Legal Document

497 U.S. 116 110 S.Ct. 2759 111 L.Ed.2d 94 MAISLIN INDUSTRIES, U.S., INC., et al., Petitionersv.PRIMARY STEEL, al. No. 89-624. Argued April 16, 1990. Decided June 21, Syllabus The Interstate Commerce Act (Act) requires motor common carriers to publish their rates in tariffs filed with the Commission (ICC), 49 U.S.C. § 10762, and prohibits both shippers from deviating those rates, 10761. also specifies that a carrier's must be nondiscriminatory, 10741, its practices reasonable, 10701, charges ICC, upon determining rate or practice violates statute, prescribing followed, 10704(b)(1). Purportedly pursuant this authority, recent Negotiated Rates decisions, has adopted policy relieves shipper of obligation pay when it privately negotiated lower carrier. From 1981 1983, Quinn Freight Lines, carrier subsidiary petitioner Maislin Industries, Inc., interstate shipment respondent Primary Steel, were than Quinn's rates. never ICC. In for bankruptcy, bankrupt estate issued balance due bills difference between When refused undercharges, brought suit District Court, which referred matter Rejecting argument lacked statutory power release liability such ICC relied on hold 10701 authorized consider all circumstances surrounding an undercharge determine whether collection would constitute unreasonable practice. concluded was not entitled recover, since had other file reasonably believed amounts quoted billed correct total charges, made full payment. case returned granted summary judgment basis ICC's decision. Court Appeals affirmed, agreeing approach taken by consistent Act. Held: is inconsistent therefore invalid. Pp. 126-136. (a) Since duty under 10762 charge only 10761 have always been considered essential preventing price discrimination violative Arizona Grocery Co. v. Atchison, T. & S. F. R. Co., 284 370, 384, 52 183, 184, 76 L.Ed. 348, long held alone governs legal rights against carrier, see, e.g., Keogh Chicago Northwestern 260 156, 163, 43 47, 49, 67 statute forbids equitable defenses tariff, Texas Pacific Mugg, 202 242, 245, 26 628, 630, 50 1011, including shipper's ignorance misquotation Louisville Nashville Maxwell, 237 94, 97, 35 494, 495, 59 853. Despite sometimes harsh effects, rigid "filed doctrine" strictly applied consistently adhered Court. See, Thurston Motor Inc. Jordan K. Rand, Ltd., 460 533, 535, 103 1343, 1344, 75 260. 126-128. (b) Although, doctrine, tariff enforceable if finds unreasonable, supra, at S.Ct., exception applicable here. determination engages "unreasonable practice" attempts collect after parties deference, conflicts Court's interpretation, Congress diverged, secret negotiation discriminatory 10741. Armour Packing United States, 209 56, 81, 28 428, 435, 681. Stripped semantic cover, and, more specifically, interpretation practices," thus stand revealed as flatly Act's scheme whole §§ particular. Nor can justified ground prevents receiving windfall, i.e., higher rate, failure comply 10762's directive "equities" are irrelevant application 10761, rate. Compliance utterly central administration Act, sanctioning adherence unfiled effectively renders sections nugatory directly core purposes. 128-133. (c) passage Carrier 1980 (MCA)—which substantially deregulated industry avowed purpose promoting competitive efficient transportation services—does justify policy. Although authority expertise generally adopt new policies faced developments industry, does extend governing statute. Nothing MCA repeals generalized congressional exhortations "increase competition" cannot provide alter requirements interpreted Cf. Square D Niagara Frontier Tariff Bureau, 476 409, 420, 106 1922, 1928, 90 413. fact that, even before MCA's passage, allowed exempt contract requirement they adhere published see 10761(b), demonstrates aware deliberately chosen disturb respect carriers. 133-136. 879 F.2d 400 (CA8 1989), reversed remanded. BRENNAN, J., delivered opinion WHITE, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. concurring opinion, post, p. 136. STEVENS, dissenting REHNQUIST, C.J., joined, 138. Thomas M. Auchincloss, petitioners. W. Merrill, respondents. Justice BRENNAN 1 Under (Act), 10101 seq. (1982 ed.), (ICC Commission), these This us validity recently paying We 2 * A. 3 regulates ensure reasonable nondiscriminatory. See 10101(a), 10701(a), 10741(b) ed.). provides "common . may subject person, place, port, type traffic discrimination." addition, states "[a] ., classification, rule, related service reasonable." 