Document: 499 U.S. 621 111 S.Ct. 1547 113 L.Ed.2d 690 CALIFORNIA, Petitionerv.HODARI D. No. 89-1632. Argued Jan. 14, 1991. Decided April 23, Syllabus A group of youths, including respondent Hodari D., fled at the approach an unmarked police car on Oakland, California, street. Officer Pertoso, who was wearing a jacket with "Police" embossed its front, left to give chase. Pertoso did not follow directly, but took circuitous route that brought two face parallel Hodari, however, looking behind as he ran and turn see until officer almost upon him, whereupon tossed away small rock. tackled recovered rock, which proved be crack cocaine. In juvenile proceeding against court denied his motion suppress evidence relating The State Court Appeal reversed, holding had been "seized" when saw running towards him; this seizure "unreasonable" under Fourth Amendment, having conceded have "reasonable suspicion" required justify stopping Hodari; therefore cocaine suppressed fruit illegal seizure. Held: only issue presented here—whether, time dropped drugs, within meaning Amendment—must answered in negative. To answer question, looks common law arrest. constitute person, just arrest—the quintessential "seizure person" Amendment jurisprudence—there must either application physical force, however slight, or, where is absent, submission officer's "show authority" restrain subject's liberty. No force applied case, since untouched by before drugs. Moreover, assuming Pertoso's pursuit constituted enjoining halt, comply injunction seized tackled. Thus, abandoned while seizure, cf. Brower v. Inyo County, 489 593, 597, 109 1378, 1381, 103 628; Hester United States, 265 57, 58, 44 445, 446, 68 L.Ed. 898, exclude it properly denied. States Mendenhall, 446 544, 554, 100 1870, 1877, 64 497 (opinion Stewart, J.), progeny, distinguished. Pp. 623-629. Reversed remanded. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, SOUTER, JJ., joined. STEVENS, filed dissenting opinion, MARSHALL, joined, post, p. ----. Ronald E. Niver, San Francisco, Cal., for petitioner. Clifford M. Sloan, amicus curiae, Washington, D.C., support petitioner, special leave Court. James L. Lozenski, Berkeley, respondent. Justice SCALIA 1 Late one evening 1988, Officers Brian McColgin Jerry were patrol high-crime area California. They dressed street clothes jackets both front back. Their proceeded west Foothill Boulevard, turned south onto 63rd Avenue. As they rounded corner, four or five youths huddled around red parked curb. When officers' approaching apparently panicked, flight. here, companion through alley; others south. also headed south, high rate speed. 2 officers suspicious gave remained continued Avenue; car, back north along 63rd, then 62nd meanwhile, emerged from alley north. Looking ran, what appeared moment later, handcuffed radioed assistance. found carrying $130 cash pager; rock discarded 3 moved without opinion. California unreasonable Supreme State's review. We granted certiorari. 498 807, 38, 112 15 (1990). 4 case comes us, whether, Amendment.1 If so, argues, drugs concerning them excluded. not, lawfully police, should admitted. (In addition, course, seeing cocaine, least if recognized such, would provide reasonable suspicion unquestioned occurred Hodari. Cf. Rios 364 253, 80 1431, 1688 (1960).) 5 long understood Amendment's protection "unreasonable . seizures" includes Henry 361 98, 100, 168, 170, 134 (1959). From founding present, word "seizure" has meant "taking possession," N. Webster, An American Dictionary English Language 67 (1828); J. Bouvier, Law 510 (6th ed. 1856); Webster's Third New International 2057 (1981). For most purposes law, connoted merely grasping, applying to, animate inanimate object actually bringing control. ship still fleeing, even though attack, considered war prize. Josefa Segunda, 10 Wheat. 312, 325-326, 6 320 (1825). res capable manual delivery "tak[en] into custody." Pelham Rose, 9 Wall. 103, 106, 19 602 (1870). arrest, however—the our jurisprudence—the mere grasping lawful authority, whether succeeded subduing arrestee, sufficient. See, e.g., Whitehead Keyes, 85 Mass. 495, 501 (1862) ("[A]n effects arrest person whom authority laying hand him purpose arresting may succeed him"); Restatement Torts § 41, Comment h (1934). commentator described it: "There can constructive detention, will although party never control making This accomplished touching, slightly, body accused, purpose, does instant; bailiff tried fought off fork, said, 'If touched .' " A. Cornelius, Search Seizure 163-164 (2d 1930) (footnote omitted). 