Document: 456 U.S. 742 102 S.Ct. 2126 72 L.Ed.2d 532 FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION, et al., Appellants,v.MISSISSIPPI al. No. 80-1749. Argued Jan. 19, 1982. Decided June 1, Rehearing Denied Sept. 9, See 458 1131, 103 15. Syllabus The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (PURPA) was enacted as part a legislative package designed to combat the nationwide energy crisis. To further this effort, Titles I and III PURPA direct state utility regulatory commissions nonregulated utilities "consider" adoption implementation specific "rate design" standards, require follow certain notice comment procedures when acting on proposed federal standards. Section 210 PURPA's Title II seeks encourage development cogeneration small power facilities, directs Federal Energy Commission (FERC), in consultation with authorities, promulgate rules carry out goal. then requires after hearing, implement such rules, authorizes FERC exempt facilities from regulations. State Mississippi Service (appellees) brought an action District Court against Secretary (appellants), seeking declaratory judgment that § are unconstitutional because they exceed congressional under Commerce Clause constitute invasion sovereignty violation Tenth Amendment. so held pronounced challenged provisions void. Held : 1. within Congress' Clause. Pp. 753-758. (a) assert is facially it does not regulate "commerce," or have "a substantial effect" activity, disregards finding 2 regulated activities do immediate effect interstate commerce. 754-755. (b) history amply supports conclusion limited regulation retail sales electricity natural gas, relationships between cogenerators electric utilities, essential protect commerce Nation's economy. 756-758. 2. trench 758-771. Insofar qualified laws regulations, nothing more than pre-empt conflicting enactments traditional way. Because Congress may States completely by gas transactions cogenerators. With respect 210's requirement authorities FERC's statute its implementing regulations simply settle disputes arising statute, very type adjudicatory activity customarily engaged Commission. Testa v. Katt, 330 386, 67 810, 91 L.Ed. 967. Pp.759-761. "mandatory consideration" involve compelled exercise Mississippi's sovereign powers set mandatory agenda be considered all events administrative decisionmakers, but establish requirements for continued otherwise pre-emptible field. Cf. Hodel Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Assn., Inc., 452 264, 101 2389, 69 761-770. (c) Similarly, procedural compel State's purport standards followed areas commission's endeavors. If body consider condition involvement field, use minima during body's deliberations subject. Pp.770-771 Reversed. Sol. Gen. Rex E. Lee, Washington, D. C., appellants. Alex A. Alston, Jr., Jackson, Miss., appellees. [Amicus Curiae Information page 744-745 intentionally omitted] Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 1 In case, appellees successfully constitutionality III, II, 1978, Pub.L. 95-617, 92 Stat. 3117 (PURPA Act). We conclude appellees' challenge lacks merit we reverse below. * On November President Carter signed into law.1 legislation,2 approved same day, 3 At time, said generation consumed 25% resources used United States. S.Rep.No.95-442, p. 7 (1977), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 7659. Approximately one-third country generated through oil one fastest growing segments S.Rep.No.95-361, 32 (1977). their reliance were plagued increasing costs decreasing efficiency generating capacities; each these factors had adverse rates consumers economy whole. at 9. accordingly determined conservation success any effort lessen country's dependence foreign oil, avoid repetition shortage been experienced 1977, control consumer costs. 4 which relate policies respectively, administered (with minor exceptions) Energy. These practices. share three goals: (1) "conservation supplied . utilities"; (2) "the optimization resources" utilities; (3) "equitable consumers." §§ 301, 3120 3149, 16 U.S.C. 2611 (1976 ed., Supp. IV), 15 3201 IV).3 achieve goals, 5 111(d) Act, 2621(d), authority six different approaches structuring rates: promulgation, class consumers, that, "to maximum extent practicable," would "reflect service class"; elimination declining block rates;4 time-of-day rates;5 (4) promulgation seasonal rates;6 (5) interruptible rates;7 (6) load management techniques.8 directed later two years enactment, is, 8, 1980, provided 1981, made decision whether adopt 2622(b). provide penalties failure meet deadlines; merely first rate proceeding initiated 1980. 2622(c). 6 113 PURPA, 2623, second relating terms conditions service: prohibition master-metering new buildings;9 restrictions automatic adjustment clauses;10 disclosure information regarding schedules; termination service; recovery advertising consumers. 303, 3203, consideration last standards—procedures nonrecovery costs—for utilities. A contained 303 although, again, no penalty deadline. Finally, 114 2624, "lifeline rates"—that lower meets needs residential consumers—if adopted 8 also prescribe considering Each standard examined public hearing notice, written statement reasons must available if adopted. 