Legal Document

370 U.S. 660 82 Supreme Court Reporter 1417 8 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 758 Lawrence ROBINSON, Appellant,v.STATE OF CALIFORNIA. Number 554. Argued April 17, 1962. Decided June 25, S. Carter McMorris, Los Angeles, Cal., for appellant. William E. Doran, appellee. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered the opinion of Court. 1 A California statute makes it a criminal offense person to 'be addicted use narcotics.'1 This appeal draws into question constitutionality that provision state law, as construed by courts in present case. 2 The appellant was convicted after jury trial Municipal Angeles. evidence against him given two Angeles police officers. Officer Brown testified he had occasion examine appellant's arms one evening on street some four months before trial.2 officer at time observed 'scar tissue and discoloration inside' right arm, 'what appeared be numerous needle marks scab which approximately three inches below crook elbow' left arm. also under questioning admitted occasional narcotics. 3 Lindquist examined follow morning Central Jail stated discolorations scabs arms, identified photographs been taken shortly his arrest night before. Based upon more than ten years experience member Narcotic Division Police Department, witness gave 'these were result injection hypodermic needles vein not sterile.' He several days old examination, neither influence narcotics nor suffering withdrawal symptoms saw him. using past. 4 own behalf, denying alleged conversations with officers ever used or their use. explained resulting from an allergic condition contracted during military service. His testimony corroborated witnesses. 5 judge instructed made misdemeanor 'either narcotics, * *.3 That portion referring 'use' is based 'act' using. 'addicted use' status. They are identical. To said status act. It continuing differs most other offenses fact (it) chronic rather acute; continues complete subjects offender any reforms. existence such may ascertained single if characteristic reactions found present.' 6 further could general verdict agreed either 'status' committed denounced statute.4 'All People must show defendant did narcotic County, while City *.'5 7 Under these instructions returned finding 'guilty charged.' An Appellate Department County Superior Court, 'the highest court State decision had' this 28 Code KF62 § 1257, Annotated KF65 U5 1257. See Smith versus California, 361 147, 149, 80 215, 216, 205; Edwards 314 160, 171, 62 164, 165, 86 L.Ed. 119. Although expressing doubt crime being addict,' reviewing unreported affirmed judgment conviction, citing its previous decisions upheld statute.6 We noted probable jurisdiction appeal, 368 918, 244, 133, because squarely presents issue whether case repugnant Fourteenth Amendment Constitution. broad power regulate drugs traffic within borders here issue. More forty ago, Whipple Martinson, 256 41, 41 425, 65 819, explicitly recognized validity power: 'There can no authority exercise administration, sale, prescription dangerous habitforming *. so manifest interest public health welfare, unnecessary enter discussion beyond saying too firmly established successfully called question.' 45, 426. 9 Such regulation, assumed, take veriety valid forms. might impose sanctions, example, unauthorized manufacture, prescription, purchase, possession borders. In discouraging violation laws, welfare inhabitants, establish program compulsory treatment those narcotics.7 require periods involuntary confinement. And penal sanctions imposed failure comply procedures. Cf. Jacobson Massachusetts, 197 11, 25 358, 49 643. Or choose attack evils broader fronts also—through education, efforts ameliorate economic social conditions thought flourish. short, range choice make area undoubtedly wide one, wisdom particular allowable spectrum us decide. Upon premise we turn law here. 10 would possible construe operative only proof actual State's jurisdiction. But have law. there they convict even disbelieved evidence. convicted, told, simply 'chronic condition' narcotics.' impossible know jury's precisely finding. 11 court, implicitly approved amounted 'a ruling binding though precise words written' statute. Terminiello Chicago, 337 1, 4, 69 894, 895, 93 1131. 'We read it.' Id., 6, 896 Indeed, brief counsel emphasized addiction circumstantial tell-tale track over veins remains gist section.' 12 statute, therefore, punishes sale possession, antisocial disorderly behavior administration. purports provide medical treatment. Rather, deal offense, prosecuted 'at reforms.' has continuously guilty possessed State, there. 