Document: 479 U.S. 208 107 S.Ct. 544 93 L.Ed.2d 514 Julia H. TASHJIAN, Secretary of State Connecticut, Appellantv.REPUBLICAN PARTY OF CONNECTICUT et al. No. 85-766. Argued Oct. 8, 1986. Decided Dec. 10, Syllabus A Connecticut statute (§ 9-431), enacted in 1955, requires voters any political party primary to be registered members that party. In 1984, appellee Republican Party (Party) adopted a rule permits independent not affiliated with party—to vote primaries for federal and statewide offices. The the Party's officeholders state chairman (also appellees) brought an action Federal District Court challenging constitutionality § 9-431 on ground it deprives its right under First Fourteenth Amendments enter into association individuals own choosing, seeking declaratory injunctive relief. granted summary judgment appellees' favor, Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. Section impermissibly burdens rights protected by Amendments. Pp. 213-225. (a) freedom those includes partisan organization. places limits upon group whom may invite participate "basic function" selecting candidates. thus associational opportunities at crucial juncture which appeal common principles translated concerted action, hence power community. fact has regulate time, place, manner elections does justify, without more, abridgment fundamental rights, such as or, here, association. 213-217. (b) interests asserted appellant justification statute—that ensures administrability primary, prevents voter raiding, avoids confusion, protects integrity two-party system responsibility government—are insubstantial. possibility increases cost administering election is sufficient basis infringing Amendment rights. interest curtailing raiding implicated, since impede raid voters; raiders need only register Republicans primary. preventing confusion make necessary burden And even if were correct arguing providing closed designed save from undertaking conduct destructive interests, constitutionally substitute Party, whose determination boundaries structure best allows pursue goals Constitution. 217-225. 2. implementation will violate Qualifications Clause Constitution—which provides House Representatives "shall composed Members chosen . People several States, Electors each shall have requisite most numerous Branch Legislature"—and parallel provision Seventeenth Amendment, because disenfranchise who was qualified or general more house legislature. are violated establishes qualifications voting congressional differ Where law, made integral part procedure, requirements apply well elections. achievement goal prevent mischief would arise found themselves disqualified participating require exercise franchise precisely equivalent exercising given State. 225-229. 770 F.2d 265 (CA2 1985), MARSHALL, J., delivered opinion Court, BRENNAN, WHITE, BLACKMUN, POWELL, JJ., joined. STEVENS, filed dissenting opinion, SCALIA, joined, post, p. 230. REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, 234. Elliot F. Gerson, Hartford, Conn., appellant. David S. Golub, Stamford, appellees. Stephen E. Gottlieb, Albany, James McGregor Burns. Justice MARSHALL Court. 1 Appellee 1984 state-wide Appellant Tashjian, charged administration State's statutes, include requiring Conn.Gen.Stat. (1985).1 Appellees, addition chairman, challenged this eligibility choosing. favor 599 F.Supp. 1228 (Conn.1984). 1985). We noted probable jurisdiction, 474 1049, 106 783, 88 762 (1986), now affirm. 2 * present system. For major parties,2 process candidate selection offices convention delegates; district conventions held select candidates seats certify party-endorsed person receiving than 20% votes cast roll-call convention. Any endorsed received challenge election, plurality becomes party's nominee. §§ 9-382, 9-400, 9-444 (1985). Candidates selected parties, whether through automatically accorded place ballot election. 9-379. costs paid out public funds. See, e.g., 9-441. 3 these proceedings, 9-431, remained substantially unchanged adoption 1976, statute's upheld three-judge against sought declaration his Nader v. Schaffer, 417 837 (Conn.), summarily aff'd, 429 989, 97 516, 50 602 (1976). opposed plaintiff's efforts 4 Subsequent decision Nader, however, changed views respect participation primaries. Motivated demographic importance politics,3 September 1983 Central Committee recommended calling consider altering rules allow independents January issue, provides: 5 "Any elector enrolled member eligible nomination United States Senator, Representative, Governor, Lieutenant State, Attorney General, Comptroller Treasurer." App. 20. 