Document: 345 U.S. 594 73 S.Ct. 872 97 L.Ed. 1277 TIMES-PICAYUNE PUB. CO. et al.v.UNITED STATES. UNITED STATES v. al. Nos. 374, 375. Argued March 11, 1953. Decided May 25, [Syllabus from pages 594-596 intentionally omitted] Acting Solicitor General Stern, for the United States. Mr. Ashton Phelps, New Orleans, La., Times-Picayune Co. Edward O. Proctor, Boston, Mass., Post Publishing Co., amicus curiae, by special leave of Court. John T. Cahill, York City, 98 Newspapers Publishers Justice CLARK delivered opinion 1 At issue is legality under Sherman Act Company's contracts sale newspaper classified and general display advertising space. The Company in Orleans owns publishes morning evening Buyers space its publications may purchase only combined insertions appearing both papers, not either separately.1 States filed a civil suit Act, challenging these 'unit' or 'forced combination' as unreasonable restraints interstate trade, banned § 1, tools an attempt to monopolize segment commerce, violation 2.2 After intensive trial facts, District Court found violations sections law entered decree enjoining use unit related arrangements marketing space.3 In No. appeals merits Court's holding Act; Government, 375, seeks relief broader than decree. Both come directly here Expediting Act.4 2 Testimony voluminous record retraces history over twenty-five years.5 Prior 1933, four daily newspapers served Orleans. Item Company, Ltd., published Morning Tribune Item. was present owners, Daily independent organization, distributed purchased name, good will, circulation, States, continued publish it evenings. suspended publication 1941. Today Times-Picayune, Item, remain sole significant media dissemination news residents 3 distributes leading area, Times-Picayune. 1933 acquisition did include plant other physical assets; since States' absorption has utilized facilities at single printing distributing Unified financial, purchasing, sales administration, addition substantial personnel servicing publications, results further joint operation. Although adhere editorial policy, distinct features format differentiate 1950 data reveal average circulation 188,462 114,660 105,235 thus sold nearly many copies together. 4 Each sells various forms. Three principal classes are sold: classified, general, local display. Classified advertising, known 'want ads,' includes individual headings; also called national, typically comprises displays national manufacturers wholesale distributors brand-name goods; local, retail, generally publicizes bargains merchants selling public. From 1924 until Tribune's demise 1941, solely on plan which advertisers paid rate identical papers could alone. acquired offered optional be bought less sum separate rates each. Two years later adopted competitor, ads. were availed volume discounts 1940, but had combine order qualify purchases more 10,000 lines per year. Local ads early 1935 marketed still effective discount system determining bracket permitted cumulation linage placed well. 1950, however, eliminated all plans advertisers, instituted theretofore applied As result, cannot buy alone, must insert copy none. Against that practice Government levels attack grounded §§ Act. 5 outset denied Government's motion partial summary judgment se case went eventuated comprehensive detailed findings fact:6 though publisher, two with format, feature content, reaching reader groups Times- Picayune, twenty outdistanced pages, linage, 'dominant' Orleans; paper deemed essential desiring cover market. publishing field permits entry additional competitors, today competition meet. On hand their quest encounters media, such radio, television, magazines. Nevertheless, determined, adoption caused rise enabling enhance comparative position toward found, moreover, defendants system, economically enforceable against buyers because Times-Picayune's 'monopoly position,' 'restrain making untrammeled choice between purchasing space, substantially diminish competitive vigor Item.'7 6 basis findings, Judge held viewed tying (monopoly position' force upon advertisers.8 Postulating foreclosing competitors part market restrain trade within meaning effect tests reasonableness restraint, court percentage accounts unlawfully 'restrained.'9 Further, found: 'attempted afternoon represented those who required budgetary limitations financial inability newspapers.'10 7 Injunctive