Document: 422 U.S. 531 95 S.Ct. 2313 45 L.Ed.2d 374 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.James Robert PELTIER. No. 73—2000. Argued Feb. 18, 1975. Decided June 25, Syllabus This Court's decision in Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 413 266, 93 2535, 37 596, which held that a warrantless automobile search, conducted about 25 air miles from the Mexican border by Border Patrol Agents acting without probable cause, contravened Fourth Amendment, does not apply to searches like one this case, which, though concededly unconstitutional under standards, was prior 21, 1973, date of decision. The policies underlying exclusionary rule do require retroactive application where, as here, agents were reliance upon federal statute supported longstanding administrative regulations and continuous judicial approval. Pp. 535-542. (9th Cir.) 500 F.2d 985, reversed. William L. Patton, for petitioner. Sandor W. Shapery, La Jolla, Cal., respondent. Mr. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 Four months before 596 (1973), respondent stopped his roving patrol, three plastic garbage bags containing 270 pounds marihuana found trunk car Agents. On basis evidence an indictment returned charging him with violation 84, Stat. 1260, 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1). When respondent's motion suppress denied after hearing, he stipulated writing 'did knowingly intentionally possess, intent distribute, marijuana concealed 1962 Chevrolet driving on February 28, 1973.'1 District Court guilty imposed sentence. appeal judgment, Appeals Ninth Circuit, sitting en banc, reversed judgment ground 'rule announced Supreme States . should be applied similar cases pending announced.' 986 (1974) (footnote omitted).2 We granted Government's petition certiorari. 419 993, 302, 42 265 (1974). 2 In Almeida-Sanchez, supra, approximately agents, Amendment.3 case Government conceded search 70 seizure standard but it contended Almeida-Sanchez. inquiry preliminary balancing interests against application, see Stovall Denno, 388 293, 297, 87 1967, 1970, 18 1199 (1967), majority first considered whether had 'articulated new doctrine' F.2d, at 987. See, e.g., Chevron Oil Co. Huson, 404 97, 106, 92 349, 355, 30 296 (1971); Milton Wainwright, 407 371, 381—382, n. 2, 2174, 2179—2180, 33 (1972) (Stewart, J., dissenting). Concluding overruled no instead 'reaffirmed well-established Amendment standards' did 'disturb long-accepted relied-upon practice,' 988, held: 3 '(Respondent) is entitled benefit because retroactivity principles never deviated Court.' Id., 989. 4 conviction reversed, remanded seized automobile. 5 Although expressing some doubt applicability old law-new law test precondition analysis, id., 990, six dissenters joined issue over proper interpretation concluded constitutional consistent line Courts precedent disrupted long accepted widely relied practice. pursuant congressional authorization, 66 233, 8 1357(a)(3), regulation, CFR 287.1(a)(2) been continuously upheld until Since stated rule, pre-June patrol vehicle determined reference standards summarized supra.4 For reasons expressed Part II Judge Wallace's Bowen, 960, 975—981 (CA9), cert. granted, 824, 40, 47 (1974), accorded prospective application. 6 Despite illegality standard, contends mechanically now us justify its pre-Almeida-Sanchez searches. agree. 7 * 1965 has repeatedly struggled question rulings criminal given effect. those '(w)here major purpose doctrine overcome aspect trial substantially impairs truth-finding function so raises serious questions accuracy verdicts past trials,' Williams 401 646, 653, 91 1148, 1152, 28 (1971), quite often retroactively. It indisputable, however, every addressed problem context whereby relevant excluded order enforce guarantee relate integrity factfinding process, any such principle would only application.5 Linkletter Walker, 381 618, 85 1731, 14 601 (1965); Johnson New Jersey, 384 719, 86 1772, 16 882 (1966); supra; Fuller Alaska, 393 80, 89 61, 212 (1968); Desist 394 244, 1030, 22 248 (1969); Jenkins Delaware, 395 213, 1677, 23 253 Hill California, 797, 1106, 484 (1971). think these tell great deal nature well something analysis. Decisions applying unconstitutionally have referred 'the imperative integrity,' Elkins 364 206, 222, 80 1437, 1446, 1669 (1960), although principally deterrent served rule. See Mapp Ohio, 367 643, 81 1684, 1081 (1961); Lee Florida, 392 378, 88 2096, 20 1166 also Calandra, 414 338, 94 613, 38 561 (1974); Michigan Tucker, 417 433, 2357, 41 182 And Oaks, Studying Exclusionary Rule Search Seizure, U.Chi.L.Rev. 665, 668 672 (1970). 