Legal Document

374 U.S. 203 83 Supreme Court Reporter 1560 10 United States Reports Lawyer’s Edition 2d Series KF101.8 U54 844 SCHOOL DISTRICT OF ABINGTON TOWNSHIP, PENNSYLVANIA, et al., Appellants,v.Edward Lewis SCHEMPP al. William Judge MURRAY III, etc., Petitioners, versus John N. CURLETT, President, Individually, and Constituting the Board of School Commissioners Baltimore City. Nos. 142 119. Argued Feb. 27 28, 1963. Decided June 17, Number 142. [Syllabus from intentionally omitted] Philip or Haw. Hawai‘i KFH45 A2 Ward Philadelphia, Pa., D. Killian, Harrisburg, for appellants. Henry W. Sawyer appellees. Leonard Kerpelman, Baltimore, Md., petitioners. Francis baron Burch George Baker, Jr., respondents. Thomas Finan, State Maryland, as amicus curiae. [Amicus Curiae Mr. Justice CLARK delivered opinion Court. 1 Once again we are called upon to consider scope provision First Amendment Constitution which declares that 'Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment religion, prohibiting free exercise thereof * *.' These companion cases present issues in context state action requiring schools begin each day with readings Bible. While raising basic questions under slightly different factual situations, permit joint treatment. In light history our interpreting applying its requirements, hold practices at issue laws them unconstitutional Establishment Clause, applied through Fourteenth Amendment. I. 2 The Facts Each Case: Commonwealth Pennsylvania by law, 24 Pa.Stat. § 15—1516, amended, Pub.Law 1928 (Supp.1960) Dec. 1959, requires 'At least ten verses Holy Bible be read, without comment, opening public school on day. Any child excused such reading, attending written request his parent guardian.' Schempp family, husband wife two their three children, brought suit enjoin enforcement statute, contending rights are, have been, will continue violated unless this statute declared violative these provisions They sought appellant district, wherein children attend school, officers Superintendent Public Instruction continuing conduct recitation Lord's Prayer district pursuant statute. A three-judge statutory District Eastern held is Clause Due Process directed appropriate injunctive relief issue. D.C., 201 F.Supp. 815.1 On appeal District, officials Superintendent, 28 Code KF62 1253, noted probable jurisdiction. 371 807, 25, 9 52. 3 appellees Edward Schempp, Sidney, Roger Donna, Unitarian faith members Church Germantown, Pennsylvania, where they, well another son, Ellory, regularly religious services. latter was originally a party but having graduated system pendente lite voluntarily dismissed action. other Abington Senior High School, operated district. 4 between 8:15 8:30 a.m., while pupils home rooms advisory sections, exercises conducted broadcast into room building intercommunications supervision teacher students school's radio television workshop. Selected course gather morning workshop studio exercises, include one Bible, building. This followed Prayer, likewise over system, also various classrooms, who asked stand join repeating prayer unison. closed flag salute pertinent announcements interest students. Participation voluntary. student reading may select passages read any version he chooses, although only copies furnished King James version, were circulated During period been James, Douay Revised Standard versions used, Jewish Scriptures. There prefatory statements, solicited, comments explanations made interpretations given during exercises. parents advised absent himself classroom or, should elect remain, not participate 5 It appears record home-room teacher,2 chose text herself had rotation volunteers. standing together Pledge Allegiance Flag class unison closing announcement routine items interest. 6 At first trial testified specific doctrines purveyed literal 'which contrary beliefs they familial teaching.' 177 398, 400. all referred times part second considered Donna attendance decided against it several reasons, including belief children's relationships teachers classmates would adversely affected.3 7 Expert testimony introduced both appellants trial, summarized court follows: 8 'Dr. Solomon Grayzel there marked differences Scriptures Christian most obvious absence New Testament Dr. portions offensive tradition that, standpoint faith, concept Jesus Christ Son God 'practically blasphemous'. He cited instances which, assertedly, sectarian nature tended bring Jews ridicule scorn. gave expert material could explained way do harm them. But if explanation, be, experience observed, psychologically harmful caused divisive force within social media school. significant difference attitude regard respective Books Religions Judaism attaches special significance per se source materials studied. did many New, Old, contained great literary moral value. Luther Atlantic Weigle, witness defense, some detail reasons methods employed developing Versions direct examination, Weigle stated non-sectarian. later phrase 'non-sectarian' meant him non-sectarian faiths. definition Scriptures, 'Holy Bible' complete Testament. 'conveyed message Christians.' opinion, exclution practice. moral, historical conceded parties view court.' 401—402. 11 court, striking down them, findings fact compulsory practice compelled law. found that: 12 'The verses, even possesses devotional character constitutes effect observance. more apparent immediately recital Prayer. pupils, theoretically might does mitigate obligatory ceremony Section 1516 unequivocally every Commonwealth. buildings perforce uner authority local authorities sessions. Since Bible', document, prefers religion. demonstrates intention introduce Commonwealth.' F.Supp., 819. 13 1905 City adopted rule Article 77, 202 Annotated Maryland. provided holding city, consisting primarily 'reading, chapter and/or use Prayer.' petitioners, Mrs. Madalyn Murray her professed atheists. Following unsuccessful attempts respondent board rescind rule, filed mandamus compel rescission cancellation. alleged city Murray, mother, taxpayer therein; Bible; petitioners' insistence amended4 thereto; nevertheless amended violation 'to freedom religion Amendments' 'the principle separation church state, therein. *' petition particularized atheistic practiced, 14 'in threatens liberty placing premium non-belief subjects conscience majority; pronounces spiritual values, equating values thereby renders sinister, alien suspect ideals your promoting doubt question morality, good citizenship faith.' 15 respondents demurred recognizing demurrer admitted facts pleaded, sustained leave amend. Maryland Appeals affirmed, majority four justices Amendments, dissenting. 228 Md. 239, 179 Reporter, 2nd 698. We granted certiorari. 809, 21, II. 16 true has closely identified withour government. As said Engel Vitale, 370 421, 434, 82 1261, 1268, 601 (1962), man inseparable And since beginning people devoutly believed 'More things wrought than world dreams of." Zorach Clauson, 343 306, 313, 72 679, 684, 96 L.Ed. 954 (1952), recognition proposition '(w)e whose institutions presuppose Being.' Founding Fathers devotedly unalienable rooted Him clearly evidenced writings, Mayflower Compact itself. background today life continuance oaths office Presidency Alderman final supplication, 'So help me God.' Likewise House Congress provides Chaplain prayer, sessions open crier short ceremony, invokes grace God. Again, manifestations military forces, those citizens restrictions service wish engage voluntary worship. Indeed, last year official survey country indicated 64% membership, Bureau Census, Department Commerce, Statistical Abstract (83d ed. 1962), 48, less 3% profess whatever. Id., Page 46. can truly said, therefore, today, beginning, national reflects who, words Madison, 'earnestly praying, duty bound, Lawgiver Universe guide measure worthy (blessing *.)' Memorial Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments, quoted Everson Education, 330 1, 71—72, 67 504, 538—539, 91 711 (1947) (Appendix dissenting Rutledge, J.). 