Legal Document

351 U.S. 470 76 Supreme Court Reporter 886 100 L.Ed. 1342 Nina KINSELLA, Warden of the Federal Reformatory for Women, Alderson, West Virginia, Petitioner,v.Walter KRUEGER. Number 713. Argued May 3, 1956. Decided June 11, Mr. Marvin E. Frankel, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Frederick Bernays Wiener, respondent. Justice CLARK delivered opinion Court. 1 Congress, in Article 2(11) Uniform Code Military Justice, has provided that all persons 'accompanying armed forces without continental limits United States' and certain named territories shall be subject to if such jurisdiction is authorized under 'any treaty or agreement which States may a party any accepted rule international law.' 50 KF62 § 552, Annotated KF65 U5 552. Pursuant this article subsequent between Japan,1 Mrs. Dorothy Krueger Smith was tried by general court-martial Tokyo, Japan, premeditated murder her husband, colonel Army. She found guilty sentenced life imprisonment. 10 C.M.R. 350. Her conviction affirmed Board Review, 17 314, Appeals, 5 U.S.C.M.A. she began serving sentence Virginia. 2 Thereafter, petition writ habeas corpus filed on Smith's behalf father, respondent herein. The alleged had no try because violates both III, 2, Amendment VI Constitution, guarantee right trial jury civilian. District Southern Virginia issued preliminary writ. After hearing, included submission briefs unlimited oral argument, discharged remanded custody Warden. 137 F.Supp. 806. In order expedite determination case, Government itself sought certiorari while an appeal pending before Appeals Fourth Circuit. We granted review March 12, 1956, 350 986, 476, serious constitutional question presented its far-reaching importance our Armed Forces stationed some sixty-three different countries throughout world. agree with decision 3 entirety, 2(11), provides that: 4 'The following are chapter: '(11) Subject provisions law, with, employed by, accompanying territories: That part Alaska east longitude one hundred seventy-two degrees west, Canal Zone, main group Hawaiian Islands, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands * *.' 6 comes squarely within terms provision. As military dependent, accompanied husband beyond States. Prior husband's death they lived together Washington Heights, American community Tokyo composed exclusively servicemen their dependents. at time offense, ceded 'exclusive over offenses committed Japan members forces, civilian component, dependents XVII, Treaties Other International Agreements (Part 3) 3354. Since concededly applies case it power Congress enact, constitutionality provision sole presented. Essentially, we determine only whether dependent serviceman accompany him foreign duty constitutionally country offense country. 7 Trials governed 64 Statutes-at-Large 109, 551 et seq., seq. carefully drawn include fundamental guarantees due process, operation fair enlightened system justice. However, courts-martial not required provide protections courts; therefore, entitled III court violation Constitution. ex rel. Toth versus Quarles, 1. Accordingly, first inquiry directed whether, as matter right, citizen outside 8 making determination, faced 'whether Constitution operative, self-evident, but relied applicable.'2 Entirely aside from been well-established since Chief Marshall's Insurance company Canter, Pet. 511, 242, establish legislative courts territorial proper. procedure tribunals need comply standards prescribed courts. cases arising Hawaii,3 Philippines,4 Rico,5 recognized enact laws did jury. By 1922 regarded clearly settled' Sixth Seventh Amendments 'do apply territory belonging incorporated into Union.' Balzac People Porto 258 298, 304—305, 42 343, 345, 66 627. 9 earlier sustained Act created consular try, pursuant treaties, citizens crimes China, other countries. re Ross, 140 453, 11 897, 35 581. Seaman convicted Yokohama, contended he deprived his grand petit juries. rejecting claim, pointed out these were applicable sitting constinental page 464, 900. Recounting long-established practice governments 'for exercise judicial authority (their) officers appointed reside therein', 463, 900, noted requirement circumstances 'would defeat purpose investing consul authority.' 465, 1929, citing Ross approval Ex parte Bakelite Corp., 279 438, 451, 49 411, 413, 73 789, reaffirmed doctrine 'legislative functions particular districts territory, invested large measure those districts. create them clothe upheld well recognized.' These does require there purpose. Having determined established Congress,6 have examine 'To make Rules Regulation land naval Forces' & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions If reasonable consonant dur process employ existing purpose, enactment must sustained. present day, we, Nation, necessary preservation security maintain practical necessity allowing men families where possible services, result creation communities mixed population bases matters substance, lives personnel alike geared local organization living accommodations, medical facilities transportation could find unreasonable conclude should same legal standard end receive equal treatment law. effect double might sufficient unrest confusion destruction effective law enforcement.7 Code, justice commander who bears full responsibility care safety civilians attached command also regulate conduct. 12 It conceded established, yet establish, abroad. While would supra, nothing compels it. preclude, necessarily include, tribunal unless alternative 'so arbitrary capricious legislators acting reasonably believed appropriate public welfare.'8 choice among types peculiarly concerned constitutionality, wisdom, choice. 13 selecting avoid needless potentially harmful duplication already extant every nation troops stationed. On hand, adequate achieved afford more safeguards accused than available procedure. uniform procedure, adopted after exhaustive study several years duration consultation acknowledged authorities fields law.9 addition fundamentals includes State provide10 procedures compare favorably most advanced criminal codes. defect fact indictment respects differ specifically approved abroad Congress. supra; Territory Hawaii Mankichi, 190 197, 23 787, 47 1016; Dorr States, 195 138, 24 808, 128; supra. 14 Furthermore, principles each own Schooner Exchange McFaddon, Cranch 116, 136, 287, essential involved here trial. Foreign nations relinquished agreements presuppose prompt existent authority.11 Absent thus obtained, reason suppose sovereign punish borders. Under circumstances, assured preferable leaving world widely varying unfamiliar people.12 15 note presents problem Americans sojourning, touring, temporarily residing No relation treaties us, bar Justice. 