Document: 539 U.S. 558 LAWRENCE et al.v.TEXAS No. 02-102. Supreme Court of United States. Argued March 26, 2003. Decided June Responding to a reported weapons disturbance in private residence, Houston police entered petitioner Lawrence's apartment and saw him another adult man, Garner, engaging private, consensual sexual act. Petitioners were arrested convicted deviate intercourse violation Texas statute forbidding two persons the same sex engage certain intimate conduct. In affirming, State Appeals held, inter alia, that was not unconstitutional under Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment. The court considered Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U. S. 186, controlling on point. Held: making it crime for conduct violates Clause. Pp. 564-579. (a) Resolution this case depends whether petitioners free as adults exercise their liberty For inquiry deems necessary reconsider its holding. Court's initial substantive statement—"The issue presented is Federal Constitution confers fundamental right upon homosexuals sodomy . .," S., at 190—discloses failure appreciate extent stake. To say simply demeans claim individual put forward, just would demean married couple said marriage about have intercourse. Although laws involved here purport do no more than prohibit particular act, penalties purposes far-reaching consequences, touching most human conduct, behavior, places, home. They seek control personal relationship that, or entitled formal recognition law, within choose without being punished criminals. protected by allows homosexual enter relationships confines homes own lives still retain dignity persons. 564-567. (b) Having misapprehended it, stated proscriptions against ancient roots. 192. It should be noted, however, there longstanding history country directed distinct matter. Early American such but instead sought nonprocreative activity generally, between men women men. Moreover, early seem been enforced consenting acting private. Instead, prosecutions often predatory acts those who could did consent: relations minor girls boys, involving force, implicating disparity status, animals. criminal prohibition which placed reliance consistent with general condemnation an established tradition prosecuting because character. Far from possessing "ancient roots," ibid., targeting same-sex couples develop until last third 20th century. Even now, only nine States singled out prosecution. Thus, historical grounds relied are complex majority opinion concurring Chief Justice Burger indicated. doubt and, very least, overstated. was, course, broader point centuries powerful voices condemn immoral, obligation define all, mandate moral code, Planned Parenthood Southeastern Pa. Casey, 505 833, 850. Nation's traditions past half century relevant here. show emerging awareness gives substantial protection deciding how matters pertaining sex. See County Sacramento Lewis, 523 857. 567-573. (c) Bowers' deficiencies became even apparent years following announcement. 25 prohibiting referenced reduced now 13, 4 enforce States, including Texas, proscribe (whether heterosexual conduct), pattern nonenforcement respect supra, 851—which confirmed protects decisions relating marriage, procreation, contraception, family relationships, child rearing, education—and Romer Evans, 517 620, 624—which struck down class-based legislation homosexuals—cast holding into doubt. stigma imposes, moreover, trivial. offense misdemeanor, remains all imports charged, notation convictions records job application forms, registration offenders state law. Where case's foundations sustained serious erosion, criticism other sources greater significance. has continuing, disapproving reasoning respects, assumptions. And, values shared wider civilization, rejected European Human Rights, nations taken action affirmation intimate, There showing governmental interest circumscribing choice somehow legitimate urgent. Stare decisis inexorable command. Payne Tennessee, 501 808, 828. induced detrimental sort counsel overturning once compelling reasons so. 855-856. causes uncertainty, precedents before after contradict central 573-577. (d) rationale does withstand careful analysis. his dissenting Stevens concluded (1) fact State's governing traditionally viewed practice immoral sufficient reason upholding law practice, (2) concerning intimacies physical when intended produce offspring, form "liberty" due process. That analysis controlled Bowers, controls correct decided, today, hereby overruled. This involve minors, might injured coerced, easily refuse consent, public prostitution. who, full mutual engaged practices common lifestyle. Petitioners' them government intervention. 