Legal Document

470 U.S. 598 105 S.Ct. 1524 84 L.Ed.2d 547 David Alan WAYTE, Petitionerv.UNITED STATES. No. 83-1292. Argued Nov. 6, 1984. Decided March 19, 1985. Syllabus A July 1980 Presidential Proclamation directed certain young male citizens to register with the Selective Service System during a specified week. Petitioner fell within prescribed class but did not register. Instead, he wrote letters Government officials, including President, stating that had registered and intend do so. These were added file of men who advised they failed or reported by others as having Subsequently, adopted policy passive enforcement under which it would investigate prosecute only nonregistration cases contained in this file. In furtherance policy, June 1981 sent letter each nonregistrant warning failure could result criminal prosecution. received such respond. Thereafter, transmitted Department Justice, for investigation potential prosecution, names petitioner identified policy. The after screening out those appeared be required register, referred remaining Federal Bureau Investigation appropriate United States Attorneys. Petitioner's name was one so referred. Then, pursuant Justice's so-called "beg" whereby Attorneys, assisted FBI, made an effort persuade nonregistrants change their minds, Attorney petitioner's district him urging face possible Again Nor authorized grace period further FBI agents Accordingly, indicted knowingly willfully failing violation Military Act. District Court dismissed indictment on ground rebut prima facie case selective Appeals reversed, holding although shown similarly situated been prosecuted conduct similar his, focused its because his protest activities. Held: Government's together violate either First Fifth Amendment. Pp. 607-614. (a) prosecution claims may appropriately judged according ordinary equal protection standards. standards require show both discriminatory effect motivated purpose. has met burden. All is eventually prosecuted, along many themselves violated law. He selected basis speech. fact demonstrates treated all equally, subject vocal any special But even if effect, intended result. Absent showing activities, claim fails. 607-610. (b) With respect Amendment, regulation justified (1) constitutional power, (2) furthers important substantial governmental interest, (3) interest unrelated suppression free speech, (4) incidental restriction alleged Amendment freedoms no greater than essential interest. v. O'Brien, 391 367, 88 1673, 20 672. case, neither first nor third requirement disputed, meets second fourth requirements. reasons offers defense policy—it promotes prosecutorial efficiency, nonregistrants' provided strong evidence intent comply, visible efficient way promote general deterrence are sufficiently compelling satisfy others. requirement, placed more limitation speech necessary ensure registration effective interim solution available carry 610-614. 710 F.2d 1385 (CA9 1983), affirmed. Mark D. Rosenbaum, Los Angeles, Cal., petitioner. Sol. Gen. Rex E. Lee, Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 question presented whether prosecutes report law, others, violates Amendments. 2 * On 2, 1980, authority § 3 Act, 62 Stat. 605, amended, 50 U.S.C.App. 453,1 President issued 4771, CFR 82 (1981). This residents born 1960 week 21, 1980. several so.2 For we discuss, infra, at 612-613, 17, 1981, violator whom address. explained duty stated information person done so, requested comply law filling enclosed card explain why registration, warned penalties. copy 4 20, 133 other system—all response Service's letter. At two later dates, 152 identified. After additional inquiry Attorneys districts resided. 5 Pursuant immediately prosecuted. notify mail that, unless time, considered. addition, agent usually interview before instituted. minds became known Under it, late while never investigated Government. Central California October 15, 6 December 9, instructed begin seeking indictments against until notice. January 7, 1982, announced afford opportunity without penalty. extended February 28, 1982. still 7 Over next few months, decided prosecuting who, despite continued refuse It recognized system "liable proponents nonregistration" persons "with religious moral objections." Memorandum from Lawrence Lippe, Chief, General Litigation Legal Advice Section, Criminal Division, Lowell Jensen, Assistant General, App. 301. also prosecutions "undoubtedly allegations [case was] brought retribution nonregistrant's exercise amendment rights." Ibid. advised, however, develop "active" quite some time. See 613. Because this, delay. May notified nonregistrants. interviewed petitioner, 22, returned §§ 12(a) 605 622, 453 462(a). individual II 8 moved dismiss contended nonregistrants3 "vocal" opponents program impermissibly targeted (out estimated 674,000 nonregistrants4) rights. hearing, granted broad request discovery produce documents make officials testify. produced agreed but, citing executive privilege, withheld testimony. 