2621(b) (c)(2), 2623(a) (c); 3203(a) (c). "Any person" bring court enforce obligation hold make determinations 2633(c)(1); 3207(b)(1). 9 Energy, affected utility, served given right intervene participate rate-related 2631(a). Under alone has intervene. 3205. Any person (including Secretary) who intervenes participates obtain review determination concerning 2633(c)(1), amicus judicial another. 3207(b)(2). enforceable court. 2633(b); 3207(a)(2). 10 forth reporting requirements. Within year annually thereafter years, report "respecting established." 2626(a); 3209(a). Secretary, turn, submit summary analysis reports Congress. 2626(b); 3209(b). Electricity required collect 2643. This filed periodically appellant (FERC) appropriate agencies, public. FERC, design. 3206. 11 Despite detail proposals, however, specified design Thus, 2621(a) provide: "Nothing subsection prohibits making [or adopt] standard, pursuant applicable law." 2627(b) 3208 clear "different established [subchapter or] chapter." B 12 3144, 824a-3, production facilities.11 believed increased sources reduce demand fossil fuels. But felt problems impeded nontraditional facilities: reluctant purchase from, sell to, facilities,12 alternative imposed financial burdens upon thus discouraged development.13 13 order overcome perceived problems, 210(a) "such determines necessary production," including requiring offer qualifying facilities. 210(f), 824a-3(f), rules. And 210(h), 824a-3(h), utility; fails act request, suit. 14 solve problem Congress, 210(e), 824a-3(e), exempting favored governing Pursuant statutory authorization, purchases 18 CFR pt. 292 (1980); 45 Fed.Reg. 12214-12237 (1980). afford latitude determining manner implemented. commission comply issuing resolving case-by-case basis, taking other reasonably give rules.14 April 1979, Commission, here, Southern unconstitutional. App. 3.15 Appellees maintained beyond scope constituted Amendment.16 17 Following cross-motions judgment, Court, unreported opinion, enacting exceeded Juris. Statement 1a. observed possessed "power intrastate operating Mississippi." Id., 2a. Relying Coal Co., 298 238, 56 855, 80 1160 (1936), stated: "There literally Constitution justifies government over actually unknown writing Constitution." 4a. Indeed, court's view, legislation "does even attempt among several states usurpation 7a. National League Cities Usery, 426 833, 96 2465, 49 245 (1976), concluded trenches sovereignty.17 It therefore void "they intrusion integral functions 8a-9a. For did explain, relied guarantee republican form government, U.S.Const., Art. IV, 4, Supremacy Clause, VI, cl. 2a, n. 9a. 19 appealed directly 28 1252. Recl. 274, 15, 2352, 2359, (1981). noted probable jurisdiction. 936, 3077, 950 20 readily Court's arguments without far concern say operations misapprehends proper role courts assessing validity promulgated plenary powers. reiterated just Term Indiana, 314, 2376, 40 (1981): "It peradventure 'legislative Acts adjusting benefits economic life come presumption .' Usery Turner Elkhorn 428 [96 2882, 2892, 752] (1976). invalidate only there rational basis affects commerce, reasonable connection means selected asserted ends." 323-324, S.Ct., 2382.18 21 expansive observations "commerce"; instead, said, nonconsenting accordance procedures. This, continue, power: "In exercising conferred clause Constitution, powerless anything about regulation." U.S., 297, 866. "governance commerce" distinguished itself, former outside Congress.19 22 argued test "affects" but, citing REHNQUIST's concurring cases, 311-312, 2391. maintain, standard. 23 difficulty disregard entirely finding, 2601, protection health, safety, welfare, preservation national security, require," things, program energy, equitable well improve wholesale distribution while ensuring equitable. 2601. findings, thus, specific. 24 heretofore indicated transmission nature supply power. FPC Florida Power Light 404 453, 637, 30 600 (1972). Our inquiry, then, findings basis. 277, 2360; 2382. 25 provides simple answer: ample support conclusions. hearings extensive. Committees both Houses magnitude need alleviate those promoting efficient resources. 7-10; H.R.Rep.No.95-543, vol. I, pp. 5-10 (1977); H.R.Rep.No.95-496, 3-7, 125-130 (1977).20 aware domestic lagged behind Nation become increasingly dependent oil. 3. House Committee observed: "Reliance imported bulk U. S. demands could seriously jeopardize stability undermine independence States." Ibid. 5-6. recently severe shortages supplies gas. 7. Senate industry total supplying 12% user energy. 7-8; 125. recent beset numerous id., 129, resulted higher bills consuming public, result exacerbated structures employed most 26. naturally scope,21 developments demonstrated electricity, attempts scarce Seeid., 24-32; 131-133, 136-138, 170-171. 26 conserve evidence before showed potential contribution energy: estimated incentives provided, industrial account 7%-10% electrical capacity 1987. 