Legal Document

427 U.S. 50 96 Supreme Court Reporter 2440 49 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 310 Coleman Atlantic YOUNG, Mayor the City of Detroit, et al., Petitioners,v.AMERICAN MINI THEATRES, INC., al. Number 75-312. Argued March 24, 1976. Decided June Rehearing Denied Oct. 4, See 429 873, 97 191. Syllabus Respondent operators two adult motion picture theaters brought this action against petitioner city officials for injunctive relief and a declaratory judgment unconstitutionality regarding 1972 Detroit zoning ordinances that amended an "Anti-Skid Row Ordinance" adopted 10 years earlier. The provide theater may not (apart from special waiver) be located within 1,000 feet any other "regulated uses" or 500 residential area. term applies to different kinds establishments in addition theaters, including book stores, cabarets, bars, taxi dance halls, hotels. If is used present "material distinguished characterized by emphasis on matter depicting . 'Specified Sexual Activities' Anatomical Areas' " it "adult" establishment. District upheld ordinances, granted petitioners' summary judgment. Appeals reversed, holding constituted prior restraint constitutionally protected communication violated equal protection. Respondents, asserting correctness court's ruling with respect those constitutional issues, contend are void vagueness. While attacking specificity definitions sexual activities anatomical areas, respondents maintain (1) they cannot determine how much described activity permissible before exhibition "characterized emphasis" such matter, (2) do specify adequate procedures standards obtaining waiver 1,000-foot restriction. Held: 1. as applied these violate Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment ground Pp. 58-61. (a) Neither asserted elements vagueness has affected respondents, both which propose offer fare regular basis allege no claiming anticipating Pacific KF135 P2 58-59. (b) T will have demonstrably significant effect films First Amendment. To extent area doubt exists amount sexually explicit portrayed material can said there reason why "readily subject narrowing construction state courts." This would therefore inappropriate case apply principle urged permitted challenge because their own rights free expression violated, but assumption ordinances' very existence cause others court refrain speech expression. 59-61. 2. invalid under restraints licensing requirements. Though exhibited commercially only licensed also true all films. That place where regulated does expression, city's interest planning regulating use property commercial purposes being clearly support locational 62-63. 518 Federal Reporter, 2nd 1014, reversed. Maureen Reilly, Mich., petitioners. Stephen M. Taylor, John Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Weston respondents. Mr. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court.* 1 Zoning differentiate between exhibit movies not. principal question presented whether statutory classification unconstitutional based content Amendment.1 2 Effective November 2, 1972, challenged litigation. Instead concentrating limited zones, require dispersed. Specifically, area.2 includes theaters.3 3 expressly predicated character pictures exhibits. depicting, describing relating Areas,' "4 establishment.5 4 were amendments had been At time Common Council made finding some uses especially injurious neighborhood when concentrated areas.6 decision add stores list businesses which, apart waiver,7 could uses," was, part, response growth number establishments.8 In urban planners real estate experts who supported location several same tends attract undesirable quantity quality transients, adversely affects values, causes increase crime, prostitution, encourages residents move elsewhere. 