Document: 37 L.Ed.2d 910 93 S.Ct. 2851 413 U.S. 717 Application of Fre Le Poole GRIFFITHS for Admission to the Bar, Appellant. No. 71—1336. Argued Jan. 9, 1973. Decided June 25, Syllabus Appellant, a resident alien, was denied permission take Connecticut bar examination solely because citizenship requirement imposed by state court rule, which courts upheld against applicant's constitutional challenge. Held: Connecticut's exclusion aliens from practice law violates Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. Classifications based on alienage, being inherently suspect, are subject close judicial scrutiny, and here State through appellee committee has not met its burden showing classification have been necessary vindicate State's undoubted interest in maintaining high professional standards. Pp. 2855—2859. 162 Conn. 249, 294 A.2d 281, reversed remanded. R. David Broies, Fort Worth, Tex., appellant. George Tiernan, New Haven, Conn., appellee. Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 This case presents novel question as constraints Amendment qualifications may require admission bar. Griffiths, is citizen Netherlands who came United States 1965, originally visitor. In 1967 she married became Connecticut.1 After her graduation school, applied 1970 examination. The County Bar Association found qualified all respects save that required Rule 8(1) Practice Book (1963)2 account refused allow She then sought relief, asserting regulation unconstitutional but claim rejected, first Superior Court ultimately Supreme 281 (1972). We noted probable jurisdiction, 406 966, 92 2413, 32 665 (1972), now hold rule unconstitutionally discriminates aliens.3 2 * begin sketching background Examining Committee attempts justify total law. From inception, our Nation welcomed drew strength immigration aliens. Their contributions social economic life country were self-evident, especially during periods when demand human resources greatly exceeded native supply. no means limited unskilled or uneducated. 1873, this 3 'in sense depends States. It not, far we know, ever made any State, case, depend at all. Certainly many prominent distinguished lawyers admitted practice, both Federal courts, citizens State.' Bradwell v. 16 Wall. 130, 139, 21 L.Ed. 442.4 4 But shortly thereafter, 1879, established predecessor present totally excluding 253, A.2d, 283. subsequent decades, wide-ranging restrictions time began impair significantly efforts earn livelihood their chosen occupations.5 5 face trend, nonetheless held 1886 lawfully alien 'person' within meaning Amendment's directive must 'deny person jurisdiction equal protection laws.' Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 369, 6 1064, 1070, 30 220. decision invalidated municipal ordinance regulating operation laundries ground discriminatorily enforced Chinese operators. Some years later, struck down an Arizona statute requiring employers more than five persons employ least 80% 'qualified electors native-born some subdivision thereof.' Truax Raich, 239 33, 35, 36 7, 8, 60 131 (1915). As stated Hughes: 'It requires argument show right work living common occupations community very essence personal freedom opportunity it purpose (Fourteenth) secure. (Citations omitted.) If could be upon race nationality, prohibition denial laws would barren form words.' Id., 41, S.Ct., 10. 7 To sure, course decisions protecting employment rights unswerving one.6 Ohio ex rel. Clarke Deckebach, 274 392, 47 630, 71 1040 (1927), faced with challenge city prohibiting issuance licenses operate pool billiard rooms. Characterizing business one having 'harmful vicious tendencies,' infirmity ordinance: 8 competent make such choice, shown irrational, conduct dubious entire class rather objectionable members selected empirical methods.' 397, 632. 9 easily expandable proposition supported discrimination wide range occupations.7 10 doctrinal foundations undermined Takahashi Fish & Game Comm'n, 334 410, 68 1138, 1478 (1948), where, ruling California barring fishing 'ineligible citizenship,' 'the power apply exclusively inhabitants confined narrow limits.' 420, 1143. Indeed, issue squarely before Graham Richardson, 403 365, 91 1848, 29 534 (1971), concluded: 11 '(C)lassifications like those nationality race, suspect scrutiny. Aliens prime example 'discrete insular' minority (see Carolene Products Co., 304 144, 152—153, n. 4, 58 778, 783—784, 82 1234 (1938)) whom heightened solicitude appropriate.' 372, 1852. (Footnotes 12 consistently emphasized adopts 'bears heavy justification,' McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 196, 85 283, 290, 13 222 (1964), which, though variously formulated, meet certain standards proof. order use classification, constitutionally permissible8 substantial,9 'necessary . accomplishment' purpose10 safeguarding interest.11 Resident aliens, citizens, pay taxes, support economy, serve Armed Forces, contribute myriad other ways society. appropriate bear deprives them opportunities. II 14 Committee, acting behalf carried burden. ultimate implicated assure requisite licensed law.12 undisputed permissible substantial determining whether applicant posesses "the character general fitness attorney counselor-at-law." Law Students Research Council Wadmond, 401 154, 159, 720, 724, 27 749 (1971). See also Konigsberg 366 36, 40—41, 81 997, 1001, 105 (1961); Schware Board Examiners, 353 232, 239, 77 752, 756, 796 (1957).13 raised appellant's fitness. Rather, sole basis disqualification status alien. 