9 came time consider decisions retroactively, recognized introduction enforcement officials good-faith compliance then-prevailing norms make courts 'accomplices willful disobedience Constitution they are sworn uphold.' U.S., 223, 1447. Thus, while 'imperative integrity' played role overrule Wolf Colorado, 338 69 1359, L.Ed. 1782 (1949), 659, 1693, retroactively: 'Rather than being abhorrent use state trials illegally specifically authorized Wolf.' 638, S.Ct., 1742 omitted). Similarly, Schwartz Texas, 344 199, 73 232, 97 231 (1952), 605 Federal Communications Act 1934, 48 1103, 605, officers could introduced into trials: 10 '(T)he we reach today based language doctrinal symmetry alone. buttressed integrity.' (80 1669). Under our court, or federal, may serve accomplice transgression Laws States,' laws Judges State (are) bound .." 385—386, 2101 (footnotes 11 But when Lee, saying: 12 'Retroactive overturn obtained Schwartz. result required decided, necessary accomplish purpose, hold sought Lee.' 81, 62. 13 teaching if reasonably believed good faith admissible trial, offended material even subsequent broadened encompass manner. seem follow fortiori holdings their conduct accordance type engaged permitted Constitution. For, police expected foresee trials, entertained doubts conduct. 27, 1361; 1934; cf. Nardone 302 379, 58 275, 82 314 (1937). approach differ markedly analysis utilized determining deterrence rationale undergirding furthered doctrines. 636—637, 1741—1742; 62; 249—251, 1033—1035. Desist, explicitly interrelation between rule: '(W)e simply decline extend court-made served.' 254 24, 1036. 15 focus purposes harmony taken generally 348, 620, 561, said 'is judicially created remedy designed safeguard rights through effect, rather personal right party aggrieved.' follows restricted areas where remedial objectives thought most efficaciously Ibid. likewise observed 447, 2365, 182: 'The necessarily assumes willful, very least negligent, deprived defendant right. By refusing admit gained conduct, hope instill particular investigating officers, future counterparts, greater degree care toward accused. Where official action pursued complete faith, loses much force.' 17 'reliability relevancy,' Linkletter, 639, 1743, unquestioned. sufficiently damning guilt innocence effect committed offense charged. Whether then, depends considerations either violations weighty excluded. who searched 287(a)(3) Immigration Nationality 1952, 1357(a)(3).6 That provision, carried forward statutory authorization dating back 1946, 60 865, 110 (1946 ed.),7 authorizes appropriately designated Naturalization vehicles 'within reasonable distance external boundary States' warrant. Pursuant promulgated fixing 'reasonable distance,' specified 287(a)(3), '100 Fed.Reg. 9808 (1957), amended, 29 13244 (1964), (1973). 19 Between 1952 287(a) (3) attack.8 Dicta many sother Fifth,9 Ninth,10 Tenth Circuit11 strongly suggested policy acceptable means policing immigration laws. As Powell concurring Almeida-Sanchez: 'Roving regions aliens consistently approved judiciary. While impression Court, uniformly sustained appeals whose jurisdictions include Mexico severe.' 278, 2542. validly enacted statute, approval, parties acknowledge decided unless rely legal pronouncement emanating sources other cannot regard blameworthy conform prevailing norm.12 Cf. Lemon Kurtzman, 411 192, 1463, 36 151 If deter unlawful then suppressed can officer knowledge, properly charged Amendment. Admittedly uniform treatment judiciary overturned light history what perceive conclude nothing fashioned implement it, requires here suppressed, assume violated car.13 therefore Reversed. 24 STEWART dissents set out I dissenting BRENNAN, post, 544—549. DOUGLAS, dissenting. 26 agree my Brother BRENNAN reaffirmed traditional compel exclusion case. adhere view made must retroactively all. dissent Daniel Louisiana, 420 31, 704, 790 (1975), cited. largely matter chance command defendant. Equal justice permit defendant's fate depend fortuity. below affirmed. 27 whom MARSHALL joins, Until deemed presented 'constitute(d) sharp break earlier authority avulsive change caused current thereafter flow banks.' Hanover Shoe, Inc. Shoe Machinery Corp., 481, 499, 2224, 2234, 1231 (1968).1 Measured test, Almerida-Sanchez presents prospectivity, errs addressing question. both plainly familiar adjudication 50 years ago Carroll 267 132, 153—154, 280, 285, 543 (1925), merely construed render constitutionally 272; 1, 2539, 2541 (Powell, concurring). states, Peltier 'in approval ..' Ante, 541. With all respect, misplaced. First, repeats error White finding express random 291, 292—293, 296. 