5 Respondents theaters. One, Nortown, was established began 1973. other, Pussy Cat, corner gas station converted into "mini theater," denied certificate occupancy its plan Both Cat less than separate actions appropriate officials, seeking injunction enforcement. jurisdiction properly invoked9 cases consolidated decision.10 6 defendants' 373 F.Supp. 363. On reasons stated adopting concluded represented rational attempt preserve neighborhoods.11 analyzed rejected respondents' argument definition provisions impermissibly vague; held disparate treatment justified compelling did Equal Protection Clause;12 finally regulation places shown Amendment.13 7 American Mini Theatres, Incorporated versus Gribbs, 1014 (CA6 1975). majority imposed "merely establishing designed serve public interest" provided insufficient justification materials purvey public.14 Relying primarily Police Department Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 92 2286, 33 212, ordinance Clause. Judge Celebrezze, dissent, expressed valid 'time, manner' regulation," rather content.15 8 Because importance decision, we certiorari, 423 911, 214, 46 139. 9 As Court, so vague Amendment; communication; (3) exhibitions violates We consider arguments order. * There parts claim too vague. They attack "Specified Activities" Areas." argue, however, matter. addition, argue 11 find unnecessary validity either abstract. For even if uncertainty about litigants, unquestionably applicable record indicates basis.16 respondent alleged restriction theater. It clear, therefore, element inadequate notice resulting denial procedural due process Amendment, must rejected. Cf. Parker Levy, 417 733, 754-757, 94 2547, 2560-2562, 41 439. 12 affect raise issue though impact rights. occasions determined defendant whose unprotected standing constitutionality statute purported prohibit speech, arguably protected.17 exception traditional rules issues reflected Court's statutes persons engaging Broadrick Oklahoma, 413 601, 611-614, 93 2908, 2915-2917, 37 830. overriding maintaining open market interchange ideas. Nevertheless, statute's deterrent legitimate "both substantial," courts," see Erznoznik Jacksonville, 422 205, 216, 95 2268, 2276, 45 125, litigant assert third parties. 13 persuaded already noted, relates most readily answerable; exists, Since surely vital uninhibited borderline pornography artistic dissemination ideas social political significance, since easily susceptible construction, think adjudicate hypothetical claims Court. 14 deterred comprises containing falling specific fact protects some, necessarily all, total suppression warrant further conclusion exhibitor's doubts film his theater, well presentations, involves kind threat justifies exceptional approach adjudication recognized like Dombrowski Pfister, 380 479, 85 1116, 22. 15 application plain; situations, agree II 16 Petitioners acknowledge "adult theaters" exhibiting speech. 17 impose limit operate Detroit. distributors exhibitors access or, conversely, viewing unable satisfy appetite fare. Viewed entity, commodity essentially unrestrained. 18 true, But pictures. general laws certain requirements; municipality control establishments, confining them specified zones requiring dispersed throughout city. mere exploitation requirements sufficient invalidating ordinances. 19 Putting one side moment not, itself, create impermissible communication. limits. short, treat differently respective offend Amendment.18 turn, consistent III 20 A remark attributed Voltaire characterizes our zealous adherence government tell citizen what he say. Referring suggestion violent overthrow tyranny might legitimate, said: "I disapprove you say, & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions defend death your right say it."19 essence comment repeated after decisions attempts selective controls upon 21 Thus, streets parks views national affairs conditioned sovereign's agreement speaker intend say.20 Nor curtailed invites dispute, creates dissatisfaction conditions way are, stirs people anger.21 disagreement time, place, manner presenting 22 picketing vicinity school allowed express point view labor, means points well. Mosley : 23 "The central problem Chicago's describes terms Peaceful school's labor-management dispute permitted, peaceful prohibited. operative distinction message picket sign. But, above else, power restrict message, ideas, content. Cohen California, 403 15, 91 1780, 1787, 29 284 (1971); Street New York, 394 576, 89 1354, 572 (1969); York Times company Sullivan, 376 254, 269-270, 84 710, 720-721, 686 (1964), cited; NAACP Button, 371 415, 445, 83 328, 344, 405 (1963); Wood Georgia, 370 375, 388-389, 82 1364, 1371-1372, 569 (1962); Terminiello Chicago, 337 1, 69 894, 895, L.Ed. 1131 (1949); De Jonge Oregon, 299 353, 365, 57 255, 260, 81 278 (1937). permit continued building politics culture, assure self-fulfillment each individual, guaranteed thought, censorship. forbidden censorship control. Any expressive completely undercut 'profound commitment debate should uninhibited, robust, wide-open.' supra, U.S., at 270, S.Ct., 721. 