Document: 377 U.S. 713 84 S.Ct. 1459 12 L.Ed.2d 632 Andres LUCAS et al., etc., Appellants,v.The FORTY-FOURTH GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF the STATE COLORADO al. No. 508. Argued March 31 and April 1, 1964. Decided June 15, [Syllabus from pages 713-714 intentionally omitted] George Louis Creamer, Denver, Colo., Charles Ginsberg, for appellants. Anthony F. Zarlengo Stephen H. Hart, appellees. Solicitor Gen. Archibald Cox United States, amicus curiae, by special leave of Court. Mr. Chief Justice WARREN delivered opinion 1 Involved in this case is an appeal a decision Federal District Court Colorado upholding validity, under Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment to Constitution, apportionment seats Legislature pursuant provisions constitutional amendment approved electorate 1962. I. 2 Appellants, voters, taxpayers residents counties Denver metropolitan area, filed two separate actions, consolidated trial disposition, on behalf themselves all others similarly situated, July 1962, challenging constitutionality both houses General Assembly. Defendants below, sued their representative capacities, included various officials charged with duties connection state elections. Plaintiffs below asserted that Art. V, §§ 45, 46, 47, statutes1 implementing those provisions, result gross inequalities disparities respect voting rights. They alleged 'one inalienable rights citizenship * equality franchise vote, concept equal protection laws requires every citizen be equally represented legislature his State.' sought declaratory injunctive relief, also requested order constitutionally valid plan into effect purposes 1962 election legislators. Proponents current scheme, which was then voted upon November referendum as proposed 7 were permitted intervene. A three-judge court promptly convened. 3 On August 10, announced its initial decision.2 Lisco v. McNichols, 208 F.Supp. 471. After holding it had jurisdiction, issues presented justiciable, grounds abstention lacking,3 stated population among legislative districts existing 'are sufficient magnitude make out prima facie invidious discrimination *.' However, because imminence primary general elections, since amendments, through initiative procedure prescribing rather different schemes apportionment, would impending election, continued cases without further action until after election. legislators thus elected scheme. 4 At adopted vote 305,700 172,725, defeated 8 311,749 149,822. 8, rejected majority prescribed purportedly apportioned basis.4 7, other hand, provided House Representatives basis population, but essentially maintained Senate, based combination factors. 5 parties amended pleadings so involved solely challenge scheme established newly 7. declaration unconstitutional resulting substantial population-based representation asked decree reapportioning basis. extended trial, at variety statistical testimonial evidence regarding Colorado, past present, introduced, Court, 16, 1963, merits. Love, 219 922. Splitting 2-to-1, concluded comported requirements Clause, dismissed actions. In sustaining validity senatorial despite deviations representation, does not require 'equality within each house bicameral legislature.' Finding Senate rational considerations, 'recognizes prime, controlling, factor gives such important considerations geography, compactness contiguity territory, accessibility, observance natural boundaries, (and) conformity historical divisions county lines prior *.'5 Stressing been recently popular statewide referendum, stated: 6 '(Plaintiffs') argument arbitrary, invidiously discriminatory, any rationality (has answered the) voters *. By adopting rejecting apportion per capita basis, has made choice between conflicting principles.'6 Concluding, 'We believe no question arises actual, substantive nature if will expressed itself. liberal initiation amendments permit people act—and they have done so. If become dissatisfied what done, workable method change available. The are free, framework establish governmental forms desire when acted courts should enter political wars determine action.'7 dissenting, Judge Doyle he regarded irrational sufficiently remedied previously found exist Colorado's Instead, stated, freezes merely retains former system certain minor changes. Equality power required, dissent there logical distinguishing bodies Legislature. applicability so-called federal analogy, relied Court's Gray Sanders, 372 368, 83 801, 9 821. He that, although absolute practical impossibility, districting substantially 7's cannot rationalized.8 Notices decisions timely filed, we noted probable jurisdiction December 9, 1963. 