Document: 389 U.S. 429 88 S.Ct. 664 19 L.Ed.2d 683 Oswald ZSCHERNIG et al., Appellants,v.William J. MILLER, Administrator al. No. 21. Argued Nov. 7, 1967. Decided Jan. 15, 1968. Peter A. Schwabe, Sr., Portland, Or., for appellants; Jr., on the brief. Wayne M. Thompson, Salem, appellees; Robert Y. Thornton, Atty. Gen., Briefs of amici curiae were filed by Sol. Gen. Thurgood Marshall, Acting Asst. Carl Eardley, John S. Martin, and Alan Rosenthal, Washington, D.C., United States Edward Mosk, Hollywood, Cal., Slaff, Mosk & Rudman. Mr. Justice DOUGLAS delivered opinion Court. 1 This case concerns disposition estate a resident Oregon who died there intestate in 1962. Appellants are decedent's sole heirs they residents East Germany. Appellees include members State Land Board that petitioned probate court escheat net proceeds under provisions Ore.Rev.Stat. § 111.070 (1957),1 which provides cases where nonresident alien claims real or personal property unless three requirements satisfied: 2 (1) existence reciprocal right citizen to take same terms as inhabitant foreign country; (2) citizens receive payment here funds from estates 3 (3) 'without confiscation.' 4 The Supreme Court held appellants could realty involved present reason Article IV 1923 Treaty Friendship, Commerce Consular Rights with Germany2 (44 Stat. 2135) but Article, construed Clark v. Allen, 331 503, 67 1431, 91 L.Ed. 1633, not personalty. 243 Or. 567, 412 P.2d 781; 592, 415 15. We noted probable jurisdiction. 386 1030, 87 1475, 18 590. 5 Department Justice, appearing amicus submits that, although is still force, Allen should be overruled insofar it personalty provision IV. That portion speaks rights '(n)ationals either High Contracting Party' dispose 'their every kind within territories other.' literal language its long consistent construction, we 'does cover located this country an American undertakes leave German nationals.' U.S., at 516, S.Ct., 1438. 6 do accept invitation re-examine our ruling Allen. For conclude history operation statute make clear intrusion into field affairs Constitution entrusts President Congress. See Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 63, 61 399, 402, 85 581. 7 As already noted3 one conditions inheritance requires 'proof such heirs, distributees, devisees legatees may benefit, use control money persons dying state without confiscation, whole part, governments countries,' burden being establish fact. 8 came Oregon's law 1951. Prior time aliens defined general reciprocity,4 similar California Act had before us 506, 1433 n. 1. 9 reciprocity clause did face intrude federal domain. 516—517, 1438—1439. statute, then recent enactment, would have only 'some incidental indirect effect countries.' Id., 517, 1439.5 10 Had appeared posture one, different result obtained. concerned words face, manner application. courts, course, must frequently read, construe, apply laws nations. It has never been seriously suggested courts precluded performing function, albeit remote possibility any holding disturb nation—whether matter involves commercial cases, tort some other type controversy. At was decided, seemed involve no more than routine reading laws. now appears area statutes, various launched inquiries obtain particular nations—whether their enforceable rights, whether so-called 'rights' merely dispensations turning upon whim caprice government officials, representation consuls, ambassadors, representatives nations credible made good faith, actual administration system element confiscation. 11 In case, involving provision, following representation: 12 'the inextricably enmeshed international matters policy. does work disinheritance of, affect ownership by, group class, contrary operates fields exclusively for, preempted States; namely, transmission property, funds, credits, capture enemy property. confiscation retaliation.' re Bevilacqua's Estate, 161 589, 593 (Dist.Ct.App.Cal.) superseded 31 Cal.2d 580, 191 752. 13 brief curiae, states that: 'The * contend application circumstances unduly interferes States' conduct relations.' 14 Government's acquiescence certainly justify extending principle required uphold applied; great potential disruption embarrassment makes hesitate place category diplomatic bagatelle. 15 read decisions followed wake find radiate attitudes 'cold war,' search 'democracy quotient' regime opposed Marxist theory.6 introduces concept 'confiscation,' course Just Compensation Clause Fifth Amendment. And led minute concerning law, credibility statements, speculation fact received delivery 'not preclude wonderment how many denied receive' *.' Kolovrat, 220 448, 461—462, 349 255, 262, rev'd sub nom. Kolovrat Oregon, 366 187, 81 922, 218 grounds. 