Legal Document

481 U.S. 681 107 S.Ct. 2063 95 L.Ed.2d 648 UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.Frieda Joyce JOHNSON, Personal Representative of the Estate Horton Winfield Johnson, Deceased, etc., et al. No. 85-2039. Argued Feb. 24, 1987. Decided May 18, Syllabus Under Feres v. United States, 340 135, 71 153, L.Ed. 152, Government has no Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA) liability for injuries to members military service arising out or in course activity incident service. Respondent's husband, a helicopter pilot Coast Guard, was killed when his crashed during rescue mission. Shortly before crash, air traffic controllers from Aviation Administration, civilian agency Government, had assumed positive radar control over helicopter. After receiving veterans' benefits her husband's death, respondent filed an FTCA action seeking damages on ground that controllers' negligence caused crash. The District Court dismissed complaint, relying exclusively Feres. However, Appeals reversed, distinguishing cases such as present which is alleged part employee who not member military. Finding effect suit discipline be doctrine's primary justification, court ruled did bar respondent's since there indication conduct decisions personnel would subjected scrutiny if case proceeded trial. Held: doctrine bars behalf service, even by employees Government. Pp. 686-692. (a) This and lower federal courts have consistently applied its inception, never suggested status tortfeasor crucial. Nor Congress seen fit change standard more than 35 years it articulated. 686-688. (b) three broad rationales underlying refute critical significance ascribed Appeals. First, distinctively character relationship between Armed Forces necessitates remedy provides simple, certain, uniform compensation, unaffected fortuity situs negligence. Second, statutory disability death system sole service-connected injuries. Third, specifically member's suit, may impermissibly affected judgments mission are necessarily implicated, duty loyalty owe their services country undermined. 688-691. (c) resulted mission, Respondent received death. Because husband acting pursuant Guard Operating Procedures, potential this could implicate substantial. Thus, falls within heart doctrine. 691—692. 779 F.2d 1492 (CA 11 1986), reversed remanded. POWELL, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined. SCALIA, dissenting opinion, BRENNAN, MARSHALL, STEVENS, joined, post, p. ----. Donald B. Ayer, Sacramento, Cal., petitioner. Joel D. Eaton, Miami, Fla., respondents. Justice POWELL Court. 1 presents question whether established 152 (1950), under where complaint alleges 2 * Lieutenant Commander Johnson States stationed Hawaii. In early morning January 7, 1982, Johnson's station distress call boat lost area. crew several other were dispatched search vessel. Inclement weather decreased visibility, so requested assistance Administration (FAA), FAA thereafter, into side mountain island Molokai. All members, including 3 Respondent, wife, compensation Veterans' Benefits Act, 72 Stat. 1118, amended, 38 U.S.C. § 301 seq. (1982 ed. Supp. III).1 addition, she Southern Florida (FTCA), 28 §§ 1346, 2671-2680. Her sought flight negligently motion dismiss, asserting because duties, recover States. agreed Court's decision 4 Eleventh Circuit reversed. 749 1530 1985). It noted language precludes suits against "arise service." U.S., at 146, S.Ct., 159. found, however, evolution warranted qualification original holding according tortfeasor. identified what termed "the typical factual paradigm" exists another F.2d, 1537. "[W]hen paradigm present, issue injury arose Ibid. But military, found propriety should determined examining underlie Although articulated numerous doctrine,2 justification. 5 Applying new analysis facts case, "absolutely hint . any remotely connected will scrutinized proceeds trial." 1539. Accordingly, suit. acknowledged Ninth Circuit, "in strikingly similar one, reached opposite conclusion." 1539 (citing Uptegrove 600 1248 (CA9 1979), cert. denied, 444 1044, 100 732, 62 730 (1980)).3 concluded, "Uptegrove wrongly decided," 1539, declined reach same result. 6 granted Government's suggestion rehearing en banc. banc recent Shearer, 473 52, 105 3039, 87 (1985), "reinforc[ed] set forth panel opinion," 1492, 1493 1986) (per curiam ), particularly "[s]pecial emphasis upon claim being considered require second-guess decisions," id., 1493-1494. concluded properly evaluated therefore reinstated opinion. Judge joined judges, strongly dissented. dissent rejected "Feres court, finding "Johnson's undoubtedly sustained current law our ought relatively straightforward affirmance." Id., 1494. 7 We certiorari, 479 811, 59, 93 19 (1986), review Appeals' reformulation resolve conflict among Circuits issue.4 now reverse. II 8 Feres, held cannot bring tort deviated characterization bar.5 changed close 40 articulated, though, "possesses ready remedy" alter misinterpretation intent. 