Legal Document

509 U.S. 630 113 S.Ct. 2816 125 L.Ed.2d 511 Ruth O. SHAW, et al., Appellantsv.Janet RENO, Attorney General, al. No. 92-357. Argued April 20, 1993. Decided June 28, Syllabus * To comply with § 5 of the Voting Rights Act 1965—which prohibits a covered jurisdiction from implementing changes in "standard, practice, or procedure respect to voting" without federal authorization—North Carolina submitted General congressional reapportionment plan one majority-black district. The objected on ground that second district could have been created give effect minority voting strength State's south-central southeastern region. revised contained north-central new stretches approximately 160 miles along Interstate 85 and, for much its length, is no wider I-85 corridor. Appellants, five North residents, filed this action against appellee state and officials, claiming State had an unconstitutional racial gerrymander violation of, among other things, Fourteenth Amendment. They alleged two districts concentrated majority black voters arbitrarily regard considerations such as compactness, contiguousness, geographical boundaries, political subdivisions, order create lines assure election representatives. three-judge District Court held it lacked subject matter over appellees. It also dismissed complaint appellees, finding, that, under United Jewish Organizations Williamsburgh, Inc. v. Carey, 430 144, 97 996, 51 229 (UJO ), appellants failed equal protection claim because favoring was not discriminatory constitutional sense did lead proportional underrepresentation white statewide. Held: 1. Appellants stated Equal Protection Clause by alleging scheme so irrational face can be understood only effort segregate into separate basis race, separation lacks sufficient justification. Pp. ____. (a) properly claims Appellants' gerrymandering must examined backdrop country's long history discrimination voting. (b) Classifications citizens based solely race are their nature odious free people whose institutions founded upon doctrine equality, they threaten stigmatize persons reason membership group incite hostility. Thus, legislation t at expressly distinguishes account race—whether contains explicit distinction "unexplainable grounds than race," Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 429 252, 266, 555, 564, 50 450—must narrowly tailored further compelling governmental interest. See, e.g., Wygant Jackson Bd. Ed., 476 267, 277-278, 106 1842, 1848-1849, 90 260 (plurality opinion). Redistricting bizarre unexplainable demands same close scrutiny, regardless motivations underlying adoption. Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 341, 81 125, 127, 110. That may difficult determine single-member districting makes does mean gerrymander, once established, should receive less scrutiny classifying race. By perpetuating stereotypical notions about members group—that think alike, share interests, prefer candidates—a exacerbate very patterns bloc majority-minority sometimes said counteract. sends elected representatives message primary obligation represent group's members, rather constituency whole. Since holding here unnecessary decide whether how face, explained nonracial terms successfully challenged, expresses view intentional creation districts, more, always gives rise claim. (c) classification threatens special harms present Court's vote-dilution cases thus warrants analysis different used assessing validity at-large multimember schemes. In addition, nothing decisions compels conclusion gerrymanders scrutiny; fact, persistent Amendment jurisprudence would seem compel opposite conclusion. Nor there any support argument poses difficulties when drawn favor minority, since dependent those burdened benefited particular classification, Richmond J.A. Croson Co., 488 469, 494, 109 706, 722, 102 854 Finally, highly fractured decision UJO foreclose recognized here, which analytically distinct made there. 2. If, remand, allegations contradicted, A jurisdiction's interest creating nonretrogression rule carte blanche engage gerrymandering. parties' arguments necessary avoid dilution 2 Act, interpretation unconstitutional, were developed below, issues remain open consideration remand. stage litigation advances Act: eradicating effects past discrimination. Although argues strong concluding remedial warranted, three J stices prepared say States significant minimizing consequences apart Act's requirements sound principles. 3. challenged suggested provisions. P. 808 F.Supp. 461 (EDNC 1992), reversed remanded. O'CONNOR, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. WHITE, dissenting opinion, BLACKMUN STEVENS, BLACKMUN, SOUTER, opinions. Robinson Everett, Washington, DC, appellants. H. Jefferson Powell, Raleigh, NC appellee. Edwin S. Kneedler, Justice O'CONNOR Court. 