Document: 478 U.S. 597 106 S.Ct. 3116 92 L.Ed.2d 483 UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.Charlotte JAMES et al. No. 85-434. Argued April 21, 1986. Decided July 2, Syllabus This litigation arose from serious accidents that occurred in the reservoirs of federal flood control projects Arkansas and Louisiana. In both accidents, recreational users (water-skiers a fisherman Louisiana) were injured or drowned when they swept through retaining structures after those opened by United States Corps Engineers to flooding. Separate actions brought Federal District Court against under Tort Claims Act. case, court held although Government agents had willfully maliciously failed warn known danger, was immune damages 33 U.S.C. § 702c, which provides part "[n]o liability any kind shall attach rest upon for damage floods waters at place." Louisiana similarly granted summary judgment despite Government's concession it negligently danger current caused open gates. consolidated appeal, Appeals reversed judgments, holding Congress intended 702c immunize resulting directly construction flooding factors beyond control, but not shield negligent wrongful acts employees either continued operation projects, including failure public hazards their use reservoirs. Held: Section bars recovery these cases. Pp. 604-612. (a) On its face, 702c's language covers issue. The ordinary meaning word "damage" injury property person cannot be considered ambiguous might refer only property. Moreover, "any damage" "liability kind" undercuts narrow construction. Nor do words "flood" "flood waters" create uncertainty context accidents. Those apply all contained carried project purposes related as well such control. here clearly fall within statute's ambit. 604-605. (b) legislative history fully supports attributing unambiguous meaning. 606-608. (c) There is little otherwise support argument meant bar claims acquired proviso (authorizing purchase interests certain properties bordering Mississippi River) 702d "flowage rights"), thus would allow persons connected with acquisitions. there merit even if grant immunity connection entitled because injuries employees' alleged mismanagement activities unrelated manner convey warnings, so, "management" project. Finally, does construing immunizing rather indicates Congress' intention protect arise out 608-612. 760 F.2d 590 (CA5 1985), reversed. POWELL, J., delivered opinion Court, BURGER, C.J., BRENNAN, WHITE, BLACKMUN, REHNQUIST, JJ., joined. STEVENS, filed dissenting opinion, MARSHALL O'CONNOR, joined, post, p. 612. Andrew J. Pincus, New York City, petitioner. T. John Ward, Longview, Tex., respondents. Justice POWELL Court. 1 case presents question whether Flood Control Act's provision states place," where liable Act, 28 2671 seq., personal dangers release floodwaters projects. 2 * present order A. 3 Arkansas, Millwood Dam, dedicated 1966 located southwestern corner State. Reservoir behind structure used fishing, swimming, boating, waterskiing. reservoir has marinas launching areas small boats. Printing Office printed brochures promote features encourage water-ski Reservoir. 4 Enormous underwater portals set called "tainter gates," discharge water into spilling basin below. June 8, 1979, level designated stage." As function facility, began tainter created swift, strong toward discharge. 5 Respondents Charlotte James Kathy Butler, who water-skiing area appeared calm, fell drifting Respondents' husbands, operating ski boat, circled back give them towlines, apparently intending pull away danger. Tr. 20-21, 166-167. Because swift currents, respondents unable hold on lines. Ibid. husbands' attempts aboard hand also each time pulled skiers reach. Id., 21. Eddy Butler then dove an attempt save his wife, three He drowned, injured. still occupied Mr. daughter Sonja, became lodged gates, occupants rescued without injury. 6 suit Eastern Texas §§ 1346(b), seq. After bench trial, unreported found cable strung orange buoys delineating near gates broken drifted away; white anchor marking restricted dam place consequently offered no warning reasonably prudent user; "knew dangerous condition result situated [were Butler] adequate given"; negligent. assessed $1 million respondent $40,000 James, stating went "beyond gross negligence" "constitute[d] classic classroom example death conscious governmental indifference safety public." App. Pet. Cert. 66a. At same time, however, concluded statute left unrepealed See 60 Stat. 842, 846-847 (listing statutes specifically revoked FTCA). accordingly denied relief. B 7 relevant Louisiana, Cortableau Drainage Structure, West Atchafalaya Basin. May 17, 1980, Bayou Courtableau Basin stage, current. Kenneth Clardy father, Joseph Clardy, fishing Only two faded signs entrance drainage warned boaters could see until already been past them. boat disabled drawn spillway. thrown approach while being 220-foot-long barrel structure.1 His father survived 8 Respondent Susan Clardy's commenced action Western seeking alleging post warnings conceded decedent. found, Graci v. States, 456 20 1971), Florida East Coast R. Co. 519 1184 1975),2 further scope "the prevent inundation landside structure." 