17 say, however, so government strongly imbeded private life. Nothing telling personal experiences persecution suffered forebears, see supra, U.S., 8—11, S.Ct., 507 509, 711, planted deeply heritage. frequently realized colonists, readily accountable close ties Mother Country.5 However, views Madison Jefferson, preceded Williams,6 came incorporated Federal States. worship indispensable quarters earth diversity opinion. Today list separate bodies, membership exceeding 50,000, existing among people, innumerable smaller groups. op. cit., 46—47. III. 18 Almost hundred years ago Minor Education Cincinnati,7 Alphonso Taft, father revered Chief Justice, unpublished ideal 19 'absolute equality before opinions sects *. 20 neutral, and, protecting all, none, disparages none.' 21 Before examining 'neutral' position Free Exercise Clauses place Government discuss reach 22 First, decisively settled Amendment's mandate thereof' wholly applicable Twenty-three Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303, 60 900, 903, 84 1213 (1940), Court, Roberts, said: 23 fundamental embodied (Fourteenth) embraces liberties guaranteed thereof. rendered legislatures states incompetent eanct laws. *'8 series repeatedly reaffirmed doctrine, now. Murdock 319 105, 108, 63 870, 872, 87 1292 (1943); supra; Illinois ex rel. McCollum 333 203, 210 211, 68 461, 464—465, 92 648 (1948); McGowan 366 420, 81 1101, 393 (1961); Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 1680, 982 supra. 25 Second, rejected contention forbids governmental preference another. Everson, 15, 511, '(n)either nor set up church. Neither pass aid religions, prefer another.' Jackson, dissenting, agreed: 26 'There answer take form propagation out realm directly indirectly business supported whole taxpayers' expense. Bill Rights because forefathers' minds; forth absolute terms, strength rigidity.' 26, 516, 711. Further joined Justices Frankfurter, Jackson Burton, declared: (First) purpose strike merely single sect, creed outlawing formal relation prevailed England colonies. Necessarily uproot relationships. object broader separating narrow sense. create permanent spheres activity civil comprehensively forbidding support religion.' 31—32, 519, 29 same conclusion firmly maintained ever time, McCollum, Pages 210—211, 648; 442—443, 1113—1114, 393; 492—493, 495, 1682—1683, 1684, 982, reaffirm 30 none either questioned conclusions long established, recognized consistently reaffirmed, others history, logic efficacy. Such contentions, consistent interpretation seem entirely untenable value academic IV. 31 interrelationship touched Roberts 303—304, 1213, 'inhibition legislation' 32 'a double aspect. hand, forestalls compulsion acceptance Freedom adhere organization individual choose cannot restricted safeguards chosen Thus concepts,—freedom believe act. but, things, be.' 33 half dozen 14—15, BLACK, 'scope designed forever suppress' prohibition short, 34 'requires neutral relations groups believers non-believers; require adversary. power used handicap favor them.' 18, 513, 35 dissent, organized 36 'on premise secular education isolated teaching inculcate needed temporal knowledge maintain strict lofty neutrality assumption after instructed worldly wisdom better fitted 24, 515, 37 Moreover, dissenters, speaking agreed 38 'Our constitutional policy deny necessity training, Rather secures exercise. end undertake sustain degree. For reason sphere activity, distinguished intellectual liberties, twofold protection forbid, neither perform performing function. dual makes function altogether private.' 52, 529, 39 Only reconsider repudiate doctrine Education. argued 'historically intended forbid addition ask distinguish overrule case 'establishment religion' clause States.' 465, 648. Reed alone unable 'accept contentions.' Ibid. Rutledge wrote very comprehensive scholarly concurrence '(s)eparation requirement abstain fusing functions sects, treat equally.' 227, 473, Continuing, 40 prohibited common becoming embroiled, however innocently, destructive conflicts records dark pages.' 228, 41 1952 DOUGLAS reiterated: 42 slightest philosophy separated. far interference ';ree exercise' 'ESTABLISHMENT' RELIGION ARE CONCERNED, must unequivocal. coverage permits exception; absolute. Amendment, say respects State. Rather, studiously defines manner, ways, concert union dependency other. That sense matter.' 312, 683, 954. 43 then 1961 Watkins discussed approved. WARREN McGowan, unanimous point, 44 'But, form, simply bar congressional enactment establishing church; forbade Thus, 'broad evils suppress *." 441—442, 1113, 393. 45 BLACK Torcaso, dissent FRANKFURTER HARLAN concurring result, language: 46 'We repeat constitutionally person disbelief impose requirements religions non-believers, based existence founded beliefs.' 1683, 982. 47 Finally, year, principles universally citation sole STEWART, 22-word 'New York's program daily invocation God's blessings prescribed Regents' (to be) activity.' 424, 1264, 601. 'it compose prayers group American recite carried government.' 425, discussing 48 'Although clauses certain overlap, quite kinds encroachment freedom. unlike depend showing establish whether operate coerce non-observing individuals not. course, officially prescribing particular involve coercion individuals. When power, prestige financial placed behind belief, indirect coercive pressure minorities conform prevailing approved plain.' 430 431, 1267, 49 further elaboration 'first immediate (of Clause) rested tends destroy degrade government, allies itself inevitable result incurs hatred, disrespect contempt V. 50 wholesome 'neutrality' Court's speak thus stems teachings powerful about fusion tenets orthodoxies. prohibits. recognizes observance particularly, right freely own reference thereto, state. guarantees. seen, overlap. indicated, eight past score withdrew legislative expression test what primary enactment? If advancement inhibition exceeds circumscribed Constitution. withstand strictures advances inhibits 442, 1113—114, here, withdraws federal, exertion restraint Its secure invasions authority. Hence necessary show operates distinction apparent—a predicated need attended. 51 Applying find selection curricular activities required participation schools. None factors, attendance, upheld Clauson. so. agree court's finding Given finding, Clause. 52 119, contends (as 142) effort extend benefits belief. Included purposes, says, promotion contradiction materialistic trends times, perpetuation literature. demurrer, uniform sectarian. answer, strictly religious, accomplished readings, Surely instrument gainsaid, State's pervading evident rule's permission alternative Catholic recent amendment permitting nonattendance factors here nonreligious inspiration subjects. 53 follows being petitioners.9 Nor mitigated themselves parental request, furnishes defense claim unconstitutionality See 430, 1266—1267, Further, urge relatively minor encroachments breach trickling stream too soon become raging torrent proper alarm experiment liberties.' 65, 536, 54 insisted permitted 'religion secularism' established affirmatively opposing hostility 'preferring believe.' 314, agree, decision effect. addition, one's study comparative relationship civilization. certainly historic qualities. indicates when presented objectively education, effected fall categories. command neutrality, aiding 55 accept consent affected, collides majority's religion.10 prohibits anyone, never machinery beliefs. effectively answered West Virginia Barnette, 624, 628, 117,, 1185, 1628 (1943): 56 withdraw vicissitudes political controversy, beyond majorities legal courts. One's submitted vote; outcome elections.' 57 society exalted one, achieved reliance home, inviolable citadel heart mind. come recognize bitter invade citadel, oppose, advance retard. committed neutrality. Though application delicate sort, concisely cases, affirm judgment reversed cause remanded proceedings 58 ordered. 59 Judgment affirmed; 119 directions. DOUGLAS, concurring. 61 & N Immigration Nationality Decisions add few explanation. 