Legal Document

512 U.S. 532114 S.Ct. 2396129 L.Ed.2d 427 CONSOLIDATED RAIL CORPORATION, Petitionerv.James E. GOTTSHALL. Petitioner v. Alan CARLISLE. No. 92-1956. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Feb. 28, 1994. Decided June 24, Syllabus * In separate suits against petitioner Conrail, their former employer, respondents Gottshall and Carlisle each asserted a claim for negligent infliction emotional distress under Federal Employers' Liability Act (FELA). Gottshall, District granted summary judgment to Conrail. reversing remanding trial, Appeals observed that most limit recovery through application one or more common-law tests. The court declared, however, there is fundamental tension between such restrictive tests FELA's liberal policy, stated must be discarded when they bar on "meritorious" FELA claims. held facts alleged in support provide threshold assurance likelihood genuine serious injury, concluded had satisfied this "genuineness" test adequately usual elements, including conduct unreasonable face foreseeable risk harm. Carlisle, same sustained jury verdict "uphold[ing] first time arising from work-related stress." Although it restated its holding, shifted primary emphasis foreseeability injury held, inter alia, produced sufficient evidence his nervous breakdown been Held: 1. proper standard evaluating claims derived principles relevant doctrine. Pp. ____. (a) This Court's jurisprudence outlines analysis determining whether, what extent, new category should cognizable statute. First, language, purposes, background statute, along with construction given statute by Court, examined. Second, because gleans guidance developments, common law's treatment right considered. See, e.g., Atchison, T. & S.F.R. Co. Buell, 480 557, 561-562, 568-570, 107 1410, 1413-1414, 1416-1418, 94 563. P. (b) Through FELA, Congress sought compensate employee "injury" resulting employer "negligence," 45 U.S.C. § 51, creating remedy many deaths maimings were occurring interstate railroads at was enacted 1908, see Urie Thompson, 337 163, 181, 69 1018, 1030, 93 L.Ed. 1282. Over years, has construed liberally further remedial goal, see, Rogers Missouri Pac. R. Co., 352 500, 506, 77 443, 448, 1 493. Nevertheless, federal question constitutes negligence purposes turns upon principles, subject modifications as imported into those itself. See Urie, supra, U.S., 182, S.Ct., 1030-1031. Because silent issue distress, play significant role decision. (c) nearly all recognize recover negligently inflicted — is, mental harm (such fright anxiety) caused another's not directly brought about physical but may manifest itself symptoms three major "tests" have developed right: (1) "physical impact test," which embraced industrial since abandoned few jurisdictions; (2) "zone danger" test, adopted several 1908 currently followed 14 (3) "relative bystander" enunciated 1968 half States. 2. applied an erroneous distress. lower correctly are As part duty use reasonable care furnishing employees safe workplace, 558, 1411-1412, railroad avoid subjecting workers injury. A widely recognized universally today. Moreover, broad scope accorded term, cf. no reason why term encompass However, Appeals' delimiting rejected. merit type cannot ascertained without reference law, erred treating mere arbitrary restrictions disregarded if stand way viability court's questionable own terms, appreciably diminish possibility unlimited liability harm, would force judges make highly subjective determinations concerning authenticity particular Third, reliance meaningful limitation misplaced, consequences act, matter how far removed, foreseen. Finally, law does unprecedented impose stressful work environment, thereby dramatically expand employers' cover stresses strains everyday employment. Instead, adopts zone danger limits plaintiffs who either sustain result defendant's placed immediate negligence. only exhibits both historical continuing vitality inform determination "negligence" context. consistent goals statute's purpose alleviating dangers railroading. Even correct arbitrarily excludes some claims, best reconciles concerns motivating potential flood trivial suits, fraudulent difficult detect, specter unpredictable jurisprudence. 