accordingly decreed. enjoined (A) any 'upon condition, expressed implied, purchaser will contract it;' (B) refusing sell separately each publishes; (C) using 'dominant 'to lower approximating (1) cost producing (2) comparable Orleans.' Hence appeals.11 8 newspaper, functioning our political recent suffered drastic economic decline. A vigorous dauntless press chief source feeding flow democratic expression controversy maintains institutions free society. Associated Press 1945, 326 20, 65 1416, 1424, 89 2013; cf. Wieman Updegraff, 1952, 344 183, 191, 215, 218, 219; Joseph Burstyn, Inc., Wilson, 343 495, 501, 72 777, 780, 96 1098. By interpreting citizen policies his government vigilantly scrutinizing official conduct administer state, stimulates discussion focuses public issues officials potent check arbitrary action abuse. Cf. Grosjean American 1936, 297 233, 250, 56 444, 449, 80 660; Near State Minnesota ex rel. Olson, 1931, 283 697, 716—718, 51 625, 631—632, 75 1357. press, fact, 'serves one most vital interests: different sources, facets colors possible. That interest closely akin to, if indeed same as, protected First Amendment; presupposes right conclusions likely gathered out multitude tongues, through kind authoritative selection. To this is, always be, folly; we have staked all.'12 Yet today, despite task society performs, number lowest point century's turn: 1951, 1,773 1,443 cities, compared 2,600 dailies 1,207 cities year 1909.13 Moreover, while 598 new braved 1929 373 during period—less half entrants survived.14 Concurrently, grown extinct: 81% paper; 11% publisher controlled all.15 year, therefore, 8% enjoyed clash among publishers provide. 9 Advertising mainstay business. Generally, two-thirds newspaper's total revenues brings about 44% revenues; general—14%; classified—13%; almost rest.16 Obviously, survive. And garnered 79% expenditures, 1951 mass cut newspapers' share down 34.7%.17 When 1949 announced forthcoming institution 180 morning-evening previously plan.18 Of broke into 38% when period closed. Forty-six entering dailies, encountered established rates; significantly, 46, 41 collapsed.19 Thus newcomer business calculated chances survival where taken hold. Viewed background rapidly declining business, becomes suspect 10 Tying arrangements, readily agree, flout Act's policy rule marts trade. Basic faith economy best promotes weal goods stand cold test competition; public, acting market's impersonal judgment, shall allocate Nation's resources direct course development take. '(t)ying agreements serve hardly purpose beyond suppression competition.' Standard Oil California 1949, 337 293, 305, 69 1051, 1058, 93 1371.20 conditioning commodity another, seller coerces abdication buyers' 'tied' product's insulates stresses open But intrinsic superiority product would convince freely choosing select others, anyway. '(i)n usual prospect reducing persuade adopt control supply device, whether conferred patent monopoly otherwise obtained, induce buyer enter one.' Id., page 306, 1058. Conversely, competing sellers attempting rival drastic: extent enforcer arrangement enjoys control, existing potential foreclosed offering up judgment; they effectively excluded marketplace. 11 For reason, fare harshly laws forbidding Federal Trade Commission Gratz, 1920, 253 421, 40 572, 579, 64 993, decided complaint charged steel ties jute bagging not, failed allege monopolistic state actionable 'unfair method competition' Act.21 Shoe Machinery Corp. 1922, 258 451, 42 363, 66 708,22 held, occupying shoe machinery industry, without more, violated Clayton lease machines types incidental supplies.23 Potential lessening competition, requisite illegality 3, automatically inferred seller's dominating position.' 457—458, 365; Sinclair Refining 1923, 261 463, 43 450, 67 746, extended principles Gratz gasoline tied pumps nominal rates, neither power nor harm shown. And, event, 'tie' voluntary take taking pumps. 474—475, 453. Indeed, merely prevented lessees dispensing lessor's brand means protecting goodwill branded gas. See Pick Mfg. Motors Corp., 299 57 81 4.24 bounds doctrine drawn International Business Machines 298 131, 701, 1085. meet specifications product, tabulating cards hitched computing machines, outlawed 'substantial' amount commerce indicated result. 