Legal Document

451 U.S. 77 101 Supreme Court Reporter 1571 67 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 750 NORTHWEST AIRLINES, INC., Petitioner,v.TRANSPORT WORKERS UNION OF AMERICA, AFL-CIO, et al. Number 79-1056. Argued Dec. 2, 1980. Decided April 20, 1981. Syllabus In a class action brought against petitioner airline by female cabin attendant employee, was held liable to the of such employees for backpay because wage differentials between male and attendants collectively bargained with respondent unions were found violate Equal Pay Act 1963 Title VII Civil Rights 1964. After its postjudgment motions claiming contribution from proportionate part liability denied as untimely, separate in Federal District seeking contribution. The interpreted pleadings contending that had either an implied cause under discriminating question or federal common-law right share liability, petitioner's claim reimbursement based solely on court dismissed Act, but, denying unions' dismiss, there imposed VII, at least some circumstances, it would reach issues this when facts properly developed. Both appealed. Appeals affirmed dismissal but declined issue, remanding determination assertion barred laches. Held : Petitioner has neither statutory nor unions. Pp. 86-99. (a) Even if is assumed all elements typical are established case, policy considerations favor recognition contribution, bear significant responsibility discriminatory practices these statutes designed prohibit, circumstances which employer may be "person aggrieved" union conduct remediable none assumptions provides sufficient basis recognizing asserted petitioner. 86-91. (b) language both expressly directed employers, supports implication employers structure legislative histories similarly do not support right. 91-95. (c) Whatever court's power fashion remedies other areas law, improper add rights Congress created VII. Cooper Stevedoring company versus Fritz Kopke, Inc., 417 106, 94 2174, 40 694, distinguished. A favorable reaction equitable supporting reason enlarging remedial provisions contained carefully considered statutes. Cf. Mohasco Corporation Silver, 447 807, 100 2486, 65 532. 95-99. 196 U.S.App.D.C. 443, 606 Reporter, 2nd 1350, vacated part. Philip Atlantic Lacovara, Washington, D. C., Stephen baron Moldof, New York City, respondents. Lawrence G. Wallace, amicus curiae, special leave Court. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion 1 presented case whether 19631 19642 allegedly partial violations. 2 relevant alleged complaint filed petitioner, Northwest Airlines, unions, Transport Workers Union America (TWU) Air Line Pilots Association, International (ALPA), Columbia.3 Continuously 1947 through 1974, paid higher wages attendants, who classified pursers, than stewardesses. During period, represented union—TWU 1961 1971 ALPA thereafter4—and their fixed collective-bargaining agreements negotiated executed response demands. 3 1970, Mary Laffey, employed commenced challenging legality differential pursers stewardesses.5 On November 12, 1973, after full trial, issued two positions required equal skill, effort, responsibility, performed similar working conditions. Accordingly, violated 1964 entered judgment plaintiff class. Laffey 366 F.Supp. 763 (1973).6 Unless reversed modified, petitione will pay excess $20 million backpay, damages, interest members class.7 4 entry it, appropriate asserting claims indemnification TWU ALPA.8 These ruling. 185 322, 369-370, 567 429, 476-478. Promptly thereafter, action. prayed each adjudged proportion any monetary finally assessed litigation. moved dismiss failure state upon relief could granted. 