Document: 424 U.S. 507 96 S.Ct. 1029 47 L.Ed.2d 196 Scott HUDGENS, Petitioner,v.NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD et al. No. 74-773. Argued Oct. 14, 1975. Decided March 3, 1976. Syllabus When striking members of respondent union picketed in front their employer's leased store located petitioner's shopping center, the center's general manager threatened them with arrest for criminal trespass if they did not depart, and left. The then filed unfair labor practice charges against petitioner, alleging that threat constituted interference rights protected by § 7 National Labor Relations Act (NLRA). Board (NLRB), concluding NLRA had been violated, issued a cease-and-desist order Court Appeals enforced order. Petitioner contend respective liabilities parties are to be decided under criteria alone, whereas NLRB contends such must measured First Amendment standard. Held: 1. Under present state law constitutional guarantee free expression has no part play case as this, pickets here have right enter center purpose advertising strike employer. Lloyd Corp. v. Tanner, 407 551, 92 2219, 33 131. Pp. 512-521. 2. dependent exclusively upon NLRA, which it is NLRB's task, subject judicial review, resolve conflicts between private property seek accommodation "with little destruction one consistent maintenance other," Babcock & Wilcox Co., 351 105, 112, 76 679, 684, 100 L.Ed. 975. Hence, remanded so may reconsider NLRA's statutory alone. 521-523. 501 F.2d 161, vacated remanded. Lawrence M. Cohen, Chicago, Ill., petitioner. Norton J. Come, Washington, D. C., N. L. R. B. Laurence Gold, Local 315, Retail Wholesale Department Store Union, AFL-CIO. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion Court. 1 A group who engaged peaceful primary picketing within confines privately owned were an agent owner depart. question presented whether this violated Act, 49 Stat. 449, amended, 61 136, 29 U.S.C. 151 Et seq. concluded did, 205 N.L.R.B. 628, Fifth Circuit agreed. 161. We granted certiorari because seemingly important questions federal presented. 420 971, 95 1391, 43 651. 2 * Hudgens, North DeKalb Shopping Center, suburban Atlanta, Ga. consists single large building enclosed mall. Surrounding parking area can accommodate 2,640 automobiles. houses 60 retail stores various businesses. One lessees Butler Shoe Co. Most stores, including Butler's, entered only from interior 3 In January 1971, warehouse employees went on protest company's failure agree demands made contract negotiations.1 strikers picket Butler's but its nine Atlanta well, Center. On 22, four mall carrying placards read: "Butler Warehouse Strike, AFL-CIO, 315." informed could or lot leave. departed returned short time later began immediately adjacent entrances store. After continued approximately 30 minutes, again leave would arrested trespassing. departed. 4 subsequently charge 157.2 Relying Court's decision Food Employees Logan Valley Plaza, 391 308, 88 1601, 20 603, reasoning enjoyed property, owner's 8(a)(1) 158(a)(1).3 Hudgens petition review Circuit. Soon thereafter 131, Central Hardware NLRB, 539, 2238, 122, reconsideration light those two decisions. 5 Board, turn, Administrative Law Judge, findings fact, recommendations, conclusions effect committed excluding pickets. This result was ostensibly reached set forth 975, held organizers solicit membership intrude alternative means exist communicating employees. But Judge's also relied "realistic view facts." agreed recommendations somewhat his reasoning. It scope Hudgens' invitation public do business at was, therefore, immaterial there existed customers store.4 6 petitioned Circuit, changed tack urged controlled Wilcox, Republic Aviation 324 793, 65 982, 89 1372, employer commits he enforces no-solicitation rule premises organizers, unless prove necessitated special circumstances. Board's basis yet another theory. While acknowledging source pickets' competing considerations discussed supra, "burde(n) General Counsel duty other locations less intrusive than inside either unavailable ineffective," F.2d, 169, met burden case. petitioner continues urge controlling precedent, judgment should reversed. agrees standard governs, insists that, since activity organizational support lawful economic strike, appropriate interests lead affirmance Appeals' judgment. now conflict