Legal Document

468 U.S. 897 104 S.Ct. 3405 82 L.Ed.2d 677 UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.Alberto Antonio LEON et al. No. 82-1771. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Jan. 17, 1984. Decided July 5, Rehearing Denied Sept. 18, Syllabus Acting on basis information from a confidential informant, officers Burbank, Cal., Police Department initiated drug-trafficking investigation involving surveillance respondents' activities. Based an affidavit summarizing police officers' observations, Officer Rombach prepared application for warrant to search three residences and automobiles extensive list items. The was reviewed by several Deputy District Attorneys, facially valid issued state-court judge. Ensuing searches produced large quantities drugs other evidence. Respondents were indicted federal drug offenses, filed motions suppress evidence seized pursuant warrant. After evidentiary hearing, granted in part, concluding that insufficient establish probable cause. Although recognizing had acted good faith, court rejected Government's suggestion Fourth Amendment exclusionary rule should not apply where is reasonable, good-faith reliance Appeals affirmed, also refusing invitation recognize exception rule. petition certiorari presented only question whether be recognized. Held: 1. applied so as bar use prosecution's case chief obtained acting reasonable detached neutral magistrate but ultimately found invalid. Pp. 905-925. (a) An examination Amendment's origin purposes makes clear fruits past unlawful or seizure works no new wrong. sanction appropriately imposed particular judicially created remedy safeguard rights through its deterrent effect, must resolved weighing costs benefits preventing inherently trustworthy tangible Indiscriminate rule—impeding criminal justice system's truth-finding function allowing some guilty defendants go free—may well generate disrespect law administration justice. 906-908. (b) Application continue violation has been substantial deliberate, balancing approach evolved determining variety contexts—including trials—suggests modified permit introduction reasonably relying magistrate. 908-913. (c) deference accorded magistrate's finding cause issuance does preclude inquiry into knowing reckless falsity which determination based, courts insist purport perform his serve merely rubber stamp police. Moreover, reviewing will defer based provide with existence However, designed deter misconduct rather than punish errors judges magistrates. Admitting while at same time declaring somehow defective reduce judicial professional incentives comply Amendment, encourage them repeat their mistakes, lead granting all colorable requests. 913-917. (d) Even assuming effectively deters provides enforcement profession whole conduct itself accord it cannot expected, applied, objectively activity. In ordinary case, officer expected probable-cause judgment form technically sufficient. Once issues, there literally nothing more policeman can do seeking law, penalizing error, own, logically contribute deterrence violations. 918-921. (e) A officer's technical sufficiency he issues reasonable. Suppression remains appropriate if judge issuing misled affiant knew false would have known except disregard truth, wholly abandoned role. Nor manifest objective faith lacking indicia render official belief entirely unreasonable. Finally, depending circumstances may deficient—i.e., failing particularize place searched things seized—that executing presume valid. 922-925. 2. view modification rule, Appeals' stand this case. Only respondent Leon contended trained could believed existed house. record establishes judge's 925-926. 701 F.2d 187 (CA 9 1983), reversed. Sol. Gen. Rex E. Lee, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Barry Tarlow, Los Angeles, Leon. Roger L. Cossack, respondents Stewart, Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 This presents unsupported To resolve question, we consider once again tension between sometimes competing goals of, one hand, deterring removing inducements unreasonable invasions privacy and, other, establishing procedures under are "acquitted convicted exposes truth." Alderman v. States, 394 165, 175, 89 961, 967, 22 176 (1969). 2 * August 1981, informant unproven reliability informed Burbank two persons him "Armando" "Patsy" selling cocaine methaqualone residence 620 Price Drive Cal. indicated witnessed sale approximately five months earlier observed shoebox containing amount cash belonged "Patsy." He further declared generally kept small stored remainder another location Burbank. 3 On information, focusing first later well. Cars parked determined belong Armando Sanchez, who previously arrested possession marihuana, Patsy record. During course investigation, automobile belonging Ricardo Del Castillo, 50 pounds arrive residence. driver car entered house, exited shortly thereafter carrying paper sack, drove away. check Castillo's probation records led Alberto Leon, whose telephone number Castillo listed employer's. 1980 charges, companion heavily involved importation country. Before current began, learned told Glendale quantity Glendale. living 716 South Sunset Canyon 4 Subsequently, persons, least whom prior involvement, arriving leaving packages; material activity condominium 7902 Via Magdalena; relevant automobiles. Sanchez Stewart board separate flights Miami. pair returned Angeles together, consented luggage revealed left airport. these observations summarized affidavit, App. 34, Cyril Department, experienced well-trained narcotics investigator, Drive, Canyon, Magdalena, registered each items related Rombach's Attorneys. 5 September 1981 State Superior Judge. ensuing Magdalena addresses Other discovered Stewart's grand jury Central California charged conspiracy possess distribute substantive counts. 6 then warrant.1 held hearing close one, see id., 131, part. It concluded cause,2 did because none standing challenge searches.3 response request Government, made warrant.4 7 denied motion reconsideration, 147, divided panel Ninth Circuit judgt. order reported (1983). extent set forth facts demonstrating informant's knowledge activity, included fatally stale. moreover, failed credibility. Accordingly, provided inadequate both prongs two-part test established Aguilar Texas, 378 108, 84 1509, 12 723 (1964), Spinelli 393 410, 584, 21 637 (1969).5 independent neither cured staleness nor corroborated details declarations. considered formed proper view, indicating informants' statements concerning Leon's activities devoid reliability. Because deficiencies properly suppressed search. refused Pet. Cert. 4a. 8 expressly declined seek review lower courts' determinations "[w]hether admission subsequently defective." We propriety such modification. 