Legal Document

467 U.S. 797 104 S.Ct. 2755 81 L.Ed.2d 660 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.S.A. EMPRESA de VIACAO AEREA RIO GRANDENSE (VARIG AIRLINES) et al. Petitioner, v. SCOTTISH INSURANCE CO. Nos. 82-1349, 82-1350. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Jan. 18, 1984. Decided June 19, Syllabus The Federal Aviation Act 1958 directs Secretary Transportation to promote safety in air transportation by promulgating reasonable rules and regulations governing inspection, servicing, overhaul civil aircraft. Secretary, her discretion, may prescribe manner which such shall be made. In exercise this Administration (FAA), as Secretary's designee, has devised a system compliance review that involves certification aircraft design manufacture. Under process, duty ensure an conforms FAA lies with manufacturer operator, while retains responsibility for policing compliance. Thus, is required develop plans specifications perform inspections tests necessary establish comports regulations; then reviews data conducting "spot check" manufacturer's work. Part procedure certification, whereby FAA, if it finds proposed new type minimum standards, signifies its approval issuing certificate. If already certificated aircraft's undergoes major change, approves issues supplemental No. Boeing 707 commercial jet owned respondent airline was flying from Rio Janeiro Paris when fire broke out one aft lavatories producing thick black smoke throughout cabin. Despite successful effort land plane, most passengers on board died asphyxiation or effects toxic gases produced fire, plane's fuselage consumed post-impact fire. Respondent airline's action against under Tort Claims (Act FTCA) seeking damages destroyed wrongful-death families representatives deceased were consolidated District Court. Respondents alleged Civil Aeronautics Agency, FAA's predecessor, negligent certificate because lavatory trash receptacle did not satisfy applicable regulations. granted summary judgment ground, inter alia, recovery barred 28 U.S.C. § 2680(a), provides apply claims "based upon performance failure discretionary function part federal agency employee Government, whether discretion involved abused" (discretionary exception). Appeals reversed, holding, exception apply. 82-1350, Dowdle used taxi service caught midair forward baggage compartment, crashed, burned, killing all occupants. filed FTCA property damage insurance companies also reimbursement moneys paid liability coverage Dowdle's behalf. claimed Government installation gasoline-burning cabin heater airplane comply California, finding crash resulted defective heater, entered respondents California "Good Samaritan" rule, affirmed. Held: actions are FTCA. Pp. 807-821. (a) It nature conduct, rather than status actor, governs applies given case. Moreover, legislative history discloses plainly intended encompass acts acting role regulator conduct private individuals. Congress wished prevent "second-guessing" administrative decisions grounded social, economic, political policy through medium tort. 807-814. (b) Here, precludes tort based certificating question use aviation. implementation mechanism activity "nature quality" protected 2680(a). Judicial intervention, suits, decision utilize "spot-checking" program best way accommodate goal reality finite resources would require courts "second-guess" political, economic judgments exercising regulatory function. precisely sort judicial intervention designed prevent. follows employees "spot-check" exception, only failed check particular items course review. risks encountered these inspectors advancement governmental purpose pursuant specific grant authority. 814-820. 692 F.2d 1205 (9th Cir.1982) 1209 Cir.1982), reversed. Kenneth S. Geller, Washington, D.C., petitioners. Richard F. Gerry, San Diego, Cal., respondents. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion 1 We certiorari two cases determine held liable Act, 2671 seq., negligence certain 2 * A. 82-1349 3 On July 11, 1973, S.A. Empresa De Viacao Aerea Grandense (Varig Airlines) lavatories. smoke, quickly filled cockpit. pilots' 124 135 persons Most postimpact 4 accident 707, product Co. predecessor had issued certificate1 certifying designs, plans, specifications, been shown conformity standards. Seaboard Airlines originally purchased plane domestic use; 1969 sold Varig Airlines, Brazilian carrier, commercially 1973. 