Legal Document

477 U.S. 131 106 S.Ct. 2440 91 L.Ed.2d 110 MAINE, Appellantv.Robert J. TAYLOR and United States. No. 85-62. Argued March 24, 1986. Decided June 23, Syllabus Appellee bait dealer (appellee) arranged to have live baitfish imported into Maine, despite a Maine statute prohibiting such importation. He was indicted under federal making it crime transport fish in interstate commerce violation of state law. moved dismiss the indictment on ground that unconstitutionally burdened commerce, intervened defend validity its statute. After an evidentiary hearing, District Court denied motion held constitutional. The court found substantial uncertainties surrounded effects parasites nonnative species would State's wild population, less discriminatory means protecting against those threats were currently unavailable. then entered conditional guilty plea, reserving right appeal Court's constitutional ruling. Appeals reversed, concluding unconstitutional. Held: 1. is entitled invoke this jurisdiction 28 U.S.C. § 1254(2). Nothing language or history 1254(2) suggests scope limited civil litigation. fact only intervenor does not deprive standing pursue appeal, because stake outcome controversy remains live, notwithstanding Federal Government's decision abandon own appeal. Pp. 133-137. 2. which appellee convicted did waive requirement Hughes v. Oklahoma, 441 322, 99 1727, 60 250, where statute, as Maine's import ban, discriminates either face practical effect, State must show both serves legitimate local purpose, purpose cannot be served well by available nondiscriminatory means. But evidence amply supports findings has made showings. Under "clearly erroneous" standard review applicable these findings, erred setting them aside. 137-152. 752 F.2d 757, reversed. BLACKMUN, J., delivered opinion Court, BURGER, C.J., BRENNAN, WHITE, MARSHALL, POWELL, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined. STEVENS, filed dissenting opinion, post, p. 152. Cabanne Howard, Augusta, Me., for appellant. Jerrold Ganzfried, Washington, D.C., support E. Paul Eggert, Portland, Robert Taylor. Justice BLACKMUN Court. 1 Once again, little caused commotion. See 250 (1979); TVA Hill, 437 153, 98 2279, 57 117 (1978); Cappaert States, 426 128, 96 2062, 48 523 (1976). case golden shiner, minnow commonly used sport fishing. 2 Taylor (hereafter appellee) operates business Maine. Despite importation baitfish,1 he 158,000 shiners him from outside State. shipment intercepted, grand jury violating conspiring violate Lacey Act Amendments 1981, 95 Stat. 1073, 16 §§ 3371-3378. Section 3(a)(2)(A) Amendments, 3372(a)(2)(A), makes "to import, export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, purchase foreign . any wildlife taken, possessed, transported, sold law regulation law." 3 ban burdens therefore may form basis prosecution Act. pursuant 2403(b), arguing legitimately protects fisheries might included shipments baitfish. dismiss. States Taylor, 585 F.Supp. 393 (Me.1984). plea Rule Criminal Procedure 11(a)(2), ruling question. First Circuit agreeing with underlying impermissibly restricts trade. 757 (1985). appealed. We set plenary postponed consideration Taylor's challenges our appellate jurisdiction. 474 943, 307, 88 284 4 * invokes 1254(2), authorizes "by party relying appeals invalid repugnant Constitution, treaties laws States." Appellee, however, contends provision applies cases, that, event, lacks reversal conviction. These contentions relate unusual procedural posture case: conviction based consider turn. 5 First, peculiarities, fits squarely within plain terms 1254(2): relies Although statutes authorizing are strictly construed, see, e.g., Silkwood Kerr-McGee Corp., 464 238, 247, 104 615, 620, 78 443 (1984), nothing legislative In limitation, principally 1254(1) (3)—which authorize discretionary cases Courts writ certiorari certification, respectively—both apply explicitly "any criminal case."2 Since express absent Congress intended over courts remain indeed prior 1925 enactment 1254's predecessor.3 6 find