3. whether satisfies briefed argued before considered remand. entered Conrail remand, Carlisle's work-stress-related plainly fall within conception danger. 988 F.2d 355 (CA3 1993) (first case) 990 90 (second case), reversed remanded. THOMAS, J., delivered opinion REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion. GINSBURG, dissenting opinion, BLACKMUN STEVENS, Ralph G. Wellington, petitioner. William L. Myers, Jr., respondent, Gottshall. J. Michael Farrell, respondent Carlisle. Justice THOMAS Court. These cases require us determine Act. inconsistent embodied doctrine, we reverse judgments below. 2 Respondents James suit (FELA), 35 Stat. 65, amended, §§ 51-60, nn. 1, 3, 4 Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail). We set forth case turn. A. 3 member crew assigned replace stretch defective track extremely hot humid day. pressure, so men discouraged taking scheduled breaks. They were, allowed obtain water needed. Two one-half hours job, worker named Richard Johns, longtime friend collapsed. others rushed help pale sweating profusely. able revive him administering cold compress. Norvick, supervisor, then ordered stop assisting Johns return work. Five minutes later, again went Johns' aid after seeing up collapse. Realizing having heart attack, began cardiopulmonary resuscitation. He continued process 40 minutes. Meanwhile, Norvick attempted summon assistance, found radio inoperative; unbeknownst him, temporarily taken nearest base station off air repairs. drove get help, he returned paramedics, died. paramedics covered body sheet, remain undisturbed until coroner could examine it, directed leave arrived. back work, sight body. coroner, arrived reported died attack combined factors heat, humidity, heavy exertion. 5 entire experience left agitated distraught. next days, during weather conditions, feel ill. became preoccupied events surrounding death, worried die similar circumstances. Shortly funeral, admitted psychiatric institution, where diagnosed suffering depression post-traumatic stress disorder. During weeks spent experienced nausea, insomnia, sweats, repetitive nightmares death. lost great deal weight suffered suicidal preoccupations anxiety. receive psychological discharge hospital. 6 sued Conrail's created circumstances forced observe participate motion judgment, holding did Gottshall's injuries. 7 divided panel Third Circuit remanded trial. Corp., (1993). cause action certain classes categories Id., 361 (discussing impact," danger," tests). suggested "an easier fake" than these "judicially screen causes send meritorious ones juries." Ibid. 8 below identified attitude toward hand, general policy underlying other. According Circuit, places harsh while consistently interpreted accord relief injured employers. 367-368 cases). 9 Circuit's view, reconcile apparent give preference over law: "[D]octrinal distinctions claims." 369. Determining weed out careful scrutiny facts, "provide injury." 371. factual inquiry might include consideration plaintiff's light present state law. 10 After reviewing case, made showing injuries severe. 374. met elements breach (that harm), causation. majority issues material fact acted unreasonably, therefore 383. 11 Judge Roth dissented she believed triable regarding duty. She reasoned "outside interruption communications link, allegedly conditions collapse consisted members gang performing negotiated duties jobs indeed occurred past will probably occur future." 385. her finding "Conrail reasonably foreseen interrupting gang's communication[s] link severe reaction death Johns." 386. B 12 Respondent working train dispatcher 1976. position, responsible ensuring timely movement passengers cargo. Aging railstock outdated equipment job difficult. Reductions required take additional long hours. fellow dispatchers frequently complained safety concerns, high level jobs, poor conditions. 