847. furthers can justify intrusion individual's life. 577-579. 41 W. 3d 349, reversed remanded. KENNEDY, J., delivered Court, STEVENS, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. O'CONNOR, filed judgment, post, p. 579. SCALIA, opinion, REHNQUIST, C. THOMAS, joined, 586. 605. CERTIORARI TO THE COURT OF APPEALS TEXAS, FOURTEENTH DISTRICT Paul M. Smith argued cause petitioners. With briefs William Hohengarten, Daniel Mach, Mitchell Katine, Ruth E. Harlow, Patricia Logue, Susan L. Sommer. Charles A. Rosenthal, Jr., respondent. brief J. Delmore III Scott Durfee.* JUSTICE KENNEDY Court. 1 Liberty person unwarranted intrusions dwelling places. our omnipresent And spheres existence, outside home, where dominant presence. Freedom extends beyond spatial bounds. presumes autonomy self includes freedom thought, belief, expression, instant involves both transcendent dimensions. 2 * question validity 3 Houston, officers Harris Police Department dispatched residence response disturbance. one petitioners, John Geddes Lawrence, resided. questioned. observed Lawrence Tyron arrested, held custody overnight, charged Peace. complaints described "deviate intercourse, namely anal sex, member (man)." App. Pet. Cert. 127a, 139a. applicable Tex. Penal Code Ann. § 21.06(a) (2003). provides: "A commits if he engages sex." defines "[d]eviate intercourse" follows: 5 "(A) any contact part genitals mouth anus person; 6 "(B) penetration object." 21.01(1). 7 exercised trial de novo Criminal challenged Equal Protection Amendment like provision Constitution. Const., Art. 1, 3a. Those contentions rejected. having plea nolo contendere, each fined $200 assessed costs $141.25. 107a-110a. 8 District petitioners' federal constitutional arguments Clauses After hearing en banc court, divided affirmed convictions. 349 (2001). indicates decision 186 (1986), process aspect case. then authoritative, proper. 9 We granted certiorari, 537 1044 (2002), consider three questions: 10 1. Whether "Homosexual Conduct" law—which criminalizes intimacy couples, identical behavior different-sex couples—violate guarantee equal laws. 11 2. home violate vital interests privacy 12 3. overruled? i. 13 time alleged offense. Their consensual. II 14 conclude resolved determining we deem Bowers. 15 broad statements reach earlier cases, Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510 (1925), Meyer Nebraska, 262 390 (1923); pertinent beginning Griswold Connecticut, 381 479 (1965). 16 invalidated use drugs devices contraception counseling aiding abetting contraceptives. emphasis relation space marital bedroom. Id., 485. 17 make regarding relationship. Eisenstadt Baird, 405 438 (1972), distribution contraceptives unmarried decided Clause, id., 454; persons, went proposition impaired rights, ibid. quoted statement finding conflict followed own: 18 "It true inhered If means anything, individual, single, so fundamentally affecting bear beget child." 453. 19 opinions background Roe Wade, 410 113 (1973). As well known, challenge abortions, affected well. woman's rights absolute, her elect abortion real cited cases protect go it. recognized woman destiny dimension significance defining person. 20 Carey Population Services Int'l, 431 678 (1977), confronted New York sale contraceptive age. single invalidated. Both Carey, Roe, confined adults. some Hardwick. 21 facts had similarities A officer, whose seems question, bedroom, male. Georgia sodomy. One difference prohibited participants while statute, seen, applies Hardwick prosecuted, brought declare invalid. He practicing violated guaranteed White, Powell joined separate, opinions. Four Justices dissented. 199 (opinion Blackmun, Brennan, Marshall, Stevens, JJ.); 214 J.,joined Brennan JJ.). 