Legal Document

395 U.S. 486 89 Supreme Court Reporter 1944 23 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 491 Adam Clayton POWELL, Jr., et al., Petitioners,v.John W. McCORMACK al. Number 138. Argued April 21, 1969. Decided June 16, [Syllabus from pages 486-488 intentionally omitted] Arthur Kinoy, New York City, and Herbert O. Reid, Washington, D.C., for petitioners. Bruce Bromley, respondents. Mr. Chief Justice WARREN delivered the opinion of Court. 1 In November 1966, petitioner Powell, was duly elected 18th Congressional District to serve in House Representatives 90th Congress. However, pursuant a resolution, he not permitted take his seat. Powell (and some voters district) then filed suit Federal Court, claiming that could exclude him only if it found failed meet standing requirements age, citizenship, residence contained Article I, § 2, Constitution—requirements specifically met—and thus had excluded unconstitutionally. The dismissed petitioners' complaint 'for want jurisdiction subject matter.' A panel Appeals affirmed dismissal, althougho n somewhat different grounds, each judge filing separate opinion. We have determined error dismiss is entitled declaratory judgment unlawfully I. FACTS. 2 During 89th Congress, Special Subcommittee on Contracts Committee Administration conducted an investigation into expenditures Education Labor, which chairman. issued report concluding certain staff employees deceived authorities as travel expenses. also indicated there strong evidence illegal salary payments been made Powell's wife at direction. See H.R. Rep. 2349, Cong., Sess., 6—7 (1966). No formal action taken during prior organization Democratic members-elect met caucus voted remove chairman Labor. 27 1st 1—2 (1967). 3 When Congress organize January 1967, asked step aside while oath administered other members-elect. Following administration remaining members, discussed procedure be followed determining whether eligible After debate, by vote 363 65 adopted Resolution 1, provided Speaker appoint Select determine eligibility. 113 Cong. Rec. 26—27. Although resolution prohibited taking seat until acted Committee's report, did provide should receive all pay allowances due member period. 4 Committee, composed nine lawyer-members, invitation testify before Committee. letter stated scope testimony would include qualifications residency; involvement civil (in held contempt); '(m)atters * alleged official misconduct since 3, 1961.' Hearings Res. Pursuant 5 (1967) (hereinafter Hearings). appeared hearing February 8, 1967. denied part request adversary-type procedures followed,1 testified. He would, however, give information relating upon advice counsel, refused answer questions. On 10, another Powell. letter, informed its responsibility under extended but 'inquir(ing) question whethr you punished or expelled powers granted Section 5, Constitution. words, conclusion present inquiry, has authority back recommendations with respect seating, expulsion punishment.' 110. appear next hearing, 14, attorneys were present, they about matters than eligibility 2. reasserted contention exclusive membership, further urged punishment possible seated. 111—113. 6 one neither nor present. Then, 23, finding H.R.Rep. 27, 31 reported asserted unwarranted privilege immunity processes courts York; wrongfully diverted funds use others himself; false reports foreign currency Administration. Id., 31—32. recommended sworn seated censured House, fined $40,000 deprived seniority. 33. 7 presented March debated proposed resolution. At 222 202 rejected motion bring vote. An amendment offered; called exclusion declaration vacant. ruled majority sufficient pass so amended Cong.Rec. 5020. 248 176. Then 307 116 278 form, thereby excluding directing notify Governor 8 13 subsequently instituted this Columbia. Five members named defendants individually 'as representatives class citizens who are presently serving Representatives.' John McCormack capacity Speaker, Clerk Representatives, Sergeant Arms Doorkeeper their capacities. violated Constitution, cl. because inconsistent mandate shall people State, which, petitioners alleged, sets forth membership.2 threatened refuse perform service Congressman entitled, salary, deny admission chamber. 9 Petitioners three-judge court convened.3 Further, requested grant permanent injunction restraining respondents executing Resolution, enjoining refusing administer oath, duties Representative, admit Chamber.4 unconstitutional. 10 respondents' versus McCormack, 266 KF105 F3 Supp. 354 (D.C.D.C.1967).5 Columbia Circuit 129 U.S.App.D.C. 354, Reporter, 2nd 577 (1968). certiorari. 393 949, 371, 21 361 While case pending our docket, officially terminated 91st 1968, again representative York, seating $25,000. H.R.Res. 15 H21 (daily ed., 1969). Respondents suggestion mootness. postponed consideration merits. 1060, 713, 704 (1969). 11 press us variety arguments support below; will considered following order. (1) Events occurring subsequent certiorari rendered litigation moot. (2) Speech Debate Clause 6, insulates judicial review. (3) decision supported power expel member. (4) This lacks matter over action. (5) Even justiciable eitehr general criteria established political involved. II. 12 MOOTNESS. granted, memorandum suggesting two events occurred require 1969 terminated, 115 H22 insist gravamen failure Petitioner that, continuing body6 now seated, claims counter three issues remain unresolved presents 'case o controversy' within meaning III:7 unconstitutionally seniority Congress; imposing 'punishment' $25,000 fine continuation allegedly unconstitutional exclusion, see 1969); withheld after conclude claim remains viable even though find unnecessary become moot.8 14 Simply stated, moot when no longer 'live' parties lack legally cognizable interest outcome. E. Borchard, Declaratory Judgments 35—37 (2d ed. 1941). Where several becomes moot, live supply constitutional requirement controversy. Public Workers America Mitchell, 330 75, 86—94, 67 556, 562, 566, 91 L.Ed. 754 (1947); 6A Judge Moore, Practice 57.13 1966). Despite obvious Alejandrino Quezon, 271 528, 46 600, 70 1071 (1926), leaves choice Alejandrino, appointed Senator Philippine Islands, suspended year Senate 'prerogatives, privileges emoluments' period suspension. Philippines enjoin By time reached suspension expired Alejandrino's enjoined. sua sponte,9 possibility required 'to retain purpose (Alejandrino) may mandamus purpose.' 