Legal Document

465 U.S. 668 104 S.Ct. 1355 79 L.Ed.2d 604 Dennis LYNCH, etc., et al., Petitionersv.Daniel DONNELLY al. No. 82-1256. Argued Oct. 4, 1983. Decided March 5, 1984. Rehearing Denied May 14, See U.S., 2376. Syllabus The city of Pawtucket, R.I., annually erects a Christmas display in park owned by nonprofit organization and located the heart city's shopping district. includes, addition to such objects as Santa Claus house, tree, banner that reads "SEASONS GREETINGS," creche or Nativity scene, which has been part this annual for 40 years more. Respondents brought an action Federal District Court, challenging inclusion on ground it violated Establishment Clause First Amendment, made applicable states Fourteenth Amendment. Court upheld challenge permanently enjoined from including display. Appeals affirmed. Held: Notwithstanding religious significance creche, Pawtucket not Clause. Pp. 672-687. (a) concept "wall" separation between church state is useful metaphor but accurate description practical aspects relationship fact exists. Constitution does require complete state; affirmatively mandates accommodation, merely tolerance, all religions, forbids hostility toward any. Anything less would "callous indifference," Zorach v. Clauson, 343 306, 314, 72 679, 684, 96 L.Ed. 954, was never intended 672-673. (b) This Court's interpretation comports with contemporaneous understanding Framers' intent. That neither draftsmen Constitution, who were Members Congress, nor Congress itself, saw any establishment problem employing Chaplains offer daily prayers striking example accommodation beliefs Framers. 673-674. (c) Our history pervaded official acknowledgment role religion American life, equally pervasive evidence faiths forms expression none. 674-678. (d) Rather than taking absolutist approach applying mechanically invalidating governmental conduct statutes confer benefits give special recognition general one faith, scrutinized challenged legislation determine whether, reality, establishes faith tends do so. In line-drawing process called each case, often found inquire whether law secular purpose, its principal primary effect advance inhibit religion, creates excessive entanglement government religion. But unwilling be confined single test criterion sensitive area. 678-679. (e) Here, focus inquiry must context season. Focus exclusively component activity inevitably lead invalidation under 679-680. (f) Based record purpose impermissibly advanced created government. sponsored celebrate Holiday recognized national tradition depict origins Holiday; these are legitimate purposes. Whatever benefit religions effects indirect, remote, incidental, no more advancement endorsement congressional executive Christmas, exhibition paintings governmentally supported museums. unable discern greater aid substantial previously held violative As administrative entanglement, there contact authorities concerning content design prior since purchase creche. No expenditures maintenance have necessary, and, owns now valued at $200, tangible material contributes de minimis. Political divisiveness alone cannot serve invalidate otherwise permissible conduct, event, apart instant litigation, political friction over 40-year celebration. 680-685. (g) It ironic if display, celebration event acknowledged Western World 20 centuries, country people, Executive Branch, courts 2 so "taint" render To forbid use passive symbol while hymns carols sung played public places schools, legislatures open sessions prayers, overreaction contrary our holdings. 685-686. 691 F.2d 1029 (1st Cir.1982), reversed. William F. McMahon, Providence, petitioners. Solicitor Gen. Rex E. Lee, Washington, D.C., amicus curiae. Amato A. DeLuca, Warwick, respondents. THE CHIEF JUSTICE delivered opinion Court. 1 We granted certiorari decide Amendment prohibits municipality * Each year, cooperation downtown retail merchants' association, City Rhode Island, observance holiday situated essentially like those hundreds towns cities across Nation—often grounds—during comprises many figures decorations traditionally associated including, among other things, reindeer pulling Santa's sleigh, candy-striped poles, carolers, cutout representing characters clown, elephant, teddy bear, colored lights, large issue here. All components City. 3 included years, consists traditional figures, Infant Jesus, Mary Joseph, angels, shepherds, kings, animals, ranging height 5" 5'. 1973, when present acquired, cost $1365; $200. erection dismantling costs about $20 per year; nominal expenses incurred lighting money expended past 10 years. 4 Respondents, residents individual members Island affiliate Civil Liberties Union, United States City's violates Clause, Donnelly Lynch, 525 F.Supp. 1150, 1178 (D R.I.1981), binding through that, "tried endorse promulgate beliefs," F.Supp., 1173, "erection real affiliating Christian represents." Id., 1177. "appearance sponsorship," believed, "confers remote incidental Christianity." 1178. Last, although court absence fostered result 1179-1180. 