Legal Document

339 U.S. 763 70 Supreme Court Reporter 936 94 L.Ed. 1255 JOHNSON, Secretary of Defense, et al.,v.EISENTRAGER al. Number 306. Argued April 17, 1950. Decided June 5, [Syllabus from pages 763-765 intentionally omitted] Mr. Solicitor General Philip baron Perlman, Washington, D.C., for petitioners. Messrs. Atlantic Frank Reel, Boston, Mass., Milton Sandberg, New York City, respondents. Justice JACKSON delivered the opinion Court. 1 The ultimate question in this case is one jurisdiction civil courts United States vis-a -vis military authorities dealing with enemy aliens overseas. issues come here way: 2 Twenty-one German nationals petitioned District Columbia writs habeas corpus. They alleged that, prior to May 8, 1945, they were service armed forces China. amended allege that their employment there was by civilian agencies Government. Their exact affiliation disputed, and, our purposes, immaterial. On High Command executed an act unconditional surrender, expressly obligating all under control at once cease active hostilities. These prisoners have been convicted violating laws war, engaging in, permitting or ordering continued activity against after surrender Germany and before Japan. hostile operations consisted principally collecting furnishing intelligence concerning American movements Japanese forces. They, six others who acquitted, taken into custody Army tried a Military Commission constituted Commanding Nanking delegation General, Forces, China Theatre, pursuant authority specifically granted Joint Chiefs Staff States. sat China, express consent Chinese proceeding conducted wholly auspices involved no international participation. After conviction, sentences duly reviewed immaterial modification, approved reviewing authority. 3 repatriated serve sentences. immediate custodian Commandant Landsberg Prison, officer Commending Third European Command. He could not be reached process Respondents named petition are Army, Chief 4 alleges, respondents denied, jailer subject direction. Appeals assumed, we do likewise, while physical officers parties proceeding, lawful effect release. 5 prays order produced Court, it may inquire confinement them discharged such offenses confinement. It claimed trial, conviction imprisonment violate Articles & N Dec. Immigration Nationality Decisions III Constitution, Fifth Amendment thereto, other provisions Constitution Geneva Convention governing treatment war. 6 A rule show cause issued, which made return. Thereupon dismissed on Ahrens versus Clark, 335 188, 68 1443, 92 1898. 7 reversed reinstating petition, remanded further proceedings. 84 U.S.App.D.C. 396, 174 Federal Reporter, 2nd Series 961. concluded any person, including alien, deprived his liberty anywhere purported entitled writ if he can extension cases constitutional rights limitations would illegal; although statutory given, must held possess as part judicial power States; where deprivation official occurs outside territorial will lie has over officials directive jailer. 8 obvious importance these holdings both administration impelled us grant certiorari. 338 877, 158. only law. corpus 'unless appears application' applicants it. 28 Code KF62 § 2243, Annotated KF65 U5 2243. 9 We cited instance court, country known, issued behalf alien who, relevant time stage captivity, within its jurisdiction. Nothing text extends right, nor does anything statutes. Absence support legislative juridical sources implicit statement court below 'The answers stem directly fundamentals. cannot found casual reference statutes cases.' breadth court's premises solution requires consider questions basic kindred litigation some years beating upon doors.1 I. 10 Modern law long way since when outbreak war every national outlaw, public private slaughter, cruelty plunder. But even most magnanimous view, abolish inherent distinctions recognized throughout civilized world between citizens aliens, friendly allegiance,2 resident submitted themselves nonresident times remained with, adhered to, governments. 11 With citizen now little concerned, except set apart untouched decision take measure difference status categories aliens. Citizenship head ground protection old Paul invoked appeal Caesar. destroyed diminished citizenship sapped vitality citizen's claims government protection. If person's claim denied official, Congress directed entertain action declare him 'regardless whether abroad.' 