1 This case involves most complex sensitive has faced recent years: meaning "right" vote, propriety race-based designed benefit historically disadvantaged groups. As result 1990 census, became entitled twelfth seat House Representatives. Assembly enacted included After pursuant 1965, 79 Stat. 439, amended, 42 U.S.C. 1973c, passed allege plan, boundary dramatically irregular shape, constitutes gerrymander. question before us cognizable age population 78% white, 20% black, 1% Native American; remaining predominantly Asian. App. Brief Federal Appellees 16a. relatively dispersed; blacks constitute general 100 counties. 57. Geographically, divides regions: eastern Coastal Plain, central Piedmont Plateau, western mountains. Lefler & A. Newsom, History Southern State: 18-22 (3d ed. 1973). largest concentrations live primarily northern part. Gade Stillwell, Carolina: People Environments 65-68 (1986). Assembly's first redistricting centered area State. 3 Forty Carolina's hundred counties provisions authorization. Ibid. obtain either judgment Columbia declaring proposed change "does purpose will denying abridging right vote color" administrative preclearance General. Because affected counties, parties agree applied. Tr. Oral Arg. 14, 27-29. chose submit preclearance. 4 acting through Assistant Civil Division, interposed formal objection plan. specifically o configuration region General's view, "to American area" using "no more [those] found elsewhere plan," but do "pretextual reasons." See 10a-11a. Under 5, remained seek declaratory notwithstanding objection. so. Instead, 1991 N.C. Extra Sess.Laws, ch. 7, located part State, 85. Appendix. 6 1, somewhat hook shaped. Centered northeast portion moves southward until tapers narrow band; then, finger-like extensions, reaches far southern-most near South border. compared "Rorschach ink-blot test," Shaw Barr, 461, 1992) (Voorhees, concurring part), "bug splattered windshield," Wall Street Journal, Feb. 4, 1992, p. A14. 7 district, 12, even unusually winds snake-like fashion tobacco country, financial centers, manufacturing areas "until gobbles enough enclaves neighborhoods." supra, 476-477 part). Northbound southbound drivers find themselves county, "trade" enter next county. Of 10 12 passes, cut districts; towns divided. At point remains contiguous intersects single crossing them. Republican National Committee Amicus Curiae 14-15. One legislator remarked " '[i]f you drove down interstate both car doors open, you'd kill district.' Washington Post, Apr. 1993, A4. inspired poetry: "Ask whom line drawn; thee." Grofman, Would Vince Lombardi Have Been Right If He Had Said: "When Comes Redistricting, Race Isn't Everything, It's Only Thing"?, 14 Cardozo L.Rev. 1237, 1261, n. 96 (1993) (internal quotation marks omitted). 8 object But numerous Carolinians did. Party individual brought suit constituted Davis Bandemer, 478 109, 2797, 92 dismissed, see Pope Blue, 809 392 (WDNC summarily affirmed, 506 ----, 30, 121 (1992). 9 Shortly after Blue filed, instituted Eastern Carolina. nor violated "one person, vote" principle, Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 558, 84 1362, 1380, (1964), residents Durham County, Carolina, all registered neighboring sued Governor Lieutenant Governor, Secretary Speaker Representatives, Board Elections (state appellees), together Division (federal appellees). contended several Constitution, including deliberately "create[d] Congressional Districts arbitrarily—without considerations, subdivisions" lines" Congress. Juris. Statement 102a. sought injunctive relief similar arguing, alternatively, appellees misconstrued itself unconstitutional. 11 granted appellees' motion dismiss. 1992). court agreed unanimously 14(b) 1973l (b), vests exclusive issue injunctions execution enjoin actions taken officers thereto. F.Supp., 466-467; id., 474 relevant Two judges concluded extent decisions, foreclosed Morris Gressette, 432 491, 2411, 53 (1977). 467. 2-to-1 appellants' contentions prohibited Article I, 2, Privileges Immunities deemed Fifteenth essentially subsumed within related Clause. 468-469. claim, concluded, barred (1977) ). 13 took judicial notice fact omitted complaint: white. rejected race-conscious per se impermissible. read stand proposition violates voters' rights if "adopted discriminating . race." 472. purposes complying sense, reasoned, impermissibly unfairly dilute cancel out strength. t, statewide, Id., 472-473. Chief Judge Voorhees dissented rest majority's analysis. WHITE's authorize employs traditional principles compactness contiguity. 