Legal Document

403 U.S. 217 91 Supreme Court Reporter 1940 29 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 438 Hazel PALMER et al., Petitioners,v.Allen C. THOMPSON, Mayor, City of Jackson, al. Number 107. Argued Dec. 14, 1970. Decided June 1971. Paul Atlantic Rosen, Detroit, Mich., and William M. Kunstler, New York City, for petitioners. Federal KF105 F3 Goodman, Jr., Miss., respondents. Mr. Justice BLACK delivered the opinion Court. 1 In 1962 city Mississippi, was maintaining five public parks along with swimming pools, golf links, other facilities use by on a racially segregated basis. Four pools were used whites only one Negroes only. Plaintiffs brought an action in District seeking declaratory judgment that this state-enforced segregation races violation Thirteenth Fourteenth Amendments, asking injunction to forbid such practices. After hearings entered declaring enforced denied equal protection laws but it declined issue injunction.1 The Appeals affirmed, we certiorari.2 proceeded desegregate its parks, auditoriums, courses, zoo. However, council decided not try operate desegregated Acting legislative capacity, surrendered lease pool closed four which owned. A number Negro citizens Jackson then filed suit force reopen them found closing justified preserve peace order because could be operated economically integrated basis.3 It held city's did deny black laws. sitting en banc six out 13 judges dissenting.4 That court rejected contention since had been either whole or part avoid desegregation council's denial We granted certiorari decide question. affirm. 2 * Petitioners rely chiefly first section Amendment forbids any State 'deny person within jurisdiction laws.' There can no doubt major purpose amendment safeguard against discriminatory state laws—state fail give afforded white people. History shows achievement equality urgent passage Fifteenth Amendments as well. See, e.g., Slaughter-House Cases, 16 Wall. 36, 71—72, 21 L.Ed. 394 (1873). Thus Equal Protection Clause principally designed protect States. Here there has unquestionably 'state action' official local government legislature, council, Jackson. question, however, is whether denies 'the laws' Negroes. should noted neither nor Act Congress purports impose affirmative duty begin continue pools. Furthermore, case where are permitted while blacks access. different sets forcing remain separate recreational educational activities.5 Watson versus Memphis, 373 526, 83 1314, 10 529 (1963); Brown Board Education, 347 483, 74 686, 98 873 (1954). 3 Unless, therefore, petitioners urge, certain past cases require us hold all Negroes, must agree courts below II 4 Although cite our previous cases, two even plausibly support their argument Griffin County School Prince Edward County, 377 218, 84 1226, 12 256 (1964), Reitman Mulkey, 387 369, 87 1627, 18 830 (1967). For reasons follow, leads reverse here.6 5 schools Virginia, under authority county law, so-called 'private schools' set up place order. At same time, counties Virginia remained open. open these fact run practical partnership between county, education. pointed many facets involvement running schools.' General Assembly made available grants $150 per child make program possible. This supplemented grant $100 property tax credits contributing Under those circumstances just helped finance scheme perpetuate education constituted simply treated school what was—an operation thinly disguished 'private' system actually planned carried maintain funds. comfort here. record supports intimation completely finally ceased time. Unlike pretended close label. true Leavell Woods pool, previously leased from YMCA, now organization appears whites. And according oral argument, another owned before 1963 College, predominantly institution, college students guests.7 But unlike nothing here show directly indirectly involved funding pool.8 If time ever comes when attempts indirectly, participates subterfuge whereby nominally parties' city, relief will federal courts. 6 baron also claim Jackson's authorizes encourages private owners discriminate account race 'encouragement' prohibited supra. 7 Reitman, California repealed relating racial discrimination sale housing passing constitutional establishing right persons grounds real estate transactions. accepted designated holding California, namely authorization significantly acts parties. U.S., at 376—378, 380—381, S.Ct., 1631—1634. 