Document: 509 U.S. 764 113 S.Ct. 2891 125 L.Ed.2d 612 HARTFORD FIRE INSURANCE CO., et al., Petitioners,v.CALIFORNIA al. MERRETT UNDERWRITING AGENCY MANAGEMENT LIMITED, Petitioners, v. CALIFORNIA Nos. 91-1111, 91-1128. Argued Feb. 23, 1993. Decided June 28, Syllabus * Nineteen States and many private plaintiffs filed complaints alleging that the defendants—four domestic primary insurers, companies who sell reinsurance to two trade associations, a broker, reinsurers based in London—violated Sherman Act by engaging various conspiracies aimed at forcing certain other insurers change terms of their standard commercial general liability insurance policies conform with defendant wanted sell. After actions were consolidated for litigation, District Court granted defendants' motions dismiss. The Appeals reversed, rejecting Court's conclusion defendants entitled antitrust immunity under § 2(b) McCarran-Ferguson Act, which exempts from federal regulation "the business insurance," except "to extent such is not regulated State law." Although it held conduct involved be ruled foreign did fall within 2(b)'s protection because activities could "regulated law," had forfeited exemption when they conspired nonexempt reinsurers. Furthermore, court, most question fell 3(b), provides nothing "shall render . inapplicable any act boycott. ." Finally, court rejected principle international comity barred exercising jurisdiction over three claims brought solely against London Held: judgment affirmed part reversed part, case remanded. 938 F.2d 919 (CA9 1991), Justice SOUTER delivered opinion respect Parts I, II-A, III, IV, concluding that: 1 1. lose conspiring defendants. Appeals's contrary was on statement, Group Life & Health Ins. Co. Royal Drug Co., 440 205, 231, 99 1067, 1083, 59 261, that, "[i]n analogous contexts, has an exempt entity forfeits acting concert parties." Even assuming "not reasoning fails analogy drawn loose one. Following language, cited cases dealing Capper-Volstead immunizes "persons" liability. Ibid. Because, contrast, rather than entities, entity-based analysis inappropriate. See id., 232-233, S.Ct., 1083-1084. Moreover, agreements issue made "parties wholly outside industry," whereas alleged here are admittedly concern insurance." Pp. ____. 2 2. may decline exercise appropriate case, would counsel circumstances here. only substantial q estion this whether "there fact true conflict between Societe Nationale Industrielle Aerospatiale United Court, 482 522, 555, 107 2542, 2561, 96 461 (Blackmun, J., concurring dissenting part). That must answered negative, since do argue British law requires them some fashion prohibited or claim compliance laws both countries otherwise impossible. 3 SCALIA Part "boycott" purposes 3(b) occurs where, order coerce target into one transaction, parties refuse engage other, unrelated transactions target. It but concerted agreement (a "cartelization") where particular transaction until agreeable. Under foregoing test, allegations construed favorably respondents, sufficient sustain relevant counts complaint motion 4 SOUTER, announced unanimous I III REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, JJ., joined, II-B, joined. SCALIA, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, THOMAS, II, 5 Stephen M. Shapiro, Chicago, IL, petitioners 91-1111. 6 Molly S. Boast, New York City, 7 Lawrence G. Wallace, Washington, DC, as amicus curiae special leave Court. 8 Laurel A. Price, Trenton, NJ, respondents. 9 II(A), II(B) BLACKMUN STEVENS join. 10 makes every contract, combination, conspiracy unreasonable restraint interstate commerce illegal. 26 Stat. 209, amended, 15 U.S.C. These present questions about application industry, abroad. (respondents here) allege (petitioners violated affect American market. A group argues 33, 1011 seq., precludes alleged; refrain it. We hold immunized even applies, does preclude alleged. 11 petitions before us stem litigation comprising 19 defendants, members violation restrict coverage (CGL) insurance1 available States. Because come dismiss, we take he true.2 12 According complaints, object force (insurers directly consumers) CGL four changes.3 13 First, traditionally been sold "occurrence" basis, through policy obligating insurer pay defend claims, whenever made, resulting accident 'injurious exposure conditions' occurred during [specific time] period effect." App. 22 (Cal.Complaint ¶ 52). In place traditional trigger coverage, "claims-made" trigger, those period. Such distinct advantage ends without having can will expose further Second, have "retroactive date" provision, incidents after date. provision eliminates risk insurer, issuing claims-made policy, assume arising policy's effective date, remained undiscovered caused no immediate harm. Third, covered "sudden accidental" pollution; eliminate coverage. provided bear legal costs defending insured regard stated limits coverage; defense counted (providing "legal cost cap"). 