5 A divided panel Circuit (1982). certiorari, --- ----, 103 1766, 76 340 (1983), we reverse. II 6 explained Free Exercise Clauses 7 "to prevent, far possible, intrusion either [the state] into precincts other." Lemon Kurtzman, 403 602, 614, 91 2105, 2112, 29 745 (1971). 8 At same time, however, 9 "total possible absolute sense. Some organizations inevitable." Ibid. every reconcile inescapable tension objective preventing unnecessary upon other, reality noted, total two possible. 11 sometimes described Religion erecting state, see, e.g., Everson Board Education, 330 1, 18, 67 504, 513, 711 (1947). figure speech probably deriving views Thomas Jefferson.1 served reminder established anything approaching it. itself wholly exists state. 12 significant segment society institution within can exist vacuum isolation parts, much "It thought desirable enforce regime separation. . ." Committee Public Education & Religious Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 760, 93 2955, 2958, 37 948 (1973). Nor See, 315, 954 (1952); McCollum 333 203, 211, 68 461, 465, 92 649 (1948). indifference" said Zorach, supra, S.Ct., 684. Indeed, observed, bring us "war embodied Amendment's guaranty free exercise religion." McCollum, 211-212, 465. B 13 comported what reveals guarantees. events first week Session 1789. very approved Bill Rights submission states, enacted providing paid chaplains House Senate. Marsh Chambers, 3330, 77 1019 noted seventeen had Delegates Constitutional Convention where freedom speech, press antagonism subjects frequent discussion. conflict Nebraska employed clergy Legislative opening legislature. 3336. 14 1789 takes light emphasis 15 "was whose constitutional decisions always regarded, they should greatest weight fundamental instrument," Myers States, 272 52, 174-175, 47 21, 45, 71 160 (1926). 16 clear 1789, employment practice continued nearly centuries. difficult identify belief C 17 There unbroken three branches life least Seldom opinions expressed Justice Douglas' validating program allowing release school students classes attend off-campus exercises. Rejecting claim asserted pointedly: 18 "We people institutions presuppose Supreme Being." 313, 19 also Abington School Schempp, 374 213, 83 1560, 1566, 844 (1963). replete references value invocation Divine guidance deliberations pronouncements Founding Fathers contemporary leaders. Beginning early colonial period long before Independence, day Thanksgiving celebrated thanks bounties Nature gifts God. President Washington his successors proclaimed Thanksgiving, overtones, celebration2 National century ago. Ch. 167, Stat. 168 (1870). lost theme expressing aid3 significance. 21 Orders announcements Presidents both Holidays terms. And, Acts federal employees released duties Holidays, being revenues provide compensation Senate military services. J. Res. 23 516 (1885). Thus, Government recognized—indeed subsidized holidays 22 Other examples reference heritage statutorily prescribed motto "In God Trust," 36 U.S.C. § 186, mandated currency, see 31 324, language "One nation God," Pledge Allegiance flag. pledge recited thousands children—and adults—every year. Art galleries 15th 16th predominantly inspired faith. Gallery maintained support, example, exhibited masterpieces messages, notably Last Supper, depicting Birth Christ, Crucifixion, Resurrection, others explicit themes messages.4 chamber oral arguments case heard decorated notable permanent—not seasonal—symbol religion: Moses Ten Commandments. provided chapels Capitol worship meditation. 24 countless illustrations Government's sponsorship graphic manifestations heritage. directed proclaim Day Prayer year "on [day] may turn prayer meditation churches, groups, individuals." 169h. repeatedly issued Proclamations.5 Presidential Proclamations messages commemorate Jewish Heritage Week, Proclamation 4844, 46 Fed.Reg. 25,07 (1981), High Holy Days, Weekly Comp.Pres.Doc. 1058 (Sept. 29, 1981). One look even brief resume without finding expressions supra. Equally expression, Through Douglas "follow[ed] best traditions" "respect[ed] nature people." III 25 help explain why consistently declined take rigid, view refused construe literalness undermine ultimate illuminated history." Walz Tax Commission, 397 664, 671, 90 1409, 1412, 697 (1970) (Emphasis added). modern, complex society, traditions underpinnings rest encourage diversity pluralism areas, simplistic uniformly rejected 26 faith—as dictate—the Walz, 669, 1411. Joseph Story wrote half ago: 27 "The object [First] prevent ecclesiastical establishment, hierarchy exclusive patronage government." Story, Commentaries 728 (1833). 28 calls line drawing; fixed, se rule framed. Due Process precise, detailed provision legal code capable ready application. objective, write statute." 668, relationships barred straight unwavering due defined stroke phrase test. "blurred, indistinct, variable barrier depending circumstances particular relationship." Lemon, 2112. But, emphasized unwillingness e.g. Tilton Richardson, 672, 677-678, 2091, 2095, 790 (1971); 773, 2965. cases, did apply "test." not, consider analysis relevant Marsh, find Larson Valente, 456 228, 102 1673, 33 (1982), overt discrimination against church. 