Document: 465 U.S. 89 104 S.Ct. 900 79 L.Ed.2d 67 PENNHURST STATE SCHOOL & HOSPITAL et al., Petitionersv.Terri Lee HALDERMAN al. No. 81-2101. Argued Feb. 22, 1983. Reargued Oct. 3, Decided Jan. 23, 1984. Syllabus Respondent Halderman, a resident of petitioner Pennhurst State School and Hospital, Pennsylvania institution for the care mentally retarded, brought class action in Federal District Court against various state county officials (also petitioners). It was alleged that conditions at violated federal constitutional statutory rights members as well their under Mental Health Retardation Act 1966 (MH/MR Act). Ultimately, awarded injunctive relief based part on MH/MR Act, which held to provide right adequate habilitation. The Appeals affirmed, holding required adopt "least restrictive environment" approach rejecting petitioners' argument Eleventh Amendment barred court from considering this pendent state-law claim. reasoned since did not bar granting prospective basis claims, citing Ex parte Young, 209 123, 28 441, 52 L.Ed. 714 same result obtained with respect Held: prohibited ordering conform conduct law. Pp. 97-124. (a) principle sovereign immunity is limitation judicial power established Art. III Constitution. bars suit when real, substantial party interest, regardless whether seeks damages or relief. supra, recognized an important exception general rule: challenging constitutionality official's one State. 97-103. (b) In Edelman v. Jordan, 415 651, 94 1347, 39 662, need promote supremacy law Young must be accommodated States. Thus, declined extend doctrine encompass retroactive relief, do so would effectively eliminate States' immunity. Edelman's distinction between fulfilled Young' § underlying purpose vindicating supreme authority while time preserving degree But reconcile competing interests wholly absent plaintiff alleges official has such case entire disappears. A court's grant law, retroactive, does vindicate When instructs how conflicts directly principles federalism underlie Amendment. 103-106. (c) dissenters' view allegation contrary statute suffice override State's protection because ultra vires authority. This rests fiction, wrong emasculate At least insofar sought, error by officers acting capacity will where it. Larson Domestic Foreign Commerce Corp., 337 682, 69 1457, 93 1628. Under view, doctrine, narrow questionable exception, swallow rule if run 106-117. (d) claim carrying out responsibilities protected applies claims into jurisdiction. 117-121. (e) While it may applying results being bifurcation considerations policy cannot judiciary adjudicate suits 121-123. (f) judgment below sustained obligation officials, any granted these partial incomplete best. Such ineffective enforcement appear serve purposes efficiency, convenience, fairness inform exercise 123-124. 673 F.2d 647, reversed remanded. H. Bartow Farr, III, Washington, D.C., Allen C. Warshaw, Harrisburg, Pa., petitioners. Thomas K. Gilhool David Ferleger, Philadelphia, respondents. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 presents question award 2 * litigation, here second time, concerns retarded. See Hospital 451 1, 101 1531, 694 (1981). Although litigation's history set forth detail our prior opinion, see id., 5-10, S.Ct., 1534-1536, necessary decision review history. 3 originally 1974 respondent Terri Pennhurst, Eastern Pennsylvania. plaintiffs included consisting all persons who were might become residents Pennhurst; Association Retarded Citizens (PARC); United Defendants officials; Department Public Welfare several its commissioners, mental retardation administrators, other five counties surrounding Pennhurst. Respondents' amended complaint charged members' Eighth Fourteenth Amendments; 504 Rehabilitation 1973, 87 Stat. 394, amended, 29 U.S.C. 794 (1976 ed. Supp. V); Developmentally Disabled Assistance Bill Rights 42 §§ 6001-6081 (the "MH/MR Act"), Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 50, 4101-4704 (Purdon 1969 Supp.1982). Both sought. 4 1977, following lengthy trial, rendered decision. 446 F.Supp. 1295 (1977). As noted findings undisputed: "Conditions are only dangerous, often physically abused drugged staff members, but also inadequate 'habilitation' Indeed, found physical, intellectual, emotional skills some have deteriorated Pennhurst." U.S., 7, 1534-1535 (footnote omitted). each resident's "minimally habilitation" Due Process Clause F.Supp., 1314-1318, 1322-1323; "freedom harm" Amendments, 1320-1321; "nondiscriminatory Equal Protection 1321-1324. Furthermore, "due process demands undertakes habilitation retarded person, setting consistent individual's habilitative needs." Id., 1319 (emphasis added). After concluding large size prevented providing environment, ordered "that immediate steps taken remove 1325. Petitioners "to suitable community living arrangements" 1326, appointed Special Master "with duty plan, organize, direct, supervise monitor implementation further Orders Court." Ibid.1 5 Third Circuit affirmed most Court's judgment. 612 84 (1979) (en banc). agreed respondents had grounded solely "bill rights" provision 6010. F.2d, 95-100, 104-107. consider issues provides habilitation, 100-103, decide encompassed treatment setting. 6 On remedy, except order closed. observed patients unable adjust life outside institution, determined none legal provisions relied precluded institutionalization. 114-115. therefore remanded "individual determinations [District Court], Master, appropriateness improved patient," guided "a presumption favor placing individuals [community arrangements]." Ibid.2 7 remand detailed procedures determining proper residential placement patient. team patient, his parents guardian, manager establish individual plan patient designated arrangement. subject Master. master, called Hearing available hearings, upon request resident, advocate, services more beneficial than arrangement provided plan. then determines should reside, possible App. 123a-134a (Order April 24, 1980).3 8 Appeals, finding 6010 create substantive rights. We determine remedial could supported Constitution, Act. 31, 1547.4 consideration 27-30, 1545-1546 (discussing 6011(a), 6063(b)(5)). 