Document: 450 U.S. 621 101 S.Ct. 1287 67 L.Ed.2d 551 SAN DIEGO GAS & ELECTRIC COMPANY, Appellant,v.CITY OF et al. No. 79-678. Argued Dec. 1, 1980. Decided March 24, 1981. Syllabus Appellant owns land in appellee city that when purchased as a possible site for nuclear power plant was mostly zoned industrial or agricultural use. The rezoned parts of the property, reducing acreage use, and also established an open-space plan included appellant's property proposed acquire to preserve it parkland. A bond issue provide funds this acquisition not approved by voters, remained hands, subject new zoning ordinance plan. Thereafter, appellant brought action California Superior Court, alleging had taken its without just compensation violation Federal State Constitutions on theory deprived beneficial use through rezoning adoption sought damages inverse condemnation, well mandamus declaratory relief. Court awarded but dismissed claim, Appeal affirmed. Supreme vacated Appeal's judgment retransferred case court reconsideration light intervening holding Agins v. City Tiburon, 24 Cal.3d 266, 157 Cal.Rptr. 372, 598 P.2d 25, aff'd other grounds, 447 255, 100 2138, 65 106, owner his regulation is entitled condemnation exclusive remedy invalidation On reconsideration, then reversed Court's judgment, could recover that, because record presented factual disputes covered trial court, relief would be available if desired retry case. denied further review. appealed claiming Fifth Fourteenth Amendments required paid whenever private public Held : Since 28 U.S.C. § 1257 permits review only "[f]inal judgments decrees" state appeal must absence final judgment. While decided monetary appropriate remedy, did decide whether any has taking, fact, occurred appeared have contemplated proceedings remand resolve disputed issues. Pp. 631-633. dismissed. Louis E. Goebel, San Diego, Cal., appellant. C. Alan Sumption, appellees. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 1 Diego Gas Electric Company, corporation, asks rule landowner whose allegedly been "taken" regulatory claimed violate Just Compensation Clause Amendment.1 This question left open last Term 263, 2142, 106 (1980). Because we conclude lack jurisdiction case, again leave undecided. 2 * 412-acre parcel Sorrento Valley, area northwest part Cal. It assembled acquired 1966, at cost about $1,770,000 constructed 1980's. Approximately 214 acres lie within near estuary known Los Penasquitos Lagoon.2 These are low-lying which serves drainage basin three river systems. About third tidal from nearby Pacific Ocean. unimproved, except sewer utility lines.3 3 When acres, most either "holding" category.4 city's master plan, adopted 1967, designated nearly all 4 Several events 1973 gave rise litigation. First, Council property. changed 39 agricultural, increased minimum lot size some areas acre 10 acres. recommended, however, 50 considered development upon submission specific plans. 5 Second, city, pursuant Cal.Gov't Code Ann. 65563 (West Supp.1981), statute each county adopt "for comprehensive long-range preservation conservation jurisdiction." placed among areas, defined "any urban water surface essentially natural character, appreciable park recreation purposes, land, resources historic scenic purposes." App. 159. acknowledged intention construct stating such necessarily incompatible with designation.5 proposed, 6 Third, order obtain lands. identified those properties proceeds issue. proposition, failed win voters' approval. effect, made no attempt 7 August 15, 1974, instituted County against number officials. alleged compensation, United States California. Appellant's entire followed policy refusing approve inconsistent park, designation.6 allegation, arguing never asked approval contended charter bound even inconsistent, citing §§ 65700, 65803 1966 Supp.1981). 