29, ordered disputed witness. declined November 5, asked order allow appeal challenging order. dismissal grounds, 9 prosecution.5 Following precedents Ninth Circuit, found establish prove (i) generally (ii) selection based impermissible grounds race, religion, 549 F.Supp. 1376, 1380 (Cal.1982). satisfied held, nonregistrants6 "[t]he inference have located non-vocal non-registrants, chose to." Id., 1381. three reasons. First, " 'inherently suspect' 'it focuse[d] upon offender . [and vulnerable charge chosen [were] being punished expression ideas, constitutionally protected right.' Ibid., quoting Steele, 461 1148, 1152 1972). Second, awareness disproportionate number indicated F.Supp., 1382. Finally, involvement high decisions "strongly suggest[ed] prosecution." 1383. then held case. 10 reversed. 1983). Applying same test, second. 13 1387. As evidence, showed aware primarily types men—religious objectors objectors—and latter type probably Finding motivation, court Court's finding clearly erroneous. 1388. legitimate explanations system: identities nonreported known, expressed refusal clear willful law.7 11 Recognizing importance division Circuits,8 certiorari 467 1214, 104 2655, 81 362 (1984). We now affirm. III 12 our justice system, retains "broad discretion" prosecute. Goodwin, 457 368, 380, n. 11, 102 2485, 2492, 73 74 (1982); accord, Marshall Jerrico, Inc., 446 238, 248, 100 1610, 1616, 64 182 (1980). "[S]o long prosecutor probable cause believe accused committed offense defined statute, decision prosecute, what bring grand jury, rests entirely discretion." Bordenkircher Hayes, 434 357, 364, 98 663, 668, 54 604 (1978). discretion largely recognition particularly ill-suited judicial review. Such factors strength prosecution's value, priorities, case's relationship overall plan readily susceptible kind analysis courts competent undertake. Judicial supervision area, moreover, entails systemic costs particular concern. Examining delays proceeding, threatens chill subjecting prosecutor's motives decisionmaking outside inquiry, undermine effectiveness revealing these concerns properly hesitant examine noted slightly different context, broad, 'unfettered.' Selectivity laws constraints." Batchelder, 442 114, 125, 99 2198, 2205, 60 755 (1979) (footnote omitted). particular, 'deliberately unjustifiable standard arbitrary classification,' supra, U.S., S.Ct., Oyler Boles, 368 448, 456, 501, 505, (1962), statutory rights, see 372, 2488. 14 judge standards.9 supra. prior cases, purpose.10 Personnel Administrator Massachusetts Feeney, 256, 2282, 870 (1979); Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 429 252, 97 555, 450 (1977); Washington Davis, 426 229, 96 2040, 48 597 (1976). here Indeed, given carried out. registered. protested fact, criticizing affirmatively refused Affidavit Edward A. Frankle, Special Director Compliance, 635. Government, hand, people publicly protest. facts demonstrate similarly. refusing 15 Even demonstrated claims. noted, however: '[D]iscriminatory purpose' implies consequences. decisionmaker reaffirmed course action least part 'because of,' merely 'in spite adverse effects identifiable group." 279, 2296 (footnotes citations present showing, IV 16 challenges directly grounds.11 "[e]ven though [Government's passive] overtly punish such, inevitably created content-based regulatory concomitantly disparate, impact nonregistrants."12 Brief 23. when, here, 'speech' 'nonspeech' elements combined conduct, regulating nonspeech element can justify limitations freedoms." 376, 1678, 17 672 (1968). 18 "if power Government; interest; expression; interest." 377, 1679. 