Legal Document

436 U.S. 371 98 Supreme Court Reporter 1852 56 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 354 Lester BALDWIN et al., Appellants,v.FISH AND GAME COMMISSION OF MONTANA al. Number 76-1150. Argued Oct. 5, 1977. Decided May 23, 1978. Syllabus Appellants brought this action for declaratory and other relief claiming that the Montana statutory elk-hunting license scheme, which imposes substantially higher (at least 71/2 times) fees on nonresidents of State than residents, requires (but not residents) to purchase a "combination" in order be able obtain single elk, denies their constitutional rights guaranteed by Privileges Immunities Clause Article IV, § 2, Equal Protection Fourteenth Amendment. A three-judge District denied all appellants. Held: 1. Access recreational big-game hunting does fall within category protected Clause. Only with respect those "privileges" "immunities" bearing upon vitality Nation as entity must treat citizens, resident nonresident, equally, here equality access elk is basic maintenance or well-being Union. Pp. 378-388. 2. The scheme an economic means unreasonably related preservation finite resource, substantial regulatory interest State, hence violate In view fact residents contribute costs maintaining program, great increase nonresident hunters recent years, limit supply, difficulties supervising practices, it cannot said either fee differentials required combination irrational. 388-391. D.C., 417 F.Supp. 1005, affirmed. James Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Goetz, Bozeman, Mont., Paul Atlantic Lenzini, Washington, D. C., appellees. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 1 This case presents issues, under Constitution's Amendment, validity disparities, between nonresidents, State's system. 2 * Appellant Baldwin resident. He also outfitter holding state guide. majority his customers are who come hunt big game. Carlson, Huseby, Lee Moris Minnesota.1 They have hunted game, particularly past years wish continue do so. 3 1975, five appellants, disturbed difference kinds licenses available contrasted pay respective licenses, instituted present federal suit injunctive reimbursement, part, already paid. App. 18-29. defendants were Fish Game Commission Montana, Commission's director, its commissioners. complaint challenged licensing specifically, asserted that, applied violated Clause, was convened and, divided vote, entered judgment denying plaintiff-appellants. Outfitters Action Group versus & Comm'n, 1005 (Mont.1976). We noted probable j risdiction. 429 1089, 97 1096, 51 534 (1977).2 II 4 relevant facts any real controversy many them agreed: 5 For 1975 season, could solely $4. however, at cost $151; entitled him take one two deer.3 6 1976 $9. $225;4 deer, black bear, game birds, fish hook line.5 buy but if he did, privileges granted $30.6 thus paid times much resident, wished only 25 resident.7 7 baron area more 147,000 square miles, our fourth largest State. Alaska, Texas, California, order, larger. But population relatively small; 1972 approximately 716,000.8 Its 1974 per capita income 34th among 50 States. 56-57. 8 maintains significant populations including antelope. Tr. 191. Elk prized from near far pursue animals sport.9 quest has grown popularity. During 10-year period 1960 1970 issued increased 67% 530% nonresidents.10 9 Owing successful management programs been compelled overall number drawings lotteries harvestable populations. 243. commercially Montana.11 Nonresident seek animal trophy value; distinctive set antlers. often may meat. Id., 245. now found mountainous regions western generally encountered eastern two-thirds where plains prevail. 9-10, 249. summer move elevations lands largely federally owned. late they down lower privately owned provide winter habitat necessary survival. critical midwinter supported ranchers. 46-47, 191, 285-286.12 10 expensive. population, personnel time spent species Defendants' Exhibit A, Page 9. 11 400 outfitters equip guide parties. 295. These regulated licensed services fishermen. It estimated half utilize outfitters. 248. Three outfitter-witnesses testified virtually clients nonresidents. 141, 281, 307. 12 force 70 wardens. Each warden district covers 2,100 miles. 