Document: 533 U.S. 431121 S.Ct. 2351150 L.Ed.2d 461 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.FEDERAL ELECTION COMMISSION, PETITIONERv.COLORADO REPUBLICAN FEDERAL CAMPAIGN COMMITTEE 00-191 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Argued February 28, 2001June 25, 2001 Syllabus In Buckley v. Valeo, 424 1, 12-59, this held limitations on political campaign contributions Federal Election Campaign Act 1971 were generally constitutional, but Act's election expenditures infringed expression violation First Amendment. Later cases have respected line between contributing and spending. The distinction's simplicity qualified, however, by provision for a functional, not formal, definition "contribution," which includes "expenditures person cooperation, consultation, concert, with candidate," 2 U.S.C. § 441a(a)(7)(B)(i). Thus, coordinated candidate under Act. Commission (FEC) originally took position expenditure party connection federal was presumed party's candidate. See, e.g., Comm'n Democratic Senatorial Comm., 454 27, 28-29, n. 1. FEC thus assumed all limits imposed parties were, essence, contribution therefore constitutional. Such include §441a(d)(3), imposes spending national state respect Senate elections. Colorado Republican Comm. Comm'n, 518 604 (Colorado I), §441a(d)(3) (referred as Party Expenditure Provision), unconstitutional applied independent Committee (Party) senatorial campaign. principal ruled payments "independent, " rather than coordinated, Court's because spent money selecting its own without arrangement potential nominees. Id., at 613-614. remanded Party's broader claim congressional facially unenforceable even 623-626. On remand, District claim, divided Tenth Circuit panel affirmed. Held: Because expenditures, unlike truly independent, restricted minimize circumvention limits, facial challenge rejected. Pp. 4-30. (a) Political deserve closer scrutiny restrictions, Buckley, U.S., 14-23, restraints curb more expressive associational activity id., 19-23, unlimited clearly linked corruption kinds spending, least where his E.g., 47. Although Amendment easy draw when it falls individuals action committees (PACs) candidate's approval form cash gifts candidates, see, facts speak less once independence cannot taken granted. Congress's functional treatment nonparty groups like prevents attempts circumvent through amounting disguised contributions. fact, enhanced significance striking down grounds while upholding (by groups), defined expenditures. 23-59. I addressed FEC's effort stretch one step further. had treated some upheld their limitation, argument went, Provision should stand 619-623. Holding otherwise, found that, "independent" no likely serve anyone else, there justification subjecting across board previously invalidated groups. See 616. But still left question whether allows functionally contributions, way entities treated. issue case is, accordingly, different from speakers, giving demand higher standard can limited. 4-9. (b) free restriction boils this: most important speech aimed electing candidates itself expressed those limit support unique burden. Limitation candidate, contends, serious, incidental, imposition associative purpose, justifies stricter level has been analogous whatever such limit, argues, burden reflects fatal mismatch effects limiting prevention appearance. contrast, Government's characterizing back which, effect, subjected same requires closely drawn match sufficiently interest, though limit's dollar amount need fine tuned. supra, 30. Government develops rationale further here, arguing limited only contribution, right make would induce wishing nominee contribute finance thereby increasing bypassing upheld. 9-12. (c) each competing positions plausible first blush, evaluation arguments prompts rejection suffer categorical difference And contentions ultimately borne out evidence, entitling prevail characterization equivalent 12-25. (1) unrestricted essential nature relationship rendered implausible nearly 30 years' history Since 1974, given race challenged here (or predecessor). It until 1996 decision allowed above amount, since then unlimited. beyond very function amounts implicitly saying almost three decades quite functioning systematic law. accept either implication. 13-15. (2) There weakness seemingly unexceptionable premise organized purpose so imposing uniquely burdensome. fault refusal see how power actually works structure. Looking directly getting money, ignore reality think role adequately described speaking particular candidates. Parties necessarily instruments contributors, PACs, whose object message elect specific sake one, narrow issue, who will obliged contributors. perform functions complex simply candidates: they act agents behalf seek produce obligated officeholders. role, unites self-interested actors, targets. 