Legal Document

536 U.S. 822 BOARD OF EDUCATION INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT NO. 92 POTTAWATOMIE COUNTY ET AL.v.EARLS AL. No. 01-332. Supreme Court of the United States. Argued March 19, 2002. Decided June 27, CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT APPEALS FOR TENTH CIRCUIT The Student Activities Drug Testing Policy (Policy) adopted by Tecumseh, Oklahoma, School District (School District) requires all middle and high school students to consent urinalysis testing for drugs in order participate any extracurricular activity. In practice, has been applied only competitive activities sanctioned Oklahoma Secondary Schools Association (OSSAA). Respondent their parents brought this 42 U. S. C. § 1983 action equitable relief, alleging that violates Fourth Amendment. Applying Vernonia Dist. 47J v. Acton, 515 646, which upheld suspicionless drug athletes, granted summary judgment. Tenth Circuit reversed, holding violated It concluded before imposing a program must demonstrate some identifiable abuse problem among sufficient number those tested, such group will actually redress its problem. court then held had failed Tecumseh participating activities. Held: Tecumseh's is reasonable means furthering District's important interest preventing deterring use schoolchildren does not violate Pp. 828-838. (a) Because searches public officials implicate Amendment interests, see, e. g., Vernonia, S., at 652, review "reasonableness," touchstone constitutionality. contrast criminal context, probable-cause finding unnecessary context because it would unduly interfere with maintenance swift informal disciplinary procedures are needed. search may be when supported "special needs" beyond normal need law enforcement. "reasonableness" inquiry cannot disregard schools' custodial tutelary responsibility children, id., 656, individualized suspicion necessary. upholding conducted fact-specific balancing intrusion on children's rights against promotion legitimate governmental interests. Vernonia's principles somewhat different facts case demonstrates also constitutional. 828-830. (b) Considering first nature privacy allegedly compromised testing, see 654, concludes affected have limited expectation privacy. Respondents argue children nonathletic subject regular physicals communal undress they stronger than athletes. This distinction, however, was essential depended primarily upon school's authority. See, 665. event, who voluntarily themselves many same intrusions as do Some these clubs require occasional off-campus travel undress, them own rules requirements apply student body whole. Each abide OSSAA rules, faculty sponsor monitors compliance various dictated Such regulation further diminishes schoolchildren's 830-832. (c) next character imposed Policy, 658, invasion students' significant, given minimally intrusive sample collection uses test results put. degree caused collecting urine depends manner production monitored. Under monitor waits outside closed restroom stall produce listen sounds urination guard tampered specimens ensure an accurate chain custody. procedure virtually identical "negligible" approved ibid. clearly kept confidential files separate from student's other records released personnel "need know" basis. Moreover, turned over enforcement Nor lead imposition discipline or academic consequences. Rather, consequence limit privilege 832-834. (d) Finally, considering immediacy government's concerns efficacy meeting them, 660, effectively serves protecting safety health. Preventing concern. See 661-662. health risks identified equal force children. presented specific evidence schools. Teachers testified saw appeared under influence heard speaking openly about using drugs. A dog found marijuana near parking lot. Police paraphernalia car driven club member. And board president reported people community were calling discuss "drug situation." consider proffered insufficient there no real immediate justify policy nonathletes. But demonstrated always necessary validity regime, even though showing shore up assertion special general program. Chandler Miller, 520 305, 319. provided Furthermore, required particularized pervasive allowing government conduct testing. Treasury Employees Von Raab, 489 673-674. prevent deter substantial harm childhood provides policy. Given nationwide epidemic use, increased schools, entirely enact particular 834-838. 