Document: 458 U.S. 941 102 S.Ct. 3456 73 L.Ed.2d 1254 Joy SPORHASE and Delmer Moss, etc., Appellantsv.NEBRASKA, ex rel. Paul L. DOUGLAS, Attorney General. No. 81-613. Argued March 30, 1982. Decided July 2, Syllabus A Nebraska statute provides that any person who intends to withdraw ground water from well located in the State transport it for use an adjoining must obtain a permit Department of Water Resources. If Director Resources finds such withdrawal is reasonable, not contrary conservation water, otherwise detrimental public welfare, he will grant if which be used grants reciprocal rights Nebraska. Appellants jointly own contiguous tracts land Colorado, on tract pumps irrigation both Colorado tracts, but they never applied required by statute. Appellee brought action state court enjoin appellants transferring across border without permit. Rejecting defense imposed undue burden interstate commerce, trial granted injunction. The Supreme Court affirmed. Held: 1. Ground article commerce therefore subject congressional regulation. Pp. 945-954. (a) Although appellee's claimed greater ownership interest than certain other natural resources may irrelevant Commerce Clause analysis, does remove scrutiny, since argument still based legal fiction ownership. 945-952. (b) States' interests conserving preserving scarce arid Western States clearly have dimension. agricultural markets supplied irrigated farms provide archtypical example among Framers Constitution intended authorize federal Here, multistate character aquifer underlying appellants' land, as parts Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, demonstrates there significant fair allocation diminishing resources. 952-954. 2. reciprocity requirement violates imposing impermissible commerce. While first three conditions set forth granting permit—that welfare do their faces impermissibly provision operates explicit barrier between its States. has initial demonstrating close fit asserted local purpose. Such requirement, when superimposed restrictions, fails clear this hurdle, no evidence narrowly tailored preservation rationale. Thus, survive "strictest scrutiny" reserved facially discriminatory legislation. 954-958. 3. Congress permission engage regulation would impermissible. are 37 statutes number compacts Congress' deference law, indicate wished constitutional restraints law. Neither fact chosen create law govern involved projects nor been willing let settle differences over through mutual agreement, constitutes persuasive consented unilateral imposition unreasonable burdens 958-960. 208 Neb. 703, 305 N.W.2d 614, reversed remanded. Richard A. Dudden, Ogallala, Neb., appellants. George Roderic Anderson, Lincoln, appellee. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. 1 challenge constitutionality statutory restriction within State. presents questions under Clause:1 (1) whether regulation; (2) transfer imposes commerce; (3) 2 Chase County, Nebraska, Phillips Colorado. physically tract. Previous owners registered with 1971, neither present Neb.Rev.Stat. § 46-613.01 (1978). That section provides: 3 "Any person, firm, city, village, municipal corporation or entity intending pit shall apply so. requested Nebraska." 4 permit.2 rejected 614 (1981). It held that, "a market item freely transferable value private parties, [is] commerce." Id., at 705, N.W.2d, 616.3 Chief Justice, while agreeing criteria governing did violate Clause, dissented narrow appellee violated Federal Constitutions attempting "to absolutely prohibit regard need availability, solely upon acts another citizens control." 713, 620. 5 * In holding cite controlling precedent Hudson County Co. v. McCarter, 209 349, 28 529, 52 L.Ed. 828 (1908). case Jersey prohibited surface State.4 nevertheless contracted York City supply one boroughs Passaic River Jersey. General sought courts injunction against fulfillment contract. Over company's objections impaired obligation contract, took property just compensation, interfered denied privileges afforded citizens, equal protection laws, was granted. This Court, Holmes, 6 Most Court's addresses compensation claim. Holmes refused holding, courts,5 "the more less attenuated residuum title said possess." 355, S.Ct., 530. For justified regulatory measure balance, amount taking compensation. Putting aside "problems irrigation," State's waters police power.6 dependent demonstration were inadequate future use. "finds itself possession what all admit great good, keep give reason will." 357, 531. 