Document: 448 U.S. 607 100 S.Ct. 2844 65 L.Ed.2d 1010 INDUSTRIAL UNION DEPARTMENT, AFL-CIO, Petitioner,v.AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE et al. Ray MARSHALL, Secretary of Labor, Petitioner, v. AMERICAN Nos. 78-911, 78-1036. Argued Oct. 10, 1979. Decided July 2, 1980. Syllabus The Occupational Safety and Health Act 1970 (Act) delegates broad authority to the Labor (Secretary) promulgate standards ensure safe healthful working conditions for Nation's workers (the Administration (OSHA) being agency responsible carrying out this authority). Section 3(8) defines an "occupational safety health standard" as a standard that is "reasonably necessary or appropriate provide employment." Where toxic materials harmful physical agents are concerned, must also comply with § 6(b)(5), which directs "set most adequately assures, extent feasible, on basis best available evidence, no employee will suffer material impairment functional capacity." When agent be regulated carcinogen, has taken position exposure level can determined 6(b)(5) requires him set limit at lowest technologically feasible not impair viability industries regulated. In case, after having there causal connection between benzene (a substance used in manufacturing such products motor fuels, solvents, detergents, pesticides) leukemia cancer white blood cells), promulgated reducing permissible airborne concentrations from consensus 10 parts per million air (10 ppm) 1 ppm, prohibiting dermal contact solutions containing benzene. On pre-enforcement review, Court Appeals held invalid because it was based findings unsupported by administrative record. court concluded OSHA had exceeded its standard-setting been shown ppm employment" required 3(8), did give unbridled discretion adopt designed create absolutely risk-free workplaces regardless cost. Held : judgment affirmed. Pp. 630-662; 667-671; 672-688. 581 F.2d 493, 5th Cir., Mr. Justice STEVENS, joined Chief BURGER, STEWART, POWELL, question invalid. 630-652, 658-659. (a) correct refusing enforce ground supported findings. OSHA's rationale lowering based, any finding ever caused but rather series assumptions indicating some might result number cases reduced ppm. 630-638. 2 (b) By empowering employment places implies that, before promulgating standard, make safe. But "safe" equivalent "risk-free." A workplace hardly considered "unsafe" unless threatens significant risk harm. Therefore, permanent he threshold place unsafe sense risks present eliminated lessened change practices. This requirement applies pursuant well other types standards, reason why 3(8)'s definition should deemed incorporated reference into 6(b)(5). Moreover, requiring consistent scope his regulatory power under "toxic materials" "harmful agents." interpretation provisions Act, 6(g), Secretary, determining priority establishing due regard urgency need mandatory particular workplaces, 6(b)(8), when substantially alters existing explain how new rule "better effectuate" Act's purposes. 639-646. 3 (c) legislative history supports conclusion Congress concerned absolute safety, elimination 646-652. 4 (d) relied special policy carcinogens imposed burden industry proving existence exposure, thereby avoiding responsibility more stringent power. 5 BURGER that: 6 1. show, substantial least likely than long-term presents impairment. Here, even attempt carry proof. Imposing strip ability regulate carcinogens, nor require wait deaths occur taking action. "significant" identified mathematical straitjacket; support exists anything approaching scientific certainty; record case own rulings indicate ways rational about relative significance associated carcinogen. 652-658. 7 2. respect ban appropriate" remove harm contact, acted absolute, no-risk only small doses carcinogen absorbed through skin sufficient amounts carcinogenic risk. These proper substitute Act. 659-662. 8 agreeing neither concentration satisfied requirements, would hold proof whether human health. He assuming met burden, determine economic effects bear reasonable relationship expected benefits. necessary" "feasible," if calls expenditures wholly disproportionate although find "substantial costs" regulations were justified, contains adequate documentation evidence weighed relevant considerations. simply announced cost-justification without explaining method benefits justified costs their effects. 667-671. 9 REHNQUIST invalidate, constituting delegation portion is, according unknown otherwise "infeasible." substances, language gives indication where continuum standard. Nor history, statutory context, source traditionally examined provides specificity feasibility criterion William H. Alsup, Washington, D. C., petitioner No. 11 George Cohen, 78-911. 12 Edward W. Warren Charles F. Lettow, respondents. 13 STEVENS delivered opinion, THE CHIEF JUSTICE STEWART Parts I, II, III-A, III-B, III-C III-E POWELL joined. 14 (Act), 84 Stat. 1590, 29 U.S.C. 651 seq., enacted purpose ensuring every man woman Nation. litigation concerns occupational benzene, cause high levels. principal showing limitation economically possible. 15 different kinds standards. basic found provides: 16 "The term 'occupational standard' means conditions, adoption use one practices, means, methods, operations, processes, reasonably 1591, 652(8). 17 18 dealing subsection, shall capacity regular hazard dealt period life. Development subsection upon research, demonstrations, experiments, information may appropriate. addition attainment highest degree protection employee, considerations latest data field, experience gained laws." 1594, 655(b)(5).1 19 Wherever part (1 ppm), eye complex monitoring medical testing requirements employers whose contain 0.5 CFR §§ 1910.1028(c), (e) (1979). 20 review 655(f), United States Fifth Circuit regulation American Petroleum Institute OSHA, 493 (1978). (OSHA)2 3(8),3 does "not costs."4 Reaching two together, duty bore imposed. Id., 503. noted made estimate compliance, lacked discernible benefits.5 21 We agree Circuit's holding find, matter, poses new, lower therefore Unless until made, address further correctly correlation benefits, whether, federal parties argue, then goes far possible eliminate 22 Because these unusually important first impression, we have reviewed care. (1) describe (2) analyze Agency's imposing limit, (3) discuss controlling legal issues, (4) comment briefly limitation. 23 * Benzene familiar commodity. It colorless, aromatic liquid evaporates rapidly ordinary atmospheric conditions. Approximately billion pounds produced 1976. Ninety-four percent total petroleum petrochemical industries, remainder steel byproduct coking operations. variety including fuels (which much 2% benzene), pesticides, organic chemicals. 43 Fed.Reg. 5918 24 entire population exposed quantities ranging few ambient air. Tr. 1029-1032. Over subject additional low-level exposures consequence employment. majority employees work gasoline service stations, production (petroleum refineries operations), chemical processing, transportation, rubber manufacturing, laboratory operations.6 25 substance. Although could conceivably person who swallowed touched it, comes inhalation vapors. vapors inhaled, diffuses lungs quickly blood. Exposure produces almost immediate effect central nervous system. Inhalation 20,000 fatal within minutes; range 250 500 vertigo, nausea, symptoms mild poisoning. 