10701(a).1 primary responsibility reasonable. Abilene Cotton Oil 204 426, 440-442, 27 350, 355-356, 51 553 (1907). investigate reasonableness "on own initiative complaint." 11701(a). determines "shall prescribe followed." Moreover, liable "for damages resulting imposition violation" 11705(b)(3) ed., Supp. V). 4 "publish containing provide." 10762(a)(1) specifically providing services any (also known tariff) rate: 5 "Except provided subtitle, jurisdiction shall contained effect subchapter. That receive different compensation specified returning part giving person privilege, allowing use facility affects value service, another device." 10761(a). 6 Deviation result civil criminal sanctions shipper. 11902-11904.2 7 As frequently stated, permit either serve defense Southern Transp. Commercial Metals 456 336, 352, 102 1815, 1825, 72 114 (1982); 853 (1915). 1986, however, changes "clearly warrant tempering former rule adhering virtually cases." NITL Petition Institute Rulemaking Common Rates, I.C.C.2d 99, (1986) (Negotiated I ). policy, cases Commission, "decid[es] undercharges practice." Id., 100. 8 I, adverted growing trend whereby negotiate remit payment many instances, some cases, subsequently files bankruptcy trustee arguing compels rather 99. circumstances, "it could fundamentally unfair claim undercharges." 103. reasoned 1980, significantly change atmosphere strict unnecessary deter discrimination. I.C.C.2d, 106. asserted particular 103.3 9 clarified NITL—Petition 623 (1989) II explained did recognize "equitable defenses" but "affirmative requiremen[t] obligatio[n]" 631, n. 18.4 "[T]he finding course conduct consisting of: (1) negotiating rate; (2) relies being lawfully filed; (3) failing, willfully otherwise, (4) billing accepting (sometimes) numerous shipments; (5) then demanding additional rates." 11. B 10 involves Commission's It arises action (Maislin), recover freight 1,081 shipments performed shipper, Steel (Primary), petitioner's subsidiary, Lines (Quinn). Quinn, certificated 11 postpetition audit accounts $187,923.36 negotiated, filed, agents estate, authorization Bankruptcy undercharges. demanded, States Western Missouri 11706(a) ed.)5 12 answer, alleged rebilling violation 10701; themselves "reasonable" within meaning otherwise inapplicable issue. matters stayed proceeding Primary's request Commission. App. 6-8. 13 ruled favor, rejecting Maislin's Relying reiterated "consider suit" Pet. Cert. 35a. view, role "to undertake analysis unpublished existed, assessment pertinent facts." 36a. With instant controversy, rates6 ICC.7 "Primary performed, reached negotiations [Primary]," 43a. 14 where moved judgment. court Primary, was, effect, impermissible recognition based permissible construction 705 F.Supp. 1401, 1405-1406 (1988). determined engaged supported substantial evidence. 1406-1407. 15 Eighth Circuit "[s]ection 10761(a), mandates overall regulatory administered there no provision [Act] elevating section over 400, 405 (1989). concluded: proper harmonize competing provisions abolish merely allows defenses, doctrine Ibid. (citation omitted). Because Courts disagreed important issue Act,8 we certiorari. 493 1041, 834, 107 830 (1990). 16 understood relationship 183 (1922), explained: 17 "The measured tariff. Unless until suspended set aside, made, purposes, defined varied enlarged tort stringent prevails, because paramount Congress—prevention unjust discrimination—might defeated." (Citations omitted.) 18 415-417, 1927, 413 (1986); Oil, 439, 354; 1011 (1906); Gulf, C. S.F.R. Hefley, 158 98, 101, 802, 803, 39 910 (1895). stabilizing "In order render definite certain, prevent abuses, require[s] filing publishing specifying ma[kes] is, charged alike." 348 (1932). 19 Given close interplay duties imposed 10761-10762 prohibition discrimination, read create forbid 630; 802. classic statement doctrine," come known, case, passenger who purchased train ticket misquoted agent subsequent railroad. 