5 As pleadings, contended causing discriminate class, or, alternative, liability. Petitioner's App. Pet. Certiorari 2b-3b. clearly enacted benefit rely private statute. also concluded did afford express unions; common no statute.9 6 reached different conclusion respect It allegations satisfied principal contribution: (1) (2) party been more just award. Id., 10b. answered what described "more difficult question" law noting modern trend federal-court decisions favoring contribution,10 finding statute served allowing Assuming, without deciding, might intentional wrong, holding "only questions precise parameters pertinent have developed placed before Court." 18b.11 7 took interlocutory appeal holding,12 appealed holding.13 reasoning inconsistent scheme prescribing three, only modes enforcement.14 However, issue. Noting first time laches, remanded inructions determine laches question, explaining thereby become unnecessary decide hard concerning 449, 1356 (1979). 8 Unlike Appeals, we think basic legal raised ripe decision.15 importance led us grant certiorari. 920, 3008, 1111. 9 * We put one side certain need address. shall then discuss quite theories claimed 10 At among joint tortfeasors.16 most American jurisdictions, however, rule changed judicial decision.17 Typically, recognized persons same injury tortfeasors his fair liability.18 Recognition reflects view inequitable require entire cost reparation, sound deter wrongdoers reducing likelihood entirely escape liability.19 11 assume established. This means plaintiffs litigation recovered employer, VII,20 unfair judgment. Furthermore, although adversaries disagree undermine advance policies VII—and, indeed, Employment Opportunity Commission staunchly argued sides stages litigation21—we And, well industries,22 prohibit. Finally, timely charge § 706(b) 42 Code KF62 2000e-5(b).23 None assumptions, proceeding. 12 That ways. First, though create remedy, intent so fairly inferred statutes, analysis used cases Cort Ash, 422 66, 95 2080, 45 26, Cannon University Chicago, 441 677, 99 1946, 60 560 Universities Research Assn., Incorporated Coutu, 450 754, 1451, 662. Second, exercise unlawful conduct. See, e. g., Kohr Allegheny 504 400 (CA 1974), cert. denied, 421 978, 1980, 44 470. For somewhat reasons, reject theories. II 13 determining does provide particular nonetheless implicitly right, our task construction. See Touche Ross & Redington, 442 560, 568, 2479, 2485, 61 82. ultimate intended remedy—for example, seeks invoke. Transamerica Mortgage Advisors, Lewis, 444 11, 15-16, 242, 245, 62 146; supra, 770, S.Ct., 1461. Factors inquiry itself, history, underlying purpose scheme, supersede supplement existing remedies. 78, 2088; Cannon, 689-709, 1953-1964. 14 matters construction, begin itself. Co., 2485; Reiter Sonotone Corp., 330, 337, 2326, 2330, 931. Neither creates employers. omission, significant,24 dispositive if, things, indicates they member. 689, 1953. correctly perceived, cannot possibly said whose especial enacted. 5b.25 To contrary, employers; regulate employees.26 light fact, "can scarcely lay status 'beneficiary' whom protection." Piper Chris-Craft Industries, 430 1, 37, 97 926, 947, 51 124. 15 focus isolated arguably protection employers,27 result follows. those provisions, construed favorably implying remedy harm caused wrongdoing. Such violation employer's compel third party's rights. Clearly, unions.28 16 counsels advocates case. establish comprehensive programs eliminate varieties employment discrimination. make provision enforcement defined instance government circumstances.29 character fashioned strongly evidences authorize additional remedies.30 is, course, within competence judges amend schemes adding them another authorized Congress. 17 conclude position.31 parties recognize, history contains reference, adverse favorable, Of silence often encountered implied-right-of-action cases; expected "the deny typically equally silent ambiguous question." U.S., 1956. Therefore, consider inevitably available." 