Legal Document

465 U.S. 208 104 S.Ct. 1020 79 L.Ed.2d 249 UNITED BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION TRADES COUNCIL OF CAMDEN COUNTY VICINITY, Appellantv.MAYOR the CITY et al. No. 81-2110. Argued Nov. 28, 1983. Decided Feb. 21, 1984. Syllabus Acting pursuant to a statewide affirmative-action program, city of Camden, N.J., adopted an ordinance requiring that at least 40% employees contractors and subcontractors working on construction projects be Camden residents. After was approved by New Jersey Treasury Department, appellant, association labor organizations representing private in building trades, filed appeal with Appellate Division Superior Court challenging Department's approval ordinance. The Supreme certified directly court rejected appellant's challenges ordinance's validity, including claim violated Privileges Immunities Clause Art. IV Federal Constitution. held did not apply because discriminated basis municipal, state, residency had identical effects upon out-of-state citizens residing Camden. Held: 1. is properly subject strictures Clause. Pp. 214-218. (a) That rather than law does place it outside Clause's scope. Here, municipal action cannot distinguished easily from state action, since would have gone into effect without approval. Moreover, municipality merely political subdivision State, what unconstitutional if done State can no more readily accomplished deriving its authority State. 214-215. (b) applies only laws discriminate citizenship, but also residency. For purposes analysis most cases under Clause, terms "citizen" "resident" are essentially interchangeable. Camden's immune constitutional review behest residents in-state who do live similarly disadvantaged. While such nevertheless they chance remedy polls discrimination against them. 215-218. 2. On remand, determination whether violates should made appropriate standard, which requires burdens one those privileges immunities protected and, so, there "substantial reason" for other States. 218-223. Although may, fear violating Commerce pressure employers engaged public works funded whole or part hire residents, cf. White v. Massachusetts Council Construction Employers, 460 ----, 103 1042, 75 1, resident's interest employment another sufficiently fundamental promotion interstate harmony basic livelihood Nation as fall within purview 218-222. However, impossible record now stands evaluate contention carefully tailored counteract grave economic social ills involving unemployment sharp decline city's population. may decide, consistent procedures, best method making necessary findings fact. 222-223. 88 N.J. 317, 443 A.2d 148 (1982), reversed remanded. Steven K. Kudatzky, Haddonfield, appellant. N. Thomas Foster, appellees. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinionof Court. 1 A Appellant, United Building Trades Vicinity (the Council), violation Article IV, § 2, States Constitution.1 attack ground discriminates "decline[d] context has locality." 342, 148, 160 (1982). We conclude challenged therefore reverse judgment remand case validity standard. 2 August 1980, City Council, acting state-wide affirmative program,2 setting minority hiring "goals" all contracts. Ordinance MC 1650, Pet., A36. created preference separate one-year requirement triggering eligibility preference. Id., I(5), A38. As subsequently amended, city:3 3 "The developer/contractor, jobs, shall make every effort employ persons but, event, less forty percent (40%) entire force Camden." 1653 C(IV)(b), A56. 4 contractor obliged ensure any adhere same requirement. 1650 VIII, A46. 5 amended submitted Chief Affirmative Action Officer Department November, 1980. Following brief administrative proceedings, designated state-approved program. trades various counties,4 Notice Appeal final approving plan. decide issues case. 6 Appellant resident quota ultra vires, Constitution 14th amendment's Equal Protection Clause.5 sustained Treasurer's both federal constitution. Citing Reeves, Inc. Stake, 447 429, 100 2271, 65 244 (1980), Hughes Alexandria Scrap Corp., 426 794, 96 2488, 49 220 (1976), challenge market participant regulator. 338-341, 148. violate aimed primarily "It almost certainly affects living Because affect 'the States' . treatment each other's residents,' privilege citizenship." 341-342, Finally, right travel concluding rational required uphold employment. 