7 Having disposed claim, turned very briefly challenges. paragraph, Contract remaining paragraph opinion, defenses. His treatment consists sentences: "A man cannot acquire right his desire can enlarge limited qualified same end. covered respect Geer Connecticut, 161 519 [, 16 600, 40 793] [ (1896) ]." Ibid. 8 relies rest our summary affirmance three-judge District judgment Altus Carr, 255 F.Supp. (WD Tex.), summarily aff'd, 385 35, 87 240, 17 34 (1966). city near southern Oklahoma. Large population increases rendered source water. consequently obtained Texas county contractual pump border. Legislature thereafter enacted forbade exportation approval body.7 filed suit claiming Clause. 9 relied West Kansas Natural Gas Co., 221 229, 31 564, 55 716 (1911), invalidated Oklahoma prevented gas produced State,8 Pennsylvania Virginia, 262 553, 43 658, 67 1117 (1923), Virginia accorded preference purchase therein.9 defended two grounds. First, purpose conserve protect regulating because similar claims had met defeat supra, supra.10 Second, argued regulated citing 519, 793 (1896), directly transportation pumped ground, then little difficulty concluding commerce.11 10 affirming Altus, we necessarily adopt court's reasoning. Our indicates only agreement result reached Metromedia, Inc. San Diego, 453 490, 499, 101 2882, 2888, 69 800 inconsistent case. differs significantly regarding owner withdrawn. According "rule could percolating capture wells whatever beneficial purposes needed it, off likewise sell others outside basin where produced, species property." F.Supp., 833, n. 8. Since once withdrawn, bought sold follow rule, those appropriately regarded comparable As explained " 'the entitled appropriate subterranean found extract them excess reasonable owns, especially injurious substantial waters, underground insufficient owners, each proportion whole.' 617 (quoting Olson Wahoo, 124 802, 811, 248 N.W. 304, 308 (1933)). 11 however, County. latter issue. Geer, sustained Connecticut ban game birds captured State, premised theory owned wild animals free qualify might recognize persons them. One prohibition animals. advanced Altus. withdraws restrict theory, issue decided, Altus.12 expressly overruling years ago, traced demise definitively recast 'but expressive shorthand importance people power preserve regulate exploitation important resource.' Hughes 441 322, 334, 99 1727, 1735, 60 250 (1979) Toomer Witsell, 334 385, 402, 68 1156, 1165, 92 1460 (1948)). See also Baldwin Montana Fish Game Comm'n, 436 371, 384-387, 98 1852, 1860-1862, 56 354 (1978); Douglas Seacoast Products, Inc., 431 265, 284-285, 97 1740, 1751-1752, 304 (1977). sustain minnows seined 12 insists, distinguishable enjoys lesser captor Hughes, permitted intrastate trade captured. scrutiny. illustrated arrangements pursuant withdrawn rural areas transferred urban areas. see Metropolitan Utilities Merritt Beach 179 783, 140 626 (1966), distinguished transferor charge price costs distribution itself. 708, 618. Unless demand supply, reasoning distinguish minnows, presumably derived seining transporting catch market. Even cases shortage, seller resource exceeds costs, rate structure requires cost-justified economically prices rates thought depend controlled commodity. anomalous economic transactions depended characterization payment services, hand, goods, other. Cf. re Rahrer, 545, 558, 865, 868, 35 572 (1891). 13 second distinction unlike resources, essential human survival. Appellee, amici curiae vitally interested States, convincingly demonstrated desirability management water.13 But indeed survival, studies 80% supplies purposes.14 worldwide. They several Ogallala aquifer—underlying Kansas15—confirms view resource. Arizona California, 373 546, 83 1468, 542 (1963). 14 interests, superior competence, inquiry. Nor claim significance. Like infra, 958-960, these factors inform determination unreasonable. goes too far: exempt burden-on-commerce curtail affirmative implement policies concerning SeePhiladelphia Jersey, 437 617, 621-623, 2531, 2534-2535, 57 475 chooses legislate area power, laws. overdraft national problem deal scale. II 15 conclusion raises, answer, question unconstitutional. existence unexercised foreclose uses indeed, Southern Pacific Sullivan, 325 761, 766-767, 65 1515, 1518-1519, 89 1915 (1945); United South-Eastern Underwriters Assn., 322 533, 548-549, 64 1162, 1171, 88 1440 (1944); Cooley Board Wardens, How. 299, 319, 996 (1852). Determining validity affecting careful inquiry: "Where regulates evenhandedly effectuate legitimate interest, effects incidental, upheld unless excessive relation putative benefits. found, becomes degree. And extent tolerated course nature involved, promoted impact activities." Pike Bruce Church, 397 137, 142, 90 844, 847, 25 174 (1970) (citation omitted). advances sources unquestionably highly important,16 aspects Nebraska's demonstrate genuine. Appellants' boundaries Upper Republican Control Area, designated "[a]n meet reasonably foreseeable needs supply." 