Legal Document

408 U.S. 1 92 Supreme Court Reporter 2318 33 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 154 Melvin R. LAIRD, Secretary of Defense, et al., Petitioners,v.Arlo TATUM al. Number 71—288. Argued March 27, 1972. Decided June 26, Syllabus Prior to its being called upon in 1967 assist local authorities quelling civil disorders Detroit, Michigan, the Department Army had developed only a general contingency plan connection with limited domestic mission under 10 Code KF62 § 331. In response Army's experience various it was help control during and 1968, Intelligence established data-gathering system, which respondents describe as involving 'surveillance lawful civilian political activity.' Held: Respondents' claim that their First Amendment rights are chilled, due mere existence this does not constitute justiciable controversy on basis record case, disclosing no showing objective harm or threat specific future harm. Pp. 3—16. 144 U.S.App.D.C. 72, 444 Federal Reporter, 2nd 947, reversed. Solicitor Gen. Erwin N. Griswold for petitioners. Frank Askin, Newark, N.J., respondents. Sam Judge Ervin, Jr., Morgantown, N.C., Unitarian Universalist Assn. others, amici curiae. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. Respondents brought class action District seeking declaratory injunctive relief were invaded by alleged peaceful The petitioners activity 'gathering means . (and) maintaining using intelligence activities information relating potential actual disturbances (or) street demonstrations.' respondents' motion preliminary injunction petitioners' dismiss complaint, both parties filed number affidavits presented oral arguments at hearing two motions. On pleadings,1 before court, advanced hearing, granted dismiss, holding there relief. 2 appeal, divided Appeals reversed ordered case remanded further proceedings. We certiorari consider whether, held, complaining 'chilling' effect exercise where such is allegedly caused, any 'specific against them, (but) (by) operation gathering distributing confined related investigative agencies.' 78, 953. reverse. 3 (1) 4 There considerable amount background regarding complained; set out primarily Court's consideration dismiss. See Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 12(b). A brief review helpful an understanding issues. 5 President authorized 3312 make use armed forces quell insurrection other violence if when conditions described section obtain within one States. Pursuant those provisions, Johnson federal troops time summer followed assassination Dr. Martin Luther King. Detroit disorders, providing assistance authorities, but led believe more attention should be given preparatory planning. system here involved said have been development detailed planning designed permit Army, able respond effectively minimum force. As observed, 6 'In performing type function essentially police force back-up To prevent needs same tools and, most importantly, access. Since sent into territory almost invariably unfamiliar soldiers commanders, need likely greater than hometown policeman. 7 'No logical argument can made compelling military blind When employed intelligently directed, depends having reliable information—in time. John Marshall Washington, 'A must governed his regulate measures information. It duty correct information; ..' So we take undeniable military, i.e., certain order perform constitutional statutory missions. U.S.App.D.C., 77—78, F.2d, 952—953 (footnotes omitted). 8 put result consisted collection about public thought least some disorder, reporting headquarters Fort Holabird, Maryland, dissemination these reports from major posts around country, storage reported computer data bank located Holabird. itself collected variety means, significant principal sources news media publications circulation. Some came agents who attended meetings open wrote field describing meetings, giving name sponsoring organization, identity speakers, approximate persons attendance, indication whether disorder occurred. And still provided law enforcement agencies. 9 material Government reveals has offices parts country; staffed aggregate approximately 1, 000 agents, 94% whose time3 devoted organization's mission,4 unrelated surveillance involved. By early 1970 Congress became concerned scope system; hearings matter held Subcommittee Constitutional Rights Senate Committee Judiciary. Meanwhile, course reduction scope. For example, referred complaint 'blacklist' records Holabird found unnecessary destroyed, along records. One copy all relevant instant suit retained, however, because pendency litigation. leading destruction ruled 'continuing' (App. 82), policies represented follows letter Under Senator Chairman Rights: 11 '(R)eports concerning will matters immediate concern Army—that is, outbreaks incidents high beyond capability state National Guard control. These liaison agencies teletype Command. They placed .. destroyed 60 days after publication end disturbance. This ensure prepared whatever directions may issue disturbance situations without 'watching' civilians.' 