Legal Document

480 U.S. 616 107 S.Ct. 1442 94 L.Ed.2d 615 Paul E. JOHNSON, Petitionerv.TRANSPORTATION AGENCY, SANTA CLARA COUNTY, CALIFORNIA, et al. No. 85-1129. Argued Nov. 12, 1986. Decided March 25, 1987. Syllabus In 1978, an Affirmative-Action Plan (Plan) for hiring and promoting minorities women was voluntarily adopted by respondent Santa Clara County Transportation Agency (Agency). The provides, inter alia, that in making promotions to positions within a traditionally segregated job classification which have been significantly underrepresented, the is authorized consider as one factor sex of qualified applicant. intended achieve statistically measurable yearly improvement classifications where they are long-term goal attain work force whose composition reflects proportion area labor force. sets aside no specific number or women, but requires short-range goals be established annually adjusted serve most realistic guide actual employment decisions. When announced vacancy promotional position road dispatcher, none 238 pertinent Skilled Craft Worker classification, included dispatcher position, held woman. applicants were interviewed Agency, pursuant Plan, ultimately passed over petitioner, male employee, promoted female, Diane Joyce, both whom rated well job. After receiving right-to-sue letter from Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, petitioner filed suit Federal District Court, had violated Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964. court found Joyce's determining her selection Agency's invalid under criterion Steelworkers v. Weber, 443 193, 99 2721, 61 temporary. Court Appeals reversed. Held: appropriately took into account she should promoted. represents moderate, flexible, case-by-case approach effecting gradual representation force, fully consistent with VII. Pp. 626-640. (a) Petitioner bears burden proving violates Once plaintiff establishes prima facie case race has taken employer's decision, shifts employer articulate nondiscriminatory rationale its such existence affirmative-action plan. then prove plan justification pretextual. 626-627. (b) Assessment legality must guided decision Weber. An seeking justify adoption need not point own prior discriminatory practices, only conspicuous imbalance categories. Voluntary action can play crucial role furthering VII's purpose eliminating effects discrimination workplace, read thwart efforts. 627-630. (c) here made prompted concerns similar those supra. Consideration skilled craft jobs justified "manifest imbalance" reflected underrepresentation "traditionally categories." Id., at 197, S.Ct., 2724. Where special training, comparison whether exists between who possess relevant qualifications. If failed take distinctions qualifications providing guidance decisions, it would improperly dictate mere blind numbers. However, did authorize hiring, expressly directed numerous factors including specifically female particular jobs. Thus, despite fact precise short-term yet place category when Joyce promoted, management clearly instructed hire solely reference statistics. posed danger personnel decisions reflexive adherence numerical standard. 631-637. (d) unnecessarily trammel employees' rights create absolute bar their advancement. states construed "quotas" met. Denial promotion unsettled legitimate, firmly rooted expectation on his part, since Director select any seven deemed Express assurance program temporary may necessary if actually according substantial evidence shows sought visits minimal intrusion legitimate expectations other employees. Given this fact, express commitment "attain" balanced there ample does seek use "maintain" permanent racial sexual balance. 637-640. 770 F.2d 752, affirmed. BRENNAN, J., delivered opinion MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, POWELL, STEVENS, JJ., joined. concurring opinion, post, p. ----. O'CONNOR, judgment, WHITE, dissenting SCALIA, REHNQUIST, C.J., joined, Parts I II Constance Brooks, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Steven Woodside, San Jose, Cal., respondents. Justice BRENNAN Court. 1 Respondent, County, California, unilaterally promulgated Affirmative Action applicable, selecting Johnson, employee applicant, Joyce. question impermissibly violation 1964, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e seq.1 Northern following receipt Commission (EEOC), App. Pet. Cert. 1a. Ninth Circuit 752 (1985). We granted certiorari, 478 1019, 106 3331, 92 737 (1986). affirm.2 2 * A. 3 December Transit Board Supervisors Agency. implemented adopted, declared because "mere prohibition practices enough remedy past permit attainment equitable minorities, handicapped persons." 