24 "Necessarily, then, Clause, mention grant forum finds acceptable, deny wishing favored more controversial views. And select worth discussing debating facilities. 'equality status field ideas,' afford opportunity heard. Once opened up assembly speaking groups, assembling Selective exclusions alone, reference alone." 95-96, 2290. (Footnote omitted.) 25 statement, effect, read literally without regard facts made, absolutely preclude whole part learned long ago broad statements principle, correct context sometimes qualified contrary absolute reached.22 When review actual adjudications area, whatever 26 is, often depends line advocacy incitation crime violence depends, merely setting occurs, exactly say.23 Similarly, utterance determines epithet "fighting comment."24 war "the publication sailing dates transports troops" restrained, Near Minnesota ex rel. Olson, 283 697, 716, 51 625, 631, 75 1357, although news stories protected. 27 Even difference governmental response. 686, limitations States' enforce libel laws. official recover damages critic conduct proof "malice" specially defined opinion.25 Implicit newspaper article lesser standard adequate. 28 series later cases, individual frequently stated, addressed malice required Despite diversity involving figures, mattered, common thread ran through opinions rule depended communication.26 contradict underlying generally prohibition need neutrality government; sympathy hostility communicator.27 story examined decide figure issue, relevant depend favorable unfavorable appraisal issue. recently affords protection speech.28 particular advertisement rapid transit system accept advertisements reject others.29 highway billboards advertise elsewhere,30 regulatory commissions businessmen making potentially deceptive.31 measure afforded governed largely communication.32 30 More directly dealing prohibits State Governments wholly suppressing oriented "obscene character." Ginsberg 390 629, 88 1274, 195, conviction selling minor magazines concededly "obscene" adults. Indeed, Members accord greatest repeatedly indicated distribution juveniles unconsenting adults.33 Surely foreclose prohibition;yet equally clear rest squarely otherwise 31 Such drawn violating government's paramount obligation unaffected social, political, philosophical intended communicate; ridicules another, same. 32 Moreover, recognize tolerate erotic value, manifest society's protecting type different, lesser, magnitude untrammeled inspired Voltaire's immortal comment. Whether oratory discussion moves us applaud despise said, every schoolchild understand duty speak remains few march sons daughters off citizen's choice. suppression, hold legitimately placing remaining preserving neighborhoods. Judges Kennedy Gubow. disclosed factual Council's desired effect.34 function appraise wisdom separated areas. event, attempting life accorded high respect. reasonable experiment solutions admittedly serious problems. 34 ultimately stake nothing limitation exhibited,35 determination fits characterization turns nature content, conclude future neighborhoods adequately supports 35 Reversed. 36 POWELL, concurring portions opinion. Although opinion, concur Parts II, my resolution sufficiently prompt me write separately.1 example innovative land-use regulation, implicating concerns incidentally extent. 38 One-half century broadly sustained local municipalities utilize then relatively novel concept order meet effectively increasing encroachments urbanization citizens. Euclid Ambler Realty Co., 272 47 114, 71 303 (1926). noted practical consideration necessity power: "(W)ith great concentration population, problems developed, constantly developing, require, continue additional restrictions occupation private lands communities." Id., 386-387, 118. laid out boundaries operate: Restrictions land justifications "some aspect police power, welfare"; legitimacy judged surrounding circumstances conditions; legislative "fairly debatable." 