6 During session, leadership legislature, response conflict between newly proposed amend when permitted rules. legislation defeated, along lines, both houses time controlled Democratic Party.4 7 individual appellees then commenced infringes advancement objectives guaranteed Amendments, relief further enforcement. After discovery, parties submitted extensive stipulations concluded "[a]ny effort question sufficiently allied warrant inclusion impinges rights." F.Supp., 1238. Rejecting proffered justify statute, "as applied permitting unaffiliated certain primaries, abridges Amendment." Id., 1241. 8 affirmed, holding "substantially interferes first amendment define boundaries, determine content message, engage effective association." F.2d, 283. II 9 begin recognition "[c]onstitutional challenges specific provisions laws cannot resolved 'litmus-paper test' separate valid invalid restrictions." Anderson Cele brezze, 460 780, 789, 103 1564, 1570, 75 547 (1983) (quoting Storer Brown, 415 724, 730, 94 1274, 1279, 39 714 (1974)). "Instead, court must character magnitude injury plaintiff seeks vindicate. It identify evaluate precise put forward justifications imposed rule. passing judgment, legitimacy strength also extent U.S., S.Ct., 1570. 10 nature evident. "It beyond debate beliefs ideas inseparable aspect 'liberty' assured Due Process embraces speech." NAACP Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 449, 460, 78 1163, 1171, 1488 (1958); see Button, 371 415, 430, 83 328, 336, 405 (1963); Bates Little Rock, 361 522-523, 80 412, 416-417, 480 (1960). Elrod Burns, 427 347, 357, 96 2673, 2681, 49 (1976) (plurality opinion); Buckley Valeo, 424 1, 15, 612, 632, 46 659 "The associate one's choice basic constitutional freedom." Kusper Pontikes, 414 51, 57, 303, 307, 38 260 (1973). 11 here contends they associate, support seek, their quest success. attempt broaden base activities undeniably central As we said, join together furtherance "necessarily presupposes people constitute Wisconsin LaFollette, 450 107, 122, 101 1010, 1019, 67 82 (1981). 12 necessarily playing broad spectrum roles organization's activities. Some devote substantial portions lives furthering organizational goals, others provide financial support, while still limit casting some all Considered standpoint itself, act formal enrollment affiliation merely one element continuum affairs, sense important.5 13 Were restrict members, might nominees office, prohibition potential nonmembers clearly infringe organize like-minded citizens goals. " '[a]ny interference simultaneously adherents.' supra, 1019 Sweezy New Hampshire, 354 234, 250, 77 1203, 1212, 1311 (1957)).6 58, 308. community.7 14 is, course, appellant's defense impingement occurs box, Constitution grants prescribe "Times, Places Manner Elections Senators Representatives," Art. I, 4, cl. matched control over But authority extinguish observe established citizens. vote, Wesberry Sanders, 376 6-7, 84 526, 529-530, 481 (1964), turn examination asserts members. III 15 narrowly tailored regulation advances compelling ensuring system, avoiding protecting government. A. 16 Although presented argues administrative uphold 9-431.8 purchase additional machines, training poll workers, potentially printing materials specifically intended essence, claims contemplated simply too much. 17 Even assuming factual accuracy contentions, been subjected scrutiny future Costs likewise increase third major-party should come existence fund Additional circumstances well. could forever protect two existing competition solely can afford. Cf. Celebrezze, (1983); Williams Rhodes, 393 23, 89 5, 21 24 (1968). While course entitled take considerations account choosing all, no restrain reasons convenience same access new B 18 justified measure practice "whereby sympathy designate another so influence results other primary." Rosario Rockefeller, 410 752, 760, 1245, 1251, 36 recognized "a legitimate curtail 'raiding,' affect electoral process," 59-60, 308-309; 761, 1251; implicated here.9 independents, otherwise Yet voters, curious concept distantly related type discussed Rosario, impeded 9-431; Indeed, 9-56 (1985), affiliate late noon business day preceding n. 7, statutes actually assist "raid" organized implemented 11th hour. prevention here. C 19 Appellant's next argument confusion. "[t]he legislature properly find difficult understand what stood nominated unknown amorphous body outside party, nevertheless using name." Brief 59. Appellees respond attempting ideological guarantor candidates, misled "Republican" professes something regards true principles. 