5921 Persistent levels above 25-40 lead deficiencies diseases blood-forming organs, aplastic anemia, generally fatal. 26 Industrial experts long aware various nonmalignant diseases. 1948 connecting serious disorders become so strong Commonwealth Massachusetts 35 jurisdiction. 1969 National Standards (ANSI) adopted national averaged over 8-hour ceiling 10-minute periods maximum peak 50 5919. 1971, passed, 655(a).7 27 As early 1928, theorized leukemia.8 late 1960's 1970's epidemiological studies published significantly increased leukemia.9 1974 report recommending (NIOSH), research arm,10 raised "distinct possibility" leukemia. But, light fact all known occurred very levels, NIOSH declined recommend protect against suggested conclusively link and, so, what dangerous.11 28 Between 1976 tended confirm view leukemia, high.12 August revision earlier recommendation, stated provided "conclusive" Record, Ex. 2-5, p. 10. acknowledged none intervening dose-response lacking years earlier, id., 9, nevertheless recommended low contracted consulting firm do study complying or, alternatively, whatever feasible. 505-506. October 1976, sent another memorandum seeking acceleration rulemaking process "strongly" issuance emergency temporary 6(c) 655(c),13 chemicals believed carcinogens. benzene.14 2-6. Apparently asked consultant cost instead "minimum feasible" 506-507. issued voluntary guidelines limited time-weighted average wherever 2-44. 30 spring selected Pliofilm plants St. Marys Akron, Ohio, exposure. April 1977, forwarded interim fivefold increase incidence 1940 1949.15 submitted erroneously zero during question.16 continued prodding NIOSH, 2-7, issue effective May 21, up minutes eliminating 42 22516 (1977). explanation accompanying below consultant's report, reduce 22517, 22521. 31 19, entered restraining order preventing effect. Thereafter, abandoned efforts proposal patterned entirely aborted 27452. 32 statement giving notice proposed ask comments presented less. Rather, minimum limit.17 Ibid.. Deputy Director Standards, Grover Wrenn, testified hearing, formulation Agency general carcinogens.18 Whenever involved, presume absence clear accordingly feasible.19 thus established proven "OSHA's judgement time compliance [a]ffected industries." 30. Given policy, irrelevant point risk, however small, level. indicative demonstration made.20 33 Public hearings commencing 1977. final February 1978. 1910.1028 (1979).21 form, hazards monitor examinations rises institute engineering controls keep 34 originally employer's monitor, records, arose whenever covered rule.22 omnipresent quantities, President's Council Wage Price Stability "action level" trigger examination requirements. 1030-1032; App. 121-133. accepted providing initial discloses day, action company's practices.23 If level, quarterly semiannual employees. Neither concept specific challenged proceeding. indicates workday, 15-minute period, modify practice limits. Consistent allow respirators modifications feasible.24 Employers category perform monthly remain workers, post signs restrict access "regulated areas" exceeded, conduct training programs necessary. 36 strict limits framed, totally prohibited Ultimately, challenged, modified prohibition excluding liquids less 0.5% After three years, exclusion narrowed 0.1% 37 expressly inapplicable storage, distribution, sale, subsequent discharge bulk terminals.25 exception particularly 795,000 gas station employees, 102,700 gallons (containing benzene) annually, excluded standard.26 38 presently formulated, expensive way relatively According figures, capital investments approximately $266 million, first-year operating (for monitoring, testing, training, respirators) $187 $205 recurring annual $34 million.27 5934 figures outlined 35,000 gain benefit terms reduction benzene.28 two-thirds (24,450) employed rubber-manufacturing industry. Compliance estimated low, expenses ($1,390 employee); totalling $1 million. contrast, segment refining incur $24 $600,000 300 ($82,000 employee), while $20.9 552 ($39,675 employee).29 5936-5938. 39 quantify each worker decreased appears impact done direction those small. Thus, current actual often considerably lower. For example, 1970-1975 reported 496 53 (all same plant) Economic Impact Statement, 4-6, Table 4-2, Ex 5A, 4-2. See Tables 4.3-4.8 (indicating sample industries). II 40 critical findings.30 41 Any discussion must, course, begin limit.31 written fills 184 pages printed appendix. Much devoted voluminous adverse demonstrates ample justification regulating prior (or reasonable. not, however, direct sketchy best. "no dispute" certain disorders, evidenced red cells platelets blood, several indicated slight changes normal values perhaps disease less.32 lack concerning linkage abnormalities, impossible construct curve time.33 conclude, demonstrated inadequate single disorder Noting "customary" applying factor 10-100 observed, "substantially ppm" benzene's leukemic considered. 5924-5925 state, ppm.34 chromosomal aberrations chronically "probably ppm."35 However, took definitive meant demonstrable quantitative yet established. Under circumstances, categorized "adverse biological event concern pose reflect potential such, larger purview benzene." 5932-5934. 44 With (i. e., greater borne population) sketchier. Once see 2853, supra, That study, conducted Dow Chemical Co., uncovered deaths, versus 0.2 594 workers; appeared never authors viewed probably occupationally potentially points careers among higher possibility leukemias ruled "consistent many excess employees." 5928 empirical opinion testimony F.2d, 503, "unable documenting . ." 45 end reaching result, unequivocally carcinogen.36 Second, failed prove occur. rejected contentions establish ppm.37 witness' constructed prevent death six years.38 46 Third, applied carcinogens,39 concluding assumed cancer.40 brief, scientists public specialists subscribe view, theorizing susceptible contract absorption molecule like Brief Federal Parties 18-19.41 47 Fourth, reiterated stating either whichever higher. established, Secretary's statute automatically leads selection feasible.42 importance economy, entirely, try omnipresent. workable n. 14, "the [compliance] threaten financial welfare affected firms economy." 5939 meaning 48 Finally, refer pertinent identify anticipated conclude again, assumption decrease decrease. predict accuracy intermediate "determined appreciable."43 5941 disavowal numbers adversely 503.44 49 noteworthy lengthy quote cite allude III Our resolution issues turns, large extent, employment," 51 Government's "standard" merely irrational. takes assurance reduces Government interprets "feasible" achievable regulation. respondent representatives, hand, argue along both they roughly commensurate. 