Legal Document

539 U.S. 306 GRUTTERv.BOLLINGER et al. No. 02-241. Supreme Court of United States. Argued April 1, 2003. Decided June 23, The University Michigan Law School (Law School), one the Nation's top law schools, follows an official admissions policy that seeks to achieve student body diversity through compliance with Regents Univ. Cal. v. Bakke, 438 U. S. 265. Focusing on students' academic ability coupled a flexible assessment their talents, experiences, and potential, requires officials evaluate each applicant based all information available in file, including personal statement, letters recommendation, essay describing how will contribute life diversity, applicant's undergraduate grade point average (GPA) Admission Test (LSAT) score. Additionally, must look beyond grades scores so-called "soft variables," such as recommenders' enthusiasm, quality institution essay, areas difficulty course selection. does not define solely terms racial ethnic status restrict types contributions eligible for "substantial weight," but it reaffirm School's commitment special reference inclusion African-American, Hispanic, Native-American students, who otherwise might be represented meaningful numbers. By enrolling "critical mass" underrepresented minority ensure character legal profession. When denied admission petitioner Grutter, white resident 3.8 GPA 161 LSAT score, she filed this suit, alleging respondents had discriminated against her basis race violation Fourteenth Amendment, Title VI Civil Rights Act 1964, 42 C. § 1981; was rejected because uses "predominant" factor, giving applicants belonging certain groups significantly greater chance than students similar credentials from disfavored groups; no compelling interest justify use race. District found factor unlawful. Sixth Circuit reversed, holding Justice Powell's opinion Bakke binding precedent establishing state interest, narrowly tailored merely "potential `plus' factor" program virtually identical Harvard described approvingly by Powell appended his opinion. Held: decisions further obtaining educational benefits flow diverse is prohibited Equal Protection Clause, VI, or 1981. Pp. 322-344. (a) In landmark case, reviewed medical school's set-aside reserved 16 out 100 seats members groups. decision produced six separate opinions, none which commanded majority. Four Justices would have upheld ground government can remedy disadvantages cast minorities past prejudice. S., at 325. other struck down statutory grounds. Id., 408. Powell, announcing Court's judgment, provided fifth vote only invalidating program, also reversing court's injunction any whatsoever. part joined Justice, expressed view attaining asserted university survived scrutiny. 311. Grounding analysis freedom "long has been viewed concern First Amendment," id., 312, 314, emphasized "`nation's future depends upon leaders trained wide exposure' ideas mores Nation." 313. However, he "[i]t simple specified percentage effect guaranteed selected groups," using 315. Rather, "[t]he furthers encompasses far broader array qualifications characteristics origin single though important element." Ibid. Since touchstone constitutional race-conscious policies. Public private universities across Nation modeled own programs views. Courts, however, struggled discern whether rationale precedent. finds unnecessary decide issue endorses context admissions. 322-325. (b) All classifications analyzed reviewing court under strict Adarand Constructors, Inc. Peña, 515 200, 227. But are invalidated Race-based action necessary governmental violate Clause so long interest. E. g., Shaw Hunt, 517 899, 908. Context matters when action. See Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 343-344. Not every influenced equally objectionable, scrutiny designed provide framework carefully examining importance sincerity government's reasons particular context. 326-327. (c) defers judgment essential its mission. less taking into account complex judgments area lies primarily within university's expertise. See, e. 319, n. 53 (opinion J.). Attaining heart proper institutional mission, "good faith" "presumed" absent "a showing contrary." 318-319. Enrolling simply assure some group patently unconstitutional. 307. defines critical mass concept substantial, important, laudable produce, cross-racial understanding breaking stereotypes. claim bolstered numerous expert studies reports promotes learning outcomes better prepares increasingly work force, society, Major American businesses made clear skills needed today's global marketplace developed exposure widely people, cultures, ideas, viewpoints. High-ranking retired officers civilian military assert highly qualified, racially officer corps national security. Moreover, universities, particular, represent training large number leaders, Sweatt Painter, 339 629, 634, path leadership visibly open talented qualified individuals ethnicity. Thus, body. 327-333. (d) bears hallmarks plan. To tailored, cannot "insulat[e] category desired competition applicants." 315 Instead, may consider ethnicity "`plus' file"; i. e., "flexible enough pertinent elements light applicant, place them same footing consideration, although necessarily according 317. It establish quotas put tracks. 315-316. like plan approved satisfies these requirements. evaluated individual way makes defining feature application. engages individualized, holistic review serious consideration ways environment. There policy, either de jure facto, automatic acceptance rejection "soft" variable. Gratz Bollinger, ante, p. 244, distinguished. Also, adequately ensures factors meaningfully considered alongside frequently accepts nonminority test lower (and applicants) rejected. rejects argument should used race-neutral means obtain lottery system decreasing emphasis scores. Narrow tailoring require exhaustion conceivable alternative mandate choose between maintaining reputation excellence fulfilling opportunities Wygant Jackson Bd. Ed., 476 267, 280, 6. satisfied alternatives. that, individualized possible unduly harm applicants. Finally, policies limited time. takes word nothing find formula terminate preferences soon practicable. expects 25 years now, longer today. 333-343. (e) Because petitioner's claims 1981 fail. supra, 287 J.); General Building Contractors Assn., Pennsylvania, 458 375, 389-391. 288 F. 3d 732, affirmed. O'CONNOR, J., delivered Court, STEVENS, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined, SCALIA THOMAS, insofar consistent views Part VII J. concurring opinion, post, 344. SCALIA, dissenting part, 346. Parts I-VII, 349. REHNQUIST, KENNEDY, 378. 387. 1 CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR SIXTH CIRCUIT 2 Kirk O. Kolbo argued cause petitioner. With him briefs were David Herr, R. Lawrence Purdy, Michael McCarthy, Rosman, Hans Bader, Kerry L. Morgan. 