Document: 341 U.S. 622 71 S.Ct. 920 95 L.Ed. 1233 BREARDv.CITY OF ALEXANDRIA, LA. No. 399. Argued March 7, 8, 1951. Decided June 4, [Syllabus from pages 622-623 intentionally omitted] Mr. E. Russell Shockley, Philadelphia, Pa., for appellant. Frank H. Peterman, Alexandria, La., appellee. Justice REED delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The appellant here, Jack Breard, a regional representative Keystone Readers Service, Inc., Pennsylvania corporation, was arrested while going door to in City Louisiana, soliciting subscriptions nationally known magazines. arrest solely on ground that he had violated an ordinance because not obtained prior consent owners residences solicited. resident Texas, charge crew solicitors who go house various cities and towns area under Breard's management solicit magazines periodicals, including among others Saturday Evening Post, Ladies Home Journal, Country Gentleman, Holiday, Newsweek, American Home, Cosmopolitan, Esquire, Pic, Parents, Today's Woman True. These spend only few days each city, depending upon its size. sends card home office new subscribers acknowledging receipt subscription thereafter periodical is forwarded subscriber by publisher interstate commerce through mails. 2 which made, so far as here pertinent, reads follows: 3 'Section 1. Be it ordained council city legal session convened practice private Louisiana solicitors, peddlers, hawkers, itinerant merchants or transient vendors merchandise having been requested invited do owner owners, occupant occupants said purpose orders sale goods, wares and/or disposing peddling hawking same declared be nuisance punishable such misdemeanor.' 4 It, one similar import, has statute books Alexandria many years. It stipulated that: 5 'Such enacted theCity Council, other reasons, some householders complained those authority instances, reason another, were undesirable discourteous, that, whether solicitor courteous not, they did desire any uninvited intrusion into privacy their home.' 6 protective purposes underscored Supreme Court opinion. 217 La. 820, 47 So.2d 553, at page 555. 7 At appellant's trial violation ordinance, there motion quash violates Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment Federal Constitution; Commerce Clause, art. 1, § cl. 3; guarantees First freedom speech press, made applicable states Constitution United States. Appellant's overruled court found guilty sentenced pay $25 fine serve 30 jail. affirmed conviction expressly rejected federal constitutional objections. 553. case appeal, 28 U.S.C. 1257, Jamison v. 318 413, 63 669, 87 869. 8 All declare liberty proceed disagree themselves true meaning. There equal unanimity opportunists, gain, cannot permitted arm with acceptable principle, right work, privilege engage commerce, free use iron standard smooth path crushing living rights repose. This calls adjustment light particular conditions time place. Everyone have his own way must yield something reasonable satisfaction needs all. 9 knocker front treated invitation license attempt entry, justifying ingress hawkers peddlers all kinds salable articles.1 When visitors are barred premises notice order, however, subsequent trespasses punished.2 Door-to-door canvassing flourished increasingly recent years ready market furnished rapid concentration housing. infrequent still welcome rural became recurring when visits multiplied.3 Unwanted knocks day night nuisance, worse, peace quiet. local retail merchant, too, unmindful effective competition house-to-house selling lines. As matter business fairness, may thought really sporting corner quarry open put pressure prospect purchase. exigencies trade ordinarily expected higher rating constitutionally than tranquillity fireside, responsible municipal officers sought curb annoyances preserving complete desirable homes. idea barring classified salesmen homes means notices posted individual early less practical regulating solicitors.4 