Document: 411 U.S. 389 93 S.Ct. 1670 36 L.Ed.2d 342 Roosevelt F. PALMORE, Appellant,v.UNITED STATES. No. 72—11. Argued Feb. 21, 1973. Decided April 24, Syllabus Palmore was convicted of a felony in violation the District Columbia Code by Superior Court Columbia. The Appeals, rejecting Palmore's contention that he entitled to be tried an Art. III judge with lifetime tenure and salary protection, affirmed, concluding under plenary power legislate for conferred I, § 8, cl. 17, Constitution, Congress had 'constitutional proscribe certain criminal conduct only select appropriate court, whether it is created virtue article or hear determine . particular cases within District.' seeks invoke this Court's appellate jurisdiction on basis 28 U.S.C. 1257(2), which provides appeal from final judgment upholding validity 'a statute any state' against claim repugnant Constitution. Held: 1. not state purposes lower court's federal therefore reviewable but certiorari. Pp. 394—397. 2. Not every judicial proceeding implicates charge, claim, defense based Act law made its authority must presided over judge. 397 410. (a) jurisdictional grant respecting 'such inferior Courts as may time ordain establish' requires neither courts decide United States nor each court invested all flowing III, laws have been enforced state, territorial, military judges who did enjoy protections. 397—404. (b) strictly local system consisting Appeals Reform Criminal Procedure 1970 pursuant Congress' I Columbia, intended relieve burdens civil litigation. O'Donoghue v. States, 289 516, 53 740, 77 L.Ed. 1356, distinguished. 405—407. Appeal dismissed certiorari granted part; 290 A.2d 573, affirmed. Frank Flegal, Washington, D.C., appellant. Sol. Gen. Erwin N. Griswold, appellee. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 Aside initial question our case us defendant charged does protection respect We hold provide trying before who, accordance Code, are accorded life reduction salary. In respect, position similar citizen 50 when law: Neither has constitutional right guarantees. 2 * facts uncomplicated. January 1971, two officers Metropolitan Police Department observed moving automobile license tags suggesting rented vehicle. Although no traffic other then indicated, officer stopped vehicle spot-check driver's carrental agreement. Palmore, driver vehicle, produced rental agreement glove compartment car explained why appeared be, not, overdue. During time, one hammer mechanism gun protruding armrest front seat arrested later carrying unregistered pistol after having felony, 22—3204 (1967).1 He found guilty 3 Under Title 1970, 84 Stat. 473 (Reorganization Act),2 appointed President serve terms 15 years. D.C.Code Ann. §§ 11—1501(a), 11—1502 (Supp. V, 1972).3 moved dismiss indictment him, urging 'ordain(ed) established(ed)' Constitution could constitutionally try him prosecution Code. also suppress fruit illegal search seizure. motions were denied Court, convicted. 4 affirmed these 576—577 (1972). filed notice his statement here, purporting perfect 1257(2). postponed further consideration review way hearing merits. 409 840, 66, 34 79 II 5 12574 specifies circumstances judgments highest State reviewed writ As amended 172(a)(1) Reorganization Act, 590, term 'highest State' used 1257 includes Appeals. lies such where struck down, 1257(1), sustained attack, id., Because at issue upheld case, if 'statute meaning insists is, we cannot agree. 6 amendment plainly provided should treated State,' nowhere 1257, elsewhere, words state,' include provisions A reference 'state statutes' would ordinarily enacted, legislature, Congress, applies boundaries distinct Hepburn & Dundas Ellzey, Cranch 445, 332 (1805); cf. National Mutual Ins. Co. Dist. Col. Tidewater Transfer Co., 337 582, 69 1173, 1556 (1949). Nor follow decision treat considered 1257. assume amending legislated care, equate statutes said so expressly, left matter mere implication.5 7 Jurisdictional construed 'with precision fidelity expressed wishes,' Cheng Fan Kwok INS, 392 206, 212, 88 1974, 20 1037 (1968); particularly prone accord 'strict construction authorizing appeals' Fornaris Ridge Tool 400 41, 42 n. 1, 91 156, 157, 27 174 (1970). will therefore, Cf. Farnsworth Territory Montana, 129 104, 112—114, 9 253, 254 255, 32 616 (1889). 8 relies Balzac Porto Rico, 258 298, 343, 66 627 (1922), enactment territorial legislature Puerto Rico held then-applicable statutory governing appeals That result codified 1258; but, even so, rationale severely undermined Fornaris, passed statute' 1254(2), absence more definitive guidance Congress. conclude do case. presents issues, however, 1257(3); treating petition certiorari, 2103, limited ordained established Constitution.6 It now turn. 10 shall '(t)o exercise exclusive Legislation Cases whatsoever, over' plenary. otherwise nationwide application applied police regulatory powers municipal government legislating purposes. 