30 Stone Graham, 449 39, 101 192, 66 199 (1980) (per curiam ); Stone, invalidated statute requiring posting copy Commandments classroom walls. carefully pointed out posted purely admonition, "integrated curriculum, Bible constitutionally used appropriate study history, civilization, ethics, comparative like." 42, 194. Similarly, Abington, struck down practices readings specifically nothing holding "indicat[e] presented objectively education, effected Amendment." 225, 1573. lacking, only concluded question motivated considerations. 41, 193; Epperson Arkansas, 393 97, 107-109, 89 266, 272-273, 228 (1968); 223-224, 1572; Engel Vitale, 370 421, 424-425, 82 1261, 1263-1264, 601 (1962). Even substantial, Everson, supra; Allen, 392 236, 88 1923, 1060 (1968), Tilton, Cf. Larkin Grendel's Den, 459 116, 505, 74 297 32 inferred doing, reasons sponsoring whole. plainly erred focusing almost When viewed proper season, apparent record, insufficient establish purposeful surreptitious effort express some kind subtle advocacy message. pluralistic variety motives purposes implicated. City, Congresses Presidents, principally taken note historical World. depicts Holiday. Allen Hickel, 424 944 (CADC 1970); Citizens Concerned Separation Church State County Denver, 526 1310 Colo.1981). narrow Pawtucket's These purposes.6 inference, drawn was, clearly erroneous.7 34 impermissible particular. Comparisons relative different support elusive make. conclude violation beneficial expenditure sums textbooks supplied throughout attending church-sponsored supra;8 funds transportation supra;9 grants college buildings higher education combining supra;10 noncategorical colleges universities, Roemer Works, 426 736, 2337, 49 179 (1976); tax exemptions properties sanctioned Sunday Closing Laws McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 81 1101, (1961);11 time training legislative 35 endorsements What 3336, implied true creche: "reason happens coincide harmonize tenets religions." McGowan, 442, 1113. differs significantly substantially aided. important power licensing veto authority—had vested churches. instruction available classrooms; teaching "afford[ed] sectarian groups invaluable [by] provid[ing] pupils their State's compulsory machinery." 212, 466. comparable discernible dissent asserts observers perceive aligned serves assume, arguendo, advances sense; precedents contemplate occasion will action. abundantly clear, "not confers 'indirect,' 'remote,' 'incidental' [religion] is, reason alone, invalid." 771, 2965; Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 273, 269, 276, 70 440 (1981). whatever incidental; Congressional "Christ's Mass," literally 38 resulting ownership 1179. went hold engendered litigation. Coupled effect, persuaded "excessive entanglement." expressly accept caused along lines, sufficient conduct. 39 Entanglement degree. disturb entanglement. exhibit necessary; respects requires ongoing, day-to-day interaction galleries. here, course, "comprehensive, discriminating, continuing surveillance" "enduring entanglement" 619-622, 2114-2115. correctly observed And decline today. involve direct subsidy schools colleges, institutions, hence potential for, Mueller 3062, 3071, n. 11, 721 (1983). litigation stated "marked dissension" "calm Curiously, lawsuit litigant cannot, act commencing lawsuit, create appearance then exploit 41 satisfied IV 42 BRENNAN describes "re-creation lies faith," post, 711. painting, passive; admittedly Christmas. traditional, displays extant recall engenders friendly community spirit good keeping well meaning includes masses, none sense fail aware implications. brings central city, commercial interests merchants employees, points out, character invoking preceded followed debate partisan taxes, budgets, defense, myriad mundane subjects, demean taint sacredness invocation.12 43 Of course identified set cases ironic, historic symbol—the creche—at season places, Legislatures stilted over-reaction If presence host heritage, offensive Constitution. 44 "fears problems" gave rise 18th concern 8, 508. Archbishop Canterbury, Vicar Rome, powerful leaders behind officially Any notion symbols pose danger far-fetched indeed. V 45 alert opposition shown numerous holdings programs Levitt 472, 2814, 736 (1973); Meek Pittenger, 421 349, 95 1753, 217 (1975); most recent careful scrutiny municipal ordinance granting virtual liquor establishments near Taken together demonstrate protect genuine objectives too late impose crabbed reading country. VI notwithstanding Amendment.13 Accordingly, judgment ordered. 48 O'CONNOR, concurring. I concur separately suggest clarification doctrine. suggested leads opinion, read it, consistent my analysis. 50 making adherence way person's standing community. run afoul prohibition ways. interfere independence access powers fully shared nonadherents foster creation constituencies lines. E.g., second infringement disapproval Endorsement sends message outsiders, full community, accompanying adherents insiders, favored Disapproval opposite generally 51 three-part articulated 612-613, 2111, (1970), guide detecting unconstitutional action.1 entirely how parts relate principles enshrined Focusing institutional clarifies analytical device. 