5 After brought personal many passengers, here, separate suit pressing wrongful death. Central California. 6 asserted originated towel disposal area located below sink unit capable containing support their argument, pointed regulation requiring waste receptacles made fire-resistant materials incorporate covers other provisions possible fires. 14 CFR 4b.381(d) (1956). CAA inspected protection ground law does recognize actionable inspection activities. found that, even stated cause tort, exceptions Act: 2680(a),2 misrepresentation 2680(h).3 7 Ninth Circuit (1982). reasoned person inspecting airworthiness see Restatement (Second) Torts §§ 323 324A (1965), concluded should judged same rule. F.2d, at 1207-1208. rejected Government's argument respondents' 2680(h), subject any claim arising misrepresentation. Interpreting implicit resultant certificate, 1208. Finally, addressed reliance exempts duty. . ." viewed entailing policymaking contemplated exception. 1208-1209. B. 82-1350 8 October 8, 1968, DeHavilland Dove John operation midair, burned near Las Vegas, Nev. pilot, copilot, killed. in-flight compartment 9 manufactured Kingdom 1951 Air Wisconsin, another operator. 1965 Wisconsin contracted Aerodyne Engineering Corp. install airplane. applied for, granted, certificate4 authorizing heater. installed contract Wisconsin. 1966, relying indication airplane's airworthiness, 10 aftermath crash, Act. behalf Dowdle. Southern defects gasoline line leading those requirements. Accordingly, 11 appeal, reversed remanded consider impose due care applying doctrine Torts. 614 188 (1979). requested whether, facts case, find breached here. remand, again respondents, rule case give rise facts. 12 second affirmed so followed reasoning nearly identical employed decided day. 13 certiorari, 461 925, 103 2084, 77 296 (1983), we now reverse. II 1958, 49 1421(a)(1),5 directed flight commerce establishing standards design, materials, workmanship, construction, performance. aircraft, including 1421(a)(3). emphasized, however, carriers themselves retained responsibilities public interest safety: services highest degree safety, 1421(b), make every 1425(a), observe requirements established 1425(a). 15 multistep process monitor aviation industry's developed Secretary. Acting designee,6 promulgated comprehensive set delineating designers manufacturers must before marketing products. See pts. 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35 (1983). At each step evaluate submitted satisfied Upon showing prescribed have met, appropriate permitting continue production marketing. 16 first stage certification. A wishing introduce obtain basic form receiving application "make, applicant make, during manufacture completion deems reasonably safety. 1423(a)(2). By regulation, itself responsible 21.33, 21.35 submits drawings, test reports, computations show sought satisfies 21.17(a)(1), 21.21(a)(b).7 produces prototype conducts both tests. 21.35. they deem ascertain 21.33(a). 1423(a)(2); 21.21(a)(1) 17 Production begin, until duplicates issued. 1423(b). To prove can maintain quality control assure will meet 21.139, 21.143 When duplicate conform approved begin mass 18 Before placed into service, owner denotes condition safe operation. 1423(c). unlawful operate without valid 1430(a). 19 An additional altered introduction change design. 21.113 meets 21.115(a). demonstrate complies 21.115(b), 21.33(b). methods applicant's generally Order 8110.4, Type Certification 32 (1967) (hereinafter 8110.4); Manual Procedure, Flight Operations Airworthiness, .5106(a) (1957) Procedure). 20 With fewer 400 engineers, obviously cannot complete elaborate alone. 1355 authorizes delegate properly qualified persons. provided appointment individuals serve designated engineering assist process. 183.29 (1984). These typically who possess detailed knowledge day-to-day involvement development. Improving Aircraft Safety 29-30. act surrogates examining, inspecting, testing purposes 183.1 determining regulations, guided requirements, instructions, procedures employees. p. 151; Procedure .70(b). briefly reports 31-32; 159; .77. III 21 1346(b), suits 22 "for injury loss property, death caused omission within scope his office employment, circumstances where States, person, claimant accordance place occurred." 