15 defends 8(1)'s applicants special role lawyer justifies Connecticut, points out, maxim 'officer court' given concrete makes every 'commissioner Court.' such, authority 'sign writs subpoenas, recognizances, administer oaths depositions acknowledgements deeds.' Conn.Gen.Stat.Rev. § 51—85. exercise authority, command assistance county sheriff town constable. 52—90. Because these powers, commented '(t)he only (lawyers') loyalty, confidence respect tham function manner will foster public profession and, consequently, system.' 262—263, 194 287. 17 establish link between powers responsibilities contrasts citizen's undivided allegiance alien's possible conflict loyalties. this, concludes might his functions ignore even clients favor foreign power. 18 find arguments unconvincing. way denigrates lawyer's observe 'to sign (and) oaths' hardly involve matters policy acts unique responsibility entrust citizens. Nor do think offers meaningful opportunities adversely affect failed relevance likelihood fail protect faithfully clients.14 19 possibility unsuited justification wholesale ban. 20 'Even applying standards, officers cannot exclude there finding he fails action invidiously discriminatory. Cf. 356 (6 220).' U.S., 756. warning salient here, explicit classification. Although, acknowledged, does law, advanced fall short (1963) promoting interest. 22 gauge case-by-case can, does, training familiarity Apart tests competence, new 'attorney's oath' perform honestly15 'commissioner's 'support constitution States, Connecticut.'16 Appellant indicated willingness ability subscribe substance oaths,17 quite properly investigation insure 'that 'swears oath pro forma while declaring manifesting disagreement indifference oath.' Bond Floyd, 385 116, 132 (87 339, 347, 235). 164, 727.18 Moreover, once bar, continuing scrutiny organized courts. addition discipline unprofessional conduct, postadmission sanctions extends judgments contempt criminal prosecutions disbarment.19 sum, simply standards.20 III 23 brief, another, somewhat different 8(1). Its thrust lack attributes maintain legal profession, almost matter definition. implication analysis under Clause. 24 builds franchise 50 Constitution holding office President, Art. 2, 1, cl. 5, member House Representatives, Senate, 3, 3. These numerous federal statutory provisions reflect, contends, pervasive recognition 'participation government structure voters holders' inescapably aspect citizenship. Brief Appellee 11. Offered 'office holder' enhanced version proposition, discussed above, court.' Specifically, states 'is officer State' entrusted 'exercise actual power.' 5. 25 note outset goes beyond Court, recognized ordinary sense. 254, comports view expressed Black Cammer 350 399, 76 456, 100 474 (1956): 26 times 'officers One most frequently repeated statements effect appears Ex parte Garland, 333, 378 (18 366). pointed out there, however, 'officer' term. nothing said Garland decided places attorneys same category marshals, bailiffs, clerks judges. Unlike officials engaged private important system justice. own decisions, follows best judgment, collects fees runs business. word always conveys people serving conventional term.' 405, 459 (footnote omitted). Lawyers indeed occupy positions influence impose duties correlative vital access virtue aptitudes natural interests, leaders throughout history country. Yet, they lawyers. license place so core political process him formulator policy.21 28 Clause.22 judgment reversed, remanded further proceedings inconsistent opinion. ordered. Reversed 31 Chief BURGER, whon REHNQUIST joins, dissenting. I agree generally REHNQUIST's dissent add few observations. 33 rapidly shrinking 'one world' live reasons why appropriately consider relaxing restraints professions fundamental factor, reserved, among borders. concept less validity 18th century part 'bargain' create union, compact. 34 A large number Amerian nationals dozen countries; expand world trade enlarges. what enlightened sound Amendments provide; am unable accord expansive reading gives it. 35 recent casual way, articulated code phrase 'suspect classification' embraced reasoned concept. Admittedly, simplifies 'per se' rules, tends stop appearing suggest analytical process. Much aspects implicit Court's holding, bound—if words intent speak me—to reject good adopts. unwilling accept seems me denigration posture entitled rely By granted can fairly called monopoly sorts; appear try cases; cause witnesses drop affairs pretrial processes that, control court, conducted outside court-rooms; enormous cross-examination Inherent compel answers subject, course, limiting Fifth rules evidence. authorized subpoenas commanding presence production documents circumstances. broad things do. common-law tradition becomes attorney—the agent—for client invested usually court. obligations permit call do, including obligation codes ethical binding generally. 