15-17. (3) agrees insofar suggests strong working ability coordination them into account analysis. accepted understanding combines members' aggregating broadcasting messages widely individual contributors could afford do, marshals greater sophistication could, using mechanisms Cf. I, 637. does not, follow efficiency large sums intelligently scrutinized an unusually high standard. cut both ways. hand, benefit law capping emphasizing heavy effective mechanism sophisticated yet exactly culminating (on view) places used apply exacerbate threat apparent reducing. 17-19. (4) preceding assumes enjoy experience sets apart spenders. fact assumption too crude. Like party, rich donors, media executives, PACs means loudly capacity work tandem Yet 46-47. A also these actors spend legal long spends independently. therefore, position, PACs. 19-20. (5) do pan out, applies limitation appropriate enquiring "closely drawn" "sufficiently important" government interest combating corruption. Shrink Missouri, 387-388. 20-21. (d) Under standard, adequate evidentiary exist sustain parties. Substantial evidence demonstrates test current law's shows serious doubt eroded if inducement declaring parties' wide open. Act, donor $2,000 cycle. give much another $20,000 year committee supporting what realist expect occur occurred. Donors tacit favored benefit. Testimony although involve definite commitment donor's part, frequency practice volume involved required adopt tallying procedures connect donors If suddenly every certainly intensify. 21-25. (e) unavailing. Its small, negligible corrupting momentum carried conduit, unpersuasive present law, substantial donations turn matchmakers special meetings receptions chance get points incumbent excess funds defuse concern over circumvention; funnel reason system witnesses. Finally, rejects threat, demands response better tailored First, suggestion crafted safeguards already place §441a(a)(8) provides earmarked otherwise directed intermediary ignores practical difficulty identifying go general treasury candidate-fundraisers rewarded something obvious dollar-for-dollar pass-throughs. Second, call replacing based part reasoning 44, 617, turned true whereas, just opposite true. 26-30.213 F.3d 1221, reversed. ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR TENTH CIRCUIT Souter, J., delivered Court, Stevens, O'Connor, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. Justice Souter Court. 1 (1996) we set We consideration campaigns Today reject * examined (1976) (per curiam), not. 12-59. Nixon Missouri PAC, 528 377, 386-388 (2000); 610, 614-615; Massachusetts Citizens Life, Inc., 479 238, 259-260 (1986). 3 distinction with, request of, authorized committees, agents," 441a(a)(7)(B)(i).1 Expenditures 4 office (1981); Brief Petitioner 6-7. operated Respondent O.T. 1995, No. 95-489, pp. 28-30. 441a(d)(3), elections Senate, committee2 (adjusted inflation, §441a(c)) two cents multiplied voting age population State held, §441a(d)(3)(A).3 5 as-applied (which spoke occasioned Commission's enforcement against exceeding radio advertisements attacking Congressman Timothy Wirth. 612-613. defended violated Amendment, agreed advertising issue. Unlike Commission, Members joined thought "independent expenditures" term our prior cases, owing 613-614 (opinion J.). 6 remained: decisions constitutionality speakers parties, themselves unconstitutional, incapable reaching 623-626.4 challenge, fully briefed considered below. Ibid. remand Party, 41 F. Supp. 2d 1197 (1999), Appeals affirmed, 213 1221 (2000).5 granted certiorari resolve open 531 923 (2000), now reverse. II 7 Spending ends fall within Amendment's protection association. 14-23. ever reviewed understood restrictions Ibid; also, 386-388; 259-260. Restraints do. 615; 19-23. justified link (corruption being quid pro quo agreements, undue influence officerholder's judgment, appearance influence, 388-389). At said that: 8 "[u]nlike well provide little assistance indeed prove counterproductive. absence prearrangement agent undermines value alleviates danger improper commitments candidate." Ibid.Given differences, routinely struck individuals, groups, National Conservative Action 470 480, 490-501 (1985) (political committees); 39-58 (individuals, campaigns),6 repeatedly supra (contributions California Medical Assn. 453 182, 193-199 (1981) associations); 23-36 committees).7 9 donating wink nod), 19-23.8 granted, PAC according harder classify. As seen, Congress drew provided 441a(a)(7)(B)(i); 611. acknowledged classification, 46-47, 53, observed treating "prevent[s] prearranged contributions," 23-59.9 10 plain application statutory definition. said, argued coupled candidate; 28-30; opinion's view seen constitutional purposes. 