23 further respect "in extent individual like circumstances." 2674. 24 waive sovereign immunity respects, however; careful except Act's broad waiver several important classes claims. Of relevance 2680(a) 25 "[a]ny care, execution statute valid, abused." (Emphasis added.) 26 embodied clause marks boundary between Congress' willingness desire protect activities exposure 27 Although previously analyzed Dalehite 346 15, 26-30, 73 956, 963-965, 97 L.Ed. 1427 (1953), highlights proper understanding During years debate discussion preceding passage considered number bills agencies, notably Trade Commission Securities Exchange Commission. See, e.g., H.R.5373, 77th Cong., 2d Sess. (1942); H.R.7236, 76th 1st (1940); S.2690, (1939).8 1942, eliminated references agencies broadened cover H.R.6463, S.2207, (1942). language drafted ultimately adopted. illustrate clearly fashioning spokesman appearing House Committee Judiciary described "highly exception:" 29 "[It is] preclude abuse authority licensing agency—for example, Commission, Foreign Funds Control Office Treasury, others. neither desirable nor constitutionality legislation, legality propriety tested holds true nature, expenditure funds, project, like. 30 "On hand, common torts well included bill." Hearings H.R.5373 H.R.6463 Judiciary, Sess., 28, 33 (1942) (statement Assistant Attorney General Francis M. Shea).9 31 believed kind embraced exempted construction; nevertheless, added clear extended realm validity legislation action. Id., 29; id., 37, Memorandum, Appendixes, (explanatory Comm.Print 1942). (Comm.Print unnecessary name earlier bills, "exemp[t] growing activities." (emphasis added). carefully examined supra. vast disastrous explosion ammonium nitrate fertilizer, distributed direction export devastated areas occupied Allied Armed Forces after World War II. Numerous charged negligent: cabinet-level institute fertilizer program, experiment possibility explosion, drafting plan manufacture, police storage loading fertilizer. allegedly duties Describing "the executive administrator according one's course," 34, S.Ct., 967, stated: 34 "It define, apart ends. enough hold, do, 'discretionary duty' basis includes more initiation programs determinations executives administrators schedules operations. Where there room discretion. necessarily subordinates carrying operations government official directions actionable." 35-36, 968 (footnotes omitted). here insist view expressed eroded, overruled, subsequent construing particularly Indian Towing 350 61, 76 122, 100 48 (1955), Eastern Lines, Inc. Union Trust Co., 95 U.S.App.D.C. 189, 221 62, summarily aff'd sub nom. 907, 192, 796 (1955). While Court's reading admittedly straight line, do accept supposition no longer represents interpretation 36 supra, cargo aboard vessel ran aground, owing light lighthouse operated Coast Guard. plaintiffs contended Guard maintaining, repairing light. Significantly, conceded implicated Towing, arguing instead contained implied "uniquely functions." U.S., 64, 124. assertion, "push 'non-governmental'-'governmental' quagmire long plagued municipal corporations." 65, 37 collided attempting Washington National Airport. survivors victims sued asserting traffic controllers collision. Columbia permitted Government. petition urged adoption "governmental exclusion" textual exclusion. Pet. Cert. O.T.1955, 296, 18. "but aspect broader exclusion uniquely nature." 37. This affirmed, citing Given thrust arguments presented citation disposition taken wholesale repudiation forth Dalehite.10 38 As Dalehite, unnecessary—and indeed impossible—to define precision contour From isolate factors useful First, "[n]ot but discretion." 966. inquiry concerning challenged whatever rank—are shield liability. 39 Second, else include, individuals.11 Time refers examples covered significant early specifically name. 808-810. emphasis suggests underlying inclusion functions functions, activities, took "steps seriously handicap efficient operations." Muniz, 374 150, 163, 83 1850, 1858, 805 (1963). IV 40 immunizes cases. argue Similarly, issuance aircraft; assert fuel violated records either actually reviewed inspector representative. Brief pp. 15; 10, n. thus effect inspect aspects gives 41 urges satisfying rests manufacturer, FAA. says, merely monitoring According accomplishes means encourage operators fully Such activity, argues, Act.12 agree 42 noted 804, 1421(a)(3)(A). 