475-477 failure these principles, Voorhees' "augur[ed] constitutionally suspect, potentially unlawful, intent" defeat 477. 15 We noted probable jurisdiction. 653, 580 II 16 "The freely candidate one's choice essence democratic society. ." U.S., S.Ct., 1378. For our Nation's history, sadly denied many Amendment, ratified 1870 bloody War, promised unequivocally "[t]he longer "denied abridged color, previous condition servitude." Const., Amdt. 15, 17 "[a] number states refused take answer continued circumvent fifteenth amendment's prohibition use subtle blunt instruments, ugly pervasive discrimination." Blumstein, Defining Proving Discrimination: Perspectives Purpose Vs. Results Approach 69 Va.L.Rev. 633, 637 (1983). Ostensibly race-neutral devices literacy tests "grandfather" clauses "good character" provisos devised deprive franchise. Another weapons States' arsenal gerrymander—"the deliberate arbitrary distortion boundaries [racial] purposes." 164, 2826 (Powell, part) 1870's, example, opponents Reconstruction Mississippi "concentrated bulk 'shoestring' running length River, leaving others majorities." E. Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877, 590 (1988). Some years later, Alabama redefined city Tuskegee "from square uncouth twenty-eight-sided figure" manner exclude voters, limits. 340, 110 (1960). 18 Alabama's exercise geometry example persisted parts country nearly century ratification Katzenbach, 383 301, 309-313, 86 803, 808-811, 769 (1966). some States, registration eligible ran 50% behind whites. 313, 811. Congress 1965 dramatic severe response situation. proved immediately successful ensuring minorities access booth; early 1970's, spread between targeted fallen well below 10%. Thernstrom, Whose Votes Count? Affirmative Action Minority 44 (1987). 19 soon apparent guaranteeing polls suffice root racially practices. Drawing power absolute casting ballot." Allen Elections, 393 544, 569, 89 817, 833, 22 (1969) (emphasis added). Where cohesive unit, practices electoral systems reduce nullify ability, group, elect choice." Accordingly, schemes violate adopted diluting Rogers Lodge, 458 613, 616-617, 3272, 3274-3275, 73 1012 (1982); White Regester, 412 755, 765-766, 93 2332, 2339-2340, 37 314 (1973). Congress, too, responded problem dilution. 1982, amended prohibit results strength, legislature's intent. 1973; Thornburg Gingles, 2752, 25 (1986) (applying involving districts); Voinovich Quilter, 507 1149, 122 500 (single-member districts). B 20 background we confront questions presented here. Our focus engaged strikes powerful historical chord: unsettling closely resembles egregious past. 21 An understanding critical resolution case. complaint, unconstitutionally "diluted" Rather, segregation participate "color-blind" process. Complaint ¶ 29; 31-32. Despite invocation ideal Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 559, 1138, 1146, 41 L.Ed. 256 (1896) (Harlan, dissenting), appear concede 16-19. concession wise: never decisionmaking impermissible circumstances. What extremely rationally viewed races voting, sufficiently reasons follow, conclude Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 12(b)(6). III 23 provides "[n]o shall deny person laws." Its prevent purposefully individuals Davis, 426 229, 239, 2040, 2047, 48 597 (1976). Laws explicitly distinguish fall core prohibition. 24 N inquiry legislative appears statute. Personnel Administrator Massachusetts Feeney, 442 256, 272, 99 2282, 2293, 60 870 (1979). Accord, Seattle School 457, 485, 3187, 3203, 896 (1982). Express classifications suspect because, "[a]bsent searching ., simply way determining what 'benign' 'remedial' motivated illegitimate inferiority simple politics." 493, 721, (1989) opinion); 520, 736 (SCALIA, judgment); UJO, 172, 1013 (Brennan, ("[A] purportedly preferential assignment disguise policy perpetuates disadvantageous treatment plan's supposed beneficiaries"). "are equality." Hirabayashi 320 81, 100, 63 1375, 1385, 87 1774 (1943). Loving Virginia, 388 11, 1817, 1823, 1010 (1967). Croson, 721 173, 1014 ("[E]ven pursuit objectives, serve stimulate society's latent race-consciousness, suggesting utility basing factor ideally bears relationship individual's worth needs"). requires 285, 1853 (O'CONNOR, judgment). 26 These apply distinctions, "rare" statutes although race-neutral, are, 450 Feeney: 27 "A purported motivation, presumptively invalid upheld extraordinary Brown Education, 347 483 [74 686, 98 873]; McLaughlin Florida, 379 184 [85 283, 222]. applies ostensibly neutral obvious pretext Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356 [6 1064, 30 220]; Guinn 238 [35 926, 59 1340]; cf. Lane Wilson, 307 268 [59 872, 83 1281]; 339 [81 110]." 