Document: 490 U.S. 228 109 S.Ct. 1775 104 L.Ed.2d 268 PRICE WATERHOUSE, Petitionerv.Ann B. HOPKINS. No. 87-1167. Argued Oct. 31, 1988. Decided May 1, 1989. Syllabus Respondent was a senior manager in an office of petitioner professional accounting partnership when she proposed for 1982. She neither offered nor denied but instead her candidacy held reconsideration the following year. When partners later refused to repropose partnership, sued Federal District Court under Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964, charging that it had discriminated against on basis sex its decisions. The ruled respondent's favor question liability, holding unlawfully by consciously giving credence and effect partners' comments about resulted from stereotyping. Appeals affirmed. Both courts employer who has allowed discriminatory motive play part employment decision must prove clear convincing evidence would have made same absence discrimination, not carried this burden. Held: judgment is reversed, case remanded. 263 U.S.App.D.C. 321, 825 F.2d 458 (1987), reversed 1 Justice BRENNAN, joined MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, concluded plaintiff proves gender played decision, defendant may avoid finding liability proving preponderance even if taken plaintiff's into account. below erred requiring make proof evidence. Pp. 237-258. 2 (a) balance between employee ights prerogatives established eliminating certain bases distinguishing among employees while otherwise preserving employers' freedom choice decisive case. words "because of" § 703(a)(1) Act, which forbids adverse such individual's . sex," requires looking at all reasons, both legitimate illegitimate, contributing time made. preservation means will be liable can that, account, come decision. This Court's prior decisions demonstrate shows impermissible motivating thereby places burden show unlawful motive. Here, meet merely showing interpersonal problems—abrasiveness with staff members—constituted reason denying partnership; instead, reason, standing alone, induced deny respondent partnership. 239-252. 3 (b) Conventional rules civil litigation generally apply cases, one these parties need only their 252-255. 4 (c) stereotyping permitted evaluating as candidate clearly erroneous. undermined fact many suspect were supporters rather than detractors. 255-258. 5 WHITE, although concluding reached improper motive, Mt. Healthy City Bd. Ed. v. Doyle, 429 274, 97 568, 50 471, sets forth proper approach causation case, also plurality here errs seeming require, least most carry submitting objective result occurred absent motivation. In mixed-motives where found been ample grounds action taken, credibly testifies reasons should proof, there no special requirement more plainly denies any illegitimate first place court finds well legitimate, factors motivated action. 258-261. 6 O'CONNOR, agreeing facts persuasion shift consideration gender, properly phase litigation, misreads VII's substantive command shifting employer's decisional process "tainted" awareness or race way, effectively eliminates requirement. O'CONNOR rule limited cases present created uncertainty knowingly substantial weight criterion. 261-279. 7 Contrary plurality's conclusion, plain language making undertake prohibited statute's legislative history violation occurs criterion "but-for" cause However, nothing language, history, purpose statute prohibits adoption evidentiary concerns justified convinced factfinder forbidden factor role Such adopted tort other analogous types leaving unfair contrary deterrent purposes embodied concept duty care. 262-269. 8 Although departs careful framework McDonnell Douglas Corp. Green, 411 792, 93 1817, 36 668, Texas Dept. Community Affairs Burdine, 450 248, 101 1089, 67 207—which contemplate individual disparate treatment bears throughout litigation—that departure plaintiff, having presented direct placed substantial, though unquantifiable, reliance far could go, appropriate require defendant, considering criterion, wholly concerns. Moreover, circumstances conflict policies, particularly prohibition preferential based factors. Watson Fort Worth Bank & Trust, 487 977, 108 2777, 827, distinguished. 270-276. 9 Thus, order justify issue decisionmakers negative reaching entitles presume animus difference outcome, and, fails persuasion, conclude factor, satisfying standard VII. supplements Douglas-Burdine framework, continues failed satisfy threshold set herein. 276-279. 10 J., announced delivered opinion, JJ., joined. post, p. ----, filed opinions concurring judgment. KENNEDY, dissenting REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA, joined, ----. 11 Kathryn A. Oberly, Washington, D.C., petitioner. 12 James H. Heller, respondent. 