20 "Under duly lawful charge. permitted pretext. Shippers travelers notice it, well abide unless found unreasonable. Ignorance excuse charging less filed. undeniably obviously work hardship embodies regulation commerce 495.9 21 deemed necessary intentionally "misquoting" means offering them rebates discounts. S.Rep. 46, 49th Cong., 1st Sess., 181, 188-190, 198-200 (1886). itself found: "[P]ast experience shows clerks might easily become experts making errors mistakes quotation favored shippers, while fortunate relations whose important, compelled Poor Chicago, B. Q.R. I.C.C. 418, 421-422 (1907); Wilson 682 1227, 1230-1231 (CA7 1982). effects it. (1983); 343-344, 1820-1821; Baldwin Scott County Milling 307 478, 484-485, 943, 947-948, 83 1409 (1939); Central Iron Coal 265 59, 65, 44 441, 442, 68 900 (1924). 22 contains caveat: 495 (filed applies "unless ") (emphasis added); Keogh, ("The rate") added). therefore, follows collected, commanded discriminatory, practices. Grocery, although 23 "did abrogate, [rather] expressly common-law words, rate—it [the Act] bound he show reparation. 24 altered law lodging theretofore exercised courts, If question reparation awarded enforcement award relegated courts." 384-385, 184 (footnote 25 find unreasonable,10 should preclude collecting argues should, like disentitle justifies departure schedule.11 But need resolve today conclude justification schedule forth rests contrary language structure make up conclusion deference address types rational Chevron U.S.A. Natural Resources Defense Council, 467 837, 843, 104 2778, 2781, 81 694 (1984). disagree. For century, incorporates By refusing solely agreed very terms seeks prevent. 10741 stated 681 (1908): "If alteration special agreement will fail establish published, all, neither nor depart. [The establishing one provided, force Any opens door possibility abuses unequal design prohibit punish." 29 diverged decline revisit ourselves. California FERC, 490, 499, 2024, 2029, 109 474 (1990), (recognizing "this accord longstanding well-entrenched especially interpreting stautes underlie complex regimes"). Once statute's clear meaning, stare decisis, judge agency's later our prior meaning. Labeling disguise justifying deviation purely practices" whole, cf. Fort Stewart Schools FLRA, 641, 645, 2043, 2046, 659 (1990); Dole Steelworkers, 494 26, 32, 929, 934, 108 30 remedy Brief Federal Respondent 25-27. accepted relevant 10761.12 495. Indeed, equitably adherence, despite consequences 31 "utterly central" Regular Conference 253 U.S.App.D.C. 305, 308, 793 376, 379 (1986). "Without [these provisions] monumentally difficult enforce impossible public assert right challenge lawfulness existing proposed (citations "abolis[h] continue rate," 36a, undermines basic review advance Likewise, know disclosed Thus, agree discretion craft appropriate remedies violations American Trucking Assns., 354, 364-365, 2458, 2464-2465, 282 (1984), "remedy" articulated purposes 32 maintains, (MCA), Pub.L. 96-296, Stat. 793, ways effort "promote services." 4, formerly codified 10101(a)(7) (1976 addition loosening entry controls, 5, 10922 created zone raise without interference 11, 10708 More importantly, operate 10(b)(1), amending 10930(a) A transports property exclusive agreements 10102(14), exempted 10762. Exemption Contract Carriers Filing Requirements, 133 M.C.C. 150 (1983), aff'd sub nom. Assn., 244 226, 757 301, cert. denied, 1019, 568, 88 (1985).13 relaxed regulations relating carriers, most significantly, decreased go into day Short Notice Effectiveness Independently Filed 146 Rate 773 2d 1561 (CA11 1985).14 II, light environment, "is inappropriate today." I.C.C., According " 'the inability rely greater evil remote misquote discriminate illegally shippers.' Ibid., quoting Seaboard System 794 635, 638 1986). 33 reject argument. 387 397, 416, 87 1608, 1618, 847 (1967), casts doubt sections. Generalized well-established requirements. said similarly judicial Act: 34 "Congress presumed fully cognizant scheme, significant settled half fit carefully reexamined area 1980. [Respondent has] pointed specific legislative history indicating intention overturn construction; harmony general inadequate formidable task." 1928-1929 (footnotes 498, 499-500, 2029-2030. Even MCA, 10761(b) demonstrating carriers.15 embodied anachronism wake modify eliminate 36 Accordingly, reversed, cause remanded further proceedings opinion. 37 so ordered. 38 concurring. join add few words response STEVENS' assertion "fail[ed] teaching [U.S.A. (1984) ]." Post, 152. 