Legal Document

513 U.S. 374115 S. Ct. 961130 L. Ed. 2d 902 MICHAEL A. LEBRON, PETITIONER v.NATIONAL RAILROAD PASSENGER CORPORATION No. 93-1525 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES November 7, 1994, Argued February 21, 1995, Decided ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR SECOND CIRCUIT. 12 F. 3d 388, reversed and remanded. SCALIA, J., delivered the opinion of Court, in which REHNQUIST, C. STEVENS, KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. O'CONNOR, filed a dissenting opinion, post, p. 400. JUSTICE SCALIA Court. 1 In this case we consider whether actions National Railroad Passenger Corporation, commonly known as Amtrak, are subject to constraints Constitution. 2 * Petitioner, Michael Lebron, creates billboard displays that involve commentary on public issues, seemingly propel him into litigation. See, e. g., Lebron v. Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority, 242 App. D.C. 215, 749 F.2d 893 (CADC 1984). August 1991, he contacted Transportation Displays, Incorporated (TDI), manages leasing billboards Amtrak's Pennsylvania Station New York City, seeking display an advertisement colossal proportions, Yorkers (or at least more Damon Runyonesque among them) "the Spectacular." The Spectacular is curved, illuminated billboard, approximately 103 feet long 10 high, dominates main entrance Penn Station's waiting room ticket area. 3 On 30, 1992, signed contract with TDI for two months beginning January 1993. provided "all advertising copy approval [Amtrak] character, text, illustration, design operation." 671. declined disclose specific content his throughout negotiations TDI, although did explain it was generally political. December 2, submitted (and later forwarded Amtrak) described by District Court follows:"The work photomontage, accompanied considerable text. Taking off widely circulated Coors beer proclaims be 'Right Beer,' Lebron's piece captioned 'Is Right's Beer Now?' It includes photographic images convivial drinkers beer, juxtaposed Nicaraguan village scene peasants menaced can hurtles towards them, leaving behind trail fire, if were missile. accompanying appearing either end montage, criticizes family its support right-wing causes, particularly contras Nicaragua. Again taking Coors' uses slogan 'Silver Bullet' cans, text 'The Silver Bullet aims Far political agenda heart America.'" 811 Supp. 993, 995 (SDNY 1993).Amtrak's vice president disapproved advertisement, invoking policy, inherited from predecessor landlord Station, Company, "that will not allow sign." 285. 4 then suit against Amtrak claiming, inter alia, refusal place had violated First Fifth Amendment rights. After expedited discovery, ruled because close ties Federal Government, Government actor, purposes, rejection proposed unsuitable Amendment. court granted injunction ordered Spectacular. 5 United States Appeals Second Circuit reversed. F.3d 388 (1993). panel's first noted was, terms legislation created it, entity, id., 390; concluded so involved latter's decisions could considered federal action, 391-392. Chief Judge Newman dissented. We certiorari. 511 1105 (1994). II 6 have held once, Burton Wilmington Parking 365 715, 45, 81 856 (1961), said many times, private entities sometimes regarded governmental action constitutional purposes. San Francisco Arts & Athletics, Inc. Olympic Comm., 483 522, 546, 97 427, 107 2971 (1987); Blum Yaretsky, 457 991, 1004, 73 534, 102 2777 (1982); Moose Lodge Irvis, 407 163, 172, 32 627, 92 1965 (1972). fair say "our cases deciding when might deemed state been model consistency." Edmonson Leesville Concrete Co., 500 614, 632, 114 660, 111 2077 (1991) (O'CONNOR, dissenting). may unnecessary traverse difficult terrain present case, since argument entity but itself. Before turning merits argument, however, necessary discuss propriety reaching it. raise point below; indeed, expressly disavowed both Appeals. See Plaintiff's Pre-Trial Proposed Conclusions Law 92-CIV-9411 (SDNY), 12, n. 1, reprinted 93-7127 (CA2), 1297; Brief Appellee 39. those courts argued requirements closely connected entities. until after certiorari explicitly presented -- brief alternative itself entity. 7 Our traditional rule "once claim properly presented, party make any claim; parties limited precise arguments they made below." Yee Escondido, 503 519, 118 153, 112 1522 (1992); see also Dewey Des Moines, 173 193, 198, 43 665, 19 379 (1899). contention part our view new within meaning rule, what has consistent claim: accord rights obliged provide Cf. Yee, supra, 534-535. fact, even raised petitioner below, would ordinarily feel free address addressed below. practice "permit[s] review issue pressed passed upon . ." Williams, 504 36, 41, 352, 1735 (1992). Virginia Bankshares, Sandberg, 501 1083, 1099, 8, 115 929, 2749 (1991); Stevens Department Treasury, 1562 (1991). 