18, 246. But unless congressional can statute, structure, source, essential predicate simply exist. unable discover manifestation Accordingly hold III 18 Although much too late body judiciary tradition, remains true courts, unlike counterparts, courts limited jurisdiction vested open-ended lawmaking powers. Standard Oil 332 301, 313, 1604, 1610, 91 L.Ed. 2067. Broadly worded constitutional necessarily given concrete meaning application process case-by-case decision tradition. absence legislation, raising uniquely concern, definition duties States,32 resolution interstate controversies.33 consistently emphasized legislative, judicial, branch government; therefore, "subject paramount authority Congress." Jersey York, 283 336, 348, 478, 481, 75 1104.34 19 narrow exception role admiralty. general admiralty proper development judge-made rules maritime law. Fitzgerald Lines 374 16, 20-21, 83 1646, 1650, 720.35 Because largely left fashioning controlling law," id., "[a]dmiralty great extent." Edmonds Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, 443 256, 259, 2753, 2756, 521. admiralty, where judiciary's strongest, duty Congress.36 20 Pursuant flexible see Reliable Transfer 397, 409, 1708, 1715, 251, approved nonstatutory 694. relying ancient doctrine, shipowner obtain tortfeasor jointly responsible longshoreman. contrary argument understanding lower courts,37 recognize Court.38 Our approval traditional doctrine39 predicates applicable present context. 21 creature almost interpretation incomplete provisions. construe fundamentally new decided adopt. Mobil Higginbotham, 436 618, 625, 98 2010, 2015, 56 581. presumption deliberately omitted strongest including integrated system procedures enforcement. not, face schemes, upset programs.40 22 Updated: January Term, 532, occasion care. supported nonliteral reading regarding during asserted, 827-828, 2497-2498 (BLACKMUN, J., dissenting), "respect compromise embodied words chosen place alter balance struck procedural construction." 826, 2497. Mohasco, statutes.41 23 law,42 therefore modified insofar fails direct complaint. 24 ordered. 25 BLACKMUN consideration Statutes-at-Large 56, 29 206(d), amendment Fair Labor Standards 52 1060, 201 seq., provides, part: "(d)(1) No having subject section discriminate, establishment employed, sex paying rate less he pays opposite work jobs performance requires conditions, except payment made pursuant (i) seniority system; (ii) merit (iii) measures earnings quantity quality production; (iv) factor sex: Provided, subsection order comply subsection, reduce employee. "(2) labor organization, agents, representing attempt employee paragraph subsection." §§ 206(d)(1)-(2). Section 703 78 255, amended set forth 2000e-2, "(a) . practice employer— "(1) fail refuse hire discharge individual, otherwise individual compensation, terms, privileges employment, individual's race, color, religion, sex, national origin; limit, segregate, classify applicants way deprive tend opportunities adversely affect origin. "(c) organization— exclude expel membership, against, membership refer opportunities, limit applicant "(3) section." 2000e-2(a), (c). comes respondents' accept factual Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 236-237, 1683, 1686, 90. Additional background information taken opinions discrimination (1973), aff'd part, 429 (1976), 434 1086, 1281, 55 792. From 1946 1961, Airline Stewards Stewardesses International, became affiliated 1961. F.Supp., 765. Prior 1947, females Ibid. subsequently joined nonaligned Rule Procedure 19(a) bring necessary implement complete remedy. U.S.App.D.C., 370-371, F.2d, 477-478. stated discrimination, oppose ALPA's participation party. 371, 478. Shortly detailing steps, take rectify past 1382 (1974). estimated $24,500,000. 