3 Solicitor Olson States amicus curiae urging reversal. brief Assistant Attorney Boyd Deputy Clement. 4 Maureen Mahoney respondent Bollinger John H. Pickering, Payton, Brigida Benitez, Craig Goldblatt, Terry A. Maroney, Marvin Krislov, Jonathan Alger, Evan Caminker, Philip Kessler, Leonard M. Niehoff. 5 Miranda K. Massie George B. Washington James al.* 6 JUSTICE O'CONNOR Court. 7 This case us School) 8 * A 9 ranks among schools. receives more 3,500 applications year class around 350 students. Seeking "admit individually collectively most capable," looks promise success school" strong likelihood succeeding practice contributing well-being others." App. 110. More broadly, mix varying backgrounds experiences respect learn other." 1992, dean charged faculty committee crafting written implement goals. sought efforts complied recent ruling 265 (1978). Upon unanimous adoption committee's report faculty, became policy. 10 hallmark focus applicants' potential "to those them." 111. School. 83-84, 114-121. score they (if imperfect) predictors school. 112. stresses "no admitted unless we expect do well graduate problems." 11 clear, even highest guarantee 113. Nor low automatically disqualify applicant. criteria objectives. 114. So-called "`soft' variables" "the enthusiasm recommenders, institution, selection" brought bear assessing "applicant's likely intellectual social institution." 12 aspires "achieve enrich everyone's education thus make school stronger sum parts." 118. weight" process, instead recognizes "many bases admissions." 118, 120. does, longstanding "one type diversity," is, "racial historically against, African-Americans, Hispanics Native Americans, without our numbers." "`critical mass' [underrepresented] students," "ensur[e] unique School." 120-121. 13 "solely status." 121. "insensitive [L]aw [S]chool." guide "producing classes both academically outstanding, up continue tradition outstanding contribution Graduates profession." B 14 Petitioner Barbara Grutter applied 1996 initially placed waiting list, subsequently December 1997, suit Eastern School, Michigan, Lee (Dean 1987 1994, President 2002), Jeffrey Lehman Dennis Shields (Director Admissions 1991 until 1998). alleged Amendment; 78 Stat. 252, 2000d; Rev. 1977, amended, 15 application belong groups." 33-34. "had process." 34. requested compensatory punitive damages, order requiring offer admission, prohibiting continuing discriminate 36. clearly standing bring lawsuit. Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. America Jacksonville, 508 656, 666 (1993). granted motion certification bifurcation trial liability damages phases. defined "`all persons (A) since including) 1995 time entered herein; (B) groups, Caucasian, Defendants treated favorably considering School.'" Pet. Cert. 191a-192a. 17 heard oral parties' cross-motions summary 22, 2000. Taking motions advisement, indicated matter compelling. conduct bench extent decisions, constituted race-based double standard. 18 During 15-day trial, parties introduced extensive evidence concerning process. Shields, Director testified did direct staff admit rather along factors. 206a. height season, consult "daily reports" kept track composition (along residency gender). 207a. done, testified, reached realize stressed, seek 19 Erica Munzel, succeeded Admissions, mass'" "`meaningful numbers'" representation,'" understood mean encourages participate classroom feel isolated. 208a-209a. Munzel stated there number, percentage, range numbers percentages constitute mass. 209a. could enrolled if GPAs 20 current Dean Lehman, testified. Like witnesses, quantify percentages. 211a. He isolated spokespersons asked about admissions, varies another. cases, Lehman's testimony, play role, while others "`determinative'" factor. 21 testimony Professor Richard Lempert, chaired drafted 1992 Lempert interests enhance discussion experience inside outside classroom. 213a. policy's "`commitment against,'" explained language purport discrimination, include perspective different victims discrimination. acknowledged Asians Jews, experienced mentioned already being significant 22 Kent Syverud final witness testify decisions. professor adopted now Vanderbilt addition submitted several diversity. Syverud's present, stereotypes lose force "`minority viewpoint'" variety viewpoints 215a. 23 attempt actually considers making voluminous trial. Relying data obtained expert, Dr. Kinley Larntz, generated "admissions grids" question (1995-2000). These grids show admittees combinations Larntz "`cell-by-cell'" comparisons races determine statistically relationship existed rates. concluded membership "`is extremely acceptance,'" "`are given allowance admission'" compared nonfavored 218a-220a. conceded, predominant calculus. Tr. 11-13 (Feb. 10, 2001). 24 Stephen Raudenbush, focused predicted eliminating Raudenbush's view, race-blind "`very dramatic,'" negative 223a. 2000, 35 percent admitted. Raudenbush considered, Under scenario, entering 2000 actual figure 14.5 percent. end, Applying scrutiny, determined assembling attainment . recognized discrimination." 246a. went hold compelling, request declaratory relief enjoined Appeals stay pending appeal. Sitting en banc, reversed vacated injunction. first held According Appeals, controlling set forth Marks States, 430 188 (1977). "virtually identical" 746, 749 (CA6 2002). 26 judges Three dissenters, rejecting majority's analysis, examined merits fourth dissenter, writing separately, because, believed 27 We certiorari, 537 1043 (2002), resolve disagreement Courts importance: Whether selecting public universities. Compare Hopwood Texas, 932 (CA5 1996) (Hopwood I) (holding interest), Smith Wash. 233 1188 (CA9 2000) is). II 28 last addressed higher over ago. majority attack "remedy prejudice." 325 (joint Brennan, White, Marshall, Blackmun, part). avoided altogether 408 Burger, Stewart "State substantial legitimately served properly devised involving competitive origin." 320. "from applicant." 29 splintered permissible Brief Judith Areen Amici Curiae 12-13 (law employ "methods Bakke"); Amherst College ("After amici undoubtedly selective colleges well) procedures sail accordingly"). therefore discuss detail. 30 began stating equal protection thing something else person another color. If accorded protection, then equal." 289-290. "touch individual's background, entitled judicial determination burden precisely serve interest." 299. exacting standard, 31 First, "`reducing historic deficit traditionally schools profession' " unlawful balancing. 306-307. Second, remedying societal discrimination measures risk placing burdens innocent third "who responsibility whatever beneficiaries thought suffered." 310. Third, "increasing physicians communities currently underserved," concluding circumstances "geared promote goal." 306, 32 interest: body." proviso "constitutional limitations protecting rights disregarded," grounded Amendment." 