Document: 479 U.S. 481 107 S.Ct. 805 93 L.Ed.2d 883 INTERNATIONAL PAPER COMPANY, Petitionerv.Harmel OUELLETTE et al. No. 85-1233. Argued Nov. 4, 1986. Decided Jan. 21, 1987. Syllabus The Clean Water Act (Act) prohibits the discharge of effluents into navigable waters unless point source has obtained a permit from Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). also allows State in which is located (the "source State") to impose more stringent limitations than federal ones, and even administer its own program if certain requirements are met. In contrast, "affected" States that subject pollution originating have only right notice comment before issuance or permit. contains "saving clause" consisting § 510, provides ". . nothing this chapter shall be construed as impairing any with respect (including boundary waters) such States," 505(e), states "[n]othing section restrict person may under statute common law seek enforcement effluent standard limitation other relief. ." Petitioner operates paper mill on New York side Lake Champlain and, course business, discharged lake through diffusion pipe ended shortly York-Vermont border divided lake. Respondents, property owners Vermont shore, filed class action against petitioner state court nuisance. was later removed Federal District Court. moved for summary judgment pleadings ground pre-empted respondents' state-law suit, but Court denied motion, holding Act's saving clause preserves actions redress interstate water injury occurred. Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. pre-empts an affected extent seeks liability another State. Pp. 487-497. (a) Since applies all sources virtually bodies water, sets forth detailed procedures obtaining permit, elaborate set remedies violation, it sufficiently comprehensive raise presumption Congress intended pre-empt suits except those specifically preserved by terms. 491-492. (b) cannot read broadly preserve bring suit Section 505(e) merely protects pre-emption citizen-suit provisions, does not purport preclude provisions. Furthermore, 510 can State's authority discharges within 492-493. (c) application nuisance would constitute serious interference implementation Act. It effectively override EPA's policy choices made adopting their standards, engender confusion subjecting variety often vague indeterminate common-law rules established different along waterways. 494-497. 2. correctly petitioner's motion pleadings. 497-500. Court's leave respondents without remedy. precludes require control standards incompatible procedures, since actions, aggrieved parties claim State, here, York. laws, courts, provisions prevents sitting hearing provided jurisdiction otherwise proper. A district diversity competent apply foreign therefore, proper forum case. P. 500. 776 F.2d 55, affirmed part, reversed remanded. POWELL, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, concurring part dissenting MARSHALL BLACKMUN, joined, post, p. STEVENS, 508. Roy L. Reardon, City, petitioner. Peter F. Langrock, Middlebury, Vt., respondents. Lawrence G. Wallace, Washington, D.C., U.S., amicus curiae, special Justice POWELL 1 This case involves pre-emptive scope Act, 86 Stat. 816, amended, 33 U.S.C. 1251 seq. (CWA Act).1 question presented whether law, when alleged 2 * forms between Vermont. International Paper Company (IPC) pulp IPC pipe. runs toward Vermont, ending short distance line divides 3 Respondents group who reside lease land shore. 1978 IPC, claiming, inter alia, constituted "continuing nuisance" law. pollutants "foul, unhealthy, smelly, unfit recreational use," thereby diminishing value property. App. 29. asked $20 million compensatory damages, $100 punitive injunctive relief restructure treatment system.2 Superior then 4 pleadings, claiming CWA suit. With parties' consent, Judge deferred ruling pending decision Seventh Circuit similar involving Illinois city Milwaukee. dispute, statutory seeking abate Michigan. v. Milwaukee, 731 403 (1984) (Milwaukee III ), cert. denieD, 469 1196, 105 979, 83 981 (1985).3 ultimately remanded dismissal Illinois' claim, finding precluded one based court's conclusion laws single "point source"4 interfere carefully devised regulatory system CWA. F.2d, at 414. concluded were alleging violations polluting, "source," Id., 413-414. 