9 entirety. 647 (3 Cir.1982) recent Supreme "spoken definitively" 651 (citing re Schmidt, 494 Pa. 86, 429 A.2d 631 (1981)). concluded fully judgment, reach remaining rejected 656 Parte (1908)), Siler Louisville Nashville R. Co., 213 175, 451, 53 753 (1909), development jurisdiction, involved "there . rule." 658.5 Finally, abstained deciding comity, 659-660, refused objections use special n. 10. Three judges dissented part, arguing comity establishment master compliance abuse discretion. 662 (Seitz, C.J., joined Hunter, J., dissenting part); ibid. (Garth, concurring relief). 661 (Aldisert, concurring) (seriously questioning propriety appointing reversal meaningless).6 10 certiorari, 457 1131, 102 2956, 73 1348 (1982), now reverse remand. II 11 raise three challenges Appeals: (i) law; (ii) issuing relief; (iii) discretion two masters decisions implementing latter issues, we find challenge dispositive. A. 12 Article Constitution extends, inter alia, controversies "between another State." Relying language, 1793 assumed original jurisdiction over citizen South Carolina Georgia. Chisholm Georgia, Dall. 419, 440 (1793). "created shock surprise once proposed adopted." Monaco Mississippi, 292 313, 325, 54 745, 749, 78 1282 (1934). provides: 13 "The Judicial States shall construed equity, commenced prosecuted State, Subjects Amendment's language overruled particular Chisholm, greater significance lies affirmation fundamental limits III. Hans Louisiana, 134 504, 33 842 (1890), that, despite limited terms Amendment, entertain own reviewing debates concerning scope unconsenting "was contemplated establishing States." 15, 507. 322-323, 747-748 (1934).7 short, III: 14 "That sued without consent jurisprudence having bearing construction repeated embrace private parties given: citizens subjects foreign Amendment; even citizens, exemplification." New York 256 490, 497, 41 588, 589, 65 1057 (1921) added).8 15 sovereign's waived, consistently court. See, e.g., Clark Barnard, 108 436, 447, 878, 882-883, 27 780 (1883). insisted, however, unequivocally expressed. 673, 1360-1361, (1974). Similarly, although Congress abrogate immunity, Fitzpatrick Bitker, 427 445, 96 2666, 49 614 (1976), unequivocal expression congressional intent "overturn constitutionally guaranteed Quern 332, 342, 99 1139, 1146, 59 358 (holding 1983 immunity). Our reluctance infer courts been negated stems recognition vital role system. interest encompasses merely sued, sued.9 MARSHALL noted, "[b]ecause problems inherent making other, restriction long considered appropriate this." Employees Missouri Dep't, 411 279, 294, 1614, 1622-1623, 36 251 (1973) (MARSHALL, result).10 Accordingly, "[t]he doctrine." Hutto Finney, 437 678, 691, 98 2565, 2573-2574, 57 522 (1978). B 16 thus "an immune her state." Employees, 280, 1616. There question, fact clear, course, absence agencies departments named defendant proscribed Florida Nursing Home Assn., 450 147, 1032, 132 (1981) (per curiam); Alabama Pugh, 438 781, 3057, 1114 (1978) curiam ). jurisdictional nature Fiske, 290 18, 27, 21, 145 (1933) ("Expressly equity necessarily embraces equitable prosecution remedies asserted State"). 17 arises itself. entirely issue, certain established. "the interest." Ford Motor Co. Treasury, 323 459, 464, 347, 350, 389 (1945). Ayers, 123 443, 487-492, 164, 173-176, 31 216 (1887); Louisiana Jumel, 107 711, 720-723, 727-728, 128, 135-137, 141-142, 448 (1882). sought nominally officer decree operate latter." Hawaii Gordon, 373 57, 58, 83 1052, 1053, 191 (1963) ).11 And, itself defendant, Cory White, 85, 91, 2325, 2329, 72 (1982). 18 (1908), enjoined Attorney General Minnesota bringing enforce allegedly prohibit issuance injunction. theory unconstitutional enactment "void" "impart [the officer] responsibility 160, 454. Since authorize action, "stripped representative character [was] subjected consequences conduct." Ibid. 19 permitting alleging States" survived, expansive interpretation. (1974), emphasized forms violation 666-667, 1357-1358. particular, sues injunction governs future conduct, awards monetary federal-law strip Nevertheless, 20 With mind, turn petitioners duties Respondents advance principal arguments support below.12 First, they contend Second, assert properly decided rely awarding 193, 455, (1909). 21 first address contention respondents' defined supra. rested entered though financial burden ongoing.13 656. assumed, assert, reasoning acts misconstrues Edelman. 22 discussed above, justified, notwithstanding obvious impact itself, apply unconstitutionally character," rationale, created "well-recognized irony" constitutes Treasure Salvors, Inc., 458 670, 685, 3304, 3315, (1982) (opinion STEVENS, J.). Nonetheless, accepted permit hold responsible BRENNAN observed, "Ex culmination efforts harmonize effective powers secured elsewhere Constitution." Perez Ledesma, 401 82, 106, 91 674, 687, 701 (1971) (BRENNAN, part). repeatedly vindication 337, 1143, (1979); Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 237, 1683, 1687, 40 90 (1974); Georgia Banking Redwine, 342 299, 304, 321, 324, 335 (1952). 23 recognized, authorized "has permitted Civil War Amendments sword, rather shield, those whom designed protect." 664, 1356. fiction difference permissible impermissible "will many instances day night," 667, 1357, " 'fall[s] afoul basic conceived present force.' 