289 136, 139, 703, 705.25 12 With decision Salt 1947, 332 392, 68 12, 92 wove strands past cases law's pattern. There leases patented industrial salt conditioned lessees' salt. unanimous affirmed adjudicating unlawful patents face monopolistic, albeit lawful, affected 'insignificant insubstantial'. 322 396, 15. followed matter doctrines evolved prior 'tying' cases. 304—306, notes 7—8, 1057—1058, 1371. 'unreasonable, se, foreclose market', survive principle underpinned decisions Movie cases, 'block-booking' copyrighted films lessors, Paramount Pictures, 1948, 334 156—159, 915, 928—930, 1260, well buyer's wielding lawful coerce concessions handicapped facing him another. Griffith, 100, 106—108, 941, 945—946, 1236. perceptible pattern emerges: restrained, violates narrower standards factor inferred. even monopolist whenever conditions met.26 case, transgresses minimally section registers Acts. Motion Picture Service 1953, 395, 361, 363; Cement Institute, 333 683, 690—694, 793, 798 800, 1009; Fashion Originators' Guild Commission, 312 457, 668, 61 706, 85 949. 13 can apply ingredients met. elected proceed Act.27 While specific illuminate designed subserve, e.g., Columbia Steel 507, note 7, 1107, 1114, 1533; 949, measure criteria stringent law. 297, 311—314, 1054, 1060—1062, 1371; 459—460, 366, 708. 14 Once granted insubstantial',28 critical case. occupied led linage. every dual trader interdependent markets; paper's content readers; readership turn This concerns markets. stands accused readers papers. dominance market, readership, decisive gauging plan. Lorain Journal 342 143, 149—150, 152—153, 181, 184—186, 162; supra, 166—167, 933—934; Indiana Farmer's Guide Pub. Prairie Farmer 1934, 293 268, 278—279, 55 182, 185 186, 79 356. 15 'market,' concepts economics, measured metes bounds. Nor does substance depend so flexible guide. Section outlaws monopolization 'appreciable part' irrespective involved. 151, 6, 185; 173, 936; Yellow Cab 225—226, 1560, 1564—1565, 91 2010.29 essence leverage; exploits dominant expand empire next. Solely testing strength lever, whole relevant assigned controlling weight. 524, 1122. 16 We do think Unlike copyrights supplied equivalent 'dominance' rest data.30 Excluding communications including inserted contains no evidence circumscribe 'market' defined habits mobility demand,31 hovered around 40%.32 Obviously magic inheres numbers; 'The relative command varies setting placed.' 528, 1124; National Lead 319, 352—353, 1634, 1649—1650, 2077. If shared equally 33 1/2%; absence copyright small increment circumstances disclosed33 confer which, conjunction 'not insubstantial' result offense Salt. 17 another consideration vitiates applicability determined newspapers, ownership control. consciously distinguished necessarily imply products So conclude involve speculation motivated considerations customer coverage; selections, effect, rested generic qualities differentiating daily, doubtless blanket coverage nothing suggests city's readers, evening, fungible potential.34 assume, 'bought' selfsame 'product' and, matter, 18 factual departure then manifest. common core adjudicated forced second desired resulting Here, place, time, terms indistinguishable advertisers; exists (in other); leverage excludes second, purposes same. (Indiana) 163, 176—178, 426—427, 926; Aluminum America, Cir., 148 F.2d 416, 424; compare 278 280, 185—186, short, rationale dispose challenged here. 19 tested prohibition '(a) restraint reasonable accompanied intent accomplish forbidden falls class illegal se.' 522, 1121, 1533. Since effects 105, 108, 944, 946, 1236; Patten, 1913, 226 525, 543, 141, 145, 333, way, yet object effect. express preclude deals realities, words. Masonite 1942, 316 265, 62 1070, 1078, 86 1461. Thus, 'do concession relieves being harsh one' otherwise, 397, 15, 20; see 156—158, 928—929, 1260,35 'open end' minimizes restraint. inquiry determine focus 'the controlled, remaining (and), springs requirements monopolize'. 527, 312—313, 1061 1062, 20 replete statistical data. available Court, assail far largest revenue producer three newspapers,36 consideration. Consequently, scrutinized possible effects. 21 Classified.—The absorbed totaled 2.72 million, 2.12 million.37 Equalizing relationship, countered adopting unit-rate rival. 2.84 2.35 lines. evenly matched, steadily increased lead. 3.52 million 1938, 3.76 1939; 2.23 2.18, respectively. fact 1938 advanced total; 1936 totals declined yearly, excepting 1940. 