Document: 409 U.S. 249 93 S.Ct. 493 34 L.Ed.2d 454 EXECUTIVE JET AVIATION, INC., et al., Petitioners,v.CITY OF CLEVELAND, OHIO, al. No. 71-678. Argued Nov. 15, 1972. Decided Dec. 18, Syllabus CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT APPEALS FOR SIXTH CIRCUIT 71—678. November 1972—Decided December 1972 Petitioners, invoking federal admiralty jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1333(1), brought suit for damages resulting from the crash-landing and sinking in navigable waters of Lake Erie their jet aircraft shortly after takeoff a Cleveland airport. The District Court dismissed complaint lack on grounds that alleged tort had neither maritime locality nor nexus. Appeals affirmed first ground. Held: Neither fact an goes down negligence 'occurs' while is flying over such sufficient to confer aviation claims, absence legislation contrary exists with respect those claims only when there significant relationship traditional activity. Therefore, does not extend arising flights like one involved here between points within continental United States. Pp. 253—274. 448 F.2d 151, affirmed. Phillip D. Bostwick, Washington, D.C., petitioners. Sol. Gen. Erwin N. Griswold, respondents. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion Court. 1 On July 28, 1968, aircraft, owned operated by petitioners, struck flock seagulls as it was taking off Burke Lakefront Airport Cleveland, Ohio, adjacent Erie. As result, plane lost its power, crashed, ultimately sank Erie, short distance question before us whether petitioner's property damage allegedly caused respondents' negligence, lies jurisdiction. 2 When crash occurred, manned pilot, co-pilot, stewardess, departing charter flight Portland, Maine, where pick up passengers then continue White Plains, New York. After being cleared respondent Dicken, who air traffic controller at airport, took off, becoming airborne about half runway. flushed runway, they rose into airspace directly ahead assending plane. Ingestion birds plane's engines almost total loss power. Descending back toward runway semi-stalled condition, veered slightly left, portion airport perimeter fence top nearby pickup truck, settled just end less than one-fifth statute mile offshore. There were no injuries crew, but soon became loss. 3 Invoking 1333(1),1 petitioners this Northern Ohio against Dicken other respondents2 alleging been negligent failure keep free or give adequate warning presence.3 Court, unreported opinion, held cognizable subject matter 4 Relying primarily Sixth Circuit precedent Chapman v. City Grosse Pointe Farms, 385 962 (1967), torts may properly be invoked two criteria are met: (1) tortious wrong occurred must have waters; (2) some service, navigation, commerce waters. found allegations petitioners' satisfied these criteria. With wrong, court stated 'the operative upon land; sense 'impact' gulls disabled (over land) . .. From point fall. Whether came land water largely fortuitous.' Alternatively, concluded bore commerce: 5 'Assuming bears former carried out waters, relevant circumstances unconnected facets commerce. claimed 'wrong' case adequately warn pilots presence all parties engaged functions common commerce, sea. 6 '. Thus, conclusion facts claim concerned land-connected aspects air-commerce, namely, maintenance operation located dangers encountered using runways take-off.' 7 ground reached ..' 154 (1971). Hence, 'not necessary consider nexus discussed (Chapman).' Ibid. We granted certiorari seemingly important affecting courts. 405 915, 92 941, 30 784 (1972). 8 * Determination 'maritime' thus courts has traditionally depended wrong. If action jurisdiction; if land, not. early 1813, Story, Circuit, general principle: 9 'In regard I always understood, exclusively dependent act. not, never (I believe) deliberately any torts, except is, committed high seas, ebb flow tide.' Thomas Lane, 23 Fed.Cas. pp. 957, 960, 13,902 (C.C.Me). 10 See also DeLovio Boit, 418, 444, 3,776 (C.C.Mass.1815); Philadelphia, W. & B.R. Co. Philadelphia Havre de Grace Steam Towboat Co., How. 209, 215, 16 L.Ed. 433 (1860). Later, test expanded include tidewaters, including lakes rivers. Genesee Chief Fitzhugh, 12 443, 13 1058 (1852). 11 In Plymouth, Wall. 20, 35, 36, 18 125 (1866), essayed definition 'located' waters: '(T)he injury complained wholly seas or, least, substance consummation same taken place depend having board vessel, 14 Every species tort, however occurring, vessel cognizance.' 