precisely inference deemed inadmissible Testan.11 ordinary unconsented barred. fact recovered sovereign's given. Yet this, substance, reasoning. injury sustained, drained meaning. "many circumstances rendered superfluous." effort presented here. application "trust" justify disregard never waived. reverse 5, 1850, 437; Appropriation 1853, 226, 238; Allottee Association 625, 628-629, 485 1391, 1392 (1973), 416 961, 1980, (1974). Halbert 753, 757, 615, 616, 75 1389 (1931). generally 384 F.Supp. 312, 350-353 (WD Wash.1974), aff'd, 676 1975), 423 1086, 877, (describing pre-Treaty among Indians). Executive Order, Kappler, 923 1904). Order Quinault, Quileute, Hoh, Queets, "and fish-eating Coast." Section sole made." extended indefinitely 2, 462. 97, 1300, 1300-1301 informed $100 million. Cert. 24. Commission 538-540, 1351-1352, 586, 769, (1941); And 3654, 156-157 concurrent district exceeding $10,000. 1346(a)(2). P. Bator, Mishkin, D. Shapiro H. Wechsler, Courts System 1973); Richardson, History, Jurisdiction, 3-4 (1882). "no treasury passed till appropriation therefor estimated Treasury." 768. Gordon Wall. 921 (1864), dismissed appeal want revisory inconsistent exercise power. promptly repealed 1866, 19, 554, 5312 Jackson) ("The suggested o ght mishandle complete accountability.") Hearings 1198 1341 130 (1945) Assistant Solicitor Cohen). New York Rayon Importing 329 654, 660, 601, 604, 91 577 (1957); 501, Carr 433, 438, 209 (1879). 1507 (actions 7428 Internal Revenue Code 1954); Austin 719, 723, 911, 215, 140 (1975) (declaratory "tied subordinate monetary award"). "expressly implication." 605, F.2d, 1007. Ralston Steel 125, 340 663, 667, 381 950, 1803, 723 (1965). 5101. 5596. Block Neal, --- 1089, 1094, (1983); Towing 350 61, 69, 126, (1955). Cook, 591, 210 (1874); Pine River Logging 186 1164 Op.Atty.Gen. 194 (1888). Collier, Commissioner author testified constructive handling got stop slaughtering operate perpetual directs conservation throughout." 7902 Comm. 73d pt. Affairs' 1936 Forest remain essentially unchanged virtue 14, 1920, 75, 415, 1933, 158, 1417, collect "reasonable fees" cost Sections 406 both deductions expenses extent permissible section 413." 163.18 asserted respects. "undoubted consent-to-suit illegally kept own property." 274, citing 400-401, 954; 605-606, 1007-1008 (1967). appear dispute conclusion. 33, 27. invest banks, bonds, notes, public debt advisable 1938, 1037, 162a. maintained behalf primarily sales. 1948, 323-325. May 26, 1928, 750, 318a (road building). Rights-of-way specific circumstances. 324. 256 (1949). 169.3 (consent landowners rights-of-way); 169.5 (specifying quired agreements applicants, stipulation termination condition far reasonably possible). deduction costs charge allottees' payments. pattern evident area applies funds. 223, Comment h, (1959). 295-300, 1053-1056, (1942); Creek Nation, 295 103, 109-110, 681, 683-684, 79 1331 (1935); Moose 674 1277, 1281 1982); Whiskers 600 1332, 1335 (CA10 1979), 1078, 1028, 761 (1980); Coast Community 213 129, 152-156, 550 639, 652-654 (1977); Cheyenne-Arapaho Tribes 340, 345, 512 1390, (1975); Mason 198 613-616, 1364, 1372-1373 (1972), rev'd grounds, 176 507, 364 320, 322 (1966); Klamath Modoc 174 483, 490-491 Menominee 555, 562, 137 (1945); 18-20 (1944); Smith 515 56, (ND Cal.1978); Manchester Band Pomo Inc. 363 1238, 1243-1248 Cal.1973). Naganab 473, 475-476, 667-668, 1113 (1906). 1976 suits. 702. Improvement 1982, P.L. 97-164, merged Customs Patent Appeals appeals, Circuit. Article trial forum Court, inherited Sen.Rep. 97-275, 97th actual "proceeds" while sections compel unlawfully retained proceeds, extending profits arguably ideally been, earned Secretary. contrary, conducted suggests limit Middlesex County Sewerage Authority National Sea Clammers Assn., 14-15, 20-21, 2615, 2623-2624, 2626-2627, 435 Erika, Inc., 201, 208, 1650, 1654, 466 merely "make units authorizes radical change routine allows who app opriations bring 325 just," follow generous available. militates Texas Industries, Radcliff Materials, 630, 644-645, 2061, 2069, 500 (1981); Plumbers Pipefitters Local 334, 452 2546, 2554, 280 (BURGER, C.J., affords discretion respecting investments There rate interest, fall short zeal get rate." 274 (Ct.Cl.1981). improbable constitute (1924); Petitioner 2. rather instrument, permission permission. 219-220. amendments fails supply evidence intent. "[n]o additional expenditure funds" expected incurred reason legislation. 1292, 88th (1964), U.S.Code Admin.News p. 2162. urging standards "should help allay disputes misunderstanding." S.Rep. 672, (1963). dispositive, strong compensation." contrast, where, character, implementation officials, arises: silence relief. 403, 955. Jackson Transit Union, 20-23, 2206-2207, 639 County, 13-18, 2622-2625; 639-640, 2066-2067; 292-298, 1778-1781, Airlines, Transport Workers, 77, 91-95, 1571, 1580-1582, 750 Universities Research Assn. Coutu, 754, 770-784, 1451, 1461-1468, 662 Transamerica Mortgage Advisors, Lewis, 11, 19-24, 242, 246-249, 146 background rationale force. "There widely varying relationships closely resemble trusts, term 'trust' loosely relationships. differentiate trusts relationships, them." Introductory Note, often ward. 296 244, 254, 212, 217, 1113, "[a] guardianship Trusts, explanation, why chooses analogy another. choice intensive fiduciaries." comment b. "[a]ll present"—a beneficiary, corpus. 225. persons parcel real property, Rather, manifestation intention it." ("A settlor manifests trust."); ("No duties."). element missing cannot, make 95; 772 1967) ("At common enforced Crown. ."). I, finding stronger 547, 1356 One authorities cited WHITE, discusses example acting trustee. Furthermore, "reserv[e] administration 37. Unless ag ees damages, surrendered relation (i) preclude unauthorized interference relations 1113-1114; (ii) bar nullify matters affecting rights, joined represented, see, 442-444, (iii) interpret ambiguous (iv) Just Compensation Clause manager, converted form Sioux 371, 415-416, 2716, 2740-2741, 844 (v) care obliged carrying 296-297, never, today, fiduciary. reaches (1935), cut theory pa ments prescribed Treaty. 1054. taking claim. Also significant standardless remand Where sum certain, required, guidance, liability, any, items cognizable. task, unlike factual legal determination class adapted. Any "judicial cloth, cloth." Weinberger Catholic Action Hawaii, 454 139, 141, 197, 200, 298 assume, defenses laches, fully 274.

Classification Label: 7