Document: 505 U.S. 788 112 S.Ct. 2767 120 L.Ed.2d 636 Barbara FRANKLIN, Secretary of Commerce, et al., Appellants,v.MASSACHUSETTS al. No. 91-1502. Argued April 21, 1992. Decided June 26, Syllabus * The Constitution requires that the apportionment Representatives be determined by an "actual Enumeration" persons "in each State," conducted every 10 years. Art. I, § 2, cl. 3; Amdt. 14, 2. After Commerce takes census in a form and content she determines, 13 U.S.C. 141(a), reports tabulation to President, 141(b). He, turn, sends Congress statement showing number State, based on data from "decennial census," he determines which State will entitled. 2 2a(a). For only second time since 1900, Census Bureau (Bureau) allocated Department Defense's overseas employees particular States for reapportionment purposes 1990 census, using allocation method it most closely resembled "usual residence," its standard measure state affiliation. Appellees Massachusetts two registered voters filed action against, inter alios, President alleging, among other things, decision allocate federal is inconsistent with Administrative Procedure Act (APA) Constitution. In particular, they alleged military personnel resulted shift Representative Washington State. District Court, alia, held Secretary's such was arbitrary capricious under APA standards, directed eliminate them count, recalculate submit new calculation Congress. Held: judgment reversed. 785 F.Supp. 230 (D.Mass.1992) Justice O'CONNOR delivered opinion Court respect Parts II, IV, concluding that: 1 1. There no "final agency action" reviewable APA. Pp. ____. (a) An "final" when completes decisionmaking process result one directly affect parties. Here, creates entitlement has direct effect President's He not required transmit report Rather, uses census" making his statement, and, even after receives report, prohibited instructing reform census. statutory structure here differs those statutes automatically triggers course regardless any discretionary taken President. Japan Whaling Assn. v. American Cetacean Soc., 478 221, distinguished. Contrary appellees' argument, ceremonial or ministerial. Apportionment foreordained gives fact final important integrity process. 3 (b) actions are specifically included APA's purview, separation powers unique constitutional position makes textual silence insufficient subject him provisions. 4 their home consistent language goal equal representation. It compatible gloss given phrase State" first enumeration been used ever States. may mean more than mere physical presence, include some element allegiance enduring tie place. also place abode," resident," "inhabitant" describe tie. And "Inhabitant," related context congressional residence qualifications, interpreted occasionally absent considerable public private business. "Usual residence" continued hold broad connotations up present day. does hamper underlying representation, but, assuming have retained ties States, actually promotes equality. 5 O'CONNOR, J., announced I REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, SCALIA, THOMAS, JJ., joined, Part BLACKMUN, STEVENS, KENNEDY, SOUTER, III, WHITE joined. concurring part judgment, judgment. 6 John G. Roberts, Jr., appellants. 7 Dwight Golann, appellees. 8 except as III. 9 As season follows another, decennial again generated controversies. This decade, reapportionment, lost seat House Representatives. brought this against (Secretary), officials, Clerk Representatives, challenging, counting serving overseas. appellants' 922,819 designated files "home record" altered relative populations enough Washington. A three-judge panel United "homes standards (APA), 701 seq. remedy, counts, per Congress, inform change. officials appealed. We noted probable jurisdiction, stayed Court's order, ordered expedited briefing argument. 503 ----, 1462, 117 608 (1992). now reverse. Article 3, provides "shall apportioned several . according respective Numbers," requires, virtue Fourteenth Amendment, "counting whole State." calculated Enumeration," years, Manner [Congress] shall Law direct." Const., 3. 