2292. 28 contend Heights, laws classify precedents 29 347, 1340 (1915), invalidated statute imposed requirement "grandfather clause" applicable lineal descendants "on [or prior to] January 1866." 357, 35 928 determinative law, though "embod[ied] rest[ed] discernible reason" prohibitions 363, 931. words, applied reasoning "uncouth twenty-eight-sided" municipal Gomillion. redrew limits plaintiffs remove virtually voters. reasoned: 31 "If trial uncontradicted unqualified, irresistible, tantamount practical mathematical demonstration, concerned segregating colored fencing Negro town them pre-existing vote." 127. 32 resolved 342-348, 127-130. Whittaker, however, "unlawful citizens" 349, 131 (Whittaker, concurring). subsequent reliance suggests correctness Whittaker's view. 2293; Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 149, 91 1858, 1872, 363 (1971); Mobile Bolden, 446 55, 86, 1490, 1509, 64 47 (1980) (STEVENS, judgment) (Gomillion's "is compelled Clause"). supports contention obviously separating require careful 33 extended Wright Rockefeller, 376 52, 603, 512 (1964). four New York apportionment excluded nonwhites three. 53-54, 603-604. Every member assumed plaintiffs' allegation "segregate[d] place origin" 56, 605 omitted); 58, 606 concurring); 59-62, 606-609 (Douglas, dissenting). Justices disagreed carried burden proof trial. dissenters thought unusual shape "be terms." 59, 607. majority, accepted finding establish lines. irregular, permit Indeed, nonwhite lived area, ifficult construct 56-58, 605-606. 34 illustrates difficulty typically all; classifies tracts land, addresses. Moreover, differs kinds legislature aware draws lines, just age, economic status, religious persuasion, variety demographic factors. sort consciousness inevitably demonstrates, community, concentrates excludes reflect wholly legitimate purposes. drawn, provide compact territory, maintain integrity subdivisions. Reynolds, 578, 1390 (recognizing interests). proof, course, seems clear all. exceptional cases, cannot anything "segregat[e] voters" Gomillion, tortured So, dispersed disregarding contiguity, emphasize criteria important required—they not, Gaffney Cummings, 735, 752, 18, 2321, 2331, 298 (1973)—but objective factors gerrymandered Cf. Karcher Daggett, 462 725, 103 2653, 2672, 77 133 (1983) concurring) ("One need Stewart's classic definition obscenity—'I know I it' —as ultimate standard judging constitutionality recognize shapes probative force call explanation" (footnotes omitted)). 36 Put differently, believe appearances matter. includes who belong otherwise widely separated little common another color skin, uncomfortable resemblance apartheid. reinforces perception group—regardless education, community candidates polls. perceptions stereotypes. Holland Illinois, 493 474, 484, 809, 107 905 (1990) prosecutor's assumption juror presumed partial he Clause" omitted)); Edmonson Leesvil e Concrete 111 2077, 2088, 114 660 (1991) ("If society continue progress multiracial democracy, automatic stereotypes retards causes hurt injury"). notions, equally pernicious. When effectuate perceived interests officials likely altogether antithetical system representative democracy. Douglas his dissent Rockefeller ago: 38 "Here important, creed, color. principle equality war notion represented Negro, Caucasian, C Jew, D Catholic, on. system, whatever name called, divisive emphasizing differences irrelevant sense. 39 40 multiracial, multireligious communities Constitution seeks weld become separatist; antagonisms relate religion generated; best partisan. ideal, footing here." 66-67, 611 (dissenting opinion) citations reasons, plaintiff challenging legislation, challenged. express "the more" ____ (WHITE, hold facts case, consider circumstances "functionally indistinguishable" systems, loosely described "other varieties gerrymandering." dissenting); post, (SOUTER, considered required demonstrate practice (1982) (at-large system); (same); (1973) (multimember (1971) At-large schemes, Classifying said, cases. therefore 43 SOUTER apparently believes harmless unless dilutes explained, injures ways. undermine democracy signaling adequately explain why make reconciled precedents. First, suggest functionally equivalent purposes, gerrymanders. justiciable 118-127, 2802-2808. law precisely scrutiny. voting—as jurisprudence, reserved strictest 45 Second, STEVENS majority. ---- clear, classification." 722 Wygant, 273, 1846 equally. Powers Ohio, 499 1364, 1370, 411 ("It axiomatic suffer degree"). 