Document: 485 U.S. 535 108 S.Ct. 1372 99 L.Ed.2d 618 Eugene TRAYNOR, Petitioner,v.Thomas K. TURNAGE, Administrator, Veterans' Administration and the Administration. James P. McKELVEY, Petitioner, v. Thomas Administrator of Affairs, et al. Nos. 86-622, 86-737. Argued Dec. 7, 1987. Decided April 20, 1988. Syllabus Petitioners in these cases are honorably discharged veterans who did not exhaust their "GI Bill" educational assistance benefits within 10 years following military service, as required by 38 U.S.C. § 1662(a)(1). Under that section, may obtain an extension delimitingperiod if they were prevented from using earlier "a physical or mental disorder which was result [their] own willful misconduct." sought to continue receiving after expiration 10-year period on ground disabled alcoholism during much period. The (VA) found that, under its regulation defining "primary" (that is unrelated underlying psychiatric disorder) "willful misconduct," petitioners entitled requested extensions. filed separate federal-court actions review VA's decisions. In No. District Court held it foreclosed exercising jurisdiction 211(a), bars judicial "the decisions any question law fact administered providing for veterans." court then concluded a handicap meaning Rehabilitation Act 1973, VA therefore violated 504 Act, requires federal programs discriminate against handicapped persons solely because handicap. Appeals Second Circuit reversed 211(a) barred claim. 86-737, invalidated being contrary Act. Columbia agreed but merits, holding consistently with could reasonably conclude, pursuant regulation, primary "willfully caused handicap." Held: 1. whether violates 211(a). presumption favor administrative action be overcome only upon showing clear convincing evidence legislative intent. prohibitions aimed at those arise administration statute veterans. text history provide no congressional intent preclude suit claiming applicable all agencies, has otherwise valid issued purporting have force law. present involve issue light subsequent whose enforcement exclusive domain VA. Permitting go forward will undermine 211(a)'s purposes. Pp. 541-545. 2. Section characterizing, purposes 1662(a)(1), petitioners' misconduct" precluding allowance time Congress use term inadvertently 1977 when amended 1662(a)(1) create exception delimiting same had long been used other veterans' statutes, construed encompassing alcoholism. confirms intended apply test granting extensions 1978, extend discrimination prohibition conducted affirmatively evince repeal 1662(a)(1)'s provision. Moreover, cardinal rule repeals implication favored. 1978 legislation expressly contradict more narrow specific legislation, rendered meaningless, even respect claim alcoholism, provision allowed retain import originally Congress. There inconsistency between conclusive motivated illness necessarily "willful." 1380-1383. 791 F.2d 226, remanded; 253 U.S.App.D.C. 126, 792 194, affirmed. WHITE, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., STEVENS O'CONNOR, JJ., joined, Parts I II BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, joined. concurring part dissenting part, BRENNAN post, p. ----. SCALIA KENNEDY, took consideration decision cases. Keith A. Teel, petitioners. Jerrold J. Ganzfried, Washington, D.C., respondents. Justice WHITE Court. 1 These Administration's refusal grant two recovered alcoholics benefits. We must decide subject and, so, 87 Stat. 394, 29 794, individuals handicap.1 2 * Veterans United States Armed Forces receive Readjustment Benefit 1966 ("GI Bill") facilitate readjustment civilian life. See 1661. generally discharge release active duty. period, however, disability Ibid. 3 decade service. They determined constituted CFR 3.301(c)(2) (1987),2 accordingly denied 4 Petitioner Traynor Southern New York. over case veterans,"3 complaint "requires us examine constitutional statutory questions merely issues policy." Walters, 606 F.Supp. 391, 396 (1985). rejected Traynor's his Due Process Clause equal protection component Fifth Amendment.4 However, engaged sort basis forbidden 5 A divided panel 226 (1986). reasoned while "many service our country suffered injuries qualify them 'handicapped individual[s]' [the Act]," evinced enacting "to 'handicapped' traditionally veterans" Id., 229.5 6 Meanwhile, petitioner McKelvey Columbia. exercised McKelvey's claims permits rejecting regulations general applicability violate "completely independent complex regulatory scheme dispersing benefits." 596 1317, 1321 (1984). (1987) ordered determine without resort attributable misconduct. 