Document: 431 U.S. 265 97 S.Ct. 1740 52 L.Ed.2d 304 James E. DOUGLAS, Jr., Commissioner, Virginia Marine Resources Commission, Appellant,v.SEACOAST PRODUCTS, INC., et al. No. 75-1255. Argued Jan. 17, 1977. Decided May 23, Syllabus The federal enrollment and licensing laws, under which vessels engaged in domestic or coastwise trade used for fishing are "enrolled" the purpose of evidencing their national character to enable them obtain licenses regulating use may be put held pre-empt statutes that effect prohibit nonresidents from catching menhaden portion Chesapeake Bay bar noncitizens (regardless where they reside) obtaining commercial any kind fish Virginia. Hence, Supremacy Clause, laws cannot prevent appellees, whose vessels, though foreign owned, have been federally licensed, Virginia's waters. Pp. 271-287. (a) Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 6 L.Ed. 23 (1824), decided three decades after were enacted (and re-enacted without substantial change), established invalidity discriminatory state regulation shipping as applied licensed engage coasting trade, subsequent decisions permitted States impose upon licensees reasonable nondiscriminatory conservation environmental protection measures otherwise within police power. 274-279. (b) license does not merely establish nationality vessel (which is performed by enrollment) but "implies, unequivocally, an authority carry on" activity licensed. Gibbons, supra, at 212. 280-282. (c) statutes, prohibiting owned allowing such ships catch anywhere Commonwealth, deny granted right activities on same terms residents. P. 283. (d) broad language Submerged Lands Act did impliedly repeal laws. 283-284. 432 F.Supp. affirmed. Moore, Norfolk, Va., appellant. John J. Loflin, New York City, appellees. [Amicus Curiae Information page 266 intentionally omitted] Mr. Justice MARSHALL delivered opinion Court. 1 issue this case validity two limit aliens territorial waters Commonwealth. 2 * Persons corporations wishing commercially must licenses. Section 28.1-81.1 Code (§ 81.1) (Supp. 1976),1 1975, limits issuance United citizens. Under law, participants partnership, firm, association A business organized corporate form only if it chartered country; American citizens own control least 75% its stock; president, board chairman, controlling majority 3 28.1-60 60) (1976 Supp.)2 governs menhaden, inedible valuable species fin fish.3 60 allows who meet citizenship requirements § 81.1 three-mile-wide belt sea off Commonwealth's eastern coastline. At time, however, prohibits Bay. 4 Appellee Seacoast Products, Inc., one companies dominate industry. other firms, unlike Seacoast, fish-processing plants affected either restrictions challenged case. was founded Jersey 1911 maintains principal offices State; incorporated Delaware qualified do appellees subsidiaries Seacoast; maintain than In 1973, family Seacoast's founder sold Hanson Trust, Ltd., a Kingdom company almost entirely alien stockholders. continued operations unchanged sale. All officers, directors, boat captains crews citizens, over 95% plant employees. 5 time sale, enrolled American-flag ships. See infra, 272-274. 46 U.S.C. §§ 808, 835, transfer these foreign-controlled corporation required approval Department Commerce. This unconditionally opposition competitors full public hearing considered management, workers consumers, competition social economic concerns. 38 Fed.Reg. 29239-29240 (1973); 39 7819, 33812-33813 (1974); App. 29-32. Following approval, appellees' re-enrolled relicensed pursuant 251-252, 263. They remain subject all governing maritime commerce. past decades, although recently, had operated processing thereby entitled resident. Tr. Oral Arg. 28-29, 34. More obtained nonresident restricted outside 1975 passed Legislature, c. 338, Va. Acts, appellant Douglas, Commissioner Virginia, denied applications basis new law. completely excluded fishery. 