14 To understand how pressured targeted make these changes, aware important features industry. insure rely support services type wish Defendant Insurance Services Office, Inc. (ISO), association approximately 1,400 property casualty (including Hartford Fire Company, Allstate CIGNA Corporation, Aetna Casualty Surety Company), almost exclusive source country insurance. 38). ISO develops forms files lodges each State's regulators; written forms. 39); 74 (Conn.Complaint 50). All "traditional" embodied form use 1973 (1973 form). Id., &Par; 51-54); 75 56-58). For its forms, also supplies actuarial rating information: collects, aggregates, interprets, distributes data premiums charged, paid, expended form, 51-52), basis predicts future loss trends calculates advisory premium rates. 53). Most cannot afford continue if withdraws services. 32-33 97, 99). themselves usually purchase cover portion consumer. This so-called "reinsurance" serve least purposes, protecting catastrophic loss, allowing more own financial capacity might permit. 17 29). Thus, "[t]he availability affects ability willingness provide customers." 18 34); 63 4(p)). Insurers often insurer; "retrocessional reinsurance" what insurers. ibid. 4(r)). Many brokers, play specialized role business; Reinsurance Association America (RAA) B 16 prehistory events claimed give rise starts 1977, began process revising form. 55). first time, proposed (1984 forms), type, "with new 'claims-made' trigger." 22-23 56). retroactive date however, 1984 " 'sudden accidental' pollution" damage unlimited insurer. 23 59-60). Within ISO, Company objected forms; desired elimination sudden accidental pollution cap. expressed desire 24 61). Majorities committees, supported changes Allstate. December 1983, Board Directors approved lodged state regulators March 1984. 62). Dissatisfied affairs, steps generally available, allege, implemented series Act. recount number separate episodes corresponding different Claims Relief complaints;4 become distinguish among acts associated them, note correspondences. California Complaint, 36-43 111-130), Second Claim Connecticut 90-92 120-124), charge varying groups reinsurers, associations manipulate 1984, persuaded General Corporation (General Re), largest reinsurer, either procure "failing [to] 'derail' entire program." 64). Re took up matter association, RAA, created committee met agreed unless retroactive-date added exclusion cap 24-25 65-66). RAA then sent letter "announc[ing] coverages forms," 25 67), enlisted broker speech Directors, "break ranks" reinsure 68). (Hartford, Aetna, CIGNA, Allstate) encouraged key actors market, provider North risks, withhold 25-26 69-70). As consequence, London-based underwriters, syndicates, informed intention 26-27 71-75), told incorporated all see supra, 3-4, 74). 20 time ever, invited representatives markets speak Executive Committee meeting. 27-28 (Cal. Complaint 78). At meeting, "presented upon positions there reinsurance." 29 82). voted include exclude (But neither eliminated occurrence nor cap.) withdrawn marketplace, replaced (1986 forms) containing provisions. 84). got regulatory approval 1986 needed, thus rendering impossible 21 Fifth 43-44 131-135), virtually identical Third 92-94 125-129), brokers offer basis. collectively refused write contracts for, renew long-standing with, "primary prepared switch form," 30 88); amended 'sunset date,' eliminating 31 90-92). Sixth 45-46 136-140), nearly Fourth 94-95 130-134), another somewhat covering including complete 32 94-95). accordance agreement, excluded late 1985. 94). Seventh 46-47 141-145), closely similar 97-98 140-144), restrain "excess" "umbrella" drafting model language types insurance, normally offered 33 101). eventually released umbrella excess policies; included version, absolute versions. 34 105). Eighth 47-49 146-150), counterpart complaint, 95-97 135-139), retrocessional reinsurers5 seepage, pollution, contamination risks. Those signed, implemented, 'best endeavors' ensure risks 'only original includes seepage wherever applicable.' 