11b, n. 23. asserts presently calculated approximately $37 million. Brief 6. answer include request realigned defendant assert cross-claim damages violation. file third-party claims. Most seek implicit available Denicola C. Murphy 562 889 (CA3 1977); EEOC Ferris State College, 493 707 (WD Mich.1980); Marshall Tombs Janitorial Service, 82 Commerce Clearing House LC ¶ 33,559 Mo.1977); Usery Beloit EPD 11,203 Wis.1976); Brennan Emerald Renovators, 410 1057 (SDNY 1975). Love Temple University, 835 (ED Pa.1973); Wirtz Hayes 9874 (ND Ohio 1968). explained: "The rule, originating English Merryweather Nixan, tortfeasors. abrogated states, principally few Columbia, done decisional initially absent legislation. Stock Yards Q. R. 217, 224, 226, 227, 49 453 (1905). trend, evidenced (7th Cir. 470 (1975), Gould American-Hawaiian Steamship Company, 387 163, 169 (D.Del.1974), grounds, 535 761 (3rd 1976). come realize built archaic lead inequities. Indeed, extensive evidencing toward concerns back awarded VII." 11b-12b (footnotes omitted). weight Court's Glus 629 248 1980), pending, 80-461; Stevenson Paper 432 390 La.1977); Electrical, Radio, Machine Westinghouse Electric 73 F.R.D. 57 (WDNY 1976); Grogg General Motors 72 523 Lynch Sperry Rand 1973); Gilbert 59 267 Va.1973); Osborne McCall Printing Cases Practice (BNA) KF3315 L32 276 (SD 1972); Torockio Chamberlain Mfg. 517 Pa.1970); Blanton Southern Bell Telephone Telegraph 162 Ga.1970); Bowe Colgate-Palmolive 272 Ind.1967), rev'd 711 (CA7 1969). Younger Glamorgan Pipe Foundry 418 743 Va.1976), 561 563 (CA4 Harden Illinois 74 Contract 1505 Ill., Apr. 8, Communication 11,275 (N.D.Ill.1976). 28 1292(b), allowed appeal. findings 54(b) Rules Procedure. detail: "It improbable ever union. envisions three imply fourth three. 216(a) title 29, U.S.Code, 'any person' wilfully violates criminal penalties. Under 216(c), Secretary suit recover money owing 'to employees.' 216(b) permits suits employer' Act. insulates employees. certainly frustrated declaration union, once not—and not—definitely resolve issue employee's sue sufficiently remote preclude creation indemnification. would, reality, intend protect manner." 448, 1355 (1979) (footnote discussion indicate, Parts III, infra, find claims, address despite Appeals' avoid merits. Minnesota Clover Leaf Creamery 449 456, 470-471, 14, 715, 727, 66 659; City Transit Authority Beazer, 440 583-584, 24, 1355, 1365, 587. should noted reasons avoiding premature questions. misapprehends actual proved experience unwise, legislation promptly no-contribution generally traced Term Rep. 186, Eng.Rep. 1337 (K.B.1799). scholars persuasively read prohibiting tortfeasors; rather, interpret announce barring W. Prosser, Law Torts 50, Pages 305-306 (4th ed. 1971); Sullivan, Perspectives Antitrust Litigation: Towards Right Comparative Contribution, 1980 U.Ill.Law Forum 389, 392-393. Nevertheless, understood proscription country traditionally prohibited cases. Stockyards Chicago 453. Thirty-nine Columbia extent George's Capital 187, 126 219 (1942); Skinner Reed-Prentice Div. Package Machinery 70 Ill.2d Ill.Dec. 829, North Eastern 437 (1977); Best Yerkes, 247 Iowa 800, Western (1956); Quatray Wicker, 178 La. 289, 151 KF135 S69 208 (1933); Bedell Reagan, 159 Me. 292, 192 (1963); Underwriters Lloyds Smith, 166 Minn. 388, Northwestern N69 (1926); Royal Indemnity Aetna Casualty Surety 193 Neb. 752, 229 183 (1975); Goldman Mitchell-Fletcher 292 Pa. 354, 141 231 (1928); Davis Broad Street Garage, 191 Tenn. 320, 232 South 355 (1950); Ellis N. 167 Wis. 392, 1048 (1918). Four later adopted La.Civ.Code Ann., Arts. 2100-2105 (West Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 42, 8321-8327 (Purdon Supp.1980); Tenn.Code Ann. 23-3101 23-3106 (Supp.1979); Wis.Stat. 113.01-113.11 (1977). remaining relied change rule. Alaska Stat.Ann. 09.16.010 09.16.060 (1980); Ark.Stat.Ann. 34-1001 34-1009 (1962); Cal.Civ.Proc.Code 875-880 Supp.1981); Colo.Rev.Stat. 13-50.5-101 13-50.5-106 (Supp.1980); Del.Code 10, 6301-6308 Fla.Stat. 768.31 Ga.Code 105-2012 (1978); Haw.Rev.Stat. 663-11 663-17 (1976); Idaho 6-803 6-806 (1979); Kan.Stat.Ann. 60-2413 Ky.Rev.Stat. 412.010-412.060 (1972); Md.Ann.Code, Article 16-24 Mass.Gen.Laws ch. 231B, 1-4 Mich.Comp.Laws 600.2925a-600.2925d Supp.1980-1981); Miss.Code 85-5-5 Mo.Rev.Stat. 537.060 Nev.Rev.Stat. 17.225-17.305 N.J.Stat.Ann. 