Legal Document

432 U.S. 1 97 Supreme Court Reporter 2120 53 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 63 Ewald baron NYQUIST, Commissioner of Education New York, et al., Appellants,v.Jean-Marie MAUCLET al. Number 76-208. Argued March 22, 1977. Decided June 13, Syllabus York statutory provision that bars certain resident aliens from state financial assistance for higher education held to violate the Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. Pp. 7-12. (a) State classifications based on alienage are "inherently suspect and subject close judicial scrutiny." Graham versus Richardson, 403 365, 372, 91 1848, 1852, 29 534. Pacific KF135 P2 7. (b) The statute discriminates against a class is strict scrutiny since it directed at only harmed by even though its bar them not absolute in those who have applied citizenship or qualified apply filed statements intent may participate programs. supra ; cf. Mathews Lucas, 427 495, 504-505, n. 11, 96 2755, 2762, 49 651. 7-9. (c) Any incentive through an alien become naturalized proper concern, control over immigration naturalization exclusively federal function. 10. (d) (even if could be accepted, arguendo, as justification) further justification asserted appellants, viz., program confined actual potential voters, thus enhancing educational level electorate, cannot deemed adequate support statute's ban. If encouragement such programs were adequate, every discrimination similarly justified. And claimed interest educating electorate would frustrated including program. 10-12. D.C., 406 F.Supp. 1233, affirmed. Judith Atlantic Gordon, City, appellants. Michael Davidson, Buffalo, N.Y., appellee Mauclet. Gary Judge Greenberg, Rabinovitch. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. statute, education. N.Y.Educ. Law § 661(3) (McKinney Supp.1976). This litigation presents constitutional challenge statute. 2 * provides assistance, primarily three forms, students pursuing first type Regents college scholarship. These awarded high school graduates basis performance competitive examination. §§ 605(1) 670. Currently, usual case, recipient entitled $250 annually four years study without regard need. 670(2) (3)(b).1 second chief form aid tuition award. noncompetitive; they available both graduate undergraduate "enrolled approved demonstrate, ability complete courses." 604(1) 667(1). amount award depends income. ceiling was $600, although has been increased undergraduates $1,500. 667(3) (4). third student loan. 680-684. loan guaranteed State; borrower meeting income restrictions favorable rates generally interest-free grace period least nine months after he completes terminates his course study. 680, 682(2) (3).2 3 There several general eligibility participation any these 661. For example, there modest durational residency requirement. 661(5).3 instant dispute, however, concerns 661(3). That subsection provides: 4 "Citizenship. An applicant must citizen States, made application citizen, citizenship, submit statement affirming soon qualifications, eligible individual refugees paroled attorney under parole authority pertaining admission States."4 5 obviously serves all do satisfy terms. Since many aliens, here visas, precluded law establishing permanent residence this country, see, e. g., 8 Code KF62 1101(a)(15)(F)(i); 22 Federal Regulations 41.45 (1976), practical significance aliens. observed affected group: "Resident like citizens, pay taxes, economy, serve Armed Forces, contribute myriad other ways our society." In re Griffiths, 413 717, 722, 93 2851, 2855, 37 910 (1973). II 6 Appellee Jean-Marie Mauclet France lived April 1969. He November year. married child marriage. also citizen. App. 49. affidavit stated: "Although & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions am presently intend reside permanently wish relinquish my French time."5 Id., 50. expenses studies University Buffalo. Because refusal processed. 49-50. 7 Alan Rabinovitch Canada. admitted country 1964 age alien. unmarried and, admission, with parents younger sister, whom Canadian citizens. registered Selective Service 18th birthday. graduated 1973 public system. 68, 71. As result commendable Qualifying Examinations, informed for, to, scholarship assistance. later advised, offer withdrawn intended retain citizenship. 69, 25. entered Brooklyn College State. states "does American, but . does continue York." 65. each brought suit District (Mauclet Western Eastern District), alleging unconstitutional. same three-judge court convened cases. Subsequently, ordered cases heard together. 