533, 601. Characerizing issue 'mere incident' improper, noted briefed set out clarity officials against whom issue. 533—54 , 601 602. therefore treat entire believe insistence we likewise argument fails grasp reason dismissal deprivation insufficiently substantial prevent becoming rather plead facts establish impossible any resolve request.10 contrast, names responsible payment congressional salaries asks both official.11 16 Furthermore, correct averments injunctive relief sufficiently definite, does follow must paid virtue unconstitional That still hotly contested clearly adverse parties. requested, form available decided.12 chooses mandamus. supra, 93, 566; cf. California, 332 19, 25—26, 1658, 1661—1662, 1889 (1947). can used predicate relief, including injunction. 28 Code KF62 2202; Vermont Structural Slate company Tatko Brothers Co., 253 29 (C.A.2d Cir. 1958); Lines Shaughnessy, 195 385 1952). stands proposition where pleadings insufficient plaintiff remedy, moot.13 There unresolved. 17 furthe argue 'wholly incidental subordinate' demand They suggest 'primary principal relief' sought rendering presumably secondary worthy consideration. Bond Floyd, 116, 87 339, 235 (1966), rejects theory mootness 'primary' requires 'secondary' oral suggested expiration session Georgia Legislature replied: 'The State pressed argument, do so, stipulated succeeds appeal term excluded.' U.S., 128, S.Ct., 345, n. 4. controlling, respondents, legislative end December 31, 1966,14 5; further, decided, yet been.15 tell us, why these factual distinctions create significant difference between case. relied outstanding claim, stress, hold 18 Finally, seem proper recover Claims, having brought wrong action, appropriate. short confuses right Arms, inappropriate stage litigation.16 III. 19 SPEECH OR DEBATE CLAUSE. 20 assert 6,17 absolute bar four occasions—Dombrowski Eastland, 387 82, 1425, (1967); Johnson, 383 169, 86 749, 681 (1966); Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 71 783, 95 1019 (1951); Kilbourn Thompson, 103 168, 26 377 (1881)—been legislators legislatie insulated review Clause. Both respective positions cases tender distinct issues: participating 'acting sphere legitimate activity,' 376, 788; assuming acting, fact seek damages criminal prosecution lifts clause;18 maintained Congressman, those merely clause. necessary last issues. Clause, Constitutional Convention without debate opposition,19 finds roots conflict Parliament Crown culminating Glorious Revolution 1688 English Bill Rights 1689.20 Drawing history, concluded 181, 755, clause intimidation (of legislators) executive accountability possibly hostile judiciary.' sprang fear seditious libel actions punish unfavorable speeches Parliament,21 'narrow view' confine protection words spoken debate. reports, resolutions, act voting equally covered, 'things generally done relation business it.' 204. provides defense merits protects legislator burden defending himself. Dombrowski 85, 1427; 377, 788. 22 Our make clear created performs important function government. It insures free represent interests constituents later task representation. Thus, 373, 786, quoted writings James Wilson illuminating immunity: 'In order enable encourage rp resentative publick discharge trust firmness success, indispensably necessary, enjoy fullest liberty speech, protected resentment every one, however powerful, exercise occasion offense.'22 Legislative not, course, acts. settled implication early 1803, Marbury Madison, Cranch (5 U.S.) 137, 60, expressly first Court's interpreting reach Challenged constitutionality ordering arrest imprisonment recalcitrant witness respond subpoena investigating committee. holding barred Kilbourn's nevertheless attack decided contempt, allowed House's executed warrant arrest. 24 articulated Eastland,23 doctrine although participated activity employees—the Clerk—as well Congressmen, distinguishable. Conceding presence subcommittee counsel challenged urge concerned affirmative performed employee outside direct effect private citizen. Here, continue, relates agents solely House. Alternatively, prayed disburse funds, assertedly greater interference process. reject proffered distinctions. 25 acting express orders underlying decisively settles question, liable nothing more execute arrested imprisoned.24 Respondents' suggestions ask distinguish acts situations salary. basis either history distinction. afforded forestall insure distracted hindered performance tasks being defend nom ore less calling employee's lawsuit questioning act. Nor distraction hindrance increased damages, questions Freedom purposes fully relieved themselves.25 regard reviewing sued. Similarly, Congressmen maintain propriety Powell.26 As said Kilbourn, language dimmed: 'Especially competent consider (the legislature's) proceedings conformity Constitution laws, because, living written constitution, branch department government supreme; province duty regularly them, government, legislature enactment exercised Constitution; null void.' 199. IV. EXCLUSION EXPULSION. excess two-thirds 434 Members Congress—307 116. 5037—5038, grants 'with Concurrence thirds.'27 whatsoever obtained, regarded expulsion, exclusion. Cautioning exalt substance, quote concurring McGowan below: 'Appellant cause judicially compelled boils down, my view, narrow colleagues engaged must, accidents timing, formally admitted investigated expelled. sponsor floor proceeding included exclude, 2/3 forthcoming. was. Therefore, success mean admonish govern great affairs, accordingly command charade.' U.S.App.D.C., 383—384, F.2d, 606—607. 