Legal Document

467 U.S. 138 104 S.Ct. 2267 81 L.Ed.2d 113 THREE AFFILIATED TRIBES OF the FORT BERTHOLD RESERVATION, Petitionersv.WOLD ENGINEERING, P.C., et al. No. 82-629. Supreme Court of United States Argued Nov. 29, 1983. Decided May 1984. Syllabus The North Dakota statute (Chapter 27-19) governing Indian civil jurisdiction state courts provides that shall extend "over all causes action which arise on an reservation upon acceptance by citizens." Dakota's Enabling Act land "shall remain under absolute and control Congress." Petitioner Tribe, had not accepted Chapter 27-19, employed respondent Wold Engineering (hereafter respondent) to design build a water-supply system petitioner's in Dakota. When project was completed, it did perform satisfaction, petitioner sued court for negligence breach contract. At time suit filed, tribal have over claim against non-Indian absence agreement parties. Although subject matter complaint within general scope court's jurisdiction, granted respondent's motion dismiss ground lacked subject-matter any arising country, including non-Indian. affirmed. Interpreting 27-19 disclaim state-court tribe statute, determined Legislature disclaimed pursuant federal (Pub.L. 280) country such disclaimer, because been authorized Pub.L. 280, violate either or Federal Constitution. rejected argument recognized Vermillion v. Spotted Elk, 85 N.W.2d 432 (N.D.1957)—wherein held existing jurisdictional disclaimers State's Constitution foreclosed only cases involving interests lands themselves—had extinguished altogether possessed "residuary jurisdiction" following enactment 280 Civil Rights 1968, amended require subsequent assertions be preceded consent. also prohibit as would Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment deny equal access violation Held: 1. No law policy required forgo this case Vermillion, supra. Pp. 147-151. (a) exercise interfere with right Indians govern themselves their own laws. As matter, self-government is impeded when State allows seek relief concerning country. particularly compatible autonomy when, here, brought itself at instituted. 147-149. (b) Nor here inconsistent reflected 280. legislative record suggests Act's phrase "absolute [congressional] control" meant foreclose regulation taxation lands, were prohibited from entering pursue judicial remedies non-Indians. Public Law does basic authorize do so. Nothing 280's language history indicates divest pre-existing otherwise lawfully assumed jurisdiction. 149-151. 2. Where uncertain whether Court's interpretation rested misconception law, its judgment will vacated, remanded reconsideration state-law question. 151-158. incorrect assumption 1968 affirmatively forbade absent consent appears sole basis relied avoid holding disclaimer unconstitutional applied case. 154-155. manner availability leaves open possibility that, despite references regarded affirmative bar interpreted perceived conflict. 155-157. (c) conclusion decision may buttressed prudential considerations. If given opportunity reconsider conclusions proper understanding Court, contrary fundamental rule reach constitutional questions advance necessity deciding them, decide has denied protection Amendment. 157-158. 321 510 (N.D.1982), vacated remanded. Raymond Cross, Boulder, Colo., petitioners. Louis F. Claiborne, Washington, D.C., States, amicus curiae, special leave Court. Hugh McCutcheon, Minot, N.D., respondents. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion 1 This litigation presents issues asserted tribe. case, comes us, somewhat unusual central respect: Tribe seeks, rather than contests, party opposition. Cf. Williams Lee, 358 217, 79 269, 3 251 (1959). 2 Century Code (1974) entitled "Indian Jurisdiction." Section 27-19-01 In (against non-Indian) statute. principal namely, Aug. 15, 1953, 67 Stat. 588, amended, 28 U.S.C. § 1360, commonly known further concluded inasmuch run afoul Constitutions. Because accompanying analysis appear us rest possible misunderstanding we vacate remand allow light what feel meaning * A. Three Affiliated Tribes Fort Berthold Reservation federally northwestern Mar. 3, 1891, ch. 543, 23, 26 1032. See City New Town 454 F.2d 121 (CA8 1972). 1974, Engineering, P.C. respondent), corporation, Four Bears Water System Project, located wholly reservation. completed 1977 but satisfaction. 