614. else. So "[t]he views 'core' committees." did advance convincing refusing independent-coordinated 497-498; end far concerned 617-623. 11 placing disadvantage independently; leaving entirely coordinate others not? noted "share constitutionally relevant features expenditures." 624. "many [party expenditures] . virtually indistinguishable simple contributions." Coordinated words, covers spectrum activity, actors. posed questions: impose raise risk candidate? best viewed developed case. III 12 26-31. point organizing goes, run successful shares policy goals. 26. Therefore, several ways associate politically, 386-387; 20-22, financial know them. natural operating, merely option easily avoided. applied, argue, it. 25-32; F.3d, 1227. 13 Buckley. There, endorsing equation idea useful cash, "disguised contributions" might "as candidate" (in contrast poor sources leverage spender duplicative counterproductive view). 'closely drawn' 'sufficiently interest,' 'fine tun[ed],' 387-388 (quoting 30). 14 applying here. reason. binding degree circircumvention occurring spending). Individuals reached direct increased argues unlimited, increase: opportunity aggravate use bypass IV 15 Each blush. Our arguments, leads us side, ofcontributions. 16 assessing argument, start word about saying. understand conceptually unsound instead 29 (describing speech"). Indeed, good sense recognizing implicit notion "metaphysical identity" 622-623, decided immune individual's be, 17 associations variety kind rights members.10 point, rather, factual one: "a hip," 31, conception organization formed Parties, formed, especially 26, facilitates speech, 29. 18 basic turns candidate: defines election. belie argument. second able promote success. double-edged sword, hardly 19 assertion hip must statement odds years remember amended 608(f) (1970 ed., IV); 194 (reprinting then-effective Provision). consequence, course, terms statement, closeness affected roles exercise power. scientists weighed litigation observe "there suggest adopted frustrated candidates," "[i]n reality, dominant players, themselves, elections." Paul Allen Beck et al. Amici Curiae 5-6. For after strictly assert identity," 623, freespending I.11 20 26 ("Parties precisely share goals party"), metaphysics myopia, 21 When look comes personal interests. example, frequent (according experts) "do pursue objectives electoral politics," App. 180 (statement Professor Anthony Corrado). "are advancing interest[s]" "provide views, regardless affiliation." many naturally express interests during cycle,12 sometimes election, L. Sabato, Power, Inside World Committees 88 (1984).13 board, contributors.14 22 candidates; lens conduits meant obligation. 23 Insofar analysis, agree. efficient generating pinpointing 637 (Thomas, concurring judgment dissenting part) ("Political allow citizens pool resources advocacy effective"). 24 calls unusual regulating tighter party; pointing direction. other, perhaps practiced consistently Constitution, why Constitution forbid regulation channeling benefits threatens undermine (and hence spending) unquestionably subject? 25 While command bigger budgets rival Rich activists crop up, known Kane. Their speaks loudly, too, burdened are. validly 35-36, amass treasuries members spare politics.15 Just effectively coordinating contributor, nothing hard someone fortune donate, inner circle associates family. 59. indeed, way: independently cent wherever thinks shine, viewpoint. 27 position. whom valid, 46-47; and, off, privilege enjoy, making up Provision.16 28 differently out. Despite useless. continue organize obligation, escape. concentrate apparently opens exploitation channels circumventing players. players marshal themselves. accordingly recognized 30).17 With settled, remains theory raises appearance) valid limits. agree corruption; remaining bone contention evidentiary.18 B recent confirms abuse contends. Burson Freeman, 504 191, 208 (1992) Blackmun, J.) (noting mustering long-enforced statutes). does. open.19 31 candidate.20 What 247 (Declaration Robert Hickmott, former fundraiser Finance Director Wirth's campaign) ("We told maximum allowable Wirth wanted DSCC [Party Provision] allocation DSCC"); 274 (declaration Wirth) ("I raised DSCC, expected receive certain number determined advance, assuming funds"); 166 Leon G. Billings, Executive (DSCC)) ("People often want help indirectly party"); 99-100 (fundraising letter Wayne Allard, dated Aug. 1996, explaining contributor "you you my campaign," assisting Party").21 32 manner informal bookkeeping recipient. least, method "tallying," helps accommodation party. 