Legal Document

473 U.S. 432 105 S.Ct. 3249 87 L.Ed.2d 313 CITY OF CLEBURNE, TEXAS, et al., Petitionersv.CLEBURNE LIVING CENTER al. No. 84-468. Argued March 18, 1985. Reargued April 23, Decided July 1, Syllabus Respondent Cleburne Living Center, Inc. (CLC), which anticipated leasing a certain building for the operation of group home mentally retarded, was informed by petitioner city that special use permit would be required, having concluded proposed should classified as "hospital feebleminded" under zoning ordinance covering area in located. Accordingly, CLC applied permit, but City Council, after public hearing, denied permit. and others (also respondents here) then filed suit against number its officials, alleging ordinance, on face applied, violated equal protection rights potential residents. The District Court held application constitutional. Appeals reversed, holding mental retardation is "quasi-suspect" classification; that, applicable "heightened-scrutiny" test, facially invalid because it did not substantially further an important governmental purpose; also applied. Held: 1. erred quasi-suspect classification calling more exacting standard judicial review than normally accorded economic social legislation. Pp. 439-447. (a) Where individuals affected statute have distinguishing characteristics relevant to interests State has authority implement, Equal Protection Clause requires only drawn rationally related legitimate state interest. When or legislation at issue, allows States wide latitude. 439-442. (b) Mentally retarded persons, who reduced ability cope with function everyday world, are thus different from other States' interest dealing providing them plainly one. distinctive legislative response, both national state, plight those demonstrates they unique problems, lawmakers been addressing their difficulties manner belies continuing antipathy prejudice corresponding need intrusive oversight judiciary afforded normal standard. Moreover, could hardly occurred survived without support, negates any claim politically powerless sense no attract attention lawmakers. requiring purpose affords government latitude necessary pursue policies designed assist realizing full potential, freely efficiently engage activities burden what essentially incidental manner. 442-447. 2. Requiring here deprives laws, unnecessary decide whether ordinance's requirement where involved. Although group, occupy facilities—such boarding houses hospitals—that permitted question such difference irrelevant unless threaten city's way uses not. record does reveal rational basis believing pose threat interests. this case appears rest irrational including live closely supervised highly regulated conditions expressly provided federal law. 447-450. 726 F.2d 191 (CA5 1984), affirmed part, vacated remanded. Earl Luna, Dallas, Tex., petitioners. Renea Hicks, Austin, respondents. [Amicus Curiae Information pages 434-435 intentionally omitted] Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 A Texas acting pursuant municipal permits homes. Fifth Circuit purpose. We hold lesser scrutiny appropriate, conclude case. 2 * In 1980, respondent Jan Hannah purchased 201 Featherston Street Cleburne, Texas, intention (CLC),1 retarded. It house 13 men women, constant supervision staff members. had four bedrooms two baths, half bath added. planned comply all regulations.2 3 required site, accordingly submitted application. response subsequent inquiry CLC, explained regulations renewable annually, construction "[h]ospitals insane feeble-minded, alcoholic [sic] drug addicts, penal correctional institutions."3 determined feebleminded." After hearing CLC's application, Council voted deny permit.4 4 Federal alleging, inter alia, discriminated violation found "[i]f residents were same respects, ordinance," Counsel's decision "was motivated primarily fact persons retarded." App. 93, 94. Even so, Concluding fundamental right implicated neither suspect nor classification, court employed minimum level claims. deemed written "the legal responsibility residents, . safety fears adjoining neighborhood," people housed home.5 Id., 103. 5 determining assess validity intermediate-level scrutiny. (1984). Because many actions, strict appropriate. But light history "unfair often grotesque mistreatment" discrimination "likely reflect deep-seated prejudice." 