138, 155.6 all decided involved allegations crucial application doctrine.7 understood fact relevant Feres.8 Instead, been based service-related decline modify late date.9 9 emphasized decision. See Stencel Aero Engineering Corp. 431 666, 671-673, 97 2054, 2057-2058, 52 665 (1977), n. 2, supra. An examination these reasons demonstrates does case. "[t]he armed forces 'distinctively character.' " 143, 158 (quoting Standard Oil Co., 332 301, 305, 67 1604, 1606, 91 2067 (1947)). implicated greatest degree performing activities Performance function diverse parts world entails "[s]ignificant risk accidents injuries." supra, 672, 2058. Where injured service—that is, with Government—it "makes sense permit affect [the] serviceman." "simple, those services," 144, (footnote omitted), appropriate. 10 existence generous independent reason why injuries.10 observed purpose "was extend without; incidentally benefited already well provided for, appears unintentional." 140, 156. Those only receive "compare extremely favorably most workmen's statutes," 145, 159, but recovery "swift [and] efficient," 673, 2058, "normally requir[ing] litigation," difficult believe comprehensive while time contemplating FTCA. Particularly persuasive "omitted provision adjust two types each other." 158. still amended make incurred thus find previously law: "provid[e] upper limit 2059. Hatzlachh Supply Co. 460, 464, 647, 650, 614 (1980) ) ("[T]he servicemen, we intended injuries"). progeny indicate brought barred they "type[s] claims that, generally permitted, involve judiciary sensitive affairs expense effectiveness." 3044 (emphasis original). every respect recognized, "a specialized society." Parker Levy, 417 733, 743, 94 2547, 2555, 41 439 (1974). "[T]o accomplish must foster instinctive obedience, unity, commitment, esprit de corps." Goldman Weinberger, 475 503, 507, 106 1310, 1313, 89 478 (1986). Even action, implicates inextricably intertwined mission.11 Moreover, involves obedience orders, one's country. Suits undermine commitment essential effective disrupt broadest word. B 12 high seas, Guard. 14 88(a)(1).12 There dispute directly went status. His wife continuing account operating procedures circumstances fall III 13 reaffirm liable servicemen arise reverse judgment remand proceedings consistent ordered. 15 whom MARSHALL STEVENS join, dissenting. 16 As almost four decades ago today might wise exempt 1346(b), 2671-2680, certain servicemen. problem now, then, failed provide exemption, quite plainly excluded it. asked here overrule Feres; I can perceive accept petitioner's invitation today. 17 Much sovereign immunity swept away 1946 passage FTCA, renders 18 "for money loss property, personal negligent wrongful act omission scope office employment, private person, claimant accordance place occurred." 1346(b). Read written, persons, employees. Other provisions number exceptions, none One, fact, excludes "[a]ny combatant naval forces, war," 2680(j) added), demonstrating considered, thought needful special requirements proper basis us supplement—i.e., revise—that congressional disposition. 20 first encounter serviceman, gave plain meaning statute. Brooks 337 49, 69 918, 1200 (1949), collision Army truck off duty. argument enlisted gives Courts "jurisdiction founded States" Act's exceptions "too lengthy, specific, problem" inference notwithstanding literal statute, 51, 919. light activities, 2680(j), foreign countries, 2680(k), said, "[i]t absurd mind" passing plaintiffs sue Act. dicta, cautioned attempt serviceman suffered "incident service" wholly different case," 920, giving "literal language" lead results "outlandish" 53, 920. 21 That "wholly case" one year later service," holding. parallel required absent. 141-142, 157. local govern "distinctively federal" personnel. 142-144, 157-158. available compensate 144-145, Several after fourth rationale: unduly interfere discipline. Brown, 348 110, 112, 75 141, 99 139 (1954). 22 my view, justifies Only them, "parallel liability" argument, purports textually based, follows: manner extent individual like circumstances," 2674; "private individual" raise army, State consented militia, 2674 shields situation. reasoning, course, many superfluous, individuals typically do not, example, transmit postal matter, 2680(b), collect taxes customs 2680(c), impose quarantines, 2680(f), regulate monetary system, 2680(i). event, subsequently recognized error Feres' rationale. Rayonier, Inc. 352 315, 319, 77 374, 376, 354 (1957); Indian Towing 350 61, 66-69, 76 122, 125-126, 48 (1955). 23 Perhaps without scant (and rejected) textual support, pointed embodiment legislative intent speculated upon, matter conclusion did. Be may, speculation outlived rule disembodied estimations (despite enacted) intended. They bad that. second rationale, barely escaped fate though yet erroneous described "no longer controlling." 