62 terms individual, serving goal freedom, terms. ways. one; control possible forms working arrangment bodies.1 Under arrangements typically state's budget, usually governs matters baptism, marriage, divorce separation, sometimes entire body politic.2 too, high priority interests.3 often exclusive responsibility state-church countries runs schools, agreement Franco Spain, regained budget. insists baptizing catechism schools.'4 64 vice lending assistance church's efforts gain keep adherents. matter belong how much support, money, give it. 'This pure Liberty' 'declared (all church-state relationships) idea oppressions abridgments conferred living soul.'5 65 aimed making conform. announced compulsory, though think nonconformist induced fear 'oddball.' coercion, present, shown; vices regimes different. 66 violate conducting exercise; holds, done violating balance struck limited precluding employ facilities funds gives church, churches, greater relying alone. additional funds, small amount, promote Through mechanism State, finance want violates sensibilities others. effective institution it; truth reflected appeals schools.6 Financing equally unconstitutional, understand Budgets technically separable budgets others.7 whole, organism, strengthened proselytizing department contributions members. degree amount expended; illustrates, put controlling. allowed; says 'no made. What lest mockery. 69 BRENNAN, 70 century ago, Marshall, M'Culloch enjoined: '* forget, constitution expounding.' Wheat. 316, 407, 579. expound meaning encountered intricate demanding undoubtedly Being,' 954, deep feelings aroused aspects claimed injunction Americans vital civic preservation democratic therefore understandable prohibitions encounter severest classroom. Nevertheless inescapable declare States, involvements kind offends Amendments. 71 Locke ventured 1689, 'I esteem above exactly settle just bounds lie other,'1 anticipated thought Framers adoption difficulty experienced defining 'just bounds.' line separates elusive. boundary precision inheres paradox central scheme liberty. reflect firm conviction solemn prefer, discriminate against, oppress, sect Equally enjoins (a) serve essentially institutions; (b) organs purposes; (c) means ends suffice. expresses deliberate left citizen, postulate citizen nature, peculiar delicacy, little bear gentlest touch hand *.'2 fully escape mandate. Term 601, York impermissible bar. involvement intimate here; irrelevant composed inspirational presently involved. unnecessary observe manifests applies needs shared alike. my 73 importance sides justify detailing length joining 74 abridgment 'respecting clauses, distinct objectives applicability, emerged panorama history. inclusion restraints legislate concerning shows unmistakably content rest exclusively clause. 'In assuring religion,' Frankfurter sensitive persecutions impositions disability virtually Colonies visited deviation conscience. unpopular creeds, full extent guarantee intrusion faith. battle Virginia, hardly won, led forces disestablishment successful opposition Patrick Henry's proposed Assessment levying general tax teachers, compelling memory 1789.' 1155 1156, 75 Framers' concern prevent setting federal supported. nothing supports prevention rightly 76 'If framers prohibit 'church,' properly wonder why didn't regarded synonymous seems highly improbable, particularly contemporary dealing subject definite phrases 'religious sect,' 'sect,' 'denomination.' With wording constitutions, similar prohibiting?' Lardner, How Far Does Separate State? Am.Pol.Sic.Rev. 110, 112 (1951). 77 Plainly, contemplation Framers, 'did limit proscription particular, dated state-supported theological venture.' 'What Jefferson fought end, extension government's manner interdependent, threatened each. assure legislature exert purely end; not, done, legislation. legitimate competence specific, comprehensive, area human conduct: man's verity transcendental disbelief.' 465—466, 1156 1157 (opinion 78 sum, prior decisions summoned tend foster discourage 79 awareness appreciation aims always resolve concrete problems. us has, example, vigorous dispute architects Amendment—James particularly—understood 'law schools.3 permissible—although Jefferson's serious suggested admonition 'putting hands age judgments sufficiently matured inquiries. *'4 view, perfectly clear other, supply dispositive cases. fruitful inquiry, me, challenged threaten consequences feared; whether, type interdependence prevent.5 Our task translate majestic generalities Rights, conceived pattern liberal eighteenth century, problems twentieth 639, 1178, 1186, 1628. 80 quest advice futile misdirected reasons: precise problem best ambiguous, statements side proposition. ambiguity recall uppermost thinking statesmen fashioned guarantees; concerned flagrant intrusions witnessed.6 creation existed England, preoccupation imminent consideration institutions. structure greatly changed adopted. modern emphasis available citizens, 'establishment' offer decision. knew it, main confined supervision. gradually largely officials.7 would, nearly universal young Republic provoke criticism; ceremonies church-supported unobjectionable. Third, composition vastly diverse forefathers. chiefly Protestant sects. Nation heterogeneous religiously, substantial Catholics according all.8 face profound changes, objectionable time persons, devout nonbelievers Whatever day, broad practices. By standard, am persuaded, offend substantive expounding,' necessarily responsive charged society. Fourth, guided large dramatic evolution population serve. interaction important bold positive generally, decree offical produce forestall. entirely, communities, funds—funds exacted parents, views, indeed subscribe all. implicit uniquely function: training atmosphere parochial, divisive, separatist influences sort—an assimilate heritage religions. theistic atheistic, patriotic. Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 400—403, 625, 627—628, 1042. 85 Attendance compulsory; remain morally environment educated. preeminently reserving choice parent, rather vesting voters preserved offers own. inhibit diminishing attractiveness alternative—either restricting whatever wish, jeopardizing pressures. one—very like worship—which leaves parent. influence restrict election. lesson history—drawn own—is forfeits unique contribution growth ceases 86 exposition guarantees concerns impelled write review questions. emerge decisions, relevance bar, attention appropriate. First. derives contests property internal ecclesiastical disputes. order toward questions, courts decide expounded Watson Jones, Wall. 666, judicial intervention controversy doctrinal theology, usages customs, laws, denomination Wall., 733. Courts '(t)he knows heresy, dogma, sect.'9 728. recently Kedroff St. Nicholas Cathedral, 344 94, 143, 97 120; Kreshik 363 190, 1037, 1140. 88 controversies met Ballard, 322 78, 882, 1148. sharp Ballard indicted fraudulent mails dissemination requested submit jury truthfulness championed. charge refused, refusal, reasoning foreclosed inquiry falsity defendant's 'Man's pleased views.' 'Men prove. proof Many gospel supposed tried determining false representations.' 87, 886—887. 89 dilemma severe. publications ordinarily jury, deprived expressed construction '(p)rosecutions easily degenerate persecution.' 95, 890. elusive enforces manifesting religion—a now us.10 Some manifestation hostility—in stood raised. To represent adherence already involving Inevitably, surely untrammeled liberty, appear border hostility. independence served principle. difficult, endemic implicating seriously jeopardized admit exceptions delineating closest 90 Second. dealt arising treats asserted scrutiny earlier etched contours raised Bradfield 175 291, 121, 168, involved challenges grant hospital administered Roman order. lack evidence chartered Congress.11 Quick Bear Leupp, 50, 690, illustrative. construction, constitutionality Indian reservations. grants purpose, removing issue, leaving authorized appropriation Treaty trust Indians. Indians' Indians educational purposes chose, administration Treasury disbursement inject propriety moneys.12 expressly spend moneys infringe religion: inconceivable (should) receiving cost desired 82, 700. forecast, increasingly troublesome paradox: logical situations withheld avoid infringement squarely Bear, care taken confrontation discloses clauses. back later, infra, 296—299. third Cochran Louisiana Board, 281 370, 335, 913, challenge providing loan textbooks extended amounted taking nonpublic use. ground involved; taxing exerted purpose.' 