7 say effected slightest despite arrestee's escape, there continuing during period fugitivity. If, example, laid hands broken cast hardly realistic disclosure made course Thompson Whitman, 18 457, 471, 21 897 (1874) ("A single act, continuous fact"). present step further removed. It involve any force; His defense relies instead proposition occurs "when officer, means show some way restrained liberty citizen." Terry Ohio, 392 1, 19, n. 16, 88 1868, 1879, 20 889 (1968) (emphasis added). contends (and we accept true decision) qualified au thority" calling halt. narrow question us respect subject yield. hold not. 8 language cannot sustain respondent's contention. readily bears movement, ultimately unsuccessful. ("She purse-snatcher, broke out her grasp.") remotely apply, prospect policeman yelling "Stop, name law!" fleeing form continues flee. That no seizure.2 Nor result wishes achieve produced indirectly, were—by suggesting uncomplied-with common-law appealing principle all arrests are seizures. requires (as above) assertion authority. "Mere words while, other hand, actual, touching essential. apparent inconsistency parts statement explained fact followed arrestee constitutes There submission." Perkins, Arrest, 25 Iowa L.Rev. 201, 206 (1940) (footnotes do think desirable, policy matter, stretch beyond urges.3 Street pursuits always place public risk, compliance orders stop encouraged. Only few those orders, presume, adequate basis, addressee ready identifying deficient ones invariably responsible comply. Unlawful deterred, moreover, sanctioning exclusionary rule obeyed. Since policemen command "Stop!" expecting ignored, chase hoping outrun, fully suffices apply deterrent their genuine, successful 11 Respondent position sustained so-called Mendenhall test, formulated Stewart's (1980), adopted later cases, Michigan Chesternut, 486 567, 573, 108 1975, 1979, 565 (1988); INS Delgado, 466 210, 215, 104 1758, 1762, 247 (1984): "[A] 'seized' if, view circumstances surrounding incident, believed free leave." U.S., S.Ct., 1877. See Florida Royer, 460 491, 502, 1319, 1326-1327, 75 229 (1983) J.). seeking rely test fails read carefully. says "only if," "whenever"; states necessary, sufficient, condition seizure—or, more precisely, authority." establishes existence objective one: citizen perceived being ordered restrict actions conveyed person. Application basis decision principallyrelied respondent, supra, concluded cruiser's slow following defendant convey message disregard go about business. address met—if conveyed—a occurred. 577, 1981 (KENNEDY, concurring). 12 Quite relevant 596, 628 (1989). cars flashing lights chased decedent miles—surely authority"—but fatal crash police-erected blockade. death could held consequence violation Amendment. consider possibility because, explained, produce stop. Id., 1381. And discussed, ibid., Holmes, involving situation much different revenue agents picked up containers moonshiners pursuing warrant. excluded product unlawful because "[t]he defendant's own acts, associates, disclosed jug, jar bottle—and sense examined contents each after abandoned." 898 (1924). same here. 13 sum, reverse Appeal, remand proceedings inconsistent 14 so ordered. MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 16 Court's construction represents significant, my view, unfortunate, departure prior construing Almost quarter century ago, landmark cases—one broadening individual privacy,2 powers enforcement officers3 —we rejected method analysis today's majority endorses. particular, now adopts definition unfaithful line cases. Even defining first time, chooses today profoundly unwise. decision, assumes, acknowledging, fire weapon innocent implicate Amendment—as misses target. 17 propositions dispute. First, began respondent,4 App. 138-140; ante, 623, 1. Second, amounted soon nearly him. 625-626, 629. Third, act discarding direct Pet. Cert. 48-49, 52. Fourth, correctly demonstrates, 624-625. quite right concluding abandonment equally clear, rock—evenif subdue him—an occurred.5 624-625,626. event (assuming precipitated abandonment), distinction between actual hypothetical torts assault battery—a converts former latter.6 Although battery important pleading purposes, Chitty, Pleading *372-*376, take constitutional dimensions. mistakenly allows define interpretation At recognize another, telling, distinction—the attempted teaches critical correct understanding 626 ("An authority"). However, facts describe rather attempt presumptively custody. Such law.7 wants scope based look, according case. then, outer boundaries contrary settled precedent, traditional controlling, necessary decide make attempts. * takes "seizure," odds broader years ago. Katz 389 347, 507, 576 (1967), electronic surveillance conducted "without trespass material fell outside ambit Constitution." 