Legal Document

362 U.S. 217 80 Supreme Court Reporter 683 4 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 668 Rudolf Ivanovich ABEL, also known as 'Mark' and Martin Collins Emil R. Goldfus, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES of America. Number 2. Argued Nov. 9, 1959. Decided March 28, 1960. Mr. James baron Donovan, New York City, for petitioner. Judge Lee Rankin, Sol. Gen., Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice FRANKFURTER delivered the opinion Court. 1 The question in this case is whether seven items were properly admitted into evidence at petitioner's trial conspiracy to commit espionage. All seized by officers Government without a search warrant. seizures did not occur connection with exertion criminal process against They arose out his administrative arrest Immigration Naturalization Service preliminary deportation. A motion suppress these evidence, duly made District Court, was denied after full hearing. 155 F.Supp. 8. Petitioner tried, convicted sentenced thirty years' imprisonment payment fine $3,000. Appeals affirmed, 2 Cir., 258 Federal Reporter, 2nd 485. We granted certiorari, 358 813, 79 59, 3 56, limiting grant following two questions: '1. Whether Fourth Fifth Amendments Constitution are violated seizure warrant, an alien suspected officially accused espionage has been taken custody deportation, pursuant but arrested commission crime? '2. when articles so unrelated warrant and, together other obtained from such leads, introduced prosecution espionage?' Argument first heard October Term, 1958. having set down reargument 359 940, 720, 674, counsel asked discuss series additional questions, margin.* 5 have considered on assumption that conviction must be reversed should we find challenged violation therefore improperly evidence. find, however, admission free any infirmity affirm judgment. (Of course nature case, fact it espionage, no bearing whatever upon legal considerations relevant admissibility evidence.) 6 items, all possession time arrest, which following: 7 (1) piece graph paper, carrying groups numbers arranged rows, allegedly coded message; 8 (2) forged birth certificate, certifying 'Martin Collins' In County 1897; 9 (3) 'Emil Goldfus' 1902 (Emil Goldfus died 1903); 10 (4) international certificate vaccination, issued 1957; 11 (5) bank book East River Savings Bank containing account Goldfus'; 12 (6) hollowed-out pencil 18 microfilms; 13 (7) block wood, wrapped sandpaper, within small booklet each page, so-called 'cipher pad.' 14 Items (2), (3), issues indictment petitioner they corroborated use false identities. (1), incriminatory useful means one engaged 15 main claims pressed may thus summarized: used bad faith; arrests preliminaries deportation unconstitutional; regardless validity here, searches through came Government's lawful ancillaries arrest. These cannot judged apart circumstances leading up seizures. It becomes necessary relate matters considerable detail. 16 (hereafter abbreviated I.N.S.) June 21, 1957, single room Hotel Latham then abode. attention I.N.S. had drawn several days earlier Noto, Deputy Assistant Commissioner I.N.S., told liaison officer Bureau Investigation F.B.I.) believed F.B.I. residing illegally States. Noto F.B.I.'s interest 17 An uncontested affidavit before asserted regard events communication about About month communicated mentioned Hayhanen, recently defected Russian spy, whom Hayhanen years cooperated attempting thereupon placed under investigation. At regarding petitioner, him rested chiefly Hayhanen's story, although he later principal witness trial, insisted would refuse testify brought fully cooperate secret. Department concluded testimony insufficient justify charges. decision bring view commencing proceedings him. Upon being notified belief country, supply further information status alien. week. if were, suspected, alien, subject failed comply duty aliens notify Attorney General every January their address Code KF62 § 1305, Annotated KF65 U5 1305. determined informed. On 20, officers, Schoenenberger Kanzler, dispatched supervise carried them order addressed directing show cause why deported. met Director who, put him, signed order. Following this, Kanzler went headquarters where, prearrangement officers. agreed conduct agents hotel might accomplish charge whether, arrested, 'interview' attempt persuade 'cooperate' To agreed. 