employee like accord commands Amendment, pursuant asserted understanding affirmed II 8 As above recital discloses, history litigation shifting positions litigants, Appeals. history, short, considerable confusion, engendered least decisions intervened during course litigation. posture most basic standard, some combination two. question, accordingly, we turn. 9 is, course, commonplace speech abridgment government, state. See Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc. Democratic Comm., 412 94, 93 2080, 36 772. Thus, while common situations extend protection provide redress corporation person seeks abridge others, provided Constitution itself. 10 elementary proposition more truism. even truisms always unexceptionably true, exception recognized almost years ago Marsh Alabama, 326 501, 66 276, 90 265. Marsh, Jehovah's Witness distributed literature without license sidewalk Chickasaw, Ala., convicted trespass. Chickasaw so-called company town, wholly Gulf Shipbuilding described follows: 11 "Except (ownership corporation) all characteristics any American town. residential buildings, streets, system sewers, sewage disposal plant 'business block' places situated. deputy Mobile County Sheriff, paid company, serves town's policeman. Merchants service establishments rented block United States uses post office six carriers deliver mail people area. town surrounding neighborhood, distinguished anyone familiar lines, thickly settled, according indications residents use regular center. To so, now, many years, make company-owned paved street alongside fronts office. Intersecting roads each end into four-lane highway runs parallel distance thirty feet. There nothing stop traffic coming onto arrival traveler facilities available there. district accessible freely used distinguish except fact title belongs corporation." Id., 502-503, S.Ct., 277. 12 pointed out "title" "belonged municipal appellant violating ordinance rather ruling appointed manage clear appellant's conviction reversed." 504, Concluding Gulf's "property interests" allowed different "not function differently town," 506-508, 279, invoked Fourteenth Amendments reverse conviction. 13 1968 foundation Amalgamated Union 603. That involved near Altoona, Pa. tenants employed nonunion staff. Members local store, signs proclaiming receiving wages benefits. took place immediate vicinity Pennsylvania court injunction required confined areas outside Supreme issuance injunction. doctrine reversal 14 clearly taken sidewalk: 15 "It instead municipality, extent resemble, petitioners barred exercising sole ground municipality. Lovell City Griffin, 303 444, 58 666, 82 949 (1938); Hague CIO, 307 496, 59 954, 83 1423 (1939); Schneider State New Jersey, 308 147, 146, 84 155 Jamison Texas, 318 413, 63 669, 87 869 (1943). essence opinions sidewalks, parks, similar historically associated exercise access cannot constitutionally denied broadly absolutely." U.S., 1607. 16 reviewed detail, emphasized similarities unambiguously concluded: 17 "The functional equivalent Marsh." 318, 1608. 18 Upon conclusion, 19 three dissenting case, author Black. His disagreement total: "In affirming petitioners' contentions majority relies holds respondents' transformed type property. never intended apply kind situation. dealt very situation complete streets alleys, residences, everything else goes . I find resemblance Alabama. homes, plant, considers 'town.' " 330-331, 1615 (footnote omitted). 21 what circumstances treated though public? answer gives when All attributes I. e., 'residential "business block" situated.' 502, indicates these features present, e. g., district, sufficient confiscate give want it." 332, 1615. 22 "To hold owners compelled supply drive away create court-made disregarding ownership rests country. 332-333, 1616. 23 Four occasion covering 50 acres downtown Portland, Ore. November day five young handbills protesting ongoing military operations Vietnam. Security guards told leave, "to avoid arrest." 556, 2223. They brought suit Federal District Court, seeking declaratory injunctive relief. trial ruled favor, holding distribution Amendments. Ninth judgment, 446 545, expressly relying reversed 24 say overruling decision. Indeed substantial portion devoted pointing differences cases, noting particularly contrast hand-billing Lloyd, specifically directed reasonable opportunity reach audience. 