342-343, 7 then this raising three quota. noted probable jurisdiction. --- 1270, 492 (1983). Since appeal, however, been two significant changes posture First, decided Const. (1983), executive order Mayor Boston, 50% jobs funds filled bona fide scrutiny Boston In light decision White, appellant abandoned 8 Second, July, 1983 deleted, thereby mooting equal protection based durational Now, defined simply "any person resides Brief Appellees, A-5. Also, scope clarified.6 It project "which expends administers accordance grant." A-4. changed strict "quota" "goal" developers must "every good faith effort" comply. A-13. 9 these changes, question left our consideration ordinance, written, Clause.7 first address argument, accepted Jersey, even this. Two contentions advanced support position: first, passed second, citizenship. 10 argument quickly rejected. fact somehow First all, distinguish case: express Treasurer. discussing constitutionality goals: 11 "By plan, Treasurer established goal operates differently Treasurer.... Council's interpreted general power issue goals." 330, 12 preference, therefore, "be power" adopt preference.8 specifically found "not vires abuse discretion." 329, 13 More fundamentally, derives. Trenton 262 182, 187, 43 534, 536, 67 L.Ed. 937 (1923). true Memorial Hospital Maricopa County, 415 250, 256, 94 1076, 1081, 39 306 (1974); Avery Midland 390 474, 480-481, 1114, 1118-1119, 20 45 (1968). Thus, solely program approval, still comport 14 second merits consideration. concluded phrased citizenship designed "to footing States, so far advantages resulting concerned." Paul Virginia, Wall. 168, 180, 19 357 (1869). See Hicklin Orbeck, 437 518, 523-524, 98 2482, 2486-2487, 57 397 (1978); Ward Maryland, 418, 430, 449 (1871). 15 primary purpose clause, like clauses between located—those relating full credit extradition fugitives justice—was help fuse collection independent, sovereign insure citizen ventures B enjoy. equality restricted uncertain remedies afforded diplomatic processes official retaliation." Toomer Witsell, 334 385, 395, 68 1156, 1162, 92 1460 (1948). 16 Municipal classifications, argued, give rise concerns. 17 accept argument. never read literally distinctions example, Mullaney Anderson, 342 415, 419-420, 72 428, 431-432, 458 (1952), Alaska Territory freedom favor own citizens. And despite some initial uncertainty, compare Travis Yale & Towne Mfg. Co., 252 60, 78-79, 40 228, 231-232, 64 (1920), Blake McClung, 172 239, 246-247, 165, 168-169, 432 (1898), Douglas York, Haven R. 279 377, 386-387, 355, 356, 73 747 (1929), La Tourette McMaster, 248 465, 469-470, 160, 161-162, 63 362 (1919), "essentially interchangeable," Austin Hampshire, 420 656, 662, n. 8, 95 1191, 1195, 530 (1975), 524, 2486, 397, L.Ed.1460 given ipso facto exercise conditioned he will just surely excluded. 18 Given enjoy affected well disadvantaged Slaughter-House Cases, 36, 77, 21 394 (1872). But Out-of-state similar opportunity, (1948).9 Cf. Zobel Williams, 457 55, 75, 102 2309, 2320, 672 (1982) (O'CONNOR, J., concurring). Application particular instance entails two-step inquiry. matter, Baldwin Montana Fish Game Comm'n, 436 371, 383, 1852, 1860, 56 354 (1978). Not forms constitutionally suspect. "Some nonresidents reflect composed individual permitted; prohibited hinder formation, purpose, development single Union Only respect 'privileges' 'immunities' bearing vitality entity treat citizens, nonresident, equally." Ibid. threshold then, we determine contracts "fundamental" "fall Clause." 388, S.Ct., 1862. Canadian Northern Ry. Co. Eggen, 553, 560, 402, 403, 713 (1920); 248, 169, (1898). 22 Certainly, pursuit common calling 387, 1862, Many, most, expounding dealt essential activity. See, e.g., (1975); (1952); (1948); Public employment, qualitatively different sector; subspecies broader opportunity pursue calling. government Murgia, 427 307, 313, 2562, 2566, 520 (1976) (per curiam ). McCarthy Philadelphia Civil Service 424 645, 1154, 47 366 ) (rejecting workers). 1046, 7, everyone employed is, "in substantial informal sense, 'working city.' " 23 argued "working city" grounds complaint when favors transfer mechanically fashioned fit Our turned distinction were not, crucial analysis. answered chart boundaries distinction. regulator relied dispose dispositive context. Clauses aims set standards conduct. 