19 o'clock next morning, men gathered corridor outside Latham. agents, Gamber Blasco, petitioner's, occupied its investigation Blasco charged confronting soliciting cooperation either or search. If proved cooperative instructions telephone superior instructions. summon waiting execute 20 rapped door. When released catch, pushed open door walked room, followed Blasco. left ajar third agent few minutes later. Petitioner, who nude, pair undershorts sit bed, did. remained questioning twenty minutes. Although answered some alleged signal given room. served cause. Shortly thereafter hotel, entered four hour. For part during another stood where could observe interior. 21 After placing undertook person belongings adjoining bathroom, lasted fifteen give consent search; sought. observed took it. Schoenenberger's purpose discover weapons documentary 'alienage'—that is, documents substantiate received During designated Collins,' seized. Weapons found, nor 'alienage.' 22 completed, dress himself, assemble things choose what wished take With help almost everything packed baggage. deliberately window sill, indicating want them, chose pack luggage room's wastepaper basket. assembled, permission repack suitcases. While doing so, noticed slipping papers sleeve coat. these. One item paper message. 23 completely packed, check hotel. bill paid handcuffed taken, along baggage, automobile thence York. headquarters, property searched more thoroughly than three discovered ones (5), vaccination book. 24 As soon agent, Kehoe, like management just vacated entitled occupy until p.m. day, hotel's practice consider whenever guest removed baggage turned key. Kehoe conducted hours. Among things, contents basket while packing belongings. Two (7): hollow microfilm wood 25 Later day airplane detention center Texas. He there weeks Eastern I. 26 underlying basis attack concerns motive resorted subterfuge, here pretense sham, purported be. According true arresting pending determination deportability. real aims, argument runs, place pressure bear confess F.B.I., permit designed claim short, entirely illegitimate purposes consequence ought suppressed. 27 Were justified record, indeed reveal serious misconduct law-enforcing deliberate gathering meet stern resistance courts. stages pursued strict obedience safeguards restrictions laws finding faith us record. What officials exercising powers discharge own responsibilities serving tool building canvassed both courts below. crucial facts found 28 phase district judge, permitted scope elucidation claim, seen witnesses, addition way affidavits, extensive argument, findings: 29 '(T)he persuasive action entire good faith. 30 leaves doubt concerning (petitioner) * furnished F.B.I.—which unusual happening—the differed respect done individual exist. 31 'The defendant argues establishes direction supervision contrary, found. 32 'No reason suggested branches cooperate, extent showing defendant.' 8, 11. 33 Appeals, careful consideration matter, held answer 'must clearly affirmative' 'whether record supports court below.' 485, 494. 34 statements relied lower making findings confined illegal States; informing presence indicate wanted take; himself commence him; request arrest; 'usual mandatory' work manner There Schoenenberger, belongings, look alienage. sure, barren supporting inference opposed conclusion led whole: example, off solicited cooperation, itself ready vacated. elements, not, required to, below face ample especially human those involved episode. overturn solid proof. 35 Petitioner's basic contention comes this: even faith, impermissible crime. worst, said opportunity abuse But hold illegitimate, absence between ignore rightful concerned enforcement different arges law common authority General. 36 residence That agency surely acted only propriety bringing particularly unable proceed Only authorized initiate proceedings, certainly remain mute believe deportable merely because gravest crimes entertains hope eventually certainly, performed deterred instituting solely became aware knowledge available ways dealing criminally suspect make sense say pursuing other, once honestly decided preferred. same reasons extend effecting Nor does taint place, did, barred continuing result duties, embarked independent 37 require honest irrevocable choice recourses Government. contrast proper revealed see story Colyer versus Skeffington, 265 KF105 F3 17. sets forth detail improper immigration authorities service branch Labor acting cat's pay another, 38 emphasize again our matter totally established, finding, employed instrument circumvent latter's restrictions, rather bona fide step proceeding. test administratively toward influenced by, for, amassing precludes II. 39 invalid, satisfy requirements 'warrants' Amendment, us. below; indeed, expressly disavowed. Statutes authorizing achieve sanction time. disregard presumptive owes Acts Congress, confirmed historical legitimacy, long-sanctioned government behest party challenge exercise below, acknowledged validity. 