8 Respondent asserts that, addition having petition As Court's Rule 14.1(a) simple prudence dictate, reach questions fairly included petition. "The decides through well-established procedures; allowing able counsel who argue before us alter these or devise additional last minute thwart system." Taylor Freeland Kronz, 638, 646, 280, 1644 Here, satisfied embraced question set forth n1 presents neither "Government entity" theory nor "closely Government" application, rather facts both. petition, moreover, though couched different related theory, now advances. Pet. Cert. 16-18. 9 dissent contends occupies same status, insofar concerned, "physical taking" excluded supra. gives reasons equivalence: First, fact prefaced phrase, "Whether appeals erred holding." i. similar preface effect limiting ground relied Appeal. Post, 402. But all similar. What caused physical-taking only lower-court-said-to-be-in-error; decision previous cases, departure appeal. n2 536-537. dissent's second reason believing governs here structural relationship between clearly assertedly same. correctly analyzes one "umbrella claim" (government property without just compensation) "two distinct questions" "subsidiary (whether physical occurred, regulatory occurred). 401. "distinct" important ways claims not. all, possible existence assuming (as premises inquiry) nonexistence taking; whereas quite impossible connections sufficient convert private-entity actor begin: "Assuming no portion today's addressing must "Accepting concession 408. status is, other words, prior question. respect issues less than factors relevant their resolution overlap. go show different. very elements considering determining Amtrak-the-private-entity (for example, constitution board) bear all. When like one, dependent factual inquiries, refusing regard force assume ridiculous, risk ought avoided. 11 recent ours invites comparison insistence "precluded," 400, Nat. Bank Ore. Independent Ins. Agents America, Inc., 508 439, 124 402, 113 2173 There, raising proper interpretation U.S.C. § (1926 ed.), upheld Appeals' inadvertently repealed themselves failed question, here) initial briefs oral That say, situation there, level, here, (1) correct complied with, (2) addition, petitioner's principal issue. Even so, Insurance request supplemental briefing upon, decide, statutory repeal went inquire ourselves. unanimous, single Justice protesting judges Appeals, constituted "'as [a] self-directed board legal inquiry'" "exhibited little patience," n3 III proceeding nominally corporation, examine nature history Government-created corporations general. 13 Congress established order avert threatened extinction passenger trains States. statute begins congressional finding, redolent provisions Interstate Commerce Act, see, 49 §§ 10901, 10903, 10922 (1988 ed. V), convenience necessity require continuance improvement" railroad service. Rail Service Act 1970 (RPSA), 101, 84 Stat. 1328 (emphasis added). current version RPSA, 45 et seq. findings followed section entitled "Goals," begins, hereby establishes following goals Amtrak," items such detail following: 14 "(3) Improvement number miles generated systemwide per dollar funding 30 percent two-year period October 1981. 15 "(4) Elimination deficit associated food beverage services September 1982. 16 17 "(6) Operation trains, maximum extent feasible, station stops minutes time timetables operation. 18 "(8) Implementation schedules average speed 60 hour 501a.Later sections authorize incorporation, 541-542, structure powers, 543-545, outline procedures under relieve railroads passenger-service obligations intercity commuter rail service itself, 561-566. Corporation Atchison, T. R. 470 451, 453-456, 432, 105 1441 (1985). initially conceived, "a profit corporation," 1330, modified language provide, optimistically perhaps, "shall operated managed 541. 20 incorporated Columbia Business D. Code Ann. 29-301 (1981 1994), RPSA does contrary, contrary matters power, including manner selecting company's directors. provides nine members, six whom appointed directly President Secretary Transportation, designee, sits ex officio. 543(a)(1)(A). appoints three directors advice consent Senate, 543(a)(1)(C), list individuals recommended Railway Labor Executives Association, 543(a)(1)(C)(i), "from Governors interest transportation," 543(a)(1)(C)(ii), "representative business 543(a)(1)(C)(iii). These serve 4-year terms. 543(a)(2)(A). involvement choosing them names various authorities. 543(a)(1)(D). 