40 my correctly rate" "regulatory whole," 144- STEVENS appears mean climate operated, 145-146 text textual limitation scope term "reasonable," used 10701(a) ed.) ("A reasonable"), term. 140-141, 151-152. do agree. Whatever else qualify practice, sensible consist failing what explicitly doing—viz., 10761(a) 41 phrase "[e]xcept subtitle," carry enormous weight places 142-143, 6. clause affixed first sentence services, certain place file. (What obvious—such 10762(a)(1), minimum rates.) second charged. Of sentence, "[t]hat carrier" added), refer covered sentence—so required "the service." (Thus, minimums.) way provided" imported causing recite required-to-be-filed asserts "reasonable readily requirement. 2774. all; reconcile two categorically (do whatever you filed). While unavoidably economically unreasonable—so economic unreasonableness exists reconciled assuming implicit unexpressed requirement—an promised, normal (as previous paragraph) avoids difficulty. 42 Finally, points occasioned amendments says "represented fundamental choice favor deregulation." 147. 147-151. relevance remove pre-existing barriers carriage, Association, 311-312 (1985) (per curiam ) practical eligible permitting circumstances. 10761(b). plainly reflects intent deregulate, deregulate framework scheme. Perhaps deregulation efficiently accomplished framework, Congress' ours. be, thinks, various administrative '[t]he skeleton remains; flesh stripped away.' 2777, Orscheln Bros. Truck Zenith Electric Corp., 899 642, 644-645 1990). construing, says. whom Chief joins, dissenting. developed 19th century program regulate ruthless exercise monopoly Nation's railroads. Today original version. doing so, misreads ignores country, gives six Appeals1 agency responsible enforcement. Most majority fails appreciate significance "sea change" converted regime regulated pricing highly market. wearing his famous blinders, old Dobbin through tired arguments accepts today. 45 originally enacted 1887, part: 46 "And established fares, compliance section, unlawful charge, demand, collect, persons passengers property, connection therewith, time force." 381. 47 Read literally, beginning, construed command unstated enforced (Commission) "unreasonable."2 Amendments incorporated exceptions unreasonable.3 48 now provides: chapter 105 title (Emphasis added.) emphasized foregoing refers, inter alia, states, "A (other rail rate), Furthermore, 10704(b) authorizes follow.4 faithfully tracks grant authority. After considering evidence, "that require 44a. unquestionably plain quote low ones; free find, done, misquotation, file, 10701(a). 53 offers reason whatsoever conclusion. discussion consists almost entirely vague references unarticulated 10762(a)(1),5 ante, 126-127, contends "render[ed] nugatory" obtain led Ante, 133. reasons already generate "interplay" capable sustaining inference. concedes much, recognizes denying 128-129, 10, refuses bar 129-130. 54 Having admitted synthesized susceptible nature practices, argue impermissible.6 source dominates majority's reasoning, combined express gets little attention majority, how component yield distinction insists drawing. literally voids obligations deny, still effective cases. e .g., NITL-Petition 623, 629, discarded entirely, knowing willful prosecution.7 55 "renders observation diminishes importance enforcing Consideration makes evident text: true irrelevant. 56 supports position, principal whole. 131. There are, course, differences markets prices regulated, private cartels product independent decisions competitors. Rules requiring predetermined characteristic markets, incompatible market.8 played role, just segments well.9 courts control market practices; moreover, reduces temptation deviate marketwide rules formulated agency. 57 during railroad 1935, decided impose partly primarily protect railroads too much competition,10 previously same purpose.11 applications period ratemaking, reinforce agency.12 years debate sound substitute competition individual ratemaking. represented deregulation.13 Overnight became anachronism. Judge Posner 58 "Many came deregulation, changed trucking beyond recognition. present essentially competition. No longer seek nurture cartel division markets. wants following day. Forwarder affirmed (11th Cir.1985). limit number doubled decade. want get out altogether sorts restrictions greatly limited escape hatch regulation. longer. Wheaton Van 731 1264 (7th Cir.1984). away." 644 noted Alarcon: 60 variety allowed. example, volume discount per se cost savings Lawfulness Volume Discount Property, 365 711, 715-16 (1982). geographic line met reductions. Named Shipper Receiver, 367 959, 962-965 61 increased pressures, changes, climate, information costs shippers. ease sheer allocate burden discovering Reduced day's notice." West Coast Weyerhaeuser 893 1016, 1026 (CA9 62 catalogs reforms, 133-134, analyze implications "reasonableness" consequently, What misses succinctly 63 constitutes unaware reflection changing goals. modified national amended 10101(a) Section 10101(a)(2) directs 'in regulating promote (A) meet needs receivers, passengers, consumers; [and] (B) allow quality options demands diverse shipping traveling public. .' 