argument unconvincing. While some governing jurisdiction, (3), expressly others actions. See, 1252 1253. absence sort hardly demonstrates had mind, we see no reason read limitation straightforward unambiguous This situation "the sense literal at loggerheads," adherence " 'would confer upon beyond what "naturally properly belongs it." ' Heckler Edwards, 465 870, 879, 1532, 1538, 79 878 quoting Florida Lime & Avocado Growers, Inc. Jacobsen, 362 73, 94, 80 568, 580, 568 (1960) (Frankfurter, dissenting), turn American Security Trust Co. Columbia, 224 491, 495, 32 553, 554, 56 L.Ed. 856 (1912). ensure struck down judiciary when parties acquiesce lower court. nullification grave matter whether occurs litigation course prosecution, particularly warranted event.4 7 Appellee's second jurisdictional appellant before Maine—only Court—not brought original prosecution.5 attorneys sole power prosecute courts, seek Appeals' his By "all rights party," 2403(b),6 taken "party statute" Appeals. previously recognized intervenors their own, so long they "a sufficient controversy" satisfy genuine adversity. Bryant Yellen, 447 352, 368, 100 2232, 2241, 65 184 (1980); also, Diamond Charles, 476 54, 68, 1697, 1707, 90 (1986). substantial: if judgment left undisturbed, will bound conclusive adjudication Stoll Gottlieb, 305 165, 59 134, 83 (1938). And although private parties, perhaps even separate sovereigns, legally cognizable interest prosecutorial decisions Government, cf., supra, 64-65, S.Ct., 1704; Linda R.S. Richard D., 410 614, 619, 93 1146, 1149, 35 536 (1973), clearly continued enforceability statutes, 65, 1705; Alfred L. Snapp Son, Puerto Rico ex rel. Barez, 458 592, 601, 102 3260, 3265, 73 995 (1982). Furthermore, result automatic reinstatement appellee's us appeal.7 merits. II 8 Commerce Clause Constitution grants "[t]o regulate Nations, among several Indian Tribes." Art. I, 8, cl. 3. "Although thus speaks powers bestowed Congress, also limits erect barriers trade." Lewis BT Investment Managers, Inc., 27, 35, 2009, 2015, 64 702 (1980). trade most direct manner possible, blocking all inward border. Still, recognized, alone render imposed regulatory "is absolute," retain authority general police matters 'legitimate concern,' though affected." Id., 36, 2015. 9 determining overstepped role regulating distinguished between burden transactions incidentally, affirmatively discriminate transactions. first group impose excessive relation putative benefits," Pike Bruce Church, 397 137, 142, 844, 847, 25 174 (1970), subject more demanding scrutiny. explained U.S., 336, 1736, once shown "either effect," falls demonstrate "serves purpose," could Sporhase Nebraska Douglas, 941, 957, 3456, 3464, 1254 (1982); Hunt Washington Apple Advertising Comm'n, 432 333, 353, 97 2434, 2446, 53 383 (1977); Dean Milk Madison, 340 349, 354, 71 295, 297, 329 (1951). 10 reasoned correctly since trade, should strict requirements waived 1981. It established engage otherwise forbid. Southern Pacific Arizona Sullivan, 325 761, 769, 1515, 1520, 89 1915 (1945). important plays free flow exempted implied limitations congressional direction do been "unmistakably clear." South-Central Timber Development, Wunnicke, 467 82, 91, 2237, 2242, 81 (1984). 1981 provide enforcement valid laws, but identifies text wished validate unconstitutional without approval. 11 Before concedes exempt legislation scrutiny Clause. Reply Brief Appellant 3, n. insists, intensity applied. agree. An indication intent required legislation, regardless purported authorization takes flat exemption reduction level Absent clear expression approval Congress," relaxation restrictions unacceptably increases risk unrepresented interests adversely affected restraints commerce." Timber, 92, 2243. 12 case, there simply statement whatsoever alter Clause," Public Utilities Comm'n California, 345 304, 706, 712, 1020 (1953). contrary, almost exclusively following Senate Report Amendments: "It desirable extend protection now covered Act, plants presently all. government encouraged protect broad variety species. Legal mechanisms supportive governments." S.Rep. 97-123, pp. 3-4 (1981), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1748, 1750-1751. 