665, 1357 (quoting Rothstein Wyman, 467 226, 237 (CA2 1972) (McGowan, sitting designation), cert. denied, 921, 1552, 315 (1973)). sum Edelman' fulfills 24 absent, contrary, difficult think intrusion sovereignty conclude inapplicable 25 STEVENS' dissent and, important, Amendment.14 "instructions," reasonable interpretation might, turned erroneous,15 actors capacities. case, major department, clearly within authority, adequately dissent's forfeited 26 touch reality. dispute criterion effect 101; post, 146, 29. According dissent, here—which closed smaller institutions expansively funded—did make pretense. No judge ten-year litigation advanced theory. And defendants beyond reconciled reality—or record. "acted utmost good faith sphere responsibilities," entitled damages. 1324 nothing gain personally conduct; acted wilfully negligently. expressly "apparently took every means them reduce incidents injury, constantly faced shortages." dedicated professionals field given very little accomplish Ibid.16 result, institutional character. To extent there fulfilling legislative promises.17 bases numerous cases century earlier. These find. Many simply miscited. For example, perhaps exception,18 can said failing carry statutes.19 relies analogy, far uniform, clear predicated violations statutes command purely discretionary duties.20 doubted issue gave broad operating 11, supra; 1324, standards cases.21 early advances authority-stripping advocated never pressed STEVENS case. advanced, plainly explicitly 1628 (1949), government committed tort sufficed distinguish sovereign. Therefore, went, remedy injury argument, noting superfluous. "claim invasion 693, 1463. "confuse[d] requirement cause action." 692-693, 1462-1463. suffers like confusion.22 denial Except rare nullity. crucial element plaintiff's central Larson. "[a] sovereign, principal, agent violate law," he Post, 153; 142, 934, 939; cf. Larson, 693-694, 1463 ("It argued commission respondent's position fundamentally rests. ."). agency rejected.23 made capacities 690, 695, 1461, 1464.24 Any resulting disadvantage "outweigh[ed]" necessity Government functions unhampered direct intervention." 704, 1468. If anything, public questions involved. 99-100.25 30 today, ignored. 723-728, 1478-1480 (Frankfurter, dissenting). Those rejected, supporting moribund. 1949,26 no Member cited primarily proposition quotes. context all. propositions today quarrels.27 plain theory, ever full pressed, generation. reason obvious. force foolishly attempts sue name, produce injury. That gives pause presumably 'undoubtedly ru[n] counter modern democratic notions moral State.' 48 Great Northern Life Insurance Read, 322 47, 59, 64 873, 879, 88 1121 (1944) dissenting)). adopted 51, 875, ("Efforts force, through performance promises collide free compulsion policies Constitution."); 1468 ("The Government, whole, stopped tracks Moreover, substantially misses point other." Dept., 1622, result). totally rejects federalism. C 32 leads conclusion contravenes when—as here—the reaching conclusion, principally separate line dealing 657-658. relationship generally obtains claim, related otherwise Mine Workers Gibbs, 383 715, 726, 86 1130, 218 (1966); Osborn Bank States, Wheat. 738, 819-823, 204 (1824). resolve Siler, 192-193, usually avoid questions, 455; Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 56 466, 483, 80 688 (1936) (Brandeis, ("[I]f either grounds, involving latter"). judge-made inferred presented viewed displacing explicit contained 34 subsequent claims. cases, much mention connection Rather, appears hear well. addressed different applied illustrated Greene Interurban 244 499, 37 61 1280 (1917), railroads tax assessments excessive officials' allegations purported act unconstitutional. 507, 677. Having deprive declared extended determination including irrespective disposition all." 508, grounds. Accord, Greene, 522, 683, 1291 (1917).28 35 confront before us. "[W]hen passed sub silentio, bound finally brings us." Hagans Lavine, 528, 533, 5, 1372, 1377 577 (1974).29 open one. implicit seems inquiry raised erroneous decisions. 25, 20. deprives III's lawsuit treasury (1979). specific hearing courts.30 expediency efficiency derived conferring "cases" arising diverse parties. 725, 1138, (1966). 545, 1383, (1974) (terming discretion"). less implied form adoption 6-9, confirms independent exercises power: given," (1921). otherwise, makes evasion correct exercising [plaintiffs'] claim," 653, 1351, 1363. 38 sum, neither nor Amendment.31 examine above 106. D urge application disruptive officials. They argue "considerations economy, litigants" counsel litigants split causes courts. avoiding unnecessary contravened choose forgo or, alternatively, hindered forum bring court, uncommon area. Challenges validity systems Fair Assessment Real Estate Ass'n. McNary, 454 100, 177, 70 271 abstention unclear commonly off referred courts.32 answer assertions 25-26, 20-21 ("Considerations convenience avenue escape [Amendment's] restriction").33 litigant's choice reduced understood tension system federalism." 298, 1625, IV applicability still upheld persuaded. Even assuming actions Act,34 grounds limited. arm operated funding programs comes almost 4507-4509 1982), costs borne 1327. contemplates cooperate programs. 95-96, 631, 635-636 obligations V 43 Pennsylvania's lacked enjoin 1973. 93. what extent, any, bases.35 6011, 6063. reversed, proceedings opinion. 44 ordered. 45 BRENNAN, dissenting. 46 I agree dissent. write separately explain my continued belief "bars States," Yeomans Kentucky, 423 983, 984, 404, 309 (1975) dissenting), invoke protections dissenting); 697, relies, ante, 98, terms, erects barrier prohibiting State; decision, "accords nonconsenting nonconstitutional citizens." 1632 dissenting) scholarly discussions Gibbons, Sovereign Immunity: Reinterpretation, Colum.L.Rev. 1889, 1893-1894 (1983); Field, Other Immunity Doctrines: Part One, 126 U.Pa.L.Rev. 515, 538-540 petitioners, them. 47 MARSHALL, BLACKMUN join, illuminated institution. record demonstrates after years abundantly conclusion. 