5 argued Milwaukee dispositive disagreed dismiss. 602 F.Supp. 264 (1985). acknowledged normally governs pollution. found, however, two sections explicitly rights action. First, provides: 6 "Except expressly ., manner affecting States." 1370. addition, states: 7 "Nothing (or persons) 1365(e). 8 held these (together, "the clause") clear did entirely Therefore presented, said court, types preserve. considered three possibilities:5 first, could applied covered But surface country,6 rejected possibility. Second, might occurring State; view position adopted III. nevertheless option, "there simply suggests use law." F.Supp., 269. 9 therefore third interpretation clause, maintained Ibid. unpersuaded concern expressed out-of-state conflict there no because "imposition damage awards equitable injuries caused sup- plements imposed Act." 271 (emphasis original). found ultimate goal CWA, each objective decrease level 10 certified interlocutory appeal, see 28 1292(b) (1982 ed., Supp. III), Second reasons stated 56 (1985) (per curiam ). We granted certiorari resolve circuit important issue pre-emption. 475 1081, 106 1457, 89 715 (1986). now affirm denial IPC's dismiss, reverse below permits litigation. hold considers concerning must located. II 11 brief review framework necessary stage Until fairly recently, governed misuse water. See, e.g., Hinderlider La Plata River & Cherry Creek Ditch Co., 304 92, 110, 58 803, 810, 82 L.Ed. 1202 (1938) (water apportionment); Missouri Illinois, 200 496, 26 268, 50 572 (1906) pollution).7 principle called context 1971, suggested dicta dispute private company should resolved reference Ohio Wyandotte Chemicals Corp., 401 493, 499, n. 3, 91 1005, 1010, 256 (1971) ("[A]n this, cognizable adjudicated law") (citing Erie R. Co. Tompkins, 64, 817, 1188 (1938)). 12 had occasion address first Supreme cases I, file original enjoin discharging sewage 406 91, 92 1385, 31 712 (1972). regulation matter federal, state, thus overruling contrary suggestion Wyandotte.8 102, S.Ct., 1392, 3. concerned, existing version disputes likely arise. I law; implicit corollary preempted. See id., 107, 9, 1395, 9; III, 407. noted, though, future regulate well. 1394. 13 thereafter amendments impact new legislation returned several years later.9 451 304, 101 1784, 68 114 (1981) There noted " 'complete rewriting' they 'the most far reaching' ever passed area. 317-318, 1792-1793 (citations legislative history omitted). Consequently, occupied field, pre-empting left open injured still cause 310, 1789, 4. further consideration; result remand discussed supra. 14 One primary features 1972 establishment National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), designed polluting effluents. 1342; generally EPA California ex rel. Resources Control Board, 426 200, 205-208, 96 2022, 2025-2026, 48 578 (1976) (describing NPDES system). 301(a) 1311(a), body contain limitations, compliance schedule attainment limitations. 15 recognize significant role protecting natural resources. 1251(b). Government delegate Administrator determines proposed complies 1342(b). retains authority, block he objects. 1342(d). Even administers program, required Government. 40 CFR 122.1(f) Before obtain certification technology-based water-quality-based standards. 1341(a)(1). establishes "partnership" 16 While strong voice regulating pollution, contemplates much lesser share waterway States). though harmed discharges, advisory originates beyond borders. issued, given opportunity object public hearing. 1341(a)(2); supra, 412. An consulted issues permit; send notification, consider objections recommendations submitted taking action.10 Significantly, dissatisfied recourse Administrator, discretion disapprove concludes will undue waters. 1342(d)(2). Also, establish separate source. 