Legal Document

471 U.S. 1 105 S.Ct. 1694 85 L.Ed.2d TENNESSEE, Appellant,v.Cleamtee GARNER, etc., et al. MEMPHIS POLICE DEPARTMENT, al., Petitioners, v. Cleamtee Nos. 83-1035, 83-1070. Argued Oct. 30, 1984. Decided March 27, 1985. Syllabus A Tennessee statute provides that if, after a police officer has given notice of an intent to arrest criminal suspect, the suspect flees or forcibly resists, "the may use all necessary means effect arrest." Acting under authority this statute, Memphis shot and killed appellee-respondent Garner's son as, being told halt, fled over fence at night in backyard house he was suspected burglarizing. The used deadly force despite "reasonably sure" unarmed thinking 17 18 years old slight build. father subsequently brought action Federal District Court, seeking damages 42 U.S.C. § 1983 for asserted violations his son's constitutional rights. Court held officer's actions were constitutional. Appeals reversed. Held: is unconstitutional insofar as it authorizes against, case, apparently unarmed, nondangerous fleeing suspect; such not be unless prevent escape probable cause believe poses significant threat death serious physical injury others. Pp. 7-22. (a) Apprehension by seizure subject Fourth Amendment's reasonableness requirement. To determine whether reasonable, extent intrusion on suspect's rights Amendment must balanced against governmental interests effective law enforcement. This balancing process demonstrates that, notwithstanding seize always do so killing him. felony suspects, whatever circumstances, constitutionally unreasonable. 7-12. (b) Amendment, purposes should construed light common-law rule allowing felon. Changes legal technological context mean distorted almost beyond recognition when literally applied. Whereas felonies formerly capital crimes, few are now, can be, many crimes classified misdemeanors, nonexistent, common now felonies. Also, developed time weapons rudimentary. And, varied rules adopted States indicating long-term movement away from rule, particularly departments themselves, dubious indicium constitutionality statute. There no indication holding practice authorized unreasonable will severely hamper 12-20. (c) While burglary crime, case could reasonably have believed suspect—young, slight, unarmed—posed any threat. Nor does fact broken into dwelling automatically dangerous. 20-22. 710 F.2d 240 (CA6 1983), affirmed remanded. Henry L. Klein, Memphis, Tenn., petitioners No. W.J. Michael Cody, appellant 83-1035. Steven Winter, New York City, Garner, Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. requires us We conclude 2 * At about 10:45 p.m. October 3, 1974, Police Officers Elton Hymon Leslie Wright dispatched answer "prowler inside call." Upon arriving scene they saw woman standing her porch gesturing toward adjacent house.1 She them she had heard glass breaking "they" "someone" next door. radioed dispatcher say scene, went behind house. He door slam someone run across backyard. who appellee-respondent's decedent, Edward stopped 6-feet-high chain link edge yard. With aid flashlight, able see face hands. sign weapon, and, though certain, "figured" Garner unarmed. App. 41, 56; Record 219. thought 5'5" 5'7" tall.2 crouched base fence, called out "police, halt" took steps then began climb fence. Convinced if made would elude capture,3 bullet hit back head. taken ambulance hospital, where died operating table. Ten dollars purse found body.4 3 In using escape, acting pursuant Department policy. "[i]f, intention defendant, either flee resist, Tenn.Code Ann. 40-7-108 (1982).5 policy slightly more restrictive than but still allowed cases burglary. 140-144. incident reviewed Firearm's Review Board presented grand jury. Neither action. Id., 57. 4 Western Tennessee, complaint alleged shooting violated Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Eighth, Fourteenth Amendments United Constitution. It named defendants Officer Hymon, Department, its Director, Mayor city Memphis. After 3-day bench trial, entered judgment defendants. dismissed claims Director lack evidence. concluded Hymon's which turn employed only reasonable practicable preventing escape. "recklessly heedlessly attempted vault thereby assuming risk fired upon." Pet. Cert. A10. 