28. 20 "[t]here about fostering informed educated expressions popular election." 796, 1574. To labels shorthand designation matters concern, identification particular plays role inform franchise. depends belief "misled" labels. "[o]ur cases reflect greater faith ability campaign issues." 797, Moreover, concern "amorphous" name inconsistent facts. proposing allowed choose nominee participation; contrary, listed continues require, obtained least convention, attend. 9-400 If convention's held, intervention voters.10 assuming, putative defeated increased incentive challenges, hoping attract delegates, requirement challengers garner minority greatly attenuates ultimate wedded nothing marriage convenience. decisions disregards benefit successful Given numerical questions likely occur office how effectively voter? By inviting polls produce platform achieve goal. said decrease yet opportunity level among critical electors. "A claim enhancing citizenry wise restricting flow information them viewed skepticism." 798, 1575. responsible "make [Party's] D 22 Finally, furthers vigorously length promotes responsiveness elected officials strengthens effectiveness parties. 23 relative merits open subject beginning century, consensus emerged.11 invokes long distinguished line scientists supporters our decide acting wisely enacting makes mistake depart past 30 years.12 previously danger "splintered unrestrained factionalism do significant damage fabric government." 736, 1282. California denied had voted within year prior immediately said: 25 "[T]he one-year disaffiliation stability permissible, but outweighing making rather early seek status." Ibid. 26 disorganizing effect candidacies launched unsuccessful nominees. This protection, like threatened (1973), undertaken disruption without, not, case, taking internal steps affecting forms individuals, order others. defended itself. 27 Under circumstances, represent transiently enjoying majority power, optimum methods preserving lose much force. interests. point "even correct, court, Party." 123-124, 1019-1020 (footnote omitted). association, "And freedoms, courts interfere view expression unwise irrational." 124, 1020.13 28 conclude enforcement, Party. adduces insubstantial, accordingly unconstitutional. IV 29 below, Constitution, 2, establish legislature.14 Senator Member Representatives, offices, silent contest nominations See 212. absolute symmetry Congress lower rule, according terms, lesser legislative office. rejected argument, 274. concurring took different view, reaching conclusion "anyone branch vote" 286 (Oakes, concurring). agree. 31 recognize Convention, adopting Article contemplating effects modern 32 "We assume framers section, did mind elimination direct application commerce clause interstate telephone, telegraph wireless communication, concededly it. determining applies matter, little significance familiar. setting up enduring framework government undertook carry indefinite vicissitudes changing affairs men, purposes instrument itself discloses." Classic, 313 299, 315-316, 61 1031, 1037-1038, 85 L.Ed. 1368 (1941). 33 purpose underlying States," entire legislators chosen. "Where law procedure choice, where controls choice," 318, 1039; Smith Allwright, 321 649, 659-660, 64 757, 762-763, 987 (1944). assuring secured principle applicable every stage process. Clauses contained free sort erosion prevent. 34 Accordingly, hold fashion Our task discover whether, contends, qualifications, membership, absolutely symmetrical pertaining 35 inquiry begins Framers' Clause. clear avoid consequences declaring single standard governments represented Convention varying expressed delegates qualification disenfranchised States. Wilson argued "[i]t very hard disagreeable persons, representatives Legislature, excluded National Legislature." J. Madison, Journal 467 (E. Scott ed. 1893) (hereinafter Madison's Journal). Oliver Ellsworth predicted readily subscribe disfranchised." 