234. To assist wardens law enforcement, "equal responsibility" statute. Mont.Rev.Codes Ann. 26-906 (Supp.1977). makes guides equally responsible unreported game-law violations committed persons thus, sense, surrogate serves bolster force. III 13 Co rt observed once roams mountains central Montana. About 75% taken killed land. animal's depends conservation. F.Supp., 1007. appellants conceded constitutionally charge residents. 1007-1008.13 concluded, evidence presented 71/2-to-1 ratio favor justified basis allocation. 1008. 14 After satisfying itself standing14 existence justiciable controversy, after passing comment somewhat controversial subject wild legal ownership, court concluded "has power manage conserve end make such laws regulations protect preserve it." 1009. reaching result, examined nature plaintiffs. there just too people few enable everyone animals. "If survive species, herds managed, vital part limitation annual kill." Ibid. Various mentioned, control device might deprive particular hunter possibility elk. right "no chance engage temporarily activity sister state" "not fundamental." Thus, privilege immunity educational needs primary college levels, citing San Antonio School Dist. Rodriguez, 411 1, 93 1278, 36 16 (1973), Sturgis 368 38 (WD Wash.), summarily aff'd, 414 1057, 94 563, 464 said: "There simply no nexus sport speak, travel, calling." followed determine whether system bears some rational relationship legitimate purposes. Then: 15 "We conclude opportunity enjoy created state, fundamental right, very can enjoyed portion would it, prefer over states, condition enjoyment terms sees fit." 1010. dissenting judge took issue "ownership theory," "special public interest" theory, emphasized absence cost-allocation differential. described majority's posture upholding discrimination because political support thereby generated, position invidious popular disapproval equal treatment. 1012. IV 17 immunities. strongly urge v olates Clause15 Constitution. That contours precisely shaped process wear constant litigation judicial interpretation since 1789. If significance fact, appears so-called States' Relations Article, same embraces Full Faith Credit Extradition (also 2), provisions admission new States, Territory Property Guarantee Historically, overshadowed appearance 1868 similar language Amendment,16 continuing consequent attended Amendment's enactment meaning application. 18 originally isolated Commerce I, 8. Articles Confederation, both Clauses source, concepts together Article.17 See Austin New Hampshire, 420 656, 660-661, 95 1191, 1194-1195, 43 530 (1975); Lemmon People, 20 N.Y. 562, 627 (1860) (opinion Wright, J.). Their separation assurance against anticipated narrow reading Ward Maryland, Wall. 418, 430-432, L.Ed. 449 (1871). 19 Perhaps imposition Amendment consciousness extraordinary emphasis received, surprising cl. well developed,18 relationship, any, "privileges immunities" less clear. are, nevertheless, without pronouncements Clause's reach. There three general comments deserve mention: first Field, writing unanimous Virginia, 168, 180, 357 (1869). nationalism, proscription discrimination, citizens State: 21 "It undoubtedly object clause question place each footing so advantages resulting citizenship concerned. relieves disabilities alienage States; inhibits discriminating legislation gives free ingress into egress them; insures freedom possessed acquisition property pursuit happiness; secures protection laws. justly provision Constitution tended constitute this."19 22 second came later when Roberts, himself Black Hague CIO, 307 496, 511, 59 954, 962, 83 1423 (1939), summed up history pointed out what felt analysis earlier cases ones: 23 "As said, prior adoption had definition rights, privileges, immunities secured springing therefrom. . 24 "At thought section recognized group which, according jurisprudence day, classed 'natural rights'; purpose create guaranteeing every recognition Such Washington. "While description civil quoted approval, settled import citizen carries another necessarily mere but, contrary, enjoy. section, effect, prevents own." (Footnotes omitted.) 26 third most pronouncement authored Marshall nearly 1194, (1975), stressing "norm comity" Framers' concerns: 27 "The establishes norm comity specifying subjects coming jurisdiction origins reveal, concerns Framers. preconstitutional period, practice outlanders treatment deman ed themselves widespread. Confederation intended arrest centrifugal tendency particularity. 