7 On appeal, "resolved actual 'decision Administrator.' " 130, 198 (1986) (per curiam ) (quoting Johnson Robison, 415 361, 367, 94 1160, 1165-1166, 39 389 (1974)). such validity Act.6 reversed, distinguish least some extent responsible disabilities not.7 With this distinction effected means 3.301(c)(2), said court, conclude handicap" unless disorder. U.S.App.D.C., 132-133, F.2d, 200-201. expressed disagreement Tinch 765 599 (CA6 1985), 133, n. 4, 201, 4. 8 granted certiorari resolve conflicts Courts challenged characterizing 480 916, 107 1368, 684 (1987). 9 first consider bar extends discriminates violation repeatedly acknowledged strong intends action." Bowen Michigan Academy Family Physicians, 476 667, 670, 106 2133, 2135, 90 623 (1986); see also Dunlop Bachowski, 421 560, 567, 95 1851, 1857-58, 44 377 (1975); Barlow Collins, 397 159, 166-167, 832, 837-838, 25 192 (1970). "only 'clear evidence' intent." Abbott Laboratories Gardner, 387 136, 141, 1507, 1512, 18 681 (1967) (citations omitted). look 'specific language reliable indicator intent,' 'fairly discernible detail scheme.' supra, 673, S.Ct., 2137 Block Community Nutrition Institute, 467 340, 349, 351, 104 2450, 2455-56, 2456-57, 81 270 (1984)). 11 we courts entertain challenges legislation. "neither nor scant 211(a)" provided requisite "clear convincing" foreclose constitutionality U.S., 373-374, 1168-1169. case, Administration, acting §§ 101(21), 1652(a)(1), 1661(a), conscientious objector completed alternative claimant brought challenging sections First Amendment grounds. motion dismiss based gave judgment plaintiff. Robison Johnson, 352 848 (Mass.1973). suit, merits. issue, "[t]he [of ] would appear 1165. presented arose Constitution rather than concerned there execute. went principal 211(a)—"(1) insure burden expensive time-consuming litigation, (2) technical determinations applications policy connected adequately uniformly made," id., 370, 1167—would frustrated permitted exercise very enforced. noted "cannot expected volume, do 373, 1169. 12 likewise insulates "under Administration," is, made interpreting applying particular set facts. 1165-66. But now before Administration.8 inconsistent issued; challenge construction dealing benefits, except affected Nor reason believe special expertise assessing construing statutes later passed application. Johnson. It cannot assumed availability fundamental reflected here, admonitions enmesh decisions" "burden litigation." 1167.9 Of course, experience proves otherwise, fully capable seeking appropriate relief 13 Accordingly, turn merits III 14 historically imposed limitations World War nine Korean Conflict eight S.Rep. 93-977, (1974) (letter Hon. Vance Hartke Johnson). current "G.I. raised 1974. Pub.L. 93-337, 2(1), 88 292, 1712(b)(1), (2). 1977, created delayed education 95-202, Tit. II, 203(a)(1), 91 1429, 15 statutes. For example, compensation service-connected veteran's 310. 521 (compensation service). (i.e., "secondary manifestation acquired disorder"). 2, supra. "It always assume elected representatives, like citizens, know law." Cannon University Chicago, 441 677, 696-697, 1946, 1957-1958, 60 560 (1979). Hence, aware interpretation enacted received Sedima, S.P.R.L. Imrex Co., 473 479, 489, 105 3275, 3281-82, 346 (1985); Morrison-Knudsen Construction Co. Director, Office Workers' Compensation Programs, 461 624, 633, 103 2045, 2050, 76 194 (1983); Bob Jones States, 574, 586-587, 10, 2017, 2026 157 (1983). cases, need rely assumptions. agency already 310 521. Specifically, Report Senate Affairs Committee states: 16 "In determining sustained 'willful misconduct,' standards applied utilized eligibility title 38. connection, CFR, III, paragraphs 3.1(n) 3.301, Manual M21-1, section 1404." 95-468, pp. 69-70 (1977), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 3747, 3805, 3806. 17 cited include (1987), characterizes states, inter alia, "[b]asic principles application deciding involving stated Administrator's Decision 988," based. change 132, subch. I, 14.04c (Jan. 29, 1976). sources forth criteria among "standards" according Report, extended thus precluded veteran pursued If instead deemed most certainly so. 19 one year 504's "any program activity Executive agency." 95-602, IV, 119, 122(d)(2), 92 2982, 2987, 794. Yet, amendments, amend anywhere amendments disavow determination warrants exemption constraints 20 can prevail implicitly repealed forbade classify thereby 'cardinal . favored.' Morton Mancari, 417 535, 549-550, 2474, 2482, 41 290 Posadas National City Bank, 296 497, 503, 56 352, 80 L.Ed. 351 (1936); Wood Pet. 342, 363, 987 (1842); Universal Interpretive Shuttle Corp. Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Comm'n, 393 186, 193, 89 354, 358-59, 21 334 (1968)). basic principle narrow, precise, submerged covering generalized spectrum," Radzanower Touche Ross 426 148, 153, 96 1989, 1992, 48 540 (1976), 'expressly contradict[s] original act' 'is absolutely necessary order [the] words statute] shall all.' T. Sedgwick, Interpretation Statutory Constitutional Law 98 (2d ed. 1874)). "The liberty pick choose enactments, co-existence, duty courts, absent clearly intention contrary, regard each effective." Supra, 551, 2483. As noted, "narrow, specific" 22 First, does central purpose 504, assure "evenhanded treatment" relation nonhandicapped individuals. Alexander Choate, 469 287, 304, 712, 721-22, 83 661 Southeastern College Davis, 442 397, 410, 2361, 2369, 980 This litigation alleged treat less favorably persons. Cf. School Board Nassau County Arline, 273, 1123, 307 (1987); College, Rather, treats able-bodied veterans: former so become misconduct"; latter obtaining regardless how compelling reasons having schooling might be. words, provides benefit bear responsibility 23 nothing category categories promulgated Department Health, Education, Welfare federally funded "exclusion class limited Federal executive different persons" prohibited. 42 Fed.Reg. 22676, 22679 promulgating 45 84.4(c) (1986).10 establish priorities allocation resources available cf. McDonald Election Comm'rs 394 802, 809, 1404, 1408-09, 739 (1969), stronger Those not, "solely handicap," degree willfulness conduct disabled. 24 Furthermore, deny drinking estimated authorities 20% 30% Brief American Medical Association Amicus Curiae 7. Each individualized assessment condition illness. Petitioners, perceive contend mandates "willfulness" arguably lack substantial basis. "willful," defined well excluded disability. unable failed act accordance instance, given what accurately characterized body medical literature contests proposition disease, disease victim bears responsibility." Indeed, many "disease" victims genetically predisposed, consumption alcohol regarded wholly involuntary. Fingarette, Perils Powell: Search Factual Foundation "Disease Concept Alcoholism," Harv.L.Rev. 793, 802-808 it, demand inquiry into factors individual entirely beyond control negate where exist.11 26 sum, hold reflects excused utilizing contained Act.12 since "are enactments co-existence," 2483, earlier, provisions neither later, 504. IV 27 require course control. role remain sharply divided. Our task intended, reject position taken itself earlier. view, characterization willfully incurred irreconcilable conflict. proponents erroneous, arguments better courts. 28 86-737 86-622 remanded further proceedings consistent opinion. ordered. 30 KENNEDY case. 31 whom MARSHALL join, part. 32 join Court's opinion, agree amended, "final conclusive" claims. Similarly, acknowledge legality (a) 1662(a) assistance, (b) statute's alleviation "own My dispute centers upholding whereby presumes, irrebuttably, kind broad social generalization eliminate. ask situations evaluation. Because think requires, dissent conclusion contrary.1 33 began he old. He drank increasing frequency throughout teenage years, suffering alcohol-related seizures Vietnam. During four honorable 1969, Mr. hospitalized related illnesses. 34 By end 1974, conquered problem. attended college part-time beginning continued working toward until expired him 1979. completing due disorder, labeled "primary alcoholism." Pursuant above, presumed himself through denied. 35 started child. develop dependency common members family. His problem plagued Army, frequently followed 1966. Despite disability, managed, hospital stays, attend institutions educational-benefits program. 36 last drink 1975, half expired. Like Traynor, using, entitled. And, conclusively deprived opportunity disabling incurred. 37 reliance irrebuttable misconduct squared mandate Just year, Bd. explained uncertain terms generic treatment group handicaps archaic simplistic stereotypes about attributes associated conditions. Instead, person's qualifications, "reasoned medically sound judgments." 285, 1129. sanctioning ailment misconduct, ignores lesson dictate called upon, make judgments causes interpret That sets simple rule: "No qualified shall, handicap, participation in, of, subjected financial agency. ."2 40 petitioners, alcoholics, covered 43 (1978) (guidelines (later Health Human Services) reflecting Attorney General's conclusion, Op.Atty.Gen. 12, alcoholic Act); Respondents 33. disputed prohibits VA, denying alcoholics. See, e.g., 18.403(j)(1) (2)(i)(c) declared resulted extension-of-time established appears requiring claimant's qualifications. 