8 $6,150,000 Prior trial, "mandamus proper challenge validity legislative act." Clerk's Tr. 42. After nonjury liability, granted appellant, finding that: 9 "29. [Due the] continuing course conduct defendant culminating June 1973, and, particular, designation substantially space . ., plaintiff practical, economic space, suffered severance damage respect balance "30. No proceed unless consistent space. In particular characteristics said there exists 11 "31. 19, 12 devoted 13 "32. Following actions 14 totally impractical futile applied remainder 15 "33. 16 larger unmarketable person willing purchase nominal fair market value." 41-42. 17 concluded these findings both subsequent jury resulted over $3 million. 18 appeal, Appeal, Fourth District, Juris, Statement B-1; see 146 103 (1978). held neither change nor automatically resulting diminution value revealed enacting enforcing ordinances were found evidence supported conclusion feasible application designation. failure present developing therefore preclude award favor. one judge dissenting, petition rehearing. See Cal.Rptr., 118. 19 California, July 13, 1978, hearing. decision, depriving effect. Knouse Nimocks, Cal.2d 482, 483-484, 66 438 (1937). Cal.Rules 976(d) 977 1981). Before hearing, 1979 decision 25 (1979), aff'd, (1980).7 who proceeding. Rather, relief.8 plaintiffs permitted building up five residences their Therefore, held, deprive reasonable land.9 20 retransferred, unpublished opinion, 63. relied condemnation. It, invalidate Instead, precluded record: 21 "[Appellant] complains agriculture manufacturing lies general improve [the] what might permitted. Even assuming acceptable City, [appellant's] complaint deals overzealous police City. Its relief, [Appellant] seek remedies asserting arbitrarily exercised unconstitutional law element applying unconstitutionally. However, fact issues conclusions. They can dealt anew should [appellant] elect case." 66. 22 Juris. I-1. require takes limited proceeding We postponed consideration our until hearing merits. 919, 3008, 1111 now judgment.10 II 23 Agins, effect uncompensated taking Amendments. failure, therefore, clearly indicates does support claim occurred.11 "disputed conclusions," 66,12 "should Ibid. phrase appears us somewhat ambiguous, read meaning opportunity convince do believe entered city. certainly so direct. free pursue quest logical appellate finds unresolved resolution disputes. contemplates court.13 III Ever since Grays Harbor Co. Coats-Fordney Co., 243 251, 37 295, 61 L.Ed. 702 (1917), court's necessary determine regarded classic example reviewable "final." "the remaining litigation may raise federal questions later come here." Radio Station WOW, Inc. Johnson, 326 120, 127, 1480, 89 2092 (1945). constitutional embraces payment compensation. covers aspects integral problem." North Dakota Board Pharmacy Snyder's Drug Stores, Inc., 414 156, 163, 94 407, 412, 38 379 (1973). presents reverse aspect situation. occurred, occurred. Thus, however remedy—and frank say cast aside lightly—further all. final, it. 26 be, is, 27 ordered. REHNQUIST, concurring. 29 If I satisfied "final decree" term used 1257, little difficulty agreeing much dissenting BRENNAN. Indeed, notes, lightly. ." Ante, p. 633. 30 But judicial Power States" vested Art. Constitution divided article into original jurisdiction. With jurisdiction, provides: 31 "In Cases before mentioned, supreme shall Jurisdiction, Law Fact, Exceptions, under Regulations Congress make." 32 "regulation" here relevant 33 "Final decrees rendered highest had, reviewed follows: 34 35 "(2) By where drawn ground being repugnant Constitution, treaties laws States, favor validity." 36 principal construing Cox Broadcasting Corp. Cohn, 420 469, 95 1029, 43 328 (1975), dissented finality. Cox, said: "The noted '[c]onsiderations English usage policy' justify interpretation final-judgment 'where anything remains determined matter how dissociated finally adjudicated State.' 