46 UJO—on almost exclusively relied, evidently controls, ____, dissenting)—forecloses today. York's revision include additional denial 5. regard, critically way. Hasidic split plan—did supported Three approved statute, part, adhered principles: "[W]e permissible employing populatio attempt being repeatedly outvoted afford fair representation groups residential opportunity majority." 168, 1011 (opinion joined JJ.). construed claim: Five eight participated framework previously "represented slur stigma whites race" left better representation. 165-166, 1009-1010. minimize intent interpreted Department Justice, "foreclose[d] [the State] acted invidious voters." 180, 1017 (Stewart, 49 relied portions reject wrong UJO's where, offends equality. set forth purport overrule Wright. Nothing precludes (or race) bringing erred dismissing complaint. IV contends exacting inappropriate "nearly require[s] "As [a] commonality interest" "racial takes place," argues, "legislators account" Act. SOUTER's flawed. Earlier Term, reaffirmed minority-group cohesion assumed, each Growe Emison, 1075, 1076, ("Unless points neither remedy"). exist treat differently classification. views type category "benign" relaxed review. strict it, de ermine truly "benign." contradicted satisfies level context. 52 certainly antidiscrimination valid context challenge, courts bear mind difference permits, requires. remand might "nonretrogression" principle. precleared "a retrogression position effective franchise." Beer 425 130, 141, 1357, 629 Beer, where none existed muster improved minorities. 141-142, 1363-1364; 422 358, 370-371, 95 2296, 2303-2304, 245 (1975) (annexation reduces percentage post-annexation "fairly reflect" current strength). 54 nonretrogressive, reason, immune challenge. declined reach question. 142, 14. still enjoined 1973c (neither "shall bar enforcement" practice); Allen, 549-550, 823-824 (after preclearance, "private enforcement enactment suits attacking constitutionality"). jurisdictions nonretrogression. goal avoiding went beyond reasonably retrogression. plurality determined "did authorized Beer." 162-163, 1008-1009 BRENNAN, JJ.) 55 Before us, retrogression, Gingles Legislature. thro gh prove threshold conditions: large geographically district," "politically cohesive," votes enable usually minority's preferred candidate." 50-51, 2766-2767. indicated preconditions challenges districts. 1084-1085; - ----. 56 too evidence cohesion. successes willingness candidates. currently positions Auditor, chair Elections. defeated opponent Democratic run-off Senate incumbent election. argue adoption 57 alternatively advanced entirely 491-493, 720-722 J.); 518, 734-735 (KENNEDY, 280-282, 1850-1851 286, 'strong [concluding] [is] necessary.' 500, 725 (quoting 277, 1848 opinion)). 58 pieces gave believing warranted here: imposition findings official assert precise way—indeed —to overcome polarized decided litigation. note, And districting, "employ[s] principles," "residential 167-168 V Racial pose risk lasting harm reinforce belief, judged skin. carry dangers. gerrymandering, balkanize competing factions; matters—a Amendments embody, Nation continues aspire. legislatures Today uncontradicted, reverse proceedings consistent opinion. 61 ordered. 62 join, dissenting. mirror (UJO), light leading relevance, reasoned plausibly influence process cancelled, 165-168, 1009-1011 REHNQUIST JJ.), 179-180, 1016-1017 judgment, J.). Constitution's On reasoning, affirm court's dismissal instance. today chooses overrule, sidestep, UJO. glossing striking similarities, focusing surface differences, notably (admittedly unusual) newly imagining cause action. limited anomalous circumstances, ante, perhaps substantially hamper efforts redistrict Nonetheless, disproportionate sent fiction departure settled Seeing good either, dissent. 65 66 my disagreement stated: injury. date, types direct outright deprivation means poll tax test. (1915). Plainly, implicated detain further. "affects various groups," 83, 1508, judgment), latter category, insisted unduly diminishing process.1 suits, reasons. 67 explanation recognizes, "redistricting factors." Ante, original). "Being aware," context, shorthand "taking account," hardly doubted legislators routinely business making predictions characteristics racial, ethnic, like. 68 "[L]ike bloc-voting composition geographic area] life, known responsible drawing lawmakers quite majority; comes unavoidable district." 1365, (1976) "it genius street another." 753, (1973); 86-87, 1509-1510 extirpating unrealistic, plans consciously looked impact. 