375 938, 351, 11 270. II. 10 When litigation commenced, Assembly State Constitution statutory enacted implement them. Article § 'shall revise adjust senators representatives according ratios fixed law,' sessions following enumeration inhabitants 1885 years thereafter, decennial census. V. 1950, '(t)he senate shall consist more than thirty-five sixty-five members.' that: 'Senatorial may altered time time, public convenience require. or district composed counties, contiguous, compact be. No divided formation district.' 3, provides four-year terms, staggered approximately one-half members years, two-year terms. 13 Pursuant these periodically detailed establishing Since adoption 1876, reapportioned redistricted years: 1881, 1891, 1901, 1909, 1913, 1932, 1953, and, 1962.9 1932 reapportionment initiated measure, neglected perform duty Constitution. 1933 attempted thwart measure enacting own statute, latter held Supreme Court.10 14 1953 immediately contained several 35-member 65-member Representatives. Section 63—1—2 Revised Statutes 'ratio' figures State's 63 counties. One seat allocated first 19,000 one additional senator 50,000 persons fraction over 48,000. given 8,000 25,000 22,400. Sections 63-1-3 63-1-6 25 35 districts, respectively, 65 them ratios. compliance proscription. Thus, entitled large county's voters. City County eight 17 seats, Pueblo four seats. Other populous each. Certain either houses, Sparsely populated combined multicounty districts. 15 Under applying 1960 census figures, 29.8% total lived electing 32.1% resided members. Maximum population-variance 8-to-1 existed most least House. containing 127,520 persons, while another only 17,481 district. smallest 7,867, 127,520. discussing opinion, '(f)actual data reveals existence glaring disparity strength districts,' inevitable (of provisions) develop severe growth shift population.'11 16 establishment 39 representatives, geographically singlemember districts.12 Responsibility creating 'as nearly be' legislature. Allocation follows except sparsely detached Arapahoe joined forming district, Adams, Ara ahoe, Boulder Jefferson. Within seat, be.'13 revision census, maintain requirements.14 mandate, Legislature, early statute seat.15 plan, about 45.1% reside body. maximum ratio, 1.7-to-1. practicable, consistent requirement '(n)o part added county' directed concern whether rationally justifiable.16 Senatorial involves little adding new distributing substance perpetuates scheme.17 Counties 33.2% elect 39-member Las Animas County, 19,983, El Paso 143,742 allotted revised 3.6-to-1.18 three adjacent suburban contain 1,753,947, senators. Pueblo, Springs areas, 1,191,832 68%, two-thirds 20 senators, barely majority. average Denver's 61,736, five less 22,000 Divergences growing continually wider, underrepresented areas rapidly gaining many overrepresented rural tended decline continuously recent years.19 III. 18 Several aspects serve distinguish involving decided date. Initially, arguably provisions. challenged cases, clearly neither legislatures sustainable. Additionally, here attacked almost contemporaneously merits litigation. issue did prolonged inaction. Assembly, spite mandate periodic reapportionment, effective 50 years.20 19 As appellees correctly pointed out, favor embodied preference which, subject deviations, electorate, hardly clear-cut it. undesirable features must whole. voter required representatives. Ballots long cumbersome, intelligent candidates quite difficult. identifiable constituencies resulted, single member specifically represent Rather, legislator multimember whole.21 distinguished basing perpetuated, purposes, debatable feature provision subdistricting purpose initiall , county. plans was, probability, wholly acceptable assumption definitive contrasting alternatives indicated 'minority process want' appear factually justifiable. Finally, differs date device practicable remedy obtain relief against malapportionment Colorado.22 An proposing enactment placed ballot signatures 8% Secretary last obtained. geographical distribution petition signers required. Initiative frequently utilized throughout history.23 traditionally hesitant adjudicating controversies relating apportionment.24 discussed opinion,25 refused consider pass questions, instead enact session.26 IV. 21 Reynolds Sims, 533, 1362, vicameral Of course, assumed, apparently conceded, Representatives, 1963 dictate create