21, 23. 27 agree appellants difficult conceive basic element product virtually every home commercial manufacturing facility. No relies solely own respect. supra. involved Company Company, customers borders, reciprocal services 93-94. although them reach 458, 641; New England Co. Hampshire, 454 331, 1096, 71 188 (1982).22 Even correct suggesting will significantly situation, " 'the chosen [Congress are] adapted end permitted Constitution.' 276, quoting Heart Atlanta Motel, Inc. States, 379 241, 262, 85 348, 360, 258 (1964). us represent wisest choice. sufficient irrational concluding That enough place portions Clause.23 private commissions, necessarily valid least insofar regulates parties. 286, 2365. IV Amendment 29 Unlike question, issue presented here somewhat novel. case obviously related principles sovereignty. significant difference well. Cities, like Fry 421 542, 95 1792, 44 363 (1975), often confrontss shields generally contrast, Government machinery advance goals. extent, presents impression. complexity, contains essentially requirements: FERC; ratemaking standards; impose commissions. turn: 31 210. face, appears intrusive provisions. question constitutionality, easiest resolve. "State regulations," Clearly, can Pacific Arizona, 325 761, 769, 65 1515, 1520, 89 1915 (1945). propriety regulation—so long power—was reaffirmed Assn.: displace though serves "curtail prohibit States' prerogatives choices respecting subjects important." 290, 2367. "each shall, opportunity rule (or revised rule) authority," 824a-3(f)(1) (emphasis added), troublesome. statute's substantive cogenerator 824a-3(a). Yet declared by, "an undertaking resolve [PURPA]." 292.401(a) essence, adjudicate statute. Dispute resolution kind See, e.g., Miss.Code Ann. 77-1-31, 77-3-5, 77-3-13(3), 77-3-21, 77-3-405 (1973). 33 967 (1947), instructive controlling point. There, Emergency Price Control 34, amended, created treble-damages remedy, gave jurisdiction claims courts. Rhode Island refused entertain claims, heard analogous causes action. upheld program. unique enforcing law, "jurisdiction adequate local law action." 394, 814. Thus heed constitutional command policy prevailing state," 393, 814, 'and should respected State.' 392, 813, Mondou York, N. H. R. 223 57, 169, 178, 327 (1912). 34 So here. granted satisfy opening doors claimants. duties significance.24 allow preeminent position throughout Nation, cf. Martin Hunter's Lessee, Wheat. 304, 340-341, 97 (1816), rights appropriately enforced machinery. Such approach, emphasized, "flies face fact Union nation," "disregards purpose Article VI 389, 812. 35 B. Mandatory Consideration Standards. acknowledge fundamental decisions" perhaps quintessential attribute 851, 2474. having decisions what gives nature. Bates Bar 433 350, 2691, 2697, 53 810 (1977) (State Supreme speaks "ultimate wielding practice law"). ability (or, administrative) body—which makes sets whole—to choosing central system. 19th-century expressed well-known slavery "has officer, such, duty whatever, him perform it." Kentucky Dennison, How. 66, 107, 717 (1861). 36 Recent demonstrate rigid isolated Dennison —which suggests circumstances viewed co-equal sovereigns—is representative today.25 While never sanctioned explicitly EPA Brown, 431 99, 1635, 52 166 instances where decisionmakers take refrain actions. example, executives restricted, employees, wage salary limitations Economic Stabilization 1970. Washington Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel 443 658, 99 3055, 61 823 (1979), acknowledged treaty compelling agency "prepare" "even withholds [it] so." 695, 3079.26 certainly supra, declaring reveals some enlist branch government—there judiciary—to ends.27 doing so, clearly cut back quoted language preceding century.28 37 Whatever forebode future, event crisis proportions, plainly definitive choice competing views activity. commission, stops regulating proposals. As noted, permits sense, step pre-empted surface mining regulations; allowed enter field consistent raised problem: "We fail see why constitutionally suspect chose role." "[T]here suggestion commandeers processes enact program." 288, 2366. 38 Similarly rather concerned; invalid because, deference authority, less scheme continue area suggested standards.29 affirmative nature—that proposals—nothing cases improper one. There "directly compelling" short, threaten "separate independent existence," Lane County Oregon, Wall. 71, 76, (1869); Coyle Oklahoma, 221 559, 580, 688, 55 853 (1911), impair function effectively system." 547, n.7, 1795, n.7; 852, contrary, vehicle remaining active overriding concern. 39 recognize, course, put either abandoning altogether standards—may particularly true failed mechanism police default. contexts recognized policy—and may, indeed, induce authority. Oklahoma CSC, 127, 544, 794 attach grants-in-aid received attack concerned with, regulate." 