70 conceived partisan aims mind. allow interference whenever occurs invite constant unmanageable intrusion. affect automatically dissipate virtue loss. asked identifiable mere lack success pol 153-155, 1873-1875, (1971). 71 With mind, insisting showing processes participation question—that 766, 2339. brief survey illustrates, theme—that suffering polity concerned. 72 searched vain "had More generally, remarked: outcome district's] elections seats own invoking remedies indication segment system." 154-155, 1875. Again, uphold "historic condition" Mexican-American 767, 2340, status cultural marginality, 768, 2340-2341, unresponsiveness 768-769, justified Mexican-Americans 'effectively removed processes,' "invidiously life." 769, 2341. Other adhere standards. 624-626, 3279-3280, Chapman Meier, 420 17, 751, 761, 766 (requiring groups").2 74 summed up (1986).3 expression politics, winning elections," 132, 2810, "whether chance effectively process." 132-133, 2810. "an disadvantages certain effectively." 133, 2810 this, meant exhibit "strong indicia representation," "essentially shut 139, 2814. short, assuming political) "threshold requirement" absence violation, 143, 2815-2816, "reach served districts." 2815.4 75 alleges dividing malicious—an enterprise which, notes, treated skepticism. discriminates anyone Even least inclined approve measures acknowledged significance factor. Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 524-525, 3, 2758, 2798-2799, 902 dissenting) ("No [UJO ] deprived franchise"); Regents Univ. California Bakke, 438 265, 304-305, 2733, 2755-2756, 750 (1978) J.) ("United remedy encompassed improve ability participate, excluding belonging enjoyment opportunity—meaningful process") 76 day, directly point, characterizes "highly fractured," detract attention rejection transgressed norms. above, absent intent, effect, implicated. Writing follows: "It true increased majorities enhance Nevertheless, strength." 165, 78 vein, Stewart Powell stating that: petitioners criterion contravention 125]. employed 'contrivance segregate'; class interest; impair 179, (citations 80 formulation, irrefutable proceeding likewise York, subdivisions interfered citizens' meaningful franchise, §§ Compare 148, 1001. 'resorted stratagem contriving rules sole adverse decrees' "would 'similar maneuvers future evade itself.' McCain Lybrand, 465 236, 245, 104 1037, 1044, 271 (1984) 334, 335, 821-822, (1966)).5 Like satisfaction 150, 1002. interposition "properly viewed" discrimination" minority. 305, 2756 like reacted modifying 151-152, 1002-1003. background, strains credulity discriminate "impair[ing] burden[ing their] mystery respond objections, 13-14, improving prospects electing choice. doubt defined cases—i.e., aggravate unequal distribution power." does, requisite effects. Whites roughly percent total Yet, percent) Though dissatisfied prospect losing candidate—a lot shared many, voters—surely complain treatment.6 82 attempts heretofore unknown "UJO justification." There authority either. importantly, submission withstand logic theory "segregates" odd-shaped qualitatively affects foundation. dealt dilution—which specific Gomil- lion (1960), segregation—which not. differently. Petitioners' "violated revising lines." 155, 1005 'Our demonstrates be—and —no divide time.' 154, 1004, Petitioners, O.T. 1976, 75-104, 6, 6) ever purposeful manner." 1010. "analytically claim" discovers plain day petitioners. demonstration function kind made. injury insisted. begin, font novel curious. Frankfurter characterized 346, 130. Regardless description accurate, seriously deflates precedential value ascribe Gomillion: challenge recast assist city's action, municipality Tuskegee. noted, "inevitable redefinition Tuskegee's boundaries" discriminatorily benefits residence Tuskegee." concurrence premised "fenc[ed] out" benefits. 131-132. Subsequent similarly turning legislation. Palmer Thompson, 217, 225, 1940, 1945, O'Brien, 391 367, 385, 88 1673, 1683-1684, 672 (1968). formed manipulate thereby valuable services. No analogous invoked supra. involved Seventeenth, Nineteenth, Twentieth Districts, respectively 94.9%, 71.5%, 72.5% population. 86.3% Eighteenth classified Puerto Rican. 