22 end publication;38 structure took form. first competitor 1.23 2.09 2.08 States; Item's accounted roughly 23% total. Ten approximately 20%: 2.17 lines, 8.91 comprising 4.36 4.55 Measured attrition comparable. 1941 37% papers' linage; 32%. ten years' rival's compulsory 3%; relation loss amounted 5%. 23 Display.—Because applicable become year's record. 6.84 3.04 1.93 1.87 Item; ran 73% total.39 One experience showed 7.37 apportioned 2.96 2.55 1.85 risen 75%. Compared 49% 42%. 24 reallocation too place.40 23.7% exclusively; 41%. 22.7% 5.8%, dropped 2% .4%. hand, 10.6%, 9.6% before, inserting rose 30.4% 39% following 51.6% exclusively 52.8% patronized 25 record's data, sum, demonstrate unduly extant four-cornered prevailed ascendancy soon became pitted plan, shrank remained. gradually 'classified' 1940 coincided reversal trend marking absolute Even hurt discernible True, recorded existence combination 7% Versus 2%. apparent incongruity simply explained: monthly months operation drew away States.41 reallocated constituent give Apparently proportionately greater 1949. 26 Meanwhile flourishes. preceding marked 75% growth Between 1946 25%. twice States.42 peak greatest provide 3i% revenues, demonstrated diminution shares might resulted losses exceeding 1%.43 1943 earned over.$1.4 net before taxes, latter transfer equity profit $600,000. alleged victim practices, appeared, doing 27 disclose demonstrably deleterious sure, statistics easily susceptible legerdemain, organized context factors validly translate raw logical cause find it, hack jungle can. It enhancement assailed better service prices, due superior planning initiative managerial skills;44 conversely, turned worse. certain practice, destructive abort unborn concern 107, 945, Tobacco 1946, 328 781, 814, 1125, 1141, 90 1975; 13, 1421, 2013. brought adjudicate statutory prohibitions clearly dispense difficult proof. Compare 311—313, met Sharman proscribed 20. Under broad directed restraints, guilt speculation; proved actual facts radiate future harm. 28 fall conceived achieve ends, legitimate aims predominantly Because antitrust strike nascent accomplished designs reached Socony-Vacuum 310 150, 224, 59, 60 811, 845, 84 1129; Trenton Potteries 1927, 273 402, 47 377, 381, 71 700. obviously counteract confronted rate. justified emulation another's A. E. Staley 324 753—754, 971, 974 975, 1338. certainly ambiguous intent, particularly planned injury crux charge. uncontradicted testimony reduce publisher's overhead costs.45 Approximately thirty operations necessary advertiser's line print. price ad low. processed 2,300 day. Certainly steps rationalize bespeak purposive 29 Similarly, apparently actuated 1950. time publishers, vast majority similar plans. Doubtless, long-tolerated acquire vested immunity prescriptive rights accrue prosecutor's delay. 225—228, 846—847. consideration, wholly irrelevant rather remains gauged. Ibid. did, devised novel restrictive scheme aligned itself industry's guide, legal particular be. weapon rivalry accounts. Lower milline visualized consequence attract utilizing advertisers' media.46 summary, shown record.47 30 occurred unless refusal except en bloc, constitutes Refusals sell, violate law.48 Though group boycotts, concerted refusals deal, run afoul kiefer-Stewart Seagram & Sons, 340 211, 214, 259, 261, 95 1533, long seller. Beginning Colgate 1919, 250 300, 39 465, 63 992, recognized right, 'neither exempt regulation.' 155, 187, 162. agreement, sellers' deal transgressed supra; Bausch Lomb Optical 1944, 321 707, 721—723, 805, 812—813, 88 1024; Eastman Kodak Southern Photo Materials 359, 400, 404, 684; Schrader's Son, 252 85, 99, 251, 253, 471; 808, 1138, 1575; Beech-Nut Packing 257 441, 453—455, 154—155, 307.49 Still, although much hedged Colgate's protects simple destroy limited dispensation confers. 31 view, bring 1. operating corporation, abandoned charge concert corporate officers.50 proceeding themselves elements dispositive 32 An insufficient showing completed demands act, 'for monopolizes unconscious what he doing', build mere now charged. 