5 Sixth Circuit with regard finding acted good-faith reliance therefore within scope qualified immunity. 600 52 (1979). remanded reconsideration possible liability city, however, Monell City Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 98 2018, 56 611 (1978), come down Court's decision. directed consider enjoyed immunity, hollow point bullets these circumstances constitutional, municipal conduct flowed "policy custom" required Monell. F.2d, 54-55. 6 did affect acknowledging some doubt immunity actions, Given conclusion, declined question. A37-A39. 7 reversed (1983). reasoned "seizure" Amendment,6 "reasonable." failed applied because adequately limit distinguishing between different magnitudes—"the facts, found, justify Amendment." 246. cannot resort "have . [has committed and] safety officers danger community left large." Ibid.7 8 State intervened defend 28 2403(b), appealed filed petition certiorari. noted jurisdiction appeal granted petition. 465 1098, 104 1589, 80 122 (1984). II 9 Whenever restrains freedom person walk away, seized person. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 873, 878, 95 2574, 2578, 45 607 (1975). clear just minimal interference becomes seizure, Mendenhall, 446 544, 100 1870, 64 497 (1980), there question apprehension requirement Amendment. A. 10 crime. E.g., Watson, 423 411, 96 820, 46 598 (1976). Petitioners argue satisfied nothing how made. submission ignores need it, examined manner search conducted. "[w]e balance nature quality individual's importance intrusion." Place, 462 696, 703, 103 2637, 2642, 77 110 (1983); Delaware Prouse, 440 648, 654, 99 1391, 1396, 59 660 (1979); Martinez-Fuerte, 428 543, 555, 3074, 3081, 49 1116 described competing interests" key principle Michigan Summers, 452 692, 700, n. 12, 101 2587, 2593, 69 340 (1981). See also Camara Municipal 387 523, 536-537, 87 1727, 1734-1735, 930 (1967). Because one factors intrusion, plain depends made, carried out. Ortiz, 891, 895, 2585, 2588, 623 (1975); Terry Ohio, 392 1, 28-29, 88 1868, 1883-1884, 20 889 (1968). 11 Applying principles particular support lengthy detention luggage, supra, airport "carefully tailored underlying justification," Florida Royer, 460 491, 500, 1319, 1325, 75 229 (1983) (plurality opinion), surgery general anesthesia obtain evidence, Winston Lee, 470 753, 1611, 84 662 (1985), fingerprinting without cause, Davis Mississippi, 394 721, 89 1394, 22 676 (1969); Hayes Florida, 811, 1643, 705 (1985). On other hand, same approach upheld taking fingernail scrapings Cupp Murphy, 412 291, 93 2000, 36 900 (1973), unannounced entry home destruction Ker California, 374 23, 83 1623, 726 (1963), administrative housing inspections code violation blood test drunken-driving Schmerber 384 757, 86 1826, 16 908 (1966). each cases, totality justified sort seizure. B 12 cited above intrusiveness unmatched. fundamental interest own life elaborated upon. frustrates individual, society, judicial determination guilt punishment. Against ranged enforcement.8 argued overall violence reduced encouraging peaceful suspects know flee. Effectiveness making arrests force, least meaningful thereof. "Being individuals condition precedent state's entire system enforcement." Brief 14. 13 Without way disparaging goals, we convinced sufficiently productive accomplishing nonviolent suspects. Cf. U.S., 659, S.Ct., 1399. self-defeating apprehending setting justice mechanism motion. If successful, guarantees set And while might lead live discouraging attempts,9 presently available evidence thesis.10 majority country forbidden infra, 18-19. those charged enforcement abjured arresting felons, substantial basis doubting essential attribute power cases. Schumann McGinn, 307 Minn. 446, 472, N.W.2d 525, 540 (1976) (Rogosheske, J., dissenting part). persuaded vital outweigh life. 14 better die Where immediate others, harm resulting failing apprehend him so. unfortunate sight escapes, arrive little late slower afoot suspect. dead. 15 not, face. harm, force. Thus, threatens weapon crime involving infliction threatened feasible, warning been given. As pass muster. III insisted felon, misdemeanant. stated Hale's posthumously published Pleas Crown: "[I]f persons pursued suspicion thereof shall yield themselves officers, resist fly before apprehended rescue