be,' now comport requisites. We need question, departures too extreme permissible, indication amendment, severable.27 therefore conclude erred valid. nor, previous overall grounded sustainable Clause.28 22 Except interim remedial procedure, justifying staying hand temporarily, find significance fact nonjudicial, available effectuation Courts sit adjudicate denials While sitting equity might justified temporarily refraining issuance allow resort remedy, individual deprived, denied judicial effectuation, nonjudicial malapportionment, seek, achieved. individual's protected right cast weighted even fails up Clause. Manifestly, insufficient sustain induce refuse act. West Virginia Bd. Educ. Barnette, 319 624, 638, 1178, 1185, 87 L.Ed. 1628, 'One's life, liberty, property fundamental submitted vote; depend outcome elections.'29 citizen's can infringed simply choose be.30 hold significance, satisfy basic delineated our Sims. And practicably exists law justification stay recourse measures pending next 23 Because proposals properly stayed conducted But appellees' argument, accepted takes account geographical, historical, topographic economic provide adequate allocation disfavored areas.31 reliance analogy well merit.32 24 reversed. Beyond said Reynolds,33 express view questions remedies present time. remand, 1964 elections utilization permitted, circumstances appellants' adequately votes effectuated Accordingly, reverse remand proceedings views It ordered. Reversed remanded. APPENDIX TO OPINION THE COURT. 26 appears Colo.Laws c. 312, p. 1045 seq., relevant part, follows: 27 'Sections 47 V hereby repealed 48 adopted, read 28 'Section 45.—General Assembly.—The assembly house, Districts same overlap. All contiguous whole precincts. includes contiguous. 29 46.—House Representatives.—The 30 47.—Senate.—The This 63—1—3 numbering Cheyenne, Elbert, Kiowa Kit Carson Lincoln form Arapahoe, senator, 48.—Revision Districts.—At regular session official publication state, alter amend boundaries conform 46 45 days beginning session, earn compensation receive payments salary expenses, ineligible succeed office, revisions made. Until completion terms expired, portionment law.' 32 Dissenting HARLAN printed Nos. 23, 27, 41, 589, 1395. 33 CLARK, dissenting. 34 I join my Brother STEWART'S some observations reference case. concede be.' disturb stipulation though seems accept niggardly fashion. resides area selects indicates conclusively comes test laid down 1362: "one person, vote," is, 'approximately equal' "as practicable" 'some Indeed, witin 4.9% being perfect. Moreover, subdivision extent teaching supra. strikes State, Senate's much higher percentage elects States. 36 interfere reasons. First, enjoys often utilizes indeed, produced apportionment. use times 1881. complete awareness problems continuing efforts solve situation. See concurring Baker Carr, 369 186, 258—259, 82 691, 732 (1962). Next, STEWART persuasive reasons mountainous divide regions, parts impenetrable. There depressed diversified industry varied climate, enormous recreational regions difficulties transportation. These factors give rise indigenous intelligently solve. 37 agree arbitrary application man, vote' principle view, fairly (as admitted here) latitude providing, house. approve arrangement Senators ground compromise reached framers fabric national charter. overlooks overwhelming likewise written organization body Constitution,* dual federalism recognition. all, algebraic formula. rest practice assailed 'results inequality' 'any facts reasonably conceived it'; who attacks show 'that reasonable arbitrary.' Van Devanter Lindsley Natural Carbonic Gas Co., 220 61, 78—79, 337, 340, 55 (1911). Certainly arbitrary. contrary, rests peculiar State. argued lead stalemate experience Congress completely refutes argument. Now 176th year, worked well. event substitute process. legislation product forces acting enactment. 38 striking believe, exceeding powers Clause; invading functioning procedures thereby committing grievous error do irreparable damage federal-state relatonship. dissent. STEWART, whom CLARK joins, dissenting.** 40 clear outset about. nothing denial impairment person's vote. Nobody's denied. restricted. Nobody deprived counted. cites are, therefore, wide mark.1 Secondly, 'weighting' 'diluting' electoral unit. rule 821, relevance here.2 Thirdly, concerned governed Consequently, Wesberry 376 526, 481, throws light before us.3 41 one. Simply degree, limits sovereign freedom appropriate chosen. answer blunt one, think, woefully wrong. says 'requires basis.'4 42 searching carefully opinions companion able offered support rule. 