Document: 419 U.S. 393 95 S.Ct. 553 42 L.Ed.2d 532 Carol Maureen SOSNA, etc., Appellant,v.State of IOWA et al. No. 73—762. Argued Oct. 17, 1974. Decided Jan. 14, 1975. Syllabus Appellant's petition for divorce was dismissed by an Iowa trial court lack jurisdiction because she failed to meet the statutory requirement that a petitioner in action be resident State one year preceding filing petition. Appellant then brought class under Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 23 Federal District Court against appellees and state judge, asserting Iowa's durational residency violated Constitution on equal protection due process grounds seeking injunctive declaratory relief. After certifying appellant represented persons residing less than who desired initiate actions, three-judge upheld constitutionality statute. Held: 1. The fact had long since satisfied time case reached this does not moot case, controversy remains very much alive unnamed whom represents who, upon certification action, acquired legal status separate from her asserted interest. Dunn v. Blumstein, 405 330, 92 995, 31 274. Pp. 397—403. (a) Where, as here, issue sought litigated escapes full appellate review at behest any single challenger, inexorably become intervening resolution named plaintiffs. P. 401. (b) At certified, demonstrated 'real immediate' threat injury belonged represent. 402—403. (c) test Rule 23(a) representative 'fairly adequately protect interests class,' is met where it unlikely segments would have conflicting with appellant's, been competently urged each level proceeding. 403. 2. unconstitutional. 404—410. Such unconstitutional alleged ground establishes two classes discriminates those recently exercised their right travel Iowa. irretrievably foreclosed obtaining some part what sought, such may reasonably justified State's interest requiring its courts genuinely attached State, well desire insulate decrees likelihood successful collateral attack. Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 89 1322, 22 600; Dunn, supra; Memorial Hospital Maricopa County, 415 250, 94 1076, 39 306, distinguished. 406—409. Nor violate Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment denies litigant opportunity make individualized showing bona fide residence thus bars access courts. Even if could physical presence plus intent remain, entitled divorce, requires merely 'domicile' sense, but year. See Vlandis Kline, 412 441, 452, 93 2230, 2236, 37 63. Moreover, no total deprivation only delay involved here. Boddie Connecticut, 401 371, 91 780, 28 113, 409—401. D.C., 360 F.Supp. 1182, affirmed. James H. Reynolds, Dubuque, Iowa, appellant. Elizabeth A. Nolan, Des Moines, appellees. Mr. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 Sosna married Michael September 5, 1964, Michigan. They lived together New York between October 1967 August 1971, after which date they separated continued live York. In 1972, moved three children, following month petitioned Jackson dissolution marriage. Sosna, personally served notice when he came visit his made special appearance contest court. jurisdiction, finding so doing applied provisions Code § 598.6 (1973) 'for last state.'1 2 Instead appealing ruling courts, filed complaint United States Northern invoking Constitution. She both relief Iowa,2 other judge previously 3 A court, convened pursuant U.S.C. §§ 2281, 2284, held constitutional. 1182 (1973). We noted probable 911, 1405, 465 (1974), directed parties discuss 'whether should proceeded merits constitutional presented light Younger Harris, 37, 746, 27 669 (1971) related cases.' For reasons stated opinion, we decide moot, hold offend Constitution.3 4 * suit might represent 'class residents resided therein period actions marriage or separation, are barred one-year embodied Sections 598.9 Iowa.'4 stipulated there were 'numerous people same situation plaintiff,' joinder impracticable, appellant's claims class, fairly class. 