38 hence official mechanism justice officers, judge, albeit duties, significant feature sustained erosion over hands cynics much 'hired gun' Old West. flamboyant terms relation 'mouthpiece' gangland parlance 1930's. Under bleak lawyer, engaged, client's bidding, lawful not. 39 Whatever officer-of-the-court role, overwhelming proportion rejects denigrated advocate counselor renders lackey idea agent government. American Project Standards Criminal Justice, Prosecution Function Defense 1.1 (Approved Draft 1971). 40 predates Constitution; English firmly embedded tradition. included duty client. never today absolute unqualified duty. loyalty within—never outside—the thus placing individual lawyer. That often unenforceable, departures remain undetected, judges associations singularly tolerant misdeeds brethren, increasingly crucial life. independence hand something apart trades vocations conscience play lesser part. themselves. 41 filled accounts risked careers independent opposition popular governmental attitudes, John Adams did Boston defend soldiers accused know folklore 'Boston Massacre.' added defended Peter Zenger Modern cases Johnson Zerbst, 458, 1019, 1461 (1938). factor advocates performed dual role—officer client—strictly derogation There reasonable, rational conclude owing grasp traditions concepts seek benefits declining burdens 42 countries structured literally agents bound interests difficult see how country, inculcated ideas citizenship, integrated into system. At ought stretch force national recital passing 43 Since strikes accepted since 1787, if sometimes elected it, cf. 442 (1873), well move adopt, reciprocal proviso, familiar contexts; treatment admit practice. Zschernig Miller, 389 429, 88 664, 683 (1968), foreclose adoption provisions. Clark Allen, 331 503, 67 1431, 1633 (1947). eligible naturalization reason marriage residence three years, U.S.C. 1430(a). filed declaration intention become 1445(f), doing so. 4. citizen, appellant renounce Netherlands. 1448(a). promulgated 51—80, administered Committee. position represented denies protection, reach claims. 'privilege immunity' J. Higham, Strangers Land 46, 161, 183 (1963). full scale 1946 M. Konvitz, Alien Asiatic 190—211 (1946). People Crane, 214 N.Y. 108 N.E. 427, aff'd sub nom. Crane York, 195, 85, 218 (1915); 374, 1853, lower collected Note, Constitutionality Restrictions Aliens' Right Work, 57 Col.L.Rev. 1012, 1021 1023 (1957) (restrictions ranging vending soft drinks selling lightning rods). Discrimination segregation sake purpose. E.g., Brown Education, 347 483, 495, 74 686, 692, 98 873 (1954); (1964). characterized 'overriding,' id., 290; Loving Virginia, 388 11, 87 1817, 1823, 1010 (1967); 'compelling,' supra, 375, 1853; 'important,' Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 343, 995, 1003, 'substantial,' ibid. attribute particular significance variations diction. 1823. decide nor circumstances, armed hostilities alienage. noting practitioners fields, hairdressers cosmeticians, 250, architects, 20—291, sanitarians, 20—361. dispose grounds, claim. connection, Frankfurther wrote: 'From charged exacted qualities truth-speaking, honor, granite discretion, strictest observance fiduciary responsibility, have, centuries, compendiously described 'moral character." 247, 761, (concurring opinion). represent litigation representation, court,' means, State. representation involves invidious casts honored traditional client, whoever be. conceivable himself circumstances two countries. rare situations, honorable person, decline representation. text attorney's follows: 'You solemnly swear you falsehood, consent done done, give information thereof judges, them, reformed; wittingly, willingly promote, sue sued, false unlawful suit, aid, consent, same; delay man lucre malice; attorney, wherein according your learning fidelity, help God.' Jurisdictional Statement 44. applicant, precondition oath. 161—164, 725—727, (1970). commissioner's long continue thereof' 1—25 (emphasis added), prescribed. extent reiterates requirement, shares defects prospective merit contention Constitution. inducted Services, 502 following otah: 'I, _ _, (or affirm) enemies, domestic; true faith obey orders President appointed me, accoridng regulations Uniform Code Military Justice. So making services defense, surely precluded, class, taking theory faith. See, e.g., Doolittle Clark, 316 (1879). itself subjected canons ethics. early 1908 adopted Canons Professional Ethics. 1970, several study reexamination, Delegates approved Responsibility, provides detailed prescriptions comprehensive disciplinary rules. ABA Responsibility District Columbia 46 Connecticut. Nothing prohibits 'for past highest Territory, District, Commonwealth, Possession' whose 'private characters shall good.' Rules holder,' need so, offices apply. thoughtful opinion, unanimously declared similar rule. Raffaelli Cal.3d 288, 101 Cal.Rptr. 896, 496 P.2d 1264 Park, 484 690 (Alaska

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