'may legislative might State, vest distribute among magistrates, regulate proceedings them, think fit, long contravene provision constitution States.' Capital Traction Hof, 5, 19 580, 43 873 (1899). This characteristic view congressional District.7 apparent Clause 17 permits manner subjects exceed powers, least very unusual, context national legislation enacted delegated 8. See Gibbons 116 404, 408, 427, 429, 29 680 (1886). 11 Pursuant authority, compose creating being expressly 'established Constitution.' 101(2) 1972). 2, supra. things, vested involving alleged violations applicable 11—923; cases. Id., 11—721. At same exercised 9, redefine Circuit. 11—301, 11—501, 11—502. Committee said, H.R.Rep.No.91 907, p. 44: 12 'This title makes clear (section 11—101) (the Columbia) Article courts, section clause courts. statutorily prior law; Supreme declared either decisions indicated are, both fish fowl. expression intent clarifies status courts.' 13 (1967). conviction clearly unless, contends, felonies protections III.8 argument straightforward: vests 'judicial Power' holding office during good behavior whose diminished; 'shall extend Cases, Law Equity, arising Laws Treaties made, their Authority .'; States; involves 14 ultimately rests proposition preside authority. least, asserts offenses prosecuted except III. view, there support text history practice. describes extending cases, others, aside 'in establish.' well task defining jurisdiction, discretion body required create including those States. Nor, created, invest them authorized bestow '(T)he (except enumerated instances, exclusively court) dependent distribution organization, modes exercise, entirely upon action possess sole tribunals (inferior Court) investing limited, concurrent, exclusive, withholding exact degrees character seem proper public good.' Cary Curtis, How. 236, 245, 576 (1845).9 understood this, until 1875 refrained providing general federal-question jurisdiction. Until forum vindicating many important claims. Even then, exceptions, remained trial amount, most part retained concurrent claims properly 16 questions reserved judges. enforcement deemed province Very early history, selected prescribed Warren, Federal Courts, 38 Harv.L.Rev. 545, 551—553, 570—572 (1925); Frankfurter J. Landis, Business 293 (1927); Note, Utilization Enforce Penal Statutes: Development Judicial Federalism, 60 966 (1947). More recently, unanimously require Emergency Price Control penal laws; fact 'that Rhode Island policy states deems penal, accepted 'valid excuse." Testa Katt, 330 386, 392, 67 810, 814, 967 recognizing contrary sentiments Prigg Pennsylvania, Pet. 539, 615—616, 1060 (1842), sense merely reflected longstanding represented Claflin Houseman, 130, 23 833 (1876), Mondou New York N.H. H.R. 223 169, 56 327 (1912). true throughout IV 'make needful Rules Regulations Property belonging States' manning These subject strictures though they characteristically territory. Speaking unanimous American Canter, 511, 242 (1828). Chief Marshall Florida, although governed admiralty maritime heard limitation territories. exercises combined general, government.' 546. consistent Court.10 Territorial regularly Congress,11 brought laws.12 18 There another tried, defendants convicted, non-Art. 14, make Government Regulation land naval Forces,' members Armed Forces court-martial mode, Within sphere, courts-martial instruments carry out executive well. Dynes Hoover, 65, 79, 82, 838 (1857). 'exigencies discipline existence special specific procedural essential trials need apply,' O'Callahan Parker, 395 258, 261, 89 1683, 1685, 291 (1969); 'the performing functions trials,' ex rel. Toth Quarles, 350 11, 76 100 (1955). 