62a. States. C 9 Fifth Circuit cases panel affirmed. 740 365 (1984). Although believed showed disclaim 'takings' consequential damages," id., 373, affirmed judgments Courts Circuit's earlier interpretation section Graci, supra, Co., supra. n. 10 reheard en banc Courts' judgments. (1985). determined "latent ambiguities" resolved reference history. 594. Analyzing history, stated enacting Act 1928, "Congress concerned allocating costs major works program between government state local interests, private, wake financial, administrative, engineering debacle [from great River 1927]." 596. Departing panel's reading "to operation" existence accepted government-impounded water, nearby land." 599, 603. 11 Judge Gee, joined four other judges dissent, argued contrary plain words," 604, "[b]oth [are] entirely consistent purpose Congress, poised over half-century ago brink entry massive program—one unprecedented laden foreseeable unforeseeable prospects liability—to treasury placed risk than required Constitution," 605-606. noted this unanimous view previous construed "has stood decades sign Congressional dissatisfaction." 606.3 12 We certiorari resolve resultant split among Circuits.4 474 978, 379, 88 333 now reverse. II 13 starting point statutory [of statute] itself." Blue Chip Stamps Manor Drug Stores, 421 723, 756, 95 1917, 1935, 44 539 (1975) (POWELL, concurring). "[W]e assume expressed used." American Tobacco Patterson, 63, 68, 102 1534, 1537, 71 748 (1982). enacted 45 534, 701 outlines sweeping terms: "No (Emphasis added.) It difficult imagine broader language.5 14 here. reached stage. Given nature issue, given terms statute, "it requires some ingenuity ambiguity." Rothschild 179 463, 465, 21 197, 198, L.Ed. 277 (1900). Cf. TVA Hill, 437 153, 173, 18, 98 2279, 2291, 57 117 (1978) (assertions ambiguity transform clear provision). 15 example, exclude persons, F.2d, 594, 7, carries limitation. Damages "have historically awarded person—a fact too well-known have overlooked Congress. . ." Stevedores, Inc. Porello, 330 446, 450, 67 847, 850, 91 1011 (1947).6 choice 16 ones issue concerns designed carry floodwaters. ambit statute.7 III 17 repeatedly recognized "[w]hen unambiguous, judicial inquiry complete, except 'in "rare exceptional circumstances." ' " Rubin 449 424, 430, 101 698, 701, 66 633 (1981) (citations omitted). absence "clearly contrary," itself "must ordinarily regarded conclusive." Consumer Product Safety Comm'n GTE Sylvania, Inc., 447 102, 108, 100 2051, 2056, 64 766 (1980). Despite respondents' contentions reasoning Appeals, we find justifies departure statute. Indeed, balance think 1928 reinforces 702c. 18 "a comprehensive ten-year entire [Mississippi River] valley, embodying general bank protection scheme, channel stabilization river regulation, involving vast expenditures funds." Sponenbarger, 308 256, 262, 225, 227, 84 230 (1939). Nation's response disastrous Valley 1927. That resulted loss nearly 200 lives more $200 damage; almost 700,000 people homeless. S.Rep. 619, 70th Cong., 1st Sess., (1928). system catastrophe largest undertaken up States.8 19 surprising, light devastation wrought 1927 magnitude undertaking, shows concern limiting financial necessary various Numerous statements concerning confirm reaffirm sovereign extensive Chairman House Rules Committee, opening discussion rule governing debate stated: "I want bill so drafted will contain safeguards Government. If go down furnish people—and I national responsibility—I anything us come. one situation cause thousands lawsuits next 10, 20, 50 years." 69 Cong.Rec. 6641 (1928) (remarks Rep. Snell). A number Congressmen unequivocally should expense direct cost constructing 7028 Spearing); 6999-7000 Frear).9 22 These show drafting inadvertence. National Mfg. 210 263, 270 (CA8), cert. denied, 347 967, 74 778, 1108 (1954). sought ensure doubt "any" associated Eighth explained Mfg., "safeguarded broadest most emphatic language." 