45. After cross motions summary judgment, unanimous ruled appellees' favor. It violated Amendment requirement served discriminate unconstitutionally aliens.6 1233 (WDNY EDNY 1976). Its enforcement enjoined separate judgments. 103, 106. 9 Appellants various individuals corporate entities responsible administering State's determination.7 We noted probable jurisdiction. 429 917, 307, 50 282 (1976). III 10 534 (1971). See Examining Board Flores de Otero, 426 572, 601-602, 2264, 2281, 65 (1976); U.S., 721, 2854, 910; Sugarman Dougall, 634, 642, 2842, 2847, 853 undertaking scrutiny, "the governmental justify carefully examined order determine whether legitimate substantial, inquiry means adopted achieve goal necessary precisely drawn." 605, S.Ct., 2283. Griffths, 721-722, 2854-2855. Alienage withstand stringent examination stand.8 11 claim should subjected because impose classification alienage.9 Aliens or, it, eligible, allowed Hence, said, distinguishes "only within 'heterogeneous' aliens" distinguish between citizens vel non." Brief 20.10 Only latter type, appellants assert, warrant scrutiny. 12 supra, undermines appellants' position. considered Arizona imposed welfare benefits Like challenged here, aliens: met benefits. nonetheless important points it. fact mean class.11 Cf. 651 (1976);12 Weber Aetna Casualty Surety Co., 164, 169, 172, 92 1400, 1403, 1405, 31 768 (1972). 13 assert justifications First, section said naturalized. Second, restriction will vote tailored purpose program, namely, enhancement electorate. 22-25. Both related York's preservation "political community." 642-643, 647-649, 2847-2848, 2850-2851; Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 344, 995, 1004, 274 14 offered what describe some "degree national affinity," 18, permissible one Control entrusted Government, no power interfere. U.S.Const., Article I, 8, cl. 4. Diaz, 67, 84-85, 1883, 1893-1894, 48 478 376-380, 1854-1856; Takahashi Fish Game Comm'n, 334 410, 419, 68 1138, 1142, L.Ed. 1478 (1948). But we accept, validity proffered justifications, find inadequate ban.13 15 2848, recognized "in own government, limiting government 'the basic conception political community' " might consideration alienage. makes quite clear, had mind historical powers define qualifications voters,14 "elective nonelective" officials "who directly formulation, execution, review broad policy." 647, 2850. id., 648, decided day, reflects narrowness exception. despite recognition vital role attorneys, found invalid state-court rule practice 729, 2858. 16 Certainly, sweep far beyond confines exception defined Sugarman. seen then swallow rule. clearly tolerate result. Nor provide justification; laudable objective, hardly well programs.15 17 Resident obligated their full share taxes real unfairness allowing equal right which basis. barred involvement arena, play perhaps leadership areas import community. surely providing opportunity offers others. 18 hold violates Amendment's protection guarantee, need reach intrudes upon Congress' comprehensive naturalization. 378, 1855; Truax Raich, 239 33, 42, 36 7, 60 131 (1915). 19 judgments 20 so ordered. 21 Chief BURGER, dissenting. join REHNQUIST's POWELL's dissenting opinions, add comment point out yet significant differences case prior involving alienage-based classifications. 23 With exception, purports rely involved statutes prohibited engaging occupations professions, thereby impairing earn livelihood. See, (1976) (Puerto Rico permitted private civil engineers); (1973) (membership limited citizens); (participation service (1948) (state denied fishing license persons "ineligible citizenship"); (1915) constitution required employers hire "not less than eighty (80) per cent electors native-born States"); Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 30 220 (1886) (city ordinance discriminatorily enforced prevent Chinese subjects, operating laundries city). striking down alienage, (1971), denial essential sustain life while needy given elsewhere crucial poor "means obtain food, clothing, housing, medical care." Goldberg Kelly, 397 254, 264, 90 1011, 1018, 25 287 (1970) (footnote omitted). 