2A:53A-1 2A:53A-5 1952); N.M.Stat.Ann. 41-3-1 41-3-8 N.Y.Civ.Prac.Law 1401-1404 (McKinney N.C.Gen.Stat. 1B-1 1B-6 (1969); N.D.Cent.Code 32-38-01 32-38-04 Or.Rev.Stat. 18.440-18.460 R.I.Gen.Laws 10-6-1 10-6-11 (1969 S.D.Comp.Laws 15-8-11 15-8-22 (1967); Tex.Rev.Civ.Stat.Ann., 2212a, (Vernon Utah 78-27-39 78-27-43 Va.Code 8.01-34, 8.01-35.1 (1977 W.Va.Code 55-7-13 (1981); Wyo.Stat. 1-1-110 1-1-113 Restatement (Second) 886A 307-309. Judson Peoples Bank Trust N.J. 67, 88-89, 110 34 (1954); 50. Implicit assumption important assumptions. assume, complaint, fact partially violations plaintiffs, chosen, actions. 2000e-5(f), 2000e-5(g). action, refused Tuma Can 367 1178 (NJ 1973). Hodgson Sagner, 326 371 (Md.1971), aff'd, 462 180 1972). uncertain availability rejecting 447-449, 1354-1356. primarily established; exists all, irrelevant brief curiae arguing follows: "Recognizing person named fully consistent substantive ". Permitting Title, inadvertence design, manifestly serves primary, prophylactic constitute policy, inconsistency injured rather reimbursement, enforced wrongdoer shares liability." Amicus Curiae 78-1056 (CADC), 12-14. Court, argues "Contribution policies, interfere enforcement, Amici 5. Steelworkers Weber, 193, 198, 2721, 2725, 480. Note, Liability Employer Discrimination, 93 Harv.L.Rev. 702 (1980). divided EEOC. Compare (S.D.Ohio (N.D.Ga.1970); (W.D.Pa.1970), (W.D.La.1977); (E.D.Va.1973). provided Securities 1933, 77k(f), Exchange 1934, 78i(e), 78r(b). Thus, instances, wanted expressly. number securities laws resulted reasoned correspond civil remedies, permitted g. Heizer Ross, 601 330 1979); Globus, 318 955 1970), 1346 1971), 404 941, 92 286, 30 254. reasoning, now address, rejected literal Ash factor, inappropriate evaluation claim. 447, 1354. Rather focusing conferred Viewed light, easily case; 447-448, 1354-1355. confuses claim—in particular, liability—are circumstances. supra. erred failed invoke member benefit. 26 inasmuch guilty regulate. 27 provides: "No 206(d)(2). 703(c)(3) 2000e-2(c)(3). broad 706(g), 2000e-5(g), respondents since 265 (Sloviter, dissenting). "A frequently principle construction expand coverage subsume remedies." National Railroad Passenger Association Passengers, 414 453, 458, 690, 693, 38 646. applies force 19-20, 247, 146. 31 reveals plaintiff, carry further. 770-771, 21, 1461-1462, 662; 575-576, 2489, 82; 579-580, 2490-2491 (BRENNAN, concurring). 32 Clearfield States, 363, 366-367, 63 573, 575, 87 838; Miree DeKalb County, 433 25, 31-32, 2490, 2494-2495, 53 577; 316, 1612. 33 Milwaukee, 406 91, 1385, 712; Kansas Colorado, 206 46, 97, 655, 667, 956; Hinderlider La Plata River Cherry Creek Ditch 304 92, 110, 58 803, 810, 1202. addresses subject, even previously governed justification greatly diminished. Thereafter, apply 107, 1394; Arizona California, 373 546, 565-566, 1468, 1480, 542. 35 An analogous situation 301(a) Management Relations 185(a). Textile Lincoln Mills, 353 912, 972, supplied over authorization govern 36 Edmonds, 271-273, 2762-2763; 581; Halcyon Haenn Ship 342 282, 285-287, 277, 279-280, 96 318; Kopke 111-113, 2177-2178, 37 .e. 253; Professional Beauty Supply, 594 1179, 1183 Cohen 1975-1 Tax (CCH) 9391, Page 86,967 Mich.1975). decision. Yellow Cab 340 543, 71 399, 523; Gomes Brodhurst, 394 465 1967). inapposite here. 39 Stevedoring, tradition division unique 2176. Lines, demonstrates, decline possibility program. 2177-2178. 41 advanced addressed Congress, courts. best able evaluate considerations: "[T]he product passed, matter position. presents spoken. selection advantageous whole involves host must weighed appraised. function appropriately write laws, them." Gilman, 347 507, 511-513, 695, 697-698, 898. Presently pending presenting antitrust laws. Texas Radcliff Materials, 79-1144. note Industries substantially scheme. antitrust, enjoy flexibility act Society Engineers 435 679, 688, 1363, 637.

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