16 involvement relations—matters solely Federal Government—is sanctioned Yet forbidden activity infected each 111.070, applied Oregon. 17 Pekarek, 234 74, 378 734, against Czech claimant because he failed prove 'benefit' requirement subsection (1)(c) said: 'Assuming, deciding, all evidence offered admissible, can given relatively little weight. statements Czechoslovakian officials judged light interest acquisition government. Moreover, judging these witnesses entitled consideration declarations communist-controlled countries existing borders always comport facts.' 83, P.2d, 738. 240 82, 400 10, certificate Polish Ambassador tendered claim confiscated abroad, court, appraising current attitude toward Warsaw, accepted true. 84, 11. 20 By Through Rogers, 219 233, 347 57, Bulgarian what (1)(b) 'right' decedents get out Bulgaria States. Such license National Bank, licenses regularly insufficient, issued discretion 'whim' bank. 245, 63.7 21 reads decisions, seems policy attitudes, freezing thawing like desiderata.8 Government, local courts. 22 true (1)(a) (1)(c). Clostermann Schmidt, 215 55, 332 1036, court—applying predecessor (1)(a)—held give Americans, political body making 'membership family nations' (id., 65, 1041), purpose serve 'an inducement so frame respective insure Oregonians opportunities inherit abroad enjoy Oregon.' 68, 1042. 23 Estate Krachler, 199 263 769, observed phrase 'reciprocal right' part meant 'that law.' 455, 773. Although certain written Nazi Germany permit Americans inherit, created 'right,' since Hitler absolute dictatorial powers prescribe rules procedures variance law. Bequests "grossly sound sentiment people" effect. 794.9 24 short, seem judges construing seek ascertain protected enjoy. If, Rogers alleged vindicated through Communist-controlled agencies, requires. if enforcement require approval Fascist dictator, Krachler. unavoidable judicial criticism established authoritarian basis own. 25 inescapable enforces affects relations persistent subtle way. practice withholding remittances residing Communist preventing them assigning notorious.10 several States, traditionally regulated descent distribution estates. But those regulations way impair effective exercise Nation's Miller, Corporation Private Government World Community, 46 Va.L.Rev. 1539, 1542—1549 (1960). Where conflict treaty, bow superior 922. Yet, even absence State's relations. stated supra, 64, 'Experience shown controversies gravest moment, sometimes leading war, arise imagined wrongs another's subjects inflicted, permitted, government.' Certainly deny admission traveler nor bar going there. Passenger Cases, How. 283, 702; cf. Crandall Nevada, Wall. 35, 744; Kent Dulles, 357 116, 78 1113, 1204. If restraints, provided Government. gross domain others might be. said, direct impact well adversely power central deal problems. 26 does, indeed, illustrate dangers State, speaking permitted own 27 Reversed. 28 MARSHALL took decision case. 29 STEWART, whom BRENNAN joins, concurring. 30 While joining Court, I go further. Under foreigner cannot first meets proving, satisfaction his grants citizens; assures 'to payment' orginating gives 'benefit, control' part.' claimants show meet criteria. believe statutory my view, suffers fatal infirmity. All launch prohibited voyage competence. Any realistic attempt criteria necessarily evaluation, expressed implied, policies governments. Of routinely construe resolution properly them, thrust Legislature framed prejudice whose disapproves thus trespassed contemplates shall operate. 'For interests Union exist, national purposes, embracing nations, people, nation, power.' Chinese Exclusion Case, 130 581, 606, 623, 630, 32 1068. 'Our cities, counties states, less people imperatively affecting left entirely free interference.' Solicitor General, says 'contend point. basic allocation between Nation. Resolution fundamental constitutional issue vary day shifting winds Department. Today, told, interest. Tomorrow may. But, however be, remains entrusted To extent inconsistent views, overrule decision. 33 HARLAN, concurring result. 34 agree reached am unable subscribe Court's opinion, reasons. First, resting ground infringes power, pausing consider Germany1 itself vitiates deliberately turned back cardinal review. Second, correctly renders instance impermissible, requiring reversal judgment. Third, holding, reach majority done so, view untenable. today's field, perhaps areas well, justifies full statement views I. 35 Even age rapid change, continued proclaim adherence issues avoided wherever possible.2 celebrated Ashwander Tennessee Valley Authority, 297 288, 341, 56 S.Ct.466, 480, 80 688, Brandeis listed self-imposed unnecessary questions. fourth rule dealt situation presented declaring 36 will pass question record, also disposed of. Thus, decided two grounds, question, construction decide latter. Siler Louisville Nashville R. Co., 213 175, 191, (29 451, 53 753); Light 523, 538 (31 485, 55 570.)' 