52 our decide correct. think apply issuing remedy Only determination substance, select protective technological feasibility, respondents commensurate implementation. cases, occasion case. A. substantive content all,45 calculated produce safer healthy environment. Oral Arg. 18, 20. Apart minimal rationality, argues imposes power, workplaces.46 substances agents, extreme position. Relying 6(b)(5)'s "which assures capacity," contends impose guarantee free impairment, come close doing ruining industries. 54 completely certainty harm, interpret fashion. great enough destroy structure intended elimination, B 55 There activities engage day—such driving car breathing city air—that entail accident impairment; nevertheless, people consider "unsafe." Similarly, 56 unsafe—in just species genus governed requirement. section repeatedly uses suggesting from, qualification of, definition; contrary, standard"—that say, alternatives satisfy protective.47 granted empowers generally, agents."48 57 6(g) 58 "[i]n section, trades, crafts, occupations, businesses, environments." 59 undertake cost-benefit analysis promulgates first.49 precede promulgation seems manifest intended, bare minimum, probability 60 6(b)(8) lends analysis. purposes Act.50 meaningless formality, read continuing workplace. 61 mandate unreasonable assume unprecedented coupled policy. Expert carcinogen—either animals individuals following extremely exposures—would justify matter minute regarded insignificant. turn pervasive constraint feasibility. literally thousands suspect theory enormous little, any, benefit.51 62 arguing quantified sufficiently enable characterize understandable way, "sweeping power" unconstitutional Court's reasoning A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. States, 295 495, 539, 837, 847, 79 L.Ed. 1570, Panama Refining Co. Ryan, 293 388, 241, 446. construction avoids kind open-ended grant certainly favored. C 63 examples industrial referred Committee debates involved situations unquestionably significant. Senate Welfare byssinosis, disabling lung cotton dust, 30% carding spinning rooms mills 100,000 active retired suffering disease. statistics 50,000 performed insulation die asbestosis, cancer, mesothelyioma asbestos fibers. Another example given controlled betanaphthylamine, "chemical development bladder years." S.Rep.No.91-1282, pp. 3-4 (1970); Legislative History (Committee Print compiled Welfare), 143-144 (1971) (hereafter Leg.Hist.); U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 1970, 5177, 5180. 64 specifically amended perfectly assure bill "[t]he feasibly capacity, diminished life expectancy life." (Emphasis supplied.) S. 2193, 91st Cong., 2d Sess., (1970), Leg.Hist. 242. 66 floor Senate, Senator Dominick questioned wisdom provision, stating: 67 "How world going live that? What Florida mosquitoes getting employee—perish thought Florida? black flies Minnesota Wisconsin. Are say get bitten rest lives all? Probably be, know?" 116 Cong.Rec. 36522 345. 68 offered amendment deleting subsection.52 discussions sponsors bill, revised amendment. Instead sentence application changed "any" "material" impairment.53 discussing change, Committee's "assure anybody doing, foreseeable hazard." Such "unrealistic standard," stated, bill. explained intention implemented amendment, 69 "to take account anyone subjected life, something now, works short time, dangerous; want sure things consideration standards." Cong.Rec., 37622-37623, 502-503.54 70 Williams, agreed interpretation, adopted. 71 reply brief threats insignificant harm; still harm—no be.55 odds Congress' express recognition futility trying risk-free. follows logical conclusion. correct, go task way. began little so-called "background" experienced large. supra. Then, despite suggestions labor unions ppm,56 decided all, largely convenience. 5947 72 deviated adopting required. presumably examinations, uncover benzene-related problems. advised provided. Nevertheless, performing cost.57 73 concessions practicality beginning using implicitly risks.58 endeavors area 74 note expressed allowing too refused shut down unilaterally imminent danger, Whirlpool Marshall, 445 1, 883, 154, narrowly circumscribed standards.59 effort mere somewhere country confront exercise expenditure hundreds millions dollars minimize D 75 exists, becomes define allocate this, knowledge imperfect precise quantification impossible. therefore, properly prove, apparently beyond shadow doubt, uncertainties area, approach render helpless, forcing believes occur60 76 disagree. statute, Ordinarily, proponent proceedings. 556(d). involving shifted onto party opposing rule.61 follow course enacting 77 closest came making derived "likely" "appreciable." evidence. Of importance, obligations 78 inadequacy illustrated rejection formulated conservative extrapolation theory, 30,000 years. 38, rejecting testimony, statement: "In face numerous attributable benzene-induced diseases, unwilling rely hypothesis cancers prevented Infante disclosed seven 600 25-year period. While currently encountered, rates Infante, together literature difficult [witness'] statutorily mandated event, precisely 80 interpretations testimony: probable saved ppm; saving force persons savings makes standard; smaller, so. Even intend third drastic theory. discharged 81 Contrary contentions, demonstrating First, straitjacket. determine, instance, considers Some plainly acceptable others unacceptable. If, drink chlorinated water, clearly thousand fatal, steps it. calculate exact obligation "unsafe."62 82 certainty. allows "best evidence." Courts held, provision reviewing leeway frontiers knowledge. Union Dept., AFL-CIO Hodgson, 162 U.S.App.D.C. 331, 340, 499 467, 476 (1974); Society Plastics Industry, Inc. 509 1301, 1308 (CA2 1975), cert. denied, 421 992, 95 1998, 482. body reputable thought, interpreting risking error side overprotection underprotection.63 83 carcinogen.64 setting reliance less-than-perfect backstop form testing. levels.65 constant check validity developing sound evidentiary decreasing initially high.66 removed suffered damage.67 E 85 detailed customary, emphasized factual determinations own, Secretary. support, expert testimony; warrant actually believe made. 86 squarely authority, IV 87 Throughout proceedings, received attention. "in routes inhalation, ingestion, absorption) [should] feasible." 5948 opposition hearing rule, operations mixtures 1% (and year, 0.1%) 88 percentage predictable arising 22, concededly unknown, exempt liquids, contained, contact. "suggest rate depends amount liquid." 5948-5949 89 promulgated, requests reinstated. Those argued handled petroleum-based unavoidable contaminant. Others similar arguments. particular, tire manufacturers them gloves cannot worn tire-building solvents commercially available. 90 requests, reinstating exclusion, 0.5%. did, 3-year grace dropped 0.1%, year proposed. type route exposures, since achieved clothing, impermeable gloves. recognized problem manufacturers, alleviate problem, quantities. quantity, "allow evaluation alternative methods standard's provision." 27968-27969. 