1988, trainmaster South Philadelphia yards. With promotion came added responsibilities erratic headaches, depression, loss. extended period 12- 15-hour shifts time, breakdown. 13 breached workplace forcing unreasonably resulted stress-related health problems. At called medical experts testified ensuing least strain job. awarded $386,500 damages. affirmed, 90, 97-98 rejecting argument failed any accident impact, noted (decided month before), "upheld proof impact." 96. Restating advised that, district courts "should engage initial review indicia genuineness claim, account broadly used standards, apply traditional duty, foreseeability, breach, causation weighing merits claim." F.2d, 98. 15 various dealing "when exposure dangerous worker, liable employee's injuries." 97. also making employment too demanding, 16 Pursuant Rule 12.2, petitioned decisions certiorari, 510 ----, 114 299, 126 247 (1993), resolve conflict among Courts bringing FELA.1 II 17 cases, address questions unanswered 563 (1987). That involved complaint carman intentional actions suffer rejected railroad's contention barred arbitration terms Railway Labor Act, 44 577, 151 et seq. 564-567, 1415-1416. record fully developed, unable reach alternative purely compensable FELA. Today, reserved Buell: available FELA.2 If conclude consider availability. Our undertake deciding 18 other involving look itself, background, years. id., 1413-1414. "FELA developments," 568, 1417, respondents. Monessen Southwestern Morgan, 486 330, 336-339, 108 1837, 1842-1844, 100 349 (1988) (disallowing prejudgment interest large unavailable enacted); 1417-1418. Cf. 174, 1027, 1282 (1949); Kernan American Dredging 426, 432, 78 394, 398, 382 (1958). 19 turn Section provides "[e]very carrier . shall damages person employed whole officers, agents, carrier." 51. task today constitute previously considering "attention focused primarily accidents railroads." 1030. Cognizant railroading maiming thousands every year, crafted " 'human overhead' doing business Tiller Atlantic Coast Line 318 54, 58, 63 444, 446-447, 87 610 (1943). Wilkerson McCarthy, 336 53, 68, 413, 420, 497 (1949) (Douglas, concurring) (FELA "was designed put industry cost legs, eyes, arms, lives consumed operations"). order humanitarian away tort defenses effectively workers. Specifically, abolished servant rule, doctrine contributory favor comparative negligence, prohibited employers exempting themselves contract; 1939 amendment assumption defense. 53-55. 20 Congress' goal. For example, Pacific 493 (1957), relaxed applies "[u]nder simply proofs justify conclusion played part, even slightest, producing sought." 448. Kernan, principle per se statutory violations, prevent. 432-436, 398-400. And occupational diseases silicosis accidents. 21 construed, mean workers' compensation insisted "does insurer basis occur." Ellis Union 329 649, 653, 67 598, 600, 91 572 (1947). Accord, Inman Baltimore Ohio 138, 140, 80 242, 243-244, 198 (1959); Wilkerson, 61, 417. "[w]hat question," clear generally "the founded concepts qualifications terms." Those qualifications, discussed above, modification abrogation liability, risk. Only extent explicit alterations avowed departure rules law." Sinkler 356 326, 329, 758, 762, 799 Thus, although necessarily dispositive unless expressly text entitled our analysis. 1416-1417. 22 turn, therefore, pursued Monessen, 1842-1843; 1416-1418. "negligent distress" largely self-explanatory, definitional point clarified outset. contemplate apart pain suffering. technically harms, traditionally "have describe sensations stemming condition." Pearson, Bystanders Negligently Inflicted Emotional Harm Comment Nature Arbitrary Rules, 34 U.Fla.L.Rev. 477, 485, n. (1982). here another symptoms. 23 Nearly defined it.3 No jurisdiction, allows intangible trivial, causally linked another. Indeed, limitations, form "rules," late last century. 24 Behind limitations lie variety considerations, them based differences "Because etiology disturbance usually readily broken bone following automobile accident, concerned recognition [emotional] related trauma inundate judicial resources relatively imagined falsified, imposed remote act." Maloney Conroy, 208 Conn. 392, 397-398, 545 A.2d 1059, 1061 (1988). concern particularly significant. removed space triggered them. contrast situation necessary finite number persons act.4 incidence severity predict typical depend ordinarily tortfeasors. 