Document: 440 U.S. 490 99 S.Ct. 1313 59 L.Ed.2d 533 NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD, Petitioner,v.The CATHOLIC BISHOP OF CHICAGO et al. No. 77-752. Argued Oct. 30, 1978. Decided March 21, 1979. Syllabus The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) certified unions as bargaining agents for lay teachers in schools operated by respondents, which refused to recognize or bargain with the unions; NLRB issued cease-and-desist orders against holding that it had properly assumed jurisdiction over schools. Exercise of was asserted be line its policy declining only when are "completely religious" not just "religiously associated," found case here, because taught secular well religious subjects. On respondents' challenges orders, Court Appeals denied enforcement, standard failed provide a workable guide exercise discretion and NLRB's assumption foreclosed Religion Clauses First Amendment. Held : Schools church teach both subjects within granted Act, therefore without authority issue respondents. Pp. 499-507. (a) There would significant risk infringement Amendment if Act conferred church-operated Cf. Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 602, 617, 91 2105, 2113, 29 745. 501-504. (b) Neither language statute nor legislative history discloses any affirmative intention Congress jurisdiction, and, absent clear expression Congress' intent bring will construe such way call resolution difficult sensitive questions. 504-507. 559 F.2d 1112, affirmed. Sol. Gen. Wade H. McCree, Jr., Washington, D. C., petitioner. Don Reuben, Chicago, Ill., Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 This arises out Board's faculty members at two groups Catholic high We certiorari consider questions: Whether Act; authorizes does violate guarantees Amendment? 434 1061, 98 1231, 55 760 (1978). 2 * One group is Bishop corporation sole; other Diocese Fort Wayne-South Bend, Inc. Chicago consists schools, Quigley North South.1 Those termed "minor seminaries" their role educating school students who may become priests. At one time, manifested positive confirmed desire priests were admitted In 1970, requirement changed so these need show definite inclination toward priesthood. Now recommended parish priest having potential priesthood Christian leadership. continue special instruction offered secondary also offer essentially same college-preparatory curriculum public Their participate variety extracurricular activities include events. recognized State accredited regional educational organization.2 3 Inc., has five schools.3 Unlike recommendation prerequisite admission. Like however, seek traditional education but oriented tenets Roman faith; training mandatory. These similarly State.4 4 1974 1975, separate representation petitions filed interested union organizations Bend schools; sought teachers.5 challenged assertion on grounds: they do fall discretionary jurisdictional criteria; preclude jurisdiction. rejected arguments basis decision Archdiocese Baltimore, 216 N.L.R.B. 249 (1975). explained decline religiously sponsored "only completely religious, associated". Id., 250. Because neither category, ordered elections. 220 359 (1975).6 5 Board-supervised election Education Alliance, affiliated Illinois Association, prevailed exclusive representative 46 teachers. Community Alliance Teachers High Schools, similar organization, approximately 180 Notwithstanding order, declined bargain. unfair labor practice complaints under §§ 8(a)(1) (5) 49 Stat. 452, amended, U.S.C. 158(a)(1) (5). opposed General Counsel's motion summary judgment, again challenging statutory constitutional grounds. 6 reviewed record previous proceedings concluded all been raised could have those earlier proceedings. Since previously, exercised asserting schools.7 violated cease practices collectively unions. 224 1221 (1976); 1226 (1976). II 7 Seventh Circuit. That court enforcement orders. 1112 (1977).8 considered actions relation choosing extend religious." It discretion, distinction between "merely associated" discretion: 8 "We find itself simplistic black white, purported rule containing no borderline demarcation where 'completely religious' takes or, hand, ceases. our dichotomous religious—merely associated' provides discretion. determination an institution entity exclude viable components obviously implicates very questions faith tradition. See, e. g., [Wisconsin v.] Yoder, . 406 205, 92 1526, 32 15 [(1972)]." 1118. 