4 1980, Tribal Code, II, 1(a).1 complaint, however, clearly fell trial N.D. Const., Art. VI, 8; N.D.Cent.Code 27-05-06 (1974 Supp.1983). After counterclaiming alleged failure complete payments system, moved 5 B. point, order place perspective, desirable review erratic course reservations. Long before became State, principle territories beyond governments. Worcester Georgia, 6 Pet. 515, 8 L.Ed. 483 (1832); see generally U.S., 218-222, S.Ct., 271. That statehood Like many other Midwest West,2 "disclaim title . lying [the State] owned tribes" condition admission Union. Feb. 22, 1889, 4, cl. 2, 25 677. provided "remain disposition Congress States." Ibid. original contained, identical terms, disclaimers. XVI, 203, (1889). restrictions substantially eliminated 1953 aforementioned Washington Yakima Nation, 439 463, 471-474, 99 740, 746-748, 58 740 (1979).3 Sections gave five full stated minor exception each two criminal actions 588-589, codified, 18 1162 respectively. 7 option assuming similar whose constitutions statutes contained imposed restraints, like Dakota's, amend laws assume 590, 1324. having through "affirmative action." 590. originally enacted, obtain affected tribes them. Title IV 90-284, §§ 401, 402, 406, 82 78-80, codified 1321, 1322, 1326. Even taken expansive view 1957, themselves. (N.D.1957). year, 1958, legislature "provid[e] [over country] delegated XIII, 1, Finally, 1963, enacted section provides: "In accordance provisions amended] constitution, extended citizens chapter. Upon same extent action, those are application private property force effect they elsewhere state." (1974). 9 On face, both 1958 amendment expand preexisting contract it. re Whiteshield, 124 694 (N.D.1963), reached actually claims decisions, adhered without "the no cause State." White Eagle Dorgan, 209 621, 623 (N.D.1973).4 declined recognize defendant Indian; never squarely could maintain country.5 10 C. Respondent's restrictive principles Whiteshield successors. point consented Reservation, argued opposed ground, inter alia, requirements apply government petitioner. arguments lack so prejudice renewal compliance requirements. App. Cert. 1a. 11 appeal, (1982). 1968. argument, adhering instead Nelson Dubois, 232 54 (N.D.1975), residuary preempted reviewing reaffirmed prior holdings, observing "we exterior boundaries reservation, unless vote accept jurisdiction." N.W.2d, 512. 12 plaintiff suing courts, Constitution.6 (1979), challenge classifications. Nation unique legal status permitted Government single out ways might unconstitutional, issue there insulated strict scrutiny authority 499-502, 760-762. concluded: "Likewise, people acting explicit power our enacted." 513. result, discrimination litigants 13 complexity importance posed decision, certiorari. 461 904, 103 1872, 76 805 (1983). II 14 Respondent dispute ruling 1957. advances support longer extends far. first precludes asserting claim. second regardless law. We address these turn. 15 departed rigid demarcation laid down 1832 assertion reservations remains "two independent related barriers." Mountain Apache Bracker, 448 136, 142, 100 2578, 2583, 65 665 (1980). First, particular undermine " 'the make ruled them.' Ibid., quoting 220, 270. Second, incompatible Mountain, 2583. Accord, Mexico Mescalero 462 324, 334, n. 16, 2378, 2386, 611 (1983); Ramah Navajo School Board, Inc. Bureau Revenue, 458 832, 837-838, 102 3394, 3398-3399, 73 1174 (1982); McClanahan Arizona Tax Comm'n, 411 164, 179, 93 1257, 1266, 36 129 (1973). believe barriers entertaining 16 Despite arguments, fail how To sure, breadth cannot squared autonomy; non-Indians between Indians, intruded impermissibly self-governance. Fisher District 424 382, 96 943, 47 106 (1976); repeatedly approved non-Indians, even arose 173, 1263 (dictum); Poafpybitty Skelly Oil Co., 390 365, 88 982, 19 1238 (1968); 219, 270 Candelaria, 271 432, 444, 46 561, 563, 70 1023 (1926); Felix Patrick, 145 317, 332, 862, 867, 719 (1892); Fellows Blacksmith, How. 366, 684 (1857).7 implicated very different present where debts incurred exclusive adoption proceeding parties residing enter terms persons 17 Neither persuaded Act, presence specific rarely controlling significance past decisions about affairs activities lands. San Carlos 463 545, 562, 3201, 3211, 77 837 Cohen, Handbook 268 (1982 ed.).8 sparse H.R.Rep. 1025, 50th Cong., 1st Sess., 8-9, 24 (1888). ambiguous, moreover, settled statutory construction passed benefit dependent liberally construed, doubtful expressions being resolved favor Indians. See, e.g., Bryan Itasca County, 426 373, 392, 2102, 2112, 48 710 Alaska Pacific Fisheries 248 78, 89, 39 40, 42, 63 (1918). It resolve ambiguity provide forum subscribe previously intended facilitate impede transfer States. 