52 found, Nevertheless, appellees contend excessive-entanglement prong follows suggestion 463 3071 concludes "no for" case. Ante, view, lines independent constitutionality. 53 Although several discussed 796, 2977, 623, 2116, relied unconstitutional. Guessing inherent simply speculative enterprise, because existence illustrates, affect response practice. evil addressed Its perceived ultimately might cause divisiveness, itself. properly limited 54 endorsed Christianity answer question, examine communicate displaying actually conveyed. prongs represent 55 statement audience depends intention speaker "objective" listeners need rely solely words themselves discerning speaker's intent: judge intent by, examining asking questions speaker. seek They instead themselves; them conveyed something intended. large, "speaks" word deed, portion receive determined statement, Examination subjective communicated therefore necessary carries forbidden meaning. 56 asks government's actual disapprove irrespective review conveys disapproval. An affirmative invalid. 57 purpose. requirement satisfied, mere however dominated (1980), copies test, yet objectives, instilling values illustrating connection system, id., 193. 1572. submit, intends convey 58 Applying formulation intend nonChristian religions. evident larger promotion symbols. Celebration holidays, cultural aspects, 59 based erroneous reasoning. believed ascertain separate setting up tradition-celebrating suspect court's eyes, unarguably "raises inference" endorse. correct principles, unlawful erroneous. 60 makes interpreted causes, inhibition laws (tax exemption religious, educational, charitable organizations), (1960) (mandatory closing law), (1952) (released instruction), effects, violate crucial communicating having intentionally unintentionally, make relevant, perception, status 61 believe, represented indeed district neutralized setting, overall changes viewers fairly understand display—as typical museum though neutralizing negates content. celebrates holiday, contends declaration understood strong traditions. extremely common, just understood. commonly displayed symbols, Pawtucket. 62 features combine physical "acknowledgments" type printing Trust" coins, "God save honorable court." Those acknowledgments serve, ways reasonably culture, solemnizing occasions, confidence future, encouraging worthy appreciation society. For reason, ubiquity, conveying approval beliefs. likewise purpose—celebration regard apparently filing incorporated reasons, Christianity. 63 subsidiary findings conclusion. facts content, seen insignificant celebratory instructional, counteract imply communicates place imprimatur simple fact. evidentiary submissions racial sex-based classifications invidious message, answered basis judicial social facts. conclusion error matter law. 64 Every judged unique constitutes determination, keep mind scheme myriad, eroded. purport acknowledge subjected scrutiny. 65 alleged endorsing Giving deserves, say agree below BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL, BLACKMUN STEVENS join, dissenting. announced compact phrases have, today reminds us, ante, 678-679, proven apply. Faced uncertainty, looks settled (1971), assessing involves step 679. reaches turns largely nativity scene appeared. decision implicitly leaves constitutionality property distinctively cross.1 Despite contours compel life-sized biblical birth Christ Nothing obscures diminishes plain amounts Term, hope prove single, aberrant departure method analyzing cases. 3337 (BRENNAN, J., dissenting). returns gratifies hope. vigorous application suggests commitment standards superficial.2 After reviewing am convinced appears hard obscure, seems familiar agreeable. reluctance community's chosen celebrating agreeable understandable, justify controlling precedent. expense squared pretend, does, dilutes fashion creche's singular religiosity, reflects "acknowledgment" Neither supports result. remarkable precious nation, Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 495, 1680, 1683, 982 (1961); Dist. 240-241, 1581, (1963) concurring), seeks protect, runs directly counter today's decision. 69 sought meet new problems arising decisions, few exceptions, demanded satisfy following criteria: "First, [practice] purpose; second, inhibits religion; finally, [it] 'an religion.' " 2111 (citations omitted).3 well-defined expresses essential concerns animating designed ensure organs remain strictly affairs, "a union destroy degrade 431, 1267, guarantee maintains position neutrality respect promulgation 15, 511, (1947) ("Neither [a Government] pass prefer another"); 103-104, 269-270, 792-793, 2975, regard, examination evils aimed—"sponsorship, financial active involvement sovereign activity." 