8 findings about discrimination, clear theory considered implication petitioners' turned over YMCA sufficient automatically conspired deprive opportunity swim Possibly both parties, find engaged subterfuge, liability fastened active participant conspiracy YMCA. need speculate upon possibility, finding here, does appear evidence finding. Mulkey based abetting refusal rent apartments grounds. On record, offers more than Griffin. III 9 have argued respondents' violates decision motivated desire integration races. act may violate solely motivations men who voted it. pitfalls analysis forth clearly landmark Chief Marshall Fletcher Peck, Cranch 87, 130, 162 (1810), aside Georgia Legislature's lands members corruptly bill. similar illicit motivation lead unconstitutionality advanced O'Brien, 391 367, 383, 88 1673, 1682, 20 672 (1968), defendant punished burning his draft card allegedly passed statute stifle dissent. explained well hazards law unconstitutional sponsors. First, extremely difficult ascertain motivation, collection motivations, lie behind enactment. Id., 384, 1683. Here, example, ideological opposition Some argument. hand felt they safely substantial conclusion. impossible determine 'sole' 'dominant' choices group legislators. element futility judicial attempt invalidate bad motives supporters. struck down reason, rather facial content effect, would presumably valid soon legislature relevant governing body repassed reasons. 11 language some interpreting suggest motive constitutionality. supra; Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 347, 81 125, 110 (1960). focus actual effect enactments, led behave did. Griffin, discussed supra, perpetuating financing academies. Alabama gerrymander boundaries Tuskegee excluded virtually voting town elections. indicates once ran maintained city. Moreover, covertly aiding maintenance name affecting differently strenuously possible ensure safety save money cannot validate otherwise impermissible action. proposition is, course, true. Citizens compelled forgo rights officials fear hostility money. Buchanan Warley, 245 60, 38 16, 62 149 (1917); Cooper Aaron, 358 1, 78 1401, (1958); (1963). being alike. Nothing history prior persuades constitutes IV Finally, faint unpersuasive violated freed slavery. runs way: Harlan's dissent Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 552, 1138, 1143, 41 (1896), strongly outlaw slavery 'badges incidents.' broad reading affirmed Jones Alfred Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Mayer Co., 392 409, 2186, 1189 (1968). people said 'badge incident' Consequently, seems run, declare keep together Amendment. To reach result severely stretch short simple words do violence history. Establishing Court's new govern thousands towns cities country law-making power far beyond imagination amendment's authors. although skimpy allow legislate control throughout length breadth Nation, contain company empower slavery.' last sentence reads: 14 'Congress shall enforce article appropriate legislation.' 15 regulate opening facilities. so years deemed proper lawful build public. Probably few persons, case, imagined forced lifetime construct refurbish choose sound unsound. Should able establish public, tax-supported color supplied another, entitled relief. 17 affirmed. Affirmed. 19 BURGER, concurring. & N Immigration Nationality Decisions join BLACK, add brief comment. elimination needed useful accommodation service surely undesirable particularly Unfortunately growing burdens shrinking revenues municipal governments curtailment desirable services. Inevitably every constriction affect groups segments community others. tennis courts, courses distort reason meaning important guarantee. hold, do, facility service, opened, constitutionally 'locks in' sponsor dropped (see footnote BLACKMUN's concurring opinion), plainly discourage expansion enlargement services long run. 22 are, dealing wisdom desirability pools; asked very meager Constitution requires closed. good commanded forbidden grave disservice, elected terminate subjected microscopic scrutiny rendering unconstitutional. 23 BLACKMUN, 24 I, too, BLACK's 25 Cases 'hard' much each side. isolation litigation great importance; significant implications. 26 WHITE rests conviction recially motivated, least part, tolerated. builds conclusion detailed review State's attitudes years. 27 stresses, hand, facially discontinue emphasizes difficulty undesirability resting claimed motivation. 