31.3 Relevant case, provides that, 4 reviewing noted represented numbers far less than whole five Specifically, while constituted 36.4% market, composed 22.4% Furthermore, working concentrated largely EEOC categories women: up 76% Office Clerical Workers, 7.1% Officials Administrators, 8.6% Professionals, 9.7% Technicians, 22% Service Maintenance Workers. As 49. part employed these positions, strongly motivated training them "because limited opportunities existed classifications." 57. also observed ethnic exceeded smaller percentage minority employees management, professional, technical positions.4 5 stated "a throughout all major underrepresented." 43. benchmark evaluate progress, 54. issue classified, aspiration eventually about 36% occupied women. 6 acknowledged might make unrealistic rely evaluating progress expanding Among identified low turnover rates some classifications, involved heavy labor, small categories, entry leading Technical requiring specialized experience. 56-57. result, counseled tasks important establishing acquisition data "reflecting ratio persons local relating utilized Administration," so determine availability members groups "possess desired potential placement." 64. These group members, along predictions vacancies, basis "realistic each classification." Ibid. 7 thus set consideration ethnicity candidates poorly represented. One subject dispute case. B 8 On 1979, Roads Division. Dispatchers assign crews, equipment, materials, maintain records pertaining maintenance 23-24. minimum four years dispatch experience County. scheme designates Worker. 9 Twelve applied promotion, Johnson. worked 1970, serving clerk until 1975. She 1974, ineligible served worker. 1975, transferred senior worker becoming first woman fill Tr. 83-84. During occasionally out class dispatcher. 10 Johnson began 1967 yard clerk, after private supervisor He unsuccessfully opening 1974. 1977, clerical downgraded, he received transfer 127. performing 11 Nine applicants, job, two-person board. Seven scored above 70 interview, meant certified eligible appointing authority. scores awarded ranged 80. tied second score 75, ranked next 73. A interview conducted three supervisors, recommended Prior contacted County's feared application receive disinterested review.5 turn Coordinator, makes responsible for, keeping informed accomplish objectives Plan. At time, never Coordinator James Graebner, 12 choose eligible, benefit suggestions panel arriving decision. deliberation, Graebner concluded given testified: "I tried look picture, combination Mr. Johnson's qualifications, test scores, expertise, background, affirmative matters, things like that. . believe those." 68. 13 certification form naming person evaluation read: "Well virtue 18 31/2 West Yard plus almost [road worker]." 27. follows: applicant; two worker] Road Clerk. Has previous outside Dispatch ago." testified regard significant 75 73 57-58. 14 complaint alleging denied 10, 1981, 20, United States California. more "determining selection." 4a (emphasis original). criteria (1979), validity 5a. It ground satisfy Weber's 6a. reversed, holding absence termination date dispositive, repeatedly expressed objective attainment, rather maintenance, mirroring F.2d, 756. added fixed essential contain relatively explicit deadline. 757. further filling lawful. said, address neither trammeled employees, nor created 757-759. 15 preliminary matter, we note invalidity Only last Term, Wygant Jackson Education, 476 267, 277-278, 1842, 1849, 90 260 (1986), "[t]he ultimate remains demonstrate unconstitutionality program," see different rule regarding plan's alleged This fits readily analytical framework forth McDonnell Douglas Corp. Green, 411 792, 93 1817, 36 668 (1973). rationale. articulated pretextual invalid. practical course, will generally avoid charge pretext presenting support That mean, however, suggests, reliance treated defense carry plaintiff. 16 assessment our supra.6 addressed adopting voluntary designed "eliminate manifest imbalances U.S., challenged denial newly program, contending process applicants. plan, provided 50% new trainees black craftworkers plant approximated blacks Adoption 273, 1.83%, black, even though approximately 39% black. Because historical exclusion regarded former policy trained outsiders inadequate redress 17 upheld white respondent, taking "break[ing] down old patterns segregation hierarchy." 