22 began discussion "The hence invalidates many illegal done long time." 190. statement, conclude, discloses are, sure, statutes purposes, though, 23 This, rule, attempts State, meaning set boundaries absent injury abuse institution protects. suffices us acknowledge may When sexuality finds overt expression person, element bond enduring. choice. 24 thus stating sodomy, said: "Proscriptions roots." academic writings, scholarly amicus assist case, criticisms premises Brief Cato Institute Amicus Curiae 16-17; Civil Liberties Union al. Amici 15-21; Professors History 3-10. need debate attempt definitive considerations adopting conclusions reliance. At outset noted Beginning colonial times prohibitions derived English passed first instance Reformation Parliament 1533. understood include See, e. g., King Wiseman, 92 Eng. Rep. 774, 775 (K. B. 1718) (interpreting "mankind" Act 1533 girls). Nineteenth-century commentators similarly read buggery, crime-against-nature criminalizing Bishop, Law 1028 (1858); Chitty, 47-50 (5th Am. ed. 1847); R. Desty, Compendium 143 (1882); May, Crimes 203 (2d 1893). absence legal focusing explained noting according scholars concept category emerge late 19th Katz, Invention Heterosexuality (1995); D'Emilio & Freedman, Intimate Matters: Sexuality America 121 1997) ("The modern terms homosexuality heterosexuality apply era yet articulated these distinctions"). Thus generally. suggest approval tend thought separate 26 Laws number surviving victim assault. these, purpose ensure lack coverage predator committed assault constitute rape defined model indictments 19th-century treatise, see 49, addressed man girl boy. Instead typically 27 evidence rules imposed burden conviction difficult obtain taking account problems always inherent Under then-prevailing standards, based testimony partner, partner accomplice. partner's testimony, admissible she consented act minor, therefore incapable consent. F. Wharton, 443 1852); 512 (8th 1880). rule explain infrequency prosecutions. events makes society approved rigorous systematic punishment 28 policy punishing much discussed literature. infer nature Despite prosecutions, periods insistence discourage practices. But far 192, prosecution consensual, 1880-1995 clear details, significant place. 14-15, n. 18. 29 1970's prosecution, 1977 Ark. Gen. Acts no. 828; 1983 Kan. Sess. 652; 1974 Ky. 847; Mo. 687; 1973 Mont. 1339; Nev. Stats. 1632; 1989 Tenn. Pub. ch. 591; 399; also Post 715 P. 2d 1105 (Okla. Crim. 1986) (sodomy applied couples). Post-Bowers adhere suppressing Over course decades, moved toward abolishing them. Jegley Picado, 600, 80 332 (2002); Gryczan 283 433, 942 112 (1997); Campbell Sundquist, 926 250 (Tenn. 1996); Commonwealth Wasson, 842 487 (Ky. 1992); 1993 518 (repealing Rev. Stat. 201.193). 30 summary, indicate. 31 must acknowledged, immoral. shaped religious beliefs, conceptions acceptable traditional family. trivial concerns profound deep accepted ethical principles they aspire determine lives. These answer us, however. power views whole through operation "Our code." 850 (1992). 32 further "Decisions individuals subject intervention throughout Western civilization. Condemnation firmly rooted Judeao-Christian standards." 196. White's assumptions history, scholarship casts sweeping pertains Eskridge, Historiography, 1999 Ill. 631, 656. think relevance references "[H]istory starting ending inquiry." 857 (1998) (Kennedy, concurring). 33 decided. 1955 promulgated Model made recommend provide "criminal conducted private." ALI, 213.2, Comment 2, 372 (1980). justified grounds: undermined penalizing people in; regulated harmful others; (3) arbitrarily invited danger blackmail. Code, Commentary 277-280 (Tent. Draft 4, 1955). 1961 Illinois changed conform Code. Other soon followed. 15-16. 34 referred 50 outlawed Columbia 192-193. pointed ignored, Georgia, instance, decades. 197-198, suggests moribund character today type conduct"). 