2-year 543(a)(2)(B). holders preferred stock select directors, 1-year 543(a)(1)(E). Since presently holds stock, received still receives) exchange subsidization perennial losses, 544(c), selects ninth member president, 543(a)(1)(B), serves chairman board, 543(a)(4), selected eight pleasure, 543(d). four shareholders vote n4 21 By 548 required submit annual reports Congress. One these, "report effectiveness chapter meeting balanced national transportation system, together legislative recommendations," Transportation's report 548(c). B 22 unique, indeed unusual, phenomenon. us, useful context participated achievement objectives. 23 States, Feb. 25, 1791, ch. 10, 191, authorized subscribe corporation's 196. expired pursuant authorizing years later. A bank McCulloch Maryland, 316, Wheat. 579 (1819), Osborn 738, 204 (1824), April 1816, 266, Bank's capital ibid., appoint, 25 rest elected annually 269. 24 charter own force, despite fierce efforts supporters renew 1836. Remini, Andrew Jackson War 155-175 (1967). During remainder 19th century, continued corporations, July 1864, (Northern Pacific Company), once venture itself: Union Railroad, chartered 1862 specification 1862, 491. Leazes, Jr., Accountability State 117, (1987) (hereinafter Leazes). Government's participation corporate enterprise majority occur century. 1902, facilitate construction Panama Canal, purchase assets Canal Company France, holdings corporation 1849 York. June 28, 481; General Accounting Office, Reference Manual Corporations, Doc. 86, 79th Cong., 1st Sess., 176 (1945) GAO Manual). became sole shareholder operate original charter, War, holder electing Railroad's Id., 177; Joint Committee Reduction Nonessential Expenditures, 227, 78th (1944) Expenditures). 26 large-scale use Government-controlled came World War. 1917 1918, created, others, Grain Emergency Fleet Spruce Production Finance Corporation. Leazes 20. dissolved war ended. Expenditures 1. 27 Great Depression brought next major group proved enduring. primarily directed stabilizing economy making distress loans farms, homeowners, banks, enterprises. Moe, CRS Report Congress, Administering Public Functions Margins Government: Case Corporations 6-7 (1983). Reconstruction (RFC), take premier insurance companies, railroads, land agricultural credit organizations, secured banks. Jan. 22, 1932, 5, 47 6-7. Deposit (FDIC), hold liquidate insure deposits. 16, 1933, 89, 48 168, amended, 1811 V). And few Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), commercial sale goods services. May 18, 32, 58, 831 28 growth during era numerous specifically approved 1940, empowered RFC create authorization. 54 573-574. proceeded do gusto, incorporating Defense Plant Supplies Metals Reserve (which several subsidiaries), Petroleum Reserves Rubber Development Damage others. 38, 169, 182, 219, 279. Other formed, law, general authorization RFC. For Homes organized Maryland law using emergency funds allocated President, ("It clear what, any, authority creation Corporation"); Associated Cooperatives, TVA, 244 ("There found Board Directors organize corporation"). 1945, Office's listed 58 government total (in 1945 dollars) $ 29.6 billion. iii, v-vi. 29 II, and-controlled gotten out hand, lack accountability. moved reestablish Control (GCCA), 59 597, 31 9101 Pritchett, 40 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 495 (1946). GCCA specified wholly owned partially audited Comptroller General. 599, 600. Additionally, required, time, budgets budget President. 598; 22-23. dissolution liquidation except should act reincorporate; prohibited 602; cf. 9102. Thus, immediately dissolved, knowledge Saint Lawrence Seaway created. 27. 1960's, allure form felt again, proliferated. Many model, often designated agencies located existing structure. Foreign Assistance 1969, 105, 83 809 (creating Overseas Private Investment "an agency policy guidance State"), 2191 Beginning 1962, turned sponsoring establishments control mechanisms GCCA. Communications Satellite (Comsat), 731 seq., purpose entering sector, doing Government-conferred advantages, 22. Comsat capitalized entirely funds. Seidman, Government-sponsored Enterprise Political Economy: Use Sector (B. Smith 1975). contrast past Comsat's controlled shareholders; 733(a). seen unhindered restraints bureaucracy politics, Report, 24, soon creating corporations. some "private" charters instrumentalities 396(b) (Corporation Broadcasting (CPB)); 42 2996d(e)(1) (Legal Services (LSC)), subjected restrictions GCCA, (unlike Comsat) boards appointees votes voting control. 1967, 201, 369 (CPB's entire President); Legal 1974, 88 (same LSC). yet another variation theme. Like Comsat, CPB, LSC, declares "will establishment Government." 1330; Unlike CPB appointees. unlike added covered perceptive observer post-Comsat enterprises:"There valid basis distinguishing government-sponsored enterprises types activities, designed [designated?] 