Legal Document

370 U.S. 421 82 Supreme Court Reporter 1261 8 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 601 Steven I. ENGEL et al., Petitioners,v.William Judge VITALE, Jr., al. Number 468. Argued April 3, 1962. Decided June 25, William Butler and Stanley Geller, New York City, for petitioners. Bertram baron Daiker, Port Washington, N.Y., respondents Vitale, others, constituting the Board of Education Union Free School District 9, Hyde Park, York. Porter R. Chandler, intervenors-respondents, Henry Hollenberg others. Mr. Justice BLACK delivered opinion Court. 1 The respondent York, acting in its official capacity under state law, directed District's principal to cause following prayer be said aloud by each class presence a teacher at beginning school day: 2 'Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, beg Thy blessings us, parents, teachers Country.' 3 This daily procedure was adopted on recommendation State Regents, governmental agency created Constitution which Legislature has granted broad supervisory, executive, legislative powers over State's public system.1 These officials composed they recommended published as part their 'Statement Moral Spiritual Training Schools,' saying: 'We believe that this Statement will subscribed all men women good will, call them aid giving life program.' 4 Shortly after practice reciting Regents' District, parents ten pupils brought action insisting use schools contrary beliefs, religions, or religious practices both themselves children. Among other things, these challenged constitutionality law authorizing direct regulation ordering recitation particular ground actions agencies violate First Amendment Federal commands 'Congress shall make no respecting an establishment religion'—a command 'made applicable Fourteenth Constitution.' Appeals, dissents Judges Dye Fuld, sustained order lower courts had upheld power procedures so long did not compel any pupil join his parents' objection.2 We certiorari review important decision involving rights protected Amendments.3 5 think using system encourage prayer, wholly inconsistent with Establishment Clause. There can, course, doubt York's program classroom invocation God's prescribed is activity. It solemn avowal divine faith supplication Almighty. nature such always been religious, none denied trial court expressly found: 6 'The recognized Jefferson concurred theological writers, administrative officials, including Commissioner Education. A committee agreed. 7 Regents amicus curiae, intervenors concede but seek distinguish because it based spiritual heritage. * *'4 petitioners contend among things laws requiring permitting must struck down violation Clause further beliefs. For reason, argue, breaches constitutional wall separation between Church State. agree contention since prohibition against religion least mean country business government compose prayers group American people recite carried government. 9 matter history very establishing governmentally services one reasons caused many early colonists leave England freedom America. Book Common Prayer, direction approved Acts Parliament 1548 1549,5 set out minute detail accepted form content ceremonies used established, tax-supported England.6 controversies what should repeatedly threatened disrupt peace forms established church changed views ruler happened control time.7 Powerful groups representing some varying struggled impress Government obtain amendments more suitable respective notions how conducted would advance beliefs.8 Other groups, lacking necessary political influence matter, decided America from England's ordained supported religion. 10 unfortunate fact when most strenuously opposed found sufficiently colonial governments write own into passed making colonies.9 Indeed, late time Revolutionary War, there were churches eight thirteen former colonies religions four five.10 But successful Revolution English domination shortly followed intense opposition law. crystallized rapidly effective force Virginia where minority Presbyterians, Lutherans, Quakers Baptists gained strength adherents Episcopal actually themselves. In 1785—1786, those Church, led James Madison Thomas Jefferson, who, though members dissenting establishments grounds principle, obtained enactment famous 'Virginia Bill Religious Liberty' placed equal footing far concerned.11 Similar less far-reaching legislation being considered States.12 11 By adoption Constitution, shows widespread awareness Americans dangers union knew, bitter personal experience, greatest individual worship way lay Government's placing stamp approval kind services. They knew anguish, handship strife could come zealous another King, Queen, Protector came temporary power. intended avert danger leaving hands rather than monarch. safeguard enough. Out Founders willing let privilege praying whenever pleased influenced ballot box vital matters