35 civilization Judeo-Christian standards take authorities pointing opposite direction. committee advising British recommended 1957 repeal Wolfenden Report: Report Committee Homosexual Offenses Prostitution (1963). enacted substance recommendations later. Sexual Offences 1967, 36 Of importance, almost five Rights parallels today's An male resident Northern Ireland desired forbade right. questioned, searched, feared proscribing invalid Convention Rights. Dudgeon Kingdom, 45 Eur. Ct. H. (1981) ¶ 52. Authoritative countries members Council Europe (21 then, now), odds premise forward insubstantial 37 system proscribed, admitted 1994 date prosecuted anyone circumstances. Morales, 869 941, 943. 38 Two principal cast 833 (1992), reaffirmed force Casey again afford education. 851. explaining demands choices, 39 "These matters, choices lifetime, autonomy, heart one's meaning, universe, mystery Beliefs attributes personhood formed compulsion State." Ibid. 40 Persons do. deny second post-Bowers 620 (1996). amendment Colorado's named solitary class homosexuals, lesbians, bisexual either "orientation, relationships," 624 (internal quotation marks omitted), deprived antidiscrimination "born animosity affected" rational purpose. 634. 42 alternative argument amici contend provides basis declaring tenable argument, requires address itself continuing validity. Were hold valid drawn differently, say, participants. 43 Equality treatment demand linked important latter advances interests. unexamined validity, remain enforceable reasons. declaration invitation discrimination spheres. addressed. Its continuance precedent 44 offense, C system. Still, charged. will record Just Term various challenges requiring offenders. Doe, 538 84 (2003); Connecticut Dept. Public Safety advised come least four jurisdiction. (citing Idaho §§ 18-8301 18-8326 (Cum. Supp. 2002); La. Proc. 15:540-15:549 (West 2003); Miss. 45-33-21 45-33-57 (Lexis 23-3-400 23-3-490 2002)). underscores consequential state-sponsored attendant prohibition. Furthermore, carries collateral consequences conviction, notations mention example. erosion recent Romer. weakened, Fried, Order Law: Arguing Reagan Revolution—A Firsthand Account 81-84 (1991); Posner, Sex Reason 341-350 courts different declined follow interpreting provisions constitutions parallel Amendment, 270 Ga. 327, 18, (1998); 1992). 46 share elsewhere. Kingdom. G. 00044787/98, 56 (Eur. R., Sept. 25, 2001); Modinos Cyprus, 259 (1993); Norris Ireland, 142 (1988). nations, too, Mary Robinson 11-12. integral countries. 47 doctrine stare essential accorded judgments stability not, 828 (1991) ("Stare command; rather, `is principle mechanical formula adherence latest decision' " (quoting Helvering Hallock, 309 106, 119 (1940))). asked overrule recognizing interest, societal existence cautions strength reversing course. 855-856; 844 ("Liberty refuge jurisprudence doubt"). comparable instances involved. Indeed, issuance 48 came conclusions: 49 prior propositions abundantly clear. First, practice; neither nor save miscegenation attack. Second, relationship, `liberty' persons." 216 (footnotes citations omitted). STEVENS' analysis, view, 51 today. ought binding precedent. 52 present minors. coerced situated consent refused. give enter. other, cannot crime. government. promise realm enter." life individual. 53 Had drew ratified Fifth known components manifold possibilities, specific. presume insight. knew blind truths later generations proper serve oppress. endures, every generation invoke search freedom. 54 judgment reversed, remanded proceedings inconsistent opinion. 55 ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici curiae urging reversal Alliance Baptists Robert Long, Thomas Cubbage III; Psychological Association David Ogden, Q. Wolfson, Richard Taranto, Nathalie Gilfoyle, Carolyn I. Polowy; Health Jeffrey Trachtman Norman Simon; Levy; Constitutional Pamela Karlan Rubenstein; Campaign Walter Dellinger, Harris, Jonathan D. Hacker; Log Cabin Republicans Martin Meekins; NOW Legal Defense Education Fund Codell, Laura Brill, Wendy Weiser; Roy T. Englert, Alan Untereiner, Sherri Lynn Wolson; Republican Unity Coalition Erik Jaffe; Harold Hongju Koh Joseph Tringali. affirmance Alabama Pryor, Attorney General Alabama, Nathan Forrester, Solicitor General, George Weaver, Attorneys respective Henry McMaster South Carolina Mark Shurtleff Utah; Agudath Israel Zwiebel; Center Jay Sekulow, Stuart Roth, Colby James Henderson, Sr., Joel Thornton, Weber; Family