Document: 527 U.S. 581119 S.Ct. 2176144 L.Ed.2d 540 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES119 2176138 F.3d 893, affirmed in part, vacated and remanded. No. 98 536 1 TOMMY OLMSTEAD, COMMISSIONER, GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OFHUMAN RESOURCES, et al., PETITIONERSv.L. C., by JONATHAN ZIMRING, guardian ad litem next friend, al. 2 ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO STATES APPEALSFOR ELEVENTH CIRCUIT 3 [June 22, 1999] 4 Justice Ginsburg announced the judgment of Court delivered opinion with respect to Parts I, II, III A, an Part B, which O'Connor, Souter, Breyer, JJ., joined. 5 This case concerns proper construction anti-discrimination provision contained public services portion (Title II) Americans Disabilities Act 1990, 104 Stat. 337, 42 U.S.C. § 12132. Specifically, we confront question whether proscription discrimination may require placement persons mental disabilities community settings rather than institutions. The answer, hold, is a qualified yes. Such action order when State's treatment professionals have determined that appropriate, transfer from institutional care less restrictive setting not opposed affected individual, can be reasonably accommodated, taking into account resources available State needs others disabilities. In so ruling, affirm decision Eleventh Circuit substantial part. We remand case, however, for further consideration appropriate relief, given range facilities maintains diverse disabilities, its obligation administer even hand. I 6 as it comes us, presents no constitutional question. complaints filed plaintiffs-respondents L. C. E. W. did include such issue; alleged defendants-petitioners, Georgia health officials, failed afford them minimally adequate freedom undue restraint, violation their rights under Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment. See Complaint ¶¶87 91; Intervenor's ¶¶30 34. But neither District nor Appeals reached those Amendment claims. Civ. 1:95 cv 1210 MHS (ND Ga., Mar. 26, 1997), pp. 6, 11 13, App. Pet. Cert. 34a 35a, 40a 41a; 138 895, n. (CA11 1998). Instead, courts below resolved solely on statutory grounds. Our review similarly confined. Cf. Cleburne v. Living Center, Inc., 473 432, 450 (1985) (Texas city's requirement special use permit operation group home mentally retarded, other multiple-dwelling were freely permitted, lacked rational basis therefore violated Equal Protection Amendment). Mindful statute are construing, set out first legislative regulatory prescriptions turns. 7 opening provisions ADA, Congress stated findings applicable all parts. Most relevant this 8 "(2) historically, society has tended isolate segregate individuals and, despite some improvements, forms against continue serious pervasive social problem; 9 "(3) persists critical areas . institutionalization ; 10 "(5) continually encounter various discrimination, including outright intentional exclusion, failure make modifications existing practices, [and] segregation ." 12101(a)(2), (3), (5).1 12 then forth prohibitions employment §§12111 12117), furnished governmental entities §§12131 12165), accommodations provided private III, §§12181 12189). whole intended "to provide clear comprehensive national mandate elimination disabilities." §12101(b)(1).2 13 Title ADA.3 II centrally at issue reads: 14 "Subject subchapter, individual disability shall, reason disability, excluded participation or denied benefits services, programs, activities entity, subjected any entity." §12132. 15 II's definition section states "public entity" includes "any local government," department, agency, [or] purpose district." §§12131(1)(A), (B). same defines "qualified disability" 16 "an who, without reasonable rules, policies, removal architectural, communication, transportation barriers, auxiliary aids meets essential eligibility requirements receipt programs §12131(2). 17 On redress violations §12132's prohibition, referred remedies §505 Rehabilitation 1973, 92 2982, 29 794a. 12133 ("The remedies, procedures, [§505 Act] shall subchapter provides person alleging 12132 title.").4 18 instructed Attorney General regulations implementing proscription. §12134(a) ("[T]he promulgate accessible format implement part.").5 General's regulations, directed, "shall consistent chapter coordination recipients Federal financial assistance [§504 Act]." 