270. equally broad understood what saying. therefore conclude IV 23 nevertheless advance several alternative readings seemingly language. 24 argue potential rise constitutional taking. provision, according argument, thereby assured paying rights rights"). Such reading, contended, 25 agree. Both provide compensation acquisition kinds rights. why first determine deserved compensation, absolute discretion decide pay compensation. proposition described 702d. introduced different sponsors. 7023 unanimously vote 111-79. debates proviso, addressed provided owners affected levees opposite river, 6642, 7022-7023. Similarly, reveal relationship 7104-7111. importantly, proffered ignores wished purchases 702d, presumably done specifically. 26 argue, alternative, wholly "fundamental principle immunity" "sphere protected activity must narrowly limited granted." think, And "narrowly limited" immunity, applicable "clear relinquishment [is required] justification tort actions." Dalehite 346 15, 31, 73 956, 965, 97 1427 (1953).10 27 adopts Appeals' 702c: To rely portion According Representatives, originated, solely Senate version remedies owners, offering "[j]ust compensation" "all used, taken, damaged, destroyed carrying plan."11 S. 3740, 54 (1928), 5483 requirements Amendment's Takings Clause. met substantial hostility House, Members feared "make railroads" large many millions dollars." 6712 Kopp). 29 added simply counteract generosity, excess flowage easements completion Since none stem due reservoir, goes, apply, may 30 argument. true during "liability" But, above, are numerous passages emphasize Supra, 607-608. "fragments history" relied constitute intent statute." U.S., 75, S.Ct., 1541. V 31 facts demonstrate, can understand principled way responsible concededly conduct. But our role effectuate intent, rarely speaks plainly changed, follow received careful consideration remained unchanged years, type case. 32 ordered. whom O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 34 undertaking authorized directed Secretary War Chief take special steps acquire lands subject "overflow along banks impracticable construct levees. containing specific direction "lands subjected overflow damage," sentence place."1 35 claim injury, though expressly Constitution.2 my view, neither nor imputing perverse design Legislature. applies damage, below affirmed.3 36 absolves traditionally describes harm (hence, "property damage"), (usually referred "personal injury"). Cockburn Smith Brown, 40 L.J.Rep. (n.s.) 214, 218 (Q.B.1871): 37 "The occasioned collision vessels comes term 'damage' 7th section. Now undoubtedly very extensive, observed common parlance legal phraseology person, mischief Still less life therefrom, widow surviving relative. speak indeed 'damages' employed interchangeably 'injury,' wrongfully person. [T]his distinction matter mere verbal criticism, character attended to. Seward Owners Vera Cruz, 9, (P.D. & 1884) (Lord Chancellor); Simpson Blues, 41 121, 128 (C.P.1872). understanding peculiar English common-law courts, preferred definition dictionaries encyclopedias around See, e.g., Bouvier's Law Dictionary 749 (8th ed. 1914); Am.Jur., 388 (1938) ("A 'damages.' 'Damage' defined loss, deterioration negligence, design, accident another respect latter's property, whereas signifies money (emphasis added)); Damage 698 (1919) ("It ['damage'] property; and, yet person; authority effect includes injuries; means construed" (footnotes omitted)). 38 excluded Court—in accordance "plain meaning" 3—would construe damage. Surprisingly, reaches precisely conclusion. Its analysis, relies authorities define "damages "—or monetary remedy imposed wrong—rather "damage "—which identify thereafter excused. quite beside "damages" 'historically person.' Ante, 605 (quoting (1947)), "damage," "damages." Court's own authorities, ante, 605, 6, distinguish 39 "It damages. Black's cautions 'damage,' 'Loss, deterioration,' 'to distinguished plural, "damages,"—which damage.' 6.4 basis thinking common, usage mean polestar, suits. remainder assuming injuries. text indeed, 1928—contains beginning liability" read together appended it, readily relating paragraph whole describes—namely, "land damage." states, 1, assumed responsibilities practicable. best making additional did intend new failing undertaking. advanced rejected 269-270, 230-231, Thus, irresistibly implies merely limit arisen land.5 42 reading. response, 1927, perennial threat landowners alluvial valley posed recurrent since least 1717. 