387, 388, 39 intervening become accepted increasingly urbanized society, types taken forms far complex involved Euclid. Village Belle Terre Boraas, 416 1536, 797 (1974), considered unusual enacted small Long Island community apparent effort avoid unpleasantness living. restricted village single-family dwellings "family" unrelated inhabit house. ordinance, noting desires congestion noise vehicles "legitimate guidelines project family needs" quite village's "make sanctuary people." 9, 1541. 40 Against background precedent, beyond deal prompted enactment Anti-Skid Ordinance. notes, Ante, 54, n. 6, motivated perception concentrated, worked "deleterious adjacent areas" "contribute blighting downgrading neighborhood." purpose preventing deteriorationf certainly welfare defines limits power. Berman Parker, 348 26, 32-33, 98, 102, 99 (1954). apparently concede passed 1962, bookstores "topless" cabarets. Those resulted recent proliferation tendency cluster adverse areas aimed preventing. Respondents' insofar them, simply. Contending "character right, limitation," governs judicial review, Thomas Collins, 323 516, 530, 65 315, 322, 430 (1945), regulations talismanic immunity challenge, cf. 269, 720, abridge restricting locate substantial unproved fears apprehensions effects business Cf., E. g., Cox Louisiana, 379 536, 453, 471 (1965). And, Detroit's deterioration justify freedom nevertheless discriminates solely Dept. 212 (1972). 42 following reasons. 43 first interests Amendments implicated municipality's mechanically doctrines developed contexts. situation analogous forums indeed, case. unique calls, do, careful inquiry competing guarantee 44 burden rests rights, necessary identify infringement primary concern full varied convey message. Vital corollary everyone receive See, Whitney 274 357, 377, 641, 648, 1095 (1927) (Brandeis, J., concurring); Procunier Martinez, 396, 408-409, 1800, 1808-1809, 224 (1974); Kleindienst Mandel, 753, 762-765, 2576, 2581-2582, 683 (1972); Virginia Pharmacy Board Consumer Council, 425 748, 763-765, 1817, 1826-1827, 48 346 (1976). Motion pictures, medium here, fully Joseph Burstyn, Wilson, 343 495, 501-503, 72 777, 1098 (1952). quarter Burstyn analous medium, printed books, many occasions, person owner bookseller. Our reveal, flow creator audience convey. Douglas core idea succinctly: "In Nation writer, actor, producer, use, freed censor." Superior Films Education, 587, 589, 74 286, 287, 98 329 (1954) (concurring opinion). instances, criminal schemes, bookseller protect interest. Kingsley Books, Brown, 354 436, 442, 77 1325, 1469 (1957); Smith 361 147, 150, 153-154, 80 215, 218-219, 205 (1959); Interstate Circuit Dallas, 676, 683-684, 1298, 1302-1303, 225 (1968); compare Marcus Search Warrant, 367 717, 736, 1708, 1718, 1127 (1961), Quantity Books Kansas, 378 213, 1723, 1727, 809 Heller 483, 491-492, 2789, 2794, 745 (1973); Bantam 372 58, 70-71, 639, 584 (1963). case, indication Ordinance production degree, movies. Nortown able location, potential proposed Cat. constraints indeed economic loss engaged business. enterprise suffers detriment result regulation. cas legion damage. Zahn Public Works, 325, 594, 1074 (1927). concerned impact; rather, looks prompts inquiries: (i) Does creators ability make available whom desire, (ii) desire them? inquiries answered negative. incidental minimal.2 silenced invoked censorship, wish them. presented, interfere overall curtailment movie reach audience. finding, 71-72, 35, appears remain approximately same, sure prospective patrons inconvenienced dispersal.3 patrons, depending live work, convenient section circumstances, analyze permissibility four-part test O'Brien, 391 367, 1673, 1679, 672 (1968). Under test, justified, despite interests, "if Government; furthers important interest; expression; freedoms greater essential furtherance interest." Ibid. distinctions prosecution destruction Service registration certificate, substantial, weighing balancing interestare 409-412, 1809-1810. earlier, enact. 