23(a). This stipulation approved pretrial order.5 submission briefs proposed findings conclusions law parties, divided vote 5 While permitted waive nonjurisdictional defects, invoke judicial power litigation present actual 'case controversy,' Richardson Ramirez, 418 24, 2655, 41 551 record before us feel obliged address question mootness reaching claim. judgment handed down, yet year, clearly every sense contemplated Art. III Constitution.6 By Court, however, requirement, longer stood barrier attempts secure courts.7 unusual development challenging validity many cases will completed until plaintiff has about originally made. 6 If sued own behalf, now satisfies obtained elsewhere require dismissal. Alton Alton, 207 F.2d 667 (CA3 1950), 347 610, 74 736, 98 L.Ed. 987 (1954); SEC Medical Committee Human Rights, 404 403, 577, 30 560 (1972). But litigate capacity. When certified propriety described appellant.8 view factor significantly affects determination. 7 Southern Pacific Terminal Co. ICC, 219 498, 279, 55 310 (1911), challenged ICC order expired, Moore Ogilvie, 814, 1493, (1969), petitioners candidates election already held, expressed concern defendants expected again act contrary rights particular plaintiffs involved, questions 'capable repetition, evading review.' That enforced bar Unless speculate move return later seek within return, concerns prompted Court's holdings do govern situation. even though proceeding enforce appellant, clear certified. officials undoubtedly continue statute yet, passage time, challenger remain subject restrictions necessary see lawsuit conclusion. 8 problem 274 (1972), implicitly resolved favor Respondent Blumstein Tennessee registering unless, next election, county months. filed, requisite months, contended challenge moot. rejected argument, Ellington, 337 323, 324—326 (M.D.Tenn.1970). Although did raise argument observed correct: 9 'Although appellee can vote, voters posed requirements "capable review.'" U.S., 333 n. 2, S.Ct., 998. 10 expressly note fact, decided far more 11 rationale controls case. Like new aggrieved allegedly officials. believe this, which, plaintiffs.9 Rosario Rockefeller, 410 752, 756 1245, 1249, 36 (1973); Vaughan Bower, 313 40 (Ariz.), aff'd, 400 884, 139, 129 (1970).10 note, exigency justifies doctrine serves identify limits. harm dissipate during normal required controversy, general principles plaintiff's personal stake throughout entirety litigation. 12 Our conclusion way detracts firmly established extends 'cases controversies' specified Article. There must 23,11 reviews case.12 supra. exist, defendant member plaintiff, claim 13 holding, disturb our decisions respect class-action show immediate,' 'conjectural' 'hypothetical.' O'Shea Littleton, 414 488, 494, 669, 675, 38 674 (1974); Golden Zwickler, 103, 109—110, 956, 960—961, 113 (1969). seeks district Bailey Patterson, 369 31, 82 549, 512 (1962); Rosario, Hall Beals, 396 45, 90 200, 24 214 these criteria. 14 automatically establish represent, shift focus examination elements justiciability ability class.' Since all members bound ultimate merits, 23(c)(3), assure itself suit, advance,13 proceeding, met. therefore ourselves II 15 attack comprehensive regulation domestic relations, area regarded virtually exclusive province States. Cases over century bear witness historical fact. Barber Barber, 21 How. 582, 584, 16 226 (1859), said: 'We disclaim altogether . ..' Penoyer Neff, 714, 734—735, 565 (1878), 'The absolute prescribe conditions relation citizens shall created, causes dissolved,' reaffirmed Simms Simms, 175 162, 167, 20 58, 60, 44 115 (1899). scheme like States, sets forth considerable detail dissolved circumstances obtained. Jurisdiction 'the either party resides,' 598.2 (1973), construed term 'resident' meaning ordinarily associated concept domicile. Korsrud Korsrud, 242 178, 45 N.W.2d 848 (1951). revised statutes, incorporating no-fault concept,14 retained requirement. 17 imposition scarcely unique 48 impose condition maintaining divorce.15 As expected, periods vary among range six weeks16 years.17 selected most common length prescribed.18 18 contends year's reasons: first, thereby contravening 600 (1969); (1972); 306 and, second, method legally dissolving 63 780 (1971). 