143, 553. Amendment, declared, consistently construed 'as depriving resort end,' ibid., Darby, 312 100, 124, 451, 462, 609 (1941)—the being disbursement funds. cannot determinative likely move way, "coerc[e] States" assuming affecting "freedom 'integral governmental functions.' 289, Equally important, always preclusive nongovernmental matter strength interests. Wheat., 340-341. follows "[I]ndividual businesses [are] subject dual reside," 845, 2471; sovereigns conflict, controls. exercises "in displaces powers," 291, 2367, way important," 2367 or, still plainly, "extraordinarily intrusive." 305, 2374 (POWELL, J., concurring). unlikely easily abandon change analysis: "[t]he establishes cooperative federalism allows limits minimum administer programs, structured particular needs." 2366.30 41 sure, see, places onerous burden State. already grants "[a]ny interested petition [Public Service] [C]ommission issuance, amendment repeal regulation," 77-3-45 (1973) "any party aggrieved final shall right, regardless amount involved, appeal chancery court." 77-3-67(1) (Supp.1981) added). whose appear party. ." "[a]ppeals supreme 77-3-71 42 hardly standing grant presently accorded point provision expanding existing, liberal approach participation ratemaking.31 light, again find principle controlling: asked tribunals vindication state-created rights. various individuals policy; once supportable, lessened reason cast remedy provide." 391, 813. Second Employers' Liability Cases, 43 And, equally decisionmakers. read them, field.32 associated validated Assn.33 C. Procedural Requirements. "consideration" provisions; latter hortatory, prescriptive. Appellants amici Maryland argue due process something provide,34 Fourteenth go far, uphold above field—and today goes tasks. powers, reversed. 46 ordered. 47 POWELL, dissenting part. 48 seq. (PURPA), imposes unprecedented O'CONNOR ably demonstrates, intrusively federally "standards." ask quasi-legislative matters believes adopt. prescribes deciding think violates Most, all, bodies usually commissions—that companies. normally monopoly jurisdiction, extensively substantively procedurally law. Until now, exceptions, attempted important function, undertaken decisions. breaks longstanding federalism. 50 Now, agencies review, forces institutions. directing [of Energy], right" proceedings rates.1 enforce" obligations lays commissions.2 [judicial] determination" policies.3 foregoing intrude upon—in pre-empt—core procedure. 51 sustaining pleases since, activities. Ante, 765-766. "threat preemption" reasoning, Congress—one supposes—could provinces. 841, 2469, stated, indeed structure plain, ante, 753 758, embody distinct satisfied demonstrates other.4 "The general rule, bottomed deeply belief importance procedure, takes finds them." Hart, Relations Between Law, 54 Colum.L.Rev. 489, 508 (1954). believe apply organs government. prompt dissent dramatic changes know supplant state-prescribed define agencies. this, presumably state-court civil procedure classes found affect gradual encroachment hypothesized Professor Tribe: "Of expects obliterate states, fell swoop. danger, lies tyranny decisions—in prospect nibble away sovereignty, bit bit, until someday left gutted shell."5 limit identified above. appeal—and wisdom—of O'CONNOR's evocation federalism, precedents facial attack. (1981); (1947). Accordingly, separable, affirm O'CONNOR, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST join, supported enactment (PURPA). disagree, much analysis. conscript bureaucratic army. contrary antithetical values inconsistent our history. Parts IV-B IV-C opinion.1 decide dozen utilities.2 describes, detail, evaluating standards,3 IV); 2621(a), 2623(a), IV). latter, deceptively generous feature persuades impermissibly functions. conclusion, rests misunderstanding governments play federalist 57 offices bureaucracy. Nor tanks assign extended study. Instead, domain, citizens providing welfare. statutes boundaries harness purposes. contemplates indestructible Union, composed States," system Governments retain existence." Texas White, 700, 725, 227 (1869). 58 Adhering principles, restrains state's state." Transportation Long 455 678, 686, 1349, 1354, 547 (1982); 842-852, 2470-2474; 7, (1975). Lafayette Louisiana 435 423-424, 98 1123, 1142, 364 (1978) (BURGER, C.J., judgment). wages hours employees "traditional functions," 2474, "attribute sovereignty" 'essential [a] separate existence.' 2471 (quoting Wall., 76). 59 Just inquiries underlying Cities. observed, 'States States,' addresses "matters indisputably 'attribute[s] sovereignty,' impair[s] [the States'] 'structure 287-288, 2365-2366, (1981) 854, 2475, 2471, 2474). 684, 1353.4 60 Application present defects III. Plainly "States ultimate aim companies, commands Instead requesting companies lifeline rates, appraise appropriateness "State." address "attribute[s] sovereignty." recognizes nature." 761. policy, embraces laws; includes proposals worthy consideration, taken up, precise debated. intrudes chooses forcing deems ideas attention. addition, hinders agency's schedule standards.5 specifies, exacting content absorb time.6 62 routinely legislatures debate drafted committees, questioned agendas delegated similarly effect. 