7 (1, 2) Appellees accordingly filed complaint District Court Eastern seeking declared unconstitutional enforcement enjoined. three-judge court convened struck down both statutes. It requirement pre-empted Bartlett Act, 16 1081 seq., residency restriction violated Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. We noted probable jurisdiction Commissioner's appeal, 425 949, 96 1723, 48 193 (1976), we affirm.4 II 8 advances number theories support affirmance judgment below. Fusari Steinberg, 419 379, 387 n. 13, 95 533, 539 42 521 (1975); Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 475, 6, 90 1153, 1156, 25 491 (1970). Among claim vessels.5 has brief amicus curiae supporting contention. Although basically constitutional nature, deriving force operation Art. VI, cl. 2, treated "statutory" purposes our practice deciding statutory claims first avoid unnecessary adjudications. Hagans Lavine, 415 528, 549, 94 1372, 1385, 577 (1974).6 Since decide ground, reach issues raised parties. well-known principles pre-emption rehearsed recently decisions. See, e. g. Jones Rath Packing Co., 430 519, 525-526, 1305, 1309, 51 604 (1977); De Canas Bica, 424 351, 933, 47 43 (1976). No would served repeating here. enough note deal with legislation arguably superseding law "field . traditionally occupied States." 525, S.Ct., 1309. Preemption will found " 'that clear manifest Congress.' Rice Santa Fe Elevator Corp., 331 218, 230, 67 1146, 1152, 91 1447 (1947)." Ibid. turn focus, then, congressional intent embodied A. 10 basic comprehensive trading earliest days Nation changed little since. Ships lands "registered," documentation procedure set up Second Congress Dec. 31, 1792, Stat. 287,7 now codified U.S.C., 2. "The register declare her assert wherever found." Mohawk, Wall. 566, 571, 18 (1866); Anderson Pacific Coast S. 225 187, 199, 32 626, 630, 56 1047 (1912). Vessels procedures Enrollment Licensing Feb. 18, 1793, 305, 12. evidence procure license." supra; supra. 11 "license," turn, regulates intended fraud revenue States. 262, 263, 319, 325; CFR 67.01-13 statutorily mandated: "license hereby (vessel) employed carrying (. 'coasting trade', 'whale fishery', 'mackerel 'cod fishery',8 be), year date hereof, no longer." also provides properly vessels9 "and others, shall deemed privileges fisheries." 251, Appellees' "mackerel fishery"10 approved 12 registration same. 252; 571-572. Insofar pertinent here, registered identification, measurement, safety standards, generally built States, An exception latter rule permits having stockholders enroll State, president chief executive officer chairman directors more minority necessary constitute quorum noncitizens. 11; 67.03-5(a) Shipping 1916, further ownership requiring Secretary Commerce approve American-owned 808.11 B 13 Deciphering often difficult task, so vintage verges impossible. There virtually surviving legislative history act.12 What have, historic decision Chief Marshall rendered passage Act. invalidated trade. importance lies general discussion commerce power, illumination narrower question meaning 14 encourage development steamboats granting Robert Fulton Livingston exclusive operate steam-powered State's navigate between Elizabethtown Point, N.J., City was, assignment Livingston, Aaron Ogden. Thomas began operating passenger ferries violation Ogden's submonopoly. Gibbons' trade" Id., 203. 15 Ogden nevertheless injunction courts enforcing monopoly restraining running his Chancellor Kent rejected based sole "giv(e) character," i. e., ship. reduced various duties taxes assessed Kent's view, oust power State regulate chattels borders. Johns. Ch. 150, 156-159 (1819). highest affirmed, ruling "the effect" "to determine (the vessel's) character, rate she pay." 17 488, 509 (1820). On appeal Court, rights superseded conflicting state-created asserted Clause. He concluded "(c)ommerce among stop external boundary line each introduced into interior," Wheat., 194, "(t)he ., whatever be, exercised several 196. next defined nature power: regulate; is, prescribe governed." exercise concurrent commerce, even powers, conflicts express rejected. 200-210. then turned whether New-York" "come collision act Congress" acts New-York yield Congress." 210. conflict unquestionable: "To seems very clear, whole according those govern construction implies, trade." "must understood what purports (Gibbons') steamboat 'to date.' 214. argument holding "gives trade; confer character." Finally, phrase "coasting encompassed carriage passengers hire well transport goods. 