463 1206, 103 3535, 77 1386 undoubtedly within our power "totality circumstances" announced last Term Illinois Gates, 462 213, 2317, 76 527 (1983), briefed argued; authority, choose exercise, take comes us, accepting conclusion prevailing legal standards. See Court's Rule 21.1(a). that, context, somewhat without jeopardizing ability intended functions. reverse Appeals. II 10 Language opinions individual Justices implied necessary corollary Mapp Ohio, 367 643, 651, 655-657, 81 1684, 1689, 1691-1692, 1081 (1961); Olmstead 277 438, 462-463, 48 564, 567, 72 L.Ed. 944 (1928), required conjunction Fifth Amendments. supra, U.S., 661-662, S.Ct., 1694-1695 (Black, J., concurring); Agnello 269 20, 33-34, 46 4, 6-7, 70 145 (1925). These implications need detain us long. theory withstood critical analysis time, Andresen Maryland, 427 463, 96 2737, 49 627 (1976), "has never interpreted proscribe illegally proceedings against persons." Stone Powell, 428 465, 486, 3037, 3048, 1067 (1976). A. 11 contains provision precluding commands, "work[s] wrong." Calandra, 414 338, 354, 94 613, 623, 38 561 (1974). wrong condemned "fully accomplished" itself, ibid., able "cure invasion defendant's already suffered." 540, 3073 (WHITE, dissenting). thus operates "a personal constitutional right party aggrieved." 348, 620. Whether decisions make clear, "an issue invoke violated conduct." 426 223, 2324. former currently before defective. 13 social exacted vindication long source concern. "Our cases consistently recognized unbending enforce ideals governmental rectitude impede unacceptably functions jury." Payner, 447 727, 734, 100 2439, 2445, 65 (1980). objectionable collateral consequence interference free receive reduced sentences result favorable plea bargains.6 Particularly when transgressions minor, magnitude benefit conferred offends basic concepts system. 490, 3050. therefore, "generat[e] justice." Id., 491, 3051. "[a]s any remedial device, restricted those areas objectives thought most efficaciously served." 670; 486-487, 3048-3049; Janis, 433, 447, 3021, 3028, 1046 B 14 Close attention characterized recent scope has, sure, seriously questioned, "in absence efficacious sanction, continued [prosecution's] deliberate. . ." Franks Delaware, 438 154, 171, 98 2674, 2684, 57 667 (1978); 492, Nevertheless, various trials—"forcefully suggest[s] Amendment." 255, 2340 concurring judgment). 15 emphasized expressed limiting claims raised habeas corpus rule's 489-495, 3050-3052, state prisoner afforded full fair opportunity litigate claim obtain relief ground unlawfully introduced trial. Cf. Rose Mitchell, 443 545, 560-563, 99 2993, 3002-3004, 61 739 (1979). Proposed extensions trial evaluated analytic approach. example, allow witnesses refuse answer questions since "[a]ny incremental effect might achieved extending uncertain best." Similarly, permitted civil officials likelihood extension outweigh costs. doing, "[i] f appreciable deterrence, then, clearly, instant situation unwarranted." 454, 3032. 16 As considering trials themselves follow emphasis value "anything illegal thereby commanded 174, 967. aggrieved solely damaging co-conspirators co-defendants suppression, additional 174-175, Standing limited prosecution seeks victim misconduct. Rakas Illinois, 439 128, 421, 58 387 Brown 411 93 1565, 36 208 (1973); Wong Sun 371 471, 491-492, 83 407, 419-420, 441 (1963). 17 prevent every conceivable Evidence inadmissible used impeach direct testimony. Walder 347 62, 74 503 (1954). Oregon Hass, 420 714, 95 1215, 43 570 (1975); Harris New York, 401 222, 91 28 (1971). similar assessment "incremental furthering" ends conclude Havens, 446 620, 627, 1912, 1916, 64 559 (1980), otherwise guilt defendant "proper cross-examination suggested examination." 627-628, 1916-1917. 18 When chief, adopt per se "but for" came light chain causation began arrest. 422 590, 2254, 45 416 487-488, 417. witness' testimony admitted even identity unconstitutional Ceccolini, 435 268, 1054, 55 268 (1978). perception underlying decisions—that connection crime sufficiently attenuated trial—is product considerations relating principles protect. Dunaway 442 200, 217-218, 2248, 2259-2260, 60 824 (1979); 279, 1061.7 short, "dissipation taint" concept deciding exclusion "attempts mark point detrimental consequences action become longer justifies cost." 609, 2264 (POWELL, part). Not surprisingly purpose, flagrancy constitutes important step calculus. 218, 2259; 603-604, 2261-2262. 19 itself. suppression incident arrest statute unconstitutional. Michigan DeFillippo, 31, 2627, 343 (1979).8 although unwilling always prospective Johnson, 457 537, 560, 102 2579, 2593, 73 202 (1982),9 decision marking "clear break past" retroactively. Peltier, 531, 2313, 374 Desist 244, 1030, 248 (1969); Linkletter Walker, 381 618, 85 1731, 601 (1965).10 retroactive newly principle, assessed largely terms contribution retroactivity 560-561, 2593-2594; 536-539, 542, 2317-2318, 2320. 20 yet, rule.11 But during years experience strong support urged upon us. discuss below, evaluation suppressing reliable physical leads admissible chief. III "provides scrutiny magistrate, improper hurried 'engaged often competitive enterprise ferreting out crime,' " Chadwick, 433 1, 9, 97 2476, 2482, 53 538 (1977) (quoting Johnson 333 10, 14, 68 367, 369, 92 436 (1948)), preference warrants doubtful marginal sustainable fall." Ventresca, 380 102, 106, 741, 744, 687 (1965). 111, 1512. Reasonable minds frequently differ cause, effectuated according "great deference" determination. 419, 590. 236, 2331; 108-109, 745-746. Deference however, boundless. first, based. (1978).12 Second, "perform 'neutral detached' police." 