28 impressed following factors: (1) No discontinued. Indeed, service—parks, zoo—that segregated, continued operates nonsegregated One concede effectuated initially pressure court. (2) system. They general nice-to-have essential variety, perhaps luxury, enjoyed communities. (3) deficit. deficits increase. (4) read into expression inferiority toward citizens, him repetitively assert, post, 240—241, 266, 268, certainly perceive 'fact' anything speculation. alleged deterrent relief, exist risk losing facilities, 269, detectable face presence provided (5) response counsel my inquiry* 'locked indefinite future, despite financial loss whatever amount, disturbing. opposing considerations enumerated dissenting opinions. As Brothers DOUGLAS, point out, precisely one, present if reversed, take farther before. balance, light factors listed above, occasion punitive sins segregation. presented therefore vote 30 dissenting. 31 206 F.Supp. 539. it, Clark Thompson, Cir., 313 Reporter, 2nd 637, three 539, 542. opened citizen time; apparently intend 32 not, permissible created protected Constitution. 81, 20, 149. think plan defect; burden 33 Hunter Erickson, 393 385, 89 557, 616; 830, Board, etc., 256, case. perpetuated on-going regimes implicated. 34 only, others, meanwhile contributed schools. 232, 1233. That, continuation form. ordinance regulating realty basis become effective approved majority vote. minority interests became difficult.1 agency disadvantage interests. legislation prohibiting housing, thus encouraging market. 376, 1631. 35 Whether, artifices devices employed Burton Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 715, 856, 45, appearance conform reality, shown record. Burton, continuing connection becomes obligation see operators meet responsibilities. 725, 861. know facts are. 36 Closer Bush Orleans Parish D.C., 187 42, aff'd, 569, 754, 806. Louisisiana, her strategy system, authorized Governor ordered integrated. three-judge relying 17, 1409, 5, enjoined enforcing correct wrote While Louisiana giving indistinguishable one. 37 May abolish schools? dedicate backwardness, ignorance, existence Dark Age. Yet says system? Could enjoin dismantling levy taxes necessary Such supervision affairs vast undertaking, conceivably encompassing schools, playgrounds, civic athletic fields, My Ninth bearing problem. provides: 39 'The enumeration Constitution, rights, construed disparage others retained people.' 40 Rights, explicitly mentioned times elementary way life labeled basic rights. travel State. Guest, 383 745, 758, 86 1170, 1178, 239. marry. Loving 388 12, 1817, 1823, 1010. 'rights' related Fourth speaks 'right secure houses, papers, effects' protects well-known procedural devices. 'right' commonly summarized concept privacy. Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 85 1678, 510. word modern constitutions, concerning work recreation otherwise. Those like pure air water, 'retained people' up? 42 interfere interstate commerce; extent rendered agencies Supremacy powerless escape. civil guaranteed recently re-emphasized Oregon Mitchell, 400 112, 260, 272. Anderson Martin, 375 399, 454, 430, required designation ballots candidate's race. said: 43 'In abstract, imposes restriction anyone's candidacy elector's choice casting ballot. placing label candidate most crucial stage electoral process instant cast—the furnishes vehicle prejudice aroused another. directing citizen's attention single consideration color, paramount—consideration choice, decisively influence cast ballot lines.' 402, 456. 44 burdened. stated West Education Barnette, 319 624, 638, 63 1185, 1628, that: 'One's life, liberty, fundamental submitted vote; depend outcome elections.' added Lucas Forty-Fourth Colorado Assembly, 713, 736—737, 1459, 1474, 632 'A hardly infringed (they) be.' privacy, honored Griswold, overturned polls, amendment. 45 determining abolished drew line 'an function' functions. Whether constitutions draw concern. Certainly provisions distinction. 46 Closing probably works greater hardship poor rich; whites, matter light. motivated. And, dissenters Appeals: 47 City's done thousand pleasures swimming. taught lesson: price protest high. dare twice protesting libraries, wish living without altogether, engendering further animosity lost through Negroes' 48 long-range effects manifold far-reaching. eliminated domain, activities, libraries say how tends races, encourage raise obstacles asserting national citizenship Wartime Amendments.' 419 1222, 1236. 