1342(b) (State "within jurisdiction" added), Alliance Coastal Corridor Army Corps Engineers, 526 1063, 1074-1075 (WD Pa.1981), aff'd, 707 1392 (CA3), denied, 464 915, 104 277, 78 257 (1983); Champion 709 S.W.2d 569 (Tenn.1986), pending, 86-57. Thus makes occupy subordinate program. 17 mind, we turn presented: begin analysis noting provide particular pre-empted. Hillsborough County Automated Medical Laboratories, Inc., 471 707, 713, 2371, 2375, 85 714 Although courts lightly infer pre-emption,11 presumed "sufficiently make reasonable inference 'left room' supplementary regulation." (quoting Rice Santa Fe Elevator 331 218, 230, 67 1146, 1152, 1447 (1947)). addition express implied pre-emption, invalid "actually conflicts statute." Ray Atlantic Richfield 435 151, 158, 98 988, 994, 55 179 (1978). Such 'stands obstacle accomplishment execution full purposes objectives Congress.' 2375 Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 67, 61 399, 404, 581 (1941)). 18 As II, "establish all-encompassing 318, 1793. observed congressional "views nature practically universal." 12, 1793, history). examination amply supports views. great detail. remedies, including civil criminal fines violations, "citizen suits" allow individuals States) sue injunction enforce statute.12 light pervasive fact primarily 1394, remain available 19 dominate field regulation, negates "left room" causes language both waters, 1370, party's "any law," 1365(e) added). They selected portions compel State.13 accept reading 20 To with, plain rely means compels seek. says section," i.e., affect moreover, "with Stat[e]." arguably limits effect flowing directly savings then, 21 Given itself speak issue, guided goals policies determining Cf. City Rome United States, 446 156, 199, 100 1548, 1573, 64 119 (1980) (POWELL, dissenting) ("We resort materials mandate unclear face"). After examining whole, history, convinced allowed source, inevitable achievement "full Congress." 2375. Because do believe undermine drawn general clause,14 conclude applying B 22 "stands obstacle" enough say eliminate interferes methods reach goal. Michigan Canners Freezers Assn. Agricultural Marketing Bargaining Bd., 467 461, 477, 2518, 2527, 81 399 (1984). circumvent system, upsetting balance interests so addressed 23 By establishing implicitly recognized elimination pollution—cannot achieved immediately, realized incurring costs. according quality upon technology, 1314, competing industrial uses, 1312(a). waterway, effluents, compliance, vary widely among sources. If elects technological feasibility controls. complex decisions, surprising States. 24 brought disrupt interests. liable threat legal penalties less adopt approved EPA, engaged same weighing costs benefits. illustrates problems rule. ruled entitled amount damages sought complaint, minimum change doing business controlling avoid ongoing liability. affected-state cease operations ordering immediate abatement. Critically, liabilities attach complied fully obligations. indirectly what conduct sources.15 25 Application efficiency predictability system. shows "clear identifiable" S.Rep. 92-414, (1971), Leg.Hist. 1499, U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1972, 3747.16 above, respondents, These "vague" "indeterminate."17 numerous States' exacerbate vagueness resulting uncertainty. identified problem irrational regulation: "For number independent plenary over lead chaotic confrontation sovereign states. Dischargers forced meet potentially developed impossible predict lawful Any issued rendered meaningless." 27 unlikely—to least—that structure. Nothing gives power discharges. defines process whereby balanced EPA. delineation represents Congress' best method serving interest reconciling concerns extraordinary Congress, after devising tolerate potential C 29 Our inapplicable bars bringing pursuant terms higher sources, include well restrictions. 328, 1798 (suggesting "States them in-state dischargers"); Committee Jones Falls Sewage Train, 539 1006, 1009, (CA4 1976) State).18 30 frustrate law.19 disturb source-state, stricter imposition source-state partnership restriction being regulations. create some tension look additional whose relatively predictable. Moreover, expected take account setting requirements.20 asks go step courts. cites little justification position, find basis improper forum. Simply mean judicial well; absence contrary,21 rule settled IV 32 Both erred, concluding delegation part. proceedings consistent opinion. 