124 [65 1475, 1478, 2092] observed administered mechanical fashion circumstances 'a departure requirement finality jurisdiction.' "These 'very few,' ibid.; cases unfolded, recurringly encountered situations lower courts come. There least four categories treated purposes awaiting completion additional anticipated courts." Id., 477, S.Ct., 1037. stated fourth category fell ambit "those pending party seeking prevail merits nonfederal thus rendering unnecessary reversal preclusive cause rather than merely controlling nature character of, determining admissibility in, still circumstances, refusal immediately state-court seriously erode policy, entertained issue, itself litigation." 482-483, 1039. 40 am sure many exceptions BRENNAN view falling, seems me illustrates problems arise less-than-literal reading language decree." procedural history anomalous, least, majority concluding ante, 631, n. 11, Diego's "taking" Post, 661, 27. Having characterization carefully can, they disagree remain agree occur. 41 Under entirely accord though perhaps above-quoted portion supra, feel better able formulate principles land-use amounts Eminent Domain Amendment knew disposition not, cannot stage litigation, know join today want 42 BRENNAN, whom STEWART, MARSHALL, POWELL join, dissenting. Title limits had." dismisses decree appealable 1257. fundamentally mischaracterizes respectfully dissent dismissal reach claim. 44 potential plant. At time, approximately 116 category. designating took critical together form predicate instant litigation: down-zoned agricultural; incorporated 233 use;1 prepared report mapping contingent passage 49. 45 filed suit alleging, inter alia, "inverse condemnation" Constitutions,2 $6 thereby violating Constitutions. 42-43. million, plus interest date "taking," appraisal, engineering, attorney's fees. 46. 46 affirmed, "substantial [that] condemnation." 54. D-1, transferred back E-1. Expressly relying time holding: 47 "Unlike eminent domain, individual due state's exercise local entity's arbitrary deprives compensation; party's administrative mandamus. 65-66. 48 49 holds below "final" because, although "has occurred." 633 (emphasis added). respect, misreads Appeal. faithful compliance instructions power, excessive, notas constitute Amendments, Examination confirms reading. As indicated above, "[u]nlike dueto compensation." 65-66 view, outside domain context. "local mandamus." added).3 51 analysis supra. stated: 52 "Plaintiffs contend limitations imposed 'taking [plaintiff's] compensation' will lie. Inherent contention argument which, given exceed equivalent lawful necessitating unable accept believing preferable while governmental invalid excess, way available." Cal.3d, 272, P.2d, (brackets original) added).4 53 "elect sue transmute excessive power- paid." 273, 375, added).5 54 errs, submit, concludes For whatever courts' substantive rulings infra, 646-661, clear challenge, here, regulation, barred requiring occurred.6 set severe, "transmute" "taking." 28. focus full paragraph 630, misplaced, raises possibility case" different theory—an allegation "overzealous power," Whatever inquiry, bearing claim.7 suggestion "further all," plainly wrong. 633.8 55 expressly "actions whole, plaintiff's process constitutions." 42-43 indistinguishable, then, legal insufficiency. dismissal, unresolved. litigant law, See, e. g., Allenberg Cotton Pittman, 419 20, 24-25, 260, 195 (1974); Windward Shipping American Assn., 415 104, 108, 959, 962, (1974).9 56 required. Bd. (1973); Logging 256, 297, (1917). address presented.10 57 applicable Amendment, Webb's Fabulous Pharmacies, Beckwith, 449 155, 160, 446, 450, 358 (1980); Chicago, B. Q. R. 166 226, 239, 241, 581, 585, 586, 976 (1897), states unequivocal terms: "[N]or government entity pay effected "private property" "public use" provision.11 Implicit corollary ever Clause.12 58 explained Part II, Amendment. flatly contradicts precedents example, Term's 2141, (1980), "[t]he effects advance legitimate interests [if it] denies economically viable .."13 Applying principle, examined Tiburon Agins' 262-263, 2142-2143. 