347, 483.3 37 above think regarded, meaning Ashwander, nonconstitutional founded. chose argue forcefully, correctly, contended relief sought afforded overruling rather 1633. simply '(w)e Allen.' ante, 432. avoiding adjudication obliges inquire treaty provide adequate alternative affording due.4 II. 38 provides: 39 'Where, death person immovable therein Party, would, testamentary disposition, descend non-resident, disqualified situated, allowed term years sell same, reasonably prolonged render necessary, withdraw thereof, restraint interference, exempt succession, administrative duties charges imposed nationals drawn. 40 'Nationals Party other, testament, donation, otherwise, donees, whatsoever nationality, succeed possession themselves acting retain pleasure subject belong liable pay cases.' 41 considered much one. Clark, apparently her nationals. Probate Code 42 thereof succession dependent inhabitants originating Cal.Prob.Code 259, added Stats. 1941, c. 895, 43 survived events 1923—1947. concluded clearly decedent. 44 went discuss practically identical Wurttemburg 1860 Frederickson Louisiana, 445, 577, govern '(t)he home, disposing (personal) favor *,' id., 447, 1917 treaties.5 territory 'other' contracting party; 'such property' 'heirs, donees' take. 45 'Petitioner, however, presents detailed account bears heir thereof. stop review history. character treaty-making agencies seen fit alter. plain treaty. therefore deem appropriate change late date, though original commend it.' 515—516, us, leaving relatives An conditioned alien's proof decedent use, confiscation.6 affirmed finding trial accorded However, found respect Germany, consequently real, personal, despite statute. 47 I, too, applicable Germany.7 satisfied taken bear ascribed Louisiana 'consistent 1860.' reasoning assumes both drafters knew thought interpretation assumption open substantial doubt, second beyond question. 48 There 1899, almost after decision, Department's draftsmen aware crucial opinion. 1895 British initiated correspondence proposed assure 'no greater (would) inherited subjects, demiciled union not, citizens,' return assuring Great Britain.8 ensuing 18999 contained substantially subsequent Since highly unlikely intended able happened understood him, enough 1899 unaware Frederickson. 49 conceivable inapplicable Because article dealing brought attention based largely understanding 50 contemplation Powers, embraced treaty.' How., 447—448. 51 Hence, assumed inclusion parties country. indications very likely intend Frederickson, me erred foreclosed. Accordingly, de novo inquiry appropriate. III. 52 quoted earlier, X 1785 Prussia.10 provided: party goods jurisdiction donation otherwise; representatives, party, said will, paying dues wherein are, cases. where, land alienage, reasonable molestation, detraction states.' 54 Prussia turn founded earlier treaties France, Netherlands, Sweden.11 1778 France specifically freed burdens restrictions common civil countries: droit d'aubaine traction. feudal sovereign realm; aspect doctrine complementary incapacity citizen.' Nielsen Johnson, 279 47, 223, 225, 73 607 2.12 replaced during 18th century traction, tax 'imposed (inherit) realm,' 56, 225 2, levied removal country.13 1782 Netherlands 1783 Sweden generally. They freely effects favour proper; whatever reside, *.'14 57 Prussia, differed important respects. thing, separately personalty.15 separate treatment stemmed realty.16 Continental Congress, fearing Articles Confederation lacked alter instructed Commissioners negotiated '(t)hat stipulated hold utterly inadmissible policy,' alienage time.17 58 difference Prussian disposal personalty, generally corresponding Dutch Swedish treaties, altered addition 'within other,' read: 59 *' (Emphasis added.) precise indication why added. Its function define protection d'aubaine, namely instances when citizenship owner. modify word 'dispose' 'personal goods' (or proerty' treaty). unaffected, 'said treaty) refer kind' 60 Several factors point conclusion correct, other' thereby limit succession. unrelated problem freeing exaction realm, regardless citizzenship order enlarge contract freedom. newly affirmatively indicate (and confer decedents. draft quite proerty country.18 Congress caution limited sale proceeds. indicates purely limitation supposed rights. citizen, 'on estate.' acknowledged 1439, follow liberal allow nationality. 