49 view strong footing decisions. central eliminate sources invidious States.' 10, 1823. Cf. McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 196, 283, 290, 222. When 'to chill assertion penalizing exercise them' (United 390 570, 581, 1209, 1216, 138) 'patently unconstitutional.' 50 intimated 162, dominate legislators enacting fit inquiry, look closely thrust invasion See Epperson Arkansas, 97, 109, 273, 228; 231, defeated voters bigots. inflame causing humane measure down. judiciary kinds controversies. question was, put consequences 51 dominated controlled ending discrimination. reversed policy lifted anti-discrimination controls. launched tolerated regime housing. 52 earnestly obtains decreed ended supplanted state-inspired, state-favored clubs 53 told episode 'steel-hard, inflexible, undeviating segregation' Mississippi. 318 5. 54 believe freedom race, creed, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, 'enumerated rights' 55 Much written including suggestion secured include 'rights natural endowment.'2 Patterson, Forgotten (1955). 56 Goldberg, 492, 1686, 57 '(T)he belief Constitution's authors expressly eight amendments intent list included exhaustive.'3 58 premise deal analogies Bill Rights itself. Franklin, Civil Law Method Implications Republican Form Government, Tulane L.Rev. 487, 490—492 (1966); Redlich, Are 'Certain Retained People?', N.Y.U.L.Rev. 787, 810 812 (1962); Black, Unfinished Business Warren Court, Wash.L.Rev. 3, 37—45 (1970); Kutner, Neglected Amendment: 'Other Rights' People, Marq.L.Rev. 121, 134—137 59 escorting principle absolute equality, separation truth consecrates hierarchy relations, hence permits inequality.'4 Solicitor says: 60 '(T)o municipality voluntarily undertaken provide making unnecessary sector develop equally adequate insured perpetuated.' Our condemn creation regulations foster discrimination—segregated like. sure, analogy. enacts saying together. eliminates involved, entirely negative character. penumbra5 policies category included, narrow legalistic concepts turn formalism laws, spirit. 61 conclude though services—such like—it installing apartheid finds multi-racial unpleasant. abolition device life. do. Brennan Evans Abney, 396 435, 453, 90 628, 634 (dissenting), abandoned park integration: 'I too expensive superfluous, weak, all. facility.' went verge way. reaffirm summary affirmance implied. 64 WHITE, whom BRENNAN MARSHALL join, 65 Consistent view, thought forbidding discouraging joint war Clause. clear, agree, officially majority, stance desegregating implement 66 Let assume them. Its express resolution contrary ordering me cavil adhering implementing abandoning alike unfit associate prevent interracial little customs eating co-habiting intermarrying. Adickes S. Kress 398 144, 1598, 142 1010 (1967); 222 (1964); Lombard Louisiana, 267, 1122, 338 hollow promise denigrations protect. 67 little, any, described. district judge tradition expectation surrounding absence credible closings leave shutting less mingle using 68 am quite unpersuaded majority's impeach resort motive. criminal remedies variety conduct. various situations statutes interpretations conduct falls proscription proof animus. An contract ban Code KF62 § 1982 restaurant's serve customer actionable 1983 occurred accompanied pursuant custom Adickes, Just week Breckenridge, 88, 1790, 338, 1985(3) wholly conspiracies—in commit assault 'racial animus' 'invidiously motivation' conspirators' actions. 102, 1798. rejecting subject implied limitation, indicated conspiracies activities law. 98—99, 1796—1797. Official immune characterization conduct, times. police vulnerable false arrest vagrancy harassing punishing (him) attempting eat people,' 172, 1616, 'intentionally tolerate threats directed practice segregating restaurants.' Ibid. 69 week, ruling multi-member apportionment minimize dilute strength identifiable ghetto area. joined cautioned 70 vigilant scrutinizing schemes conceived purposeful Marion County's district, districts State, economic discrimination.' Whitcomb Chavis, 124, 149, 1858, 1872, 363 (1971) (emphasis added). 71 Further, assumed importance suits opinions Younger Harris, 401 37, 746, 669 (1971), companion cases. prosecution pending, allegations complaint utilizing faith, hope obtaining convictions them, effort harass individuals Obviously, examine determination kind today holds unreviewable. 72 pursuing doing §§ 1981 plaintiffs prove considerations. examining contentions, helpful re-create context arises. 