13 reads passage, last sentence, treat leniently. interpretation than obvious positively strained; far natural reading sentence refers availability investigative resources enforce laws. passage certainly make clear" way applied satisfies ordinarily Oklahoma trade: serve one III 14 after hearing parts test satisfied, disagreed. conclude aside To explain why, need discuss proceedings below detail. A. 15 conclusions Magistrate. Three scientific experts testified defense. posed two significant unique fragile fisheries.8 population including indigenous shiners—would placed three types prevalent out-of-state baitfish, common App. 39-55.9 Second, inadvertently disturb aquatic ecology unpredictable extent competing native food habitat, preying species, disrupting environment subtle ways. id., 59-70, 141-149.10 further satisfactory inspect commingled species.11 According testimony, small size large quantities shipped inspection physical impossibility." 81.12 Parasite difficulties examination procedure destruction fish. 81-82, 195. statistical sampling techniques developed salmonids (i.e., salmon trout), certified parasite-free standardized fish, scientifically accepted procedures 71, 184, 193-194.13 17 expert justification supported total 241. none discussed witnesses threat wild, 206-212, 228-232, precisely them. 265-266. professional farmers raise ponds freshly drained other collected. 239-240. 18 Weighing Magistrate concluded prongs accordingly denied. objections, independent evidence, reached same conclusions. fish," "substantial uncertainties" consequences introducing similarly unpredictable. F.Supp., 397.14 unavailable, particular, testing yet devised. 398. Even effective, development probably take considerable amount time. 398, 11.15 19 finding noted factors "cast doubt" finding. F.2d, 762. apparently bar 761. freshwater requirement. Third, "an aura economic protectionism" statements Department Inland Fisheries Wildlife opposition proposal himself repeal ban. Ibid. Finally, transported nonbaitfish, prevented swimming New Hampshire. 762, 12. 20 indications protectionist intent, rested invalidation different basis, demonstrated promoted equally discriminating heavily commerce. Specifically, "difficult reconcile" claim rely reliance similar 762.16 21 Following conviction, petitioned rehearing improperly disregarded fact. petitions, unavailability alternative "was mixed fact," reviewing examine carefully factual record draw conclusions." 765. B 22 proffered discrimination subjected strictest scrutiny," 337, 1737, empirical component scrutiny, like factfinding, 'is basic responsibility district rather courts,' Pullman-Standard Swint, 456 273, 291, 1781, 1791, 72 66 (1982), DeMarco 415 449, 450, n., 94 1185, 1186, 39 501 (1974). As frequently emphasized, decide questions de novo, reversing differently. Anderson Bessemer City, 470 564, 573, 105 1504, 1511, 84 518 (1985); Zenith Radio Corp. Hazeltine Research, 395 100, 123, 1562, 1576, 23 129 (1969). Rules contain counterpart Civil 52(a), provides trial judge "shall unless erroneous." considerations 52(a)—the demands judicial efficiency, expertise judges, importance hand observation, Anderson, 574-575, 1512—all full force context, least respect having guilt. Accordingly, nonguilt cases. Campbell 373 487, 493, 1356, 1360, (1963); C. Wright, Practice 374 (2d ed. 1982). reviewed standard, case. Tr. Oral Arg. 27. note, broader authorized here issue determine Bose Consumers Union 466 485, 501, 1949, 1959, 502 (1984); 287, 1789.17 No how describes abstract "alternative promote commerce," specific question exist fact, devised characterized erroneous. Indeed, contrary Two lack procedures, conceded point, disagreed about tests. 74-75, That allowed crediting corroborated uncontradicted testimony permit designed specifically salmonids, which, testified, developed.18 24 argue already baitfish; "could easily developed." 