490, 756; 383-390, 2108-2111. jurisdiction.9 enabling constitution "to remove impediment (emphasis added). Similarly, congressional "not By therefore, designed eliminate obstacles disclaimed. adding requirements, made retroactive;10 amendments therefore displace much less apart while partial 493-499, 757-760, nothing purports Indeed, retrocede acquired precisely disclaimers.11 sum, then, stand, must shown B 20 concededly revise Only last Term, supra, noted claimed premised respective Constitutions, question binding authority." 3210. equally applicable, course, respect bars grounded statutes. solely remaining violates rights.12 21 well established, retains role influenced some instances, construe narrowly conflict Air Lines, Mahin, 410 623, 630-632, 1186, 1191-1192, 35 545 (1973); Comm'n Van Cott, 306 511, 513-515, 59 605, 606-607, 83 950 (1939); Red Cross Line Atlantic Fruit 264 109, 120, 44 274, 275, 68 582 (1924); Diego Building Trades Council Garmon, 353 26, 607, 618 (1957). others, contrast, broadly belief poses barrier authority. Standard Co. Johnson, 316 481, 62 1168, 86 1611 (1942). categories cases, reviewed determination premised. proceeded perception practice free misapprehensions law.13 Here, careful reading far certain determining played guided come calculation adequate grounds. Michigan Long, 1032, 3469, 1201 (1983), "when fairly interwoven adequacy independence clear face opinion, most reasonable explanation decided way believed so." Id., 1040-1041, 3476. means 482-483, 1169, interpretive properly here. "totally reservation," adds "pursuant 280," "[u]nder "under Indians." There least respects 22 treatment strongly underlying if realized outset insulate scrutiny. While express merits challenge, note viewed them meritless, Indians" disclaiming before; Gourneau Smith, 207 256 (1973), example, plaintiff's based "open courts" provision Const. I, 9, jurisdiction: 23 "The persons. But prohibits until Thus courts' law." 259. incorrect, reasons above. assumption, consistently construing potential problems, see, Kottenbroch, 319 465, 473 Paluck Board County Comm'rs, 307 852, 856 (1981); Grace Lutheran Church Employment Security Bureau, 294 767, 772 (1980); American Coal Corp. Huber, 593, 596 (1978); Tang Ping, 624, 628 entirely avoided reconstrue stated: essence, [petitioner] argues retained wrongs committed more convincing not, totally (N.D.1963). concept 'residuary' adhere today." 511 27 reliance Dubois suggestive turned aside attempt invoke barred Specifically, infringe self-governance pre-empted except Act. 57-59. deprived plaintiffs suit, added: solution serious problem lies State. statutes; begin assert possess." 59.14 above, suggests, premise. event, adopted mandates.15 token, measure mistaken exists. exclude degree confidence, prudent give views thereby "avoid risk 'an affirmance differently below felt free, so.' 632, 1192, Perkins Benguet Consolidated Mining 342 437, 443, 72 413, 417, 485 (1952). 29 Our Were excluding circumstance allowed suit. restraint, Leroy Great Western Corp., 443 181, 2710, 2715, 61 464 (1979); Massachusetts Westcott, 431 322, 323, 97 1755, 1756, 52 349 (1977); Alexander Louisiana, 405 625, 633, 92 1221, 1226, 31 536 (1972); Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 346-348, 56 466, 80 688 (1936) (concurring opinion); Whalen 445 684, 702, 1432, 1443, 715 (1980) (REHNQUIST, J., dissenting). circumstances doubts avoids Black Cutter Laboratories, 351 292, 299, 824, 828, 1188 (1956). reinterprets permit concludes insofar neither nor one finally challenge. Under circumstances, responsibility unnecessary adjudication demands uncertainty law.16 III 30 important today. assigned whether, adheres current protected right. intimated counterclaim should Instead, merely proceedings opinion. ordered. 32 REHNQUIST, whom STEVENS joins, dissenting. 33 highest immune today say find unconstitutional. Yet vacates "authorized" "required" 34 I disagree essay purpose relevance below. Accordingly, affirm us—the constitutionality refusal lawsuit tribe—is insubstantial. Part II-A proper, passage changed situation. II-B, parlays eclipse "residual into reason concluding misunderstood 27-19. linchpin entire 1957 (N.D.1957), took suits correctly states Vermillion—over lands—would embrace Ante, 147. residual constructs around untenable simple discredited, years after claimed, Both broad dictum Lee.1 exercised car accident Lee preclude intrusion strictly (1976). And requirement 37 short, passed, four sense good "lawfully jurisdiction," ante, 150, thinks survived fact unlawfully invalid. understood, intervening, superseding Lee. effectively starting "square one" Thus, since predicated consent, forthcoming, naturally conclude case.2 38 glosses obvious difficulty simply recasting fit needs. "To sure country." 