13 BRENNAN STEVENS join. 14 Ann Hopkins Price Waterhouse admission unde 78 Stat. 253, amended, 42 U.S.C. 2000e et seq., firm regarding Judge Gesell Columbia 618 F.Supp. 1109 (1985), Circuit (1987). We granted certiorari resolve Courts concerning respective burdens suit shown mixture motives. 485 933, 1106, 99 (1988). 15 * At Waterhouse, nationwide becomes local submit name candidate. All are then invited written each candidate—either "long" "short" form, depending partner's degree exposure Not every partner submits After reviewing interviewing submitted them, firm's Admissions Committee makes recommendation Policy Board. either accept put application "hold," promotion outright. Board decides whether candidate's entire vote, "hold" candidacy, reject her. Committee, Board, controlled fixed guidelines: number positive guarantee specific quantity necessarily defeat application. limit persons whom admit given 16 worked Waterhouse's Office Government Services five years Of 662 time, women. 88 year, 1—Hopkins—was woman. Forty-seven candidates admitted 21 rejected, 20—including Hopkins—were "held" year.1 Thirteen 32 supported bid Three recommended hold, eight stated they did informed opinion her, 17 jointly prepared statement supporting Hopkins' showcased successful 2-year effort secure $25 million contract Department State, labeling "an outstanding performance" out "virtually level." Plaintiff's Exh. 15. Despite attempt trial minimize contribution project, specifically "played key win multi-million dollar State." F.Supp., 1112. Indeed, he went on, "[n]one year comparable record terms successfully securing major contracts partnership." Ibid. 18 praised character accomplishments, describing joint professional" "deft touch," "strong character, independence integrity." Clients appear agreed assessments. trial, official State described "extremely competent, intelligent," forthright, very productive, energetic creative." Tr. 150. Another high-ranking decisiveness, broadmindedness, "intellectual clarity"; was, his words, "a stimulating conversationalist." Id., 156-157. Evaluations led "had difficulty dealing clients pleased work" "was viewed highly competent project leader long hours, pushed vigorously deadlines demanded much multidisciplinary staffs worked." 1112-1113. 19 On too occasions, however, aggressiveness apparently spilled over abrasiveness. Staff members seem borne brunt brusqueness. Long before work counseled improve relations members. evaluations indicate improvement, perceived shortcomings important area eventually doomed Virtually remarks Hopkins—even those her—had do "interpersonal skills." "[s]upporters opponents candidacy," stressed Gesell, "indicated sometimes overly aggressive, unduly harsh, difficult impatient staff." 1113. 20 There signs, though, some reacted negatively personality because One "macho" (Defendant's 30); another suggested "overcompensated being woman" 31); third advised take course charm school" 27). Several criticized use profanity; response, objected swearing it's lady using foul language." 321. supporter explained "ha[d] matured tough-talking somewhat masculine hard-nosed mgr authoritative, formidable, appealing ptr candidate." Defendant's 27. But man who, found, bore responsibility explaining Board's hold coup de grace: chances Thomas Beyer advised, "walk femininely, talk dress wear make-up, hair styled, jewelry." 1117. Dr. Susan Fiske, social psychologist Associate Professor Psychology Carnegie-Mellon University, testified selection likely influenced Her testimony focused ove tly sex-based gender-neutral remarks, knew slightly, intensely critical partner, example, baldly "universally disliked" 27), "consistently annoying irritating" (ibid.); yet people little contact Hopkins. According uniqueness (as woman pool candidates) subjectivity sharply product stereotyping—although Fiske say certainty particular comment review comments, commonly accepted practice psychologists reach kind conclusion without met involved decisionmaking process. 22 previous years, female evaluated terms. As general matter, concluded, "[c]andidates favorably believed maintained femin[in]ity becoming effective managers"; environment, "[t]o identified 'women's lib[b]er' regarded [a] comment." fact, judge "[o]ne repeatedly commented consider seriously women capable functioning managers—yet took discourage recorded vote overall summary evaluations." 23 legitimately emphasized skills decisions, fabricated complaints pretext discrimination. give emphasis traits woman; male lacked possessed other, lacked. 