Legal Document

521 U.S. 74117 S.Ct. 1925138 L.Ed.2d 285 Lucious ABRAMS, Jr.v.Davida JOHNSON et al. UNITED STATES, Appellant, v. Davida Nos. 95-1425 and 95-1460. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Dec. 9, 1996. Decided June 19, 1997.* Syllabus * The electoral district lines for Georgia's congressional delegation are here a second time, appeal now being taken from District Court's rulings determinations on remand after Miller Johnson, 515 900, 115 2475, 132 762, in which this affirmed finding that State's Eleventh was unconstitutional because race predominant factor its drawing, id., at ----, S.Ct., 2488. plan challenged contained three majority-black districts, complaint amended to challenge another these, then Second District, trial court found also improperly drawn under Miller. deferred Legislature draw new plan, but legislature could not reach agreement. drew own containing one district, Fifth; declined stay order; 1996 general elections were held it. appellants, various voters States, seek set court's aside, claiming it does adequately take into account interests black population. Held: redistricting is unconstitutional. Pp. ____-____. (a) did exceed remedial power rule Upham Seamon, 456 37, 43, 102 1518, 1521-1522, 71 725, whereby courts drawing voting must be guided by legislative policies underlying existing extent they do lead violations Constitution or Voting Rights Act 1965 (Act). Appellants' argument required adopt as 1992 issue Miller, two such Georgia Legislature's original 1991 unavailing, given background against legislature-and later court-attempted districts. considerable evidence Justice Department pressure create maximum number leading state act based an overriding concern with race, disturbed any sound basis defer plan; predominance plan's provenance Districts caused them improper departure points; proposals either districts plans urged remedy phase litigation flawed racial motive their design. Thus, acted well within discretion deciding without engaging gerrymandering. (b) court-ordered contravene §2 Act, violation occurs if "it shown political processes . election equally open participation members [a minority] ,'' 42 U.S.C. §1973(b). rejects appellants' contrary position premised impermissible vote dilution failure district. A plaintiff seeking establish must, inter alia, meet requirements forth Thornburg Gingles, 478 30, 50-51, 106 2752, 2766-2767, 92 25. Because found, clear error, population sufficiently compact first these factors satisfied. Nor can said, significant white crossover voting, clearly erred insufficient polarization third Gingles factors, minority group "politically cohesive'' majority votes bloc enable defeat minority's preferred candidate. disagrees arguments findings owed deference maintenance Fifth creation inconsistent, hold separate hearing whether violated §2, barred private intervention defend District's constitutionality. (c) violate §5 requires covered jurisdictions obtain administrative preclearance Attorney General approval Columbia voting-procedure change, change "not have purpose [or] effect denying abridging right color,'' §1973c. section aims prevent changes retrogression minorities respect effective exercise franchise. Beer 425 130, 141, 96 1357, 1364, 47 629. Although court-devised need precleared §5, Connor 402 690, 691, 91 1760, 1761-1762, 29 268 (per curiam), should appropriate standards fashioning McDaniel Sanchez, 452 149, 101 2224, 2235-2236, 68 724. Even accept proposed benchmarks measuring retrogression, desired would demonstrated possible constitutional bounds. Moreover, none benchmarks-the supposed policy creating shorn defects-was ever effect, thus operate benchmark General's regulations and, e.g., Holder Hall, 512 874, 883-884, 114 2581, 2587-2588, 129 687. defects all, benchmark, since cannot used freeze place very aspects is, fact, what concluded be: 1982 decade. Appellants particular suffered strength measured plan. (d) guarantee person, Article I, §2. ordinarily achieve provision's goal equality little more than de minimis variation, Chapman Meier, 420 1, 26-27, 95 751, 765-66, 766, slight deviations allowed upon enunciation unique features historically policies, 26, 765-766, including, desire municipal boundaries preserve cores prior Karcher Daggett, 462 740, 103 2653, 2663, 77 133. Here, has overall deviation lower other presented otherwise constitutionally defective. recited detail those supporting deviation, including strong historical preference splitting counties outside Atlanta area precincts, maintaining core communities interest, unusually high counties. unacceptable, solution adoption infirm, race-based, plans, simply shifting few precincts even out greatest deviations. equitable considerations-the passage six years census data ongoing dramatic shifts changes-disfavor requiring yet reapportionment correct deviation. See 732, 2659. 