1357(a), 'without warrant within boundary'; expressly dispenses necessity showing cause. defined 'a distance' 100 miles'; too, purport exempt observing probable-cause requirement.2 Second, states '(b)etween attack.' 2319. Circuit squarely point, Miranda, 426 283, second, AlmeidaSanchez, 452 459, strong 1971 certiorari searched. 406 944, 2050, 32 331 (1972). approving alien patrols cause suspicious 1969. Roa-Rodriquez (10th Cir.), 410 1206. Fifth unlike Circuits, always suspicion' might contain valid 1357(a)(3). Wright, 476 1027, 31 addition, patent anomaly sanctioned circumstances. example, shown validate contraband except functional equivalent, see, Cervantes 263 800, 803 (1959); Fumagalli 429 1011 (1970),3 despite broad 1357(a) (3).Y14 178, U.S.C 482.4 Moreover, measure suspect interrogations arrest subsections 1357(a). Au Yi Law INS, 144 U.S.App.D.C. 147, 445 217 Yam Sang Kwai 133 369, 683 (1969). Given history, becomes clear why discard 'sharp break' prospectivity practice short-lived, less unanimous, irreconcilable same courts, contrary explicit Carroll, Brinegar 160, 164, 1302, 1305, 1879 cases. reaffirming ever constitute 'avulsive (in) law' address 1231, surely case.5 illustration dangers met. recognized, prospectively,6 entail inequity others direct review selected 301, 1972, (1967). continue believe denial benefits tolerable defendants intolerable, travesty justice, more reaffirm long-established correct aberration appeals. 34 More fundamentally, prospectively web law,' 2180 dissenting), encourages responsible parsimonious rights. 'One need rigid partisan Blackstone recognize many, all, grounded fundamental content dramatically year 263, 1041 (1969) (Harlan, To opinions 'add(s) honor Constitution's mandate them compelled precise inescapable specifics History embrace needed hold, millimeter millimeter, penetration individual infringement guarantees. vitality conceptual faithfulness decisional obedience. Certainly, encourage disregard plain adopt let's-wait-until-it's-decided approach.' 277, 1052. (Fortas, dissenting).7 35 Nevertheless, substitutes, respects availability involving invalid presumption prospectively. substitution discards determinant equally established automatically provision dictate based. (W)e determine each case' looking peculiar traits specific question." 728, 1778, (1966).8 (1965), seminal decision, interest (a) exigencies situation application.' 628, 1737 (emphasis added). Today stands holding head creating class nonretroactivity not, heretofore, exception. reason remarkable departure settled (exclusionary) rule.' 534-535. identified distorted resemblance understanding heretofore prevailed. left me 'with uneasy feeling colleagues positioned themselves abandon altogether search-and-seizure cases.' 365, 628. My uneasiness approaches today's III entirely cases, vague contours outlined filled fear will be, forecasts demise 61 jurisprudence. Weeks 232 383, 341, 652 (1914).9 An unsuccessfully veiled reformulation demonstrates apparent rush development produced formula difficult comprehend and, meaning, impossible justify. signals words: 'If Amendment.' 542. True, words formulation beyond present context. proposition particularly concomitant expansion today, I, confidence confined putative Rather, suitable opportunity arises, revision pronounced applicable register disagreement now. 39 obviously removes foundation countless decisions. review10 suppression sanction fact acquired.11 unveiled suggests single inquiry, district judges probe subjective knowledge orders inferences existing drawn.12 turn whether, expanded comport integrity.'13 40 reasoning, itself wrongly decided. Patrolmen known unconstitutionally, thus deterred possibility several percipient. knew violating specific, right, reversal Almeida-Sanchez' error. Other defects patent. stop dead tracks admitted absence declaring unconstitutional, duty court deny accused's cite invalidating identical facts.14 Yet, opponents concede service usefulness forcing enlighten 'It practical procedure alleged articulate meaning advantage rule—entirely apart effect—is provides occasion review, gives credibility demonstrating society attach consequences rights, invokes magnifies moral educative force law. Over term integrate fourth amendment ideals value system behavior agencies.' 