375, 336. Amendment.13 93 Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 571, 1070, parochial nonsectarian academy ages invalid arbitrary unreasonable attended due process 'excludes standardize forcing instruction only.' 535, 573. plaintiffs obviously patronize schools—including schools—which meet reasonable minimum requirements. 94 Third. true, 'two (Establishment Exercise) overlap.' Because considerable us, briefly reviewed. early generally objections legislation governing conduct. Reynolds 98 145, 244, sanctity plural marriage precluded nondiscriminatory marriage. claim, saying: 95 'Laws actions, interfere mere opinions, Can excuse belief? superior land, unto himself. exist name circumstances.'14 166—167. Davis Beason, 133 333, 299, 637, similarly insulated punishment inspired motivated rejected: 'It invoked acts inimical peace, order, morals society.' 342, 300. Mormon 136 792, 481; Jacobson Massachusetts, 197 11, 358, 643; Prince 321 158, 438, 645; Cleveland 329 14, 13, 12. confuse regulate behavior principles. Hamilton Regents University California, 293 245, 197, 343, convictions. validity claims principle: obligation University, courses, reflecting interest, imposed attend. Although protected Amendments presumed entertain beliefs, teach base training,' construed obligations University. Brandeis, Cardozo Stone, separately, infringed liberties. added, 'instruction 266, 206. exercise, concluded, majority, strong militia justified imposed, voluntary.15 overruled, Schwimmer, 279 644, 448, 889, Macintosh, 283 605, 570, 1302, relied, overruled Girouard 328 61, 826, 1084. retains vitality respect higher inapplicability cognate secondary expel refused grounds comply requirement. Of California college training. Barnette plaintiffs, moreover, enjoined, exemption ceremony. key abridged lay compulsory. 99 prejudiced previous extends enroll, prescribe offense Regents, 343. optional.' 631—632, 1182. 100 point. obnoxious grounds. 'inquire non-conformist exempt salute' 'power duty.' 635, 1184. 101 distinctions think, crucial resolution us. results attributable interests statutes adults, elementary schools.16 warrants results. involuntary 102 No powers Government.17 limitations imposes derive absorption protections began 1923 included person's dictates *.'18 103 399, 626, 262, 204. completed 1940 aspect: affirmed conduct, comprehended 'remains regulation 903. drawn From behavioral themselves. 104 route charted. suggested, ban conceptually impossible foreclose attempt disestablish churches.19 Whether understanding inhibited threshold Nineteenth Century inquiry. establishments dissolved decades ratified, churches framed post-Civil War Amendments.20 objective anachronism 1868, deterred organ possessed 1791 restrain indisputable. Permoli Orleans, How. 589, 739. plain, created panoply new affairs Congress. 105 'liberty' logically absorb protects 'freedom' individual. Corwin, Powers Secular (1951), 113—116. fallacy contention, underestimates role coguarantor, entrust 'was 464, 106 contended circumscribe residual ways fell establishments.21 argument relies express abortive Blaine Amendment—proposed Amendment—which added '(n)o restriction superfluous, binding 107 proves much, questioned; yet explicit abriding liberty.22 Even assume draftsmen saw connection infringing late suggest assumed inattention dilutes States.23 enough conclude viable interpreted ordained Congress.24 108 concern. Ewing Tp., 15—16, careful relevant discreet mutually avoids proximity nonbeliever fears injection polity, believer secularization becomes dependent government.25 'our rests secularism fervent sectarianism Williams.' Freund, (1961), 84. 109 aspect Vitale roots issues, shaped reimbursement town transporting carrier nonsectarian) reimbursement, easing burden fostered operation facilitated principles, ultimately goal. difficult myriad incidental insignificant enjoyed institutions—fire police protection, exemptions, pavement streets sidewalks, example. contributes money legislation, applied, provide get regardless safely expeditiously accredited schools.' 513. Yet barred perilously forbidden 110 648, together. Both programs released reject suggestion silence.26 drew is, faithful 111 note, distinguishable advanced cases.27 nonparticipant lessons; received instruction, repaired outside instruction. difference, offended expenditures True, regular facilities, heat day—even actual incremental negligible. All program, contrast, off premises, teacher's facilitate release churches. deeper instructor precisely subjects, not.28 governmentally forbids. sure, presumably commands merits right. capacity augmented investiture symbols enhancement 113 More Establishment. Sunday Law Cases, labor (McGowan 393). Laws enacted ends, continued secular, namely, ensure health tranquillity community. words, decreed supporting abandoned retained permissible furthering overwhelmingly ends. 114 Vitale. There, state-composed constituted because, revealed religious. York, authorizing recitation, distance sectors commanded 'power, government' prayer. Engel, expense allocated manifestly complained practice, seriousness number complain 115 Terms applicant Notary swear believes strikingly case, individual's liberty—in attest God; flag. element Barnette. oath (albeit achieve bore relationship. doubted integrity Notaries Public, warrant screening applicants test. Cases respect. retain vestiges, enforced except designating rest. selecting enforcing interests, clearest demonstration suffice.29 116 turn us.30 plain. Unless disingenuous distinction, Daily Scripture breaches bland suppose anything, sectarian, violations consequently serious. almost debate, criticism educators councils. outset, then, carefully canvass 117 antedates founding Republic. Rules Haven Hopkins Grammar 1684 '(t)hat Scholars together, work blessing Laboures learning *.'31 rigorous 1682 contract Dutch schoolmaster Flatbush, York: 118 'When begins, stands catechism, dinner; afternoon dinner, evening singing psalm.'32 After Revolution, uniformly long-established grammar committee Boston 1789, city's schoolmasters 'daily commence duties portion Sacred *.'33 mirrored throughout original exemplified nineteenth century. supplanted academies 1800 1850, alterations. pressures administrators parts condoned abandonment accustomed people.34 centered, fact, principally elimination plainly textbooks, eventual substitution nonsectarian, still materials.35 120 Statutory origin. State—Massachusetts—which obligatory. Statutes elsewhere option. until 1910 Massachusetts compulsory.36 took 1913; Rule dates 1905. Scripture, outlawed administrative noteworthy regulations relative recency codification ancient roots, 121 underlying somewhat complex. paramount, sufficient continuation Horace Mann, embroiled intense texbooks Bible—which nonsectarian—would fruit enlightenment pupils.37 Mann's Commissioner neighboring enlightened shared: 122 'As textbook pre-eminent, prominent book Sectarianism, indeed, countenanced schools; more. offered happiest effects.'38 123 Wisconsin's Instruction, writing 1858, eastern colleagues, 'with pre-eminently text-books noblest virtue, patriotism, order—love reverence charity man.'39 124 reveal goals fostering attendance. devoid bias—but nonetheless 278—281, well, origins unambiguously educator's aim win adherents 125 criticism, prohibition. Significantly, boards entertained doubts legality soundness reading. Particularly cities, immigration exposed diversities unknown homogeneous necessary, Civil seek accommodation. 