239, 2332. "manifest neutrality detachment demanded application" acts instead adjunct officer" authorization Lo-Ji Sales, Inc. 319, 326-327, 2319, 2324-2325, 920 Third, "provide cause." "Sufficient determine cause; mere ratification bare conclusions others." Ibid. supra 114-115, 1513-1514; Giordenello 357 480, 78 1245, 1503 (1958); Nathanson 290 41, 54 11, 159 (1933).13 supported "bare bones" notwithstanding magistrates deserve, invalid reflected totality circumstances, 238-239, 2332-2333, respect. 23 situations, rationale warrant; areas, simply excluded interests advanced. proponents rely behavioral effects misplaced. First, exists suggesting inclined ignore subvert lawlessness among actors requires extreme exclusion.14 24 important, discern basis, offered none, believing significant magistrate.15 Many factors indicate effective "special" "general" offending officers16 And, operate "systemic" wider audience,17 clearly individuals empowered warrants. Judges adjuncts team; officers, they stake outcome prosecutions. threat significantly them. Imposition meaningfully inform errors, admitting way requests.18 25 If invalidated alter behavior policies departments. One argue applying demonstrate future presentations "magistrate shopping" promotes Amendment. Suppressing scrutinize closely suspected errors. find arguments speculative ordered case-by-case unusual rule.19 26 questioned violate "No empirical researcher, proponent opponent yet assurance effect. 452, n. 22, 3031, 22. 27 Tucker, 417 2357, 2365, 41 182 (1974), reiterated 539, 2318: "The purpose necessarily assumes engaged willful, very negligent, deprived right. By admit gained conduct, hope instill investigating counterparts, greater degree care toward accused. Where pursued complete loses much force." 29 Peltier continued, 2320: 30 "If said knowledge, 31 260-261, 2344 judgment); 459, 3034; 610-611, 2265-2266 part).20 "excluding way; painfully apparent act circumstances. Excluding affect unless less willing duty." 539-540, 3073-3074 32 particularly true, believe, scope.21 cases, illegality deter. responsibility allegations so, comporting requirements "[O]nce law." 498, 3054 (BURGER, C.J., concurring). Penalizing violations.22 C 33 nonexistent justify exclusion. suggest, inappropriate abided terms. "[S] earches rarely require deep reasonableness," 267, 2347 judgment), normally suffices establish" "acted conducting search." Ross, 456 798, 823, 32, 2157, 2172, 572 (1982). cf. Harlow Fitzgerald, 800, 815-819, 2727, 2737-2739, 396 (1982),23 officer24 grounds issued. 34 therefore truth. today role manner "so unreasonable." part); 263-264, 2345-2346 Massachusetts Sheppard, 988-991, 3428-3430. 35 remedy, leave untouched standard objections insubstantial. conducted signal unwillingness strictly believe suggested, exception, turning reasonableness, difficult practice. warrant, ordinarily expenditure time. persuaded constitutionality seizure, deny needed guidance courts, freeze present state.25 There inflexible practice manifested violated. Defendants allegedly seizures raise live controversies Art. empowers adjudicate. addressing immunity 42 U.S.C. § 1983, compare O'Connor Donaldson, 563, 2486, (1975), Procunier Navarette, 434 555, 566, 855, 862, (1978), harmless-error doctrine, Milton Wainwright, 407 371, 372, 2174, 2175, (1972), Coleman Alabama, 399 90 1999, (1970), considerable discretion conforming decisionmaking processes exigencies cases. 37 resolution guide magistrates, issue.26 Indeed, resolving issue. broad import, decide supervision evaluate after violation. reject posing immediately consideration faith. reason jurisprudence suffer exercise making choice. IV enunciated stand. standards erred challenged aspect court's attack proceeding. 39 Having issued, understandably sanctioned. finds previous commendable self-restraint criticized. now reexamined relied Our served 40 allegation role, dishonest preparing harbored house; significantly, advance comparable argument. affidavit. results sufficient create disagreement thoughtful competent Under inappropriate. Reversed. BLACKMUN, concurring. 44 holds excluded, matter writes chapter volume opened Weeks 232 383, 341, 652 (1914). I join 981, 3424, 737 (1984), advances legitimate system sacrificing protected write separately, underscore what regard unavoidably provisional nature today's decisions. narrowed little ante, share constitutionally compelled 905-906, avoid sort, am satisfied correct it. Like face institutional limitations gather about "legislative facts," exacerbated shortage hard data 448-453, 3029-3031, Nonetheless, escape however imperfect be, hand. What stressed, class one. nature, assumptions proceed cast stone. contrary, tested real world enforcement, attend results. emerge contrary expectations, change compliance shall reconsider undertaken here. logic rests untested predictions demands less. 47 single principle drawn decisions, (1961), handed down today, subject changing understanding outside confines courtroom. incumbent Nation's observe wake double-edged principle. BRENNAN, MARSHALL joins, dissenting.a1 Ten ago fear "may majority my colleagues positioned reopen door [to secured lawlessness] still abandon altogether search-and-seizure cases." 365, 628 (dissenting opinion). Since gradual strangulation rule.1 appears victory over complete. That represent piece de resistance efforts doubted, sanctions violated—a foreclosed. "costs" adhering like exceed "benefits." language cost/benefit analysis, indiscriminately, narcotic creates illusion precision ineluctability. suggests majority's result. examined carefully, treated honest merits curious excluding loom exaggerated heights "benefits" disappear wave 51 ignores fundamental importance While machinery indeed changed dramatically became part 1791, Framers understood true today—that task combating convicting era seem pressing concern lured temptations expediency forsaking commitment protecting liberty privacy. Bill Rights insisted permanently unambiguously preserve freedoms. scheme ordained, unpopular ensuring government's remain strict boundaries fixed entrusted courts. James Madison predicted address First Congress June 8, 1789: 52 [these rights] incorporated Constitution, tribunals peculiar guardians rights; impenetrable bulwark assumption Legislative Executive; naturally resist encroachment stipulated Constitution declaration rights." Annals Cong. 439. lose resolve, done give seductive call expediency, vital guarantees "form words." Silverthorne Lumber Co. 251 385, 392, 182, 183, 319 (1920). sought demonstrates embodied rest far firmer foundation shifting sands rationale. accept chosen method analyzing posed justified. though either defective, 82-963, search, doubt prove grave mistake. But, troubling doctrine country, mode examination, run pose liberties. 