35 108).6 C 36 course events, charging described above Northern California, moved dismiss failure cause action, or, alternative, summary judgment. re Antitrust Litigation, 723 F.Supp. 464 (1989). grant contained 1012(b), amounted insurance" law" meaning section; none conduct, view, exception immunity. 1013(b). dismissed named defendants,7 invoking applying Ninth Circuit's decision Timberlane Lumber Bank America, N.T. S.A., 549 597 1976). reversed. 1991). 2(b), concluded independent reasons. held, beyond States; section's scope "act[s] boycott, coercion, intimidation." applied analysis, bar jurisdiction. 27 certiorari No. 91-1111 address narrow immunity,8 91-1128 issue.9 506 ----, 52, 121 (1992). now affirm reverse remand. II 28 petition touches interaction pieces economic legislation. declares "[e]very combination trust otherwise, conspiracy, several States, nations, illegal." industry 1012(a), (again, generally) "[n]o Congress shall invalidate, impair, supersede enacted purpose regulating 1012(b). Section clear nonetheless applies coerce, intimidate, Petitioners cases: Thomas Greene They erred holding, first, immune lost and, second, boycott" falling set out 3(b). conclude err effect correctly decided complaints' fairly read therefore error grounds immunity, found By terms, law. While "business" mean "[a] industrial establishment enterprise," Webster's International Dictionary 362 (2d ed. 1942), definite article shows word used sense, phrase obviously being meant refer single entity. Rather, naturally "[m]ercantile transactions; buying selling; [and] traffic." confirm should activity others, another. 261 (1979), example, company making fixi g price prescription drugs Blue Shield policyholders. activity, said, "would extended 'business companies.' But precisely do." 233, 1084 (footnote omitted); SEC National Securities, Inc., 393 453, 459, 89 564, 568, 668 (1969) (the Act's "language refers persons subject regulation, 'regulating insurance' ") (emphasis original). And Union Labor Pireno, 458 119, 102 3002, 73 647 (1982), explicitly framed "a practice exempted 2(b)," 129, 3009 added), criteria identified concerned quality question: "first, transferring spreading policyholder's risk; integral relationship insured; third, limited entities industry." criteria, insurance"; contrary, condition met.10 F.2d, 927. Nor "[un]regulated constructed altogether chain reasoning, middle link comes sentence our "[R]egulation reinsurers," explained, "is states," 928, hence liability, "an U.S., 1083. Therefore, 928. fails, agree point express opinion), quoted context, proposition applicable case. full places fragment light. "In contexts," stated, "engaged production agricultural products."11 42 388, 291; Case-Swayne Sunkist Growers, 389 384, 88 528, 621 (1967); Borden 308 188, 60 182, 84 L.Ed. 181 (1939). relied statutory referring "persons," specifically acknowledged Roy l 1083-1084, drawing noted, retail pharmacists itself, "automobile body repair shops landlords," 232, omitted), unlikely anything called broader 1084. instant course, entirely different; hardly "wholly respondents contest holding facts rough drew rule parties, derived statute think bereft simply acted sake argument, law."12 together enough reason reinstate dismissal order, grounds. participation exemption, constitute "agreement[s] boycott coercion" regardless exemption. favor plaintiffs, First boycott," survive infra, ____; post, reviewing dis iss, believe overly definition term confining refusals deal "unrelated" "collateral" objective sought refusing deal. Post, McCarran- Ferguson precedents warrant cramped reading term. majority find common ground propositions concerning boycotts, established decisions St. Paul Marine Barry, 438 531, 98 2923, 57 932 (1978), South-Eastern Underwriters Assn., 322 533, 64 1162, 1440 (1944). noted Paul, prior construing appears involving coordinated action multiple boycotts: "conduct individual short 'boycott' [the of] 3(b)." 2937; ("boycott" describe collective action"); ("To means '[t]o combine relations' (citation omitted). 37 need involve refusal deal.13 goal conspirators Underwriters, it, nonmember conspiracies."14 535, 1163; cf. Joint Hearing 1362, H.R. 3269, 3270 Subcommittees Senate Judiciary, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., pt. 2, p. 335 (1943) (statement Edward L. Williams, President, Executives Assn.) ("[T]he want Interstate there. know turned down"). presumably, orchestrated cease targets join abide terms. ("[t]he conditional") 38 petitioners' contentions, Brief pp. 32, n. 14, 34, 38-39, entail unequal treatment instigators. Some (those, perhaps, violate Act15) destruction competitors; well un onditional discrimination targets. Other deal, seek prevent competition product sold; depend Assuming, done, membership open readily seen intended treat equally: choice rules, subjected "boycotts," coercion intimidation, ____ (describing "boycott, competitors price-fixing conspiracy"). 