59 Penn Central Transp. New York 98 2646, 631 (1978), analyzed "whether restrictions City's [Landmarks Preservation] appellants' exploitation [Grand Central] Terminal 'taking' Amendment." 122, 2658. Canvassing inquiries restriction "economic impact claimant" "character action" particularly considerations. 124, 2659; id., 130-131, 2662. Although ultimately York's Landmarks railroad after deciding related promotion welfare permit landmark afford appellants opportunities enhance properties." 138, 2666 (footnote omitted). 60 constitutionality regulating dredging pit excavating addressed Goldblatt Town Hempstead, 369 590, 82 987, 130 (1962). observing otherwise valid unconstitutional, 592, 989, cautioned: "That say, onerous constitutionally requires compensation," 594, 990. occasions, recognized passing vitality principle PruneYard Shopping Center Robins, 74, 83, 2035, 2042, 64 741 Kaiser Aetna 444 164, 174, 383, 390, 62 332 (1979); Andrus Allard, 51, 65-66, 318, 326, 210 Eureka Mining 357 168, 78 1097, 1104, 1228 (1958). source Holmes' Pennsylvania Coal Mahon, 260 393, 415, 158, 322 (1922), he regulated certain extent, goes too far taking."14 determination "a degree—and disposed propositions." 416, 160.15 acknowledging "[g]overnment hardly go extent values incident diminished paying every law," 413, 159, rejected proposition "taking."16 forbidding mining coal subsidence house 414-416, 159.17 B Not contradict fails recognize essential similarity "takings" "takings." typical occurs formally condemns landowner's obtains fee simple sovereign domain. See,e. Berman Parker, 348 26, 33, 75 98, 102, 99 (1954). occur formal transfer simple. long ago 63 "[i]t very curious unsatisfactory result, [the Clause] refrains absolute conversion real uses destroy entirely, inflict irreparable permanent injury total destruction making narrowest sense word, use." Pumpelly Green Bay Wall. 166, 177-178, 557 (1872) original). I. P. 284 80, 96, 87, 92, 76 177 (1931). service frequently context simple, benefiting enjoyment U.S., 178-180, 392 (navigational servitude allowing right access); Dickinson, 331 745, 750-751, 1382, 1385, 91 1789 (1947) (property flooded Government dam project); Causby, 261-262, 1062, 1065, 90 1206 (1946) (frequent low altitude flights Army Navy aircraft property); 159 (state coal). Police regulations promote good effectively physical invasion property.18 From owner's point condemned flooded, restricted state, him government's benefits flowing equally great creating wildlife refuge increasing electricity production project floods Appellees implicitly posit distinction intends take whereas regulations. Brief 43. measures says, intends, does." Hughes Washington, 389 290, 298, 88 438, 443, 530 (1967) (STEWART, J., concurring) original); Davis Newton 267 292, 301, 305, 306, 69 617 (1925). logical, title, occupancy, de facto completely 748, 1384; General Motors Corp., 323 373, 378, 357, 359, 311 IV "taken deny limit mere instead. argues argue sufficient my once establishes demands period commencing first ending chooses rescind amend19 regulation.20 interpretation, believe, express words purpose Clause, 68 prohibits "tak[ing]" "just soon taken, proceedings, invasion, already violation, " 'the self-executing provision compensation,' Clarke, 445 253, 257, 1127, 1130, 373 quoting J. Sackman, Nichols' 25.41 (rev. 3d ed. 1980), triggered. consistently precatory: awarded. Jacobs 290 142 (1933), intermittent overflows onto petitioners' servitude. Petitioners partial Commenting landowners' action, observed: suits based That guaranteed Constitution. asserted owners qualify right. rested Statutory recognition necessary. promise 70 Such implied duty 16, 71 Griggs Allegheny County, 84, 84-85, 88-90, 531, 533, 585 (1962); 268, 1069.21 Invalidation unaccompanied compensate loss during taken.22 72 Moreover, fall short fulfilling fundamental Clause. guarantee designed bar forcing individuals bear burdens fairness, borne whole. Armstrong 364 40, 49, 80 1563, 1569, 1554 (1960). 