10 Town Green River, Wyoming, undertook 1931 remedy irritating incidents sales. substance material, Louisiana.5 River sustained Circuit Appeals Tenth 1933 against attack nonresident orders, bill injunction prohibit enforcement, grounds interference deprivation property without due process law, denial protection laws. Fuller Brush Co., Cir., 65 F.2d 112. No review decision sought. An employee Company challenged again courts Wyoming 1936 prosecution town misdemeanor violating terms. On this certain purely state relied upon, we need notice, charges repeated. held valid Wyoming. Bunger, 50 Wyo. 52, 58 P.2d 456.6 11 Process.—On appeal Court, urged particularly unconstitutionality unreasonable restraints placed 'the common occupations life,' citing inter alia, New State Ice Co. Liebmann, 285 262, 278, 52 371, 374, 76 747, Adams Tanner, 244 590, 37 662, 61 1336. He also alleged prohibition guise police regulation.7 12 Here dismissed want substantial question. Bunger 300 638, 57 510, 81 854. For answer argument denied restraint legitimate occupation, cited three cases: Gunding Chicago, 177 183, 20 633, 44 725;8 Western Turf Association Greenberg, 204 359, 27 384, 51 520;9 Williams Arkansas, 79, 493, 54 673.10 13 opinions since given argue power over infirmities principle embodied concept carry inoffensive business. Decisions Liebmann supra, invalidating legislative action, hardly point here. former required certificate convenience necessity manufacture ice, latter prohibited employment agencies receiving remuneration services. can characterized prohibitory obtaining periodicals limited sense forbidding solicitation canvass invitation. regulatory legislation sense. usual methods solicitation—radio, mail, agencies—are open.11 Furthermore, neither strong position today appealed. See Olsen Nebraska, 313 236, 243, et seq., 862, 863, 85 1305, Lincoln Labor Union Northwestern Iron & Metal 335 525, 535, 69 251, 256, 93 212. 14 Constitution's does make impotent guard citizens life regulation restrict manner doing business.12 question man's propriety method presented most appealing form—an assertion door-to-door permit subdivisions deprive specialist livelihood. But putting aside after i.e., sales methods, petitioner's business, think even occupation restricted public interest. dissent 280, 303, 375, 383, 747. problem where bases action.13 We hold invalid Amendment. 15 Clause.—Nor consider burden commerce.14 cases Bunger's behalf Asbell Kansas, 209 254, 255, 485, 486, 778 (allowing Kansas inspection cattle imported state, except immediate slaughter); Savage Jones, 225 501, 32 715, 722, 56 1182 regulate require formula stock feeds); Hartford Accident Indemnity People Illinois, 298 155, 158, 685, 686, 80 1099 (upholding Illinois requiring commission keep record out-of-state consignments obtain give bond).15 16 Appellant course, forbids 17 'Under our system, necessarily remains States, until Congress acts, wide range permissible exercise appropriate territorial jurisdiction although affected. * States thus enabled deal exert absence conflict essential power.'16 18 Such long recognized.17 argues 'because operation applied similarly situated, imposes undue discriminatory effect tantamount commerce.' secure householder's too costly results negligible. extent stipulated, large.18 asserts inapplicable issue, met, date, 1936, 'incidental'19 decided 'before widespread enactment Ordinances before actual cumulative could possibly forecast.' Hood Sons DuMond, 336 657, 865, Dean Milk Madison, 340 349, 295, demonstrate will interests protect curtailing business.20 19 partly discriminated struck down. 'In erecting economic barrier protecting major industry State, Madison plainly discriminates commerce. do, unquestioned health safety people, if nondiscriminatory alternatives, adequate conserve interests, available.' 354, 298. 