431 432; Swift 1905, 196 276, 279, 49 518. area nose success enhances probability supplies motivation forays. supra. unlike 162, forewent radio station manifested 'bold, relentless, predatory commercial behavior', id., 149, 184, remotely borne branch comprised allegations element cool control; deliberately operated detriment interfered distribution streets supports conclusions, seemed expansion; assumed allocations bookkeeping transactions significance; concluded obstruct street sought assure equal treatment vendors States.51 pillars collapsed support step aims, bear sustain 2. conclude, establish proceedings. Our adjudicates substantiate view Accordingly, reversed. 34 Reversed. 35 BURTON, whom BLACK, DOUGLAS, MINTON join, dissenting. 36 avoid 1236, enjoy complaint, need dependent entire 37 distinct, conceded complete acess uses unreasonably advertising. Insistence acceptance makes payment for, of, own inescapable access all-important columns paper. I agree presented. also, Fed.Rules Civ.Proc., 52(a), U.S.C.A., 'Findings set aside erroneous * *' disposition made majority, discuss Sundays Times-Picayune-States. alternatively Sunday Additionally, some 'over-the-river' area. parties attached significance exceptions mention them completeness. 'Every contract, form trust conspiracy, several foreign nations, declared illegal: *.' U.S.C. U.S.C.A. person monopolize, conspire persons, guilty misdemeanor, 2, district courts invested jurisdiction prevent (this Act); duty attorneys respective districts, direction Attorney General, institute proceedings violations. 4, 4. named officers. individuals appeals, died after filed, dismissed convenience refer former defendant 'Times-Picayune Company' 'Publishing Company.' D.C.E.D.La.1952, 105 F.Supp. 670. (Supp. V) 29, 29. Probable noted November 10, 1952. printed 1,644 exhibits degrees pertinence issues. R. 1252—1261. Fdg. 31; 678. 678—679. 681. light interpretation concepts, dispute activities sufficiently 'trade commerce' relating wide sweep Cf., Ass'n Real Estate Boards, 339 485, 70 711, 94 1007; Mandeville Island Farms Crystal Sugar 219, 996, 1328; Frankfort Distilleries, 661, 951; South-Eastern Underwriters Ass'n, 533, 1162, 1440; Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 82, 87 122; Learned Hand, J., Press, D.C.S.D.N.Y.1943, 52 362, 372, affirmed, Editor Publisher 1952 Yearbook Number, p. 17; Comment, Monopoly Newspaper Industry, Yale L.J. 948, 949 (1952), industry study. Ray, Economic Forces Factors Concentration, Journ.Q. (1952); Competition J. Marketing 444 (1951); Nixon, Concentration Absenteeism Ownership, (1945). Association, Mortality (Bulletin 5203, July 27, 1950). Demise mainly merger outright suspension publication. L.J., 950. 977. Some derive income miscellaneous sources job printing. 98% revenues. 27. Mass Communications (Schramm ed. 1949), 549; Printers' Ink, August 8, 35. Borden, Taylor Hovde, Newspapers, seq. (1946). 26. Comparison Bulletin, 14, tables Numbers Miller, Unfair Competition, 199 (1941); Lockhart Sacks, Relevance Determining Whether Exclusive Arrangements Violate Harv.L.Rev. 913, 942 Note, Col.L.Rev. 241, 246 (1949); Edwards, Maintaining 175—178 Watkins, Public Regulation Competitive Practices Enterprise, 220 (1940). 'Unfair methods hereby unlawful.' 45, 45. pleading, observed 'complaint intimation Warren, Jones properly obtain usually do; stated; ability, 428, 575. 'All question combination', 'out way'. 1918, 247 32, 38 473, 968, relied parties. 'It engaged make goods, wares, merchandise, machinery, supplies, commodities, unpatented, use, consumption, resale fix therefor, from, rebate upon, price, understanding lessee thereof commodities lessor seller, lease, sale, lessen tend create commerce.' 14. relates exclusive dealing cf., 1371, involved sales. condition practical arrangement. 135, 1085; Judson L. Thomson 150 952, 956; Signode Strapping 132 48, 52; Lord Radio D.C.1928, 565, 568. 473—474, 453, 746. Affirming, curiam, 1935, 641. 54; 958. Dealing raised considered here, pointedly observed: 'Anyone operates theatre town, acquires exhibit film, popular sense. maintained strategic position, monopoly, expanded cognizable (T)he power, lawfully acquired, gain advantage, unlawful. used begat feeble instrument indeed.' Levi, Two-Level Anti-Monopoly Law, Northwestern U.L.Rev. 567, 580—585 (1952). oral argument explanatorily referred informal 'commodity' (cf. 23, supra). Cong.Rec.App. 2336—2337. Fleetway, Interstate Transp. 761; Investors Diversified Services, D.C.1951, 102 645. views interpretation. restrained 30; 22. deciding, substantiality Gamco, Providence Fruit Produce Bldg., 194 484; White Bear Theatre 129 600. 