246-247 (Hickmott declaration) ("[The tally system] agreement candidates' around your campaign"); 268 Senator Simon) ("Donors contributed credited callers clear fairly close direct"); 165-166 (Billings ("There appeared Senators received related Committee").22 33 affairs done independently, desirably assured result passed him identical items funds, enjoying patronage affluent incentive toward reducing requiring time-consuming cultivation. arrange foot bills, paid supporters, necessary $1,000,000 reduced 500 (at per cycle) 46 regard outside year).23 V 34 rules denying circumvention, try threat. says conduit. 14. small; $20,000, 441a(a)(1)(B),24 record candidates.25 again discounts outflanking stressing 34. off incumbents witnesses 35 claiming 46-48. suggestions. 36 already, earmarking rule §441a(a)(8), conduit [a] suffices address suffice clarified cover practices tallying. 42, 47; F.2d, 1232. actual conditions. Donations favor races affect them; (of course) permitted preferences officials; (as be) right. environment going treasury, pass-throughs (distributed spending), obviously trace. provision, dealt tallying, reach clumsy pass To treat outer acceptable tailoring disarm corrosive Chief Judge Seymour called 'understandings' regarding seeking promote," 1241 (dissenting opinion); Briffault, Reform, 100 Colum. Rev 620, 652 (2000) "web relations linking major elected officials").26 37 preferred prescription latter supposedly lesser invokes take toll, one. That strand itself, rejected justifiable avoid limitations. 44. logic rejecting Provision's U. S, 617.27 38 contained strand. analysis alter egos qualifying demanding employed 617; 44-47. assume, "absent contrary," chain corruption-by-conduit. 617. "[T]he "the significant fact" lack source expenditure," 39 Here, attract spending.28 donated tailor-made Therefore choice pure expenditures.29 corrupt. entitled choice. 40 hold reverse Circuit. 42 ordered. 43 Thomas, filed opinion, Scalia Kennedy, joined, Rehnquist, Part II. NOTES: "Contribution" "any gift, subscription, loan, deposit anything influencing office"; payment compensation services charge purpose." 431(8). "expenditure" purchase, payment, distribution, deposit, gift value, office." §431(9)(A)(i). "written contract, promise, expenditure" counts expenditure. §431(9)(A)(ii). "national committee" "organization virtue bylaws responsible day-to-day operation level, [Federal Election] Commission." §431(14). "state fills level. §431(15). House Representatives Representative. §441a(d)(3)(A). $10,000 preadjustment. §441a(d)(3)(B). adjusted 2000 ranged $67,560 $1,636,438; $33,780 $67,560. Record 14-15 (Mar. 2000). reads permit otherwise-applicable addition §441a(d). 16, infra. applicable presidential 604, 610-611 (1996), 49, Along severable possible applications nonconstitutional basis resolving suggested explored remand. 625-626. nonseverability 2d, 1207, renew appeal, 1225, 3. campaigns, "persons." 39-40, 51, 54, 58. "Person" "an individual, partnership, committee, association, corporation, group persons." 591(g) 144-235 (appendix reprinting then-current Act). language broad enough 19, 39, ballot covered Provision, grounds, 58, 66. "persons" ("person" corporation persons," 23). Certain "muliticandidate committees") registered met qualifications, including five office, limit. 35. appear 441a(a). They (still broadly defined, §431(11)) $1,000 "with office," $5,000 year, year. §441a(a)(1). yearly total $25,000. §441a(a)(3). "[M]ulticandidate committees" election," $15,000 §441a(a)(2). inflation. reading 441a(a), post, opinion), overruling Nor ask revisit Buckley's approach light post-Buckley developments finance, Blasi, Free Speech Widening Gyre Fundraising, 94 Rev. 1281 (1994); cf. 409 (Kennedy, dissenting) leave possibility Congress, legislature, devise permitting officeholders time efforts official duties fundraising"); 405 (Breyer, concurring) ("Suppose denies branches sufficient leeway enact comprehensive solutions problems finance. so, believe require reconsider Buckley"). noted, 6, derive members. Norman Reed, 502 279, 288 (1992); Tashjian Conn., 208, 214-215 (1986); Roberts Jaycees, 468 609, 622-623 (1984); NAACP Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 449, 459-460 (1958); Sweezy New Hampshire, 354 234, 250 (1957). commentators associations' belong them, Term, Leading Cases, Associational Rights 111 Harv. 197, 315, 50 (1977), debate, Gottlieb, Fleshing Out Right Association, 49 Albany 825, 826, 836-837 (1985); Issacharoff, Private Public Purposes, 101 (2001). sum rights, Jones, 530 567, 575 (referring "special place" reserves process selects bearer); Timmons Twin Cities Area 520 351, 373 (1997) (Stevens, dissenting), never settled upon say common skeptical incapacitated deny structure choose acknowledge below, infra, 17-19, efficiency. cited dissent nonetheless 218 Corrado) ("[I]t allocate future"); 159 (affidavit Donald K. Bain, Chairman Committee) "welcome"). Simon explained, "I people sides aisle Express does, favors. expectation legislatively." 