215-219. written might suggest sweep ousts regulatory neither facts before nor later interpretations extended far. involve absolute ban Rather, allowed some steam ply while excluding others treatment. Subsequent spelled out negative implication : reasonable, 19 For example, Smith Maryland, How. 71, 269 (1855), upheld limited implements could take oysters "enrolment immunity valid State," 74, because "may forbid render (of fishery) less valuable, destroy altogether," id., 75. explicitly reserved statute discriminating against nonresidents. To Manchester Massachusetts, 139 240, 559, 35 159 (1891). There, prohibited person certain types tackle specified areas. Though Rhode Island resident basing fisheries license, 20 "was evidently preservation fish, makes discrimination favor Massachusetts (T)he impartial territory, absence common benefit; repugnant Constitution 265, 565. 21 principle Huron Portland Cement Co. Detroit, 362 440, 80 813, 852 (1960), city's Smoke Abatement applicable vessels. Relying earlier cases, mere possession immunize ship normal incidents local power." 447, 818. As (e) venhanded effectuate legitimate interest," 443, 815, ordinance valid. 22 (3) true Court's view passing incorrect commentators,13 provisions repeatedly substantially form.14 can safely assume aware holding, criticism,15 renowned Gibbons. doubt ratified interpretation progeny. Albemarle Paper Moody, 422 405, 414 8, 2362, 2370, 45 280 Snyder Harris, 394 332, 339, 89 1053, 1058, 319 (1969); Francis Southern 333 445, 449-450, 68 611, 613, 92 798 (1948). consider, impact C are, above, identical part except cover fishery" rather Appellant contends difference distinguishable argues licensee, vessel, freely urges grant additional unconsenting State. points way interfere navigation boats. free cross search jurisdictions lawfully them, through equal impunity. 24 Appellant's reading too narrow. emphatically rejects establishes vessel. That function enrollment. "authority. included in, travel across, waters, land provide economically service. perform landing cargo gave real value Harman Chicago, 147 396, 306, 309, 37 216 (1893). analysis applies mackerel Concededly, implies But, like give something more. "authority fishery." And just progeny discrimination, conclude 26 Moreover, 251 states documented others" "entitled Referring section, held: "These enjoyed, unless prosecuted. privilege convey(s) (to activity) attached." 213. Thus, "entitled" "privileges" fishery access affords residents 27 (4-6) reaffirmed specific section pointed "a particular thing, permission thing; it, transfers grantee authorize. certainly him grantor transfer, 213-214. recognized "grantor" Congress. Thus expressly holds words licensee "all right" convey. While correct arguing times there taking waters,16 today exists interstate Perez 402 146, 1357, 28 686 (1971); Heart Atlanta Motel 379 241, 85 348, 258 (1964); Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 63 82, 87 122 (1942). movement another back again plants, affects Cf. Toomer Witsell, 334 385, 403-406, 1165-1167, 1460 (1948).17 Accordingly, hold that, least, when 1936,18 using which, transfer," necessarily regulations.19 D (7) Application foregoing present straightforward. Licensed prevented hand, seasonal thus violate "indisputable" precept "no exclude commerce." Florida Lime & Avocado Growers, Inc. Paul, 373 132, 142, 83 1210, 1217, 248 (1963). fall 29 seeks escape conclusion 29, 1301-1315, decisions20 recognize title interest swimming argued "own" licensees. contention avail. 30 (8) "title," "ownership," manage, administer, lease, develop, use" beneath oceans natural resources jurisdiction. 1311(a). But made Property Constitution, see Alabama Texas, 347 272, 74 481, 98 689 (1954), retained powers control" "(for) navigation, defense, international affairs." Louisiana, 363 10, 961, 968-969, 1025 (1960); 1314(a). 281-282; Wiggins Ferry East St. Louis, 107 365, 377, 257, 266-267, (1883), alter pre-emptive effect. Certainly implication, treatment 31 (9) event, "(t)o is," Holmes' words, lean slender reed." Missouri Holland, 252 416, 434, 40 382, 384, 64 641 (1920). stand position owner private game preserve pure fantasy talk "owning" wild birds, animals. Neither Federal Government, hopeful fisherman hunter, creatures until skillful capture. Ibid.; Geer Connecticut, 161 539-540, 600, 608, 793 (1896) (Field, J., dissenting). "ownership" cases cited 19th-century legal fiction expressing people exploitation important resource." U.S., 402, 1165; Takahashi Fish Game 410, 420-421, 1138, 1143, 1478 modern analysis, simply conformity Constitution. demonstrated failed here.21 III Our much keeping sound policy considerations federalism. conducted peripatetic entrepreneurs moving, quarry, regard lines. Menhaden spawn open ocean coastal swim live summer, migrate south following winter, appear shores succeeding years. laws,22 becoming increasingly scarce likely prospect, protective retaliatory measures.23 Each fishermen eventually effectively working residence, controlled beyond three-mile limit.24 Such proliferation create precisely sort Balkanization prevent. g., H. Hood Sons, Du Mond, 336 532-539, 69 657, 662-665, 93 865 (1949); cf. Allenberg Cotton Pittman, 20, 260, 195 (1974). find allow result given 33 reasons, preempted different evenhanded measures, essential vital marine sources food supply, unaffected decision. 