208, 2730. stated: "It ironic indeed law triggered Nation's concern centuries injustice improve lot 'been excluded American dream long' legislative voluntary, private, race-conscious efforts abolish traditional 204, 2728 (quoting remarks Sen. Humphrey, 110 Cong.Rec. 6552 (1964)).7 19 "unnecessarily interests employees," require "the discharge workers replacement hirees." Nor "an advancement half white. Finally, measure, balance, imbalance." BLACKMUN's concurrence clear, Weber "arguable violation" part. 212, 2731. Rather, "conspicuous 209, Our grounded recognition 2727-2728.8 20 examine Next, effect males nonminorities comparable 21 therefore "TRADITIONALLY SEGREGATED JOB CATEGORIES." id., s.ct., account, market general population appropriate analyzing Teamsters States, 431 324, 97 1843, 52 396 (1977) (comparison proper extent truck driving positions), programs provide (1979) calculating preferential admission program). See Hazelwood School 433 299, 2736, 53 768 (must compare ranks teachers teaching positions). requirement relate category" manner discrimination, benefiting unduly infringed. 22 against employer, suggested O'CONNOR's concurrence, ----, do identical constraints Constitution plans.9 Application "prima facie" standard cases inconsistent focus statistical imbalance,10 could inappropriately disincentive employers adopt supra, 2727-2728 (Title "catalyst" eliminate vestiges discrimination). corporation concerned maximizing return investment, instance, hardly likely order compile used colorable suit.11 23 clear remedying underrepresentation. "limited past," 57, find certain "where numbers." 51.12 lower expected occurred. Para-Professionals 145 Workers By contrast, 28 58 124 1—who Joyce—of 51-52. through "hiring, 24 initial measuring mirrored market.13 Even so, figure itself necessarily For experience, "who required limited." 56. annual formulated indication degree positions. 61-64. stressed "should 'quotas' met," reasonable aspirations correcting "turnover, layoffs, lateral transfers, openings, retirements goals, Planning Department sources attempting constituting 63-64. From outset, therefore, develop refined measures attention. 25 recognized, egregiously underrepresented category, mid-1980, selected still refining accordance directive reach fruition 1982, year 55 openings category—a modest 6% category. 26 reject petitioner's argument time inappropriate considerations position. emphasized guides supervisors host meet objectives, 27 simply calculated pool, governed figures, fairly called question. analysis pool normally numbers, hold "achievement membership regardless circumstances economic conditions available ." Sheet Metal EEOC, 421, 3019, 3060, 344 (1986) (O'CONNOR, part). emphatically hiring. nevertheless 29 considering 1980, needed realize problem obvious imbalances, plainly unreasonable Ms. decision.14 satisfies enunciated undertaken 30 contrast exclusively blacks, consent decree Term Firefighters Cleveland, 501, 3063, 405 'goals' Division met." merely authorizes testified, resembles "Harvard Plan" approvingly POWELL Regents University California Bakke, 438 265, 316-319, 98 2733, 2761-2763, 57 750 (1978), considers college. observed: "In admissions background 'plus' applicant's file, insulate individual seats." 317, 2762. Similarly, compete No automatically consideration; able weighed 31 addition, entitlement classified promote seven. retained same salary seniority, remained promotions.15 32 one. contains references desire whatsoever maintaining it. "broader goal" action, defined hire, promote, give opportunity equitable, non-discriminatory basis," something part" operating philosophy," broader "is divorced, you will, percentages." 48-49. 33 difficulties confront anticipated increases women.16 unsurprising end date, yield success brief period time. See, e.g., Firefighters, 510, 3069 (4-year duration minorities); 199, 2725 (plan constitute equal force). minimize ensure "[are] being which" measure 477-478, 3051. III 34 compliance mindful "this Court's Congress' emphasis 'the value law.' " Wygant, 290, 1855 judgment) 364, 2785-86). before us effort, done full nonminorities. sex. imbalance, rest multitude practical, factors. committed adjustment earmarks anyone; several position.17 Plan's language operation attest, intention dictated rigid standards. 35 Such VII, embodies contribution workplace. Accordingly, judgment Affirmed. 37 concurring. 38 While join write separately explain my view case's evolving antidiscrimination emphasize establish permissible outer limits disadvantaged groups. 