197. addition, lacked political power, condition immutable. considered heightened particularly appropriate case, withheld benefit which, although fundamental, very Without homes, stated, never hope integrate themselves into community.6 Applying test went applied.7 Rehearing en banc six judges dissenting urging consideration panel's adoption review. granted certiorari, 469 1016, 427, 83 354 (1984).8 II 6 Fourteenth Amendment commands shall "deny person within jurisdiction laws," direction similarly situated treated alike. Plyler v. Doe, 457 202, 216, 102 2382, 2394, 72 786 (1982). Section empowers Congress enforce mandate, absent controlling congressional direction, courts devised standards official action challenged denying protection. general rule presumed valid will sustained if Schweiker Wilson, 450 221, 230, 101 1074, 1080, 67 186 (1981); United Railroad Retirement Board Fritz, 449 166, 174-175, 453, 459-460, 66 368 (1980); Vance Bradley, 440 97, 99 939, 942, 59 171 (1979); New Orleans Dukes, 427 297, 303, 96 2513, 2516, 49 511 (1976). latitude, supra, U.S., 174, S.Ct., 459; Constitution presumes even improvident decisions eventually rectified democratic processes. 7 gives way, however, when classifies race, alienage, origin. These factors so seldom achievement laws grounded considerations antipathy—a view burdened class worthy deserving others. For these reasons unlikely soon means, subjected suitably tailored serve compelling McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 192, 85 283, 288, 222 (1964); Graham Richardson, 403 365, 91 1848, 29 534 (1971). Similar due impinge personal protected Constitution. Kramer Union Free School 15, 395 621, 89 1886, 23 583 (1969); Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 1322, 22 600 Skinner Oklahoma ex rel. Williamson, 316 535, 62 1110, 86 L.Ed. 1655 (1942). 8 Legislative classifications based gender call That factor generally provides sensible ground differential treatment. "[W]hat differentiates sex nonsuspect statuses intelligence physical disability characteristic frequently bears relation perform contribute society." Frontiero 411 677, 686, 93 1764, 1770, 36 (1973) (plurality opinion). Rather resting meaningful considerations, statutes distributing benefits burdens between sexes ways likely outmoded notions relative capabilities women. fails sufficiently Mississippi University Women Hogan, 458 718, 3331, 73 1090 (1982); Craig Boren, 429 190, 97 451, 50 397 illegitimacy beyond individual's control "no participate society," Mathews Lucas, 495, 505, 2755, 2762, 651 (1976), discriminations subject somewhat Those restrictions "will survive extent interest." Mills Habluetzel, 456 91, 99, 1549, 1554, 71 770 9 declined, extend treatment age: 10 "While aged Nation wholly free discrimination, unlike, say, race origin, experienced 'history purposeful unequal treatment' disabilities stereotyped truly indicative abilities." Massachusetts Murgia, 307, 313, 2562, 2567, 520 11 lesson Murgia law reluctant, our system respect separation powers, scrutinize choices whether, how, pursued. cases, means end. III 12 Against background, we several First, undeniable, argued otherwise here, world. Nor cut pattern: testimony indicates, range whose immediately evident must constantly cared for.9 They different, immutably one.10 How large diversified difficult technical matter, much task legislators guided qualified professionals perhaps ill-informed opinions judiciary. Heightened inevitably involves substantive judgments about decisions, doubt predicate present deals retardation. Second, Thus, Government outlawed federally funded programs, see § 504 Rehabilitation Act 1973, U.S.C. 794, receive "appropriate treatment, services, habilitation" setting "least restrictive [their] liberty." Developmental Disabilities Assistance Bill Rights Act, 42 §§ 6010(1), (2). conditioned education funds State's assurance children enjoy "to maximum appropriate," integrated nonmentally children. Education Handicapped 20 1412(5)(B). facilitated hiring civil service exempting competitive examination. See CFR 213.3102(t) enacted acknowledges status conferring upon them, least individual needs abilities," home." Retarded Persons 1977, Tex.Rev.Civ.Stat.Ann., Art. 5547-300, (Vernon Supp.1985).11 14 Such singling out reflects real undeniable differences civilized decent society expects approves indicates vast majority situations desirable. may be, contends, benefit, rather disadvantage, withstand examination Brief Respondents 38-41. inquiry, constitutionally mandated first instance. assuming shown purpose, merely legislature justify efforts terms lead refrain all. Much recent intended assumes measures might perceived disadvantage them. example, "appropriate" education, one respects nonretarded children; clearly, admission exceeded abilities child appropriate.12 Similarly, give setting" abilities, implicitly some imposed others.13 Especially given variation themselves, bodies amount flexibility freedom shaping limiting remedial efforts. 