56 At bottom, turns proposition 'judicially right.' Ante, 906, quoting germ idea Wolf Colorado, 338 25, 69 1359, 1782 (1949), narrow conception forever put revived reaches flower decision. essence initially Calandra sole "purpose intrusions one's person, papers, effects. unjustified individual's life. fully accomplished original 623 (emphasis added); 906. reading implies proscriptions directed government agents actually invade duty exclude evidence, admissibility addressed relegates judiciary periphery. cognizable injury decides tainted wring hands perhaps Such plausible, because, critics tire repeating,2 express commands. short claim, course, many Constitution's imperatives stated general giving meaning precepts subsequent context concrete Chief Marshall explained, "requires great outlines marked, objects designated, minor ingredients compose deduced themselves." McCulloch Wheat. 316, 579 (1819). supplied provisions Rights, restrains whole; specify agency exempt others. responsible, executive, respected. 59 fact mind, possible involvement concerns sharper focus. executed principally secure utility supervised judge, implicates initial becomes prohibited Amendment.3 evidence-gathering evidence-admitting acknowledged, plausibility interpretation suspect. Certainly history recognition link meant foreclosed.4 read certain advantage requirements.5 condemn privacy—which done, all, securing evidence—but obtained. evades drawing artificial line responsibilities actions According Court, protections exhausted moment force submit crabbed casts aside teaching formulated impoverished scheme. For "[t]he people houses, effects, seizures" comprises means seizures. coordinate components central embracing 62 unquestionably come called Marshal moved returned. Significantly, Marshal's home unlawful, went "involves retain letters correspondence accused, house holding premises." 393, 344. answering Day, speaking unanimous commands Executive Branch: 63 Federal officials, restraints people, papers guise law. protection alike, accused not, obligatory laws. tendency execute laws country conviction judgments times conditions appeal maintenance 391-392, heart opinion, me beginning wisdom meaning, following passage: private documents citizen offense, value, placed concerned, stricken Constitution. [federal] bring punishment, praiseworthy are, aided sacrifice endeavor suffering resulted embodiment land. invaded armed Instead, doubtless prompted desire proof aid color office undertook prohibition action. affirm neglect open defiance prohibitions unauthorized action." 393-394, 344-345. 66 passage succinctly captures essential recognition, ignored bringing "proof Government," 344 arises absolved recognized, obligations confined words Holmes: invading infringed allowed used." Dodge 272 530, 532, 191, 192, 71 392 (1926). explained (1928): 67 striking followed sweeping referring really forbade Theretofore supposed common rules, tendered pertinent, obtaining unimportant. followed, decided emphasis, impaired violator suit injured defendant, received." 567. faithful judiciary's guardian people's contrast restrictive reading, regarded strangers other; directly linked undermined completely other. From foregoing, why early Olmstead.6 formative plainly fashioned purposes, command. phase (1949). security person "implicit 'the liberty' enforceable Due Process Clause" Fourteenth 27-28, 1361, Palko Connecticut, 302 325, 149, 152, 288 (1937), on, tour obfuscation, say "ways enforcing different order," 28, 1361. Notwithstanding exclusion, Wolf, devised "effective" vindicating rights. 1362. Twelve later, restored overruling repudiating reaching responded points compared alternative right, 651-653, 1689-1690, nevertheless "all is, court." 655, 1691 added). range options selected judges; Amendments." 657, 1693. Rejection required, "the tolerate denial privilege, namely, forced seizure. hold grant reality withhold privilege enjoyment." 656, 1692. explanation account Mapp, predicate bound honor "part parcel limitation [governmental] privacy." 1689.7 Despite pronouncement, gradually pressed back center stage. See, e.g., (1976); advanced campaign strengthened misguided unworkable. bewailed "cost" criticism refusal acknowledge else, disable gathering ways. practical terms, restriction incriminating inevitably undetected obeys restraints. loss "price" society pays enjoying freedom safeguarded Thus, criminals (then Judge) Cardozo's misleading epigram, "because constable blundered," People Defore, 242 N.Y. 13, 21, 150 N.E. 585, 587 (1926), catch criminals. Understood way, contemplates lost government; cost.8 addition, decade plain entire attempting assess contexts virtually impossible honestly accurately. specific analyses, unstable compounds intuition, hunches, occasional pieces partial inconclusive data. proceedings, whatever impact long-term benefits. available regarding shown, acknowledges asserted past, 907-908, 6, extremely incidence Mapp. 449-453, 3029-3031 22; 3051, 32.9 turn uncertainty casting burden see, 453-454, 3031-3032. "Obviously," assignment exist determinative. [The] announcing predetermined conclusion."10 remaining redoubt empiricism basing rationale, robbed legitimacy. easy critics. fidelity requirements, statistical uncertainties. Faretta California, 806, 2525, 562 "[p] ersonal liberties rooted averages." 834, 2540. Rather guesswork restore framed grounded affirmance today. 897, 3405, 677, conceded Government accepted Specifically, old relayed tip, gathered corroborate tip "as consistent innocence guilt." 10a. Stripped authority unconstitutional—it amounted naked homes requisite justification position occupied occurred, suppressed. Coolidge Hampshire, 403 443, 2022, 564 (1971), Warrant Clause inconvenience 'weighed' efficiency. working government, operating 'well-intentioned mistakenly overzealous executive enforcement." 481, 2046 (footnote omitted). 75 reveals extraordinary costly step. authorized cocaine, tablets, miscellaneous paraphernalia locations: Angeles; Burbank; four owned respectively Castillo. 