Association, Inc., Stephen Crampton, Brian Fahling, Michael DePrimo; Arizona Policy Len Munsil; International Patrick Monaghan Tuskey; Marriage Vincent McCarthy Wardle; Original Intent Farris Jordan Lorence; Concerned Women Janet LaRue; Research Council, George; First Principles, Ronald Ray; Counsel Mathew Staver Rena Lindevaldsen; Pro Ackerman Gary Kreep; Advocate Herbert Titus Olson; Eagle Forum Teresa Stanton Collett; Legislator Warren Chisum Kelly Shackelford Roberts; Physicians Resource Glen Lavy; Families Benjamin Linton. Bar Alfred Carlton, N. Borenstein, Beth Brinkmann; Laurence Tribe, Esseks, Steven Shapiro, Matthew Coles; Mellor, Clint Bolick, Dana Berliner, Randy Barnett; National Lesbian Gay Chai Feldblum, Oetken, Ruskay-Kidd. judgment. 57 overrules (1986). I join overruling Nevertheless, agree Texas' banning unconstitutional. 21.06 Rather relying component Amendment's does, base my conclusion 58 "is essentially direction treated alike." Cleburne Living Center, 473 432, 439 (1985); Plyler 457 202, (1982). standard review, "legislation presumed classification rationally related interest." 440; Agriculture Moreno, 413 528, 534 (1973); 632-633 (1996); Nordlinger Hahn, 11-12 59 economic tax scrutinized review normally pass muster, since "the improvident eventually rectified democratic processes." Fitzgerald Racing Assn. Central Iowa, ante, 103; Williamson Lee Optical Okla., 348 483 (1955). consistently objectives, "a bare desire harm politically unpopular group," 534. 446-447; 632. exhibits group, searching strike 60 likely where, here, inhibits relationships. example, preventing households containing unrelated household receiving food stamps "`discriminate hippies.'" asserted stamp fraud deemed satisfy review. 535-538. 438, 447-455 refused sanction discriminated Likewise, irrational require mentally disabled special permit residences—like fraternity houses buildings—did permit. disallowed "impos[ed] undifferentiated disability group"—specifically, homosexuals. 61 "engages Sodomy opposite-sex partners, Texas. is, treats differently solely harmed orientation 21.06. 62 unequal eyes conduct—and conduct—subject sanction. appears rare. 943 (Tex. 1994) (noting "has been, probability be, adults"). shows, occur. penalty relatively not. convictions, upheld, disqualify restrict ability variety professions, medicine, athletic training, interior design. Occ. 164.051(a)(2)(B) (2003 Pamphlet) (physician); 451.251(a)(1) (athletic trainer); 1053.252(2) (interior designer). move register local enforcement. 18-8304 15:542 Cum. 45-33-25 23-3-430 cf. 575-576. 63 effect limited threat consequence conviction. brands criminals, thereby manner everyone else. previously acknowledged effects stipulating "legally sanctions [homosexuals] ways law," areas "employment, issues, housing." 826 201, 64 arguing satisfies promotion morality. existed government's promoting front 188, disapproval group criminalize punished. 65 raises Bowers: whether, bans Moral insufficient 534; 634-635. never disapproval, discriminates among groups 66 classifications "drawn disadvantaging burdened law." 633. invocation proves nothing prevents creating undertaken sake." 635. rarely enforces acts, serves dislike tool stop behavior. "raise[s] inevitable inference disadvantage born affected." 67 argues, discriminate maintains While targeted closely correlated homosexual. circumstances, gay class. "After hardly palpable criminal." 641 (SCALIA, dissenting) criminal, sexes, "that spheres." Ante, 575. 68 confirms calling slander per se word "homosexual" "impute[s] commission crime." Plumley Landmark Chevrolet, 122 308, 310 (CA5 (applying law); Head Newton, 596 209, 210 1980). presumption criminal. 2d, 202-203 ("[T]he lesbians criminals legally law"). results array "for disfavored status." "`neither knows tolerates classes citizens.'" 623 Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 559 (1896) (Harlan, dissenting)). 69 assign identifiable citizens else, subjects lifelong stigma. legislative threatens creation underclass reconciled with" 239 (Powell, 70 neutral application, Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356 (1886), am confident, equally heterosexuals alike, stand society. words Jackson: 71 framers knew, forget effective practical guaranty arbitrary unreasonable officials impose minority Conversely, opens door effectively allow pick few whom escape political retribution visited larger numbers Railway Express Agency, Inc. York, 336 112-113 (1949) (concurring opinion). 