39 Fourth, although necessary element, "concerted activity" not, finding Were recognized 'devour broad bestowed 2(b),' 545, 18, 2932, (quoting 559, 2939 (Stewart, dissenting)), "contract, commerce," 1, involves activity." suggested, simple fixing treated "in absence additional enforcement 18; (contending contract properly characterized boycotts). 40 Contrary majority's suggested "enforcement multifarious concept. coined "boycotts[,] intimidation," 1164; list finds, encompassed "Companies Association]," states, "were cut off opportunity facilities disparaged; sales agencies defiantly represented non-[Association] punished withdrawal right represent Association]; needing purchased threatened boycotts patronage." 535-536, 1164. Faced list, instances "boycott," rightly came Barry cases, 'unitary phenomenon.' 543, 2931 P. Areeda, Analysis 381 1974)). 41 here, activities" raise attempts fix level boycotts. do. core plaintiffs' Complaint: tried convince changed t limit manner detailed above, failed persuade made. Unable voluntarily Allstate, joined aid individuals ordinarily setting selling convinced put pressure Both behest result pressure, sum, solicited fellow terms; outsiders, four, capitulated, which, least, did. pattern bears striking resemblance listed Court; opinion, underlying indictment, Transcript Record, O.T. 1943, 354, (¶ 22(e)), details exactly managed "cut [nonmembers] risks," 1163, done so prompting nonmembers, just here.16 falls squarely theory Stewart advanced dissent Barry. theory,17 "attempts follow industry's rules practices." 565, 2942 dissenting). better description insurers' reasons, ultimate correct reversing Complaint.18 43 concludes long reinsurers' his transactions," ____, never emphasis assumes artificial segmentation false perception unimportance elements agreement. concedes implementation horizontal "at of," "solicited by," "competitors target[s]." (citations internal quotation marks acknowledge crucial bind recognizable 44 allegation excludes possibility self-interest, taken same intense efforts posits autonomy seem repeated predictability assumed reinsured." If encouragement played did, difficult element From vantage ruling discern addition, according health prompted risks; rather, able portray separate, product, [of which] 34). assertion, boundary merely "technica[l]." 45 insists "disregar[d] th[e] reinsurance," seems draw distinction whatsoever Yet spite "integral relationship," interests reinsurer certainly differ cases. "layer" sense [a] respond amount. 4.q); 61 4(f)). much resulted high relatively small claims. Or perceive differently reinsurer. indifferent covered, adjusted satisfaction, decide "too hot handle," standardized cost. sugg stion insist primary-insurance writing way 'artificial,' ignores possibilities; conditions quite easily "artificial," motivated themselves. chance flesh priori knowledge facts, locate pages treatises, possibilities 46 Believing principled exception, decides encompasses designation phenomenon,' 2931, henceforth confined, odds Barry.19 limitation threatens shrink far willing admit. "who wrote disfavored "as (for greater engages riskier businesses)." standard, comparable ceases insuring show (1) increases probability insolvent, (2) administer bankrupt declare bankruptcy). One imagine variety arguments slowly plug remains exception. 47 presented 91-1128, improper applications conduct. alleges thereby "occurrence unavailable risks." 131-135). "pollution vast purchasers California." 136-140). who, along California.20 47-48 146-150). 48 outset, undoubtedly apparently concede. Tr. Oral Arg. ("Our position apply minimal doesn't exist Our circumstances, restrained").21 perhaps always free doubt, Banana Fruit 213 347, 511, 53 826 (1909), produce Matsushita Elec. Industrial Zenith Radio Corp., 475 574, 582, 6, 106 1348, 1354, 538 (1986); Aluminum 148 416, 444 (CA2 1945) (L. Hand, J.); Restatement (Third) Foreign Relations Law 415, Reporters' Note (1987) (hereinafter Law); Areeda D. Turner, 236 (1978); Continental Ore Carbide Carbon 370 690, 704, 82 1404, 1413, 777 (1962); Steele Bulova Watch 344 280, 288, 252, 256, 97 319 (1952); Sisal Sales 274 268, 275-276, 592, 593-594, 71 1042 (1927).22 here: engaged unlawful market produced effect.23 933. 