9 rejection meant turned question whether consistent limitations. Free Clause Establishment reasoned from initial act certifying agent action impinge upon freedom authorities shape direct teaching accord requirements religion. analyzed this way: 10 "At some point, factual inquiry courts agencies into matters [separating training] almost necessarily raise problems. If demonstrates, does, Catholics founded alternative system reasons continued maintain them 'integral part mission Church,' [v. 602], 616 [91 745] [(1971)], hard pressed take official judicial notice purposes undermined eviscerated mathematics, physics, chemistry, English literature." Ibid. 11 distinguished local regulations required fire inspections state laws mandating attendance, reasoning did "have inhibiting relationship employers present order directly concerned." 1124. held interference management prerogatives, acceptable ordinary commercial setting, area protected "The real difficulty chilling aspect impose bishops' control schools." III 12 private is, we noted earlier, relatively recent development. Indeed, 1951 indicated nonprofit, institutions effectuate Act. Trustees Columbia University City New York, 97 424. pointed what saw increased involvement commerce different position Cornell University, 183 329, overruled decision. followed Shattuck School, 189 886 (1971). See Judson 209 677 (1974). now asserts private, gross annual revenues meet religious. CFR § 103.1 Academia San Jorge, 234 1181 (1978) (advisory stating assert standards); Windsor 199 457, 200 991 (1972) (declining proprietary amounts). 13 broad gone unchallenged. But contention bar extension Where done grounds employer's minimal impact commerce. Thus, Association Hebrew Metropolitan Detroit, 210 1053 (1974), courses Jewish culture after-school classes, nursery school, college. "isolated instance [an] atypical employer." 1058-1059. explained: "Whether employer falls given 'class' enterprise depends predominant give employing character. [T]he fact activity dedicated sectarian purpose sufficient reason refrain jurisdiction." 1058. Greater 1037 year chartered York operate diocesan Henry M. Hald School Assn., 213 415 argument produce excessive governmental entanglement view, chosen entangle world decided hire 418 n. 7.9 14 When professional employees parochial Baltimore reiterated belief contrary Amendment: "[T]he past associated, concedes limited seeks based principles lead conclusion. Most associated conformity tenets." N.L.R.B., 16 claims Cardinal Timothy Manning, Archbishop Los Angeles, 223 1218, 1218 (1976): "Regulation relations involves intrusion conduct necessary obtain [the Act's] objective." (Emphasis added.) 17 thus recognizes constitutes degree administration affairs Implicit acknowledgment entanglement. measured school's commerce, association, never envisioned sort litmus test determining Nevertheless, expressing standards terms, plainly run afoul hence IV 18 there limitations repeatedly even while acknowledging scope grant Amendment, course, limitation power Congress. conclude decide constitutionally permissible 19 Although respondents press Clauses, first intended number cases heeded essence Marshall's admonition Murray Charming Betsy, Cranch 64, 118, L.Ed. 208 (1804), ought construed Constitution possible construction remains available. Moreover, interpretation before us related statutes. 20 Machinists Street, 367 740, 81 1784, 1141 (1961), example, serious arise Railway allow compulsory dues used support political candidates causes approved members. looked permit purposes, avoiding "serious doubt constitutionality." 749, 1789. 21 Similarly McCulloch Sociedad Nacional de Marineros Honduras, 372 10, 83 671, 547 (1963), involving foreign seamen, read rise separation powers turn implicated issues Executive nations. international implications led describe "public particularly scale national interest." 17, S.Ct., 675. sanctioning " 'there must clearly expressed.' 21-22, 678 (quoting Benz Compania Naviera Hidalgo, 353 138, 147, 77 699, 704, 709 (1957)). 22 values enshrined rank "in values." keeping Court's prudential incumbent determine here so, identify "the expressed" concluding grants V 23 decisions aid critical unique teacher fulfilling school. What said 745 (1971), true case: "Religious pervades system." key played predicate conclusions channeled through creates impermissible For Lemon, supra, wrote: 24 "In terms morals subjects, textbook's content ascertainable, teacher's handling subject not. cannot ignore danger discipline poses purely aspects pre-college education. conflict functions inheres situation." 