40 grounds (in insufficiency review) lack power incidental execution seize prosecution. legality procedure unauthorized unconstitutional. Such challenges repeat, disclaimed. hearing suppress, questioned theory relief upon: 41 Court: (the Government) liberty (petitioner)? 42 'Mr. Fraiman: No, your Honor. 43 'They perfectly 44 'We don't contend all. 45 'As fact, man 46 'I think rather, showed admirable thinking Service. 47 fault that. 48 'Our man, right premises material related 49 '* offense 50 wasn't he? 51 Yes, 52 arrested. 53 concede that, Honor.' Counsel plain whose conceding 'one warrants background all.' Affirmative acceptance now sought plainer. 54 present form legislation giving delegate judicial 242(a) Nationality Act 1952. 1252(a), 1252(a). regulations issue Directors '(a)t commencement proceeding (to deport) whenever, (their) discretion, appears respondent desirable.' Regulations 242.2(a). Also, according regulations, deport commenced orders others; 'Operating Instructions' direct application based prima facie testified issued, learned recited register, must. Since never openly 'necessary complied statute regulations. 55 providing ordinarily executive official. 1798. 25, 1798, chapter 58, 2, Statutes-at-Large 571. And see, since time, Act, Oct. 19, 1888, 1210, 566; Mar. 3, 1903, 1012, 1218; Feb. 1907, 1134, 904; 5, 1917, 29, 889; 16, 1918, 186, 1012; May 10, 1920, 174, 593; Internal Security 1950, 1024, Title I, 22, 64 1008, 1182(a)(28). statutes, namely 1903 dealt landed States, deported act failure entering. Even these, remains overwhelming legislative recognition 56 constitutional long-standing cases directly reported litigation. oblique challenges, summarily rejected. Podolski Baird, 94 294; Ex parte Avakian, 188 688, 692. See discussion 17, sub nom. Skeffington Katzeff, 277 129, exhaustive examination fairness group initiated arrests, nowhere such. This seems directed particular warrants. frequently, upheld shown Court's begun Kaoru Yamataya Fisher, Japanese Immigrant Case, 189 86, 611, L.Ed. 721; Zakonaite Wolf, 226 272, 31, 57 218; ex rel. Bilokumsky Tod, 263 149, 54, 68 221; Carlson Landon, 342 524, 72 525, 96 547. necessarily implicated, sustained discretion deny bail Communists impressive statutes beginning Nation, disavowal calls consideration. III. valid, reach raises produced made? articles, however valid search, suppressed fruits activity Amendment. E.g., Weeks 232 383, 393, 341, 344, 58 652. seizure, search? inspectible private desired seized, how discovers Gouled 255 298, 310, 261, 265, 65 647, seize, wholesale, house searched, Kremen 353 346, 77 828, 876. Was separate proceeding? most fundamental ground objection incident 59 starting point satisfactorily reconciled. problem has, well-known, provoked strong fluctuating differences occasion reconcile decisions, re-examine them. Compare Marron 275 192, 74, 231, Go-Bart Importing company 282 153, 75 374, Lefkowitz, 285 452, 420, 76 877, compare Go-Bart, supra, Harris 331 145, 67 1098, 91 1399, Rabinowitz, 339 70 430, 653; Harris, Trupiano 334 699, 1229, 92 1663, supra (overruling Trupiano). Of cases, Rabinowitz far permissive limits arrests. context, judge justifiably guidance trial; accepted ask reconsider Rabinowitz. would, circumstances, unjustifiable retrospective lawmaking reject decisions. 60 Are broad physical area as, analogous applicable precedents incidents Specifically, lawfully when, looking 'alienage'? can much justification crime, recognized proper. Agnello 269 30, 4, 145. less important established effect protect themselves insure prisoner retains escape. 61 limit materials proving deportability validly severely probative crime made. need proof great accomplished established. commissioner. probable page 60, 432, remembered own. Application responsible officer, shown. procedural protections governing quality magnitude deduction difference anything, vigilant, less, individuals warrantless turning convict uniform decisions prosecutions. Searches situations demanding greatest, least, restraint intrusion privacy; protection limited Amendment primarily directed. conclude, therefore, law-enforcement 62 Judged prevailing doctrine, justified. Its scope, Harris. intensive quests justifiable. weapons, connected well instruments accomplishing status, objects 154, 1103. 