922 F.Supp. 1556, affirmed. KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, SCALIA, THOMAS, JJ., joined. BREYER, filed dissenting opinion, STEVENS, SOUTER, GINSBURG, 1 Seth P. Waxman, Washington, DC, appellant No. 2 Laughlin McDonald, Atlanta, GA, appellants 95-1425. 3 Michael J. Bowers, appellees Zell 4 A. Lee Parks, 5 KENNEDY Court. 6 before us our 762 (1995). three-judge panel Southern Congressional drawn. Race, we held, lines. Id., 7 Given contorted shape undue lines, unlikely redrawn changing most all 11 total number. District. too, confirmed Johnson 1552 8 For task legislature, 1556 (1995); absence second, third, become principal point contention. Though been completed, remains until changed valid act, ask aside. 9 voters, defendant-intervenors below, who contend account. defendant-intervenor, joins appeal. officials, defendants object appeared plaintiffs argued gerrymandering previous equal protection. 10 attack five grounds. First, citing 725 (1982), say disregarding choices making necessary cure allege violates §§2 1965, §§1973, 1973c. Fourth, argue contains so requirement. Fifth, claim allowing question unconstitutionality. included questions one, two, four jurisdictional statement. Private brief fifth contention, will address remaining challenges unavailing well, affirm judgment We exceeded authorized decisions, particularly supra, failing follow legislature. When faced necessity judicial order, court, rule, Act. U.S., 1522. Much parties centers around principles acknowledged relevant guideline Johnson; not, earlier effort. These contentions require recite some Legislature-and 12 history recounted repeat only here. arose 1990 when Georgia, increase, went seats 11. To move ahead redistricting, special session opened August 1991. jurisdiction §4(b) §1973b(b), "standard, practice, procedure voting.'' "of color.'' Ibid. submitted October Appendix (hereinafter Appendix), fig. 1. Eleventh. Previously, had Fifth. 13 refused January 1992. It In refusal, cited several alternative proposing called "max-black'' drafted American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) Assembly's caucus. At point, Assembly gain preclearance. Appendix, 2. adopted ACLU's max-black model. One Eleventh, geographic ""monstrosity, stretching Savannah. Its plantation country center state, lightly populated, heavily black. links narrow corridors neighborhoods Augusta, Savannah southern DeKalb County.''' 2484 (quoting M. Barone & G. Ujifusa, Almanac Politics 356 (1994)). served purpose, however, secure Justice. 14 On November 4, 1992, elected candidates. 1994, suit alleging gerrymander Equal Protection Clause interpreted Shaw Reno, 509 630, 113 2816, 125 511 (1993). invalid, judge dissenting. 864 1354 (1994). 15 rejected "regardless legislature's purposes, demonstrate district's bizarre unexplainable race.'' 2485. said "the essence protection recognized State separating districts.'' 2485, 2486. And explained " [t]he plaintiff's burden show, through circumstantial demographics direct going motivating decision district.'' 16 upheld indicating constructing ""exceedingly obvious''' shape, together demographics, designed bring populations. 2489 F.Supp., 1375). Second, evidence-including concessions-showed driven "a predominant, desire'' satisfy 2481. Department, indeed, ""would nothing less abject surrender maximization agenda.''' 1366, n. 11). 17 considered race-based districting satisfied strict scrutiny narrowly tailored compelling governmental interest. As noted, [o]ur presumptive skepticism classifications'' prohibited "from accepting face Department's conclusion Act.'' 2491. After reviewing evidence, [i]nstead grounding objections discriminatory appear Government maximizing 2492. 