19 statutes imposing were, course, invalidated imposed qualification welfare payments, Shapiro, voting, medical care, none intimated never requirements, proposition disclaimed.19 What struck down basis budgetary recordkeeping considerations insufficient outweigh individuals. different stripe. recipients indigent patient County. eventually qualify sort adjudication demanded arrival State. delayed but, fulfilling it, ultimately asserts ought hers earlier point time. purely administrative convenience. Cf. Kahn Shevin, 416 351, 1734, 189 (1974). decree matter interested 'grantor,' role 'grantee.' Both spouses obviously proceedings, affect marital likely property rights. Where couple minor usually include custody support. With consequences moment riding issued insist modicum attachment additionally furthers parallel avoiding officious intermeddling matters another paramount interest, minimizing susceptibility quite wish mill uphappy short commenced having elsewhere. Until convinced intends lacks 'nexus person place permanence control creation relations responsibilities utmost significance.' Williams North Carolina, 325 226, 229, 65 1092, 1095, 1577 (1945). Perhaps important, extend beyond borders recognition Full Faith Credit Constitution, IV, purpose, often 'judicial grant divorce—jurisdiction, strictly speaking—is founded domicil.' Williams, Andrews Andrews, 188 237, 47 366 (1903); Bell Bell, 181 175, 551, 804 (1901). entered domicile ex parte proceedings,20 binding disregarded face 'cogent evidence' contrary. supra, 236, 1098. reason, asked enter putative satisfy something bare minimum granted. decision exact policy buttressed permissible inference effectuates substantive likewise provides greater safeguard alone.21 precisely determination exercise make. attack, failure provide violates Amendment. relied Connecticut arbitrarily permanent irrebuttable presumption non-residence students obtain in-state tuition rates necessarily universally true warned 'be deny student, element demonstrating residence, reasonable requirement.' Id., 2236. Starns Malkerson, 326 234 (Minn.1970), 985, 1231, 527 An apparently seeks, entitle showing.22 jurisdiction. afford pay fee. Because played termination marriages, indigents denied heard 'absent countervailing overriding 377, 785. gravamen Sosna's deprivation, Boddie, delay. operation fee exclude forever certain segment population Connecticut. No similar attends enforcement is, stated, consistent 25 Affirmed. 26 WHITE, dissenting. It axiomatic imposes 'threshold federal allege controversy.' 493, Flast Cohen, 392 83, 101, 88 1942, 1949—1953, 947 (1968); Jenkins McKeithen, 395 411, 421—425, 1843, 1848—1851, (1969) (opinion Marshall, J.). To 'some threatened injury,' Linda R.S. Richard D., 614, 617, 1146, 1148, 35 536 conjectural hypothetical. 108 109, 959—960, Maryland Casualty Coal & Oil Co., 312 270, 273, 61 510, 512, 85 826 (1941); Public Workers Mitchell, 330 75, 89—91, 67 556, 564, 565, 754 (1947). Furthermore, greatest relevance here: fundamental aspect standing focuses get issues wishes adjudicated. 'gist standing' whether 'alleged outcome concrete adverseness sharpens presentation largely depends illumination difficult questions.' Baker Carr, 186, 204, 691, 703, 663 (1962). words, placed whose proper request justiciable.' 99 100, 1952. (footnote omitted). 29 All concedes. conceded more, secured begun herself initiating existing defendant, suing behalf well. However unquestioned community 'real' dispute substance attorney without client willing said 'if purporting defendants, himself 675. nevertheless holds once lose qualified him bring still acceptable prosecute I am unable agree. divorce. retains real whatsoever certainly first place, alone representing reality, unresolved issue, attorney, litigants remain. None anonymous direct counsel ensure being properly served. practical purposes, one-sided lost adversary quality controversy' unquestionably remains, adverse press disappeared. dilutes jurisdictional command mere prudential guideline. specific, identifiable individual evident continuing presenting counsel. reality attorney's competence evaluated post hoc through performance revealed record, fulfills mandate. fiction employed cloak reification abstract entity, constituted faceless, individuals deemed appellees.1 32 prior supports broad rationale. inadequacy representative's apparent certification, emphatic rejecting pursued. 