25 reasons, realized holds very real infinite defendants. substantial class compensable. Thing La Chusa, 48 Cal.3d 644, 654, 257 Cal.Rptr. 865, 870, 771 P.2d 814, 819 (1989) ("[P]olicy considerations mandat[e] avoided narrow plaintiffs"); Tobin Grossman, N.Y.2d 609, 616, 301 N.Y.S.2d 554, 559, 249 N.E.2d 419, 423 (1969).5 Some phrase proximate causation; foreseeable. Other speak duty; defendant owes inflicting 489, 72 Palsgraf Long Island 248 N.Y. 339, 162 N.E. 99 (1928)). formulations functionally equivalent. refer outlining defendants regard 26 Three limiting alleging come known impact" test. It originated century ago recognizing Throckmorton, Damages Fright, Harv.L.Rev. 260, 263-264, (1921).6 Under plaintiff seeking act contemporaneously (no slight) due conduct. Most jurisdictions five continue adhere it.7 27 second referred roughly enacted. 264-265, 28.8 Bohlen, Right Recover Injury Resulting Negligence Without Impact, 50 Am.L.Reg. 141, 3-5 (1902). Perhaps realization "a near miss frightening direct hit," U.Fla.L.Rev., 488, conduct, "those can fright, outside cannot." 489. jurisdictions.9 28 third prominent Dillon Legg, 68 Cal.2d 728, 72, 441 912 (1968). Dillon, California availability plaintiff. offered bearing foreseeability: 29 "(1) Whether located scene contrasted distance it. shock sensory contemporaneous observance learning occurrence. victim closely related, absence relationship presence distant relationship." 740-741, Cal.Rptr., 80, P.2d, 920. 30 now allow bystanders witnessing party (who typically close relative bystander) negligence.10 verbatim variations additions, substantive recovery.11 III 31 Having laid legal framework, presented. matter, agree combination above makes easy one. enacted, 8, purposes. encompassed especially "severe just debilitating 361. hold "duty place work," 1412, latter self-defining. defend definition today; offers proposed delineation. proposals 32 When setting view explicitly refused adopt described above; indeed, "doctrinal "[t]he satisfied, evaluated causation, focus resting 374-375. inquiry. By aspect completely disappeared; refined two convincing (with "genuine" meaning authentic serious), was, answered affirmatively court, "no FELA." 33 fatally flawed respects. addressed vital giving content employer's 1842-1844; 1417-1418; cart horse: "merit" perceived claimed But difficulties allowing problem prospect lead restricting types recover. nothing do claims; contrary, essentially persons, situations, single instance terms. "there railway's liability" restricted 379. explained, testing alone liability. Such fact-specific moreover, bound haphazard results. Judges less susceptible objective counterparts. To inconsistently. Employers regulate ad hoc approach. context harms find unacceptable. Stadler Cross, 295 N.W.2d 552, 554 (Minn.1980). 36 relied concept believe misplaced. takes enough space, Conditioning hardly condition all. "Every ramifying consequences, like ripplings waters, end. wrongs controllable degree." Tobin, N.Y.2d, 619, N.Y.S.2d, 560, N.E.2d, 424. Thing, Cal.3d, 668, 881, 830 ("[T]here days foresee forever thus none foresight socially judicially acceptable recovery"). 37 true practical well, though seven need witness therefrom, end there; heard read foreseeably result. Of course, traumatized tragedy been. standard, led death.12 38 upholding 97-98. ruling tend insurers well-being employees. clear, insurance Ellis, 600. foregoing reject C 39 suggests begin personal wrongful suits. enacting "Congress dispensed doctrines era, defense negligence," "did equally well-established barring interest," intended rule intact. 337-338, 1843-1844. contrast, 1908. authority" favored Harv.L.Rev., 264, jurisdictions. supra. being progressive goals. Waube Warrington, 216 Wis. 603, 608, 258 N.W. 497, 499 (1935) early referring rule"). Considering "in appropriate context," 337, 1843, then, coextensive established 41 Current usage confirms pedigree. presently remains day "common-law concep[t] ibid., suitable 398. 