1843, Philadelphia following resolutions: 126 'RESOLVED, unite Schools, conscientiously opposed thereto: 127 desire note same.'40 128 decade Schools issued bolder longer activities, attend.41 accommodation East Coast; Cincinnati resolved 1869 books, Cincinnati, intent allow worship, enjoy alike benefit common-school fund.'42 repealed hymns psalms accompany start 1889, commentator '(t)here gained quarrel it.'43 129 deal debate precipitated President Grant's family altar, contributions.'44 ample precedent, Theodore Roosevelt's declaration 'absolutely schools' 'not Vulgate Talmud schools.'45 appeared Ohio Governor vetoed Bible-reading bill 1925: 130 homes, mothers, fathers, ministers preferable spirit constitutions (has) discretion parents.'46 131 theme recurred Attorneys General state.47 rested, radical novel. 132 Those authoritative define rise earliest declined actions authorities, purview administrators' powers.48 them;49 where, practices, decision.50 whichever up, deference quarter still, cooperation remarkable constitutions.51 attributed impossibility avoiding characterized decisions: 134 texes pay. institution. purposes. truths province denies taught youth teaching, banish polemics districts. religion,—to apply part, only. voluntary.' People Ring Dist. 245 Ill. 334, 349, Northeastern KF135 N59 251, 256 (1910). 135 South Dakota, banning cautioned educator field, especially immature, fixed convictions Finger Weedman, S.D. 357, 226 Northwestern N69 348, 354 (1929). law52 readings. schoolhouse 'place worship,' subtler religion.'53 as, Unlike divorced centrally passage time.54 cf. 442—445, 1113—1115. contentions pressed deserve consideration, correct misapplying 137 attributes overlooked. doubt, discipline classroom, elevate level opens. testifying deposition 'places hearing this, goes vestiges system.' affords, time.' Baltimore's acknowledgement symbolized establishes tone pupil constrain overt accepted standards school.' novel, see, e.g., Billard Kan. 53, 57—58, Pacific P2 422, 423, L.R.A. 166 (1904).55 138 gainsay experts pedagogy. Nation's determine pedagogical freedoms categories—those participating children; materials. objective, infusing classroom.56 eventually invalidated McCollum. 139 justification assumes solely harmony tolerance enhancing teacher, inspiring discipline. assembly purpose. previously shown speeches messages Americans, documents Allegiance, moment reverent silence class, adequately community government.57 substitutes unsatisfactory inadequate goals. valuable unconstitutionally sets attain means, uses 140 unobjectionable procedures permit, flexibility One dispositive, inherently else alternation place, days. core history.58 vary once benign procedure preferred approximate proportion representation body, suffer commensurate discrimination. So character, avoided. 141 contains, flaw. persons community—often devout—to whom Judaeo-Christian offensive.59 demands reflection sacrilegious, witnesses explained. using offensive, used.60 anathema communion pronounced experience.61 commented, example: thinks sincere outreach soul Creator, 'required prayer' absurdity.'62 comment read. Most accords discloses, scriptural convey younger developed bridging gap 'definitions,' 'comment' statute.63 poses dilemma: excluded breaks point rudimentary definitions Biblical comprehension meaningful tentative solution fashioning 'common core' theology tolerable creeds preferential none.64 '(h) istory encouraging to' hope fashion denominator detached church.' Sutherland, According Harv.L.Rev. (1962). notion litany supplication worshippers objectionable.65 Father Gustave Weigel widely view: code reductively unified, wants reduction.'66 And, Council warned suggests watering faiths essentials appear. lead sect—a seet—which alongside compete them.'67 oblivious likely approach C. 143 absolve participate. Insofar remand dispositive: 144 Assembly 145 sufficient, availability excusal question, 146 serves refute dispose inextricably interwoven status disposition excused. respectively, candidates token publicly prerequisite abstention. apart Speiser Randall, 357 1332, 1460, answer. condition willingness entitled loyalty Government, concluded eligible taxpayers affirmative proving impermissibly related. Randall tantamount eyes schoolmates profession disbelief, nonconformity, deter exercising indisputably excused.68 cruel dilemma. consequence, claiming distasteful reluctance stigmatized atheists nonconformists basis request. 147 disinclined step flout 'peergroup norms.' studied behaviors attitudes children.69 Frankfurter's case: 148 'That reduce constraint; eliminate sacred domain. imitation operates, non-conformity outstanding characteristic children. attend.' 473. 149 Also apposite Wisconsin saved invalidation: 150 loses caste fellows, liable aversion, subjected reproach insult. refutation seeks protect, puts disadvantage others.' Weiss 8, Wis. 177, 200, 967, 975, 330. 151 Court: 152 'Under circumstances, excusing grounds, small, discrimination exclusion circumstances himself; stigma; Equality destroyed act, matters.' Herold Parish Directors, La. 1034, 1049—1050, Southern S69 116, L.R.A.1915D, 941. Tudor N.J. 31, 48—52, 857, 867—868, Reports, 729; Brown Orange County So.2d 181, 185 (Fla.App.). 153 procedure. ought appellees' availed redress grievances. Were stature, discharged challenging conditions denied. 1343. Similarly, distribute literature, Lovell Griffin, 303 444, 949, deliver speech, Collins, 323 315, attack licensing defect patent. implicate establishment, irrelevant. utilize rendering 154 summarize cases: constitute extent, really significance, demonstrated patriotic adequate substitutes—inadequate unavailing. 142, reversed. 155 considerations invalidation vestige, slight, contention. venture problem. forecast anything types 156 Specifically, draw faithfully Fathers. mark expounding foreclose, forbidden, inhere dangers—as state—which feared subvert import dangers judgment, deemed compels blind everyone perceives—that pervasive implications alleviate burdens understood sanctions reached, suggest, defeat 157 lower brief measured arisen, present. helpful analysis rough 158 Conflict Between Exercise. conceivably Amendment.70 Provisions chaplains armed services afford example.71 governments penal example.72 contravene Armed Forces prisoners opportunity places choice, runs, may, guarantees, be. draft exemptions divinity students,73 Selective Draft (Arver States), 366, 389—390, 159, 165, 349; holidays; allowance temporary organizations unavailable disaster emergency.74 159 sponsorship recital. thing, appointment prison chaplains; soldier convict declines opportunities suspicion obloquy peers. impressionable denied student's presence five days week accessible situation prisoner. 160 steadfastly sponsor hostility, characterize refusal soldiers cut civilian communion, withholding conscientious objectors, denial empty congregation fire flood. intercede fails 161 Exercises Legislative Bodies.—The saying invocational chambers, chaplains, Clause.75 Legislators, mature adults ceremonial incurring penalty, indirect. Congress, I, 5, monitor 'Rules Proceedings' arguable 'political questions' confided Baker Carr, 369 186, 232, 691, 718, 663. heard Elliott White, App.D.C. 389, 997. 162 Non-Devotional Use Schools.—The classes literature involved, meaningfully sciences humanities mention religion.76 points curriculum, superintend matters, heed Jackson's caveat announce uniform, rigid consistent, unchanging standard countless representing localized differ change attitudes.' 237 478 163 usurp jurisdiction invalid. occasion go anticipate judge limits references fraught dangers. sometime hereafter play resurrecting ghost defer. 164 Uniform Tax Exemptions Incidentally Available Institutions.—Nothing deductions incidentally institutions, along charities nonprofit organizations. benefit, spite character. share educational, charitable, eleemosynary groups.77 indication subsidize beneficiaries, deduction nondiscriminatory, equal popular God.78 165 E. Considerations Welfare Programs.