39 Antidiscrimination protected distinct ways. sword, confer benefits specifying person's neutral, irrelevant governmental decisionmaking or, alternatively, compelling decisionmakers favorable status. shield, statute help member assuring instances elect good reasons grant preference sort citizen, violate law. properly holds statutory shield allowed 40 1978 1964 blanket permitted preferences group, majority. unambiguously endorsed neutral approach, context gender discrimination1 person.2 explained separate 412-418, 2810-2813, forcefully McDonald Fe Trail Co., 427 280, 96 2574, 2578, 49 493 (1976), Congress 'to operate disadvantage Caucasians' (citations omitted). adhered construction Act, unquestionably prevail But so. 41 Bakke again majority interpreted antidiscriminatory strategy fundamentally way. increase aluminum VII.3 treatment gender, protection enacted. Neither "same standards" McDonald, "color blind" rhetoric Senators Congressmen enacted bill, now controlling. true Runyon McCrary, 160, 189, 2586, 2603, 415 (1976) (STEVENS, concurring), me adhere authoritative odds understanding intent authors legislation. conclude without hesitation answer affirmative, just Runyon. 191-192, 2604-2605. decided fabric sufficiently basic legislation There undoubted public interest "stability orderly development law." 190, 2604.4 43 logic judicial constructions leave "breathing room" initiatives enacted, free reason seem sensible business social view. approach; relied heavily history indicating prerogatives left undisturbed greatest possible. 206-207, 2728-2729. '[i]t "been long" hierarchy.' 516, 3072, 2727). "undue federal interference managerial discretion." 519, 3074.5 44 absolutely prohibit favor minorities; protect historically hamper paramount purpose. construed; record amply supports conclusion creating diversity exclusive province past. Respondent's surely prohibited 45 Whether kind ever squarely presented. interpretation why duty, granting conduct arguable Indeed, helpful future. Instead retroactively scrutinizing society's possible exclusions valid indeed, decision—in many under-represented Statutes block forward-looking considerations. 46 "Public implement purge sins discrimination. school board, example, said quality education Jackson—whether improving students' performance dispelling students alike idea supremacy governs institutions. Other advance action: services constituencies, averting tension allocation community, increasing name few examples. Or operations de facto embodiment system caste. All aspire racially integrated future, reduces 'racial balancing sake.' Sullivan, Supreme Comment, Sins Discrimination: Last Term's Cases, 100 Harv.L.Rev. 78, 47 today foreclose based employee's group. concur. 48 judgment. 703(d) imbalanc[e] SCALIA illuminates excruciating clarity, 703 succeeding what literally prohibit. Post, 669-671; ante, 642-643 concurring). Section prohibits "against race, color, religion, sex, national origin." 2000e-2(d) added). every type 'bring completely variance statute.' 202, 2726 Public Utilities Comm'n, 345 295, 315, 706, 717, L.Ed. 1020 (1953)). purpose, open occupations closed them. 50 None parties overrule raised, briefed, argued courts below. faithful normal prudential restraints principle stare decisis once propriety light precedents, precedents variety circumstances. marginally better man sufficient claim pattern practice 51 concur precedents. separately, chosen follow expansive ill-defined limitations imposed provisions SCALIA's dissent rejects addresses how writing clean slate. course gives insufficient litigants; latter serves useful academic discussion, fails reckon reality determined follow. view, inquiry Protection Clause. either congressional nonminority firm believing remedial required. disparity beneficiaries conflicting construing 703(d): root invidious lasting minorities. concerns, cases. competing permitting device apparent lingering 54 Contrary intimations STEVENS' approve "for view." Ante, 645. wholly discriminate Moreover, careful 2729-2730. standardless "provides discrimination," 632, purposes 1855, judgment). resolution appears substantially agreement present state actor weighty warrant carefully constructed concluded, "[s]ocietal more, too amorphous imposing remedy." 276, 1848. Instead, crafted employer. Although contemporaneous findings required, requirement: 56 reliable benchmarks determination. demonstrable school's staff lend competent authority implementation discrimination." 292, 1856. entirely unskilled production workers. little doubt result unions. 198, n. 1, 2725, ("Judicial crafts grounds notice"). previously hired unions sole avenue obtaining occurred union, powerful Under law, circumstances—discrimination entry-level unions—is total (1977); cf. 437-439, 3029-3031, (observing finding union). Here, complex. quite small. suggest 308, 13, 2742, (1977). Unfortunately, denies alternative attempt reconcile standards 59 concluding necessary, places discriminated Employers "trapped hazards liability taken." 291, 1856 long importance 1855. discourage challenge "does impose upon convincing unlawful discrimination; mean proof upheld." Evidence suggests cannot societal alone appropriate. 60 applying principles pay close attention respondents' recognized "are Additionally, respondents "recognize[d] persons," 31, appointment processes areas hidden frequently occurs." 