80.) 12 briefs Court, General our directives issued Defense subsequent dismissal action; indicate indeed continuing since significantly reduced. 13 (2) 14 combined thereafter announced failed could granted. view allege part unlawful injury realistic threats growing actions.5 15 reversing, noted 'have difficulty establishing visible injury': 16 '(They) freely admit they complain them evidence illegal activities. cited clandestine intrusion agent. far yet shown, gathered nothing good newspaper reporter would gather attendance clipping articles available newsstand.' 17 court took note 'that (detrimental respondents) done, contemplated even (respondents) possibly foreseeable, present presently controversy.' With respect argument, say: 18 'This position (petitioners) accord full measure rather unique appellants (respondents). While do argue possible responsibilities misused detriment (respondents), attempt establish definitely foreseeable event, base ground. Rather, contend information, requirements constitutes impermissible burden similarly situated exercises inhibiting expression utilization Id., 79, 954. (Emphasis original.) 19 Our examination satisfies us properly identified presented, namely, jurisdiction invoked complainant alleges chilled existence, more, governmental broader reasonably necessary accomplishment valid purpose. conclude, that, issue, decided incorrectly.6 20 recent years cases violations arise deterrent, 'chilling,' regulations fall short direct prohibition rights. E.g., Baird versus State Bar Arizona, 401 91 702, 27 639 (1971); Keyishian Board Regents, 385 589, 87 675, 629 (1967); Lamont Postmaster General, 381 301, 85 1493, 398 (1965); Baggett Bullitt, 377 360, 84 1316, (1964). none cases, did chilling merely individual's knowledge agency engaged concomitant fear fruits activities, might additionl detrimental individual. each challenged power regulatory, proscriptive, compulsory nature, either prospectively subject regulations, proscriptions, compulsions he challenging. 21 petitioner Arizona denied admission bar solely her refusal answer question organizations she associated past. announcing judgment Black 'a inquire man's views associations purpose withholding right benefit what believes.' U.S., 7, 706. teachers complainants Regents discharged employment State, others threatened discharge, acts associations. concluded State's 'complicated intricate scheme' laws teacher loyalty withstand scrutiny; permissible inhibit forcing 'guess conduct utterance' violation complex regulatory scheme thereby 'lose him position.' 604, 684. dealt regulation requiring private individuals special written request Post Office delivery individual mailing kinds literature addressed them. declaring invalid, said: 'The addressee carries affirmative obligation think impose him.' 307, S.Ct., 1496. Bullitt requirement oath vague uncertain meaning taken condition agency. 'Those conscientious regard solemnly swear affirm, sensitive perils posed oath's indefinite language, avoid risk loss employment, perhaps profession, restricting unquestionably safe. Free speech so inhibited.' 372, 1323. 22 decisions fully recognize challenge though indirect At time, way eroded 23 'established principle entitle invoke judicial determine validity executive legislative show sustained, immediately danger sustaining, Ex parte Levitt, 302 633, 634, 58 82 L.Ed. 493 (1937). 24 meet test; claim, simply stated, disagree judgments Executive Branch very produces constitutionally That seen arising perception inappropriate role form government, beliefs inherently dangerous sector, less generalized speculative apprehensiveness date misuse cause respondents.7 Allegations subjective 'chill' adequate substitute harm; 'the courts pursuant Article III Constitution render advisory opinions.' Public Workers America (C.I.O.) Mitchell, 330 75, 89, 67 556, 564, 754 (1947). 25 Stripped essentials, appear broad-scale investigation, conducted themselves subpoena district cross-examination, probe intelligence-gathering determining conclusion investigation extent appropriate mission. following excerpt suggests broad sweep implicit holding: 26 'Apparently head everything done performance If formulate implement based facts Departmental knowledge, hear evidence, ascertain facts, decide what, any, restrictions complained-of confine legitimate sphere protect (respondents') infringed rights.' 