242 F. 3d 1264, reversed. THOMAS, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, SCALIA, KENNEDY, BREYER, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion, post, p. 838. O`CONNOR, dissenting SOUTER, joined, 842. GINSBURG, STEVENS, Linda Maria Meoli argued cause petitioners. With her briefs Stephanie J. Mather William P. Bleakley. Deputy Solicitor General Clement States amicus curiae urging reversal. him brief Olson, Assistant Attorney McCallum, Gregory G. Garre, Leonard Schaitman, Lowell V. Sturgill, Jr. Graham A. Boyd respondents. Steven R. Shapiro.* JUSTICE THOMAS Court. 1 implemented Board Education Independent Pottawatomie County submit reasonably detecting students, we hold 2 * city rural located approximately 40 miles southeast City. administers fall 1998, (Policy), Association, Academic Team, Future Farmers America, Homemakers band, choir, pom pon, cheerleading, athletics. take activity, random while agree tested time suspicion. tests designed detect illegal drugs, including amphetamines, marijuana, cocaine, opiates, barbituates, medical conditions presence authorized prescription medications. 3 At suit, both respondents attended High School. Lindsay Earls member show marching National Honor Society. Daniel James sought Team.1 Together parents, Rev. Stat. 1979, 1983, District, challenging face participation activities.2 They alleged incorporated Fourteenth requested injunctive declarative relief. identify activities, "Drug neither addresses proven nor promises bring benefit school." App. 9. 4 articulated 646 (1995), Western rejected respondents' claim unconstitutional judgment District. noted exist that, although did "not proportions," history starting 1970 "legitimate concern." 115 Supp. 2d 1281, 1287 (2000). effective "[i]t can scarcely disputed addressed making sure large competitive, drugs." Id., 1295. 5 Appeals agreed evaluated "unique environment setting," but reached conclusion Policy's 1270 (2001). Before program, "must problem." 1278. existed unconstitutional. We certiorari, 534 1015 (2001), now reverse. II 6 Constitution protects "[t]he right secure persons, houses, papers, effects, unreasonable seizures." Searches officials, samples, supra, 652; cf. New Jersey T. L. O., 469 325, 334 (1985). therefore constitutionality search. 7 reasonableness usually probable cause. Skinner Railway Labor Executives' Assn., 602, 619 (1989). standard, "is peculiarly related investigations" unsuited determining administrative where "Government seeks development hazardous conditions." 667-668 (1989) (internal quotation marks citations omitted) (collecting cases). warrant "`would [that are] needed.'" 653 (quoting 340-341). 8 way investigations, Part II-B, infra, contend use. instead based least level Brief 12-14. true generally determine individual's Delaware Prouse, 440 648, 654 (1979). long "the imposes irreducible requirement [individualized] suspicion." Martinez-Fuerte, 428 543, 561 (1976). "[I]n certain circumstances, Government's discover latent hidden conditions, development, sufficiently compelling entailed conducting without measure 668; Skinner, 624. Therefore, regulations, unsupported "when `special needs, enforcement, make impracticable.'" Griffin Wisconsin, 483 868, 873 (1987) 351 (Blackmun, judgment)); 653; 619. 9 Significantly, previously inhere context. 339-340. While shed constitutional enter schoolhouse, Tinker Des Moines Community Dist., 393 503, 506 (1969), "Fourth ... schools elsewhere; `reasonableness' children." 656. particular, conducts 10 athletes simply authorize rather 652-653. case, conclude 11 654. As backdrop analysis stake general. ("Central fact subjects (1) (2) committed temporary custody State schoolmaster"); 665 ("The most significant element discussed: undertaken furtherance responsibilities, system, guardian tutor entrusted care"); ("[W]hen acts relevant question whether one might undertake"). 12 responsible maintaining discipline, health, safety. Schoolchildren routinely physical examinations vaccinations disease. Securing sometimes subjected greater controls appropriate adults. 350 (Powell, concurring) ("Without establishing order, teachers begin educate students. apart education, obligation protect pupils mistreatment violence few whose recent years prompted national concern"). 13 Vernonia. 