Legal Document

395 U.S. 752 89 Supreme Court Reporter 2034 23 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 685 Ted Steven CHIMEL, Petitioner,v.State of CALIFORNIA. Number 770. Argued March 27, 1969. Decided June 23, Rehearing Denied Oct. 13, 1969.%tcSee 90 36.%tc Keith C. Monroe, Santa Ana, Cal., for petitioner. Ronald M. George, Los Angeles, respondent. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered the opinion Court. 1 This case raises basic questions concerning permissible scope under Fourth Amendment a search incident to lawful arrest. 2 The relevant facts are essentially undisputed. Late in afternoon September 1965, three police officers arrived at California, home petitioner with warrant authorizing his arrest burglary coin shop. knocked on door, identified themselves petitioner's wife, and asked if they might come inside. She ushered them into house, where waited 10 or 15 minutes until returned from work. When entered one handed him permission 'look around.' objected, but was advised that 'on basis arrest,' would nonetheless conduct search. No had been issued. 3 Accompanied by then looked through entire three-bedroom including attic, garage, small workshop. In some rooms relatively cursory. master bedroom sewing room, however, offc ers directed wife open drawers 'to physically move contents side so (they) view any items have (the) burglary.' After completing search, seized numerous items—primarily coins, also several medals, tokens, few other objects. took between 45 an hour. 4 At subsequent state trial two charges burglary, taken house were admitted evidence against him, over objection unconstitutionally seized. He convicted, judgments conviction affirmed both California Appeal, 61 Cal.Rptr. 714, Court, 68 Cal.2d 436, 67 421, 439 Pacific Reporter, 2nd 333. Both courts accepted contention invalid because supporting affidavit set out conclusory terms,1 held since arresting procured 'in good faith,' event sufficient information constitute probable cause arrest, lawful. From this conclusion appellate went hold justified, despite absence warrant, ground it valid We granted certiorari order consider substantial constitutional claims. 393 958, 404, 21 372. 5 Without deciding question, we proceed hypothesis correct holding Constitution. brings us directly question whether warrantless can be constitutionally justified as decisions bearing upon far consistent, even most cursory review makes evident. 6 Approval seems first articulated 1914 dictum Weeks versus States, 232 383, 34 341, 58 L.Ed. 652, which stated: 7 'What is present case? Before answering inquiry specifically, may well process exclusion what not. It not assertion right part Government, always recognized English American law, person accused when legally arrested discover seize fruits evidences crime.' Id., 392, S.Ct., 344. 8 That statement made no reference place occurs, limited 'person.' Eleven years later Carroll 267 132, 280, 69 543, brought following embellishment statement: 9 'When man offense, whatever found control unlawful used prove offense prosecution.' 158, 287. (Emphasis added.) Still, too claim 'place' searched long valid. explanation, principle emerged expanded form months Agnello 269 20, 46 4, 70 145—although still way dictum: 11 'The without contemporaneously persons lawfully while committing crime whr e find things connected its means committed, weapons effect escape custody, doubted. See 543; 652.' U.S., 30, 5. 12 And Marron 275 192, 48 74, 72 231, later, appeared foundation Court's decision. federal agents secured seizure liquor certain articles manufacture. primises searched, saw 'that retailing drinking intoxicating liquors.' 194, 75. They proceeded charge execute warrant. searching closet listed came across incriminating ledger, concededly covered upheld ledger '(t)hey carry criminal enterprise.' 199, 77. 13 did mean all seemed say became evident, Go-Bart Importing company 282 344, 51 153, 75 374, Lefkowitz, 285 452, 52 420, 76 877. each those cases written Butler, author Marron. Go-Bart, office whom arrested,2 papers desk, safe, parts office. noted committed agents' presence, although agent 'had abundance time swear (search) he failed do so.' 358, 158. unlawful, 14 'Plainly before different 231. There, executing liquors Birdsall who pursuance conspiracy actually engaged running saloon. As kept bills beside cash register. These visible accessible offender's immediate custody. There threat force general rummaging place.' characterization reiterated desk cabinet fact accompanied 465, 423. 