49 declined comity.24 courts look deciding 932. availed nothing, however. sure, believed "application [American] 'would lead significant English policy,' "[s]uch conflict, outweighed factors, itself jurisdiction." 933 court's nature produced, supposed required 934. 50 When Trade Improvements 1982 (FTAIA), 1246, 6a, view ever comity. H.R.Rep. 97-686, (1982) ("If determines requirements met, FTAIA] court['s] employ notions account character transaction") (citing Timberlane). proper (or, employment instance jurisdiction), 51 "t ere 2562, (BLACKMUN, contend significantly law, Government, appearing curiae, concurs. 22-27; Government Kingdom Great Britain Ireland Amicus Curiae 10-14. assert Parliament comprehensive regime perfectly consistent policy. conflict. "[T]he lawful laws," strong permit encourage Comment j; 706-707, 1414-1415. No exists, "where person states comply both." 403, e.25 Since Reply 7-8, impossible, e, j. considerations inform IV 52 remanded proceedings opinion. ordered. 54 THOMAS 55 With II-A separately SOUTER's forth II-B constitutes 92-1128, extraterritorial below discusses issue; extraterritoriality. 56 Determining precise "boycott."1 word, little century old. 1880, Captain Charles Boycott, agent managing estates Ireland. Land League, Irish organization formed previous year, demanded landlords reduce rents urged tenants avoid so. Boycott bend demand instead ordered evictions. retaliation, "sen[t] Coventry very thorough manner." J. McCarthy, ngland Gladstone 108 (1886). "The population region miles round resolved him, allow else him. [T]he awful excommunication rendered him helplessly alone time. work him; supply food." 108-109; H. Laidler, Boycotts Struggle 23-27 (1968). verb unfortunate Captain's name outset continues carry today. "[t]o relations kind, social commercial, public private, neighbour), political differences, punish up, abandoning it." Oxford 468 1989). terms," concededly 31; 12-13. not. recited provides, imposed target] may, words, conditional, offering incentive renewed mends ways. case—and indeed Cf. 109 (noting later lived peace" neighbors). dictionary definitions extend partial boycott—a some, all, 321 1950) (defining withhold, intercourse from, expression disapproval coercion") added). 58 is, important—and —to conditional transactions. obtaining power concertedly exacting like monopolist exact." Sullivan, 257 (1977). cartel) because: "They coercing anyone, usual word; (though concertedly) saying 'we you following terms.' ". Indeed, say, security deposit buyers won't parity also. concept, varied add confusion." Boycott's leases reduced rents, leases, boycott.2 tenants, that; Boycott—e.g., food —unless rents. expansion gives great coercive boycott: everage achieve desired. 62 evident Eastern Retail Dealers' Assn. 234 600, 951, 1490 (1914), field "leading case[s] boycotts." Barber, Refusals Deal Federal Laws, 103 U.Pa.L.Rev. 847, 873 (1955). lumber dealers buy wholesale consumers. attempted impose dealers'] local retailer sale infringement trade." 611, 954. "artificial conditio[n]," wholesaler strangers affected, wrong grievance member associations." 611-612, associations' objective—the dealers' forbearance trade—that collateral wholesalers. Of (outside field) concerned, Paramount Famous Lasky Corp. 282 30, 42, 145 (1930), Pictures, 44, 45, 151 competing picture distributors license films exhibitors Anderson Shipowners Pacific Coast, 272 359, 125, 298 (1926), attempt employers establish industry-wide employment. sorts actions, appear opinions.3 fact, 65 years coining enactment 1945, seven opinions (nonlabor) matters, once uses it—to agreeable.4 addition field, concept frequently labor context seeking ordinary strike "refusal deal"—i.e., union employer capitulates demands. call deal" relate contract). seeks obtain contract. illustrated famous Pullman cars Eugene Debs' Railway 1894. incident workers Palace Car strike, Union, employees, strikers train car. Debs, 158 566-567, 900, 901, 1092 (1895) case); 100-108 handle (working dangerous working cars); furtherance workers. well, invariably holds ascribe it: alter, workers' employment.5 (1978). There licensed physicians patients, (St. Paul) malpractice physicians' insisted "claims made" customers, accept Paul's renewal Unsurprisingly, action. insisted-upon (not former policyholder) "artificial": bore (or "artificial" relationship) wished competitors. 66 described, "refus[e] made," ante, central contract—they reinsured. 