15 Third, Any minority can said assert direct over legislature, criterion higher courts, now suspect. 16 Fourth, amorphous Appeals, find principled distinguish variety groups immutable off others, cannot mandate desired responses, degree part large. One mention aging, disabled, ill, infirm. reluctant set course, decline do so. 17 Doubtless, there continue instances invidious, properly correction constitutional norms. method reaching create new searching evaluation. Rather, look likelihood premised particular specifics before us. legitimately take account Governments recently committed assisting presume action, disadvantages individuals, rooted tolerate. 18 Our refusal recognize leave entirely unprotected invidious discrimination. To review, distinguishes This standard, believe, rely relationship asserted goal attenuated render distinction arbitrary irrational. Zobel Williams, 55, 61-63, 2309, 2313-2314, 672 Dept. Agriculture Moreno, 413 528, 2821, 2826, 37 782 (1973). Furthermore, objectives— "a bare desire harm unpopular group," id., 534, 2826—are Zobel, 63, 2314. Beyond like retain addition equally IV 19 turn issue insofar homes retarded.14 inquire circumstances laws. If does, occasion provision involved, put another insist R-3 zone. preferred course adjudication since enables avoid making unnecessarily broad judgments. Brockett Spokane Arcades, Inc., 472 491, 501-502, 2794, ----, (1985); Grace, 461 171, 103 1702, 75 736 (1983); NAACP Button, 371 415, 328, 405 (1963). clearly posed. require zone apartment houses, multiple dwellings, lodging fraternity sorority dormitories, hotels, hospitals, sanitariums, nursing convalescents (other feebleminded alcoholics addicts), private clubs fraternal orders, specified uses. home, found, facility May care multiple-dwelling facilities permitted? 21 true, already pointed out, indeed sharing misfortune, largely hospitals interests, affirm judgment below holds Council's insistence rested factors. concerned negative attitude property owners located 200 feet facility, well elderly neighborhood. mere attitudes, fear, unsubstantiated cognizable proceeding, permissible bases treating differently like. plain electorate whole, referendum otherwise, order violative Clause, Lucas Forty-Fourth General Assembly Colorado, 377 713, 736-737, 84 1459, 1473-1474, 632 (1964), strictures deferring wishes objections fraction body politic. "Private biases outside reach law, cannot, directly indirectly, effect." Palmore Sidoti, 466 429, 433, 104 1879, 1882, 80 421 location facility. across street junior high school, feared students harass occupants home. school itself attended 30 students, vague, undifferentiated again permitting portion community validate violation. objection home's five hundred year flood plain." concern possibility flood, and, aged, sanitariums site obtaining Council—doubts actions take. area, believe mildly moderately hazard. 24 size it. repeated, ordinance." 93; F.2d, 200. Given finding, house, family dwelling, dormitory. treat differently. true suffer shared others; why warrants density regulation observe apparent. At clarify connection, occupying purposes. type who, supporting staff, satisfy housing community; dispute meet square-footage-per-resident type. 442.447 words "[t]he justifies apparent 'crowded' cannot." 202. 25 urged aimed avoiding concentration population lessening congestion streets. concerns obviously fail explain like, locate So, too, expressed worry fire hazards, serenity neighborhood, avoidance danger yet imposing 26 short us 27 invalidates vacated, 28 ordered. STEVENS, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, concurring. disposed critical decided three defined discriminating retarded.1 fact, cases delineated three—or two—such well-defined standards.2 continuum judgmental responses differing ranging "strict scrutiny" extreme "rational basis" other. I persuaded so-called "standards" adequately decisional process.3 Cases involving illegal residency, illegitimacy, gender, age, or—as retardation, fit sharply classifications. "I am inclined become known [tiered] analysis claims describe completely logical deciding actually apply single reasonably consistent fashion." 212, 452, 464, (1976) (STEVENS, J., concurring). my own approach always asked myself issue. term "rational," includes impartial lawmaker logically transcends members disadvantaged class.4 word "rational"—for me elements legitimacy neutrality characterize performance sovereign's duty govern impartially.5 31 rational-basis understood, explains vote his skin pigmentation voters violates Clause. utterly limit franchise height weight; color. None attributes bearing citizen's willingness exercise right. scrutiny," "heightened cases. 