10101(a)(1)(A), 10101(a)(1)(D) encourage establishment 'unfair destructive practices.' intended 'to emphasize efficiency desirable achieving goals while, time, sufficient flexibility interest.' H.R.Rep. 96-1069, 96th Sess. 12, reprinted U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 2283, 2294. 64 "Section mechanism put restated declaring presented demonstrated engaging practices." Weyerhaeuser, F.2d, 1026-1027. 65 puzzling suggestion "core Act," 133, instead, elsewhere seems concede, "an [Motor 1980]," poor holding, worse. 66 "Counsel case—which say bankruptcy—conceded competitive. filed-rate lost raison d'etre. explanations world. 'If mistake naming given great principle equality secure object enactment several statutes, abandoned.' Burlington Quincy Ry., 421. 'Stability commercial interests reduced rates.' 422. 'Occasional hardships inelastic application. principle, vital life fixed absolutely commodity points.' 423. "Cessante ratione legis, cessat ipsa lex. Firms weak has, definition competition, alternative sources supply turn suppliers tries profit off him. 'In competitive, flexible [deregulation], likelihood using 625. And foster served forcing schedules regardless All persuasively National Industrial Transportation League, 104-08." Orscheln, 644-645. Posner's mechanical produces absurd results serves social purpose, id., share. likewise shared III 69 ago, decision Chevron, recognized "long position," 415, defer administering: 70 "[W]e reconsideration facts mandate, past rulings fact, aspects action, kind adaptibility patterns office agency." 1618. 71 Four invoked upholding challenged case,14 deem Chevron—or involving action—worthy extended discussion. dismisses conclusory whole." Insofar result, relying Act.15 frustrates attempt expressed Congress. compounded misplaced reliance 134-135. D, Clayton affected amendment. disagreeing choice, presented. totally persuasive position 131, 135, upheld conformed precedent. IV 73 emphatic conclusion, 44a, rewarded violating promptly. evidence record; believe harmed consequence today's misguided produce bonanza bar. "Now off-tariff harmless (de)regulatory conformity draconian windfalls unsecured creditors bankruptcy." 646. 74 Black ago similar "I am unable understand why strains hard reach bad result." T.I.M.E. 359 464, 481, 79 904, 914, 952 (1959) (dissenting opinion). plausible historical excursus about exists. blind nothing situation result. respectfully dissent. reviewing authorize revenue levels adequate honest, economical, management cover operating expenses plus profit." 10701(e) 11902 knowingly receives rebate offset Government penalty amount equal three times rebate. 11903(a) "knowingly offers, grants, gives, solicits, accepts, receives" fined least $1,000 $20,000, imprisoned years, both." penalty. 11903(b); 11904 (corporate liability). "abrogate Rather, here simply suit." rejected proposal League (NITL) declared maximum conflicted "per law, apply." 102. stated: "[O]ur represent separate 10701. viewed reinterpretation (and indeed duty) reinterpret gained circumstances." 631 (citing Atchison (1967)). begin accrues." 36a-38a. "rate sheets" existed. three-page sheet prepared James McGowan, five percent across-the-board increase above Sometime 1982, notified relief orally decrease sent individuals. Subsequently, whenever needed destinations shown sheet, McGowan mileage involved. "there acceptances, approvals involved parties" each question. 36a; 38a. superiors approved written sheets. 40a. representative actual documenting training tariffs, "understood implement agreed-upon 32a. "[w]hile steps legalize occurred engage conduct." 