211 460, 472 (SDNY 1962) (Murphy, 54, 604. Amendments. affirmed met proving 604-605, 606. fail inference effect. problem: carved can, end, depends twin elements. Wright, intended to, shield Seventeenth "pack" Rican Eighteenth, invidiously achieved "packing"—i.e., over-concentration sustain allegation. Lacking precedents, understand put forth, uses "segregate" "uncouth" harmful distribute former "bears apartheid." untenable. come shades: see, fragmentation "so none," 1155, (1993), "cracking," Connor Finch, 431 407, 422, 1828, 1838, (1977); "stacking" concentration larger population," Parker, Gerrymandering Legislative Reapportionment, Vote Dilution 85, (C. Davidson 1984); finally, "concentration [minority voters] excessive majority," 46, 2764, (1986), called "packing," Voinovich, --- 1155. instance, utilized purposes; demonstrating Not so, apparently, lines.7 told, needed. rebut account, legislators' religious, characteristics, practically granted, Part approach do, perhaps, emotions stirred words "segregation" "political loose imprecise today's has, fear, led astray. districting; standpoint groups, moreover, line-drawings act fashion.8 indistinguishable claimant: Proof simultaneous discomfort fascination irregularly shaped Lack helpful indicator form (racial other) "something amiss." 758, 2674, Connor, 425, 1839. Disregard divisions often goes hand Karcher, 776, 2683 Wells 394 542, 554, 1234, 2683, 535 while irregularities potential that. particular, bearing ultimately Constitution. Given similar, grounds, injurious snake-like, differential contrary perplexing "compactness attractiveness independent Gaffney, 18; shortsighted well, regularly one.9 looks impact, "immediately casts direction—toward superficialities size, toward realities composition." R. Dixon, Representation: Reapportionment Law Politics 459 Limited unusually-shaped nonetheless unnecessarily hinder voluntary ensure modicum dispersed. scattered but, unrelated race—for incumbency protection—the "obvious" location.10 When, justify, mandate, obstruction. Gaffney: "[C]ourts [no] warrant invalidate tolerable limits, undertakes, eliminate party, rough halls State." 754, 2332. 94 disagree cognizable, discussion few comments. compliance clearly 162-165, 1008-1010 175-179, part); Here, draw appeared pretextual Rather conclusion, held, also, 291, 1856, seemingly agreeing position, warns "narrowly tailored" law. evident me, meet Hence, all, accepting basic Furthermore, intends manage standard, know. Is opposed rural interests? following options district—is not? Once 5's abridge "narrow tailoring" preserve quo? Or change, attempting manner? small sample begins scratch problems raised suffices illustrate unworkability divorced measure harm. unlike labeled "affirmative action." injured, remedying involve treatment. 295, 1858 concur ing involves, instead, equalize treatment, voice surely, Appeals faithfully followed below. affirmed. add comments undisputed: first, advantaging disadvantaging voters; second, facilitating unarguable facts, devotes proving, questions: Does impose contiguity districts? voters? And, generally "No," favored race? already written questions,1 negative briefly explained. 101 easy. (despite references ____) otherwise. existence ulterior shaping boundaries—usually advantage party control Such useful ase, was: Legislature drew African-American Evidence district's convincing, cumulative, irrelevant. question, creates seen (1983), win election.2 duty govern impartially abused defines expense weaker group. duty, acts facilitate underrepresented affiliation, characteristics. assumptions affect, strengthen power. (whether religion, ethnic belong) occurs. Politicians stop doing future.3 mus ask becomes answers affirmative, wrong. adequate union Jews, Polish Americans, Republicans, necessarily follows thing birth ____.4 perverse. respectfully 105 join (1977), felt "additional argument," 1009-1010, nevertheless conscious unduly. (1975); particularly ironic abandon time distinct" Reconstruction. 108 Today, recognizes bizarre," "rationally [without] justification," subjected justification determination depart carving review customarily dealing Until today, analyzed forms conduct, regimes respects characteristic Unlike contexts addressed (city contracting); (teacher layoffs), calls mixed implicit talk concepts "minority strength," "dilution votes," 46-51, 2764-2767, place,1 adopt.2 look required, 161-162, 1007-1008, ) Brennan, JJ.); n., 1017, judgment).3 figured characteristically occur awarding government contracts firms competition grounds. 721; 2777-2778, Burger, C.J.). supplant seniority layoffs, someone laid off 282-283, 1851-1852 pertains nondistricting aspects places disfavored disadvantage exclusion franchise alternative benefit. (1960) (voters municipality). contrast, placement instead denies provided others.4 All register, represented. voter election, voter's merely loses (including group) belongs outside true, depending reality interests. "Dilution" refers isolation, 1009-1010 given diminish effectiveness voter. 