Document: 444 U.S. 164 100 S.Ct. 383 62 L.Ed.2d 332 KAISER AETNA et al., Petitioners,v.UNITED STATES. No. 78-738. Argued Oct. 1, 1979. Decided Dec. 4, Syllabus Through dredging and filling operations in developing a marina-style subdivision community, petitioners, the owner lessee of an area which included Kuapa Pond, shallow lagoon on island Oahu, Hawaii, that was contiguous to navigable bay Pacific Ocean but separated from by barrier beach, converted pond into marina thereby connected it bay. The Army Corps Engineers had advised petitioners they were not required obtain permits for development pond, ultimately made improvements allowed boats access Petitioner controls use which, under Hawaii law, private property, fees are charged maintaining pond. Thereafter, United States filed suit Federal District Court against resolve dispute as whether Corps' authorization, accordance with § 10 Rivers Harbors Appropriation Act 1899, future marina, could deny public because, result improvements, become water States. In examining scope Congress' regulatory authority Commerce Clause, held "navigable States," subject regulation Corps, further Government lacked open without payment compensation owner. Appeals agreed fell within authority, held, reversing Court, when bay, became "navigational servitude" Government, thus giving right what once petitioners' Held: If wishes make formerly Pond aquatic park after have proceeded far here, may not, invoking its eminent domain power paying just compensation, require them allow free dredged Although falls definition waters" this has used term delimiting boundaries never federal navigational servitude creates blanket exception Takings Clause Fifth Amendment whenever Congress exercises promote navigation. Congress, light extensive over Nation's waters, does depend stream's "navigability," prescribe rules governing assure if so chooses, statute or goes amounts "taking" is entirely separate question. Here Government's attempt create improved beyond ordinary improvement navigation involved typical riparian condemnation cases amount taking requiring compensation. Cf. Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon, 260 393, 43 158, 67 L.Ed. 322. Pp. 170-180. 584 F.2d 378, reversed. Richard Charles Bocken, Honolulu, petitioners. Kathryn A. Oberly, Washington, D. C., respondent. Mr. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 Kai Marina developed Maunalua Bay beach. law Ninth Circuit Government. Thus, acquired We granted certiorari because importance issue conflict concerning nature servitude.1 440 906, 99 1211, 59 453 (1979). 2 * apparently created late Pleistocene Period, near end ice age, rising sea level caused shoreline retreat, partial erosion headlands adjacent formed sediment accreted form beach at mouth creating lagoon. It covered 523 acres extended approximately two miles inland Ocean. waterway States, 3 Early Hawaiians fishpond reinforced natural sandbar stone walls. Prior annexation there openings Bay. fishpond's managers placed removable sluice gates walls across these openings. Water ocean entered through during high tide, low tide current flow reversed toward ocean. tidal action raise catch fish such mullet. 4 other Hawaiian fishponds, always been considered be property landowners government. Such ponds integral part feudal system. And 1848 allotted parts large land units, known "ahupuaas," King Kamehameha III Great Mahele royal division. Titles fishponds recognized same extent manner rights more orthodox fast land. ahupuaa eventually vested Bernice Pauahi Bishop her death trust corpus petitioner Estate, present 5 1961, Estate leased 6,000-acre area, Kaiser Aetna development. now "Hawaii Kai." filled erected retaining built bridges Marina. increased average depth channel six feet. also accommodations pleasure eliminated gates. 6 When notified their plans Pond. subsequently informed planned dredge 8-foot-deep connecting Ocean, increase clearance bridge Kalanianaole Highway—which constructed early 1900's along separating ocean—to maximum 13.5 feet mean level. These order enter return well provide better waters. acquiesced proposals, chief construction commenting only "deepening cause beach." 7 At time trial, community 22,000 persons surrounded 1,500 waterfront lot lessees. lessees, least 86 nonmarina lessees 56 boat owners who residents Kai, pay maintenance patrol remove floating debris, enforce boating regulations, maintain privacy security marina. generally permitted commercial use, except small vessel, Queen, carry 25 passengers about five years sales lots brief period shopping center merchants attract people facilities. 8 1972, arose between (1) authorization 33 U.S.C. 403,2 construction, excavation, (2) precluded denying foreseeably ripened lawsuit Hawaii. States" Act. 408 F.Supp. 42, 53 (D.Haw.1976). however, Id., 54. reaching holding, reasoned although purpose power, defining imposed Clause. Ibid. denied request injunction notify fact pond's accessibility. 9 Court's conclusion holding did grant 378 (1978). "federal waters . cannot consistently separated. renders control necessary interest." 