18 remand, Legislature, giving time map. governor Assembly, met September 12, 1995. deadlocked House Representatives Status Report Defendants Howard, Cleland, Aug. 31, 1995, Record, Pleadings Vol. 11, Doc. 295, while Senate one. Sept. 5, 300. 13, notified unable resolve differences adjourned, leaving develop remedy. 19 Plaintiffs moved amend same grounds received additional purpose. None lived assuming lack standing it, asked addition parties. disallowed request, ruling aspect review. 20 "overriding factor'' borders. 1553. split 35 counties, 28 numerous cities. Linda Meggers, Director Reapportionment Services qualified expert witness testified Columbus Muscogee County, Albany Dougherty Macon Bibb splits. She she followed 1554-1555. no reason sufficient survive scrutiny. determination devising 21 During phase, variety plans. unprecleared passed closely resembled improper. ACLU 1A, known "least change'' make minimal perceived Another Abrams A, nine reasons. Yet C jointly sponsored John Lewis, Democrat member Newt Gingrich, Republican member-the Lewis-Gingrich Amici-R plan-contained response, submission plaintiffs, "Illustrative Plan.'' so, closed. Plan precincts. objected submission. mentioned Illustrative give explicit objection. late prevented demographer cross-examined about motivations, significance discounted. 22 own. 3. Noting thorough "subversion process'' census, 1972 1563. decide where locate growth near displace fewest traditional maintaining: cores, "corner districts'' corners State, subdivisions cities, urban area. Protecting incumbents contests each factor, subordinated others "inherently political.'' 1565. stated that, remedy, possibility decided doing "subordinate consider predominantly, exclusion both norms common sense.'' 1566. concentration allow adding "would probably done so.'' 1567, 16. resulting potential requirement vote. B 23 background, say, direction Seamon preferences. Upham, Texas Legislature. specific part namely contiguous south Texas. He approved 25 redrew just objectionable neighbors unrelated Dallas hundreds miles north. 38, 1519-1520. offended "was free disregard program'' White Weiser, 412 783, 797, 93 2348, 2355-2356, 37 335 (1973). 24 instant case presents quite different situation place, considerations. correct-not follow-constitutional yielded threats, entirely race-focused approach redistricting-the policy. 2489. Using validate maneuvers major cause districting. affects large State; affect almost every 27 violation. pointed out, unconstitutional, opposite sides between parts nearly 1561. Almost along Under circumstances, justified substantial consistent principles, considering predominate. This conforms Upham. 26 objection contain particular, denied preclearance, suggested above, subjected steady there predominantly consideration developing support position, rely broad assertions "racial gerrymander.''' Brief O.T.1994, 94-631, p. 49. Against assertions, testimony Ms. originally concession map initial response office that's ridiculous.'' "It doesn't sense I maybe may get trouble don't [it] like think main reason'' Tr. 431-432 (Oct. 1995). Meggers referred "understanding'' leadership caucus created. 431. legislators indicated understanding arrived shadow goal, way consideration. Robert Hanner, chairman Committee, his testimony. 74-75. Sonny Dixon, felt 81. Thomas Murphy, Speaker now, deposition "what least instructions Department.'' Deposition B. Record 22-23; see 6. refers development undermines contention controlling There support, then, resulted interference per se concern, rather fact led race. problematic insist retaining regard other, neutral factors. course. Instead, gave careful district; predominate over expression ample record conclusions. No satisfying principles. [i]f concentrated enough majority-minority subverting statements witnesses independent so. unless motive, Georgia. 434-435 Murphy doubted "very seriously'' violating laid down Deposition, Oct. 24. shared many Among things, connected County mainly rural east Georgian 1563, 9. Indeed, respects geographical monstrosity became introduced Selwyn Carter, employee Atlanta-based Regional Council whose job advocate across South. Mr. Carter "basic goal'' preparing [t]o show African comprise approximately 50 percent age factor.'' 