19 Accord, Seattle Times Co. Rhinehart, 32, 2199, 2207, (1984); Procunier Martinez, 416 396, 413, 94 1800, 1811, 40 224 (1974). condition disputed. There doubt condition. Few interests nation's need own security. well remember freedom know suppressed countries. Unless society capability will defend itself aggressions protections sort little meaning. Framers listed "provid[ing] common defence," Const., Preamble, motivating purpose Constitution Congress "provide Defence Welfare States," Art. I, 8, cl. 1. Federalist Nos. 4, 24, 25. Court, "to raise support armies sweeping," 1679; Lichter States, 334 742, 755-758, 68 1294, 1301-1303, 92 L.Ed. 1694 (1948); Draft Law Cases, 245 366, 38 159, 349 (1918), "power classify conscript manpower military service 'beyond question,' 1679, 756, 1302; principles mind, O'Brien requirement—as 21 relying reports nonregistration, able identify violators Although sure not, search actively likely violators. difficult costly step involving thousands thus promoted efficiency. written strong, perhaps conclusive comply—one offense.13 Third, thought deterrence, especially since proceed offenders encourage 22 final national defense. Passive burden, 609-610, system. engaged developing active when practicable obtaining current addresses nonregistrants.14 Eventually, obtained them matching state driver's license records Social Security files. took obtain authorizations set up 23 think note matter how far implications argument extend. Strictly speaking, does concern self-reporting. identifies apply enforcement. example, informing could, "protest." Just justification believing him. Prosecution context equally "burden" view, then, self-reporter system—unless principle, view immunity simply reporting himself claiming "protest" confers V 24 conclude affirm judgment Appeals. 25 ordered. 26 MARSHALL, BRENNAN joins, dissenting. 27 decides today "has activities," remands permit go forward. However interesting be, disposition issue must grapple less momentous deserving thoughtful treatment. What decide Wayte earned right discover relevant 28 discovery, indictment. reversed prevail merits claim, improper. If entitled currently possession, cannot record. To needs applied correct legal abuse determining nonfrivolous entitling discovery. 29 sustained Therefore, stage litigation. I respectfully dissent 30 understand precise nature review detail posture comes us. filed charged draft. September 31 exhibits: internal memoranda discussing mechanism individuals draft, Accounting Office alternatives program, statement Subcommittee Courts, Civil Liberties Administration House Judiciary Committee, transcript meeting Defense's Manpower Task Force. According Wayte, supported designed scheme purposefully discriminated oppose draft registration. argued sufficient evidentiary hearing issue. regard, variety asserted intention subpoena seven out-of-district witnesses, Edwin Meese III, Counsellor President. 32 30, motion "non-frivolous." following day, parties disagreements over Wayte's requests. requests, denied submit camera inspection. reconsideration postponed ruling subpoenas preliminary claim. 33 7. Two witnesses testified: J. Kline, Senior Advisor Department's Richard Romero, principal Kline's testimony dealt extensively policies draft-registration statute. 34 nonevidentiary ruled portions submitted should turned previously expurgated fashion. parts them, determined defense's undisclosed materials outweighed nondisclosure. Specifically, disclosure sentences paragraph letter, memoranda. redacted manner incomprehensible. 35 eager 15. indicated, stricken admonishment Court: 36 "It obvious appetite irrelevant disclosures sensitive become insatiable. apparent new disclosure, near-impossible deadlines, feels compelled impugn Government." Record, Doc. 95, p. 3. 37 invoked "deliberative processes" privilege Meese's testimony, testify privileged. saga production, review, unredacted versions form. complied 39 list kept seal. assertion valid Nixon, 418 683, 711, 3090, 3109, 41 1039 determined: "Applying balancing test Nixon facts, finds scales tip decidedly favor defendant's inspected camera. generalized 'deliberative process' yield specific documents, released Mr. Wayte." 119, 5. order, hearing. connection, series findings: normal followed nonregistrants; served nexus between White issue; involved toward therefore 42 29. explained: 43 "[I]t position stake connection sincerely overridden concur conclusion established requiring appearance official senior Contrary Order record amply relating there is, therefore, defendant 123, 44 last 1376 (1982). found, first, take beyond frivolous stage," id., 1379 (citing Erne, 576 212, 216 1978)), documents. "the achieve appellate defendant." 1378-1379; Alderman 394 165, 181, 89 961, 970, 176 (1969) ("[D]isclosure attended danger reputation safety security—unless prefer information"). 45 Having findings, underlying gone satisfying 1379-1380. result, burden shifted motives. 1382-1385. 46 conceded event triggered government's declination, surrender court, orders directing furnished witness." 82-1699 (CA9), 42. gave maintained "did meet colorable trigger obligation government." 44. particularized privileged outweigh preserve confidentiality. 