11 delegates Constitutional Convention periodic requirement order insure entrenched interests did stall thwart needed reapportionment. See M. Farrand, Records Federal 1787, pp. 571, 578-588 (rev. ed. 1966). Their effort partially successful, battles over calculating still caused delays. just 10-year stalemate 1920 reformed make virtually self-executing, so would without S.Rep. 71st Cong., 1st Sess., 2-3 (1929) ("The need legislation type confessed record past nine years during refused translate into apportionment. result, great constituencies robbed rightful share representation ."); Dept. Montana, n. 25, 1415, 1421, 118 87 12 Under automatic statute, [s]he determine." 141(a). permitted delegate her authority establishing procedures Census. §§ 4. "The total population completed within months date reported States." receiving ascertained population, entitled then existing known proportions. ." "Each shown" must "send executive certificate entitled." 2a(b). With one-time exception 1900 servicemen at family home, stationed until 1970. App. 175, 177. 1970 Vietnam War, members Armed Forces record," Defense records. Id., 179. "Home declared person upon entry service, where moved service complete. 149. Because found were likely designate low income taxes instead true State—even though determine taxation—the 1980 180. 14 Initially, took enumerations either. were, however, stirrings favor including employees, especially military, counts. Several bills requiring introduced but passed 100th 101st Congresses. H.R. 3814, Sess. (1987); 4234, 2d (1988); 3815, 4720, S. 2103, 1468, (1989); 2661, 3016, 290, (1989). July 1989, before taking begin, then-Secretary Robert Mosbacher agreed 182. His memorandum cites both growing support belief "its should excluded counts because temporary involuntary overseas." 120. Another factor explaining Defense, largest employer, planned poll determine, considered permanent home. 184. December canceled plans conduct survey due lack funds. Ibid. alternative, suggested could provide employees' last six information complete up-to-date already files. possibility failed materialize informed able assemble all. 15 meantime, passed, apportion 4903, (1990); 2675, (1990). 1990, count decided record." 185. chose designation available, legal duty station, Bureau's affiliation—"usual residence." Record 925. Legal thought less accurate choice affected taxation. Indeed, Congressional Research Service "the either taxes, tax interest dividend income, approximately percent claiming purposes, same receive Report, 151, 13. similar reasons, station rejected work address, employee's address might different those, example, who worked Columbia lived Virginia Maryland. A.R. Residence "last station" very short duration reflected usual residence. 150. Those whom available order. 186. 16 invited 40 agencies well. Of 30 submitted 20 dependents enumeration. Four all employees. 17 challenged do so, focused attack use personnel. finding had jurisdiction merits claims, "skeptical" speculating "[t]here appear nothing inherently unconstitutional properly supported counts." Commonwealth Mosbacher, 230, 266 (Mass.1992). nonetheless that, administrative it, 264-266. II 18 raise claims basis our Blum Bacon, 457 132, 137, 102 2355, 2359, 72 728 (1982); Burton 196 283, 295, 25 243, 245, 49 L.Ed. 482 (1905). 19 sets forth accountable review courts. unusual candidate "agency meaning APA, promulgated Register, official generated, felt necessary calculations Contrast 441a(e) (requiring publish year Register estimate voting age population). Only 2a(b) ("Each shown [President's] statement"). judicial there adequate remedy court." 704. At issue case whether appellees "agency" courts exercise complained Act. Accordingly, reviewed standards. 21 To final, we looked to, impact "is sufficiently immediate" "direct day-to-day business." Abbott Laboratories Gardner, 387 136, 152, 1507, 1517, 681 (1967). if ruling subordinate official," "tentative." S.Ct., 1517. core question process, case, 22 Unlike expressly require agency's 2a not. Compare, e.g., 1017(d) [of National Advisory Council Continuing Education] comments recommendations"); 1315(c) (similar language); 42 3015(f) 6633(b)(2) language). "transmit population." 