561-567, 2225-2228.5 squared Valley. 25 matters continue believe rightly decided.6 Our institutional follow until might wish be. And performance before, rationale survive case.7 Not incorporate lengthy excerpts Valley, 562-563, 565, 2225-2226, 2227; ultimate amounted total rejection : 26 issue respondents, rights, distribute Lloyd's contrary wishes policy handbilling. addressing issue, remembered safeguard assembly limitations action, action nondiscriminatorily purposes only. 567, 2228. 27 "Respondents 'open public,' same district' therefore dedicated certain types use. argument functionally customarily municipalities. public, invited not, city 28 reaches too far. requires attenuated dedication closest theory, assumption enterprise state-created municipality semi-official functions delegate State. effect, performing full spectrum powers stood shoes instant comparable power." 568-569, 2229 'We operated entitle respondents therein rights. Id.%, 570, 2229. If self-contained Is held, permit control depend speech's content.8 For impose time, place, manner regulations sidewalks purposes, see Cox Hampshire, 312 569, 762, 85 1049; Poulos 345 395, 73 760, 97 1105, forbid altogether facilities, Adderley Florida, 385 39, 242, 149; discriminate regulation content expression, Erznoznik Jacksonville, 422 205, 2268, 45 125. "(A)bove else, government power restrict message, ideas, matter, content." Police Dept. Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 95, 2286, 2290, 212.9 conversely follows, concerning Vietnam, 31 conclude, this. III 32 From said follows Act. task courts, "and proper two." 543, 2241. What "a accommodation" largely context being asserted. reviewing courts stands conspicuous applying standards "above else" restricted "because Case, earlier considered nature Accommodation employees' employers' "must obtained other." 684. 34 Both carried nonemployees property.10 several respects relevant balance. First, activity. Steelworkers 376 492, 499, 899, 904, 863; Bus Missouri, 374 74, 82, 1657, 1662, 763; Erie Resistor Corp., 373 221, 234, 1139, 1148, 308. Cf. Houston Insulation Contractors Assn. 386 664, 668-669, 1278, 1280-1281, 389. Second, (albeit store), outsiders. 111-113, 683-685. Third, impinged whom directed, another11 35 established objective Act: other."12 locus accommodation, however, fall differing points along depending strength given context. generic situation, responsibility making rest first instance. 684; cf. 235236, 49-1150; Truckdrivers 353 87, 97, 77 643, 648, 676. adapt changing patterns industrial life entrusted Board." Weingarten, Inc., 251, 266, 959, 968, 171. reasons stated opinion, directions remand 37 ordered. 38 Vacated 39 STEVENS consideration 40 POWELL, THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, concurring. 41 Although WHITE's concurring 131 (1972), overrule 603 (1968), narrowly nevertheless joined today. 42 area, respect principles applicable, analogized "company town" 265 (1946). Black, thought irreconcilable.1 Black cases harmonized principled way. mature thought, wiser confronted disharmony draw distinctions based factual differences.2 today clarifies confusion accepting Black's reading recognizing sharply distinction issues arise kind. seems me clarification desirable. 44 WHITE, result. concur unnecessary inter join opinion. "the this," Ante, 521; implicitly, after did. 46 need go further itself, limited specific conveying information operation store: patrons Weis Maet message sought conveyed concerned particular market operated. are, called consider could, consistently justify bar thus directly related put." 320 n. 9, 1609. 48 face, does cover facts Center purporting convey about "manner (store) operated" premises. "directly left open dissented p. 337, 1618, reason further. Without extension, provides more. Tanner view. belatedly is. MARSHALL, BRENNAN dissenting. 51 poses prohibiting deciding far-reaching process, proceeds own unlawfully interfered 157. 52 explaining why addresses all, observes simply "shifting Appeals," 512, relief sought, granted, my reading, and, clearly, solely 7, Amendment; ought initially reference remands. Appeals, remands before By bypassing reaching decision, surely departs traditional modes adjudication. 