24 decide, stemmed impermissibly cabined view behavior women, done disavow comments. He Noting equitable relief decided heavy 25 affirmed ultimate departed analysis particular: discrimination proves, evidence, U.S.App.D.C., 333-334, F.2d, 470-471. Under approach, deemed violated whereas respect avoids relief. decide today better II 26 specification conduct violates statute. gives employee's race, national origin, religion affects employee. theory, still different discriminated. view, hand, whenever allows attributes Once occurred, according Hopkins, serve liability.2 often happens, truth lies somewhere between. 27 assing VII, Congress simple momentous announcement sex, religion, origin relevant selection, evaluation, compensation employees.3 Yet, does purport qualities characteristics employers account converse, therefore, "for cause" legislation,4 choice. rights turns us. 28 Congress' intent forbid appears face now-familiar "fail refuse hire discharge individual, discriminate compensation, terms, conditions, privileges employment," "limit, segregate, classify applicants way deprive tend opportunities adversely affect status employee, sex." §§ 2000e-2(a)(1), (2) (emphasis added).5 mean irrelevant To construe colloquial shorthand "but-for causation," misunderstand them.6 29 But-for hypothetical construct. determining but-for event, we begin assuming ask whether, tha absent, event nevertheless transpired way. present, active tense operative verbs ("to fail refuse"), contrast, our attention actual moment question, inquiry, commanded 703(a)(1), since know "solely of,"7 meant condemn considerations. When, considers considerations—even later, context 30 attribute meaning not, dissent asserts, 282, divest them causal significance. A example illustrates point. Suppose two physical forces act upon move object, suppose force acting alone moved object. it, "cause" motion unless object moved; simply "in air" identify object's movement. Events causally overdetermined, all. cannot so. 31 leave common sense doorstep interpret It us imagine of," obligate precise motivations challenges. conclude, relied considerations coming Our interpretation circumstance namely, "bona fide occupational qualification [ (BFOQ) ] reasonably necessary normal operation th[e] business enterprise." 2000e-2(e). plausible inference draw provision circumstances, person's considered indirect stumbling block opportunities. An held, condition satisfaction facially neutral tests qualifications disproportionate, impact protected groups required performance job. See 827 (1988); Griggs Duke Power Co., 401 424, 91 849, 158 (1971). 33 end describes aspect remaining shall pa ticular person. maintenance evident itself Court. 34 with, existence BFOQ exception unwillingness change nature operations response And "business necessity" disparateimpact see Griggs, "legitimate, nondiscriminatory reason[s]" disparate-treatment 802, 1824, 668 (1973); 207 (1981), results prerogatives. Douglas, follows goal eradicate workplace efficiency: "The broad, overriding interest, shared employer, consumer, efficient trustworthy workmanship assured through fair racially personnel implementation abundantly tolerates racial subtle otherwise." U.S., 801, S.Ct., 1823-1824. 35 ignored enumerated statute, hoped, naturally focus applicant drive theme good deal history. interpretive memorandum entered Congressional Record Senators Case Clark, comanagers bill Senate, representative theme.8 memorandum, " 'expressly protects right insist prospective applicant, Negro white, applicable job qualifications. promote hiring qualifications, color.' "9 110 Cong.Rec. 7247 (1964), quoted supra, 434, 855. on: "To distinction, favor, distinctions differences section 704 criteria: color, origin. Any affected title." 7213 (1964). Many legislators statements similar effect; remark full here. central point this: (except narrow BFOQ), free reasons. think principles once liability10 role. rights. 37 casts shadow after prima facie true reason. 256-258, 1095-1096. stress, first, shifted pretextual. 1114-1115. retains situation "shifting burdens" addressed Burdine. Instead, appropriately affirmative defense: persuade point, wishes prevail, another. NLRB Transportation Management Corp., 462 393, 400, 103 2469, 2473, 76 667 (1983).11 38 claim bear (if all) until "substantial explanation failing 'true reason' action" (Brief Petitioner 20) restates argument squeeze Burdine's framework. Where motives, "the added)) decision—which asked Management, n. 5, 5.12 Oblivious last perform never intended perform. challenges pretend single source—for premise Burdine challenged scheme help admittedly involving kinds cast aspersions utility designed. B 39 deciding today, traverse new ground. past confronted used distinguish employees, resulting practice. asserted within 703(e), assumed why employment. Dothard Rawlinson, 433 332-337, 2720, 2728-2730, 53 786 (1977). related context, Equal Pay expressly permits pay wages "factor 206(d)(1), disparity linked. Corning Glass Works Brennan, 417 188, 196, 94 2223, 2229, 41 (1974). Finally, amended Pregnancy Discrimination limitations pregnant light pregnancy. See, e.g., Hayes Shelby Memorial Hospital, 726 1543, 1548 (CA11 1984); Wright Olin 697 1172, 1187 (CA4 1982). examples demonstrate, assumption always process, justifying whose proved establish proposition subject men, so today. 