2a. Section rather, census." statute forbidding amendment itself submits potential litigants, therefore, presents moving target, press release issued day explicit presented correction. News, Census, Population 249,632,692: Reapportionment Will Shift Seats (Dec. 1990) set herein possible correction undercount overcount. considering correct these corrected any, later 15, 1991").1 Moreover, rules out instruction him. target stops moving, carries consequences serves like tentative recommendation binding determination. is, supra, therefore review. Cf. Chicago & Southern Air Lines, Inc. Waterman S.S. Corp., 333 103, 109, 68 431, 435, 92 568 (1948); Bush Co., 310 371, 379, 60 944, 946, 84 1259 (1940). 23 106 2860, 166 (1986), Commerce's certification another country endangering fisheries action." 231, 4, 2866, 1978(a)(1) triggered sanctions 1821(e)(2)(B), himself take. Whaling, 226, 2864. contrast, affirmative steps calculate 24 claim exercises discretion numbers "role scheme intended substantive content," Secretary's, President's. Brief 86. They cite Senate Report bill became 2a, states "upon problem mathematics standard, rigid specifications provided itself, can mathematical answer." 4-5 (1929). admittedly ministerial nature answer reiterate, curtail policy judgments census;" adhere decisions report. personal transmittal settles apportionment, acts determinate challenge. Secretary, affects 26 clear involve officer originally 1446, 70th amended participation President: "Another objection previous intrusted responsibility pending recognizes extent substituted function served officer. greater permanence, major virtues desired statute." 5. hard imagine purpose involving prevented exercising accustomed supervisory officers. Certainly alter superintendent role evident text statute. 27 enacted, cannot act alone; send results That bolsters conclusion duties merely Thus, 28 defines "each Government agency, include—(A) Congress; (B) States; (C) governments territories possessions (D) government Columbia." 701(b)(1), 551(1). explicitly included, Out find provisions express performance abuse discretion. Nixon Fitzgerald, 731, 748, 27, 2690, 2700, 73 349 (1982) (Court created damages President). allow actions, presume requirements. Although constitutionality, see Youngstown Sheet Tube Co. Sawyer, 343 579, 863, 96 1153 (1952), Panama Refining Ryan, 293 388, 55 241, 79 446 (1935), Armstrong Bush, 288 U.S.App.D.C. 38, 45, 924 F.2d 282, 289 (1991). erred proceeding claims. III 29 determination dispose Webster Doe, 486 592, 603-605, 108 2047, 2053-2054, 100 632 (1988). challenges justiciable. standing.2 invoke power adjudicate controversy allege prove injury "fairly traceable [appellants'] allegedly unlawful redressed requested relief." Allen Wright, 468 737, 751, 104 3315, 3324, 82 556 (1984). 31 causation separating claims: deciding various inaccurate so. additional 183. neither nor shown, done source "more accurate" data. Consequently, standing challenge allocate, accuracy allocation. need, then, sources. 32 thornier redressable relief sought. Tracking progress Bureau, through entered injunction House. F.Supp., 268. While injunctive courts' power, grant extraordinary, raised eyebrows. left open purely "ministerial" duty, Mississippi Johnson, Wall. 475, 498-499, 437 (1867), subpoena relevant ongoing criminal prosecution, Nixon, 418 683, 94 3090, 41 1039 (1974), general "this court enjoin duties." Wall., 501. threshold, evaluated not, injuries redressable. 33 standing, decide appropriate, conclude declaratory alone. Duke Power Carolina Environmental Study Group, Inc., 438 59, 75, 20, 98 2620, 2631, 57 595 (1978); U.S., 752, 3325. certainly defending determinations concerning census; herself change litigating accuracy. And, Solicitor General contended contrary, assume substantially abide authoritative interpretation provision bound IV 34 On merits, argue violated command "their "in" point 1790 77. March 1, 1790, 5, Stat. 103. interpretations First persuasive, Bowsher Synar, 714, 723-724, 3181, 3186, 583 stations, residences. 