'A patent, there substitutes article, least prima facie (market) control.' 307, 1059, 303, 1057; Oxford Varnish Ault Wiborg 83 764, 766; 943—944; 243 (1949). exist. meaningfully encompass infinite range. circle narrowly exclude variations turn; technical terms, whose 'cross-elasticities demand' small. Useful determination things, trade's characterization customers, example, markedly media. See, Frey, (2d 1953), cc. 15; Duffy, Media Markets 1951), 4; Hepner, Effective Advertising, c. passim (1946); Sandage, Theory Practice (3d 1948), XX, XXI. tables, 39, infra. situations together large individually practice. 361; 54. obviously, lesser ringed numerous smaller satellites accounting rest, mastery fierce sellers. 346—348, 1646 1648, 2077; 527—528, 1124, Fewness sellers, facilitate action. Fellner, Among Few, Stigler, Price, 228 (Rev. 1952.) survey (R. 1484) disclosed 27.6% home carrier subscribers subscribed Salt, lessee's match going price. That, thought, 'does stifling agreement competition. (lessor) times priority prices.' course, impose restrictions licensees elsewhere. specifying covers requirements, exclusion formality expressly saying so. 977, n. 43, These derived table below 1448): Linage Carried 1933-1950 Picayune Evening 1933...... 1,484,740 633,332 1,369,729 1,349,577 1934...... 1,344,479 642,347 1,185,832 1,142,753 1935...... 1,490,316 1,344,849 1,180,850 1,169,733 1936...... 1,789,838 1,786,773 1,308,983 1,298,880 1937...... 1,832,728 1,834,845 1,252,840 1,228,357 1938...... 1,761,830 1,759,477 1,113,160 1,113,115 1939...... 1,881,673 1,882,970 1,097,277 1,086,777 1940...... 1,954,535 1,955,117 1,277,140*1,248,712 1941...... 2,085,566 2,083,812 1,231,540 1942...... 1,954,870 1,957,057 910,275 1943...... 2,849,190 2,843,097 1,241,787 1944...... 3,021,616 3,027,236 1,857,741 1945...... 3,246,566 3,265,686 1,899,926 1946...... 3,930,313 4,083,664 2,181,640 1947...... 4,353,943 4,507,427 2,210,193 1948...... 4,501,599 4,664,403 2,437,268 1949...... 4,271,302 4,420,193 2,232,617 1950...... 4,357,713 4,549,238 2,166,518 discontinued (January 1941). explaining demise. therefore assume practices way linked newspaper. All 1450): Display 1949-1950 1949- Monthly Totals Jan........ 190,708. 130,761 110,940 Feb........ 231,656. 158,252 154,008 March...... 305,782. 205,740 183,383 April...... 295,603. 179,186 164,288 May........ 282,080. 171,509 177,725 June....... 275,249. 162,481 165,681 July....... 227,896. 136,380 133,669 Aug........ 180,019. 118,031 124,768 Sept....... 248,078. 154,362 151,187 Oct........ 291,072. 200,552 181,548 Nov........ 281,356. 173,898 157,516 Dec........_228,701._143,780 _165,741 Total. 3,038,200. 1,934,932 1,870,454 1950- 237,517. 171,564 176,184 Feb*. ...... 229,367. 166,536 167,309 283,568. 210,413 164,734 262,997. 199,803 162,523 276,036. 229,662 154,058 260,248. 222,657 170,420 213,550. 194,800 121,387 181,522. 176,400 115,256 241,167. 221,574 147,051 300,757. 293,723 158,052 265,956. 266,869 168,339 Dec........_211,735._196,794 _148,630 2,964,420. 2,550,795 1,853,943 Unit Feb. Data graphs 1453—1456. Records, (1950). 100,000 revealed typical (Editor Publisher, April 74): display.................. 37.24% display................ 16.98% advertising......... 14.60% Circulation.................... 29.47% 3% decline 14.6% display, responsible .78%. Morton 37, 822, 1196, composition inventory necessitated protection fractional stock 49, 829. 44 does, contain demonstrating (cost agate circulation) ranged $2.14 $1.96, corresponding $2.96 $2.58. 296, 1115. inference flows changed years. 45 1127—1129. 461—462 economies insertions. 46 461—464; absenteeism 97, 110—113 (1945), reactions rates. places emphasis memorandum prepared representatives, referring eliminate great contemporary, run, interests manufacturer.' pointed author explained 'in agencies favored rate, once agency selection recommendation advertiser, resist pressure change pointing impossible.' 675—676. explanation accords prevailing attitudes. 207—212 48 generally, Sell Control 58 1121 Klearflax Linen Looms. D.C.1945, 32. '(I)f city, eliminating station, conspired accept advertisements anyone advertised (Citing cases.) consistent hold already enjoying 'attempt monopolize' clause threatened 154, 50 Timken Roller Bearing 341 593, 598, 606, 974, 978, 1190; Nelson Supply Motorola, 200 911, 914; D.C.1950, 794, 799—800. 676—677, 680.

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