756 (1970) (hereafter Oaks). Amsterdam, Perspectives Minn.L.Rev. 429—430 Amsterdam). distinguished effective affirmative function, Bivens Six Unknown Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 420—423, 1999, 2016—2018, 619 (1971) (Burger, C.J., alternative yet devised. assumption, punishment officials.15 Indeed, general fallacy reasoning critics belief meant wrongdoers threat punishment. attempt outline 43 Deterrence operate ways. simplest special deterrence—punishing repeat behavior. '(t)he aimed since impose broken .. affecting wider audience large. discourage individuals experienced them.' Oaks 709—710.16 44 focused general, deterrence, threatening lack compoliance removing inducement violate Elikins 217, 1444, clearly explained rule's 'purpose deter—to respect guaranty effectively available way—by incentive it.' (Emphasis added.) 'A functioning equivalent government purchasing agent paying premium prices branded stamp unconstitutionality. (the Government) receives products (illegal) seizures uses convicting people conceives job get convicted, tolerating inducing seizures.' Amsterdam 431—432.17 supplied.) consider, light, influenced supposed 1357(a)(3) (1973).18 best ambiguous required, not.19 read two They irrelevant requiring warrant, stopping searching moving border, subordinates illegal aliens. Or silent seems instruct away there Obviously, wide-open invitation pursue former course, later decides guessed wrong perhaps lost, gained, 549, 554. concept invariably opting choice compromises worked perfectly efforts bring punishment, praiseworthy are, aided sacrifice endeavor suffering resulted embodiment land.' Weeks, 393, supplied). 46 Aside error, solid militate forcefully favor rejection road already ready rejected case-by-case After Irvine 347 128, 74 381, 98 (1954), compelling especially egregious situations Irvine's. distinction kind urged leave indefinite know keep processes ground.' 134, (opinion Jackson, J.). 138, 386. (Clark, Today's extended inevitably introduce uncertainty, adding layer deciding motions heavily burdened courts. determine, appellate mind numerous people, objective extrapolations law, thousands year.20 Nice faced, exclude ordinary, constitutional. One criticism deflect culpability police. vastly exacerbate possibility, burden lower worst erode irretrievably efficacy principle.21 'no (federal) 384. Because superficial summary way treats will, am certain, unsatisfactory convinced, drastically overhauled.22 forthrightly so, done it. business slow strangulation afforded concerned heard, indefensible covertly erosion important making demeans adjudicatory institutional App. 28. stipulation provided 'would (have been) entered (respondent's) granted.' reached conclusion Miller, 492 acknowledged 'power country' constitutionality 'routine inspections conveyances seeking cross borders.' 272, 2539. sort 'not itself, equivalents well,' ibid., 'was wholly different sort.' 273, 1970: criteria guiding resolution (of retroactivity) implicate (b) extent authorities (c) administration standards.' (1961), Ker 23, 83 1623, 726 (1963); Fahy Connecticut, 375 85, 84 229, 171 Stoner 376 483, 889, 856 (1964). Those discussion principles, interpreted establishing limitation applicability. 622, 1733; 732, 1780, 252—253, 1035—1036, Title 1357(a)(3): 'Any employee Service prescribed Attorney General shall power warrant— board vessel territorial waters railway car, aircraft, conveyance, vehicle, twenty-five access private lands, dwellings, patrolling prevent entry States.' Commissioner General, Thompson, 475 1359 (CA5 1973); Kelly 197 162 1952); 1206 (CA10 1969); 283 (CA9 1970); 459 1971), rev'd, support holdings, sustaining fixed checkpoints maintained border. nn. 9, 10, 11, infra. fixed-checkpoint notwithstanding Ortiz, 960 Haerr 240 533 (1957); Ramirez 385 De Leon, 462 170 (1972), denied, 853, 76, 102 Fernandez 321 Barba-Reyes 387 (1967); Avey, 428 1159, 400 903, 140, 139 (1970); Mienke 1076 Foerster, 455 981 vacated remanded, 915, 3039, 103 McCormick, 468 68 927, 1361, 588 (1973); Anderson, 1280 BRENNAN's reverse affirming uphold Peltier. determined, questioned enunciated her 300—301, 1972. Nor urge independent merits adversely Government. haste extrapolate argues 'stop rights' facts' add courts.' Post, 554, 560. reduce responsibilities suggests, increased, fulfill contradictory prophecies. A open presently hearing evidence, spend substantial issues go innocence. transcript takes almost times pages Appendix trial. 5—36. requirement variously stated. 248, 1032 1033, ('a past'); 2180, dissenting) law'); ('the nonretroactively establish overruling litigants foreshadowed .'). anything legislative Congress intended authorize H.R.Rep.No. 186, 79th Cong., 1st Sess., (1945); S.Rep.No. 632, (1945). 465 1971) (Browning, dissenting): defines reasonableness applies, delegates exercised limitations. searches—and statute's terms officer's authority. literal (statute) nonetheless barred violates Boyd 116 616, 524, 746 (1886).' Cervantes, said: appears accept appellant's highway driver 155—156 803, 4. language, summarily contraband, 1013. No explain how contraband. 