conscience depend succession monarchs. added stand guarantee neither nor prestige control, support kinds can say— people's subjected pressures change new administration elected office. Under Amendment's religion, reinforced provisions Amendment, country, federal, without prescribe carrying sponsored 12 officially establishes beliefs embodied prayer. respondents' argument contrary, largely 'nondenominational' program, modified courts, does require permits who wish do remain silent excused room, ignores essential program's defects. Neither may denominationally neutral observance students voluntary serve free limitations Clause, might Exercise are operative virtue Amendment. Although two clauses certain instances overlap, forbid quite different encroachment freedom. unlike showing compulsion violated establish whether operate directly coerce nonobserving individuals not. say, prescribing involve coercion individuals. When power, financial behind belief, indirect coercive pressure minorities conform prevailing plain. purposes underlying go much that. Its first immediate purpose rested belief tends destroy degrade showed allied itself inevitable result incurred hatred, disrespect even contempt held beliefs.13 That same lost respect relied spread faith.14 thus stands expression principle too personal, sacred, holy, permit 'unhallowed perversion' civil magistrate.15 Another historical persecutions hand hand.16 only few years Prayer became England, Act Uniformity Englishmen attend criminal offense conduct gatherings kind17—a consistently flouted contributed like John Bunyan persisted holding 'unlawful (religious) meetings great disturbance distraction subjects kingdom *.'18 And similar received sanction several soon colonies.19 large get completely away sort systematic persecution Nation, Rights itself. 13 argued apply prohibit indicate hostility toward Nothing, wrong. man inseparable perhaps say have devoutly believed 'More wrought world dreams of.' doubtless due grew up sentiment cross-currents Europe filled hope find place pray God language chose.20 fight also guarantees activity attempted here. tried put end written either. quiet well-justified fears nearly felt arising past shackled men's tongues speak thoughts wanted to. sacrilegious antireligious separate stay writing sanctioning purely function choose look guidance.21 14 true doctrine amount total sect exclusion others—that, indeed, endorsement seems relatively insignificant compared encroachments commonplace 200 ago. To subscribe view brief general establishment, however, appropriate words Madison, author Amendment: 15 '(I)t proper take alarm experiment liberties. Who see authority Christianity, Religions, ease Christians, Sects? citizen contribute three pence property him cases whatsoever?'22 16 judgment Appeals reversed remanded proceedings opinion. 17 Reversed remanded. 18 FRANKFURTER took case. 19 WHITE consideration 20 DOUGLAS, concurring. 21 customary deciding question treat narrowest form. Yet times setting gives abstract treatment give. point constitutionally finance exercise. Our federal levels presently honeycombed financing.1 Nevertheless, & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions unconstitutional undertaking whatever takes. 22 First, word case involve. 23 Plainly, adopt penalize anyone utter it. This, case, element opened day prayer: 24 ane 25 commencement day, immediately pledge allegiance flag. teacher, either leads selects student so. No student, compelled part. provides 'Neither comment participation non-participation suggest request posture dress worn worn.' Provision made excusing children, parent guardian, saying room said. letter implementing explaining sent taxpayer district. As read regulation, child stand, recite, fear reprisal official. 26 short, need teacher; complaining Students mute classroom, if desire.2 27 McCollum, etc. versus Education, 333 203, 68 461, 92 L.Ed. 649, decide involved facilities education students. instruction 'go building pursuit secular studies. absence teachers.' Id., 209, S.Ct., 464. teaching staff therefore bear body, instilling principles. present employed lead is, effort indoctrination attempt exposition. Prayers course character McCollum proselytizing 28 presented extremely narrow one. oversteps bounds finances 29 What opening open court. Crier announced convening then 'God save Honorable Court.' utterance supplication, we, judges, join, 30 House Congress3 day's business.4 Reverend Frederick Harris Chaplain Senate; Bernard Braskamp House. Guest chaplains various denominations officiate.5 31 payroll; she takes minuscule salaries appropriated legislatures Congress halls. Only bare fraction teacher's given short 22-word about spends announcing sessions offering me same, briefly said, person payroll, performing exercise institution.6 inherent If here, convened, Congress. Few adults, alone courtroom Senate while given. Every audience sense 'captive' audience. 