40 contexts law announces characteristic allocation benefits. 471 (1977), claimed discharged public school teacher exercising free-speech First Amendment. Because wish "place position exercise constitutionally occupied nothing," id., 285, 575, "ought able, engaging conduct, prevent assessing rehire record." 286, 575. therefore speech "substantial" "motivating factor" him obligated "by [the plaintiff] conduct." 287, 576. Givhan Western Line Consolidated School Dist., 439 410, 417, 693, 697, 58 619 (1979). alsoArlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Development 252, 270-271, 21, 555, 566, (1977) (applyingMt. alleged unconstitutional contributed enactment legislation); Hunter Underwood, 222, 228, 105 1916, 1920, 85 222 (1985) (same). upheld NLRB's 10(c) National Labor Relations union member "if suspended cause." 160(c). suspension hostility unions, up situation, emphasized, "[t]he wrongdoer; acted declared risk influence legal illegal motives separated, innocent activity own wrongdoing." 403, 2475. have, short, before. Each treads well-worn path. C 43 saying what received truthful woman.13 stereotyping, acts belief be, gender. 44 overtly dispute proposition, placement "sex stereotyping" quotation marks brief seems insinuation lacks relevance. r ject possibilities. inclined quarrel showed work. infra, 255-256. relevance beyond day evaluate insisting matched stereotype associated group, '[i]n forbidding individuals strike spectrum men stereotypes.' Los Angeles Water Manhart, 435 702, 707, 13, 98 1370, 1375, 55 657 (1978), quoting Sprogis United Air Lines, Inc., 444 1194, 1198 (CA7 1971). objects positions trait intolerable catch 22: behave aggressively not. lifts bind. 45 Remarks stereotypes inevitably actually showing, stereotyped certainly part. consist stray remarks. contrary, comments; stereotypes; assessment disclaimed sex-linked evaluations. suggests, "discrimination air"; rather, is, puts brought ground visited upon" Brief 30. By focusing suggest limitation possible ways refrain facts, "standing alone," unnecessary 277 (O'CONNOR, judgment). 46 able probable motive.14 'that made.' Givhan, 416, Ayers District, 555 1309, 1315 (CA5 1977). prevail offering sufficient motivate indeed, already problems concern. III 47 impulse persuaded 48 see, States Postal Service Governors Aikens, 460 711, 716, 1478, 1482, 75 403 (1983) (discrimination "treat[ed] differently questions fact"), Herman MacLean Huddleston, 459 375, 390, 683, 691, 74 548 (1983). Exceptions uncommon, ordinarily recognized government seeks unusual coercive action—action dramatic entering award money damages conventional relief—against individual. Santosky Kramer, 455 745, 756, 102 1388, 1396, 71 599 (1982) (termination parental rights); Addington Texas, 441 418, 427, 1804, 1810, 60 323 (1979) (involuntary commitment); Woodby INS, 385 276, 87 483, 362 (1966) (deportation); Schneiderman States, 320 118, 122, 125, 63 1333, 1335, 1336, 1796 (1943) (denaturalization). Only rarely defended relief, Gertz Robert Welch, 418 323, 342, 2997, 3008, 789 (1974) (defamation), find significant sought elevated proof—suggesting serves shield than, sword. 49 true, emphasizes, noted "clear distinction measure sustained damage enable jury fix amount." Story Parchment Co. Paterson Paper 282 562, 51 250, L.Ed. 544 (1931). Likewise, Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) regulation federal agencies entitled CFR 1613.271(c)(2) finally, importance make-whole victims Albemarle Moody, 422 405, 95 2362, 280 (1975). Yet sources deals determination initial liability. seen easily EEOC's regulation, operates agency EEOC against." 1613.271(c) altogether authorities elevate position. Significantly, resemble one, proof. Healthy, 576; polic firing spoke issues concern affiliated less policy discharging policies vitally important, adequately served concretely tell how preponderant convincing, implicit request stringent standard. Since lower determine decision-making remand IV 52 part" evaluation 1120. disputes hold. factual conclusions agree. reflected Fiske's expert testimony. Without directly impugning credentials insinuates unable investigating reality. comes late. counsel twice expertise (App. 25) challenge legitimacy discipline. contradiction discerned further documents. 64. petitioner's belated unsubstantiated characterization "gossamer evidence" "intuitive hunches" (id., 44) detection "intuitively divined" 43). Nor disposed adopt dissent's dismissive attitude toward field study integrity, 294, 5. 