'established government country numbers With respect, think correct, matter fact. unanswerably demonstrated 'was colonial system, chosen exclusively predominantly practiced States Amendment, today.'6 unless suffer 'debasement' amounting injury. explains it, 'To debased, citizen.'7 told how why person 'debased,' citizen, nor proposition selfevident. impossible understand California, instance, feels Nevada, because, disparities, Senators.8 43 To put plainly, history supports draconian pronouncement, makes finds words 175-year Union.9 am convinced mark step backward unhappy era thought demands measured says, notions wise theory. today odds long-established principles adjudication stifles value local individality vital character Union genius create. 44 What convert particular philosophy rule, binding Maine Hawaii, Alaska Texas, regard individualized differentiated characteristics stemming distinct history, heritage. My understanding theories theory ever commanded unanimous assent scientists, historians, considered problem.10 theory, desirable devised make-up typical could fabrication imports forever denies opportunity enlightened progressive innovation design democratic institutions, accommodate interests aspirations diverse groups people, subjecting group class domination concentrated highly organized Representative accommodating institutional arrangements. Its function channel numerous opinions, interests, abilities making policy. Appropriate ideally designed insure legislature, cooperation organs power, electorate. practice, ideal approximated realistic accommodation operating pretend specialized knowledge myriad beyond records us today. know enough aware best South Dakota, unwise Hawaii islands, Michigan Northern Peninsula. realize Montana vast distances Rhode Island heavy concentrations people. great variations historic manner power—of Governors' Councils New England, broad retained Governors, veto otherwise widely autonomous home cities.11 declines recognition countless others, tangible intangible, systems met uncritical, simplistic, heavy-handed sixth-grade arithmetic. faceless numbers. or, accurately, districts—people needs related live. very geographic districting, carries acceptance idea regional interests. Yet residence irrelevant, suggests, goal 'weighted' votes, abolition large.12 degree subordinated devising achieve ensuring fair, effective, balanced regional, social, apportionments Legislatures reflected strongly felt American tradition interest run better medley component voices majority's monolithic command. constitutes objective vary unique, topography, demography, heterogeneity concentration social operation interrelation institutions. achieves, characteristics, sacrificing irrational. 49 brings me proper standards applied cases. Quite simply, expression generalized compendium: '(T)he permits scope discretion affect citizens differently others. safeguard offended classification irrelevant achievement objective. presumed inequality. set aside justify it.' McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 425—426, 81 1101, 1105, 393. 51 reflect unique values inherent reflect, too, perception role system. point never Brandeis, dissenting Ice Co. Liebmann, 285 262, 280, 52 371, 375, 76 747. final paragraph classic worth repeating here: experimentation things grave responsibility. Denial experiment fraught serious consequences nation. happy incidents courageous may, choose, laboratory; try novel experiments risk country. prevent experiment. strike embodies capricious unreasonable. But, exercise high guard, lest erect prejudices legal principles. guide reason let minds bold.' U.S., 311, 386. 53 That ones import score 226, 715: 54 'Nor appellants, action, ask policy dete minations judicially manageable lacking. Judicial developed familiar, open determine, must, reflects policy, action.' remembered Carr few earlier MacDougall Green, 335 281, 284, 69 2, 93 3: 56 'It strange doctrinaire, concepts due laws, deny assure diffusion thinly having masses, opportunities exerting weight polls former. Constitution—a instrument government—makes States.' 57 Moving specific, attributes needs, systematic frustration State.13 apparent shown inaction, systematically ultimate invalid standards. this, choosing structure thinks suited temper, customs standards, turn York 58 COLORADO. 