63 impairs "structure functions." government,7 function. By taxing ills, discharge efficiently effectively.8 64 sidesteps analysis, escape ceasing "may one," 766, "it requirements." 767. fact, "choice" absurdity, sound, longer governments. wrongly decided, avoided Fair Labor Standards "choosing" fire close branches government.9 dictate meeting legislatures, unwilling remain free abolish bodies.10 dismemberment solution challenge. 447, 1201 Supp.IV), (1981), discussed 764-765, 768, 30, quite mandates. invites Interior. 1253 Supp.IV). approves program, enforces develops implements 1254. category, supplement Secretary's laws.11 force choose performing tasks land regulation. federalism," Hodel, 2366, work pursuit goals devote problems. "cooperative" compels puppets entire traditionally reserved authority.12 66 defends novel permit conscription upholding actions." 762. suggestive decisions.13 Testa, trial refuse hear claim "th[e] [state] courts." facile reading might suggest congressionally sponsored business, similar existing obligations. power, vastly expands decision. hear, evenhandedly falling infringe agenda.14 explained above, interference unavoidably undermines existence "enlist judiciary ends," 762, imply equivalent impress service. finally, regulation, forbid "less scheme." 765, n.29.15 evaluation intrusiveness, irrelevant inquiry. govern channels. articulated foreclose answer reached destination route. task courses better serve interests.16 68 believe, moreover, pre-emption.17 When preempts precludes conflicts approach. complement legislation, details unsupervised imposing threshold.18 Most importantly, pre-empts elsewhere. lack demanding drains inventive weigh detailed defend mandated tasks, able pursue conserving prefer described PURPA; least, leave areas. pre-emption reason. Local accountable make. Citizens, understand debate, Congressional compulsion unlike pre-emption, blurs lines political accountability leaves feeling representatives responsive needs.19 70 remarks approving minimally valuable aspects Courts commentators frequently laboratories social, economic, ideas.20 innovation myth. Wyoming became 1890, permitting women vote.21 idea bear fruit another years.22 Wisconsin pioneered unemployment insurance,23 Massachusetts minors.24 After decades academic experimentation finally observe no-fault automobile insurance operation.25 environmental protection, heavy supplemented innovative far-reaching statutes.26 itself marked invention.27 spend time defending reject retard creative experimentation. addition experimentation, enhances Alexis de Tocqueville understood cornerstone American democracy: incontestably love habits engendered townships provincial assemblies. [I]t spirit, manners customs people, nurtured afterwards applied large." Tocqueville, Democracy America 181 (H. Reeve trans. 1961).28 73 learn lessons self-government efforts devoted reviewing formulated faraway legislature. want preserve democratic govern, administer, 74 salutary check Harlan explained, ancestors "were suspicious all-powerful authority." Harlan, supra 16, 944. curb evil, allocated divided Unless zealously distinctions, risk upsetting balance buttresses liberties. analyzing brake diffusion added significance size bureaucracy continues grow." Ibid.29 Today, warning kidnap family. merits am ready surrender 75 threatens promoted result, odds history, Framers consciously rejected Legislature employ ends. 76 principal defect Articles Confederation, 18th-century writers agreed, lacked individual rely cooperation Alexander Hamilton great radical vice construction Confederation governments, corporate collective capacities contradistinguished consist." Federalist 93 (J. Cooke ed. 1961) omitted). He pointed out, indefinite discretion requisitions men money," "no raise extending America." 77 cured contact citizen, repeatedly delegates assembled Philadelphia. George Mason, declared: 78 "Under Confederacy, represent[s] people States: acts operate individuals. changed plan Government." Records Convention 1787, 133 (M. Farrand 1911) (hereinafter Farrand) (abbreviations expanded subsequent quotations). 79 subsequently York "difference league government," "extend[ed] union persons citizens,—the objects government." 95. Charles Pinckney told South Carolina Representatives necessity conceived indispensable delegation present; however differed quantum objection itself." Elliot's Debates 256 (2d ed.1863). speeches writings strengthening Government. "punishment [in things executed on] collectively," he advocated individuals." 34. predicted forced "degenerate military despotism" maintain "large army, continually foot" 1961). 102; 95-96. 81 satisfactory. extreme, ineffective. other, degree incompatible stable liberty.30 reason, execution intervention Legislatures," 103, abandoned favor legislation. 82 members Constitutional fashioned principle, supervise proposal authorized call member failing fulfill articles thereof." 21. voted suggestion. James Madison moved postpone it, stating reflected force, doubted practicability, justice efficacy collectively individually." 