383. question before us erred original character altered overriding servitude, converting invested millions dollars improving assumption privately owned Aetna.3 II contends exclude members "[t]he enjoys federally protected States." Brief 13. claims presently continues, pond—although qualified land—became States.4 continuous highway navigation, consequently prevent attempting reserve themselves. 11 position advanced adopted below, presumes concept fixed meaning remains unchanged whatever context being applied. While we do fully agree reasoning all dealing regulate so-called simply lumped one basket. F.Supp., 48-49. As aptly stated, "any reliance upon judicial precedent must predicated careful appraisal 'navigability' invoked particular case." 49.5 12 true fit definitions "navigability" articulated past decisions But navigability purposes than delimit servitude: example, define Interstate see, e. g., Appalachian Power Co., 311 377, 61 291, 85 243 (1940); South Carolina Georgia, 93 23 782 (1876); Montello, 20 Wall. 430, 22 391 (1874); Daniel Ball, 557, 19 999 (1871), determine 1899,6 establish limits jurisdiction courts conferred Art. III, 2, Constitution admiralty maritime cases.7 clearly correct supra, Wall., 563; 441-442; U.S., 407-408, S.Ct., 299-300, while Engineers, acting delegated Act, follow access. 13 Reference adds little anything breadth interstate commerce. long settled our history commerce necessarily includes Gibbons Ogden, Wheat. 189, (1824). stated Gilman Philadelphia, 713, 724-725, 18 96 (1866): 14 "Commerce comprehends purpose, necessary, accessible State those lie. For nation, requisite legislation Congress." 15 pervasive national described 426-427, 308: 16 "[I]t properly said constitutional limited truth Navigability whole. Flood protection, watershed development, recovery cost utilization likewise control. [The] broad needs point planning Government." indicates congressional Nation "navigability." And, demonstrated NLRB Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 57 615, 81 893 (1937), Darby, 312 100, 657, 451, 609 (1941), Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 63 82, 87 122 (1942), wide spectrum economic activities "affect" susceptible irrespective or, indeed, water, involved. discuss paramount best understood viewed terms traditional analysis reference stream capable supporting characterized With respect Marina, no doubt road, conditions running lights shall displayed, removal obstructions exercise reason seem interest furthering B 17 expansive chose. Whether went amounted "taking," question.8 415, 160, 322 (1922). recently pointed out Penn Central Transportation New York City, 438 104, 98 2646, 631 (1978), "been unable develop any 'set formula' determining 'justice fairness' injuries compensated government, rather remain disproportionately concentrated few persons." 124, 2659. Rather, examined engaging essentially ad hoc, factual inquiries identified several factors—such impact regulation, interference reasonable investment backed expectations, governmental action—that significance. constitute highways commerce, many servitude. See, Chandler-Dunbar 229 53, 667, 1063 (1913). C expression notion determination occurred take consideration important condition See Cress, 316, 37 380, 746 (1917). 69, 674, "the great [incapable] ownership ." landowner entitled pier cut off his observed: "The primary lands erection piers improve consistent infringes Whatever submerged front upland bordering title full complete direct connection water. title, bare technical absolute disposal, upland, times subordinate flowing demanded navigation." Scranton Wheeler, 179 141, 163, 21 48, 57, 45 126 (1900). century, line decided involving "fast lands" delineated elements compensable damages streams. often deeply divided, results frequently turned fairly quite narrow distinctions. case recognizes obligation condemn Eminent Domain Constitution. instead concededly agriculture, substantial money making improvements. approved somehow lost most essential sticks bundle commonly property—the others. Because situation different ones cases, see tracing historical doctrine here. Indeed, since decision Rands, 389 121, 123, 88 265, 266, 329 (1967), closely following Virginia Electric 365 624, 628, 784, 788, 838 (1961), Twin City 350 222, 226, 76 259, 261, 240 (1956), condemns remained largely settled. Distinctions these, hand, Kansas Life Ins. 339 799, 808, 70 885, 890, 94 1277 (1950), fine, hindsight, perhaps very hindsight exercise, shifting back forth until recent bears sound "Old, unhappy, far-off things, battles ago." There strict logic limiting liability access, carried ultimate conclusion, might completely swallow up claim "just compensation" even one. But, Holmes observed context, life logic, experience. exists virtue streams, gives rise streams retain capacity serve acquires compensate certain damage attributable location, land's value hydroelectric site, port supra. none ever doubted wished acquire lands, fair interest. 