59 creates include House, unquestionably rules supreme, untempered considerations. minorities control, urban majorities. true theoretical arithmetic, minority 36% real meaning process.14 possible assuming arguendo bloc, cou d control Senate. arrive figure, number dissimilar absolutely assume together wishes Colorado. eschew world numbers, look simple Springs, 60 economically homogeneous Continental Divide crosses meandering line north south, 104,247 square miles plains east rugged mountains west. urbanized eastern edge foothills, farther lies agricultural Great Plains. lying west largely mountainous, living communities 2,500 farms. Livestock raising, mining tourism dominant occupations. subdivided series mountain ranges highest peaks isolating transportation difficult, places during winter months impossible. fourth region Central region, located scarcity water state-wide necessity, affected problem. 61 unifying differentiating regions. Given underlying facts, certainly unlikely achieved mechanically imposed; planned strict standard way assuring localities whose passed unnoticed drawn basis; small like where accessibility configuration enable firsthand entire close contact constituents; avoiding drawing submerge portion grouping larger 62 record populations merged totally Their unfamiliar smaller county, submerged joined. representing pay greater attention majority, all. merelly 'diluted,' injury considers dimensions, rendered nugatory. findings speak themselves: 64 'The heterogeneous chamber afforded insular minorities. Without theoretically, doubt practically, dominate chambers realities conditions ignored. For example, (the districts) accepted, 45,000 persons. Two Western Region 37, 51,675 inhabiting 20,514 miles. division offend practicalities life 66 recognizes 'a state's masses." F.Supp., 932. 67 From 1954 intense debate. supported leading citizens. factual prepared independent Research Institute University Denver. 2—1 including allegedly discriminated against, alternative proposal providing houses. said: 68 contention appalls convinces. Difficult mass behavior human beings, precludes free Ibid. overwhelmingly entirely rational, keeping current.15 Thus consciously protect minority's Therefore, NEW YORK 70 '* Constitutional statecraft Perfect numerical danger remote sections conflict councils heard. 71 'Due comprehensible reducing cities. seventy percent city remainder scattered towns, somewhat strictly reduce neglect areas.' 72 above paragraphs brief 691.16 difficult aptly describe York, 73 Legislative formula 1894. crazy quilt; systematically, kept current. accords major emphasis community, limitation massive overcentralization power. effectuate accord, largest megalopolis dominating 74 considering inclusion exception Two-thirds apportioning legislatures, four-fifths nonpopulation house.17 restrictions York's affording minimal subdivisions, prohibiting requiring fixing membership tend place limitations 75 p licy seen cursory examination makeup. wish assert touch relation consequently found, integral times, functions performed gravitation toward central unit activity usually efficient carrying programs.18 guaranteeing minimum particularly York. prevents densely multi-county Further, brought becomes applicable permissible tradition. 77 Despite coupled body—a necessity remain manageably action—has flows mere itself discrimination. 78 addition formula, allocating placing o fully importance consideration characteristics. cities Each heavily urban; area. Together 73.5% 65.5% 62% nine comprising area—New City, Nassau, Rockland, Suffolk Westchester—contain 63.2% holds invalid. Obviously, guarantees 79 story. seven million budget has, virtue homogeneity interest, cohesiveness, acquired influence measurable counting Elihu Root, delegate Convention 1894, formulated time: 80 thirty centers 38,606 compared center city, multiplications standing disunited separated 38,606. Thirty men owing allegiance organization, together, togehter solidly; why, double elements coming hundreds apart.' Record 1215. Surely justifiably balancing translating 1. Hudson Mohawk Valleys, farm along southern belt, upstate industrial centers, Thousand Islands, Finger Lakes, Berkshire Hills, Adirondacks just surely belong giant metropolis City. adopt ensure heard, prevail. Legislatures, informed response particularized needs. different, different. silenced engulfed. unconstitut onal choices contrast, comports letter spirit traditions. affirm judgments Colo.Rev.Stat.1953, 63, 63—1—1 63—1—6. wisely refrained court's passing raised suit. re Reapportionment, 150 Colo. 380, 374 P.2d accepting vigorous dissent, ignored reapp rtion would, reapportionment. 