31-33. Pursuant 1,000 tablets condominium, nearly pound residence, ounce violating 846 conspiring 841(a)(1) possessing intent distribute. indictment specifically alleged maintained storage area controlled substances distributed purchasers. 27-28. expectation contest entitled cars. Given lacking, ruled 10a-13a. tenor presumably unjustifiable cost society. suggestion, gross exaggeration. focused substances, bulk order, order. emphasize suggest how fare clarify rhetorical excesses rule—namely, certainly tend weaken prosecution. infra, 950-951, 11. preserves intact society's interest recklessly discarded. gives life "very directive: wrongful collected citizen's 297, 2125, 2136, 752 (1972). second 737, concedes accepts respondent's particularity seized. described "controlled substance[s]" "other in, for, whatsoever home. 17a. requirement "no Warrants issue, describing seized," home, so. 79 tends overlook fact, "technicality," Ybarra 444 85, 92, 342, 238 Stanford 379 476, 506, 431 (1965); Marron 275 196, 74, 76, 231 (1927). precisely kind faulty here risk permitting—namely, narrowly JUSTICE STEVENS observes, post, 964, submitted itself—the document gave privacy—made mention happened accordance limits proposed happenstance bearing 317, 2137 omitted), judgment, exercised." Katz 389 347, 356-357, 88 507, 514, 576 (1967) ("this sustained voluntarily intrusive end"). Had enforced occurred; indeed, erroneous feel roam throughout drugs. Whiteley Warden, 1031, 306 fail fundamentally "reasonable." 80 accomplish define property citizens depend restraint exhibited commendable, alone convinced too ask attentive minimum steps ensure describes convinces likely premises. And equally convictions spring own sound policy, adoption. agree proved powerful tool confining "speculative minimal misconduct," "expense substantially impeding 351-352, 621-622. contribution, any, prisoners relation costs." 493, 3052. "exclusion shown outweighs societal exclusion." "balance deportation hearings [Immigration Naturalization Service]." INS Lopez-Mendoza, 1032, 1050, 3479, 3490, 778. bit stagecraft, sets change, lines. well-rehearsed pattern, unfold. ritual incantation "substantial costs" foreordained given benefits, warranted. Upon justified outset, asked pay high price—in setting functioning trials—as police, seizing "objectively reasonable" mistake actions. 907-908. claim? acknowledges, studies demonstrated calculated dropped prosecutions quite low. Contrary release countless criminals," Bivens Six Unknown Narcotics Agents, 388, 416, 2014, 619 (1971) dissenting), prosecutors drop potential problems. 1979 study General Accounting Office 0.4% primarily Report Comptroller Impact Exclusionary Criminal Prosecutions GAO restated percentage arrests, shows 0.2% felony arrests Davies, Hard Look Know (and Still Need Learn) About "Costs" Exclusion ary Rule: NIJ Study Studies "Lost" Arrests, 1983 A.B.F.Res.J. 611, 635.11 Of describe attributable cases; due narrower category mistakes smaller. distinction weighs aggregated irrespective 907, associated 915-921. scales used, wonder balance tips favor restricting supports insistence admitted? Apparently, substantial, key respect situations forward know planned 919-921. understand (or settled) offend consequently, seize court, refrain incentive hoped-for (but mistakenly) satisfies requirements—presumably apparently unsettled law—then 86 blush, position. Undoubtedly, hypothesized "unfair" involved. suggests, manner, fruit nullified 920-921. 87 flaw argument, comparatively element acknowledged overlooks as, "punishment" failures obey 556-557, 2327 (BRENNAN, promote agencies generally.12 "over term, [the] demonstration [provided rule] attaches serious formulate policies, implement them, incorporate system." institutionwide mechanism communicated rank-and-file officers.13 overall educational considered, mistaken departments surely instruct devote providing automatically signed comport requirements. lost. "reasonable mistake" premium ignorance Armed whenever "reasonably" encouraged train signed, more, err side behavior, "let's-wait-until-it's-decided" warrant's validity issuance. 561, (1982).14 brushes aside, host carve convey unambiguous message insulated review. Creation implicitly tells applications, consequence: correct, admitted; incorrect admitted. Inevitably, devoted inconsequential chore dwindle. note appreciate performing carefully applications. Today's remove incentive.15 "entirely unreasonable," 923, review.16 operated adequately examine 169-170, 2683, Jones 362 257, 271-272, 725, 736, 697 (1960); 483, 1248, (1958), vitiated show unreasonable" 923. long-run undermine integrity process. does, hobbled hypertechnical procedures, relaxed assessing just rarely, ever, offer flexibility Gates supplies. practical, common-sense whether, him, probability contraband place." 238, 'substantial basis' conclud[ing] existed." standard, inconceivable faced suppress, today.17 overlap completely, unlikely seen reasonable; otherwise, entertain mindboggling paradox, 961-962, explains remand 82-1771 reconsideration real. Therefore, confident unleashed confined. regrettable felt until attempts extend warrantless exigent finally posed, surprised afford protect public, present, increase combat crime, expedient solutions. measures building prisons, improving methods, hiring relieve overburdened systems country's metropolitan relaxation seems tempting, costless meeting public's demand better enforcement. run, heavy price Jackson observed, guaranteed "are second-class catalog indispensable freedoms." Brinegar 160, 180, 1302, 1313, 1879 (1949) lost, recover. hope, precious freedoms rightful primary overreaching officialdom. dissent. STEVENS, p. dissenting begin Amendment: seizures, violated; Oath affirmation, searched, seized." refuses concludes "reasonable" "unreasonable" doctrinal vice failure prohibitory Clauses prohibits have, repeatedly presumptively unreasonable,1 few delineated exceptions presumption.2 analytically Clause. questions: Clause, first. questions, text speak voice. intelligibly assume, arguendo, 101 Judicial purported authorize haste tarry holding. Yet, demonstrate, wrong; alone. 