72 mean distinguishing fail assert national security preserving marriage. Unlike relations—the case— exist promote mere excluded group. 73 branding associated runs contrary concur 74 CHIEF THOMAS join, dissenting. 75 "Liberty doubt." sententious response, barely decade ago, seeking 17-year crusade different. certainty presents barrier. 76 Most rest actual holding—that "furthers justify" rational-basis 578 (overruling Georgia's antisodomy test). Though "fundamental proposition[s]," 565, decisions," nowhere right" Clause; appropriate (strict scrutiny) right." outcome leaves strangely untouched conclusion: "[R]espondent announce quite unwilling do." 191. describes "an liberty"—which undoubtedly is—and proceeds unheard-of implications 564. 77 begin surprising readiness rendered ago myself believe rigid cases; rather manipulative invoking doctrine. Today's support bother distinguish—or indeed, mention— paean coauthored Members Casey. There, meant preservation judicially invented widespread strong reaffirm it: 78 "Where, performance judicial duties, decides way resolve intensely divisive controversy reflected Roe[,] resolution normal carry. [T]o fire subvert legitimacy question." 866-867. 79 Today, opposition resolving "intensely divisive" offered favor 576-577. Gone, "enquiry" (of Casey) overruled "proven `unworkable,'" 855. approach invites erroneously (including decision) if: "ero[ded]" subsequent decisions, 576; "substantial continuing" criticism, ibid.; "individual reliance" counsels overturning, 577. problem itself—which surely disposition overrule—satisfies conditions degree preliminary digressive observation regard factor: "casts doubt" (or matter) 571. concerned, provided less expansive already books referring dictum famed sweet-mystery-of-life passage, 574 ("`At life'"): totality else (presumably answer) all. heard attempted "right define" concepts; passage calls regulate actions self-defined "concept etc.," ate 81 quarrel (1996), "eroded" "foundations" Romer, 640-643 (Scalia, dissenting). Washington Glucksberg, 521 702, 721 (1997), "`deeply tradition' qualify anything scrutiny "substantive process." subjected restriction heightened attempting establish abort tradition. 82 says, [criticism], assumptions." 576. Exactly what nonhistorical agrees them, left unsaid, although cite books. Revolution —A (1992)).1 too (and extension is) unrelenting ("Roe prime example twisted judging"); 337 ("[The Court's] Roe... fails measure up professional expectations opinions"); Judicial Opinion Writing, Chi. 1421, 1434 (1995) (describing "embarrassing performanc[e]"). 83 leaves, distinguish rock-solid, unamendable readily overrulable factor. "[T]here been," "no holding...." me "societal discarded overwhelming. Countless enactments majority's belief "immoral unacceptable" constitutes regulation. Williams 240 944, 949 (CA11 2001) Alabama's toys ground "[t]he crafting safeguarding morality indisputably scrutiny"); Milner Apfel, 148 812, 814 (CA7 1998) "[l]egislatures permitted legislate demonstrable harms"); Holmes California Army Guard, 124 1126, 1136 (CA9 (relying regulations military service conduct); Owens 352 Md. 663, 683, 724 43, (1999) marriage"); Sherman Henry, 928 464, 469-473 1996) rejecting claimed commit adultery). ourselves extensively concluded, Barnes Theatre, 560, 569 (1991), Indiana's indecency furthered protecting order morality," (plurality opinion); 575 judgment). bigamy, incest, prostitution, masturbation, adultery, fornication, bestiality, obscenity likewise sustainable light validation choices. Every called decision; effort cabin scope exclude 572 sex" (emphasis added)). impossibility "morals" offenses precisely why challenge. said, constantly notions morality, representing busy indeed." 