468. Benjamin Franklin argued, vein, sons farmer, being freeholders, pleased disfranchised, there great many persons description." 471. Madison later resulting similar grounds: "To reduced uniform probably dissatisfactory Convention. appears therefore, lay option. satisfactory State; conformable already established, itself." Federalist 52, (J. Cooke 1961). 37 language suggestion property availability 468-473; M. Farrand, Records 1787, pp. 200-216 (1966). Far device suffrage, Framers times prevailing satisfied Representatives. perfect takes required expanded. Oregon Mitchell, 400 112, 91 260, 272 (1970), five Justices agreed Voting Rights Act 1970 minimum age elections, set local id., 117-118, 261-262 (Black, announcing judgments Court). reading Clause, identical plainly holdings. V 40 Affirmed. SCALIA joins, dissenting. 41 threshold issue case consistently permit plain intent Framers, reasoning opinions answer negative. 42 Every condition 17891 senatorial ratified 1913.2 43 recognizes, ante, 227, Senate "chosen People." Const., 315, 1037, "on last-completed enrolment list municipality district. ." Thus, 44 today holds, pursuant Connecticut's rules, independent, Republican, electors facial disparity stringent violates Clauses. 45 dispute have" separates counterparts, inexplicably treating mandatory though means "may voters. freewheeling interpretation relies describes Qualification supra. Neither arguments withstands scrutiny. excerpts quoted 227-229, motion Gouverneur Morris draft prepared Detail. full wanted change amendment. 47 Stewart accurately summarized background supra: 48 "An provided fix proviso 'at Time altered superseded Legislature States.' records Detail show decided strike granting add stead 'the Electors, Legislatures.' reported included following: 'The same, legislatures.' IV, 1." 289, 347 (concurring part) (footnotes omitted; emphasis added). 1787 considering abundantly clear—the same" legislatures 449-450 1893). ensure uniformity electors' impose nationwide standard.3 51 adopt "which suffrage freeholders." 467. Not surprisingly, proposal large number vote. 467, 468, 471-472. Despite Court's reliance concerns led reject proposal, shed light why voters' same." 52 Mitchell equally misguided. That tested parts 1970, Stat. 314, including section lowered 18. Four power;4 four valid.5 conclusions eight consistent proposition elections.6 Only Black insofar 125-130, 265-268. 53 Black's reasoning, supports literal absence prescribing he relied entirely empowers alter regulations concerning times, places, 119-124, 262-265. prescribed "were unless directs 4." 125, 265. 54 purports authorize whatsoever refusal honor An linking States' exactly matches understanding: 55 comformable 56 I respectfully dissent. 57 THE CHIEF JUSTICE O'CONNOR join, 58 Both arrangements assure fair essential democratic accommodation vital lend bright-line careful inordinately impaired facts case. 788-790, 1569-1571, (1974). so, reached individuated sheds next. Since area, moreover, predictability important, think worth noting me today's exceeds permissible restrictions ordering 59 my exaggerates indeed none exists. There recruit enroll offering candidates; (1985) before Nor whatever desire. Appellees' complaint leave unwilling become seems fanciful refer who, steadfastly refusing casts meaningful "association" Democrat responds pollster. extended casual contacts, ceases analytic use. La Follette, 130-131, 1023-1024, (1981) (POWELL, dissenting) ("[Not] creates rights"; "look closely intrusion, involved, real limitation freedoms"). 60 candidate, hand, unquestionably implicates freedom—but hardly thought unconstitutionally forward, wishes, highest degree combined. obligation, let used, instead party-funded poll, identifies popularity independents. reason apparent insist called independents' taken membership fashion, members' diluted—and perhaps outnumbered—by outsiders. characterizes this, disparagingly, "protec[t] Ante, 224. problems characterization. first, less true. way knowing allowing determined ballot, convention—which, know, dominated seekers evaluation vis-a-vis faithful philosophy, diverged significantly rank file. always state-imposed control. 