13 unlikely moment history attempt mentally ill, leper, afflicted venereal disease. determine victims human afflictions dealt treatment, involving quarantine, confinement, sequestration. But, light contemporary knowledge, disease doubtless universally infliction cruel unusual punishment Eighth Amendments. Louisiana ex rel. Francis Resweber, 329 459, 67 374, 91 422. 14 cannot but consider same category. illness.8 apparently illness innocently involuntarily.9 hold imprisons thus criminal, never touched drug irregular there, inflicts Amendment. sure, imprisonment ninety not, abstract, unusual. considered abstract. Even day prison 'crime' having common cold. 15 unmindful vicious occasioned grave concern government. There are, said, countless legitimately attacked. individual particularized local far interpreted courts. 16 Reversed. 17 FRANKFURTER took part consideration 18 DOUGLAS, concurring. 19 While & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions join Court's opinion, wish explicit reasons why think 'cruel unusual' sense treat who addict. 20 Sixteenth Century England insanity beat subject 'until regained reason.' Deutsch, Mentally Ill America (1937), Page 13. violently insane went whipping post dungeons or, sometimes happened, burned stake hanged'; pauper often roamed countryside wild men pilloried, whipped, jailed.' Action Mental Health (1961), 26. As Dr. Isaac Ray many ago: 21 'Nothing strongly illustrate popular ignorance respecting proposition, equally objectionable humanity logic, should punished acts, order deter persons doing thing.' Treatise Medical Jurisprudence Insanity (5th ed. 1871), 56. 22 Today our differences legal definition insanity. however defined, end effect treated people confined protection society, branded criminals. 23 Yet terror linger means dealing diseases. recently stated: 24 '* idea basing purgatorial acts ordeals ancient medicine. trace back Old Testament belief kind, mental physical, represented sin; relief form final heroic act atonement. superstition appears support fallacious rationales procedures purging, bleeding, induced vomiting, blistering, well entire chamber horrors constituting early illness. latter included assortment shock techniques, 'water cures' (dousing, ducking, near-drowning), spinning chair, centrifugal swinging, electric shock. All, appear, planned driving body evil spirit toxic vapor.' Pages 27—28. approach respects addicts. Drug prevalent country nation western world.1 S.Rep.No.1440, 84th Cong., Sess., 2. referred contagious disease.' 3. living world black white put addict category could, would, forsake ways. 26 first step toward innocent boy's puff cigarette alleyway. come prescriptions. Addiction birth. Earl Ubell wrote: 27 'In Bellevue Hospital's nurseries, Saul Krugman, head pediatrics, discovering babies minutes heroin 'More 100 infants turned up last years, all signs withdrawal: irritability, jitters, loss appetite, diarrhea, convulsions death. 29 "Of course, get womb mothers addicts,' Krugman yesterday when situation came light. control Thorazine, tranquilizing drug. 30 "You see children. high-pitched cry. appear hungry won't eat offered food. move around much crib noses toes become red excoriated.' 31 'Dr. Lewis Thomas, professor medicine New York University-Bellevue, brought problem Monday symposium sponsored Society. way respond clue low rate cure addiction. 32 "Unlike adult gets matter days, cases,' Thomas later, infant weeks months. baby physical action drugs. 33 "Perhaps adults continue effects longer accustomed recognize. mean need long period, recidivism psychological pressures we've talking about." N.Y. Herald Tribune, Apr. 1962, cols. 3—4. 34 compulsions capable management without outside help. Council Health: 35 'Physical dependence defined development altered physiological about repeated administration necessitates continued prevent appearance termed abstinence syndrome. When says habit, physically dependent habit-forming another developed second developed. Physical real disturbance. associated hyperexcitability reflexes mediated through multineurone arcs. animals, shown occur paralyzed hind limbs spinal dogs, produced dogs whose cerebral cortex removed.' Report Addiction, 165 A.M.A.J. 1707, 1713. 36 Some say Hesse, Narcotics (1946), 40 et seq. 37 Others symptom psychiatric disorder.' H.R.Rep.No.2388, 8, Congressional Administrative News, 1956, 3281. Present Status 138 1019, 1026; Attorney General Citizens Advisory Committee Crime Prevention (1954), 12; Finestone, Criminality, Law Contemp. Prob. 69, 83—85 (1957). 