54 Statutes-at-Large 1171, 903, 903. This ago extended seeking admission assure fair hearing citizenship, Chin Yow States, 208 201, 52 369, secured forfeiture involuntary formal acts, Perkins Elg, 307 325, 59 884, 83 1320.3 Because Government's obligation correlative duty loyal allegiance, President exert full diplomatic political citizen, but other, jeopardy abroad. When foreign government, demand reasons detention wrongful, use means amounting acts effectuate release.4 neither sentimentality chauvinism repeat 'Citizenship high privilege.' Manzi, 276 463, 467, 48 328, 329, 72 654. 12 whom traditionally hospitable, accorded generous ascending scale increases identity society. Mere presence creates implied assurance safe conduct gives certain rights; become more extensive secure makes preliminary declaration intention expand those naturalization. During probationary residence, steadily enlarged right Executive deportation hearing. Immigrant Case (Yamatayo Fisher), 189 86, 23 611, 47 721; Low Wah Suey Backus, 225 460, 32 734, 56 1165; Tisi Tod, 264 131, 44 260, 590; ex rel. Vajtauer Com'r, 273 103, 302, 71 560; Bridges Wixon, 326 135, 65 89 2103; Wong Yang Sung McGrath, 33, 445. And, least 1886, person property important guaranties due Fourteenth Amendment. Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 30 220. 13 But, extending protections beyond citizenry, pains point out alien's gave Judiciary act. In pioneer said Amendment, 'These universal application, persons jurisdiction, without regard differences race, color, nationality; * *.' (Italics supplied.) 1070, And Case, processes available 'an entered country, respects population, illegally here.' 101, 614, 721. 14 Since involving afford immigrants transients nationality so nearly approach equivalence citizens, peace occasion litigants citizen. 15 exposes relative vulnerability status. security enjoyed nation allegiance remains amity greatly impaired takes up arms us. While lot far humane endurable than experience lands, still happy one. disabilities lays becomes also imposed temporarily incident alienage. Judge Cardozo commented distinction: 'Much obscurity surrounds origin confusion diverse subjects.' Techt Hughes, 229 N.Y. 222, 237, 128 Northeastern KF135 N59 185, 189, Law Reports 166. 16 doctrine belligerents took permanent shape following first Chancellor Kent, considering leading time, declared '* subjects each enemies bound treat such.' Griswold Waddington, Johns., N.Y., 438, 480. ever something fiction, validated actualities modern total warfare. Conscription, compulsory measures mobilize human material resource utilize nationals—wherever be—in arms, intrigue sabotage, attest prophetic realism what seemed doctrinaire artificial principle. confirmation recent history, reiterate Court's earlier teaching 'every individual acknowledge own enemy—because country.' Rapid, Cranch 155, 161, 520. See White Burnley, 20 How. 235, 249, 886. Lamar Browne, 187, 194, 650. sentiments disposition. Benito Estenger, 176 568, 571, 489, 490, 592. commits lose opportunity forward enemy; hence assuming faithful regards resources. therefore disable commission imputed because sovereign. 17 invoke interest, enemy's advantage. World War conscription did service. 40 885, chapter XII, 4. Selective Service Act 1948, 62 604, 50 U.S.C.Appendix, 454(a), U.S.C.A.Appendix, exempts formally training, registration, make relieved, barred becoming citizens. Thus carries immunities well disadvantages. ask commit treason toward sake ours. practice states comprising Western Civilization.5 18 essential pattern seasonable constraint basis prepossessions native land legal relations laid down very earliest days Republic endured day. established Alien Enemy 1798. 577, amended, 21, 21. noted Sedition Acts year provoked reaction helped sweep party Jefferson 1800, though proceeded undo regarded mischievous legislation Federalists, enactment never repealed.6 undelayed unhampered litigation, deemed, war-time security. keeping practices enlightened nations resulted considerate prevailed among allies. statute enacted suffered continue men formulate Bill Rights, obviously denies seems then supposed nation's obligations foes put parity defenders. 