Document: 493 U.S. 411 110 S.Ct. 768 107 L.Ed.2d 851 FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION, Petitioner,v.SUPERIOR COURT TRIAL LAWYERS ASSOCIATION. SUPERIOR ASSOCIATION, et al., Petitioners, v. COMMISSION. Nos. 88-1198, 88-1393. Argued Oct. 30, 1989. Decided Jan. 22, 1990. Syllabus A group of lawyers in private practice who regularly acted as court-appointed counsel for indigent defendants District Columbia criminal cases agreed at a meeting the Superior Court Trial Lawyers Association (SCTLA) to stop providing such representation until increased members' compensation. The boycott had severe impact on District's justice system, and government capitulated lawyers' demands. After returned work, petitioner Federal Trade Commission (FTC) filed complaint against SCTLA four its officers (respondents), alleging that they entered into conspiracy fix prices conduct constituted unfair methods competition violation § 5 FTC Act. Declining accept conclusion Administrative Law Judge (ALJ) should be dismissed, ruled was illegal per se an order prohibiting respondents from initiating future boycotts. Appeals, although acknowledging "classic restraint trade" 1 Sherman Act, vacated order. Noting meant convey political message public, court concluded it contained element expression warranting First Amendment protection that, under United States O'Brien, 391 367, 88 1673, 20 672, incidental restriction could not justified unless no greater than essential important governmental interest. Reasoning this test satisfied by application otherwise appropriate rule, but instead requires enforcement agency prove rather presume evil which antitrust laws are directed looms condemns, remanded determination whether possessed "significant market power." Held: 1. Respondents' horizontal arrangement among competitors unquestionably naked price output laws. proffered social justifications trade do make any less unlawful. Nor is respondents' agreement outside coverage Eastern Railroad Presidents Conference Noerr Motor Freight, Inc., 365 127, 81 523, 464, simply because objective enactment favorable legislation. doctrine does extend boycotts designed exact higher genuinely intended influence agree conspirators' terms. Allied Tube & Conduit Corp. Indian Head, 486 492, 503, 108 1931, 1939, 100 497. Pp. 421-425. 2. immunized regulation NAACP Claiborne Hardware Co., 458 886, 102 3409, 73 1215, held prevented State politically motivated civil rights boycott. Unlike upheld Hardware, undenied gain economic advantage those participate. Id., 914-915, S.Ct., 3426-3427. 425-428. 3. Appeals erred creating new exception, based supra, liability rules having expressive component. court's analysis critically flawed least two respects. First, exaggerates significance "expressive component" boycott, since every concerted refusal business with potential customer or supplier has Thus, rule requiring courts apply "prudently sensitivity," Appeals' words, whenever would create gaping hole fabric Second, denigrates importance law violated. implicit assumption permit, require, condemnation fixing without proof power error, since, product judicial interpretation nevertheless have same force effect other statutory commands. also assuming categorical prohibitions "only" "administrative convenience" serve substantial interest price-fixing actually possess power. reflect longstanding judgment poses some threat free even if participants themselves control prices. 428-436. 272 U.S.App.D.C. 272, 856 F.2d 226 (CADC 1988), reversed part remanded. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion unanimous respect Parts I, II, III, IV, V VI REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, concurring dissenting part, MARSHALL, joined, post, p. 436. BLACKMUN, 453. Ernest J. Isenstadt, Washington, D.C., F.T.C. Willard K. Tom, Ass'n, al. Justice STEVENS Court. Pursuant well-publicized plan, represent questions presented violated Act and, so, protected Constitution.1 2 * burden competent substantial. During 1982, represented defendant approximately 25,000 cases. In most serious felony cases, generally provided full-time employees Public Defender System (PDS). Less misdemeanor about 85 percent total caseload. these were appointed compensated pursuant Criminal (CJA).2 3 Although over 1,200 registered CJA appointments, relatively few work regular basis. appointments went described "CJA regulars." These derive almost all their income representing indigents.3 fees paid amounted $4,579,572. 