73 1954, '(s)eparate inherently unequal.' 495, 692, 873. series emphasized universality permanence longer Muir Louisville Park Theatrical Assn., 971, 783, 1112, (1954), after Brown, saw Sixth Circuit, 202 275 fishing lake Iroquois Louisville, privately theatrical association city-owned amphitheater guilty proscribed refusing admit operatic performances. vacated remanded 'for Segregation 1954 conditions prevail.' Ibid.1 beginning October 1955 Term, resolved ambiguity taken Muir. pair decisions, state-sanctioned prohibited. Mayor Council Baltimore Dawson, 350 877, 76 133, 100 774 (1955), 220 386 beaches bathhouses. day, confirmed course Holmes Atlanta, 879, 141, 776 75 lower played role ongoing process. 1956, Alabama, Holmes, ordinances requiring colored motor buses common carrier passengers Montgomery due clauses *' 77 Browder Gayle, 707, 717 (M.D.Ala). Again summarily, citing Holmes. 352 903, 145, 114 (1956). unconvinced. early 1958, Fifth Circuit summarily merit appeal Improvement Association permanent Association, corporation denying Park. Assn. Detiege, 252 122 (C.A.5 1958). took one-line opinion. 54, 79 99, (1958). Other decisions demonstrated pervasive idea equal.2 Throughout period, bodies evade progeny employing delaying tactics defiance. (1961); (1964).3 Meanwhile, countless class orders successfully prosecuted Many regardless direct intervention Several places consistent effect.4 Public respondents case: 80 operating Southern Mississippi position constitutional.' Respondents' Brief 2. nearly nine seven Dawson 82 refer instituted facilities—parks, zoo, complexes—were defendants officials, Allen Thompson Director Parks Recreation George Kurts, successful. began stating 'noted low crime rate lack friction except period 1961 self-styled Freedom Riders visits.' 541 (S.D.Miss.1962). exclusive neighborhoods, residential pattern developed 'duplicated' areas, 'have customarily located proximity homes.' final 'defendants voluntary races.' Ibid.5 Among conclusions following: failed antagonistic incompatible purported class;6 original adjudication 'their personal claims unsegregated facilities,' F.Supp., 542; injunctive inappropriate law;7 individual outstanding, high gentlemen terms issued herein. obligations definitely coerced injunction. municipality, citizens. during turmoil arrived injunctions perfunctorily, trust character obey mandate hanging heads.' 543. stressed judgment, 1962. plaintiffs, appeal, claiming inadequate. curiam, 637 (CA5 1963). December 1963, certiorari, 951, 440, 312. none until appellate proceedings fully concluded.8 broadening Judge. trial court's mayor statements, indicating dedication 24, 1962, days Daily News quoted saying: "We year agitators pressure, going intermingling.' He sell can't sold.' App. 15. appeals attitude change. reported 'Governor Ross Barnett commended pledge Appendix next newspaper front page 'Thompson President Kennedy change retain segregation.' 16. During organized grievances officials. 27, committee representing met commissioners. specific demand city-operated day meeting, "In spite current agitation, Commissioners seek additional Tomorrow discussing plans immediately clubhouse library Grove area, City. proceed, proposed $100,000 expenditure area threat disturbances." 92 30, paper announced '(p)ublic schedule minor water difficulty.' 93 basis: Livingston Lake facility, reality beach Park; Battlefield wading Riverside College Park.9 literature describing Department Recreation, '(o)ur $.10 $.20 charge (is) lowest anywhere country. fees kept possible.' affidavits he below, Kurts 1960, 1961, average annual expense Battlefield, Riverside, $10,000. revenue $8,000 apiece; $2,300. Thus, absorbing approximately $11,700, 'in 94 From announcement 'minor difficulty' end aegis. canceled 'whites only' owner, involvement.10 informed neighborhood—the pool—'was sold Y. boycotted wasn't used, owns guests *.' Tr. Oral Arg. 31. According properly prevented falling disrepair produce offsetting revenue. state.11 95 August 1965, challenged jail, tried stipulations addition affidavit stated: 96 'Realizing prohibit basis, realizing subsequent 21.12 97 affidavit, averring: 'That apparent peacefully, safely, best interest 18.13 99 Based affidavits, Judge Accordingly, dismissed complaint. panel Palmer 324 rehearing banc, Appeals, seven-to-six vote, again dismissal 1222 (1969). Both desegregation, protection. issue, 397 1035, 1364, 646 (1970), follow reverse. dispute Similarly, disagreement event precipitated cease furnishing citizens.14 secondary believed relevant, causal link closings. officials' sworn danger obviously Desegregation, alone, catalyst consequences. Implicit assumptions mind pay 10- 20-cent fee imposed neighbors anticipated controllable authorities. Stated simply, knew final, compliance mandate, respect intolerable 101 Predictions reviewed assumption acted Tennessee, above residents sued immediate agreed city-run suit, Brown. nevertheless asserted delay achieving full wise course. net submit months providing gradual 102 unanimously integrating good-faith comply honest strife. 