1981, four ground order. en banc, unanimously did. disagree reverses precisely do; faithful obedience command. remarkable product equally misapplication ancient completely unprecedented holding, concludes prevents enjoining prohibited. rational supports result. answered affirmatively times past. Yet repudiates spanning jurisprudence, proclaiming instead violates new pronouncement require availability inimical sound restraint. Nothing conception embodies, requires justifies perverse 50 attributes described findings. (1981), majority 92-93, 1534, 1535 actually hazardous residents.1 Organized training education unavailable, developed residents. visited shocked children bruised, unattended. led deterioration condition placed learning talk she residing lost verbal skills. stage conceded fails minimally 84, 92-94 (3d Cir.1979) banc); 1295, 1304 (E.D.Pa.1977). 51 Clauses 92 2987, ed., V), 1966, Pa.Stat.Ann. tit. Supp.1982) ("MH/MR Act"). banc V). justified Court, asserting erred both statutes. certiorari accept contention, possibility Appeals' analysis influenced reading Concluding "unclear order," 1547, "remand[ed] reconsideration light here." footnote stating "consider decision." 24. remand, banc), examined Schmidt.2 unanimous point, environment." 651. issued reinstated petitioner's law.3 facility way forbidden upholding conformed directive before. about-face, doing instructed Of correct, obeyed instruction 1981 55 Petitioners' utterly support. embodies interpreted engaged exercised violating law.4 proceeds previous occasion contends (1908) seeking precludes twice Terms ago. Dept. Justices possession property hands inasmuch colorable 696-697, 3320 - 3321 BURGER, BLACKMUN, JJ.). Four additional officers' statute, action. 714, 3329 (WHITE, POWELL, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR, JJ.).5 just short paragraph thrice restated settled "alleged law."6 extraordinarily cases. By 1908, firmly color office tortious matter Reagan Farmers' Loan Trust, 154 362, 390-391, 1047, 1051-1052, 1014 (1894); Poindexter Greenhow, 114 270, 287, 903, 912, 185 (1885); Cunningham Macon Brunswick 109 446, 452, 292, 296, 992 (1883).7 Cf. Belknap Schild, 161 10, 599 (1896) (same States); Stanley Schwalby, 147 518-519, 418, 422, 259 (1893) (same).8 Hopkins Clemson Agricultural College, 221 636, 654, 890 (1911), explained 58 "[I]mmunity high attribute sovereignty—a prerogative itself—which availed agents torts. intended afford freedom liability where, office, injured citizens. privileged wrongs inflicted injuries threatened. Besides, confer commit excuse perpetrator. application—the wrongdoer treated individually liable causing irreparable injury." 642-643, 656-657.9 decisive confined Johnson Lankford, 245 541, 203, 62 460 (1918), dismissal bank commissioner Oklahoma surety recover loss deposit, caused commissioner's failure safeguard business assets negligent willful disregard applicable 60 "To think, whatever does, contravention laws identifies him redress Surely delinquent delinquency, indeed, injure delinquency amenable both." 205. Rolston Fund Commissioners, 120 390, 599, 721 (1887), comply wrote, "Here get him. officer, 411, 610.10 Significantly, reaffirmed Term published volume Reports. appellant Scully Bird, 481, 597, 899 diversity dairy food Michigan, "under cover office" maliciously course ruin circuit dismissed appeal, contended "does who, claiming valid constitutional, wrongfully administered them, commit, threaten plaintiff, administration illegal exaction plaintiff." 597. agreed. "in dereliction State," "manifest summary bill 600.11 63 1200 companion (1917); Illinois Central 555, 1309 challenged citing, Clemson, plaintiffs' sufficiently justify claims,12 alleged, strictures approved methodology employed case.13 None contain "implicit" silentio holdings; reject prohibits majority's assertion one, 119.14 tries away "broad discretion" vires, 110-111. whatsoever institutionalization lawful bit discussed, commits immunity.15 all, common sense duties. 66 heavily original) 1324). confuses distinct concepts. An done prohibits, recently Harlow Fitzgerald, 800, 2727, 396 damage irrelevant Wood Strickland, 420 308, 314-315, 6, 95 992, 997, 214 (1975). Florida's treasure Salvors; safeguarding deposits fund sell mortgaged Rolston, prosecute impurity Scully, give few examples. enjoined. perfectly clear. assigned statute. Their nevertheless constitution, reliance reasonable. Michigan DeFillippo, 443 2627, 343 Until simple: exceeds hence injunction.16 Whether rise question. face, nations.17 textual states' aside (1890). state's bonds. stated favoring during ratification scheme state. elaborate (1934), exemplified broader operatesto consent.18 68 subsequently adhered (1979), incorporating traditional 341, 1145. Bitzer, embodies. ." 456, 2671. Nevada Hall, 410, 438-441, 1182, 1197-1198, (REHNQUIST, dissenting).19 text critical problem.20 England, thought king sued. However, courts, traditionally distinguished agents, unlawful king's ought W. Blackstone, Commentaries Laws England (J. Andrews 1909). fifteenth century, Holdsworth writes, servants acts. Holdsworth, History English Law 388 (1903). During seventeenth used extensively curb "could wrong, wrongs, employment not, legally liable. protect really commands instructions, deceived." VI 101. 71 famous himself, officers. "For warrant man, King act." Sands Child, Eng.Rep. 726 (K.B.1693).21 eighteenth unquestioned. X Holdsworth,supra, 650-652. nineteenth Century well-settled citation Feather Queen, 122 1191, 1205-1206 (K.B.1865).22 natural, then, officer.23 inquire essence" soon became conduct. Smyth Ames, 169 423, 819 (1898); Pennoyer McConnaughy, 140 10-12, 699, 701-702, 363 (1891); 913, (1885).24 unlawfully pursuant reasoned, leaves actor stripped status sovereign.25 restating wrote: enforced unconstitutional, so, name complainants proceeding affect governmental capacity. attempting void conflict superior person 159-160, 454.26 74 states overlooks foundation McConnaughy Young's predecessors. 