296 "least-change'' flaws. Besides discussed, iguana-like betraying invidious condemned close terms Plan. splits State. twisted shapes again bear motivation. County-a county never apportionment plans-to subsume Macon's consequence motivation, apparent impetus. 1561, 4. motivation oral Oral Arg. proper mayor city council supported 13. alleged urge segregated vitiate rights objecting voters. Interference itself II 30 violative reject Section applies "voting qualification prerequisite standard, imposed applied subdivision '' §1973(a). face, apply ordered assume comply exercising powers redistrict. nomination opportunity electorate participate process elect representatives choice.'' 31 Our (1986), basic framework establishing at-large, multimember districts; extended single-member Growe Emison, 507 25, 40-41, 1075, 1084-1085, 122 388 threshold conditions: first, "is geographically constitute district''; cohesive''; "votes candidate.'' 2766-2767. Once conditions, considers whether, "on totality circumstances,'' "equal opportunity'' "participate 32 subordinating discussion above founded. If applies, Bush Vera, 517 116 1941, 1952-1953, 135 248 (1996), serve interest order survive. assumed, deciding, compliance See, 1960-1961; ---------, 2490-2491. "strong evidence,'' 656, 2832 (internal quotation marks omitted), conclude dilution, occur claim, established Bush, 1959-1961. 33 Here 1567. So noted before, create, "reasonably compact.'' De Grandy, 997, 1008, 2647, 2655-2656, 775 compactness inquiry "traditional boundaries.'' 1960. 34 factors-the racially polarized voting-wanting. inquiry, justify discussed great length. statistical inconclusive conflicting, expert, Dr. Joseph Katz, convincing refutation Allan Lichtman, States' expert. 1388. degree District,'' 1390, "fail[ed] chronic 1392. average percentage whites candidates ranged 22% 38%, blacks 20% 23%. 1390. [b]lack black-preferred achieved victories local statewide significant-occasionally overwhelming-support District.'' 1390-1391. results Democratic primary willingness candidates'': 55% vote, Cynthia McKinney, black, won runoff 23% 1391. concerning relied exclusively record. hearing, reaffirmed voting. Representative Sanford Bishop, congressman agreed. 438, 142 36 assessment level event, threshold. requirements. tend candidates.'' All majority-white running —(In incumbency "special circumstanc[e]'' evaluating 57, 2769-2770. case, candidates' success "general willingness'' blacks.) underscore weakness methodology calculating likelihood candidate winning percentages. 27, 18. predicted likely foreclosed winning'' Tenth result clearly'' Fourth 33%. 27. McKinney inconsistent deference, population, community warrant 1568. probability electing below 50% registered 50%, ibid., therefore kept —(The uncomfortable using percentages "that condones voter apathy.'' 1568, 18.) made Districts. 38 agree indicates reference conflicting entitled deference. area-created Act-had Further, possible, although express subject, 39 due constitutionality agree. neither precedents nor adequacy present fully participated. find erroneous. III 40 include statement, agrees briefed issue. 41 voting,'' always insure franchise.'' 629 (1976). arises decree subject §5. [a] Act'' precleared. 1762, (1971) curiam). exception devised itself, 148-152, 2235-2238, 724 (1981). proposition dispute. emphasized language Committee report saying ""in standards, body developed cases.''' 2236 S.Rep. 94-295, (1975), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1975, pp. 774, 785). reasonable account, statutory mandate. 43 Appellants, difficulty fixing measure retrogression. "policy 48. part, contends altered defects. 44 discussions So, benchmarks, happens, appropriate. proposal regulations: 45 "In determining retrogressive normally compare practice jurisdiction's applicable date coverage legally enforceable comparison shall last jurisdiction.'' C.F.R. §51.54(b)(1) (1996). 46 687 (1994) ("Under baseline definition; status -[T]here discerning practices determine occur.''); Reno Bossier Parish School Board, --- 117 1491, 1494, 137 730 (1997). reasons effect; myriad attendant confusion. attempt use benchmark-the effect. benchmark. 