474, 'the preempted hearing controversy, merit infringement plaintiffs' federally-guaranteed rights.' 475. Continuing, circumstances, abstain, demand abstinence instant Here, repeatedly imposed likelihood unapportioned remote. retaining controversy postponed cause June, not, adequate, speedy apart bar lacking.' 476. Davis Mann, pp. 690—691, S.Ct., 1447 1448, controversy. succinctly merits, three-man commission periodically. delineating, revising adjusting actions reviewed ratio limited therefrom.' 925. dividing ascertained assigned respectively. 1/3% 5,500 50% ratio. ounty Any subdistricts, approved, exact specific subdistricts large. accordance law, 1966 1974, thereafter. violates (But) traditional recognized criteria protection. arbitrariness, discrimination, lack rationality. material criteria. plaintiffs come preferred comprehend sue vindicate right. lost. (W)e act superelectorate weigh decisive people.' Id., 932—933. And, 'With full one-man, one-vote principle, want. rejection created, counts vote.' 926 927. 933. approximate bona fide attempt creation population.' 941. relatively easy availability perceptively 'it consolation start movement questionable, impossible.' 942. referred mechanical freezing accomplished adoption, slight modification, unlawful alignments statute.' 943. Discussing explaining r presentation, discerningly carry 'little modern methods electronic communication, highways, automobiles airplanes,' '(e)conomic remarkably representation,' '(i)t dangerous build favored position segment state,' '(t)here ridding ourselves them,' 'long institutions pass, built-in advantage remains vestige dead past.' Admittedly, complied conducting course sole longer 'modicum purported,' 'several abortive attempts,' statehood. later viewed situation differently, '(a)pportionment remained static.' reapportionments effected, '(i)n reject 1956 straight basis.' 930. Armstrong Mitten, 95 425, 757 (1934). note 24, infra. Appendix 933—934, repeal 'new V,' verbatim opinion. B 934 935. discussion 8's 4, implementation single-member contrast explictly allowed approval perpetuated extremely objectionable 'Mandatory 7) Census.' comprised 143, 520—532, Bill 65. January, H.B.No. 65, concerning legislation.' 924—925. Again (T)he then-existing severe, defendants witnesses intervenors, defending recogniz de novo finally presented.' 928. C contains chart created showing 935—938. Included D 939. Appellants teritorial organic territory 1861 expressly contended, became virtually population. Referring language (1934), urged Appellees, consistently contended used proportionately representation. statements plainly assumed context short litigation, e Note, U. Colo.L.Rev. 431 (1963). commenced. Prior 1913. act, Although 1933, nullify unconstitutional, approving measure. comply implementation. intimate at-large subdivision, defective. residing reserve propose constitution *,' establishes initiating legislation. Twenty-one initiative. Fourteen referendum. Book 1962—1963, 14. Seven passage amendments. Both types Report Advisory Commission Intergovernmental Relations, Apportionment ineffective device. device, filing signed 5% instance reserves enactments accomplished, favorable thereon 'by house' XIX, convention convened, recommendation elec orate approves calling 'revise, amend' twice manner, places, districts.' effectively void finding invalid, 'redistricting population,' section article disclosed Stating ratios, changed census,' attempts confer greater, less, Constitution.' 428, P.2d, 758. p.2d (1962.) Even so, abundantly 385, 69. Maryland Committee Fair Representation Tawes, 673, 1438, evaluating regardless matters below. Consistent approach, determining good faith effort made, necessarily Only evaluation totality requisites Protect Deviations justifiable, balance overrepresentation underrepresentation disparties minor, cumulative offsetting disadvantaged render suspect. take steps taken requirements. 576, 1389, conclusion Hall St. Helena Parish School Bd., 197 649, 659 (D.C.E.D.La.1961), aff'd, 368 515, 529, 521, 'No plebiscite legalize unjust discrimination.' refuting Doyle, approached pragmatically expediently, produces pause generates restraint oath, uphold face palpable racial enjoy states, yet argue compensate manifest teaches personal counted (T)o say indicate minority, avoid resolve. polling evidences plan. expect determined Utilization fullmeasure justice.' 944. 'By admission states constitutions requirement.' 927—928. 