Document: 350 U.S. 11 76 S.Ct. 1 100 L.Ed. 8 UNITED STATES of America, ex rel. Audrey M. TOTH, Petitioner,v.Donald A. QUARLES, Secretary the United States Air Force. No. 3. Argued Feb. 8, 9, 1955. Restored to Docket for Reargument June 6, See 349 949, 75 879. Reargued Oct. 13, Decided Nov. 7, [Syllabus from pages 12-13 intentionally omitted] Mr. William Kehoe, Jr., Washington, D.C., petitioner. Simon E. Sobeloff, Sol.Gen., respondent. Justice BLACK delivered opinion Court. After serving with Force in Korea, Robert W. Toth was honorably discharged. He returned his home Pittsburgh and went work a steel plant. Five months later he arrested by military authorities on charges murder conspiracy commit while an airman Korea.1 At time arrest had no relationship any kind military. taken Korea stand trial before court-martial under authority 1950 Act Congress.2 The Court Appeals, 94 U.S.App.D.C. 28, 215 F.2d 22, sustained Act, rejecting contention that civilian ex-servicemen like could not constitutionally be subjected court-martial. We granted certiorari pass upon this important constitutional question. v. Talbott, 348 809, 39.3 2 cannot power Congress 'To raise support Armies', declare War', or punish 'Offenses against Law Nations.' Art. 1, § 8.4 And assertion over civilians rest President's as commander-in-chief, theory martial law. Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 2, 124—127, 18 281. Government's is valid exercise Article I Constitution make Rules Government Regulation land naval Forces', supplemented Necessary Proper Clause.5 3 This has held clause just quoted authorizes subject persons actually armed service offenses.6 Later it jurisdiction exerted dishonorably discharged soldier then prisoner sentence imposed prior court-martial.7 It never been intimated Court, however, extended ex-soldiers who severed all its institutions.8 To allow extension would require extremely broad construction language used provision relied on. For given natural meaning, Rules' regulate 'the Forces' seem restrict are members part forces. There compelling reason construing way: expansion necessarily encroaches federal courts set up III where surrounded more safeguards than tribunals. provides establishment court system one separate but coordinate branches National Government. primary, indeed sole business these try cases controversies between individuals includes criminal cases. These presided judges appointed life, only removal impeachment. Their compensation diminished during their continuance office. provisions were designed give maximum freedom possible coercion influence executive legislative But Amendments Bill Rights show Founders satisfied leaving determination guilt innocence judges, even though wholly independent. They further provided person should answer those capital other infamous crimes unless presentment indictment grand jury drawn body people. Other protect defendants oppressive governmental practices included. One considered so liberty individual appears two parts Constitution. III, commands 'Trial Crimes, except Cases Impeachment, shall Jury * *.' Sixth Amendment 'In prosecutions, accused enjoy right speedy public trial, impartial State district wherein crime have committed ranks very high our catalogue safeguards.9 5 find nothing history treatment tribunals which entitles them rank along adjudicators people charged offenses they can deprived property. Unlike courts, primary armies navies fight ready wars occasion arise. soldiers maintain discipline merely incidental army's fighting function. extent responsible performance function diverted necessity trying cases, basic purpose served. conceding personnel degree honesty sense justice nearly undoubtedly have, still remains true probably constituted such way same qualifications deemed essential fair trials courts. instance, does provide life tenure performing judicial functions trials. commanders may removed at will. Nor salaries salaries. Strides made toward making courts-martial less will department appoints, supervises ultimately controls them. nature things, independence passing do 6 Moreover, there great difference selected 7 because training experience especially competent infractions rules. Such doubt particularly offense purely military, disobedience order, post, etc. whether wrong, premise underlying method determining laymen better specialists perform task. idea inherent institution jury. Juries fairly chosen different walks bring into box variety experiences, feelings, intuitions habits.10 juries reach completely conclusions reached single field, including field.11 On many occasions, fully known country, jurors—plain people—have manfully stood defense importunities despite prevailing hysteria prejudices.12 acquittal Penn illustrious example.13 