196.2 What massive disruption current social order, therefore, entails. Not restored regime 1973, permissibility of, restrictions upon, determined legislatively State. chose determination "sort" "[P]eople," "have organized themselves places society, availability event fail." 856. falsely assumes unlawful. not; merely Many unquestionably abortion, others six months (after expired). childbirth, nearby neighboring 85 tell truth, surprise me, one, chosen revise forth exposed Casey's extraordinary deference result-oriented expedient is. 86 decisis, wrongly 87 (2003) imposes constraints liberty. So recreational heroin, matter, working hours week bakery. though repeatedly claim. 567 choice"); ("`These Amendment' "); ("Their government"). expressly deprive "liberty," "due law" provided: 88 "No shall life, liberty, property, Amdt. added). 89 Our applying process" prohibits infringing interests, unless infringement narrowly tailored interest. 721. repeatedly, overrule, so-called "heightened scrutiny" protection—that tradition,'" Reno Flores, 507 292, 303 (1993) (fundamental "so conscience ranked fundamental" omitted)); Salerno, 481 739, 751 (1987) (same). Gerald D., 491 110, (1989) ("[W]e insisted denominated `fundamental' society"); Moore East Cleveland, 494, 503 (1977) 390, 399 (1923) (Fourteenth "those privileges orderly pursuit happiness men" added)).3 All abridged abrogated pursuant validly 90 first, implicate 191-194. Noting "[p]roscriptions "[s]odomy forbidden original Bill Rights," retained 193, 91 describe interest," strict scrutiny. failed concludes Texas's test, contrary, individual." 578. presently. aspersions right"—even boldness reverse conclusion. 93 description 566. points 479, 481-482 disclaimed process," grounded privacy" penumbras process"; Massachusetts contains well-known privacy," —a penumbral specific guarantees 94 Wade unborn 155. "; instead, enough encompass terminate pregnancy" normative antiabortion undesirable. 153. Roe's 876 ( joint 951-953 (Rehnquist, part)—and thus, logical implication, 843-912 JJ.) (not describing interest"). 95 discussing laws, 568-571, proclaims "it matter," 568. "definitive [historical] conclusio[n]," relied: Nation general—regardless performed couples: 96 obvious formulations extend Proscriptions 1868, ratified, fact, 1961, continue Against background, `deeply `implicit ordered liberty' best, facetious." 192-194 (citations footnotes omitted; 97 (as recognized) entirely irrelevant "directed matter." criminalized—which "deeply tradition." criminalized dispute actually relied. 98 Next claim, unsupported citations, "[l]aws 569. key qualifier "acting private"—since admits (although contends "infrequen[t]," ibid.). know private" means; stage. "on premises, doors closed windows covered," unsurprising enforcement hard by. (Imagine circumstances enable warrant obtained probable occurring.) Surely sustain covered regarded right," criminalized. West Reporting official reporters 1880-1995. Gaylaw: Challenging Apartheid Closet 375 (hereinafter Gaylaw). executions during period. Gay/Lesbian Almanac 29, 58, 663 (1983). tradition" utterly unassailable. 99 Realizing says: "[W]e 571-572 Apart "emerging awareness" factually false. prosecute sorts crimes "in sex": obscenity, pornography. century," 134 adult, Gaylaw 375. relying, recognition," Institute's recommendation "`consensual private,'" 572, ignores resistance states Code." 159. 100 event, definition tradition[s]," status requires. entitlements spring lessen eliminate Much believe, foreign decriminalize "values civilization," 576, 193-194 devoid "wider (ignoring, sodomy) meaningless dicta. Dangerous dicta, "this Court... moods, fads, fashions Americans." Foster Florida, 990, (2002) (Thomas, denial certiorari). IV 101 turn squarely rests holding: contention accord jurisprudence—indeed, know—that little discussion. 102 undeniably seeks forms unacceptable," 196—the obscenity. reaches individual," embraces Stevens' dissent, "`the practice,'" decrees end morals legislation. If, asserts, majoritarian none above-mentioned survive V 103 Finally, equal-protection challenge, Member O'Connor, 579 judgment), embraces: On face Men women, someone sexes insofar performed: men, women. protection, distinction permitting 104 objection made, antimiscegenation Loving Virginia, 388 (1967), whites blacks distinguished races concerned. Loving, correctly scrutiny, usual Virginia "designed maintain White Supremacy." 