71. improved subjected past." 35. "to levels approximates distribution force." "[I]t assume individuals [sex] gravitate mathematical exactitude absent 494, 3059 assumption, simplistically focuses remedial. takes long-range goal, statement operational significance. extremely unrealistic, 56-57, record, respondents, 61, cautioned focused "[p]rovide level estimates educational requirements employment." 61. 62 developed. Nevertheless, already judged philosophy underlying goals. 63 1979. applicants—including petitioner—scored promotion. committee agency Officer, hand, urged 64 views indifference relative merits 662 -663. substantiate picture painted SCALIA. "tried [Joyce's] that." suggestion, knew appeared list spoken familiar aware close. weeks spent hours suggesting 63. larger margin, 69-70. summarized element led agree blindly promotes falling preferred equated "proportionate sex," demonstrates, "plus" factor. 65 am satisfied program. concedes 5% 1970. Reply Brief 9. compared brought unsuccessful Teamsters, 342, 23, 1858, ("[F]ine tuning statistics obscured glaring line drivers. [T]he company's inability rebut inference came misuse inexorable zero' "). 66 sum, instance respect Wygant. 67 dissenting. 68 opinion. Part III, My was, is, intentional systematic understood phrase jobs" interprets nothing identifiable another interpreted, today's perversion reverse 69 THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, WHITE joins II, With clarity which, proved unavailing, recommend model draftsmanship, declares: 71 shall employer— 72 "(1) fail refuse individual, otherwise compensation, terms, conditions, privileges employment, individual's origin; "(2) limit, segregate, classify way deprive tend adversely affect status 2000e-2(a). completes converting guarantee determinations, often will. Ever subtly, alluding obstacles preserved earlier opinions push path, effectively replace discrimination-free society incompatible proportionate describe nature approves, discuss holdings tacitly overruled, disregarded. engine finally completed. 74 October 16, Program (County plan) "attainment includes disabled 113. comply various agencies, effective 18, (Agency here. Its plan's: establishment procedure Directors review forces whenever vacancy, include indicate eligibles considered filled." Several salient features noted. Most importantly, assuredly been, remedy. majority, cataloging misdeeds, 624, 5, neglects mention "has past, particular." 13a. disturbed Circuit. 76 Not results affairs dubiously assumed discrimination—an overall "more representative community." 340, 1856, oft-stated mirror entire county whole, world, obviously oddity match portion job; utterly miraculous match, expected, Quite obviously, replicate lack produce, tailoring would, defiance laws probability, governmentally "proper" 77 illustrated description "Factors Hindering Goal Attainment "—i.e., existing impediments sexually pursued. "difficult," 55, across-the-board parity least because: 78 "a. Until recently, Consequently, limited. 79 80 "c. Many involve labor; 81 82 "f. 83 desires Platonic ideal this, reconsidered, immediate. 58-60. event, rigorously pursued, giving "special continue 60.1 84 message unmistakably communicated concrete supervisory evaluated produced. "result Preface attains direct Director's personal EEO Policy," ibid. added), repeated effectiveness carrying Division's requirements." earlier, reminded failing 85 1967, coming company years. Dispatcher second. later, reorganization resulted downgrading Clerk "could future," 127, requested demotion Worker, chances future became vacant, candidate—and assigned September 1979 June 1980. get 86 much clearer, shocking, suggest—largely recites single govern appeal, relying instead portions transcript implicitly rejected, document (favorably comparing Johnson), 625, prepared selected. 27-28; 223-227. Worth mentioning, trier fact's determination intervened, [the Operations Director]," 12a, appointed Ibid.2 Likewise, extraordinary appointment, "did inspect applications related examination [Paul Johnson] decision," ibid., inquire conclusions [were] described critical process." 3a. impossible (or think believed) Graebner's self-serving statements assertion that," (quoted 1448; 655 judgment)). evidently know (in words counsel, assented) "met M.Q.'s, minimum. Both minimally qualified." 25. asked "any other, candidly answered, "No. I've appeared, conversations people tended corroborate, capable work." 87 2-day trial, factor," 4a, "[b]ased departmental [Mr. Joyce," 12a; "[b]ut Johnson's] male, Dispatcher," 13a; factual erroneous, us. bound Rule Procedure 52(a). 