314. many peoples." 313 (quoting Keyishian Board State N. Y., 385 589, 603 (1967)). seeking "right select `robust exchange ideas,' goal paramount fulfillment mission." Both "tradition lend support substantial." 33 was, careful emphasize "is element heterogeneous For 34 wake fractured courts rationale, nonetheless Marks. "[w]hen fragmented decides explaining result enjoys assent five Justices, position taken Members concurred narrowest grounds." 193 (internal quotation marks citation omitted). As divergent opinions demonstrate, "[t]his easily various supporting [Bakke]." Nichols 511 738, 745-746 (1994). Compare, Johnson Ga., 263 1234 (CA11 2001) (Justice Court); 236 256, 274-275 II) (same); I, (same), 3d, 1199 Marks). seem "useful pursue inquiry utmost logical possibility obviously baffled divided it." 745-746. below, today endorse 36 provides shall "deny jurisdiction laws." Const., Amdt. 14, 2. Amendment "protect[s] persons, "governmental race—a classification irrelevant prohibited—should subjected detailed right laws infringed." 227 (1995) (emphasis original; internal "free people whose institutions founded doctrine equality." Loving Virginia, 388 (1967) principle "government treat differently reasons." 37 imposed "must scrutiny." interests. "Absent searching justification measures," what "classifications `benign' `remedial' fact motivated illegitimate notions inferiority politics." Richmond Croson Co., 488 469, 493 (1989) (plurality opinion). apply "`smoke out' assuring [government] pursuing warrant suspect tool." 38 Strict "strict theory, fatal fact." 237 Although subject it. explained, "whenever treats unequally race, suffered injury falls squarely spirit Constitution's protection." 229-230. observation "says ultimate validity law; job applying 230. narrow-tailoring requirement satisfied. 39 Clause. 343-344 (1960) (admonishing "in dealing broad provisions Constitution, derive content interpretive process exclusion, imperative generalizations, concrete situations gave rise them, disregard variant facts"). take "`relevant differences' account." 228. Indeed, "fundamental purpose." advanced decisionmaker III 40 principles mind, turn justified Before throughout litigation, process: Respondent words, asks recognize, education, 41 wish dispel notion foreclosed, expressly implicitly, affirmative-action cases decided Bakke. true read suggest opinion) (stating "strictly remedial settings, lead politics hostility"). never survive Nor, directly education. Today, mission defer. will, fact, yield substantiated amici. Our expertise university. keeping degree deference constitutionally prescribed limits. Mich. Ewing, 474 214, 225 (1985); Curators Mo. Horowitz, 435 78, 96, (1978); 43 purpose expansive freedoms speech associated environment, occupy niche tradition. Wieman Updegraff, 344 183, 195 (1952) (Frankfurter, concurring); Sweezy New Hampshire, 354 234, 250 (1957); Shelton Tucker, 479, 487 (1960); 603. invoked recognizing dimension, autonomy: "The includes selection 312. From premise, reasoned claiming ideas,'" "seek[s] 603). conclusion informed 44 "assembling exceptionally broadly diverse," "enroll `critical students." 13. 307 That amount outright balancing, Ibid.; Freeman Pitts, 503 467, 494 (1992) ("Racial balance achieved sake"); 507. produce. 45 substantial. emphasized, "cross-racial understanding," helps break stereotypes, "enables [students] understand races." "important laudable," "classroom livelier, spirited, enlightening interesting" greatest backgrounds." 246a, 244a. 46 amici, outcomes, "better workforce professionals." Educational Research Association 3; see, W. Bowen & D. Bok, Shape River (1998); Diversity Challenged: Evidence Impact Affirmative Action (G. Orfield Kurlaender eds. 2001); Compelling Interest: Examining Racial Dynamics Colleges Universities (M. Chang, Witt, Jones, Hakuta 2003). 47 theoretical real, major 3M 5; Motors Corp. Amicus 3-4. What more, high-ranking "[b]ased [their] decades experience," "highly military's fulfill security." Julius Becton, Jr., 5. primary sources service academies Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC), latter comprising participating At ROTC recruiting policies." original). corps, train educate setting." agree small step conclude country's remain selective." 48 repeatedly overriding preparing citizenship, pivotal "sustaining political cultural heritage" fundamental role fabric society. Plyler Doe, 457 202, 221 (1982). "education. very foundation good citizenship." Brown Education, 347 483, (1954). reason, diffusion knowledge opportunity accessible regardless curiae, affirms "[e]nsuring segments ethnicities, represents objective." And, "[n]owhere openness acute education." Effective participation civic dream Nation, indivisible, realized. 49 leaders. 634 (1950) (describing "proving practice"). Individuals degrees roughly half governorships, Senate, House Representatives. Schools 5-6. pattern striking comes handful accounts Senators, 74 judges, nearly 200 600 judges. 50 cultivate legitimacy eyes citizenry, society confidence integrity training. recognized, "cannot effective isolation interacts." 634. Access profession) inclusive ethnicity, succeed America. 51 premise need "any belief always (or consistently) express characteristic viewpoint issue." 30. contrary, diminishing crucial accomplish token Just growing region having professional affect views, too one's own, unfortunately still matters. determined, expertise, securing 52 Even circumstance drawing distinctions "constrained end: [T]he chosen [government's] specifically framed 908 (1996) narrow `fit' th[e] closely little motive prejudice stereotype." occasion contours programs. calibrated fit distinct issues raised Contrary KENNEDY'S assertions, "abando[n] scrutiny," see 394 (dissenting 327, adhere Adarand's teaching "relevant differences 228 54 quota system—it file," "insulat[ing] comparison candidates seats." weight." 55 truly demands flexible, nonmechanical way. insulate admission. can, flexibly "plus" operate quota. Properly understood, "quota" fixed proportion "reserved exclusively 496 Quotas "`impose attained, exceeded,'" Sheet Metal Workers EEOC, 478 421, 495 (1986) (O'CONNOR, part), "insulate seats," 317 contrast, goal.. require[s] good-faith effort come demarcated itself," 495, permits ensuring candidate "compete[s] applicants," Transportation Agency, Santa Clara Cty., 480 616, 638 (1987). 56 distinction rigid 16-seat Harvard's instructive. certainly minimum goals enrollment, specific firmly mind. 323 J.) ("10 black begin classmates points blacks States"). flatly functional equivalent quota" "weight" factors, 317-318. 57 under-represented transform "some achieving derived body, providing reasonable environment admitted." 323. "[S]ome attention numbers," KENNEDY posits, consultation reports," keep (as gender), "sugges[t] save itself" during stages 392 contradiction weight contained reports. 