54 tempted icing cake. takes training discern description aggressive school." Nor, turning Beyer's memorable advice psychology flawed skills" corrected soft-hued shade lipstick, perhaps drawn criticism.15 charges produced ster otyping stressed, solicited partners; heavily decision; stereotyping; past. Certainly might say, inevitable—conclusion including stereotypical notions women's deportment.16 56 concedes motivation plaintiff. 45. harbored grudge activity; suggestion, discharge. 396, 2471. If sufficient, vehement 57 detractors comment, favorable review, decisionmaker candidate; tally "yeses" "noes" candidate, carefully reviewed content additional suggestion "persons outside chain" 48)—and harmed Hopkins—simply ignores affirm findings overbearing curt, considerate patient. indeed impression, misunderstands theory prevailed. acknowledged manager. reactions subjective strengths weaknesses, evaluator mention, weaknesses. "personality problems," (or man. reality; perception irrelevant. si Ms. nice, V 59 reverse Appeals' proceedings. ordered. 61 62 my look rehired, Amendment permissible rejected part, 'substantial' otherwise, rehire," off constitutional doing outlined approach: "Initially, protected, 'substantial factor' or, 'motivating him. burden, gone reemployment 576 (footnote omitted). 64 get semantic discussions guise creates defense here, now holds, only, principal, Rather, states, Court, construed Appeals, 333, 334, 458, 470, I agree record. 65 applying from, modification of, holdings (1973). "mixed-motives" both, 'true' behind decision." "true" multiple factors, legitimate. hardly said "inapposite." disagree assertion inconsistent persuading trier intentionally remains times plaintiff." 1093. indicated improperly 66 concur reversing remanding. With Ante, 252. action.* 68 litigation. thus My disagreement stems broad applicability applied adopts supplement unanimous (1973), write separately explain believe like express views strong medicine administered. 69 provides pertinent part: "It unla ful employment, origin." 2000e-2(a) added). suggests: attempting actions setting, mere thoughts. Critics became labeled "thought control bill," argued "punishable crime external judgment." 100 7254 (1964) (remarks Sen. Ervin). Senator Case, persuasive elsewhere, responded: 70 something regard act, mental act. consequences." dictum causation; manifestly do. Sheet Metal Workers EEOC, 478 421, 499, 106 3019, 3062, 92 344 (1986) (WHITE, dissenting) ("[T]he practices discrimination"). deviate best conforms 72 congressional party considerably clear. No doubt, elements points out, 3, interpretative sponsors indicates occurred." 7214 whence derived, "civil cases" destructive breach established, torts defendants negligent injury. Summers Tice, Cal.2d 80, 84-87, 199 P.2d 3-4 (1948). defendant's tortious combines unknown produce harm Kingston Chicago N.W.R. 191 Wis. 610, 616, 211 N.W. 913, 915 (1927) ("Granting fire [caused negligence] natural greater proportions, available defense, proximate damage"). J. Wigmore, Select Cases Law Torts 153, 865 (1912) ("When possibly sole harm, person cause, introduced persons, acts, culpable, person, harm"). 73 While "breach duty" injury hamper enforcement causes action, "at [but-for] test demands impossible. imagination probe purely fanciful unknowable state affairs. estimate concededly existed. happened opens door wide conjecture. conjecture direction consistent underlie controversy." Malone, Ruminations Cause-In-Fact, Stan.L.Rev. 60, (1956). Like torts, statutory "tort" basic purposes. deter harmful society whole. past, backpay spur catalyst unions self-examine self-evaluate endeavor eliminate, possible, vestiges" 417-418, 2371-2372, (1975) (citation second "to whole injuries suffered discrimination." 2372. goals doubt evil itself. Clark color [or criteria] promote." 7218 13088 Humphrey) ("What employment"). Reliance exactly threat deter. main opportunity, blind stigmatic treats inferior one's sex. Protection Clause whatever final outcome inclusion harms Richmond J.A. Croson 488 469, 706, 854 (1989). conditioned caused tangible kind. 77 triggered. More importantly, reasonable explanation, "caused" violator, presumption faith accorded facing circumstan ial developed convince despite smoke, fire. recognition discussed "remedial phase" class cases. group essentially "standard practice," injunctive appropriate. class, complete. Dillon Coles, 746 998, 1004 (CA3 1984) ("It misleading speak phase, element portion case") demonstrated rule, shifts opportunity reasons." Teamsters 431 324, 362, 1843, 1868, 396 Franks Bowman 424 747, 772, 96 1251, 1268, (1976). 79 stand forbids, connection unclear. calling hired promoted "unfair" type latter receives benefit likelihood 80 tension line cited dissent. 