4 1974, created Joint Committee Judicial Administration authority establish rates compensation exceeding established federal 1964. 1970, $30 hour time $20 out-of-court time. See 84 Stat. 916, codified 18 U.S.C. 3006A (1970 ed.). accordingly capped payable lawyers, exceeded absent amendment either statute Code. Bar organizations began early 1975 express concern low lawyers. Beginning respondents, officers, bar groups sought persuade increase $35 hour. Despite what appeared uniform support bill, did pass. It true, however, nothing record indicates caused actual shortage denied effective defendants. 6 August 1983, SCTLA, Mayor expressed his sympathy firmly indicated money available fund increase. events giving rise litigation then ensued. 7 At meeting, voted form "strike committee." eight members committee promptly met informally "that only viable way getting signing up take aim $45 $55 in-court rate schedule." re Assn., 510, 538 (1986). 8 On 11, resolved after September legislation passed date. Immediately following prepared (and them signed) petition stating: 9 "We, undersigned practicing Columbia, we granted our hourly will cease accepting Act." 276, 226, 230 (1988). 10 6, 90 percent4 regulars refused assignments. Thereafter, arranged series attract attention news media obtain additional support. well publicized engender editorial comment, found "there credible evidence eventual capitulation demands made response public pressure, or, matter, publicity campaign engendered significant measure pressure." F.T.C., 543.5 11 As participating anticipated, assignments system. massive flow abate,6 need prompt investigation preparation ease. ALJ found, one replace regulars, makeshift measures totally inadequate. days deadline, PDS swamped handful continued soon overloaded. overall uptown call help feeble, reflecting universal distaste law, special aversion compelled indigency representation, near epidemic siege self-doubt ability handle field, underlying Most student volunteers initially observed later limited (as usually are) minor misdemeanors" (footnotes omitted). 544. 12 Within days, key figures system "became convinced brink collapse cases." Ibid. 15, hand-delivered letter describing why situation expected "reach crisis point" next week urging immediate bill increasing strike offered temporary level subsequent permanent 13 noon 19, attended offer end city council's Judiciary convened o'clock afternoon. recommended $35, council unanimously 20. 21, subsided. II 14 (respondents) "entered restrain refusing compete program beginning program." 511. alleged virtually attorneys joined agreement. characterized "a boycott" engaged "unfair Section Act."7 15 3-week hearing, facts been proved, rejected each three legal defenses—that adequately obtaining better defendants; method petitioning legislative change exempt decision 464 (1961); action 1215 (1982). dismissed officials, presumably victim recognized net beneficial. more enabling reduce caseloads provide clients. "I see point," he concluded, "in striving resolutely triumph sensitive area when particular case can disposed pragmatic basis—there harm done." 561. 16 ALJ's moderation favor FTC. Like ALJ, defenses. "coercive, deal" "purpose raising prices" se. 573. conclude harmless, noting "boycott forced sufficient adequate supply satisfactory respondents. must, result spend $4 million $5 year services indigents. We find anticompetitive effects resulting conduct." 577. Finally, determined supported event excuse violations. Accordingly, cease-and-desist "to prohibit another . become dissatisfied results pace city's process." 602. 17 recognizing protection, "constituted classic within meaning Act."8 U.S.App.D.C., 280, F.2d, 234. persuaded reliance Noerr, argument improve quality "the contain protection." 