21 Nor clause alternatives apply ordinance. Interstate itself door. knock protected distinct action.21 Likewise DuMond discrimination dealers invalidated order refusing buy milk distributor.22 Where no existed, somewhat situation, upheld commerce.23 accord, Panhandle Eastern Pipe Line Michigan Pub. Serv. Comm., 329, 336, 777, 781. 22 recognize importance publishers solicitation. operations different concerned sellers wares.24 Appellant, canvasser, more violate regulations solicitors. above, seeking left That produce much is, constitutionally, immaterial level legislation. Cf. Prudential Ins. Benjamin, 328 408, 66 1142, 90 1342. Taxation threatens bad, Nippert Richmond, 327 416, 434, 586, 594, 760, but leaves basis reason. 23 While taxation licensing peddling, defined delivering show shipment immune exaction.25 decisions explained embodying apparent fixed-sum licenses regardless sales.26 added financial exaction matters, considerations apply. 24 Alexandria's falls classification regulation. effects gainsaid. To engaged, ordinances compel development technique approach prospects. Their competitors gain advantages location stores investments retains flexibility movement heavy investment. 25 general type shows adaptation communities it. willing appraise suggestion, unsupported record, springs predominantly selfish influence merchants. 26 Even Court's Martin Struthers, 319 141, 1313, holding invalid, person distributing leaflets advertising religious meeting, Ohio, summoning residence door, extreme created comment. Chafee, Free Speech (1941) 406.27 duty practices deemed subversive A householder depends board rather churlishly guarding entrances entrance sign would small billboard differentiations between unwelcome written once cheaply 'The extends beyond health, morals safety, comprehends duty, within limitations, well-being tranquility community.'28 29 social, distinguished economic, welfare community, deny locally sovereign Louisiana.29 Changing variations experiences habits well call manners Powers municipalities subject control states. judgment intimate knowledge body. say burdens impedes exceed powers city. Amendment.—Finally come heretofore invalidation abridgment press. Only press oral advocates ideas urge point. gadgets brushes. ordinary modern labor regulation, referred above note 24, but, stated brief, places arbitrary, established distribution circulation lawful and, effect, utilization method.' Regulation elements prohibition. Thus money-making activities entitle him 'in residences' will, entitled protection.30 kind mere fact money out bar publications protection.31 agree sold them Amendment.32 selling, brings transaction commercial feature. 31 Amendments never absolutes.33 Freedom mean talk distribute where, how chooses. Rights involved. By rights, both full expression orderly life. comes nearest supporting contention 863. anyone receive advertisements dodgers 'advertising meeting.' Attention directed aimed 'solely advertising.' said: 33 anything literature, respect substitutes community householder.' 143—144, 34 release distributor because: 35 'Freedom information every citizen wherever desires clearly vital preservation society distribution, fully preserved.' 146—147, 865. carefully phrased application principles element entered narrowly precise services, feel inconsistent conclusion reached case. 36 In Marsh Alabama, 326 276, 265, Tucker 517, 274, 274,34 unable punish trespass, criminal statute, distributors printed matter, commercial. owned used permissive passways company government-owned towns. dedication seems fair ways considered dedication. extended colporteurs offending trespass laws distributing, desist, like tenants apartment house. Hall Virginia, 188 Va. 72, 49 S.E.2d 369, conviction, appellee dismiss lack question, 875, 912, 240, 480, 418; see 2, supra. Since individuals governments abridging Virginia rule However, shown 640, 931, speak matters power, present time-honored offense notice. 