54. Several echoed his concerns,31 ultimately reported practicability laws, coercive sanctions, [has] exploded hands." id. 83 favorable consideration. Virginia's Governor Randolph negative passed contravening Union." May 31, Whole debate. 61. week later, extend "which [Congress] judge improper." 164. Numerous criticized unbounded lawmaking. Hugh Williamson, thought Legislatures ought possess purely local," 171, Elbridge Gerry Pinckney's "enslave 165. 84 Late July, reversed approval Randolph's moderate veto. now "terrible "unnecessary," "improper." 27.32 Omission negative, effective laws. defect, treaties Law Land" Judges bound thereby." substituted legislatures. Framers' commitment strong itself.33 operated fortified maintaining system, obedience relegated mere departments Government, status endorse today. Framers, eschewed instead pass individuals, rejecting sovereigns. retained fields pre-empt.34 Convention, fundamentally legislature harnesses sovereign.35 86 During Black eloquently notions subordinate neither nor interests: 87 concept mean blind 'States' Rights' centralization courses. What sensitivity legitimate interests Governments, anxious vindicate interests, endeavors ways unduly interfere Younger Harris, 401 37, 44, 746, 750, 669 (1971). 88 firmly "sensitivity Governments" invalidation authorities. respectfully vote October 1978. Senators bill. 124 Cong.Rec. 34780. 14, five-member "ayes" "nays." 38503. included Tax 95-618, 3174; Conservation Policy 95-619, 3206; Powerplant Industrial Fuel Use 95-620, 3289; Natural Gas 95-621, 3351. simplicity citation, repetition, unless herein, reference relates Supplement 1976 edition Code. "Declining rates" common charges electricity. highest unit charged consumption, per-unit price additional consumption. S.Rep.No. 95-442, 26-27 "Time-of-day "peak load," term describe greatest utility's Demand varies hour season, reaching daily afternoon midsummer midwinter. demand; steps peak "peaking" equipment, gas- oil-fueled. charge hours. 29. "Seasonal seasons greatest. "Interruptible tend charging interrupt, stop, periods. "Load techniques" methods times. remote-control devices temporarily turn off appliances periods great. "Master-metering" meter living units. Studies shown tenants master-metered buildings 35% average, apartment meter. 31. An "automatic clause" fuel rise increase incentive shift oil- gas-fueled tends discourage "cogeneration facility" produces steam useful heat. 796(18)(A). "small megawatts uses biomass, waste, renewable (such wind, water, solar energy) produce 796(17)(A). 123 25848 (remarks Sen. Percy); 32403 Durkin); 32437 Haskell); 32419 Hart); Act: Hearings H.R. 6831 Subcommittee Interstate Foreign Commerce, 95th Cong., 1st Sess., 552-553 H.R.Conf.Rep.No. 95-1750, (1978); H.R.Rep.No. 95-496, 157 32399 Cranston); 32660 Percy). compliance expenditure assist carrying requirements, 6807 fiscal 1979 appropriation up $40 million help defray complying PURPA. 142(1), 3134, 6808(1) plaintiff appellee prohibited people." Amdt. 10. robot, lackey shuttled suit whim caprice companion decided "Judicial influenced .. 'complete exercised utmost acknowledges limitations, prescribed constitution.' Gibbons Ogden, 196 [6 23] (1824). Moreover, extends channels commerce' 'protection instrumentalities commerce,' 'activities commerce.' Perez 402 146, 150 [91 1357, 1359, 686] [95 363] '[e]ven character combined conduct others situated, nations.' 276-277, 2359-2360, proposition, Brown EPA, 521 F.2d 827, 839 (CA9 1975), vacated remanded, Columbia Train, 172 U.S.App.D.C. 311, 332, 971, 992 remanded sub nom. 34558 Jackson); 34560 Bumpers); 34776 Robert Byrd); 38350 Rep. Ashley); 38370-38371 Dingell); 25894 25916-25917 Ottinger); 27063-27064 Wolff). 32437-32438 Brooke); 32444 fostering commerce: "A complex survive showing single facet independently whole satisfies test." 329, 17, 2385, n.17, tangentially Wirtz, 392 183, 196-197, 27, 2017, 2023-2024, n.27, 1020 (1968). context, modern examiner 'functionally comparable' judge." Butz Economou, 438 478, 513, 2894, 2914, 895 (1978). reviews length, deriving proposition intended deny "military governments," "allow[ing] Post, 795. rhetorical assertion literally, demonstrably incorrect. (1975); Parden Terminal 377 184, 1207, 233 (1964); California Taylor, 353 553, 1037, 1034 (1957); Case Bowles, 92, 438, 90 552 (1946); California, 297 175, 421, 567 (1936). express doubt ordered 3079. partial inapposite. purported distinctions little art ipse dixit. she Katt imposition responsibilities [state courts] agenda." 2150-2151. coequal decision-making apparatus, seems evident interferes, degree, prerogatives, n.25, adjudicating claims. Conversely, perceive distinction legislature's courts, prerogative criteria implicate her "[w]hile 787. inapposite freeze 'displaced how scales employment themselves ..' 