148. 40 done compatibly proceeds treat says "required so," "no case," 151. refers "otherwise 150. 41 confess nonplussed Vermillion. seems strange, indeed, suppose law—when reasoning acceptable law—merely written opposite result. 42 improperly tried failed, indication one-way sought whereby can sue vice versa. beside point. Constitution, compelled grant situations sheer speculation so.3 43 Without II-B crumbles. For sort plausible cover constitutes court. Any assumed, is, action; powerless act initiative. Kennerly Montana, 400 423, 427, 91 480, 482, 507 (1971): "[T]he [was not] idle choice words; shows assure jurisdictions responsible portion concerned manifested political willingness ability discharge new responsibilities." 45 passing conditioned Since additional 499, 760, (1979). unilaterally augment 388-389, 947-948, 106; Kennerly, 482.4 Unless, "assumed 151, given, case.5 add posit truncated somehow providing necessary eclipsed Legislature, still offers perfectly appreciation states. Confederated Bands Tribes, 505 [99 763, 740] impediments matters taking 510, statement unexceptionable. reads paraphrase above passage. 49 remotely implies pre-existing, focus legislature. mistakenly thought relevant all. Either forbidden not. majority imply was, then sanctioned. A obliged play "Mother, I" retroceding retained. 50 my view, presented substantial one. 5, Access need Dakota, stands ready offer wants enjoy benefits ever running appearing defendant. mandates 51 respectfully dissent. Following Business Reservation. 268, ed.). Before vested Devils Lake 31, 1946, 279, 60 229. 256, 258 expressly use public highways reservation." ex rel. Hall Hansen, 303 349, 350, (1981), "All open, every man injury him his goods, person reputation remedy due process justice administered sale, denial delay." 9. citizen class privileges immunities 21. number bring McCrea Busch, 164 Mont. 442, 524 P.2d 781 (1974); Paiz Hughes, N.M. 417 (1966); Whiting Hoffine, 921, 923-924 (S.D.1980). Organized Village Kake Egan, 369 60, 71, 568, 573 (1962), oust completely 176, 1264, confirming establishing unavailable category. 435-436. 1321(a), 1322(a), 1326; S.Rep. 721, 90th (1967) U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News p. 1837 (additional Sen. Ervin); Goldberg, 280: Limits Jurisdiction Over UCLA L.Rev. 535, 551 (1975). 1323(a); Dept. Interior, Opinions Solicitor Relating Affairs, 1917-1974, pp. 1951-1952 558-562. comply statute's procedural (1971), bearing enactment. Turtle Band Chippewa filed brief curiae petitioner, suggest 1981 maintaining part: Territory enjoyed white or, so, out. consider applicability deems 2106. justices Illinois construed tax dormant Commerce Clause. forgone Clause, constraint Schantz Lightning, 231 812, 815-816 "[A]ny change [jurisdictional] Congress. appellants asking duties responsibilities addressed body. ..... set mandatory procedure followed Sioux mandate have, acquire, 350; (dissenting 259; Poitra Demarrias, 502 1974), cert. denied, 421 934, 95 1664, (1975); Agricultural Credit Consortium, Fredericks, F.Supp. 1020, 1021-1022 (Colo.1982). instance, care holdings situation 814, (rejecting formulation "would consideration non-Indian"). once flatly "Indians courts." Rolette Eltobgi, 221 645, 648 (N.D.1974). addition, practical cost outweighed reaching conclusion. contribute reinstate former remand. Ill.2d 431, 298 N.E.2d 161 proceed depriving available another issue. erring direction negligible great, think material role. Williams, who operated store couple collect goods sold credit. precluded 222, 495, 758, "any tribe" though strong never, one-sided noted, invalid (ND 1982). "jurisdiction chapter." later excepts 27-19-08. exactly coterminous superfluous. reasonably (i.e., renounced to) wrongfully usurped tribes. all-or-nothing, reciprocal proposition. Again, irrelevant one-sided, invitation. reason, 812 155-156, 14, proposition misread misplaced. already lawful "as here," 155. Obviously, disposed citation 500-501, 761, areas follow lower handling it, 154, reflect

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