294, 248. noted historically used dramatic means large. therefore 672 (1968), This test, reasoned, required "prove condemns." 296, 250. Because implications unique holding, FTC's certiorari cross-petition. 490 1019, 109 1741, 104 179 (1989). 19 consider first cross-petition, contends scope Amendment. turn petition. III Reasonable may differ wisdom proceeding. dissent file so demonstrates. So, too, creative conclusions Appeals. served cause worthwhile unpopular. assume preboycott unreasonably low, produced Moreover, given neither nor command appeal electorate, there Congress amended statute. assumptions case, task pass upon utility agreements. 21 FTC, agreed, such, prohibition Cement Institute, 333 683, 694, 68 793, 800, 92 L.Ed. 1010 (1948). Prior another, deciding independently how often rates.9 implemented indeed, offered. "This constriction essence 'price-fixing,' accomplished agreeing price, decrease quantity demanded, output, offered." "naked restraint" output. National Collegiate Athletic Assn. Board Regents Univ. Okla., 468 85, 110, 2948, 2965, 82 70 (1984). 22 is, course, true purchases constitutional duty likewise increased. Yet acceptable justification unlawful trade. remarked before, "Sherman reflects ultimately produce lower prices, goods services." Society Professional Engineers States, 435 679, 695, 98 1355, 1367, 55 637 (1978). "recognizes elements bargain—quality, service, safety, durability—and just cost, favorably affected opportunity select alternative offers." That equally advocacy, engineering design, issue. 23 thus policy "precludes inquiry question good bad." argument, like petitioners Engineers, asks us permissible seeks set reasonable. But settled shortly "is fixed See, e.g., Trenton Potteries 273 392, 397-398, 47 377, 379-380, 71 700 (1927); Trans-Missouri Freight 166 290, 340-341, 540, 558-559, 41 1007 (1897)." Catalano, Inc. Target Sales, 446 643, 647, 1925, 1928, 64 580 (1980). 24 Our detracts conclusion. "considered prohibited waged railroads" "designed foster adoption destructive trucking business, atmosphere truckers general impair relationships existing between customers." U.S., 913, 3425. Interpreting light Amendment's Petition Clause, "at insofar railroads' toward action, legality purpose had." 139-140, 530-531. 25 course remains "no predicated mere attempts passage laws," id., 135, 528, defendants' sole impose competitors, 138-140, consequence action; while lasted precisely consequences during period enacted. desired truckers' competition; emergency put restraint. 26 Indeed, theory largely 497 "every effort action." 1938. explained: 27 "If then, example, enter agreements long wished propose ratemaking supports. Georgia Pennsylvania R. Co. 324 439, 456-463[, 65 716, 725-729, 89 1051] (1945). Horizontal conspiracies advantages ground Evans, 316 159 [62 972, 86 1346] (1942). Firms claim immunity restrictions dramatize plight industry spur IV 28 argues nonetheless arose black citizens boycotted white merchants County, Mississippi. sued state recover losses "right regulate activity justify complete nonviolent, effectuate guaranteed Constitution itself." 914, 3426. nonviolent petitioners' activities entitled Amendment." 915, 29 it, boycotters vindicate rights, enjoy similar protection. clear association's efforts publicize explain merits cause, lobby officials enact legislation—like Hardware—were fully curtail activities, reasoning condemned activities. 30 prohibits further receive compensation; involved differs decisive respect. Those themselves. They Port Gibson, Mississippi, victims political, social, discrimination many years. equal treatment constitutionally entitled. struggled consistently treated second class citizens." 912, observed, destroy legitimate competition." Equality freedom preconditions market, commodities haggled it. 31 cannot said attorney's fees. recently pointed out, applicable conducted "stand profit financially lessening market." 508, 1941.10 No matter altruistic motives been, undisputed services. Such category expressly distinguished itself. 