38 makes constitutionality turn balancing conveniences householders' publisher's best results. issue collision hospitable housewife, peering Monday morning around her chained courteous, well-trained persistent solicitor, offering bargain culture joint Pic Woman. Behind housewife housewives homeowners offer aid. Breard 'Keystone' annual $5,000,000 valuable publications, together opportunity remind help them, doors, subscribe publications. 39 Subscriptions interested canvassing. these obnoxious be, us, misuse great force admit residents. 40 Affirmed. 41 Chief VINSON, whom DOUGLAS, joins, dissenting. 42 us hitherto magazine owner. Looking face sustains objections I reverse below reaching issues raised, for, my opinion, constitutes 43 holds 'ordinance regulation,' 931. view, flat recognized 'provid(ing) blanket invitation, save food vendors, specifically exempt.' 828, 556. Unlike acknowledged character rejecting claim following portion opinion: tax, license. activity territory, involving problematical commodity originating another actually distributed Mails. itself, nor commodity, phase transportation place commodity.' (Emphasis original.) 829, 45 least Robbins Shelby County Taxing District, 1887, 120 489, 497, 592, 596, 694, regarded goods shipped across lines being itself. Under line reexamined reaffirmed 1946, subjected taxes, bonding requirements discriminate unduly purport overrule decisions. And acknowledges, must, sharply essentially retailing peddling. Wagner Covington, 1919, 251 95, 103—104, 93, 64 157, therein. dispute severe impact employer, entire derives 50% 60% very imposing 'blanket prohibition' 46 'To several States.' U.S.Const. Art. I, 3. doctrine Cooley Board Port Wardens, 1851, How. 299, 996, permits impinging then grounded practical, 'duty determine (or ordinance) attack, whatever name work Best Maxwell, 1940, 311 454, 455—456, 334, 335, 275. face, professes relieve weigh Lack sufficient sustain inquiry E.g., 1951, 297 (prohibition pasteurized five miles city); Real Silk Hosiery Mills Portland, 1925, 268 325, 526, 982, (requirement file bond); Minnesota Barber, 1890, 136 313, 455 (statute meat state). passing affecting hesitated noting 'real competitors' (solicitors) are, others, merchants.' 433, 498, 596. acknowledges 'effective competition' merchants, 627, 924, deliberate refusal deterrent 639, plain favoring 'Whether intended, necessary effects.' 595. exempts purveyors farm products relieved burdensome doubts proper legislation, end served prohibiting Our avoided limiting categories tax contrary, action which, "in form guise, directly burden(s) business." Baldwin G.A.F. Seelig, 1935, 294 511, 522, 55 500, 79 1032, International Textbook Pigg, 1910, 91, 112, 481, 487, 678. 1949, should defer Council though act '(T)his legislature council), final arbiter competing demands local) national interests.' Southern Pacific Arizona, 1945, 325 761, 769, 1515, 1520, 89 1915. 48 relies 1937, 854, man akin us. argument, citation discussed 928, 'incidental' feeding cattle, produce.* recently announced 295. course discussion decision, remarks instant 'Interstate door.' 636, 929. read fact, avoidance Milk, buttresses consistently BLACK, DOUGLAS May 3, 1943, enforce impose taxes Jones Opelika, 103, 890, 1290; Murdock Com. Pennsylvania, 105, 870, 1292, unlawful persons knocking doors ringing doorbells invite religious, political meetings. 1313. Over dissents, invade speech, religion Amendments. Today majority adopts dissenters Newsweek reconciled Struthers cases, me good judicial forthright overruling. done disagreement now constituted stems basically reach difference what held. marks revitalization views prevailed embraced philosophy gives preferred status liberties protects. adhere philosophy. belief people Nation survive little governmental hobbling ideas, communicated orally 53 sanctuary include publish circulate. view paying subscribers. Of wish forbid newsboys, reporters ring doorbells. homeowner himself this, believe Amendment, interpreted regard freedoms guarantees, bars peacefully agents press.