35 appellants respond, hand, temporarily fully early censuses. dispute determining ---- - 1426 36 173-174. term broadly "every [shall counted] belonging usually resides placed limit absence, which, modes transportation time, quite lengthy. 36-week period George spent weeks traveling Government, Mount Vernon. was, counted resident Virginia. T. Clemence, Place Abode, reproduced 83. 37 words well State: "inhabitant," reside[nt]." draft word omitted Committee Style provision. 566, 590.3 38 James Madison "persons 217. understanding applied 1824, about residency qualifications would-be Forsyth, Georgia. Mr. Forsyth living Spain election, minister plenipotentiary qualification office ground "an inhabitant [was] chosen." Elections disagreed, reporting Forsyth's disqualifies holding capacity acted, excludes idea abroad, ceased inasmuch inhabitancy Union Georgia, situation acceptance appointment." Clarke D. Hall, Cases Contested 497-498 (1834). Bailey, supporting pointed constituted inhabitancy," "exclude sitting House." 497 (emphasis deleted). 39 Up day, connotations. 1950, college students parents resided, attended school. 219. Even today, high school away boarding parents' location 220. Members choose D.C. area 218. institutionalized out-of-state hospitals jails terms 225. made consonant with, dictated by, history Constitution, many toward States' Congress: "Many, most, consider themselves residents assigned abroad indeed If sharing Washington's fate counted, votes reside weighted equally Certainly, demonstrated eliminating entirely equal. Karcher Daggett, 462 725, 730-731, 103 2653, 2658, 77 133 (1983) (parties challenging bear burden proving disparate representation.) fails merits. Reversed. SOUTER join, 43 my prepared am persuaded, complied preparation deference appropriate here, capricious. agree 44 During decade increased rapidly entire Nation. following received 435 seats whereas formerly 11. 45 appellees, voters, separate attacks reduced size Massachusetts' delegation. apportioning Report. constitutionality prescribed 1941, 761-762. 256 analysis subsequently (1992), longer dispute. Pursuant Act, 706(2), examined count. concluded "arbitrary capricious, discretion." 267. 46 rather surprising development, reverses concludes action," reason President—who responsibilities Act—might revise way performing logic escapes me, apparently obvious General, advanced novel argument seeking reversal. erroneous reasons. 47 modified numbers, ensure remains representative current further least years.1 48 Beginning fulfilled passing statutes, marshals collected functions transferred Interior established 1849.2 Office 1899 1902.3 later, newly formed Labor.4 Following enacted reapportion pass deadlock impetus 1929 self-executing inaction. 2-4 produced application formula connection between key innovation Act.5 50 original version, apply figures resulting version responsible computations result. From legislative history, significance.6 indication whatsoever intention introduce layer Executive formula. exactly contrary: proceed 51 interlocking take [every tenth] year, 'decennial date.' " 141(b), Congress" "as seventeenth subsequent plain demonstrates computation performs transmits 52 face mandate, fall back silence. insists law prohibiting changing Secretary. asserts: "Section census.' Ante, ____ added). difficult comprehend, purports contrast equates. name harmonized directs view endows modify 53 record, moreover, establishes involvement wholly ministerial.7 allowed discussed floor Senate, sponsor bill, Senator Vandenberg Michigan, stated unequivocally exercised whatsoever: "I believe matter indisputable fact, completely earth be." 71 Cong.Rec. 1858 (1929).8 colloquy legislators, received: 54 "Mr. SWANSON: understand, Montana says, reading carefully, terms; glaring frauds compelled WALSH Montana: say authorized disregard ground. 56 ask Michigan view? understand returns reeking them; follow certified, fraud involved. Is Michigan? 