15 often reiterated rule locality.4 recently last Term, Victory Carries, Inc. Law, 404 202, 205, 421, 383, we repeated '(t)he historic view determined accident law governs occurring States.' This test, course, established grew era difficult conceive occurrence connection waterborne vessel. Indeed, types worked quite satisfactorily. leading text put matter: 17 'It should stressed cases borderline exercise perverse fascination occasion afford elaborate casuistry, main business (admiralty) involves cargo damage, collision, seamen's like—all well comfortably circle, far penumbra.' G. Gilmore C. Black, Law Admiralty 24 n. 88 (1957). But casuistic situations demonstrated problems Smith Son Taylor, 276 179, 48 228, 72 520 (1928), instance, longshoreman unloading standing pier he cargoladen sling ship knocked later dead. case, despite water, because blow what gave rise cause action, effect land. concluded, which land.' U.S., 182, S.Ct., 229. converse factual setting, however, working deck hoist onto pier, upheld arose Minnie Port Huron Terminal 295 647, 55 884, 79 1631 (1935). Admiral People, 649, 885, 1633 19 Other serious difficulties illustrated clear, invocation seems absurd. swimmer public beach injured another submerged object bottom, piece machinery sustains dropped harbor land-based crane, literal application invokes courts, full panoply substantive well. these, adhered mechanical strict sustained forms navigation.5 bring jurisdiction, nexus—some activities, involving navigation injured, 20 '(a)bsent relationship, would entirely itself, light historical justification immaterial meaningful courts.' F.2d, 966.6 21 1850, scholars began suggest activity, locality, invoke torts. year, Judge Benedict expressed his 'celebrated doubt'7 did depend, addition 'relation embracing violation(s) right duty occur vessels contracts, applies.' E. Benedict, American 173 (1850). More recently, commentators actively criticized sole criterion recommended adoption requirement 7A J. Moore, Federal Practice, .325(3) .325(5) (2d ed. 1972); Jurisdiction: Critique Suggestions, 50 Col.L.Rev. 259, 264 (1950). 1969, Institute's Study Division Jurisdiction Between State Courts (ALI Study) made recommendation, stating (at 233): 22 hard think reason why access allowed without amount controversy citizenship merely fortuity rather burdened every swimmer.' Despite broad language explicitly time considered matter, left open. Atlantic Transport West Virginia Imbrovek, 234 52, 733, 58 1208 (1914). stevedore loading stowing copper. petitioner admitted contended present. decide alone sufficient: 'Even assumed cases, indispensable, necessarily exclusive, still present was, think, nature hence view, 25 more required order relation sufficient.' Id., 61, 62, 735. 26 Since decision squarely dealt open there, although opinions several non-maritime navigation. Rodrigue Aetna Casualty Surety 395 352, 89 1835, 360 (1969), wrongful-death actions Death High Seas Act, 41 Stat. 537, 46 761 seq., accidents artificial island drilling rigs Gulf Mexico marine league relied navigational function: 27 'The collision structures aids. They islands, albeit ones, ordinary stuff do piers.' 360, 1839. Raithmoor, 241 166, 176—177, 36 514, 516—517, 60 937 (1916); Chelentis Luckenbach S.S. 247 372, 382, 38 501, 503, 62 1171 (1918); Great Lakes Dredge Dock Kierejewski, 261 479, 481, 43 67 756 (1923); Robins Dry Repair Dahl, 266 449, 457, 45 157, 158, 69 372 (1925); London Guarantee Accident Industrial Comm'n, 279 109, 123, 49 296, 299, 73 632 (1929). 29 Apart trying apply indictment number times Congress, interests justice, create exceptions situation—i.e., bear .325(4) 1972). For example, O'Donnell 318 63 488, 87 596 (1943), Jones 1007, 688, seaman seaman's analogy cure: law, recognized recovery personal exception generalization cure. dawn, cure suffered course service sea 41—42, 491. 31 Similarly, doctrine unseaworthiness extended permit recover owner so long defects gear. Gutierrez Waterman Corp., 373 206, 214—215, 83 1185, 1190 1191, 297 (1963). Strika Netherlands Ministry Traffic, 185 555 (CA2 1950). 32 too, predicated regardless tort. Extension 496, 740, enacted 1948, Congress provided: 33 States shall injury, person property, notwithstanding done consummated Act passed specifically overrule supra, holding provide remedy ships Carriers, 209 8, 423; 210, 1187—1188.8 35 sum, existed years judicial, legislative, scholarly recognition that, determining particular class reliance activity sensible consonant purposes purely test. II One area exclusive given aviation. reasons above discussed, predicate cases. 