24 acts implied restraint regulatory powers. Such powers way before superior Congress legislate (or leave unregulated) matters commerce. When participant, conflict regulation arise. 1044; 436-437, 2277-2278, (1980); 810, 2498, (1976). hand, imposes direct interests harmony. (1871); This concern comity cuts across regulator-market triggers affecting conditions expenditures goods services marketplace preclude possibility 25 (1978), struck down "Alaska Hire" statute containing related State's oil gas resources.10 "that Hire owned ownership, itself, sufficient justification Act's nonresidents, takes Act totally 528, 2489. concluded, controlling things claims absolute. "Rather placing completely beyond ownership property concerned factor—although often factor—to considered evaluating statute's noncitizens 529, 1861, Much analysis, think, efforts bias decisions monies. expending grant factor—perhaps remove 26 sum, called account depend said city." seek "sufficiently Nation," 1863, though themselves city. 27 conclusion course, end stressed prior "[l]ike many provisions, clause absolute." 396, where difference treatment. "[T]he inquiry reasons exist degree bears close relation them." offered discriminatory law, shown "constitute peculiar source evil aimed." 398, 1163. 28 contends ills. Spiralling unemployment, population, dramatic reduction number businesses located eroded values depleted tax base. designed, contends, increase arrest "middle class flight" currently plaguing argues nonCamden projects, reside Pennsylvania, constitute "source "live off" "living in" practiced requirement, alleviate unreasonably harming access 60% available positions. 29 Every "must conducted due regard principle states considerable leeway analyzing local evils prescribing cures." caution particularly body expenditure controls. supra, 221. swept dealing gas; covered suppliers provided subcontractors. invalidated "an attempt virtually benefit ripple Alaska's develop resources their practices residents." 531, 2490. No "ripple effect" appears infect limited projects. 30 Nonetheless, find stands. trial ever made. after proceedings led either factual determinations matter take judicial notice decay. We, deem wise findings. 31 reversed, remanded inconsistent opinion. 32 Reversed Remanded. 33 BLACKMUN, dissenting. 34 over century underlying meaning Constitution's IV1 regarded settled: absent substantial, noninvidious justification, citizenship.2 generally 523-526, 2486-2488, Hague CIO, 307 496, 511, 59 954, 962, 83 1423 (1939) (opinion Roberts, J.); (1873); 35 Today, casually extends holding among residence, residence disadvantages "ipso facto." Ante, 216-217. novel interpretation arrives accompanied little practical historical textual whatsoever. I believe intended kind presented case, affirm Jersey.3 36 * underpinnings serious dispute. derived fourth Confederation4 carry forward provision's prescription comity. 660-661, 1194-1195, Wheeler, 254 281, 294, 41 133, 134, 270 Wall., 75. Both text confirm Framers meant foreclose denying "privileges immunities" accorded U.S., 1194-1195. James Madison complained during Constitutional Convention "Acts Virga. Maryland Citizens [of states] entitled Articles Confederation."5 Alexander Hamilton, deemed "the Union," Federalist 80, p. 502 (B. Wright ed. 1961), expressly linked parochialism gave courts' diversity jurisdiction III: 37 "[I]n [ensure] inviolable maintenance entitled, national judiciary ought preside opposed To secure provision evasion subterfuge, committed tribunal which, having attachments, likely impartial ." 38 thus conceived instrument frustrating evidence sort intrastate residence. obvious reason simple one: time enacted, rarely successful.6 Even attempts practice localism here widespread, moreover, devoted institutional bringing conduct ambit Whatever weaknesses new governments suppressing sectional conflicts outright physical violence, Shays' Rebellion 1786-1787, adequate prevent localities disrupting internal affairs through ordinances regulations. By adopted, legislatures assumed alter charters affairs.7 Revolution, colonial willing able override protectionist ordinances. 