43, 70 (citing Nos. 01-1447 01-1516 (CA6), 7336). Kennedy concedes, 390, 1993 1998, Latino, varied 13.5 20.1 percent, inconsistent 58 CHIEF believes conceals cites contend discriminates Post, 380-386 But, ultimately enroll differs substantially representation pool considerably year. 59 not, itself, satisfy consideration. paramount. 318, (identifying "denial... consideration" "principal evil" program). 60 Here, affords races. Unlike awards mechanical, predetermined "bonuses" 271-272 (distinguishing plan, "did contemplate ensured identifiable diversity"). 61 referenced deemed qualified. virtue struggle inequality, ignore experiences. 62 limit qualities valuable "[t]here admissions," examples lived traveled abroad, fluent languages, overcome adversity family hardship, exceptional records community service, successful careers fields. 118-119. seriously notable strength, attainment, characteristic—e. unusual achievement, employment experience, nonacademic performance, background." 83-84. highlight submission 63 gives besides 10; 121-122. shows weighs real dispositive difference well. approach, sufficiently account, speculates "race outcome determinative groups" fall upper grades. 389 said discussed indeed 316 ("`When Committee reviews middle "admissible" capable doing courses, tip favor'"). 64 argue exist seeks. disagree. alternative. (alternatives "`about well'"); 509-510 (city "whole race-neutral" alternatives changing requirements "would [had] detrimental city's interests"). serious, faith workable 507 (set-aside where "there appear means"); (narrow "require[s] "lawful restrictive means"). 65 took task failing "using system" "decreasing scores." 251a. dramatic sacrifice both. 66 many, assemble kind nuanced impossible, effectively values, mention So suggestion standards drastic become much vital component advocates "percentage plans," recently Florida, California, above class-rank threshold high State. 14-18. explain plans assuming race-neutral, preclude conducting assessments just diverse, valued producing forcing abandon selectivity cornerstone 67 acknowledge problems justice connected idea preference itself." 298 tailoring, therefore, group. generally "remains oversight least competing benefit." 308. "unduly favored Metro Broadcasting, FCC, 497 547, 630 (1990) dissenting). 68 not. "all does) 69 "will foreclosed seat color wrong surname.... His weighed fairly competitively, complain unequal treatment 318. applicants, 71 mindful, "[a] core away governmentally race." Palmore Sidoti, 466 429, 432 (1984). Accordingly, reflects classifications, however goals, potentially dangerous employed demands. Enshrining permanent offend principle. reason exempt end point. too, concedes "race-conscious durational limits." 32. 72 met sunset periodic State, law, engaged experimenting approaches. draw promising aspects develop. Cf. Lopez, 514 549, 581 (KENNEDY, concurring) ("[T]he perform laboratories experimentation devise solutions best solution clear"). 73 termination "assure[s] citizens deviation norm temporary matter, measure equality 510 opinion); Nathanson Bartnik, Constitutionality Preferential Treatment Minority Applicants Professional Schools, Chicago Bar Rec. 282, 293 (May-June 1977) ("It sad day indeed, quota-ridden assigned proportional desirable walk life. preferential treatment; acid efficacy all"). "like formula" 34; 317-318 (presuming absence contrary). time, increased. Oral Arg. 43. IV 75 summary, prohibit Consequently, ("Title proscribe[s] Fifth Amendment"); 389-391 (1982) (the prohibition co-extensive Clause). Circuit, accordingly, 76 ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici reversal Florida Charlie Crist, Christopher Kise, General, Louis Hubener, Daniel Woodring; Cato Institute Robert Levy, Timothy Lynch, Swanson, Samuel Estreicher; Center Opportunity Roger Clegg Mark Pickrell; Individual Freedom Renee Giachino; Black Leadership Clint Bolick, William Mellor, Komer; Advancement Capitalism Reed Burton; Claremont Constitutional Jurisprudence Edwin Meese III; Scholars Mohrman; National Allen, Oscar Garibaldi, Keith Noreika; Pacific Legal Foundation Findley; Larry Alexander Erik Jaffe; Reason Martin Kaufman. affirmance Maryland Joseph Curran, Maryland, Andrew Baida, Davis Brockman, Attorneys Eliot Spitzer, York, Caitlin Halligan, Michelle Aronowitz, Julie Mathy Sheridan Sachin Pandya, Solicitors respective jurisdictions follows: Goddard Arizona, Bill Lockyer Ken Salazar Colorado, Blumenthal Connecticut, Lisa Madigan Illinois, Thomas Miller Iowa, G. Steven Rowe Maine, Reilly Massachusetts, Mike Hatch Minnesota, McGrath Montana, Patricia Madrid Mexico, Roy Cooper North Carolina, Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Hardy Myers Oregon, Patrick Lynch Rhode Island, Sorrell Vermont, Iver Stridiron Virgin Islands, Christine Gregoire Washington, Darrell V. McGraw, West Peggy Lautenschlager Wisconsin; Jersey Samson, Burstein, Donna Arons Anne Marie Kelly, General; York City Council Speaker Gifford Jack Greenberg Saul Shapiro; Philadelphia, Victor Bolden Nelson Diaz; Paul Dodyk Rowan Wilson; Angelo Ancheta; Jewish Aaron, Jancik, P. Sinensky, Kara Stein, T. Foltin; Deans Issacharoff; Psychological Friedman, Sheehan, Nathalie Gilfoyle; Sociological Lann Deborah Merritt; Charles Sims; Arizona Ralph Spritzer Bender; Pamela Karlan; Medical Burgoyne Keyes, Jr.; Bay Mills Indian Community Vanya Hogen; Clinical Education Nelsen, Frances Kao, Eric Gorman; Columbia Floyd Abrams Susan Buckley; Graduate Management McNabb; Students Jefferson, Theodore Wells, Brown; Laurence Tribe, Massey, Beverly Ledbetter, Donin, Wendy White; Hispanic Gilbert Carrasco; Howard Janell Byrd; Indiana Fitzpatrick, Lauren Robel, Evans Stake; King County Warner Widell, Chun, Melissa O'Loughlin Walter Dellinger, Harris, Hacker; Lawyers' Skilton, Arnwine, Henderson, Hayes, Marcia Greenberger, Lichtman; Conference Weiner Taylor; Mexican Defense Fund Antonia Hernandez; Alumni Society Wright, Simeone, Kathleen McCree Lewis; NAACP Fund, Inc., Shaw, Norman Chachkin, Stroup, Elise Boddie, Hansen; Fair Open Testing Affeldt Savage; Coalition Blacks Reparations Kevin Outterson; Chanin, West, Elliot Mincberg, Weinberg, Dempsey; Urban League Norris Small; Alliance Julin Wallace; Mexico Edward Benavidez; NOW Weiser Martha Davis; Carolina Boger, Chambers, Daye; Teachers Selmi Gabriel Chin; UCLA Color Sonia Mercado; Negro Days Beth Brinkmann; Asian Jerome Hirsch; Pittsburgh Frederick Sean Lev; Neal Katyal Kumiki Gibson; Lieutenant Virginia Seitz, Reeder, Charrow, Stern; Hillary Browne Gregory Alan Berry; Senator Daschle Goldberg Penny Shane; Hayden Family Howell; Glenn Loury Liss Halpert; 13,922 Current Accredited O'Sullivan Peter Rubin. Governor Jennifer Granholm Pirich Goldsmith; Former Pennsylvania Assembly Cohen Fillman; Michaelson, Dreier, Sheldon Steinbach; Federation