82-1771, complied dissent Appeals, added intervening constituted development probable, admittedly certain, Gates. Adherence normal announcement postpone, probably obviate, promulgation announces today.3 disturbing chooses promulgate "good faith" 82-963 "is factbound importance," 988, 3428, 737. remanded bother explain fails "within power" broader 905, 3411, 677. broadest grounds; utterly odds traditional principled notion restraint. Decisions withstand Judges, most, adherence settled procedures. adopting administered "These subtle matters, satisfy appearance Offutt 348 disposition actual controversy. Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 177, (1803). goes beyond it, pursuing notions wise reach profound assuring necessity appear public obedience firmly preservation communities best ensured respected procedures." Groppi Leslie, 331, 336 (CA7 1971) (en banc) (Stevens, rev'd, 404 496, 582, 632 105 contention correctly 106 purpose—to searches. ensures tailored justification, resemble wide-ranging prohibit.4 authorizing search.5 107 supporting identified seized, warrant.6 Both aware contents for. after-the-fact review, readily ascertain easily precise 108 All contain description enable effort seize.7 forbids search.8 Here limited—they, authorization. "occasion rummage large," Zurcher Daily, 547, 1970, 1982, 525 (1978).9 109 arguably implicated "defect" being examining warrant.10 Respondent, executed, occasion mother sister, read. "[T]he [is] which, rights, vicariously asserted." 966, respondent, assert interests,11 complain ascertaining infringed.12 precedents construing 110 assumed follows "warrantless" dangers addressed. eminently 111 admits—at tactical achieving regards benefit—that substance, letter, considers "newfangled" nonconstitutional reasonableness.13 Yet correct—if cause—it authorities unheralded entries dwellings totally jurisprudence. 112 Just Term, means: 113 including 'veracity' 'basis knowledge' supplying hearsay 114 evaluating determination.14 sustained.15 nontechnical manner.16 ample room engage familiar centuries.17 written 1949, endorsed explained: 115 long-prevailing rash interferences unfounded charges crime. They leeway community's protection. confront duties ambiguous, men, leading sensibly probability. non-technical affording compromise accommodating opposing interests. Requiring unduly hamper law-abiding mercy whim caprice." 176, 1311, 1879. 116 paying favor, here, definition—as law—the unreasonable.18 hypothesis hence conduct.19 117 finding. Until law; guarantee Law notice despite responsibly independently.20 Reviewing inquired warrant—not 736-737, (1960).21 noting conclud[ing]' existed,' 2332 Jones, 271, 736), added: 118 abdication occur, conscientiously affidavits issued." 2332.22 119 issued; supply excluded.23 120 vehemently rejected. problem motivated warrants—warrants requirements.24 resentments particularized wrongdoing.25 Those amend include voiced evil evidence.26 Professor Taylor written: "[O]ur fathers concerned searches, feared enough prime object Far looking saw oppressive T. Taylor, Two Constitutional Interpretation 121 deeply suspicious warrants; paradigm abusive execution colonial magisterial amnesia.27 122 Brinegar, Jackson, observing "[i]ndications wanting tacitly marked secondary relegated deferred position," 1313 opinion), continued: 123 "These, protest, Among deprivations cowing population, crushing spirit putting terror heart. Uncontrolled weapons arsenal arbitrary government. briefly dwelt worked possessed admirable qualities human personality deteriorates dignity self-reliance homes, possessions hour 124 ..... 125 "Only flagrant abuses yields compromised indicted. raid office, stop incriminating, innocent redress. up made, nothing, hear. 126 "Courts indirectly medium guilty. So Brinegar's Everyman." 180-181, 1313-1314. 127 Jackson's reference Nuremberg remind "Everyman." 128 violations Amendment.28 "Its deter—to compel guaranty it." Elkins 364 206, 217, 1437, 1444, 1669 (1960).29 warrants, 129 damage function. insufficient, chance bait. No hesitate Terms well-settled applies adopts today: 130 "If, argues, rulings nonretroactive, behavior. Official awareness dubious counterbalanced certainty remained unsettled, questionable definitively question. Failure 'encourage let's-wait-until-it's-decided approach.' (1982) original) omitted) 277, 1052, (1969) (Fortas, dissenting)).30 131 definition produce professionals approach—which, encourages doubtful—can increased 132 creation double reasonableness erode tarnishes retains relevance: 133 344, (1914).31 134 sit lawless permitting unhindered invasions. Terry 1868, 1875, 889 (1968).32 notes,33 efficacy questionable; applicable vindicate violated.34 Today, violated, anything proceeding.35 more. Courts redressing violates admitted, final events, motivating force. existing code district attorneys hand dirty business iniquities succeed." 470, 575, (1928) (Holmes, concede remedy.36 convert bill unenforced discretion. more; remedy.37 renamed. 135 exerts price—the probative guilt. goals.38 pay, strictures "shall violated." fourth amendment place."39 136 forefathers decent self-respect. overvalued privacy, disposed command naught." 331 145, 198, 1098, 1120, 1399 (1947) (Jackson, dissenting).40 137 could, facilitate process administering ignoring Amendment—indeed, Rights—but identify values sacrificed expediency. govern, governed, 138 concur vacate respectfully Respondent Canyon. covered her she thereafter. joined condominium. 78-80. "I showing "There credibility established. "Some tended corroborate, maybe, [the informant's] transaction, stale awfully it; think "So test. find, 127. Drive; legality Canyon; intend introduce vehicles. 127-129. Stewart. 129-130. "On obviously Circuit, going [Officer Rombach] got laid meticulous trail. surveilled period consulted Attorneys proceeding himself, true." 140. two-pronged Aguilar-Spinelli substituted Researchers recently begun extensively arrests. nonprosecution nonconviction 0.6% 2.35% felonies. 621. estimates higher crimes depends cumulative 2.8% 7.1%. 680. Davies' screening 1.4% arrestees, 650, 0.9% arrestees released, preliminary trial, 653, roughly 0.5% reversals 654. K. Brosi, Cross-City Comparison Felony Case Processing 16, 18-19 Office, 10-11, F. Feeney, Dill, & Weir, Arrests Without Convictions: How Often Occur Why 203-206 (National Institute 1983); National Justice, Effects 1-2 (1982); Nardulli, Societal Cost Empirical Assessment, 600. plea-bargaining S. Schlesinger, Injustice: Problem Illegally Obtained (1977). 668-669; 604-606. researchers insubstantial, percentages deal mask absolute felons released "[A]ny denies access bear unlawlessness." 