88 proposition overcome effect, attitudes races, consisted conscious employers, contradict rendered Term. prevent violating 1848, 288, 1854 judgment); (WHITE, constitutional here, unlikely lesser restraint actors Constitution. prohibitions VI, 2000d, stringent 286-287, 2746-2747, (1978) (opinion J.) VI discrimination); 329-340, 2768 JJ.) (same); 416, 2812 joined Burger, Stewart independent addition Constitution") regard, VI.3 Because, justifications (e.g., wrongs) VII; treat equivalently; dealt applicable precedent, decision.4 89 Likewise assumption consist disregards dicta, remarkable (and silently) swept away. provision 2000e-5(g), empowers relief victims Six Members does, narrowly confined plurality Justices ordered union engaged persistent egregious dissipate pervasive 445, 3034 JJ.). 476, 3050. "in involving particularly conduct," 483, 3054 (concurring judgment), similarly approval remedies "unusual cases." 499, 3062 (dissenting). 533, 3081, dissenting) ("I BRENNAN's enjoining rule, non-victims reserved conduct"). engage race- sex-conscious forbidden ordering Term: "There applicant objects. harm discriminatee same, practiced involved." 3081. 91 discrimination—much "unusual" "egregious" cursory goes beyond allowing uses evil legitimately (according majority) directed. originally systematically intentionally jobs, sense conscious, exclusionary 197-198, 2724-2725. absurd nationwide failure ambition attributable primarily, substantially, eager shoulder pick shovel. sense, longstanding attitudes, themselves desirable work. puts point, quoting Appeals: 'A plethora show strong pressures weigh participation.' 634, 748 1308, 1313 (CA9 1984)). meaning phrase, patently false say 'manifest imbalance' 'traditionally category' 632. are, cause others nefarious consensus equivalent discrimination), phenomena certainly distinct. And alteration elimination approves state-enforced enormous expansion, slightest analysis. omitted foregoing discussion o'erleaps, analysis, barrier thought overcome. private-sector overtly although advert applicability itself, 200, 2727-28, later 517, 3072; 282, 9, 1851, J.), Williams New Orleans, 729 1554, 1565 (CA5 1984) (en banc) (Gee, concurring) ("Writing Brennan went way, eleven occasions, action") (footnote distinction justifications. rested 88th wish intrude deeply 519-521, 3073-3075. Whatever negligible), 92d 1972, Pub.L. 92-261, 2, Stat. 103, 2000e(a). Another limiting unlike actors, Fourteenth Amendment. strange construe forbids. truth, 2000e-2 draws limit damage better, acknowledge Amendment ramifications—which implicated here—as occasion reconsidering overruling keep mind thoroughly rewrote purported construe. statute, quoted outset dissent, unambiguous: disregarded text invoking 'spirit,' 201, Holy Trinity Church 143 457, 459, 511, 512, 226 (1892)), "practical [considerations] partially perceived, perceived all, Congress," 2730 (BLACKMUN, intangible guides, "designed break [or sexual] hierarchy," male] female] hirees," [not] disfavored judicially code conduct, contours discernible standard, (as convincingly demonstrated) divination "purposes" belied face history. recasting self-promulgated adds abandoning 95 majority's response criticism 629, 7, asserts "Congress amended construction, correct." haunts opinions, put rest. based, begin with, premise correctness measured current desires, meant. To matters worse, assays isolation, (the enacted) package containing quids pro quo. Whereas proposed presented enacting "Should hospitals medical care indigent patients, subsidies offset cost?," theoretically Congress, "correctness" subsidies, patients federally subsidized?" Hardly question—and legislators accepted subsidy gain votes enactment vote unsubsidized thanks safely books. accepting flawed determinative, ignore rudimentary political science draw enact "complicated check legislation," Federalist 62, 378 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961), erected creates inertia assert act (1) quo, opposed (2) alter (3) unawareness (4) (5) cowardice. interesting speculate inaction proves apply civil field, municipal corporations 1983. 1961, municipalities. Monroe Pape, 365 167, 187, 473, 484, 492 (1961). overturn ourselves did, Monell York City Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 663, 2018, 2021-2022, 611 (1978). logic, wrongly decided, silence "misperceived will," "assume [Monroe's] nine gone Monell, Should [Monell's] correct"? admit vindication canard. emphasizes "undoubted 'stability law,' 644 (citation omitted), erroneous above, demonstration stability instability unpredictable expansion substitution improvisation reasons, ought save First, doctrine statutes laws. Maine Thiboutot, 448 33, 2502, 2519, 555 (1980) (POWELL, dissenting); 221-222, 502-503 (Frankfurter, Second, STEVENS acknowledges 644, dramatic departure scarcely "so warp woof question." 