28 29 discriminations aimed eradicated during short life carried article briefer form change substance intent, unless strengthen fashioning nation." 30 When specific cases, interpreted prevent imposing unreasonable burdens common callings (1871); ownership disposition held Blake McClung, 172 239, 165, 432 (1898); courts Canadian Northern R. company Eggen, 252 553, 40 402, 64 713 (1920). 31 suggested, residency never used distinguish persons. Suffrage, example, always understood tied individual's identification See, e. g., Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 92 995, 274 (1972). No suggest open polls person declines assert claims vote. true qualification elective office Kanapaux Ellisor, 419 891, 169, 42 136 (1974); Chimento Stark, 353 1211 (NH), 802, 125, 39 (1973). Nor apply anyone, request do. supra ; cf. Sosna Iowa, 393, 532 Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 89 1322, 600 (1969). Some distinctions merely reflect composed individual permitted; prohibited hinder formation, purpose, development Union equally. Here we decide falls distinction hunting. 32 Many early embrace concept complete wildlife boundaries, well, bounty alone. enough say "that regulating use [a] legislature [not] bound extend states own citizens." Corfield Coryell, Federal Cases 1789:1880 546, 552 (No. 3,230) (CC ED Pa.1825). accepted although obligated territory respects, obliged share things trust people. Corfield, "the first, long leading, explication [Privileges Immunities] Clause," see U.S., 661, S.Ct., 1195, sitting Circuit Justice, recognizing interfere "right pass through, reside purpos trade, agriculture, professional pursuits, otherwise; claim benefit writ habeas corpus; institute maintain actions kind state; take, hold dispose property, personal,"20 F.Cas., 552, nonetheless oyster beds determined Jersey limited holding, conception sovereignty relied, formed decisions 19th century. E. McCready 391, 248 (1877); Geer Connecticut, 161 519, 600, 793 (1896).21 Rosenfeld Jakways, 67 Mont. 558, 216 Pacific KF135 P2 776 (1923). Geer, dealing Connecticut's authority birds roundly rejected contention allow benefits belonging common, permitting participate 530, 604. 33 controlling "own," wildlife, absolute. compel confinement resources, even whenever hoarding impedes interstate commerce. Foster-Fountain Packing Haydel, 278 49 73 147 (1928); Pennsylvania West 262 658, 1117 (1923); Kansas Natural Gas Co., 221 229, 564, 55 716 (1911). resources preclude proper exercise power. Douglas Seacoast Products, Inc., 431 265, 1740, 52 304 (197 ); Kleppe Mexico, 426 529, 96 2285, 34 (1976); Missouri Holland, 416, 382, 641 And yield when, reason, interferes nonresident's livelihood own, Toomer Witsell, 334 385, 68 1156, 1460 (1948). Takahashi 410, 1138, 1478 contend doctrine McCready, relied remaining vitality. agree. last Term, referring "ownership" title characterizing "as 19th-century fiction," nevertheless expressed " 'the importance regulate exploitation important resource.' 284, 1751, 1165. exclusive absolute face regulation certain interests conclusion meaningless absence. 35 need look further know Witsell 1948 struck South Carolina statute requiring $2,500 commercial shrimp boat, $25, did ground 395-403, 1161-1165. Mullaney Anderson, 342 415, 72 428, 458 (1952), commercial-livelihood case. Less decision Toomer, heavily here, dismissed want appeal Dakota total exclusion migratory waterfowl assertion special qualified reason discrimination. Kemp, S.D. 458, 44 North Western Reporter, 2nd 214 (1950), dismissed, 340 923, 71 498, 667 (1951). proved danger flyways, breeding grounds, nursery ducks geese excessive possible destruction lured abundance pheasants. S.D., 464, N.W.2d, 217. demonstrated nothing convince us should completely reject Court's decisions. seemingly notions "natural rights" considered reach included list situations, believed other's sought essential right. term "fundamental," 551, modern right" sense. Certainly Field invoked principle above Wall., 357. So, too, holdings supra, concerned callings, ability transfer courts, respectively. comparable status involved apparent Too er, commercial-licensing With activities, interference frustrate purposes formation Union, unnecessary distinctions. 