—Since partially reasons. unemployment compensation suitable work, unemployed belong. Therefore, singling excluding potential beneficiaries. discriminations disabilities, establishment. flaw argument, unrealistic effects aids by-products welfare programs. easier expensive creed, consequence suggestion, outlined abridging ipso facto 167 KF105 F3 Activities Which, Origin, Have Ceased Meaning.—As criminal books traced inspiration. 393, 'Establishment' happens coincide harmonize religions.' rationale motto Trust' currency, 'de minimis'—for motto. fabric polity 168 insulate origins, meaning. revised pledge allegiance, 'under reciting aloud Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, contains allusion fact. 169 novel radical. truth, old itself, integral charter Jeremiah S. Black: 170 manifest men country, politics—that engine tested takes men's differences, looks eye modes fathers patriotic, keeping separate.' Essay Liberty, Black, ed., Essays Speeches Black (1866), 53. 171 GOLDBERG, joins, 172 delineation task, calling restraint. interdict compelling; singular sensitivity surround practical impel explication, repetition ably examination Brethren. 173 'prohibiting thereof.' proscriptions fullest nurture attainment end. 174 realization favoritism nonreligion, deterrence devotion presents easy unavoidable accommodations maximum enjoyment discernment. simple invariably demark impermissible. untutored approval partake noninterference noninvolvement commands, brooding passive, active, Constitution, 176 ignore vast legal, historically teachings. inevitably cognizance examples multiplied, frame productive harmony, undue loyal judges ultimate sensible acceptable significantly inhibitions preclude. utilized exercises—the Bible—in impact. selected, written, liturgy import. religiosity inhering prescription statutorily compelled, utilizing prestige, infiuence administration, staff, authority, realistically termed accommodation, interdiction this. today's mean incidents banned 435, n. 1269, 601: 178 reached inconsistent encouraged love Declaration Independence contain Deity espoused anthems imclude composer's professions Being, occasions resemblance unquestioned sponsored instance.' realistic substantially favoring grow beginnings, adjudication ability real threat shadow. 180 181 fundamentally deficient informed responsible determination presented. violated.1 Clause—insofar imbedded evidence. 182 fallacious oversimplification 'separation state,' mechanically delineate boundaries err recognize, imperatives society, interact Secondly, contexts complement areas doctrinaire leads irreconcilable conflict 183 example suffice Spending lonely stationed far-away outpost pastoral guidance multiplied. accurately sterile metaphor distort illumine case. Cf. Sherbert Verner, 1790. 184 limitation newly National Government. events leading insure powerless establishments. 440—441, 1112—1113, pursue pursued disestablishmentarianism. accurately, 1940. 1213. enact laws.'2 186 impairment yield conception breadth Braunfeld Brown, 599, 616, 1144, 1152, 563 (dissenting opinion). somehow absorbed irony evidently autonomy. insensitive mechanistic filed. 187 pronouncement 1940, twice 649; rest, transportation pupils. 188 inherent applicability Clause's succinctly 711: 'State them.'3 guarantee. 'To war guaranty 211—212, 649. 189 Amendment—and, Fourteenth—is safeguarding recognized. 265, 205, Cardozo, concurring, invasion nation (which) states.' (Emphasis added.) described terms: 'On closen 190 ones me. 191 upholding send situation. wanted could, Pierce, facile determinative 'Freedom press, pay way.' Pennslyvania, 111, 874, 1292. 192 fulfill time. surface persuasiveness, misconceives structures child's artificial state-created disadvantage. Viewed light, secularism, least, private. 193 paramount importance, ritualistic nonconstitutional state.' compel, rather, interplay Fourteenth. 194 contrary, discriminatory barring Fowler Rhode Island, 345 67, 526, 828; Niemotko 340 268, 325, 267. property, insofar instruction—to throwing weight tenets.4 195 unaccompanied otherwise since, record, participate,5 infinitesimal salaries paid contingent performance 196 substituting change, us—as actually administered—may designations treated indications promulgating body's community's preference. interpret render reasonably possible. Compare Two Guys Harrison-Allentown, Incorporated McGinley, 582, 592—595, 1135, 1140—1142, 551; 4, 2, 505, 506, variations requests parents. substituted version. construed, extremely doubtful, designation denominational issues—thus affording prove permitted—I variety implementation, consensus all—such cannot, rules hostility—a acknowledgment extirpation 198 measures stress speaking, privilege turns coercion. 199 schoolroom qualitatively affirmations adults. laid refraining structuring exercises; kept scrupulously fellows pluralistic 200 stressed, 347 483, 686, 873, race factor. segregated coercive; presupposes equal, racial valid Accommodation evehhanded treatment believe, disbelieve—a scales choice. categories, accommodate inevitable. proven entail derived noncoercive incommensurate create. board, For, draws sanction irreligious possibility exist. schedule desirable alternatives,6 containing provision, likelihood psychological great. latter, evidence.7 VI. 204 explicitly wishes, adduced demurrer. conclusory language pleading. allegations procedural subjective prophecy happen made, happen, 815. 205 indispensably Jew Agnostic, Atheist, Buddhist Freethinker, disbelieve, pray silent, conscience, uncoerced unrestrained conceivable boards, administer hours standard—in completely participate.8 qualities inventiveness achievement 206 hearing. 1958, 1959 15—1516 398. Pending vacated proceedings. 364 298, 89. motion amend pleadings, 518, pleadings 815, taken. penalty refusing obey remains seen employment terminated 'wilful laws.' 11—1122. 'Edward father, ceremonies. Among following. 'labeled 'odd balls" day; Roger's Donna's classmates, lump difference(s) (together) 'atheism" word 'atheism' connected 'atheistic communism', 'very bad' connotations, 'un-American' 'anti-Red', overtones immorality. pointed rapid succession, Salute, announcements, probably miss hall 'homeroom' imputation bad conduct.' 818. 'Opening Exercises. collectively classes, opened Appropriate class. colonies, degrees Revolutionary War. 428, 10, 1265, ship sea, souls ship, weal woe common, picture commonwealth, combination, hath fallen sometimes, Papists Protestants, Turks, embarked ship; supposal, pleaded for, hinges, Papists, Jews, Turks forced ship's any.' Superior February 1870. reported published title, Common (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke company 1870). Taft's appeal. Minor, 253 (1872), bulk enterprise Religion eminently lying Application obtained Cantwell. Gitlow 652, 630, 1138 (1925), Sanford 'For speech press—which Congress—are 'liberties' complain. relating infringed. 429—430, 1106—1107, affected complaints directed. surpa; Doremus 342 429, 394, 475 here. graduation appellants' failure taxpayers. service, regulates geographic personnel Bates, Liberty: An Inquiry (1945), 9—14, 239 252; Cobb, Liberty America (1902), 1—2, chapters IV, V; Gledhill, Pakistan, Development (8 British Commonwealth, 1957), 11—15; Keller, European Continent (1936), 2; Pfeffer, Church, (1953), Stokes, (1950), 151—169. III 42—67; 9—11, 58—59, 98, 245; 128, 192, 208; Rackman, Israel's Emerging (1955), 120—134; Drinan, Israel, (Apr. 6, 1963), 456—457. II 488—548; Boles, Religion, (2d 4—10; 136—141; O'Brien, Case Swiss Perspective, Mich.L.Rev. 1069; Muslim 31. 18; 28—31; Thomas, Balance Foreign Affairs 208, 210. 2. 681—695. Accountants' Handbook (4th 1956) 4.8—4.15. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Great Western World (Hutchins 1952), Representative Daniel Carroll August Annals Cong. 730. Healey, (1962); 16—21; Butts, Tradition 119—130; Cahn, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 981 Costanzo, Law, J.Pub.Law (1959); Comment, Col.L.Rev. 73, 79—83 (1963). full: 'Instead, putting inquiries, memories stored useful Grecian, Roman, history.' Writings (Memorial 1903), letter nephew, Peter '(y)our examine object.' 1787, Padover, Complete (1943), 1058. 