32 every ask basic questions. What harmed legislation, "tradition disfavor" laws?6 being served law? disparate treatment?7 most answer questions tell basis." answers result virtually automatic invalidation racial validation classifications, provide results alienage,8 gender,9 illegitimacy.10 "intermediate review" cases; sometimes or, specifically, purportedly serve.11 33 Every places presumptively greater capacity decisions. An lawmaker—indeed, member retarded—could favor he situations, protect himself Restrictions drive cars operate hazardous equipment seem though deprived him employment opportunities kind travel enjoyed citizens. "That desirable." Ante, 444. 34 correctly observed through ignorance "have unfair mistreatment." 191, 197 1984). annual district used convinces neighboring owners, reside respondent's home.12 35 neighbors justified restriction, unambiguously rejected argument. 201. Court, really hazards presented Zoning ordinances usually basis, ante, 447-450, justification unconvincing. ever approve discriminatory join MARSHALL, BRENNAN BLACKMUN join, concurring part. 38 grouped together "feebleminded" unfit community. Underlying principle per se proxy depriving regard variations ability. With agree. capacities individuals. 39 agree, reaches narrow, as-applied remedy Cleburne's grounds disclaims anything special, form scrutiny, taking place. Yet surely traditional commercial regulation. view, articulate, not, facts principles subjecting review—the scrutiny—that leads invalidation. invalidating exclusion respondents, face, radically departs precedents. dissent novel truncated remedy, accept Court's disclaimer "more standard" ordinary 442, write separately. 40 outset, curious paradoxical aspects noted. grounds, wide-ranging discussion superfluous "two price one" decisionmaking rendering rulings enough case—stands head deeply embedded governing Article power. Just few weeks ago, "call[ed] mind cardinal rules courts: 'One, anticipate advance necessity it; formulate broader precise applied.' " 501, (1985) (WHITE, J.) (quoting Liverpool, York & Philadelphia S.S. Co. Commissioners Emigration, 113 33, 39, 352, 355, 899 (1885)).1 lower decides albeit concludes grounds,2 "our usual custom" compound problem following narrower, dispositive available. Alexander Louisiana, 625, 633, 92 1221, 1226, 536 (1972).3 offers departing principles, nor, precedents, 724, n. 9, 3336, (1982) (declining address sufficient invalidate challenged); Stanton Stanton, 7, 13, 95 1373, 1377, 43 688 (1975) (same); Hooper Bernalillo County Assessor, 612, 2862, 487 residency-based test); 60-61, 2312-2313, cf. Mitchell Forsyth, 511, 537-538, 2806, (O'CONNOR, part). 41 heightened-scrutiny puzzling invalidated precisely sort probing associated sure, label handiwork hereafter called "second order" scrutiny." however labeled, invoked today assuredly Williamson Lee Optical Oklahoma, 348 483, 461, 563 (1955), Allied Stores Ohio, Bowers, 358 522, 79 437, 480 (1959), progeny. neighborhood bear concerns, analogous appear similar threats. minimal version "reform step time, phase seems acute mind." 489, 465; American Federation Labor Sash Co., 335 538, 69 258, (1949); Semler Dental Examiners, 294 608, 55 570, 1086 (1935). "record" support 448, 450, sift determine policy squarely supported firm factual foundation. Exxon Corp. Eagerton, 462 176, 196, 2296, 2308, 76 497 Minnesota Clover Leaf Creamery 456, 461-462, 715, 722-723, 659 Firemen Chicago, R.I. P.R. 393 129, 138-139, 323, 327-328, 289 (1968). Finally, finds "difficult believe" inapplicable groups. circumstances, convince lines sensible; constitutional, "is resort close distinctions maintain precise, scientific uniformity reference" goals. 527, 441; (1976); Metropolis Theatre 228 61, 68-70, 441, 443, 57 730 (1913). share criticisms overly drawn. imprecise powerful affecting matters. imprecision opticians optometrists licensed practice, excluded old businesses parts community, fatal statutory scheme. 44 acknowledge something rationality work is, unfortunate respects.4 suggestion creates precedent "ordinary" review—a small regrettable back toward days Lochner York, 198 45, 539, 937 (1905). failing articulate today's foundation invoked. Lower left dark question, remains unaccountable employing, refusing employ, Candor careful receives. 45 long believed vary societal importance adversely recognized invidiousness drawn." San Antonio Independent Rodriguez, 1278, 1330, (MARSHALL, dissenting). 230-231, 2401-2402, concurring); Dandridge 471, 508, 90 1153, 1173, 491 (1970) works exclude residential districts convincingly furthering Plyler, supra; (1973); Buchanan Warley, 245 60, 16, 149 (1917). 