'not instrumentality Government.' Comparable powers immunities characterizing nongovernment." 93. 33 IV whatever charter's disclaimer prevents being case. This reliance misplaced. Section 541 assuredly dispositive purposes Congress' statutes impose confer entities, Administrative Procedure 551 Advisory laws governing procurement, 41 beyond think suffice deprive inherent power eliminate. doubt, disavowal deprives sovereign immunity suit, Sentner 540 557, 560 (NJ 1982), presumed incur pledge Debt Obligations Credit Admin., Op. Off. Counsel 262, 264 (1982). final determination citizens affected actions. If nature, Constitution regards pronouncement exempt Bureau Investigation Fourth constrains "by instruments modes taken." Ex parte Virginia, 100 339, 346-347, 676 (1880). label. debts owed "That chose call characteristics something actually Cherry Cotton Mills, 327 536, 539, 90 835, 66 729 34 points opinions characterize nongovernmental Boston Maine Corp., 407, 410, 52, 1394 (1992), describes "not conceivable relevance Maine. quoted characterization, contained statute, merely describing background hard imagine weaker dictum. 35 There character marginally relevant. opposing subsequent reneging "more rigorous standard review" Due Process Clause impairing contractual obligations. 471. contracts simply Amtrak." 470. develops, anyway, not) obligation alleged. apparent most enable make, applying standard" urged superfluous "even right disagree conclusion [affect did]." 476. Moreover, hand Atchison treat Congress's assertion conclusive. suggested above, 541's certainly suffices disable incurring behalf reasons, Atchison's assumption (a uncontested establish States) bind here. 36 V today unanswered, therefore, binding precedent Facing conclude individual guaranteed 37 seems judicial understanding -controlled over years. remarkable feature heyday 1930's 1940's, while praised "as separate distinct, administratively financially legally, [which] facilitated adoption methods accounting financing, avoidance controls, utilization regular management," fully acknowledged "device" "government," "federal agencies" apart "regular departments." Rev., 495. prepared General, contains Tables "Corporations arranged according supervising interested department agency," x-xi. lists then-extant departments agencies, Agriculture Department, concludes five "Independent corporations" analogous, supposes, "independent Executive Branch proper. whole tenor Government. 38 shared view. J. G. Menihan 312 81, 85 595, 61 485 (1941), Hughes, writing RFC, whose organic instrumentality, as, nonetheless, government," "it acts performing functions." 83. (1946), difficulty finding accomplish purely purposes," thus benefit giving Claims jurisdiction "counterclaims States," 250(2) (1940 ed.). Likewise Inland Waterways Corp. Young, 309 517, 901, 646 (1940), similarly 3, 1924, 360, "public moneys " banks give security 113, 523-524. Frankfurter wrote Court: 39 "So far takes appears Water-ways immaterial. motives lead clothe activities unrelated problem safeguarding deposits 523. appeared acknowledge, years, discussed uncontrolled explicit authorization, cor poration acquired "any officer acting 304(a), 602 evidently intended restrict policy-implementing them. companion provision swept away extant continue 304(b), 602. Once meant eliminate ownership From onward, 9, 1947, 130, 635 Export-Import America"); Crop 503, 52 72, 1503 Agriculture"), 1962 none otherwise. statutes, relatively number, took statement, perhaps too uncritically, earlier pertaining (Comsat) genuinely controlled. least) strong basis, understanding, surely cannot government, federal, evade solemn imposed resorting form. thesis, Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 256, 1138 (1896), resurrected device Louisiana segregated state-owned Amtrak. City Trusts Philadelphia, 353 230, 792, 77 806 (1957) (per curiam), Girard College, built maintained privately erected trust, nevertheless appointees, agency. 231. fortiori special furtherance goals. described, externally named (the itself) (including Transportation) Senate. 543(a)(1)(A), (C)-(D). Although restricts President's choices persons certain organizations qualifications, tailor-made alone. They absence whole, constitute restriction branches other. temporary comes be); pursuing objectives, direction so-called independent Commission Securities Exchange Commission, run Presidential fixed true commissioners not, removable cause, impeachable reduction immediacy accountability vis-a-vis minor consequence especially since, chartering "right repeal, alter, amend reserved." statements involving Planters' Georgia, 904, (1824). allowed Bank, Georgia noncontrolling interest, Dec. 19, 1810, Digest Laws 34-35 (O. Prince 1822); 1811, 35, sued Eleventh Amendment, reasoning becoming corporator, identify 907. Union," said, "held shares old States; privileges imparted circumstance bank. suits sense constitution." 