772, 2965 (quoting 1411, (1970)). reflect "clearly purpose." Unlike 272-273; 423, 1263, or, conversely, 613, 2111; Wolman Walter, 433 229, 97 2593, 2599, 714 (1977), here purchase, maintain Governmental nevertheless inferred. instance, 193, curiam), despite state's avowed reminding schoolchildren commands Decalogue, "pre-eminent schoolroom walls nature." claims secular. sought, according participate attract area order promote pre-Christmas sales engender goodwill neighborliness Brief Petitioners 29. 73 assertions, compelling indicate prudent "reluctance attribute motives" body, 3066, overcome. First, Inc., 510, "valid readily accomplished means."4 Plainly, interest promoting elaborate Claus, reindeer, wishing wells already display.5 More importantly, unlike element Hodgson Park exclusivity commerce encompass. constitutional, seasonal non-denominational demonstrates narrower lay include scene. retained Mayor's testimony trial he him, eliminate "is towards establishing another non-religion be." (J.A. 100).6 "keep[ing] 'Christ Christmas.' 1173. From therefore, impossible 445, 1115, (1961), goal predominates. "primary effect" exemplified believe views. many, extensive costly efforts mean prestige conferred thereby symbolic 511. minority reject similarly entitled support.7 precisely sort chauvinism forever prohibit. "[w]hen power, placed belief, indirect coercive pressure minorities conform prevailing plain." 1267. rests principle. university policy "equal access" approval" permitted facilities broad spectrum groups" dominate forum. 274, 277. contrast, extending similar attention "broad spectrum" singled treatment. 75 Finally, threat fostering notes, 683, primarily able administer consultation officials. finding, worth noting after decision, entanglements develop. Jews non-Christian prompted perhaps remark Menorah future displays,8 expected faced requests, become involved accommodating various demands. 798, 2978 ("competing [by groups] gain government" "occasion[ ] considerable civil strife"). respondents' act, unleashed emotional reactions 1180. calm prevailed suit immediately division point quiescence opposed reflected futility opposing majority. practice; nevertheless, "too close proximity" authorities, 259, 1591 "warning signal" risk. 2978.9 Furthermore, blind communities differ composition, controversy local governments adopt continue fester. communities, combat Pawtucket's; especially areas minorities.10 sum, considering difficulty concluding unconstitutional.11 satisfies persuasive. 78 First. "context" appeared, away import 679-684; 694 (O'CONNOR, concurring). concedes origins" "significant event," 681, 680, 685, signal symbolism evokes. gauged appears. blinks claim, done "traditional" purged "incidental indirect" struggle ignore me misguided reasons. place, positioned highly visible location unambiguous: 80 "[D]espite small amount covered sized tableau marked off white picket fence. lends faces Roosevelt Avenue bus stops stairs bulk placed. Moreover, enticing children—Santa's house talking well. recognizes vantage points, own photos shelters looking centrally prominently positioned." 1176-1177 omitted). disclaim represents truly aimed wide catalogue ethnic celebrations, disassociate 1573, aloud "presented education" remove Columbia "Pageant Peace" parkland adjacent White House, condition erect "explanatory plaques" disclaiming Morton, 495 65, 67-68 1973) ). cautionary Third, suffice aiding Hunt McNair, 734, 743, 2868, 2874, 923 (1973), "aid normally advancing [supports] setting." demonstrably Schempp. 2098, thrust financing review, unanimously aspect church-related eventually assume control constructed aid.12 celebration, retains refuse implicit non-Christians eliminated holiday. distinct rooted account Christ's birth. chief characteristically divine Savior world miraculous illuminate path salvation redemption.13 Christians, exclusive, holy. share beliefs, re-enactment miraculously incarnated man stands dramatic differences faith.14 sponsor religiously views, 'so indisputably function,' reflect[ing] neutral posture institutions." 782, 2970 (quotingEverson, 513). excluded grounds one's elected insult injury until today, could countenanced 84 Second. attempts entertaining beguilingly simple, faulty syllogism. begins recognize holiday; celebrations; permissible. 680-683, 685-686; 692-694 believes once finds designation acceptable, virtually form association constitutional. vice dangerously superficial argument overlooks culture contains elements.15 holiday's elements giftgiving, festivities spirit, indiscriminately embrace eagerness approve rationale appear allow Mayor mass, unobjectionable "celebrate holiday." demonstrated below, logic fundamentally flawed blurs distinction character, 85 decides accommodate calendar activities Americans expect spend visiting families, services, enjoying respite pre-holiday activities. necessarily offended step. (1952). Because elements, seeking kinds goals—for common rest—that McGowan.16 officials go further Christmas—by, decorating images wreaths, garlands figures—they move closer limits boundaries encroach freedoms. forefront theological prestige, authority service 86 principles. essence prompt observer experience awe wonder contemplation dogma—that sent His son Messiah.17 Contrary suggestion, representation "particular event." 