'The confluence practical considerations dictated (American supra), sanctioning creation tenure,' Glidden Zdanok, 370 530, 547, 82 1459, 1471, 671 (1962), Private Land Claims, Coe, 155 76, 85—86, 16, 19, 39 (1894); Choctaw Chickasaw Citizenship Stephens Cherokee Nation, 722, 1041 (1899); Ex parte Joins, 191 93, 24 27, 48 110 (1903); Wallace Adams, 204 415, 363, 51 547 (1907); unincorporated districts outside mainland, Downes Bidwell, 182 244, 266—267, 21 770, 778—779, 45 1088 (1901); U.S., 312—313, S.Ct., 348—349, Consular concessions foreign countries, re Ross, 140 453, 464—465, 480, 897, 900—901, 905, 35 581 (1891). Whatever strongly argued 1356 (1933), constrains presiding requirements involved Columbia's protected salaries reduced three dissents extensive dicta, see Bakelite Corp., 279 438, 450, 49 411, 413, 73 789 (1929); Butterworth Hoe, 112 50, 25, 656 (1884); Keller Potomac Electric Power 261 428, 731 (1923); Radio Comm'n General 281 464, 389, 74 969 (1930), exercising agree governs case.13 involved, District, controversies, criminal, application. noted opinion, 'of equal rank fedthose ..' O'Donoghue, supra, 534, 744. Relying heavily intent, consistently tenure, 'congressional practice beginning (which) recognize(d) complete parallelism between (of Circuit 549, 750. Moreover, constituted were, closer department, 'exercise affecting operations various departments,' 535, 744, inhabitants 'right determined under, by, III.' 540, 746. 22 far cry O'Donoghue. Here systems District. One up Circuit, manned citizens resort matters concern 11—101(2) 1972), 'powers possible.' Stoutenburgh Hennick, 141, 147, 256, 257, 637 O'donoghue 'purely affairs (was) obviously subordinate incidental.' 740. Here, hand, focus work primarily concern. They handle alone. itself like these, controlling here. V read requiring law, violating enjoying reduction. Rather, recognized forums crimes times tried; applicability stake, give accommodate grants specialized areas particularized needs warranting distinctive treatment. reorganized set characteristics devoted wholly separate designed large metropolitan area. 25 From own studies, concluded crisis loads become unmanageable, cognizance promptly disposed existing system. See, e.g., 115 Cong.Rec. 25538 8091—8092 (1970).14 remedy part, regular smothering responsibility great mass litigation, inevitably characterizes major city confine which, do, namely, nationally remedy, equally essential, establish new essentially Union deciding distinctively controversies arise little, any, impact beyond S.Rep. 91—405, pp. 1—3, 18; H.R.Rep. 91—907, 23—24, 33. 26 Furthermore, careful consideration, preferred, utilize, staffed without tenure. 17—18; 44. deliberate choice judgeships years, positions removal suspension commission circumstances. 11—1502, 11—1521 et seq. thought workable efficient administering discharging multifaceted 8—11; 35—39. fixed office, cognizant 'virtually provided' behavior, 38, noting 46 A.2d, 578 12, administration suspension, some model (1969). Hearings 13689 12854 Subcommittee House 91st Cong., 1st Sess., pt. 69, 71 discount importance attached whatsoever. disadvantaged than crime. nontenured deprive due process Fifth Amendment deprives Fourteenth Amendment. 30 So ordered. 31 Affirmed. DOUBLAS, dissenting. 33 Appellant, indicted dangerous weapon 22—3204, Congress1 473. His timely objection sentenced —hold fifteen years,2 lie judges; —unlike judges,3 diminishment continuance office; judges, can removed five-member Commission4 through less formidable means procedure impeachment. While five lawyers (one member Bar active ten years appointment retired serving District) laymen. layman. 1522 37 words, independent judiciary proudest boasts, reason safeguards protect litigants unpopular minority causes belong despised suspect classes. surround measure hostile press, leftist rightist demands party power, glowering looks top echelon hands rest reappointment. Constitutional Convention 1787 proposed Executive Senate Representatives.' proposal defeated Connecticut voting it. Wilson apparently common sentiment: Judges bad situation depend gust faction prevail branches Government.'5 Without independence enjoyed easily tool ravenous Branch. idea Reports 1965 1966,6 sponsoring Rico. Report stated:7 40 '. benefit pressures influence chances reappointment, benefits guarantees 41 provides: To Seat plenary, giving method governed, alter form government. Thompson 346 100, 104—110, 1007, 1009—1012, 97 1480. Legislative given administrative duties, examples known. But Power,' present Bill Rights. First, jury trial, says: Trial, Crimes Jury.' guaranteed Sixth prosecutions. McReynolds Butler, known Libertarians, 'all' meant 'all,' permitting exclusions so-called 'petty' offenses. Clawans, 300 617, 633, 57 660, 665, 81 843. accused trial. Colts, 282 63, 74, 52, 53, 75 177; Callan Wilson, 127 1301, 223. indictment; dispense offense Moreland, 433, 368, 700. 