696, 2039. Third, ago, conform says. "even .—'that appear decision] misapprehended controlling provision,' 700, 2040 192, 486-487 (Harlan, concurring)), overruled. complying commands side willing suspension disbelief currently credential reading field—from demanded belief corporate "voluntarily," compulsion government contracting 2727-2728; cited 638, diversities felt educationally expose students, 311-315, 2759-2761, which—in officials prefer favored classes, warning "personal commitment" successfully official nothing" "critical" final candidates' sex—in demands dealing "merely applicants." 638. Any naivete wrong. emphasizes, meaningful, "No exchange Shakespeare's King Henry Fourth, I: "GLENDOWER: call Spirits vasty Deep. HOTSPUR: Why, I, man. come them?" Scene lines 53-55. 101 entitled applicants—but virtually assured weighing, groups, rejected. 102 Similarly hollow strike "failed account," "would 636. means "taking account" consists done, officer assures himself him "M.Q.'s" (minimally qualifieds), ignore, be, proceed appoint "goals" reached. "take turns assurance, comparative always considered, successful unqualified. great comfort productivity; undoubtedly reducing upper strata society, (unlike workers, example) professional semiprofessional fields where, notably "M.Q." less. relevance among sex.5 103 Today's reaffirm extend actors. law—in plainer ignored 2000e-2(j)—forbids anyone accomplishing jure: contexts interpretations especially Griggs Duke Power 401 424, 849, 158 (1971), noticeable confident prevailing contemplate expense adverse publicity "job relatedness" criteria, questions explored rebuttal counterrebuttal case" consisting showing "selects 'significantly' rate counterparts." B. Schlei & P. Grossman, Discrimination Law (2d 1983). If, fear "reverse discrimination" suits victims, offered threshold premised disparities. folly, arguably breach duty shareholders taxpayers, wherever cost litigation exceeds (though capable) (This situation obtain, jobs—perversely incentive precisely nonfavored profited past.) predictable, moreover, greatly magnified bear agencies fashion approved. color-blind gender-blind workplace converted racism sexism, sex-based it, legal system, practically compelled. 104 displeasing politically elected officials, quickly accommodating organized concrete, constituencies. displease world (many briefs amici Clara) less—and infinitely predictable—than litigating convince nonnumerical exists. losers Johnsons country, repealed inverted. irony predominantly unknown, unaffluent, unorganized—suffer hands fond thinking champion impotent. dissent. 703(a) 255, amended, 109, 2000e-2(a), "shall raised 754, decide prohibitory scope Of reaffirmed dating back 1971 Policy. 37-40. 19.7% 19% 16.9% Technicians. 48. disagreements panel. arduous issued coveralls, co-workers ruining pants, complained supervisor, avail. incidents, clothes occasion, grievance, pairs coveralls day. 89-90. capacity chair Safety Committee, "had differences safety implemented." 90-91. arranging disaster preparedness day week. days notified availability, interview. Within conversation, notice setting directly middle class. 94-95. "rebel-rousing, skirt-wearing person," 153. maintains obligations Constitution, rests logic: Constitution; scope; coterminous flaw step advances explicitly rejected exercise power "over matter Government involved," "was legislating assure funds improper manner." 206, 6, 2729, 6. "Title commerce regulate purely incorporate particularize Fifth Amendments. pari materia." underscored financial assistance render 604 253, 2000d-3, provides: "Nothing contained subchapter department agency, organization except primary sponsor section, Senator Cooper, clarify "it [T]itle impinge VII." 11615 (1964). definition "employer" definitional section transform substantive governing conduct. indicated alike." Dothard Rawlinson, 321, 332, 14, 2720, 2728, 786 negate contend 's "rewrote construe." 670. decisive rejection "plain language" 201-204, 2726-28, 703(j) reflect preserve 204-207, 2727-29. BLACKMUN "[I]f misperceived chooses." 216, 2734. amendments proposed, correct. faults amend nullify acquiescence circumstances, unexceptional "canard." crystalline revelation, obscure probative varying degrees. widely publicized prominent debate. Legislative inattention plausible explanation inaction. contrary wake legislator bill barriers poor act. displeased hesitated tell Pregnancy 2000e(k), disapproval reasoning [General Electric Co. Gilbert, 429 125, 401, 343 ]." Newport News Shipbuilding Dry Dock 462 669, 678, 2622, 2628, (1983). Surely, radically reactions statute. scholar "When says legislature: 'You your predecessor) X,' invites legislature answer: 'We not.' G. Calabresi, Common Age 31-32 (1982). notion dialogue judiciary invitation declined accepted. 