18-20. our decision authority.3 14 athletes.4 offcampus undress. All 2d, 1289-1290. For example, each governed 1290. schoolchildren. Cf. 657 ("Somewhat like adults choose closely regulated industry, athletics reason expect privileges, privacy" omitted)). B 15 Next, Policy. 658. Urination "an excretory function traditionally shielded great privacy." 626. "degree intrusion" one's "depends monitored." 16 "listen insure custody." 199. pours into two bottles sealed placed mailing pouch along form signed student. reviewed except additionally male samples behind stall. considered method intrusion, here less problematic. 17 addition, educational nonetheless fails disclosure information and, specifically, "has careless information: Choir teacher looked lists left could them." 24. choir someone know," during trips she needs know what medications taken Even enacted access information. 132. allegation example carelessness hardly increases intrusion. 18 n. 2. Indeed, positive twice still allowed After test, contacts parent meeting. continue activity if within five days shows proof receiving counseling submits second weeks. suspended days, complete four hours substance counseling, monthly tests. Only after third remainder year, 88 whichever longer. 201-202. 19 put, significant. C 20 them. 660. already detail importance concern Nation's youth abated since decided 1995. fact, suggests grown worse.5 necessity act magnified evil being visited just individuals large, whom care direction." 662. makes war pressing every school. 21 Additionally, seen 72 (deposition Dean Rogers); Sheila Evans). cigarettes officers once America 1285-1286. decline second-guess "[v]iewing whole, [School District] faced `drug problem' Policy." 1287. 22 "real interest" 32. recognized, "[a] [is] cases regime," "shore program." 319 (1997). 23 instance, Raab customs purely preventive basis, documented officials. 673. response lack relating serious problems confronting society today," programs deemed unreasonable. 674; 607, (noting studies on-the-job alcohol railroad employees). Likewise, little sense district wait portion institute 24 reject Appeals` novel "any seeking impose condition 3d, Among problems, difficult administer test. articulate threshold suffice schoolchildren, refuse fashion effect quantum 25 nonathletes concerns, "crucial factor" applying framework. 25-27. "surpassing interests," 634, "extraordinary security hazards," 674, override usual protections 25-26. correct factors analysis, furthered undoubtedly alike. too well carries variety death overdose. 26 argument presumptively wrongdoing regime intrusive. 12-16. suspicion, 829, attempting place additional burden tasked job discipline. unfairly target members unpopular groups. fear lawsuits resulting targeted chill rendering ineffective combating 663-664 (offering similar reasons why "testing `suspicion' better, worse"). repeatedly stated employing means, logic elaborate less-restrictive-alternative arguments raise insuperable barriers exercise search-and-seizure powers." 556-557, 12; 624 ("[A] floor, below presumed unreasonable"). 27 find addressing preventing, deterring, closer fit between trial court's "fueled `role model' athletes' use," holding. 663; 684-685 (O`CONNOR, dissenting) (questioning extent problem, especially athletes). likely responsibilities. Evaluating III 28 Within limits Amendment, local boards assess desirability school-children. express wisdom. Accordingly, reverse Appeals. 29 so ordered. Notes: ofamici reversal Washington Legal Foundation et al. Richard Willard, Popeo, Samp. Briefs amici affirmance American Academy Pediatrics David Goldberg N. Abrahamson; Jean Burkett Craig Goldblatt; Juvenile Law Center Marsha Levick; Criminal Defense Lawyers John Wesley Hall, Jr., Lisa B. Kemler, Timothy Lynch, Kevin Zeese; Rutherford Institute W. Whitehead, H. Aden, Jamin Raskin. Drug-Free Coalition Evans; Boards Julie K. Underwood, Christopher Gilbert, Thomas E. Wheeler; Professor Akhil Reed Amar Julia M. Carpenter. allegations concerning called his standing sue failing grades made ineligible interscholastic competition. 1282, (WD Okla. 2000). noted, dispute resolved standing, address Seeibid. likewise satisfied standing. challenge either applies reasonable, GINSBURG argues thatVernonia passage cited dissent manifests supplemental factor, "[l]egitimate expectations regard athletes." 