Labor Congress Industrial Organizations Harold Becker, Strom, Hiatt, Sherrick; Anti-Defamation Karlinsky Freeman; Girard Gordon Fauth, Banks Elizabeth Women Lawyers Greater Chicago, Sharon Jones; Boston Dwyer, Kociubes; Carnegie Mellon McGough, Kathy Banke, Gary Kaplan, Stoner II; Economic Equity Eva Paterson Yamamoto; Concerned ABA Mary Mack Adu; Criminal Scheidegger; Employment Advisory Ann Reesman; Exxon Mobil Brann; Kenneth Geller, Eileen Penner, Gottschalk; Human Advocates Constance la Vega; Massachusetts Technology Donald Ayer, Rees, Debra Zumwalt, Stacey Mobley; Velvel; Consortium Packman, Karen Narasaki, Vincent Eng, Trang Q. Tran; Boards Underwood Naomi Gittins; Puerto Rican Legislative Caucus Goode; Veterans Southern Movement Mitchell Zimmerman; DeBruin, Deanne Maynard, Mach, Russell Porter, Wall, Barrington, Deval Patrick, O'Brien, Van Graafeiland, Kathryn Oberly, Randall Mehrberg, Remy, Ben Heineman, Brackett Denniston III, Elpidio Villarreal, Wayne Budd, Smith, Hudnut, Shutkin, Banks, Frazier, Andrews, Kinder, Teresa Holland, Gerdts Sander, Klein, Sawyer; Ward Connerly Manuel Klausner Manshardt; Representative Conyers, Anthony Miles; Gephardt Sandler Smith. 77 whom BREYER joins, concurring. point," 342, accords international office affirmative International Convention Elimination Forms Discrimination, ratified Dept., Treaties Force 422-423 (June 1996), "special adequate development guaranteeing full enjoyment human freedoms." Annex Res. 2106, GAOR, 20th Sess., Supp. (No. 14), 47, Doc. A/6014, Art. 2(2) (1965). measures, instructs, "shall entail consequence maintenance after objectives achieved." 1(4) (similarly temporally action); Discrimination Women, 34/180, 34th 46), 194, A/34/46, 4(1) (1979) (authorizing "temporary aimed accelerating facto equality" discontinued achieved"). 79 observes [in (1978)] Ante, 343. "settled," regions overtly proscribed. 1996); cf. Wessmann Gittens, 160 790 (CA1 1998); Tuttle Arlington Cty. Bd., 698 (CA4 1999); before declared segregation unconstitutional, declaration prolonged resistance, yielded law-enforced caste system, itself legacy centuries slavery. 483 (1954); 358 (1958). 80 documented conscious unconscious bias, rank alive land, impeding realization values ideals. 298-301 (GINSBURG, dissenting); 272-274 Krieger, Perestroika: Intergroup Relations Action, 86 Calif. 1251, 1276-1291, 1303 (1998). 2000-2001 71.6% African-American children 76.3% attended Frankenberg, Lee, Orfield, Multiracial Segregated Schools: Are Losing Dream? (Jan. 2003), http://www.civilrightsproject.harvard.edu/research/ reseg03/AreWeLosingtheDream.pdf visited 16, 2003, Clerk file). And predominantly lag behind measured resources them. 11; 11-12 Accounting Office, Per-Pupil Spending Differences Between Selected Inner Suburban Varied Metropolitan Area (2002)). 81 However public's desire improved systems be, Hart Teeter, Priority: Americans Speak Teacher Quality 2, (2002) (public research conducted Service); No Child Left Behind 2001, Pub. 107-110, 115 1806, 7231 (2000 ed., I), remains reality encounter markedly inadequate opportunities. Despite inequalities, able meet finest institutions. improves, increase anticipated. vantage point, hope, forecast, next generation's span, progress toward nondiscrimination genuinely safe action.* explains, challenged here survives inAdarand (1995), 469 (1989), revisit benefit disadvantaged group, standard review. Gratz, 301-302 Adarand, 274, necessitate reconsideration "student 325, program. 273-274 82 THOMAS part. 83 I join JUSTICE. demonstrates, mystical challenges gullible statistics sham cover scheme proportionate 84 THOMAS's opinion.* particularly unanswerable central point: allegedly "compelling interest" incremental "educational benefit" emanates fabled Michigan's "prestige" normal disproportionately exclude minorities. everything is. 85 add following: consists, "`cross-racial understanding,'" 330, "`better prepar[ation of] society,'" ibid., work, "citizenship," 331. course, graded transcript (Works Plays Well Others: B+) tested bar examiners (Q: Describe 500 words your understanding). lesson law—essentially taught learned by, "taught" usual sense) three feet shorter younger full-grown adults ranging Boy Scout troops public-school kindergartens. all, surely uniquely relevant "teachable" formal setting. therefore: appropriate putting together convey generic lessons socialization appropriate—indeed, —for civil so. There, also, exposed masses" presumably Michiganders, servants. employers criticized—indeed, praised— "teach" citizenship adult employees patriotic, all-American hiring. deprived job, skin understand. impermissible, anticonstitutional OK, Grutter-Gratz split header seems perversely prolong controversy litigation. Some lawsuits discriminatory contains evaluation "as individual," 337, avoids "separate tracks," 334, Gratz. gone bounds "`good-faith effort'" zealously pursued unconstitutional "`a goal.'" 335 part)). Other whether, setting issue, (That contested Grutter; decisions," 328, "deference imply abandonment abdication review," Miller-El Cockrell, 322, 340 (2003).) Still suits challenge bona fides institution's immunize Grutter. (Tempting targets, suppose, talk multiculturalism tribalism campuses—through minority-only organizations, housing opportunities, centers, graduation ceremonies.) below Grutter-approved mass." litigation expected behalf intentionally short changed forward cases. Constitution proscribes state-provided exception. describes portions concur. Seepost, 374-378 87 joins 88 Douglass, speaking abolitionists almost 140 ago, message lost majority: 89 "[I]n regard colored benevolent, perceive, just, manifested towards us. ask negro benevolence, pity, sympathy, justice. anxious know answer beginning. Do us! Your played mischief apples tree worm-eaten core, early ripe disposed fall, let fall! stand legs, also. give legs! Let alone! [Y]our interference positive injury." Man Wants: An Address Delivered Boston, January 1865, reprinted Douglass Papers 59, (J. Blassingame McKivigan 1991) 90 believe avenue meddling administrators. color, share, respect, sympathies sponsor School). tolerate devotion quo ripens countenance unprecedented approach 91 general impose heightened Similarly, maintain grant exemptions choosing, purposes, maintains exclusionary knows produces disproportionate results. self-inflicted wounds elitist 92 upholds interpreting people's responding faddish slogan cognoscenti. Nevertheless, concur decision, approves classification, confirms illegal years. 343 "necessary further" years). respectfully dissent remainder violates 300 months. 93 agrees 326. briefly classifications. 94 purports enunciated Korematsu 214 (1944). "[p]ressing necessity sometimes existence [racial discrimination]; antagonism can." 216. "pressing necessity" termed interest,"1 265, 299 (1978) validated two possibly actors. security constitutes necessity," advance objective tailored. responsible. 