2141; 65, 326. assume more share burden, operates redistribute large. Willow River 324 499, 502, 761, 763, 1101 (1945); Monongahela Navigation 148 312, 325, 622, 625, 463 (1893). advancement health, safety, morals, welfare, Village Euclid Ambler Realty 272 365, 395, 114, 121, 303 (1926), axiomatic receives benefit offending effect.23 received interim between rescission place same position monetarily occupied taken. Almota Farmers Elevator Warehouse 409 470, 473-474, 93 791, 794, Reynolds, 397 14, 803, 805, (1970). 73 temporary, virtue amend make less Nothing suggests irrevocable. Nor temporary reversible quality render obligatory. according framework irreversible 258-259, 1064, executed lease airport one-year "ending 30, 1942, renewals six months end national emergency, whichever [was] earlier." frequent low-level airplanes respondents' chicken farm, located airport, easement 266-267, 1068. discontinued remanded Claims: "Since one, premature consider amount Claims proper." 1069 building, equipment, hesitated measure Kimball Laundry 338 6, 1434, 1438, 1765 (1949); Petty Motor 327 374-375, 596, 598, 729 (1946); 358. 74 contrary condemn value, nothing empowers wants halt cancel 24.113, 24-21 abandon temporarily invaded, Dow, 17, 1039, 1046, 1109 (1958), noted: "[A]n abandonment prejudice owner. results alteration taken—from ownership occupation. measured normally governing temporarily." Ibid.; Danforth 308 271, 284, 231, 236, 84 240 (1939). propose regulation.24 Ordinary regularly involving occupations, invasions, guidance starting point, ascertained 258, 1130; 474, 794; Miller, 317 369, 374, 276, 280, 87 336 (1943); Olson 292 246, 704, 708, 1236 (1934). inform intentions vis-a-vis clarity correct assessment award. Should revoke liable "taking."25 Rules valuation developed useful assessing revocation amendment, generally supra; rules need developed, 21-22, 1445 (Rutledge, concurring); 373-374, 279, 336. Alternatively choose continue regulation: sustained Fuller, 488, 490-492, 801, ex rel. TVA Powelson, 319 281-285, 1047, 1055, 1390 (1943). embody procedure adopt: expresses fairness technical enshrining old niceties regarding 'causes action'—when born, proliferate, die." 1384. Cf. Memphis Oil 288 62, 67-69, 278, 77 619 (1933). experiment implementation rule, provided chosen procedures comport command. Hill, Bill Rights Supervisory Power, Colum.L.Rev. 181, 191-193 (1969). meaningfully so. He forced resort piecemeal unfair receive due. 749, 1385. V 275, 376, 29, "persuaded various considerations inappropriate undesirable alleged." cited preserving degree freedom planning function, inhibiting financial force inheres remedy," reaching conclusion. 377, 31. applicability guarantees basis legislative, executive, branches.26 vindication rights depend expense doing Watson Memphis, 526, 537-538, 83 1314, 1320, 529 (1963). outlined vacate opinion.27 Amendment's prohibition applies B., 979 (1897); claims Diego. Throughout similar refers smaller 412 owned Apparently portions sold. classified M-1A (industrial) 112 A-1-1 (agricultural). latter classification reserved "undeveloped yet ready urbanization development, reasonably expected persist plan." Ordinance 8706 (New Series) 101.0404 (1962), reproduced C-1. small residential development. (These figures described distinguish damaged severance.) discussed Lagoon "[T]he Company large (240 acre) utilize location sometime [S]uch facility, sensitively sited, compatible subsystem; approvals clearances obtained prior plant's construction becoming reality." 160. abandoned discovery off-shore fault unfeasible. 73. witnesses 150 usable 1.25 million cubic yards fill needed undertake 711, 905. retransfer 605. modified reprinted citations text. Contrary dissent's argument, hold simply nonmonetary Immediately following quoted dissent, post, 640-641, "This leading authority (1 Nichols, (3d rev. 1978) Nature Orgin 1.42(1), pp. 1-116—1-121), manner: 'Not actual appropriation, attempted practical regulative legislation unreasonable arbitrary, virtually complete comes purview arbitrary. compensation.' (Emphasis added court). 