112 approaches differences. coincidence associated situations triggered at-least heightened (which every Member address interest).5 Presumably inevitable mixed, diminished anyone, applying usual "scrutiny" decisions. sure, says, logically possible (and permissible), frequently exemplified (quite Constitution), seemed appropriate identify describing serious justify recognition devalue what, member, able enjoy. WHITE describes formulations categories dilutive ____.6 consequence categorical shown falling categories. abridgment shown, approach, harm, proven element suggestion purpose. theoretical inconsistency having analysis, Nor, distinctions categories, imply discrimination, entitlement protection, appropriateness scrutiny.7 115 accept disturb (acknowledging dilution"). distinct," ibid., principal face," "irrational "extremely Pleading element, holds, 116 pleading rarely wind aberration. indeed exa ples unequivocal implication finds employ holds "not contradicted." ____; ____.8 117 pleaded, interest, Meanwhile, consequential pleaded proven, Bolling Sharpe, 497, 693, 694-695, 884 (1954). offers treating bizarrely claims.9 imagine preservation "sound 1011, out, acknowledges, Court), regime accordance seeming egregiousness now untethering concept syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. argued lessened Garza County Los Angeles, 918 F.2d 763, 771 (CA9 1990). leave note then "some remedy." forbids imposing specified procedures abridgement Section established if, totality nomination [protected] electorate 1973(b). 131, disagreeing justiciable, author expressed own: "[W]here 'the suspectness' vulnerable enjoy infringed 'essentially process.' 2820-2821 squared 38, 2760, "North officially discriminated 1900 1970 [and] test." afforded "packing" overall over, by, borrow term connotation, ill-advised. accurate occurred. center controversy is, according 54.71% African-American. 6. factor, "segregated"—i.e., "set apart" "isolate[d]." Webster's Collegiate Dictionary 1063 (9th 1983). am confident, suffered annexing suburbs, splitting two. remarked, "[d]ragons, bacon strips, dumbbells strained reliable signs factional) served, turn skillfully constructed aid party." Sickels, Dragons, Bacon Strips, Dumbbells—Who's Afraid Yale L.J. 1300 occurred providing objection, "[f]or southeast district" 10a. southern suggested, hand, considerations. one, charged "grossly contorted" logical enhancement ignores directive [Department Justice] jeopardize reelection incumbent." Jurisdictional 43a (Complaint 3:92CV71-P (WDNC)). incident, writer observed "understanding configurations politicians, knowledge Act." 1258 (1993). "plaintiffs allege, they, state's caused 'shut 392, 397 decision. Cousins City Council Chicago, 466 830, 848-852 (CA7) (Stevens, cert. denied, 409 893, 151 (1972); 83-94, 1508-1514, 744-765, 2665-2678, 161-185, 2825-2838, 748, 2669 segment—whether economic, political—that occupy time, politically weak guarantee protection"); 178-183, 2834-2837, nn. 21-24, 21-24 (describing "grotesque gerrymandering" "unusual shapes" power). acknowledge bring three-part test 2766-2767, show "that conditions depend brands "impermissible stereotypes," true. admits earlier "pervasive voting", legislators—as states—will confused prevents another. paradox. African-Americans offer redistricting. ago, protected 86-90, 6-10, 1509-1512, (S TEVENS, "Bloc unfortunate phenomenon, knowledgeable life. Wher exists, minority." Recognition actual racially-polarized equated 'invocation stereotypes' Leesville (1991)), forbidden race[,] [membership language minority.]" 1973c; 1973b(f)(2). 1973. describe carries comparable school inequality educational p ovided, whereas characteristic) participation. 483, 495, 692, 873 (1954), requiring public education purpose, units. 493-495, 721-723, (referring variously "strict scrutiny," Wygant," "heightened scrutiny"); 735-736 ("strict 535, 743-744 (Marshall, (classifications 'must objectives achievement objectives' ") University 359, 2783, (joint Marshall, JJ.)); 514-516, 2914-2916 (undertaking examination advantaged disparate declining articulate standards review); 279-280, 1849-1850, (equating articulations "more stringent" 'reasonableness' scrutiny"). course 509, 730 assessment diminished. accuses me saying ones. bizarrely-shaped readily effects, evaluating scheme. While "express[es] more' claim," (citing dissenting)), emphasizes reference says ingredients stigmatic "threa[t] democracy," elements text, begin with, nowhere Pet. Cert. 68a-100a Motion Preliminary Injunction Temporary Restraining Order). Putting side, utterly implausible presume, strangely-shaped "generates" feeling hearts minds unlikely undone." 691, seeing threatened (indeed rather, enhanced) anyone's vote.

Classification Label: 1