515, 3071, ("We occasions achieving VII"); Alexander Gardner-Denver, 36, 44, 1011, 1017, 147 (1974) ("Cooperation [Title VII's] goal"). suggestion prospect action. pointed out, "plac[e] profound jeopardy. footing 'tightrope' eschew forms action." 210, O'CONNOR imposition illegal severely undermine employers' obligations." contention, term restrictive enter quotas. infra, ---- - exercised remedies, ignores fundamental difference volitional behavior coercion State. Plainly, "Congress' unwanted unions," 524, 3077, large domain illuminated Had skilled, unskilled, scarcity Kaiser's vulnerable suit. claim, Kaiser market. comparison. 198-199, miniscule realized figures industries precluded involves permits trained, invalidated itself. cases, striking, introduce nonstatistical 339, (statistics supplemented testimony practices). statistical, nonstatistical, two, located, "Occupations perform manual skill thorough comprehensive knowledge acquired on-the-job apprenticeship formal programs. Includes: mechanics repairmen; electricians, equipment operators, stationary engineers, machining occupations, carpenters, compositors typesetters kindred workers." 108. below, "A participation." 1313. henceforth refers primarily well, formerly male. "made dent, sure, numbers," nonetheless "philosophically impact probably encouraged females possibility so-called 'non-traditional' samples story." 1982 increased 349. filled men. 111 during period, 105, 95%, noted, projected year, 6%. validity, underscores restricts prospects persons. Illustrative additional 1983, Respondent stated, noting underrepresentation: "As factors, easier others. evident difficult underrepresented. realistically due openings." 58. predicts loose flood "less qualified" workforce, forestall liability. projection unwillingness price 8, second, fundamental, speculation "[i]t tenet administration rarely single, 'best qualified' bring fully-qualified attributes selection. Especially unexceptional, middle-level unique well-qualified available, determinations candidate best subjective." Society Personnel Administration Amicus Curiae example point. minimal, least. 623-625. belies contention "utterly unqualified." 675. "Discriminatory proscribed. What removal artificial, arbitrary, unnecessary invidiously impermissible 431, 853, (1971). "Similarly deference, [401 U.S.,] 433-434, 854-55, consistently proscribe whites terms nonwhites, 'constitute derogation Commission's Congressional mandate Caucasians.' Decision 74-31, FEP Cases 1326, 1328, CCH Decisions ¶ 6404, 4084 (1973)." "This accord uncontradicted 'cover men Americans,' 2578 (1964) (remarks Rep. Celler), 'obligation whites,' 7218 (memorandum Clark). 7213 Sens. Clark Case); 8912 Williams). petitioners Negroes white." 279-280, 2578-2579, (footnotes Toward mentioned hardship employment. 2729. comments Cardozo remarked, routine judiciary: 'The judges breaking reopened lay one's bricks secure foundation courses laid him.' Turning exceptional noted: '[W]hen duly tested justice welfare, frank avowal abandonment. woefully misinterpreted mores day, longer ours, tie, helpless submission, successors.' admonitions to, from, precedent." 190-191, Chief Burger reached inclined Member amendment 214-215, 2732-2733 opinion): "Strong equity not. bargain struck passage guaranteed alike, supplying relief. Absent intent, interpret 'locking in' renders incomprehensible [its goal] 635. character intervention, behind trial: "Q. How happen become opportunity? "A. Shields] Morton] desirability ". Shields Morton appointed? interested individual; toward meeting [eligibility] afforded group." 16-18. narrow repeats dictum (1979)—a points 651-652, reasonably Those unpersuasive, 2000e-2(j) implausibility restriction demonstrated REHNQUIST's unanswered dissent) pertains recipients generally. perhaps interesting, conceivably categorical interpretation, forbidden, and, Compare 2000d ("No shall, origin, discrimination"), 2000e-2(a)(1) (no "discriminate origin"). last. affirmatively, speak, "firm basis" guilty (nonaffirmative) suspected 649. halfway house leaving scot-free prohibiting existed, agency's "inexorable zero": complete absence, problems this: positing discussed zero "inexorable." inexorably observer, conclusively zero. talking about, Attainment" recited 622. event outcome, remand affirmance. footnote purporting respond dissent's (nonexistent) "predict[ion] 'less force," 641, 17, accepts Dispatcher. constitutes appellate reversal ("[P]laintiff 12a). More staggering implications litigation, common advanced superior qualification individual. confident, enduring do.

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