16 limiting views expressed Lefkowitz thrown winds, Harris 331 145, 1098, 91 1399, decided 1947. case, obtained Harris' alleged involvement cashing interstate transportation forged check. living room four-room apartment, attempt recover canceled checks thought effecting forgery, undertook thorough apartment. Inside drawer sealed envelope marked 'George Harris, personal papers.' envelope, torn open, contain altered Selective Service documents, documet § secure violating Training Act 1940. rejected claim, sustaining 'incident arrest.' 151, 1101. 17 Only year after pendulum swung again. Trupiano 334 699, 1229, 92 1663, raided site illicit distillery, conspirators operating still, 'seiz(ing) distillery.' 702, 1231. others subsequently valid, unexplained failure procure warrant—in spite more than enough raid rendered unlawful. 18 'It cardinal rule that, seizing goods articles, law enforcement must use warrants wherever reasonably practicable. * rests desirability having magistrates rather determine searches seizures limitations should placed such activities. To provide necessary security unreasonable intrusions private lives individuals, framers required adherence judicial processes possible. history has confirmed wisdom requirement. 19 'A considered strictly right. grows inherent necessities situation But there something necessity merely 705, 708, 1232, 1234. 20 1950, Trupiano,3 Rabinowitz, 339 56, 430, 94 653, decision primarily relies now us. authorities informed defendant dealing stamps overprints. On executed one-room business 'searched file cabinets about hour half,' id., 59, 432, 573 defendant's trial, conviction, rejecting entirety fell within giving '(t)he *." 61, 433. regarded 'ample authority' conclusion. 63, 434. practicable.' test, said 'is reasonable reasonable.' 66, 435. Rabinowitz stand proposition, inter alia, arrest' generally extend area 'possession' 'control' arrested.4 proposition case. doctrine, least broad sense applied withstand neither historical nor rational analysis. 22 Even own facts, was, seen, hardly founded unimpeachable line authority. Frankfurter commented dissent 'hint' contained persuasive justification, 'loosely turned finally elevated decision.' 75, 439. approach disregarded Nor rationale State seeks here sustain supported reasoned background purpose Amendment. wisely pointed Amendment's proscription 'unreasonable seizures' read light 'the gave rise words'—a 'abuses deeply felt Colonies potent causes Revolution *.' 69, 436. large reaction alienated colonists helped speed movement independence.5 scheme Amendment, therefore, requirement 'no Warrants shall issue, cause,' plays crucial part. put McDonald 335 451, 191, 93 153: 24 'We formalities. presence serves high function. Absent grave emergency, interposed magistrate citizen police. done shield criminals make safe haven illegal objective mind weigh need invade privacy enforce law. deemed precious entrust discretion whose job detection criminals. Constitution requires pass desires violate home. cannot true consititutional excuse showing seek exemption mandate exigencies course imperative.' 455—456, 193. 25 relied '(b)elief, however founded, article sought concealed dwelling furnishes justification notwithstanding unquestionably cause.' 33, 6. Clearly, lightly dispensed with, burden seeking (an) (from requirement) show Stae Jeffers, 342 48, 51, 93, 95, 96 59. 26 last Term Terry Ohio, 392 1, 88 1868, 889, emphasized must, whenever practicable, obtain advance approval procedure,' 1879,6 scopd (a) 'strictly tied by' circumstances initiation permissible.' 19, 1878. undertaken officer 'stop frisk' sustained 'protective weapons.' 29, 1884. companion Sibron New York, 40, 1889, 917, same standard another reached contrary result, policeman's action thrusting hand suspect's pocket motivated protection.7 Rather, narcotics, found. 27 A similar analysis underlies 'search principle, marks proper extent. made, remove latter resist escape. Otherwise, officer's safety endangered, itself frustrated. addition, entirely arrestee's prevent concealment destruction. arrestee reach grab weapon evidentiary course, governed like rule. gun table front dangerous clothing arrested. ample 'within control' construing phrase gain possession destructible evidence. 