30 repeatedly speculate reasons attempt equate similar speculation faced question. passed. immediate defeated, offered mandated exclusion.28 Celler, posed parliamentary inquiry 'in sense might amount expulsion.' replied 'action accordance rules.' Ibid. Had constitutionally required. what result instituted. distinction form. charged convening occasions own manual applicable states 'both Houses distrusted such cases.' Rules H.R.Doc. 529, G. Galloway, History 32 (1961). rules reflects Congresses. For example, Langley unequivocally committed earlier Congress: '(I)t practical uniformity precedents Member reprehensible election Member, conviction offense. May 1884, Carlisle offense previous added, 'That frequently dispute." 30, 69th (1925).29 33 expressed belief strictures apply expel, assume conduct announced exclusion.30 34 culminated cast considerable doubt assumption mustered. These succinctly described Eckhardt: 35 votes question31 leading toward adoption (Select) report. opening Curtis Amendment ultimately 36 'Upon Amendment, fell two-thirds, yeas 176 nays. Only final vote, adopting amended, matter, given aye else record themselves opposed likely come up through appears woud failed, able lesser penalty.'32 37 need accuracy Eckhardt's prediction produced result. views extent combined Congressman's analysis fungible proceedings. contemplated proceeding. overrule manifested intent tested whatever standards expulsion. V. 38 SUBJECT MATTER JURISDICTION. 39 pointed Baker Carr, 369 186, 198, 82 691, 699, 663 (1962), federal 'jurisdiction matter' 'justiciable.' decide constitute violation separation powers' F.Supp. 359, 360 (D.C.D.C.1967). correctly recognized, properly agree unanimous case.33 Part VI, infra, disagree Appeals' justiciable. 40 district 'arise under' treaties (or fall enumerated categories III); phrase III; jurisdictional statute. And, determination (see B(1) infra) non-justiciable 'political question' disposes contentions34 controversy.'35 41 contend 'arising emphasize assigns elections disorderly behavior. note 'sole power' try impeachments. delegations (to 'judge,' 'punish,' 'try') Branch explicit 'judicial specific exceptions III vested courts. maintain, 'power conferred article authorize anything declare proceed.'36 42 contention. III, Power supreme inferior Courts establish.' mandates extend Cases arising *.' long 'arises petitioner's 'will sustained (is) construction defeated (it is) another.'37 Bell Hood, 327 678, 685, 66 773, 777, 90 939 (1946). King County Seattle School 263 361, 363—364, 44 127, 127—128, 68 339 (1923). Cf. Osborn Bank States, Wheat. 738, 204 (1824). C. Wright, 48—52 (1963). interpreted phrase. Any judgments arises allocation branches Government (a justiciability), state based law. 43 erred ruling authorized statute, i.e., 1331(a) 'all wherein controversy Constitution' necessarily 1331(a). recognize little concerning 1331(a), e spondents section enacted indicates drafters intend suits 'federal jurisdiction. passage Force Act38 1870 lends interpretation intended 1331. Act gives 'any possession office sole denial account race, color condition servitude.' excludes Congressman. demonstrates Congress' intention prohibit entertaining regarding Congressmen. 45 respects co-extensive potential Zwickler Koota, 389 241, 246, 88 391, 394, 444, Nevertheless, recognized broad See, e.g., Mishkin, 'Question' Courts, 53 Col.L. Rev. 157, 160 (1953); Chadbourn & Levin, Original Jurisdiction Questions, U.Pa.L.Rev. 639, 644—645 (1942). above, depends directly consistently supra; supra. Gully First Nat. Meridian, 299 109, 112, 57 96, 97, 81 (1936); Fair Kohler Die Specialty 228 22, 25, 410, 411, 716 (1913). recognize, wording 1331 decisions indicate section. think confer limited challenges Fifteenth alleged. 1344. passed five years original version enacted. inferred challenges,39 absolutely indication evidences impose restrictions VI. 47 JUSTICIABILITY. 48 Having turn Two determinations regard. First, type Second, structure renders question'—that is, 49 Atlantic General Considerations. 50 deciding justiciable, 'the identified breach determined, molded.' 700. seriously cannot determined. If correct, once undisputed excluded. 51 assert, 'mold effective resolving case.' coercive officers and, contend, injunctions compelling rely primarily 52 appropriateness case, judgment, issued. Judgment Act, 2201, 'declare rights interested party sought.' availability dispute parties, Golden Zwickler, 394 103, 956, (1969), independently forms 57.08(3) 1966); terms justiciability, baron Political Question Doctrine. 54 1. Textually Demonstrable Commitment. 55 otherwise adjudicate Coleman Miller, 433, 59 972, 83 1385 (1939); Oetjen Central Leather 246 297, 309, 62 726 (1918). Government. area, surface involve least formulations: 56 'a textually demonstrable commitment co-ordinate department; discoverable manageable it; impossibility initial policy kind nonjudicial discretion; court's undertaking independent expressing government; unusual unquestioning adherence already made; potentiality embarrassment multifarious pronouncements various departments question.' 217, 710. 'textually commitment' 'adjudicatory qualifications. Thus argued alone, qualified member.40 58 textual coordinate Government, interpret confers extent, any, argue, membership. hand, allege prescribed examination disclosed unreviewable membership prospective qualifications, doctrine. possess Constitution,41 formulations 'inextricable bar.'42 60 department' case.43 For, '(d)eciding measure exceeds committed, itself delicate interpretation, ultimate interpreter Constitution.' 211, 706. 61 'textual 'be Qualifications Members.' records debates Convention; commentary post-Convention, pre-ratification period; applications insist, careful pre-Convention practices American colonial assemblies 1787, legislature's understood encompass ground individual's character past unfit serve. viewed historical perspective, 'qualifications' meant limit long-recognized will, 'standing incapacities,' altered amendment. relevant materials leads House44 person, constituents, meets a. Pre-Convention Precedents. Since rejection results disagreement analysis, antecedents detail. begin precedents. 