42 central perils. estates assert imposing presumably meant encourage improve measures 420 concurring). Seventh observed, (and is) aimed security invasions menaces." Lancaster Norfolk Western 773 807, 813 (1985), cert. denied, 945, 1602, 788 refers "injury," provided harmonizes considerations. fear himself, whereas not. Railroad threatens imminently impact. goal 43 achieve ends reason, escape apprehension fortuity occur. considerably current bystander inappropriate 60 years enactment, lacks support. family member. estates) bring rare occurrence course event, discern protecting extend Gaston Flowers Transp., 866 816, 820-821 (CA5 1989). decry excluding valid "[c]haracterizing 'unprincipled' 'arbitrary' often overemphasizing favoring imposition failing acknowledge countervailing policies compromise competing informing rule." Cameron Pepin, 279, 283 (Me.1992). respondents, restricts grounds: juries grounds criticized commentators, caution courts. underlie tests, well-founded. 46 "arbitrary" sense understanding reasons motivated IV 47 remand reconsideration announced asserts meet requirements disagrees. us, precedent. instructions enter danger, does. radical step reading compensating ordinary short, core "had much do. idea Lancaster, 813. 49 reversed, proceedings So ordered. 51 concurring. 52 I join write separately interpreting develop informed evolving 1417-1418, explained: 53 "[I]nstead detailed codifying saw fit enact leaving measure fashioning remedies manner analogous development congressional intent creation static remedy, enlarged changing industry's workers." 54 decision faithful exercise adoption well discretion djQ whom STEVENS join, dissenting. 55 seq., instructs 'to [their] work.' Ante, ____, quoting Atchison recognizes, FELA-imposed obligation encompasses [railroad] 56 selecting restrict public derives concern, expressed opinions, "infinite persons." ante, control large; covers language Act,1 repeated reminders legislation 57 "statutory significantly different action." 509-510, 450, 451, (1957). An "avowed departure" prevailing rules, (1958), advanced twin purposes: "to eliminate facilitate cases." 561, 1413.2 Relying breadth [and] Act's purposes," notably "liberal accomplish [Congress'] objects." 180, 562, 1414. 58 particular, full key "injury." prescribes prescription, "not kind "[W]hen enacted," true, "Congress' attention railroads," "these operations." "accidental likely occur," chose "all-inclusive wording." "To [language framed] restriction [tied] sorts inflicted," recognized, "would contradictory wording, purpose, constant Court." 181-182, 59 Seven ago, (1987), unresolved issue. 560-561, 570-571, 1412-1413, 1418. unanimous explained resolved fact-thin record: "[W]hether 'emotional injury' abstract pure answerable exacting case. Assuming, have, 174 [69 1027] rest subtle intricate nature character tortious activity. [T]he all-inclusive 'yes' 'no' answer. areas pronouncements area bow precise developing hand." 61 review, endeavored "field Buell pitch." 355, 365 1993), Plaisance Texaco, Inc., 937 1004, 1009 1991). 62 361-362. emphasized, "[d]etermining distinctly question." 362. State decisions, "do etch contours right," fill interstices "federal" character. 367. addition express abolition defenses, noted, served pathmarkers. strict law," 368, citing Rogers, broadened se, 437-439, 400-402, generously requirement, concluded, 64 "imposes carriers higher eliminated (even claims). different." 65 Accordingly, "refused designate test" applicable cases. 365. looked tests: distinguish [claim] feigned frivolous," 369, assure "into 'fantastic realm liability.' 372, Amaya Home Ice, Fuel Supply 295, 315, 33, 45, 379 513, 525 (1963); 381-382. 