908. contradict "privileges controls operation 44 invokes Regional Reorganization Cases, 419 102, 320, 95 335 (1974), Consolidated Conrail, indirectly, 152, 40; 1973, 301, 87 1004. observed placed protect States' "in assuring payment "full shift fall below 50% Conrail's indebtedness." 152. noted, responsibilities Conrail shareholders," ibid. contrasts "goals" 501a. worlds Conrail: exerts creditor policymaker, exists automatically terminate termination financial interest. n5 where, retains permanent appoint express leave decide that. judgment reversed, remanded further proceedings opinion. 46 ordered. dissenting. therefore challenge. consideration broad unexpected precluded narrower: Whether alleged suppression speech concededly imputed Because reject proposal matter coercion, I affirm provides: "Only therein, Court." While statement comprise every subsidiary question," "related" "complementary" "fairly therein." 537-538, (1992) deleted). umbrella complementary inquiry barred 14.1(a). 535. claim. Subsidiary claim, each other, questions: conduct attributable 50 petition: 51 holding asserted barring messages York, where: "(a) endowed owns members Board; 53 "(b) States-appointed challenged here; "(c) keeps afloat year subsidizing losses; 55 "(d) purchased entities." i.The asks "was action" may, blush, appear inquiry. suggests there recited Courts asked: "Was error appellate disregard rulings fifth fourteenth amendments?" Instead focusing "there taking," read whole. lower takings, concluded: "Fairly construed, then, petitioners' equivalent 'Did err taking?'" 537. 56 Just directs attention thorough order, case: "Plaintiff contend plaintiff sufficiently entwined operations particular action." 999 1993). distinguish line agency, stated: "Since se, interrelated treated inapposite." 57 substantively argues implicates presence 390 (CA2 To introduce analysis, private, for-profit Act," relying characterization asserting, "'pas[s] upon'" reversal, ante, 379, identified focused Lebron. observation much extensive discussion agree 393-394, but, token, how passing precedent; too, reversal. asked "Amtrak's follows concerning thrust query, enumerated attributes render action. emphasis crucial difference focuses word instead State's influence actor. Fairly links thereto. to, inclusive of, answered today, functional my view, latter Relying (1993), addresses "prior namely, Ante, 382. Agents, waived sua sponte abuse discretion so. marshals justify instance. explained authority, prudence. event, dispute centered existed, and, recognizes, 383, applied principle estoppel way ascertaining law." South Ottawa Perkins, 94 260, 267, 154 (1877). need predicate accept mere insulate former waiver rules. Stone Powell, 428 465, 1067, 96 3037 (1976), cognizable habeas distinguished noting substantive scope writ petition[s] certiorari." 481, 15. recognized avoided cognizability, course, logically anterior presented. Steagald 451 204, 211, 68 101 1642 (1981), conceded searched home, precedes preserved, search reasonable. Kamen Kemper Financial Services, 90, 97, 4, 1711 (1991), litigated assumed cause 20(a) 1940 Burks Lasker, 441 471, 476, 404, 99 1831 (1979) (assuming same). Finally, McCormick 257, 307, 1807 legislator violate antiextortion Hobbs 1951, accepting campaign contributions improper promises. reached declining applies local officials McCormick, 268, 6; 280 (SCALIA, concurring) (accepting assumption, waived, 'payment official action' statute" "I well mind exist"). 62 "dependent inquiries [as question], avoided." circularity inheres logic, answer omitted determine turns inquiries" facts, record shaped parties' Perhaps serendipity given adequate advanced guarantee convergence. unfair developed differently response unfairness, fear seeming "ridiculous," avoid. 63 14.1(a), imposes prudential limitation, "only exceptional cases." 15; Mendenhall, 446 544, 551, 64 497, 1870 (1980). before, disavow troublesome cases. postpetition attempt resuscitate himself put precisely kind bait-and-switch strategy rules, otherwise, supposed against. Steagald, stated unequivocally assertions, concessions, acquiescence, lost challenge possessed legitimate expectation privacy home." Rule's limitation disserves notice enables respondent sharpen opposition "By forcing choose outset, relieves expense litigation burden unpresented questions." 