91 struck grounds. quantifiable risk; second ground, equivocal, not. All old simple test now deal accuracy, result. evidence" field," uncontradicted resolve issue, acquire "promulgating long-followed processes demonstrably unsafe." 508. 92 peculiar circumstances obtain information, us reach issue. For, finding, Indeed, untenable, inasmuch 93 remanding petition proceedings 94 ordered. concurring. 96 press unanswered questions science medicine. ambiguous signals directed operate area. decode message 97 To "finding" entails subsidiary pre-existing "significant risk" spends environment remains "risk" "quantified way." Ante, 646. Precisely say. I invalidated. stress differing functions courts 98 ultimate regulator, narrow function discern implementing objective "has reasoned factors" complied commands. Permian Basin Area Rate Cases, 390 747, 792, 1344, 1373, 312 (1968). retrace care derogation legitimate discretion. facts arguments duly considered, objectives statute. acts delegated Congress, exercises prerogatives legislature—to focus aspect some, appear imprudent inefficient allocation resources. judicial extend lies elsewhere—in Congressional Executive oversight amendatory legislation boundaries ill-defined indistinct. 99 discharging duties admonished remember heavy burdens authority. Inherent scheme refrain de minimis risks. Alabama Power Costle, 204 51, 81-89, 636 323, 360-361 (1979) (opinion Leventhal, J.). reveals scant administration avoidance extravagant, comprehensive Perfect chimera; strangle activity search concurring judgment. 101 join III-A III-C, plurality opinion.1 "carcinogen policy" formally—in cases.2 reasons plurality, 655(b)(5) 652(8), together. They workplaces. (i) (ii) hazard. 102 generic policies McGarity, Substantive Procedural Discretion Administrative Resolution Science Policy Questions: Regulating Carcinogens EPA Geo.L.J. 729, 754-759 (1979), case.3 rests always proved found, achieve technology. 103 disputed exclusively policy," related compliance. 615. recognized, "fall-back position" "may appreciable," [of standard] hazards." 5940-5941 found—at generally—that dollars. me, necessarily subsumes "significant." discussed satisfied. 104 agency's insufficient 504. supply numerical techniques "risk quantification" "cost-effectiveness analysis." 504, 23; 504-505. Appeals' 105 preference evidence," 655(b)(5), accurate estimation suggests hands tied accomplished methods. post, 693 (MARSHALL, J., dissenting). litigation, "it weight opinion. understand otherwise. ante, 662. 106 foregoing reasons, "OSHA proof" 653. my successfully carried issues. supporting imprecise permit risks? show evidence? 107 close, disagree plurality's failed, record, summarized above. assumes 697-701, 713-714 dissenting), An 108 permits effects, widespread dislocation throughout industry.4 today, exist reject claim considering consequences massive dislocation. untenable. 109 wish spoken clarity, Act.5 pursue desirable goal industries—or segments thereof—is threatened. observes, itself chosen self-defeating instances. 650. compete effectively foreign businesses workers.6 110 lightly finds costs. 4, Perhaps significantly, manner inconsistent construe today. Thousands fairly characterized Cf. 645, 51. succeeded selecting gravest earliest regulation, ignored misallocation resources comparative cost.7 attribute irrational Congress. 111 justified. 665-666. conclusion, determines No system administrators judgments decisions effectuate governing law, nothing authorizes laxity cases.8 Since satisfies affirming Appeals. 112 REHNQUIST, 113 center controversy, states, part, 114 ". assures,to (emphasis added). 115 petitioners herein, duty, known, "can bearable technology." 57. refine "bearable cost," "will Respondents reply, agreed, 117 118 respondents, tempered demonstrate justifiable rough balancing 119 interpretations, colleagues good uncertainty, ultimately divide appreciable all. suggest, eminently decisionmaker: statistical future disregarded deaths. suggest widely varying positions advanced briefs opinions JUSTICE, MARSHALL demonstrate, better fact, governmental suited obligated choice confronting improperly derivatively, Court. 120 Second Treatise Civil Government, 1690, John Locke wrote legislative, positive institution, conveyed, laws, legislators, transfer laws hands."1 Two hundred later, necessity delegate representatives Branch: "That president principle universally vital integrity maintenance government ordained Constitution." Field Clark, 143 649, 692, 294 (1892).2 121 cardinal exception. Framers Constitution practical statesmen, saw doctrine separation powers two-sided coin. James Madison, Federalist Paper 48, division branches useful principle, maxim requires, essential government, maintained." 308 (H. Lodge ed. 1888). 122 hermetic sealing-off easily frustrate establishment capable exercising Constitution. Taft, writing J. Hampton 276 394, 348, 624 (1928), practicalities balance struck: 123 "[T]he Legislature President state executive, Governor, executive judiciary constitutional breach fundamental law transfers President, Judicial branch, attempts invest members coordinate field invoke invoked branch. assistance character fixed common inherent necessities co-ordination." 406, S.Ct., 351. 124 During fourth decades century, Acts grounds Commerce Clause nondelegation powers, statutes violated "substantive" interfered interstate commerce. R. Jackson, Struggle Supremacy 48-123 (1949). later overruled, fell cloud. Yet 446 (1935), excesses policymaking plagued era. upheld congressional delegations Branch technical, large, Members themselves choose legislate, separation-of-powers lay animate leaving "fill blanks," cases. decisions, mind, illustrate above-quoted ago Taft judged "according 125 Viewing here principles, fails pass muster. Read literally, precatory, admonishing can, excusing cannot. hazardous impractical, draw line. Especially interests stake, doubt standing alone, violate uncanalized me remaining question, then, ascertainable context standardless "inherent necessities" situation. 126 One primary sources looked adding gloss question. tip hat origins treatment understandable, shedding choices feeling viewing "by dawn's light." 127 precursor placed pending House Education Labor. At read: 128 professional health, 7(a)(4), H.R. 16785, Sess. 943 (hereinafter Leg.Hist.). 129 Three aspects original importantly, introduced contained limitation, "shall assures" capacity. face, intent, Act.3 130 journey zero. identical respects version, Javits objected "might interpreted S.Rep. 91-1282, 197. 37327 418. " assured 242 Report floor. There, explained: 131 "[S]tandards 6(b) represent which, appropriate, past experience, data. assuring, possible, impaired expectancy, though 147 132 Despite Javits' inclusion words "and feasibly" participants debate immediately utopia hazards" all." 37614 480-481 (remarks Sen. Dominick). Saxbe stated: 133 "When saying employer protected areas ascertain. 134 "I passing back forth identified." 26522, 135 response concerns, entirely. delete 136 137 "This inherently confusing unrealistic. occupations injury, expectancy. criteria could, applied, business nation. addition, 'adequately' 'feasibly' danger occupation itself. 