270. 269-270 (recounting debate bill colleague exclaimed "we've got pay attention buttering bread"). public records confirm Express's (along others) Disclosure Report, Search Results (June 20, 2001), http://herndon1.sdrdc.com/cgi-bin/com_supopp/C00068692; Association Trial Lawyers America http://herndon1.sdrdc.com/cgi-bin/com_supopp/C00024521; Philip Morris Companies, http://herndon1.sdrdc.com/cgi-bin/com_supopp/C00089136; Report American http://herndon1.sdrdc.com/cgi-bin/com_supopp/C00000422; Letter Carriers Fund http://herndon1.sdrdc.com/cgi-bin/com_supopp/C00023580. associated AOL Time Warner Inc. George Charles Robb. http://herndon1.sdrdc.com/cgi-bin/com_supopp/C00339291; http://herndon1.sdrdc.com/cgi-bin/com_supopp/C00089136. life. Automobile Workers, 352 567 (1957), Frankfurther recounted Robinson's explanation Corrupt Practices corporate contributions: "We great evils business organizations obtain liberal Many association makes aiding winning elections, expect, demand, occasionally, receive, beneficiaries infrequently harmful interest." 576 65 Cong. Rec. 9507-9508 (1924)). By noting mean wisdom policies funding another. (citing academic expanding finance). aftermath I: 5-6, Whether characterization, type scutiny, context focused Thomas notes, 4, 2, challenge. 9, solicited comments criteria expenditures). appears argue invalid speech. 48-49. tell proportion category lay groundwork overbreadth claim. Broadrick Oklahoma, 413 601 (1973) (overbreadth trigger invalidation). Apart arrangements similar relationships 33-38. find supports long-recognized designed combat theoretical matter. 1232 (CA10 2000) (Court acknowledging "avenue abuse"). enacted potentially 'corrupting' effect insufficient [Congress] saw wasteful excessive spending." 618. observation examination 617-618, 57. motivation justify spenders invalidated. discussed text anticircumvention well. distinction, 11-12, neither nor seriously conduits. All measures prompted concern. 18; 41-42 ("FECA interlocking multilayered provisions prevent circumvention"). 7, supra; Guide Congressional Candidates (1999). Contrary dissent's suggestion, 14, closing eyes findings evidence. After alluding above, 1197, 1203-1204 (Colo. 1999), concluding theories 1211; 18, mistakenly concluded matter 1211, 9. explain 28-30, I's control outcome dismisses describing "legal" practices. Post, 15-16. correct considers legal, Reply 3, thing clear: sign diluted floodgates Why, all, bother tally? answer wants gets quotations attest. 23, fund sure losers, stressed (post, 15), irrelevant. become contenders donors. Any pass-through presumably escape earmarking, 441a(a)(8), 27. example illustrates undeniable subtle circumvention. candidate-fundraiser probably enhance tactic increase leadership. extent, directing knows needier thank. player race, multiplied. 249 ("Incumbents raising reelection Senators, challengers. send entered tally. this, planning leadership assisted"). effectiveness limitless coordination, ties straitened prosperous ones vicariously, reinforced officials distribution additional chain. 164, 168 DSCC's three-member Committee] basically distribute money. Taking away fundamental transferal Senators"). percent itemized (over $200) more. Biersack & Haskell, Spitting Umpire: Campaigns, Financing 155, 160 (J. Green ed. 1999). established exclusive clubs generous invited social events 254-255 declaration). relying enforcement, dissent, invite corresponding attack 27-28, 390, laws bribery. throw unskillful tailoring; prohibitions bribery, "most blatant specific" corruption, 28. suggests, concluded, discussion 21, disposed purposes notes superficial tension Bartnicki Vopper, 532 ___ (2001), "it remarkable law-abiding [entity] suppressed deter conduct non-law-abiding third party," (slip op., 14). Bartnicki, dichotomy abider lawbreaker. problem systemic accomplished complicity Also, again, gulf implications options clear. penalize disclosure lawfully obtained information vigorously enforcing intercepting private conversations. 44 Kennedy join, joins II, dissenting. 