37 Does made establishing threaten way offends Clause? Merely ask seems answer. repeat above: recreation sport. wholly apart fees—it costly obviously wealthy sacrifices values indulge offers. livelihood. mastery ends sought; totally excluded these. entrusted care carefully preserved. Appellants' sharing resource purview Equality not—and cannot—contend deprived travel. full range activities sufficiently participation therein similarly interfering resident's participation. Whatever "fundamental" persuaded, hold, them. V protection. urge, drawn permissible allocate Appellees argue taxing power, charges contributed possible. development, therefore tax base, this, counted, along actual revenues spent, computing fair commit ourselves method environment find efforts rational, invidious, violative repetitious review factual setting revealing: assists production through taxes. taxes parks utilized sportsmen, Plaintiffs' 1; roads providing areas, 156-158, 335; fire suppression habitat, id., 167; effected Environmental Quality Council, 163-165; enforcement air water quality standards, 223-224; assistance sheriffs' departments enforce laws, G, 13; highway patrol officers checking stations Forage r sident ranchers 286. All basis. 41 On side ledger great, almost alarming, hunters—in decade 1960's, eight hunters; character hunting, "swapping" employed, 237;22 intermingling deer inexperienced hunter's inability tell other; obvious supply; supposition occasional short-term visitor likely violations; supervise practices illegal overkill; supervision primitive areas season. adds up, view, irrationality differences Legislature legislative choice days country. is, sure, contrasting feature favorable perhaps, details figures fixed closely But, noted, concede differential unconstitutional. "a classification impinging fit precision animating it. [Montana] furthered underlying artfully, directly, completely, warrant chose unconstitutional." Hughes Alexandria Scrap Corp., 794, 813, 2488, 2499, 220 (1976).23 requirement arbitrary. introduced evidence, uncontradicted, greater problems these alleviated requirement. credible justification disagree. factors listed connection pertinency perceive duty structure parallel identical justify penny purely recreational, noncommercial, nonlivelihood setting. Rationalit sufficient. standard, feel, met So requirements met, "[p]rotection peculiarly police latitude determining appropriate protection." Lacoste Department Conservation, 263 545, 186, 189, 437 (1924).24 45 ordered. 46 Chief BURGER, concurring. 47 joining N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions write separately emphasize Montana's point limits holding. 48 "owns" borders trustee (1896), admittedly anachronism sorts. (1977). "own" natural land, oil, timber. opinion, ante, 386, contrary implications dissent, obsolete. manifests preserving citizens. 287, 1753. Whether describe proprietary otherwise significant. 401-402, 1164-1165, 1490 (1948), located three-mile belt marginal sea. remain primarily As acknowledges points supply Montana," 388, asserts continued Pa.1825); supra. 386. clear preferring granting interest. Thus offend preferred belong private owners. give offending challenge cited post, 405, reg taking airspace. killing frustrates valid treaty pursuant II, 434, (1920); conflicts statutes enacted 3, nor manner Once becomes commerce, restrict 281-282, 1750; (1928). None allocating permits offered sale Indeed "bearing entity." Ante, 383. include "all trade commerce" Confederation. n. 6, (1975). assures noncitizens goods citizens; confers buyer luxury bread. 53 BRENNAN, whom WHITE MARSHALL join, dissenting. 54 Far troublesome holding—elk Constitution—is rationale passes muster. concludes "basic activit[y], Union," 387, 2—"The Citizens shall several States"—does irrationally, wantonly, invidiously seeking treasures alone possesses. agree impotent guarantee remains beyond provision. before Court, precise scope affords defined. Much uncertainty doubt, product Washington's exposition 551 Pa.1825), observed: "[W]hat states? feel hesitation confining expressions nature, fundamental; belong, rig t, governments have, times, compose becoming free, independent, sovereign." (Emphasis added.) 57 Among government; [t]he personal; exemption impositions state." 551-552. framed discriminatory treatment, "by .." 