286-289. Logically, pattern statutorily mandated claim, Cooper Reserve Richmond, 467 867, 873-878, 2794, 2798-2801, 81 718 (1984), wholesale transposition setting presumptions probabilities alien jurisprudence. placing equal protection. asserts governmental victim intentional 256, 1095. Compare 289. (KENNEDY, dissenting), Washington Davis, 426 229, 240, 2040, 2047, 597 Alexander Louisiana, 405 625, 1221, 536 (1972), dealt criminal allegation invidiously excluded grand indicted Clause. addition statistical State's "selection procedures themselves neutral." 630, 1225. rebut criteria monochromatic result." 632, 1226. 82 adhered Arlington which, multimember body authorized range arriving minority plaintiffs municipal governing body's refusal rezone plot land allow construction low-income integrated housing motivated. causation, 83 rested solely Rarely legislature administrative operating mandate concern, 'dominant' 'primary' one. administrators concerned balancing numerous competing merits arbitrariness irrationality. just consideration. judicial deference longer justified." 265-266, 563 84 regularity rationality accord private substantially infected brings "disparate treatment" 1983 Heights. Hervey Little Rock, 787 1223, 1233-1234 (CA8 1986) (applying decision); Lee Russell County Education, 684 769, 773-774 1982) employees' claims case). reading extension coverage 1972 regime. substant al Even "[had] [the] principle" affirmatively absent." 341, (1987) (Williams, dissenting). date accurate, amply demonstrates precedents. 286-289 confined word "pretext" definition attempts pin ante, 244-247. contemplated proffered reason" attacks, depart justification, outlines drawn. 86 First, prove, probability potential eliminated arises Teamsters, 358, 44, 1866, 44. formula inferential production; articulate Furnco Construction Waters, 438 567, 577, 2943, 2949, 957 (1978). "opportunity presumptively valid rejection coverup 805, 1826. "narrow question" "not onerous" establishing 1092. discussion indicates, 713-714, 2, 1481, Pet. Cert. Gov rnors O.T.1981, 81-1044, confront briefed apparent, compensate hard by. That rebutting production scales weighted manner Age seemed inapplicable presents Trans World Airlines, Inc. Thurston, 469 111, 121, 613, 621-622, 523 (1985). East Motor Freight System, Rodriguez, 395, 403-404, 9, 1891, 1897, 453 Second, growing me propose real promise "[i]n [employment] referred failure conform militating election 1109, 1116-1117 (DC 1985). "great weight" Waterhouse. 1118. addition, responsible informing "professional" solved 1117 characterized "permitt[ed] attitudes towards significant, invite become partner." 461. 89 go. input participants credited sitting hall room heard several sexist discussing suitability exited room, told privy bid. If, "[p]resumptions reflect party's superior access proof," 359, 45, 1867, pressed 90 mounting inability pinpoint injury, hese courts, regular basis, nonpersuasion furthers Bell Birmingham Linen Service, 715 1552, 1556 1983) (Tjoflat, J.) illogical, ironic, presenting articulating, proving, action"). Particularly world, collegial bodies largely criteria, definitive decisionmakers' tantamount declaring Fields 817 931, 935-937 (CA1 1987) (where faculty tenure discrimination); Thompkins Morris Brown College, 752 558, 1985) (direct college professor defendant). am maintain population. 2000e-2(j). authoritative plurality, 243, 8, provides: "There title force. deliberate balance, involve maintaining race." Last Term, (1988), unanimously enunciated (1971), extended discretionary processes. bare statistics "inappropriate prophylactic measures" emphasize "must offer exclusion jobs promotions membership group." 994, 2789. times." 997, 2790. b rden resting explicit obvious mind enacted VII." 335, 15, 1854-1855, imbalance indicators "functional equivalent," themselves, evils setting. incentive bearing seek sexual force; danger forcing engage unwarranted faced Watson, illusory. Based misreading 240-242, commands 250-252. reads replaces "affirmative defense." below: "While circuits squarely, consensus Requiring identifies situations implicated. illicit motivation, employer. rests factor. isolate removed calculus, Cf. satisfied. workplace, probative harassment, Meritor Savings Vinson, 477 57, 63-69, 2399, 2404-2407, (1986), criteria. nondecisionmakers, unrelated itself, suffice regard. Race "play role" benign human aware perfectly fashion. For reference candidate" support rational factfinder's What here: differs notwithstanding. 13. proceeds embody status. 