273-274, 29: "While life citizens countenance rights." And 30: 'Determining control function judiciary. usurpation Note, Inverse Condemnation: Availability Challenging Validity Zoning Ordinance, Stan.L.Rev. 1439, 1451 (1974). unanimously agreed constituted taking. landowner." 2142. "fundamentally mischaracterizes," 637, ruling. affirmance U.S.C.A. grants degrees certiorari, inasmuch uphold 1257(2). ruling but, noted, granting statement "concluded occurred," 645, premised misreading opinion. 8, refused resolved. initial affirmed develop rejected, reconsidered Agins. landowners "made "sought definitive dwelling units build land," 27, shown built plaintiffs' shown, "free investment, expectations submitting officials." 262, testified 134-135, 140, 149-150. out site, 5, forms well. explain why permission futile. reference findings," 66, referred controversy. unavailable "[e]ven City." declined "assumption" counsel shares view: "QUESTION: Mr. your second petitions mandate prayed understand it, remand, grant theoretically. "MR. GOEBEL: That's correct, Your Honor." Oral Arg. 18. "open space" 52, 3. describes sovereign's entity. 2, 2140, Cal.Civ.Proc.Code 1245.260 proceeding, brings "take" property; body enters ibid. 24.1 1980). "inverse" landowner, entity, institutes "Eminent domain" "power consent." 1.11, 1-7. Formal initiated loosely "eminent "condemnation" proceedings. 2. One article, twice typifies mode analysis: "[T]raditionally disjunctive. exercising power; awarded, bring so-called compel payment. contrast, requirements relate reasonableness relation means ends sought; affected challenging Eldridge Palo Alto: Aberration Direction Land Use Law?, Hastings L.J. 1570 (1977) (footnotes linguistic coincidence property," effect." 277, 31, (1980) references "deprive" indicating Due Process Clauses 28, 31; Joint Indeed alone powers Five years ago, Appeals reached Fred F. French Investing York, N.Y.2d 587, 594-596, 385 N.Y.S.2d 8-9, 350 N.E.2d 381, 384-386, cert. dism'd, 429 990, 97 515, 602 (1976). "summarily reject[ing] [New City] 'taken' 'just circumstance, attack 120-121, 2657, Marcus, Grand Slam Decision: Landmarks, Favorable Notice TDR Resolution Regulatory/Taking Impasse, Ecology Quarterly 731, Comment, Balancing Private Loss Against Public Gain Test Violation Taking Compensation, Wash.L.Rev. 315, 319-327 (1979). ruling, disapproved Alto, Cal.App.3d 613, 621, 129 575, 579 (1976), nevertheless operate oppressively giving aggrieved oral argument: Well, suppose declare piece unconstitutionally interfered SUMPTION: Yes, Honor. Now, situation? facts, factors, denial access direct special interference think that's assessment, no, get meanwhile wanted. damages? damages, You taking? rule—" 54-55 understanding likewise shared amici. 36; National Association Home Builders Building Industry Amicis Curiae 7. "appellant disputes." 632. true unqualified McDonough Equipment 527, 532, 105 330, 333, 503 1338, 1341 (1972); De Hart Allen, 829, 833, 161 453, 455-456 Cal.Jur. 3d, Appellate Review 303-304 Gospel Angeles, 543, 546, 1428, 1429, 1662 (1947). reviewing intent divined Stromer Browning, 268 Cal.App.2d 513, 518-519, 158 (1968); 588, 304. Here, suggested elected conclusions" "dealt anew." "Findings Fact Conclusions Law," unequivocally compensation: motivated achieve purpose, namely, burdensome oppressive constitutions. limiting retrial perfectly consistent, proved. belief issues" involve apply beside find facts 49-50, 60. doubt Nevertheless, question, admit, does, first. 11. reading, easily reconcilable first: obligated terms agreement concurring Brother writes: "I literal 'final decree.' 