83, 958. added.) Carried end, approach virtually monitors wisdom soundness acting through committees 'power purse'; judiciary, absent resulting action. 28 We, course, intimate propriety desirability, policy standpoint, Army; narrow one, resolution courts. 29 concerns Legislative Branches disclosure activities—and claims complaint—reflect traditional strong resistance Americans affairs. tradition deep roots history expression, Third Amendment's explicit quartering homes consent provisions military. Those prohibitions directly philosophical underpinnings explain insistence limitations operations peacetime. Indeed, judicially cognizable empowered asserting injury; Nation's including today, reason go unnoticed unremedied. 30 Reversed. 31 DOUGLAS, whom MARSHALL concurs, dissenting. 32 * passed authorizing services over population, serious problem presented. civilians, Pentagon concededly undertaken. authority implied. search vain authority. start distinction between 'militia' Armed Forces. I, 8, militia specifically precise duties: 'to execute Laws Union, suppress Insurrections repel Invasions.' 34 obviously cannot overseas fight wars. purely arm governors several States,1 save service. Whether powers comparable FBI now raised, deal 'armies.' Navy, Air Force comprehended term provides 'raise support Armies,' 'provide maintain Navy,' 'Rules Regulation land naval Forces.' Fifth excepts presentment indictment grand jury 'cases forces, Militia, service War danger.' 35 Acting authority, code governing Services. sets procedural standards forces. difficult imagine how extended affairs.2 36 pointed limitation try civilians. first Milligan, Wall. 2, 124, 281, conflict 'civil liberty' 'martial law' 'irreconcilable.' announcement horrified prospect military—absent regime martial law—establishing authorize surveillance. restricted 'raise' armies, 8; repeat, Forces stated terms, 'To Rules contains many guaranteeing persons. include trial one's peers. safeguards Sixth criminal prosecutions; protection double jeopardy, cruel unusual punishments—and, Amendment. alarm sounded Convention dangers services. Maryland said, 'when government wishes deprive citizens freedom, reduce slavery, generally makes standing army.'3 danger, exists bold usurpation power, also gradual encroachments. court-martial reach person member times offense trial, eliminates soldiers. ex rel. Toth Quarles, 350 11, 76 100 8. Neither employees overseas, McElroy Guagliardo, 361 80 305, 282; Grisham Hagan, 278, 310, 279, nor dependents personnel accompanying Kinsella Singleton, 234, 297, 268; Reid Covert, 354 77 1222, 1148, tried court-martial. respects 'service connected' tribunal. O'Callahan Parker, 395 258, 272, 89 1683, 1690, 291. 37 upshot Services—as distinguished 'militia'—are bureaus created desires seem proper. provide rules 'governing' Services grant govern themselves, Even declared, often been, appropriateness review, Sterling Constantin, 287 378, 401, 403—404, 53 190, 197, 375.4 38 reflects desire supremacy subordination power. goes back Declaration Independence, recited King 'has affected Military independent superior Civil power.' Thus, use, restriction appropriations 'armies' years, command armies President, chief officer. Warren:5 39 establishment organ government; carefully lest delicate balance freedom upset. maintenance fact while serves vital preserving nation, element easily assimilated free society. 40 peace, factors extraordinary deference necessity naturally weighty. true too imperfect peace lot past fifteen years—and quite rightly so, my judgment. instructive recall Nation faced formidable problems. English, French, Spanish, tribes hostile Indians ready eager subvert occupy fledgling Republic. Nevertheless, environment, Founding Fathers conceived Bill replete indicating determination human call garrison precarious peace. heed now. fail enforce until American citizen's birthright, abandoning arm.' 41 today consistently adhered belief 42 '(i)t unbending rule law, citizen concerned, shall never pushed exigency requires.' Raymond Thomas, 712, 716, 434. 43 Youngstown Sheet & Tube company Sawyer, 343 579, 72 863, 96 1153, decided, Truman's seizure steel mills so-called Korean unconstitutional. Black: 44 sustained President's Commander attempts citing upholding commanders day-to-day fighting theater war. Such here. 'theater war' expanding concept, faithfulness hold ultimate possession property keep labor disputes stopping production. job lawmakers, authorities.' 587, 867. 45 Madison expressed dominance:6 46 veteran legions Rome overmatch undisciplined valor nations, rendered mistress world. 