259-260 sum, above, disserved retain subsequent structure presentation job, position, continued complainant's 1824. notes, "has lawful." Post, 292, citing 258, 1096. received, applies it. threshold, system workable, calibrates requirements dissent, 293, 4, Johnson Agency, Santa Clara County, 480 626-627, 107 1442, 1449, 615 squarely analytical Douglas," 626, alter odd dependent skin litigants. 239, 3. called merit remand, nonetheless same. Chief SCALIA join, dissenting. Today manipulates existing complex confusion. Continued adherence wiser creation disarray bench bar, Before disposition today's read plaintiffs, animus, 276-277 (opinion J.); J.). plain, produces workplace. 251 requisite 260-261 278 question: "objective" ordinary. 261 alters closely defined advances thoughtfu arguments change, remain unwise. troubling rationale includes unfortunate pronouncements methods defects reasoning, discuss, second, 237, respectfully misleading. Much rhetoric spent denouncing causation. adopts, incorporates employs, misdirected, whoever issue, 261, 262-263 obscure. employer— "(1) 2000e-2(a)(1) understanding, phrase conveys idea outcome. everyday speech. assuming, does, ought drafters, well. favor." chosen clearer issue. 111 confirm presence motives; directed verbal formulae precedents synonymous Thus providing insurance treating 'in different.' Newport News Shipbuilding Dry Dock 669, 2622, 2631, (1983), 1377, "based on" "made 875, 2799, (1984). 112 term rigorous describe. Common-law approaches starting cause. instance imposing but-for, represents impose Dean Prosser "[a]n omission it." W. Keeton, D. Dobbs, R. Owen, Keeton 265 (5th ed. 1984). 113 principal sow confusion conflates shown. ultimately standard, academic. 259 turn analysis. 114 begins noting quite unremarkable tense. 240-241. fail" refuse" provide benefits failed" refused" excludes inquiry contested observation, tells creates. unaware prohibitory Every determination, novel constructed examination event.1 verb divert phrase. phrase, submit, embodies labors ignore.2 115 next required, of." 241. contends, violation. separate discussed, whenever, combination arise, i.e., McDonald Fe Trail 427 273, 10, 2574, 2580, 493 follow, matter semantics logic. 116 qualification" provisions 2000e-2(e), inapt. conceded opposite justifies imposition principle support, 117 confusing internal inconsistency. saying: "When 'because of' account." goes 242. 118 Given true. unambiguously states violator. reconciled "same decision" supports view. "[a] 'but-for' decision," 249, "is 'where outcome,' 246, 11. 119 reconcile inconsistency label, Section themes parts inapposite. reasoning "reads 'affirmative defense.' 276. Labels aside, import arise absence. 120 reaffirmed (1981). arises. articulating belongs "ultimate Trustees Keene College Sweeney, 24, 29, 295, 297, 216 (1978) (STEVENS, dissenting).3 adhere Today's refinement practical cost complexity, attendant misapprehend controlling incorrect 121 dispositive tries announcing defines false. 245-247, succeed meeting "either indirectly unworthy credence." 1095 alternative methods, meets "persuade reason." 717-718, 1483, (BLACKMUN, concurring). address 122 offers chooses method justification false, pretext. 714, ("As lawsuit, circumstantial evidence"). lurality mistaken suggesting so-called disadvantaged "squeeze framework." 247. vary cases," differing situations." "never rigid, mechanized, ritualistic." 715, 1482. compels forward logical confines plaintiff; orderly adequate Regardless presented, consistently "remains 123 Aikens There, black man, qualified white ahead derogatory blacks particular." 2. reiterated tried BLACKMUN concurred stress ways, 718, 1483. leaves flexible addressing claims. 124 Downplaying novelty followed "well-worn path" path worn, wrong forest. again relies provisions, qualification. sensible, necessary, citations 248. pregnancy disputed justified, 125 Closer analogies contexts. teacher, Act. Transpo tation traditionally accords interpretations statutes administers. 402-403, 2474-2475. Neither continue govern 126 contrast acknowledges "departure standard." 262. force, dispositive. "nothing adoption" approach. 269 protection These unprecedented Nonetheless, mandate. manifest preventing 262 J.), suggests required. supra. innovation sacrifice clarity 127 overstated. scheme, furthermore, smaller subset "risk nonpersuasion," evenly balanced side's "more likely" category include complete lack (1948) (allocation negligently fired shots hit plaintiff). 128 almost instruction, "stray remarks" animus. Trial appellate saddled task developing standards shift. tasks generation jurisprudence factor." "direct" "indirect" "circumstantial" Lower Addition burden-shifting mechanism, depends credibility sufficiently t lend mechanism distinguishes tort, class-action relies. WHITE'S assertions "need to" "inapposite," 258-260, understand. 