3426-3427.11 32 Only well-settled validity various "peaceful, [Mississippi] protection.12 reaffirmed government's "power [such] activity." 912-913, 3425-3427. applies economically participants. 33 plain exceptions derived For reasons reject arguments 34 crafted exception rules, provoked (1968). O'Brien burned Selective Service registration certificate steps South Boston Courthouse. He before sizable crowd advocating antiwar beliefs. affirmed conviction. regulating "nonspeech element" freedoms.13 Specifically, statute's O'Brien's necessary Government's registrants valid certificates continually available. 35 However, component 279-280, 233-234, "special solicitude rights" communicative prove, merely presume, imposed requirement government, inapplicable 36 There critical flaws analysis: Implicit unstated component, 37 much outcome sound. uniquely purely administrative efficiency. adhering sometimes satisfy making might damage. Albertini, 472 675, 688, 105 2897, 2906, 536 (1985) ("The neutral incidentally burdens speech party allowing threaten interests"). efficiency interests unusually compelling. avoid necessity incredibly complicated prolonged entire history involved, related industries, determine large unreasonable." Northern Pacific 356 1, 5, 78 514, 518, 545 (1958). If small parties "were allowed lack power, right, introducing enormous complexities definition case." Bork, Antitrust Paradox 269 reasons, possible doctrine, itself rests O'Brien,14 exhausts statutes. 38 event, characterization Every level, must exchange views objectives them. blatant, communication, surely reason viewing solicitude. terms boycotters' upon, communicated target: "[W]e you ask." unique. contrary, hallmark 39 third communicate enlist objectives; extent newsworthy, facilitate ideas. Publicity generated sufficiently newsworthy. Some including here, newsworthy prohibited: harms matters concern. Certainly removing prohibition. 40 sum, sensitivity" characteristics meriting exemption law. Equally error rules. opinion, assumed power.15 'administrative convenience efficiency,' command." 295, 249. statement contains errors. are, interpretations indeed convenience," concerns. practices nature Jefferson Parish Hospital No. Hyde, 466 2, 16, 1551, 1560, 80 42 explained generates 43 "two complementary categories analysis. whose plainly elaborate study needed illegality—they 'illegal se.' competitive evaluated analyzing peculiar restraint, imposed." 692, 1365. 44 "Once experience kind enables predict confidence condemn applied conclusive presumption Arizona Maricopa County Medical Society, 457 332, 344, 2466, 2473, 48 45 purposes analogous stunt flying congested areas speeding. Laws setting speed limits State's protecting human life property. Perhaps violations harm. doubt experienced drivers pilots operate safely, speeds, average citizen. 46 especially skilled paint messages cars, attach streamers planes, High speeds unusual maneuvers draw messages. enforced persons harmful dangerous. rooted convenience. supported, observation speeder pilot community. An unpredictable overwhelm skills best driver pilot, proposed entirely prudent initiated. bad going slowly dangerous quickly, obeys safer still. So fixing.16 market. participant obviously, likely persistent damage participant. Other act quickly effectively participant's place. inertia information failures, conspirator able impede time.17 Given circumstances luck, enough inflict real injury consumers competitors.18 49 Douglas oft-quoted footnote Socony-Vacuum Oil 310 150, 60 811, 1129 (1940), opinion: 50 "Price-fixing aimed elimination competition. fact necessarily mean combination. effectiveness dependent factors, tactics, position industry, formula pricing policies. Whatever thought have, permit reasonableness. banned central nervous economy." 225-226, n. 59, 846, 59. 51 351, 23, 2476, 23. 