353, 512. Over Black's powerful dissent, "narrow view" eavesdropping "search seizure" 353-354, thus endorsed expounded Justices Olmstead 277 438, 48 564, 72 944 (1928): "Time again, giving effect underlying refused unduly literal it." 476, 571 (Brandeis, dissenting). 22 "The operation used measure provisions. Under principles established safeguards evils like equivalent embraced ordinary words." 488, (Butler, 23 Writing Katz, Stewart explained: 24 "Thus, closely divided supposed Constitution, departed rested. Indeed, expressly governs tangible items, extends well recording oral statements, overheard "technical local property law." Silverman 365 505, 511, 81 679, 682, 734. Once acknowledged, once protects people—and simply 'areas' searches seizures, becomes clear reach presence absence intrusion given enclosure. "We conclude underpinnings Goldman [v. 316 129, 62 993, 86 1322 (1942) ] eroded subsequent decisions 'trespass' doctrine enunciated longer regarded controlling. Government's activities electronically listening petitioner's violated privacy justifiably relied using telephone booth 'search seizure' device employed end happen penetrate wall significance. 26 remaining search complied standards." 27 Significantly, repeatedly process sounds possibly id., 356, 357, 514. 28 reasoning, 1967, remarkably similar reasoning today. After criticizing "language-stretching judges," 366, 519, Black wrote: 29 "I deny often said Bill Rights' liberal construction. principle, amendment 'seizure' conversations." 366-367 [88 519]. 30 "Since I construed eavesdropping, closes matter me. interpreting Rights, willingly far me, good conscience thought certainly usage. distort order 'keep Constitution date' 'to bring harmony times.' such power, continuously functioning convention." 373, 523. 31 expansive provided appropriate predicate (1968), year.8 Prior Terry, proscribed supported probable cause showing custodial arrest.9 Dunaway York, 442 200, 207-209, 99 2248, 2254, 60 824 (1979). Given encounters citizens "are incredibly rich diversity," 13, 1875, need flexibility "reasonable" suspicion—a quantum proof less demanding than cause—was investigatory purposes. 21-22, 1880. corollary lesser justification stop, necessarily encompasses official restraints freedom fall short broadened range encompassed term lowering standard "stop" newly expanded category seizures covered Amendment.10 32 "Our task establish point encounter relevant. is, McFadden 'search.' suggestion use terms 'stop' 'frisk' conduct purview neither action rises level 'search' Constitution. emphatically reject notion. plain 'seizures' eventuate trip station house prosecution crime—'arrests' terminology. whenever accosts restrains walk away, person." 1877 33 distinctions classical 'stop-and-frisk' theory serve divert attention central inquiry Amendment—the reasonableness particular governmental invasion citizen's personal security. 'Search' talismans. notions come play limitation something called 'technical arrest' 'full-blown search.' 1878. 34 unequivocally notion defines limits limited object, and, instead, extended statements. cause, include investigative cause. major premise underpinning majority's entire today—that 624-625—is seriously flawed. hearkens ignoring taken Terry.11 II 35 fares better tries explain why proper open addition stating "whenever away," noted citizen. ." 16. touchstone restraint individual's "in way." Ibid. added).12 Today reaction reliance demonstrate force" cases unless submits. 626-627. answer, plainly insufficient applies stops justified full-blown 36 "adhere[d] when, movement restrained." 553, 1876. looked questioned "remains questions she able "there person's privacy" require "particularized justification" Examples "the threatening several officers, display citizen, tone voice indicating request might compelled." unwillingness adhere standard, marks unnecessary law. 37 draws novel conclusion occur met, 628, met mean ibid. (Mendenhall "states sufficient 'show authority' "). felt leave, passage (1984), best, misleading: 38 "As elsewhere: 'Obviously, intercourse involves "seizures" persons. occurred.' 