38 extreme described follows: 39 'To confirmed walking dead. teeth rotted out; appetite lost stomach intestines don't function properly. gall bladder becomes inflamed; eyes skin billious yellow. cases membranes nose flaming red; partition separating nostrils eaten away breathing difficult. Oxygen blood decreases; bronchitis tuberculosis develop. Good traits character disappear bad ones emerge. Sex organs affected. Veins collapse livid purplish scars remain. Boils abscesses plague skin; gnawing pain racks body. Nerves snap; twitching develops. Imaginary fantastic fears blight mind results. Often times, too, death comes—much life. torment addict; dead.' N.Y.L.J., 1960, col. punish addiction, do not. S.Doc. 120, 42. Nor does Uniform Act, 1932 now States. Great Britain, beginning 1920 placed 'addiction addicts exclusively hands profession.' Lindesmith, British System Control, doctor 'has almost professional autonomy reaching addicts.' Schur, Policies, 51 J.Crim.L. Criminology 619, 621 (1961). 'addicts patients, criminals.' Ibid. Addicts disappeared decreased number (id., 622) little 'addict-crime' 623. treats sick person, few States, including unconstitutionality California's hard core' incurable who, reality, self-control.' S.Rep.No.2033, 8. controversy type treatment—whether enforced hospitalization ambulatory care better. 66—68. disagreement statement Charles Winick: 'The them great appropriate reverse adage opium derivatives represent religion them.' Treatment, known. 10—11. Cure difficult complex forces 18—23. 'After vocational activities, recreation, kind psycho-therapy major role program, ideally lasts six months.' 23—24. Marie Nyswander tells normally hospitalized cured. Addict Patient (1956), 138. 42 impact community causes alarm leads punitive measures. Those measures justified relate transgression. how system crime. If then Each each person.2 Winick said: 43 elimination carries emotional freight community. Cooperative interdisciplinary research action, participation, training various healing professions techniques addicts, regional facilities, demonstration centers, thorough vigorous post-treatment rehabilitation certainly among minimum requirements terms problem. viewed requires emergency action.' 9, 44 reports sentences interferes 'with therefore abolished.' 1968, 1972. 45 command Amendment, banning punishments,' stems Bill Rights 1688. 463, 376, applicable reason Due Process Clause 46 historic punishments 'burning stake, crucifixion, breaking wheel' (In re Kemmler, 136 436, 446, 930, 933, 519), quartering, rack thumbscrew (see Chambers Florida, 309 227, 237, 60 472, 477, 84 716), circumstances solitary confinement Medley, 134 167—168, 384, 386, 835). 47 presented earlier concerned degree severity element cruelty present.3 out proportion bring ban punishment.' O'Neil Vermont, 144 323, 331, 693, 696, 450. So method punishment, as, disemboweling alive. Wilkerson Utah, 99 130, 135, 345. principle deny exact capital petty fine sick. 48 expresses revulsion civilized man barbarous acts—the 'cry horror' man's inhumanity fellow man. supra, 340, 699 (dissenting opinion); 473, 381 opinion). By Coke, enlightenment coming insane. Coke execution madman 'should miserable spectacle, both extreame cruelty, example others.' Coke's Third Inst. (4th 1797), 6. Blackstone endorsed view Coke. Commentaries (Lewis 1897), 25. 50 discernment person. may, society.4 Cruel results convicting purpose 11721 cure, penalize. Were mandatory jail term less 90 days. Contrary my Brother CLARK, stand constitutional scrutiny, achieved. prosecution stigma irreparable damage good name accused, protecting where civil commitment well. 5350 Welfare Institutions Code, expressly provided proceedings habitual Section is, direct commit civilly.5 relationship curing cannot, aimed penalizing illness, providing it. forget teachings allowed sickness permitted age tolerate action. HARLAN, 52 am prepared knowledge completely irrational hence unconstitutional conclude something amounts Insofar (or, suppose, State), statutes prohibiting surely reached court's find narcotics.* Since alone reasonably amount compelling propensity instruction authorize bare desire 53 reaches conduct, purposes accept construction binding, 1131, arbitrary imposition exceeds enacting Accordingly, agree application reversal. 54 dissenting. 55 finds Safety making narcotics,' violative due process agree. 