52 Of pernicious others; partly successful, succeed buttressed causative influence. disclosed harmless—when overwhelming testimony demonstrated administration achieved goal—is flatly inconsistent jurisprudence. Conspirators achieve dimensions monopoly, degree already record, warrant 53 boycott.19 proceedings consistent opinion.20 54 ordered. whom MARSHALL joins, part. 56 holds today (SCTLA Lawyers), collectively compensation, clearly automatically With I agree.1 Part maintains (FTC Commissioner) implicated concerns countenance reasoning, examination reduces Court's assertion airplane reckless automobile driving categorically harmful, ante, 433-434, subject illegality inquiring prevent. non sequitur freedoms majority's entails. believe insensitive venerable tradition respectfully opinion. 57 Free Speech Clauses guarantee right persuades adopt through ideas message, attach. "There one, yet performed concert others, them." Citizens Against Rent Control/Coalition Fair Housing Berkeley, 454 434, 437, 492 (1981). group's use coerce liability. 58 difficult untangle determining brought bear government. thoughtfully analyzed problem correctly, showing raise profitably generally, capacity actor perfectly reasoned "[w]hen ignores [United v.] 'no essential' preserve sclerotic combination." 249 (1988) (quoting 1679, (1968)) (emphasis original). judge added wielded succeeded out persuasion 300, 254 (opinion Silberman, J.). approach quite sensible, affirm remand A. 59 issue ever punished 45(a)(1), Amendment; rather, illegal. Two well-established premises lead ineluctable applying searching, case-specific reason. illegality.2 written: 61 "The costs judging reason, reduced recognition Once unreasonable. application, match presumed imperfect. sake certainty efficiency, tolerated invalidation fullblown proved reasonable." 343-344, 2472-73, (1982) added; footnotes 62 freely admitted subjected rule-of-reason Maricopa, 16; Continental T.V., GTE Sylvania 433 36, 50, 97 2549, 2557, 568 (1977); Topco Associates, 405 596, 609, 1126, 1134, 515 (1972). 63 broad certain engaging particularized examination.3 perceptively evidentiary shortcut inappropriate served, debate." "Government manner portion advance goals"; ensure content based, narrowly "focuses source evils [State] eliminate." Ward Rock Racism, 491 781, 799, 7, 2746, 2758, 661 "narrowly tailored" Trustees N.Y. Fox, 469, 478, 3028, 3033, 106 388 (1989); Frisby Schultz, 487 474, 485, 2495, 2501, 101 420 "Broad prophylactic suspect." Button, 371 415, 438, 83 328, 340, (1963). Speiser Randall, 357 513, 1332, 1460 (1958), invalidated taxpayers tax bore proving advocate overthrow Government. taxpayer unconstitutional compelling stake short-cut procedure inevitably suppressing speech." 529, 1344. More recently, imposing newspaper publication embarrassing truthful "negligence " theory. Florida Star B.J.F., 524, 2603, 443 language instant sweep" standard where "liability follows publication," "case-by-case findings" 539, 2612. Similarly, hold ignore factual employing guise rule. B success Lawyers' attributable persuasiveness coercive force. When generate legislation, target. Here, demand (CJA) Sixth How decisions Mayor, council, status Government well. recognized, 572-574 (1986), typical functions transforming single monopolistic entity restricts increases price. Indiana Federation Dentists, 476 447, 459, 2009, 2018, 445 (1986); Oklahoma, 109-110, 2964-2965, 66 completely different: consumer services—the government—to altering preferences officials. perceived fiscal austerity, pay received voters, whatever drew residents convince inclined augment risking futures. Applying complex possibility goal driven improved cartel-like supply. "it [was] lacking [the Lawyers] procured changing attitudes attending boycott," 297, 251, surrounding dissipate opposition previously encountered." Ibid.4 majority reach contrary disregarding defense levels enjoyed bar, judiciary, 67 appears recognize, 421, low. City hardly reached different time, despite 147 Consumer Price Index, remained 1983. Calculated 1970 dollars, earned $7.80 $11.70 contrast, 1983 billing major metropolitan years $123 hour, $64 App. 86-1465 (CADC), pp. 678-679, 807. Even receiving Equal Access 2412(d)(2)(A)(ii) (1982 ed.), obtained $75 upward adjustments still larger sums. Chairperson Implement testified "generally, present cover office overhead expenses devoted Act: Hearings H.R. 3233 Subcommittee Courts, Civil Liberties, House Judiciary, 98th Cong., 1st Sess., (1983) (statement Hon. Thomas MacBride). David B. Isbell, president, warned "unrealistic unreasonable hampered D.C. attracting retaining numbers qualified counsel." 