1746, York Assembly dismantled cartel lawyers open Mayor's qualified throughout colony.8 result, could instances persisted.9 hardly surprising none Court's intervening suggested contrary, while addressed directly,10 repeatedly proceeded assumption "Privileges Citizens" refers entitlements equally stated safeguards enjoyment "those [in State] constitution virtue being citizens." 180. condemned Tennessee granted priority creditors nonresident rules governing debtor-creditor relations "will applied courts 254, 171 (emphasis original). Travellers' Insurance Connecticut, 185 364, 673, 46 949 (1902), Connecticut taxed stockholders nominally higher rate stockholders, differential roughly offset taxes paid recognized burden borne might exceed year, pointed out "a inequality rates taxation localities"; disparate permissible circumstances "[y]ou put non-resident stockholder comparison legislation you municipality, stockholders." 369, 675 added). vel non turns deprives benefits enjoyed simpliciter. Indeed, understood reaffirmed Terms ago Zobel, allocated treasury refunds length declined, hold observed "does native-born Alaskans migrate States;" instead, "also long-time 59, 5, 2312, 5. result: involve prevent. 'was enjoy.' 395 [68 1460] applicable case." 42 am somewhat loss understand how today reconciled reasoning Zobel.11 fell elementary residence; rather, implicate concerns presently occupies precisely position. clashes precedents well. recognizes, must, afford laws. Bradwell Illinois, 130, 138, 442 77. settled rule combined newly-fashioned concerning discrimination, perverse vesting non-New themselves. result contrary longstanding position "higher greater itself." Bank Augusta Earle, Pet. 519, 586, 274 (1839); accord, Shaffer Carter, 37, 53, 221, 226, 445 Detroit Osborne, 135 492, 498, 1012, 1013, 260 (1890). alchemy transmutes gold lead fashion, re-examine reasoning. 44 fails attend functional considerations underlie limitation autonomy self-interest go unchecked definition disenfranchised breakdown representative process bear choose nonresidents; "by tying fate outsiders possessing power, framers insured looked after." J. Ely, Democracy Distrust (1980). measured asking failure link preferred consign former group 1162; see 1195. Contrary tacit assumption, substantially fundamental: penalizes community without. itself points resort protect 217. What appreciate avenue relief well; turn legislature displace further own.12 Nor mechanism theoretical one; past decade several California Georgia, repealed forbidden here.13 short, words Toomer, cure.14 possible redeem compelled language concedes attach 1026. seeks defend excursion frontiers classifications examples cites, compelling support. ex proprio vigore territorial statute. 431-432.15 Haavik Packers Assn., 263 510, 515, 177, 178, 414 (1924). Anderson forth proposition cited, similarity parallel here. Similarly, unquestionably come area disregard language, relationship enough criterion effectively amounts other. 79, 231, Currie Schreter, Unconstitutional Discrimination Conflict Laws: Immunities, 69 L.J. 1323, 1344 (1960). These license aside inconvenient obstacle result. Whenever departed literal past, remained faithful already forth, satisfy II Needless say, my view personal opinion about desirability course embarked. "beggar thy neighbor" policies attractive municipalities nations. unedifying sight fighting parochial gain another's expense gives urgency Benjamin Franklin's reputed warning "we hang together, assuredly separately." Clark, Franklin 286 At risk restating obvious, us constitutionality—more particularly, Clause.16 dissent. States." Constitution, cl. Law Against establishes comprehensive awarding Statutes Annotated (N.J.S.A.) 10:5-31 38. Any contractor, subcontractor firm seeking guarantee compliance empowered promulgate specific requirements percentage population groups areas thereof." N.J.S.A. 10:5-36(a). Alternatively, permits agencies administer plans. 10:5-36(c). plans plan conforms statutory requirements, "establishes lower by" Administrative Code 17:27-6.5. follows: "Wherever spends confers financial party, excluding abatement, fair value exceeds $50,000.00, provisions apply. residential housing four (4) units less." II, A38-A39. initially sentence section extended reach purely involved. Appellees claimed administered subsequent amendments, infra, 213-214, longer issue. members Jersey. goals protection. arguments, finding clear delegated Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 2758, 902 326-328, 330-337, appealed ruling. 