25 Only recently importance function school: 'remedial reading,' 'advanced simply 'reading,' teacher, doctrine intertwined persists." Meek Pittenger, 421 349, 370, 95 1753, 1766, 44 217 Wolman Walter, 433 229, 244, 2593, 2603, 53 714 (1977). Good intentions government—or third parties—can surely more avoid setting mandatory collective than well-motivated efforts consented unacceptable Meek, Wolman. 26 argues can since resolve anti-union animus motivated action. stage consideration compelled considering issue. Rather, make narrow presents infringed. 27 already go beyond resolving issues. Appeals' refers charges F.2d, 1125, 1126. observed responded mandated creeds. Board, many instances, involve good clergy-administrators mission. reached rights guaranteed process leading findings conclusions.10 28 least called "terms conditions employment" bargaining. 158(d). interpreted phrase relates institutions, provisions insight effect Oregon "nearly everything goes affects arguably 'condition employment.' Springfield Assn. Dist. 19, Or.App. 751, 759, P.2d 647, 650 Pennsylvania Supreme aptly summarized "introduction concept bargaining, regardless how narrowly negotiation defined, represents encroachment former autonomous management." College Area Dist., 461 Pa. 494, 504, 337 A.2d 262, 267 Clark County Local Government Employee-Management 90 Nev. 442, 447, 530 114, 117-118 Lieberman & Moskow, Collective Negotiations 221-247 (1966). Inevitably implicate open door conflicts negotiators U.S., 616, applies here: 30 "[P]arochial substantial purpose. 31 character church-related gives entangling church-state relationships kind avoid." (Footnote omitted.) Douglas emphasized his concurring noting obvious raison d'etre propagation faith." 628, 2118. 33 church-teacher differs employment nonreligious see escape flowing consequent follow. examination confer require VI 34 should covered Admittedly, defined terms; examine contemplated 35 enacting 1935, protect right American workers collectively. concern repeated throughout debates assure organize counterbalance authorized Industrial Recovery congressional attention focused industry industrial recovery. 79 Cong.Rec. 7573 (1935) (remarks Sen. Wagner), Legislative History pp. 2341-2343 (1949). 36 Our indicates gave significance, Senate Committee chose college professor's dispute example employer-employee S.Rep.No.573, 74th Cong., 1st Sess., (1935), 2307. 37 next major came during passage Management 1947—the Taft-Hartley amended definition "employer" original nonprofit hospitals. 61 137, 152(2) (1970 ed.). discussion consensus general affect H.R. 3020, 80th Sess. (1947), 1947, p. (1948) (hereinafter Leg.Hist.); H.R.Rep.No.245, Leg.Hist. 303; H.R.Conf.Rep.No.510, 3, 507, 536, U.S.Code Cong.Serv. 1135; 93 4997 1464 Sens. Tydings Taft).11 38 most amendment passed 1974, removing exemption Pub.L. 93-360, 88 395. relies showing A close history, reveals nothing indicate until after amendment, reflecting tacit approval 39 During debate expressions about bill hospitals whose beliefs join union. 120 12946, 16914 Coverage Nonprofit Hospitals 93d 2d 331-332 (1974) Ervin Rep. Erlenborn). result concerns reflects sensitivity guarantees: 40 "Any employee health care member adheres established teachings bona fide religion, body, sect historically conscientious objections joining financially supporting shall organization condition employment; except required, lieu periodic initiation fees, pay sums equal fees charitable fund exempt taxation section 501(c)(3) title 26, list three funds, designated contract fails designate then employee." 169. 41 absence "affirmative fortifies conclusion contemplate recognition 42 heavily Associated Press NLRB, 301 103, 57 650, 953 (1937). application Press, engaged collecting information news distributing Perceiving suggest infringe freedoms, sustained 131-132, 655. Here, contrary, affords abundant evidence Clauses. 43 Accordingly, manner arising Affirmed. APPENDIX TO OPINION THE COURT 45 Q. [by Hearing Officer] Now, quite bit testimony liturgies, I don't want beat dead horse; let me ask you question: know, liturgies know? A. think problem defining liturgies. word definitions. Do that? 47 believe before, correct, testified? 48 am sure. Let try briefly again, okay? Yes. 50 liturgy range anywhere strictest sense word, sacrifice Mass terminology. down informal shared prayer. 51 Two individuals praying together own reactions scriptural reading. All these—and big spectrum extremes—all popularly referred 52 see. possibly repeating your question, idea spectrum, respond accurately. 