Legal Document

381 U.S. 1 85 Supreme Court Reporter 1271 14 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 179 Louis ZEMEL, Appellant,v.Dean RUSK, Secretary of State, et al. Number 86. Argued March 1, 1965. Decided May 3, Rehearing Denied Oct. 11, See 86 17. [Syllabus from pages 1-2 intentionally omitted] Leonard baron Boudin, Washington D.C., for appellant. Archibald Cox, Sol. Gen., appellees. Mr. Chief Justice WARREN delivered the opinion Court. The questions decision are whether State is statutorily authorized to refuse validate passports citizens travel Cuba, and, if he is, exercise that authority constitutionally permissible. We answer both in affirmative. 2 Prior 1961 no passport was required anywhere Western Hemisphere. On January 3 year, broke diplomatic and consular relations with Cuba. 16 Department eliminated Cuba area which were not required, declared all outstanding (except those held by persons already Cuba) be invalid or 'unless specifically endorsed such under State.' A companion press release stated contemplated granting exceptions 'persons whose may regarded as being best interests States, newsmen businessmen previously established business interests.' Through an exchange letters early 1962, appellant, a citizen holder otherwise valid passport, applied have his validated tourist. His request denied. October 30, renewed request, stating purpose proposed trip 'to satisfy my curiosity about state affairs make me better informed citizen.' again denied, on ground did nto meet prescribed standards travel. 4 December 7, appellant instituted this suit against Attorney General District Connecticut, seeking judgment declaring: (1) entitled Constitution laws purpose; (2) use would violate any statute, regulation, restriction; (3) Secretary's restrictions upon invalid; (4) Passport Act 1926 § 215 Immigration Nationality 1952 unconstitutional; (5) refusal grant him violated rights guaranteed Nations Declaration Human Rights; (6) denial endorsement without formal hearing Fifth Amendment.1 complaint also requested directed appellant's enjoined interfering In amended complaint, added constitutional attack Acts prayer enforcing them. 5 motion, over objection appellees, three-judge court convened. crossmotions summary judgment, court, divided vote, granted State's motion dismissed action General, 228 F.Supp. 65 (D.C.D.Conn.1964). postponed consideration jurisdictional question case merits, 379 809, 34, 13 25. I. 6 direct appeal district lies 28 Code KF62 1253 (1958 ed.) only 'from order denying * interlocutory permanent injunction civil action, proceeding congress heard determined three judges.' Thus we must deal first Government's contention improperly convened, correct, lacks jurisdiction appeal. Phillips versus 312 246, 248, 61 480, 481, L.Ed. 800. 7 Section 2282 Title requires impanelling where relief sought '(a)n restraining enforcement, operation execution Congress repugnance *.' its face, calling below enjoin enforcement 1952, statutes unconstitutional, meets requirements 2282. Solicitor notes accorded full voiding order. It true argument—that either supported Congress, unconstitutional—is two-pronged. But often litigant need abandon nonconstitutional arguments obtain court: 'The joining along one does dispense necessity convene court.'2 8 apparently conceding—as judges agreed—that Amendment substantial, cf. Kent Dulles, 357 116, 125, 78 1113, 1118, 1204; Aptheker 378 500, 505—506, 84 1659, 1663—1664, 12 992, argues it reality administrative, opposed legislative, policy, therefore, cases like 800, Ex parte Bransford, 310 354, 60 947, 1249, been evaluate contention, attacks 'they contain therefore delegation legislative power.' This allegation cannot brushed aside actions Secretary; arguing delegation, has quite clearly assailed themselves. argument another ground: labeling 'frivolous.' Although do accept argument, infra, Pages 17-18, agree so insubstantial compel read out court. Compare William Jameson & company Morgenthau, 307 171, 59 804, 83 1189; Schneider Rusk, 372 224, 621, 9 695. Indeed, explicitly noted supra, at 129, 1120 had issue petitioner Acts, then obliged consider void delegation.3 launches substantial two federal statutes, prays their enjoined. Cf. Idlewild Bon Voyage