63 earliest precedent Commons 1553 'that Alex. Nowell, Prebendary (i.e., clergyman) Westminster, voice Convocation Tanner, Tudor Documents: A.D. 1485 1603, Page 596 1930). decision, consistent long-established tradition clergy convocations ineligible Commons.45 Porritt, Unreformed 125 (1963); T. Taswell-Langmead's 142 143 (11th Plucknett 1960). traditional ineligibility clergymen incapacity.46 Blackstone's Commentaries *175. Nowell's therefore, irrelevant concede—and agree—that 5. exclusions fail theory.47 64 16th 17th century misdeeds encompassed incapacities existing expulsions drafted 1787.48 occasionally statements individual thereafter re-election, duration expelled,49 re-elected pattern.50 Apparently re-election 1712. Robert Walpole receiving kickbacks contracts 'foraging Troops,' H.C.Jur. 28, Tower. months re-elected. thereupon resolved '(t)hat Walpole, Esquire, been, Session Parliament, Prisoner Tower London, (from) incapable 128. (Second emphasis added.) new ordered, effected colonies half century.51 practice discretion body elected. overlooks limiting characteristic rely: previously Moreover, remainder seems lasted parliament Taswell-Langmead, 584, 99. Accord, *176. Walpole's justifies particular reelected election. arguably broader principle, i.. assembly permanently expel. adhere assembly. M. Clarke, Parliamentary Privilege Colonies 196—202 (1943).52 Clearly, none supports assumed member-elect deemed Rather, demonstrate construed contention, precedential value nullified Convention. 1782, struggle, arbitrary repudiated ended most notorious century—the Wilkes 1763, published recent peace treaty France, product bribery condemning Crown's ministers "the tools despotism corruption." R. Postgate, Devil (1929). involved publication arrested.53 Prior Wilkes' trial, publishing false, scandalous, libel.' Parl.Hist.Eng. 1393 (1764). fled France sentenced exile. L. Gipson, British Empire Before (1956). returned England 1768, same dissolved. surrendered himself King's Bench. convicted months' imprisonment. declared ordered 'expelled House.' 545 (1769). fill vacant times, him. 207—215.54 69 released prison 1770 1774. years, unsuccessfully campaigned resolutions expelling declaring expunged record. expunge 'subversive whole electors kingdom.' 1411 (1782). With successful bitter struggle electorate represented men choice, evident eve Convention, stood law land regulated parliament' qualification 'not occasional fixed.' 589, 590 Certainly support, ever supported, assertion repudiation 1782 expelled,55 'control candidates, except laws define (standing) qualifications.' May's (13th Webster 1924). 585.56 similarly undermined exclusions, principles very imitate whose followed. 54, 196. 1784 Council Censors Pennsylvania Assembly57 denounced unnamed assemblyman, recently Constitution.58 course name Wilkes, stating 'reflected dishonor authors violences.' Proceedings: 1776 1790, (1825). 72 victory impact colonies. His advocacy libertarian causes59 pursuit became celebre colonists. '(T)he cry 'Wilkes Liberty' echoed loudly across Ocean wide publicity Wolkes's public career *. reaction took proportions. Colonials tended identify Wilkes. saw popular hero martyr liberty. towns, counties, children honour.' 222.60 context examine just victory. b. Debates. 73 Relying heavily Charles Warren's analysis61 debates, manifest Framers' unequivocal add vary completely agree, interpretations. freely choose light Framers correct. 74 opened late 1787. July, delegates adopted, minimum age apo inted Detail draft constitution incorporating preceding months. days appointed, George Mason, Virginia, moved "requiring landed property citizenship" disqualifying persons unsettled accounts indebted States. Farrand 121. vigorous ensued. Pinckney Pinckney, South Carolina, But Dickinson, Delaware, inclusion statement 'impossible compleat partial tie hands supplying omissions.' 123.62 Dickinson's rejected; eliminating disqualification debtors limitation 'landed' property, Mason's proposal instruct qualification. 116—117. 75 August, proposing change requirement; recommend adding citizenship residency debating precise be, August unanimously embodied 213.63 76 Detail's 'Legislature uniform expedient.' 179. discloses much Madison rejection, vest 77 'an improper dangerous Legislature. fundamental articles Republican Govt. ought fixed regulate either, degrees subvert Republic converted aristocracy oligarchy number capable elected, authorised elect. also, subservient faction agst. another. founded artificial devised, stronger keep partizans weaker) faction.' 249—250.64 78 Significantly, Madison's aimed impost ion such, delegation discretionary parallel behalf striking.65 79 view critical day facing rejecting usurp 'indisputable people) return thought proper'66 legislature. Oliver Ellsworth, Connecticut, exceptional 'dangerous abuse.' 250. Gouverneur Morris strike property' proposal. leave entirely large.' Hugh Williamson, North concern happen 'composed description men, lawyers future secured body.' Ibid.67 referred Parliament's abuse lesson attention. changes views, Religious parties.' Ibid.68 Shortly thereafter, Morris' Later day, provision authorizing members.' 254. 80 One empower 'observed too bare quorum: emergencies (one) dangerously abused.' concurrence two-thirds' inserted. exception divided, approve opposition. importance over-emphasized. None disputes 1787 Indeed, exception, cls. conclusion. Convention's increase 'too majority,' restricting latter adopted.69 urge, Style. read: 'Every twenty least; citizen (in) election; election, resident chosen.' 