494—495, 675—676; 33, 550—551, 48—49, 201—202, 33 333, 998, looks direction. There, rendered decision, voting eligible election. indicated saying contested passing. Its ramifications setting explored. joined deem dispositive especially Indiana Employment Security Division Burney, 409 540, 883, 62 fully settled, remanded consideration mootness, course majority, relying rejects survives mooted unsettled decisions. Indeed, authority support terminates, fails. 34 cites controlling authority, principal approach conception substantially dissipates case-or-controversy necessity adequate representation 23(a)(4). view, saved occurred change circumstance. justification, points significant certification. First, settled court's approval. Second, results bind found These aspects procedure, explained how why procedural modify otherwise attach. Certification substitute sufficient irreversible inalterable; 'may conditional, altered amended merits.' 23(c)(1).2 23(d) various types orders conducting litigation, including given 'of signify consider fair adequate, intervene defenses, come into action' 'requiring pleadings eliminate therefrom allegations absent ..'3 Class characterized complexity concomitant flexibility managing emphasis flies reality. procedure 23(c)(1), 1966, intended strictures Civ.Proc., '(t)hese rules Snyder 332, 337—338, 1053, 1057, 319 intention behind amendment, counterpart version rule, 'to give definition .,' Advisory Note, U.S.C.App., p. 7767; 3B J. Moore, Practice 23.50, pp. 23—1101 23—1102 avoid problems mootness.4 claimed supplies true; left determining good 23(a)(4) realistic considered makes determinations imperative. disposes satisfaction advance retrospective adequacy seems rather class.5 least, explored desirability issuing considered. refusal remand notion categories permit lower pass them nature them. Thus 'no (the requirement) conclusion.' Ante, 400. Hence, perceives need rule problem. Article III, 'awkward' limitation. prevents addressing important questions; nothing surprising questions. always economy. purpose define boundaries separating branches keep assuming legislative perspective function. 96, 1950, (1968). recurring finally cannot override limitations. find respectfully dissent. MARSHALL, BRENNAN joins, today departs sharply followed analyzing think set out progeny compel reversal subsequent cases, classification penalizes invalid unless compelling governmental Term vital benefits privileges recent immigrants long-time residents. 261, 1083, recognized penalties interstate,1 free aid, assistance, importance constitutionally receipt long-term residence. examining Arizona's justifications restricting availability services, concluded pursuing legitimate objectives chosen means impinge unnecessarily protected interests. instant terms suggests distaste mode analysis corner law. stead, appears ad balancing test, ensuring roots justify concerned disposition also implications majority's general. 43 omits inquiry: denial constitutes penalty interstate travel. my meets standard. previous plain association basic conferred repeatedly accorded deference, marry termed 'one essential orderly pursuit happiness men.' Loving Virginia, 388 1, 12, 87 1817, 1824, 1010 (1967). (1971), relationship closely marry, involve voluntary adjustment human relationship. 383, 788. Without further laboring point, cavil travelers Having determined substantial social importance, scrutinize determine furthering declined apply 'compelling interest' conjured up possible restriction manner akin lenient standard past challenges business regulations. McGowan Maryland, 420, 425—428, 81 1101, 1104—1106, (1961); Kotch Board River Port Pilot Comm'rs, 552, 557, 910, 912, 1093 (1947); Johnson Robison, 361, 376, 1160, 1170, 389 'rational basis' stake, San Antonio School Rodriguez, 411 1278, 1335, (Marshall, J., dissenting); Dandridge 397 471, 520—522, 1153, 1179—1180, 491 (1970) dissenting). whatever resting current readjustments analysis, penalized test. 634, 638, 1331, 1333; Oregon 112, 238, 260, 321—322, 272 Brennan, White, JJ.); 342—343, 1003—1004, 274; 262—263, 1084—1085. proposes defenses statute: delays benefit question—it deprive applicant altogether; follow conferral legitimately regulate process; third, protecting use 'divorce mill' judgments Only third force. 