54 Well, stick formal Masses. Masses schools? Some none, none required. Holy Days Obligation coincide days. days prefer day attend there, rather churches. feel idea; always church; varies great deal 56 BRENNAN, whom WHITE, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN join, dissenting. today holds coverage employed wrong light Act's language, precedents. justified solely canon seemingly invented deciding case. dissent. 58 principle construing statutes unnecessary well-settled salutary one. governing canon, expressed today. requires "clear Congress" broadly worded regulatory certain persons might Ante, 504. familiar know explicit inclusive commonplace. strictly loosely applying requirement, virtually remake enactments. flouts Taft's "that substituted construction, save [a] law limitation." Yu Cong Eng Trinidad, 271 500, 518, 619, 623, 70 1059 (1926). Aptheker Secretary State, 378 515, 84 1659, 1668, 992 (1964); Jay Boyd, 351 345, 357 76 919, 926, 100 1242 (1956); Shapiro United States, 335 1, 31, 40, 68 1375, 1391, 1787 (1948); States Sullivan, 332 689, 693, 331, 334, 297 Hopkins Federal Savings Loan Ass'n Cleary, 296 315, 335, 235, 240, 80 251 (1935).1 settled wherein lurk stated cited Court, ante, 1318: 60 'When validity drawn constitutionality raised, cardinal ascertain fairly avoided.' Crowell Benson, 285 22, 62, 285, 296, 598." 749-750, 1790 (emphasis added).2 Accord, Pernell Southall Realty, 416 363, 365, 94 1723, 1724, 198 (1974); Johnson Robison, 361, 367, 1160, 1165, 389 Curtis Loether, 189, 192 6, 1005, 1007, 260 Ashwander TVA, 288, 348, 466, 483, 688 (1936) (Brandeis, J., concurring); Moore Ice Cream Co. Rose, 289 373, 379, 620, 622, 1265 (1933). constructions "fairly possible," "reasonable," acts brake wholesale dismemberment confines judiciary proper statutes, interpret intention. new expression" releases brake. 62 announced possible." wording, precedents leave revealed too distinctly mere misgivings power." 622. Section 2(2) 152(2), defines 63 ". person acting employer, indirectly, wholly owned corporation, Reserve Bank, subdivision thereof, time (other employer), anyone capacity officer organization." 64 covers eight express exceptions. substitutes insert exception—for transparent violation role: amendment. 65 pertinent NLRA begins Wagner 449. identical relevant respects current section, excluded organization.3 exception employers, associated.4 An implied design now: "[N]either exempted operation although exempted." Central Dispensary Emergency Hospital, 533, 540 (1942) (footnotes omitted), enf'd, U.S.App.D.C. 274, 145 852 (1944). Both lower concurred construction. Polish 322 643, 1196, 1509 (1944), aff'g 136 175 (CA7 1943); (1937), 85 (CA2 1936); 66 Hartley bill, House Representatives provided writes statute: 67 term 'employer' community chest, fund, foundation organized exclusively charitable, scientific, literary, net earnings inures benefit shareholder individual ." (Apr. 18, 1947), reprinted 160-161 (hereafter, 1947 Leg.Hist.). proposed enacted.5 reported Public Welfare contain exception. S. 1126, 99, 102. Instead, hospitals, form. (Senate, May 13, 226, 229. version accepted conference, limiting Ch. 120, 136.6 69 Even ultimately repealed 1974. doing view cover employers—including employers—unless expressly excluded, H.R.Rep.No.931051, Welfare, 272 (Comm.Print 1974) (hereafter 12938 (Sen. Williams); 16900 291 (Rep. Ashbrook).7 amendments, Senator analogous creates—an groups. 12950, 12968 119, 141. Cranston, floor manager primary opponent exception, "[S]uch seriously erode existing generally nursing homes, residential communities, facilities nonsectarian counterparts." 12957 137 added). 71 ibid. Javits); 138 Williams).8 72 therefore, faithful statute's history. untrue "This consistently declared passing vest fullest breadth Commerce Clause. Guss Utah 598, 599, 609, 601; 647-648, 1198-1199, 1509; Fainblatt, 306 601, 607, 668, 672, 1014." Reliance Fuel Oil Corp., 371 224, 312, 313, 279 (1963) original). As long reach Clause—and doubts are—the him nature activity. 1014 (1944) (nonprofit fraternal organization). editorial news-gathering despite claim—precisely parallel made inclusion rendered Amendment.9 Today's unable explain distinguish one.10 73 available include—not exclude—lay counter intend stated. construes excluding explicitly covered. Cardozo's words, presses "avoidance DIFFICULTY POINT DISINGENUOUS EVASION." 