206—210, 256, 264—265. projected contrasts proposals Virginia. His 'A Diffusion Knowledge' 1779, curriculum studies. 1048—1054. 'Act Establishing Elementary Schools' 1817 practiced denomination.' 1076. Reliance seems, lend Compare, 104—106; 81, 100—106 (1959). Butledge's observations 53—54, 529—530, Fellman, Separation States: Summary View, 1950 Wis.L.Rev. 427, 428—429; Rosenfield, U. Pitt.L.Rev. 561, 569 MacKinnon, Freedom?—or Toleration? (1959) 374. author cautious constitution's problems: 'First, brevity Congressional writings inconclusive question. outlaw writing, aimed. third, religious-freedom 1789 perhaps nonexistent foreseen.' Beth, Theory (1958), 88. discussion colonial proponents contended, Sweet, Story XIII; Rise IX; Eckenrode, (1910); Brant, Madison—The Nationalist, 1780—1787 (1948), XXII; Bowers, Young 193—199; II; Kruse, Historical Meaning Judicial Construction Washburn L.J. Alexander Hamilton's tolerated remarks Quebec 1775, Works (Hamilton 1850), 133—138. reveals design Am.Pol.Sci.Rev. 112—115 movement precision. Levellers unavailingly urged platform 1649 boys. Brailsford, English Revolution 534. North Colonies, exception supervision, dominant Mason, Moral Values Thayer, Role (1960), X; Greene, State: Making Testing (1941), 120—122. Virginia's Berkeley exclaimed 1671: thank printing, years; disobedience, deleted.) 327. survive Berkeley's expectations. Benjamin Franklin's 1749 Academy heralded dawn proposal fruit. Johnson Yost, 26—27. elaborate plans naught 1796 Bill, wealthier legislators. 182—186. 1820's 1830's, impetus Jacksonian democracy, root Beard, Civilization (1937), 810—818. development growing dissatisfaction tightly Harner, Religion's Place (1949), 29—30. burgeoning systems supplant Alexis de Tocqueville, remarked tour 1831 '(a)lmost entrusted clergy.' Democracy (Bradley 1945) 309, 4. compare Lord Bryce's observations, (1933), 734—735. Efforts kinds. appropriations treasury manner. Moehlman, Wall 132—135; texts academies, content. Nichols, (1959), 80; Kinney, Struggle Hampshire, 1630—1900 150—153. 1827, thereafter 'direct purchased calculated favour tenet.' difficulties application, Dunn, Happened Education? influence, account: remind field decline people. Mann Christian, feeling stamped Remonstrance. imply indifference rejection minimized agencies assertion. reconciling confinement educate undertook so, resisted bitterly engendered.' 216, 467, homogeneity Haller, Puritan Background Read Reconsidered (1938), 131, 133—134; 74; 155—161. Fifty-first Federalist Constitutional Convention multiplicity economic enhanced security rights. (Cooke 1961), 351—352. Power Over Internal Groups, Calif.L.Rev. (1955); Intervention Disputes Within Independent Bodies, Note, Property, 1142 Vidal Girard's Executors, 127, 205. nonintervention disputes declining enforce agreements separated See, Hackett Hackett, App., 431; Stanton Stanton, 213 Ga. 545, 289, 1401; Friedman, Parental Right Control Child, 485 (1916); 372 (1958); West.Res.L.Rev. Governmental assured India, provides: 'Subject morality health, section '(a) charitable '(b) manage religion; '(c) acquire movable immovable property; '(d) accordance law.' Chaudhri, Limitations 875. intradenominational Fundamental India 102. Kurland, 75—79. unrelated women systematically 187, 261, 181. discussions Katz, Neutrality, Chi.L.Rev. 426, 438 (1953); Kauper, Freedom: Review, 829, 842 (1954). interesting international level, Multilateral Republics, extradition granted, inter alia, Blakely, Papers Related Documents rev. 1949), 316. 32—34. apparently India: '(1) funds. '(2) (1) endowment imparted institution.' 875—876, 939. 442. 'all toleration unpunished magistrate, color disturb happiness, safety 491. religiously endangers Manwaring, Render Unto Caesar: Flag-Salute Controversy 41—52. Various proscribe participants community, Massey, 229 N.C. 734, 179; Harden Tenn. 216 708; Lawson 291 Ky. 437, 972; Sweeney Webb, Tex.Civ.App. 324, Southwestern S79 766. behavior, susceptible perverse Oliver Cromwell's besieged Ireland: meddle conscience; you celebrate Mass, Parliament prevails permitted.' Quoted Hook, Paradoxes 23. comments: 40; French, Unconstitutional Conditions: Analysis, Geo.L.J. 234, 236 (1961). 252—253. context, Chabot Les Commissaires D'Ecoles Lamorandie re, (1957) Que.B.R. 707, McGill (1958). Barron, Tiernan Pet. 243, 672; 609, 739; Fox Ohio, 410, 434—435, 213; Withers Buckley, 84, 89—91, 816. 1825, excepting Seventh Rawle, View (1825), 120—130. statement Meyer, 1921 constitution. Hardwick Trustees, Cal.App. 696, 704—705, 49, Louisell Theology, Higher Cal.L.Rev. 751, 772 1844 'as secured N.Y.Laws, 1844, 320, Snee, Disestablishment 1954 Wash.U.L.Q. 371, 373—394; 85, 127—130 Constitutions, Address March 20, 1963, 6—7. advisable enumerated preferences allowed account delegate delegation 'is necessary,' Seat defeated votes. Farrand, Records 1787 (1911), 616. 1833. XIII. Guarantees 729, 739, (1960). 111—114; Fairman Morrison, Incorporate Rights? Stan.L.Rev. (1949); 939 (1951); Howe, Race Buffalo L.Rev. 242, 245—247 Cooley, Principles 1891), 213—214. Professor Freund's comment: 'Looking back, hard otherwise, persisted accepting giving press assembly, non-establishment exercise.' 58—59. Cong.Rec. 5580, taxation fund therefor, lands devoted passed failed obtain requisite two-thirds vote Senate. 5595. engrafted onto nations; 28(1) ('No funds'); XX Japan ('* refrain activity'). 875, 876. Three Bradley expressing acknowledge dependence God, foundation supreme ruler able expediency obtaining amendment. Fixed equality, appearance endorsement sect. adopted, haste earnest subject. 'And wise; favorable patronage countries. whilst association invoke interference, direction (quite Christians ourselves) wise take. thing theology. reside, infused gentler wiser methods.' Miscellaneous Joseph (1901), 357—359. phase opposed, Finlator, J.Church 1791, Report Senate Committee 1853, Clause: passed, pass, fairly introduced, introduce, association, particulars—endowment expense, privileges members, disadvantages penalties communions—such constitution.' S.Rep. 376, 32d Cong., Sess. 1—2. M. Cooley's ratified: 'Those lawful thus:— '1. '2. Compulsory Not favored (1st 1868), 469. Miller, Williams: Contribution 83, reprinted Appendix 63—72, 534—538. 981, 982—985 Freedom, 946—947; Moulton Myers, Appointing Chaplains Legislature Blau, Cornerstones 141—156; Bury, History Thought 75—76. Spicer, Freedoms 83—84; 839 (1954); Reed, Church-State Case, Notre Dame Lawyer 539—541 (1952). 321—322, 687—688 (Fraukfurter, J., dissenting); proved. 311, 682. thus: 'Religious patently woven Champaign arrangement elements actively furthers inculcation faiths, sharpens consciousness care.' 227—228, enjoined employing orders Zellers Huff, N.M. 501, 949; Berghorn Reorganized Mo. 260 573; ruling Texas Jan. 1961, Yearbook 188. board's wearing garb grounds: 'Then lessons observation continually surroundings.' O'Connor Hendrick, App.Div. 361, 371—372, Supplement 161, 169. Herr, Pa. 132, 68; Garb Schools—A Study Conflicting Liberties, 888 (1955). Harfst Hoegen, 349 808, 1136; distribution classrooms Gideon Bibles, (Fla.App.); 729. Distribution Literature Va.L.Rev. 789, 803—806 Tudor, stressed program: Bibles stamp 'accommodation' active N.J., 51—52, 868. decision: session, vested obedience euphemism. inoffensive form.' Freeman Scheve, Neb. 853, 876, 880, 169, 170. illustrations Schneider Jersey, 308 147, 146, 155; Martin Struthers, 141, 862, 1313; Saia 334 558, 1148, 1574; Shelton Tucker, 479, 488—489, 247, 231; Bantam Books, Inc., Sullivan, 58, 66, 69—71, 631, 584. 743 745 (1960); 86—87; 613 Miller Cooper, 355, 244 520 commencement Borough Hawthorne, 475, parent-plaintiffs justiciability jurisdiction, pecuniary loss monetary injury. free-exercise injury standing. If, gravamen lawsuit illogical confer who—though concededly assert claim—suffers injury, ordinary taxpayer, 41—43 answers conceptual difficulty. behalf Amendment—even shown. Township, 407; 'Full Sound Fury, Signifying *,' 1962 Review 22. complaint colorable includes claims, frivolous, overtechnical Truax Raich, 33, 38—39, 7, 131; NAACP Alabama Patterson, 449, 458—460, 1163, 1488; Bell Hood, 327 678, 773, 939; 64, flexible 'such stake adverseness presentation depends illumination 204, 703, cursory below grievances adjudication. Arthur Garfield Hays Liberties Conference: Aid Parochial Standing Bring Suit, Jaffe, Secure Review: Actions, 1265 Disestablishment, 1306, 1327—1332 21. Quoted, id., Hartford, Education: Lessons Kentucky Experience Culver, (1929), satisfy protests retention represented response cross-pressures. (from Twelfth Annual 1848 Secretary Massachusetts). 