* Restatement Torts, 167; Cooley, Torts (4th ed.) 248. statutes collected 147, 10, 'We assume existed first section states, become annoying disturbing objectionable citizens. knowledge, frequent alone determining reasonableness seek dispose wares. One follows disturb quietude constant annoyance.' 114, 88 A.L.R. 177. 70, 456, 462; cf. D.C., F. 126. consideration, sale, milk, dairy products, vegetables, poultry, eggs garden *.' classification. Tigner 310 60 879, 84 1124; 90, 495, 673. validity number courts. Five states—Colorado, (in previous one), Mexico, York, Wyoming—have scope deprived laws, infringed McCormick Montrose, 105 Colo. 99 969; Shreveport Cunningham, 190 482, 182 So. 649; 216 923, 79; Gallup, N.M. 71, 619; Bohnke, 287 N.Y. 154, N.E.2d 478; 456. Eleven hand, invalid. acted part nonfederal grounds, based Clause. court, voiding principal conduct amounted one; showing injury conduct; vested prohibition; delegated municipality. Prior White, 132 Fla. 180 347, 116 1176 (not nuisance); Clay Matthews, 185 Ga. 279, 194 S.E. 172 (affirming evenly divided court); DeBerry LaGrange, 62 Ga.App. 74, 146 nuisance; invades inalienable soliciting); Osceola Blair, 231 Iowa 770, N.W.2d 83 deprives occupation); Mt. Sterling Donaldson Baking Ky. 781, 155 S.W.2d 237 power); Jewel Tea Bel Air, Md. 536, 192 A. 417 municipality); Geneva, 137 Neb. 768, 291 N.W. 664 Jay Burns Bryan, 264 504, 412, 68 813); N.J. Good Humor, Commissioners, 124 N.J.L. 162, A.2d 113 McAlester Grand 186 Okl. 98 924 (only Orangeburg Farmer, 181 S.C. 143, 783 (unreasonable, prohibits process, improper motive); Ex parte Faulkner, 143 Tex.Cr.R. 272, 158 525 (beyond White Culpeper, 630, 269 nuisance). Air Culpeper contained provisions involved noted York tracts, Enforcement subsequently enjoined members Jehovah's Witnesses sect, Donley Colorado Springs, F.Supp. 15, Zimmerman Village London, D.C.Ohio, 582. cited: 982; DiSanto 273 34, 267, 524; 678; Rogers 227 401, 298, 569; 694; G. 1032; Stewart Michigan, 232 665, 476, 786. cigarettes upheld. 'Regulations respecting pursuit occurrence country, shall trade, apply, questions determine, determination unless utterly extravagant nature personal unnecessarily, wholly interfered destroyed extend pass, interference.' 188, 635. making refuse purchaser ticket admission entertainment circumstances relating drunkenness vice, 'Does defendant law? negative. familiar all, cited, possession, surrendered government; restrained morals, good, well-being, comfort people.' 363, 386. just, likewise promotive attend amusement.' 364, sections Acts 1907, Act upheld: "Sec. persons, hereinafter provided act, drum patronage hotel, lodging house, eating bath physician, masseur, surgeon, medical practitioner, trains, cars, depots railroad carrier operating running Arkansas. 2. Arkansas knowingly cars drumming profession whatsoever; *." 86, 493. quoted saying: "Drummers swarm trains physicians, houses, hotels, etc., existence repeated solicitations. traveler deaf ear importunities, render unpleasant annoying. drummer law disorderly conduct, source annoyance travelers beseeching allowed lead doctor hotel." 89, 495. Jensen, Burdening Direct Selling, Rocky Mtn.L.Rev. 257, 275: disclaim upholding suggest merchandising direct-selling businesses short retailing, (65 112), woeful problems direct-to-consumer merchandising.' Nebbia 502, 523, 505, 78 940: government contracts normally concern. interference. contract absolute; exist detriment fellows, harm. Equally fundamental interest.' Railway Express Agency 106, 463, 533; Daniel, Attorney General Family Security Life 220, 550, 632. Arizona California, 283 423, 454—455, 75 1154; Henneford Silas Mason 577, 524, 528, 814. Constitution, easily distinguished. 569, 786, relate 982. statement noticed: 'Nor accept theory expressed prevent possible frauds enough justify interferes flow Shafer Farmers' Grain 189, 909.' 