Unfortunately, instances also cited jurors themselves betrayed cause verdicts based prejudice pressures. In circumstances independent appellate most place plan since aside convictions.14 9 here deprives sweeps 3,000,000 become veterans became effective. That number bound grow year year; now men women uniform.15 figures point what enormous scope holding every ex-serviceman woman alleged she member Every veteran passage punishable much five years' imprisonment court. need glance Military Code see vast thus brought jurisdiction.16 Included within murder, conspiracy, absence without leave, contempt officials, disrespect superior officers, willful neglectful loss, damage, destruction government property, false official statements, dueling, breach peace, forgery, fraud, assault, others.17 reference some offenses, minor ones, tried presidential order fixing punishment years.18 amelioration temporary, raised lowered President. present law if does. might changed Congress. Thus justification treating mere increase congressional expand jurisdiction. change, both potentially. 10 Fear expressed escape altogether service. fear warranted shared Judge Advocate General Army strong statement law.19 asked 'confer Federal denounced (military) code longer thereto. consistent fifth amendment Constitution.' tell 'If you expressly confer preserve separation civil save lot unmerited grief, clean, disposing cases.' conceded follow suggestion services. concession justified. U.S.Const. 2; see, e.g., Jones States, 137 202, 211—212, 80, 83, 34 691; Bowman, 260 94, 97—98, 43 39, 40—41, 67 149; Skiriotes Florida, 313 69, 73—74, 61 924, 927—928, 85 1193. argument, therefore, must all. If seen fit None reasons suggested sufficient justify grant itself empower deprive safeguards, we willing hold circumvent inferred through Clause. impossible think going disrupted, morale impaired, orderly processes disturbed, giving exservicemen benefit when civilians. impressed fact countries indulge practice subjecting once instead courts.20 12 dangers lurking sought avoided Free world narrowest absolutely maintaining among troops active Even late Seventeenth Century standing established institutions England.21 Court-martial sprang belief prompt, ready-at-hand means obedience order. improved court-martialing rather ex-soldier separated months, years perhaps decades. Consequently considerations excuse new expense normal preferable jury.22 13 Determining authorize presents another instance calling limitation least adequate end proposed.'23 They, civilians, entitled afforded regular authorized 14 Reversed. 15 REED, whom BURTON MINTON join, dissenting. 16 case question exserviceman apprehended him forces States. turns constitutionality applicable Uniform Justice, 64 Stat. 108, 50 U.S.C. 551 et seq., U.S.C.A. seq. acted case. 17 Whenever enactment cure weaknesses procedure declared unconstitutional ground lack power, door closed practical purposes forever deems effective correcting crime. Only overruling change today's determination. judgment announced loose, possibility man murder. future similar enacts substitute suggests, 21, face far scene understanding quality character possessed accustomed administer Justice. Or extradited foreign 19 A dissent justified, think, argument limit, degree, interpreting limitations judiciary Congress: venue requirements Fifth Amendments. appropriate but, custom, precedents express inapplicable 'cases arising forces.' 20 Toth, after Force, December 1952. April 1953, formal signed procedures required charging premeditated murder.1 specifications Airman First Class, September 27, 1952, air base victim named Korean national. 3(a) thereof provides: 21 'Subject article 43, having committed, status code, confinement Territory District Columbia, relieved amenability termination said status.' 109, 553(a), 553(a).2 22 May pursuant orders originally issued Acting 30, supplemental command channels, police employment Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 15, flown arrived 18, 1953. 23 situation petition habeas corpus filed relator. did ordered writ issue.3 produced court, whereupon discharge apprehend legal transport distant hearing. therefore found unnecessary objections petitioner invalidity 3(a). 114 F.Supp. 468. 