34 Affirmed. REHNQUIST, whom POWELL joins, concurring dissenting part. 36 I concur join Parts II-D, opinion. states, appears issued statute, grantees affirmative fishermen. agree pre-empts similar absolutely This, believe, need said us. Rather stopping there, embroiders patchwork broader uncertain long-run States' interests me cut somewhat swath justifiable context. True enough, free-swimming conventional sense term (1920); Pierson Post, Cai. 175 (N.Y.1805). therefore answer assertion action amounts appropriation property. proprietary sometimes described "common ownership," 529, 604, boundaries. worthy mention inconsistent anything contained opinion, am sure adequate shift single sentence casting "simply Constitution." Ante, 284-285. precedents none disputed today, variety regulations designed conserve collective Patsone Pennsylvania, 232 138, 281, 58 (1914); (1891); McCready 391, (1877); (1855); exact bases vary, consistent recognizing moment, rise level traditional property right. range invoke circumstances extremely broad. displeasure asymmetry pattern regulation, sensed tension suffice override enactment affecting resource. Barring infirmities, direct here action. Growers matter how "peripatetic" objects however "Balkanized" resulting activity. 285-287. Also, think effecting conveyance primary jurisdiction," ante, 283-284, justified statute's clause reserving "purposes concludes reservation since altered countermand worked legislation, four categories Government issue, sentence, encumbrances previously created affairs powers. alternative reservation-of-powers gives fair warning possibility may, future furtherance intrude management submerged resources. face quitclaim entire enactments 41 Interpretation extend fish. originally codified, "Lands Beneath Navigable Waters Within Boundaries." 30, subch. II. From language, primarily limit. Alaska, 184, 2240, 2245, 109 (1975). 1311(a)(1) conveys "title" reason reasonably refer incapable ownership. 1311(a)(2) confers administration control, identifies object Unless background did, California, 332 19, 36, 1658, 1667, 1889 (1947); Skiriotes Florida, 313 69, 74-75, 61 924, 928, 1193 (1941) not, fact, pre-existing all, assuming purported encompass "natural resources" transferred 1311(a)(1). actual explicit stating repealed, lacks indicia justify finding implied area. quite apart 1314. accordingly. provides: "Licenses manufacture meal, oil, scrap citizen participant therein hereinafter defined. addition to, lieu of, requisite imposed chapter provision amended time. "(b) seventy-five per centum state, district, thereof. "(c) Seventy-five (i) stock vested trust fiduciary obligation States; (ii) voting (iii) if, contract understanding, arranged twenty-five exercised, directly indirectly, behalf (iv) means whatsoever excess conferred part: "Nonresidents generally. (1) Catching oil guano prohibited. joint jurisdiction, converting scrap, meal guano, provided; concerned interested partner otherwise, stockholder corporation, manufactured manufacture, provided. "(2) Resident interested. Nor provided, knowingly permit name purpose. "(3) License person, firm known 'menhaden,' seacoast east straight drawn Cape Charles Lighthouse Henry third Monday Friday November, inclusive, year; provided above-defined area accordance requirements. "(6) Penalty violation. Any violating guilty misdemeanor. industry landed tonnage, largest accounting about 45% total catch. harvest valued $50 million fresh $80 processing. processed industrial including antibiotics, poultry animal feed, paint, soap, lubricants, and, Canada Europe, margarine. spend life cycle estuaries shallow water close shore. Indeed, 1.8 billion pounds taken caught miles coast. far offshore deep during winter months along South Atlantic March, begin northward migration traveling coast enormous schools, ultimately reaching