32 At cannot authorize strictly historic meaning words.7 usual merely letting leads. once inserts divisive communities.8 tenets Jewish, Unitarian, Ethical Culture groups. One agnostic. 33 whose institutions presuppose Being.' Zorach Clauson, 343 306, 313, 72 679, 684, 96 954. play active lives.9 'if leaven worked affairs people, done Government.' McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 563, 81 1101, 1219, 393 (dissenting opinion). reason commanded 'to interest theology ritual' (id., 564, 1219), 'government neutral.' Ibid. leaves position neutrality. philosophy atheist agnostic—the nonbeliever—is entitled way. interferes spiritual, force. teaches field better serves interests. 34 My problem today uncomplicated Everson 330 1, 17, 67 504, 512, 91 711, allowed taxpayers' money pay 'the bus fares parochial which' attending paid. retrospect line appealing, allows needy token, funds satisfy needs children schools—lunches, books, tuition obvious examples. Rutledge stated dissent durable philosophy: 35 policy vanished diminished 36 Now price double. live within safeguarded state, intervention state's domain dependency largesse. Madison's Remonstrance, Par. 6, 8. condition liberty maintained sustenance, interferences, state. comes rest foundation vanishes resting. 7, Public devoted payment costs, educational other, brings quest more. struggle larger share any. Here numbers benefit most, another. precisely societies dissident 8, 11. thing experienced sought guard against, blunt screened forms. cherished liberty. dominating achieve dominate benefit; embroil dissensions. 11.' Pages 53—54, 529—530. 37 break tradition. reversing below. 38 STEWART, dissenting. 39 local board provided acknowledging asking His blessing teachers, country. decides non-denominational States. 40 hold, it, interfered anybody's clear object entirely so, 'embarrassments pressures.' Cf. West Barnette, 319 624, 63 1178, 87 1628. says simple authorities 'an religion.' 41 With respect, misapplied principle. 'official religion' want On deny opportunity sharing heritage Nation. 42 Court's quarrels throws light issue before us now church. Equally unenlightening, think, later rejection deal here church, would, impermissible, begin joining prohibited doing Moreover, task, areas adjudiciation, responsibly aided uncritical metaphors 'wall separation,' phrase nowhere Constitution. relevant sixteenth century eighteenth America, traditions reflected countless 43 Session invokes protection God. Since days Marshall Court.'1 Both Representatives Sessions prayer.2 Each Presidents, George Washington KF105 F3 Kennedy, assuming Office asked help God.3 Footnote 3--Continued. my leave; resorting benign Parent Human Race humble that, He favor opportunities deliberating perfect tranquillity, dispositions unparalleled unanimity security advancement happiness, equally conspicuous enlarged views, temperate consultations, wise measures success depend.' March 4, 1797, President Adams said: 'And Being supreme all, Patron Order, Fountain Justice, ages virtuous liberty, continue nation give possible duration consistent ends providence.' 1805, 'I need, too, are, fathers, Israel old, native land planted flowing necessaries comforts life; covered infancy providence riper wisdom goodness ask you supplications enlighten minds your servants, guide councils, prosper whatsoever good, secure peace, friendship, approbation nations.' 1809, 'But source fellow-citizens, counsels departments associated care national confidence every difficulty best placed, next encouraged feel guardianship guidance Almighty regulates destiny nations, conspicuously dispensed rising Republic, whom bound address devout gratitude past, well fervent hopes future.' recited subject touching religion.4 stanzas Star-Spangled Banner,' National Anthem 1931,5 contains verses: 'Blest victory heav'n rescued Praise Pow'r hath preserved nation! Then conquer must, just, motto 'In Trust." 1954 Pledge Allegiance Flag 'one Nation indivisible, justice all.'6 1952 enacted calling year proclaim Day Prayer.7 1865 'IN GOD WE TRUST' impressed coins.8 44 generosity 45 'With sure reward, final judge deeds, forth love, help, knowing earth work truly own.' 46 brother DOUGLAS 'can exercise.' paid money. So military chaplains. prison 47 Code KF62 § 170, Annotated KF65 U5 170. 48 172, 172. 49 185, 185. 