24 seeking deprive economic survival. Rather, pursuant regulate system, chosen types considers most likely long-range return local community added facilitate system certainly preventing obtaining education, indeed clear appellees attend colleges universities footing However, that, provided incentives induce pursue studies, long run benefit unwilling declare commitment declaring acquire Such simple declaration requires. view, Constitution allows latitude carrying Where fundamental personal stake free exercise largesse reasonable manner. unlimited funds residents services; equally assuring gives special help attachment indicating remain skills. transients another willing line drawn perfect few lines can rational objectives. themselves committed idea becoming American more graduation whose ties origin strong decline sever secure valuable 26 therefore conclude acted impermissibly refusing dispense tax revenues give implication reject States. Beyond specific concerned obliterate distinctions depreciate historic values 27 desires nothing prevents voluntarily giving scholarships citizenships. heretofore compels finite resources demonstrated refuse 28 POWELL, STEWART join, persuaded, reasons set forth dissent, scheme class. prefer foreign "The alleged defines none traditional indicia suspectness: saddled disabilities, history purposeful unequal treatment, relegated position powerlessness command extraordinary majoritarian process." San Antonio Independent School Dist. Rodriguez, 411 1, 28, 1278, 1294, Our dealing class, (1973); (1973), subclasses willingness legislative before us today.* 32 agree REHNQUIST extending one. see Court's offering scholars "is (purpose) State." Ante, substantial encouraging allegiance part persons, come live borders. Legislature declared enacting predecessor present scheme: 33 future progress nation people depend development maximum number range leadership, inventive genius, source cultural growth oncoming generations." 1961 N.Y. Laws, chapter 389, 1(a). 34 neither "on alienage," nor conflicts policy, view legitimately reserve intention Nation 35 REHNQUIST, THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, troubled somewhat mechanical jurisprudence case. think accept premise (1971); inherently suspect, feel wrongly decided. cases, reason postulated elevation express exclusion classification. Here, significantly different trenches sole underlying afforded Richardson is, course, starting analysis, explicitly classifications, race nationality, when reasoned, 1852: 38 "Aliens prime example 'discrete insular' minority (see Carolene Products 304 144, 152-153, 4, 58 778, 783-784, 82 1234 (1938)) heightened solicitude appropriate." 39 therefore, receive qua "discrete insular" minority. 2847. Presumptively, group, blacks Orientals, identifiable status members powerless. Jimenez Weinberger, 417 628, 631, 94 2496, 2499, 41 363 (1974). doubt true are, time, discrete insular identified powerless change until country. Since, notes, requires five years' lawfully prerequisite naturalization, 1427(a), residing necessarily time during bear "alien."1 classification, places category, another, then, thereafter, entering pass falls into category other. Nothing except remove him "alien" whatever associated disabilities place occupying status. sense, possible minority, categorized factor control. 40 Court, utilizing strike statutes, dealt where suffered infirmity; left incoming afflicted disability time. passage disability. precise infirmity led accord "suspect classification" treatment: legislature status, albeit temporary, included change.2 While majority seems somehow different, ante, 8-9, weakness. By making await requirement, coming were, treated differently (unless citizens). else avoid discriminatory treatment. 42 conformed applied. seem follow classifies way avoids viewed light. Under has, times, himself other, either possible.3 unlike member purposes alien, times immediately disfavored temporal intent, once removing disabled fruition Unlike situation Sugarman, Graham, exists disability, escape. not, forced minority.4 43 create placing inevitable unwarranted. rigorous test having ceased, applicability likewise cease. Applying rational-basis test, obvious question sustained. wishes spend limited. choice distribute denying natural judgment. pool recipients able larger payment quantum well. A decide, distributing benefits, well-being State, (by settling there) indirectly living maintaining social improving States) renounce thought there. loans Educ.Law 680-684 Supp.1976), easier collect repayment sums defaulted upon. McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 426, 81 1101, 1105, 393 (1961); Ohio Bureau Employment Services Hodory, 431 471, 1898, 52 513 (1977). When deal, questions legislation, deference actions extremely great. Dandridge Williams, 485, 1153, 1161, 491 (1970). decision deny monetary rational, awards: professional nursing scholarships, N. Y. Educ. 605(2) 671 Supp.1976); medicine dentistry 605(3) 672; physician shortage 605(4) 673; war veteran 605(5) 674; Cornell 605(6). largely subsidized Government. 