75 attorney latter, authorize. pivotal permits issue.27 accused principles. endorsed proposition, defendant.28 until [is not] divested 'on mere States.' Parden Terminal 377 184, 186, 1207, 1209-1210, 233 (1964) Hans, 505). 76 issue.29 attributed deep roots reconcilable Amendment,30 unprincipled accommodation ignores 77 charge renders "simply act," officer's certainly official, committing act, character." predecessors attempt Virginia legislature disavow contract "inasmuch as, Virginia, contract, made, thereby unchangeable, irrepealable January 26, 1882, acts, deny forbid performance, Virginia. true real Commonwealth contracted incapable anything derogation Whatever effect, operative, attempted done, work looked upon, justice, been. things defence charges her. agent, representative, complained of, express commands." 293, 915, (1885) supplied).31 attached law.32 Virginia's turns head—sovereign law—and doubt Courts produced discover attributable purposes, Tindal Wesley, 167 204, 770, 137 (1896), specifically impossible type behavior: "If enforcing belonging illegally deemed 222, 777.33 81 simple idea strips depriving criticizes "out reality" practical directed Ante, 106-108. criticism account recognizes injunctions "have itself," final officers, realistic embedded Framers respect. 82 follows sovereign; seek laws, "[P]ublic tort-feasors exceeding seize citizen's realty chattel, recoverable [the] dominant side victim possessory reclaim withheld." Land Dollar, 330 731, 1009, 1012, 1209 (1947).34 inconsistent integrity protects. enforces policies, enhances courts' prerogatives States.35 approach, ignore rest bases, friction judiciary. 85 added agreement fearful pay Revolutionary debts, leading ruin.36 Entertaining implicates Framers. threat concerned Framers, Milliken Bradley, 433 267, 288-290, 97 2749, 2761-2762, 745 (1977); 667-668, 1357-1358, wishes injunction, easily changing left helpless face decrees passage preferred base reexamine, forcing leaving control. preceding, come absolutely cites, 105-106, law—in presented, briefed, decided.37 curious, say least, disapproves 119, yet willing fact, precedent position, but, demonstrated II, avalanche squarely contrary.38 chiefly rely, (1949). teaches state—are —in types situations: (1) authorized, (2) forbidden. agency. identified "There be, purports Assets Administrator completed sale personal home, later conveying third person. similar limitations actions. empowered His object note granted, impleading lack delegated power. sufficient. depend, ultimately reaches merits, relies." 689-690, 1461 supplied). indicates depends merits —the overcome succeeding Following two-track grouped categories. Malone Bowdoin, 369 643, 980, 168 (1962), involve functioning proprietary capacity, resolved reference asked manner perform duties, regulatory administrative contexts Bird involves forbids. 1981—ordering claims—was harmonious claim;39 pleaded Specifically, confinement failed mandated ran track analysis, forbidden.40 readily concede, brief oral vires. concession, 101-102, 11. especially two-step conduct—conduct goes quote indicating lacks state, 101, quotation sentences immediately preceding quoted prohibition, omission understandable, falls category told disobeyed instructions. explanation, holds extends statutorily prohibited.41 assertion, reached today.42 half following. States; fashion strikes down shield. proves definition defense shield defendant. erected liability. precedents embraces—that authorizes bell: control unwise overrules odds usual practices respected opinions written Brandeis [has] developed, governance confessedly series rules avoided passing are: pass record, disposed of. varied application. latter. [29 454-455, 753]." Tennessee Valley Authority, 346-347, 482-483, concurring). approval Ashwander, remarkably privately owned railroad corporation Kentucky rate schedule promulgated commission. sufficient instead: "Where pursued departed reasons. better regard local nature, therein unnecessarily appearing record." (1909).43 100 occasions; Bickell, 415, 425, 727, 1337 (1934); Glenn Field Packing 178, 138, 252 (1933); Davis Wallace, 257 478, 482-485, 165-166, 325 (1922); 527, 686, 512-514, 679-680, (1917).44 "Court characteristically dealt possibly dispositive claims." 546, 1384. added: "Numerous —that vested issues—and proceeded dispose nonfederal ground. Hillsborough Cromwell, 326 620, 629-630, (1946); Waggoner Wichita County, 273 113, 116-119, 271, 272-273, 566 (1927); Chicago G.W.R. Kendall, 266 94, 55, 183 (1924); Gas Railroad Comm'n, 278 300, 150, 152, 390 (1929); Risty Chicago, R.I. P.R. 270 378, 387, 236, 240, 641 (1926). illustrate practice wisdom adjudication essential case." 547, 12, 1384, 12. 103 remanding instructions Not impressive historical pedigree, strongly duplicative questions. 105 policy's ultimate foundations lie up unique place character, scheme, constitutionality. delicacy function, particularly others stemming roots; comparative finality consequences; due repositories authority; necessity, function constitutionally, keep power, courts; process, largely negative resources enforcement; withal paramount importance system." Rescue Army Municipal 331 549, 571, 1409, 1421, 1666 (1947).45 106 addition, decisionmaking autonomy directs modify repeal.46 deference policies. contrast, creates serves Instead, undo. Leaving unredressed ensuring reexamined hardly comports entities commanded One underlies case: immunizing complain about Pennsylvania—it enforce. envisioned run. Throughout strength self-discipline. Adherence presumptively course.47 Departures are, occasionally changes fabric society.48 legislature, initiates departure, embarked. Today, casts affirmance Appeals—the case,49 stare decisis cases),50 immunity,51 pendant jurisdiction,52 prolongation voyage sea undisciplined lawmaking. 