46 establishing substantial. "establish home" cherished liberties embraced Due Process Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 399, 626, 1042 (1923). adults, living deinstitutionalization progressed, primary adults enter life matter 47 availability communities essential ingredient patterns each makes harder establish operates community." Pet. Cert. A-8. 48 Excluding human fulfillment—the bonds community.5 "lengthy tragic history," California Regents Bakke, 438 265, 98 2733, 750 (1978) (opinion POWELL, J.), segregation grotesque. During 19th century, viewed curable dangerous devices.6 By latter century during decades one, views underwent radical transformation. Fueled rising tide Social Darwinism, "science" eugenics, xenophobia years,7 leading medical authorities began portray "feeble-minded" "menace civilization responsible many, all, problems."8 regime state-mandated degradation emerged virulence bigotry rivaled, paralleled, worst excesses Jim Crow. Massive custodial institutions built warehouse life; aim halt reproduction "nearly extinguish race."9 categorically schools, false stereotype ineducable purported them.10 "unfit citizenship."11 Segregation accompanied eugenic marriage sterilization extinguished "basic man"—the marry procreate. 541, 1113, Marriages made, voidable criminal offense.12 limitations, women child-bearing unabashedly eugenic: prevent propagating.13 assure end, compulsory 1907 1931. J. Landman, Human Sterilization 302-303 (1932). Buck Bell, 274 200, 207, 584, 1000 (1927) (Holmes, J.); Plessy Fergu son, 163 537, 1138, 256 (1896); Bradwell Illinois, Wall. 130, 141, 442 (1873) (Bradley, judgment). 51 Prejudice, once let loose, easily cabined. 395, 2801, J.). As 1979, still disqualified "idiots" voting, discretion hands low-level election officials.14 Not until Stat. 175, amended, 1400 seq., door[s] education" opened handicapped Hendrick Hudson Rowley, 3034, 3043, 690 (1982).15 important, lengthy isolation perpetuated ignorance, fears, stereotyping plagued them.16 52 stake suffered, appeared taxing legislation.17 vague generalizations classifying alcoholics, insane, excluding elderly, boarder, transient allowed, substantial overcome suspicion rests impermissible assumptions stereotypes. Roberts Jaycees, 468 609, 3244, 82 (1984); 53 effort show struck down legislation," justifications warrant solicitude. justifications, precedents analysis. 54 downplays "history treatment" 28, 1294, pointing "beli[e] 443. Building point, "politically powerless" deserve "[a]ny minority" wins battles loses 445. import conclusions, seems, alone perspicacious see. Once begins practices discriminatory, previously stigmatized mobilized lift stigma, approaching added skepticism Courts, sit act vacuum. Moral philosophers debate inequalities absolute wrongs, clear equality, liberty, property, process, evolve time; "natural" "self-evident" ordering later comes seen artificial constraint freedom. Compare Ferguson, (1896), Wall., 141 judgment), Brown Education, 347 74 873 (1954), Reed Reed, 404 71, 251, 225 Shifting cultural, political, times come make past inconsistent rests, inconsistency legally natural evolving equality embodied occurs, change source guidance equality. ignores, reached conclusion extended drew parallel developments extension: 56 "[O]ver decade, manifested increasing sensitivity sex-based [citing examples]. inherently coequal branch significance presently consideration." 687, 1770.18 catalyzed change, certainly eviscerate underlying principle. suggested race-based became less extensive subject. 58 just Negroes changed years, same; out-dated books, traceable prolonged cultural stymie recognition dignity individuality people. appearing impose barriers Amendment. focused opposed apply.19 Two central theory. legislatures circumstances. 441-442. inappropriate valid. must, says, "look us," 446. 60 sound, await day cookie mold. alike characteristics, applies rarely characteristics. Permissible reasonable 70, 2318 (BRENNAN, concurring), almost relevant. areas using exist. 61 second assertion—that fixed reference validly relevant—is flawed. Certainly assertion one; suggest reason sign says "men only" looks bathroom door courthouse door. (1873). belie undocumented alien "constitutional irrelevancy," therefore declined aliens. 