44 Amendment's guarantee extends speedy trials, confrontation compulsory assistance counsel '(i)n prosecutions.' double jeopardy gives privilege self-incrimination case,' 'be deprived life, liberty, property, law.' Fourth protects '(t)he people secure unreasonable searches seizures 47 Eighth says 'Excessive bail required, excessive fines imposed, cruel unusual punishments inflicted.' Few, guarantees, assume, functions. inapplicable prosecutions exercised? unable how possible. Yet aspects applicable, exception? For abundantly main purpose political leverage states: 'In drafting bill, committee conscious inexactness art selection attracting competent men bench. requirement 'good behavior' played significant role historic high quality On aware virtually recognition opportunity judge's performance obvious advantages. committee, sought combine attractiveness work. 52 'At present, available rid bench sick venal impeachment Representatives Senate. believe just realistic. proven viable Federal, good-behavior drawn into question.' 11. O'Dodoghue unconstitutional reducing inherent separation acts never controlled subjected, directly indirectly, to, coercive departments.' 743. Since formed portions original 'not reasonable cession stripped (rights, immunities Constitution), fortified guaranty parts Union.' while confer I. 546, 749. held, 'to destroy operative effect Ibid. precisely that. Hence today retreat 54 Much (about three-fourths them) levels elected people. basic Jacksonian principles. principle opposed.8 Hamilton stated Federalist (J. Cooke ed. 1961): 55 'Next permanency nothing contribute support. remark relation president, course human nature, man's subsistence amounts will. And hope realised system, leaves former pecuniary resources occasional latter. enlightened friends government, seen cause lament want precise explicit precautions constitutions head. Some indeed permanent experiment instances shewn expressions sufficiently definite preclude evasions. Something still positive unequivocal evinced requisite. plan convention accordingly provided, receive services compensation, diminished office.' 'This, considered, eligible devised. readily understood, fluctuations value money, society, rendered rate compensation inadmissible. What extravagant day, half century penurious inadequate. necessary leave vary conformity variations circumstances; yet restrictions put change condition individual worse. man sure ground stands, deterred duty apprehension placed situation. quoted combines offices altered, occasion lessen allowance comes him.' theory opposed philosophy concerning election scheme control theory. elect 'recall' done named confirmed removable President. problems, conduct, All normal vices dependent, accentuated 58 'law order' naturally assumes minds majority acute problem. minority, sits overlord, causing tensions mount. Harry Alexander, prominent. Great conform—or else. problem goes viability vitality Those run 'person'; sit justice evenly undertake ration Rights, threat security. 59 They, insure security evenhandedly. ideals Rights mucilage holds majorities minorities together segment tolerable nonconformists walk beat Drummer. take step backward regime helps fearless evenhanded dispensation justice. No minion cabal accidents politics ascendancy overlord effort unhappily succeeds disregard cherished provisions. 61 Black dissent 589, 598, 1493, 1498, 671, dealing 'judicial' function concerns standards procedures employed. If power' defined conform judiciary. 62 proposals kin approved today; ones Prof. Kurland.9 date efforts tamper successful, unless bizarre Chandler Council, 382 1003, 1004, 86 610, 494, dissented. course, mostly gone way.10 Kurland observed:11 63 devices recently adopted policing judiciaries little polite blackmail, suggestions bar unhappy he'd better shape shudder (easily) Judge Learned Hand California's. politeness willingness tolerate fools gladly virtues, virtues attendance house capable evoking timid judges.' 64 achieve what amendment. Andrew Johnson 1868 said;12 65 'It impressed my mind incompatible spirit republican am fully evidence popular different Union. 'I deem recommend period herewith submit decision.' Manipulated across world, especially communist fascist nations. faith freedom profess ideologies ominous cast. because indirectly associates crime rather sociological factors poverty caused unemployment disemployment, abrasive tactics minorities, blight narcotics like. heads retaliate stand firmly ancient using third degree get confessions fervently end justify means. 68 reverse below. provided: 'No person openly concealed about person, dwelling place business possessed pistol, therefor issued hereinafter deadly concealed. Whoever violates punished 22—3215, occurs imprisonment years.' Before passage consisted juvenile tax Sessions, quite solely concurrently misdemeanors petty offenses, 11—963 restricted amount controversy $10,000, real property divorce action. 