138 "If admonition unnecessary advisable included history." original.) 36530, 367. 139 Eventually, supporters settled agreement resulted version Javits. altered explicitly agents," apparent contrast longer impairments. importantly purposes, phrase "most revamped 140 shift. seemingly specify Significantly, asserts safest remained unchanged feasible," represented shift emphasis, "a cost." 7a, 59. 141 reads quite differently. reached "clearly embod[y] requirement" soundly criticized 693. amendments, replaced authorized infeasible. 710, 720-721, 34. 142 cast events, focusing "reasonable" interchangeably. 91-2193, 8-10 (1969), 38-40; 22517 (1969) (Sen. Javits). contention said cost-justified. left lessons gleaned somewhat cryptic history. pointed Javits, Dominick, worried assuring duty. accept court, embellished 144 requirement, mirage, appearing others, desired beholder. am unable MARSHALL's argument changing phrasing injected already there.4 regard, relieve object himself aptest description 36530 145 sum, clear, unrealistic, largely, precatory. words, wanted fashion, week here.5 wants him. infeasible, "different difficulties." 650 (plurality opinion). interest whatsoever, political 146 breathe vague Light SEC, 329 90, 104, 133, 141, (1946), "derive[d] meaningful background appear." true, whole expresses distinct expression preference, falls proposition marginal right industry's breaking point. Lichter 334 742, 783, 1294, 1315, 1694 (1948), recapture "excessive profits" practice. predated enactment indications postenactment uniform. Review Commission (OSHRC), charged adjudicating citations "feasibility," Continental Can OSHC 1541, 1976-1977 OSHD ¶ 21,009 (1976), reasoned: 148 "Clearly, finite abate hazards. And spend abatement hazards, threatening reduced." 1547, OSHD, 25,256. 149 Furthermore, was, uncertain announcing ramifications, "[w]hile include ramifications candid tentative uniformly, 150 examined, delegatee's residual subjects Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 304, 307, 216, 255 (1936), authorizing prohibit sale arms countries "contribute reestablishment peace." affairs, "must accord freedom restriction admissible domestic affairs alone involved." 320, 221. Mazurie, 419 544, 706 (1975), Indian tribes introduction liquor country. limitations "less entity possesses independent matter." 556-557, 717. enjoys 151 abided necessity, upholding "unreasonable impracticable compel prescribe rules" regarding U.S., 105, 142. Buttfield Stranahan, 192 470, 496, 349, 355, 525 (1904). evasive "feasibility" drafting faced difficult, elevate save difficulty previously remark Saxbe, "[w]hen ascertain." chose, intentionally unintentionally, evident spectral quality capsulized Saxbe's unfulfilled promise Ibid. 152 enforced Court, serves functions. abstractly, ensures orderly social branch responsive popular will. Arizona California, 373 546, 626, 1468, 1511, 542 (1963) (Harlan, dissenting part); Robel, 389 258, 276, 419, 430, 508 (1967) (BRENNAN, result). guarantees recipient "intelligible principle" guide 409, 352; (1928); 252. derivative second, able 1511 106, 153 counts. decision diminishing returns quintessentially violates, Locke's caveat—reflected cited opinion—that legislatures legislators. Nor, amply demonstrates, guidance renders 154 ought shy away invalidate solely reinvigorate discredited doctrines pre-New Deal fallen desuetude restrictive Clause, writer phrased association." Ely, Democracy Distrust, Theory (1980). observers once unnecessarily politically unresponsive administrators.6 Other observers, imagined, disagreed.7 155 reshoulder surely imagine obvious divisive compromise impossible, hammer forge. Far detracting declaration constitutes preserve wishes legislate sought enter, today's undoubtedly run formulated. essence hard choices, filling blanks, elected people. underlying buck stops insofar role process. 156 [that hazard] life," Absent action, choose, acting all.8 Accordingly, above, concur 157 whom BRENNAN, WHITE, BLACKMUN join, dissenting. 158 construction, limited. intent plain, inquiry end. jurisprudence, presumed ill-considered unwise corrected democratic process; permitted distort statute's conform Justices' views TVA Hill, 437 153, 2279, 159 Today's flagrantly disregards restrictions ignores plain bring line unfortunate crippling impaired. 160 161 655(b)(5). creates damage, shown; small; (5) knowledge, saved, absurd community; (6) materially condition aside plainer fully [to] assur[e] 163 contrary "at not," 653, seeks one. Nothing meaning. bears intentions solicitude evaluate strawman creation. 164 Unlike purport know actions unsound ones bar uncertainty. definite magnitude time. insignificant; indeed, reveal considerable. frequently "significance" powerless behalf. uncertainty shoulders worker, beneficiary fortunate indeed Justices techniques. 666 (POWELL, judgment); 656, 165 Nation, dissent. 166 grim failure heed needs workers."1 144, "bleak" "worsening"2 situation 14,500 died annually four preceding passage, Americans killed contemporaneous Vietnam War. S.Rep.No. 91-1283, 142; Admin.News, 5177. rights workers."3 Its Nation resources." 651(b). Atlas Roofing Comm'n, 430 442, 444-445, 1261, 1263-64, 464 167 primarily provisions. "general duty" furnish "free causing 654(a)(1). standards," defined "conditions, 168 "unprecedented complexity" "are discovered." "Recent hitherto unsuspected cause-and-effect relationships chronic diseases—cancer, respiratory ailments, allergies, heart disease, others." Ibid., 5178. repeated references dangers posed defects operation effect.4 "insidious 'silent' killers."5 169 led 170 171 directive implement dangerous frequent exposure.6 occurring employee's act bestavailable destroyed views. Recognizing inadequate, obtained. Thus paralyzed surrounding diverse opinions." H.R.Rep.No. 91-1291, 848. "silent killers" felt especially 37622 502 172 conferred absolute. limitations. trivial employees.7 "feasible." embodying unrealistic.8 affirmative 173 applicable base "upon appropriate." employee" 174 uphold whole." 655(f). turn. 175 extraordinarily arrogant unfair. presumes relating See, e. g., 656-657, 64. remind appointed technically agency.9 unfair characterization practically resemblance suggestion, blindly Draconian "policy." 624-625, 635-636. had, observed dispute. Instead, gathered volumes exhibits evenhanded recorded evaluated, seriously, respondents' judgment). 176 extensive, encompassing days witnesses epidemiologists, toxicologists, physicians, economists, force. Witnesses exhaustive questioning interested groups organizations. 177 hearings. More important, inference lower, prolonged typical settings. 178 unwarranted threat necessitated argued, gradually companies 179 1971 retained. Proponents linking uncertain, safe, prohibitive. 180 accompanied extensive summarizing evaluating results showed causes grave call 181 Evidence deleterious damage chromosomes cells. 5932. 5933.10 10-25 lower.11 curve, 5933-5934. "serious concern." 5933. 