306. community became concerned 1975. Report Defense Services Circuit (Austern-Rezneck Report) prevailing "drove talented practice, encouraged job 275, 229. Austern-Rezneck $40 spent court, ceiling $800 $1,000 case. 'the absolute minimum assure render clients.' 84). 69 March Study issued Horsky Report, identical Senate Governmental Affairs, Print 98-34, Sess. (1983). Legislation $50 introduced Council, died 1982 hearing. lobbying levels. Chief Moultrie Court, Herbert Reid, Wiley Branton, Dean Howard University School. told representatives deserved money, declined implemented, called decide legality. Reid informed sympathetic Moultrie. Branton advised 'something get relief.' Council Chairman Clarke new, ambitious wide variety hearing Committee, consensus rates.5 though Executive Office Courts worried "Mayor Barry goals supportive itself," 35, statements interpreted "as encouraging [Trial stage demonstration muscle easily public." 298, 252, 35. 72 Taken together, strongly suggest climate vote opposition, lacked exert pressure. below very exclude due 251. permits violate laws, triggered effects. forecloses approach. concludes enjoined damage." Ante, 430 (citing (1985)) added). draws analogy proscriptions stunt-flying driving. 433-434. flawed. 74 beyond peradventure applicability speech; arrest newscaster traffic violation," offend Arcara Cloud Books, 478 697, 708, 3172, 3178, (1986) (O'CONNOR, concurring). Neither concerns.6 Schneider State, 308 147, 146, 155 (1939), address unconnected speech, leave open ample channels communication. 802-803 [109 2760]; Frisby, 483-484, 2500-2501; Clark Community Creative Non-Violence, 288, 293, 3065, 3067, 221 (1984); Metromedia, San Diego, 453 490, 552, 2882, 2915, 800 (1981) (STEVENS, part); Heffron International Krishna Consciousness, 452 640, 648, 2559, 2564, 298 content-neutral regulations room not. role too central, avenues few, invoke 75 Expressive principal communication birth Republic. "boycotts communicating anger disapproval mobilizing cause." From colonists' protest Stamp Townsend Acts Montgomery bus Organization Women's encourage ratification Rights Amendment, played Nation's discourse. recent supermarkets, meat, grapes, iced tea cans, soft drinks, lettuce, chocolate, tuna, plastic wrap, textiles, slacks, animal skins furs, products Mexico, Japan, Africa, Soviet Union. Missouri Women, 620 1301, 1304, (CA8), cert. denied, 449 842, 122, (1980); Note, Colum.L.Rev. 1317, 1318, 1334 soapbox oratory streets parks, traditional "communicating thoughts citizens" "discussing questions." Hague Industrial Organization, 307 496, 515, 954, 964, 1423 (1939) Roberts, Any scrutinized care historic mode expression. Cf. Perry Education Local Educators' 460 37, 45, 103 948, 794 76 observes "an sense plans 431. feature alone immune scrutiny Otherwise, never schemes. point concur majority. concerns, rule.7 disagrees function coverage, interviews, ancillary 426. notes open, "[p]ublicity newsworthy." 77 involves "constitutionally 911, 3424, expression, today. "[t]he assembly, association, petition, 'though identical, inseparable' combined (citation am surprised now finds speech. "[t]hrough exercise the[ir] bring change." SCTLA's motivation differed 426-427, former supplement own salaries remedy racial injustice. expressive. Next, correct substantial,8 414, strove mightily indication relied win economically. only, principal, powerful idea: deteriorated much, speaking, willing forgo livelihoods return work. 79 By sacrificing desired, inflicting hardship city, intensity feelings depth commitment. passive nonviolence King Gandhi resolute acceptance pain dedication righteousness eloquently words could. hunger strike, conveys emotional editor, conversation mayor, march. Cohen California, 403 26, 91 1780, 1788, 284 (1971) (First protects "not capable precise, detached