24 appeal, Appeals Columbia Circuit reversed authorities. Talbott 22. necessary authorization machinery manner followed, amenable courtsmartial 25 enacted 5, 1950, careful study assure unified services accordance present-day standards fairness.4 adopted view decision Hirshberg Cooke, 1949, 336 210, 69 530, 93 621, Articles Navy, force, subsequent honorable 'without authority,' id., page 215, 533, although arose acts defendant near theft Germany Hesse crown jewels mind.5 thought serviceman's bar prosecution discipline.6 26 alternative jurisdiction, thorough presentations policy grounds appear committee report Congressional Record.7 well aware, Congress, unfavorable reaction misdeeds cover serious restricted guilty otherwise American Although I, cl. 14,8 Clause, doubtless violations former service, soil,9 chose 27 No accommodating citizen interpretation ambiguous arises. Compare Endo, 323 283, 300, 65 208, 217, 89 243. wisdom legislation. Its obvious assure, insofar so, proper conduct far-flung numerous lands. stress posts maintenance good relations friendly vanquished countries. seems reasonable choice uniform preferred disciplinary remain example difficulty trial. address ourselves 28 (a) embrace Code. holds ceases serviceman becomes civilian. Nothing, words justifies limiting services, period Certainly enlistment continue thereafter.10 covered circumstance detection being commission difference. 29 Courts-martial deeply rooted history. War grim business, requiring sacrifice ease, opportunity, restraint, action. Experience demonstrated capable prompt discipline. nations long exercised, Dynes Hoover, How. 65, 78—79, 838; Reed, 538. calls attention current background ours. Each allows varying conditions.11 Whether English 1789 exercised categorically asserted paucity seem, properly interpreted violated Surely read conclusion follow. bears relation 'Government Regulation' forces; plainly adapted end. McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 419 579. test power. 30 effort law, distinction 121, 123, 127, meet condemnation invasion citizen. Duncan Kahanamoku, 327 304, 66 606, 90 688; enforce regulation ensured. Disobedience occur nationally critical times. What refusing passed undiscovered period?12 Could draftee actual induction forces? none 1944. Then said, considering release claiming status: 31 'We enlist manpower nation war unwilling, eager, come hour peril. Arver 245 366, 38 159, 62 (Selective Draft Cases).' Billings Truesdell, 321 542, 556, 737, 745, 88 917. 32 violation regulations. 33 Judicial lends weight institute proceedings continues accused's discharge. 1863, prevent frauds punished fraud 'as adjudge, death.' 696—697, 1. Under dischargees.13 charge ruled 1866 Attorney Stanbery.14 section 1873. re Bogart, Fed.Cas.No.1,596, p. 796. note infra. apparently 1946 Southern New York, problem considered. Flannery Commanding General, 661, 664.15 noted Code, 4, 554, officer dismissed President request dismissal. first 1865, 12, 487, 489; Winthrop, Precedents (2d ed., Reprint 1920), 64, 65. 35 finds 'compelling reason' narrowly done Executive years. offers offenders offered courts-martial. use satisfactory life. adoption appeal presented there. But, due respect majority, assumed superiority force enact Belief opportunities conviction As opinion, commands. advantages disadvantages indictment, weighed determined adversely Court's living immaterial issue, 'dangers' 'lurking trials.' position logical declaring beyond rules personnel. Subsequent help strained unreasonable regulations 36 (b) Another arises, i.e., unlawful prosecutions Constitution.16 37 requires summary treatment. rights impartiality triers, information charge, confrontation, compulsory process witnesses assistance counsel issue. crime, previously ascertained impossibility intended apply forces' excepted protection Fifth. abrogate govern unanimously, 122, 281.17 Defendants forces, demand jury, soil district. Turning obviously events leading taking custody occurred enlisted. Relator limit She stresses phrase 'when service', shows Militia.' Johnson Sayre, 158 114, 773, 775, 39 914. Fifth, early amendments, citizens. Confederation, central Nation conversant problem. state conventions ratification Constitution, Massachusetts, Hampshire, York Rhode Island quite ones Congress.18 observed employ 'arise.' Three speak 'cases.' Since suggestions result consideration proposed concerning echo suggestions, reads, 'The Power extend Cases, Equity, Laws Treaties made, Authority When supra, 'case,' begin until serviceman, 'case concern liability contractors, party personnel, status.19 Because service-connected, contractors' unconstitutional. Henderson, Fed.Cas.No.6,349, pp. 1067, 1071. 40 word course, refer litigation—a complaint prosecution. us clauses consideration, facts action, series creates enforceable obligation. context final definition. Here arising' specific 'case' alone. gives several citations applying meaning contends.20 same.21 uses indicate duties created laws purpose. similar—to mark source action ripens charge. However be, 'arising' points litigation. claimed exist proceedings, nevertheless roots, arises stated Gully Nat. Bank, 299 112, 57 96, 97, 81 70, statute, suit arisen law: 41 immunity element, one, plaintiff's supported effect, defeated receive another. *' 42 exception left maintained reasons, out discussion repeated here. ask ourselves, 'What basis prosecution?' 