12134(b). One §504 requires federal funds "administer most integrated handicapped persons." 28 CFR 41.51(d) (1998). 19 As instructed, issued see pt. 35 (1998), one modeled regulation just quoted; called "integration regulation," 20 "A entity 35.130(d) 21 preamble "the disabilities" mean "a enables interact non-disabled fullest extent possible." 35, p. Another "make modifications" avoid "discrimination disability," unless would entail "fundamenta[l] alter[ation]"; here "reasonable-modifications provides: 22 procedures necessary demonstrate making fundamentally alter nature service, program, activity." 35.130(b)(7) 23 recite these caveat do determine validity. While parties differ enforcement understand petitioners challenge formulations themselves outside congressional authorization. Brief Petitioners 17, 36, 40 41; Reply (challenging interpretation integration regulation). 24 With key full view, summarize facts underlying dispute. Respondents retarded women; also been diagnosed schizophrenia, W., personality disorder. Both women history settings. May 1992, was voluntarily admitted Regional Hospital Atlanta (GRH), where she confined psychiatric unit. By 1993, her condition had stabilized, C.'s team GRH agreed could met appropriately community-based supported. Despite evaluation, remained institutionalized until February 1996, placed program. 1995; like March 1995, sought discharge homeless shelter, but abandoned plan after attorney administrative complaint. W.'s treating psychiatrist concluded treated setting. She nonetheless few months 1997. 25 still GRH, suit United States Northern Georgia, challenging continued confinement segregated environment. Her complaint invoked 1983 12134, named defendants, now petitioners, Commissioner Department Human Resources, Superintendent Executive Director Fulton County Board (collectively, State). place once violated, inter alia, ADA. pleading requested, among things, residential receive ultimate goal integrating mainstream society. intervened action, stating anidentical claim.6 26 granted partial summary favor 31a 42a. court held program id., 39a, 41a. rejected argument inadequate funding, "by of" accounted retention GRH. Under concluded, "unnecessary disabled constitutes per se, cannot justified lack funding." Id., 37a. 27 addition contending shown [their] disabilit[ies]," resisted intervention ground requiring immediate transfers cases "fundamentally alter" activity. reasserted already using 38a. Rejecting "fundamental alteration" defense, observed state kind qualified, "provide plaintiffs considerably cost required maintain institution." 39a. Court, remanded reassessment cost-based defense. F.3d, 905. appeals read regulations: When individual's find ADA imposes duty patient's needs"; "[w]here there finding [by professionals], nothing deinstitutionalization th[e] patient." 902. recognized "is absolute"; regulation, "reasonable State, fundamental alterations demanded. 904. thought clear, "Congress wanted defense only limited circumstances." conclusion, justification fail "[u]nless prove [expend additional services] unreasonable demands budget service [the State] provides." Because appeared entirely ruled "lack funding" justification, 37a, remanded, repeating should consider, "whether expenditures treat budget." 905.7 30 certiorari view importance presented individuals. 525 ___ (1998).8 31 Endeavoring carry Congress' instruction General, reasonable-modifications supra, 7, made two determinations. concerned scope ADA's proscription, 12132; second counter discrimination. first, unjustified institutions, severely limiting exposure community, form based prohibited II. (1998) ("A disabilities."); Amicus Curiae Helen DiDario, 94 1243 (CA3 1994), 8, (unnecessary Regarding States' isolation resist "would 32 essentially upheld recounted, 10, II; instructions measure caring facility budget. 