45. acknowledged evaluating privilege—that disagreed weighed factors. 47 brief independent lawful orders. Appellee pp. 20-31. alone." 20. stage, concerned propriety reviewed standard, abused ordering rejected privilege. divided panel Circuit (1983). Writing majority, Judge Wright concluded "because 49 paragraph: "Because initial government That access might helpful entitle justified." 1388 (citations 51 unsuccessful petition rehearing, majority overlooked applicable trial Pet. Rehearing Suggestion Appropriateness En Banc 8-10. renewed arguments Cert. 9-12; Tr. Oral Arg. 9-11. 52 streamlined account stormy proceedings below makes perspective, foremost dispute. correctly resolved issue, evidence. And reject merits, time proceedings.1 53 breaks down into narrower inquiries. scope appropriate. questions, adequate made. Thus, incorrect, proper remand determination questions. Certainly perform inquiries, stake, B two-part leads resolution narrow court's 55 Courts establishes "colorable basis" See, e.g., Murdock, 548 599, 600 (CA5 1977); Cammisano, 546 241 (CA8 1976); Berrios, 501 1207, 1211 (CA2 1974); Berrigan, 482 171, 181 (CA3 1973). allege past state." Hazel, 696 473, 475 (CA6 1983); F.2d, 216. general, "some tending existence defense." 1211. 56 consistent exhortation adversary fundamental comprehensive. ends defeated judgments founded partial speculative presentation facts." 709, 3108. recognizes most proof normally hands. Cf. Poller Columbia Broadcasting System, 464, 486, 491, 458 (1962). adequately protects attempts seek means harassment 600. 57 determination, judges enjoy great deference matters. plenary appeal, instead abuse-of-discretion standard. Nixon: 58 "Enforcement pretrial duces tecum necessarily sound necessity often turns factual issues. Without arbitrariness support, ordinarily disturb applicant [Federal Rule Procedure] 17(c)." 702, 3104. 59 acknowledges expend limited resources making determinations profitably level. Anderson Bessemer City, 564, 573-576, 1504, 1511-1513, 518 (1985); Florida Rodriguez, 469 1, 12, 308, 314, 83 165 (1984) (STEVENS, J., dissenting). below, mention much it. extent conclusory statements shed light decision, appears performed de novo inquiry. inappropriate painstaking care supervising process, narrowly tailored rulings. 61 starting point, consider acted discretion. evaluate merit ascertain elements. bear mind full course, unrebutted lead shifts rebutting presumption unconstitutional action. Rose Mitchell, 443 545, 565, 2993, 3005, 739 Duren Missouri, 439 664, 670, 579 Castaneda Partida, 430 482, 495, 1272, 1280, 498 Alexander Louisiana, 405 625, 631-632, 1221, 1225-1226, 536 (1972). just get discovery; nonfrivolousness. 63 Moreover, convince Appeals, nonfrivolousness sat finder fact. constitute 242; 1211-1212. turn, points Ante, 608; (1962); Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 373, 1064, 1072, 220 (1886). presents challenge "passive" refers "names fall categories: said whose neighbors register." 239. argues singled 3-8, 11-20. 65 member recognizable, distinct class. procedure otherwise neutral. 494, 1280. frivolous. 66 unequivocally program. members exercised speak freely redress grievances, 67 element, record, stands contain breakdown approximately 300 "vocal." However, suggests responsible vast prepared Jensen send Herbert C. Puscheck, Associate plans operations, stated: 69 "Unfortunately, initiates identification place, exists real risk lose cases. probability write non-registration. Since enormous numbers non-registrants non-registrant undoubtedly non-registrant's univers[e] hundreds chances quiet about struck lightning." 290-291 (emphasis added; citation 70 Similarly memorandum various Attorney's Offices states: 71 "Selective presently 'passive.' Non-registrants attention them. Consequently, liable consist large sample object 361-362. 72 Perhaps, itself, suffice implement certainly abuse. "This indeed exceptional area life where conscientious opposition intertwined violations policy." Falk, 479 616, 625 (CA7 1973) (en banc) (Fairchild, concurring). correlation relatively easy guise enforcing laws. Here, implemented knowledge harsh policies. 290-291, 361-362 (quoted 627); cf. 1384 (Government "recognized potentially serious problems"). "[a]dherence practice, 'with predictable adherence factor among considered court' ground. Columbus Board Education Penick, 449, 465, 2941, 2950, 666 25, 2296, 283, 2298 (MARSHALL, dissenting) ("To discern purposes facially neutral policies, foreseeability impact"); 75 second.2 76 viewed through lens. Instead focusing earn leaps issues proceeds flawed respects. shown, ignores simple lack 77 importance, errs analyzes focuses wrong problem states similarly" "those 610. Those 78 administration option registering avoid prosecutees—the system—was discriminate stand undertaken intent. stated, "for State pursue objective penalize person's reliance rights 'patently unconstitutional.' 