46 distinguish County cases. Yet distinction draws me specious. says, forestalls courts; applicants hand, suffer unrecoverable losses waiting period. ignores severity suffered forced wait Stanley Illinois, 645, 647, 1208, 1210, accompanying directly measurable money loss benefits, argued elapsed, whole. remarriage locks partners intolerable, destructive applying terms, fail potential treatment ailment. Under Arizona treated. suggest Evaro's nonemergency aid cognizable 'eventually (service),' ante, 406. mean Mrs. instead regard severe.2 B second persuasive. forgoes reliance usual requirements—budgetary convenience, 627—638, 1327 262—269, 1084 1088. hard persuasive implicated majority invokes amorphous justification—the magnitude affected Certainly stakes weighty others immediately it. critical process, weakens strengthens impact underscores evenhanded.3 enough recite traditionally responsibility regulating family matters; tangible interference regulatory shown. objective regulations frustrated granting residents.4 draw analogy, great local wide latitude process. unduly remark, does, 'Iowa here' result. C 49 justification warrants close consideration. invasion quick divorces forum relatively lax laws, attacks States.5 interests, simple domicile—physical remain—which remove rigid while permitting restrict own.6 50 notes (1945), could, limited circumstances, another. From concludes elsewhere, cushion 51 several reasons, neither nor cushion. aimed becoming mills. Quite opposite, plainly cultivated 'quickie divorce' reputation playing fast loose id., 236 1098—1099; 241, 1100 (Murphy, concurring). haven seekers, inconceivable good-faith faith credit standards Williams. 52 score applies divorces. divorcing foreign recognize Sherrer Sherrer, 334 343, 68 1087, 1429 (1948); Coe Coe, 378, 1094, 1451 Muelberger, 340 581, 71 474, 552 (1951); Cook Cook, 342 126, 72 157, 96 146 Therefore, sweeps too broadly defense attacks, whenever respondent reside regardless parte.7 53 Third, complete somewhat able incorrect. erroneously domicile, preclude 54 Finally, technically increase reduce exposure interpreted import.8 flaw void rel. Halvey Halvey, 903, 1133 (1947), exposes proceedings prove else, casts doubt speculation shield decrees. sum, defray seem fanciful real. If, assumes, assuring citizens, convincing evidence task.9 conclude interferes 'migrate, resettle, job, start life.' 629, 1328. reverse entry finds Steffel 1209, 505 Education Dept., 79, 259, 290 (1972) provides: 'Except service, marriage, addition information section 598.5, state, specifying resided, deducting absences state; maintenance only.' dismissal '(i)f averments proved.' answer complaint, lacked virtue Eleventh Amendment, thereafter abandoned action. sovereign immunity raising Edelman Jordan, 651, 1347, 662 Ford Motor Department Treasury Indiana, 323 459, 347, advanced guidance parties' permits waiver attorneys precedents discloses, Supreme consents waives entering defending merits. McKeown Brown, 167 489, 499, 149 N.W. 593, 597 (1914). treated Ford, themselves reach appeal network. response request, posture absence disagreement occasion resulted commencing predicated 1343(3), presents aggregation attempt amount 1331(a). Zahn International Paper 291, 505, 511 specify, monetary disclose 23(b)(2) contemplated. 23(b)(3) Eisen Carlisle Jacquelin, 417 156, 2140, 732 state-court raised questioned effort statewide sat aware possibility 1183 (ND 1973), 'termination deferral render cause confronted occur currently member.' Counsel disclosed oral Tr. Oral Arg. 22. proceeds 23(c) (3); 7765—7766, F.R.D. 69, 105—106. Once approval 23(e). strength demands blanket unredressed want spokesman retain position relaxation provision limits controversies,' supporting result III. text, infra, holding here comport language prevailing Circuits. See, e.g., Cleaver Wilcox, 499 940 (CA9 1974); Rivera Freeman, 469 1159 1972); Conover Montemuro, 477 1073 Roberts Union 487 387 (CA6 1973); Shiffman Askew, 359 1225 (MDFla. aff'd sub nom., Makres 500 