847 657) (emphasis added). "[c]entral" element." hefty weight side balance undertake GINSBURG's observations Seepost, 845 ("Participation [extracurricular] key component life, reality college, participants, contributor breadth quality experience"). 12th graders illicit 48.4 percent 1995 53.9 2001. reporting used jumped 41.7 49.0 period. Department Health Human Services, Monitoring Future: Results Adolescent Use, Overview Key Findings (2001) (Table 1) 30 concurring. 31 I governs Circuit's decision. focusing demand, avoiding sanctions, relying professional treatment. my view, Amendment's prohibition "unreasonable reach emphasize several underlying considerations, understand consistent Court's opinion. 32 respect following: First, terms size, kinds used, consequences rest us. White House Nat. Control Strategy (Feb. 2002) (drug leads annually 20,000 deaths, $160 billion economic costs); Johnston al., (Monitoring Future) (more one-third completing eighth grade; more half school); (about 30% prior added)); Addiction Substance Abuse, Malignant Neglect: Abuse America's (Sept. 2001) (Malignant Neglect) (early later dependence); Strategy, (same). 33 Second, emphasis supply interdiction apparently reduced teenage years. Compare Perl, CRS Issue Congress, Control: International Options CRS-1 (Dec. 12, (supply account 66% federal control budget), Partnership 2001 Attitude Tracking Study: (showing increase early 1990's, peak 1997, steady thereafter); 2000-2001 PRIDE Summary: Alcohol, Tobacco, Illicit Drugs, Violence Related Behaviors, Grades thru (Apr. 5, 2002), http://www.pridesurveys.com/us00.pdf (slight rise 2000-2001); Future, Table (lifetime prevalence increasing last years). 34 Third, systems ways deal Today's expects teach fundamentals, "to shoulder feeding breakfast lunch, offering child services, providing psychological services," safe encourages learning. Amici Curiae 3-4. Bethel 403 Fraser, 478 675, 681 (1986) (Schools "`prepare citizenship Republic [and] inculcate habits manners civility values conductive happiness indispensable practice self-government nation'") Beard & Beard, Basic History 228 (1968)). itself recognizes responsibilities phrase loco parentis — draws legal younger (who necessarily grouped together older students) reflects, adolescent lacks privacy, child's adolescent's school-related interest, compared interests adult, dimensions. 654-655. system adequately carry out send private parochial help State. Zelman Simmons-Harris, ante, 639. 35 Fourth, issue discourage demand changing combat single factor leading namely, peer pressure. Neglect (students "whose friends times likelier not"). offers nonthreatening friend's drug-use invitations, he intends play baseball, debate, join engage dozen useful, interesting, 36 privacy-related everyone characterization significance sampling "negligible." Ante, 833 658). routine examination, others seriously embarrassed provide listening "outside stall," 832. When trying resolve kind close involving interpretation values, believe opportunity airing differences meetings give entire able participate" developing 87. democratic, participatory process uncover differences, giving process, revealed little, any, objection proposed 37 avoids subjecting preserves option conscientious objector. He paying price (nonparticipation) serious, severe expulsion 38 contrary reading Constitution, requiring "individualized suspicion" push boundaries outer limits, subjective criteria "unfairly groups," 837, leave behavior slightly abnormal stigmatized minds others. Belsky, Random vs. Suspicion-Based Public Surprising Civil Liberties Dilemma, City 1, 20-21 (forthcoming (listing court-approved justifying suspicion-based tiredness, overactivity, quietness, boisterousness, sloppiness, excessive meticulousness, tardiness). If so, direct application seizures" liberty-protecting objectives mediating where, here, nature. 39 work. But, prohibit effort. Emphasizing considerations mentioned, refers, constitutionally speaking, "unreasonable." 41 SOUTER joins, dissenting. dissented wrongly decided. precedent, petitioners' approach dissent. 43 O'CONNOR, join, 44 Seven ago, determined district's randomly ruling, emphasized "increase[d] risk sports-related injury" "leaders" aggressive culture" "`epidemic proportions.'" 