Liquor Corporation Epstein, 370 713, 715, 82 1294, 1296, 794. hold properly appeal.4 II. 10 think 1926, 44 Statutes-at-Large 887, 22 211a ed.), embodies Executive That provides, pertinent part: 11 rules President shall designate prescribe behalf *.'5 provision derived 23 August 18, 1856, 52, 60—61, had, prior re-enacted several times change. history predecessors not, true, affirmatively indicate intention authorize restrictions. However, language surely broad enough restrictions, there indicating intent exclude authority; these factors take significance when viewed light fact during decade preceding passage Act, imposed peacetime wartime As result famine Belgium 1915, stopped issuing country except 'applicants go thither special exigency Red Cross Belgian Relief Commission.' III Hackworth, Digest International Law, Page 526 (1942). Beginning 9, 1914, continuing through World War, I, specific purposes countries. No issued Germany Austria until July 1922, none Soviet Union approximately September 1923. Hearings before Senate Committee Foreign Relations Policies, 85th Cong., 1st Sess., 63—64. permit executive imposition after recent past openly asserted power impose predecessor containing substantially same language, supports conclusion intended maintain restrictions.6 construction reinforced Department's continued war periods peace since 1926. For period seven months following outbreak between Italy Ethiopia 1935, declined Ethiopia, journalists, representatives, others able show 'compelling exigency' necessitating include applications, but were—by reason mention applications adjacent countries—suspected intending therein, stamped 'not Ethiopia.' 531—532. Following Spanish Civil War 1936, Spain,' newspapermen furnishing medical assistance. Id., 533—534. similar restriction placed China 1937, view 'the disturbed situation Far East.' Passports 'in exceptional circumstances,' women children. 532 533. 31, 1938, President, purporting act pursuant issuance passports, Exec. Order 7856, Fed.Reg. 681, 687: 15 discretion restrict certain countries, withdraw cancel issued, restricting validity countries.' still force. Federal Regulations 51.75. 1939, Europe prohibited specially travel; showing 'imperativeness' Departmental 811, 3892. 17 Area numerous occasions Travel Yugoslavia restricted late 1940's series incidents involving American citizens. Dept. Press Conf., 1947. Hungary 1949 1951, 1951.7 June began stamp Czechoslovakia,' time 24 Bull. 932. general new Albania, Bulgaria, Communist China, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Rumania Union. 26 id., 736. 1955, announced longer require validation Union, areas control authorities relations: portions Korea Viet-Nam communist control.' 33 777. February 1956, reimposed. 34 246—248. And brief Egypt, Israel, Jordan Syria. 35 756. 18 Even legislation enacted post-1926 well pre-1926 history, relevance our Act. interpretation expressly statute charged administration given weight courts faced task construing statute. Udall Tallman, 380 16—18, 792, 801—802; Norwegian Nitrogen Products 288 294, 315, 53 350, 358, 77 796. Under some circumstances, Congress' failure repeal revise face administrative constitute persuasive evidence Congress.8 case, however, inference more than mere congressional inaction. reenacting passed First Second Wars,9 provided presidential proclamation national emergency, unlawful leave enter passport. 66 190, 1185 ed.). urges 1953 emergency outstanding,10 violation correctness reach appeal, see 18—20. attach criminal penalties certainly meant cut back Despite years authorizing though once relating left completely untouched rule-making earlier surpa, 313, 357.11 19 unable find, regard sort involved there, practice sufficiently consistent warrant implicitly approved it. Appellant reminds us summarizing Kent, observed: 20 'So far material here, generally fell into categories. First, citizenship applicant allegiance resolved Secretary. Second, participating illegal conduct, trying escape toils law, promoting frauds, engaging conduct States.' U.S., 127, S.Ct., 1119. 