58 VANDENBERG: My correct. absolutely reposed administration proposed act." 1845-1846 (1929).9 59 No President—indeed, member Branch —has authorizes calculations. Nor advance litigation.10 practice, consistently faithfully performed described Vandenberg. suggestion today otherwise plainly incorrect.11 "reported President," suggests "like recommendation" ante, misleading because, unlike typical "tentative recommendation," document. released transmitted President.12 By law, distributed benefits burdens variety programs. assist redistricting. 141(c). 61 wide distribution evidence contemplate rely results. existence varying "official" acceptable. setting guidelines adjustment results,13 stated: 62 sufficient quality level detail usable redistricting, levels published. 63 "[T]here be, geographic figures." Fed.Reg. 9840-9841 64 uniformity, establish figures.14 65 light language, insupportable surprising.15 66 constitutes action, contention "committed law." 701(a)(2). 67 frequently recognized, "strong presumption intends Bowen Academy Family Physicians, 476 667, 670, 2133, 2135, 90 623 overcome 'clear convincing evidence' contrary intent, 141, 1511, (1967) (quoting Rusk Cort, 369 367, 380, 787, 794, 809 (1962)). appears here. "[t]he determine. 141(a).16 asserts afforded Director Central Intelligence assertion withstand scrutiny. Doe may, discretion, terminate employment employee Agency whenever deem termination advisable 403(c). discharge committed emphasized "deem advisable," meaningful relied overall Security 69 equivalent advisable" exists own mental processes, objective factors, gauging schemes dissimilar Though relate gathering information, similarity ends there. raises enjoy unreviewable accords principle pervades national security. See, Navy Egan, 484 518, 530, 818, 825, 918 CIA Sims, 471 159, 180-181, 105 1881, 1893-1894, 85 173 (1985). operations secret intelligence norm reviewability,17 enterprise dissemination connected commitment democratic government.18 reviewability relating confidence helps strengthen mainstay democracy. 70 More generally, limited 701(a)(2) cases security, refusal pursue enforcement Heckler Chaney, 470 821, 1649, 714 (1985); R. Seaboard Allied Milling 442 444, 99 2388, 1017 (1979); Morris Gressette, 432 491, 97 2411, 506 (1977). These areas long hesitant intrude. traditional deference.19 instance drawn 'there apply.' Citizens Preserve Overton Park, Volpe, 401 402, 410, 91 814, 136 (1971) 79th (1945)). followed "law apply" reviewing 262. explained, relationship contained 141 constrained produce "whole 2a.20 embodies fairly accounts crucial representational rights depend guided evaluate generally 836, 1658; Motor Vehicle Mfrs. Farm Mutual Automobile Ins. 463 29, 41-43, 2856, 2866-2867, 443 (1983); Padula Webster, 822 97, 100, 261 365, 368 (1987). clearly framework long-held tradition judicially administrable review.21 reasons opinion, inclusion totals violate Constitution.22 turn aside 1970.23 1970, appearing files.24 reverted excluding decision, cited "unknown reliability" 55. discussions testimony "error rate" little correlation feelings id., 124, 74 census.25 approved conclusion, "growing bipartisan concern residents" prospect previously contributed decision. Department's "significant reason" 121; funds led cancel survey. nevertheless adhered 75 reaching ultimate obligation "examine articulate satisfactory explanation [the] 'rational facts made.' Farm, 43, 2866 Burlington Truck 371 156, 168, 83 239, 245-246, 207 concerned scant reconsidered cancellation justification obtained, reconsider "[i]nertia supply rationality" 265. 76 close one, factors lead me ultimately rested inertia. First, assurances survey, "supplemented improved," 161, thus past. while anticipated played initial robust. However, "ideal clarity," Bowman Transportation, Arkansas-Best Freight System, 419 281, 286, 95 438, 442, 447 reasonably discernible. explains, hopes realized, discloses valid considerations. capricious.26 78 concur opinion. 