34 ordered. 35 whom BLACKMUN join, 36 concur wholeheartedly (Act), seq., disagree 37 properly Company's where occurred, hear improperly reaches out decide latter issue. know, "Vermont identical nuisance." Tr. Oral Arg. 24. Thus, sole candidates present case, conflict. base claims "[t]he Complaint specify invokes choice Plaintiffs' Supplemental Memorandum Law Opposition Defendant's Motion Dismiss 78-163, facts, 38 applicable interpret occurred (affected State) emanates (source State). usual two-step undertaken determine tort suits. conflict-of-law sits. Day Zimmerman, Inc. Challoner, 423 167, 168, 46 (1975); Klaxon Stentor Electric Mfg. 313 487, 1020, 1021, 1477 (1941) (holding doctrine rules). principles interpreted applied. Today finds Vermont's 39 support deviation well-settled principles. Under rules, purpose ensure compensation victims.1 "[I]t dispute" "a redressing actually occur State." Keeton Hustler Magazine, 465 770, 776, 1473, 1479, 79 790 (1984); Allstate Ins. Hague, 449 302, 307, 633, 637, 66 521 (1981); Huron Portland Cement Detroit, 362 440, 442, 80 813, 815, 852 (1960). traditional health safety citizens, protected providing polluters. Askew American Waterways Operators, 411 325, 343, 1590, 1601, 280 (1973); Watson Employers Liability Assurance Corp.,348 66, 72-73, 75 166, 169-170, 99 74 (1954); Young Masci, 289 253, 258-259, 53 599, 601, 77 1158 (1933). superseded act manifest Congress. Silkwood Kerr-McGee 238, 248, 255, 615, 621, 625, 443 316, 1792, Here alike claims. 1370 preserving relief, draws distinction intrastate disputes; relief." 1365(e).2 provision "express" normal operation reflecting "to recognize, preserve, protect responsibilities prevent, reduce, 41 wanted rights, intent chose "only situation warranted urgent need uniformity 312(f) relating marine sanitation devices." H.R.Rep. 92-911, 136 (1972), Legislative History Pollution (Committee Print compiled Senate Public Works Library Congress), Ser. 93-1, 823 (1973) (hereinafter Leg.Hist.). 42 clearly indicates intact residents polluter. 43 argues that, although stands contends subsidiary Act: (1) polluters, ante, ----; (2) identifiable ----. implication conflicts. plausibly offering better administrative approach, meant alter manner. 44 threshold matter, assumes enacting valued highly effective Yet evidence choice. Instead, reflects rational operating tandem controls, achieve four considerations. 45 "[e]xcept provided," ----, reliance justify conclusion. 625 ("Congress assumed force supplanted"). saw peril permitting Report "specifically [to] shown, available. Compliance defense damages." 3746 majority's undercut shared 47 Agency's (EPA) supplemental wholly regulations promulgated meeting convey exclusive privilege." 122.5(b) modify local law: "The authorize persons invasion infringement regulations." 122.5(c). Third, refused administration, furthers statute's area traditionally regulated Pacific Gas Energy Conservation Development Comm'n, 461 190, 221-223, 103 1713, 1731-1732, 752 (1983). Subjecting polluters simultaneously promotes main eliminating entirely, 1251(a)(1), obeys command intact. stand scheme "and whatever them." 256, 625. "Given scheme, rethink division possible exercise objective. assume our assigns 223, 1732. 49 Finally, overstates violate "conflict" ability to, embodied "less stringent" pp. 169-170 856-857. polluter suffered victims obey complying requirement either law—the necessarily lenient 257, 626. 3747; intend reform "impenetrable jungle" 17. indicate, suits, "indeterminate" fact, instant apparently identical. explicit assuming revolutionize 51 correct, logically follow haste result, Vermont: "Because Ante, ---- 52 Whether requires depends pertaining laws.3 "A freedom Conflict Laws adopted, become definitely branch state's Restatement (Second) 5, Comment a, (1971). logic, legislature choosing impose, principles, this. free (noting advice For indicated reaching 54 joins, affirming deprives entertain allegedly agree sufficient goes ventures substantive Perhaps responding observation, Appeals, "authorizes occurred." 