53 affirm purely grounds. merits decides, dissent 54 views positions" "considerable confusion." sure, position constant. Judge rested Amendment. 55 indicates, initial determination 158(a)(1), determination, 122 moved motion. 56 demonstrated, way, read Courts it. together gave signal wise pass sort turning broad questions, answers longer predicted certainty. Hardware, 548, 549, 2243, 2244 (Marshall, J., dissenting); 584, 2236 dissenting). Taking heed signal, proceeded assess conflicting framework NLRA. recommendation found guilty violation explicitly test enunciated 975 (1956). supported facts" referring "factual view" alter judge's legal one. 57 Even agreeing Nowhere Retail, 628 (1973), "for Frank Visceglia Vincent Visceglia, t/a Peddie Buildings,1 Ibid., declined treat rejected applicability Valley's analysis, finding "modified" Wilcox.2 evidently proceeding application. Its conclusion "accommodation (his) Section rights." 628. acknowledges enforcement suggests following infected considerations: "Lloyd burdens ineffective." 169. entire demonstrates language inject analysis evaluation parties.3 Rejecting both parties' formulations adopted modified version approach, suggested Amicus, incorporates relationship put, availability reasonably effective Amicus derived approach careful note applied statutory, one: "Section necessarily coextensive supra ((Marshall), Nevertheless, amicus, although having genesis raised isolates factors determining yield section picketers." 167. 62 With explanation relevance evident subsequent quoted decision.4 unaffected considerations, intimating mandated. posture, presents Surely moment through counsel urges decide, determined arguments advanced brief. Since ones, proceed whether, assuming actions precisely 64 At neither nor Solely itself 7. said, suggests, colored decide way our considering well-established principle unnecessarily. See, E. Hagans Lavine, 415 528, 94 1382, 1385, 577 (1974); Rosenberg Fleuti, 1804, 1000 (1963); Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 346-347, 466, 482-483, 80 688 (1936) (Brandeis, concurring). disregarded principle, excuse doing so. already indicated, counsel, defining takes obtain greater suits invoking procedures concern legitimate one, adjudication undertaken undisputed degree difficult separate afforded decides operates severable, initially, 7's proved Thus if, affected still divorced considerations. understand old. certainly whose suggest otherwise. 67 consumer permissive articulated nonemployees. allow property"5 "beyond efforts communicate them," 113, 685 "other means" communication "readily available." 114, 685. emerges ready 68 audience employer, identifiable group; effectively entrance example, personal contact living quarters, "in reach." different, constitutes differs. noted, "was citizenry approached effective, location chosen crucial known means." 168. utilized newspapers, radio, television, direct mail, handbills, billboards Atlanta. none likely on-location picketing: impact dramatic, potential dilution significantly greater. observed: 69 "Publication newspaper, circulars, patrolling line. line exert influences, produces consequences, communication. loyalties responses evoked exacted lines unlike flowing appeals printed word." Hughes Superior 339 460, 465, 70 718, 721, 985 (1950). addition, alternatives considerably expensive on-site picketing. Certainly require resort mass media,6 individualized scale 71 rights-of-way, where vehicles Quite apart safety, inadequate: prospective picketers' driving indeed. Moreover, recognized, well undesirable secondary effects. 72 correct "alternatives inadequate." then, basis. Turning resolved escape feeling laid ever accorded burial. announces Vall." 518. myself included, believed alluded possibility "it finds bothersome." remains reserved carefully preserved reflection, am reconcilable. A. 74 faced supermarket 75 "All community 'and passing through,' 508, power, laws, exclude wishing generally consonant actually 319-320, 1609 noted 320, antiwar us viewed differently, 577-579, 2229, 2233-2234 presenting question. (1) (2) "no opportunities (are) 563, 2226. 78 shrift preserving quotes extensively admittedly differs emphasis much says (1946), entitled rights" handbills. 