50 Statutes-at-Large 517, 518; 427; 164; 69 290. current §§ 324, 324a, 324a. 51 Countless examples listed, belabor obvious.9 summed just ago single sentence: 684 52 Court, Congress, mentioned recognize follow deeply entrenched highly Nation—traditions almost hundred avowed 'firm Reliance Protection Providence' proclaimed independence brave world.10 53 dissent. See art. V, 4; Law, McKinney's Consol.Laws, chapter 16, 101, 120 seq., 202, 214 219, 224, 245 704, 801 seq. N.Y.2d 174, 218 N.Y.S.2d 659, 176 North Eastern Reporter, 2nd 579. court's opinion, reported Misc.2d 191 453, protect objected 'This accorded 'free exercise' clause mandate safeguards embarrassments pressures. enough score, regulations, City's connection released adopted, worn. Non-participation remaining during exercise, desires, Such regulations provision non-participants exact Board, framework constituional requirements. Within fall participants proceed common assembly rooms, permitted arrive minutes exercises, method treats equality non-participants.' Misc.2d, 696, N.Y.S.2d, 492—493. Appellate Division affirming court, A.D.2d 340, 206 183. 368 924, 367, 189. 671—672, 468—469. Edward VI, 'An Service Administration Sacraments throughout Realm'; 10, abolishing putting divers Books Images.' versions Commmon outline Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. (1957 ed.), 420—423. complete description, Pullan, History (1900). major revision 1552 reign VI. 1. 1553, VI died succeeded Mary abolished entirely. Mary, 2. accession Elizabeth, 1558, restored alterations resentment amended kept firmly Elizabeth but, her death 1603, petition signed 1,000 Puritan ministers King Book. Some retained substantially until suppressed again 1645 Revolution. restoration 1660 Charles II, reintroduced, alterations. Rather accept 2,000 vacated benefices. generally (1900), vii—xvi; Britannica 18, 422. example, Puritans twice modify story vividly summarized Page xiii: actively anxious vindicate Catholic maintain ceremonial approved. Laud, Archbishop Canterbury, leader school. resolute distinctive Rome Geneva, he enjoyed hatred Jesuit Calvinist. helped Scottish bishops, concessions uncouth habits Presbyterian worship, draw Scotland. contained Communion resembling book 1549. 1637, met barbarous opposition. vigour Protestants strengthened sympathisers. Laud executed, Episcopacy abolished, prohibited.' description theocratic Parrington, Main Currents Thought (1930), 5—50; Whipple, Ancient Liberties (1927), 63—78; Wertenbaker, Oligarchy (1947). five colonies: Virginia, Carolina, South Carolina Georgia. controversy Jersey substantial Cobb, Rise Liberty (1902), 338, 408. Massachusetts, Hampshire Connecticut, Congregationalist established. Pennsylvania Delaware, Christian sects treated situations Catholics discriminated respects. (1902). Rhode Island privileges vote. Compare Fiske, Critical Period (1899), 76 437—438. Hening, Statutes (1823), 84, act freedom.' events surrounding reviewed 11—13, 509, Rutledge, 33—42, 520—524. 78—82; James, Struggle (1900); Thom, Freedom Virginia: 74—115, 482—499. 482—509. '(A)ttempts enforce legal sanctions, acts obnoxious proportion Citizens, tend enervate general, slacken bands Society. difficult execute deemed salutary, invalid dangerous? effect striking example impotency Government, authority.' Memorial Remonstrance Assessments, II Writings 183, 190. 'It moreover weaken profess Religion pious innate excellence, patronage Author; foster still reject suspicion friends conscious fallacies, trust merits. (E)xperience witnesseth ecclesiastical establishments, instead maintaining purity efficacy Religion, operation. During fifteen centuries, Christianity trial. fruits? More places, pride indolence Clergy; ignorance servility laity; both, superstition, bigotry persecution. Enquire Teachers appeared lustre; sect, prior incorporation Civil policy.' 187. '(T)he proposed departure generous policy, which, asylum persecuted oppressed promised lustre number citizens. melancholy mark sudden degeneracy? Instead persecuted, signal be, form, Inquisition differs degree. step, last career intolerance. magnanimous sufferer cruel scourge foreign Regions, Beacon Coast, warning haven, philanthropy extent offer repose troubles.' 188. Realm.' repealed revived Elizabeth. note supra. statute preamble: 'Where godly Order Authority Parliament, Mother Tongue agreeable Word Primitive comfortable People desiring Conversation, profitable Estate Realm, Mercy, Favour Blessing Alimighty readily plenteously poured Prayers, Sacraments, often preaching Gospel, Devotion Hearers: (1) yet notwithstanding, Parts Sensuality, living Knowledge Fear wilfully damnably abstain refuse Parish Churches Places Preaching Sundays Days Holydays.' Bunyan's account Relation Imprisonment Bunyan, reprinted Grace Abounding Pilgrim's Progress (Brown ed. 1907), 103—132. vivid persecutions, Perhaps Roger Williams, founder Island, described truest amongst sincerely desired Christian.' 