582, 1392, unpersuasive Also, necessary 'insular minorities' accord characteristics.' Such rationales Reynolds. 571—576, 1386—1389, matters. lower upper house—that clause applies Congress' legislatures. 940—941. significantly congressional guably resembles subdivisions compares 585, 1393. 'clear-cut.' desired choices, easily petitions, force ** (This 20, WMCA, Inc. Lomenzo, 633, 1418.) 554—555, 1377—1378, citing: Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 651, 152, 274; Mosley, 238 383, 904, 1355; Guinn 347, 926, 1340; Lane Wilson, 307 268, 872, 1281; Classic, 313 299, 1031, 85 1368; Siebold, 100 717; Saylor, 322 88 1341; Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 125, 110; Nixon Herndon, 273 536, 446, 759; Condon, 286 73, 484, 984; Smith Allwright, 321 757, 987; Terry 345 461, 809, 97 1152. 'once designated, participate 379, 808. emphasized 'involve authority designing 376, 806. Sanders (which ordained grossly disparate U.S.Const., I, cl. 1; see Amend. XVII) size 2. 568, 1385. 560—561, 1380—1381. 266, 301, 756, 663 (Frankfurter, J., dissenting). excellent analysis materials MR. JUSTICE HARLAN's day 567, 1384. Census, Senator Nevada represents fewer 150,000 constituents, California 8,000,000. mean imply modeled precisely consensus faced announces root reason. See, e.g., Sobel D.C., 316, 214 811; Thigpen Meyers, 211 826; Sims Frink, 205 245, 431; W.M.C.A., Inc., Simon, 368; v.Carr, 206 341; Mann Davis, 213 577; Toombs Fortson, 248; Synhorst, 217 492; Nolan Rhodes, 218 953; Moss Burkhart, 207 885; 922; Wisconsin Zimmerman, 209 183; Marshall Hare, 227 989; Hearne Smylie, 225 645; Lund Mathas, 145 So.2d 871 (Fla.); Caesar Williams, Idaho 254, 371 241; 228 Md. 412, 180 A.2d 656, Md., 182 877; 229 406, 184 715; Levitt Maynard, 104 N.H. 243, 897; Jackman Bodine, N.J.Super. 414, 188 642; Sweeney Notte, 183 296 (R.I.); Mikell Rousseau, 123 Vt. 139, 817. writings scholars commentators view. De Grazia, Government; Neal, Carr: Politics Search Law, Review 252; Dixon, Law & Contempt. Prob. 329; Standards Power, Notre Dame Law. 367; Israel, Charting Course Through Mathematical Quagmire: Future Mich.L.Rev. 107; Nonpopulation Factors Relevant Acceptable Standard Apportionment, 499; Lucas, Government: Meaning 711; Friedelbaum, Doctrine Intervention Implications Federalism, Chi.L.Rev. 673; Bickel, Durability Colegrove Yale L.J. 39; McCloskey, Reapportionment Case, Harv.L.Rev. 54; Freund, Vistas 112 U.Pa.L.Rev. 631, 639; Comment, Apportionments: Problem Standards, 968. Grazia Government, 19—63; Ross, Elections Electors, 21—127; Lakeman Lambert, Voting Democracies, 19—37, 149—156; Hogan, Election Representation; Dahl, Preface Democratic Theory, 63—84, 124—151. Sandalow, Limits Municipal Power Home Rule: Role Courts, Minn.L.Rev. 643; Klemme, Powers Rule Cities U.Colo.L.Rev. 321. exactly 26% (a bare can, kind mathematics embraced Students mechanics tell count equally, vote-counting proportional supra, n. 10. intended han satisfying mathematical theories, however, adopted. voice Tennessee. Failure reapportion flagrant violation Tennessee intervening districts—even seemingly identical composition alleged, means modifying proven futile, vested maintaining status quo possibility. generally, 251, 727. figure arrived rank end list distance accumulate question. meaningless abstraction multimembered party alignment bloc impossibility. 31,000,000 17% 52% contends controls Michigan, Washington, Nebraska (unicameral legislature) referenda departin Law., 383—385. Brief curiae reargument, 6, 1961 Term, 29—30. General, appearing declined urge stating '(s)uch interpretation press extreme, radical changes three-quarters governments, eliminate variation.' 508, 32. Lawyer, 399. excerpts Attorney instructive: 'For aid administered areas: educational extension work (N.Y. Education 1104, 1113), community colleges 6301, 6302, 6304), assistance physically handicapped children 4403), welfare medical aged, blind, dependent children, disabled, needy Social Welfare 153, 154, 257, 409), health Public Health 608, 620, 636, 650, 660), mental Mental Hygiene 8—A, 191—a), probation Correction 14—a), highway construction, improvement maintenance Highway 12, 112, 112—a, 279), conservation 219, 299—w, N.Y. Conservation 205, 879), civil defense preparations (State Defense Emergency Act 23—b, 25—a, McK. Unconsol. Laws, 9125—9130). 'County far instrumentalities administration aid. extensive adopt, affecting 301—309), play (see Const., IX, 2). 1959 Charter 6—A), reorganization governments residents, York.' 42—43.

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