178. finally Style, negative 'deliberations' designed correspond Blackstone listing incapacities' Commons. **175—176. Blackstone, apologist anti-Wilkes forces Parliament,70 added individuals *175—176. them reasons.71 widely circulated Colonies, Style rephrased clarify delegates' 'only prescribe historic house basis.'72 84 inherently weak, assumes bodies historically possessed case-by-case basis. cases, misrepresents revise stile arrange agreed 553. alterations substance purport so; certainly was, fact, provisions 10.'73 85 post-Convention Constitution's ratification Hamilton's reply antifed-eralist charge favored wealthy well-born: truth method securing rich preference apprehended prescribing elect national Its restricted regulation places, manner elections. chosen, remarked occasions, defined unalterable legislature.' Federalist Papers 371 (Mentor 1961). (Emphasis sentence essay,74 agreement Hamilton actually addressing criticism 4, authorizes pa ces, electing prominent antifederalists 'confer well-born, honours.' Brutus IV, N.Y. Journal, Nov. 29, 7. original.) ignores reliance immutability Constitution.75 conventions understanding convention, emphasized: true principle republic please them. Representation imperfect proportion current favor checked. source perfectly pure, unbounded allowed.' Debates 257 (J. Elliot 1876) cited Elliot's Debates).76 Federalists powerful opposition advocates democracy, Carey Nicholas, democratic elected: 'It security liberty, few chosen amply attended idea. residence, certainty matured, attached state.' 8. chapter Post-Ratification. appear, 'general directed issues.'77 far post-ratification cases. Unquestionably, memberselect almost 100 existence, strictly 92 confronted 1807,78 William McCreery additional imposed Maryland. recommending Elections reasoned: 93 committee proceeded submitted therein reserving Legislatures change, to, diminish qualifications; instrument, constituted it, obliged agreeably annals 871 (1807). 94 Lest misunderstanding committee's recommendation, ensuing explained governed: unalterably unless changed equal framed first; doing governed only. Election founded.' 872. 96 emphasized 'fundamental government,' id., 873, 'absolutely safety society.' 874. lengthy center McCreery. 1237. Hinds, Precedents 414 (1907) Hinds). 97 challenge decades.79 came heavy attack, 'during stress war (but initially) declined exclude), circumstances provocation.'80 12, abandonment restraint, among casualties upheaval war's wake. 1868, member-elect. giving aid comfort Confederacy. Hinds §§ 449—451.81 'This North's enmity Union war, Radical domination shift naked urgency doctrinal support.' Comment, Exclusion: Julian U.Chi.L.Rev. 151, 157 (1967).82 From erratic;83 dissent.84 annotations Pages 7—8 98 consistent, quite limited. Note, Members, Harv.L.Rev. 673, 679 (1968).85 surely render date. Particularly doubts members-elect, inclined controlling weight. relevancy largely insight afford ascertaining draftsmen's intent. Obviously, tends proximity Myers 272 52, 175, 45, (1926). confirms 99 d. Conclusion. emerged clarity, ambiguity constuction democracy them.' 257. select franchise itself. apparent basic philosophy, To allow essentially guise judging ignore warning, borne post-Civil War 'vesting Legislature.' 249. effectively nullify preserving institutional integrity, safeguarded behavior extreme two-thirds. short, Framers, system persuade 101 reasons, formulation adjudicating claims. 102 Other alternate produce 'potentially embarrassing confrontation branches' But, discloses, sit Such falls role accorded law, 'lack (a) (branch) 'initial discretion.' variance document branch. adjudication justify courts' avoiding responsibility.86 Brown, 381 437, 462, 1707, 1722, 484 (1965); Youngstown Sheet Tube Sawyer, 343 579, 613—614, 863, 898, 1153 (1952) (Frankfurter, J., concurring); 293, (1926) (Brandeis, dissenting). 104 bar.' seen, Constitution—a 'judicially standards.' 'multifarious 706 (1803). doctrine, VII. 105 CONCLUSION. 106 summarize, following: mooted respondent mayb agents. treated 107 B (1)), demonstrated concede these. remand 108 equitable release pay. remedies, appropriately instance below. Albert, Ford, affirmed. Jennings, reversed remanded instructions enter 109 ordered. 110 DOUGLAS. 111 N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions join words. says, deviate alter Representative Constitution.1 Up exist.2 sure, that: 'Each Elections, Returns Contests arise event judge.3 specified Constitution.4 112 man Socialist Communist.5 Another minority systematically voting.6 114 Vietnam.7 list long. Some racist overtones one. Others reflect religious ideological clashes.8 117 root integrity electoral Today proclaim 'one man, vote.' person repulsive Establishment group disenfranchised? 118 'expel Member' And presented, more. Whether won knows. Expulsion 'misconduct' raise questions, considerations. Policing recurring problem well, decs easier 119 Representative-elect misappropriating incurring contempt courts.9 Twenty-six earlier, upper chamber attempted Senator-elect Langer Dakota like reasons.10 State's Attorney Morton County, Dakota, 1914 1916, served 1916 1920. 1932 1933. 1934 indicted conspiring interfere enforcement illegally soliciting contributions employees, office.11 pending, special session.12 ouster, signed Declaration Independence, invoked martial National Guard.13 Nonetheless, legal head state, left July 1934. wanted 1937 1940, sent Senate. 120 swearing-in ceremonies, Barkley drew attention complaints 121 'without prejudice, two-sided proposition—without prejudice him).'14 122 Langer's confidential hearings 1941, open 18, 1941. Langer; recommendation seated.15 123 charges various. misappropriated funds16 interfered process way beclouded dignity Congress.17 Reference professional ethics lawyer.18 124 enjoyed Murdock Utah. raged year.19 Much related purely allegations 'moral turpitude.' addressed lacking 3. 'Mr. MURDOCK. (U)nder Senator's adopt rule specifying intellectual moral qualifications?20 126 LUCAS. wants Yes; simply cut jaw, wishes to.'21 127 not—while purporting 'judge' qualifications—in reality 128 What framers gave forth, Members?22 construe common, ordinary usage. My definition word verb this: thing supposed laid out; look facts. 130 'But whoever heard law?'23 131 supplement; Founding Fathers using negative. replied— 132 President, distinguished makes negative—that 'no Senator'—are prohibitions State; but—and read on—when said, meant.24 133 'Madison knew whim caprice legislature.25 134 'Bear mind, positive phraseology member, style.'26 135 nonetheless troubled accept anyone elect, how egregious worry, Murdock. invoke device designates None-theless, bypass b invoking exclude.27 136 position Utah takes crime, whenever comes here bona fide credentials, fraud oath. takes? 