526. comment bond Parker Brown, 317 341, 361, 307, 318, 315. (International Pigg), 678, construed transact price paid minimum requirement state. (DiSanto Pennsylvania), direct steamship procure license, longer ruling. California Thompson, 109, 115, 930, 933, 1219. None consideration solicitor's conduct. Kelly Washington, 302 9—10, 87, 92, 82 996; Emert Missouri, 156 296, 367, 430; Austin Tennessee, 179 343, 132, 224; Rate Cases (Simpson Shepard), 230 352, 402, 729, 741, 743, 1511; South Carolina Highway Dept. Barnwell Bros., 303 177, 187, 625, 514, 734; 930; 362, 317, 319, 315; Toomer Witsell, 334 385, 394, 1156, 1161, 92 1460; Pub.Serv. 777. 'As often nevertheless repetition, ones, forbidden. For, 'interstate way,' borders bring naught fathers giving foreign Nations, *'. accomplished produces excluding effect.' 425 426, 760. Nelson Sears, Roebuck 312 888, maintenance corporation engaged mail residents, none corporation's connection field regularly accounts total nationally-distributed submit verified reports Audit Bureau Circulations. During period 1925 average per attributable solicitation, 30% value 1948 $5,319,423.40. association publishers, organization whose 400 combined 140 million copies. sponsors maintains central registry plan Keystone, subscriptions, belong. 'Incidental' test continued useful sustained, 'indirect' 'direct,' affect command operations. relevant facts appears appropriately regulated interest communities, difficulties involved, adequately dealt Congress.' 362—363, So seeks blame passage retailers, disregard arguments legislators, 455, 1154. 354—355, 298: 'If prefers rely officials distant sources, readily hardship cost importing producers processors.' 531—532, 533, 865: 'It (the 1032) recognized, we, broad inhabitants perils fraudulent traders highway hazards, measures bear adversely laid emphasis promote curtailment burdening 'This distinction shelter menaces fraud, dangers emanate retard, constrict advantage, deeply rooted history law.' Control Eisenberg Farm Products, 306 346, 59 752. Giragi Moore, 301 670, 946, 1334; Id., Ariz. 33, 1249, 110 314; 819, 320; Associated Press National Relations Board, 132—133, 650, 655, 656, 953; 1416, 1418, 2013. Commonwealth Ober, Cush., Mass., 493; Crenshaw 389, 399—400, 294, 297, 565; Caskey 117, 119, 881, 882, 1223. McGoldrick Berwind-White 309 55—57, 388, 397—398, 421—425, 588—590. 'House raises serious problems. spreading unpopular extensive protection. possibilities persuasion slight compared certainties annoyance. Great exposing novel views, ought able shut up desires. searches seizures hearing strangers expound distasteful doctrines. doorbell disregarded handbill. takes minutes ascertain propagandist get rid him. Moreover, dislike leave visitor windy doorstep explains errand, yet inside robbery worse happen. salvation odd brands seem regular run canvassers. important speech. wondering Justices quite aware organized front-door intrusions sheltered zealots impostors staff servants locked house.' Kovacs Cooper, 77, 83, 448, 451, 513. Carolene Products 304 144, 778, 784, 1234: 'But inquiries, drawn either reasonably assumed affords support demurrer challenges evident Congress, take debatable filled unregulated, measure restricted, prohibited. finding arrived weighing evidence, verdict jury substituted it.' 869; Skiriotes Florida, 69, 1193; Hebert 272 312, 316, 104, 270. 146, 864, 1313; Lovell Griffin, 444, 452, 666, 949. Thomas Collins, 323 516, 531, 315, 323, 430. 88, 14; concurrence Cantwell Connecticut, 304, 900, 903, 1213; Cox Hampshire, 762, 1049; Chaplinsky 315 568, 766, 86 1031; 109—110, 873, 1292; Prince Massachusetts, 321 166, 438, 442, 645; Saia 558, 561, 1148, 1150, 1574; Feiner 303. collection Niemotko Maryland, 268, 276 ff, 330. called forth numerous notes, e.g., Col.L.Rev. 457; Georgetown L.J. 244; Mich.L.Rev. 848. strange relying 'has 635, 929, 19. 'merchant' goes 'selling pots.' Compare 1313 Valentine Chrestensen, 316 920, 1262.

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