56 perspective. comprehensive enlightened narcotism overriding policy prevention cure. product extensive investigation mid-Fifties committee distinguished scientists, doctors, enforcement laymen appointed General, Governor, California. filed detailed study entitled 'Report Addiction' considerable attention. No recommendation therein repeal 11721, Legislature discretion section. 57 Apart specific certain legislative steps regard addict—a commonly threat individual. deals realistic stages. At incipiency handled provides shall serve county year, 90-day applying exception. Provision parole periodic tests detect readdiction. 58 narcotics' following charge jury: 59 word 'addicted' means, disposed taste practice habituated, especially inquire inquiry habit regard. Does habitually. daily according ordinary acceptance words, habitually.' suggestion 'narcotic addict' acted volition self-control. section appearance—perhaps carry-over sophisticated provisions quite similar self-control, reflected closely follows 11721: statewide concern.' 11728. 61 Where progressed incipient, volitional stage, hospital. 5355. For provision, 'any habitually takes otherwise uses extent self-control opium, morphine, cocaine, Article Chapter Code.' 5350. (Emphasis supplied.) 63 proceeding clearly nature Significantly, 5355 will receive substantial benefit hospital discharged—but 5355.1. 64 Thus, 'criminal' applies incipient retains requiring year frequent renewed Its seriously preventing On hand, 'civil' years. different purpose. apparent sections overlap: helpful, period manner provision. instant petitioner volitional-addict relatively mild doses week. normal. clear concise, pocks caused, 'overseas shots' administered army service preparatory foreign assignment. very articulate believe him, told clinical expert drugs, above. arrested like statements scabs—some old—showing injections. record symptoms. Obviously 'lost 'addiction' meant use, indicated daily. petitioner, ordered followed two-year required Nalline tests. 66 majority strikes down conviction primarily grounds denied penalties nothing point premised theme authorizing admits 'might confinement.' submit done exactly that. majority's error instructing addiction—that anything process. suggest conducted nonvolitional addicts—which approves—it identical 11721—confinement whom apply, addition labeled seems irrelevant,* 'treatment' test 'concept liberty' attain overall act, relative addicts—including provisions—is inherently lies State. However, rest solely reading statutory scheme ignored attached still violate acknowledges, must, possess none harmful society themselves, constitutionally future conduct pose. speaks—is different. judicial notice inordinate tends create irresistible craving forms until addict, convention obligation lie, steal, base gratify passion drug, considerations duty position.' Jaurequi, 142 Cal.App.2d 555, 561, 298 Pacific Reporter, 2nd 896, 900 (1956). Can poses serious inherent purchase narcotics? powerless punishment? 68 answer ineffective unfair. losing moves penal. argued limited undeniably retained constitutional. Moreover, known Blackstone, (Jones 1916), 170. ready drunkenness, plainly alcohol taking conjecture relevant acquired lawful circumstances. trial, rebut sources prima facie 70 argument constitutes governed Properly construed, punishment. penal, sanction incarceration unreasonable applied voluntarily himself posing theory, months' hardly deemed compared approves. 71 affirm judgment. 72 WHITE, 73 rested sheer status, thoughts situation. departed wise rule deciding questions except necessary sound construing statutes, possible, saving constitutionality.1 74 place reach States' laws. condition, regular, immediately prior court,2 regular proved frequently recent past.3 read, particularly allowing prosecutions supersede venue allow convictions place.4 75 indications apply helpless CLARK acts. arrest. old. all. uncontroverted redeemable user, chose send confine record, amounting use.5 76 narrow ground believed control. recognizes degrees today held bar regardless frequency bristles consequences. punishment' understand offensive significant purporting reaffirm traffic, include obvious powers omission inadvertent. 77 merely tidied removing irritating vestige outmoded least, effectively removed recurring ample location Beyond cast forbid laws Federal Government, notice. await 78 Finally, deem novel suspect ascribe Framers Constitution notions liberty. involved allergy substantive save imposing philosophical predilections legislatures Congress. fail deems write abstract best handle problem, obviously match Congress understanding. 