129 Confusion dual mechanisms acute 1981 (ADEA), borrow trials. Note, 1967 Jury: Proposals Change, Va.L.Rev. 601 (noting high reversal rate setting). Perhaps future bifurcated retiring hearing issues. Alternatively, unenviable formulating instruction various potentially 130 minor accomplished difficulties accompany "remain confident meriting lawful. Further, due liberal discovery litigants supplemented investigatory files. "sensible, experience discrimination," cases.4 131 par icular Some unconscious stereotypes,5 disclaim conducted review. "make sensitive dangers [of stereotyping], tainted sexism, investigate stereotypes." 1119 132 version opinions, independent Evidence course, intent. harm. "disclaim reliance" "duty sensitize." observed, acceptance theories "from engine rooting thoughts." 340, 133 factfinders Sometimes passed admirable protections extend model employees. sit nice. Had reversible error. finder Attempts evade tough erecting multitiered systems misguided. 134 well-considered Here "comments purpose," 1118, "[b]ecause considerable peers, elected sexually evaluations," trial. entry came, withdrew reconsidered resigned. amounted constructive remanded proceedings stayed pending Decisions pertaining advancement are, Hishon King Spalding, 69, has, least, left Circuits disarray. Third, Fourth, Fifth, Seventh challenging origin), favor. Bellissimo Westinghouse Electric 764 175, 179 1985), cert. denied, 475 1035, 1244, 353 (1986); Ross Communications Satellite 759 355, 365-366 1985); Peters Shreveport, 818 1148, 1161 1987); McQuillen Wisconsin Education Assn. Council, 830 659, 664-665 1987). Sixth, Eleventh Circuits, "motivating" specified mentioned 936-937 ("motivating factor"); Berl Westchester 849 712, 714-715 (CA2 1988) ("substantial part"); Terbovitz Fiscal Adair Ky., (CA6 1557 1983). Circuit, except preponderant. 470-471 (1987); Toney Block, 227 275, 705 1364, 1366 (Scalia, (it "destructive [Title VII] favor"). Ninth soon decision—at reinstatement e.g. Fadhl San Francisco, 741 1163, 1165-1166 (1984) (Kennedy, ("significant factor"). Last, Eighth draws remedial phases Bibbs 778 1318, 1320-1324 (en banc) ("discernible disregard, discussion, declined escape penalty (such backpay) court. House, forbade "individual advancement, H.R.Rep. 7152, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., (1963) deleted than" characteristics. 2567-2571 Representative Celler substitution "specif[ied] cause"; "cannot 2567. argues 703(a)(2) subjected biased "tended deprive" below, passing (1976), pretextual, "no 'but for' passage, cause; so, prevails. action; unlike mixed "pretext." 247, 12. amendment "solely" front 2728, 13837 authoritativeness bipartisan "captains" Firefighters Stotts, 561, 581, 14, 2576, 2589, 483 legislators' statements, text, bizarre "sex" came included employment—it bill, C. Whalen, Longest Debate: Legislative History 1964 115-117 (1985)—does alleging added passed, categories token, references announce, qual sex; consequence, says, partnership's received. 706(g), engaged to, 2000e-5(g) 706(g)—a defining remedies limits courts' authority pattern-or-practice suits actions. crucial manifest. 'at stage decisionmaking.' 876, 2799-2800, 360, 46, explicitly mentioning authorize whom, shows, systemic effect. (1976); 367-371, 1870-1873; 404, 706(g) (upholding identical 160(c), contains 706(g)). discriminated, "whe surprising insists proof." 288. moreover, hypothetically "internal inconsistency" perceives. 285-286. imposed "where outcome." 285. adversary system, assume inaccurate. Nothing correctly labele beginning Court; expect allege, alternative, both. Discovery proceedings, involves worry during impossibly confused imagines. 292. Juries raised defenses. fails, endorsed ago unworkable hopelessly complicated antidiscrimination statutes. comparing O'Connor's judgment, 276-277, understand concurrence meaningfully 277-279. "hypothetical," 283, 1. shaving describe strikes distinctly nonhypothetical WHITE's testimony, baffling. advanced "responsible telling [Hopkins] candidacy." doubt" discuss "knew were" 316. dissenters' dissatisfaction Judge's "sensitize" sexism. 294. Made evaluations, judge's condoning justified. carries retrospective. woman." 250. overdetermined highlights error insistence discusses Translated affairs factfinder, test, considered. Coupled earlier difference" none traditional disregards possible. affirmative-action plan, plan's validity plan Association 665 1987), 914, 1068, 248 Presumably easier pursuant validity. consistent, expected involved, plans illegal. engages services trouble chose late constrained enthusiasm unwarranted. purported neutral—e.g., "overbearing abrasive"—without knowledge comments' reality speaker subject. overbearing, arrogant, abrasive: observations discounted base attributes." credit

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