'in dealing phase Amendment. attach discharge, Bogart case, Fed.Cas.No. 1,596, 796, 799: 44 'Among ordinary common definitions 'arise,' 'to proceed, spring,' whole article, proceeding, issuing springing service.' strengthened accord courts.22 45 (c) gainsay suthority adopt regard generally citizen's tyranny stake, withdrawn absolute necessity. full written Of protections strictly construed excluded minimum 17. Construction allowed emasculate 46 argued foregoing supports tendered rule construction. Granting affording exceptions discussed. punishment, analysis correct, servicemen, 47 relator phrases strongly her Toth's issue 'military dictatorship.' Though concedes desired absolution purpose, argues, override foreshadow forebodes petty included servicemen live lives Military. degrees harshness legislatures act reason. abuse ever probability obliteration tendency judicial, bear threat security citizens extravagant. today, Founding Fathers, methods carefully defined harsh hurtful liberty, open amelioration. veteran, let charges, must, impairs Now Constitutional reversal enable deal consistently violating agree result. accomplices convicted why proposed. 48 below affirmed. 49 MINTON, joins, add 51 My trouble don't full-fledged By 553, retained admittedly discovered minute 52 soldier. conditional only. clearly reserved provided. say invalid. 53 know retaining allegedly Kahn Anderson, 255 224, 469, that, courtmartial limits state. retention yet implied continuing warrant statute. remained virtue 118 140, 134, §§ 712 675, 712, 675. 3(a), proceeding sister Korea. Without carried 113 330, Id., Quirin, 317 63 87 3; Yamashita, 340, 499. 'No capital, Grand Jury, Militia, danger Congress; makes clear 838. 469. 1863 statute authorizing service; contractors 696. latter Lower disagreed validity tried. See, 1067; stipulation Second Circuit, 20235, 1946. 621. inmates Soldiers' Home Army. Dig.Op.J.A.G. (1912), 1010, 1012. 'such civilians.' Col. concededly 'this class statutes, terms inferentially formerly army, finally legally it, court-martial, alike 2d ed. (1896), 146. Department reprinted classic volume guidance 1920. 1920). declaration nine colonies 1765 contained statement: 'That invaluable British colonies.' Harvard Classics, Volume 148. Declaration Independence grievances King Great Britain colonists benefits 'affected render Civil power.' transported colonials 'beyond Seas pretended offences.' Chief Cooley said: jurors, alone, judge facts, weigh evidence. tribunal believed numbers, mode selection, casses society, calculated motives, probabilities, take called circumstances, involving intent, man, however pure, wise eminent be. law; applied accusations, eminently wise, favorable justice.' People Garbutt, Mich. 27. 'Juries mistakes: errors: gross ones. constantly are, errors mistakes dangerous system. native uprightness sentiments bent precedent authority. esprit du corps introduced them; nor society mischiefs, corps, unchecked, sometimes productive.' II Wilson's Works (Andrews 1896) 222. An outstanding Dean St. Asaph's Case, How.St.Tr. 847, discussed Stryker, Defense, 119—136. Mead's Howell's Trials 951. fined acquitting contrary court's instructions. imprisoned paying fine, Common Pleas released upholding decide Bushell's 999. Bureau Census, Current Population Reports, Series P—25, 101 (U.S. Dept. Commerce 1954). Arts. 77—134, 133—143, 671—728, 671—728. sweeping offense, death limitations, anyone '(2) intent overthrow lawful authority, creates, concert persons, revolt, violence, distubance sedition; (3) fails utmost suppress mutiny sedition presence, inform commanding knows believe place, failure sedition.' (Emphasis supplied.) Table Maximum Punishments, 127 c, MCM, 1951, Fed.Reg. 1364—1368. Hearings Subcommittee Senate Committee Armed Services S. 857 H.R. 4080, 81st Cong., 1st Sess. 256—257. Assistant Counsel Office chairman helped draft doubts House 2498, 881. historical country's preference impressively arguments 688. Macaulay, History England Accession James (London, 1855), 45. Sutherland writing Dimick Schiedt, 293 474, 485—486, 55 296, 300—301, 79 603, ancient origin, characterized Blackstone glory law' transcendent privilege enjoy' (Bk. 3, 379); and, Story (2 1779), '* justly obnoxious conclusive objection recognized confirmed solemn terms.' With, perhaps, exceptions, always been, is, regarded issues Maintenance fact-finding importance occupies firm jurisprudence seeming curtailment scrutinized care. Patton 281 276, 312, 253 (263), 74 854.' Anderson Dunn, 204, 230—231, 242. respectively 618, 618. D.C, 330. S.Rep. 486, Sess., H.R.Rep. 491, 2. 