47 'Not it, liberties proved final victim triumphs; Europe, ever existed, have, few exceptions, price establishments. force, therefore, dangerous, necessary, provision. smallest scale inconveniences. extensive consequences fatal. object laudable circumspection precaution. wise nation combine considerations; whilst rashly preclude resource become essential safety, exert prudence diminishing resorting inauspicious liberties. 48 clearest marks stamped proposed Constitution. Union itself, cements secures, destroys every pretext dangerous. united, handful troops, single soldier, exhibits forbidding posture foreign ambition disunited, hundred thousand veterans combat.' 49 Warren main body satisfy people dominance:7 50 'They reluctant ratify assurances, thus find Amendments 3, decentralized militia, bear arms, prohibiting house owner. Other guarantee assemble, secure unreasonable searches seizures, accorded speedy impartial wherein crime committed. exceptions procedures Although undoubtedly room frequently conflicting history, Founders' preeminence important prompted adoption Rights.' 51 turning loose civilians gross repudiation traditions. us, subservient Act allow Joint Chiefs Staff address Congress;8 small step viewed respectful tradition. Walter Lippmann World II, asked convey message Winston Churchill, latter Washington together chiefs staff. desired Churchill staff testify proper strategy waging explains, 'never finished message. old lion let roar demanding know why N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions ignorant British doing things dare suggest parliamentary body. 52 'As remember 'I am Minister generals, His Majesty's government." Intervention Post, Apr. 1967, Sec. A, Page 21, col. 1.9 act sanctioned Congress, raise profound questions. Standing brute policy, repudiated men dependent. For, Ervin 'this inherent branch people's attitudes internal security enemies borders.' Privacy Investigations, 1971 U.Ill.L.F. 137, 153. II 54 members seek represent transparent argument. sector—a society hitherto immune control—is charge. maintains files membership, ideology, programs, practices activist group groups Southern Christian Leadership Conference, Clergy Laymen Against Vietnam, Liberties Women's Strike Peace, Association Advancement Colored People. uses undercover infiltrate confidential students groups. moves secret among audiences, cameras electronic ears collects distributed officials state, federal, governments unit troop (both abroad); stored banks. 55 allegations; charge harass intimidate deter exercising protest, dissent 'by invading privacy, damaging reputations, adversely affecting opportunities ways.' Their 'permanent maintained bank, 'profiles' 'Blaklist' released numerous request.' 56 Wilkey, speaking Appeals, inferred 'exercises test. 'deterrent effect' oversight unconstitutional intrusion, 1496, 398. Or, Brennan, 'inhibition well precious government.' 309, 1497. pass constitutionality normal forbearance 'would inhibitory speech' then act. Raines, 362 17, 22, 519, 523, 524. 57 New Jersey, 'there speak weak timid matters.' Anderson Sills, N.J. 210, 220, 265 Atlantic 678, 684 (1970). wait sue loses reputation defamed. withhold arrives practical immunize scrutiny regardless deterrent effect. Flast Cohen, 392 101, 88 1942, 1953, 'in terms jurisdiction, dispute sought adjudicated adversary context historically capable resolution.' Baker Carr, 369 186, 204, 691, 703, 663 gist party 'alleged personal stake outcome assure concrete adverseness sharpens presentation issues largely illumination questions.' 59 remote, imaginary conflict. targets First, casual massive comprehensive. Second, regularly widely circulated exchanged FBI, municipal departments, CIA. Third, collecting staking teams infiltrating creating inside posing press photographers newsmen, TV students, shadowing figures. Finally, abused functions. 'taken Command's highly inaccurate dossiers considered for, clearances, contaminating supposed unverified gossip rumor. practice jeopardized positions defense industry.'10 61 Surveillance business undertaken entrust function. litigation started cut matter. cutback announcements ruse determined advised amicus curiae former Agents rooted programs long standing: 62 'Army unauthorized watch nearly years. Nor has, notice superiors, overstepped From 1917 1924, Corps Police hundreds informants, infiltration dissenters unionists, sometimes charges. opposed—then now—by occasions continued unabated postwar disarmament economies finally eliminated bureaucracy it.' 29—30. 63 involves cancer politic. disease afflicts us. surveillance, like regimentation, war principles already walk submissively say alarm. But submissiveness heritage. rebellion remain off backs people. added precincts press, social official eavesdroppers away assemblies aim assert government. influence paralyzing officer looks noncomformist's shoulder library, walks invisibly side picket line, infiltrates club, once extolled voice liberty heard world longer cast image Jefferson designed, Russian image, depicted Appendix opinion. 