536. failing object exactly point: include devoted State. pages 16-18, embrace advances," 380, composition "renders otherwise actor," added) repeating wishes withdraw. respond waive Not persistent 65 Second, assists management "Rule forces focus viewed important, enabling efficient resources." normally grant petitions conflict. Anderson 754 202, (CA7 1985); Ehm 732 1250, 1255 (CA5), cert. denied, 469 982, 322, 387 (1984), suggest where conflict, defer novel permit development. Despite prevalence publicly seldom answered, (1946); Answering opens back door premature adjudication theories future. Weeding endeavors, rests firmly power. Carducci Regan, 230 80, 714 171, 177 1983) (Scalia, J.) ("The premise adversarial system sit research, essentially arbiters them"). doctrine restraint teaches patience conflicts produce desirable result." Stevens, Some Thoughts Judicial Restraint, Judicature 177, 183 result decide. exhibited result. 67 Accepting "traverse terrain," 378, sees fit avoid, us: ban speech, Reflecting discontinuity marks area, variously characterized nexus action," Edison 345, 351, 477, 449 (1974); State, encouraging conduct, thought "responsible actions," 1005, infringement [is] 'fairly State,'" Rendell-Baker Kohn, 830, 838, 418, 2764 (1982), quoting Lugar Edmondson Oil 922, 937, 482, 2744 Whatever semantic formulation, remain "fundamentally choice relies heavily (1961). perceived symbiotic racially restaurant leased space. Noting stood discrimination, "so insinuated position interdependence with" joint participant activity." 725. Focusing language, features genesis, heavy subsidies, places 69 Burton, narrow. limits inquiry" emphasized depended "peculiar [and] circumstances present." 726. "actual lessees property," 358, area led commentators doubt continuing vitality, Tribe, American Constitutional 18-3, 1701, (2d 1988) surviving explanation Stewart's concurrence"). 70 Jackson, utility's customer due process challenge, law. results choice: "Respondent's exercise initiative 'state Fourteenth Amendment." 357 (footnote omitted). makes environment regulated Rendell-Baker, school troubled students transferred education paid school. comprised 90% 99% budget. fired petitioners, grievance reviewed personnel school's pervasive discharge "were compelled influenced regulation." 841. regulation generally, regulators showed matters." Ibid. Likewise, hospital patients Medicaid regulations adjustment encouraged hospital's early, actions" "ultimately turn medical judgments professional standards State." 1008. 547, evidence coerced USOC [to deny copyright]"). 71 differ markedly "interdependence" "joint participation" analysis stand unless affirmatively undertake contrary. attorney's peremptory cited 621, 624, exercising enjoys "overt, significant assistance court," 624. application Shelley Kraemer, 334 1161, 836 (1948), coercive courts, litigant's allegedly unconstitutional choice. stressed litigant performs "traditional function Marsh Alabama, 326 501, 265, 276 72 Marsh, necessarily extend rationale Given role society, test predicated sweeps broadly pedestrian everyday 725-726. refined Blum, Athletics: scrutiny coercion. Applying impute disapprove advertisement. indicate operation, down proposal. violates originated Company. 1967 lease company, judgement Licensor slanderous, libelous, unlawful, immoral, [or] offensive good taste 326, P19. over. Vice Real Estate Operations Development, who, officer, President-appointed 74 adverse him. faulty actors President; assumes begging board's significance, belies contention. permitted disallow board. meetings dating 1985 Incorporated, company served agent, delegated execute licensing agreement. short, nothing controlled, coerced, decision, judgment, 75 Presented precedents reverse based foreign Respectfully, dissent. 76 ----------------------------------Footnotes Certiorari sought question: 78 79 80 82 follows: "'Two appeal transfer premium value departing mobile home tenant, representing occupy reduced rate rent ordinances, constitute[s] impermissible taking. Was amendments?'" narrow imprudent reversible discretion. damaging concession, "to rest" always "prudential" 406. approving declines brush aside (questionable) 'duty' 92," saying "we decide" 448. goes acted "without impropriety," "certainly discretion." entertainment unreversible, appropriate, rendered ourselves complicit (There intervene, law.) seeks 404 (internal quotation concerned appellants' assert forfeited. forfeit decided nonforfeited 86 Originally, directors: (one 303(a) (c), 1330-1331. increased 17, director 3(a), 548. 1976, (apart 103, 2615. size membership Omnibus Budget Reconciliation 1981, 1174, 689. 543(c) purports divide seven common stockholders conversion one-fourth outstanding stock. subsection originally enacted 1970, amended. irreconcilable revised nine-member 543(a)(1). n6 "declined 'a "duty" 92,' 'we decide' question." 3. (prudently) reserving implied answer. "complicity [Court Appeals'] enterprise," indulges unlikely inference did.

Classification Label: 2