552. italicized designed falling compass clear, Washington regardless afforded Roberts characterized view: [Art. 1] Washington." 58 embody surprising. revealed preference determination raging adjudication. "Behind 1825 lay nineteenth century rights' litigation. judges supposed inherent strike 'contrary principles social compact.' proponents moorings, posited 'certain republican governments, will overrule abuse powers.' 60 "Corfield attempt IV. By attaching clause, encroachment L. Tribe, American Constitutional Law 405-406 (1978) (footnotes omitted). 61 What surprising, extent 's protecting governmental influence Clause1 discarded (1869), replaced measure nonresidents2 announced "[i]t concerned." 180 (emphasis added). 79 given anomalous unduly restrictive scope. expansive broadly insuring host government superimposed prohibiting unjustifiably nonresidents—a think correct—with result prohibit Cf. Minor Happersett, 162, 174, (1875). Yet administration involved, born commingling disparate views meant mate, difficult rigid "to ambit upheld Chemung Canal Bank Lowery, 72, 806 (1876), Wisconsin tolled limitations cause defendant absent plaintiff resident; "[t]here discrimination." 77.3 Similarly, (1920), sanctioned Minnesota allowed sue arising barred arose. not, words 256, 172, (1898), 'materially interfer[e] States.' 404. 62 Roberts' upra, noteworthy Not recognize might, be, properly interred bygone era, went proposed namely, "[t]he 962. singling passage "three [on Clause] mention," 380, statement, respect, errs appreciating statement signaled demise acceptance type encompassed phrase immunities." longer controlling, relevant, evaluating visited vis-a-vis passed 63 Hague, embraced 100 maritime off coast stating "was insure ventures B enjoy," 395, 1162, standard evaluated. "Like provisions, bar disparity situations perfectly independent reasons inquiry exist degree close relation also, course, conducted due regard considerable leeway analyzing local evils prescribing cures." 396, added) (footnote 65 Unlike minimal burden rationality satisfy defending infringing attack, (1976), meet plaintiffs' asserting fostering Instead, though objective—conservation—was stake, based noncitizenship infirm "unless something indicate non-citizens peculiar source evil aimed." 398, 1163. Moreover, problem attempting remedy linked presence reasonable represented non-citizens, class, practiced them." 399, 1164. 66 (19 2). Mullaney, employed Territorial Alaska fishermen territorial waters, imposed $5 $50 invalid Although reaffirmed observation "charge non-residents compensate added impose conservation expenditures pay," 417, 430, Alaska's justifications insufficient sustain review, fact. Neither discussed fishing "hold shrimping sea, like clause," 403, 1165, effect conclusory clearly secondary extensive Carolina's justified. focus Doe Bolton, 410 179, 739, 201 "medical services" panoply Georgia abortions State.4 proposition taxation against; "an taxes" principal concern itself—the hinged nonresidency. confirm explicitly implicit decisions, namely nonresidents—who "are [discriminating] halls," 662, 1195—violates Rather, Drawing (1) seeks deal, (2) present. prove prevail prima facie showing supportab e grounds. unequal reasoned suitably tailored furthers ensuring comity," 660, prevails throughout while simultaneously needed draw viable 69 fall. Putting aside desiring buy, charging amount 7.5 hunters.5 apparently here. Indeed, how consistently prong analysis. First, record influx species. year statistics available, 1974-1975, 198,411 31,406 hunters. Nonresidents constituted 13% pursuing State.6 recognizes, 375 10, approached 17,000 statute, presumably precautionary measure.7 Second, discriminatorily high outgrowth policy discourage fails scheme. effort inhibit 285 21, 1752, (1977), "[a] leaves destroy excluding aliens all." hunters—the principally here—is justification. contended assessed additional resident-borne extracted y recoup behalf, price gouged satisfactorily avocation contend, shift efforts, however commendable onto shoulders powerless help ballot box. agreed, finding "[o]n consideration [the] presumption constitutionality allocation." 