33 Appeals' Unjustified isolation, properly regarded disability. recognize, well, need Accordingly, hold unduly restrictive. evaluating fundamental-alteration must providing litigants, mete equitably. A 34 examine whether, held, qualifies disability." consistently advocated does.9 agency directed views warrant respect. inquire degree deference described Chevron A. Inc. Natural Resources Defense Council, 467 837, 844 (1984), order; "[i]t enough observe well-reasoned agencies 'constitute body experience informed litigants resort guidance.' " Bragdon Abbott, 524 624, 642 (quoting Skidmore Swift & Co., 323 134, 139 140 (1944)). argues encountered because they 20. Nor "discrimination," contends, 'discrimination' necessarily uneven situated individuals," identified comparison class, i.e., preferential treatment. 21. satisfied more concept advanced ADA.10 36 stepped up earlier measures secure opportunities people developmental enjoy living. Developmentally Disabled Assistance Bill Rights (DDABRA), 1975 measure, aspirational terms "[t]he treatment, habilitation least person's personal liberty." 89 502, 6010(2) (1976 ed.) (emphasis added); Pennhurst School Halderman, 451 1, (1981) (concluding §6010 DDABRA "were hortatory, mandatory"). related endeavor, used mandatory language proscribe 87 394, amended, 794 ("No otherwise his in, of, activity receiving assistance." (Emphasis added)). Ultimately, enacted refrain additionally, entire statute, explicitly "segregation" "for[m] discrimination." §12101(a)(2) ("historically, problem"); §12101(a)(5) ("individuals segregation").11 37 Recognition reflects evident judgments. First, who handle benefit perpetuates unwarranted assumptions isolated incapable unworthy participating life. Allen Wright, 468 737, 755 (1984) ("There doubt [stigmatizing injury often caused racial discrimination] consequences discriminatory government action."); Los Angeles Dept. Water Power Manhart, 435 702, 707, (1978) (" 'In forbidding employers discriminate sex, strike spectrum disparate men resulting sex stereotypes.' Sprogis Air Lines, 444 F.2d 1194, 1198 (CA7 1971)). Second, institution diminishes everyday life individuals, family relations, contacts, work options, economic independence, educational advancement, cultural enrichment. American Psychiatric Association Amici 22. Dissimilar correspondingly exists respect: needed medical must, relinquish accommodations, while similar sacrifice. 17. 38 urges that, whatever Medicaid "reflected policy preference over community." 31. correctly past tense. Since 1981, funding state-run through waiver 95 812 813, 1396n(c); 21.12 Indeed, points Health Services (HHS) "has encouraging take advantage approves slots ultimately uses." (further observing "HHS approved 2109 700"). 39 emphasize condones termination unable individual[s] "be "Qualified explains, "with mee[t] Consistent provisions, generally rely assessments own determining "meets requirements" Absent qualification, inappropriate remove patient (public added)); cf. Bd. Nassau Cty. Arline, 480 273, 288 (1987) ("[C]ourts normally defer judgments officials.").13 imposed patients desire it. 35.130(e)(1) ("Nothing part construed accept accommodation chooses accept."); ("[P]ersons option declining particular accommodation."). genuine dispute concerning status "qualified" noninstitutional care: woman 8.14 B 41 responsibility, boundless. speaks allows alter[ation]" programs. "only circumstances," 902, budget," unacceptable leave virtually defenseless plaintiff seeks. If expense entailed placing measured reasonableness budget, unlikely relying ever prevail. Tr. Oral Arg. (State's understanding expressed "will always preclude meaningful defense"); (Court "mistakenly asks district fundamental-alteration] citizens care"); Oct. 20, 1998), 3, 177 (District remand, declares impact beyond "irrelevant"). Sensibly construed, component allow show allocation resources, relief inequitable, responsibility undertaken large population compared institution. That simple showed placements confinements. recognizes, overlooks costs avoid; notably, "State increased overall expenses being able savings associated closure institutions." 