63 identities assumed country keep undetected. seizable official document evade obligation register using aid undetected vital spy. Documents subjects warrants, 231. suitcase, seeking hide sleeve. sees trying hide. derives dangers weapon will concealed, destroyed. Once hands, return it, instrumentality though searching items. article officer's business for. pages 154—155, (4), one. which, do significantly different, decides instead arrives there, justifications, similar noted 876, mass illegal. wished. leave behind voluntarily relinquished. capable establish maintain identity reasons. 66 (1)—(5) come related? was. Good prohibiting relevant, otherwise admissible, excellent disallowing Constitution. 'If letters citizen offense, 4th declaring secure seizures, value, concerned, stricken Constitution.' absent, wholly conduct. rational excluding trial: wrongdoing police thereby indirectly condemned, wrongdoers; enforced, made; lending lawless action, none occurred. effective other. public deter prevent exclusionary rule desirable. Surely civil liberties commends discouragement undertaken avoid restraints seen, case. Individual arise, preventing last (7), pad,' founded considerations. immediately basket, preparing leave. No gather such, lawful, exclusive possession, freely gave unlawful So shows, abandoned articles. thrown away. vacantia. nothing appropriation property. Hester 57, 445, 446, 898. assertedly encounter discussing 69 Affirmed. DOUGLAS, BLACK concurs, dissenting. 71 Cases notorious criminals—like small, miserable ones—are apt law. guilt permeates judges sometimes relax let shortcuts sanctioned procedures. practice, certain periods history courts, lowered standards administration. harm seem excusable. practices generated precedent far-reaching consequences harmful injurious beyond measurement. example. opening wedge broadened officers—as distinguished police—to enter peoples' homes Frank State Maryland, 360, 804, 877. allowed health inspector home get (I.N.S.) added preferred list. strictly administrative, category enforce go magistrates, says, Their hierarchy itself.1 Yet, & N Dec. Decisions attempted my dissent origin ferreting heretics collecting taxes laws. U.S., 376—379, S.Ct., 813—815. 73 Moreover, invades privacy front saved nuisance getting examples. Maryland Pettiford, Sup. Bench Balt. Daily Record, 1959, mask serve easy Happily, rebuked.2 shows kind problems doctrine generates. example kind, rebuked. over exercises performs new role. wear work. That, view, done, assume Constitution, done. permits '(p)ending deportability.'3 reads read 'Pending conduct.' 74 due deference plainly moving force least investigated activities tipped role May; 21. plenty Johnson 333 367, 436, magistrate briefed discovered. data report John Murff, Acting effort obtain though, said, application. chosen care calculation vehicle agreement refused 'cooperate.' apprehend Again, first. interrogated 'cooperate'; threatening signaled waited flown 1,000 miles special camp weeks, him.4 Thus Act5 Bill Rights. not. zeal carry bent enforcement. Brandeis 'Experience teach guard government's beneficent.' Olmstead 438, 479, 564, 572, 944 (dissenting opinion). me wore gone disclosed 78 magistrate, terms 'particularly' describe 'the searched' 'things seized.' How convenient around specific Amendment! hindrance laboriously procedures! easier department! unlimited magistrate! limitations when! Rea 350 214, 292, 294, 100 233, federal lost court, repaired state proposed enjoin testifying court. rules held, 'designed agents' defeated devious methods. palpably vulnerable. involved. seek rules, forbid prosecute tragedy approval short cuts afforded segment life. today forget 14, 369, provision 'probable cause' requires inferences 'be neutral detached magistrate' 'by often competitive enterprise crime.' citizens well, implication holds. 'of people' covered gives security degree 'person' accused' Sixth protects Wong Wing 163 228, 242, 977, 982, 411 140. Here works exclusively agency—the I.N.S.—to says officer. ends—deportation—is cleverly adapted ends—criminal examples trend recent times. Lifting benefit inspectors said. Allowing determine release hearings another. 81 Some protective scheme rights entrusted judiciary. Those controls always congenial police. Yet preserve system checks balances all-powerful, meticulously respected. Rights allowing Executive Branch acquire incompatible 82 stalked occupied. adhere command simple device wearing masks 83 BRENNAN, THE CHIEF JUSTICE, DOUGLAS join, 84 defendant. criminal. people persons, houses, papers, effects, unreasonable seizures.' people, exception; ruled 652, governmental guarantee Amendment's everyone upholding invoked worst men. 85 makes depend existence power, 'incidental' sort 653, overruling 1663. early recognize generally attendant 374; 877.1 86 general extensively context cases. faced. Rather extended facts—facts consistent prohibition hitherto approved. Factual weigh heavily area: 'There formula reasonableness. Each circumstances.' 