11—961 11—1141. 11—321. Sessions handled 11—521, 11—522, 11—523, committed locally laws, 11—521. Thus, filling court. Seeking improve equivalent S.Rep.No. 2—3; H.R.Rep.No.91—907, 23—24. 11—901 vested, minor exception, 502(3), felonies, 11—923(b). Its reached actions equity, 11—921. Columbia' 11—102. addition shift number increased, lengthened increased percentage 11—702, 703, 11—903, 11—904, 11—1502; 11—902, 47—2402 Commission Disabilities Tenure deal retirement, improved 11—1701 seq., authorization Officer responsible 11—1703. 15-year mandatory retirement age 70. 'Final decrees had, follows: '(1) By appeal, treaty validity. '(2) treaties favor '(3) title, right, immunity specially claimed of, 'For section, Appeals.' An express 'would easy,' 113, (1889), demonstrated 1363, added 172(c)(1) c. 85 'references Acts Columbia.' treatment 'State' diversity 1332(d), discrete 1451, 172(d)(1) 591, provisions, 'State court'; 'State.' merits, entering unrestricted notation probable inferring, finding improper, order nevertheless taken issues presented. Hence, denial dismissal, proper. Mishkin York, 383 502, 512 513, 958, 965—966, (1966). Kendall 524, 619, 1181 (1838); Mattingly 687, 690, 1098 (1878); 407, (1886); Shoemaker 147 282, 300, 361, 391, 170 (1893); Atlantic Cleaners Dyers 286 435, 607, 609, 1204 (1932); 748, (1933). Sections state: 'Section supreme ordian establish. Judges, Offices Behaviour, shall, Times, Services, Compensation, Continuance Office. Authority;—to Ambassadors, Ministers Consuls;—to Jurisdiction;—to Controversies Party;—to States;—between Citizens State;—between claiming Lands Grants thereof, Subjects. Consuls, Party, Jurisdiction. mentioned, Jurisdiction, Fact, Exceptions, make. Trial Crimes, Impeachment, Jury; committed; Place Places directed.' Martin Hunter's Lessee, Wheat. 304, (1816). Turner Bank North America, Dall. 7, 718 (1799); Hudson, 32, 259 (1812). statements 327—339, survive example, (1845), text, Massachusetts, 657, 721—722, 1233 Sheldon Sill, 441, 1147 (1850); Case Sewing Machine Companies, Wall. 553, 577—578, 914 (1874); Kline Burke Construction 260 226, 233—234, 82—83, 226 (1922). Clinton Englebrecht, 434, 447, 659 (1872); Hornbuckle Toombs, 648, 655—656, Reynolds 98 145, 154, 244 (1879); City Panama, 101 460, 1061 (1880); McAllister 141 174, 180—184, 949, 951—952, 693 (1891); McMillan, 165 504, 510, 395, 398, 805 (1897); Romeu Todd, 206 358, 369, 724, 728, 1093 544—548, 1469—1471, (1962). Baker Pinney (Wis.) 641 (1846); Tom, Or. (1853); Franklin Colo. (1867); Pickett Idaho 523 Reynolds, Utah (1875); Fisher Okl. 252, P. 195 (1892). Oregon Coleman, (1855); Gile People, People Waters, 560 Shafer, Larkin, 745 note here urged forbade assignment Customs Patent ruled judge, sufficient Harlan, himself Justices Brennan Stewart, unnecessary reach question, open one, 'intimating correctness below 538, 1466. Apparently, foreclosed Clark, Justice, open. 589 4, 1493. notwithstanding visiting program, 'an unsurpassed days per district judge,' 'assigned full offenses,' backlog numbered 1,669, median lapse filing disposition triple Additionally, nearly Though increase concomitant decrease prosecuted. S.Rep.No.91—405, 2—3. 11—101 1972) provides, (2) following Constitution: (A) (B) 11—502 'hold Office.' suspend, retire, remove' names members, Commissioner fifth. alternate members. Chairman. 11—1522. six 11—1523. finally 1526(a)(1). finds '(A) willful misconduct '(B) persistent failure perform '(C) prejudicial brings disrepute.' involuntarily determines suffers mental physical disability (including habitual intemperance) likely prevents, seriously interferes with, files involuntary expired.' 11—1526(b). contains elaborate salary, described 1526(c)(1), (2), (3). entitled. 11—1527. Madison, Journal 257 (G. Hunt 1908). H.R.Rep.No.135, 89th Sess.; S.Rep.No.1504, 2d Sess. 6, Brown, Rent Our Armor, Geo.Wash.L.Rev. (1941); Hyde, Judges: Their Selection Tenure, N.Y.U.L.Q.Rev. (1949); E. Haynes, (1944); Kurland, Notes History, U.Chi.L.Rev. 665 James Bryce, writing 1888, said: 'Any phenomena described—popular elections, short terms, small salaries—would Popular elections throw parties, say, knots wirepullers inclined use rewarding services, garrisoning grateful partisans posts conceivably importance. Short oblige remember keep fortunes lie. induce timidity, discourage independence.' Commonwealth, 42, 507 (3d 1905). California discussed Jack Frankel, Secretary Qualifications, Removal Tackles Old Problem, A.B.A.J. 166 (1963). Frankel approval proposing 1970. 668. Messages Papers Presidents 3841 Richardson 1897.)

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