Document: 412 U.S. 735 93 S.Ct. 2321 37 L.Ed.2d 298 J. Brian GAFFNEY, Appellant,v.Theodore R. CUMMINGS et al. No. 71—1476. Argued Feb. 26 and 27, 1973. Decided June 18, Syllabus Connecticut's legislative apportionment plan was held by the District Court to be unconstitutional because partisan political structuring had resulted in excessive population deviations House districting. Held: 1. Minor from mathematical equality among state districts do not make out a prima facie case of invidious discrimination under Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment, this case, where deviated on average 1.9% maximum deviation 7.83%, made out. Pp. 740—751. 2. A 'political fairness principle' that achieves rough approximation statewide strengths two major parties does violate Clause. 751—754. 341 F.Supp. 139, reversed. Robert G. Dixon, Jr., Washington, D.C., for appellant. Satter, Hartford, Conn., appellees. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 The questions are whether variations election provided reapportionment Connecticut General Assembly, proposed 1971, an otherwise acceptable is constitutionally vulnerable its purpose provide would achieve fairness' between parties. 2 * Assembly became law when published Secretary State December 1971. Under State's Constitution, legislature given initial opportunity reapportion itself months immediately following completion decennial census United States. Conn.Const., Art. III, § 6(b). In present unable agree constitutional deadline April 1, task therefore transferred, as required constitution, eight-member bipartisan commission. Ibid. Democratic Republican Party leaders each appointed four commissioners. commission until July devise plan, id., 6(c); but, although approached agreement, it too adopt within deadline. Accordingly, final step process, three-man Board constituted. Id., 6(d). Speaker Representatives, Democrat, Minority Leader chose judge Superior member, judges turn designated third who justice Supreme 3 This Apportionment Board, using data available during summer relying heavily commission's tentative plans, filed September 30, with one member dissenting. 4 According 1970 before 3,032,217. Board's provides Senate consisting 36 senators elected single-member districts. ideal senatorial district, terms population, thus contain 84,228 people. actually created deviate, average, 0.45% ideal, median being 0.47%. largest smallest deviate 0.88% -0.93%, respectively, making total 1.81%.1 5 151 assembly district 20,081. perfect all plan's 1.9%, deviation, 1.8%. 3.93% -3.9%. any totals 7.83%.2 6 Connecticut, towns rather than counties basic unit local government. See Butterworth v. Dempsey, 229 754, 761 (D.C.Conn.), aff'd, 378 564, 84 1818, 12 1037 (1964). Constitution 'no town shall divided' creating districts, except formed 'wholly town.' 4. No comparable directive exists creation constitution further provides, however, 'establishment . consistent federal standards.' 5. To meet those standards reach what thought substantial equality, cut boundary lines 47 169 towns.3 also consciously overtly adopted followed policy fairness,' which aimed at scheme proportional representation were structured so composition both Houses reflect 'as closely possible actual (statewide) plurality vote or election.'4 Rather focusing party membership respective took into account voting results preceding three elections, and, basis, proportionate number seats. 7 November long after State, action brought court seeking declaratory injunctive relief against implementation plan. complaint alleged 'erroneously applied man-one doctrine Amendment smaller thereby compelled segment forming district.' amounted gerrymander contained 'a built-in bias favor Party.' Appellant Gaffney, Chairman Party, permitted intervene support three-judge empaneled, heard testimony March 1972. At hearing, plaintiff-appellees introduced alternative plans fewer town-line cuts, involved excess plan.5 fourth submitted 2.61%, compared 7.83% deviation. prepared without regard lines, substantially more times plan.6 Considerable evidence demonstrating obvious considerations making.7 late March, decision invalidating permanently enjoining use future elections. 139. 'the populations justified sufficient interest Plan denies equal protection voters greater ..' 148. relied part Kirkpatrick Preisler, 394 526, 89 1225, 22 519 (1969). More particularly, found 'partisan structuring,' F.Supp., 150, 'cannot approved legitimate reason violating requirement numerical districting.' 149. reflecting 'closer adherence guidelines' adopted. Jurisdiction over retained purposes, announced 'will appoint master conforming requirements 150. 8 On 12, 1972, motion expedite consideration appeal been denied (406 942, 92 2047, 32 330), granted appellant's stay Court's judgment. 407 902, 2441, 679. basis stay, subsequent supportive order,8 1972 fall elections When convened October we noted probable jurisdiction appeal. 409 839, 46, 34 78. By time, Special Master II 9 We think appellees' showing failed violation considered alone combination additional fact another could conceived lower Put way, allegations proof fail size quality amount entitle appellees relief, absent some countervailing State. 