explication, inexpressible emotions well"). respect, Branton's advice Lawyers—that "something attention"—was sage indeed. Another irreplaceable "poorly financed causes little people." Martin Struthers, 319 141, 862, 865, 87 1313 (1943). accident American colonists throw off British yoke oppressed assert rights. supra. organizational techniques interests, route Underlying apprehensions really other, demise area. share fears. readily distinguishable concerned, suggested majority: "communicate objectives." seen, likelihood means. involve features solely level. Very seek notoriety both escape detection wider audience Furthermore, noted, differences parties. App.D.C., options not; suit, body terminate pro bono. achieves goal, owes vitality moreover, misplaced, growing number group-boycott 458-459, 2017-2018; Northwest Wholesale Stationers, Stationery Printing 284, 293-298, 2613, 2618-2622, 202 (1985); 101, 2960; Broadcast Music, Broadcasting System, 441 9-10, 99 1556-1557, (1979) (criticizing "[l]iteralness overly simplistic overbroad").9 bright line separating Rule Reason Per require considerable conditions justifies 104, 2961, 26. short, preclude insurmountable difficulties enforcement. distinguishes subjects dissent. join But, BRENNAN's dissent, write separately my findings concerning Lawyers) warranted litigation. BRENNAN notes, legislature, bodies Bar—including SCTLA—to Attorneys services; court. Their conscience, enforceable condition contempt. Powell Alabama, 287 73, 55, 65, 158 (1932) ("Attorneys bound service required" appointment); Accetturo, 842 1408, 1412-1413 (CA3 1988); Waters Kemp, 845 260, 263 (CA11 1988).* gesture fortified coerced meet brute force, i.e., constricting drive Instead, choice exercising break factors relevant economic: forcing unpopular, because, turned boycott; opposed increase, welcomed appearance expedient "emergency." buys compel sellers provide, persuasion. invokes reverse 5(a)(1) 719, amended, provides: "Unfair affecting commerce, deceptive acts declared unlawful." "Congress shall respecting establishment religion, thereof; abridging press; people peaceably assemble, redress grievances." D.C.Code §§ 11-2601—11-2609 third-year students serving noted: "Because practice—its hours away (assuming lawyer office), deadlines courts—CJA ordinarily appear side court." 522, most" 542, 173. finding accepted Commission). implicitly accepted. 251 rely finding, note, endorsed attributing 572, 69. seem embody reversal pressure publicity. "During 20, daily weekday lock-up list Saturday list." 543, 183. Commissioner Pertschuk dissented unwise scarce resources. not, disagree alleged. 512-513. 209, "Every contract, combination trust otherwise, conspiracy, commerce several foreign nations, person contract engage hereby deemed guilty felony, conviction thereof, fine dollars corporation, person, hundred thousand imprisonment years, punishments, discretion found: '[T]he purchase indigents competition, individual needs competes purchasers offering acknowledgement fee 'necessary attract, retain, lawyers.' attracted fulfill obligation, attractive. fact, apparently amount needed.' 278, 232. correctly 'competitors' supplying customer, capable, service. buyers commodities, prefers suppliers alter anti-competitive protect negotiate transaction individually, posting come forward. assigned origin here services, voters street paving irrelevant restrained except conclude, Commission, 'restraint trade' 1." 281, 235 (footnote "In [Claiborne Hardware] organized Advancement Colored People leaders comply equality justice. merchants, desire lessen reap benefits vindicating lying heart Constitution, stand partially petitioner's stood respondent compete." Corp., 508-509, 1941. Respondents contend secure freedom, dimension. prosecution basis intent, age-old argument." Cullen, 386, 392 (CA7 1971). immunizing sincere authorize contractors nearly circumvent obligations. "A voluntary disruptive local conditions. strong forms regulation, association. Giboney Empire Storage Ice 336 [69 684, 93 834 (1949) ]; NLRB Retail Store Employees, 447 607 [100 2372, 377 (1980) ]. entities 'associate' suppress curtailed. 