110 outset, 111 respectfully 1324. Parents-Staff Association's motion intervene harmless error. 131 leave July enacted appropriations $35,000 paid Masters' expenses fiscal year June 1982. Secretary contempt, imposed fine $10,000 per day. fines, contempt purged 8, appeal Halderman 628 Cir.1982), pending, 81-2363. "far-reaching remedy" inmates remain moved community-based facilities. [T]he task managing 54, 1558-1559 intervening successfully plead jurisdiction," counties, juridical entities, fall coverage Against money awarded." (citation notes Judge Gibbons expanded views article. 1889 (1983). author Office abolished December 220a August 1982). remains operation. 291-292, 1621-1622, judgment) (The "clarif[ied] power" "restore[d] understanding" unwilling court). 430-431, 1193-1194, (BLACKMUN, 437, 1196 proceeding. declares sets compelling urged 467, 352, reason, waiver 1034, curiam). "[I]t consonant dual read [A] declaration intention submit creation found." 877, (1944). 418-419, 1187-1188 (States "vitally interested" focused power). 1193 (sovereign guarantee component federalism" "sufficiently structure dimension"); ("[T]he ratified putting end jurisdictions"). 'the expend domain, interfere administration,' 'to restrain acting, compel act.' Dugan Rank, 372 609, 999, 1006, (citations foregoing respects. suggest, because, say, Dep't founded argument. "without whatever." J.); accord 716, 3330 part) (test "colorable officials"). explained, sufficient." 1461. health sense. "adequate" services. 4201(1) 1969). essence adequately. broader—and unprecedented—version discuss infra, waived filed, see, Freach Commonwealth, 471 558, 370 1163 (1977), us waiving governing preservation court: "Federal courts.—Nothing subchapter waive Pa.Cons.Stat. 8521(b) (1980). presence removes consideration. suing 329, 750, purposes. mean plaintiffs. standing third-parties. reasons, unaffected participation constrained "Where, here, attacked, mindful 'special adjustment preserved law.' Rizzo Goode, 598, 607, 561 (1976) Stefanelli Minard, 117, 120, 118, 138 (1951)). prompted respond length 41-page cases," 127. sweeping characterization. nn. 19, 20, infra. environment dicta seven trial ended. appealed. 90, 4. 1303 ("On trying hard cope inadequacies institution"). individuals. Welfare, department itself; apparently group institutions, officials—were defendants, findings, questioned exonerate truth theoretical unaware plight country. found, "History replete misunderstanding mistreatment retarded." 1299. Accord Message President Kennedy Relative Illness Retardation, H.R.Doc. 88th Cong., 1st Sess. ("We Nation neglected ill retarded"). knowledge "insane asylums," known middle underfunded understaffed. easy persuade competent people trained professionals. Physical facilities, underfunding legislatures, grossly techniques ill. 2, 4; President's Comm. MR 68: Edge Change 11-13 (1968); Changing Patterns Residential Services Mentally 1-58 (R. Kugel Wolfensberger 1969); R.C. Scheerenberger, 240-243 Only move widespread deplorable conditions. responsibility, protracted confused here. 138-139. true, says, possessed Nor judgments capacity—and, funding. evident vest protect. confers meaning. Contrary stands footing, Amendments. corresponding mandate (1887). ministerial duty," (1944), cry collected 165-166. Several lacking Martin 205, 464 diversity. fair 155 542, 230, 254 (1895), ruling procedural pressing unconstitutionally, Atchison, T. S.F.R. O'Connor, 223 216, 436 (1897); (1911). officer. infra 21. today. (1897), closely analogous old torts, affirmative Tindal, 221, 777 (distinguishing discharge State"); Transcript Record, Wesley (complaint "wrongfully premises ousted ten thousand dollars"); 597 (allegation "injuriously affect[ed] reputation [plaintiff's] products"). Tort 111-114. Philadelphia Stimson, 605, 340, 344, 570 (1912) complainant ask War, made"); Santa Fe Fall, 197, 198-199, 896 (1922) (same); Kendall Stokes, How. 87, 506 (1845) ("[A] relation discretion; suffer mistake"); Noble Union River Logging R., 165, 171-172, (1893); (under "contrary requiring discretion"); Wells Roper, 246 335, 338, 317, 318, 755 (1918); 1464, (1949) (suit "incorrect fact" "if so"); 1474 (noting orders nondiscretionary duties). went mandamus generally. 618-620, 344. rationale "brin[g] operation machinery play." event, cites 166, overruled. Little Barreme, Cranch 170, 243 (1804); Wise Withers, 331, (1806); Mitchell Harmony, 115, (1851); Bates Clark, (1877); (1896). drew careful 445. disallowed basis. 23-25, 447-448. 135, touches similarly tort, former not. 687-688, 1460-1461 8. suggests violations. 623, 345, (1912); Sloan Shipyards Fleet 258 568, 386, 388-389, 762 736, 1011, (1947). remainder (like one) precedential value 646, 982, (1962). states, activity overrides essentially 158. case—as recognizes—turns did, i.e., whether, erroneously, 1459 (controversy correctly); 1464; 716-717, 1474-1475 (in "official screen himself behind sovereign"); 721-722, 1477-1478. What advances, decisions." 1464. crystal errors (There "given decisions" supra.) tort," 132, "It said, sense, lawfully agent. statement, context, saying agent's torts pleading direction authorization principal. tort. This, regarded principal." 694, corporate effort decisively rejected." Fletcher Cyclopedia Private Corporations 4877, 350 (1978 ed.) (a "act offending agent"); 4959 crimes). strained 153-155, quotes: [ultra ] 1461-1462. 