19 constitutionally summary arrest, internment whenever 'declared war' exists. Courts plea freedom ascertain existence state Act. Once jurisdictional elements determined, issue internment. Ludecke Watkins, 160, 1429, 1881.7 standing maintain often challenged sometimes denied. general early combined Kent Story 'That sue nation.' 477. Our access 1813, when, squarely faced debt contracted 1812, broadly 'A residence implies protection, capacity sued. contrary repugnant sound policy, less justice humanity.' Clarke Morey, 70, 72. unanimous recently clarified privilege said: ancient suits survived necessary prevent accomplish purpose might hamper efforts give aid enemy. principle common today.' Ex parte Kawato, 317 69, 75, 63 115, 118, 87 58. 21 especially enemy, qualified courts, comparable institutions fail helpful emerged about 1813 State had occassion, series cases, examine foremost Continent England. during period Bell Chapman, 183; Jackson dem. Johnston Decker, 418; 74 75. rule, Caperton Bowyer, Wall. 216, 236, 882; Masterson Howard, 99, 105, 764, followed it, Colonna, 314 510, 373, 86 379, continues England.8 II. 22 foregoing demonstrates how much go invest resident, captured imprisoned abroad, courts. confronted whose premise entitled, To assumption hold prisoner writ, (a) alien; (b) resided (c) territory war; (d) sitting (e) committed (f) 24 pointed No here, sovereign, sences offense, capture, trial punishment 25 Another reason limited opening many personal disposition actual enemies, There fiction enmity. Yet confers free limitation deny effort 26 consideration court. crux scheme Congress;9 indeed, term 'habeas corpus.'10 production dispensed face application granting exists, Walker Johnston, 312 275, 284, 61 574, 578, 85 830, consistently rule. 190—191, 1441, mean army transport across seas require allocation shipping space, guarding personnel, billeting rations. transportation whatever witnesses desired call defend legality sentence. matter equally hostilities present twilight peace. Such trials bring comfort diminish prestige commanders, wavering neutrals. difficult devise effective fettering field commander allow ordered reduce submission account divert attention offensive abroad defensive home. Nor unlikely result litigiousness conflict highly comforting 27 Moreover, expect reciprocity placing weapon unrestrained hands. refuge action, proposed bestow purchase equivalent benefit soldiers. Except England, harmony views expressed, English-speaking peoples nothing contrary, generally unknown. rely, however, two decisions get threshold—Ex Quirin, 1, 2, 3, re Yamashita, 327 66 340, 90 499. Reliance Quirin clearly mistaken. Those Columbia. One was, be, open functioning normally. arrested prosecution personally Attorney prosecutor, waived arraignment contended thereby acquired ousted Military. None places acting, arrested, were, contended, zone operations, martial control, circumstances justified transferring grave grounds challenging urged 29 Yamashita prisoners. refused receive Yamashita's For opinion, consolidated another certiorari review refusal Philippines review. 349 (1940), repealed 25, 646, 39, 992, 1000. By sovereignty insular possessions, stood territory, heads Despite this, doors summarily closed Three considered provided counsel advance argument why should usual non-resident same sufficiency supra, Hirota MacArthur, 197, 69 1238, 93 1902. contentions seen fit contention base below, arrive conclusion viz.: appears. III. 31 requirement based place predicate relief intraterritorial contact institutions. Instead, extraterritorial embrace arms. Right reasoned, subsidiary procedural follows possession substantive rights. prisoners, considered, invested remedial writ. stated steps reasoning follows: 'First. terms, applies 'any person'. Second. Action Government violation void. essence controversy. Third. function branch built constitution aside void officials, restrict executive confines constitution. jurisprudence, exempt power. Fourth. established, time-honored testing deprives liberty,—'the best sufficient defense freedom.' *' 398—399, 961, 963 964. person' spreads engaged us, weighed light Amendment: 'No shall answer capital, otherwise infamous crime, unless presentment indictment Grand Jury, arising naval forces, Militia, danger; offence twice life limb; compelled criminal witness himself, life, liberty, property, law; use, just compensation.' 