264, 274 (Vt.1985). yet been decide—or decided—which govern discussing rush govern, asserts preempts source." record, know choice-of-law 57 partially reasons. addresses arisen litigation; arise, York's BRENNAN points out, reason difference relevant event. help wonder happened once respected restraint. Just sit edit opinions lower Phillips Petroleum Shutts, 472 797, 823, 2965, 2980, 628 (STEVENS, part), draft guidance respectfully dissent known note following 1251. complaint monetary air mill. 35-36. decisions (1972) I), II), Part infra. source" defined discernible, confined discrete conveyance discharged." 1362(14); 122.2 disputed meaning discussion interpretations Note, Illinois: Demise Common Pollution, 1982 Wis.L.Rev. 627, 664-671. purports "navigable waters," term expansively cover sense. Riverside Bayview Homes, 474 121, 455, 88 419 (1985); 1362(7) (defining "waters States"); 118 Cong.Rec. 33756-33757 Amendments 250 Accord, North Dakota Minnesota, 263 365, 138, 342 (1923); cf. Georgia Tennessee Copper 206 618, 1038 (1907) (air pollution); 104-107, 1393-1395; Glicksman, Preemption Private Legal Remedies 134 U.Pa.L.Rev. 152-155 Wis.L.Rev., 630-636. distinguishing rather Wyandotte, survive I. 327, 19, 1797, 19; 176. maintain court. creating violation 4; 404. description Zener, Guide 61-88 (1981). At 29-30. interested objected 65-66. Thereafter, (1947) ("[W]e start assumption historic police powers Congress"); 312, 1789; §§ 1319(a), 1365(a), (h); Middlesex Sewerage Authority Sea Clammers Assn., 453 1, 13-14, 2615, 2622-2623, 69 (discussing "elaborate" remedial provisions). accompanying "[I]f [in citizen suit] 3668, 3746. reviewing party II: [the clause] repeated haec verba vast array environmental reflect about previously continue 329, 22, 1798, 22. allowing consulting give heard chance issuing [§ 505] underlying [which are] development requirements. manageable precise benchmarks performance." 3747. 317, 1792; W. Keeton, D. Dobbs, Owen, Prosser Torts 616 (5th ed. 1984) ("There perhaps impenetrable jungle entire surrounds word 'nuisance' "). possibility small shares consider, example, plant Mississippi River. Minnesota theoretically nine downstream decision, course, affects pursue If, violating compliance. 1365. commenting objecting standard. 326, 1797 (Act "ample" rights). insignificant, compensated specific harm trying "regulate" IPC. 271-272 Solicitor General, behalf adopts portion view. He acknowledges General pay external created way inconsistent (1984), proposition circumstances others. decline Government's invitation draw sought. history. Silkwood, "split" remedy purposes, pre-empted). think unwise treat differently facts determined requested compelled regardless regulatory. Perez Campbell, 402 651-652, 1704, 1712, 233 (effect analysis). discussed, irreconcilable CWA's grant Chicago Western Transportation Kalo Brick Tile 450 311, 324-325, 1124, 1133-1134, 258 controls preemptive includes dictates result. Post, prescribed occur, if, extent, 1365(c)(1) (citizen located). approaches lex loci delicti N.Y.Jur.2d, 39, 623 (1982); E. Scoles Hay, 17.7, 560-561 (1982). rationale possesses citizens. modern rule, followed majority employs interest-analysis approach. 309, 638, analysis, tortfeasor's conduct—such standards—then Alternatively, compensating tort, Other considerations locations relationship, any, centered. 145, c, 414-416 dismisses importance "merely '[n]othing section,' used implicates reemphasizing contend Brief 12. contest determined, should, my view, Appeals. 637; (1975) (BLACKMUN, concurring); 492, (1941). sake argument suggest instance. Bing Halstead, 495 517, 520 (SDNY 1980) ("Where tortious occurs another, place applies"); Cousins Instrument Flyers, N.Y.2d 698, 699, 405 N.Y.S.2d 441, 376 N.E.2d 914, 915 (1978) ("It true remains displaced circumstances").

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