6, 11. racially discriminatory facially race. Davis, 426 229, 241-242 (1976). No gleaned applies. satisfied —society's justification supports regulating identity partner—for refusing recognize 105 O'CONNOR argues proclivity actor. 106 "While class." 583. 107 nudity targets nudist," conduct"; nudists may. "homosexuals class," basis, 108 review" statute. 580. cites standard, finding, required conventional conceivable issue. 635; 448-450 534-538 Nor "more form" consists of. mean, exhibiting 580, 109 pretty shaky limiting couples. preserve conclusory "preserving marriage" 585. kinder recast euphemistic terms: mores society." seemingly created, judges validate characterizing society" (good); invalidate "expressing disapproval" (bad). 110 111 product law-profession culture, largely signed agenda, agenda promoted activists eliminating opprobrium attached Schools (to reputable school belong) excludes membership refuses ban job-interview facilities firm (no matter small) wish hire prospective openly 653. revealing grim warning criminalization sides culture war, departing role assuring, observer, engagement observed. Americans want partners business, scoutmasters children, teachers children's schools, boarders view families lifestyle destructive. "discrimination" function deter. imbued profession's anti-anti-homosexual unaware attitudes obviously "mainstream"; perfectly legal; proposals Title VII Congress, Employment Non-Discrimination 1994, 2238, 103d Cong., (1994); Amendments, 5452, 94th 1st (1975); mandated 654(b)(1) (mandating discharge Armed Forces intends acts); right, Boy Scouts Dale, 530 640 (2000). Let means. Social perceptions change over time, persuade fellow best. achieved success enterprise attested remaining acts. persuading thing, imposing something acts—or, display disapprobation them—than forbid range action, hand stayed invention brand-new "constitutional impatient change. indeed "later oppress," 579; happens, people, caste 114 benefits leaving regulation unlike judges, carry things feel disallow acts—and accordingly. pretends possesses similar fear imposition recently occurred Canada (in Canadian Government appeal). Halpern Toronto, 2003 WL 34950 (Ontario App.); Cohen, Dozens Follow Couple's Lead, Post, 12, 2003, A25. opinion—after laid waste —the says "does Do More illuminating bald, unreasoned disclaimer progression displayed notes protections afforded "personal education," declares "[p]ersons dismantles structure unions, interest" 578; if, coos (casting aside pretense neutrality), "[w]hen enduring," 567; possibly denying exercising Constitution," ibid.? encouragement sterile elderly allowed marry. involve" entertains logic hope comfortingly assures 115 three: infringes (which dispute), considers denies dissent. last-cited critic ofBowers writes: "[Bowers] nevertheless deeply America's Reason, 343. overruleBowers' worth ("A armed forces separated acts"); Marcum McWhorter, 308 635, 640-642 (CA6 2002) adultery); Mullins Oregon, 789, 793-794 1995) grandparent's interes[t]" adoption grandchildren); Doe Wigginton, 733, 739-740 prisoner's on-demand HIV testing); Schowengerdt 944 483, 490 1991) bisexual's services); Baesler, 910 1349, 1353 1990) department captain's "fundamental" promotion); Henne Wright, 904 1208, 1214-1215 (CA8 restricting surnames given children birth implicates right"); Walls Petersburg, 895 193 (CA4 substantive-due-process questionnaire employees activity); High Tech Gays Industrial Security Clearance Office, 563, 570-571 1988) rejecting—on standard—an equalprotection Department's conducting expanded investigations backgrounds lesbian applicants secret top-secret clearances). "`[h]istory inquiry,'"ante, 572. "`implicit liberty,'" justice [it] sacrificed,'" ibid.Moreover, tradition, deserving scrutiny," 722. proceed discuss, 116 117 SCALIA'S write separately note uncommonly silly." 527 (1965) (Stewart, Legislature, vote Punishing expressing preference noncommercial appear worthy expend valuable resources. Notwithstanding this, empowered help situated. My duty, "decide `agreeably States.'" 530. Stewart, "can find [neither a] "liberty dimensions," 562.

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