45 severely Representatives. ante, sweeps broadly, interferes party-candidate relationship, proved respectfully dissent. initial matter, overruled. 410 dissenting); 631 I) part). "Political primary protection," 410-411 Eu San Francisco County Central 489 214, 223 (1989); Mills Alabama, 384 (1966), lifeblood self-governing people, ("[P]olitical course [is] democracy depends"). remain baffled extended filing lawsuits, wearing profane jackets, exhibiting drive-in movies nudity,1 offered tepid core Founders sought defend. 47 case, attempt satisfies strict scrutiny, Perry Ed. Local Educators' Assn., 460 37, (1983) (providing narrowly compelling governmental interest). reasons explained separate opinions 641-644, 427-430, financing fails scrutiny. 48 overrule unconstitutional. Even requisite "exacting" "rigorous," 29, muster. practice, violate 387-389; invalid, 58-59; 501 (1985). whereas ceilings "entai[l] marginal restriction" interests, "impose significantly severe protected freedoms association." 23. existing committees. implicitly, draws conclusions: Both conclusions flawed. 'expenditur[e] agents.' Ante, 441a(a)(7)(B)(i)). array conduct, akin extreme, sure, outlays "virtually 624 An donation bills." largely resemble, as, Take, situation television touting education, "consult[s]," 441a(a)(7)(B)(i), slot advertisement effectiveness. purely mere "general views," communication underlying support." 21. "symbolic expression," ibid., manifestation views. restricting "freedom discuss issues," reconciled jurisprudence. 51 breadth text, assume contributions,2 strike Provision. "contribution" Missouri. Restricting may, entail "marginal restriction," 52 "inextricably intertwined" 630 nominates identified affiliation throughout ballot; image ("Some President Theodore Roosevelt's Bull Moose La Follette Progressives 1924, Henry Wallace 1948, Independent 1968 inseparable nominees tend outlast them"); M. Zak, Back Basics "Party Lincoln"). Most importantly, success failure depends elected. unity together consult 137 Herbert E. Alexander, Citizens' Research Foundation University Southern California). impractical imprudent 'cooperation' 'consultation.' "[C]andidates effective, vice versa." 629. ordinary 137-138 Alexander), maintained ago, O. T. p. (contending "empirical communications intended election"); Advisory Opinion 1985-14, CCH Fed. Camp. Fin. ¶5819, 11,186, ("Party expenditures"). 53 break "additional costs burdens message." 1210 finds full record. Corrado, Associate Government, Colby College) (explaining ensure establish legally entities, "rent furnish hire staff, administrative costs," "engage consulting services" "duplicate undertaken offices"); admitting expenditures); 217 reliance fundraising communication); 219 ("[I]ndependent qualify lowest unit rates purchase time"); 99-1211 (CA10), 512 (report Frank J. Sorauf, professor Minnesota, Jonathan S. Krasno, Princeton University) inefficiency Establishing maintaining tends create voter confusion support. 220 Corrado); 623-624 (deposition John Heubusch); Bain) ("[O]ur focused, understandable, together"). ambiguity "coordinated chills permissible 159-160 Bain). "marginal" restraint communication; precluded "from amplifying voice adherents," 22; "stifling exists do."3 54 nevertheless concludes concerns inhibiting "implausible" statutorily Without single citation record, "that law." am unpersuaded downplay extent rights. examine relies wholly "observ[ations]" "political scientists" happen written amicus brief petitioner. convincing, relevant, developed, indicates suffered Provision.4 coped years. ___, (2001) 1-2) (holding contents illegally intercepted communication, prohibited 67 years). finally, passage inquiry, wonder "30-year" countervailing "200-year" rule. 200 years, country Nowhere "functional," marred 55 breaking all. contends "elec[t] candidates" evidenced donate opposing 15. According "[p]arties board." 16-17. flaws Surely, among reasons, develop platform. shared together, inhibits promotion message. imply "instruments" "agents," 17, receives tool donors? industry pollutes, become, own, instrument polluters? proffers pawns wealthy target influenced (let alone improperly influenced) offers 56 invalid. 25) (internal quotation marks omitted). asserted preventing 388 (" '[T]he corruption' 'constitutionally justification' ") 25-26). demonstrated rise 57 last "[w]e conjecture carry burden." 392. Some "quantum empirical needed satisfy heightened judicial legislative judgments." 391. Precisely "vary novelty plausibility raised." Today, jettisoned requirement. 