37 earliest admiralty, Crawford Bros., 2, 215 F. 269, 271 (WD Wash.1914), libel rem repairs airplane crashed Puget Sound, declined assume reasoning could characterized Bros. followed dealing seaplanes, restricted occurrences planes afloat waters.9 Continuing doubt applicability 1930's 1940's owners benefits limitation liability,10 crimes international punishable criminal statutes proscribing acts seas.11 Moreover, exempted conformity shipping laws.12 major extension crashes seq. provisions appeared clearly applicable. 1920, provides: 39 'Whenever death wrongful act, neglect, default beyond shore State, Columbia, Territories dependencies States, representative decedent maintain district 40 pursuant apparently Choy Pan Airways 1941 A.M.C. 483 (SDNY), seaplane Pacific Ocean during transoceanic flight. reference surface vessels. According court: certainly includes phrase 'on seas' make operable horizontal very next 'beyond State' said vertical dimension.' 484. 42 Choy, many consistently cases.13 today specific gives actions. recent years, persuaded statutory coverage Act. Several scope legislation.14 These most both least insofar state territorial performing function—transoceanic crossing—that previously performed vessels.15 44 further created sustain now us—when limits, Apparently, 1960 commercial jet, bound Boston collided Harbor minute takeoff. Weinstein Eastern Airlines, Inc., 316 758 (CA3 1963). deciding Third applied locality. justified Act: 'If, held, line fortiori well.' 765. few subsequent effect.16 To contrary, case. III 47 latter graphically demonstrate applying locality-alone aircraft. Airplanes, unlike vessels, limited physical boundaries can operate bodies water. Professor Moore colleague Pelaez stated, evident distinctions based concerned, lose significance geographically restrained, concerned.' .330(5), 3772—3773 principally happens fall fortuitous. ALI Study, criticizing decision, observed: 'If takes Boston's Logan takeoff, makes little kin killed usual remedies, ordinarily court, distinctive applies, wrecked ends Harbor.' 231.17 adventitious, sometimes impossible degree certainty. Under effect, supra; (1928); locus determine. provides good example difficulties. contend since totally destroyed there. landed lake indicates, say, respondents, hand, argue birds—over denied ship's respondents impact negligence. Here, birds; on, destined fall, affect act.' Fed.Cas., 960. 51 take us, need better dispute. It enough note either position inherent argument, accepted, ended up—a circumstance fortuitous completely unrelated itself. anomaly hypothetical colliding altitude, crashing river. If, adopted, happened original occurred. circumstance, Cleveland's Airport, lie; crossed shoreline birds, attach, even able crashland hardly designed deal. 52 All arise attempting aeronautical are, attributable Unlike restrained one-dimensional geographic boundaries. elementary reason, conclude mere 'is located' waters—whatever means context—is itself turn 'maritime tort.' consistent history purpose require hold unless exists, contrary. IV 53 conclusion, our inquiry, remains constitutes, context aviation, falling satisfy analogy, sailing ships, downed ship. Quoting contend: 'When persons much vessels.' 763. dissenting argument: 54 'I believe comparisons rapidly replacing. Problems posed landing differ markedly landings instances, wind wave normal mariner, become approach survival pilot passengers. What conduct 163. 56 cannot accept true similarities faced differences modes transportation greater, terms basic qualities traditions consequently conceptual expertise applied.18 evolved centuries, molded handle relegated ply waterways world, whose shores go. That deals rules govern manner direction rightly move occurs founders sea, looks determine fault, liability, questions catastrophe. Through experience, knows how seaworthy, liens, average, captures prizes, salvage. 