464 482 pertinent part: persons vessels stop, examine, respective districts, person, merchandise subject duty, manner 'In avoid conflict 'border searches." Weil, 432 1320, 1323 1970). Most ordained involved previous (1949); Chimel 752, 2034, 685 (1969), Rabinowitz, 339 56, 430, 653 (1950), Harris 145, 67 1098, 1399 (1947); (1968) (per curiam), (1968), (1952); Katz 389 347, 507, 576 Goldman 316 129, 62 1322 (1942), Olmstead 277 438, 564, 72 944 (1928); Tehan ex rel. Shott, 382 406, 453 (1966), Griffin 380 609, 1229, 106 Twining 211 78, 14, 53 (1908); Taylor 522, 692, 690 disapproved Hoyt 368 57, 159, 118 (1961). instances, recently had, arguably, previously Gosa Mayden, 673, 2926, 2932, 873 (1973) Blackmun, J.; Adams Illinois, 405 916, 202 Finally, another group prophylactic one, protect Halliday 831, 1498, curiam); Payne, 412 47, 1966, 736 Of announced. 1199. Harlan Fortas prophecy horros has, come true. 26, 2368, (1974): 'Under framework indispensable understand retroactive.' roots antedate Weeks. Twenty-eight (1886), admission papers acquired unconstitutional. 536. emphasize comes review. neither nor Kaufman 1068, 227 permitting raised collateral proceedings, involved. abandonment advocated, intimated overruled, efficacious substitute remedies. Mapp, Coolidge Hampshire, 443, 490, 2022, 564 concurring); 492, 2051 part part); 493, (Black, dissenting); 510, 2060. (statement J.); Kaufman, Schneckloth Bustamonte, 218, 250, 2041, 2059, 854 Burger, Rehnquist, also, 249, 2059 (Blackmun, 420—421, 2016—2017, Schneckloth, 268, 2068 follows: prosecution secured Illegal seizure.' 212—213, 1441, again confirmed '(e)vidence (can)not used prosecution' added), cover 'evidence during immunity unreasonable Amendment,' 1447 added); 1446. 30, 1628, (1963), 'forbids convict man crime using testimony Amendment' supplied); 34, 1630. solely prohibition 'unreasonable' violated, less. Alderman 165, 176, 961, 968, 176 619, sure, vagueness articulated leaves unclear exactly 'may unconstitutional.' Patrol, national organization, unconstitutionality required? gratifying verbally restores exclusionary-rule consideration, core York, 231—232, 648—649, (Brennan, 624, factor unsatisfactory. 359—360, 625—626 discuss further, merges rationale, ante, 538, ignores applies theory facts opinion. show text that, own alone, disaster. Angelet Fay, 654, 1750, 623 declined decide bar testifying concerning (1965) nonretroactive. Somewhat similarly, refused Miranda Arizona, 436, 1602, 694 witness discovered statement incomplete warnings, interrogation Tucker occurred Miranda. 49—50, 3, 1967—1968, 736. avoiding event bar. Critics actual operation rarely reprimanded, discharged, otherwise disciplined violations. fact, true, limit text, prove useless. Suggestions emerging tailoring adoption training procedures agencies. 409 et seq.; Kaplan, Limits Rule, Stan.L.Rev. 1050 seq. approach, advancing goal, diminish agencies train supervise subordinate officers. 1044. At rate, visit employees conducting illegal, take account elucidated adjust assure fairness promote decisiveness. 431: common 'deterrence' debate misleading. Good-given inclination commit 'deterred' Once assumption indulged, easy enough criticize excluding 'does results exclusion,' 'deter' him. supportable 'deterrence.' fashion larceny, steals television set—a way, empirical justification makes look comparison gravity.' 711: "The act reprehensible organs society,' Andenaes 'and branding influence attitudes sanctions.' existence imposition reinforces underlines importance directly salient defect Colorado difficulty persuading anyone guarantees seriously whatever violation. visible expression social disapproval guarantees, credible. Its example teaches attached conduct,' 542, imply work level scene, suggest real constructive, relevant. become more, less, product policeman's errors judgment. 203, 982, part). secure citizen person property invasion sanctity home sanction. protection .' 394, 345, (1914). approve actions. Otherwise, derived admissible, policeman, having officer, valid. intend result, inquire frame mind, actions search. 545, 2. 'one operation, administer, (the) judiciary' discretion control. 15, 1045. recent steps somewhat proposed. Canon, Is Failing Health? Some Data Plea Against Precipitous Conclusion, Ky.L.J. 681, 694—696 modification discussed ALI Model Code Pre-Arraignment Procedure 290.2(2) (Prop.Off. Draft 1972). Bivens, 424, 2018. (Appendix 694—696. proposal above, differs proposed factors besides '(c) willful.'

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