837, 843 Second outsiders, bound desire—any democratically desire henceforth executive committee smoke-filled room. words, validity hitherto considered "too argument," American Texas White, 767, 781, 1296, 1306, 744 (1974), "to lawfully elements democratic—whether wants not. understanding delegation proscribed, cannot. 62 us, this: Just republican may, nominate committee, vote; him constitutional. 63 pertinent part: "No "major party" defined organization governor last-preceding twenty per cent whole governor." 9-372(5)(B) definition. record shows October 659,268 Democrats, 425,695 Republicans, 532,723 Connecticut. Juris.Statement 244. November acquired passed, vetoed Governor. acts organizations hostility discrimination; privacy rolls. 523-524, (1960); 462, (1958). distinguishes despite opposition. latter class cases, nonmember's overborne countervailing qualifications. (1973); Similarly, national refuse seat processes conform (1981); Cousins Wigoda, 419 477, 95 541, 595 (1975). These situations analytically distinct enhanced willing nonmembers. generally Note, Primary Collective Right Freedom Association, Yale L.J. 117 (1984). infringement de minimis, amended during pendency litigation, enrolling last wishing so. contentions reasons. First, noted, employ joining act, intervening 281, 24. Second, importantly, conditions statement adherence regardless actual voter. Wooley Maynard, 430 705, 714-715, 1428, 1435-1436, 752 (1977); West Virginia Board Education Barnette, 319 624, 633-634, 1178-1183, 87 1628 (1943). counsel conceded oral notify authorities intention acceptable measure, problem insisting Tr. Oral Arg. 40. entered findings changes implement evidence relating attorney testimony "workable." affidavits request stay, after jurisdiction. study commission "raiding" never conclusively proven survey research.' 122-123, 1019-1020, Openness, Participation Building: Reforms Stronger 68 (Feb. 17, 1978)). irrelevant express continuing difficulty proving possible practice. disclose proportion result contests. At "closed" classic sort, period Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 16-467 (1984); Cal.Elec.Code Ann. 501 (West Supp.1986); Colo.Rev.Stat. 1-2-203 (Supp.1986); (1985); Del.Code Ann., Tit. 3161 Fla.Stat. 101.021 Kan.Stat.Ann. 25-3301 Ky.Rev.Stat. 116.045, 116.055 (1982); Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., 21-A, 141 seq. (Supp.1986-1987); Md.Ann.Code, 33, 3-8 Neb.Rev.Stat. 32-530 Nev.Rev.Stat. 293.287 N.M.Stat.Ann. 1-4-16 N.Y.Elec.Law 1-104.9 (McKinney 1978); N.C.Gen.Stat. 163.74 (1982 Supp.1985); Okla.Stat., 26, 1-104 (1976); Ore.Rev.Stat. 247.201 Pa.Stat.Ann., 25, 2832 (Purdon 1963); S.D. Codified Laws 12-4-15 W.Va.Code 3-1-35 (1979); Wyo.Stat. 22-5-212 (1977). Sixteen affiliates of, Ala.Code 17-16-14(b) Ark.Stat.Ann. 3-126 Ga.Code 21-2-235 Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 46, ¶ 7-43(a) (1986); Ind.Code 3-10-1-6 Iowa Code 43.41, 43.42 Mass.Gen.Laws 53:37 Miss.Code 23-15-575 (1986 pamphlet); Mo.Rev.Stat. 115.397 (1978); N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 654:34II N.J.Stat.Ann. 19:23-45 Ohio Rev.Code 3513.19 (Supp.1985); R.I.Gen.Laws 17-9-26(c) S.C.Code 7-5-120, 7-9-20 (1976 Tenn.Code 2-7-115(b)(2) Tex.Elec.Code 162.003 (1986). nonpartisan participate, Alaska Stat.Ann. 15.05.010, 15.25.090 La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 18:401B, 18:521B 1979 Va.Code 24.1-182 Wash.Rev.Code 29.18.200 (1965), nine classical "open" Haw.Rev.Stat. 12-31 (Supp.1984); Idaho 34-402, 34-404, 34-904 Mich.Comp.Laws 168.575, 168.576 (1967 Minn.Stat. 204D.08(4) Mont.Code 13-10-301(2) N.D.Cent.Code 16.1-11-22 Utah 20-3-19(2) Vt.Stat.Ann., 2363 Wis.Stat. 5.37, 6.80 (1983-1984). note direst predictions destruction decay borne experience openness systems heretofore. withstand membership. seeking, example, raise combination considerations. broadening threaten disorganization observed occasions "policy confining nominating act," policy involved 802, 29, 1577, 743, 1285. analysis derives involved. automatic; recognized, 'no made.' 789-790, 1570-1571 1279). second Year Senators, states legislatures." referred Report "well considered," "he better. form States." Harlan, 152, 212-213, 279, 308-309 part), Stewart, 287-289, 343, 345-347 (joined Burger, J.). Douglas, 135, 141-144, 270, 273-275, joint 229, 280-281 (opinion JJ.). certainly 210-211, 308, joined 287-290, 345-347. observed: adopts 288, 346. Douglas BRENNAN issue.

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