10 I, 2, representatives chosen 'by People several States,' mandates 'one man's congressional worth much another's.' Wesberry Sanders, 376 8, 530, 11 481 (1964) (footnote omitted). standard 'permits only limited variances unavoidable despite good-faith effort absolute justification shown.' U.S., 531, S.Ct., 1229. Wells Rockefeller, 542, 1234, 535 (1969), inconsistent statutes having 5.97% 13.1%, respectively. It these cases prevailing rule I confirm White Weiser, 783, 2348, 335, today purposes reapportionment. Earlier Term, question arose same applicable reviewing reapportionments Amendment. Mahan Howell, 410 315, 979, 35 320 (1973). concluded there fundamental differences districting line hand, other, governed Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 1362, 506 (1964), progeny. Noting 'dichotomy has consistently maintained,' 322, 984, constitutionality Virginia's redistricting judged stringent reapportionment, but instead test enunciated Sims,' 324, 985, nearly practicable,' Reynolds, supra, 577, 1390, '(s)o divergences strict based incident effectuation rational policy, equal-population principle permissible respect seats either houses bicameral legislature.' 579, 1391. Mahan, 46,485 persons per delegate. variation 16.4%—'the 12th overrepresented 6.8% 16th underrepresented 9.6%.' 319 percentage 3.89%. Of 52 house 4% nine exceeded 6% ideal. asserted divergencies maintaining integrity subdivision lines,' 325, wholly justify disparities exist. ruled 'relatively minor Virginia contrast sharply larger have struck down previous decisions Court,' 329, 987, 'Virginia sacrificed justifiable deviations.' 13 Although requiring considerations, did hold however small, violations require contested adequate justification. Nor prior case. Swann Adams, 385 440, 87 569, 17 501 (1967), Kilgarlin Hill, 386 120, 820, 771 reapportionments, dealt Mahan. 14 now us, appellant urges themselves demonstrate them, invidiousness For reasons point well taken erred holding contrary. 15 As Sims recognized must honest construct 'practical impossibility': 'Mathematical exactness precision hardly workable requirement.' 1390. Moreover, 'some distinctions may representation,' '(s) omewhat flexibility 578, All 'substantial various citizen approximately weight other State.' 1396. words, '(s)imply stated, individual's right legislators unconstitutionally impaired fashion diluted votes citizens living parts 568, 1385. 16 pronouncements worked our cases, become apparent great far suggested. There enormous early beginning Sims,9 smaller, nevertheless unacceptable deviations, appearing later such (1967); Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 161—163, 91 1858, 1878—1879, 29 363 (1971). Howell demonstrates, sufficiently large nonetheless legally sustainable. time recognize, context eminently reasonable approach insufficient doubt mandate result, if no statistical materials legislatures courts usually work States 10-year intervals soon decade. These figures accurate immense undertakings can be, they inherently less absolutely accurate. Those know about things recognize fact,10 unless ignored, makes little sense conclude relatively 'census population' person's diluted. 'population' just knowable used refined judgments. 18 What more, even counted, talismanic measure event process. measures single instant time. constantly changing, often different rates direction, up down. Substantial differentials growth striking well-known phenomena.11 So, too, matters, population—even stable accurately taken—may body whose counted weighed persons' voters.12 proportion young disqualified alienage nonresidence varies localities six example, vary their age-eligible voters, first 68% age while sixth 64% years older. Bureau Census, Congressional Data Book, 93d Congress, 7—8 (1972). Other 29% 1% voters.13 And tell us nothing ineligibles districts: aliens, nonresident military personnel, students, example. Burns Richardson, 384 73, 90—97, 86 1286, 1295—1299, (1966); Davis Mann, 678, 691—692, 1441, 1448—1449, 609 (1964); Ely Klahr, 108, 115—116, n. 7, 1803, 1807—1808, 352 (1971); 330—332, 987 989. anything eligible individuals cannot register vote.14 19 course, niceties equalizing individual strength. argued 'if should times, five contended residing disfavored areas effectively diluted.' 562, 1382. differently, 'and sanction minority control bodies, appear deny majority rights way surpasses denial might result.' 565, 1383. fundamentally, achieving fair effective aim apportionment' 565—566, 1383, insisted 20 vital worthy goal, surely attainment commonsense depend upon eliminating insignificant Fair destroyed gross solely populations.15 relevant factors important interests legitimately mindful of. supra; Abate Mundt, 182, 1904, 399 Dusch Davis, 387 112, 1554, 656 Sailors Education, 105, 1549, 650 supra. An unrealistic overemphasis raw figures, mere nose count submerge furnish ready tool ignoring day-to-day operation arrangement. 21 goal furthered difficult satisfy recurringly removed hands performed necessary formulate accept plaintiffs goals embodied official From very outset, task, dealing 'choices nature 92, 1297, primarily 586, 1362. requires repeated displacement appropriate decisionmaking name essentially census-population one, confidence, say will deprive person his legislature. That deterred hazards thicket undertook adjudicate mean bogged vast, intractable slough, particularly little, anything, accomplished doing so. 23 represents happen courts. functionaries 1.81% Senate, 1.90% .45%. Appellees then alternate House, slightly lines. 