1569, 20. Absent proof, assertion retrogressive. They ten (10%) eleven (9%) opportunities logic, add growth, majority-minority. require. IV 48 Finally, provision "as practicable.'' Wesberry Sanders, 376 7-8, 84 526, 530, 481 (1964). Court-ordered higher ones. "ordinarily variation.'' 766 (1975); Finch, 431 407, 414, 97 1828, 1833, 52 465 (1977) (same). designing one-person, one-vote violation, keep mind "absolute [is] paramount objective.'' 2659, 133 (1983). Slight certain circumstances. Chapman, 765-766 ("With approximate features.''); Connor, 419-420, 1830 (same); Karcher, 2663 ("Any consistently might variance, instance, compact, respecting boundaries, preserving avoiding incumbent[s].''). 49 help interpreting follows, explain terms. Overall difference disparity. Average districts' perfect allocation. allocation perfect, 588,928 people, according data. 0.35%, 0.11%. than: (with 0.93% 0.35% deviation); "any defective.'' amici much 0.94%; 0.99%; came 1.86%. (0.19%) (0.29%), infirmities above. 51 conditions preference'' area, 1562. observed unavoidable Cobb noncontiguous annexation patterns, Clayton 1562, 6.) alone Kirkpatrick Preisler, 394 533-534, 89 1225, 1230-1231, 519 (1969) (" [W]e acceptable variances necessarily avoid fragmenting county, municipal, boundaries.''). conformance "unique Georgia'' weighed 765-766. counties: 159, apart much-larger small represent greater common, "such proliferation'' provides "ample building blocks chopping half.'' 1377. appellants. 28-29. Rather, minor plan-a shiftings precincts-to 53 That exercise, appellant's deviations, increasingly futile. based. (0.11%) Plan's (0.07%) 0.04%, represents 328 people 588,928. stood still. fastest-growing continues undergo changes. Dept. Commerce, Bureau Census, Statistical Abstract (1996) (Table 28) (showing tied seventh among 11.2% growth). light changes, tinkerings propose reflect true distribution event. explaining absolute "census perfect,'' "population counts localities outdated long completed.'' written magnitude far Karcher. considerations disfavor V 54 best left legislatures, capable courts, balancing traditions legitimate policies. distorted solution. embark delicate limited guidance. remained sensitive laws. 55 *** 56 57 ordered. APPENDIX TO OPINION OF THE COURT 58 [NOTE: MATERIAL SET AT THIS POINT IS NOT DISPLAYABLE (GRAPHIC OR TABULAR MATERIAL)] 59 whom GINSBURG join, 60 elects Members Representatives. African-American 1.7 million, 6.5 million. 2483, three-district 2494. up 1560-1561 (S.D.Ga.1995). legal retained (not but) 61 holds lawfully But my view departs dramatically districts-a embodied two-district here, 1522, program Legislature.'' reason, others, dissent. 62 understands relevance, importance, decision. said: 63 ""[J]ust federal preferences expressed whenever adherence detract Federal Constitution, similarly honor context reapportionment.''' 41, 1521 794-795, 2355, (1973)). 64 referring language, agrees: 65 [A]court, Ante, __ (citing 1522). 66 ground leave one-unless preference; 1965; proved impractical important objectives. 41-42, 1521-1522 White, 2354-2355). Unlike majority, countervailing justifications. 67 denies looks expressions "policies preferences'' 41; figure infra. increased size App. began lengthy issue, others. 10-14; 11-17, 20-22, 32-33, 85 (May 6, 1994). (DOJ Department) (VRA), §1973, Subsequently struck supra. What deny "preferences'' preference. "Georgia's current product will,'' tainted DOJ interference'' "process'' produced 1560. repeats comment DOJ's "thorough process' census,'' ante, __, adds "State driven'' "steady pressure,'' concludes: 69 "Interference __. 70 believe, majority's conclusion-its refusing recognize preference-is wrong matter law. factually inadequate cited, unusual shows unusual. told VRA, statement exhortation (Apr. 18, 1994); 431-433 1995); affirmatively wanted 22, ""understanding' caucus''; __; 1994), "two district'' (as conceded) gerrymander,''' 49); found) "like efforts, culmination committee meetings, public hearings, examination proposals, hours spent extremely sophisticated computer.'' 1354, 1363 departmental "interference'' took Plan, 21, 39-40, 75 79-80 2483-2484; 94-641, 16, reflected related discrimination history. Busbee Smith, 549 494, 500, aff'd, 459 1166, 809, 74 1010 (1983); 139-140. 72 looking "plans legislature,'' 2354-2355), pressures individual (or, matter, after-the-fact regarding intent). Cf. 1521; 2354-2355; "Districting plans,'' acts, "are integrated bundles compromises, deals, principles.'' 