21 remembered, reading passage, could denied because political beliefs associations. finding support position summarized 'so here' refusals based character particular applicant. refused characteristic peculiar rather foreign policy considerations affecting III. Having concluded next abridges right should one's validated, must, approach issues presented candidly, proceed assumption acts deterrent area. '(t)he part 'liberty' deprived due process law Amendment.' 1663. liberty inhibited mean can circumstances inhibited.12 function extent governmental imposed,13 restriction. Hemisphere controlled government. moreover, major goal Castro regime export revolution rest Latin America.14 other members Organization countries important element spreading subversion, many undertaken measures discourage travel.15 forgotten days regime, arrested imprisoned charges. think, particularly President's statutory obligation 'use means, amounting war, necessary proper' secure unjustly government,16 justifiably might involve Nation dangerous international incidents, within course protected, Edwards People California, 314 160, 62 164, 119. freedom ravaged flood, fire pestilence quarantined demonstrated unlimited directly materially interfere safety welfare whole. So challenged weightiest security perhaps pointed up recalling Cuban missile crisis 1962 preceded filing less months. 25 asserts denies Amendment. claim different raised expression association part; forced choose membership organization Appellant's rather, 'travel ban interference abroad they acquaint themselves hand effects policies, domestic, conditions affect policies.' renders wholly free flow information concerning country. While further factor considered determining law,17 involved. inhibition (and unrealistic assume not), action. There few clothed ingenious garb decreased data flow. example, prohibition unauthorized entry White House diminishes citizen's opportunities gather find relevant way run, right. speak publish carry unrestrained information. Finally, challenges definite formulation controls Executive. bear mind, appraising changeable explosive nature contemporary relations, immediately privy swiftly to, evaluated by, acted legislature, Congress—in giving matters affairs—must paint brush broader customarily wields domestic areas. 27 'Practically every volume Statutes contains joint resolutions respect subjects unrestricted provide standard always requisite affairs.' Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 304, 324, 57 216, 223, 81 255. simply deals totally choice. grant. held, reaffirm today, content history: authorizes 'which fairly argued adopted practice.' 128, limited, delegation. IV. 29 compelling declaration 'is Cuba,' enjoining Read context makes appears latter prayers event decided incorporate that, even authority, decide criminally prosecuted, 215(b) 1185(b) section provides: 30 'After subsection (a) made published while force, shall, subject limitations prescribe, depart enter, attempt unless bears passport.' referred remains books. Pres. Proc. 3004, 67 c31; 11037, 621 (1959—1963 Comp.). correct refusing liability. 31 rule equity will processes, entertaining declaratory advance prosecution. Evers Dwyer, 358 202, 79 178, 222; Terrace Thompson, 263 197, 15, 68 Declaratory Judgments 2201 enabling confers absolute litigant.' Public Serv. commission Utah Wycoff Co., 344 237, 241, 73 236, 239, 97 291. filed specify mind—e.g., plans via Nor tell papers Government will, journeys charge leaving carrier bound Cuba; traveling returns home; journey takes re-entering having visited act—or all.18 Whether each gradations difference liability wisely took position. we. avoid rendering advisory opinions, adjudication constitutionality await concrete situation. Alabama Federation Labor, etc. McAdory, 325 450, 1384, 89 1725. 32 correctly affirmed. Affirmed. BLACK, dissenting. Article N Dec. Decisions provides 'All Powers herein vested consist Representatives.' (Emphasis supplied.) doubt grants ample enact regulating abroad, forbidden as, 517, 1670, 992 (concurring opinion); 1204. Since vests Powers' purports vest necessarily follows, control, devoid anything else. them regulations laws. 'inherent' governing passports. Post, 28—30. emphatically rejected advanced seizure Nation's steel companies President. Youngstown Sheet Tube Sawyer, 343 579, 72 863, 96 1153. regulation just companies, law-making—not executive, law-enforcing—function. 