'compelling answer (was) exercise.' 535, 1319. 349 294, 300, 753, 756, 1083 (1955); 1408; Wright Georgia, 284, 291—293, 1240, 1245—1246, detail. quote pertinence observations. 103 'Beyond this, fears tumult inability speculations vague disquietudes indication meaningful disturbances desegregated. fact, transitions peaceful. Chairman Memphis Commission 'been singularly blessed question'; notwithstanding numerous witness unrest assertedly occur complete anonymous letters phone calls received. Police description 'troubles' bus referred threatened 'sit-in' demonstration store, but, predictions, gave concrete authorities peace. product desegregation. factual bare, testimonial unable cope problems might arise demand. 104 existing commendable goodwill witnesses emphatic reference inexplicable fashion supporting delay, preserved extended observance protection, denial, asserted. guarantee adherence to, for, 105 justifications urged relied substantial, legally practically. playgrounds children—both white—of facilities; inadequacy 'present' budget 'supervision' playgrounds. already noted, warrant assuming would, required, personnel unavailable needs arise. More significantly, obvious vindication conceded dependent afford accept questionable implicit resources inadequate, unresponsive, citizens.' 536—538, 1320 (footnotes omitted). 106 So live testimony. stipulated parties 'parties offer desired.' compelling Watson. 'economical' 'personal speculation.' showing increase $11,700—a that, purposely benefit maintained. prediction 'vague disquietude.' Watson, reflected commissioner received threatening violence, chief testified troubles sit-in buses. Thompson's refers 'when tensions inflamed visits riders Jackson.' assert Thompson. Neither contains slightest hint—in terms—that transition caused disorder violence.15 enforcement arise; 'bare speculation' 107 With respect, assertion, ante, 225, 'substantial record' Officials reasonably imminent. anticipation rested unsupported unjustified response. suffered sharp decline levels pertaining refused never reason. observe documented objective evidence, Wisdom 'We abandon service. faith nonracial reasons, overtones degradation, offend Constitution.' F.2d, 1237 n. (dissenting opinion). enough re-emphasize themselves, scintilla proof. 108 counsels reject speculation correlative prefer come economy portion population norms. potential unfortunately reflects views immoderates purport speak 36. Perhaps presented, exists among employ lawless permit act—whether form operate, closure facilities—to predicated weak reed. uphold bowing hypothetical widely deeply held. Surely demands nihilistic surrender. Frankfurter observed ago: 109 exclusion pupils system—'common' shared easy, overnight task drastic alteration ways communities involved. Deep emotions have, doubt, stirred. calmed letting loose—violence defiance encouraged strongest claim—nor submitting guise employed. Only constructive achieve civilization confirms.' 25, 1413 (concurring arrive action, special somehow insulated DOUGLAS show, facts, precise issue. 111 (E.D.La1960), 806 (1961), relevant. declared stricken integrate, integrated, disorder. Ibid.16 Hall St. Helena 197 649 (E.D.La.1961), 368 515, 529, 521 (1962). 112 distinguishable, ignores rationale direction importantly, stands underlying highly assessing validity acts. 113 'But clearer Edward's assistance, only: ensure, measures children circumstances, go school. Whatever allowing object qualify 346—348, 129—131, (1960); Central Dist. Allen, 236, 243, 1923, 1926, 1060 (1968); 228 Ely, Legislative Administrative Motivation Constitutional Law, Yale L.J. 1205 Note, Purpose Adjudication, Harv.L.Rev. 1887 (1970). Second, decree reversed. 232—234, 1233—1235. 115 conceding relevance states 'focus (both Gomillion) did.' Respondents argue 116 mention stress Brown.17 stressing 'declared nullified openly executive officers, evasive attempted 'ingenioously ingenuously.' Smith Texas, 311 128, 132, 164, 166, 84.' 