219, 19, 2396, 19. While Frontiero, stated "frequently" "often" aims, deem 686-687, 1770-1771. Indeed, upheld gender-based Rostker Goldberg, 453 57, 2646, 478 Michael M. Superior Sonoma County, 1200, 437 (1981). alienage20 trait others.21 view—indeed concept heightened, strict, scrutiny—is flatly notion "mental decisions." separate relying 63 irrelevancy enough, burdens. exist, boldly asserts "in situations" "not suggests somehow calculate percentage "situations" invalidly "triggered" undefined numerical threshold crossed. principle, mathematics, determines Whenever potentially reveals systemic becomes 64 Potentially exist presuming required. Discrimination, sense, connotes entitled something. matters, exists, Holmes "intended embody ." 75, 546 (dissenting). policy, therefore, move directions,22 sphere.23 structure compromise, norm optometrists, old, 65 prohibit castes created along ethnic lines, 432-433, 1881-1882; Loving Virginia, 388 1817, 1010 (1967); Shelley Kraemer, 334 68 836, 847, 1161 (1948); Hernandez 475, 667, 866 significantly constrains concerned. constraints, derived Amendment, present, teaches systemically ignored, inquiry" Carolene Products 304 144, 153, 4, 778, 784 1234 (1938). skeptically, suspended evidence considered. objectives, see, e.g., weighty departure allow second-guess reasoned professional seek hostility thoughtlessness carried day. invoking recognizes, compels recognize, target prejudiced, thoughtless, offends done past, remains, appropriate.24 legacy amply attest, been, targets condemns. liberty valued outright hostility, sweeps too broadly dispel outsiders, pariahs belong while disclaiming warranted, conclusion. striking down, proposition adjudication" standing "irrational prejudice" thereby forcing run Act's gauntlet. belief "rational" subgroup toto capable "whether zone." 447. blunderbuss drafted years ago "feeble-minded," enact carefully 70 leaving sweeping peculiar problems future. define unlawful delineate defines any, applicants valid, invalid, applications ordinance. consequence, relegates future standardless officials willing readiness captured "vague, fears," 449, ignorant frightened Invalidating "feebleminded," contrast, place tailoring updating unconstitutional belongs: arm Cleburne. perceives obtain will, studying new, narrowly current (presently nowhere ordinance) narrow subclass excluded. Special ended altogether. whatever contours take, allowed keep books intact shift confront complex empirical involved solution yield certainty administrative case-by-case provide. attempt surmount vastly overbroad defensible here. Were cleanly severed, cut, applications, greatly reduced. Cf. (1983) (statute restricting speech conduct Supreme sidewalks); 184-188 readily appears, offered of, nine-tenths covered 9—a figure presumption enormously overbroad. Stanley 645, 1208, 551 (1972) (invalidating despite "most" covered). knowledge, challenge basis. impermissibly generalizations, face.25 instead redrafting ongoing cumbersome process "as applied" rulings. Cleveland LaFleur, 414 632, 94 791, (1974), invalidated, maternity pregnant schoolteachers unpaid beginning months expected date. board teachers physically incapable performing stages pregnancy, accepted purposes decision. Assuming teachers, last 647, 799, nonetheless toto, simply plaintiff. boards employ "alternative means" achieve health goal, 800, statute, 13. Caban Mohammed, 441 380, 1760, 297 (1979), parental consent unwed mothers fathers. defended ground, fathers locate, child's infancy. proof abandonment easier paternity harder, draft locating proved unconstitutionally overbroad, strike down. Vlandis Kline, 412 453-454, 2230, 2237, Carrington Rash, 380 89, 775, 675 (1965); Sugarman Dougall, 634, 646-649, 2842, 2849-2851, 853 Weber Aetna Casualty Surety 406 164, 1400, 768 (1972); Levy 391 68, 88 1509, 436 unprecedented unwise. doctrinal sought parties, various amici, discussed oral persuasively reconsider prior point. Instead, "this adjudication." emerges decision, entrenched fuller consideration. V approaches wrong way. formal reviewed identification recognizes focusing obsessively identify examined stereotypes regarding need. No freewheeling, dangerous, "rational-basis employed, directed grouping together. deal lies heart gauntlet presumption, entirety concur Community Concepts, vice president owner CLC. convenience, referred "CLC." third Advocacy, nonprofit corporation services developmentally disabled persons. operated Level Intermediate Care Facility Retarded, ICF-MR, program joint federal-state reimbursement clients. 1396d(a)(15); Tex. Resources Code Ann. 32.001 seq. (1980 Supp.1985). ICF-MR's guidelines established Department Health Services Departments Resources, Mental Retardation, Health. 92. 442.1 Tex.Adm.Code 27.101 zoned "R-3," "Apartment House District." 