21.15 43 observed, impel phase close risk. post, (Kennedy, J., concurring judgment). mission drive move setting, proposed, retracted, 8. Some prior years, time stabilize acute symptoms." (affidavit Dr. Richard Elliott); 903 ("[T]here times [when] whe[n] necessary."); (placement does will longer retain hospital placed). For appropriate. ("Some ill, prepared perhaps short run, long run risks protective environment settings"; persons, "institutional remain available."); Voice Retarded ("Each entitled possible recognizing case-by-case basis, institution."); Youngberg Romeo, 457 307, 327 (1982) (Blackmun, concurring) ("For many people, difference between capacity things within total dependence much liberty know."). 44 To hand, leeway understood allow. If, example, comprehensive, effectively working settings, waiting list moved pace controlled endeavors keep institutions fully populated, standard met. asking [a] wait bed available, exclude [that] disability"); ("[I]t ask someone available."). circumstances, displacement top lower down commenced civil actions.16 45 * 46 reasons stated, conclude oppose proceedings opinion. 47 It ordered. Stevens, 48 judgment. 49 "unjustified isolation," 1990. ante, 15. requests modification assert, affirmative requested cause alteration State's"fundamental-alteration defense." 7. 50 wrong concluding unrelated support arguable error corrected either decision. my opinion, therefore, simply Appeals. five votes disposition, join Ginsburg's 655 656 (Stevens, J. concurring); Screws States, 325 91, 134 (1945) (Rutledge, result). Kennedy, 51 whom Breyer joins 52 remarkable advances achievements science, agreement severe illness treatable, devote remains controversial. Knowledgeable tell us our society, governments reflect attitudes preferences, yet grasp potential disorders, especially illness. result, endeavor forthcoming. During course year, about 5.6 million suffer Torrey, Out Shadows (1997). 2.2 6. Millions degree, mild depression. These background arises. addition, course, subject historic mistreatment, indifference, hostility. See, e.g., 461 464 (Marshall, dissenting part) (discussing retarded). 53 obstacles, acknowledged obligation. They operate sometimes elaborate ones, care. continuing challenge, though, effective humane way, particularly societal responses authorities changed time. 54 Beginning 1950's, victims hospitals, benign objectives. According estimate, adjusted growth, actual decrease numbers illnesses hospitals 1955 1995 percent." 21, (citing 9). justification. so-called "deinstitutionalization" permitted number greater dignity. be, moreover, indeed cases. reference out, 18, undisputed medically respondents. Nevertheless, depopulation dark side. expert: 55 "For minority. Titanic. Their lives devoid 'dignity' 'integrity body, mind, spirit.' 'Self-determination' means merely choice soup kitchens. 'least setting' frequently turns cardboard box, jail cell, terror-filled existence plagued both real imaginary enemies." 11. 56 remembered dreaded confinements imprisonment inflicted shuts reality subjects him torment voices images powers describe. 57 unreasonable, tragic event, then, 1990 (ADA) interpreted incentive, fear litigation, too little supervision. responsible physician conditions ought greatest deference. common phenomenon functions well medication, yet, itself, lacks discipline follow regime medication requires. illustrative factors consider recommending takes background. careful, quite correct, say shelter Ante, 58 light concerns, if principle liability applied caution circumspection, pressured attempting compliance cheap, marginal attention condition. danger federalism inherent referring decisions regarding administration reviewing authority courts. central importance, apply today's great responsible, physicians makes policymakers. 59 reservations explicit, determination questions poses respondents 12132's ban materials file pleadings allowed. 60 At outset noted allegation officials acted animus unfair stereotypes disabled. Underlying law notion lead false stereotypes, vice versa. Of line stereotype indistinct, distinguish them. Section deem irrational, prohibit, distinctions class are, exposed onerous facilities. Discrimination might before though required. 