33 analyze asserting sustained, amounts offense protects Sixth prohibits latter prosecutions 'the accused' 'by impartial jury district wherein crime committed, previously ascertained law.' uses inclusive 'no person,' must, 'accused.' suggestion advanced method violations endangering punished, theatre committed. 34 holding persons, nationality, wherever located offenses, quote extensively dissenting 26, 353, is, course, contrary. 35 invests unlawful immunity puts protected position conscripted stripped members establishment discipline, Americans. Cf. Humphrey Smith, 336 695, 986; Wade Hunter, 684, 834, 974. Can doubt excepted, read include us? paradox indeed Americans guaranteed enemies. shelter comity reciprocal conferred governments soldiers.11 36 extend coverage determine admits: really appears, 1881. preventive rather punitive detention, apparent charged having greater feared future 37 defending true companion civil-rights Amendments, none territorially persons. construction occupation irreconcilable elements, guerrilla fighters, 'were-wolves' freedoms speech, press, assembly First bear Second, 'unreasonable' searches seizures Fourth, Amendments. 38 organic significant innovation intended apprehended, scarcely failed excite contemporary comment. Not word cited. supports view. Downes Bidwell, 182 244, 770, 45 1088. learned commentators hinted opposed 39 confer IV. shows excess judicially voided. Its Second propositions 'action void' 'a thought granted. 41 specifies four jurisdiction: July 27, 1929, 2021, deal later; apparently designed raise questions. criminals illegal *, that: 42 '(a) being charge 43 '(b) absence hostilities, law, view treaties dated February 4, 1943, 18, 1921, jurisdiction.' particularize specific ultra vires. authorities, punish guilty long-established. Treaty Versailles, recognizes Allied Associated Powers tribunals accused customs war.' Article 228. characterized 'well-established' 'power exercise connected belligerents, Duncan Kahanamoku, 304, 312, 313-314, 606, 610, 688. tribunal adjudge war.12 46 say retry agree findings fact Commission. fully informed particulars charges. As observed case, 'If hear, decide condemn, merely wrong disputed facts. Correction errors alone authorized decisions.' 344, 'We try petitioner charged.' Ibid. That conventional long-established ascribed amount question. Breach terms novelty crimes. capitulations scrupulously customary Hague Regulations.13 Any capitulation constitute delinquency belligerent Government, order. met reprisals offenders criminals.' II Oppenheim, International 433 (6th ed. rev., Lauterpacht, 1944). Vattel tells us: subjects, offend truce delinquents ample compensation damage, severely punished. Nations, Book III, XVI, 241. too, Lawrence, says, breach conditions agreed unauthorized individuals, side suffers indemnity losses sustained.' Principles (5th ed.) Page 566. applied '(b)' either unconstitutional lawfully there, territory. hardly meant wage parts. Among powers provide defense, armies, navy, rules regulation I, Const. captures water, ibid., construed independent Brown 110, 126, 504. Indeed, seventeen paragraphs congressional power, eight devoted whole specification enumerated Commander-in-Chief Navy II, includes proper carrying execution. 49 Certainly litigation—even citizen—which challenges legality, wisdom, propriety sending particular region. consented her territories complaint China's grievance prisoners' right. tendered involves challenge affairs, exclusively responsible. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 57 81 255; Chicago Southern Air Lines Waterman Steamship 333 431, 568. assert, not, immune crimes.14 75 thereof provides detained until end proceedings necessary, expiration punishment. 2055. 51 nature irregularities deprive obliged protecting notice specified 60 Convention. rejected, required disciplinary captivity crimes capture. supra; supra. according procedure belonging detaining power,' prejudicial disparity offending soldier like rank. decisions, refers those, captivity. Neither 53 unable find alleges showing lack accuse, condemn acted powers. V. reserved Endo, 323 283, 208, 243. dealt residing federal somewhere unquestioned. where. 