2004, (SOUTER, dissenting) Pildes Niemi, Expressive Harms, "Bizarre Districts,'' Rights: Evaluating Election-District Appearances Mich. L.Rev. 483, 585-586 (1993)). Acts, reasoned pressures, brought individuals groups subtle unsubtle suggestions, promises votes, publicity, lawsuits. 73 How legitimate-that reflects policies-when cajole (or threaten suit) farmers, businessmen, consumer groups, becomes illegitimate-that "true'' preference-simply persuade Department. exercised influence decisions; employees' sworn duty uphold law seem suitably characterized paying attention views heeding less. Regardless, am aware principle supports kind distinction (among pressures) made; reliance distinction, vacating believe "really'' want created? is-as earlier-evidence 1930-1931. long, documented past Busbee, supra; Rogers Lodge, 458 613, 3272, 1012 (1982); Gray 372 368, 83 801, 821 (1963); Morris Fortson, 261 538, 541 (N.D.Ga.1966); Lodge Buxton, 639 F.2d 1358, 1378 (C.A.5 1981) (racial Burke County); Carrollton Branch NAACP Stallings, 829 1547, 1559 (C.A.11 1987) Carroll Cross Baxter, 604 875, 880, 1979); Paige Gray, 437 137, 158 (M.D.Ga. 1977) (Albany, Ga.); Pitts 395 35, (N.D.Ga.1975) (Fulton Bailey Vining, 514 452, 461 (M.D.Ga.1981) (Putnam Wilkes 450 1171, 1174 (D.D.C.1978); generally E. Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877, 423-424 (1988); Binford, Quiet Revolution South: Impact 1965-1990, 67-74 (C. Davidson Grofman eds.1994). unfortunate consequences flowed facts Congress enacted fewer Americans eligible represented Reconstruction, 140, Congressman Jefferson Franklin Long briefly Ragsdale Treese, Black Congress, 1870-1989, 81 (1990). 76 thought (indeed, proportionate amount of) overcome problems suggest. Forty-two (180 member) themselves white. 116. hundred thirty eight Forty-three (56 Until 1972, Reconstruction. Reference Library America (K. Estell ed.1994). Since Sherman, Diluting Votes Stronger Voice; Politicians Debate Remap, Journal-Constitution, 17, Each (although recently re-elected boundary created majorities districts). circumstances why race-related barriers-barriers erected prejudice, reinforced inertia nonparticipation. Not (unprecleared) suggest think. value thereby suggest, preference.'' 78 says be) "flawed motive,'' reasonably §1973. means unlawful-that 79 -district five-Justice subsequently "predominate'' boundary, nonetheless lawful (because compelling, hence redeeming interest) concluding'' VRA 1970 (O'CONNOR, concurring); 2490; 656-657, 2831-2832, ""strong evidence' form,'' concurring), present, "may awaiting findings.'' Ibid.; Wygant Jackson Bd. Ed., 476 267, 289-291, 1842, 1854-1856, 90 260 (1986) Barresi, 39, 1287, 1288, 582 (1971). standard. __-__. evidence'' believing both, 80 agrees, "totality circumstances'' suggests excluded "participat[ing] "elect[ing] choice,'' §1973(b), (1) majority'' "single-member district;'' (2) cohesive;'' (3) usually (1986). discusses (Gingles) requirement-compactness-the raised possibilities: southwest Georgia-in labeled (Appendix, 2, infra); southeastern central 3, infra). 82 involved compactly shaped (which merits, 1561 4) newly 54.60 percent, 51.04 0.10 (This percentage-the highest Plan-was still Plan.) concentrations east-central link'' "land bridges appendages'' similar 15, predecessor. try build land-bridge linking Compare 2484. regular. strikes me encompassed "compact'' confuses issues. compactness, concerns differs group's compactness. Additionally, here) infra, cohesiveness-whether share interests-than knowledge, purposes. seems live interests; living interests-in matters. Karlan Levinson, Why Is Different, Calif. 1201, 1216-1220 (1996); 64, 2773 Butler, Constitutional Statutory Challenges Election Structures: Dilution Value Right Vote, La. 851, 902 S. Verba N. Nie, Participation 151-152 (1972)). (the "political cohesiveness'' "bloc voting'') single rubric, calls Of course, history, before-the come districts-strongly existence "polarization.'' experts willing varied 0 percent. 54-61, 69-70, 72. Other (placing numbers white-for-black black-for-white). 1390 (S.D.Ga.1994). rested (and judicial, primary) multiple discouraged racial-bloc overstated numerical results. 