137 position; yes.28 138 'My clothed credentials possessing Florida referred, sends Congress.'29 139 'MR. MURDOCK (quoting Philander Knox). 'I know defect plain am contending. danger lies jury convict accused crime; require, eject honor power, sovereign State."30 140 1942, overruled Langer. 141 governing STEWART, dissenting. place refrain novel, difficult, inception. 144 essential constituency regain purpose, attainment 1969, being. date, prayer decree commanding incontestably 145 prolonged raised preserved believe, contrary, 'continuing attacked case.1 sound predecessor,2 griev ance caused redressable sits York. 91st, contended reseated. Understandably, advance wholly untenable infinitely remote someday manner. foreseeable exists, showing 'subsequent wrongful reasonably expected recur.' Concentrated Phosphate Export Assn., 199, 203, 364.3 146 voluntary relieve legality Gray Sanders, 372 368, 801, 806, 821.4 manifest, enunciating application place, practice.' Rather control—the unlike petitioners, ongoing indefinite necessary. enjoined Gray, deeply rooted standing,' ibid., 'free (their) old ways.' Grant 345 629, 632, 894, 897.5 important, 'voluntary abandonment' dispense controversy, Voln tary cessation unlawful 'if defendant 'there reasonable expectation repeated." 633, 897.6 situation here, 'practice' 147 perpetuated 2—the Powell—fined commence date Congress.7 punishment, originally impelled action.' indisputable, involves exclusion,8 'continuation' bearing conceivable status connection evidently derelictions exonerate findings wrongdoing; restrain consequence findings—Powell's 148 Equally saved 'principle' challenging defendants. Under hypothesis, 'Court inferentially, least, permissible.' jurisprudence remotely resembling theory—which offer reference authority—it relevance termination wise 149 intervening have, aspect alive, absence Congress.9 doubt, today undertakes decide. 150 preserves evicted him, eviction expired. 1071, nearly identical today. assaulting colleague. Senate10 Secretary, Paymaster), seeking writ restoring emoluments office. here,11 arguing th Autonomy statute incorporated Constitution.12 151 Because certiorari, Taft, vacated directions kept answer, pertinency length: 152 suggested, objection vacating below, petition lapse futile restore Island Senate, recovery emoluments, suspension, purpose. difficult deal feature really mere incident main brief us. refer paying Senators' provided, definite describe officer ministerial 153 '* remedy compel due, unnecessary. Should comply Senators, validity affecting personal complaining Senator, disposed requiring adjudication. serious constituting gislative rescind lawful discipline disorder privilege. think, withheld, tried described. derive accordingly. obtain him.' 534—535, 601.13 154 factors subordinate Alejandrino.14 certain. briefs memoranda contain virtually discussion question—the House—an newly Congress15—is retention disbursement appropriated salaries. payable Treasury16 requisitions entrusted keeping books compensation mileage Members.'17 office18 monthly certificates Clerk19 House.20 statutory scheme. 155 Several unanswered, Is defendant? appropriate adequate requisite 278, contravention employers? expired, serves capacity, authority—or authority—to money owed particularly never office? Presumably requisitioned ascertainable disposal Arms.21 156 are, whether, satisfactory Claims.22 entered exclusion,23 disputed Claims lost remit pursues. mandatory effective, litigated obviate grapples today, avoid altogether.24 agents, justiciability all, vastly conventional slightest claim,25 necessity 'touch bedrock (and) heart government.' unnecessarily prematurely reaching grave perhaps unsettling vitality, Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 346—348, 466, 482—483, 688 concurring), demanding suits, suit, withhold. 'We cautioned moment, falling constitutionality, speculative situations.' Affairs Associates, Incorporated Rickover, 111, 580, 582, 604. governmental involved, intervene clear, speculative.' Eccles Peoples Lakewood Village, 333 426, 431, 641, 644, 192 784. 158 prolonged, lead relief. implicitly recognizes court, advisory. good attainable back-pay withhold terminate now. dead, truly Accordingly, vacate below complaint. notice bill particulars accuser; opportunity confront accuser, attend sessions given, cross-examine witnesses; hearings; summon witnesses defense; transcript haring. inquire into, (which public) call hearings. 59. attainder, ex post facto low, cruel punishment. Due Process Fifth Amendment. convene apparently recognizing ruling. Stamler Willis, 395, 356 7, day. 11, certification received footnote Gojack 384 702, 707, 1689, 1693, 870, (1966): 'Neither committees bodies.' extends controversies. Sibron 392 40, 57, 1889, 1899, 917 (1968); Robertson Kirkham, 270—271 (R. Wolfson Pacific KF135 P2 Kurland 1951); Diamond, Decide Moot Cases, (1946); Appeal: Limit Judicial Power, 772 (1955). conceding requests requests. Standard Fashion Magrane-Houston 258 346, 353, 360, 653 (1922). constituents. remanded, discussing insufficiency stated: 'Were out, miniterial 534, substantiated passage: 'As (mandamus), accordingly.' 535, Paragraph 18b avers 'Leake Sergeant-at-Arms House' refuses prays implementing depriving paid. empowered 1934, Statutes-at-Large 955, pleaded brought, 602, impliedly substantiation expire 31. Presumably, base Ga.Code Ann. 2—1601, 2—1603 (Supp.1968). accepted, stipulation California San Pablo Tulare 308, 314, 876, 878, 747 (1893). grounds appeals misconceived Pie Continental Baking 386 704, 1326, 1337, 406 Trust Savings Assn. Parnell, 352 34, 119, 121, provides: (Senators Representatives) questioned Place.' draw prosecution, emphasizing 'criminal sanctions deterrent nature.' Brief 171. 1876); Records (M. rev. 1966) Farrand). substantially 6: Speech, Proceedings impeached Place Parliament.' M., Sess. traced detail Cella, Doctrine Debate: Past, Present Future Bar Criminal Prosecutions Suffolk U.L.R.ev. 3—16 (1968), Yankwich, Immunity Speech—Its Origin, Meaning Scope, 960, 961—966 (1951). 