74. earliest exponents destruction thought inevitably flowed best-intentioned authorities: unknowing zeale Contantine Emperours, hurt Christ Jesus Crowne Kingdome, raging fury bloody Neroes. later, Christians sweet fragrant, spice pounded beaten morters: persecuting erroneous persons, Arrius, &c. advancing professours Truths (for small times) materiall Sword, meanes ecclipsed, Professors fell asleep *.' Bloudy Tenent, Persecution, Conscience, discussed Conference betweene Truth Peace (London, 1644), Narragansett Club Publications, III, 184. competence magistrate interfere matters: '(W)hat imprudence indiscretion affaires Life, conceive Kings Rulers qualified politicall abilities Civill Lawes concerne rights, safety (which worke businesse, load burthen ablest shoulders Commonweal) furnished Spirituall heavenly governe Commonweale 366. id., 136 137. nothing reached others express love documents Declaration Independence contain references Deity singing espoused anthems include composer's professions Being, manifestations patriotic occasions resemblance unquestioned instance. 185—186. 'There 'aids' mention level, observing wrote Houses armed compulsory chapel service academies, hospitals prisons. issues proclamations. Bible oaths. N.Y.A. W.P.A. available depression. Veterans receiving 'G. I.' 1944 (38 1801 seq.) denominational schools, payments World War training nurses. benefits Lunch (42 1751 private schools. Hospital Survey Construction 1946 291 specifically non-public hospitals. slogan Trust' Treasury Department, recently allegiance. Bible-reading Columbia, Boys. organizations exempt income tax postal privileges. Up defined limits—15 per cent adjusted gross net corporations contributions deductible purposes. limits deductibility gifts bequests gift estate laws. list easily expanded, state.' Feldman, Limits (1959), 41. Point Cadets required Sunday. Reg., 21, 2101. requirement obtains Naval Academy (Reg., 0901, (1)(a)), Air Force except Classmen. Catalogue, 1962—1963, 110. Honeywell, Chaplains Army (1958); Jorgensen, Units, 1917—1946, (1961). follows procedure. See, e.g., N.Y. Assembly Jour., 184th Sess., 1961, 8; 5. Rules provide calendar session Rule Manual, S.Doc. 2, 87th Cong., 1st Sess. VII, Representatives, H.R.Doc. 459, 86th receive $8,810 annually. 75 320, 324. assume, difference community rotated, Allegiance, recognizes existence Being. all'. Report recommending addition 'under God' run 'only affairs.' H.R.Rep. 1693, 83d U.S.Code Cong. Adm.News 1954, 2341. S.Rep. 1287, Senator Ferguson, measure Senate, pointed entrance Chamber. 100 Cong.Rec. 6348. added: Creator really destinies Republic. lodged anywhere religion; anything kind. relates trust. know defended guns, planes, ships alone. Appropriations expenditures defense value believes right. province lives Nation.' 7757 debates 1865, 518, authorized coins. 427. mandatory coins May 1908, 164, 1106, 60th Sess.; 3384 currency July 11, 1955, 290, 662, 84th 637, 2417. Joint Resolution 30, 1956, declared Trust.' 70 732, 186. reporting Resolution, Judiciary Committee stated: 'Further recognition Banner anthem. stanza anthem follows: "O, ever freemen Between lov'd home war's desolation! Blest vict'ry motto—'In trust.' triumph wave O'er brave.' anthem, trust' strong claim motto.' 2703, taxpayers standing raise (Frothingham Mellon, 262 447, 597, 1078) justification drawing analogizes traditional Established Church. Anglican. All baptisms marriages there. taxation. ways Anglican favored preferred position. ended went prevented ceremony, dogma, rite. Thus, prevents penalties applied recalcitrants nonconformists. communities Christmas tree purchased sometimes decorated 'Peace earth, goodwill men.' version goodwill.' Christmas, suppose, celebration, merchants. system. Northwest Ordinance, antedated Article III 'Religion, morality, knowledge happiness mankind, means forever encouraged.' Warren, History, 469. example: 1789, '* peculiarly improper omit rules universe, presides councils providential aids supply human defect, benediction consecrate liberties instituted purposes, enable instrument functions allotted charge. tendering homage Great Author assure myself expresses sentiments own, fellow-citizens adore Invisible Hand conducts 'Having imparted awakened occasion together, Abraham Lincoln Fondly hope, fervently pray, mighty war speedily pass away. Yet, wills wealth piled bondsman's fifty unrequited toil sunk, drop blood drawn lash sword, thousand ago, judgments Lord righteous altogether.' malice none, charity firmness right right, strive finish in, bind nation's wounds, borne battle widow orphan, cherish lasting ourselves 1885, Grover Cleveland alone, humbly revealed country's history, invoke labors.' 5, 1917, Woodrow Wilson prudence duty spirit people.' 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt dedication us. come.' January 1957, Dwight Eisenhower 'Before else, seek, labor nation, hearts fashion deepest whole 20, Kennedy now. revolutionary forebears fought around globe—the am loss understand unsupported ipse dixit expressions reliance 'bear instance.' U.S., 435, 1269, supra, n. 21. hardly imposes lesser restriction Or suggesting judges Congressmen Presidents prohibits so? Declaration, firm Providence, mutually Lives, Fortunes sacred Honor.'

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