182 severe, pancytopenia noncancerous progress to, represented, preleukemic stage eventually evolve frank 5922.12 183 Considerable association ranged ibid.; 5923. data, constructed. considerable near lower.13 protection. "safety factor" discount studies.14 approach, apart France 1897, countries, Italy, Turkey, Japan, Switzerland, Soviet Union, States. undertaken (NIOSH) 1970's, Ohio. seriously understated risk.15 185 studies, suggested, severe methodological defects, frankly acknowledged.16 statistically Ibid.17 5928. 186 Areas relevance decision. latency 5930. past, distant elapsed. compounded conducting suitable study. recently, unavailable future. 187 differences susceptibility Among group possibly size "predisposing vulnerable 5930, 5946. insensitive, 5946, facilitate diagnosis treatment. 188 demonstrated. From scientists, 5932.18 plotted, 5946,19 decline Ibid.20 "wait answers" 189 responded 5947.21 190 Costs play determination. technologically. tests. fall stable production. 5934. readily absorb consumers. None 157,000 facilities 629,000 5935, expenditures, "well capability 5941. survey private contractor, investment million.22 attacked conclusions cost, here. 191 hearings, showing, Without decisionmaking defective. witness attempted curve. Restricting minor regulation's estimate, concluded, reconcile Ibid.23 extrapolating levels.24 5940, lives. determination.25 "on knowledge." 193 precisely. gave "careful consideration" admittedly "necessary" promote 194 likelihood "may" appreciable, determine. 195 represents traditional "arbitrary capricious" informal rulemaking. arbitrary capricious contemplates searching "inquiry facts" "whether factors judgment." Citizens Preserve Overton Park Volpe, 401 402, 416, 814, 824, (1971). Careful performance comparatively rigorous emphasized, deferential. Richardson Perales, 402 389, 401, 1420, 1427, 842 (1971); Consolo Maritime 383 607, 618-621, 1018, 1025-27, (1966). entitled presumption validity, decisional conformance measure respect. 621, 1027. 196 insensitive difficult. technical complexity. immerse matters unaccustomed experience. resolution. Often finger points, conclude." (CA2) (Clark, J.), 482 (1975). Causal connections theoretical extrapolations uncertain. involves empirically verifiable facts. Factual way; tolerable 197 sort normally applied. unreviewable; scrutinized mindful nature role. Vermont Yankee Nuclear NRDC, 435 519, 1197, 460 recognize ill-equipped own. 198 quantification. 199 full resulting indeterminate Studies revealed below. hazardous. "well-reasoned 'substantial evidence' first-hand unavailable." FPC 404 453, 464-465, 637, 644, (1972). purports quantity unavailable.26 Where, here, deficiency relates existence, 200 charitably described obscure. conditions" "more not" plausibly clause. refuted language, structure, foreclosed construction. short, fabrication bearing 201 outset, observe clauses routinely inserted legislation, uniformly provisos relation FCC citizens Broadcasting, 436 775, 796-797, 2096, 2112-13, 697 (1978); Mourning Family Publications Service, Inc., 411 356, 369, 1652, 1660, 318 (1973); Thorpe Housing Authority City Durham, 393 268, 280-281, 518, 525-26, 474 (1969). today—interpreted clause supersedes embodied focused reflects understanding reflected statute; court's inevitably subjective perceived goals. 202 clause, convince 642. embarrassing contradicted utterly superfluous health." generally—plainly opposite intended. odd canon insert definitional overcomes provision. elementary principles Texaco 417 380, 394-395, 2315, 2324-25, Clark Uebersee Finanz-Korp., 332 480, 488-489, 174, 177-78, (1947). proves "significant,"27 chose 203 attention, 8, embody restricted times. debating universe. 646-649. mentioned omission incomprehensible portions relies, ibid., "threshold finding" derived. consisted criticisms toward criticisms, turn, amendments suffer" explicit constraint, word "impairment" adjective "material." disingenuous isolated statements expressing "threshold" reading along.28 205 structural unconvincing. "grave danger" 640, 45, materials," 643, informative. priority-setting 643-644, meet 206 canons inconvenient. "informed awareness deference supportable Act." 11, 890, honestly "unreasoned" "unsupportable"? liberally construed purpose." 13, 891. disregard credence voiced criticism honored 207 usurpation exercised belongs representatives. invention. understood reflecting personal 208 obviously discerning conjecture "It speculate, act, stance events anticipated." 185, 2297. pretend erects today preferable created delegates: fraught dependent identification tenor one-sided, authorize 209 albeit unquantifiable presented, Discounting uncertainties, the[ ] benzene," "these 210 used. dangerous. scrutiny available, indefinite illnesses. unsurprising, now. 211 consequences. realistically "quantify" "significant," shows inaction diseases; disable wide 212 encouraging far.29 My Brother concludes "when methods." 666. 63. "policy," assumptions, addressed displace conception "significance," guidance. 213 disastrous; differs principally assessment objectionable, reasons. construe. "that served "knowledge" understood, arbitrary. paralyze deceive speculative realistic 806 willing 214 Though passed reversal. continue protecting progressed objectionable final, inertia beneficiaries allocating return arena win victory won 1970. 215 unsupportable, offer 216 pragmatic speaks "so possible," 651(b), impairment" feasible."30 contend achievability. precision 217 expense, foreclose achievement, outweigh Webster's Third New International Dictionary 831 (1976). internally irreconcilable Respondents' hortatory. inadvertent legislation.31 sole achievable. harming preclude where, posed.32 218 contemplate action.33 Taking future, directly counter Act.34 219 broadly fulfill "research, experiments," contend, "views arguments." 52. composed exhibits. Most demonstrations representing data." careful His grounded fact. gaps 220 unavailable. one, make.35 221 recent increasing severity predicted agencies. Their enviable Frequently averted. Risks available—a fact.36 222 delegations, exceed confidence responsibility. nowhere antithetical appropriately resolved re-examination guise action." 558, 1219 original). Surely true proceed nuclear ibid. 223 institutional role, stand likelihood, reaction unduly harsh "does enact Herbert Spencer's Social Statics," Lochner York, 75, 937 (1905) (Holmes, scrutinize strike confident itself, abandoned, representative again allowed accorded worker. sentences "subsection" refers sets procedures standards), 694, position, 39; Currie, Am.Bar Found. Research 1107, 1137, 151, 58; Berger Riskin, Technological Feasibility Toxic Substances Ecology L.Q. 285, Department enforcing "Secretary," "OSHA" "Agency" fit definition, enact." 502. "Although U.S.C.A. attaining materials. 'the evidence,' 'research, appropriate,' field,' 'experience laws.' materials, 'reasonably employment.' 652(8)." discernable highlighted 1971. assertion inferences drawn projections high-level limiting Aqua Slide costs." 