257-258, 2342 sorts 916-921, situations. "Brown's focus causal confession' behind effectuate confession, future, courts." 2259-2260 (citation held, carried statutes, unconstitutional, purporting Torres Puerto Rico, 2425, Almeida-Sanchez 413 266, 2535, 596 Sibron 40, 1889, 917 (1968); Berger 388 1873, 1040 (1967). "Those statutes 39, 2633. construction constitute down. holding, 562, 2594, turned "[f]ailure 2593 dissenting)). assertions, precludes adoption assessments "(a) standards, standards." Stovall Denno, 293, 1967, 1199 Term: "In factor, looked justifiably Unjustified 'reliance' retroactivity. phrased foreshadowed 'clear past.' Solem Stumes, 465 638, 645-647, 1338, 1343, (1984). Members 3053, (1976) 536, 3072 dissenting); 254-267, 2340-2347 609-612, 2264-2266, (1975) Schneckloth Bustamonte, 412 261-271, 2041, 2065-2070, 854 (1973) Minjares, 916, 892 (1979) (REHNQUIST, stay). influenced urgings, adopted Williams, 622 830 (CA5 1980) banc), cert. denied, 449 1127, 946, (1981). "it unthinkable imposition magistrate's] deliberately statement, impeachment." 2681. Beck 89, 142 petitioner him." 95, 227. assume arresting that: '[G]ood enough.' Henry 361 98, 168, 134. subjective test, evaporate, 'secure effects,' 97, 228. adhere lowering standard. concededly assertions stamps others unable screen W. LaFave, Search Seizure 4.1 Kamisar, Does (Did) (Should) Rest "Principled Basis" "Empirical Proposition"?, Creighton L.Rev. 565, 569-571 (1983); Schroeder, Deterring Violations: Alternatives Rule, Geo.L.J. 1412 (1981), major proportions. Tiffany, D. McIntyre, Rotenberg, Detection Crime (1967); Israel, Procedure, Burger Legacy Warren Mich.L.Rev. 1319, 1414, (1977); P. Approaches Enforcing 8-10 (Working Paper, 1978), quoted Y. J. Modern Procedure 229-230 (5th ed. 1980); R. Van Duizend, Sutton, C. Carter, Process, ch. (Review Draft, Center Courts, 1983). Commonwealth Mass. 488, N.E.2d 735 (1982): misconduct, ill-fitted job-created motivations judges. [I]deally impartial convicted. Hence, abstract, disincentive ruling appellate magistrates." Karathanos, 531 26, 33-34 (CA2), 910, 3221, 1217 Oaks, Studying Seizure, U.Chi.L.Rev. 665, 709-710 (1970). 221, 2261, (STEVENS, Mertens Wasserstrom, Good Faith Exception Deregulating Derailing Law, 399-401 Limiting desirous avoiding removed "incompetency, duty, mental disability." 631(i). serves "rubber stamp" mature closer removal discussion assumes, places 989, 3429, ("[I]t assurances requested"). officers. "Grounding 261, 15, 2344, 2261 adopt, prohibits. 2320, (1975). Jerold Israel observed: [exclusionary] effectiveness lies, impetus training programs limits. [An exception] elimination programs, viewed professionalism. Neither programs; possibility borderline instructors limitations. [it] taught, 'good faith' inconsistent closing mind illegality." 1412-1413 (footnotes Attorney General's Task Force Violent Crime, Final relies duly compelling example mandate arrest, sworn carry provisions. states prima facie evidence." 55. STEVENS' 976-978, reject, illegality, argument unpersuasive. "Judicial mean 458, 35, 3034, "While ever preserving process, highly 485, 3048. represents participation essentially purpose. shows, reasoning, 35. Absent occurred implicated." 259, 2343, 23, 23; Harlow, eliminated component qualified enjoy suits damages perfectly analogous, eschew inquiries beliefs "[o]n occasion, motive conducts relevance rule," Scott 139, 1717, 1724, 168 "sending expedition fruitless misallocation resources." Painten, 660, 663, 770 (1968) ascertainable determination, circumstances—including magistrate—may considered. References "officer" narrowly. eventually originally Nothing ignorant 568, 1037, meritorious discourage presentation insubstantial motions, successful litigation diminished. 'penumbral zone,' inadvertent tempting bend releasing possibly dangerous unintentional miscalculation 1420-1421 omitted); Ashdown, Faith, Remedy, Rule-Oriented Adjudication Wm. Mary 335, 383-384 a1 [This (1984).] 544, 2321, 460, 3035, 502, 3056, 2634, 629, 1917, (1980) Wilkey, Suppress Valid Evidence?, Judicature 215 Injustice point: "When, get success venture lending introduced. enforcer gatherer judge." Cahan, Cal.2d 434, 445, 282 P.2d 912 (1955). point, Schrock Welsh, Up Calandra: Requirement, Minn.L.Rev. 251, 289-307 Examination declarations models aimed explicitly 1780 provided: "Every possessions. oath affirmation; Officer, places, property, accompanied special designation seizure: ought formalities prescribed laws." XIV Declaration 1780. 41-43 N. Lasson, History Development 51-105 (1970); Lanynski, Court: 30-48 (1966); Road Ohio Beyond: Origins, Development, Future Search-and-Seizure Cases, Colum.L.Rev. 1365, 1369 (1920), rejecting condemning maintain avail had. nakedly. outrage regrets, returns copy owners regular reduces words. forbidding acquisition acquired all." 182-183 (citations 598-599 379-380 noted "factual considerations" remedies basically ingredient 1689. (1965), retroactively, "only action," 636, 1742, rested crucial 1949 1961 ., wholesale innumerable prisoners, successfully retried. circumstance, retrospective goal process.' [85 1742]." 359-360, 625, (1974) detail article: "Much leveled misdirected; observers charged, deprive relevant, defendant. instances, place. ". does. inevitable fewer [T] hat framers anticipated sanctity unrestrained power." Colum.L.Rev., 1392-1393. Dellinger, Remedies: Sword, Harv.L.Rev. 1532, 1563 (1972) ("Under status quo prevailed obeyed"). 627-629; Canon, Ideology Reality Debate Conservative Argument Retention, S.Tex.L.J. 559, 561-563 Critique, Limitations Evaluations Critique Spiotto Research Nw.U.L.Rev. 740 Dworkin, Fact Style Limits Lawyering, Ind.L.J. 329, 332-333 (1973). White, Forgotten Points "Exclusionary Rule" Debate, 1273, 1281-1282 (1983) (balancing "inquiry [that] performed adequate grounds, dispositions unarticulated intuitions justified"); 564; L.Rev., 646. series studies, attempted quantify 4-year 1976-1979 Bureau Statistics showed 4.8% Report—The 0.8% A.B.F.Res.J., 619. measure impact—the dismissed acquittals excluded—the exaggerated. nine mid-sized counties Michigan, Pennsylvania 5% 7,500 studied, 0.7% 596. excluded. study, 10.5% surveyed, filed, 80-90% denied. Report, 10. 1.3% dismissals 9-11. 660. 