43 periods in, made, provision examinations whose lieu officers employees." 1421(a)(3)(C) 44 empowered implement enforcing "judgment course." 967. 45 stages production. 804-806. founded relatively simple notion: compliance.13 46 outlined detail handbooks manuals For time provided: 47 "Conformity determination varied depending circumstances. policies, procedures, experience, personnel, equipment, facilities dictate conducted witnessed [CAA employees]. Differences adjusted fit existing conditions. inexperienced ability unknown, high percentage [CAA] feels he safely rely greater company inspectors. He gradually reduce own witnessing accordingly. "Experienced having demonstrated acceptability competence benefit confidence. cases, planned spot-checking critical parts assemblies reviewing dispositions. personally form. should, visually witness characteristics. type, increased confidence plus employees], result obtaining end product. "Regardless inspector's performed results recorded reported." .330 50 39-40. 51 note "relatively small engineers" available applicants. states: 52 obvious checking possible. Instead, overriding method [which] predicated fact completely checked examination. turn engineer completeness, sufficient requirements." .41 60.14 53 much same. Dove, submit describing accompanied drawings photographs suggested alteration. Physical modification "cannot determined adequately evaluation technical data." 5106(b). authorized approve covering changes certifications prior Id. 764(a). 31-32, 158. 54 Respondents' contention failing elements challenges procedure: review, our view, components 55 determines supervise individuals, kind. Decisions directly affect feasibility practicality program; priorities accomplishment objectives balancing obtained practical considerations staffing funding. manufacturers' accommodates resources. decisionmaking 56 executing directives well. 36, 968. regarding might need maximize allocation administering engineers calculated risks, operating manuals. circumstances, falls squarely V 57 rendering amenable some could enforcement statutory transportation, insure it. hold 58 ordered. introducing signifying criteria specified 1423(a); 21.11-21.53 supply data, documentation illustrating demonstrating represent examine submission infra, 805-806. for: "Any Title 2680(h) states Any alters order 21.115. 806-807. issued, 1938, Stat. 1007, statute. Because relevant virtually 601, 605, 1007-1008, 1010-1011, ease reference refer current version enacted, vested Agency over Pub.L. 85-726, 101, 72 737. later renamed Department Transportation. 89-670, 3(e), 6(c)(1), 80 932, 938. All powers, transferred One estimated wide-body approximately 300,000 changes, 2,000 200 reports. addition, about 1,600 hours Research Council, Airworthiness Procedures, (1980) Safety). 303(7) (1940), extend administration laws Commission." incorporated Report almost verbatim. H.R.Rep. 2245, Rayonier, 352 315, 374, 354 (1957), equally misplaced. Rayonier revisited issue Dalehite: fighting firefighting basing normal carelessness firemen create rights." 43, 972. discuss restricted corporation body. 319, 376 (citing (1955)). holding overrules element fundamental construction remain undisturbed. Even dissenters read protecting "that regulating individuals." 58, 12, 979, (Jackson, J., joined Black Frankfurter, JJ., dissenting). presses reversal. asserts core engages analogous activity. 1346(b) interprets misrepresentations certificates argues 2680(h); 4, urge precluded last Term Block Neal, 460 289, 1089, 75 67 rest today address issues. erred California's 801, 803. But bottom state law, accord great deference Courts Appeals. Pacific Gas & Elec. State Energy Resources Conservation Dev. Comm'n, 190, 214, 1713, 1727, 752 (1983); Runyon McCrary, 427 160, 181-182, 96 2586, 2599-2600, 415 (1976) (quoting Bishop Wood, 426 341, 346, 2074, 2078, 684 (1976)). decline invitation undertake examination state-law issue. premise ample 1421(b) (duty safety); 1425(a) (air carrier regulations); 21.17 (1983) (applicant requirements); 21.33 compliance); (specifying applicants certificates). recent report, Academy Sciences recognized "FAA thousands calculations, process," manufacturer. 6, 31. report staff performs cursory substance th[e] overwhelming volume documents" approval. 31-32.

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