93-94; nn. 2769, 26. says, "conflicting.'' conceded "some polarization.'' (It "degree'' ""alarming.''' Ibid.). reelected more, disprove polarization. 75, 2779 97-417, 1982, 177, 206-07) Zimmer McKeithen, 485 1297, 1307 1973) (en banc), aff'd. sub nom. East Marshall, 424 636, 1083, (1976) curiam)) [T]he "necessarily' foreclose ''); 115, 207, 115) (listing assessing polarization). 86 despite findings-of violation-are supported. question. __-__ (Nor, consequent reduction would, things equal, §5-which do. __-__.). proves belief demonstrates believed And, law, opinions, justification test 87 distinction-between really §2-may technical. not. permits legislatures redistrict (for latter requires). rests (i.e., basis'' so) leaves modicum discretionary (race-related) authority hands legislators. Again minimum), judgment. 88 significantly interfere easiest understand look placed call one-district C. Inspection (B) (A C) critical feature, two. Now important. are: corner state; subdivisions; protecting incumbents; (e) cores. 1564-1565. identical maintains corners; creates B-the plan-is marginally superior criterion (maintaining subdivisions). 1564. (Bibb Muscogee) —(Appellants, advance nonracial justifications splits.) displaces incumbents. (including African-Americans). moves Georgians advantages: maintains, provided 138 159 123. uniformity districts-the point. claims cast ballot "dilution'' Regester, 755, 2332, 314 (1973); Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 1362, 506 (1964), Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 125, 110 (1960); Calif.L.Rev., insofar race-conscious, sought unlawful dilution-i.e., perhaps Testimony Bishop). sets mentioned, how determination. 94 cases judges holdings test-"predominant motive''-would prove unworkable, shift use) sometimes unfair distinctions 676-679, 2843-2845 (STEVENS, dissenting); 679-687, 2844-2849 2497 2499 (GINSBURG, 1974 1997 Hunt, 1894, 1907, 207 dissenting). exacerbates concerns. Legislators, example, words "predominant motive'' mean. obvious answer motives (here efforts district) portion entire (most inevitably features, 120-121); (whether many) consciousness places another. More importantly, unlike somewhat words, turned considerations, intent, explain, limit scope of, themselves. Reynolds, Gomillion, today's suit, legislator wonder he knowingly because, "community'' already there; thinks favor Democrats Republicans); wants incumbent; believes encourage induced apathy; better needs desires; Nation diverse. forbids instances. Adarand Constructors, Inc. Pena, 200, 2097, 2116-2117, 646-647, 2826-2827; 2487; 280, 1850, (1986); Richmond J.A. Croson Co., 488 469, 493-494, 109 706, 721-722, 854 (1989). some, instances, know when, why. tells him answers vary depending reflects, economics, education, national origin. 2506 difficult-without guiding limiting principle, shape-to principled what, context, traditionally questions. increases risk entanglement inherently process. 2500 33-34, 1080-1081, (1993); Voinovich Quilter, 146, 156-157, 1149, 1156-1157, 500 765, 795, 2354; 586, 1394; Colegrove Green, 549, 552-554, 1198, 1199-1200, L.Ed. 1432 (1946). overt all) listed simultaneously permit lawsuits complaining covert overtly forbidden. Any generate potentially injured able carry battles forum. (unable refer principle) difficult dismiss claims-particularly says) deprives defenses required. 98 simple, administrable stopping place-a function one-person-one-vote reapportionment. 2502 simple "color blind'' test-a rules race-consciousness board-will work. 2005-2006 Legislators consciously discriminate minorities, "diluting'' votes. Inc., 2117. recognizing harm slavery subsequent segregation legislators, limits, conscious effort effects discrimination. 2490. instances well. ignoring, religion origin, disadvantage group, Americans, War Amendments help, 2505-2506 administration characteristics involve deeply basically redrawing boundaries. 99 focusing practical dissents argued. holding underscores dissents; problems, turn, further doubt soundness 100 disagree mentioned. stop unreasonably pervasive positive doctrine restrict legislators' benign, antidiscriminatory too responsibility. embodies enunciates. vacate suit. Together 95-1460, al., court. syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499.

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