1978 San Diego Jacksonville, 1% resulting caused Conviction: 663. function; person's 'systematic deterrence': system—bringing justice—can defendants." 1400. (1970) ("The impose punishment broken affecting audience large. them"); Geo.L.J., 399-401; 597, 204. systemic conclusive, least, increasing prompting commanders work towards educating York Commissioner Murphy decision: field dramatic traumatic caught program reevaluating Defore modifying, amending, creating instructions implementation Retraining sessions top administrators thousands foot patrolmen." Murphy, Review Methods Enforcement: Compliance Departments, Texas 939, 941 (1966). Further statement Reisman: shock reorganize thinking, frankly. this, nobody bothered warrant—illegally, you will—was feeling was, bother? Well, start men Times, Apr. 1965, 50, col. Stephen Sachs, practices terms: watched deter, routinely, prosecutor. [P]olice-prosecutor consultation customary arise. Maryland jurisdictions, twenty-four officers." Prosecutor's Defense, Crim.Justice Ethics (Summer/Fall 1982). Imperfect World: Drawing "Bright Lines" "Good Faith," U.Pitt.L.Rev. 307, 394-401. authors seven cities "would inquisitive boilerplate formulae, lessening overall. Consequently, outweighed harm quality general." Process: Preconceptions, Perceptions, Practices 8-12 1403. noted: conscientious review; rather, prediction conducted, 924-925, busy dockets advisory Second regard: conclusive thereby, applications demanding exceedingly diluted fell below required." "Probable Cause," Beyond, Iowa 551, 588-589 (1984); Incredible Shrinking Am.Crim.L.Rev. 257 U.Pitt.L.Rev., 307. Payton 445 573, 586, 1371, 1380, 639 (1980); Chimel 395 752, 762-763, 2034, 2039-2040, 685 474-475, 2042-2043, (1971); Vale Louisiana, 30, 1969, 409 Solicitor plenary "be Gates," 2748, Stanley Georgia, 557, 569-572, 1243, 1250-1252, 542 (Stewart, result); 481-482, 509-510, 511, Go-Bart Importing 357, 153, 158, (1931); 195-196, 75-76, albeit mistakenly—a "things application. face, searched. threshold privacy—entry home—was authorized. corners substances. cover caption "Controlled Substances" crossed out, "addendum" rifle ammunition, attested affiant's signature Steele 267 503, 414, 757 2323, 480-482, 2748-2749; Marcus Warrant, 717, 732-733, 1708, 1716-1717, 1127 (1961). 467, 2038. 2331, Camara Municipal 523, 1727, 1732, 930 Rawlings Kentucky, 448 104-106, 2556, 2561-2562, 633 succeed. "42 Deckard Street." enter stricken, bottom addendum ammunition. seize. borrow adjective Clark, (1967), Harlan wrote: "Today renders municipal experience, dates Colonial days, naught Frank [359 360, 804, 877 (1959)] hundreds city ordinances health, welfare, safety millions people. "But all. prostitutes 'no cause' health codes inspection newfangled 'warrant' foreign wipes widely enormous confusion towns swoop." City Seattle, 541, 1737, 1741, 943 See). difficulties lines engendered Barlow's, Inc., 1816, 305 Donovan Dewey, 452 594, 2534, 262 grow Ironically, infects Clifford, 464 287, 301-303, 641, 651-652, 477 (1984) 606-608, 2542-2543 Tyler, 499, 513, 1942, 1951, 486 (1978) 325-339, 1827-1834 Upton, 466 2085, 2087-2088, 721 (per curiam); Harris, 577-583, 2075, 2078-2082, (plurality opinion); 1512, (1964); (1960). 237, 10; 109, 746, 684 732, 2087, 231, 2328; 745. M. Hale, Pleas Crown (1st Am. 1847). "[I]f unannounced force, satisfied. 583, S.Ct.1970, 1990, recognizes, --- ----, 1880, 228, (1959). significance inexplicable. 2683-2684, 1034, 415-416, 588-589; 745-746; 113-115, (1933); Byars 273 248, 520 BLACKMUN wrote "We distinguishing post-search integrity." 2684. veracity claims, 922-923, 3421-3422, distinguished basis. fraud unclear me. adversarial presentation; partakes unreliability inherent ex parte 169, 2683. captivated vision invalidating "technical" thing "unreasonable." My illustrates point. Steagald 451 204, 220, 1642, 1651, (1981); 583-584, 1378-1379; 2323; 327-328, 1828-1829 7-8, 2481-2482; 760-762, 2038-2040; 480-485, 509-511; 727-729, 1713-1715; 100-101, 169-171; 359 363-365, 807-808, (1959); Rabinowitz, 339 56, 69-70, 430, 436-437, 653 (1950) (Frankfurter, 75-76; 390-391, 343-344, (1914); Boyd 616, 624-630, 524, 528-532, 746 (1886). Landynski, 19-47 53-98 (1937); Rutland, Birth (rev. Marke, Writs Assistance Essays Legal Honor Felix Frankfurter 351 (M. Forkosch 1966). Rights: Documentary 473, 488-489, 508 (B. Schwartz 1971); 658, 730, 733-734, 805-806, 815, 841-842, 913, 968. version contained clause issuing. broadened coverage qualify unequivocal 1112; 101-103. "It difference recognizes recurrence Colonies potent causes Revolution, thinks paper." 69, reasons, officer. Unlike liability, excessive deterrence; avoids obvious unfairness subjecting dedicated monetary liability misstep endeavoring Society, officer, hazardous work. THE CHIEF wrote, decades ago, proud democratic masters servants ancient respondeat superior furnishes simple, statutory servant, master employer. Society responsible 'penalized' explanations society—in ours—is name agents. Germans 1930's '40's, 'it Leader's doing. responsible.' representative democracy not. sense breaks rules protection." Burger, Who Will Watch Watchman?, Am.U.L.Rev. (1964) 484, 3047, 12, 3027, 347-348, 619-620, (1974); 29, 1883; Tehan rel. Shott 382 406, 413, 453 1692, 358 1401-1403 395-397 made. description, procedure. 2316, Lee Florida, 378, 385-386, 2096, 2100-2101, 1166 1879, 647-650, 1687-1688; 250. 908-913, 3412-3415. context—his therefrom. 485-486, 3048-3049. operate, damages. Stadium Films, Baillargeon, 577, 578 (CA1 1976); Manter, 537 1971). Pierson Ray, 386 1213, amazingly adjudicate remedy. 925, 3421-3422. Bowen 920, 2569, 2572, 641 proceeding, declare almost mockery: 'a words,' valueless undeserving perpetual charter inestimable liberties." 1691. Segura 796 838-840, 3380 3403-3405, 599 consists laws, receives injury." 163, 350-372 1383-1384 ("In unenforceable guiding ethics amendments duties"). Ervin, Essential Ingredient S.Ct.Rev. 283. was. ("We court"). policy unique famous treatise Dean Wigmore Wigmore, (J. McNaughton rev. 1961) (discussing, inter alia, marital attorney-client communications jurors, secrets physician-patient priest-penitent privilege). 1392 Traynor, Large Fifty 1962 Duke L.J. 322 ("Ah, free? However seemed improperly constitutions. convict illegally, them"). Di Re, 332 581, 595, 210 (1948).

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