16-17 26-27). losses shared agreements." B. Webb, Anderson, Cookman, Kensicki, Principles 87 (1990); 55; Gurley, Regulation Forum 72, (1983). tied categories (assumption reinsurance) substitutes "ceding" contractual privity insurer's 73-74; Colonial Commissioner, 491 244, 247, 2408, 2411, 105 199 (1989); T. Newman Ostrager, Coverage Disputes 15-16 (1990). category (indemnity reinsurance), reference (if facultative agreement), Butler R. Merkin, B.1.1-04 (1992); Carter, 235 conducted treaty basis) require disclosure vary approval, 297. 67 disregards reinsurance. He describes "individuals Ante, factual assumption (because permissible insurers), offers statement. happens true, explain why true—that participation. realities explanation difficult: 68 "Reinsurers benefit service organizations. rates contracts. Reinsurers subscribe ervices. service, manuals optional services, sprinkler report specific location." Reinarz, Schloss, Patrik, Practices 69 "outside technically (to symbiotic industries separated) irrelevant. What matters "subject-matter insured" reinsurance, 4, "artificial"; jointly "boycott."6 70 non-boycott converted "solicited" by, ibid., purports implausible (1944), classic (S.E.U.A.). agents companies, customers them. 1164-1165. Black's cryptically, "[c]ompanies S.E.U.A. speculates [S.E.U.A.] [managed reinsurance] nonmembers." happened, prompts coconspirator boycotters. prompting, discernible bearing suggests somehow mistakenly "posit[ed] reinsurers." this. Nothing deprived "autonomy," coerced (Given sheer size Lloyd's laughable.) say disagree contention allegations, "have insurers." said participants conspiracies: "intense efforts" leaders, same. factor renders (under McCarran-Ferguson) illegal, indeed. 72 Perhaps feels undesirable, matter, "prompt" competitors—whether feeling understandable, normal "prompting" conspiracy. (assuming state-regulated), "boycott." test "withdra[w] reinsuring form." 89), 83 93). Construed boycott—they would, businesses). Gonye, Underwriting Reinsured, 439, 463-466 (R. Strain 1980); 21-23 (1990) (same). similarly construed. "threatened dissatisfactory 74), 79 78); 82), 81-82 86); "groups income unable ensue [revised] approved." 85), 89). amount prove facts. Re, "agreed adopt defendants'] demands failing 64), 77 forms—even objectionable terms—that Also, made] forms." 66), 78 70). Liberally construed, linked liking. Again, "[A] 'it doubt plaintiff entitle relief.' McLain Real Estate Bd. Orleans, 246, 100 502, 441 (1980) Conley Gibson, 355 41, 45-46, 99, 102, 80 (1957)). Complaint.7 corporations subjects, inappropriate Act.8 raised petition: jurisdiction, reaches On question, subject-matter (personal contested). asserted nonfrivolous 1331 vests district "arising under" statutes. Lauritzen Larsen, 345 571, 921, 1254 (1953), clear, Jones sailor shipowner. shipowner contested 573, 923, govern dispute Though ultimately agreeing apply, discussion 76 "As happens, barrier granting plaintiff's cast matter. determine founded fact." 575, 924. Romero Terminal Operating 358 468, 473, 368 (1959). second question—the reach Act—has courts. substantive turning whether, enacting challenged EEOC Arabian Oil 499 111 1227, 1230, (1991) (Aramco ) ("It task protections Title VII citizens employed States"). prevail issue, jurisdiction—want adjudicate; claim, merits statute. Romero, 486 (holding Act); 514, (1909) "alleges und r [Sherman Act]"). "jurisdiction" determining statute; known "legislative jurisdiction," Aramco, 1233, (First) Conflict Laws (1934), "jurisdiction prescribe," (Third)). authority activities," adjudicate," 231. possesses legislative complaint: Article 8, cl. regulate Commerce Nations," repeatedly upheld territorial boundaries affected. Ford 273 593, 621-623, 540-541, 793 (1927); Bowman, 260 94, 98-99, 39, 149 (1922); Banana, 356, 512. extent, exercised undoubted Two canons construction inquiry. "long-standing 'that legislation Congress, intent appears, States.' 1230 Foley Bros., Filardo, 336 281, 285, 577, 93 680 (1949)). Applying canon version Civil Rights 1964 force, §§ 2000e-2000e-17 (1988 ed.), territory though provisions extending prohibitions to, 'any business, commerce.' 1231 2000e(h)). "boilerplate language" insufficient indication override presumption 1232; ---- - 1232-1233. contains language," governed precedent, worth considering controls outcome have, overcome laws; extraterritorially. 416 1945). 81 extraterritoriality inapplicable, becomes relevant: "[A]n congress ought nations possible remains." Murray Charming Betsy, Cranch 64, 118, 208 (1804) (Marshall, C.J.). independent" 1239. nations," customary limitations nation's prescribe. 