635-636. Then, assumes Cox. 636. REHNQUIST position. rely "exception" rule. proved review, reversed, continued press rehearing What "elect[ing] case", alternative words, try another theory. obviously strictest reason solely own strategy retrying sum, accurate "subject correction tribunal; [is] effective interlocutory intermediate steps therein. word court." Market Street Railroad Comm'n, 548, 551, 770, 773, 1171 1257(2) statute. 1-3. appellees' contentions, treat jurisdictional writ petition. 1257(3), 2103. Tiburon. holding, "did interfere impermissibly decrease ground, broader constitutes sole pertinent part: "Can impunity mandated (a) regulations; (b) commenced, acquisitive efforts restraints purported (c) acted issues?" 4-5. almost year insists "metaphorically," "gravamen clause, [case was] rubric." N.Y.2d, N.Y.S.2d, 9, N.E.2d, 385; 37-38. addition tampering ignores company's repeated 7-8, 19-20, 21, 28-33; Mahons, More recent emphasized analysis, commenting "set formula begins," "[it] calls logic," 2659 ("ad hoc, inquiries"); (1958) ("question properly turning case"). distinguished commentator characterized differentiate haunting jurisprudential problem field contemporary lawyer's physicist's hunt quark." Haar, Land-Use Planning 766 1976). 766-777; Berger, Policy Analysis Problem, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 165 Michelman, Property, Utility, Fairness: Comments Ethical Foundations "Just Compensation" Law, Harv.L.Rev. 1165 (1967); Sax, Takings Yale (1964). Another 30-year series opinions case-by-case approach "crazy-quilt pattern." Dunham, Perspective: Thirty Years Expropriation 1962 S.Ct.Rev. Brandeis, argued "restriction protect safety morals dangers threatened taking." 417, 161. reliance Brandeis' urges overrule Bosselman, D. Callies, Banta, Issue 238-255 274, interpreted "indicate social goal achieved domain." added.) unpersuasive. specifically "regulation taking," degree." 415-416, 160 Clearly, cross boundary surrounding become illegal infringement considered." 29. overlooks posture Coal, homeowner, company, injunction prevent company "from remove supports house." enjoined coal, request. "denied economical property." Complaint ¶ observe objective "to unused, undisturbed vistas preserved. 'used' public. longer Amicus conclusively ordinance. 23, 24. fail concede justified determined, required, Amici suggest awards "theory [on] congressional authorization [to pay] Tucker Act, 1346(a)." 27; Trust Historic Preservation 7-8. import cases. "But Act invoked founded immaterial. event, traces 'nor 'intended substantial rights, maintain theories.' 1384, point. April 1976, 1973. true, past seven years. prevents enactment 1974 annual conference Institute Municipal Officers Attorney fellow Attorneys advice: "IF ALL ELSE FAILS, MERELY AMEND THE REGULATION AND START OVER AGAIN. "If preventive maintenance work, you attacking lose, don't worry All lost. extra 'goodies' contained [California] Selby Buenaventura, C.3d 110, [109 799, 514 111] allow reasonable, restrictive, whatever, everybody starts again. "See easy Attorney. Sometimes lose battle war. Good luck." Longtin, Avoiding Defending Constitutional Attacks (Including Condemnation), 38B NIMLO 192-193 (1975) enacted furtherance 1983 violation. amici, see, 13-16, implication remedy—The express. Hagman Misczynski, Windfalls Wipeouts 296-297 (1978); Third Alternative Litigation, Digest 113, 114-119 (1965). notion compensating attention literature. Costonis, "Fair" Accommodation Power: Antidotes Impasse Controversies, 1021 (1975); Babcock, Game 168-172 (1966); Krasnowiecki Paul, Open Space Metropolitan Areas, 110 U.Pa.L.Rev. 179, 198-239 (1961). Institute, Model Development 5-303, 5-304, 202-207 Country 1947, Geo. ch. 19. role considerations, militate commentators threat liability help produce rational decisionmaking weighs costs benefits. Rural Enclosure Re-Enclosure Urban Land, 1238, 1253-1254 encourage municipalities err side regulations, internal operating minimize attempts. Owen Independence, 651-652, 1398, 1415, 673 all, policeman planner? wonder empirical greatly impede planners. 656, 1418. initially

Category: 3