28 comparable routinely occurs—or, matter, closed areas itself. Such searches, well-recognized exceptions, only authority warrant.8 'adherence processes' mandated less. 29 underlay our Preston 376 364, 84 881, 777. men parked car, towed garage incidental Our reasoning straightforward: 30 allowing contemporaneous example, assault escape, destruction crime—things easily happen accused's conto l. these justifications absent remote 367, 883.9 31 reflected Sibron. dealt Peters Sibron's involved 'reasonably limited' 'need weapons' evidence,' referred. 'did engage unrestrained going examination effects. cut short flight, 67, 1905. 32 argued 'reasonable' man's it. argument little subjective regarding acceptability sorts conduct, consideration interests. Under unconfined analysis, protection evaporation point. easy explain why, instance, less subjectively lawn—or just down street—than happens arrest.10 it: 33 'To require criterion reason. guide either jury district judges search' forbidden—that reasonable. What test reason reasonable? underlying Amendment: experience embodies safeguards afforded evils response.' 83, 73 443 (dissenting opinion). Thus, recurring reasonableness searches' depend circumstances—the total atmosphere case,' 434, 435 (opinion Court), viewed established principles. 35 possible, draw hand, other. For single searched. distinction highly artificial. allowed allow suggests point i mitation, once go beyond items.11 extensive other.12 36 correctly points result give officials opportunity cause, simple expedient arranging suspects elsewhere. suggest necessarily strategy utilized here,13 remains earlier day, employment home, could event, apart possibility tactics, forcefully Judge Learned Hand Kirschenblatt, Cir., Federal 202, Law 416, remains: 37 'After rummage will among convict appears indistinguishable warrant; indeed, protection, presumably issued magistrate. True, power exist, supposed offender premises; consolation know one's home.' 203. 38 subject critical commentary many years,14 decisions.15 time, reasons stated, their insofar principles inconsistent endorsed today, longer followed. 39 Application sound produces clear result. him. extending area. 'unreasonable' Fourteenth Amendments stand.16 40 Reversed. 41 HARLAN, concurring. 42 & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions join remarks factor alluded. 43 thing given me pause voting overrule Mapp 367 643, 81 1684, 1081 (1961), Ker 374 83 1623, 726 (1963), every change obeyed facing widely problems local enforcement. simply extent cities towns Nation prepared administer greatly system today's decision; assurance situation, essential role fundamental liberties protected infringement 44 faced dilemma, envisioned my separate Ker, 45—46, 1646, choosing vindicating possible expense concerns, consonant books, diluting Bill Rights interest leaving elbow methods dilemma exists, respect impact federal-state resolve, conscience vote perpetuate bad add together Benton Maryland, 784, 2056, 707; North Carolina Pearce, 711, 2089, 656, Simpson Rice, 2072, dc ided serve up, have, profound changes 'incorporation doctrine' wrought workings adjudicative 47 WHITE, BLACK joins, dissenting. Few shifting standards 50 remarkable instability whole area, seen four major shifts emphasis. Today's untimely fifth. view, abandon old 49 modern odyssey doctrine field detailed majority opinion. began 652 (1914), paused note crime. uniformly maintained cases. burglar's tools proofs guilt accused.' 344 'control,' reaffirmed 287, 543 (1925). Accord, 5, 145 (1925) (holding made' doubted'). 77, 231 (1927), asserted 'extended premises purpose.' Within five years, qualified Prohibition cases, 356—358, 157—158, (1931), 463—467, 422—424, 877 (1932). If represented retreat Weeks, Carroll, Agnello, Marron, vigor 1399 (1947), has, brief interlude, clearly today. very next Harries, 1663 (1948), unjustifiable site, though contraband, door entering 'searched,' being officers' presence. year, 153 (1948) (gambling game transom entry). Less 653 (1950), does practicability obtaining reasonableness. pro tanto overruled. rapid reversals occurred before,1 rare. Here about-faces, hard objected language: 'Especially ought reenforce needlessly instabilities day fair belief expression chance—for unexpected composition contingencies choice successors.' 