401-416. clearly constitutional so, presumed exceeded international-law Consistent presumption, statutes interpreted principles (1959), plaintiff, Spanish injured while aboard Spanish-flag Spanish-owned vessel, employer. actionable tort waters. 383, 486. congressional direction," "principles consonant needs maritime due recognition self-regarding legitimate community." 382-383, controlling considerations" choice-of-law interacting countries." referred followed, (1953). previously mentioned, basic problem: "If were] literally, conferred seaman suffer personal injury employment.' 576, 925. solution adopted construe areas considered operative prevalent doctrines 926 facial breadth statute, upon—of —Chief Marshall's statement Betsy "several factors conceded influence claim." 583, 928; 583-593, 928-934 (discussing factors). McCulloch Sociedad Nacional de Marineros Honduras, 372 10, 21-22, 671, 677-678, 547 (1963) (applying foreign-flag vessels). Lauritzen, worded light well. See, e.g., Sale Haitian Centers Council, 35, 2549, --- (1993); Weinberger Rossi, 456 25, 1510, 1516, 715 (1982). More specifically, 1945), Judge Learned Hand cautioned "we Sherman] customarily observed powers; correspond fixed 'Conflict Laws.' 443. 85 recent lower precedent tempered "international comity." 597, 608-615 1976); Mannington Mills, Congoleum 595 1287, 1294-1298 (CA3 1979); Montreal Trading Ltd. Amax 661 864, 869-871 (CA10 1981); Laker Airways Sabena, Belgian World Airlines, U.S.App.D.C. 207, 236, 109, 731 909, 938, (1984); Seafarers, Far East Line, 131 226, 31, 404 804, 814, "comity" courts, whereby judges appropriately adjudged elsewhere, termed "prescriptive comity": sovereign limiting laws. legislatures enact laws, interpreting enacted. component theory. Story, Commentaries (1834) (distinguishing "comity courts" defining latter foundation obligation nation territories another"). Comity reach. 485-486; 578-579, 926-927; Hilton Guyot, 159 113, 162-166, 139, 143-144, 95 (1895). Considering prohibits 86 using firmly jurisprudence. proceeding Its standards (Lauritzen, especially Timberlane. Whether reflects detail conceivable takes interests. Restatement, "basis" prescribe connections unreasonable." 403(1). "reasonableness" inquiry turns fac ors including, to: state]," 403(2)(a); connections, nationality, residence, principally responsible regulated," 403(2)(b); regulated, importance state, activities, degree desirability accepted," 403(2)(c); interest activity," 403(2)(g); likelihood state," 403(2)(h). Rarely primarily Kingdom, subjects principal residence States.10 scheme governing markets, heavy "interest 403(2)(g). 932-933; 464, 487-488 (ND Cal.1989); A.1.1-02 allows 3(b)—suggesting [United States]," 403(2)(c), slight. unimaginable assertion reasonable, assume, assertion. proceeds "decline covers misdirected. agree, moreover, 22; 24. adjudicative Parties (and procedural default) before. excerpt 14; 473. realistic, helpful, pretend really us. event, erroneously chooses, does, precisely, abstention) vehicle taking prescriptive comity, still gets wrong. "true conflict" counseling nonapplication thinks, judicial jurisdiction) exists country's breathtakingly proposition, contradicts discussed ea lier, bring sharp unnecessary countries—particularly closest trading partners. "conflic[t]" 933, understood conflicts compelled allegedly wrongful conflict-of-laws 575-576, 924-925 (detailing differences law). Where parties' dispute, necessary. Weintraub, Commentary 2-3 (1980); c Illustrations (1934). 90 Literally adduces 403 Law—or e states: 91 "Subsection (3) [which says defer state's greater] prohibits, regulations consistently section both. 92 completely misinterpreted provision. Subsection (requiring described) subsection complied with—i.e., determined "unreasonable." (inter alia text rejects.11 remand instructions syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. "coverage third party purchaser 'insured')." 4.a.). 919, 924, 925 representative Alabama, Arizona, Massachusetts, York, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Alaska, Colorado, Connecticut, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Washington. apparent, Complaints slightly presentations background information relief; statements identical. chosen brief "representative model" Respondents (Private Party Plaintiffs) 3, track Complaint. remand, attention. 88-90 (Conn. 115-119), charges overarching eight federal-law 36-49 111-150), subgroups objects; changes. encompassing alleged, infra. Complaints' Statements Facts "[s]pecialized States." 