287-289, 1130-1132. argue, case-by-case reasons. respondents Congress, amendment (the provision, 1439) 1662(a), mandated Second, reasonable, stereotyping forbids. today finds persuasive. my patently merit. explains: "As 'willfulness' exist." Ante, 551. demands precisely says unnecessary. While authority should attributed find support whatever 1977. correct, ante, 546, indicates "inten[d] 38." cover specifically programs, including little willful-misconduct 46 goes Congress' reference amending adoption rule. transforms uncontroversial statement "specifi[c] determin[ation]" 11; 547 (Congress' "1977 exemption"); 548 (Congress 'narrow, specific' exclude 1662(a)(1)); 551 ("original [in period"). magical transformation linchpin analysis, actually endorsing association simply read impose new willingness, allow rules decision, comply antidiscrimination amended. 47 escape requirements, majority "otherwise qualified," establishes matter, entitle time. And exclusively relies, makes passing relevant regulations—regulations encompass entire provisions, just Finally, portions addressed state equated derived 1964 Decision, discusses briefly. 988, Term "Willful Misconduct" Related Residuals Chronic Alcoholism (1964).3 20335, 20336 (1972) (proposing announcing incorporate issue). Surely something sentences quoted conflict natural reading strained embrace "determination exemption," 547, leads disfavored "implicit repeal" requirement qualifications 'basic spectrum,' 547—548, enactment narrowly matter treated enactment: agencies' successful turning up considered, adopt legislatively defer empowered administrate. 49 am reluctant anything short linking justify substitution conceivable legitimately eschew assessments individuals' evident, fact, disqualifying characteristic disability.4 evident absolute correlation exists factor successfully demonstrated justified. suggests enough "although produce another arbiter reach, reasonable workable accommodation modern medico-psychological evidence." (emphasis added). unsatisfactory several 50 seems suggest generalizations relied assess shown reasonable. generalizations, "reasonable" ones, prohibited Arline. ruled generalizing contagiousness tuberculosis. 281-286, 1127-1130. Acknowledging altering perhaps terminating tuberculosis sufferer's employment avoid infecting others, 16, 1131, nevertheless impermissible built less-than-perfect qualification. explained: 51 contagious diseases pose serious health threat others certain circumstances excluding coverage perceived diseases. Such exclusion mean accused never evaluated 'otherwise qualified.' vulnerable mythology—precisely type injury prevent." 1129-1130 original). 52 myth referring sufferers contagious, were. parallel became entitles person determination, evidence, qualified" job, adjudicator adjudicated collect conducted, deprive B 53 attempt undermined meagerness summons. Nothing record continuing presumption, factual findings post hoc rationalization consists hodgepodge conclusions, marginal relevance. relies comments number "medical writers" note "volition plays significant role" 43; 45-46, nn. 33, citing, G. Vaillant, Natural History 299 (1983), S. Zimberg, Clinical Management 67-69, 118 (1982). cure cause likely somewhat related, "highly treatable, great patient," 299, onset ascribed 54 contrast, ample supports contention varies Recent research alcoholism5 varied complex, conceivably will.6 acknowledges "alcoholism unitary [but rather] multiple forms ranges severity." 34, 21, 22, Bohman, Sigvardsson, Cloninger, Maternal Inheritance Alcohol Abuse: Cross-Fostering Analysis Adopted Women, Archives Gen.Psychiatry 965, 968 (1981) (describing types producing form condition); Men, 861, 867 (identifying abuse genetic environmental causes); ("[A]lcohol multi-determined continuum behaviors determinants differently weighted people culture, habits, mores, genes"). sensitivity case-to-case variation employers agencies handicaps. community's understanding continues develop, take developments account making "sound judgments" source alcoholism.7 Presumably, concerning surrounding development dependence age, home environment, psychological health8 assessment. C 55 asserting automatic supported adopts, alone, definition articulated practices. According appropriately completely helpless," controlling "not helpless" standard willfully. defines "an conscious wrongdoing known action," intentional doing either knowledge wanton reckless disregard probable consequences." 