1071 1087-2 (1970 ed. Supp. V) (In fiscal 1976 expenditure $67,208,000 contribution $9,466,000. n.* ) Although appears administrators lodged objections disqualifying 82, standards make temporary intends thereof." 45 177.2(a) here. Vlandis Kline, 412 441, 2230, Starns Malkerson, 401 985, 1231, 527 aff'g, 326 234 (Minn.1970). Section replaced former 602(2) Law, effect complaints filed. 1974 942. commencement suits. 1975 663, 1. clause inclusion undermine arguments clauses. infra. 1448(a). Other courts distribution impermissible. Chapman Gerard, 456 Reporter, 2nd 577 (CA3 1972); Jagnandan Giles, 379 1178 (ND Miss.1974), appealed damages aff'd, 538 1166 (CA5 1976), cert. pending, 76-832. argue reached Rabinovitch, alone aspect lacks standing. Early litigation, submitted unrebutted believed "may require cover cost of" "barred receiving simply (his) alien." Indeed, conceded refused F.Supp., 1235. adverseness existed parties dispute concrete obstacle standing circumstances, arise prudential considerations. postpone resolution dispute. forms little requiring now go formality submitting loan, light certainty denial. Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 252, 555, 562, 563, 450 Until oral argument, suggested why differ Tr. Oral Arg. absence timely suggestion supporting distinction among aid, gained adjudicating two primary all, single proscription applies force relaxed upholding conditioned alien's insurance satisfaction similar burden draw solace pains emphasize Congress, enjoys rights shared 84-87, 1893-1895. Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 88, 100-101, 1895, 1904, 495 De Canas Bica, 424 351, 358 n.6, 933, 938, 47 worthy note Medicare Diaz granted resided years. Five seek 1427(a). Yet, ironically, which, petition irrespective lose "access necessities life." 21. They joined dissent. Suffice say, contrary position: "In world unmatched scientific technological advance, unparalleled danger human freedom, learning never man's safety, fulfillment. longer luxury; necessity strength, fulfillment survival." And, event, 376, 1854, "are impaired." abruptly contention: "This argument defies logic. Those apply, relinquishing coercion alter solely alienage." Brother argues dissent inappropriate withdraw past decisions. logic opinion, include years, before, suggested, narrowly. fact, element voluntariness retention acknowledged appellant "no doing so." 718 n.1, 2853. insofar record revealed, applying 650, 2861 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting). argued there, just today, indicate aliens' "cannot changed affirmative acts." 657, 2865. Nonetheless, depart now. footnote reads part: "That illegitimate children mean, properly described discriminating children." 661(3), refer legislation substantially amended speaks terms "to generations," 1(a), developing fully "reservoir talent leadership," 1(c) supports unambiguous Moreover, dates before. 1920 502, very abolished disqualification favor administrative 391, 18. 14, 19. did urge, 1969, precursor adopted, awards. 15. Perkins Smith, 370 134 (Md.1974), summarily 913, 2616, 368 reveal disqualified numbermay exceedingly small. n.4. asked about "we speaking much." 6. Thus, insubstantial impact rejected supra. reliance Griffiths misplaced. observation herself 2853, factual "aside." Connecticut Rule flatly Neither relevant scheme. unquestionably today. Yet "totally exclud(ed) law," 719, occasion consider narrowly permissible. Had done so, confronted additional question, presented improperly burdened occupation. (1948); Title 1427(a) following conditions: "No person, otherwise subchapter, shall unless petitioner, (1) preceding date filing continuously, being residence, physically therein periods totaling half petitioner six months, (2) continuously up (3) referred still person good moral character, attached principles disposed happiness States." 1430(a) establishes three-year spouse 1434. Sections 1430(b), (c), establish categories required. constitute minimis exceptions, ignored considering noted: "(The plaintiff) her marriage 1430(a). She 1445(f), plaintiff built prevented attorney, who, satisfied jurisdictional prerequisites challengeable decisively plenary Government area, "lawfully residence." 1101(a)(20). 719-722, 2853-2855; 371, 1851, "give up" (or announce up) something "favored" But, categories. impermissible convert

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