25. Perhaps meant suggest. Unlike proposition exist, contention readily enjoys record. developing "would just require field get together 271. gave estimate time expense involved, years financed research. 74. light say concluding, 11, expected More importantly, agree "abstract possibility," acceptable assurance effectiveness, "[a]vailabl[e] alternativ[e]," Hunt, purposes A reasonable efforts avoid restraining across borders, develop new unproven uncertain cost. course, work conjunction dealers shiners; developed, longer able justify join efforts, pretend succeeded. 26 overturn argues affirmance rejected. presented Magistrate, uncertainty surrounds effect fisheries. Moreover, guarding imperfectly understood environmental risks, possibility ultimately prove negligible. "[T]he principles clause requiring sit idly wait until potentially irreversible damage occurred community agrees disease organisms dangerous acts consequences." 397. 27 Nor think much doubt cast legitimacy took signs intent. Shielding in-state industries competition never "simple consequently "virtually per se rule invalidity." Philadelphia Jersey, 617, 624, 2531, 2535, 475 accord, Minnesota Clover Leaf Creamery Co., 449 456, 471, 101 715, 727, 659 (1981).19 believe justifications put forward merely sham "post hoc rationalization." Hughes, 338, 20, 20. suggesting relied 3-sentence near end 2,000-word submitted proposed baitfish: '[W]e can't help asking why spend money Arkansas better spent home? very can done sportsmen safe, home-grown bait. There industry lucrative export market neighboring states.' 760, Baitfish Importation: Position Wildlife, 294, 309-310. 29 fully "[t]hese sentences convert protectionism measure." Juris. Statement E-6, 4.20 pointed out, context cited "reveals [they] advanced counter inadequate supplies acceptance risks imports. Instead, argues, increased." comments administrative agency statute's enactment, constitute weak event. ibid.21 30 identified persuasive. allows available, enacted bans, especially given unusually fragile.22 relevance swim directly explained: "The impediments complete success preventing using best limit [an environmental] risk." E-10, 8. IV 31 significantly ability localities elevate above values. needlessly obstruct attempt "place itself position isolation," Baldwin G.A.F. Seelig, 294 511, 527, 55 497, 502, 1032 (1935), retains health safety citizens integrity resources. adequately alternatives. arbitrary commerce; reasons, "apart origin, [out-of-state baitfish] differently," 627, 2537. ordered. 33 dissenting. 34 something fishy blatantly flatly present thriving (and, coincidentally, flourishing domestic industry), excludes grown harvested coincidentally sold) kind stark articles requires rigorous "When type demonstrated, benefits flowing alternatives adequate preserve stake." (1977). Like concludes possible ecological presence suffices carry proving public purpose. Ante, 142-143, 148. obligation feasible unnecessary. 147. seems clear, presumption run way. engages proof. Ambiguity dangers actually defeat, sustain, measure. 36 derogate purity. invocation thought special dispensation principle nondiscrimination "A view, ordinance professes measure, mean imposes action laid Due Process Clause, save rare instance artlessly discloses avowed goods." 298, If wishes preservation, interest, infeasibility alternatives, greater specificity. Otherwise, asserted offensive notions comity cooperation underlie 37 Significantly, Appeals, familiar are, concerned uniqueness felt, I do, unquestionable splendor notwithstanding, carried meet concerns ecology. Cf. ante, 151, (describing restrictive States). 38 respectfully dissent. person importing imports smelts, fishing inland waters." Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., Tit. 12, 7613 (1981). full: "Cases Supreme methods: "(1) granted petition rendition decree; "(2) shall preclude appellant, restricted presented; "(3) certification instructions desired, give binding entire sent up controversy." amended 240(b) Judicial Code follows: "Any circuit drawn State, being treaties, validity, may, election error appeal; event party, case." Feb. 13, 1925, 1, 43 939. Until then, involving $1,000, arising diversity, admiralty, patent, revenue courts. Mar. 1891, 6, 828. relevant portion added floor Senate, debates surrounding amendment suggestion Cong.Rec. 2753-2754, 2757, 2919-2925 (1925). fell still discretion 2103 grant certiorari. Doran Salem Inn, 422 922, 927, 2561, 2565, 45 648 (1975); El Paso Simmons, 379 502-503, 85 577, 446 (1965). timely notice 311, later 313. "[b]ecause Acting Solicitor General determined priority selecting number ask review." 14-15. motion. 315. Title 2403(b) provides: "In action, suit, proceeding agency, officer, employee thereof wherein constitutionality affecting question, certify attorney intervene presentation admissible constitutionality. shall, provisions law, liabilities costs necessary proper facts relating constitutionality." advises intend dismissal prevails 17, 17. One witness lakes clean water originally delicate few fish." 57. Another stressed "no real landlocked You come you that." 137. confiscated shiners. 393, 395-396 shiners, "some polliwogs crustacean crawfish." 69. pose 70. who examined revealed described "I my signature certificate [none third parasite] lot." 85. intercepted contained approximately 70 specimens pound. 80. design account particular concern, differ salmonid parasites. 193-194. agreed. 237, 265-267. layout farms source difficult, border inspections die 75-79. For discounted serious salmonids. "considerable debate" diseases, largely commercial hatcheries unfamiliar northeast approved Magistrate's "there obviously workable outright prohibition importation," neither nor inadvertent introduction allowing ponds. conflicting point. suggested methods eliminated problem 239-240, "unlikely." 170. 150 (prosecution screened reliably "[t]his business. living material move; hold tanks thing length time"). resolve dispute, regarding challenged restriction importations ban," effectively conclusion conclusions," 765, Bacchus Imports, Ltd. Dias, 468 263, 3049, 82 200 Boston Stock Exchange Tax 429 318, 599, 50 514 each amounted forbidden Clause; reject reject—the stipulated Bacchus, 269, 3054, decided dismiss, 320, 602. commissioner permits" application includes "[a] pathologist, college university, conservation department Fish Service, certifying sources viral hemorrhagic septicemia, infectious pancreatic necrosis, hematopoietic Myxosomo cerebralis diseases threaten stocks State." 7202 (1981) (emphasis added). listed disorders. 193. motivated solely desire competition, respond arbitrarily evil reside ends." 626, 2536. held, example, Jersey conserve disposal capacity landfill sites banning wastes, ibid., fight depletion minnows exportation, (1979). residents forced bear brunt program apparent lived voted 629, 2538; 337-338, 1736-37, Not intentional protectionist, guaranty whatever please, community." Robertson 328 440, 458, 1160, 1170, 1366 (1946). overt justified where, goods services likely resources, "outright entry, intermediate regulation, effective method protecti[on]." 43, 2019, address objected rejection argument. 395, 5. disagreed, objections recommended incorporated arguments 7. contend dismissed "[f]or reasons stated herein Defendant's Memorandum Law Support Motion Dismiss." Objection Recommended Decision Dismiss Indictment (Mar. 1984) Because constitutes protectionism, catchall sufficed review. Thomas Arn, 140, 148-149, 466, 471-472, 435 1959. 1959 Me.Acts, ch. 112. statutory unique, prohibits use "[e]xcept permitted," Minn.Stat. 101.42, subd. Utah Ann. 23-15-12 Va.Code 28.1-183.2 Wis.Stat. 29.535 (Supp.1985); cf. S.D. Codified Laws 41-14-30 (1977) (minnows "into through South Dakota" 12-hour permit). Other agencies prohibit Ala.Code 9-2-13 N.C.Gen.Stat. 113-160 (1983); Nev.Rev.Stat. 503.310(1) (1985) ("The [state wildlife] commission empowered undesirable intentionally unintentionally introduced waters state").

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