800, 886; 788; 266. summarized anywhere Willow River 324 499, 502, 65 761, 764, 89 1101 (1945): "It clear, course, head Company keeping St. Croix lower interests 'property rights'; advantages 'rights' them, compel others forbear interfering invasion." 24 think, makes naked assertion collides merely "economic advantage" "compel [it] [its] 764. Here, More factor contributes result.9 clear prior improvement, incapable Its mere feet, principal fishing.10 sort "great stream" previously "[incapable] ownership." 674; 228, 262. noted, law. strikingly similar 26 slightest refused ground would impaired conditioned approval agreement comply various measures deemed appropriate promotion body linked consent individual officials representing "estop" Montana Kennedy, 366 308, 314-315, 1336, 1340-1341, 313 (1961); INS Hibi, 414 5, 19, 38 (1973), can lead fruition number expectancies embodied "property"—expectancies that, sufficiently important, takes management landowner's property. case, hold "right exclude," universally fundamental element right,11 category This exercising will insubstantial devaluation property; rather, imposition actual physical invasion Compare Andrus Allard, 51 65-66, 318, 326-327, 210, fee ex rel. TVA Powelson, 319 1047, 1390 (1943), Miller, 369, 276, 336 (1943). physically invades easement nonetheless SeeUnited Causby, 328 256, 66 1062, 1067, 90 1206 (1946); Portsmouth 327, 135, 287 customers calls annual $72 regular fee. 27 Accordingly judgment 28 Reversed. 29 BLACKMUN, whom BRENNAN MARSHALL join, dissenting. 30 holds today absent enhanced means. I find neither supported nor wise policy, dissent. 31 My disagreement lies four areas. First, believe errs implicitly rejecting old long-established "ebb flow" test source claims. Second, accept notion, foundation precedent, extend Third, reach balance favor requires where efforts responsible "navigability fact." finally, differ bearing state questions today. 32 first issue, my view, and, so, why. begins asking "whether servitude." Ante, 387. assumes basis extension arisen "developed" transformed choice starting overlooks contention, throughout litigation, state, susceptibility ebb tide.1 concedes disclose single criterion identifying waters." read three distinct tests: fact," capacity," tide. dominant Propeller Genesee Chief Fitzhugh, How. 443, 457, 1058 (1852), 563, (1871). origin; hails (1940), support river nonnavigable rendered "reasonable improvements." Ebb oldest three. inherited England, common Crown. days Republic, regarded exclusive waterways country. Thomas Jefferson, 428, 429, 358 (1825); Waring Clarke, 441, 463-464, 226 (1847). 34 Petitioners say ebb-and-flow abandoned Ball fact. interpretation. based language opinions suggesting "arbitrary," relation "suitable" control, "has application country," indeed all." How., 454; 563. One acknowledge accepting inference. concerned extending accommodate stark realities fresh-water former Lakes. latter river. either surprising contemplating lakes rivers, found nation analogue rivers lakes, unacceptable waterways. 454-457. inadequacy interior be, been, coasts. 35 arbitrary unsuitable applied coastwise setting. geographical, chemical, environmental oceans Gulf wash shores. Since bodies main navigable, should treated inner limits. Those encompass Bay, arm sea, tides currents much itself. 36 concede purposes, water" ante, 167, 169, 180. add view attaches development,2 alternative carries significant implications.3 A serious parting ways attends extends however established.4 whole work hands. disagree. notes tests set originated 171-173. aid limitations 173-174. From indisputable propositions concludes need applies. 39 Preliminarily, runs every watercourse Regulatory "in of" Rio Grande Dam Irrig. 174 690, 707-710, 770, 776-777, 1136 (1899), confirmed enjoin irrigation project above threatened destroy below. case. stem solely effect elsewhere, jurisdiction. Instead, arises itself 40 Nor advance suggest decide call "navigable" some "non-navigable" 170-171. To knowledge, held. contexts, attempted limit species power. referred "public" 455, 457; event, "nonnavigable" reason, substitute another. sustain today, prove difficult contention 41 holds, essence, tests, "natural" developed. originally forces, separation maintained interaction forces human effort, characterization seems particularly apt case.5 approach, still status test. Nevertheless, think flawed. describe water; accordingly, coextensive 42 recognizes, 174-175, symbolizes implanted 159-163, 55-57, (1900); cf. 189-190, preserve interest, National given themselves, "common highways, forever free." Aug. 7, 1789, Stat. 50, 52, n. (a) (navigable Northwest Territory). 62-64, 671-672, (1913); (1866). guardian legal formula recognize responsibility. context. stated: 44 originates That speaks asserted exclusion competing conflicting privilege called 'a servitude' superior easement.' " (Citations omitted.) 224-225, 261. 46 Perhaps somewhat emphasis, [is] sense property," 66, 673, themselves "are nation." 725. 47 matter safeguard local created, corresponding significance attains. Wherever occur, Honolulu Harbor, extend. 48 dispose resort instrumental effecting navigability. constitutes taking. premise, conclude opening result. balancing interests. 