577 (CA5 Moss Lane Inc., 471 853 (CA4 1973). Contra: Watkins Chicago Housing Authority, 406 1234 (CA7 1969); cf. Norman Parole, 458 497 (CA2 1972). involving becomes motion. instances, 'relate back' depend evade review. entertained mootness. frequently homogeneity warrant Hansberry Lee, 311 32, 44, 115, (1940); Phillips Klassen, 163 U.S.App.D.C. 360, 502 362, cert. 996, 309, 269 imagine seeing upheld. generally Peters, Reform Marriage Termination, Drake L.Rev. 211 Louisiana Washington exceptions. La.Code 10, subd. A(7) (Supp.1974); providing spouse maintained parish twelve rebuttable residence.' Wash.Laws 1973, 1st Ex.Sess., c. 157. Among varieties, applicable domiciled depending accrued. 50-state compilation National Legal Aid Defender Association, Divorce, Annulment Separation Idaho 32—701 (1963); Nev.Rev.Stat. 125.020 R.I.Gen.Laws Ann. 15—5—12 (1970); Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., 208, 4—5 (1958 Supp.1974). kind. 15. 638 21, 258—259, 1082—1083. 351—352, 1091, (1948): '(T)he collaterally attacking sister participation issues, susceptible decree.' Brother MARSHALL argues dissent 'sweeps broadly' narrowed provision. Post, 425. tailored disrupting practice pleading. governing appearances impossible know, motion dismiss appear participate proceedings. Rules 66, 104. legislature conceivably adopt system waivers revise detailed rewriting appropriate judiciary. least 18, assume 'floor' Appeals Fifth Circuit upholding six-month Florida, impart 'a verity tends suspicious eyes states' prosecutorial authorities, suspicions private states, post-decree dissatisfactions bite. not, then, cosmetic.' 579 aff'g, (MD Fla.1973). 'that dismissing Judge Keck (Jurisdictional Statement App.B. 2). Circuits lists five circuits opposing. 401—402, 10. Of cited support, four weight inapposite context. 1073, 1081—1082 contains dictum. 1974), affirmance discussion Two deal racial sexual discrimination, respectively, employment practices Title VII Civil Rights Act 78 Stat. 253, 2000e seq. Congress provided 'claiming aggrieved' discriminatory practices. 2000e—5; Trafficante Metropolitan Life Insurance 205, 209, 364, 366, discrimination based characteristics aggrieves employee stigmatization explicit implicit application badge inferiority, gave unlawfully. Trafficante, allow suits "private vindicating highest priority," 211, 367, analogous inherently based. expansive construction III's 7A C. Wright Miller, Procedure 1785, 137—138 23—1103 1793, 1794; 23.72—23.74. key mentions dicta representatives' mooting controversies, '(i)n 402 11. saves reviewable say flexible appealable appeals. '(q)uality embraces representatives themselves.' 1766, 632—633 (footnotes rested considerations. i.d., 633—635. 256 1081—1083; 1333. relies 'mere delay' dispose 410. protection, infirm, 383—386, 788—790 (Douglas, concurring result), today. identifies status, rights, arrangements commonly declining affecting concerns; instead, freezes unsatisfactory endure. 90-day conciliation challenge, uniformly petitioners. Appellees rely factors brief argue legislature's 'in proceeding.' Brief 8. mentioned middle quotation 9. hardly 'clear burden interests.' 321, Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 406—409, 83 1790, 1795—1797, 965 (1963). restrictive alternative weighs heavily testing 342, 350—352, 1003, 1007 1008, 267, 1086; Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 247, 252, 231 (1960). effect proof Julson Julson, 255 301, 122 329 (1963), 'pure' factfinding cured large waived agreed consent Hinds Hinds, (1855); Williamson Williamson, 179 495, 161 482, 485 (1917); Schaefer Schaefer, 245 1343, 1350, 66 428, 433 White 138 Conn. A.2d 450 Wyman Wyman, 297 Minn. 465, 212 368 Camp Camp, Misc.2d 908, N.Y.S.2d 561 (1959) (construing Florida law). mounted independent Schreiner Schreiner, S.W.2d 840 (Tex.Civ.App.1973); Hammond Hammond, Wash.2d 855, 278 P.2d (1954) gains refuge risk understanding solicitude laws. striking similarly one-and two-year requirements. subjecting seekers minimal. unconstitutional, stand conspicuously 'defense.' period, serve discourage peripatetic looking quickest adjudication.

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