363, (1978); 2488, intentionally defining pool prosecutees, immunize liability used permissible methods choosing tainted pool. Connecticut Teal, 440, 450-451, 2525, 2532-2533, 130 79 approach, (1886), seminal decision. Wo, conviction municipal ordinance prohibited construction wooden laundries license. licensors discriminatorily licenses Chinese origin. themselves, now, discrimination choice, ordinance, led prosecutions. denial licenses, affected definition prosecutees chosen. referrals played role discriminatory. attention. 80 suggest schemes warrant hearings closely political activity, unpalatable conceded, significant opens door onslaught contexts.3 raised questions intentions possession. outright Section provides pertinent part: shall every citizen residing day days fixed subsequent ages eighteen twenty-six, times place places, manner, proclamation rules regulations hereunder." requires major countries world actual service. International Institute Strategic Studies, Balance 1983-1984 (1983); Minnesota Public Research Group, 468 841, 860, 3348, 3360, 632 (POWELL, concurring judgment). August System. "I obey my conscience rather your ever cooperate yours break consequences befall me." 714. realize action, accept them." 716. Six months later, Service: "Last inform you Well, reply news much-threatened interpret silence meaning too busy disorganized respond keep track us draft-age youth. So posted whereabouts." 710. "be traveling nation encouraging resistance spreading word peace disarmament," reached home address Pasadena, California. 710-711. indicates 286 31, 1984, indicted. 270 registered, requirements, continuing investigation. indicate category. 8,365,000 9,039,000 Prosecutions: Oversight Hearing Liberties, Committee Judiciary, 97th Cong., 2d Sess., amounted rate 7.5 percent. 4771 improperly promulgated well. 1391 affirmed rejection 1385, 1388-1389 Only sees central case: "whether Post, 614-615. substance certiorari, briefed oral argument. term misleading insofar public opposing declaring One dissented represented "deliberate communicated others." 1389 (Schroeder, "an solely inherently suspect," 1390, she persuasion Compare Eklund, 733 1287 1984) (upholding scheme), cert. pending, 83-1959, Schmucker, 721 1046 1983) (ordering claim), 83-2035. unlike Fourteenth, clause, component. Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 499, 693, 694, 884 (1954). "[Our] approach precisely Fourteenth Amendment." Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 638, 95 1225, 1228, 514 (1975). classification. Strauder West Virginia, Otto 303, 664 (1880). No argue face. jury selection. 494-495, (1977). Neither discussed terms. Rather, phrase refer which, unrebutted, applying describes "is class," post, 626, 610, actually Castaneda: "identifiable group" "a class, treatment laws, applied." 1280 added). reasons, elements, third. Furthermore, assuming differently today. 630-631. misunderstanding stems belief prosecutees" 630. premise, mistakes facts. consisted nonregistrants, alleges petition. burdened differently, essentially same. separate guarantees, related analysis. NAACP Claiborne Hardware Co., 886, 911-915, 3409, 3425-3427, 1215 matter, injury removed most, all, expression. By Service, thereafter continue protest, immunized penalized "right" foundation history country. (1918). 462(a), "evad[e] refus[e]" conviction, uniformly knowing. E.g., Boucher, 509 991 1975); Rabb, 230 1968). party contests here. tried use hopelessly stale. U.S.C. 6103, gain useful Internal Revenue records—the federal source accurate information. expressly refuses documents; maintains ante, surprising. grant "Question petition," (1984), conflict Circuits. offered reason granting question: "The direct Sixth Circuits concerning pending circuits raising identical question, justifies below." referred, "entitled 1046, 1048 Given lower Circuit's "direct conflict" Compare, 1974), 1978). and, contrary suggestion, squarely presented. chooses 607-610, antecedent question. better sense whether, ignore amassed manner. threshold enough addressed complete. curious professes certiorari. discusses interrelated, discuss claim: Whether None places freedoms, sought discover, resolve remand; await

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