686. instead, mystical re-creation faith.18 suggest, profound significance,19 insulting insist personal story "history" unavoidable "heritage."20 87 playing ordinary does. 676-677, 685. forbidding tantamount Milton's Paradise Lost English literature. religiously-inspired materials considered authors, writings outlines imaginative universe literary expression.21 devoted art; Gothic architecture, cathedrals exalt, rather "aesthetic consequences [such religious] thought."22 plays role. poetry literature appreciate aesthetic Magi infant company artifacts, myths. guarantees favor recognition. limiting attributes. disclaimer, remind average roots witnessing call scriptural symbolizes. gone trouble reinforce means solidarity dismiss unworthy support. relaxed regrettable, understandable sounds broader troubling theme. Invoking legend proclamation Honorable Court" sessions, asserts, explanation, poses 674-678, 692-693 Intuition tells inevitable indifference people. Illinois ex rel. 232, 475, (1948) (Jackson, true, scrupulously matters conscience, requires, avoid overly favoritism mean, account, govern. Should choose incorporate arguably ceremonies, impartial; tend handicap another; non-religion. series concerned acknowledgments, indicating forbidden. (posting schoolroom); (1968) (prohibition Darwinian evolution); Bible-reading beginning day); state-composed prayer); (use public-school instruction). body law, comprehensively extent incorporating ceremonies proclamations, presume comprehensive approach. tracing channels follow Clause—may identified. compelled may, opportunities individuals 296-299, 1610-1612 meaning, (1952), chooses "close doors suspend operations want repair sanctuary instruction." principle declare December 25th 710. Second, derived motivations retain certain connotations, nonetheless pursue coincides Day, fits easily principle, antecedents,23 current unquestionably patriotic. gather families fortune, free, given address gratitude beneficence sources luck country's abundant natural wealth. completely prohibited recognizing actions culture. 435, 1269, 21; 300-304, 1612-1615 While uncertain questions, motto, contained understood, Dean Rostow's apt phrase, "ceremonial deism,"24 protected chiefly rote repetition 3346 uniquely suited inspiring manner non-religious phrases. 265, 1594 functions, necessity, coupled gives 94 categories. Inclusion expression. claimed right private land. McCreary 575 1112 goals; 699-700. Christianity, ceremonial contexts assure neutrality. works Gallery, during Inaugural Address, risk sure, begin element, end there. Their dominantly ends reverence image divine. By insisting "religious heritage," 676, 685-686, backwards days Brewer arrogantly "this nation." Trinity 143 457, 471, 516, 226 (1892). days, thought, put New York Regent's acceptable "spiritual heritage." 425, 1264. examined, provides sections evidence, obvious: currents inflexible absolutistic enforcement imprudent impossible. 673-678. observation uncontroversial unilluminating. Simply enumerating vital misapprehension uses interpretation. Certainly, awareness interpreting abstract 676-680, 1415-1417; 431-445, 1108-1115; Engel, 425-429, 1264-1266. acceptance action, since, rightly acquires use, span covers entire predates it." 678, 1416. 792, 2975. Attention details cardinal limit cases—whether "threaten Framers deeply feared." 1578 fact, has, review. 98 canvassed Colonial modern times. On analysis, motivations, uniform citizens. 1115. pattern "undeviating acceptance" Nation's property-tax organizations, Clauses. Framer's prohibit practice, compelling. marshalling indicated authorized appointment proceedings reached agreement final wording Rights, "unique history" modern-day 3335. 99 result, fails discuss publicly-displayed scenes. whatsoever, springs acknowledgement "by failure explanation assertion direction. Two noting. adoption event. offers widespread development comparatively phenomenon.25 100 scenes emerge nineteenth century. Carrying Puritan World, founders Massachusetts Bay Colony pursued vigilant Puritans, "Popish" lacking foundation Scripture. took 1659 day, abstinence labor, feasting, way," offense punishable fine. repealed ban 1681, objection remained firm.26 During eighteenth century, continued. increasing numbers Anglican Dutch German Reformed churches arrived, grew. denominational dictate attitude Anglicans, carried England's Roman Catholics, life. nonconforming Protestant Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Baptists Methodists, suspicion century.27 acutely controversies, Many sects devotedly grounds, vocal dedicated foes Revolutionary War.28 later sacrilegious England, with, them, sinister theology "Popery."29 eyes dissenting sects, closely religion—the Churches England Rome—were linked profane publicly authored reasonable suppose regarded matter, controversial. benign competitive disorder denominations, sect vie allegiance followers interference. Education. uninformed assumption, conflicting competition celebrations come acceptance. 