784, 13, 853, absurd suggest, veto method realistic sense distinguish Assn. involving enjoin adjudicated violations 13. unambiguously officials prepare regulations—a holding obvious relevance case. entertained actions discretionary "matter comity, sovereignties mutual benefit. regarded How., 109. squarely "that relation countries." placed circumstances, relationship "undoubted 2471. Yet, "unimpaired" (1957), labor railroad n.18, immune control. restated "regulat[e] "address 'attributes "ability 'to met, "[t]here situations interest advanced submission." 29, defer prerogatives—and expertise—in entirely. 13-14 34763 Metzenbaum); 34768 32430 Johnston); 32395 Bartlett). dissent's response peculiar. hand, since "would areas." elsewhere post, 781, emphasizes self-determination 787-791. full choices. Certainly, curious encourages entirely, preference let primary role. "absurdity," variously accuses "conscript[ing] army," transforming "field bureaucracy," "dismemberment "bureaucratic Government," and—most colorfully—of "Congress commissions." 775, 777, 782, 783,790.. absorbing reading, unfortunately articulates view almost mystical, quarrel propositions conduct, conformity "coerce" nationally desirable Given identify precisely "absurd" Though inapposite, parallel striking: there, legislate enactments, all; all. performance nowhere explains why—so preemptible relevant. herself "evaluation intrusiveness inquiry." 785-786. 1977 potentially foreclosed broader theoretical schemes. seemingly suffices POWELL's objections where, subjected n.34, infra. undervaluing maintains "dictate legislatures." 782. apocalyptic observations, striking, overstated patently inaccurate. area. employer-employee relationships," "those [its] 847, 2472, pre-emptible, authorize note supportable addressed nevertheless fall unconvinced: factor [is] action, impact 292, n.33, 2368, n.33. event, eliminate compliance. n.14, fixing 77-3-33(2) keep "full complete record" proceedings, 77-3-63, "make file order, any," 77-3-59. "[a]ll minutes." 77-1-41. "shall deemed record, seasonable times inspection public." characterize extraordinary accord few, any, 2631(a) "[A]ny consumer" 2633(b)(2). 2633(b)(1). proceedings. 3205 2633(c)(1) enforcement 3207(b)(1) 210, interconnection 824a-3 (under conditions) cogenerator, producer" 824a-3(h)(2)(A) (B). 824a-3(g)(1). 3207(b)(2) matter, specifies agencies' 3203(c); 2621(b)(1) cites institutions policy. institution's decisionmaking method. [federal] 814 emphasized meaning Herb Pitcairn, 324 117, 459, 789 (1945), stated "[i]t open us" insist adjudication 121, 461. Note, Utilization Enforce Penal Criminal Statutes: Development Judicial Federalism, Harv.L.Rev. 966, 971 (1947) (nothing upsets doctrine determine jurisdictional courts"). holding. stands unremarkable district court, contest Indian tribes fishing rights, losing abide Nothing amend institution. L. Tribe, 302 concur explains, section 824a-3(e) exemption violate 287-293, 2365-2369, "implement" 824a-3(f) disturbing. Appellants, interpreted include [§ 210], [that section]." appears, therefore, section. points 760-761, disputes, settled discriminates foreclosing possibility applications uncover hidden defects, sustain provision. cogenerators, producers "enforce" 824a-3(h)(2) applied, conceivable troubling issues. Once decline accept provision, preferring setting concrete controversy. respect, Throughout dissent, remand, defective severable unobjectionable portions. 748-749. overlooks publish determination, decides guarantees discover information, 2631(b); transcripts, cost reproduction, parties "regulatory proceeding[s] [electric utility] design," 2632(c); and, mandates compensation attorney's fees, expert witness contribute substantially 2632(a), (b). ones special regimen n.29, n.29; n.9, 1353, n.9. Neither exception yet explored justify exception. recognizes, 748, ongoing 3205(a) 2631(a), 2622(a) intervention. enforcement, "[n]o gas] recover shareholders owners) indirect promotional [further] defined title." 2623(b)(5) 3203(b)(2) defines "advertising," "political advertising," "promotional advertising": "(1) purposes title— "(A) 'advertising' use, media, newspaper, printed radio, television, transmit message number "(B) 'political advertising' influencing legislative, administrative, electoral matters, controversial importance. "(C) 'promotional encouraging select selection installation appliance equipment "(2) title, include— informs title ., interruptions, safety measures, emergency conditions, "(D) opportunities "(E) promotes appliances, services, "(F) explanation justification schedules, notifications thereon." 2625(h) 3204(b) IV) (containing utilities). fully "traditional" definition term. W. Jones, Cases Materials Regulated Industries 25-44 1976) (tracing offends named Hodel. n.4, refer weight interest, vindicating argues furthers vital conservation. Although goal noble one, needed commandeer aim. Consistent assigned officials. Alternatively, requested shoulder comply. relationships,' 'those require.' 770, n.32 2472). declares, "hold[s] area." 769-770, n.32. explain "licensing occupations businesses, quality, [and] fraud sharp practice," O.T.1975, 74-876, (reprinting complaint), "conditio[n] pay amounts wished variety fields. Here, wish me, obvious, "overstated." confident stresses, today's overrule novelty scheme, 758-759, obscured 565, 689, (1911) ("The locate seat peculiarly shorn moment entertained"). 