42a. Compare re Caravan Refrigerated Cargo, (Supreme Beef Processors), 864 388 (CA5 Delta Traffic Service Transtop, 902 101 (CA1 1990); 642 1016 Service, Appco Paper Plastics 472 (CA2 (1924) ("No reduce legally payable; assumed charges. act omission (except running limitations) estop therefor"); Kansas City Carl, 227 639, 653, 391, 395, 683 (1913) ("Neither intentional accidental misstatement bind exact pay. knowledge conclusively presumed"). though requested determination. assume, today, open exploration remand. None altogether; Hewitt-Robins Eastern Freight-Ways, 371 84, 86, 157, 158, 142 (1962), routing intrastate routes entirely. Adams Mills, 286 412, 589, 593, 1184 (1932) (reparations ordered constituted another). notation attached bill lading Standard Brands, New Jersey, 350 555 (1974); Anderson, 881 475, 481-482 1989) (collecting cases). equities relevant, One think proof tendering shipment, up-to-the-minute details schedule. Howard MC-C-10983, (I.C.C. Aug. 1987, 5) (unreasonable copy tariff). Nevertheless, "prevailed 'bait switch' tactics fraudulently representing properly insisting rate." 30. note fraudulent case. punished 11903(b) risk misconduct existed "grant relief" "when interest policy." 10762(f); 10702(b). granting classwide exemption exemptions behind M.C.C., 156-158. permits entire classes unnamed Issuance Permits Authorizing Industrywide 298 (1983). days 10762(c)(3), "cause exists." 10762(d)(1). waiting reducing seven increasing 150-160. single discounts discriminatory. 959 (1984); Declaratory Order—Lawfulness 711 view policies. Household Goods 96-454, 2011, "motor carrier[s] household goods may, (including title), written, binding estimate transportation." 10735(a)(1) V) of, elected (case below); 635 Eleventh regulation, issues. sole consensus 1989). wrote: unreasonable." (1915) Similarly, shipper." 587. Title 10704(b)(1) ed. V), "When decides collected by— "(A) subchapter itself, rail, express, water them; "or violate chapter, both), subtitle. include tariffs." hay "may tariff." "requires obligated contested Court—makes clear. noted, prefaces existence begs us, conditions valid exist. They contend Reply Petitioners 7-8. argument, too, beginning mischaracterizes Commission: isolation broader (1989); 122. SCALIA trots again, harnessed 137 (concurring perhaps possible reading one. accept. event, admits 10701(a)—which imposes condition alike—modifies admission moot clause. admission, SCALIA's exactly above. 11903 Sugar Institute, 297 553, 582-583, 635-636, 80 859 (1936) (regulation Sherman Act); Retail Liquor Dealers Assn. Midcal Aluminum, 445 100 937, 940, 233 (1980) (state wine prices); Gas Pipe Line Mobile 332, 338, 373, 377, 373 (1956) (federal natural gas prices). Montana-Dakota Utilities Public 341 246, 251-252, 692, 695-696, 95 912 (1951) electrical power); Arkansas Louisiana Hall, 453 571, 577-578, 2925, 2930-2931, 856 (1981) gas); H.J. Bell Telephone 492 229, 234, 1, 2893, 2898, 195 telephone service). "Though identical standards govern consolidations, backgrounds differ. demand came, railroads, roads themselves, urged unregulated threatened financial stability. Coordinator who, 1934 1935 reports, recommended legislation hearings legislation, truck operators, opposed feared unrestrained itself. placed considerable restraint "Entry controlled certificates convenience necessity; field preferred grandfather clauses, assuring operation, expand areas served. empowered soon utilized safeguard 'destructive' ranks. inception day, fix charges." Report Attorney General's Committee Study Antitrust Laws (1955). "To hence efforts relax League—Petition 99 Buckeye Cellulose Corp. R., 767 (1985), supra; (1989), federal Railroads heavy costs, heyday modes transportation. Naturally tended load onto alternatives good (for example) big enough induce plants. disparity painful paid high undermined railroads' cartelize confluence resulted forbidden refuse tariffed 1230-31. (D.C.Cir.1986). To doctrine. regardless, meant count able keep dangle do, (in major competition) too." 643-644. clear, tension 128, citing Q. On contrary, recurring theme regarded ensuring allocation respected. 184-185, (1932); 483-485, (1939). notable pattern 5-to-4 (1959), prohibited district staying pending striking host respects, Its reluctance precedent 88-89, 159-160, remained thereafter unambiguously repudiated Sept. 6, 1965, 89-170, 6-7, 651-652 (codified 11706(c)(2) ed.)). 793. 109; 646; 406 1023, 1025-1026. supra.

Classification Label: 8