58, 4, 3043, (1985). rationale runs Liability depends [negligent] occurred," 1346(b); local, geographically diverse, important aspects itself concerned primarily unfairness soldier making turn he injured, outside control. 142-143, Subsequent cases, stressed military's need uniformity governing standards. See, e.g., (1977). Regardless how understood, good excuse policy, much less principle, ignoring terms 24 varied speak bluntly, given context, nonuniform possibly worse (what provides) nonrecovery. Muniz, 374 150, 162, 83 1850, 1857, 805 (1963). abandoned peculiar solicitude allowing prisoners (who geographical location servicemen) prison authorities. ibid. seems me nothing "unfair" about says just resort state law, employee. 25 To rests uniformity, equally unpersuasive. begin with, supposition positively contradicted text. FTCA's exemptions show problem, see, 2680(i), chose retain some affecting 2680(j). effectively disavowed "uniformity" justification—and rendered planning illusory—by permitting civilians Finally, explain (assuming achieving it) indispensable departments agencies sued performance "unique, nationwide function[s]," 675, 2059 (MARSHALL, dissenting), including, noted, varying laws inmates. sum, regardless plausible estimation intent, justification importing estimation, unwritten, 26 third similarly denominated 4. Servicemen line compensated (VBA), III), unlikely meant additional absence dual recoveries VBA "persuasive [evidence] awareness interpreted Since dicta characterized injuries," said "provides Government" injuries, 27 credibility undermined severely both permitted suits, VBA. troubled little. "nothing exclusiveness refused "call either exclusive done so." further included exclusivity 2672, 2676, 2679, plaintiffs, indicated, taken adjusting 53-54, 920-921; see also 111, *, & *. remained valid made clear again "Congress right [under VBA] veteran's remedy, receipt payments preclude Act." 113, 144. Brown (neither ever expressly disapproved) hold "exclusive" places "upper limit" liability. today's decision, others. Such result reconciled text compensates regard occur defines term. 105. assumed, identical workers' statutes invariably appear. 8116(c). Recovery possible often VBA, terminated easily compensation. Note, From Stencel: Should Military Personnel Have Access Recovery?, Mich.L.Rev. 1099, 1106-1108 (1979). presence alternative [neither] explains [n]or doctrine; makes palatable." Hunt 204 U.S.App.D.C. 308, 326, 636 580, 598 (1980). 29 foregoing rationales—the ones actually relied —are frail hardly surprising repeatedly cited later-conceived-of "military discipline" "best" explanation 57, 3043; Chappell Wallace, 462 296, 299, 103 2362, 2365, 586 (1983); 1857. written lead, reasoned, results, towards decisionmaking. 671-672, (Today goes suggests men women them seriously undermines "duty country." Ante, 691.) deny possibility adversely discipline, interpreting ambiguous statute perhaps take account. think certainly substantial, justified (if holding) mean us. 30 strange Congress' "obvious" intention discerned neither nor enacted (which felt necessary exclude combat injuries). likely long disputed. Bennett, Doctrine, Discipline, Weapons War, St. Louis U.L.J. 383, 407-411 Or explicit exclusions threatening command decisions, 2680(j); "discretionary" functions, 2680(a); 2680(k); intentional torts, 2680(h); execution regulation, 2680(a). imposed employees, decisionmaking greatly. perhaps—most fascinating contemplate—Congress barring all, morale comrades-in-arms boosted news widow children fraction amount recovered piloting commercial 31 reading examine influence outlandish consider "outlandish," occurs frequently, dispensation. If civilian's home, homeowner invaded sanctity respondents'. And suffers (such manufacturer airplane), civilian, contributory subpoenas serviceman's colleagues testify him. 32 post hoc rationalization failure apply written. heartily deserves "widespread, universal criticism" received. re "Agent Orange" Product Litigation, 580 F.Supp. 1242, 1246 (EDNY), appeal dism'd, 745 161 (CA2 1984).* 33 claimed entire remedies workable, equitable whole." 139, am unable beauty wrought. Consider following hypothetical (similar presented Weinstein 1252): A told superior officer deliver papers Courthouse. nears destination, wheel vehicle breaks, causing injure him, daughter (whose class happens touring courthouse day), marshal statutes, (Feres ); guard (because Employees' Compensation (FECA), 8116); father's companionship own (FTCA). vehicle, daughter, companionship. assert defense suits. implead daughter's (United Yellow Cab 543, 399, 523 (1951)) guard's (Lockheed Aircraft 460 190, 1033, 74 911 (1983)), contains (FECA). (Stencel (1977)), contain (VBA). 