106); 110). Relief, reinsurers; 147); 136). "unnamed co-conspirators" mentioned complaints. Ninth, Tenth Eleventh 49-50 151-156), 145-146), state-law violations Fifth, Sixth, questions: "1. whose participate "2. Act." Pet. Cert. i; is: "Did appeals assess teachings contemporary understanding abroad?" i. tempting implicitly grant, Clayton Commission unions Norris-LaGuardia Acts. 231-232, enter employers; contemplates wages multi-employer bargaining unit." Mine Workers Pennington, 657, 664, 1585, 1590, 626 (1965). stand employers, wage scale units," 665, 1591, non-exempt entities. prima facie immune," rest rejected. concede point. 14. before, 217, 1076, (1979); 458, 567, (1969), precipitated Clause, scrutiny specifically. responded, "ensure tax 217-218, 1076 218, 1076. borrowed indictment agents' commissions, intimidation conspiracies." 1163. monopolization of, monopolize, "any nations." "membership [had] contracts." Testimony hearings bill became indicates thought otherwise. "We 'You belong association.' public, stockholders, companies. You large bad, rate, excessive commission, way. feel way—that doing way, them." J diciary, 333 Assn.). passing argued, "Congress plainly authorize anticompetitive practices interest." S.C t. 2942, (1978) Hence, presumably could, mandate price-fixing, voluntary agreements. hand, delegate formulate enforce "boycotts" include, "private practices, permitted 565-566, original) petitioners, such, dismissing currently Complaint's independently, acts, boycotts; lack draft restrictive "act[ed] concert" 931, relying error, [were] modus operandi [excess umbrella] 930. agree; liberal connection language. Therefore unregulated furnished respect. deal; occasion consider contends "multifaceted" modified adjectives "punitive," "labor," "political," "social." 3. hide attempting concoct "precise definition" term, composed conditions. 91-1128; variations. Sturge Syndicate Management Limited, attending meeting Petitioner Limited 22. attended bound credit, remain participated believes prescriptive, opposed subject-matter, good reason: Born Westin, Litigation Courts 542, 1992) (Sherman "prime exampl[e] simultaneous jurisdiction"). 402 commerce, import "such direct, substantial, reasonably foreseeable effect" commerce. 6a(1)(A). FTAIA export tran injure economy, 2-3, 9-10 (1982); Hovenkamp, 236'a, 296-297 (Supp.1992), unclear Also "direct, amends existing codifies Assuming FTAIA's differs meets requirements. concerns figure 19-20. inconsistent producing play, complained ("it follows issue] [under Act], abroad, imports them"); 1294 1979) (once exercise); 613 Atwood K. Brewster, Business Abroad 166 (1981). oral cart horse citing authority, apposite determination reasonable. whatever horse, 1013(b), provides: "Nothing definition, example suspended Captain. recognizes (as do), not) secure of" (whatever means), League. hypothetical problems (which 3(b)) urgent points "does ' unitary phenomenon," 1974))), asserts "un itary phenomenon" d fferent all-encompassing "Boycott" multifaceted "phenomenon" punitive etc. objections Frankfort Distilleries, 324 293, 295-296, 298, 661, 662-663, 951 (1945) (refusal scheme); 536, 562, 1164, 1165, 1178, (1944) (discussed ____); Bausch Lomb Optical 707, 722, 805, 813, 1024 (word enforcing resale maintenance); Fashion Originators' Guild FTC, 312 457, 461, 465, 467, 703, 705, 708, 949 (1941) (boycott retailers competitors' products); Livestock 279 435, 436-438, 425, 426, 787 (1929) (absolute livestock drive business); 610-611, 953, 954 Nash 229 373, 376, 780, 781, 1232 (1913) passing). Bedford Cut Stone Cutters', 37, 47, 49, 525, 526, 916 (1927) stone received nonunion quarries); Duplex Printing Press Deering, 254 443, 462-463, 172, 174-175, 349 (1921) target's union's demands); Gompers Bucks Stove Range 221 418, 492, 797 (1911) company's products unfair practices); Loewe Lawlor, 274, 301, 488 (1908) fur hats unionized). Apex Hosiery Leader, 310 469, 503-505, 982, 997-999, 1311 (1940) strikes Once "coercion" "intimidation" because, coerc[e] word," (1977), protected conclusion, fail 43-46 131-140), mistaken courts," led characterize "abstention," "exercise 1294, 1296 discuss, fallen reluctant confusion seemingly theoretical practical consequence greatly expanding subsidiaries corporations, diminished corporations." effect, pierced corporate veil weighing stake. proper. skips j 415 (Third). preceding commentary "[a]ny [legislative] requirement reasonableness" 403(2). a. back 403(3) reasonableness

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