1836 1845 1865, twenty-eight jurisdictions holiday.30 States' 1870 25th, Fourth July, Year's Columbia.31 gradual stark contrast widely middle gauge. known immigrants Pennsylvania presumably drawing European traditions, introduce Christmas.32 likely expanded Catholic modest beginnings, developed gained wider century.33 tell, ever acceptance, endorsement, twentieth 105 whatsoever scene; accordingly, repeated 673-674, 682, baffling, utterly irrelevant. financed creches widespread, undeviating extends history. Therefore, concrete, specific bearing careless "illumination" focused Without guiding intellectual discipline imposes, sea, select random America's varied five 106 Under scheme, safeguarding heritage" reserved prerogative nation's spiritual "religion personal, sacred, holy permit 'unhallowed perversion' [authorities]," 432, clause demands play effort. brushes aside muting is: coercive, small, preferences majority minority, placing tidings conveys. Frankfurter, writing "withdr[aws] sphere competence specific, human conduct: man's disbelief verity transcendental idea disbelief." 465-466, 1156-1157 (separate opinion). sets realm feeling pressures antagonisms supreme achievements. Regrettably, tarnishes achievement. 107 dissent. 108 BLACKMUN, joins, 109 2111-2112, (which applied "often," O'CONNOR acknowledges words, "Our Lemon," 688), compels affirmance guidelines anything, municipally 110 Not resolution precedents, also, ironically, injustice manifests. persons, undertook crusade "keep Christmas," App. 161, declared urges "with creche," "recall[s] Holiday," "engenders season." Before expert witness similar, candid, point, stating invites brotherhood, peace, let loose money." 1161 (R.I.1981). relegated harbinger purposes, devoid incapable enhancing tenor integral part. victory Pyrrhic 111 Christians feel constrained acknowledging alienated presence. Surely, misuse sacred symbol. join denying force core BRENNAN's opinion. Reynolds 145, 164, 244 (1878) reply Jefferson committee Danbury Baptist Association (January 1802)). proposed, urged thanksgiving prayer, grateful hearts, favours Almighty God." Stokes L. Pfeffer, (rev. 1st ed. 1964). November 26, "offer[ supplications Great Lord Ruler Nations, beseech Him pardon transgressions. Compilation Messages Papers 1789-1897 (1899). Adams Madison presidents, Stokes, 180-193 (1950), incumbent, 4883, 56,153 Roosevelt's 1944 Thanksgiving: "[I]t fitting fervor Heavenly Father mercies received individually blessings He restored, victories arms Allies, children lands. bear earnest God, nationwide Scriptures Christmas." 2629, 13,099 (1944). Reagan immediate predecessors proclamations. 5098, 42,801 (1983); 4803, 75,633 (1980); 4333, 40,003 (1974); 4093, 21,401 3752, 13,635 (1966); 3560, 11,871 regularly exhibits 200 paintings. 5017, 4261 4795, 62,969 4379, 25,429 4087, 19,961 3812, 14,015 (1967); 3501, 10,147 "exclusively secular." requires. Were secular" invalidated. argues achieved 699. True "[p]erhaps books school. 244, 1926. "[i]t undoubtedly helped get schools," "some parents pay children's fares pockets 17, 512. construction "surely aid[ed]" them. 2096. Maryland sustained undeniable somewhat citizens services." 776, 2967. 'context' appear[s]," "explain 705, equated well, 711-712. true. commanding "strict scrutiny" $200 considers strict patently discriminatory face. explicitly contemplated Larson. Kurtzman tests withstand challenge. .; Though phrased constitutionality, "provides 'no [a] helpful signpost' dealing challenges." (1983) 741, 2873, (1973)). embodies intentional fitted survive observes, 687, 13, discrimination. standard, assimilated clarified version propose. Plain presumption, overcome showing fit, disfavored. Third city-financed platform cross Pope John Paul mass deliver sermon 1979 visit Philadelphia funds. Gilfillan Philadelphia, 637 924 (CA3 1980). disputing Eleventh Latin Union Georgia Rabun Chamber Commerce, 698 1098 (CA11 1983). Fox Los Angeles, Cal.3d 150 Cal.Rptr. 867, 587 P.2d 663 (1978); Lowe Eugene, 254 Or. 518, 360 (1969). remains absent Claus' cut-out clowns bears, muster standard. (SDNY 1983) (holding village refusing group park). formula capture resolve problems, infra, insistence referring forth option. citation meaningless three-prong initial formulation, looked tool mandatory terms: "Taken together, [our] [must test]." 772-773, last Term JUSTICE, speaking "[t]his criteria [as Clause." 510. 40-41, 235-236, 2598-2599, (1977). addition, assertion. Larson, reviewed preference 246-251, 1684-1686, 251-255, 1686-1688. evade unsupported assertion, hopes belated excuse (1982); 271, 275, (1981); (1977); 674, 1414, (1970). O'CONNOR's concurring posed 690. puzzling, least, "irrelevant," 7, 509, governing bodies applications licenses. willing alter preferred results. Several representatives business testified trade, removed. 133, 135, 139-140). eliminated, 115). admitted petitioners, correspondence Lynch maintaining letter, representative congratulates 'Christ' 161). letters, 1162 ("Overall attack attempt deny ability publically desired accepted way"). "the implemented 'good thing' thing California particularly relevant: "When openly promotes religion's reaped disadvantage suffered obvious. persons outsiders government; observe pleasure seeing sanction status." 