80 cause judicial-review 701, seq., join 81 methods conducting assert meritless.1 disagree question, reach Our three elements "irreducible minimum standing" III: (1) plaintiffs suffered "injury fact"; (2) show injury; (3) favor. Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 2130, 2136, --- satisfied requirements, think flounder third. plurality alone redress injury. agree. Ordering unless accepts changes accordingly, issues certificates 141(b); Clerk's role, insofar sequence events occur. But correctly notes, ____, ministerial; "required report," redressability assume, how objectively reasonable assumption (or, matter, branches), ministerial, advice official. conferred him, precluded saying practical effect, someone else. inquiry speculation probability "practical" subservience—never mind acting outcome speculation—seems disrespectful coordinate branch. theory redressability, suit lie (assuming injury-in-fact shown) Cabinet, staff, almost-sure-to-be-followed give expertise. plurality, redressability. view, suffices "authoritative provision" rendered induce what orders submit. seems bootstrap eliminates, resolves, question. simply everyone (including proper parties action) honor rationales underlie decrees, always exist. Redressability afford persuasive awe-inspiring power. words, accompanying excursus sought run required, prepared, forward Governors. commentary understanding—indeed, awareness—of doctrine fallen, blinking eye. act. recognized scope Presidential immunity significantly Cabinet inferior officers, compare 750, 2701, status distinguishes officials") Harlow 800, 811, 17, 2727, 2734, 396 ("Suits officials—including aides—generally separation-of-powers considerations suits himself"). immune Burr, F.Cas. (No. 14,692d) (CC Va.1807) (Marshall, C.J.) (upholding Jefferson), upheld citizen do; "executive Power" fashion. similarly subpoenaed witnesses, Gravel 408 606, 615, 2614, 2622, (1972), citing Cooper, Dall. 341, 859 (1800) (Chase, Circuit), doubt constitutionally duties, Eastland Servicemen's Fund, 421 1813, 324 (1975) (refusing issuance subpoena). 86 aware asked specified acts: Andrew Johnson enforcing Reconstruction Acts. 13, emphatically disclaimed stating 501, (1867). C. Burdick, 50, 126-127 (1922); Pyle Pious, 170 (1984) ("No president contempt court"). unbroken historical supports implicit principals vested—viz., (as opposed agents)—may perform behest Judiciary.2 incompatible personally defend court. Many gave acknowledging absolute presidential civil equal, greater, force requests official-capacity functions: "a functionally mandated incident office, rooted history." 749, 2701; 749-757, 2701-2705; 760-764, 2706-2708 (Burger, concurring).3 Permitting distract "take Care Laws executed," Const. disgruntled add complaints, needless head-on confrontations district judges Chief Executive. (If official-action contemplated, surely jurisdiction.) noteworthy section Fitzgerald explain why "[a] rule leave Nation protection misconduct Executive," 757, 2705, alternative remedies deterrents," 758, mentioned. 88 None conclusions, course, unreviewable. Review legality ordinarily obtained officers attempt enforce directive, see, (1952); (1935)—just reviewed, suing Powell McCormack, 395 486, 503-506, 89 1944, 1954-1956, 491 (1969); Dombrowski Eastland, 82, 1425, 577 (1967); Kilbourn Thompson, 377 (1881), enjoining (or executive) agents carry Congress's directive. Unless branches subordinated Judiciary, duties. sum, asserted ordering appellant dismissed.4 Since appellee's below, reversing Court. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 287, 499. STEVENS single solely Therefore, control involved policymaking tasks cabinet members, acts. tabulations district, below involves "political question," recently concede issue. Appellants 21. Style, read: "[T]he Legislature regulate representatives inhabitants." p. 566 return Committee, familiar ring: "Representatives numbers." 590. actual Enumeration Years Meeting Term ten Years, manner History Growth S.Doc. 194, 56th (1900). 51. 826-827. 1609-1610 (remarks Sen. Vandenberg). features somewhat 1941. Nov. 761. Vandenberg, explained change: identified February notion accomplish end passage better pride difference, everybody get undertake arithmetic." 