51. pertinent district: "1. R-2. "2. Apartment dwellings. "3. Boarding houses. "4. Fraternity dormitories. "5. hotels. "6. Hospitals, feeble-minded addicts." "7. Private except chief activity business. "8. Philanthropic eleemosynary institutions, institutions. "9. Accessory customarily incident above 60-61 (emphasis added). specifies include feebleminded, institutions." 63. issued Governing Body, recommendation Planning Commission." All limited year, applicant signatures (200) used." Ibid. Commission earlier 91. claims, argument improperly delegating powers property. 105. Washington Seattle Title Trust Roberge, 278 116, 50, 210 (1928). argument, raised parties found: "Group currently principal alternatives relied passed overcrowded But, observed, failed allegedly "crowded" conditions, acceptable concedes qualify certification Tr. Oral Rearg. 31. made 1982, contains grandfather clause, 78-81, specific finding 96. However, amici brief 'the bed rule' obstacle case." Amici 7. six-bed serious longer interested injunctive relief. David Southern, officer testified break type, you ten eleven residents." 32. requested damages injunction, moot. brought enactment effective September 1985, "family homes" "all zones state." community-based residence supervisory personnel. affect plan disposition Macon Assn. Citizens Macon-Bibb Comm'n, 252 Ga. 484, 314 S.E.2d 218 (1984), dism'd want 802, effect restricted dwelling units occupied family, unrelated Village Belle Terre Boraas, 416 1536, 797 constitutionality Georgia specifically discriminate Ga., 487, S.E.2d, 221. fall distinct categories. majority—approximately 89%—are "mildly" meaning IQ 70. Approximately 6% "moderately" IQs 50. remaining categories "severe" (IQs 35) "profound" 20). 5% population. (testimony Dr. Philip Roos). alone, however. Association Deficiency (AAMD) 'significantly subaverage intellectual functioning existing concurrently deficits adaptive behavior developmental period.' AAMD AAMD, Classification Retardation (H. Grosman ed. 1983)). "Deficits behavior" limitations maturation, learning, independence, age group. caused factors, genetic, environmental, unknown. 4. Dean Ely observed: "Surely feel sorry she can't about, I'm aware suppose elected unusually feeling. typically legitimate, commentators immutability explanation, given, (unlike commentator trying suspect) point there's theory, there?" Ely, Democracy Distrust 150 (1980) (footnote omitted). 154-155. originally relief voluntarily dismissed pendent indicated presence abstention construed courts. 12, 14, 84-87. prohibiting excludes See, Cal.Health Safety 1566 (West 1979 Supp.1985); Conn.Gen.Stat. 8-3e (Supp.1985); N.D.Cent.Code 25-16-14(2) (Supp.1983); R.I.Gen.Laws, 45-24-22 (1980). Md.Health 7-102 (Supp.1984). included definition handicapped, 1401(1), great devise "individualized educational program," 1401(19), "tailored child." 181, 3038, withholds restraint "unless absolutely necessary." 6010(3). goes saying nothing listed 3, supra. standards—"rationally interest," "somewhat review," briefly described 440, 441. 176-177, 10, 460-461, (1980), citing applying stated: "The arrogant scholar uniform principles." Commenting intermediate 220-221, 469, REHNQUIST wrote: think difficulty recognized—the 'rational basis,' 'compelling interest' 'suspect classification' involved—so counsel weightily insertion 'standard' two. divine objectives important? 'substantially' objective, achievement? Both phrases diaphanous elastic invite subjective preferences prejudices relating types masquerading 'important' 'substantial' enough." 98, dissenting, joined Douglas, (criticizing rigidified analysis"). discover correlation either actual legislature. adverse impact disfavored impartiality If, cost achieving larger incurred." 180-181, 462-463 Lehr Robertson, 463 248, 2985, 2995, 77 614 Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 426 88, 100, 1895, 1903, 495 especially vigilant evaluating disfavor [for] pausing consider newly classification. Habit, analysis, male female, citizen, illegitimate; inertia black white. reaction relationship—other pure prejudicial discrimination—to made." 520-521, 2769, Transit Authority Beazer, 568, 593, 1355, 1369, 587 (1979). Foley Connelie, 435 291, 308, 1067, 1077, 287 Diaz, 67, 78-80, 1883, 1890-1892, compare (1973), re Griffiths, 717, 2851, 910 Ambach Norwick, 1589, (1978). (1971), Califano Goldfarb, 430 199, 1021, 270 (1977), Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 256, 2282, 870 Heckler Mathews, 465 728, 1387, 646 Lalli Lalli, 439 259, 518, 503 (1978), Trimble Gordon, 762, (1977). 