32, 102. furthered substantial. Without stable neighborhoods, commercial, large sections modern quickly deteriorate jungle tragic consequences environmental, values. enjoys searching scrutiny, undeniable zoning, city, perhaps performed government, difficult define life." 13, 1543 (Marshall, dissenting). fourth tests O'Brien met record. chronology embarked suppress existence, set out, decade it. occurred, seriously prompting inclusion expression.4 degree encroachment minimum ordinance. evidence threatened, elected specialize movies.5 contribute IV dissenting perceive position 125 (1975). believe clouded one. Jacksonville dissimilar, analysis infirmities former inapplicable latter. Erznoznik, purporting prevent nuisance, comprehensive prohibited showing nudity drive-in screens visible street place. advanced justifying three: citizens unwilling exposure possibly offensive material; children materials; (iii) slowing passing traffic likelihood accidents. found face overbroad underinclusive purposes. purpose, proscribed nudity, however innocent educational. viewers deemed captives; look 210-212, 2273-2274; 21, 1786. minors "might newsreel scenes opening art shots bathers beach." 2275. Finally, rationally tailored By proscribing "even fleeting glimpses nudity," strikingly omitting "a wide variety customary screen diet (that) (no) distracting motorist." 214-215, sum, misconceived regulate contrast, least courts alert possibility direct using zone pretext 52 STEWART, BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN join, dissenting. 53 today holds sanctions content-based geographic nonobscene dissent drastic departure principles law. 54 involve simple ordinance,1 content-neutral restriction,2 obscene entitled Amendment.3 here objectionable diminish "offensive" (display screen); Lewis Orleans, 415 130, 970, 214 (utterance vulgar epithet); Hess Indiana, 414 105, 326, remark); Papish University Missouri Curators, 410 667, 1197, 618 (indecent remarks campus newspaper); (wearing clothing inscribed Brandenburg Ohio, 395 444, 1827, racial slurs); Pictures Corporation Regents, 360 684, 79 1362, 1512 (alluring portrayal adultery proper behavior). 55 What interference thought produce distasteful effects. elementary prime guard just interference.4 refusing invalidate rides roughshod over cardinal law, neutral except captive juvenile audience.5 invokes alien "few choice," 70, implies Constitution. stands "Voltaire's comment," Ibid., head. guarantees reserved us" take arms defend, circumscribed current popular Bill Rights precisely majoritarian liberty.6 56 address "important" topics "ideas significance," terminology, 61, mean worthy "Wholly futilities come Keats' poems Donne's sermons." Winters 333 507, 528, 68 665, 840 (Frankfurter, dissenting); accord, 25, 1788. absence obscenity, terms. "(S)ex obscenity synonymous. sex, art, literature scientific works, itself press. Sex, mysterious motive force human life, indisputably absorbing mankind ages; concern." Roth States, 476, 487, 1304, 1310, 1498 (footnotes omitted). 688-689, 1365. interpret today's aberration. undoubtedly sympathetic, am I, well-intentioned efforts "clean up" "skid rows." instances grates unpleasantly sensibilities vigilance height. 58 Heretofore, shied responsibility interference. Just last Term consistently Amendments, nuisance show parallels striking. There, forbid altogether "distasteful" alteration physical forum. minimizing "undesirable" having significantly, embodied § Compare Municipal Code 330.313 742-G, 32.0007. almost "all fours" 59 never forget rigorously enforcing unpleasant. Much seems little value enter threatening discourse and, generally, serenity lives. price paid freedom. 60 BLACKMUN, MARSHALL 61 join STEWART's separately independent me, unconstitutional. 62 put ourselves shoes exhibitor. Let suppose that, previously offered innocuous fare, decides vary days occasionally deals explicitly sex. exhibitor h class prescribed class, licensed, entirely prohibited, location. 