58 Considering posit infringement requirement, failed burden, presented perception cannot, suggesting necessary, helpful, "Congress wrote spending."5 ibid. ("[R]ather indicating fear corruptive Congress' desire legitimate elections"). 59 explanation, departs earlier, well-considered Were departure justified. found, [the] thereof." 1211. "[n]one examples [of alleged corruption] involve[s] 346 Alexander) ("In dispute relating charges thereof "); 430 scholarly study conducted date corrupted federally regulated so-called 'hard-money funds,' None studies contend[s] generate process"); Heubusch) (testifying experience, Senate).6 60 dearth unsurprising "The aim stance issues takes reelected, votes." 646 achieve aim, achievement "does constitute 'a subversion process.' 497). essence Nation's government. One citizen coercing "[w]hat 'corrupt' 'coercive' him?" 646. 61 Apparently unable question, alternative donors' reduce donors.7 17-20. contention, plainly contradicted overwhelming 11.8 particularly surprising finding dispositive, "at best, attenuated." 62 addressing determination reflecting today asserts newfound supported "substantial evidence." come Committee's (DSCC) "tally system," "connect[s] party." 24. corruption-by-circumvention. actuality, acting allowing allocated factors, strength "what [the candidate's] poll numbers looked like," "who most." 250-251 campaign); ("When deciding chiefly competitiveness district incumbent, contender's candidacy"); 563 (stating safe seat win). allocating losing." 1203. "Maintaining seats paramount pursuits." Ibid.; 483 goal "to win maintain chamber powers majority party"). "bottom line" "some raise, less." Hickmott). 63 Moreover, subsequent currently legal. asserting corrupt participation process. permitted, combination steps, believes, silence wish view, coherent explication corruption.9 64 corruption-through-circumvention, system, "corruption" arise speculates intensify." 25. supposition, precedents 392 burden"). Playboy Entertainment Group, 529 803, 822 (concluding "must anecdote supposition"). weak supposition that. contend channel contrary, donation. declaration 'I funds' (emphasis added)). speculation ungrounded disagree conclusion furthers corruption.10 affects statute alternatives bribery laws, 428 66 enforce Vigilant precise concerns. contributes (the cycle), he dime confronting civil criminal penalties, 437g(a)(6)(C) (civil); §437g(d) (criminal). "ignores circumvention" "would candidates." cite assertion. articulate steps taken. allegedly bear uncovering previous willing overlook failures. 15-16) ("[T]here prohibition disclosures reduces illegal interceptions"). 68 event, second, well-tailored reduction freedoms. heart cycle, 18. (an seems face unsupported evidence), proper lower cap. way, normal deterring unlawful punishment engages it." "[I]t unorthodox path today, considering controlling expressly ago. 617 conclude evasion decide change statute's 'markedly caused by' (citations omitted)). 69 contravene unlawfully Instead pursued better-tailored Button, 371 415, 444 (1963); Cohen California, 403 15, (1971); Erznoznik Jacksonville, 422 205, 208-215 (1975). assumption. candidate"). universe leaves unresolved. e. g., 17. oral Tr. Oral Arg. paying bills"). notwithstanding independently." added). correct, render tax newspaper editorial, surely newspapers editorials. holding presents problem. courts difficult, insurmountable, task trying determine independent. Civil Liberties Union "[e]ven inquiry feasible, inevitably intrusive troubling investigation workings parties." depart consider lost Wattenberg, Decline 1952-1996, 174 (1998) (indicating percentage voters identify declined split tickets increased); Maisel, Parties: Still Functioning Democracy?, Resurgence?, 103, 107-111 Cohen, R. Fleisher, P. Kantor eds. 2001) weaknesses modern parties). explore forced underground, elaborate methods avoiding limits." 406 opinion). Perhaps survived, "underground" communication. "ignor[e] distinction," n.19: Whereas implicated, implicated. "distinction" well, serves stated uncertain motivated Lamb, 227 1070 Eighth Missouri's accord devoid measurably decrease occasions individuals' circumvented." 1073. 1211 24, "Colorado anti-circumvention Instead, Only it, footnote, conclusion. ("Moreover, skirting limits" I)). Ironically, earlier uphold inference 14-20) conversation process, interception, privacy invaded). "evidence" system. four quotations, proposition funneled DSCC); These reflect Neither comment aided surreptitious laundering opposed advertisements, get-out-the-vote somewhat suspect Wirth, negative lawsuit, director. Wirth)); campaign). director case; reflected understandings marginal." finding. 13.

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