182—183, 756—757 Works 421 McCloskey 1967). $500,000 chief chaired Senator. Record 118, O.T.1966, 10—11. summary counsel. extensively Stockdale Hansard, Ad. 114, Eng.Rep. 1112, 1156 (Q.B.1839), refute immune House: '(I)f exempt Charles's levying ship-money revenue officer.' eventually recovered $20,000 Thompson. MacArth. 401, 432 (Sup.Ct.D.C.1883). absolved trial applicability plaintiff's 788 Given disposition issue, available. 204—205 (1881). 'excluded' prevented surrender seat, 'x plusion'. limitations exist provided: hereby Congresses view. Report Judiciary cn cerning S. Schumaker 'Your violations offenses body, unsuited crimes. fifth 'each proceedings, behavior, member.' legislation unobstructed. citizen, amenable alone.' H.R.Rep.No.815, 44th (1876). 4434 (1884) (ruling Speaker); H.R.Rep.No.81, 42d 3d (1873) (expulsion Brooks Oakes Ames); H.R.Rep.No.179, 35th 4—5 (1858) Orsamus Matteson). proper. inheres address participate right. often impassioned defense. Globe, 1723 41st 1524—1525, 1544 (1870) Whittermore); 34th 925—926 (1857) Gilbert); 947—951 Welch); Annals 2966 (1799) Matthew Lyon). 1643 (1907). debate-limiting carried, terminating forcing hand. H.R.Doc.No.529, 804—809 Cannon's Procedure H.R.Doc.No.610, 87th 277—281 Eckhardt, Case, Texas L.Rev. 1205, 1209 Eckhardt Cleveland favorable 'on passage.' 5031. Gubser explicit: perfecting amendments allowed. placed horns dilemma. first, forced doubts, all. raw isolated alternative reservation.' wrote opinion, 384, 385, 577, 591, 607, 608 II, thrust f contentions nonjusticiable 'unthinkable' alleging abridged constitutes 131, 347, expectations discernible relate justiciability. 210, (1962). 39. Petitioners' predicated, inter alia, sections substantiality 1870, 146. Cong.Globe, 3872 (1870). Barry rel. Cunningham, 279 597, 452, 867 senatorial issuance constitutional, relying members. 'render beyond tribunal review.' 613, 455. however. indicating automatically dictum; restraints implications 614, Third, case: existence addition impeachment Office honor, Profit States'; Person Continuance Office'; 14th disqualifies 'who, insurrection rebellion same, enemies thereof.' provisions, Guarantee IV 'qualification' Dionisopoulos, Commentary Issues Related J.Pub.L. 111—115 sides provisions. Consistent presente force B(2), infra. applies Senate's establishes reign Henry (1399—1413), clergyman sat disqualifications derived custom parliament.' *162; groups disqualified aliens; minors; judges Lords; convocation; 'attainted treason felony'; sheriffs, mayors, bailiffs jurisdictions; taxing Crown. Not subscribe addition, (unspecified) incapacities. explain, 1782. examples Commons; disability unknown law.' 1619, Virginia Burgesses plantations patents Company England. Constitutions, Colonia Charters, Organic Laws 3783—3810 (F. Thorpe 1909) Thorpe). Captain Warde, patent. others, Martin's Brandon plantation, owner plantation claimed patent exempted colony's laws. Journals Virginia: 1619—1658/59, (1915); 133—134 (1943). nature; gain representation analogous defects disapproved 132—204; Greene, Quest Power: Lower Assembly Southern Royal Colonies: 1689—1776, 171—204 1585 Commonse xpelled Doctor Parry unspecified misbehavior. Compleat Journal Votes, Speeches Lords Throughout Whole Reign Queen Elizabeth, Memory (S. D'Ewes 1708); 1628 Sir Edmund Sawyer induce suppress H.C.Jour. 917. 1628, 'him unworthy Almost Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Benson 301. 1642, formula 'disabled *' 703. 1652, assembly, Burgesses, 85; 1683, Rhode 'from Assembly' summons. Arnold, Providence Plantations 289 (1859). 173—204. 1726, Massachusetts Gershom Woodle, 'unworthy Member.' 1726—1727, 4—5, 15, 68—69 1758, Carolina Francis Brown perjury. twice 1760 occasions; 1761 elections, Colonial 1057—1058 (1887); 374, 474, 662—663, 672 673 (1888). 1710 Jersey Assembly. 197—198. go unchallenged, 196 202; precedent, warrant, arrested, home ransacked, papers seized. campaigns, warrants, asserting fighting 213—214 (1965). clear: Could 'put disqualification, put land.' Cavendish's Wright 1841). resounding. third opponent carried 197 143. rested large precedent. Taswell-Langmead's, 585. expunging, subversive electorate, tacit 105—108 (17th Cocks 1964). enquire inviolate part; guardians people, themselves, intitled constitution.' Pa.Const. 1776, 47, 3091. Introduction, iv characterize Censors, 'is seat.' Procedings, 89. dissenting suggests used. 1783 Comptroller charging assemblyman fraud. September 9, 1783, time. excluded, meeting incapacity, assemblymen 'most wisdom virtue.' 3084. provision. Proceedings, cite Independence later. 1780 Breckenridge minor. Minority, cr rect exlcusion probably according Va.Const., 3816. Warren, Making 423, (1928). Respondents, misinterpretation discussed, criticize Warren research, reputation champion freedom seizure, press. 191—222. 171—172, 173—174 1781, causes separated (England) America.' 100—101 (1781). pamphleteer 'Junius' reprinted newspapers lent revolutionary cause. Dictionary 190 (1940). Letter XVIII 'Letters Junius' bitterly asserted: 'You know, sir, Wilkes's yesterday yours mine to-morrow, consequently common realm invaded it. disability, creates incapacity ready marked may, time, honestest ablest say extravagant learned are. your power: guard do, do.' Letters Junius, XVIII, (1821). 399—426. Dickinson built-in veneration wealth republican ideal merit alone holds trust. 123. delegate reconsider substitute three-year seven-year upon. 251. 13, rejected. 265 266. judges, swear unincumbered property. Benjamin Franklin opposition, observing '(s)ome greatest rogues acquainted with, richest rogues.' voiced 'discourage removing Country.' Thereafter, Motion Pinkney (sic) no, called.' preservation rights, sacred parts constitution. parliament, freeholders indisputable proper, known fixed: arise; start sudden, side side, fluctuation direct.' 589—590 589. attempts denying expunged: usurpation, acquiesced under, alarming consequences. disagreeable majority, please, self-created self-existing. You til approve, nominate. idea lost.' 367 (1775). 'Madison's undoubtedly famous 420, possible, referring Test Car. (1678), Catholics Parliament. rely, implicit 'were 249—250. 