55 invoking district, need debate where, otherwise, filed. stated, judgment dismissing affirmed. Reversed. 58 BLACK, DOUGLAS BURTON concur, dissenting. 'high privilege,' priceless treasure. enriched price goal equal law—equal alone, coming ambit ideal birth provision judiciary check abuses liberating imprisoned.1 tests Germany, through tribunals. overseas, petitions. dismissal vested final crime. affirms dismissal. add cogent given decision. board reach today's discussion. First. Part IV bases facts authorizing prayed for. depend initial pleading sufficiently action; parties, proceed beginning pleadings. Hood, 678, 682—683, 773, 776, 939; 71, 116, 58.2 Therefore irrelevant lends showed violated relevant, properly petition; 'summarily closed.' reversing, rejected requests remanding determination—just Hood Kawato presented jurisdiction; argued, orally briefs, pass petition. unargued unwarranted improper deviation ordinary procedure. At least, fairness hear point. objections, proceeds 'war crime' surrendered information am convinced correctly decided. 'under Empire,' Japanese-occupied Whether obedience commands superiors itself 'unlawful' belligerency simple assumes. circumstances, proven, Germans patriotic French, Dutch, Norwegian soldiers fought British homelands officially Nazi Germany. slightest intimation spies, cruelty, torture, civilians perform entangled country's remembered legitimate 'acts warfare,' however murderous, justify conviction. 30—31, 11—12, cautioned combatants; 'crime' soldier. Dow Johnson, 100 158, 169, 632; Ford Surget, 97 594, 605—606, 1018. applicability helpful, briefs arguments adversary parties. decided assistance, particularly failure remand petitioners meet deficiencies amending 64 Parts holds convict sentence insofar depends gratuitous conclusions (and tell does), (1) captured, (2) tried, realm, contest emphatically foreclose 'consideration petitioners' forbid commission.' Id., 9, 3. presidential proclamation denying Only thus upholding petitions finding competent Similarly, 499, commission, promptly ceased, ceased. stated: '(T)he suspension withdraw inquiry corpus.' 345, went requested detracts clear disavows relying cannot, despite rhetoric complaints. Does prisoner's test chooses imprison him? opinions lend conclusion, reliance location. fashioning indefensible permits branch, deciding imprisoned, protect executive's incarcerations. 67 means, does, solely adopting broad dangerous range underlined brief wisely disclaims holding, rejection certainly logic opinion. Conceivably majority hereafter substitute permit inescapably bit declared.3 always warfare successfully command left independence operations. impractical inflexible unduly restricts independence. fantastic suggest hail leaders day activities battlefront. Active fighting fight progress. undisputable axiom bearing problem arises. surrenders, situation changes markedly. decides occupy conquered permanently, assumes subjugated people ruled, govern, promulgate them, governmental agency ours see administered. responsibility immediately raises extent domestic laws, statutory, transplanted Probably suggest, attempt apply Rights controlling occupied countries. inapplicable govern. narrower issue. Springing recognition composed three separate branches, years. charges these, already scope. legally impose charged. (unless adopts lost corpus). similarly somehow preferred seriously. Though scope narrow, think them. occupy. War, However function. imprisonment. Perhaps, believe, merit leaving completely scrutiny. expressed policy. points out, fortunate enough Roman victim charges; privileged afforded Rome, 'accusers face.' 25:16. martyrized disciples fortunate. led everywhere hope believe people, chance bar justice. 73 Conquest unlike conquest nations, tyranny. 