63 "Adult" Vel non "used presenting" "distinguished on" activities, intercourse, areas.1 enough, operator films, depicted, depiction represents films' know activities. gives him guidance. instruct whether, assuming thus characterized," phrase Ever used, Often Predominantly name possibilities. 64 assume concludes render showhouse He still operation virtue feet. His task determining suddenly multiplied neighbors class. must, words, evaluate competitor neighboring worry, bookstores, "Group 'D' Cabaret(s)," sellers alcoholic beverages consumption premises, hotels, motels, pawnshops, pool lodging houses, "secondhand stores," shoeshine parlors, "taxi halls." exhitor master definitions. Some course; so. bookstore "adult," example, "substantial portion stock trade" characterized" compounded applying himself neighbors, furthermore, ongoing violator neighbor slipped use" classification. know, hotel bar "parlor" uncertain constitutes use." trade comes character, predominance, "adult." Lest let down guard, remember miscalculates pay fine go jail.2 66 surprising if, chose forgo altogether. deterrence "gray area" possible coverage course, vices second excessive unreviewable discretion standards. vice here. left interpretation law enforcement authorities.3 introduced dangerously indefinite empowered licenses waivers rule.4 67 All dispensed mayor. criteria licensing, mayor refuse license, revoke "upon submitted violation , preceding years, (zoning) evidences flagrant disregard safety employees, residing doing nearby." 5-2-3. rule, obtain approval Planning Commission, waive rule. satisfying definite criteria, "will nearby properties," violative spirit intent" 70 day, Hynes Oradell, 610, 1755, 243 (1976), reaffirmed 'government narrow specificity,' 433, 338, (1963), avoiding language "men intelligence guess meaning." Connally General Constr. 269 385, 391, 126, 127, 322 invalidated "Civic Groups Organizations," anyone "call house charitable campaign cause," register "for identification only." intolerably unclear "Groups Organizations" encompassed, meant "cause," "identification." fail survive pernicious still. mayor's license "flagrant disregard" "safety welfare" exercisable committed infraction previous years,5 standardless times condemned. Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 935, 22.Ed.2d 162 Staub Baxley, 355 313, 78 277, 302 (1958); Kunz 340 290, 312, 280 (1951); Niemotko Maryland, 268, 267 Saia 334 558, 1148, 1574 (1948); Schneider State, 308 163-164, 146, 151-152, 155 (1939); Hague CIO, 307 496, 954, 1423 Lovell Griffin, 666, 949 (1938). Commission likewise functions censor, constrained "public "spirit exhibitions. 683, 1302, (1968), cited.6 wanting Gelling Texas, 960, 1002, 1359 (1952) (censor ban "of prejudicial best City"). applications argued adhere cityscape, minds constituents. neither aspects alters basic dispositive facts: protected, secure, Commission; inevitably exhibitions; "narrowly drawn, standards." 271, 327. originally designed. acceptable way, light Amendment's presence, places. 73 really settled principles, survive. reasons, instead, plaintiffs themselves ordinance's proscriptions, usual practice, entertain facial challenges overbreadth proscription. given departing practice "significant Amendment"; construction"; "there significance." 60, 61. reason, disagree facts, initial opinion.7 second, easy "narrowing construction" proposed, particularly (due rule) provisions, Other reduced specificity. 622, 1761. ("we remedy (vagueness) defects giving precise content"). simply protection, explains lapse joining STEWART joined forthright rejection notion diminished "erotic materials" protect. 