503-504. heightened Dept. Technology Assessment Study Regulation Benzene, D-7 (May 1977) Statement), 5B, D-7. infra, 628. states described. 5935 arrived consultant, Arthur Little, 191,000 3-5, 3-5. 1,440 worked plants, 98,000 refineries, 24,000 coke ovens, 4,000 oil 2,760 industry, 52,345 terminals, 23,471 drivers loaded 74,000 production, 17,000 pipeline work, tank-car facilities, tank-truck 480 barges, 11,400 tire-manufacturing 13,050 5936-5938 Little 25,000 add 347,246 282,000 overall 629,000. "other industries" explanation; manufacture adhesives, paint ink solvents. 5939. aggregate report. 6(a) 655(a), "Without chapter Title subsections shall, soon practicable date ending date, improved designated conflict greatest ANSI Conference Hygienists. 5919 Delore Borgomano, Leucemie aigue au cours l'intoxication benzenique. Sur l'origine toxique certaines leucemies aigues leurs relations avec les anemies graves, Journal Medecine Lyon 227 (1928). translation document 2-60. Hunter, Chronic (Benzol). II. Clinical Effects, J.Ind.Hyg. Toxicol. 331 (1939), 2-74, "leucemia" Dr. Muzaffer Aksoy, Turkish physician shoemakers. Aksoy's percentages constantly (between poorly ventilated unhygienic Acute Leukemia Due Am.J. Medicine (1972), 2-29; (Benzol): Toxicity Effects Hematopoietic System, Istanbul Faculty Monograph Series 2-55; Erdem, DinCol, Shoe-Workers Exposed Chronically Blood 837 (1974), 2-53 (reporting shoeworkers 1967 1973; expected). Enrico Vigliani Italian shoemakers glues rotogravure inks 60% Saita, Leukemia, 271 Eng.J. 872-876 (1964), 2-27; Forni Vigliani, Leukemogenesis Man, Ser.Haemat. 2-50. 669(a)(3) Health, Education, (HEW) (now Human Services) develop "criteria" "exposure HEW's 671. HEW, Criteria Recommended Standard—Occupational 74-75 (Pub.No. 74-137, 1974), 2-3. letter Office Division, risks, noted, 32A, 32B. Aksoy reporting eight 1973. article, solvent 1974. Types Poisoning, Acta Haematologica 2-30. Italy inks. Forni, Environmental Res. 2-15; Associated Exposure, Annals N. Y. Acad. Sciences 2-49. latter 100% pure 200-500 peaks 1500 McMichael's ninefold contracting heavily 1940's 1950's solvent. McMichael, Spirtas, Kupper, Gamble, Solvent Rubber Workers: Epidemiologic Study, Occup.Med. 234, 238 2-37. Andjelkovic, Taulbee, Symons, Mortality Experience Cohort Workers, 1964-1973, 387 2-54 (also mortality workers). 655(c) "(1) provide, title 5, publication Register (A) physically (B) danger. "(2) superseded accordance prescribed paragraph subsection. "(3) Upon commence proceeding serve months subsection." vinyl chloride. discovered detectable unsophisticated instruments. (in atmosphere. 1142-1143. NIOSH's recommendation economic, 1156. Seven fatalities 748 surveyed. underestimated occurred. 747. 1.4. 2-51, 6. authors' 1946 Ohio ventilation equipment installed, plant brought limits, instances 3. admitted, 814-815. begun 1946. Five Akron plant, 310 2537-2538. excursions 1,000 84A, A, 61-62. Surveys 3432-3437, 1970's. Industry high, past. Post-Hearing H-059 23-37, 217-33, 23-37. witnesses, determined; agree, 10-15 inferred study: "Comments exceeding [10-15 ppm], times individual speculative. derive level." 5927 labeling adequate, environmental replace constituted 1%. became 126-127: "Is the—why acute toxicity, leukemia? "MR. WRENN: you referring says, leukemogenicity OSHA. ETS [emergency standard." Wrenn testified: five allowable fifteen hour shift, prohibits exist, 29-30. also: WARREN: temporary, permanent, relies heavily, quoting your any—for population, leukemogen correct? slightly differently oral summary accordingly." 48-49. prefer couple occasions morning, policy." 50. answer suffice "safe level," distinction, speculation elaborate theories make, would, reluctant may, substance." 51-52. put succinctly, really moot." 1007. June 27, 27962. infra. storage distribution (an retained text, 25, infra), coverage limit. relationship" idea Fed.Reg.5942 reconsidered reinstated 0.5%, exemption predicated (or, zero). unlikely rise sophisticated analytical presence 1030-1032, 1133-1134. installing hoods) insufficient, themselves, well. 5952 rarely (because uncomfortable, fitted, etc.) measures. (0.1% years), handling sealed containers systems, except cautionary notices training. Prior action-level concept, $4 billion. 508-509. Little's Statement 4-21; 4-21. Still, studying general. 5943 projected confirmed successful bringing drastically reduced. 5,000 1,250 laboratories, plants. 16,216 (5,000 1,104 7,300 2,500 laboratories) receive examinations. adhesives substituted ban. Part IV, safety. invalidated SEC Chenery 80, 95, 454, 462, 626 ("[A]n sustained"); 397, 2326, 141; FTC Sperry Hutchinson 405 233, 249, 898, 907, 170. abnormalities death. "A [or disease] Generally, carries risk." 24. insufficiency complete animal extrapolate estimates exposures. automatic prudent "sufficiently 5925 ppm," citing similarly chromosome damage. establishes totality recognizes, reports vary quality, investigations deficiencies. recognizing strengths weaknesses leukemia." 5931. findings, crude measure." noting defective, negative accuracy." 5931-5932. light, unreliable indicators formulate accepted—indeed cancer—the "select "blindly 'policy' heard respect, 623-625, namely, 41, compelled view. gone effect, duplication foreclosing 54154-54155 "As induction involve carcinogenicity qualitatively, attended population. workers." 5932 "one hit" react tube DNA mutation. body, mutated replicate cancerous tumor. Proposed Rule Identification, Classification Posing Potential Carcinogenic Risk, 54148, 54165-54167 defense mechanisms absorbing molecule. detoxified site, repaired, body's immunological defenses cancer. 2836. improbability person's hit, testifying sides she 1179-1181. greatly threshold. suffice. 2492, 2830. "There such. inability explanation, bloodforming organs. spite dose knowledge.' highly appreciable. 'threshold' 'safe' exist; conversely, established." 5940. conclusions—that meaningless. standards—national these—national 6(b)(5)—are "definitions," drain content. defining definitions ignored, agents. expect display perfect craftsmanship, unrealistic whatsoever separate describing 655(c), quoted bypass findings: compared standard—(A) significant—as opposed "grave"—risk, appropriate"—as "necessary." anomalous carte blanche concede jeopardized. parallels 7, Just 3(9), 3(8). phrases implying degrees superfluous. promulgated. unlike harmful. requisite meets "First, 655(g) priorities first. costs, risks." Reply 13. review. 23. tell first, 655(b)(8), "Whenever publish 54148 (1977), hypothetical. proposal, quantum proof—either frequently, studies—that immediately, lines, objecting presenting 54154-54155; CFR, 1990 list 2,415 Suspected Carcinogens: Subfile Registry (HEW Pub. 77-149, 1976). tentatively 269 Press Release, USDL 78-625 (July 1978). criticizing observations: attempt, does, Absolute impossibility confusion unattainable goals." 