64 APPENDIX TO OPINION OF DOUGLAS J., DISSENTING 65 narrowly circumscribed statute play clearly insufficient wholesale complain. entire delimited nine statutes. 66 Four define cope insurrection: 331: 'Whenever may, legislature governor convened, States, requested considers insurrection.' 332: 68 obstructions, combinations, assemblages, impracticable Territory ordinary proceedings, rebellion.' 333: 69 both, suppress, insurrection, violence, combination, conspiracy, it— 70 '(1) hinders execution deprived right, privilege, immunity, named secured constituted unable, fail, refuse privilege give protection; 71 '(2) opposes obstructs impedes justice laws. situation covered clause (1), equal Constitution.' 334: 73 chapter, shall, proclamation, insurgents disperse retire peaceably abodes time.' 74 Two statutes, Reconstruction Era abuses, prohibit interference elections: 592: 75 'Whoever, civil, orders, brings, keeps, place election unless fined $5,000 imprisoned five both; disqualified office honor, profit, trust suffrage belong, otherwise qualified according offers vote.' 593: prescribes fixes prescribe fix, otherwise, qualifications voters State; 78 member, prevents threat, intimidation, advice voter election; 79 orders compels compel receive vote legally vote; imposes conducting different prescribed law; 81 interferes manner officer's discharge duties— 'Shall profit 83 district.' Another forbids posse comitatus: 1385: except circumstances expressly willfully comitatus $10,000 both.' 86 specialized prostitution near bases, required enable Congress: 1384: 'Within reasonable distance camp, station, fort, post, yard, base, cantonment, training mobilization Force, needful efficiency, health, welfare designate publish bulletins, whoever engages aids abets procures solicits purposes prostitution, keeps up ill fame, brothel, bawdy house, receives lewdness, assignation, vehicle, conveyance, place, structure, building, permits building leases rents contracts lease rent structure thereof, knowing intended used herein prohibited $1,000 year, both. Secretaries Security Administrator steps deem accept cooperation counties, districts, subdivisions carrying section. construed conferring Departments Agency investigations, searches, arrests charged section.' 141(e): 90 'After informing recommendations appropriate.' gave account conversation Churchill: 93 bringing Westmoreland home reminds me afternoon spent Second War. country strike Hitler Japan. Roosevelt agreed first. large powerful isolationists sense anti-European, wanted concentrate winning strategy. 94 'Churchill come accompanied staff, work Administration global morning telephone Sen. Austin, believer Churchill-Roosevelt line. He effect, you seeing Prime wish ask tell favor strategical policy.' Quite innocently this, received began saying Austin. 'Would instruct Foreign Relations 95 was, aroused wrath forget it. certainly forgotten learned indelible lesson elementary democratic sour commander educate people.' 97 departments staffs. Deputy Naval Operations, Policy Division, Navy Truman 1945. 1947, appointee eventually becoming Assistant International Affairs. 1961 Kennedy another 1957 Eisenhower. entered D.C., conference, four 'Secretaries State' real talked stared down. Pentagon's usually spoke unison; clear decisive ifs, ands, buts, conferences carried day. 98 1968 spending $34 million year non-military behavioral science research abroad. 'witchcraft, sorcery, magic, psychological phenomena' Congo. 'political university Latin America.' projects skill women divers, snake venoms Middle East, like. Research going countries sociology, psychology sciences. 99 crack down affairs conditioned thinking II. 101 realize millions difference Communist dictatorship lived. regions Asia reform instruments keeping ruling eyes illiterates, choice democracy communism critical 102 'saving democracy.' Asia, Africa, born. 103 forgot lands empty word. illiterate living subsistence level furnish staging grounds outcome, eyes, relation own welfare. rejected overtures communists, said. approve plans secretly aligning Russia, thought. 104 underdeveloped areas ideas bombs, planes, tanks. defeating action, might. aid mounted; 70% aid. 105 fears mounted cold increased intensity. manifestations. communist magnified exalted realities. Irresponsible talk fanned flames. Accusations loosely made. Character assassinations common. Suspicion goodwill. needed debate impunity explore edges horizon answers perplexing confidence other. 40's, 50's, 60's suspicions grew. Innocent telltale disloyalty. coincidence idea paralleled Soviet Russia's moment settled aura doubt person. 