663, 670 (1978) (striking front hall). 360, 363 J.A., 104. 684; 689 subsidies derives distorted Lemon—a involving inquired distinguishing Allen—cases subsidies—does proposition meant confine factually identical institutions. agree, "an Clause," divisiveness." 1367. Having emphasize disagree sharp issues relating occasions. ACLU County, 1983); Florey Sioux Falls Dist., 619 1311 (CA8 1980); 1973); 508 823 Colo.1981); Russell Town Mamaroneck, 607 1977); Lawrence Buchmueller, Misc.2d 300, 243 N.Y.S.2d (Sup.Ct.1963). Given narrowness 694-695 unlikely abate. half-hearted attempt, 680-681, 682-683, grapple Judge Pettine's overturned unless erroneous." Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 52(a). Pullman-Standard Swint, 285-290, 1781, 1788-1791, petitioners accords findings, loss well-supported stamp can, face dismissed "error law." 694. little decision's standard recognized, adopted 244-246, 1683-1684, addresses situations denomination another. F.2d, 1034-1035. inclined fixed Lemon. Schempp determining rights guaranteed infringed. "those involvements institutions; employ purposes; ends, suffice" down. 294-295, 1609-1610. third met, goals commerce—can realized figures. aid-to-sectarian schemes statutory framework. Regan, 444 646, 662, 840, 851, (BLACKMUN, R.E. Brown, Messiah W.M. Auld, Traditions (1931); A.A. McArthur, Evolution Year (1953). became incarnate person Christ. "non-incarnation [t]he [Jews] pledged, unite substance earth." Martin Buber, Israel (reprinted Talmadge, Disputation Dialogue: Readings Jewish-Christian Encounter 281-282 (1975)). distinction, "constitute[s] Judaism 281. R. Reuther, Faith Fratricide 246 (1974). Unitarianism highlights trinitarian affront being. Williams, Believe How Worship 316-317 (3d 1969). C. Olmstead, History 296-299 (1960). Both importance. 1163-1164; 1032-1033; 1035-1037 (Bownes, historically folk gift-giving winter elements. Barnett, Study Culture 9-14 (1954); Meyers, Celebrations: Complete Book 309-344 (1972); B. N. Rosenthal, 14-15 (1980). shares list secular, patriotic Memorial Washington's Birthday, Labor Veterans Day. 6103(a). infer distinctly keeps commentator "Today exegetes Biblical stories recounting birth] collection uncertain, mutually contradictory, strongly legendary theologically narratives, own. Jesus' dream happenings angels constantly enter leave it—as heavenly messengers announcing events." H. Kung, Being 451 (1976) (E. Quinn, trans.). 25-41 Elliott, Background Jesus Nazareth, Hist. Today 774-780 (1978). commentators voiced objections debasement trivialization celebrations. Kelley, Beyond State, 181 Christmas: 55-57 (1954). 383 1964); Morgan, 126 (discussing Christmas). Dialogue. Frye, Secular Scripture (1976). O. Simson, Cathedral (1956). Panofsky, Meaning Visual Arts (1967). Compare Jackson's educational program: "[m]usic music, architecture minus cathedral, painting eccentric incomplete, view." 477, antecedents Jefferson. Refusing fasting, "I interdicted intermeddling doctrines, disciplines, [I]t proposed recommend prescribe fasting [B]ut invite magistrate exercises, Fasting exercises; enjoining discipline." Jefferson's Writings 428-430 (1905). Church, Freedom 266 Sutherland, Review, Ind.L.J. 83, (1964) 1962 Meikeljohn Lecture Brown University). pursuing vague baffling supporting amici concede equivalent publicly-sponsored displays. argument, counsel asked "anything refer know displayed?" Counsel responded: "Specifically, cannot. holiday] began locate data." Tr. 8. General, appearing asked: "Do [of framers] scene?" "Not degree specificity." 23. S. Cobb, Rise America 209 1970). notorious antipathy remarks Sewell, Puritan, 1685 influence "Some, somehow vexed, Body People Profane it; blessed Authority Quoted 4-6, 21-22 W. Sweet, History, Chi.Theol.Sem.Register 12, (Nov. 1932); 314-315 (1972). indication gleaned services Daily Times 1855: Methodists Dec. except Mission Schools One, Episcopalian, open. Inside decked evergreens." written 1874 Henry Ward Beecher, Congregationalist, describing childhood: "To foreign shall die boy wondered was. knew Episcopal town dressing evergreens. Romish institution, kept Church. Brought strictest literal style passed youth knowledge associations day." 316. disestablishment chronicled length repeat 9-15, 508-11, (1947); 428 10, 1265 10; 770 28, 2964 28. discussions denominations disestablishment, Bailyn, Ideological Origins Revolution 257-263 McLoughlin, Dissent: 1630-1833 2-6. compilation developments, 19-20. discussion Columbia, equal footing time. Cong.Globe, 41st Cong., 2d Sess. 4805 Significantly, 1885 payment 25. 11-12; artifact owes St. Francis Assisi who, accounts, popularized ritual reenactment manager attended townspeople now-traditional roles Magi, etc. Greccio, Italy, 1224. M. Krythe, About secularization occurred led "members evangelical [to be] oppose longer symbolized domination England. tolerance increased encouraged [the] popularity Christmas]." 6; 11-12, 22-23.

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