86, 444. Since time,t E.g., Abel 362 217, 80 683, 668 (1960) (Frankfurter, J., writing Court); (1963).2 II. 53 prevailed, doubtful periods aberration, language lie 9, 1873, 889 (1968); 917 Klkins 364 206, 222, 1437, 1446, 1669 (1960). provides: 54 people persons, houses, papers, effects, seizures, violated, Oath affirmation, particularly describing seized.' 55 terms, then, decide proscribe 'warrantless instead proscribes never today assert unreasonable. 56 Applying arrests, outset. Search almost danger suspect try overpower injure officers, destroy vital prosecution. Circumstances apply sufficiently rare scope, throughout. 57 obviously ready physical access. enough, unconstitutional. held, deny, 'impracticable' get (1948). not.3 regard believe seizable premises. exigent circumstances, reasonably. An often create emergency making impracticable embarking related Again assuming spot arrested, leave scene already strong confederates meanwhile surroundings. 59 provides illustration removed return Petitioner validity explored below, assume doubtless petitioner, house. obliquely admitted, neighbor owner burglarized store, burglary.4 this, admittedly stolen property surely coins. Moreover, off station warrant,5 likely garrulous nature known robbery, unreasonable.6 III. 60 precedents hinges assumptions. One warrant7 assumes; advance, knew alert coins better soon. Thus examine constitutionality illegal, created not, consequences lawless act, justify justified.8 strange bars regardless invasion disruption life stem ordinarily greater minor attending Congress expressly authorized wide range arrests Marshals power,9 vested Bureau Investigation,10 Secret Service11 narcotics agency.12 fear perfectly legislative statute granting FBI. 62 Coplon, 185 629, 633—636, Reports, 1041 (C.A.2d Cir. 1950), court insufficient therefore opinion, joined Judges Swan Frank, reviewed common-law permitted felonies past 'if (the officer) suppose felony.' However, concluded congressional 'likelihood escaping 63 month moved amend consciously deleting January 10, 1951, chapter 1221, 64 Statutes-at-Large 1239; H.. Rep. 3228, 81st Cong., Sess. (1950).13 Thereupon, Appeals District Columbia Circuit, passing induced action, 'unmistakable' revision FBI one. reason, Coplon U.S.App.D.C. 103, 191 749 (1951). Certiorari denied 920, 926, 362, 363, 688, 690 (1952). exercises standard, Henry 361 98, 100, 168, 134 (1959), 'reasonable grounds committing' felony, Code KF62 3052, made. declined th statute. Jamison 986, 2135, 774. Shipley 818, 821, 2053, 2055, 732. judgment infirm. Indeed, precisely Di Re, 332 581, 589—592, 226—227, 210 imposed history14 executive deportation, permitting occur prior scrutiny, regularly indication indeed opposite (1963); Draper 358 307, 79 329, 327 (1959). lower certainly unnecessary them. Dailey 261 870 (C.A.5th 1958), cert. denied, 359 969, 836 (1959) (statutory agents); Smith 103 52, 254 751, 755, 357 937, 78 1388, 1552 (1958); Mills 365, 196 600, 826, 97 643 (1952) (sub silentio). 65 uniformity Congress, decisions, common practice preoposition practicable them, inevitable accompanying reasonable, teaches contrary. accm ulated, aware verge flight. difficult probability Given best especially issue determined shortly 66 stated assumptions fanciful. grant Senate House committees quoted letter Acting Deputy Attorney General, Peter Campbell Brown, asking new legislation asserted: 'Although felony flee, able convincing intend flee.' S.Rep. 2464, Sess., (1950); H.R.Rep. (1950). Some weight accorded factual officials, adopted Congress. IV. permits it, typical Like majority, permit assure see nothing alone furnishing broader scope. existence independently evidence, follow carried supplies circumstance justifying removed, alerts immediately determination adversary proceeding, appropriate redress. consistent authorize meant guard, broaden render uncertain whatsoever breadth out. permitted. precondition agreed circumstances.15 circumstance, gained entry delaying risk recovering fruitless unless immediately. added protecting rights introduction cause. introduced houses sworn owners invaded. majority's instances prevented Against class wich invaded arrest—an necessary—must weighed delays radical reveals, upset balance interests struck former considering remembered challenge proceeding. apprised scene, soon contact rights. Brennan dissenting Chief Justices Black Douglas, 249—250, (1960), specially safeguarded '(s)uch examination, 169, 134, demands prompt bringing officer, inquired into. Fed.Rules Crim.Proc. (c) *. Mallory 354 449, 77 1356, 1479; McNabb 318 332, 608, 87 819.' alike duty warn questioning lawyer. Miranda Arizona, 384 86 1602, 694 (1966); Orozco Texas, 394 324, 1095, 311 (1969). 