16]. While relatively straightforward resembling 212-216, 2256-2258, (1979), 'seizures brief detention arrest.' Brignoni-Ponce, 422 873, 878, 95 2574, 2578, 45 607 (1975). What evolved determination initially consensual transformed 'if, leave.' [446 U.S.] 554 [100 1877] omitted); 1326, (plurality opinion)." 1762. 39 More importantly, (1983), plurality formulation determining questioning crosses threshold forcible holding, plurality, "may detained momentarily reasonable, grounds doing so; refusal listen more, furnish grounds. 556 1878] J.)." 498, 1324 looks, subjective perceptions questioned, rather, characteristics suggest leave. 40 momentary, evaluation conveys entirely leave—in words, significant way. evident Jacobsen, 109, 1652, 41 "A meaningful interference possessory interests property.5 42 Finally, noteworthy (1988), asked repudiate developed Royer.13 decided, "adhere contextual approach," 1979. "a 'a Amendment' test." commenting virtues focused conduct: 43 test's standard—looking man's question—allows determine advance contemplated Amendment." 574, 1980. Expressing approval rejection Michigan's argument Professor LaFave observed: 'free leave' concept, nothing suspect's choice flee submit assessment probability Were otherwise, encouraged utilize very sufficiently evidence-gathering technique lack needed stop." W. LaFave, 9.2, 61 1987, Supp.1991). 46 Whatever else unquestionably earlier repeated descriptions stated finding latter category, creative lawmaking. narrowing enlarging justifications significantly Terry: 47 danger logic proceeds 'arrest,' twofold. seeks isolate scrutiny initial stages contact rigid all-or-nothing model regulation obscures utility limitations scope, initiation, regulation." 17, 1877-1878. III force—taking head-on chase—adequately leave.14 Whereas "nothing record [to] sugges[t] reason believe conversation concourse proceed way," 555, conversation" himself literally "not leave" confronted toward eventually ground. interval fast tackled, officer. implicated moment. 49 Because somewhat unusual, note arise "freeze," warning shot, sound sirens accompanied car's lights. these situations, initiation complete concludes timing governed reaction, conduct. One interactionbetween occurs, believes go, but, exercises over 50 effective liberty15 served adhering "allows possible responses multitude problems moment, "submission," create uncertainty generate litigation. 51 immediately suspect submitted force. victim killed gunshot,16 Tennessee Garner, 471 11, 105 1694, 1701, (1985) seize unarmed, nondangerous shooting dead"),17 hidden roadblock, (1989), complete. But William Caldwell (Brower) wounded apprehended? Would whatsoever initiating chase? suggests responsibility depend character victim's evasive action. 52 "Brower's independent continue eliminate respondents' termination roadblock Garner's eliminated Memphis bullet." 595, 1380. 53 seems me constitutionality measured conditions exist available initiated; discovery retroactively validate unconstitutional search. seizures; response govern 54 occurred, thereafter break loose evaluated acted. analyzed searches, namely, place? anomalous, fashion subcategory arrests. 55 new subcategory, restrained, yet completely motorist pulled highway immediate intends obey signal. decides kind random forbidden Delaware Prouse, 440 648, 1391, 59 660 lights, vehicle sees license plate expired, ground became initiated completed? airport setting, drug agent passengers gun drawn, announce "baggage search," passengers' reactions stops? coercive intimidating nature behavior creates allow unchecked. 56 focus discouraging improper part,18 tackling Instead, logic-chopping analysis, coverage how outrageous be. 57 too early know consequences holding. carried logical conclusion, encourage displays frighten countless surrendering whatever rights have. soon, irony rules antedated Terry. Yet, days nn. 7, supra. provides average rigidly confined ancient precept. literal-minded last century, defines, limits, commencing, egregious conduct, delays relevant"19 heading "seizure." Today's qualification remain "secure persons discretion police.20 58 "[A]n usually perpetrated surprise, haste, kept purposely court's supervision judgment moderation whose records stake quietly undertake resist risk violence." Brinegar 338 160, 182, 69 1302, 1314, 93 1879 (1949) (dissenting opinion). Some sacrifice accompanies expansion executive's unreviewable21 