1409. warranted limit presently us. 117 'is tired contention, overworked cases.' 1232 Respondent Supervisors 57—84.18 contexts 430 (1964) (designation ballots), (1967) (miscegenation law). 391, 560, 616 (1969), 'although treats white, Jew gentile identical manner, law's impact minority. did, referendum bothersome that.' 118 Quite apart better chance absent deep troubling pause. outset opinion, desegregate, expressing inferior share particular type feature program. designating colorable nondiscriminatory bit endorsement notion National Guard troops 1957 bar entry Little Rock's High School, wake 11, 1406. types actions reflect implementation conclusion: begun break struggled 'separate equal' doctrine, 491—494, 689—69219 emphatically laid rest itself, approval 119 "Segregation detrimental children. sanction law; separating usually interpreted denoting negro group. sense affects learn. tendency (retard) mental development benefits receive racial(ly) system." 494, 691. 120 These applied contexts, untenable pools—a pronouncement whites—operates Whites feel disappointment anger more. stigmatized condemns illegal. stand mute reminders inferiority. 121 carefully guarded attack peaceful channels analyzed Reconstruction statutes, repeat recent observation '(t)he approach 'accord (these statutes) sweep (their) language." 1796, (1971).20 Of specifically declares '(a)ll sue legislation, commented statutes. Newman Piggie Enterprises, Inc., 400, 401—402, 964, 965—966, 1263 NAACP ex rel. 357 449, 1163, 1488 1964 avenue plaintiff follow. Provisions Attorney bring whenever receives signed writing utilization 2000b(a). believes meritorious certifies signer unable, initiate suit. defines deem complainant specifying bear possibility institution jeopardize safety, employment, standing families, property.' 2000b(b). evident unfortunate considering initiation filing complaints General. said, altogether. F.2d., 1236 impact, ignore interposes help eliminating restrictions facilities.21 such, illegal Shapiro 618, 631, 1322, 1329, 600 (1969); 138 Dombrowski Pfister, 380 486—487, 1116, 1120—1122, (1965); 292, 348, 272 (1970) (Stewart, J., dissenting). 123 trenches race.' (1964). 'bears heavy justification upheld necessary, merely rationally related, accomplishment policy.' Ibid.; demean deter exercising statutory event: regard remand cause proceedings. 124 MARSHALL, 125 agreement obliged own. 126 opinions' reliance 'facially citizens' misplaced. ago 1948 Shelley Kraemer, 334 22, 836, 846, 1161, held: 127 terms, individual. established induced ownership occupancy color. achieved indiscriminate imposition inequalities.' short, detailed, Negro, lost. skin irrelevant. 128 exactly curiam: Florida Hawkins Control Florida; Tureaud Supervisors; 784, 1112. university latter 129 Even II, recognized sustained State; invoked sustain attendance compulsory apprehended commingling bathhouse optional.' Baltimore, 386, (C.A. 4), aff'd Conservation Development, Division Parks, Va. Tate, 231 615 (C.A.4), cert. denied, 838, 58, 130 By effectively removing publicly Amendment—at outside buildings—the clock back hard fought legal battle pick choose* Their rationalized transparent putting 131 conceive why writers Certainly, bound admission attorney version Equity always supervisory powers decrees; facilities—other conclusory statement projected human shown, imagine 132 539 (CA 5), 312 reported. 1969). Brother WHITE's suggests unequally because, facilities.' Post, 269. maintains (E.D.La.1960), empowered integrate; involve enterprise described 'perhaps function governments.' 493, important, elaborate package sought 188 916 (E.D.La.1960). serious problem probing forestall 45. 31—32. utilize pool. party thus, 'Q. you prevail locked irrespective operation? 'A. forever. purely problem, having integration, handle handles decision. creates difficulties, answered Green. Well, overtone, assume, present. Now suppose prevail, lose increasing amounts. forever? forever rise difficulties in.' 43—44. James Valtierra, 402 137, 1331, 678, undertook distinguish ground low-rent 'neutral face' 'aimed minority.' Hunter, remains undisturbed. However be, target poor, Comment, Vindication Unenumerated Fundamental Temple L.Q. 46, 53—56 Bertelsman, Due Process Law—Toward Viable Theory U.Cin.L.Rev. 777, 787 seq. Forkosch, Does 'Secure Blessings Liberty' Mandate Governmental Action?, Ariz.St.L.J. 