57 Rules concepts alien vehicles different element, unhindered geographical exempt road. matters basically conceivable bearing contexts differences, law.19 Although superficially similar ship, unexpected descent will invariably sea—be error, defective design manufacture airframe engine, error cause; determination liability inquiries unfamiliar admiralty. therefore, justify ever, come legislation.20 argued, York mid-Atlantic, absent statute.21 An situation might thought function vessels.22 factors play commerce—choice-of-forum problems, choice problems,23 international-law multi-nation conventions treaties, on. 59 none considerations concern us. thence York—a descended Ohio. find befalling another, Just 212, 425, observed expand 'we proceed caution Healy Ratta, 292 263, 270, 700, 703, 78 1248 (1934), stated: 61 "The power reserved states, Constitution, controversies judiciary sections Constitution. Due rightful independence governments, actuate requires scrupulously confine own precise limits (a federal) defined." fortuitously incidentally connected plainly suit,24 familiar endeavors.25 be, argue, governed uniform procedural laws heard avoid divergent results duplicitous litigation multi-party uphold quixotic way approaching goal. uniformity desired goal accidents, Commerce Clause enact applicable adapted characteristics 64 States.26 65 judgment 66 Affirmed. section of: '(1) Any civil saving suitors remedies otherwise entitled.' Besides operator A. Schwenz, manager. filed Dicken's employer, Tort Claims §§ 1346(b) 2674, asserting claim. pending 205 383 (1971), cited effect. Davis Jacksonville Beach, Florida, 251 F.Supp. 327 (MD Fla.1965) (injury surfboard); King Testerman, 214 335, 336 (ED Tenn.1963) (injuries skier). Horton Aircraft, 257 120, 121 (SD Fla.1966). Cf. injured-swimmer McGuire York, 192 866, 871—872 (SDNY 1961), proper relating conducted relate grows alleges shallow along sandy line. liable libellant easily endeavor project misinterpret jurisdiction.' lacked include: Peytavin Government Employees Insurance 453 1121 (CA5 Gowdy 412 525, 527—529 (CA9 1969); Guerrant, 290 111, 113 114 Tex.1968). Petersen Coal Oil 323 1198, 1201 (ND Ill.1970); O'Connor Pascagoula, Miss., 304 681, 683 Miss.1969); Hastings Mann, 226 962, 964—965 (EDNC 1964), aff'd, 340 910 (CA4 1965). A English Queen (1892). Q.B. 273. Hough, Jurisdiction—Of Late Years, Harv.L.Rev. 529, 531 (1924). suits longshoremen caused, pier-based equipment. Nacirema Operating Johnson, 396 223, 90 347, 353, 371 (1969). Longshoremen's Harbox Workers' Compensation 901 amended cover employees areas customarily used loading, unloading, repairing, building Pub.L.No. 92—576, 86 1251. Matter Reinhardt Newport Flying Service 232 N.Y. 115, 117—118, 133 N.E. 371, (1921); Northwest Air Service, 80 804, 805 1935). Lambros Seaplane Base Batory, 231 1954). Dollins Pan-American Airways, 487, 488—489 1939); Noakes Imperial Ltd., 412, 413 1939). Peoples, 462 Cal.1943); Cordova, 298 (EDNY 1952, aboard State. 7(5). Aviation 1958, 799, amended, 1509(a), successor 1926, 572, formerly 177 (1952 ed.). See, e.g., Wyman 181 Misc. 963, 966, N.Y.S.2d 420, 423, 267 App.Div. 947, 459, 293 878, N.E.2d 785 (1944); Higa Transocean 230 780 1955); Noel Linea Aeropostal Venezolana, 677, 680 1957); Trihey Lines, 255 824, 827 1958); Lacey L. Wiggins 95 916 (Mass.1951); Wilson 85 Cal.1954); Stiles National 161 La.1958), 268 400 1959); Airponents, 169 348 (NJ Lavello Danko, 175 Blumenthal 189 439, 445 Pa.1960), 306 1962); Pardonnet Tiger Line, 233 Ill.1964); Kropp Douglas Aircraft 329 447, 453—455 1971). D'Aleman World 259 1958). Bergeron Aero Associates, 213 936 La.1963); Notarian Trans 244 874 Pa.1965); 120 type infra, 271—272. Hornsby Fish Meal 431 865 1970); Harris 275 431, 432 Iowa 1967). Scott 399 14, 21—22 1968) (en banc). Comment, Airplanes Wrongful Territorial Waters, 1084, 1091 1092 (1964). happenstance falls creates plane, maritime-locality fortuity. 260—262. Of court. see p. 3772 1972): 'What possible rational basis passenger traveling Shannon, Ireland Field three miles shore; circumscribed three-mile limit; managed remain until reaching Massachusetts coast? And instances developed engine trouble victim identical site Atlantic.' flights, Government's brief suggests shown 1970), mid-air spotting schools fish Louisiana shore. situation, 'Were applicable, argued confusing consideration apply, i.e., forum, each (or party) purchased ticket, perhaps, destination.' 3774 diversity Cleveland. sued, 2674. Such here, ousted pendency relevance instant law. possibility litigate forums exist stopped lake, instead going alleged, citizenship. problem solved upholding Some Miami, involve passage State.' extent 'legislation contrary.'

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