504 (1989). 95 discerned example, 267 (1986), collective-bargaining agreement board teachers' union defended grounds teachers "role models" "diverse" improve Respondents, 1984, 84-1340, pp. 27-28; (STEVENS, dissenting) ("[A]n integrated all-white, faculty"). violated deeming insufficiently 275-276 295 (White, judgment) ("None [school board] layoff policy").2 96 involves sensitive child custody determinations. 429 (1984), allow award father mother mixed-race marriage. 433 (finding "substantial" mother's new husband). 97 Wygant, 276 Croson, 496-498 520-521 (SCALIA, judgment). "Societal amorphous imposing classified remedy" "court uphold remedies ageless reach past, timeless future." 98 Where accepted security, child, bulwark anarchy, prevent violence, necessity." 390 333, 334 (1968) (per curiam) (Black, (indicating prisoners violence discrimination); 521 ("At local emergency rising level imminent danger limb discrimination]"). 99 abhors motives, places registers provision benefits, demeans all. "Purchased price immeasurable suffering, destructive impact society." 240 (THOMAS, majority, precision determining wishes 14. statement carefully, implies "diversity" benefits" components refusal entertain changes indicates validate glance. 101 Undoubtedly "better" aside "diversity," means,3 mechanism obtains itself. apparently mixed How, then, "benefits" forbidden balancing," rejects? 102 (unique aesthetics sake) purely sophistic—so interchangeably. 328 body"), 333 (referring body" added)). argument, facile way: Classroom yields required mix, benefits. "diversity." 332 "openness [legal] training" consequential benefits). 103 One produce adamantly disclaims reduce "academic selectivity," "require 33-36. marginally offers sacrificing exclusivity elite status.4 104 proffered vindicates today, Instead tool offering superior institution. Unless constituent pressing necessity, 105 close reading reveals done conclusory statement: 333. rejected) constraints enterprising discover justifications explanation, back stare decisis. eschews weak defense holding, shunning (1978), binding, favor unfounded wholesale 106 rest fundamentally flawed proposition contextualized goal, aesthetics, "we it" evaluating insists radically expanding trivial (by comparison) class. presume failure arises infra. 107 and, follows, Likewise, marginal improvements qualify 108 While laudable, correct applied. circumstantial activity asking compelled engage activity. general, demonstrates fraction reject enterprise, creates presumption enterprise sense, public, (ABA) accredited, Alaska, Delaware, ABA-LSAC Official Guide ABA-Approved (W. Margolis, Gordon, Puskarz, Rosenlieb 2004) (hereinafter Guide), 109 foregoing one. Still, may, circumstances, demonstrate cognizable school, failed here. 110 scope activities occur State's jurisdiction. Missouri ex rel. Gaines Canada, 305 337 (1938), equal" paying neighboring segregated 111 "obligation severally entities,—each responsible duties borders. obligation another, excused performance fail do. sphere essence statehood maintained dual system." added). 112 interpreted Gaines, permit "may do." Clause's 113 vindicated operating are, lawyers. Campbell's address opening Department October 3, 1859, clear: 114 "It concerns facilities himself honest aspire, understood. inquiries arise. matters, constantly involved discussed, ignorance led results deplorable alarming. [I]n history instance, shedding blood." Brown, 1859-1959, 404-406 (1959) precious attorneys Michigan. 2002, graduates 6% bar, Weekly, http://www.michiganlawyersweekly.com/ barpassers0202.cfm,barpassers0702 .cfm (all Internet materials 13, file), 30% graduating Less 16% elects 427. mere 27% 2002 Website, http://www.law. umich.edu/prospectivestudents/Admissions/index.htm, these, appears, 116 sum, trains few residents overwhelmingly serves who, lawyers, leave sends 88% 775. scientist causes waystation welfare 117 Again, raises inference status. Arguably, Berkeley (Boalt Hall), School.5 Two Texas reasonably services citizens. outshine in-state three-fourths vindicating (compelling not) Texas' 691. 118 tinkering tangible improvement 119 remaining exclusive thinks "standards" turn, create "need" validates 340, employed.6 methods "narrow tailoring" prong demands, context, well.'" 6). errs, "workable," "about well" explicitly holds retain selectivity" demonstrated, III-B, supra. Therefore, forced aesthetic ways. 120 methods, accepting qualifications, 13-14, vision this, holds, implicitly guise wants agree. sort deference, anywhere else. costs ignores meeting 121 School—a antithetical scrutiny—on autonomy" Amendment. 329. my 122 constitutionalization freedom" Frankfurter 234 (1957). Sweezy, Marxist economist, investigated Hampshire suspicion subversive. prosecution sought, inter alia, contents lecture Hampshire. investigation due 254. 123 further, reasoning created investigation. 256-267 result). Much rhetoric Frankfurter's devoted free speech. ("For citizen forego basic liberty autonomy, subordinating compelling"). Reports "need burdened proof," society" universities" exclusion intervention university." 262. Frankfurter: business atmosphere conducive speculation, experiment creation. prevail `the four freedoms' university—to teach, taught, study." (citation 124 business" invent doctrines—including authorizes fails prove source confines relied 589 (1967), somehow protected Amendment's restrictions relaxed statutes regulations "appointment retention `subversive' employment," 592, vagueness. covered members, appeared sympathetic freedom, calling relax independent 125 doubt spoke intrusions independence thinking ban leads stubborn alter 126 adhered to, collateral consequences. relies heavily science deference. 330-332; Rothman, Lipset, Nevitte, Reconsidered, 151 Interest (2003) practiced hinders perception quality). acknowledges, sorts) heterogeneity impairs Flowers Pascarella, Cognitive Effects Composition African After Years College, Student Development 669, 674 (1999) (concluding cognitive Historically (HBCs) blacks, moderates effects attending HBC"); Success: Outcomes Predominantly White Universities, Harv. Educ. 26, HBCs achievement colleges). 127 counsel "most [the HBCs] bodies." 02-516, 52. meant indeterminate, reported Morehouse distinguished 0.1% white, 0.2% Hispanic. Data Handbook 2002-2003, 613 (43d ed. 2002) Handbook). Mississippi Valley University, HBC, 1.1% freshman 2001 white. whites institutions, proportion. 128 grants "assessment benefits," 328. HBC's homogeneity similarly deference.7 permissible, Fordice, 505 717, 748 ("Obviously, traditions closing black, groups"). Contained seed rightly rejected—racial segregation. 129 Moreover think, 518 (1996), license reshape character. all-male Military Institute's (VMI) "adversative" method women, 540, defer VMI's great. "manageable." 