36 here 'because unequivocal words delegates discretionary cause granted, verified *.'1 Quite obviously, exaggerate saying 'does Secretary' 'delegates passports'—a broad, fact, marked bounds discretion. plain itself passports; merely matter say effect, 'We delegate you fit.' proceeded declaring States,' views interests. undefined law-making Secretary, both, applicable what Cardozo said National Industrial Recovery Act:2 'This running riot. plenitude susceptible transfer.' A.L.A. Schechter Poultry 295 495, 553, 55 837, 853, 1570 opinion). Panama Ref. Ryan, 293 388, 446; 1120, 37 Our ordained people only. vital farmed large blocks official, whoever be, department bureau, whatever expertise thought have. created enactment country's safely entrusted representatives official government agency. who called obey way. becomes essential person punishable five years' imprisonment $5,000 fine dares consent subordinates.3 irksome wishes told lawmaker legislate field, wishes. irritating—and authors Constitution, gave 'All' intended—for get (or practically, subordinates) go. repeat belief regulate course, good adequate reasons pass holding written officials. 420, 248. gives lawmaking violates command Congress. reverse judgment. 38 DOUGLAS, whom GOLDBERG concurs, 39 Appellant, Cuba: wished arose elimination 53.3(b), public notice 492. 16, 1961, permitted Office validation. Referring release, Deputy Director 'obvious your present visiting 40 1204, overseas, home, esoteric drawn blue. reflected peripheral know, converse others, consult them, observe social, physical, phenomena home meaning substance press. Without contacts suffer. why movement 'large social values.' 126, 1118. 41 ability understand pluralistic world, filled clashing ideologies, prerequisite peoples world nuclear holocaust. Pope John XXIII famous encyclical Pacem Terris idea eloquently. 42 'Men becoming convinced disputes arise recourse arms, negotiation. 43 'It historical grounds conviction chiefly terrible destructive force modern arms; nourished horror aroused mind very cruel destruction immense suffering armaments bring human family; hardly possible imagine atomic era used instrument justice. 'Nevertheless, unfortunately, fear reigns among peoples, forces spend fabulous sums armaments: aggression, affirm—and believing them—but dissuade aggression. 45 'There hope, meeting negotiating, men come discover bonds unite together, deriving common; most profound common this: respective reign love, love tends express collaboration loyal, manifold form productive benefits.' He said: 46 'From beings arises assembly association.' 47 enjoyment guarantees, restrictive 'narrowly drawn' (Cantwell 296, 307, 900, 905, 1213) precise evil. Only last Term, reaffirmed struck down Subversive Activities Control 1950 (64 987) 'too broadly indiscriminately' 505, here. 48 Pestilences rage region making protect traveler infect return. theatre too Other situations put. so-called danger thought; regimes continent. They spectrum; know mingle said. Keeping alive intellectual intercourse opposing groups never now. 49 presupposes mature people, afraid ideas. leaves room truculent benign, nay yea ideas offend please believes objective served keeping letting Yet Court's today allows happen. determination demands Americans excluded. authorization according fixed Rather painted 'broad brush' pleased so. By permitting this, ignores 'familiar basic principle,' 508, 1664, 'a prevent activities achieved means sweep unnecessarily thereby invade protected freedoms.' NAACP Alabama, 377 288, 1302, 1314, 325. 50 said, periphery Amendment, core, largely speech: speech brigaded conduct. 'Conduct protection society. (But i)n exercised attaining permissible end, unduly infringe freedom.' Cantwell 903. Restrictions particularized precluded clear countervailing interest stands assertion.* 51 GOLDBERG, 52 Updated: year 2,750,000 traveled abroad. More 1,100,000 renewed, nearly 4,000 obtained journalists.1 phenomenal amount demonstrates things foreign, increasing importance of, for, travel, reflects long enjoyed. founding Republic encouraged travel.2 1820, Quincy Adams Luther Bradish certified visit 'with gratifying commendable curiosity.'3 citizen,' basis regulations, alleged Order, limitation beyond inherent Executive, reject contrary. With deference, power. Moreover, believe peace. hold, principles decisions inasmuch INHERENT AUTHORITY OF THE EXECUTIVE. 