79 respectfully dissent. Code. provides: 'No of, excepting direction licensed prescribe administer burden defense comes Any violating sentenced jail. hereunder probation exceed five granted thereof least event absolve violates spending jail.' appellant, claiming victim search seizure, unsuccessfully objected admission Brown's testimony. claim pressed here, since detail led examination Suffice say, accosted engaging illegal instruct meaning 'under of' previously ruled note supra. 'Where defines charged denounces separately collectively, constitute charged, accusatory pleading accuses supported shows specified. important you keep that, case, exist. verdict.' 'and prove raise reasonable concerning matter.' evidence, affirmative defense, tried secure habeas corpus District Appeal just §§ 5350—5361 contains explanation authorized legislation utilized appellee 'Of course generally conceded heroin, alcoholic.' Thirty-seven ago 'are diseased proper (medical) treatment.' Linder 268 5, 18, 449, 819. Not medically prescribed Schneck, Withdrawal Symptoms Newborn Infant Resulting Maternal Journal Pediatrics, 584 (1958); Roman Middelkamp, Infant, Pediatrics 231 Kunstadter, Klein, Lundeen, Witz, Morrison, Infants, 168 American Association, 1008, Slobody Cobrinik, Neonatal Quarterly Review 169 (1959); Vincow Hackel, Practitioner (1960); Dikshit, Syndrome Newborns, Indian Addiction: Disease? XIV. accepts lowest estimates countries Europe combined. Chicago City, combined population million one-fifth ordinarily estimated 30,000 thirty fifty times Britain.' quarantined cured, carefully watched fully rehabilitated life normalcy.' Narcotics, N.Y.Leg.Doc. (1952), 116. report Judge Morris Ploscowe printed Appendix A, 19—20, 21. 'These stringent severer answers problems reflect philosophy Bureau Narcotics. doctrine violations severe enough strictly enough, largely scene. resulted spectacular modifications federal level. 'Stringent controlling doubtful deterred threats sentences. fear vital factor deterring rests superficial increase price illicit market profits therefrom. lure risks challenge ingenuity underworld peddlers new channels distribution customers, maintained despite involved. non-addict peddler willing risk serving wholesaler always pushers retail aspects business return supply themselves. author be, eliminated prohibitory repressive statutes.' Catholic U.L.Rev. 117 (1953); Marq.L.Rev. 108 (1947); St. John's L.Rev. 270 (1948); Stan.L.Rev. 174 (1949); Va.L.Rev. 348 Tul.L.Rev. 480 1960 Wash.U.L.Q., 160. insane, Lynch Overholser, 369 705, 1063, 211; note, L.R.A. (N.S.), 540 difference between former aims whereas unless sentences, more, suddenly medicinal. comparison lengths irrelevant, measured prohibition punishments. 11391, indicates perhaps 11721. relevant, following: '(a) institution Board Examiners, patient kept restraint '(b) city '(c) prison. '(d) '(e) '(f) 'This patient's complicated presence disease, accident, injury, infirmities age.' 11391 whole Should necessity concluded, given, undergoing Therefore, reference solve alleviate 'it incumbent unlawfulness defendant's All added.) acquit 'being (sic) cover reliance 'stigma' context misplaced, repeatedly 'to decide advance facts applied,' Alabama Federation, etc. McAdory, 325 450, 461, 1384, 1389, 89 1725, plausibility interpretation language. reaffirmed Local 8—6, Oil etc., Workers International Union Missouri, 363, 370, 391, 396, 373: 'When litigated review, anticipate outcome. "Constitutional abstractly' anticipated appropriately raised us. assume conflict Congress.' Allen-Bradley Local, Wisconsin Employment Relations Board, 315 740, page 746, 820, 824, 1154.' 'even there.' lived worked months, week, usually friends. 54th January 27, According expert, mark newer consistent pretrial admissions. preceding typical argument, admissions, basis revealed defendant, testifies regularly See, e.g., Williams, 164 Supp. 858, 331 251; Garcia, 122 962, 266 233; Ackles, 147 40, 304 1032. requirements, simple place, usual lacking. laid found. Cal.App.2d, 42—43, 1033, distinguishing Thompson, 854, 301 313. county, exceptions, 'an accused answerable crime, thereof, occurred.' Megladdery, 748, 762, 106 84, 92. exceptions others. 781, 784, 785, 786, 788, Cal.Penal Venue determined jury, doubt. 764, P.2d, 93. Bastio, 615, 131 614; cases, appellate 'in favorable judgment.' permits contemplates

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