46-658(1) (Supp. 1981); App. 56-60. Pursuant 46-666(1), promulgated special rules regulations 61-82. define "critical" townships control annual decline table fixed percentage; critical township. require installation flow meters every area, specify per acre irrigation, spacing wells. strictly limit water: transfers lands groundwater user, approved Directors. 68-69. 18 transfer. Those requirements "that welfare." concerns implicated applies transfers, reasons requests lines. Obviously, severe restrictions discriminating seeks prevent uncontrolled out An exemption ideal evenhandedness At least located, standards strict application limitations District. 19 Moreover, absence expressed Congress, reluctant condemn unreasonable, measures taken vital times shortage. reluctance stems "confluence [several] realities." Hicklin Orbeck, 518, 534, 2482, 2491, places shortage protecting health citizens—and simply economy—is core power. purposes, long recognized difference protectionism, safety regulation, H. P. Hood & Sons Du Mond, 336 525, 657, 662, 93 865 (1949). expectation circumstances borders fostered equitable apportionment decrees, see, e.g., Wyoming 353 953, 77 906 (1957), negotiation enforcement compacts. relevance Third, although justify total denial support utilization U.S., 533-534, 2491. regard, relevant logically 950-951. Finally, given efforts, continuing availability happenstance; some indicia good publicly favor Reeves, Stake, 447 429, 100 2271, 244 (1980); cf. Philadelphia 627-628, 6, 2537, 6; facial examination not, therefore, Appellants, seem concede reasonableness. 20 Nebraska"—the troubled Because forbids water,17 bears 336, 1736; Dean Milk Madison, 340 354, 71 295, 297, 95 329 (1951). 21 hurdle. though particular abundant, perhaps even excessive, most shipped into neighboring shown whole suffers abundance feasible regardless distance, importation roughly compensate credibly provision. demonstrably conceivably able marshal establish means-end relationship exists. We persuaded requirement—when interest; surely serve 337, 1736.18 III 22 Appellee's suggestion authorized impose founded. deferred dealing Congress. 23 Abstracts sections submitted connection Hearings S. 1275 before Subcommittee Irrigation Reclamation Senate Committee Interior Insular Affairs, 88th Cong., 2d Sess., 302-310 (1964). refers submission discusses Act 1902, 32 Stat. 390. section, turns out, typical 36 statutes. contains parts. "nothing construed affect way interfere laws Territory relating control, appropriation, use, irrigation." language defines legislation's pre-emptive effect England Power Hampshire, 455 331, 341, 1096, 1102, 188 (1982); Lewis BT Investment Managers, 27, 49, 2009, 2022, 702 (1980). part Secretary Interior, carrying provisions Act, proceed conformity laws." mandates arise project determined accordance California 438 645, 2985, 1018 24 agreements Council Governments, Interstate Compacts Agencies 25-29, 31-32 (1979). emphasizes compact involving South Platte River, 44 (part 2) 195, 86. law,19 constraints negative implications like Fourteenth Amendment, ingredients valid deferred. projects, agreement,20 instances consent, 'intent policy' legislation attack Clause" 'expressly stated.' 343, 1102 Prudential Ins. Benjamin, 328 408, 427, 66 1142, 1153, 1343 (1946)).21 Merrion Jicarilla Apache Tribe, 130, 155, 21, 894, 911, (1982). 26 (1978) leave invalid portion severable. reversed, remanded proceedings opinion. 27 so ordered. REHNQUIST, whom O'CONNOR joins, dissenting. presented case, issue, itself, invalidates (1978), relates groundwater. instead confining question, quite gratuitously undertakes answer authority conferred Constitution, enable ground-water 29 distinct leaves room doubt. stream activities including wholly activities. See, Kirschbaum Walling, 316 517, 62 1116, 86 1638 (1942); Darby, 312 100, 61 451, 85 609 (1941); Houston R. 234 342, 58 1341 (1914). activity falls many involve articles all. example, Kirschbaum, employees engaged operation maintenance loft building large quantities goods produced; contended themselves, work actually performed, dealt Nonetheless, Fair Labor Standards extended terms "engaged commerce" "in production 522, 1119. 