powers. sensitive insist greater rewards society decreeing makes Alexander Bickel presciently wrote "many government aspects: immediate, intended, practical effects, perhaps unintended unappreciated bearing values general permanent interest."22 concern containing criminal activity poses substantial, unintended, threat fundamental enduring. respectfully dissent. below (1968). inquiry, young men scatter panic sighting self-evident, arguably contradicts proverbial sense. Proverbs 28:1 ("The wicked man pursueth"). concession. simple reason—which "logic-chopping," 646, nor arcane knowledge legal history—it irrelevant "an Post, 631. consulted seizure—and, dissent's portrayal, expand contract (since normally suffice). usage tradition certain circumstances; many things unlawful, elevated proscriptions. ever done so. dissent wrong saying "broadened 'seizure,' 1635. involved seizure; novelty (if any) expanding acceptable (1967) "unequivocally reject[s] Amendment," 637. assert "seizure"; stands items (e.g., conversations) (a person) changed. people secure persons, houses, papers, (1967). gratuitous quotation 28:1, assumes residents fear sudden strangers. previously considered, rejected, ivory-towered real world experience residents, particularly members minority. generally Johnson, Race Decision Detain Suspect, Yale L.J. 214 (1983). sometimes fly scene crime apprehended guilty parties, appear witnesses. accepted axiom 'the pursueth, righteous bold lion.' Alberty 162 499, 864, 869, 1051 (1896). "[I]f pronounces runs escape (in technical sense) otherwise apprehending manifested completes apprehension, 'although instant.' "One undertakes attempts manner, asserted lays purpose. 263 "[E]ven other, liability privileged so.3 "3 privilege, other. Furthermore, contact, liable false imprisonment. Gold Bissell, Wend. 210 (N.Y.Sup.Ct.1828)." 201. recently people, places,' 351, wherever harbor 'expectation privacy,' 361, 516 (MR. HARLAN, concurring), entitled intrusion. Of specific content incidents shaped context asserted. 'what forbids seizures.' Elkins 206, 222, 1437, 1446, 1669 (1960)." 9, 1873. (1924), largely relies, decided argue moonshine whiskey abandoned. Brown Texas, 443 47, 2637, 357 (1979): detain briefly questioning, 'probable cause' activity, suspicion, facts, activity." 51, 2640 (citations heavily commentary essential teaching security respected full arrest—has consistently reaffirmed." 227, 1768, (1984) (Brennan, concurring part part). "5 Place, 462 696 [103 77 110] (1983); 716 2649] (BRENNAN, result); Texas Brown, 730, 747-748 1535, 1546, 502] (STEVENS, judgment); Chadwick, 433 13-14, [97 2476, 2485, 8, 538] (1977); Hale Henkel, 201 43, 76 [26 370, 379, 652] (1906). concept discussed follows oft-repeated Amendment—meaningful interference, brief, movement. Summers, 452 692, [101 2587, 2590, 340] (1981); Reid Georgia, 448 440, 2752, 2753, n., 65 890] (1980) (per curiam ); 551-554 1875-1877, 497] J.); [99 2640, 357] (1979); 878 [95 607] (1975); Cupp Murphy, 412 291, 294-295 [93 2000, 2003, 900] (1973); Davis Mississippi, 394 721, 726-727 [89 1394, 1397, 676] (1969); 16]." 113, 5, 1656, 5. "Petitioner argues police's petitioner particularized poison coercive, individual." 572, noted: "This pursuit, pursue [respondent], cut confront head on. rationale reasonably one's maneuver intended block 'otherwise direction speed' movement." 9. "To '[w]e balance quality importance alleged intrusion.' 1699, (citation "If shoots aggravated assault. results authorized all, arrester manslaughter extreme murder." L.Rev., 263-264. agreed shot [the suspect] him." 25, 1708 (O'CONNOR, prevent arbitrary oppressive officials individuals.' 1762 (quoting Martinez-Fuerte, 428 543, 96 3074, 3081, 1116 (1976)); 553-554, 1876-1877 (same); 12, 1875 ("Ever inception, excluding principal mode lawless conduct"); 11.4(j), pp. 459-460 1987) ("Incriminating admissions dispose incriminating predictable admit violations future cases"). Brandeis eloquently overarching Amendment: makers sought protect Americans beliefs, thoughts, emotions sensations. conferred, Government, let alone—the comprehensive valued civilized men. right, every unjustifiable Government individual, employed, deemed 478, (1928) lost sight Jackson presaged development "[T]he difficult protect. themselves chief invaders, court. be, am convinced are, homes automobiles incriminating, made, courts nothing, hear." 181, 1313 (Jackson, Least Dangerous Branch (1962).

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