fly, otherwise apprehended, upon necessity slain therein, taken, felony." M. Hale, Historia Placitorum Coronae (1736). W. Blackstone, Commentaries *289. Most American jurisdictions imposed flat prohibition stop misdemeanant, coupled privilege Holloway Moser, 193 N.C. 185, 136 S.E. 375 (1927); Smith, 127 Iowa 534, 535, N.W. 944, 945 (1905); Reneau State, 70 Tenn. 720 (1879); Brooks Commonwealth, 61 Pa. 352 (1869); Roberts Mo. 138 (1851); generally R. Perkins & Boyce, Criminal Law 1098-1102 (3d ed. 1982); Day, Shooting Fleeing Felon: Law, Crim.L.Bull. 285, 286-287 (1978); Wilgus, Arrest Warrant, Mich.L.Rev. 798, 807-816 (1924). But Storey 71 Ala. 329 (1882); Bryant, 65 327, 328 (1871); Caldwell 41 Tex. (1874). 19 prevailing adoption thereafter, States, felon true often looked evaluating reasonableness, purposes, activity. See, e.g., 418-419, 825-826, (1976); Gerstein Pugh, 420 103, 111, 114, 854, 861, 863, 43 54 Carroll 267 132, 149-153, 280, 283-285, L.Ed. 543 (1925). "has simply frozen practices existed passage." Payton York, 445 573, 591, 33, 1371, 1382, 63 639 (1980). sweeping change context, mistaken literalism historical inquiry. pointed times best understood arose virtually punishable death.11 "Though effected protections formalities orderly trial conviction, resisting resulted greater consequences punishment individual suspected." Institute, Model Penal Code 3.07, Comment p. (Tentative Draft 8, 1958) (hereinafter Comment). Courts emphasizing relative dangerousness felons. Minn., 458, N.W.2d, 533; N.C., 187, S.E., 376 (1927). 21 justifications makes sense today. Almost longer be. Enmund 458 782, 102 3368, 73 1140 (1982); Coker Georgia, 433 584, 97 2861, 53 982 (1977). earlier gulf minor offences broad deep," Pollock Maitland 467, 3; 158, 287, today distinction arbitrary. Many Mich.L.Rev., 572-573. These changes undermined concept, questionable begin with, merely speedier execution already forfeited They assumption "felon" dangerous misdemeanant untenable. Indeed, numerous misdemeanors involve felonies.12 additional reason why directly translated present day. Deadly inflicted solely hand-to-hand struggle during which, necessarily, risk. Handguns until latter half last century. Kennett J. Anderson, Gun America 150-151 Only become distance apprehension. practical matter, standard articulation altogether meaning—and harsher consequences—now past centuries. Wechsler Michael, Rationale Homicide: I, 37 Colum.L.Rev. 701, 741 (1937).13 23 One aspect bears emphasis. forbids condemning disproportionately severe. 376; Iowa, N.W., 945. Annot., A.L.R.3d 238 (1978). 24 short, pedigree Tennessee's pure face, C 25 procedures jurisdictions. 421-422, 826-827. varied. Comment, Ga.L.Rev. 137, 140-144 Some codified rule,14 two courts significantly limited statute.15 Four relevant retain rule.16 Two Code's provision verbatim.17 Eighteen others allow, varying language, escaping likely endanger inflict arrested.18 Louisiana Vermont, statutes point, forbid violent felonies.19 remaining law, positions unclear.20 26 said constant overwhelming trend rule. recent years, their laws expressly rejected abandonment rule.21 Nonetheless, remains less States. 27 evident impressive viewed policies themselves. Overwhelmingly, C. Milton, Halleck, Lardner, G. Abrecht, Use Force 45-46 Bureau Investigation example, both firearms except grievous bodily harm. 40-41; 83. For accreditation Commission Accreditation Enforcement Agencies, department restrict situations believes defense human injury." Inc., Standards Agencies 1-2 (italics deleted). 1974 study reported regulations large cities firing Boston Planning Research Division, Personnel (1974), Mattis Schnarr, 547 1007, 1016, (CA8 1976), vacated moot sub nom. Ashcroft Mattis, 431 171, 1739, 219 Overall, 7.5% departmental explicitly permit felon; 86.8% not. K. Matulia, Balance Forces: Report International Association Chiefs 161 (1982) (table). 1108-1368 (written 44 departments). Geller Karales, Split-Second Decisions 33-42 (1981); Foundation Amici Curiae. actually administer them, older fading view us. D Actual important reason. hesitate declare long "unreasonable" doing indications contrary. suggestion worsened adopted, legislation policy, similar announced "[a]fter extensive research consideration, [they] permitting non-violent protect citizens deter alleviate problems caused improve crime-fighting ability agencies." 