north Cod. Most reverse path fall. feasible migratory period large, dense schools surface. Estuaries nurturing grounds species. Commerce, Fisheries pp. (1976); 24-25, 32-33, 73-89, 92-113. should abstained merit. suggests recent decisions, re Griffiths, 413 717, 2851, 910 Sugarman Dougall, 634, 2842, 853 Graham Richardson, 403 1848, 534 (1971), alienage classification ruled individual aliens. plausible. irrelevant. Abstention proper context "fairly underlying susceptible necessity adjudication." Kusper Pontikes, 51, 55, 303, 260 (1973). appellant's suggestion resolve circumstances, "solemn responsibility" levels judiciary due respect suitor's choice forum claims." Zwickler Koota, 389 248, 88 395, 444 (1967). argue constitutes scheme admitting urge Clauses relations. course, depends Congress, decision, overruling. Vessel actually dates Government. Sept. 1789, repealed Acts discussed text. quaint remained added 24, 1828, 119, 312. seem correspond sought fleets L. Sabine, Report Principal Seas, H.R.Exec.Doc. 32d Cong., 2d Sess., 181 (1853). entitles holder "cod description whatever." Apr. 1836, 16, 67.07-13(b) tons order license. 263; 67.01-1, 67.07-13(a) five net tons. 67.01-11(a)(5) meets tests addition, interest. 802. received ultimate noncitizen Ltd. Annals Cong. 671, 728, 738, 748, 750, 752 (1792). contains debates; records steps committee reports available. Criticism Johnson, 222, 231-233. thought formulation commonly nations manned promote economy assure strength war. G. Gilmore C. Black, Law Admiralty 11-3, 11-4 (2d ed. 1975). soon prerogative country's foremost scholar sharp Marshall's construction: "If congress sovereignty subversive jurisdictions, supposed plain intelligible left supremacy hidden observation knowledge governments, unpretending harmless shape obviously purposes. great point Supreme differed, formidable perfect surprise judicial authorities state; persons former subject, ever entertained idea, apprehend, intended, bear internal stood way." Kent, Commentaries 408, 411 (1st 1826). Frankfurter agreed, calling "esoteric construction." F. Frankfurter, 15, (1937). R. Faulkner, Jurisprudence (1968); M. Baxter, Steamboat Monopoly 34-35, (1972); Campbell, Cases, Syracuse L.Rev. 497, 519-532 Mann, Court: Nationalization Private Rights Personal Liberty Authority Ind.L.J. 117, 180-181, 209-212, 236-237 312 (adding category); (permitting capture license); Rev.Stat. 4311, 4321 (1878) (codifying provisions); 1874, 110, (exempting canal boats); 1936, 49 1367 (license re-enacted). 28, 1887, 288, 435 (temporarily applying season licenses). contemporary comments Johnson Jefferson's well-publicized letters highly critical he saw undue expansion exemplified Warren, History 620-621 (1937 ed.). (1877) ("There States). These ."); 258-260, 562-563, (1896); Cong.Rec. 4734 (1886) (conservation amendment 435, 14, believed apply waters). cites describing "local activity," Alaska Artic Maid, 366 203, 81 929, 931, 227 (1961), "occurs (fish) entered flow commerce," 1161. statements upholding tax Pronouncements interchangeably standing alone 121-122, 87-88. Arctic discriminate 1367. confident midst Deal program, broadly construed Filburn. 1936 re-enactment specifically authorizes fish." Acting Circuit Appeals Pueblos, 77 F.2d 618 (CA2 1935), authorized explains "shall sufficient engaging every description, shellfish." 1368, S.Rep.No.83, 24th 1st Sess. (1836), modification nn. incurring penalty." response grave problem overfishing stocks fleets. Similarly, mechanism size specious. attempt restrict quantity leaves resource all. bears "state admitted protect health suppressing competition." 538, 665, (1949). cloaking objectionable currently fashionable garb protection. despite ownership, record net-size restriction. Furthermore, relies factually distinguishable. petitioner 71 (1891), raise claims, equally filing briefs amici see, Md.Nat.Res.Ann. 4-703, 4-704(b) Mass.Gen.Laws Ann. 130, 99 1923, 1923 Mass.Acts 35, Mar. 1962, 1962 219; 158; N.Y.Envir.Conserv.Law 13-0333(4), 13-0335(2), 13-0341(7) (McKinney 1973). Va.Code 28.1-57 threat legislation. Abel, Regulation Interstate Transportation Facilities, N.C.L.Rev. 121, 159-160 7, (1972). Connecticut Ohio retaliated Livingston-Fulton forbidding entering waters; treble damages anyone 4-5 (argument Daniel Webster); 160; 25-30. March 1977, 200 nautical coasts. 336, 1811

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