61 Putting aside issues stereotype, agree Thomas ordinary meaning term, alleges "received differential vis-a-vis members different statutorily characteristic." Post, (dissenting opinion). defined here. Although seems reject Thomas' asserts unnecessary "[d]issimilar treatment," 16. "[i]n sacrifice." Ibid. 62 point discussed length serve suggest theory needing eligible creation new one, beginnings established. specific (i) suffering problems comparable seriousness, (ii) general matter, (taking practical considerations account), (iii) fails (treating instead separate, locked facilities), believe 63 matter create one. No unlimited each hard how allocate diseases reduced unfortunate. judgment, political reach statute. Grave raised choices basic matters establishing establish decisions. notes, procedures" follows forced community-treatment none exists. 3. Whether scheme exceed limits addressed. Discrimination, tends expansive legal category, prudence. reading §12132 cover types nondisabled minimal innocuous. context absent showing policies motivated improper received Regulations important tool identifying kinds contexts, practices raise 12101 useful aid discern sorts concerned. bearing conclusion evidence result prohibits. 64 Unlike Thomas, instructive express "isolat[ion] segregat[ion]" discrimination," §§12101(a)(2), (5), "persists institutionalization," §12101(a)(3). nature, necessitate plans required, distinguished broad classifications services. underscore concern frequent problem segregating discriminatory. normal groups. inform application cases, guidance contrary, think displace discriminated decided abstract, divorced surrounding State. 65 possibility claim inquiry simple. Comparisons corresponding regimens difficult, offered. apart disabled, rarely offered hospitals. Determining relevance type considerable analysis. However, observe, identified, let alone treatment." 66 Without information details state-provided address way demands. consequence, below, granting respondents, sustained. careful note, 19, restrict force comparative 67 wide discretion adopting systems analysis, chooses, fixed overhead cautious seek infer rules controlling 68 instance sufficiently supported respondents' not, replead introduce along lines suggested above. 69 reasons, concur Court. 70 Chief Scalia join, dissenting. 71 (ADA), 72 added.) 73 majority concludes "discriminated" became placement. disagree. Temporary exclusion amount "discrimination" traditional sense word, 74 Until today, never endorsed term encompassed protected class. typically understood, claimant characteristic. comports dictionary definitions "distinguish," "differentiate," "distinction against, thing group, category belongs merit." Random House Dictionary 564 (2d ed. 1987); Webster's Third New International 648 (defining perceiving distinction difference" act, practice, discriminating categorically individually"). 75 construing wavered path. best begin VII Civil 1964, 78 253, paradigmatic law.1 unlawful practice employer compensation, terms, conditions, privileges employment, race, color, religion, origin." 2000e 2(a)(1) added). explained designed achieve equality barriers operated identifiable white employees employees." Griggs Duke 401 424, 429 430 (1971).2 76 VII, groups certain characteristics Newport News Shipbuilding Dry Dock Co. EEOC, 462 669, 683 (1983) (explaining occurs employee 'in manner different' ") 711 (1978)). reason, "nonsensical" composition classes job categories existed category. Wards Cove Packing Atonio, 490 642, 651 (1989).3 Courts interpreting demonstrating member favored another group. Bush Commonwealth Edison 990 928, 931 1993), cert. denied, 511 1071 (1994) fired black "had although he good employee, equally bad leniently [his employer] happened black"). prohibits commonly 504 77 "No handicap, keeping paradigm, faces handicap." previously "affirmative efforts overcome handicaps," Southeastern Community College Davis, 442 397, 410 (1979), appears endorse today. found evenhanded persons" relative fact envision action" behalf itself "does refer all" action. Therefore, "[a] demonstrates knew instances wished so." 411. 79 Similarly, Alexander Choate, 469 287, 302 (1985), limit inpatient "neutral face" "distinguish whose coverage test, trait capable meeting likely having," 302. said "not guarantee equal results Medicaid, assuming constructed." 