54 recognized 'an aspect 'liberty" Due Process Clause 1119, 1669, 'freedom closely related nations become politically commercially dependent greater impact lives citizens, correspondingly important. private journalists officials, obtained. And, system, ultimate responsibility rests hands people. Professor Chafee out, 'An crossed ocean opinions officials correspondents newspapers. enriched seeing how foreigners solve problems. ways contact contributes sounder home.' Chafee, Three Rights 1787, 195—196 (1956). decision-making democratic society led conclude '(i)f regulated, functions Congress.' 1120. Implicit statement, core rejection possesses prohibit impede great value, necessary4 parts world. 121, 1115. detail below, long-standing limit legal practical absence longstanding imposing 130, therefor explicit terms,' guarantees. 56 STATUTORY AUTHORITY. grant, issue, verify passports.' provision, re-enactment problem unlikely enacting view, relate establishes, designed solely centralize overcome abuses chaos caused documents. Atlantic Legislative History. 58 origin 60—61. 1856 regulated law. Governors local mayors, notaries documents produced confusion 1835 Forsyth wrote: knowledge agents governments authenticating governors authorities; officers usually authenticated ministers consuls States. Those functionaries, thus upon, embarrassed desire accommodate fellow-citizens unwillingness certify officially know; uniform practice, remove difficulties sides, strongly urged Department.' Moore, Law 862—863 (1906). efforts curb Marcy wrote 1854: 'To preserve proper guard frauds procuring regret magistrates pretending spurious papers. Others, again, passports—not States—seek fraudulent thinking abroad.' op. cit. 863. Department, lack (of passports) gross abuses, impositions practiced illiterate unwary fabrication worthless passports' (IX Op.Atty.Gen. 350) finally 1856.' States: Its History Functions 178 (1893). 60. crime identical form.5 indication originally re-enacted, serve centralizing eliminate issuance. Thus, rules, extends promulgation purpose. Administrative Practice 63 limited twice. During 1812 cross enemy lines 1861 beginning ruled loyalty doubt. These war. first, evidently second but, issued.6 Until ago virtually unknown, 193; Jaffe, Right Travel: Problem, Affairs 17, atmosphere place. 64 War. insisted Consulates Embassies 1915 telegraphed Ambassadors Ministers France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, Denmark: 'Do (then occupied German armed forces) applicants 525—526 After entered belligerency restricted. areas, requiring expired 1921, soon end 527; (hereafter Hearings). complete terms, sole which, noted, doing slightest enlarge Surely single telegram instructing deny re-enacting impos whenever believed policy. tradition movement, existed sweeping point precisely opposite direction.7 withhold withheld Communists suspected subversives found insufficient authorization. Dulles scattered interpretations occasion deemed subversive beliefs. 1901 Knox advised avowed anarchist.' 509, 511. Orders promulgated periodically 'revolutionary radicals.' Instructions 4, 1921. memorandum 29, states Russian Revolution 'passports desired indoctrination, instruction, 1931 *.'8 isolated instances beliefs, presents attenuated revealed instance connected Clearly associations curtail peace, power, neither nor tolerable 1119; Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 144, 554, 644. practic lead sanctioned, curtailment peace.9 69 intimates distinguishable applicants' ante, 13, little logic distinction. conclusions herent mentions dealing associations, ideological matters,' reveals turn factors. gathering information, activity seems afforded protection. relevant, controlling, C. Nature Problem 70 Statute's Inapplicability To Restrictions. 71 overlooks departs letter spirit implies resolved, problems curtailing varying importance. Some pleasure, business, education. lecturers equip firsthand Scientists scholars gain considerably interchanges colleagues nations. 