66 jurisprudence, reasoned, evolved "rules first" approach, traditional, fact-bound, case-by-case way. undertook "whether [in case] "[O]ne consideration" inquiry, said, "is 'solid permit recover.' Ibid., Outten National Passenger 928 74, 79 presented requisite "threshold assurance." His doctors posttraumatic disorder, 374, unquestionably severe: institutionalized weeks, outpatient care; pounds; "suicidal preoccupations, anxiety, sleep onset weakness, home." Ibid.; 373 (noting "wisely declined" fraudulent). afflictions, manifestation" States, Second Restatement Torts, recovery. 373-374 (citing cases); (Second) Torts 436A (1965) "bodily damage"); c ("[L]ong nausea headaches amount illness, bodily harm; classified illness" compensable). 570, 22, 1418, (suggesting distinction "pure injury" illness"). inspected "bystander" versions While acknowledging satisfy where, here, unrelated blood marriage. 371 Further, reality railway industry," rarely "se[e] yard." 372. version operate almost preclude altogether. adapt context, recovery: prevent becoming intolerable burden society." neither appeared manifestations extraordinarily close, 15-year friendship decedent. bystanders, burdensome co-workers plaintiffs, society whole. regard, recalled, constantly admonished "recovery [under FELA] granted," "so implemented." 373. 70 Satisfied crossed "genuine severe" threshold, inquired Here, emphasized attributable job." 375, instead, men, 50-60 old overweight, 97-degree heat noon, remote, sun-baked location, requiring steel rails fast pace breaks, maintaining contact precautions protect men's safety. 376-377. 71 stated, further, said "its raises duty." 378. supervisor immediately corpse side road, still view. day, alleged, "reprimanded CPR Johns," 359, pushed harder plus four overtime. circumstances, "created hazards, constituted hazards debilitate scar employee, witnessed conditions." Upholding "reaffirm[ed]" standard" governs "weighing said: 73 "[C]ourts 98 1993). 74 submitted amply claim's genuineness. 1984 reduction-in-force, pressure Philadelphia, already substantial, increased dramatically. chiefly "trains carrying passengers, freight hazardous materials," "increasingly anxious" sharp reduction staff, together "Conrail's ignore malfunctioning maintenance." 92. compelled hour consecutive pressures, difficulty abusive, alcoholic supervisor," led, according expert witness, suffered. 75 confirmed testimony. Depositions "Carlisle's subordinates" averred "their supervisors offices cardiac arrests, breakdowns, problems paranoia insomnia." official report prepared Administration "criticized dispatching office." 93. Furthermore, pointed out, "accompanied obvious manifestations": "insomnia, fatigue, sleepwalking weight-loss." 97, 11, specifically noted: "We decide stressful, 11. 76 genuine, follow path marked examined claim. Emphasizing ample notice actual coworkers, affirmed denial motions n.o.v. "extended conditions," initially "agree[s] conclusion, one" prior disease incurred "injury scalding boiler's explosion." 187, 1033. Rejecting confine coverage prompted issue: impairs destroys harmful follows, inevitably, carrier's comes suddenness lightning." 186-187, 1032-1033. Similarly, recognizes today, 'severe injuries,' hence th[e] ['injury']." my determined submissions survive jury's stand. Both plausibly tied afflictions emotional, distress: pounds weakness 374; 92, emphasizes "significant role" play." Notably endorsed Torts. ____; W. Keeton, D. Dobbs, Owen, Prosser Keeton Law 364 (5th ed. 1984) ("the repudiated requirement 'impact,' certified illness manifestation"); 364, gainsaying showings "injuries" FELA.3 81 Notwithstanding word "may injury," elects render worker's placement danger." words, show threatened "imminently Based "zone" reverses outright remands standard. 82 justifications firmly rooted mentions eight States), "currently jurisdictions." exposition tells never sway 83 decides reference, historical, evaluate enjoyed. regarded decisive degree enjoys courts, recovery, permitted "nearly States." ____ (bystander support"). If, decided carried preferred choice. ibid. (preferring because, "has law" former). 84 maintains preferable "consistent perils." But, underscored, framed. On face, [on job] compensable." strikingly characteristically, broadly," line dominant objective. 