304. 80 Likewise, Traynor Turnage, 485 535, 548 (1988), reiterated "evenhanded treatment" Traynor, Veterans' Administration "primary alcoholics" extended alcoholism 551. doing, "[t]his litigation involve favorably nonhandicapped 548. Given held: "There 549. 81 informs Court's term. Motors Corp. Tracy, 519 278, 298 (1997) (noting Commerce Clause, "[c]onceptually, assumes substantially entities"); Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 U. S 356, 374 (1886) (condemning "illegal discriminations circumstances"); Adarand Constructors, Pena, 515 200, 223 224 (1995); Richmond Croson 488 469, 493 494 (1989) (plurality 82 understanding, derives "capacious" 14. chiefly relies sure, appear equate segregation, thereby §§12101(a)(2) 12101(a)(5), identify "discrimination"); findings, written general, hortatory National Organization Women, Scheidler, 510 249, 260 ("We quoted statement thin reed upon base requirement"). vague suffice overturn well-established (here, "discrimination").4 83 Moreover, explain why content, pertaining treated. context, sense, access facilities, transportation. directive expand invalidate NLRB Highland Park Mfg. 341 322, (1951) ordinarily accepted meaning, definition").5 84 Elsewhere chose §12112(b)(1), "limiting, segregating, classifying applicant adversely affects employee." Notably, unlike aspects applies Ordinary canons applicability import parts fit. Bates 522 23, 'Where omits Act, presumed acts intentionally purposely inclusion exclusion' Russello 16, (1983)). majority's specifically delineated imports sufficient focus exclusively view,discrimination differently preceding discussion emphasizes, supplied Congress, novel proposition finds analogous areas. equivalent deficient management skills in-house training (allegedly funding) training. fly face law, assertion benefit. Griggs, U.S., 431 ("Congress intend every regardless qualifications. short, command hired formerly minority group"). 85 bottom, prohibition conduct (the discrimination), imposition care.6 such, offer species looks comparing determines wishes receive. drains proxy disapproved 86 Further, approach significant costs, directing delivery principles erect Government's ability direct officers interfere governments. Printz 521 898 (1997); York 505 144 (1992). level Alexander, rejecting Act: "[N]othing suggests desired major inroads longstanding choose mix amount, scope, duration limitations 307; Bowen Assn., 476 610, (1986) opinion) ("[N]othing [§504] authorizes Secretary (HHS)] commandeer [These] field offices HHS bureaucracy conscripted foot soldiers crusade"). come cold comfort defend prevent individual. area, historical role dominant remark actually compare mentions passing supporting cites standing unremarkable leads deleterious stereotyping, (1984); 13)), amicus brief indicates activities, 22). observes "can without" twin effects. quarrel propositions, assist resolving specifies what need, contends leading inference dissimilar traditionally defined. 88 Finally, "discriminate" disabili[ties]," phrase proximate causation. Holmes Securities Investor Corp., 503 258, 265 266 (1992); 266, (citation cases). vernacular phrase. Heritage 1506 (3d 1992) "because "). causation well. contend constituted exclusion. Continued deemed treatable placement, turn denial occurred Rather, establishes resources. 90 foregoing respectfully dissent. Notes 91 1. recent extensive Earlier included 355, 701 seq. ed.), 486, 6001 1975. expressly area "institutionalization." (5). 2. "disability," individual," "(A) physical impairment individual; "(B) record impairment; "(C) having impairment." §12102(2). There 93 governing generally, contains host §§12141 12165. 4. incorporates rights, VI 1964 Act. 794a(a)(2). VI, turn, directs department authorized extend achievement objectives authorizing assistance. 252, 2000d Compliance effected funds, law." Remedies equity §2000d 7(a)(2). 5. Transportation 12143(b), 12149, 12164. enforce commencing lawsuit, filing (a) complaint, (b) referral (c) eight investigating arising II: Agriculture, Education, Services, Housing Urban Development, Interior, Justice, Labor, Transportation. §§35.170(c), 35.172(b), 35.190(b) several allocating responsibility. Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) 12116; §12117(a). §§12186(a)(1), (b); §§12188(a)(1), (b). Each implementation render technical §12206(c)(1). 96 currently moot. explained, multiple experienced, controversy brought "capable repetition, evading review." 35a (internal quotation marks omitted); 1998) Honig Doe, 484 305, 318 323(1988), Vitek Jones, 445 480, 486 487 (1980)). 97 After certiorari, Jan. 29, 1999), annual relation reaching declared "irrelevant" 1210-MHS 177. pending appeal Circuit. Twenty-two Territory Guam joined urging granted. Seven merits. 99 9. Halderman Hospital, Nos. 1490, 1564, 1602 1978), ("[I]nstitutionalization result[ing] separation permissible 'discrimination,' [of funds."); 1981), ("Pennsylvania violates indiscriminately subjecting [an institution] reasoned professional alternatives."); ("Both rest statutes."); 100 10. dissent driven "this class," (opinion J.), "[o]ur path," 2, group," incorrect precedent logic. O'Connor Consolidated Coin Caterers 517 308, 312 (1996) (The Age 1967 aged older; bans age, older. lost thus irrelevant, age."); Oncale Sundowner Offshore 523 75, ("[W]orkplace harassment violate VII's 'discriminat[ion] sex,' 2(a)(1), harasser harassed sex."); Jefferies Harris Action 615 1025, 1032 (CA5 1980) ("[D]iscrimination females exist absence women."). 101 recognition 504's single sentence attached vocational rehabilitation legislation, yielded divergent interpretations. 25. 102 12. reimbursement care, average §1396n(c). 103 13. expresses Ga. Code Ann. §37 121 (1995) ("It alternative secured client stage habilitation. securing programs."). "standard care" render, 9, (Thomas, dissenting). adhere nondiscrimination regard provide. 105 Even eventually response increase placements, incur running partially interim. 106 reason. ordered, with" 107 now, enacted: recipient known impose hardship program." 41.53 (1990 1998 eds.). define "undue hardship," hardship" assessment recipient's "case-by-case analysis weighing include: (1) [t]he size employees, budget; (2) operation, structure workforce; (3) needed." 42.511(c) (1998); 84.12(c) (same). reading, difficult meet burden" regulation. 108 incorporated standards statutes prohibiting Rev. §1977, 1981 forbid contracts. Saint Francis Al-Khazraji, 481 604, 609 (1987). "framework" developed claims Patterson McLean Credit Union, 491 164, 186 (1989). Also, 1967, 602, 623(a)(1), employee's age. "interpretation age substantive ADEA 'were derived haec verba VII.' Trans World Airlines, Thurston, 111, Lorillard Pons, 434 575, 584 looked interpretations illuminating IX Education Amendments 1972, 373, 1681 seq., federally funded education Franklin Gwinnett Public Schools, 60, (1992) (relying Meritor Savings Bank, FSB Vinson, 477 (1986), sexual discrimination). 109 VII: impact. proscribes overt fair form, operation"). employees. 110 Following Cove, 1991, Pub. 166, 1071, which, altered burden proof claim. §105 (codified 2(k)). change highlights departure Field Mans, 516 59, (Congress legislates rule notions lawful conduct). 111 sufficient, puzzling ago itself. (1988 (describing statute's develop implement, research, training, opportunity, coordinated independent living, handicaps maximize employability, workplace community" since amended proclaim by, "respect dignity, self-determination, pursuit careers, choice, disabilities," privacy, access," "inclusion, integration, individuals." 701(c)(1) (3). 112 promulgated General. Deference 'if intent question, reasonable.' Reno Bossier Parish Bd., 520 471, 483 Presley Etowah Comm'n, 502 491, 508 (1992)). Here, insofar contradicts settled prevail Town Country Elec., 85, "must infer, dictates, incorporate established term") omitted). 113 mandating minimize "mainstreaming" Individuals (IDEA), 175, 1400 IDEA antidiscrimination law. grant affirmatively accepting children "free education" "procedures assure maximum educated disabled." §§1412(1), Ironically, mandate, adopted Ed. Hendrick Hudson Central Dist., Westchester Rowley, 458 176, 198 specialized generates child's commensurate opportunity children")

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