16 judgment affirmed. Affirmed. 18 Reservation FRANKFURTER. 19 today sustains Clarice baron Covert's England sergeant Air Force, so, although announces 'we Constitution.' plain inference prepared support basis upon Covert instituted convictions secured. 20 proceedings, arrangements whereby allowed crimes, toward, explicitly legan measures source in, obviously of, Forces.' though Forces. view Court's 1, 'clearly distinguishes civil class separate communities' 'recognizes third military—military situation, purposes situations *,' Winthrop, Law Precedents (2d ed. 1896), 145, failure rest congressional significant. 21 put consideration reliance immediately pertinent bearing difficulties raised cases, two lines argument whatever do regulation relies 581, represents, historically juridically, episode dead past about unrelated one-hoss shay latest jet airplane. complete disregard political sources purporting render women like amenable abroad, draws capitulations Western countries, including compelled powerless Eastern Asiatic surrender conduct confines 'consular courts.' made yield 'of barbarous cruel punishments inflicted frequent use torture enforce confession parties 899. Great Britain gave murders charged deemed concessions wrung wrung, often force, Ottoman Empire inferior West, long ago far away.* 22 derives second line decisions evolved deal acquired purchase through war, beginning statute 1822, set up government Florida. See 242. confess inability appreciate series complicated adjudications dealing difficult problems relating 'organized' 'unorganized' legislation treating therefore Grave issues affecting status cases; graver arguments finds rely reaching result. Doubtless pressure works during closing weeks, merely adumbrated opinion. To adequately them, however, demands whom persuasive analyze detail historical underpinning implication Court, searching critique relevance now For moment, suffice, way example, indicate resorting torn context institution—the court—that totally 107, 109. A glimpse environment assumptions derived suffices scope calls. Such afforded justification urged 65 ago. Reliance placed authoritative Secretary Hamilton Fish: 'A report my predecessor, Seward shows habit Department regard resting assent kingdom, expressed formal convention tacit acquiescence notorious words, esteemed somewhat light constituted Mikado judges, Japanese respect native subjects extent will admit understood extremely arbitrary. They were, so speak, agents depotism (sic), restrained interpose protection come sway.' Brief Page 25, 25 Time primary task analyzing materials relies. equally reflection meaning Reflection slow process. Wisdom, good wine, requires maturing. 26 Moreover, judgments collective judgments. neither solo performances nor debates sides, mind quickly then closed. reconsideration reasoned views each. Without cannot reflection. deliberation discussion. And these, interchange minds indispensable wise formulation. 27 being what are, am forced, deeply regret it, reserve later date expression views. 28 WARREN, BLACK, DOUGLAS, dissent. 29 just announced farreaching importance. court-martial, even peace, wives, mothers children connection except kinship presence questions complex, remedy drastic, consequences civilians. given new powers hitherto thought consistent scheme government. 30 reasons, days Term write dissenting file dissents next Relevant portions administrative are: 'Article IX '1. bring Agreement XVII Upon coming force 'Agreement Parties North Atlantic Treaty regarding Status forces', signed London 19, 1951, option similar corresponding Agreement. '2. Pending referred paragraph service exclusive dependents, excluding nationality. waived '4. undertakes willing able and, conviction, against evidence investigate appropriately brought notice taken place. further notify disposition paragraph. give sympathetic request waiver considers waiver, jurisdiction. '5. event exercised paragraphs continue effect. said year Agreement, will, government, reconsider dependents.' 3346, 3353—3356. White concurring Downes Bidwell, 182 244, 292, 770, 45 1088. 128. Case majority, become settled court.' Taft, C.J., 305, 346, 1016. entirely defendant, discharge return country, court, 'no excuse expansion expense normal jury.' pages 22—23, 8. 3(a) 'necessarily encroaches federal 15, 4. exists case. One consider disruptive establishing another type tribunals. conspiracy joint crime, parallel trials held proceed time, precede influence other, results understandably disparate. Nor insignificant proportions. Reliable figures show overseas approximately quarter million workers. Figures Army alone fiscal July 149, 30, 1955, total 2,280 courts-martial. true vast majority prosecutions minor offenses, volume administration dual Mr Brandeis Burns Baking Bryan, 264 504, 534, 44 412, 421, 68 813. Hearings Before Subcommittee Committee Services, House Representatives, 81st Cong., 1st Sess. (1949). E.g., self-incrimination, 31 149b, 72b, Manual Courts-Martial, Adamson California, 332 46, 67 1672, 91 1903; former jeopardy, Arts. 63 Palko Con- necticut, 302 319, 58 82 288; illegally obtained evidence, 152, Wolf Colorado, 338 69 1359, 93 1782. Schwartz, NATO 53 Col.L.Rev. 1091; Re, Law, N.W.U.L.Rev. 349. suggested bringing solution concluded suggestion completely impractical. First, condition precedent consent individual This always withheld likely refuse cede when many thousands miles away. Even deterrent vitiated distance delay involved. Secondly, face production witnesses. Depositions permitted cases. Rule Criminal Procedure, Attendance witnesses voluntary testimony witness refused. transporting considerable probably impossible whose successful defense depend demeanor witness. fairness, bear defendant's own, possibilities abuse obvious. Finally, breakdown 1950—1955 2,000 maximum punishment six months less. unwilling undergo heavy inconvenience offenses. alternatives either all; abdication authority, precisely wished avoid. opinion, 1855, Attorney General Caleb Cushing: rationale stipulations chiefly concerned, explained dispatch Minister negotiated treaty, follows: "I entered China formed ought concede state, liberty state family nations,—in word, Christian state. *" Op.Atty.Gen. 495, 496—497.

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