420—421. Certainly, argued, '(s)uch single Congress.' 421. Story, 625, 445 (1873). Professor Chafee construction, forbidding additions soundest policy.' Z. Chafee, Free 256 (1941). Holdsworth, Law 540—542 (1938). Holdsworth notes edition h en 'subject disqualifications, (for Commons) right.' retaliated writing pamphlet making editions effort 540—541. Appendix Defendant 52. 422, buttressed noting 'contained exactly Senators.' Apparently, substantively different, 'judge returns Mass.Const., pt. 1897, X, 1899. 422—423, Federalist, carefully constitutions, susceptible uniformity, convention. (He Senators.) limitations, door description, native adoptive, young old, poverty wealth, profession faith.' 326 'qualifications convention,' refutation incapacities.' reconciled particular, Livingston, ardent supporters landowners, endorsed principle: best dictate control abridge natural rights.' 292—293. 62. 1797, 5th Session, Lyon, Republican, sedition. broke down along partisan lines. Althu gh Lyon's opponents, Federalists, retained 6th Lyon reelected, advantages gained trying 123—127 Maryland 1808 1848—1849 (1808). 1844, Niles, mentally incompetent, competent. 28th 564—565, 602 (1844). 1856, Samuel Marshall violating Illinois prohibiting running offices. 415. year, Lyman Trum-bull Between 1862 1867, resisted disloyal Civil War. 448, 455, 458; Election, Censure S.Doc.No.71, (1962) Cases). supporter 40. shortly offense, selling appointments Military Naval Academies. 459, 464; 1273. departure Fessenden: exerted subject. principles. So period, rebellion. took, admitted, afterward.' 40th 685 (1868). acts, 465; 1882 1900 practicing polygamy. 473, 477—480. World Victor Berger, avowed Socialist, enemy. Berger Fourteenth Cannon, 56—59 (1935) Cannon). reversed. 1925 misconduct. resigned losing appeal, Cannon 238. 1933, Minnesota sending defamatory mail. 73—74, 131—139 (1933). 1929; campaign expenditures. 180. 1947, concerted Theodore Bilbo Mississippi accp ting gifts contractors intimidating Negroes primaries. 3—28 died, reached. H.R.Res.No. forcefully insisted 'unalterably fixes defines' 'improper dangerous.' 4998. H.R.Rep.No. 484, 43d 11—15 (1874) (views minority); 56th 56—77 (1900) minority). dissenters argued: 'A small desire arbitrarily securely intrench irresistible. Hence controlled rules. had, motive principles, exists 76—77. 'Determining difficult; contains disposition, reports. sure predicated. Unlike presumed disinterested, adjudicate. Consequently, strongly constitutionality.' Harv.L.Rev., 679. 'inadmissible suggestion' disregard determination. McPherson Blacker, 24, 869 (1892). U.S.Const., 2: 'No attained Years, seven Years Citizen Inhabitant proposals shape explicitly led Farrand, 249—250 (1911). Alexander conclusion: Papers, too, 1807 only.' 872 (1807) (remarks Findley, Chairman Elections). scholars centuries reaffirmed 462 (5th 1891); 420—426 remarks Emmanuel inquired him: lays Congress—age, inhabitancy, citizenship. satisfies three. 242, 723, 663, (Douglas, concurring.) expertise exceeded, redress here. 60. suspected Powell: '(C)ases readily postulated impinge unavailability Suppose, religion contrary clause, unpopular speech (E) xclusion inhabitancy issue.' H.R.Rep.No.27, 4994. Case (1935). 122. .e.g., 235. 481 4997. S.Doc. 1789 1960, Protest Seating Langer, Privileges 77th 820 (Nov. 1941) 821. 820. 3—4 S.Rep.No.1010, conspired municipal county bonds sold friend profit $300,000 purchase, purportedly rebated $56,000 822—823. retrial his, Wyman, litigation, 'meddled' jury. 20—42, 120—130. lawyer accepted $2,000 mother boy promise pardon, knew, pardon counseled defendant-client marry prosecution's her testifying finally, bought insurance jurors sittn g client. 820—830. 3—4, 460 (1941); 822, 828, 1253, 2077, 2165, 2239, 2328, 2382, 2412, 2472, 2564, 2630, 2699, 2759, 2791, 2801, 2842, 2858, 2914, 2917, 2959, 2972, 2989, 3038, 3051, 3065, 5668 2401. 2474. 2483. 2484. operating needed. rallied rule, How.L.J. 162 N.Y.U.L.Rev. 2488. 2490. Knox defended Reed Smoot 1903 affiliation (Mormons) countenanced 97. 202—204, 344; Carroll President Commissioners Princess Anne, 178—179, 350—351, 325. ('Neither bodies'); McGrain Daugherty, 273 135, 319, 331, 580. Forty-one Messrs. Moore Curtis, Representatives. officer-employees 897, 1303; Aluminum America, 416, 448. 'controversy' 113, unlikely candidate 960. hardly likelihood Representatives' greater. 632—633, 897; Local 74, Brotherhood Carpenters Joiners NLRB, 715, 966, 970, 1309; Walling Helmerich Payne, Inc., 323 37, 43, 29; Hecht Bowles, 321 321, 327, 587, 754; Trans-Missouri Freight 166 290, 307—310, 540, 546—547, 1007. agencies halt defendants, conduct. cited, nn. especially, exclusively, suits. 'Private settle controversies commencement obtained facts, proceed extinguishment public, endeavored procure foreclose thereof trustee congress, (voluntary conduct).' 546. considerations regulatory scheme inhere litigation. voluntarily terminated. pertinent part: '(2) sum $25,000, pai deduct $1,150 per month '(3) alive loss seniority, ante, 496, mistaken attributable restored stripped affected internal affairs empowers 'punish Behaviour.' lawsuit. General. appointees. 531—532, 545, decrees Islands statutes substituted 726. 'Section Act) respectively elective Senators annual services ascertained treasury Islands. treason, felony, peace, privileged attendance houses going returning same; place.' 532, 235, dispositive prevents moot: existence. offhand dictum determinative noted, statement, decision. (The 1966; Bond's 1966.) event, term, Bond. stipulation, 570-571, claim. 571—572, full novel remained Oct. 1890, 646, 83. 6; 47. 80, 78. 35. 34. 48. contradiction Separate appropriations fiscal see, 398, 'it Treasury unexpended year.' commencing 1968. 1491. concurrent amounts $10,000. 1346. King, 1501, inability inadequate. collect as, better than, unable pendency 1500, obstacle if, suggest, entitlement offset coffers use. Marin England, 99, 101, 274, 276, 197, complain undue hardship 'start again' suit. doubtful remitting entail cost delay inconvenience litigants presenting concrete

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