551, 19. sex intermediate, strict, 533; Boren, 190, 197 (1976). dictated flexibility deserves here, Apparently establishment—here School—rather fashionable applicable C 130 "experience" formerly single-sex academies, women VMI 544-545. explicit 131 sky fallen Boalt Hall Berkeley, example. Prior Proposition 209's 31(a), bars "grant[ing] operation education,"8 first-year 1996. deploying Boalt's Hispanics.9 California Enrollments, http://www.ucop.edu/ acadadv/datamgmt/lawmed/law-enrolls-eth2.html. Total enrollment exceeds levels. counted resourceful. willfully blind elsewhere, "reputation[s] excellence," rivaling sense resorting V 132 Putting reflexive tests "predict" poor substitute study law. rallying cry meritocracy entire poisoned exceptions "merit." debate utilize "legacy" alumni advantage This, other, "true" lie protestations merit unseemly kinds arbitrary procedures. cannot.10 twist invalidate Nation. impulse forbids. 133 event, ancient, honorable, "selective" aware country German certificate late-19th century. Wechsler, Qualified 16-39 (1977) Student). secondary certified completed offered regime supplemented, later replaced (at Midwest), prior rigorous subject-matter entrance examinations. 57-58. facially "percent plans" descendents system. 134 Certification beginning century, exercise control bodies. inception, vehicle racial, ethnic, religious initial driving relocation function winners losers exhibits Columbia, Harvard, infamously "too many" argues 155-168 (Columbia); Broun Britt, Christians Only: Study Prejudice 53-54 (1931) (Harvard). 135 intelligence immigrants, scored worse tests. (falsely) "`[w]e eliminated boys Jews propose honestly attempted eliminate lowest [through testing] turns men Jews.'" Letter Herbert Hawkes, Wilson, 1922 (reprinted 160-161). disparate impact. DeFunis Odegaard, 416 (1974) (Douglas, 136 Similarly modern relatively speaking, (LSAT). "correct" underperformance continued adherence skewed IV, admits imperfect, must, regularly 150 median) test. 156-203 (showing students—27 black; "underrepresented minorities"—with lower). useful. ("LSAT predictor school") ("Whether LSAT] measure[s] questionable"). 137 Having LSAT, accept decision. freely merit-based fashion likes. forbids, allows, hand-in-hand infinite Considering radical occurred intractable striking. 138 deign try preferring 25-year Constitution. courage desegregation South fears, platitudes principle, decidedly imperfect 139 articulated principal suggests rationale. beneath benighted tell (rather hurts) 239 judgment), ills. precedents supposedly settled issues, commit per se harmful eye beholder implicit beneficial burdensome invalid, contest spends considerable discussing impressive display corners 330-331. nowhere filings purported "beneficiaries" themselves performing near) receive preferences. Thernstrom Thernstrom, Reflections River, 1583, 1605-1608 (discussing defenders underperforming classroom). 141 silence deafening education's imparting communal, rubber-stamp, credentialing looking despite average, facade—it sufficient right, right. 142 tantalizes unprepared offers. overmatched bait, cauldron competition. mismatch crisis restricted Sowell, Race Culture 176-177 (1994) ("Even `average' systematic mismatching begun levels education"). tracks aestheticists, cruel farce continue— Review, 39-40 (noting presence "diversity plan" review), hiring firms clerkships—until tolerated. degrees, received qualitatively lawyers) "elite" prepared. aestheticists facing minorities,"11 experiments children. 143 Beyond visits subjects, disproved "engender[s] attitudes superiority or, alternatively, provoke[s] resentment wronged 241 "These stamp badge develop dependencies adopt attitude `entitled' preferences." 144 uncontested year, Who differentiate not? tarred undeserving. problem stigma depend determinacy stigmatized positions government, industry, academia, advancement. stigma—because "otherwise unqualified," unfairly Is "visibly open"? 332. 145 disturbing citizenry," discussion. noted earlier, soundly disproportionality caused erasing disproportionalities caste. lack "fixing" necessity. 146 civics presents yet example theory color—an endeavor previously Holder Hall, 512 874, 899 appears utopian commands elimination barriers, creation ought organized." DeFunis, 342 147 respects, erroneous. do, 148 note prefers presented practice, 32, 50, 6-7, 7. help unspecified mass," situated Hispanics, Asians. today.12 balancing "patently unconstitutional." 330. 336, runs afoul prohibition. 149 fabricated practices illegal, given, now. limitation gap shrinking timeframe.13 change, 165 black.14 range, 11.1% Council, Statistical Report LSAC Report). comparable 1.0% 11.3%. (2001). contend, disappear contingent time.15 impede narrowing testing gap. dramatically preparation, preparation cost, attached additional study. Whites scoring 163 167 routinely aspiring incentive range. 199 209 422 range). Blacks, hand, 155. 198 155). prospects certainty, prepare once assured requisite test-taker's behavior responsive policies.16 bigot's prophecy underperformance—just conspiracy theorist's "institutional racism" fault disparity imposition pays change expire. "`eliminat[e] [perceived] ethnic'" there. 1977)). 343, rigorously II, observations, sentence 152 153 immediate future, imprimatur weaken embodied Declaration Independence "Our color-blind, neither nor tolerates citizens." Plessy Ferguson, 537, 559 (1896) (Harlan, ancestors "[d]o us!" Now wait vindicated. judgment. Throughout phrases interchangeably addressWygant's indistinguishable perplexing. confers why board's confers? "[D]iversity," devotees, catchphrase useful term, especially issue. renders refer "aesthetic." appearance, shape desks tables classrooms sitting term "aesthetic" underlines ineffectiveness helping underprivileged. Orr Orr, 440 268, 283 impermissible choice redound solicitude"). remembered uneducated illusory engineered adjusting overall great, altering compromise reluctance alleges News World Report, America's Best (2004 ed.) (placing uppermost Nation) refers variously quality," avoiding "sacrifice [of] mission," selectivity."Ante, 340. A&T 5.4% 643, gain states full: sex, employment, contracting." F.3d 692 1997). Given incredible think indulge operates violating Were forbid practices) quickly popular—a lost, am certain, elites(both institutional)supporting recognition place, blackmen "underrepresented" 426 (reporting men). Why underrepresentation? again, cares image know-it-all elites, solving male underperformance. statesAnte, 316, 335, 340; minority," opposed American); 335-336 (rejecting disguised referring total races). relates race—the relative awarded over, student, balances GINSBURG "forecast,"post, 346 (concurring GINSBURG'S characterization expression "hope." benchmark feels (absent discrimination). 