879—885. Durant Hiatt, 948. Both Reports remedy undesirable pointed decision. reports contain following sentence: committee, (Article 3(a)) subdivision desirable capricious actions authorities.' 11; 8. managers bill Senate. Representative Brooks 95 Cong.Rec. 5721 Senator Kefauver, 96 1358. Views urged floor prevail. 256—257; 1294, 1366, 1414—1417. 1294 was: hereby conferred according thereunder— '(1) terminated; Forces; Trial Jury; Crimes committed; State, Place Places directed.' 73, 927, 1193, cited; Chandler Cir., 171 921. Carter McClaughry, 183 365, 382, 181, 188, 236; Mosher Hunter, 143 745. Cf. 225, 469; Walker Morris, Jurist Magazine Section (Gt. Brit., Stats.Rev., 3d Vol. X, 457, 563—564; Office, Manual (P.I., 376—377) '(I) Where offence kept custody, offence, he, battalion belongs, ceased punished, continued subject: 'Provided mutiny, desertion, fraudulent enlistment, commences three outside Kingdom England, Attorney-General consents dates 1881. (Statutes) Vict. 260, 331. Defence Australia, 103(3), Commonwealth Acts, vol. (1901—1950), 1560, 1596; Canada, 56(2) (3), 68(f), Revised Statutes 3814 3821. Zealand (Army 127(1), Statutes, 370 371). Convention, already well-known Lord George Sackville Chief, Prince Ferdinand Brunswick, battle Minden. took dismissal King, II, submitted twelve composing Courts King's Bench, Exchequer, headed Mansfield, received advisory answer: your Majesty's commands, signified letter *, referring question, 'Whether army employment, triable Martial lately pay officer?' legality put above question.' ended reservation changing minds matter judicially presented, opinions. note, Eng.Rep. 941. Eden's Chancery App., 371. Trials, Martial—Sackville, 1760. directed recorded book regiment, American. prominence parties distinguished career Sackville, died 1785 advanced 1782 peerage Viscount Parliament, Irish Administration, Colonies, hardly escaped notice Convention. VII Dictionary Biography 1110; Smollett, 337; Tytler, ed.), 113. Op.Attys.Gen. 328. 521; Clode, Law, 92. noted, view. 105, admits him. comparable Edmund Morgan, Jurisdiction, Minn.Law Rev. 79, 83 (1920). problem, Myers Kaplan, Crime Punishment, Geo.L.J. 303 (1947); Note, Jurisdiction Discharged Servicemen: Constitutionality Protection, Harv.L.Rev. 479 (1954); Amenability Veteran Col.L.Rev. 977 (1946). heretofore hereafter employed afterwards shall, notwithstanding dismissal, liable dismissed.' War. Rev.Stat. (1878) 60, 235, (1946 Ed.) 1566, amended 641, 1200, 14, Eleventh, subd. 11, 5: 'It simply providing, certain contingencies, restoration contingencies happen.' 1848 Toucey, Army, mustered out. 55, 58. Palmer (1919), 521, 529. 328, 332. advised stipulation. Kronberg Hale, 180 128, 130. Amendment: danger; twice jeopardy limb; compelled witness himself, private property use, compensation.' informed accusation; confronted him; obtaining Witnesses favor, Assistance defence.' 'Another guarantee broken Milligan denied country differed correct various Constitution; often invoked settle meaning; recently doubted fortified organic attack. assailed; ideas words, right—one valuable free country—is preserved attached navy, militia sixth affirms jury,' enough cases; fifth, recognizing presentment, crimes, 'excepts militia, danger;' framers doubtless, meant amendment, fifth.' four concurred agreed majority point: government. understand application sphere former. 'What, then, sphere? armies; navy; governing navy understood time. 'Nor, judgment, abridge 'Cases danger,' 'that admitted applies amendments fifth. affected amendment.' Wall., 137—138. Haupt, treated 20, 24, 40, 44, -19, conclude whatever commission, petitioners, lawfully placed Commission jury.' 45, 19. Massachusetts: incur loss indicted arise Hampshire: York: (except impeachment) ought preliminary cognizable States; Island: 'That, hath accusation, accusers witnesses, call evidence, vicinage, whose unanimous consent guilty, forces,) evidence himself.' Elliot's Debates, 323, 326, 334. senator Howard, States?' enlisted Why law? Because, enters contract, agreement how, beg inquire, contractor engages furnish arms, equipments, munitions differ arms materials furnish?' Cong.Globe, 37th 953 (1863). Bevans, 336, 388, 404, waters arise'; Waring Clarke, 441, 466, 226, collision Mississippi river'; 'cause ocean.' 467. De Lovio Boit, Fed.Cas. 3,776, 418, 432, 434—435. 'This enables constitution, laws, treaties respecting assume form acting it. asserts prescribed constitution declares, States.' Osborn Bank 738, 819, 204. 'By claims litigants custom enforcement rights, prevention, redress, wrongs. claim term implies existence adverse contentions adjudication.' Pacific R. Commission, C.C., F. 241, 255. 'These adhered Muskrat 219 346, 356 (31 250, 253, 246), Aetna Life Insurance Company Haworth, 300 227 (57 461, 617).' Joly, 290 858; Terry 962; 128.

Category: 1