62 hence 1923) grant finds additional support interpretations 19th century. When negotiating 1840's, Minister Wheaton, indicated belief protect 'naturalized Germans, U(nited) deceased Germany.'19 suggestion or, small class naturalized Germans 'relations' citizens. responding him 'general guide' similarly worded, object obstructions withdrawal country, transferred will,—or ab intestato.'20 63 Later century, times regarded worded 1868 1880 asserted, treaty,21 Swiss Switzerland.22 1877, position Russian Russia.23 negotiations previously described, reveal attitude. 64 history, coupled 'where fairly admits constructions, restricting, enlarging claimed it, preferred,'24 leads guaranteeing dies contrary. Considerations stare decisis stand rectifying rest infirm foundations. Compare Swift Inc. Wickham, 382 111, 86 258, 194, Kesler Public Safety, 369 153, 82 807, 641. Properly construed, takes precedence over Supremacy Clause, entitles 65 Upon governing amounts unconstitutional infringement chosen feel briefly wrong score, too. 66 conditions: upheld constitutionality contain restrictions. dismissed 'farfetched' contention unconstitutionally infringed power. 1439. violated express command entering agreement, compact countries. '(w) hat none cross line.' Ibid. impossible distinguish convincing say amount distinctions suggest while legitimately basis, measures exists actually enjoyed testator benefit. revealed intemperate ill-advised remarks about applying nothing occurred readily foreseen decided. 68 Nor overruled, Brother STEWART it. conflicting violation mandates legislate traditional competence statutes relations.25 Application compels constitutional. legislated regulating decedents, State. 440. Apart consider, specific interfered concede aliens.26 Assuming exception permitting measure wisely designed avoid offense interests: hardly denial accord 69 foregoing face. applied. notion parts exist inevitably evaluations governmental policies, defects rationale. most glaring speculation. My cite few unfortunate resembling us. mention, record reveal, occurrence occasion protest, consequence whatsoever.27 70 relations.'28 71 stage General told Court: 72 advised laws, including Appellants' apprehension deterioration relations, unsubstantiated experience, constitute 'changed conditions' call re-examination Allen.'29 Essentially, afford opportunity criticize dictum governments, dicta adverse rationale untenable logically types litigation come proper decorum,30 seized derogatory known utter critical domestic mere offensive utterances test. 74 flaw characteristic shared legal wishes invalidate. example, Uniform Foreign Money-Judgments Recognition foreign-country judgment recognized 'was rendered impartial tribunals compatible due process law.'31 dispute content treat system.32 choice nonstatutory 'uncivilized.'33 Surely, possess 'defect' assume unconstitutional. 75 concur conflicts 76 WHITE, dissenting. 77 affirm below. Generally reasons HARLAN Part impermissible interference affairs. persuaded 1431 (1947), date. '(1) case: '(a) citizen; '(b) '(c) '(2) set forth section. '(3) heir, devisee legatee eligible escheated property.' Supra, Ore.Comp.L.Ann. 61—107 (1940). District legislative indicating prevent assets reaching hostile preparing Crowley F.Supp. 850, 853 (D.C.N.D.Calif.). petitioner invalid, legislature's motive, constituted invasion discussing applied, conclusive ambassador existed nation. Brief 626, October Term 1946, pp. 73—74. Thus suspect anything just matching reviewing later Gogabashvele, 195 Cal.App.2d Cal.Rptr. 77, see infra, problems presented. disapproved Larkin, 60, 441, 416 473, Chichernea, 135, 424 687. One commentator described Gogabashvele manner: analyzed nature Soviet instead examining granted equally residents. Russia separation powers, too hands independent judiciary, confused legislation, unpublished unrepealed obsolete statutes. Before stating reciprocity, Stalin's crimes, Beria trial, crime analogy, xenophobia, demonstrations Embassy Moscow unhindered police. jurist's enacting R.S.F.S.R. Civil modeled Humpty Dumpty, 'When *, means choose mean—neither less." Note, Calif.L.Rev. 594—595, (1967). advised, prompted register complaint Department, disclosed letter November 20, 1967, adviser stating: raised difficulties reportedly encountered obtaining transfer probated confined Representative samples New York 'This sending Hungary tantamount putting grasp Communists,' 'If authorities, used kill boys innocent Southeast Asia. Heyman, Nonresident Alien's Right Succession 'Iron Curtain Rule,' Nw.U.L.Rev. 221, (1957). Pennsylvania, judge you want I'm prejudiced, can, comes Communism bigoted anti-Communist.' another exclaimed, 'I send bullets son.' A judge, asked hear argument replied, 'No, won't Russia.' 