649. Today, relies permit superintendent described major," 180, 186, 191, team solely nonathletic, associated dangers from, predilections for, 45 "[T]he legality student," instructed, "should depend reasonableness, search." 341 Although "`special needs' context," 829 653), expansive malleable render elects install. today reasonable; capricious, perverse: Petitioners' targets population damaging effects. 46 47 nevertheless impracticable." omitted). clear "such context." Griffin, 873). observed: 48 "[W]hile assuredly `shed schoolhouse gate,' school.... rights, First 655-656 (other 49 facing disruptive explosive sparked athletic teams justified participation. 50 presents circumstances dispositively True, stresses, share characteristics groups attend "[O]ur Vernonia," states, "depended authority." 831; 840 (BREYER, (school districts parentis). Concern basic caretaking, undeniable overdose." 836-837 (majority opinion). 51 Those risks, present read endorse invasive jeopardize life Many adults, dangerous time; enrolled allows personal items brings school, 338-339, surely regarding chemical composition urine. Had attendance, itself, permitted blood saved words. 662 ("[I]t lost sight [the directed user playing sport particularly high."). 52 commonality points voluntary "By choosing `go team,' [school athletes] higher generally." 657. Comparably, observes, "students to" applicable 831. 53 comparison enlightening. "voluntary" graduation, part program; reason, petitioner (hereinafter expending resources available. Participation experience. 6; 8-9. Students "volunteer" pursuits volunteer honors classes: requirements, full advantage education offered Lee Weisman, 505 577, 595 (1992) ("Attendance official decree, yet apparent free absent herself graduation term `voluntary,' absence forfeiture intangible benefits motivated through years."). 54 Voluntary distinctly dimension: regulate discretely sports important, expose duty mitigate. very offer intimately affecting analogized "adults industry." Industries category oversight. Biswell, 406 311, 315-316 (1972). Interscholastic similarly regulation; not. 55 short, applied, repudiate, princithe should depend"ple Enrollment election bare minimum curriculum requires, indeed intrusive, searches. accordingly, factors; instead, performed today's majority aptly describes "fact-specific balancing," 830. Balancing yield result announces today. 56 initially [there] intrude[d]." attenuated: 57 "Legitimate bashful. `suiting up' showering afterwards. locker rooms, sites notable afford. rooms typical: No individual dressing provided; shower heads lined wall, unseparated sort partition curtain; toilet stalls doors.... [T]here inherent participation." 58 Competitive athletics, serve manner: modest shy bold uninhibited. plaintiff-respondent pursued afford opportunities gain self-assurance, "come formal setting typical classroom," acquire "positive social supports networks [that] critical role periods heightened stress." 13. 59 On "occasional out-of-town trips," sleep settings bathrooms." 1275 (CA10 2001). situations equivalent athletics; admits occur, "public-like facilities," presumably include enclosed stalls, ordinarily available changing, "more students" maintain Petitioners 34.1 60 describing complained of." Observing bathroom coach outside, typed obtaining Ibid. pretest taken, assumed [a student] envelope lab." assumption, 61 allege handled collected carelessly, confidentiality. Information assert, viewed Lindsay's teacher, containing unlocked unsealed, others, them; sponsors know." 6, 24; 105-106, 131. 199 (policy medication list shall submitted lab employees"). 62 granting observed "[p]olicy expressly confidentiality results, assume provisions honored." 1293 assumption unwarranted. Unlike bench ruling favor, stage, doubtful matters favor seeker. Diebold, Inc., 369 655 (1962) (per curiam) ("On inferences drawn contained [affidavits, attached exhibits, depositions] light favorable party opposing motion."); 10A Wright, Kane, Federal Practice Procedure 2716, pp. 274-277 (3d ed. 1998). 63 "nature concern," dwarfed administrators. initiated alarming situation: "[A] segment body, involved state rebellion fueled student[s'] misperceptions culture." 649 contrast, Government period adoption "types [other tobacco] controlled substances, [in schools] major time." 1998-1999 School's Application Funds Safe Communities Program, reprinted 191; accord, 1996-1997 Application, 186; 1995-1996 180.2 observed, "without solution perceived greatly diminished." 