1613 states: improper 'delegation power' (which census) (who arithmetic) answered examination facts. whatever delegated. people done) point, explained: calls depended somebody us. arithmetic. arithmetic, else embraced inevitably chemical formula, inscrutable, yet reaches conclusion." Vandenberg's statements confirmed ----. opponent Black, questioned recipe tyranny. 1612 asserting acknowledged authorize deviate report: "MR. ROBERTS: [the President] apply, mathematic receives, don't manner. unlawful, maybe review, say, figures, right, going statement. "QUESTION: remand well, FBI checks tell really Massachusetts, extra seats. supposed base Secretary." Tr. Oral Arg. 12-13. confuses supervise confusion "It officers." purport "accustomed powers" Commerce. powers," transmitting department final. depends construing enjoy. Such grants implicated relies. interpretation. wishes "imagine" statute's designating calculations, 6. 1990); N.Y. Times, Dec. A1, col. adjustments undermines 1991." H.R.Doc. 102-18, underscores figures. "publish" mistaken likening recommendation." intervention deprives finality. mean, ripe eventual announcement adjust 33582 Similarly, signaled census-adjustment ripe, t recipients constitute amount pleading requirement. avoid bar imposes litigants census-related Notwithstanding insistence unitary data, yield unnecessary appeared stated, "That 1930 thereafter." Before 1976 amendment, provided: shall, 1960 thereafter, population. 483. added unreviewability phrase, 1976, new, whatsoever. main mid-decade (not apportionment). 94-1256, (1976), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 5463. evidences expand 141(a) reads entirety: "Subsection essentially rewords subsection, adding population' distinguish 1985 thereafter. New subsection encourage sampling surveys 5466. portions requiring, feasible, nonapportionment 2464, 195. (1988), construed preclude 605-606, 2055 (O'CONNOR, dissenting part); 621 (SCALIA, dissenting) (describing creating world's litigate dismissal agents"). Encyclopedia Social Sciences 296 (reprinted Subcommittee Energy, Nuclear Proliferation Services Governmental Affairs, Decennial Census: Analysis Review, 96th 461 (Comm.Print 1980)). publicity, relates tabulated information. confidentiality individual responses assured 8(b), 9(a); Baldrige Shapiro, 455 345, 356-358, 1103, 1110-1111, 199 (1982). weight Carey Klutznick, 637 834 (CA2 1980); York 739 761 (EDNY 713 1989); Cuomo Baldrige, 674 1089 (SDNY 1987); Willacoochee 551 (SD Ga.1983); 508 404 Philadelphia 663 (ED Pa.1980); Young 1318 Mich.1980), rev'd grounds, 652 617 (CA6 1981), cert. denied, sub nom. 939, 1430, 650 Camden Plotkin, 466 (N.J.1978). rules, April" 10th year. die March, born May June, counted. "form content" lawfully predeceased error Boston Nothing "statutes review." 701(a)(1). absence reserved procedure "clear evidence," 671, (1986) (citations internal quotation marks omitted), intent 530-533, 825-827, NLRB Food Commercial Workers, 112, 130-133, 413, 424-426, 429 Block Community Nutrition Institute, 467 340, 346-348, 2450, 2454-2455, 270 ability resolve enacting laws brief consideration. force. designates entering 147, stale, implicating requirements decenniality. special problems though, necessitate best use. formulating adoption said transgress command. Accuracy comparative concept, dictates Like specific 266, 31. 175-177. 57. indicates allocating 162.1 joins portion O'CONNOR's finds (Part III), eight Justices discussing (1867); cf. Kendall Pet. 524, 1181 (1838) (Postmaster General); Marbury Madison, Cranch. (1803) (Secretary State). earlier, that. granted (1969), declaratory, although coercive having protected immunity, 517-518, 1962. awarded Presidential) immunity. reached proportions reap portionment. '[W]hen questions prior silentio, never finally brings jurisdictional us.' Pennhurst School Hospital Halderman, 465 89, 119, 900, 918, Hagans Lavine, 415 528, 533, 1372, 1377, (1974)).

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