'judicial notice kicks teeth time,' counsel your firm honor bound representing No strong.' Berman, Heirs Courts, Col.L.Rev. 257, (1962). particularly pointed attack Judge Musmanno Pennsylvania 'It commendable salutary piece legislation safekeeping accruing interest, steelbound vaults Commonwealth until Iron lifts sufficiently cracks honest honestly them. Otherwise, wages monetary rewards faithfully earned enterprise democratic forces committed destruction enterprising world democracy.' Belemecich's 411 Pa. 508, 192 A.2d 740, 741, Consul Yugoslavia Pittsburgh 375 395, 84 452, 411, authority further: '* Yugoslavia, below found, satellite individualistic destiny, fate pocket-books, politico-economic horizon lowered according wish self-made dictator.' Pa., 509, A.2d, 742. 'All facts Sovietized lead irresistible basket food Little Red Ridinghood care 'grandmother.' greedy, gluttonous collector clutch rapaciously brother confiscators Russia, abundantly assurance depend named Yugoslavian individual beneficiary dollars shelter, clothe feed himself once paid financial involuntary tribute tyranny totalitarian regime.' 511, 742 743. Another example Doyle Hosova's 143 Mont. 387 305: 'In year 1963, Central Committee U.S.S.R. directive members, 'We fully imperialism capitalism. inevitable capitalism, doing everything accomplished struggle, soon possible.' 'Hence, affirming writer knowingly contributing monolithic satellite, fanatically dedicated abolishing freedom liberty 'By self-hypnosis failure understand aims objective conspiracy, Montana estop cash contributions ultimate nation.' 85—86, 311. Mullart Board, 222 463, 353 531, difficulty Estonia. pains observe 1941 'moved overwhelmed (Estonia) military might. hastily cruelly deported 60,000 Siberia and, addition, exterminated elderly destroying decimating families rendering normal economic life chaotic afterward.' 467, 534. '(A)ny effort communicate Estonia exposes possible exile Siberia. Russians scrutinize friends Estonians lands prevails recipient suspicion relationship inimical Soviet. line testimony reliable historical notice. mention explaining futility attempting, circumstances, secure cogent hearsay matter.' 476, 537—538. 257 (1962); Chaitkin, Residents Satellites Share Estates Decedents, S.Cal.L.Rev. (1952). Dec. 8, 1923, 2132, T.S.No. 725. See, e.g., Giles Maryland, 66, 80—81, 793, 800, 737; Hamm City Rock Hill, 379 306, 316, 384, 391, 300; Bell 226, 237, 1814, 1820, 822; America Catherwood, 367 389, 392, 1465, 1467, 919; Poe Ullman, 497, 1752, 1755, 989; International Ass'n Machinists Street, 749, 1784, 1789, 1141. Alma Motor Co. Timken 329 129, 136 137, 231, 233—234, 128. true, displace virtue Constitution. teachings Ashwander. Disposition pursuant Constitution, bring about. Cf. 126—127, 194. Petersen Iowa, 245 170, 109, 225; Duus Brown, 176, 228; Skarderud Tax Commission North Dakota, 633, 133, 522. adopted least, permissible syntax sentences considered. So far concerned, includes 'any person'; covered high parties. governs 'nationals' 1, 430. appellees terminated abrogated 1954 Navigation Republic U.S.T. 1839, T.I.A.S. 3593. XXVI specifies extends 'all water sovereignty of' West Berlin. challenge applies 6, 5. 125 Notes Britain, Sept. 24, 1895, MSS., Nat. Archives. March 1939. July, Aug., Sept., 1785, 88. Art. XI, Feb. 1778, 18; VI, Oct. 1782, 36; April 3, 1783, Sweden, 64. Vattel, Law Nations Principles Natural 112, 147—148 (1916 ed.); Elements 115—116 (1866 ed.). Borchard, Diplomatic Protection Citizens Abroad 39, Treaties Acts 547 (1934). quotation wording differs slightly. 'effects' 'goods,' realty. Todok Bank Harvard, Neb., 281 449, 454, 363, 365, 956. Blackstone, Commentaries 372; Kent, 61—63. Journals 357, 360 361. Correspondence 116—117. Despatch, Wheaton Legare, June 14, 1843, Despatches, Archives; Miller 547—548 546, 548. 25, 1850, Switzerland, 587, 1868, Pt. II, 196—197; Relations 1880, 952—953. Moore, Digest (1906). 18, 1832, 444. Bacardi Corp. Domenech, 311 150, 163, 219, 98, citing Jordan Tashiro, 278 123, 127, 48, 214; 224, 607. Ohio ex rel. Clarke Deckebach, 274 1115; Frick Webb, 326, 115, 323; Webb O'Brien, 313, 318; Terrace 197, 255; Heim McCall, 239 78, 206. 13. uniform equal Fourteenth Blake McClung, 172 239, 260—261, 165, 173, communication mentioned 437, refers comments state-court Bulgarians. Memorandum 473. 4(a)(1), 9B Unif. Laws Ann. 67. Schlesinger, Comparative 31—143 (2d ed.1959). Slater Mexican 194 120, 584, 900 (Holmes, J.); Banana Fruit 355—356, 512, 826 Cuba Crosby, 478, 132, Walton Arabian Oil Cir., 233 F.2d 541, 545.

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