11. obvious state served warrant lethal 10-11, 10. 29 agree make impossible, split-second evaluations unknowable facts. 25; Appellant deny difficulties attempting assess dangerousness. However, similarly difficult judgments equally uncertain circumstances. 20, 1879, 1883. allow nn. 15, 17-19, apply led rash litigation inappropriate second-guessing officers' decisions. Moreover, highly technical felony/misdemeanor equally, more, field. An position know, precise value property stolen, first second offense. Finally, above, claim self-imposed limitations departments. IV 30 allows, Constitution forbid, alternative available. A9-A11, A38. conclusion apparent unnecessary. court find, appeared certain case. A4, A23. Restated terms, articulable think armed. 31 reversing, accepted factual conclusions force." agree. Garner—young, never passing "[t]he facts indicate 'non-dangerous.' " A34. explained, seems based night. burglar whom correctly posed himself 32 dissent argues nighttime Post, 29, 32. FBI classifies "property" rather "violent" Investigation, Uniform Crime Reports, (1984).22 Although armed situation, physically much. Solem Helm, 463 277, 296-297, 22-23, 3001, 3012-3013, 637 fact, statistics demonstrate burglaries rarely violence. During 10-year period 1973-1982, 3.8% involved Statistics, Household Burglary (1985).23 T. Reppetto, Residential 17, (1974); Conklin Bittner, Suburb, Criminology 208, 214 (1973). V 33 wish what our party virtue 2403(b) liability. defendants—the Memphis—hinges remand. hold invalid purported give act did. absence discussion issue below, record, preclude consideration validity. 34 affirmed, further proceedings consistent opinion. 35 So ordered. O'CONNOR, THE CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST join, dissenting. holds prohibits refuses halt rests majority's public Ante, 8. Notwithstanding venerable authorizing continued acceptance nearly ante, 14, 16-17, concludes inasmuch allows obviously unquestionably tragic unfortunate, holdings sensitive history implications reasoning. By disregarding residential longstanding effectively creates right unimpeded arrest, ordered short I supports right, accordingly dissent. 38 below brief review highlight difficult, decisions responded late-night call progress private residence. When arrived caller 81-5605 (CA6), 207. residence through window lights testified realized "that something wrong inside," id., 656, anyone—either member household—was 209. walked house, slam. Eugene dark cluttered 6-foot-high adult unsure "had idea hand [that see] person." 658-659. accomplices remained 657. identified halt. paused briefly sprang top Believing climbed revolver mortally wounded burglar. 39 Appellee-respondent, deceased's father, federal defendants, "use arrest," "after resist." (1982). courts, felony, warns intends him, Johnson 173 134, 114 S.W.2d 819 (1938). violate grounds "authorizing order escape" violates Due Process Clause 240, 244 40 affirms ground application authorize constituted deserves emphasis, decision obscure decided validity hypothetical Instead, assertion "may him," 9, unexceptionable relevance here. rhetorically stirring statement unreasonable." address resists analysis, "seized" Whether permitted careful prevention detection legitimate individual. striking here, crucial acknowledge falls "rubric necessarily [involving] swift predicated on-the-spot observations beat." clarity hindsight provide judging am far reluctant proscribes Bill Rights receive legislatures. recognized requirements respond reality social change, fidelity notion constitutional—as opposed purely judicial—limits impose heavy burden impermissible. 416-421, 824-827, Villamonte-Marquez, 579, 585, 2573, 2582, (noting "impressive pedigree" challenged Amendment). relates primarily represent illegal person's home, "pos[e] real others." 315-316, 3023, (BURGER, C.J., dissenting). According statistics, "[t]hree-fifths rapes three-fifths robberies, third aggravated simple assaults burglars." Statistics Bulletin, (January 1985). 2.8 million course burglaries. Ibid. Victims forcible prowler find consolation confident "burglaries violence." 