76 swayed "zoning" material. name, places, imposing ban. suspect be, approve carefully delineated Part THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, REHNQUIST. "Congress shall abridging press ." Edwards South Carolina, 229, 680, 697. original form 500-foot measured "any residential, dwelling rooming unit." appeal ruling, amendment prohibiting zoned use. "mini" contain seats, include bookstores; cabarets (group "D"); sale beer intoxicating liquor premises; hotels motels; pawnshops; billiard halls; houses; secondhand stores; parlors; halls. These follows: "For Section, as: "1. Human Genitals stimulation arousal; "2. Acts masturbation, intercourse sodomy; "3. Fondling touching genitals, pubic region, buttock female breast. "And Less opaquely covered: buttock, (c) breast below immediately top areola; male genitals discernibly turgid state, covered." three mini respectively "Adult Book Store "An establishment trade, magazines, periodicals (as below), segment devoted display Picture Theater enclosed capacity below) observation therein. therein." Section 66.000 Official (1972) recited: development execution Ordinance, nature, operational characteristics, thereby deleterious Special insure neighborhood. itemized section. (i. e. thousand effects)." authorizes finds: "a) properties, intent observed. "b) enlarge encourage 'skid row' "c) program neigh(bor)hood conservation nor renewal. "d) observed." department memorandum assistant corporation counsel 1967 comparable "adult-type businesses." KF62 1983, invoking federal 1343(3). decided single filed jointly Theatre 363 (ED Mich.1974). "When, concern, statement attack. "Nor substitute methods City's relationship objective adopted." 367. "Because Ordinances distinguish theatres ordinary wares, restrains Circuit, reviewing classification, close scrutiny. Harper Elections, 383 663, 670, 86 1079, 169 (1966); 438, Defendants locations preservation destructive impact. affidavit Dr. Mel Ravitz establishes 1000 promote provision clause." Id, 369. "Applying instant City. interest, i. stabilization indirectly related, sense freely exercised locations. Plaintiffs theatre bookstore, businesses, residentially area; performance profit street. Admittedly restrictive, 371. discharge heavy fundamental involved, method hand incidental. legally powers providing operated However, selects enterprises fall classifications classifies public." F.2d, 1019-1020. part: 1000-foot Rather, side-effects subterfuge censorship." 1023. complaints adults admitted alleges "desires adult-type theater." outside "Such entertained terms, seek 'only spoken words.' Gooding 518, 520, 1103, 1105, Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 766, 1031 (1942). harm society permitting unpunished outweighed muted perceived grievances fester inhibitory overly statutes. Overbreadth attacks association ensnared sweep, burdening associations. Keyishian 385 87 675, 629 (1967); Robel, 389 258, 419, 508 Aptheker Secretary 500, 1659, 992 (1964); Shelton Tucker (364 247, 231 (1960)). Facial statutes, purport communicative conduct, Grayned Rockford, 114-121, 2302-2306; Cameron Johnson, 617-619, 1338, 1339; Zwickler Koota, 241, 249-250, 396-397, 444 Thornhill Alabama, 88, 1093 (1940), delegated discretionary functionaries, virtually 553-558, 463-466, (1965); (1938)." 612-613, 2916, Reasonable Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 448, 513 (limitation sound trucks); 559, 487 (ban demonstrations near courthouse obstruct justice); 104, 2294, 222 willful making, grounds school, disturbs good session). S. Tallentrye, Friends 199 (1907). 964, (opinion Roberts, J.). 1131. Kastigar 406 441, 454-455, 1653, 1661-1662, 212; Gas Imp. Continental Oil 381 392, 404, 1517, 1524, 466. Bond Floyd, 116, 133-134, 339, 348, 235; Harisiades Shaughnessy, 342 580, 592, 512, 586; Musser Utah, 95, 99-101, 397, 398-399, 562. 574, 770, 1031, punishing "damned racketeer(s)" Fascist(s)" unduly impair liberty "Actual malice" "with knowledge false reckless not." 280, 726. 'public interest' test" applicability Gertz Robert Welch, Inc., 418 323, 346, 2997, 3010, 789, reference, 3011, misstatement "whose warn reasonably prudent editor broadcaster defamatory potential." requires falsehood matters." 341, 3007. Professor Kalven wrote Concept Forum: 1965 Sup.Ct.Rev. 29: "(The Clause) likely defense vigorous users groups exempted parades pickets, rationale fatally impeached. objection longer keyed interferences appear implicate transmitting. slip circumstance equal-protection merge considerations Black 'But specifically labor union views, Louisiana pick choose among willing discussed streets. trying prescribe matters allows assemble discuss. odious ' (379 581, 453)." 