679 [98 (1978) Unfair restricted. Secondary picketing labor unions prohibited, 'Congress' striking delicate balance union employers, employees, remain participation industrial strife.' 617-618 2378-2379] (BLACKMUN, part). Longshoremen International, 456 212, 222-223, [102 1656, 1662-1663, ]." 'speech' 'nonspeech' conduct, nonspeech limitations freedoms. [W]e think Government; furthers interest; unrelated suppression expression; furtherance interest." 376-377, 1678-1679. (1984), rationale burdensome situations great unjustified conduct. 350-351 2476-2477, 48] (1982)." 15-16, 25, 1559-1560, 25. overlooked part" footnote, text condemnation." 1560. paragraph demonstrates, incorrectly convenience: power; acknowledges brief, command. Brief 39; Dist. [104 1560 2] While occasionally overinclusive, condemning ineffectual known danger socially beneficial arrangements rarely, ever, redeeming virtues. hapless Professor Areeda charged conspiring 'have moral standing say tried mistaken so.' VII P. Areeda, ¶ 1509 (1986)." cartels tempting businessmen society. conceivable principle, magnitude, speculative occurrence, always premised existence exercised adversely public. toleration implies continuous supervision ill-suited. And defenses complicated, delayed, price-fixers hope escape, punishment justified. Deterrence weakened. points two. Without them, 1509, 412-413 Markovits, Limits Simplifying Antitrust: Reply Easterbrook, Texas L.Rev. 41, (1984) (suggesting firm lacks benefit tactics). "Very firms affect foolish defines particularly "group boycotts" merit condemnation, 452, 9, emphasize arrangement—a type decades. All cited nonprice restraints. listed pages 447-448 action. remand, review objections Commission. 299, 253. although, discussed infra, unreasonableness heard proper 421-422. one. rule's conceded economy "[T]he sacrifice efficiency." Riley Blind N.C., 795, 2667, 2676, 669 161, 164, 152, (1939). Insofar speculation harm, 434-436, ordinary implicated. '[t]he [of scrutiny] [and] occurrence.' (1986)). issue, said; establishes "small magnitude" "speculative occurrence." Hence, effects—a dubious proposition, prices—the proceed demonstrate sub judice. held: "[W]hen quotes responded generally. 416-417. majority, conveniently omits answer ALJ: adopted implication, therefore, trial examiner's point. Groups testifying included Bar, Chapter Guild, Service, Washington Psychiatric Family Association, Capitol Area Liberties Union, Center Institutional Alternatives. 800-801. provides procedural safeguards overbroad fashion punish him. Johnson, 397, 2533, 342 Application denies opportunity. uses send terrorist violence prosecution. cartel regulated inflicts genuine coercion all. actively courted press strike. "picket lines," distributed kits, interviews; media, national, responded. fewer articles regarding Post, Times, USA Today, New York Times. Post's page opining "[i]t unchanged median risen 180 percent." Sept. 8, A20, col. Times reported thing lawyer's B10, Harold H. Greene wrote "should modest requested." 12, A13, Economist London carried story 17, print media. television radio stations aired numerous reports account CBS Morning News. 921, 923, 925, 937, 949. types see, Silver Stock Exchange, 373 341, 348, 1246, 1252, 389 (1963); White 372 253, 259-260, 696, 699-700, 738 Klor's, Broadway-Hale Stores, 359 207, 705, 709, 741 (1959); (1958); Associated Press 326 1416, 1420, 2013 (1945); Fashion Originators' Guild America, 312 457, 465-468, 703, 706-708, 949 (1941), 'are unitary phenomenon.' St. Paul Fire Marine Ins. Barry, 438 531, 2923, 2930, 932 'there confusion operation reference aspect doctrine.' 2619 L. Sullivan, 229-230 (1977)). restraints classed expanded indiscriminately, customers discourage doing competitor." 458, 2018. considerations analyze care, certainly sui generis. Mallard Southern Iowa, 1814, 318 (1989), contrary. statute, 1915(d), authorizing "request" attorney litigant, give unwilling serve. "whether inherent serve." 310, 1823. background, statutes empower 302-308, 1818-21.

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