1414; 1030 ("[N]othing legislative history discloses exclude 'in negligence' carrier"). 85 principal (referring liability," stating [is] well-founded"). universe "infinite." govern large. "suffering employed" so, complainant expresses approach advocate "[j]udges counterparts." One solution explore "objective proof" exclude, insubstantial count lacking proof. 86 qualify rejects thoughtfully comprehensively "inconsistent doctrine." formulation, consistency "common doctrine," odd, unitary governing distress.4 exists singular, emphatically plural; selected adopted, inevitably others. critically, selects perhaps choose generality selects, seems me discrete on-the-job domain charge fashion "liberal," appropriately "enlarged choice bill. Instead leaves severely harmed remediless, however employers, keyed gravity 88 affirm judgments. syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 282, 287, 449. Compare Ray 938 704 (CA7 1991), 502 112 914, 116 (1992); Elliott 910 1224 (CA4 1990); Adams CSX 899 536 (CA6 816 There exceptions. Negligent actionable Alabama. Allen Walker, 569 So.2d 350 (Ala.1990). unclear Arkansas. Mechanics Smith, 296 Ark. 285, 752 S.W.2d 763 (1988), M.B.M. Counce, 268 269, 596 681 (1980). 507 (1982) ("The geographic quite limited, accordingly people subjected range harm"). p. 366 ("It entirely human activity endangered pay lacerated feelings disturbed shocked injured, friends"). Spade Lynn B.R. 168 Mass. (1897); Mitchell Rochester 107, 354 (1896); Ewing Pittsburgh, C., C. St. L.R. 147 Pa. 40, 340 (1892). OB-GYN Assocs. Albany Littleton, 259 Ga. 663, 386 S.E.2d 146 (1989); Shuamber Henderson, 579 452 (Ind.1991); Anderson Scheffler, 242 Kan. 857, 667 (1988); Deutsch Shein, 597 141 (Ky.1980); Hammond Central Lane Communications Center, 312 Ore. 17, 593 (1991). Simone Rhode R.I. 186, 202 (1907); Kimberly Howland, 143 N.C. S.E. 778 (1906); Gulf, Hayter, Tex. 239, S.W. 944 (1900); Mack South-Bound S.C. 323, 905 (1898); Purcell Paul City Minn. 134, 1034 Pankopf Hinkley, 146, 123 625 (1909); Stewart Arkansas Southern La. 764, So. 676 (1904); Watson Dilts, Iowa 249, 89 1068 Keck Jackson, 122 Ariz. 114, 668 (1979); Towns Anderson, 195 Colo. 517, 1163 (1978); Robb Pennsylvania Del. 454, 210 709 (1965); Williams Baker, 1062 (D.C.App.1990); Rickey Chicago Transit Authority, Ill.2d 546, Ill.Dec. 211, 457 (1983); Resavage Davies, 199 Md. 479, 879 (1952); 552 (Minn.1980); Asaro Cardinal Glennon Memorial Hosp., 595 (Mo.1990); Bovsun Sanperi, 219, 473 357, 461 843 (1984); Whetham Bismarck 197 678 (N.D.1972); Shelton Russell Pipe Foundry 570 861 (Tenn.1978); Boucher Dixie Medical Div. IHC Hosps., 850 1179 (Utah 1992); Jobin McQuillen, 158 Vt. 322, 609 Garrett New Berlin, Wis.2d 223, 362 137 (1985). Croft Wicker, 737 789 (Alaska 1987); 814 Champion Gray, 478 (Fla.1985); Fineran Pickett, 465 662 (Iowa 1991); Lejeune Rayne Branch 556 559 (La.1990); 279 (Me.1992); Stockdale Bird Son, 399 503 951 (1987); Nugent Bauermeister, Mich.App. 158, 489 148 (1992), app. den., 442 Mich. 929, 904 (1993); Entex, Inc. McGuire, 414 437 (Miss.1982); Maguire State, 254 Mont. 178, 835 755 Lieb, 221 Neb. 47, 375 109 (1985); Buck Greyhound Lines, 105 Nev. 756, 783 Wilder Keene, 131 N.H. 599, 557 636 Frame Kothari, 115 N.J. 638, 560 675 Folz 110 N.M. 457, 797 246 (1990); Johnson Ruark Obstetrics Gynecology Assocs., 327 283, 395 Paugh Hanks, St.3d 451 759, OBR Sinn Burd, 404 672 Reilly 547 894 (R.I.1988); Kinard Augusta Sash Door 286 579, Boyles Kerr, 855 (Tex.1993); Gain Carroll Mill Wash.2d 254, 787 553 Heldreth Marrs, 188 W.Va. 481, 425 157 Contreras Carbon County School Dist. 589 (Wyo.1992). Many demonstrate effect Garvis Mut. Casualty (Minn.1993). "reasonably" foreseeable, qualifier add little. Suffice say provides, [when results] "fellow servant" bar, reduce recovery; contractually 55. amended 1939, 54. call Throughout invokes singular. ("[T]he FELA"); liability"); [prejudgment] interest"); recovery"); ("Carlisle's danger"). Jensen, 244 205, 222, 524, 531, 1086 (1917) (Holmes, dissenting) brooding omnipresence sky articulate voice sovereign quasi-sovereign identified. always State. .).

Classification Label: 7