'Nor turning somersaults arguing infringement right. Amendment—and indeed entire Rights—originally concerned power, subsequently enacted prohibits abridging liberties. Amendment, liberties amendments, state, federal, infringement. sum, lends 'liberty' Government restricted amendments.' 381. Relation Fifth, Third How.L.J. 170, 180 State' 'either direct.' 755, 1176, nature create participation peripheral, several co-operative forces leading violation.' 755—756, 1177. (1961) (segregated restaurant facility). Boynton 182, (1960) (application Interstate Commerce Act); 1; Turner 369 350, 805, 762 (1962) (public airport); Johnson 61, 1053, 195 (1963) (courtrooms); 131, 139, 719, 722, (1966) (libraries); Petersburg Alsup, 238 1956) (beach pool); Development (CA4), (1956) (state park); Willie Harris 549 (S.D.Tex.1962) (county Shuttlesworth Gaylord, (N.D.Ala.1961), sub nom. Hanes Shuttlesworth, 310 303 1962) (parks, baseball museum, auditorium); Moorhead Ft. Lauderdale, 152 (S.D.Fla.), 248 544 1957) (golf course); Ward Miami, 151 593 (S.D.Fla.1957) Holley Portsmouth, 150 (E.D.Va.1957) Fayson Beard, 134 (E.D.Tex.1955) (city parks). Green Kent 1689, 716 Thomas 524, 1327, 265 831 1966); Bailey 199 595 (S.D.Miss.1961), vacated, 31, 549, 512 (S.D.Miss.1962), rev'd, 5—6 1963) (common terminals), notice steel-hard, rooted custom. signs terminals carry policy. muscle, bone, sinew signs.' (Footnotes omitted.) Singleton Municipal Separate Dist., 348 729 1965); 355 865 1211 1969) rev'd Carter Feliciana 608, 477 426 1364 (CA5), modified, 1970); 432 927 1970). 18, stated, welfare served (the near homes) continued.' (1954); 223 93, 94—95 714 (M.D.Ala.), (1956); 122, Jury Comm. Greene 320, 329—330, 518, 523—524, cited 6, 3; Affidavit 21; T. 18. decided, consisted 100,000 50,000 Despite 2:1 ratio population, violated. Hampton Jacksonville, 304 320 Ghioto Hampton, 371 911, 170 Young Men's Christian Montgomery, 316 899 (M.D.Ala.1970) Y.M.C.A. coordinate duplication primary encouragement programs); Chinn Canton, Civ. 3764 (S.D.Miss., Nov. 1965) (unreported) (town all-white association; desegregated). benches Zoo removed rooms Building 1231 opinion); 21. Mayor's makes Director's conceded. 28—29. brief, argues: 'This knowledge still violent clashes young groups, stemming promoted other.' 10. text, below. Rider incidents. discount significance Bush. depended provision especially function. Had essential, distinction tenable, extension 'all deliberate speed' appropriate. rejected. 529—530, 1316—1317. service—regardless 'essential' one—it manner accepting 'important,' contradict Newton, 382 296, 302, 486, 490, (1966), fire department traditionally serves community. Mass 529; aid perform implicate Amendment.' 443—444, 445, 633, 'When destroyed everyone disheartened. reached application principles search proceeding transaction second stresses similarities be- tween title closes own accord commands. Yet, arguendo Clause, distinguishable injecting animus sort construing Senator Bacon's will.' inquiry Bush, striking ruling, clear. concedes, 221, irrelevant closed, branch subdivisions, responsible thereto, governor, lieutenant heads departments, sheriffs, boards supervisors, constables, mayors, aldermen municipalities known named herein performance political duties, Resolution Interposition hereby prohibit, lawful, means, Integration (347 S.Ct LEd 873), (349 US 1083), peaceful, mixing waiting rooms, amusement, assembly government, commission, board subdivision orders, rules board, commission supposed Decisions, state.' Miss.Code Ann. 4065.3 (1942); (judicial statute). Green, 3. briefs 592, O.T. decrees 65—66. Superintendent Instruction 53—63. decisions; inplicitly embrances Sweatt Painter, 339 629, 848, 1114 (1950), opportunities, large 'those qualities incapable measurement greatness school.' 634, 850. McLaurin Oklahoma Regents, 851, 1149 student graduate impairing 'his ability study, engage discussions exchange students, and, general, learn profession.' 641, 853. Quoting Price, 801, 1152, 1160, 267 Nor lulled correctly states, '(i)f courts.' partial ahead requirement demonstrates wrong future. Assume instance covert assistance Negroes; example 'desegregated' offering classes, physical illegal, exert whatsoever deliberations challenge newer, subtle me, edict powerful weapon disposal hostile fulfilling Threat hypothesized likely countered threat, pools—in outside. incident green $0.75 $1.25, admittedly

Classification Label: 1