357, 158. issued. 148, 1100; 431. issuance automatic—it controlled constitutionally prescribed standard. sufficient second Cf. Clark, J., dissenting 176 732, 736, 653. 'incident' inferentially here,2 deemed permissible here. cause, examination, Henry 361 98, 100, 168, 169, 134, demands prompt inquired into. Fed.Rules Crim.Proc., 5(a) (c), astute fashion methods ensuring observance safeguards. supra; Mallory 354 449, 1356, 1479; McNabb 318 332, 608, 87 819. assuming Congress Galvan Press, 347 522, 737, 98 911, styled 'civil,' Harisiades Shaughnessy, 580, 594, 512, 521, 586, follow strip authorize premises, books papers. inapplicable character dialectic conceal. Clearly declared supra. inquire 'administrative' proceedings. treated consideration, itself. conclude patent sustain goes reasonably mechanics itself—ensuring safety prisoner's does, one, inquiry over-all totality processes seizure. called intervention magistrate; authorization custody, sitting conditions publicity characterize institutions, done.3 Concretely, happened local aircraft incarcerated solitary confinement there. world knew, vanished. daily incarceration weeks. had, camp, days, control till five bench charges, indictment. 88 imposes substantive seizures; procedure; central actions premises. 'Indeed, informed determinations magistrates empowered hurried others happen arrests.' 464, 423. 'Absent grave emergency, interposed police.' McDonald 335 451, 455, 191, 193, 93 153. thing adequate substitude surrounds arrest—where receive antecedent subsequent scrutiny. substitute terms—whether taking furnish reasonable procedures, exemplified differ night broad, create complete concentration effects individual. remove searches. arraignment bond, home, command; was, raised. point. 89 contemplated, elaborate, somewhat pointless, 'good faith' offices precise mind 'subterfuge' start render unreasonable? fear, workable answer, practical relative hardly elaboration; verbalizes today's ruling, offers possibility facile theoretically turn crime; Perhaps appear strange turns unreasonable, justifiable 311—312, 265—266, 647. External accord removes abuse; attitude possibilities situation. before, posing danger: 'Arrest minor trumped-up familiar past, commonplace today, too well-known country. progress unscrutinized state.' 82, 442, 653 Where species control, become serious. remedy invite fruitless litigation purity motives, purposes. zealous perform duty. throughout purely unconfined countenanced 90 word. greater object 'civil' proceeding—such forcibly sent distinction proofs distinction, again, invites officers' event, perverts distinction. states purpose, incursions officials: 'right effects.' Boyd 116 616, 627, 530, 538, 746. Like shelter criminals, everyone; effective, 'reaches alike, not.' 392, individual's protects, fluctuate 'intent' invading greatest preventive devised exclusion reasoning infer thrust convincing cases4 commented intimate relationship privilege self-incrimination. erroneous history;5 harmless error; rule, dead letter Certainly putative guarantees stinting construction either—it itself6 hoped spirit 'only obviated adhering provisions liberally construed.' 635, 535. embodied reverse objection. (a) (b) constituted (c) affecting person, luggage, Whether, independently Latham, '3. Questions '1(a),' '1(b),' '2' Court.' Section 1952, 208, provides may, General, custody.' Pettiford assigned Sanitation Division gained entrance lottery activities. policeman gambling accordance prior agreement. Lottery slips defendant's trial. granted. Baltimore City opinion: 'Section 120 Article 12, Health exists demand entry therein daytime owner occupier denied. Criminal decision. vs. (State of) (359 877). 'In evident principal, chief sanitation division endeavor colleague. one's arbitrary society.' Wolf (People Colorado, 338 (69 1359, 1361, 1782). exception security, indispensible maintenance community health, cover inconsistent conceptions (embodied) Constitutions.' Note 1, (who finality Ludecke Watkins, 160, 1429, 1881; Jay Boyd, 351 345, 919, 1242) detain suspects secret interrogation. Minker, 179, 281, 185. Earlier expressions way, 145; 198—199, 77, perspective author Lefkowitz. 358, 158; 465, 432. statutorily See, e.g., 306, 263; 466—467, 423—424, itself, drawing support rest famous case's course, Wigmore, Evidence (3d ed. 1940), §§ 2184, 2264. Wigmore's strictures rule. Id., 2183—2184. note, too, impose imprisonment, simply forfeit plate glass imported customs declaration.

Classification Label: 0