22—27. 572—579; 122—126. E.g., Ala.Code, Tit. 542; Del.Code Ann., §§ 4101, 4102; Fla.Stat.Ann. 231.09(2); Mass.Ann.Laws, 71, 31; Tenn.Code Ann. 49—1307(4). statutes, 33—36; 374—375; 106—107. 28(3) '(3) recognised premises attached thereto minor, guardian thereto.' 34, Hampshire 157—158. Boyer, Pupils Wisconsin, 1953 186. 271. 135—136. 211; 864. Year 1888—1889, H.R.Exec.Doc. 51st 1st 627. 218, 468 J.) Message 1875, seq., drafting submission Roosevelt Michael Schaap, 22, 1915, Letters (Morison 1954), 893. 238. 1955 Op.Ariz.Atty.Gen. 67; Ore.Op.Atty.Gen. (1952); Cal.Op.Atty.Gen. 316 1948—1950 Nev.Atty.Gen.Rep. (1948). Attorney Michigan effect, (1962) 189. 46, Arizona 'reading Literary facts.' 568. 71; Reading Vand.L.Rev. 849, 851 (1956). Spiller Inhabitants Woburn, Allen (94 Mass. 127) (1866); Donahoe Richards, Maine 413 (1854); Ferriter Tyler, Vt. 471—472 (1876). 211 (1873). 251 (1915); 967 (1890); 348 (1929); Dearle Frazier, Wash. 369, (1918); Clithero Showalter, 1000 (1930); 846 modified, (1903). IV; Harrison, Tenn.L.Rev. 363, 386—389 Moore Monroe, Iowa 367, (1884); Brooksville Graded 608, 792 (1905); 422 (1904); Pfeiffer Mich. 560, 250 (1898); Kaplan Minn. 214 (1927); Misc. 520, 285 (Sup.Ct.1935), modified 247 106, 286 dismissed, 276 N.Y. 490, (1937); 880 475; Bullock, Tex. 115, L.R.A.,N.S., 860 (1908); Vollmar Stanley, Colo. 276, 255 610 Wilkerson Rome, 762, Southeastern S6 895, 1334 (1922); Carden Bland, 665, 288 718 (1956); Chamberlin Dade (Fla.1962). III; 381—385 450—452; 854—859 Relations, Minn.L.Rev. 672, 675—678 influenced sustaining Cushman, Cornell L.Q. 477 552 571—572 399—400 Ford.L.Rev. 801, 803 1381 provisions, rotating alternating Twenty-third Psalm disciplinary purposes: playground prepare work. You quiet down.' replied, (i)t not.' Kan., P., 423. Henry, (1950); Martin, Schools—Christian Educational Policies commission Assn., Spiritual (1949). Educators unanimous, 223—224. Washington's Farewell Address: let caution indulge supposition, refined minds structure, expect prevail principle.' Washington (Fitzpatrick 1940), 229. 'are history,' Recent explored commencing tumult study,' Editorial, Post, 1962, A, col. Times, Aug. 30, Choper, Schools: Proposed Standard, 329, 370—371 571. bears interpretation, 36—44, 859—864, 190—193, 972—975, adverted ago: entirety, heretical orthodox Christians, differing constructions Scriptures—the words. thoughtfully intelligently impressing reader, favorably then.' 347—348, 255, sharply critical Schofield, Ill.L.Rev. (1911). 268—273; Dawson, America's Way 53—54; Harpster, Marquette 44—45 701, 702—703 1684; 480—483 Cinc.L.Rev. 408, 411—412 Few universality canons Quincy Adams: 'You faith—the Hebrew, Samaritan, translation, what? sermon mount—any understand. Socinus Preistley fair translation comments.' Adams Adams, 3, 1817, Koch Peden, (1946), 292. Rabbi virtue Bible.' 208 218; 372—375 periodical danger 'an sort deteriorate quickly formality little, significance. Prescribed colleges chapel Prayers Opposed, Century, 9, 1952, 35. 993—994 journal noted: 'Agitation removal prompted humanists, levels, leaders, value.' Smith, Crisis Episcopalian, May 12—13. Amending America, 736; Sissel, View: Behind Fight Look, 25. demonstrate supplication. Scott, Prayer: Character, Purpose, Interpretation 55; Buttrick, Believe, Pray 142; Levy Universal Encyclopedia 192—193. Statement Baptist Joint Affairs, 397 complicated meaningless offensive. Grayzel's misunderstood explanation.' disclosed 'refusal regarding educationally sound,' impression something 'hidden wrong.' 235—236. foreign observer: reads accompanying explanatory comment. preferences; exhibition seeking eliminate.' Tolerations? Problem 374, 383. Abbott, Reader Albany 156—157 501—506 (describing denominator' 'three faiths' plan implement approach). evolve universal, non-denominational Madison's Everett, 19, 1823, commenting 'project comprehend conciliate College Students (Christian) denomination, Form scripture.' (Hunt 1910), 126. fuller description Misc.2d 659, 660 662, N.Y.S.2d 453, 459—460. drafted Churches Christ: program. Apart indoctrination unwise. Major formulation substitute commitments faiths.' 341, 368 Hartford 261—262; 158—159. Mosk, 'Establishment Clause' Clarified, Transition 231, 235—236 417 54. L. plaintiff-appellee asking statute: objected liked felt labelled balls' satisfactory label objec- tions atheism, tied communism, atheism connotations today.' '(c)hildren inferior adhering State-endorsed Other procedure, 581—585 416 W.Va.L.Rev. 353, 358 Extensive scientists 50—52, experiments consideration. have, numerous indicate susceptibility peer-group pressures, norms Berenda, Influence Group Judgments Children 26—33; Argyle, Social Pressure Private Situations, Abnormal Psych. (1957); Rhine, Effect Peer Upon Concept-Attitude Change, Morrison Levinger, Coercive Affecting Conformity, experimental environment, Zander, Curtis Rosenfeld, Teachers Peers Aspirations Youth (U.S. Office Cooperative Research Project 451, 24—25, 78—79. varies inversely age, grade consequent sophistication child, Patel Gordon, Personal Situational Determinants Yielding Influence, 411, Experimental shed effectiveness when, percentage wishing small. demonstrated, inclination depart overtly proportionately size group—that perceived norm itself—and markedly slighter dissenter. Asch, Studies Conformity: Unanimous Majority (Psych. Monographs 416, 1956), 69—70; Effects Modification Distortion Judgments, Cartwright Dynamics 1960), 189—199; Luchins Luchins, Conformity True False Communications, Hare, Small 429 Griswold, Absolute Is Dark, Utah 167, 176—179 (1963); 833 'read stating precept: inaction classification burden.' Beligion 112. formula Australian 116: imposing observance, qualification (Else-Mitchell 15. advisability furnishing Continental Army, July 1776, 1932), Livingston, 1822, 100—103. chaplain's obligation: Services country. chaplain duties—yet, foremost presenting uniform. resume We, dedicate finer, spiritually citizens.' Builders Faith Defense 1955), ii. 140, Weimar Constitution: 'Necessary accorded fulfilment duties.' McBain Rogers, Constitutions Europe (1922), 203. prisons, La Vallee, Cir., 233; re Ferguson, Cal.2d 663, Cal.Rptr. 753, 361 417; McBride McCorkle, N.J.Super. 468, 881; McGinnis, N.Y.2d 531, 225 497, 791; 1488 837 XVIII Hague Regulations 1899: 'Prisoners latitude services, authorities.' 313. Sibley Jacob, Conscription Conscience: Conscientious Objector, 1940—1947 Conklin, Objector Provisions: Light 252 Southside Estates 697 (Fla.); Mandeville, 120, 865; Schmidt, 263 581 (temporary district's custodian church). Gilbert Dilley, 527, 999, N.R.A.,N.S., 1182; erection memorial figure, Singelmann 238 (La.App.); seasonal displays Baer Kolmorgen, 1015, 230; drama opera carrying message, Los Angeles Hollinger, Cal.App.2d 877, Appraisal Lecture 37—41; 49—80. universities, 751 Torpey, Doctrines VI; Van Alstyne, Exemption 461 1336—1338 773—780 De Paul (1957). Ethical Columbia, U.S.App.D.C. 249 127; Fellowship Humanity Alameda, 673, 315 394. instructive, connection, attacks 'establishments.' allege causes dictum. also, 954: 'Government blend person. hostile throw widen influence.' utilization tax-established tax-supported spread 210, specifically remove teachers. Act December P.L.1928, Purdon's Pa.Stat.Ann. 15—1516. others, 224, 478, 649 (separate Frankfurther). magnitude, intricacy delicacy. sweeping demanded complainant nation, attitudes. zeal ideas induce super nation.' 237, (concurring Jackson). (rather prophecy) timing listen carry inferiority,

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