195. Just wanting vary. says sometimes differences unsettled conditions, sometimes, program, together nations, isolate hostile attempts promote subversion 63—69. types circumstances. All newsmen, 67, allowed Notice (Jan. 1961), 492; Release 24, Jan. 1961. various underpinnings presumed focusing complex involved, adopting distinctions reconciling legitimate needs. focus whether, commitment press, prohibiting But, issues, presume blanket define scope duration, plainly call discriminately fashioned CONCLUSION. 74 disagree did. evident problem. determine delegated frame narrower appropriate application provided. See, e.g., Lichter 334 742, 785, 1316, 92 1694. unconstitutionally 75 Government, countries—considerations upon—I infer, does, involves needs, shows arising persons. possess peacetime, procedural abandoned Florida Lime Avocado Growers Jacobsen, 362 73, 80, 80 568, 573, 568; Allen Grand Central Aircraft 347 535, 745, 98 933; Lee Bickell, 292 415, 727, 1337; Sterling Constantin, 287 378, 190. 375. Douglas Noble, 261 165, 303, 590. convening coincides underlying 2282: complement, 2281 indicates sections judge paralyze entire regulatory scheme, federal, injunctive Repeatedly emphasized debates heavy pecuniary costs unforeseen debilitating interruptions wrought judge's order, burdens entailed coping harassing brought challenge wherever acquired, ultimately injunction.' 154—155, 560, 'single, unique exercise' 253, 484. contrary, seeks 'paralyze scheme,' indeed, scheme administered Nation. perform duties intrusted relative respecting assign R.S. 156 turn, (or) 687, Cerecedo Hermanos y Compania, 209 337, 532, 821; Service 354 363, 380, 1152, 1161, 1403; Labor Board Gullett Gin 340 361, 366, 340, 95 337. 399; 7. 357; Costanzo Tillinghast, 341, 345, 152, 153, 350; Midwest Oil 236 459, 472—473, 309, 312—313, 673. 22, 1918, 559; 21, 1941, 252. Pres.Proc. Exec.Order c31, 215, departure governed 'sections 53.1 53.9, inclusive, title Regulations.' 53.8 (1949 provided: 'Nothing construed exercising resting 505 514, 1662—1663; Schachtman U.S.App.D.C. 287, 290 (opinion court), (Edgerton, J., concurring), 225 Reporter, 2nd 938, 941, 944 (1955); Bolling Sharpe, 497, 499—500, 693, 694—695, 884; Freedom (Report Special Study Procedures, Association Bar City New York), 53, (1958); 192 supra; Universal Rights, (quoted, S.Doc.No.123, 81st 1157); Toyosaburo Korematsu 323 214, 218, 193, 195, 194. Pub. 7171, 25—36 (1961); Ball, Policy Toward 7690, (1964); 598—600. Report Resolutions II.1 VIII Eighth Meeting Consultation Affairs, OEA/Ser. G/IV, 14—16 (1963); 719; Resolution Final Ninth F/II.9 (1964). 2001, 1732 'Whenever known government, duty forthwith demand imprisonment; wrongful citizenship, citizen, demanded unreasonably delayed refused, effectuate release; facts proceedings thereto practicable communicated 126—127, 1118—1119, 520, 1671 (Douglas, concurring). particularity restrictions; 'confirms prohibits thereof.' Brief Appellees, 56; 10—11, 1933, (1964 Time alert overt regulation. 'In pursued stifle fundamental personal liberties narrowly achieved. breadth abridgment drastic achieving purpose.' Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 488, 247, 252, 231. Lovell Griffin, 303 444, 666, 949; Jersey, 308 147, 146, 155; Martin Struthers, 319 141, 862, 87 1313; Saia York, 558, 1148, 1574; Kunz 290, 312, 280; Schware Examiners, 353 232, 752, 756, 796; Louisiana ex rel. Gremillion NAACP, 366 293, 1333, 301; Button, 371 328, 405; supra. Summary Statistics Very recently voluntarily temporarily balance payments difficulties. (1898). Except 1918 1921 1941 Currently, unlawful, (without) expresses currently litigation now us. changes wording present: When Revised 1874, 'shall to' replaced 'may.' 4075. 14, 1902, increase list adding 'and chief officer insular possessions 386. modified substituting 'by consul generals, consuls, vice charge, designate,' 'such substituted 'any 887. disloyalty courts. Ante, 11. 64—65, indicated doubts 1958 formally asked 'clear using protecting presence conflict objectives.' H.R.Doc. 417, Sess. 1957 Commission Security recommended 'for invalid.' S.Doc. 64, 475. accompanying forbid 40; (1958). set above strong 470, 471 (1957). severed ties points 14—15, regards country, Banco Nacional de Sabbatino, 376 398, 410, 923, 931, 804.

Classification Label: 2