71 man, definition conscious provided lawyer judge, excellent position dispute full uphold involving removal satisfactory issues thereafter. Cal.Rptr., 715—716, n. insufficiency Aguilar 378 108, 1509, 723, Spinelli 410, 584, 637. assumed 356, 157. 153. hav abstract various situations divergent results. Compare 42, 1634, 726; 668; 327, Kremen 353 346, 828, 876 (per curiam). Cf. Chapman 365 610, 776, 828; Jones 493, 499—500, 1253, 1257—1258, 1514. Boyd 116 616, 624 625, 524, 528—529, 746; 389—391, 343—344, 652; Davis 328 582, 603—605, 1256, 1266—1267, 1453 opinion); 157—162, 1104—1107, Stanford 379 476, 481—482, 85 506, 509—510, 431. David Mississippi, 721, 728, 1394, 1398, 676; Katz 389 347, 507, 514—515, 576; Warden Hayden, 387 294, 299, 1642, 782; 883, refer appellant infra, 764. 357—358, 576. automobiles vehicles 'where vehicle quickly locality jurisdiction sought.' 285, Brinegar 338 160, 1302, 1879. lengths. See, e.g., Clifton 224 329 (C.A.4th Cir.), 350 894, 152, 100 786 (purchaser whiskey back yard seller; sustained); Jackson, 149 F.Supp. 937 (D.C.D.C.), rev'd grounds, 102 109, 250 772 (suspect half block rented room; upheld). James Louisiana, 382 36, Jackson's comment Harris: difficulty problem objects control, practical limit Court—and all.' 197, 1120. obtained. based principally premises: first, additional stemming 'relatively minor'; second, victim 'shortly thereafter' With second premise, initially speedy suppression procedures assumes. More fundamentally, accept vindicated criminal' 'protect(ed) designed prevent, redress, action. characterizing results top-to-bottom 'minor.' interference individual's freedom place, further automatically otherwise require. Although 10:39 a.m. late afternoon, delay accounted normal heavy workload charge. testified colleagues keep approaching there.' Landynski, Seizure 87—117 Way, Increasing Scope Incidental Arrest, 1959 Wash.U.L.Q. 261; Note, Limitations Searches Incident Yale L.J. 433 (1969); 1966 Term, Harv.L.Rev. 117 122 (1967). Dyke Taylor Implement Mfg. Co., 391 216, 220, 1472, 1475, 538; 514—515; 1646; Stoner 483, 487, 892, 856. Cooper 386 58, 62, 788, 791, 730; 1634 Clark, J.); cf. Beck 89, 91, 223, 225, 142; 236—239, 695—697; Giordenello 480, 488, 1245, 1251, 1503. subsidiary contentions, arguments unduly burdensome specifying harmless error. reject contentions merit. Murdock Pennsylvania, 319 105, 870, 1292 (1943), overruled Opelika, 316 1231, 1691 (1942); Legal Tender Cases, Wall. 457, 287 (1871), Hepburn Griswold, 603, 513 (1870). cites (1957), suggesting inconsistency. per curiam overturned cabin, pages fine print inventory, 239, 697, (Kremen distinguished 'mass seizure'). Frankfurter, exception search-warrant necessity, applied, readily moved. 73, 438. told planning big alarm owner's insurance, location valuable wandered store burglary. called store's robbing himself insurance proceeds policy which, knew, reduced $50,000 $10,000 coverage. robbery sloppy, excitedly claimed 'real professional' robbery. night invitation bicycle ride, saying 'going knock place' shop 'all set.' started break shop, stopped, incident. stacks typewriters Asked 'hot' replied, 'Hotter $3 bill.' reading newspaper description city occurred, Assuming policeman needed bring left guard remained wife's will, followed her tampered great ual summoned accomplice, watched both. days later. relates separately convicted concurrently sentenced. affect record discloses, occasion propriety. issued, inadequate invalid, turn assumes validate 15, 1935, 259, 2, 378, amended, 3053. 18, 1934, 595, 1008, 3052. Sept. 890, 3056 (1964 ed., Supp. IV). July 1956, Tit. I, 104(a), 570, 7607(2). Congress' expedition partly approved Senatorial committee. S.Rep.No.2464, point, peace committed. Stephen, Atlantic History Criminal England 193 (1883); Hale, Pleas Crown 71—104 (first ed. 1847). 'can survive inhibition surrounding exceptions rest warant. 499, 1257, 1514; 59.' Rios 253, 261, 1431, 1436, 1688 (1960); 486, 891, 856 (1964). 'a substantially confined vicinity 145.' Califon ia, supra, 891; 37, (1965). thus there. premises, securing

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