346. Lehman Shaker Heights, 298, 2714, 770 (product advertising accepted, while cards rejected). Markham Advertising Wash.2d 405, 439 248 dismissed want question, 393 316, 553, 512. NLRB Gissel Packing 575, 617, 1918, 1941, 547, balanced employer's communicate employees employees' associate 'any argument, opinion' 'evidence unfair practice,' So contains 'no reprisal promise benefit' interference, restraint, coercion exercise self-organization. Trade restrain misleading, false, labels recognized. Jacob Siegel FTC, 327 608, 758, 90 888; FTC National commission Egg Nutrition, 517 485 (CA7 1975); KF105 F3 Drew 235 735, 740 (CA2 1956). Stewart pointed 779, 1834 opinion), "differences product ideological communication" permits Paris Adult Slaton, 49, 73, 2628, 2665, 446, Brennan, Marshall, explained Amendment: hold, obtrusive adults, allegedly 'obscene' contents. Nothing precludes governments taking strong material." 113, 2662. focus attributable secondary avoid, rested unwanted, relied caused open-air nudity. suppressing, greatly to, lawful Here, "(t)he existing new ones. myriad establishments. slight." F.Supp., 370. Areas" juveniles. directed limited. sweepingly forbids uncovered buttocks breasts, irrespective pervasiveness. Thus baby's buttocks, nude body victim, culture indigenous. beach. Clearly minors. supra. pertaining Speech youths proscription suppressed young images thinks unsuitable them." 213-214, 2274. unlike singled "containing presaged presumption "has expression." force, precisely, reach, inclined with, (and supporting discussion) nonobscene, treated conclusions effectiveness conveyed. Brown 131, 719, 637 93, 2288, anything purveyor. profess personal messages show, contained themselves. 376, 1678, Spence Washington, 409-411, 2727, 2729-2730, 842 (1974). burden, similar traffic, parking, safety, After half sustaining kind, lies normal subject. acted bringing entertainment petitioners consisted reports affidavits sociologists experts, laymen, cycle decay started cities, expected influx insist major "self-fulfilling prophecy" perceives going downhill economically, desirable takes fulfilling prophecy reputable Supra, 75, tried analogize apprehension stifling Terminiello, rely, individuals desiring Their vendors books. group silenced, stifled. apt analogy attempted copies danger presented. specifies locate, reduce significantly accessibility stifles inversely Content cited Post, 85. inapplicable. 382, 1681; 8, 2732; Stromberg 359, 532, 1117 (1931). integrity predictable interaction responses purveyed circumscribe choice theaters' hours exterior instead allow clustering uses." Most ill effects, characteristics cases. 7. misconceives insisting kind. markedly surroundings. 3, Supra. movie, recognizing tailor reaction according implicated. Tinker Des Moines School Dist., 503, 509-511, 737-739, 731 413-414, 1811, Greer Spock, 424 828, 842-844, 1211, 1219-1220, 505 (1976) (Powell, CSC Letter Carriers, 548, 2880, 796 (1973). (1972), involved. Contrast 797, substantive seeks comply 742-G 743-G, 'sli(p) content.' permitted." 99, 2292 (citation Hudgens NLRB, 1029, 1037, 196; 115, 2302, 222. scheme obscenity. correctly held, displayed presumed 1019. 4-5, 895-896, supra; narrowly thrust 209, 2272. 770; Rowan Post Office Dept., 397 728, 1484, 736. displays 195. 895-896. stresses Southeastern Promotions, Limited Conrad, 420 546, 1239, irrelevant, 'one abridged plea place.' 556, 1245, quoting 163, 151, 155. 225; 584. 52-55, nn. 3-7. reproduce, cite 69.000. arbitrary discriminatory supplied Presumably, eliminated legal. eliminate authorities. features constitute challengeable alone. 448 Since, glaring defect governing applications, pursued empowers act violation." convictions violations themselves, adjudicated. legal infractions adjudicated retains disregard," occur license's issuance. disposes excessively banned entirely, submit excluded threatened severe, foreclosed. 556 1245. (1975), relies proposition effect" facially challenged, exist. "visible place." "real substantial" "unwelcome choice" exhibitors: "either (to) offerings construct protective fencing extremely expensive physically impracticable." 217, 2277. horn dilemma sharper: (or acquisition)

Classification Label: 2