2.6%. unacceptably 20,000 people, 1,573 people.16 But neither Instead, own come still scheme. told, involves 1.16%.17 Was compelled, matter, plans? Master's resourceful mind hits better fraction point? Involvements like end point, recedes litigate need produce marginally 'better' measured rigid unyielding population-equality standard. 24 is, involvements never begin. repeatedly organs government selected perform it. Their invalidated proved. Here, trial demonstrated varied 8% 2%. variations. showing, quite sure III 25 statute acceptable, invalid fences racial group them pre-existing municipal vote. Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110 (1960). create multimember perfectly standards, invidiously discriminatory employed 'to minimize cancel strength elements population.' Fortson Dorsey, 379 433, 439, 85 498, 501, 401 (1965). Regester, 755, 2332, 314; 184 1906; 88—89, 1294—1295. must, therefore, respond claims populationwise, Senate. record abounds evidence, frankly admitted virtually every drawn conscious intent Parties, enough elect discernible geographic areas. insists spirit underlying permissible, desirable laying cases. Appellees, label gigantic gerrymander, Amendment.18 27 unconvinced offered three-member violated attempted relative locating defining idle, think, contend fashioning invalidate Our indicate essence different—a 'politically fair' result reached large, winning take 100% Politics inseparable apportionment. profile registration, records precinct precinct, ward ward. subdivisions identical tracts, overlaid map, special genius consequences drawing along street another. obvious, unavoidable, location shape determine complexion area. rarely neutral phenomena. They predominantly Republican, close race likely. Redistricting pit incumbents most experienced legislator. reality inevitably intended consequences. 28 suggested redistrict census, political, impact. politically mindless produce, not, grossly gerrymandered results; event, unlikely impact remain undiscovered adopted, known changed, intended. plausible assume data. Within limits Clause, seek, through compromise otherwise, ends constituents, officeholders. done arranging allocate power, exempt judicial scrutiny indicated, vulnerable, groups fenced process minimized. Beyond this, ventured impossible extirpating politics processes sovereign Even plainly, lowest ebb purports fairly power accordance tolerable limits, succeeds constitutional. Perhaps fallen category, court's, propounded one. nor warrant undertakes, eliminate party, districting, sort halls 30 Reversed. ratio 1.018 1.082 Some boundaries once, resulting termed 'town segments,' portions form town. creates 78 segments formation Testimony Judge George A. Saden, member. App. 264. James F. Collins, staff 70 safe seats, 55 60 balance characterized swing 'just plain swing,' 147. 126—127. challenged introduced. challenge ground deviations. Brief 4; Tr. Oral Arg. 20. Plaintiff-appellees' 58 cuts 88 segments, opposed corresponding Plaintiff-appellees illustrating undesirability—in administrative apparatus—of cutting order entered parallel proceeding, Miller Schaffer, 173606, Super.Ct., Hartford County, directed correcting certain clerical errors omissions Alabama Legislature, reapportioned years. existing 1964, 40 people others. Maryland nominally others, Committee Representation Tawes, 656, 1429, 595 list easily expanded include States, exception. Union 383 162,178. weighted 425 Hartford. 11.9% 31% majority. 754 1918, See, e.g., H. Alterman, Counting People: Census History 262 (1969): 'A nature, exact nation. especially true .. Thus, error percent expected; professionally, regarded 'acceptable' error.' estimates under-coverage rate 2.5%, 5,300,000 Address S. Siegel, Population Association America Annual Meeting, New Orleans, La., Apr. 26, N.Y. Times, 1973, p. col. Inexactness evident minorities. estimated, Negroes underenumerated 7.7%, estimated undercount white persons. Completeness Coverage Nonwhite 1960 Current Estimates, Implications, Social Statistics City (D. Heer ed. 1968). M. Spiegelman, Introduction Demography 415 416 (1968); Materials Methods 806 whole grew 19.6% 1960's. area comprising Second 28%, Fourth 11.2%. 91—92, 1296—1297, (1966): 'We start proposition derived equivalency measured. Neither transients, short-term temporary residents, conviction crime, base distributed compliance exclude choices shown founded interfere. Unless choice forbids, cf., Carrington Rash, 380 89, 775, 675, offends bar, established thereby.' Utah, Rhode Island, Hampshire, Missouri York ageeligible California 25% Illinois 20% variation. computed Census' Data, Again registered voted 2.8%. Statement Vote, Election Nov. Conn.Pub.Doc.No.26, 72 percentages 23% 65—71. discussions vast growing literature area, see Reapportionment 1970s (N. Polsby 1971). Among (of 84,000 each), 400 1,532 Reply 19. Apparently, preparing maintain shapes 'indecent' 'wiggle joggle' ferret pockets party's true, attempts follow 'oddly shaped' (App. 98) bound irregularly shaped compactness attractiveness constitute independent Cf. 335; Wright 52, 54, 603, 604, 512 59—61, 606—608 (Douglas, J., dissenting).

Category: 1