30 reach further mere Upon showing arguably overdraft, "article Hodel Surface Mining 452 264, 281-283, 2352, 2363, (1981); id., 310-313, 2390-2392 (REHNQUIST, J., concurring judgment); Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 63 82, 122 (1942). unnecessary decide order case; undertaken I until time necessary question. runs afoul apparently agrees decrees execution apportioning rise borders," ante, 956, insists elaborate balancing process "interest" weighed traditional analysis. think invoked original jurisdiction, unsoundness approach manifest. Georgia Tennessee Copper 206 230, 237, 618, 619, 51 1038 (1907), said: 33 "This injury capacity quasi -sovereign. independent behind titles earth air domain. last word mountains stripped forests inhabitants breathe pure air." Five earlier, 185 125, 145-146, 552, 559, 46 838 (1902), made quasi-sovereign magnitude healthy forests. my view, well-being often lives citizens. exercise authority, preclude attaining status difficult, impossible, conclude "commerce" exists reduced recognizes usufructuary right. "Commerce" exist sold, rented, traded, transferred, used. Of course, discriminate allows indiscriminate commercial dealings resource, difficult task proving outright discrimination. basis decisions (1979), (1911). possession, either barred entirely residents preference.1 By contrast, permits "commerce," interstate, almost absolute landowners extracted. landowner's limited. whole." (1933). With exception systems, appropriated source. 710, 619 additional users areas, appellant's situated critical. district irrigate acreage 1977, average acres 1972 1976, whichever greater, district's board placed irrigation. extracted acre-inch-per-irrigated-acre basis. There detailed meters. 71-82. 38 appropriator, far concerned. Therefore, discriminates against, "burdens," Section owns Nebraska.2 Unlike agree limitation commerce.3 Article I, 8, cl. 3, "The . .. To foreign Nations, Indian Tribes." general explanations Life Insurance Equalization, 451 648, 652-653, 2070, 2074-2075, 514 766-770, 1518-1521, (1945). 46-613.01, one. Their failure submit deprive standing legality requirement. Larson Valente, 456 228, 1673, 72 due renew challenges issues light disposition quoted statute: 'It unlawful carry, pipes, conduits, ditches canals, fresh lake, pond, brook, creek, river therein.' 353, Courts below assumed decided assume defendant represents riparian proprietor, chartered powers those. On assumptions Errors Appeals pointed proprietor divert distance body well-known ordinary uses, anywhere amount. went infer continue, reinforced bed flowed tide, concluded foregoing considerations merely such, warranted prohibiting acquisition larger scale." problems place here. Leaving side, appears us few obvious, indisputable maintain rivers substantially undiminished, except drafts guardian turning perfect use." 356, 'No drilling specifically it.' 830. author noted dissent. 262, 574. dissented, expressing decision 603, 667. 839, included quotations cases: [natural gas] being conservation. words, sense commercial—the business coal be, timber. Both products amount, consideration confine singular situation result. coal, Northwest timber, mining minerals. why field principle?" 255, 571. "Another end product become necessity therein, waning longer sufficient satisfy abroad, act stated, affords assumption attempts do. lodged elsewhere." 598, 665. "Considering after personal property, interference facts appear[s] [the statute] purpose, operate her benefit detriment sister name conservation, shipments indulging discrimination permitting unrestricted points matter how distant; Wilbarger El Paso Texas. cause conservation." 839-840. statute, property. Whether phraseology prohibits someone cases, substance intent same. situations, thereof 840. 2987, policy differing systems: vastness territory Nation, different acquired settled, varying physiographic climate regimes necessitated recognition distinctions corresponding differences. foot North America ships sailing tidal estuaries confront sailed flat boats down Ohio search new sites farm. cleared old faced totally built sod huts Great Plains. final expansion Nation 19th century beyond hundredth meridian longitude, early maps 'Great American Desert,' participants face previous territorial had." Soil Conservation Service, U. Dept. Agriculture, America's Water: Conditions Trends Comptroller General, Report Overdrafting Must Be Controlled 7-8 Cities Service Peerless Oil 179, 188, 215, 220, 190 (1950) ("Insofar concerned, producing states tend coincide"). Rev.Stat. 37-90-136 (1973) follows: "For aiding unto state, tributary nontributary stream, prosperity growth, maintenance, divert, ditches, pipelines, manner defined, therein." cannot, response Atlantic Tea Cottrell, 424 366, 379-381, 96 923, 931-932, 47 (1976). history Government reclamation consistent thread purposeful continued Congress." 653, 2989. Similarly, encouraged resolve disputes rather adjudication. 320 383, 392, 176, 180, 116 (1943). (1946) (McCarran-Ferguson 59 33); International Shoe Washington, 326 310, 154, (1945) (§ 1606(a) Internal Revenue Code, 53 1391); Whitfield Ohio, 297 431, 532, 80 778 (1936) (Hawes-Cooper 45 1084); (1891) (Wilson 313). sale Texas' rule anomaly Clark, Waters Rights (1972 1978 Supp.). treated "any forbid Brief Amicus Curiae "reasonable, welfare," issued "state today 46-613.01. Ante, 957-958. nothing denying

Category: 9