480. "But ask, thinking let fellow streetcar conductor bus How world, pollution streets automobile accidents day trolley car, life? bill; committee bill." 37337, 423. opponent exaggerated allay Dominick's placement "feasibly" "ban expectancy," "adequately" 366-367. cure relocating drafted, substances. indicates, substances" agents" draft inadvertent. drafted suggests, areas. problems obvious, former, 24-26. unimportance injuries (see "fly" 647), remote major injuries, 52, union (rather average) 1250, 1257. 3375-3376. occurs naturally (Tr. 749-750; 759-760). Naturally concentrations, appears, 0.02 (Ex. 117, 1). Additionally, exempted intermittent accommodate removes surveillance. overexposure afforded added.) 5942 inconsistencies defer interpretation. Peach Growers Assn., U. 489 120, 130, (CA5 hearing. necessitating Accord, Dry Color Mfrs. 486 98, (CA3 1973) man). carefully enforcement creating board handle appeals noncompliance 659-661. (although fewer) 638. Defense Fund, EPA, 43, 49, 57-63, 548 998, 1004, 1012-1018 431 925, 2199, 239, pesticide suspend registration Insecticide, Fungicide, Rodenticide deliberately Procedure products. 706, states: "[W]hen facts." agree. "deceive public" basically erroneous premise manner. formulating 653-655, curves coke-oven emissions 21,000 46742, 46750 Iron Steel Inst. 577 825 1978), 909, 3054, 1139. 14,000 depending used, staff CWPS's weigh experiments chloride developed tumors liver, lung, months. 35890, 35891 (1974). mice rats 0.1 80% doses. 3756, 3757, Synthetic Organic Assn. Brennan, 503 1155 420 973, 1396, 506 385 423 830, 50, 48. induce experimental fair studies. helpful GAF 20, 561 913 fibers, general, 30, disposition objections considerations, govern imposition information-gathering mind 6(b)(7), furnished exposure." 147. disappear ceased. 5946 Again, Yet, essentially backstop. observation 1570 (1935). 672-687 (REHNQUIST, direction, agency" decisionmaker concerned. formal 5282 (1980) (to codified 1990). alone. valid "capable achievement"; "infeasible" precipitate "massive dislocation" Federation 530 109, 1975). ascertain 621. "bearable" expected. company, pay OSHA-ordered unproductive competitive jobs. repeat Many harms persuade sponsor "Our good-faith sa[f]e undue interference." 37342 "balance" preliminary follows: "What atmosphere affected. Unfortunately, [sic History, objection "unrealistic" forerunner imply 710-711 deleted 647, sections practical. assigned task, clear. responsibility, title, industrialized society increasingly vigorous competition. societal conflicting maintaining economy. depletion amount, unregulated. reviews "careful[ly] identifi[ed] [it] chooses another" effectuating law. 339-340, 475-476 situations. Locke, Tradition Freedom, 244 (M. Mayer 1957). treatise, hands; people, 1812, terminate trade embargo Britain nations ceased violating neutral commerce States" Branch. Brig Aurora Cranch 382, 383, 386, 378. application, Addendum 5b-6b. proposition, H.R.Rep. strongly difference paraphrased unamended 367 "possible" perception Sections 211(c)(2)(A) Clean Air Dec. 31, 1698, Protection regulate, control, automotive fuel additives "consideration achieving emission .." 7545(c)(2)(A) (1976 ed., Supp.II) 131-134 (1980); Freedman, Crisis Legitimacy, Process 78-94 T. Lowi, End Liberalism: Ideology, Policy, 129-146, 297-299 (1969); Wright, Beyond Discretionary Justice, Yale L.J. 575, 582-587 (1972); Waist-Deep Regulation, Washington Post, Nov. 3, 1979, A10, col. Douglas, Go East, Young Man K. Davis, Justice: Preliminary Inquiry 49-51 Stewart, Reformation Law, Harv.L.Rev. 1669, 1693-1697 Jaffe, Illusion Ideal Administration, 1183, 1190, (1973). ruling extant "national standards" 6(a), "emergency 6(c). iii (Foreword Williams) iii. 37326 415 Williams); 849; 38392-38393 1049 (Rep. Karth). 38375 1003 Daniels). 37623, Dominick); H.R.No. 858. 34, provided: feared, "could itself." (Statement Amendment bill—unfortunately, wording drafting—was modified, looking harm." 37622; Park, 823, (1971), "searching careful" factors. "hard look," Kleppe Sierra Club, 427 390, 410, 2718, 2730, 576 (1976) (citation omitted), weighing room akin Carolene Products 304 152, 778, 1234 (1938). Fund Ruckelshaus, 74, 439 584 basis, nearly novo behalf institutions inappropriate expertise. 258-259, 1039. 148, 200-201, 258. 145, 173-174, 352, 1227, 3206; 43B, 166. 149, 360-361, 997, 1023, 2543, 2689, 3203; 1218, 2692, 2847. 308, 314, 768, 769-770, 874, 2445. extensively debated sometimes linked repeating author's admissions, time; followup data; diagnoses unnoticed; made; histories incomplete. 1023-1024, 1227; 22A 154. world's leading experts, typical: "[E]ven 204. 150, 262, 328, 351-352, 363-364, 745-746, 1057, 1210, 2420; 2.8-272, 360, 414-415, 416-417, 760-761, 781-782, 1055-1056; 2; 2-4, 11. 405, 1372, 2846, 2842-2843. 148-149 ("the zero") (testimony Aksoy). 1251 3506 seq. 629, misleading. incurred unascertainable future; employed. projection, amalgamation questionable. lousy data," "slightly guess," 2772, real basis," 2719, dependent. severely tested 2795 example: previous tests lifetime exposure; assumption, duration low. around linear assumption. (another steeply steep increased. Twenty-five alive Six alive; understatement unsupportable. correlating Herman Kraybill Cancer "[W]e done, recall, ago. [T]o [the of] presupposes toxicity mean chloride, that. didn't situation, up. out." 760-761. uninformative. 415, 1055-1056. quantified. suggestion examining systematic Efforts help informed Dunlop Bachowski, 560, 571-574, 1851, 1859-61, 377 54354, 54427-54431 (1978) (lead); 27350, 27378-27379 (cotton dust). expressly—and reasonably—found compare 701a (Flood Control 1936); 7545(c)(2)(B) (Clean Act); 1314(b)(4)(B) Water Act). requirements: 1347(b) (Outer Shelf Lands 6295(a)(2)(D) (Energy Conservation 719-720. risk," 'N' Dive Consumer Product 569 1978) (construing 2058(c)(2)(A) (Consumer Act)); Forester 559 774 (1977) 1261(s) (Child Toy Act)). ascribes "standards 45. content, describes fairminded supersede "gap," comprehended turns head. singled simultaneously lenient ("reasonably necessary") applicable, somehow illogical circular. 54, bill's "entirely inadvertent." 'significant' "is 655, 656. "quantification case." deferential 670-671, 8. narrow. propositions Act: evidence"; merits scrutiny. propositions. POWELL's Finding obscurity invokes doctrine, last 1935. eloquently puzzled administrators. definiteness meaning, contexts statutes. decisions" 687 646, nonquantifiable wrong. raise Poultry. rationally antipathy meeting are, business. Whether we, individuals, motivated humanity economics, profits unhealthy worksite." 41766 1150-1151 Eagleton). Yarborough "We talking people's lives, indifference accountants. men women factories home day's bodies intact. wo[r]k deadly accumulated year's seniority congestion poison bodies, retirement age." 37625; 510. possibility, counsel argument, posing negligible derives "material impairment," materiality added qualify expectancy." insect bites. obstacle employee. disabled nonetheless pool. experiment witness. test, field." agency, challenge skin, Both absorption. "available" incorrect holding. Lowrance, Acceptable Risk: Determination (1976); Paradoxes Liberty, Integrity Fraternity: Collective Nature Quality Action, Environ.L. 463, 469-472

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