21. even burglary, retrospect, "harsh potentialities violence" inherent forced characterization "innocuous, inconsequential, minor, 'nonviolent.' 316, 3023 Restatement Torts 131, g (1934) (burglary among normally threaten harm); 1110 1982) great personal harm). compelling importance. burglar, well respect subsequent investigation substitute scene. President's Administration Justice, Task Report: Challenge Free Society Captain immediate, caught. 334. agencies choose assume remain large, reflects legislative prescribed serve public. Such assist perpetrators lawful submit ignored impunity. Wiley 548 1247, 1252-1253 cert. denied, 434 822, 65, 78 (1977); Jones Marshall, 528 142 (CA2 1975). unconvincingly dismisses deterrence effects stating [the] thesis" discourages "there cases." 10, effectiveness arguable go saying popularity constitutionality. Spaziano 468 447, 464, 3154, 3164, 82 (1984) ("The Eighth every reaches sisters laws"). produce science dispel doubts conduct. observation, believe, predates enactment continues number strong justifying here weighed implicated officers. declares 9. blithe hardly adequate failure distinctive exposed recall officer, investigating refused heed command questioning life, encompasses 617, 1395, (1980) (WHITE, dissenting) ("[T]he policeman's hands tied possibility fail cooperate personnel"). accommodated statute: avoid consequent obey valid proper suggests meaning Admittedly, events giving rise retrospect deeply regrettable. No 15-year-old sorrow, much disapproval. evaluated later appears preferable darkened burglarized. alone unarmed; nor transpired night, determined case; instead, impermissible resort, shoot 47 reject reasoning Appeals, note below. addition claim, due process, jury, proscription cruel unusual arguments addressed Appeals. affecting "narrowly drawn express stake." 245. narrowly 246-247. Whatever contexts, deprivation "without law." Baker McCollan, 443 144-145, 2689, 2694-2695, trying cognizable Cunningham Ellington, 323 F.Supp. 1072, 1075-1076 (WD Tenn.1971) (three-judge court). intended punish capture Bell Wolfish, 441 520, 538-539, 1861, 1873-1874, 60 447 Accordingly, properly appellee-respondent, reverse 48 Even agreed unable join "threatens harm." Relying asserts appear pose declining firearms, unnecessarily implies constrains potentially lethal, matter remote Los Angeles Lyons, 461 95, 1660, 675 unclear language opinion, word "use" include apprehended. Absent purposes. successfully return used, albeit unsuccessfully, futile attempt decides neither 50 silence critical invites quickly most 619, 1396 guidance determining objects, array ranging guns knives baseball bats rope, declines outline "probable cause" believing "poses injury," appropriate ambiguous class burglars expect escalating volume lower object related portends burgeoning area doctrine concerning employ 51 sweeps broadly adopt entirely new "lightly brushe[s] aside," 600, 1387, long-standing approval accept creation flight limits exceeded orders fires respectfully owner on. 160. uncertain, deposition eighth-grader, 15. 5' 4" tall somewhere around pounds. A5. asked fired, stated: "Well, me bit knew going get because, couldn't My partner you coming around. didn't talking about. jumped up, consequently caught got up leap him." 52. dark, gotten easily carrying lot equipment wearing boots, younger energetic, outrun 53-54. rummaged room words owner, "[a]ll stuff floors, drawers pulled out, scattered over." 34. valuables untouched dollars, wife's rings missing. ring recovered. Id.., 34-35. explicitly, "The people secure searches seizures, violated. ." Const., Amdt. 4. "accurately states felons." 247. portion provides: justifiable (i) felony; (ii) effecting peace officer; assisting (iii) actor innocent persons; (iv) (1) including force; (2) arrested delayed." 