309a median 1995-1998 168);id., 310a-311a 1999 2000); http://www. law.umich.edu/prospectivestudents/Admissions/index.htm 166). non sequitur 1978 ranges grown,ante, says trends. 1990's lagged population. 1984 7.3% whereas 11.3% black. (1984 2000). proportions population, growth absolute plateau, has. 165. 65. (1992 structure criteria, grades, consistently thresholds 154 join, dissenting. 155 permissible," 333; Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 498 (1980) (Powell, ("[E]ven proffers reliance drawn purpose"). believe, asserts. steps relation goal. Stripped veil, revealed naked 156 times, "`"[a]ny examination."'" 223 273 J.)). withstand demanding inquiry, "`fit'" "with means." 6; ("When [political judgments] touch interest"). 157 used. calls lenient face "`[m]ore motives allocate system.'" 226; Fullilove, pernicious exact connection classification"). likewise disregarded." 158 recites 159 Respondents' "obtaining body.'" i). They Respondents administrators objectives: race; interaction depend; critically reexamine 211a; 26. indicate size (claiming "enough integration residence halls"). "greatly furthered of" body). accumulate 49, ("The provide[s] `Hispanics'"). record differ 1,130 1,310 Of those, American, admitting African-Americans thereby preventing feeling "isolated race," magnitude Americans. matriculate, case,* students? explanation one-sixth African-Americans. race-specific disparities. 162 numbers, moreover, apparent highlighted Court: asserts "frequently rejected." 338 10). Specifically, "[s]ixty-nine 3.5 [Grade Point Average (GPA)] [score [Law (LSAT)]" Caucasian Asian-American Review individuals. individuals, American. discrepancy practice. 159-160 earned 3.00 200-201. Meanwhile, 198. 151-153 Twenty-three 164 bearing case. arguments barriers country," capped manner. 50. True, sham. expose sham, her. Surely sorts disparities explanation. Only label discarded emerge. "`assur[ing] origin.'" 329 concludes, "`[s]ome numbers.'" 336 323). 166 correlation precise dismissed [the] show, tracked -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | Table |--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| % Number African- Year |-----------------|--------------|----------------|---------------|----------------|--------------|------------| 4147 404 9.7% 1130 9.4% 3677 9.3% 1170 9.2% 1997 3429 320 1218 8.3% 1998 3537 304 8.6% 1310 7.9% 3400 247 1280 7.1% 3432 259 7.5% 1249 213 5.1% 5.0% 186 4.6% 4.8% 3.9% 4.2% 4.5% 3.8% 168 4.9% 1.2% 0.8% 1.6% 1.4% 0.7% 1995, African-American. smaller considered. 223a; 299a). illustrate, decrease tight planning aspirational assumption academically, pool. officers' "periodic developing class"). 169 phenomenon, obscure diverged 17.7% 1995-2000"). divergence comparison. attend extending ostensibly nature appealing, 337-338, managed 170 rein unexplained, bound extend statistical 171 devoid planned duration constitutional. Paradise, 149, (1987) ("In appropriate, relief"). previous invidious. 172 ambiguous, limits, cease genuine available." discussions vaguest assurances. truth, seemingly basis. scrutiny—that time—is casually subverted. 173 obvious flaws. ends attain precise. flaw deeper that; "fit" means. Here 5-year period, dropped asthree Any assertion absurd. 174 175 289-291, 315-318 one, nonpredominant individual, judiciary. unitary formulation. abandoned manipulated distort meaning, lacks authority approve modest, rule resolving trying say otherwise, undermines precedents. 176 approval reflected tradition, acknowledging conception 312-314; task, supported empirical evidence. 329-331. 177 unfortunate, abandons second. proceeds nullify safeguard insisted precondition approval. review, 291 inherently call examination"). reaffirmed, subsequent operative category. 224 ("[A]ny person, demand actor subjecting strictest scrutiny"); 493-494 (1989); 519 courts"). confuses definition implementation known us, pursued. Preferment resorted divisive policies, containing destroy equality. refuses faithful reflect concerns. 178 perfunctory, assurances meets confront implemented. JUSTICE, full, delusion mask instances numerical quotas. attract 330; becomes 179 About 80% 85% 15% 20% seats, 180 demonstrated preserved stage instruction otherwise. 1998. fluctuated 0.3%, 13.5% 13.8%. extended slightly 2.2%, 15.6% 13.4% 181 pursuit mutated 2d 821, 851 (ED Admittedly, fluctuations preceding years, 1987-1994, 5% 6%. offers, fell 12%, bottom variance earlier modified target twice, (from 13% 19%), again (back 13%). intervening 1993, 14.5%, aberration, miscalculation redefinition, preference. 79. 182 ------------------------------------ Percentage |------------------|-----------------| 12.3% 1988 13.6% 1989 14.4% 1990 19.1% 19.8% 14.5% 1994 20.1% 13.8% 183 fluctuation band subverted determination, inference. line status," risks compromising assessment. 289 compares unfavorably Little Ivy colleges. informs background period ranged 950 total, resulting matriculated 425. 10-11. fluctuation, eventually enrolled, size. 184 proving, conformance 224. least, constancy breakdown pool, 380-386, convincing neither. 185 tension increased season. Most period. 389. consulted daily incoming lines. 1996, stated, [he] [admissions] season want [reports] day-to-day." "track exactly School] st[ood] class," personnel told makeup "something need[ed] concerned about," tracking what's going on." Deposition Civ. 97-75928, 129-130, Mich., Dec. 7, recalibrate plus depending bonus divorced review; premised 187 guard danger. guidelines reconcile directive structured kept. learning. colleges, ongoing tallies 10. constitutional, safeguarded objection modest ensure, procedures, decisionmaking. comply requirement, carried 189 deferring schools' programs, talents faculties devising fairer Constant forces undertake responsibilities fidelity Allan Stillwagon, directed Office 1979 1990, difficulties encountered "breathtakingly cynical" deciding member Cubans Hispanics: objected Republicans. Many academics "affirmative action's forthright readily concede convenience prefer Schuck, Action: Past, Present, Future, Yale Pol'y Levinson, Diversity, Pa. Const. 573, 577-578 (2000); Rubenfeld, 427, 471 (1997)). aspirations traditions. feigned, corrosive Prospective courts, fair phase implementation. 190 difficult assess pronouncement 341-343. intended mitigate damage solace knowing suspended quarter Deference 191 interpretation self-destruct mechanism, objective. schemes, explore willing profession faith. much: "We `like formula' practicable." 34). 192 latitude administer tantamount quotas, incentives existing schemes transparent protective unhappy perpetuate hostilities avoid. perpetuation, worst outcomes. bringing harmony mutual sought. They, model, defaults regrettable allowing accompanied suspension predicate place. abdicates duty negates confer classify reasons, reiterate present

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