497-498, 1218-1219, (1981) 406-407, 1775-1776, (1979) dissenting) ("But perfectly obvious time born wedlock, mother father process"). "shall Spector Motor Service, McLaughlin, 323 101, 105, 152, 154, (1944) ("If doctrine adjudication, ought pass unavoidable"); Burton States, 196 295, 243, 245, 482 (1905) ("It habit nature case"); Ashwander TVA, 346-348, 466, 482-484, (1936) (Brandeis, today, "calls mind" 447, dicta read irony. infra, 458-460. Three Affiliated Tribes Wold Engineering, 467 138, 157-158, 2267, 2278-2279, 81 Leroy Great Western Corp., 443 173, 2710, 2715, 464 cites discussion, (1982), expose today. handful modern purports language. L. Tribe, Constitutional Law 16-31, p. 1090, (discussing Moreno ); 2828 (Douglas, 65, 2315 (Brennan, near park, shopping center access S. Herr, Advocacy People (1983). On role ideologies era, K. Stampp, Era Reconstruction, 1865-1877, pp. 18-22 (1965). H. Goddard, Possibilities Research Applied Prevention Feeblemindedness, Proceedings National Conference Charities Correction 307 (1915), cited A. Deutsch, Ill America 360 (2d 1949). Fernald, Burden Psycho-Asthenics 87, (1913) (the "cause unutterable sorrow menace community"); Terman, Feeble-Minded Children Public Schools California, Society 161 (1917) ("[O]nly begun how [feeblemindedness] social, moral welfare state. [I]t chronic semi-chronic pauperism, alcoholism, prostitution, venereal diseases"). Books titles Menace Feeble Minded Connecticut" Connecticut Imbeciles, commonplace. C. Frazier, (Chairman, Executive Committee Pennsylvania), Pennsylvania (1913); W. Feeble-Mindedness (1912) (Mass.); Juvenile Cincinnati, Feeble-Minded, Or Hub Wheel Vice (1915) (Ohio). resemblance R. Shufeldt, Negro: Civilization (1907), striking, coincidental. Moore, (1911). book sponsored Aid Association. P. Tyor Caring 71-104 segregationist clear. Mar. 22, 1915, ch. 90, 1915 Tex.Gen.Laws 143 (repealed 1955) (Act relieve heavy losses arising existence persons"). Pennsylvania, 343 F.Supp. 279, 294-295 (ED Pa.1972); Sarason Doris, Educational Handicap, Policy, History 271-272 Apr. 1920, 210, 17, 1920 Miss.Laws 294. 1928, 156, 1928 Ky. Acts effect, Ky.Rev.Stat. 402.990(2) 25, 1905, 136, 1905 Mich.Pub.Acts 185, 186, Mich.Comp.Laws 551.6 29, Miss.Gen.Laws 300, minor changes, Miss.Code 41-21-45 (1972). Chamberlain, Current Legislation—Eugenics Limitations Marriage, A.B.A.J. (1923); Lau Lau, N.H. 44, 122 345, 346 Wyman, 118 Conn. 173 155, 156 (1934). Linn Historical Fallacies Behind Legal Prohibitions Involving Persons—The Eternal Child Grows Up, Gonz.L.Rev. 625 (1978); Shaman, Who Are Retarded: Their Right Marry Have Children, Family L.Q. Note, Disabled Marry: Statutory Evaluation, J.Family Disability Vote, Yale L.J. 1644 children, shut system. 1400(b). G. Allport, Nature Prejudice (1958) (separateness among exaggerates differences). 1965 1947 Sept. 26, 1947, 5; tracked 1929 comprehensive nearby Dallas. Dallas Ordinance, 2052, 11, 1929. ordinances, genealogy strongly darkest stigmatization Recently extant violate reenacted motive. Hunter Underwood, 471 222, 223, 1916, 1922-1923, (1985). event, roots examples defining era overt pervasive plurality opinion, theories relies heavily, exclusively, "lesson" curiam handed explicitly acknowledged (POWELL, age-based trigger addressed Alienage variant, relates "political functions." Cabell Chavez-Salido, 454 432, 439, 735, 739, 677 Bernal Fainter, 220-222, 2312, 2316-2317, 175 characterization alienage justified. express provisions Contracts Compensation constrain upset settled expectations changing implement changes. Only "Congress misapprehended doing," Bd. 193, dissenting), then, limits directions policy—it arbitrary. talisman offensive warranting scrutiny; experience, abstract logic, guide. powerlessness" relevant, necessary, demonstrate, sufficient, example minors illustrates. Minors degree. Nonetheless, reflecting indifference minors, blindness, 442-443, 10. powerlessness little group's needs. Statutes young common legislate young, own, interact regularly minors. integration unlike discrete insular minorities, tend arenas respect, complete electoral process. discreteness insularity inquiry," (1938), perspective suited, lessons experience best guide when, stigmatize inferior caste belonging spawns prejudice, produce confirm based, prospect vestiges endure. separating distinctions, page worth volume logic." Eisner, 349, 506, 507, 963 (1921) loose signifies prejudice," 725, 3336. entirety, invalidated. 1902 disenfranchising felons. motivated, disenfranchise Negroes, face. doing felons Richardson Ramirez, 418 24, 2655, (1974). possibility, partly plaintiffs generally. Instead concluded: "Without 182 motivation, original blacks section continues effect. such, Arlington Heights [v. Metropolitan Housing Development 252, 555, (1977)]." 233, 1922. infects anyone.

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