3.07(2)(b) (Proposed Official 1962). "[a]n analysis Clause" result, interest. considered generalized held, relying Owen Independence, 622, 1398, 673 immune. emphasizes replace recognize so, 13, infra; indeed, dispute. assured, justified. proceed likely. remembered lamenting inadequacy investigation, relies report Justice. worth noting awareness problem, itself proposed arguably stringent formulation 189 "perpetrators who, whose sought addition, "to virtual certainty, offense permissible." usual deterring punishment—has largely connection arrest. Arkansas, specifically excepts "obstruction operations." commentary notes "reflects basic absent violence, mere independent offense." Ark.Stat.Ann. 41-2802(3)(a) (1977) commentary. outlaw misdemeanor. Ind.Code 35-44-3-3 forceful resistance, separate offense, Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 38, ¶ 31-1 (1984); Mont.Code 45-7-301 N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 642:2 (Supp.1983); Ore.Rev.Stat. 162.315 lenient anomaly transforming subject, force—solely flight. tension harsh employed. does, 22-34.1 (Supp.17, 1971), subjecting offender maximum fine $50, 1-8 subjected $50 fine, shot. Sherman, Reducing Use, Control Organization 98, 120-123 (M. Punch 1983); Fyfe, Observations Force, Delinquency 376, 378-381 67 (affidavit William Bracey, Chief Patrol, Department). roots concept "felony" lie forfeiture. F. Maitland, History English (2d 1909) Maitland). Not death. 466-467, 3. profound. Blackstone write: indeed connected punishment, hard them; usage interpretations conform. offence punished death, viz. hanging, *98. 14-15 511. White-collar than, say, drunken driving. Welsh Wisconsin, 466 740, 2091, 732 755, 2100 (BLACKMUN, concurring). sophisticated techniques increased communication escapee once "reasonableness" Execution Trial: Homicide Constitution, Vand.L.Rev. 71, 76 unaware data sensible evaluation claim. Current rates low, centuries meant missed chance 1983, 21% offenses index cleared 159 clearance rate 15%. Ala.Code 13A-3-27 41-510 Cal.Penal 196 (West 1970); Conn.Gen.Stat. 53a-22 (1972); Fla.Stat. 776.05 Idaho 19-610 35-41-3-3 Kan.Stat.Ann. 21-3215 Miss.Code 97-3-15(d) (Supp.1984); Mo.Rev.Stat. 563.046 Nev.Rev.Stat. 200.140 N.M.Stat.Ann. 30-2-6 Okla.Stat., Tit. 21, R.I.Gen.Laws 12-7-9 S.D. Codified Laws §§ 22-16-32, 22-16-33 Wash.Rev.Code 9A.16.040(3) Oregon "necessary." 161.239 Wisconsin's ambiguous, probably added list. Wis.Stat. 939.45(4) (1981-1982) (officer "a accomplishment arrest"). Clark Ziedonis, 368 544 (ED Wis.1973), aff'd grounds, 513 79 (CA7 atrocious harm," delayed. Kortum Alkire, Cal.App.3d 325, 333, Cal.Rptr. 26, 30-31 People Ceballos, Cal.3d 470, 476-484, 116 233, 237-242, 526 P.2d 241, 245-250 Long Beach Assn. Beach, 364, 373-374, 132 348, 353-354 Indiana, injury, imminent Rose N.E.2d 521 (Ind.App.1982). Michigan, Virginia, West Virginia. Werner Hartfelder, 113 Mich.App. 747, 318 825 Foster, Ohio Misc. 46, 59-66, 396 246, 255-258 (Com.Pl.1979) (citing cases); Berry Hamman, 203 Va. 596, 125 S.E.2d 851 (1962); Thompson Norfolk W.R. Co., W.Va. 705, 711-712, 182 880, 883-884 (1935). Haw.Rev.Stat. 703-307 Neb.Rev.Stat. 28-1412 Massachusetts belongs category. Though distinctions felonies, Uraneck Lima, 359 Mass. 749, 750, 269 670, 671 (1971), since citizens, Commonwealth 372 823, 363 1313 (1977), extended Julian Randazzo, 380 391, 403 931 Alaska Stat.Ann. 11.81.370(a) Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-410 Colo.Rev.Stat. 18-1-707 Del.Code Ann., 11, 467 (1979) (felony recaptured); Ga.Code 16-3-21(a) 7-5 804.8 (suspect commission caught); Ky.Rev.Stat. 503.090 delay); Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., 17-A, 107 (commentary "where life"); Minn.Stat. 609.066 627:5(II) N.J.Stat.Ann. 2C-3-7 N.Y.Penal 35.30 (McKinney Supp. 1984-1985); N.C.Gen.Stat. 15A-401 N.D.Cent.Code 12.1-05-07.2.d Pa.Cons.Stat. 508 Tex.Penal 9.51(c) Utah 76-2-404 La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 14:20(2) 1974); Vt.Stat.Ann., 2305 (1974 Supp.1984). interpreted "life endangered threatened." Sauls Hutto, 304 124, La.1969). Maryland, Montana, South Carolina, Wyoming. Maryland appellate indicated, "was time, anyone. Giant Food, Inc. Scherry, Md.App. 586, 589, 444 A.2d 483, 486, 489 adopting current 1979, Alabama chose provisions. 13A-3-27, Commentary, pp. 67-68 Missouri likewise proposal akin 1022 1976) (Gibson, dissenting), 1739 Idaho, codifies 1971, abandoned 1972. report, Corrections Columbia inherently offense," property. D.C. Corrections, Prisoner Screening Project points burglars. 26-27. figures knows rape good That indicates committed, commit, adds period, imply today's let loose universe is, course, smaller. tiny fraction place occurrence.

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