3, supra. 1048, 12, declined pass mayor's below brought adoption it. 324, dissent suggests adequately reality. post, 231-232; 227 ("the persisted"). comprehensive, cities. resident-preference received sanction 212, free measure. Some so. Appellant's Reply Brief, 41-42, 30, Appendix A. hard dissent's proposed blanket exemption provide means evading Suppose, wanted Under need divide half, providing resident-hiring Californians taking California, Southern California. residents; yet, formalistic write approach, 9, exempt excluded remote county. Yet concerned, same. Const., out, interchangeably 216. sake simplicity same, except drawn. agree insulated Woodruff Parham, 123, 140, 382 (1869) (dictum). mooted deletion 213. Hall Beals, 396 45, 48, 90 200, 201, 214 (1969). better perpetuate mutual friendship intercourse people Union, inhabitants paupers, vagabonds justice excepted, States; ingress regress therein trade commerce, duties, impositions restrictions thereof respectively. Confederation, (1777), printed Documents Illustrative Formation American (1927). Records 1787, 317 (footnote omitted) (M. Farrand 1911). E. Griffith, History Government: Colonial Period 132-143 (1972 ed.). trend cities generations Revolution pre-existing craft work "outsiders" lapse desuetude pressures increasing mobility. id., 135, 141-143. McBain, Legal Status City, Pol.Sci.Q. 192-200 (1925). 143, 341. idea implausible assumes confine protections Citizens." If relieve "from disabilities alienage" them citizenship," (1869), necessarily implicated Camden's; incident itself. remarkably Orleans Chadwick Kelley, 187 540, 175, 293 (1903), party himself Orleans. 546, 177. Gallup Schmidt, 183 300, 162, 207 (1902); Downham 173, 929 (1870). Few question. Baking Fernandina, F.2d 789 (SD Fla.1928); Mount Pleasant Clutch, Iowa 546 (1858); re Jarvis, 66 Kan. 71 P. 576 (1903); Fecheimer Bros. Louisville, 84 Ky. 306, S.W. (1886); rel. Greenwood Nolan, 108 Minn. 170, 122 N.W. 255 (1909); Rothermel Meyerle, 136 Pa. 583 Academic commentary limited. Howell, Citizenship 45-47 (1918); Eule, Laying Dormant Rest, 91 425, 449, 128 (1982); Meyers, Several pt. Mich.L.Rev. 383 (1903). O'CONNOR, concurred wrote separately arguably "discriminates classes nonresidents." 2320. apparent reliance O'CONNOR's concurrence, ante, 217-218, note measure inconsistency today's Zobel. reasoning, reaches today. critical "[e]ach migrated chooses move future, lives favorable arrived earlier"; moved "labors continuous disability" his 2321. contrast, "continuous anyone up misplaced "was cities" "state approval." 217, 9. misrepresents nature "sanction approval" enacted contracting; appellees' contemplate requirement." 328, 153 turn, agency whose sole mandate minimum A.2d, 154. neither embraced nor reject alone. circumstances, observation reduces pedestrian point yet displaced legislature. says nothing likelihood interested parties ultimately vindication. Eisinger, Residency Requirements Local Economy, Soc.Sci.Q. 85, 87 (1983); Note, Constitutionality Employees, Emory 446, Employee Protection, 1684, (1975). Rather respond considerations, finds easier characterizes exemption" "for state-wide." refusal understandable; curious why attributes indicate below, prepared classification practically equivalent explicitly identified try rehabilitate county" 220, 10, explain locality position, locality. raises alternative prospect evade dividing half granting preferences exists prevent, can, forgo obtain privileged half. attempted anything resembling maneuver centuries foreclosed option, strongly trusted Balkanization. justify deforming response real problems invoking imaginary unrealistic ones. "Section Organic Alaska] provides 'The elsewhere States.' Stat. 512, 48 U.S.C. 23. legislative 'all rightful subjects .' 514, sections, presume authorized Territorial Legislature sister [T]he Legislature, fisheries, has." 420, 431. success last Term that, congressional authorization, dormant Constr. Inc., 1049, (1983) concurring dissenting part). embody closely principles relations, certain "set conduct." 220. circumstance; substantive policy unimpeded commerce impermissibly undermined protectionism penalized Dean Milk Madison, 340 349, 4, 295, 298 329 (1951).

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