102-103, shows enunciated discarded. Edelman, authority" there, unlike resort fictions characterize theories. Unlike perhaps, American often, sometimes, 666, suggestion alone narrowly construed. light, wondered principled Salvors. excepts bottom, method take extreme. logical, draw lines end, virtually wisely recoiled. again vitality context. allow believe 153. "resolve [a] 701, 1467. represented watershed 168, Stewart's 1949 Procrustean task." 983. continued: unnecessary, undertake aware 'resolve doctrine' ., thoroughly reviewed decisions, informed carefully seemingly conflicting precedents." list 6. E.g., (1887) (never cited); (1911) (1918) (1947) (cited B.R. (1883) consent); 962, 185, 207 (unconstitutional-conduct State); (1894) (same). Prior plurality Salvors length, 685-688, 3315 3316, clarified Larson." 688, 3316; 13, rejected—in way. briefs Brief N.R. 15-38 (jurisdiction claims); 38-39 (pendent claims). Indeed somewhat curiously closes concession Board Officers, 139; Reply Brief, (pointing concession). unclear, local-law pendent-jurisdiction 944, 52, 1949, matter, meant cast desirability issues. 671, 1359-1360, ("Having opportunity briefing disapprove holdings [certain prior] today"). 322, 747, (1934) ("[A]lthough arise consent, citizens"); 20-21, (1933). ("This ancillary supplemental."). allowing foster "judicial litigants," (1966), founded. obtained, uncertain ephemeral. ongoing oversight program years, likely extensive. Duplication effort, inconvenience, uncertainty Burford Sun Oil 319 315, 327, 1098, 1104, 1424 (1943) ("Delay, needless policy, inevitable double [i.e., federal-state] review"). example. Here, undertaking inferences drawn begun. remedies. sure cumbersome route legislation. Waste delay abstention, Baggett Bullitt, 360, 378-379, 1316, 1326-1327, ("abstention operates piecemeal delaying undue time") omitted), dismissals 1139; Hawks Hamill, 288 61, 243, 610 Aldinger Howard, 14-15, 2413, 2420-2421, 276 (Although economy" served pendent-party addition well-established opposed marked Congress"). "counties municipal corporations." Mt. Healthy City Doyle, 274, 572, Lincoln County Luning, 133 529, 530, 363, 766 itself." Lake Country Estates, Inc. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency, 391, 401, 1171, 1177, supra (Eleventh welfare benefits). entity runs Moore Tangipahoa Parish Board, 594 489, 493 (CA5 1979); Carey Quern, 588 233-234 (CA7 1978); Incarcerated Men Jail Fair, 507 281, 287-288 (CA6 1974); Harris Tooele District, 218, 220 (CA10 1973). Given commissioners mental-health administrators dependent Farr Chesney, 441 127, 130-132 (MD Pa.1977) board retardation, back Amendment). above. Youngberg Romeo, 307, 2452, Infectious diseases unavailable. Residents inadequately supervised, consequence self-abuse. Assaults sexual assaults, frequent. restraints lieu staffing, residents, death. Dangerous psychotropic drugs indiscriminately behavior convenience. Staff supervision meals minimal, stole other—leaving enough eat. unsafe aggressive punished solitary confinement. urine excrement walls. petition reexamine Bishop Wood, 426 345-346, 2074, 2077-2078, 684 (1976). struggles mightily foreclose 106-116, vain stark total holding. "Larson actions." "Neither deal naming cite Worcester unless sought." 2329 Riley, 302 297, 187, 268 (1937) omitted) ("[G]enerally can, restrained denies preclude asserts confer."). stating: "Hence, threatened breach 188. "is is, government, individual, show him." Cunningham, Poindexter, 912. Today's 109-110, characterization—officers below. Butz Economou, 489-490, 2894, 2902, 895 (officers law); 619-620, rights). Holmes "In name." 388, (1922). He characterized case—that authority—as dangerous departure reasons explained. always instrumentality greatest ends, cease answerable acts." 566-567, 388. Brady Roosevelt S.S. 317 575, (following stated, "Corporate stand that: 'The exemption civil military, peace, whose invaded, injured, [16 599]." 645, 657 incorrect suggest Old Colony Trust Seattle, 426, 431, 552, 554, 1019 (1926) (reaffirming city officials). (1894), Atchison &c. (1912), recovery taxes duress taxes. 218. Lankford Platte Iron Works 235 461, 173, 316 (1915), submission accomplishing purpose," 471, appellees' 498, (1915); Water 496, 329 (1915). based, seen, exertion [Johnson same, dismissing want ground." 551, 207. points 109, denied Martin. damages, states: "A law." Awarding lifting bar. wrongful telling today's Johnson. insufficient lift defeated O'Connor. Cases construing shielded (1947); Ickes Fox, 300 412, 525 (1937); Work 269 250, 92, (1925); Pac. Payne 255 228, 314, 598 (1921); Waite Macy, 606, 395, 892 (1918). IV, proposition. rejection Ray Atlantic Richfield 435 151, 156 988, 994 179 dramatic extension maintained issue. wrongly decided—an constitute Chapman Houston Org., 600, 612-615, 1905, 1913-1914, 1915, 508 Swift Wickham, 382 111, 258, 194 (1965). deserved cursory received, adhere summarily. incredibly contains decides 117-119. words, merits. embraced out—officials ("the lawfulness [and] 'authority rightfully lead question.' "); 316, (1928) ("But Secretary's authority] clothe enlarge curtail grantee, substitute manifested act"); 610, 397, why ."); 618, ("And process"). desperate amici realize era Erie Tompkins, 304 64, 817, 1188 (1938) governed refuted Rules Decision 1652, Tyson, Pet. 865 (1842), repudiated Erie, Black White Taxicab Transfer Brown Yellow 518, 529-531, 407-408, 681 (1928); Swift, Pet., 18-19. indisputably "extends, declining obvious, affected Amendment." 519, 681-682. Const. amend. XI. "Manifestly, literal words assume letter exhausts non-consenting states. Behind postulates limit postulate controversies, contemplated, justiciable Union, possessing sovereignty, suits, save 'a surrender convention.' 748 York, 15-18, 507-508, Most commentators taking incorporates Baker, Federalism U.Col.L.Rev. 139, 153-158 538-546 (1978); Thornton, Amendment: Endangered Species, Ind.L.J. 305-310 (1980); Tribe, Intergovernmental Immunities Litigation, Taxation, Regulation: Separation Powers Issues Controversies About Federalism, Harv.L.Rev. 684-688 (1976); Comment, Suits Courts, U.Chi.L.Rev. 334-336 themselves treat equivalent agree. 