260-262, 226-227. During lengthy hearings legislation, allocation future, private entities, 607 estimates property). able include conferred 3, expect explanation extraconstitutional nothing expected nowhere found. 43 Construing avoids rendering superfluous. reason enact simple decade half pass before 19466 "put aside armor tortiously damage."7 unrealistic avoid immune.8 regrettable obligatory critical suggests construction, congressional recognition, let alone intention, deprive negligence remedy, narrower faithful objective defies belief—and ascribes perverse, barbaric, intent—to spent days debating measure riparian intended—without single dissent condemn widows, orphans, victims irrational exclusion subsequently respectfully dissent. incorrectly identified 60a-61a. allegedly Gulf Channel Outlet, navigation shortcut Mexico Orleans. contended floodwaters, unconnected railroad tracks central washed heavy rains. arguments cover losses aggravated "washouts" rapid runoff surface Higginbotham separate "[w]ithout evidence defer longstanding courts 606-607. All interpreted prior Circuit, supra—have grants Portis Folk Construction 694 520, 522 (CA8 1982) (purpose assure [damages to] projects"); Morici Corp. 681 645, 647-648 (CA9 ("[I]f [the plaintiff's] [a] purposes, complete"); Callaway 568 684, 686-687 (CA10 1978) (rejecting "broad 702c"); Parks 370 92, 93 (CA2 1966) (same). principal noted, effort devise rules "serves enactment like insurance company's form [of] 604. much oral argument: don't believe [§ 702c] expansive ['in terms']." Oral Arg. 30. "loss reputation." Webster's Third International 571 (1961); 351 (5th 1979). enacted. Sutherland, 1241-1252 (4th ed.1916); Sedgwick, Measure 573-574a (9th ed.1912). (no 'wholly authorizing funds act pursuant authorization' "), quoting Peterson 367 271 1966); Hayes 585 702-703 (CA4 ("If plaintiff prove farm dam's facility relation project, he 702c" added)). released facilities 61a, 68a. upheld findings, 603, [consolidated] floodwaters." 6. Representative Snell, reporting 1928: "[T]he legislation made important declaration war about years ago. gigantic civilized world ever undertaken. [I]t larger times Panama Canal." 6640 $325 program, ch. 569, 534-535, ranged $500 million. H.R.Rep. 1100, codification immunity. refutes contention. One remarked: "While wise insert bill, necessary, Supreme decided damages." Spearing). relate Brief 33, citing, inter alia, Harlow Fitzgerald, 457 800, 2727, 396 (1982); Nixon 731, 2690, 349 Butz Economou, 438 478, 2894, 895 (1978). extend Project. constructed make sense some, all, consists reads: place: Provided, title stretch levees, economically justified unreasonably restrict channel, overflowed damaged duty Army institute proceedings behalf ownership floodage lands." original.) codified reads full follows: "Sec. 3. Except recommendation Engineers, appropriated expended item levee districts assurances satisfactory maintain flood-control completion, controlling regulating spillway structures, relief levees; maintenance normally matters cutting grass, removal weeds, drainage, minor repairs main agree accept land turned provisions 4; foundations Cape Girardeau, Missouri, Head Passes. 535-536. amendment Constitution—a thought 7104-7111, 7122 My persuades me application treatises likewise subscribe "damages," ed.1912); 12, 46, appears universally observed, see, (1938); Encyclopaedia 535 (2d ed.1898); W. Hale, 12-13 fact, cited traditional "damage"; index treatise Sedgwick refers referring 3160-3162. 609, wrong intimating dissociated observation sponsored trivially true: Garrett Tennessee pending amendment, Reid Illinois, Representatives. 7022 sponsor Garrett, bill. explaining this, underscored symbiotic proviso: "Mr. Chairman, am inclined gentleman Illinois [Mr. MADDEN] REID] proposed properly come section, seems place. lose it." added). short later, passed Garrett's adding provision. 7023. Immediately thereafter, agreed amended Tennessee." Chairman) package. 842-847. 453, 851, (1947). interesting note itself, "on account death," 843, 845-846. Revealingly, Committee Reports projects: 'This highly exception, preclude possibility authorize growing activity, irrigation agent shown.' 29, 964-65, (1953) added) 2245, 77th 2d (1942); 1196, 1287, 79th 5-6 (1945)). 58 decisional law. construes today books century, reported decision successfully asserted defense claim. 590, 1985). invoked litigation, upholds completely unprecedented. size throughout Nation, disclosed record fairly telling that, today's decision, never

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