1. 106 107 Alexander I. Solzhenitsyn, author, statement 30, 1972, family (reported 1972): 108 kind forbidden, contaminated zone family, day, Ryazan (where Solzhenitsyn live) dismissed jobs visited ago. corresponding Academy Sciences, T. Timofeyev, director Moscow institute, scared mathematician working wife unseemingly haste, although just birth contrary 109 'It happens informant (for new book prerevolutionary Russia) me. hour soon leaves closely followed, criminal, investigate background, man meets, then, turn, (next) meeting. 110 'Of everyone. schedule, reasoning. days, all, superficial hang around, example Heinrich Boll see (he German writer recently Moscow). car front approaches (to courtyard apartment stays Moscow) three car—and don't shift. Then visitors, trail leave foot. 111 'And listen clock conversations home, analyze recording tapes correspondence, collect compare vast premises—and underlings—you amazed idlers prime life strength, better occupied productive fatherland, busy friends me, inventing enemies.' 112 BRENNAN, STEWART join, 113 958 (1971). agree writing compelled reasons him: 114 '(Respondents) speech, etc. baleful inhibition behavior 115 'Under allegations, justiciability breach toward therefore ripe adjudication. Because evil overbreadth, opportunity later test 79—81, 954—956 (emphasis original) 116 includes lack bring agree. derogate values, sufficiently heard. shows and/or names appeared precisely complain, redress interest doctrine, actions complained particular uninhibited ground objecting standing.' n. 954 17. 117 prove allege. entitled try. affirm remand specified Appeals. candidly asserted factual allegations magazine article: contained foregoing paragraphs numbered thirteen (of complaint) published January Monthly here; authorization addition appears enacted IV, 4, Constitution, '(t)he (the States) Application Legislature, (when Legislature convened) Violence.' 331 Attorney Ramsey Clark statements August 1967: 'There basic prerequisites event violence: 'domestic violence' state. supported details feasible circumstances, wording. resources governor, Guard. definite taking remaining move scene violence. '(3) requests employ convened. urban rioting, summer, convene legislature. 'These elements communication telegram, issuance proclamation 334 commitment extreme emergency, receipt prerequisite Presidential However, takes hours alert minutes write dispatch telegram delay. 'Upon receiving historic practice, sent, questions timing, size federalization 'Preliminary steps, alerting communications prior governor's departure traditions responsibility enforcement. substantial likelihood needed.' analysis importance guide intelligent 'overkill.' Translated personnel, percentage figure total hardly merits description 'massive,' dissents characterizes documents 'investigations uniformed Army) contractors' access classified information.' 76—77.) clarification counsel nature perceived respondents; exactly tended chill Counsel responded 'precisely kind, list troublemakers rounding putting prisons somewhere.' 'we sit writ habeas corpus.' point, somewhat arguing 'we're sure mind causes chill, effect.' reached identical Davis Ichord, 143 183, 442 1207 plaintiffs attacking House Representatives Rule Internal conducts investigations blacklist.' arose possibility files. affirming elevated alleging overly vague. deciding source cases—a case—was controlling. jurisdictional resolved defendants complaint. Not left unclear suffering chill. MacKinnon cogent dissenting Appeals' judgment, 'on emerge pleadings, admissions court.' 84, 959. admitted clients 'not people, obviously, cowed chilled;' indeed, willing scrutiny.' But, argued, 'represent forward courageous' themselves. MacKinnon's concession 'constitutes denial practically whole case.' Ibid. assuming controversy, 'millions' 'personal controversy' standing. (1962). observed Moose Lodge Irvis, 407 163, 166, 1965, 627, litigant injuries him, others.' doubts incorporates Drifka Brainard, 434, 427. opinion, infra, 29. M. Farrand, Records 209 (1911). regulating subjected scrutiny. panoply procedures, e.g., McKart 185, 1657, 194; Oestereich Selective Service System Local Board, 393 233, 414, 402. corpus detain see, Parisi Davidson, 405 34, 815, 17; Noyd Bond, 683, 696 1876, 631; 1148; Billings Truesdell, 321 542, 737, 917. And, civilian, crimes connected, Military, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 181, 182, 193 Federalist 41. 5, supra, 185. amended Aug. 10, 1949, Statutes-at-Large 580, 202(c)(6): provision department presenting initiative, recommendation proper.' H.R.Conf.Rep.No.1142, 81st Cong., 1st Sess., 18. codified 141(e). 33. Hearings Data Banks, Computers Rights, Judiciary, 92d Sess.

Classification Label: 2