1008 erroneous, Gypsum 333 364, 394-395, 525, 541, 746 intimate otherwise. cost-justify correct analysis—that visits bear pose. (1877), actually all, pleases. (1896). lingering death begun thrust Holmes' blade 384, (1920) ("[t]o put lean slender reed") aided increasingly deep twists knife Foster Fountain 11-14, 4-5, 1165; 421, 1143, (1948); 545-546, 2294, 2295, finally became reality Marshall, speaking "A stand owner pure fantasy talk 'owning' fish, Government, hopeful fisherman hunter, creatures until reduced possession skillful capture. 'ownership' appellant fiction expressing 1165 Under analysis, exercised conformity Constitution." hunters, "exercised override appellants' respectfully dissent reverse.8 statutorily defines one's residence. 83-303 (1966 Supp.1977). durational six months eligibility receive license. 26-202.3(2) (Supp.1975). Appellants, Baldwin, residence §§ way. Oral Arg. 39-40. note, passing, licenses. Stat.Ann. 16.05.340 (1977); Colo.Rev.Stat. 33-4-102 (Supp.1976); Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., Tit. 12, 2401 (Supp.1977); Wis.Stat. 29.10, 29.105, 29.109, 29.12 Wyo.Stat. 23.1-33 Others Appendix Brief Appellees. 1973 Mont.Laws, ch. 408, 1969 26-202.1(4) (12), 26-230 restricted $51. 26-202.1(9) 26-230. advised oral argument unique Reply 29. 26-202.1(1), (2), (4) disparities except turkey bow-hunting. litigation, focuses Disparity rates criticism. U. S. Public Land Review One Third Nation's 174 (1970); Norman, Are Hunters Getting Fair Deal?, Outdoor Life, Sept. 1949, 21; Yeager, Take-Over, Outdoors, Jan./Feb. 43; Editorial, Stream, June 1974, 4. 56. 753,000. World Almanac 695 (1978). Of ranked 42d statehood. frequently Michigan Resources 27-28 (Sept.-Oct. 1975). Columbia, Puerto Rico, foreign countries. (part deposition Don Brown). Approximately 43,500 year. 7. "except live exactly place," testimony typical seven-day spends $1,250 outfitter's 283-284. insubstantial, lesser expense hunt. 26-202.1(16)(f) effective 1976. yet reached limit. numerical concluded: commercially." deny year, Game, Deer, Elk, Bear, Mountain Lion Regulations, Feb. 27, 1977, restrictions placed buying selling animals, parts thereof, 26-806 (1967). "In sport." ex rel. Visser 150 531, 373, 376 (1968). "[A] injury inconvenience recourse." Rathbone, 110 225, 242, 86, (1940). concession repeated orally 6. findings conclusions about standing ruled, plaintiff-appellants, Moris, sufficient suit. agree, standing. 746, States." "All naturalized wherein reside. abridge life, liberty, law; laws." better secure perpetuate mutual friendship intercourse different inhabitants paupers, vagabonds fugitives justice excepted, regress duties, thereof respectively ." four theories proffered S.Doc. 92-82, Pages 831-832 goes read: "Indeed, removing giving Republic little league exists. "But question, latter constitution virtue being Special operation operation, permission, express implied, confer must, therefore, home, assent given." 180-181, quotation, 381, rather critically regarded relating rights." suspect, preceding sentences opinion: governments; sovereign. perhaps tedious enumerate. may, comprehended following heads: acquire possess kind, happiness safety; restraints prescribe good whole." affected inclusion anything provision, consider 962 J.); Slaughter-House Cases, 36, (1873); Howell, Citizenship (1918). single-animal groups swapping. land provides contribution apportionments flow Aid Wild Life Restoration Act, Statutes-at-Large 917, amended, Code KF62 669-669i (1976 ed.). fail aspects transform barrier resident-nonresident differentials. Congress knows largess wishes 669 94-422, 90 1314, adding 6(f)(8) Water Conservation Fund Act 1965, 460l -8(f)(8) ascribes rationally induce program herd." 1011. desire engender classification. Memorial Hospital Maricopa County, 415 250, 266, 1076, 1086, 306 (1974). record, proved, discloses "otherwise 560, Chambers Baltimore Ohio 207 142, 155, 34, 38, 143 (1907); 248-249, (1898). "citizen" "resident" "essentially interchangeable." 662 8, 1195 397, was: run creditors debtors, happen extinguished, parties reside; yet, Wisconsin,—it railroad train,—a sprung forgotten. trap catch unwary defendant, governed recovery. inequitable unjust." 77. woman's choose abortion Roe Wade, 113, 705, rely deemed Again mention Corfield. ($225) ($30). Since wishing $9, wanted charged situated notation dramatically decade, 374-375, overstates putative threat pose wildlife. restriction issue. Because unconstitutional scrutiny. event, discriminates f nonresidency my discriminatee

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