98. 17, compelling. wish directly; liberty posed abuses go unremedied intolerable. reality formally curbed monarch. 262-268. Commentators influence doctrines Jaffe, Governments Officers: Immunity, 19-29 (1963); Note, Express Waiver Ga.L.Rev. 513, 517-518 Developments Law—Remedies Officials, 827, 831-833 (1957). Queen. Chief Marshall, writing McNeill Southern 202 543, 559, 722, 724-725, 1142 (1906); Gunter C.L.R. 200 273, 283-284, 252, 255-256, 477 Prout Starr, 188 537, 398, 584 (1903); Scott Donald, 165 67-70, 265, 266, 632 388-391, 1050-1051, Tyler, 149 190-191, 785, 792-793, 689 506-507, 183-184, Hagood Southern, 117 70, 608, 616, 805 (1886); Baltimore O.R. 311, 315-316, 925, 927-928, Liquidation McComb, 531, 623 (1875). Lee, 196, 219-222, 259-262, 171 charging conduct). "That, cannot; do, certainly, contemplation done. Virginia; receive coupons tendered payment taxes, step tax, thereafter taken, wrong. stands, character; confessing answer, defence." 913. Orth, Interpretation 1798-1908: Case Study Power, U.Ill.L.Rev. 423. formulation 684-690, 3314 3318, 714-715, (1952); Sterling Constantin, 287 393, 190, 375 (1932). fragment convey meaning Solicitor correctly brief, "this officials—whether 345 1147 ); 668-669, 1358-1359, 280 1616 (1973); Smith Reeves, 178 444-449, 919, 922-924, 1140 (1900); Fitts McGhee, 172 516, 269, 535 (1899); Jacobs, 88-91, 109-110 (1972). explains (1973). agents' enjoined, fit impermissible. 237-238, 1686-1687 "While personification possible, resulted postulation abstract ideal lawful. imputed logically followed States: Doctrine Some Recent Developments, Minn.L.Rev. 234, 244-245 (1956) (footnotes Curiously, acknowledge enjoyed England. 114, 25. Barney 193 430, 439-441, 502, 504-505, 737 (1904). began Poindexter. earliest defenses trespass defense, 209, 137, 169, (1804). landmark (1824), seized collect believed owed strangely takes comfort allowed allowance (1895). argues "purely procedural," whole "procedural" opinion—Eleventh claimed 3321, J.) ("If unauthorized undertaken immunity."). Dollar pertinent embodiment barring acknowledged frequently adversely 68, 615, 721, 135-136, policy. Petty Tennessee-Missouri Bridge 359 275, 787 804 (1959); Cohens 264, 406-407, (1821). collection dicta. overruling exists ensure number ), incorrectly decided. satisfactory explanation distinguishing officials—as Pugh officers—such succeed unavailable applied. agents. requires, minimum, safety. 2462-2463, uncontested safe Administration coal contractually obligated deliver Instead Claims, district refusing insisting Claims. was, 'illegally,' refusal 'unauthorized.' purport administer sales encompassing negotiation contracts, shipment goods receipt payment. normal concomitant powers, refuse delivery when, believes principal's sell." 691-92, 1462 properly. do—holding claimant wanted property. "normal" exactly that; Claims obtaining Administrator, sufficiency alternate remedy. McCord, Fault Without Liability: U.Ill.L.F. 849, 862-867. "Since relevant Administrator's amounted taking, ruled fail similarly. onto government's, pending aggrieved party's Tucker 1491-1507 West Supp.1983). Byse, Proposed Reforms "Nonstatutory" Review: Indispensible Parties, Mandamus, 1479, 1490-1491 (1962); Right Review I, 436-437 (1958). intends, Where running forbidden." 689, WHITE's statement Salvors: "where 3329. Members subscribed senses much, admitting approach. suggesting position. approval, Greenhow Dollar; single Goltra Weeks, 536, 613, 1074 698-702, 1465-1467. wreak kind havoc "[i]n benefit highest proceed subject." 194, 456. Peckham's dating Marshall's 822, issues—state federal—presented breaking Clara Pacific 118 1132, (1886), lower "main—almost counsel," "These belong decide, disposal arise." 1140. routinely 629, Cincinnati Vester, 281 439, 448-449, 950 (1930); Rock Island (1926); Bohler Callaway, 267 479, 435, Electric Light Lincoln, 250 256, 268-269, 454, 458, 968 (1919); Schmidt Oakland Unified Dist., 594, 2612, Comm'n California 334, (1938); Commission 116, 272, Western 97-98, 56-57, Ohio Tax Cases, 232 576, 586-587, 372, 373-374, (1914); Garrett, 231 303-304, 48, 229 (1913). Numerous accurate regarding 2417, Lime Growers Jacobsen, 362 73, 81, 573 568 (1960); Hurn Oursler, 289 238, 243-245, 586 H.L. Matheson, 407, 1164, 1170, Brandeis' Hutchinson Proxmire, 122, 2675, 2681, include authorizing reopening event differently. 732, Wald Storage Smyth, 602, 227, 528 178-179, "I days ago, decisis, persuasive society Akron Center Reproductive Health, --- ----, 2481, 687 bind opinions, decent orderly justice controlling candidly overruled." Solem Helm, 3001, 3020-3021, 637 (1983) (BURGER, majority. fifth Akron. odd repudiate social expansion concept remediless relic medieval else. "Whether absolute survival monarchial privilege, manifestation logical undoubtedly reflect strong momentum tendency confirm Maitland's belief, expressed nearly fifty ago 'it wholesome sight Crown" answering torts.' Ins. older (1884), observing observed," 290, 914 "This government. blot obliterates demarcation separates absolutism, self-government despotism, many, enables declare 'L'Etat c'est moi.' avail constitutions bills security written, too blood martyrs shed battle-field scaffold, overpassed impunity guard, defend, them; too, sacred obedience, respect? else maintained, if, violated, tribunals visit penalties offenders, instruments whenever interpose State? tolerated. frame political country, Federal, protest existence compatible pure, simple, naked. 291, 914-915. heart defense: (1895); (1908); (1911); 1220 (1917). (indeed case), rejected: (1896); All performed rarely cited, 115-116, point. From beyond, sense—since abandon sensible rule. progeny, (1913); Commission, (1938).

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