79 Any doubt removed completely Lloyd. solicitation nonemployee complex put. unprotected application use-related thereby rejecting chose opening suffices activate prohibition explained: "This misconceives commercial displaced, respects, normal block.' free-speech deemed infringed laws 81 "Before subjected assume significant Central's lots acquired facility public.' Such every establishment country, regardless size location. accept cut entirely roots 547, 2243 If, tells us, Case," 518, wonders implicitly reaffirmed rationale. B inescapable remained "good law," binding courts. examine stand side side, cannot, fall. underlying sound, unduly convinced overruled. consisted 515-516, 963-964, (1939) (opinion Roberts, J.); State, Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 900, 905, 1213 (1940); 574, 765, 1049 (1941); (1943); Saia York, 334 558, 1574 (1948). observed forums "cannot importance speech-related clear, often assembly. purports untouched, granting places, let formalities put analysis. 503, determinative: 86 "Ownership mean absolute dominion. owner, advantage, opens up general, become circumscribed 506, 278. Regardless possessed identical interest functioning channels remain free," 507, prevail. adopts bearing typical free, incidence ownership. Given concern, essential communication; sewer resembled refuses recognize modern complex, dedicating displaces "State" historical forums, acquire virtual monopoly suitable roadways, lots, walkways town.7 reconcile denial role Marsh's recognition My farther responsive concerns Marsh. retained Preserving guaranteed monopolized result, optimal view, 579-583, 2234-2236, dissenting), nonetheless defensible. 91 entity displaced "state" accordingly fully applicable entity's conduct. hand, controls leaving citizen. undertaking activities namely, activities, apparent objection makes turn matter speech. objection, cited "restrict content," 212 inapposite. acting, Amendment's infringing unquestionably applicable; command speech, choose message. quite different; regulator "assume(d) use." 2243. circumstances, all. above, depends regulate, monopolizes involved.8 dangers suppression censorship lay heart 95-96, 2289-2290, 212. indeed ironic obvious promotion surrender. final stems, believe, overly formalistic institution freedom No seriously legitimacy values privacy individual autonomy traditionally use, force diminishes. surrendered; thus, retains leases space businesses invites land transaction small Paris Adult Theatre Slaton, 413 49, 65-67, 2628, 2639-2640, (1973). automatically surrender managing sees fit, new notion accommodated public. ago, albeit context: "Property clothed consequence, affect large. When, devotes interest, he, grants submit good, created." Munn Illinois, 126, (1877). subjects relating occupy substantial. dispute, consumers complaints establishments, look avenue far groups concerned, assumed forums. vital errs 157, provides: "Employees shall self-organization, form, join, assist organizations, bargain collectively representatives choosing, engage concerted collective bargaining mutual aid protection, refrain agreement requiring organization condition employment authorized 158(a)(3) title." 192 671. "an employer" "restrain, coerce employees" commerce meaning §§ 2(6) (7) 152(6) (7). "employer" violate own. Austin 101 1257, 1258-1259. 2(13) 152(13). Insofar centers differed such, closely Ala.: principal larger contains range professional nonprofessional services intertwined Also, police hired, fired, controlled, true Valley." 575, 2232 thrust Marshall's 2236. White 339, 1619. past "speech" Roth States, 354 476, 1304, 1498; Chaplinsky 315 568, 766, 1031. balance struck rightfully management involved. 1372. difference "one substance." Supra. stating guiding principle" 544, 2241, 122. "Marsh (T)he encompassed practical turned town; exactly Alabama." 330, 331, editorial "we" primarily 203 denied, 498 (CA 1974). "principles applicable," N.L.R.B., 266-267, seized employees, nonemployees, Wilcox. rule, 1372 (1945), excluded shown functioning. rely argued prohibited Indeed, statutorily based. equivalence prerequisite 164. irrelevant, referred Were "personal contacts home, telephones, letters advertised meetings get touch employees." 111, point served adding observations growth proliferation taking centers. 324, 1611; 580, 585-586, 2234, 2237. Note, Tanner: Demise Disguise Geo.L.J. 1187, 1216-1219 1967 Term, Harv.L.Rev. 63, 135-138 (1968).

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