239, 14.04a (Aug. 1979).9 far cry standard. owe delineated demonstrate awareness initial injury. Nor, describe one's gradual "wanton [drinking's] wonder meaningfully ascribe appreciation long-range consequences 9- 13-year-old boy follows lead adult models taking drinks.10 57 awkwardness attributing apparent elaborates context explaining why recovery organic secondary effects alcohol: "[The] meet consequences. Secondary results usual beverage. sufficient deleterious consequences, process developed point irreversible professional help. At time, himself, capacity alcohol. proper direct immediate indulgence alcohol, expects wills sometimes effects." (1964) 58 All surely begins innocently feel repeated hospitalization. 59 Individuals wide range disabilities, heart lung diabetes, usually array particularly dietary smoking voluntary Nevertheless, unwillingness justifying cirrhosis liver, reach "[H]istorically, personal habits neglect possible incurrence harmful tobacco circulation respiration incriminated causative high incidence cancer, emphysema disease. Yet considered unreasonable illogical situation closely analogous." 61 deferring obscures similar fashion. propriety "bear disabilities," attribution justified involuntary." 13, 14. brief echoed magnitude contemplated V 62 guarantees demonstration they, individuals, fail satisfy legitimate receipt Both determinations, men 63 dissent. provides, pertinent "[n]o provides: "Alcoholism: beverage deliberate poisonous substance conditions raise effect If, enjoy intoxicating effects, intoxication proximately immediately death, death Organic chronic beverage, out compulsion origin." decision. (proposed regulation); 24662 (final regulation). disorder" Alcoholism, Aug. 1964, App. 142-143. refers "secondary," "primary." ibid.; 149, XI, 50.32 (Dec. 23, 1979) (hereinafter Manual). Title part: "[T]he dependents survivors final official power nature mandamus otherwise." maintained inapplicable both 232. Neither reached decided appeal. "Section firmly finally date plaintiff commences 131, 199. Otherwise, reasoned, proceed district secure lost there, retroactively shield review." jurisdictional President designated coordinating enforcing Exec.Order 12250, 298 (1981). submit Circuits regulations, filed. 46-47, (citing Federation Government Employees, AFL-CIO Nimmo, 711 (CA4 1983); Plato Roudebush, 1295 (Md.1975); 573 (ED Tenn.1983), aff'd, 1985); Taylor 385 1034, 1034 (ND Ill.1974), vacated remanded, 528 (CA7 1976); Arnolds 507 128 Ill.1981); Burns 545 544 (Iowa 1982); Waterman 4-77-Civ. 70 (Minn.1979)). previously recognized implement "were drafted oversight approval Congress," 279, 1127, constitute 'an important guidance 504.' 24, 722 (1985)). contrary. "in cases" undertake job qualified. 1130. contrast instant Arline handicapping necessary. employer employees acute workplace. urged prevail, hard put sufficiently "willful" disqualify saddle additional burdens extending programs. worth noting despite comment popular press, simplistically, "disease." 103(d)(2)(B) Amendments 1986, 100 1810, struck "handicapped individual" wherever appeared 1973 replaced "individual handicaps." H.R.Rep. 99-571, (1986), 3471, 3487. embraces 1986 amendment. "If, face, address itself, paragraph above-quoted material "Alcoholism." drinking, resulting fall regulation; user. focuses distinction: proximate consisting intoxication" "remote, impairment organs systems leading death" deemed. includes derives regulation: disorders involved, heretofore (or personality disorder), antecedents deference, Larionoff, 431 864, 872, 97 2150, 2155-56, codified less-than-apparent mere regulations. blind person, definition, see. recognize qualification seeing blindness, hiring refuse hire jobs sighted conducting applicant's Psychiatric (AMA/APA) Council Inc. (NCA), emphasize respective amicus briefs primary/secondary crude one. diagnosis depend facility alcoholic's true clinical history. NCA 18-19, 9. difficult who, child diagnosed. AMA/APA Amici emphasizes kinds developed, properly used, reveals involved 5. Notable studies heredity primary, secondary, Schuckit, Genetic Aspects Annals Emergency Medicine 991, 992 Some predisposition biochemical abnormality prevents metabolism (affidavit Dr. Anne Geller). From purely physiological explanation emphasis importance basing understand suggestion "citations circa 1987" relevance analysis 26. notes often "psychological alcoholism" "rise level disorders." 6. Outside context, when, "placed [a] gun head pulled trigger," 86-22-350 (Mar. 1987); intentionally arm window glass, 85-31-331 (Feb. 14, 1986); attempted ride motorcycle wheel, 84-33-060 (May altercation, 81-10-510 (June 1981); drove miles per hour 25-mile-per-hour zone wet road dusk, 80-31-502 5, 1981). puzzle, worked considering remand.

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