34 point inconsistencies attributable (though assuredly are), merely bringing harmony consequence wrote imagining When confusion applying unambiguous least validated free play democratic process, rather here: unauthorized gone wrong. realized seven too "[t]here read beyond Congress. altered body adopted it." 320, 377 omitted). comfort, does, ante, 686, 6, amend overturn unlegislated desires Congresses thread fabric bearing interpretation compromises predecessors 1946. could, intuiting uncertain enterprise takes starting disregard checks balances constitutional scheme legislation designed assure majority Legislature way law. 36 considerations stare decisis induce us, despite leave enough alone. acknowledges, "all military." 686. further. confess alleging recommend except clearly wrong confine irrationality bred. think, enough. 37 Had mountain, loss. devoted life serving country's Forces, limits family otherwise imposition sacrifice bore legitimacy having prescribed people's elected representatives, (insofar inquire things) just. been, not. respectfully dissent. $35,690.66 insurance $3,000 gratuity, receives approximately $868 per month dependency compensatory benefits. Brief 3, 1. normally payable surviving spouse include extra monthly sum child veteran below age 18. 410, 411 III); CFR 3.461 factors doctrine: "First, ' character," '; little Services dependent happened injury. establishes, substitute liability, 'no fault' pensions factor [is] '[t]he superiors, effects maintenance extreme obtain allowed orders acts committed .' (1977) (citations Uptegrove, Navy lieutenant flying home Air Force C-141 transport controllers. addition (1979), (1980), conflicts principle 8, infra. (1954); 1856, (1963); 671, 2057; recently enacted, allow medical malpractice H.R. 1161, 99th Cong., 1st Sess. (1985); 1942, 98th (1983). common cases" "that claimant, active furlough, due others forces." 155 added). discussing grounds holding, stated: "It rational plan providing disabled geographic control." Nevertheless, viewed whole, broad: "We know American negligence, officers government serving," 157 added; footnote omitted); 'To whatever relations soldiers persons nonfederal governmental agencies, scope, nature, legal incidents consequences relation fundamentally derived sources governed authority.' 143-144, 305-306, 1606-1607, (1947)) citations 142, (finding wronged wrongdoer") tortfeasors, rely fact. 143 ("We adhere drawn duty"). repeated describing 2365 ("Congress intend subject [for service] Forces") added); 669, 2056 (In on-duty officials Act") Dalehite 346 15, 31, 25, 73 956, 965, 1427 (1953) (characterizing involving "injuries allegedly States") list compiled below, 1495-1496 (CA11 worth repeating: Potts 723 (CA6 1983) (Navy corpsman struck broken cable hoist operated civilians), 466 959, 104 2172, 80 555 (1984); Warner 720 837 (CA5 (off-duty man base motorcycle collided shuttle bus driven employee); Jaffee 663 1226 (CA3 1981) (serviceman radiation exposure Department Defense employees), 456 972, 102 2234, 845 (1982); Lewis 889 (Marine Corps crash 457 1133, 2959, 1350 Carter Cheyenne, 649 827 (CA10 (Air captain city airport third-party controllers); Woodside 606 134 1979) plane instructor employed club), 445 904, 1080, 63 320 (1980); (see supra,) Watkins 980 (SD Ga.1977) employee), aff'd, 587 279 1979); Hass 518 1138 (CA4 1975) (suit manager military-owned horse stable); Lee, 400 558 1968) aircraft controller negligence), 393 1053, 691, 695 (1969); Sheppard 369 272 1966) (same), 386 982, 1286, 230 (1967); Layne 295 433 (CA7 1961) (National Guardsman training controllers), 368 990, 82 605, 527 (1962); Lines, Wiener, 335 379 1964) CAA sub nom. 951, 85 452, 549 (1964). SCALIA indicates overruling counsel, request "confine [of] decision" limited Post, 703. arguing "unfairness" assumes "piloting helicopter" substantially benefit programs family. predicting outcome suit—both damages—is hazardous, whereas guaranteed "fairness"—in pecuniary benefits—were issue, respond dissent's assumption noting instructions led consequences—under view—would "unfair." "Fairness" always depended: service?" changing years, unconvincing. Service unique For dependents eligible educational benefits, extensive health home-buying loan retirement minimum Uniformed Almanac (L. Sharff S. Gordon eds. "Civilian integral role activities. circumstance, inquiry direct judgments. working participation FAA, Dept. Transportation, Handbook 7610.4F: Special Operations (Jan. 21, 1981). branch Services. Sanchez 813 593, 595 1987); Bozeman 780 198, 200 1985); Hinkie 715 96, 1983), 465 1023, 1276, 79 680 Mondelli 711 567, 569 1021, 1272, 677 Scales 685 970, 974 1982), 1082, 1772, 344 LaBash Army, 668 1153, 1156 (CA10), 1008, 2299, 1303 Monaco 661 129, 132 1981), 989, 2269, 1284 317, 589 Veillette 615 505, 506 1980); 611 1007, 1011 Peluso 474 (CA3), 414 879, 50, 124 (1973); 383 Hitch, Personnel, Rutgers L.Rev. 316 Rhodes, Doctrine Twenty-Five Years, A.F.L.Rev. (Spring 1976); 51 J.Air L. Com. 1087 (1986); Cardozo Rev. 391 1099 (1979); 43 John's 455 (1969).

Classification Label: 7