1277. 64 cites 673-674 (1989), agents Customs employees," today." (upholding railway employees industry-wide, railway-specific, problems). Executives, installed avoid enormous lives limbs dominantly users invariably 674 creates hazards"); 628 (railway operators "discharge duties fraught injury momentary lapse attention disastrous consequences"); 321 (1997) ("Von unique context"). 65 Not confront magnitudes, chose solutions: athletes; indiscriminately participants Urging alike," 836, cuts Citing literature effects combining exertion, screened [Vernonia's] pose 662; 666 (GINSBURG, (Vernonia "those sports"). confirmed Chandler, 317 "emphasized drug-using athlete cast himself engaged field"); Ferguson Charleston, 532 67, 87 (KENNEDY, (Vernonia's goal "`[d]eterring schoolchildren,' student-athletes, `the high'") 661-662). 66 margins, course, perfectly tailored harms address. "perform extremely precise routines heavy equipment instruments proximity students," "are individually restrain animals 1500 pounds." 43. part, acknowledges linebacker faces takes field drummer half-time band," parries golf, cross country, volleyball (sports covered Vernonia) handling 1500-pound steer (as [Future America] do) working cutlery sharp do)." Amicus 18. One demur view poses golfers, PGA TOUR, Inc. Martin, 661, 687 ("golf low intensity activity"), golfers marginal linebackers, sprinters, basketball players steer-handlers choristers, musicians, academic-team Tecumseh.3 Notwithstanding nightmarish images out-of-control flatware, livestock run amok, colliding tubas disturbing peace quiet truth sensitive unusual degree. There difference imperfect tailoring all. 67 district, sum, good athletes: Sports "were leaders tenable justification, explains candidates office incompatible antidrug laws"). 68 Nationwide, significantly develop less-involved peers. Zill, Nord, Loomis, Time Risky Behavior, Outcomes (1995) (tenth "who spending school-sponsored drugs" spent 1-4 per week activities). deterred preserve eligibility, forgo involvement detection thus falls short doubly deterrence aim: invades least, steering greatest away potentially palliate problems.4 69 To summarize, resembles Districts conditioned engagement obligatory subjection urinalysis. defining programs, dissimilar. subpopulation distinguished susceptibility drug-related injury, much larger none factors. moreover, carefully safeguarding program's untoward sweeping sheltered Vernonia; renders impermissible 70 inspected "Georgia's pass test"; "d[id] guarded permissible searches." 309. Georgia's prescription, record showed, responded "concrete danger," 319, "high-risk, safety-sensitive tasks," 321-322. concluded: 71 "What left, scheme, image project. By Georgia displays commitment struggle abuse.... revealed, symbolic, `special,' meaning law." Close compels conclusion. That shown advance [existing] [to maintain] schools," 846-848, 849-853. What undoubted purpose heighten awareness abhorrence of, strong stand against, abuse. desire augment communication message trump persons gate "secure Const., Amdt. 4. 73 referred pathmarking "Justice Brandeis recognized teaching example: `Our potent, omnipresent teacher. ill, teaches whole example.'" 322 Olmstead States, 277 438, 485 (1928)). wisdom guide decisionmakers instant case: nowhere runs 74 sad irony petitioning edict trumpeting regulating endeavoring exploding epidemic, obligations otherwise unacceptably abridge rights. ascendant, "teach example" symbolic measures diminish protections. "That [schools] educating young scrupulous protection Constitutional freedoms individual, strangle mind source discount mere platitudes." West Virginia Bd. Ed. Barnette, 624, 637 (1943). 75 76 stated, affirm declaring According wear uniforms competitions change "a room building" bus, "[m]any figured how [change] having [anyone] anything." Appellants' 00-6128 (CA10), 296 finds ofsome schools: "As problem.'" 836. establish bright-line "constitutional use" recognize relevance superintendent's reports characterizing [a] proble[m]," 191. Cross-country runners players, exertion. SeeVernonia 663 (describing generally). notes unlike "might groups."Ante, 837; 841-842 concurring). Assuming, arguendo, exchanged addition to, lieu "at 197.

Classification Label: 4