1254(g) Supp.IV) "insofar achievement chapter 1255(a) superseded issued thereto, except 1255(b) stringent "for chapter" "inconsistent" Act. scholar written: implies partnership, players team collaboration collaborators annihilated other." (1953). decisions, distinguishable. temporary employees. restraint "displaced structured, remake themselves. period emergency." defendants treaties, ordering absence violated duties. 515-516 (1954); Salmon, Principle: Interaction Clean Air Colum.J.Envtl.L. 334-337 suggests, 762-763, practical controversies. observation, Testa's agenda, lack. me embrace expansion Testa. disingenuous governed inappropriate. administration's original proposal, version House, preempted establishing 63-65 S.Conf.Rep.No. 95-1292, Resources, committee mandating costing ratesetting, unnecessary apparent many currently working toward reform. present, expertise studies revision. reflect peculiarities utilities' Finally uncertainty delays accompanying threatened health outweighed projected savings capital expenditures claimed supporters proposal." S.Rep. Admin.News, 7906. 32392-32393 32394 Domenici). accordingly, 65-66; S.Conf.Rep. 65-66. Conferees produced compromise bill, too stopped short preemption. Today's decision, occupied expressly unsuited pre-emption. commented "international unrest uncertainty" "bound temptations pressures depart temporize precepts short-cut establishes." Thoughts Dedication: Keeping Function Balance, A.B.A.J. 943 (1963). cautioned "[i]s responsibility lawyers, bench, happen." 1975, Attorney General Edward Levi responded argument "greater" "lesser" remarked insidious instrumentality 354 94th 503 vein, warned "lov[ing] demise." 507. rare instances, occupies infer persuasive reasons." Lime Avocado Growers, Paul, 373 132, 142, 1210, 1217, 248 Stewart, Pyramids Sacrifice? Problems Federalism Mandating Implementation Environmental Policy, Yale L.J. 1196, 1239-1247 Comment, Redefining Sovereignty Doctrine, 129 U.Pa.L.Rev. 1460, 1477-1478 Daniel Elazar, testifying Advisory Intergovernmental March garbled responsibility. unpopular transferring liability programs Relations, Role System: Dynamics Growth, (Oct. 1980). cited President's Governors rationing mechanisms. (formal Elazar). Chandler Florida, 449 560, 579, 802, 812, 740 Reeves, Stake, 447 429, 441, 100 2271, 2279, 244 Whalen Roe, 429 589, 597, n.20, 869, 875, Ice Liebmann, 285 371, 747 (1932) (Brandeis, dissenting); n.13, 540, 542; Macmahon, Federalism: Survey, Mature Emergent 3, 10-11 (A. Macmahon 1955); Rockefeller, Future 8-9 (1962); n.19, 1210; n.12, 46-47. Wyoming's Territory. Compare 1891, ch. 1890-1891 Wyo.Sess.Laws Mar. 80, 1890 Wyo.Terr.Sess.Laws 158. Beard M. Beard, Rise Civilization 563 (rev. 1937). Nineteenth ratified 1920, abridgment "on sex." 28, 1932, 20, 1931-1932 Wis.Laws 57; 1933, 186, 1933 448; 2, 194, 491; Leuchtenburg, Franklin Roosevelt Deal, 1932-1940, 130 (1963); 16. 1912, 706, 1912 Mass. 780; Morris, Encyclopedia History 768 (bicentennial 1976). Morris Torts 244-245 1980); Friendly, Foreword, 1019, strict spills. Fla.Stat. 376.011-.376.21 (1974 1982). Askew Waterways Operators, 411 325, 1590, 280 East Ohio 338 464, 266, 279, 94 268 (1950) (Jackson, dissenting) ("Long stirred courageous took initiative experiences"). I. Silone, School Dictators 119 (W. Weaver 1963) ("A regime freedom receive lifeblood democracy, driven baser tendencies, suppresses autonomies, devouring itself. factory master's word trade union, government's runs city province, you speak democracy"). 1241-1244 (discussing safeguards federalism"); Henry agreed "of delicacy, difficulties states." 515. half century, apparently heeded wisdom. "Federal law," Hart 1954, "often says 'Don't things,' leaving wide range illuminating rarely says, 'Do thing,' ahead Virginia, opposed coercion grounds "impracticable, expensive, cruel "resort Legislation deleted). Mason jarring elements nature; water [sic ] mixture liberty execution." 339. Thomas Jefferson disapproved soon it. Writing Paris, legislators] my mind. Prima facie Warren, Making 168 (1937). Notably, Judicatures controuled [would] effectual remedy." 168-169. Experience taught multiple unchecked "threat[en] danger harmony only, tranquillity Madison). My intent detract destroy independence. quickly derives enumerated McCulloch Maryland, 316, 579 (1819), historic affirming bank, Chief Marshall "No trace constitution intention create Its ends; expected accomplishment 424 Davis, Principle (after examining "only duality state, master domain clearest fact"); 359 substitution "evidenced Framers'] minds supremacy nation, approved, nation functioning rejected"). thinkers officers Madison, revenue. 45, 312-313 None suggestions, went propose seemed assume consent Anderson, Rivals Partners? 86-87 (1957) (noting First concentrate attention upon, functions" understanding).

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