49 Ordinarily, "[w]hen [the navigational] anyone." (1950). 509-510, 767, (1945); Lewis Blue Point Oyster Briggs, 87-88, 679, 680-681, 1083 Gibson 166 269, 578, 580, 996 (1897). usually losses resulting raising lowering levels stream, artificial aids dams locks. loss due impairment water's flow, 226-227, 261-262; 672-673; "head" 507-511, 766-768; structures low- high-water marks, Chicago, M., P. R. 592, 595-597, 772, 774-776, 1064 (1941); Commodore Park, Inc., 386, 390-391, 803, 805-806, 1017 57; adjoining potential 124-125, 267-268, (1967). "obstructions," wharves, removed despite obvious willingness built. Greenleaf Lumber Garrison, 237 251, 258-264, 551, 552, 553-556, 939 (1915); Union Bridge 204 364, 400, 367, (1907).6 50 key principle points way noncompensable related, directly indirectly, owner's "access to, of, 268. However account personal gain, how enhance value, shared large. Actions taken reimbursable who, accident owning land," enjoyed blessings greater measure. 805-806. encroachment inhering separately tributaries, (1917), valid claim. distinction values nothing Application developers acted own risk asserts. 380. obviously Development undertaken land."7 plenary motive lie am drawn expectancy fishery surrendered exchange 52 contrast, vindicating substantial. After today's decision, developer he charge portion improved. appropriation injures freedom intended safeguard. alleviate danger conditioning permission me inevitable introduction new uncertainty field thought "battles ago," 177, achieved doctrine. IV come, Pond's ought alter assumes, discussion, equivalent land" is, sure, assumption, prepared it. re Kamakana, 58 Haw. 632, 574 P.2d 1346 Nonetheless, concerns citizen citizen, affect 54 fisheries unlike floor entitlement destruction oyster-bed course channel. reasoned: "If right, if, bed absolutely include 87, 680. By liberty defeat transforming land." state-created beds secondary purely prerogatives. 55 foregoing reasons, correct. therefore companion Vaughn Vermilion 206, 399, 365, Louisiana Appeal canals, fact, 356 So.2d writ denied, La., 357 558 Title 403 provides: creation obstruction affirmatively authorized prohibited; lawful build commence building wharf, pier, dolphin, boom, weir, breakwater, bulkhead, jetty, port, roadstead, haven, harbor, canal, river, outside established harbor lines, lines established, recommended Secretary Army; excavate fill, modify condition, lake, refuge, inclosure unless beginning same." challenge Appeals' pursuant 403. argues: conversion accomplished expense exempt reshape conveniently land, then portions site unduly burden states lack sanction 14-15. contend traditionally employed identify jurisdiction, infra, page 172, "is inherently unworkable regard represent meaningful equitable standard determined." Pet. Cert. 8. distinguish litigation absence something unusual presented here tailored fishpond. Republic 362 482, 80 884, 903 (1960) (deposit industrial solids "obstruction" capacity" forbidden 1899). general waters": "Navigable and/or used, past, transport foreign navigability, made, applies laterally entire surface waterbody, extinguished later actions events impede capacity." CFR 329.4 defined including (1852). also, Belfast, 266 (1869). Ex parte Boyer, 109 629, 434, 1056 (1884), water: situated canal used,—a ports places states, vessels here,—is legitimate constitution statutes though wholly artificial, control; difference district court collision voyage place Illinois another state." 435-36. Necessary Proper enact laws carrying execution powers departments having legislate matters cases. Butler Boston S.S. 130 527, 612, 619, (1889). Garnett, 141 12, 840, 842, (1891). "[c]onfiscation title." I. 284 80, 96, 92, 177 (1931). decide, circumstances factors dispositive. fishpond, flat-bottomed draft operated fishermen work. evidence, dissent argue nevertheless Post, 181, 183, 186. satisfies mechanical test, invoke avoid stake. Pueblo San Ildefonso, 513 1383, 1394, 206 Ct.Cl. 649, 669-670 (1975); Lutz, 295 736, 740 (CA5 1961). Brandeis, "[a]n enjoying it." International News Service Associated Press, 248 215, 250, 68, 76, 211 (1918) (dissenting opinion). ebbed flowed pre-marina beach; percolated 46. "[l]arge areas exposed tide," inundated embraces, distressingly me, implication influences consequences $100 stresses, "millions dollars." Essentially reasons 49-50, stop short agreeing shown "reasonable" deepen surrounding equally benefits addressing question, quickly cast aside qualifying phrase "of demonstrate, draw navigated intrastate, Utah, 283 64, 75, 438, 440, 75 844 (1931); opens onto contributions Monongahela Navigation 148 312, 622, 463 (1893). company locks express Pennsylvania, invitation Subsequently, purchase lock dam upper authorize collect tolls. emphasized role encouraging project, consequence, "it obstruction, wrongfully there, belong owner, company." 335, 630. Subsequent rationale. 89, 681, 556; 126, 268, striking invite actively encourage benefit significant. promoted. uniformly independently assess advisability decided, 390, 805,

Category: 3