'choose greatness violence.'4 principles mandate lands sea flag flew thirteen colonies. proclaims belief dignity beings such, happen live. Habeas corpus, instrument imprisonment, written Constitution. my abridged Congress. imprisons govern.5 abdicate loftiest endowed From January 1948 today, motions leave file applications treated 200 confined filed Brandt 836, 603, 1119; Eichel (one persons), 865, 787, 1144; Everett Truman 334 824, 1081, 1753; Krautwurst, 826, 1328, 1754; Ehlen 'et al.,' Girke 1491, 1762; Gronwald 857, 1522, 1777; Stattmann, 805, 362; Vetter, 841, 59, 392; Eckstein, 851, 79, 399; Heim, 856, 404; Dammann, 922—923, 644, 1084; Muhlbauer, covering 80 964, 930, 1115; Felsch, 337 953, 1523, Buerger, Hans, 976, 1007; Schmidt, Lammers U.S., 1008. Milch 332 789, 92, 371. variety raised analyzed discussed Fairman, Some Problems Following Flag, Standard L.Rev. 587. primary meaning words, friend Comm. 55; Halleck, Int.L. (Rev.1908) 1; Hall, Int.Law (7th Ed.) 403, 126; Baty Morgan, 'War: Conduct Legal Results,' 247; Halsbury, Laws 310; Sylvester's Mod. 150; Roumanian, 1915, Prob.Div. 26; affd., 1916, A.C. 124; 448; 249 (61 235), 886; 592; Kershaw Kelsey, Mass. 561, Am.Dec. 124, Am.Rep. 142; lexicographers, as, e.g., Webster, Murray, Abbott, Black, Bouvier. Cardozo, J., 229, 186, lower Note, Geo.Wash.L.Rev. 410. 'Whenever known unjustly forthwith imprisonment; wrongful release demanded unreasonably delayed refused, obtain release; thereto soon practicable communicated Congress.' 224, 903b, 903b. Delaney, Draft, Brooklyn 91. 1798, 5th passed rapid succession, 'An Aliens', 1798 (1 570), respecting Enemies', 6, seq.), addition act, States", 14, 596.) last Acts, vigorously attacked Virginia Kentucky Resolutions unconstitutional. saw objection (8 Annals Cong. 2035 Cong., 1798).) fact, Albert Gallatin, opposition, emphatic distinguishing bills affirming (Id. 1980.) James Madison author Resolutions, report House Delegates ensuing deluge controversy, carefully tartness asserted distinction nation, disavowed relation declared, 'With respect intimated them; delegated course enemies.' (Madison's Report, Elliot's Deb. 546, 554 (1800).) Thomas wrote meticulous identifying attack 'which friends'. (Kentucky 1799, 540, 541.) white beat minds authors contemporaries constitutionality Act, appeared. did. unbroken line Fries' (Case Fries, C.C.D.Pa.1799, Fed.Cas. 830 seq., 5,126), 1799 Schwarzkopf's (United Schwarzkopf Uhl, Cir., 137 898) assumed validity numerous decicions assumption. (Brown 1814, 504; De Lacey 1918, KF105 F3 625, L.R.A.1918E, 1011; Grahl 1919, 261 487; Lockington's Brightly, N.P., Pa., 269, 283; Lockington C.C.D.Pa., 1817, page 758, 8,448; Graber, D.C.N.D.Ala.1918, 247 Minotto Bradley, D.C.N.D.Ill.1918, 252 600; Fronklin, D.C.Miss.1918, 253 984; Risse, D.C.S.D.N.Y.1919, 257 102; Gilroy, 110.) dissent. 'At 'alien rights, privileges, king's special favour, Blackstone 372, 373.)' Prettyman, Citizens Protective League 119, 155 290, 293. Notes, So.Cal.L.Rev. 307; Harv.L.Rev. 456; Mich.L.Rev. 578; N.C.L.Rev. 238; Corn.L.Q. 425. follow English Am.J.Int.L. 382. collected Annotations, 1335, 1355; 1918B L.R.A. 191. Borchard, Enemies Sue Courts, Yale L.J. 104; Gordon, Ill.L.Rev. 809, 810; Battle, Litigants Va.L.Rev. 429; Rylee, Aliens Litigants, 55, 65; notes, U. Detroit L.J., 106, Neb.L.Rev. 36, Cal.L.Rev. 358, 350. part: 'Unless return produce body detained.' 'Habeas Corpus thou (shalt) (sc. court). issuing requiring brought judge writ; restrained lawfulness restraint investigated determined.' Oxford Dictionary (1933), Vol. V, 2. 'All merchants, openly prohibited before, sure depart tarry buy sell manner evil tolles rightful customs, making realm wars, attached harm goods, unto chief justice, merchants entreated us; intreated theirs likewise us.' (Emphasis added.) C. Magna Carta, Complete Statutes England (Halsbury's 1929) 27. Green, Commission, 832. XXXV signed Hague, October 1907, 2277, 2305, provides: 'Capitulations contracting honour. 'Once settled, parties.' VII Moore, Digest (1906) 330: peremptory another, compacts truces capitulations, faithfully to; non-observance denounced manifestly variance interest duty, mankind. Sec. State, Thompson, Apr. 1842, Webster's Works, 438.' respect. 1929. forty-six countries, Reich, agreement captives. Agreement observance enforcement authorities. vindicated protests intervention Presidential intervention. cl. Privilege Writ suspended, Cases Rebellion Invasion Safety it.' occasionally 'wholly insubstantial frivolous', complexity belies classification indicates today suit restrictive philosophy compare 58; McKenna Fisk, 241, 117. new. According Tacitus, achieved almost 2,000 ago. Works Tacitus (Oxford trans., York, 1869). concurring Douglas Koki 199,

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