622.11 74 Under my includes presented reached. Sierra Club Morton, 405 727, 755, 1361, 1376, 636 (Brennan, dissenting). repeat emphasis, difficulty, irresponsible cavalier succeeds defying intent. "a nose WAX BE CHANGED FROM THAT WHICH PLAIN LANGUAGE IMPORTS 623. operates area, involved Board. Officer, "approval" distinct "recognition." Before operate, State's Department Education. Approval meets law, attendance; evaluation program. Recognition, evaluation. elementary They "certification" Indiana roughly equivalent "recognition" Illinois. voluntary procedures authorities. certification "all full-time regular part-time teachers, including physical .; rectors, procurators, dean studies, business manager, director student activities, formation, counseling services, office clerical employees, maintenance cafeteria workers, watchmen, librarians, nurses, faculty, guards supervisors 359, 360 concerning reported. relied agree intimately Church. heretofore associated. Archdiocesan perform children, themselves instruction. Therefore, basis." 1218. Caulfield Hirsch, LRRM 3164 (ED Pa.1977) (enjoining Philadelphia). presently review Third App. Pet. Cert. O.T. 1977, 77-1411, A76, cert. denied, 436 957, 3071, 1122 went 157, heritage Congress, [and] legitimate 7. illustrated Monsignor O'Donnell, Rector North, reproduced appendix opinion. Labor-Management Reporting Disclosure 1959. 519. changes contains reference 1959 (1959). derives statement, expressed,' 678, (1963). misplaced. extended seamen working aboard foreign-flag vessels. No crews presented. parties agreed empowered waters. so. disputes shipowners crews. McCulloch, wanted alien fact, prior held, 'inescapably describe[d] boundaries workingmen country possessions.' 676 quoting 144, 702, (1957). well-established rules flag ordinarily governs internal ship. Wildenhus's Case, [120 1,] 12, [385], 387, 565." 677. domestic precedent, surprising balked strong admits, precedent respect play permitting use employee's compulsorily checked-off he disagreed. mean uses, affirmatively questionable practices. 765-770, 1798-1800. 2(2), 450, stated: interest Publication, 534, 537 (1939), 113 (CA8 1940); Medical 385, 386 (1942); 539 (1942), (1944); Ford Trade 1535, 1536 1380 1943), aff'd, 788, 790, 1936), unpublished decisions, YWCA Recreational Association. 538 8. bill's Congressmen strongly 3446 (1947) Klein); additional exceptions id., Taft); thought unnecessary, 536. Wentworth Institute, 515 550, 555 (CA1 1975) ("[P]erhaps obvious, exclusion [within Act]"); Sherman Black, Private Employer: Critical Examination Worthy Cause Exemption, Harv.L.Rev. 1323, 1331-1337 (1970). whatever reasons, 1947. contemporaneous exempt. 1950, Employer that, meaning merit contention. immaterial considerations applicable enterprises are, sense, commercial." Sunday Southern Baptist Convention, 801, 802. "It 424 (1951), institutions; matter affirming come 425. undermine 329 (1970), changing conditions—particularly increasing interstate commerce—now change renewed J. Weingarten, 420 251, 265-266, 959, 967-968, 171 (1975): "To hold froze development important misconceive administrative decisionmaking. ' "Cumulative experience" begets understanding judgments validated qualified invalidated. constant trial error, wider fuller single adversary litigation permits, differentiates perhaps anything else process.' Seven-Up Co., 344 344, 349 [73 287, 290, 377] (1953)." Report "Currently, eleemosynary, removes restores protections enjoyed employees." H.R.Rep.No.93-1051, Similarly, Williams, Chairman criticized nonprofit-hospital "not inconsistent protection types activities." 95. Ashbrook). amendments "[a]ny religion 169 irrelevant instant case, alleged respondent-employers contend beliefs. Recognizing this, inference proposition "congressional guarantees." 506. true, usefulness negated text, makes balance struck While conscientiously objecting sanction employers. follows: petitioner draws mechanical departments absolute unrestricted employ discharge who, like Watson, edit news, slightest opportunity bias prejudice personally entertained color distort writes, free furnish unbiased impartial reports unless equally partiality employees. So regulation protective invalid invasion press." 131. ground "[p]erceiv[ed] [while h]ere, Clauses." 507. assertion. why press' less church-supported schools' challenge here. point problems precisely difficulty. square "reconstruction" refusal rewrite Press. Not redrafting disappear. implies doubtless organizations. exemption, generates own. Walz Tax Comm'n, 397 664, 1409, 697 put rest, upholding property tax churches issue, singled such; rather, houses worship class quasi-public corporations 673, 1413. "at [my] [I am] [Establishment problem] [as significant] [I] issue." 502. enough observe turns interpreting

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