Document: 430 U.S. 482 97 S.Ct. 1272 51 L.Ed.2d 498 Claudio CASTANEDA, Sheriff, Petitioner,v.Rodrigo PARTIDA. No. 75-1552. Argued Nov. 9, 1976. Decided March 23, 1977. Syllabus Under Texas' 'key man' system for selecting grand juries, jury commissioners are appointed by a state district judge to select prospective jurors from different portions of the county, after which proceeds test their qualifications. A juror, in addition being citizen State and county he is serve qualified voter must be 'of sound mind good moral character,' literate, have no prior felony conviction, under pending indictment or other accusation. After respondent, Mexican-American, had been convicted crime Texas District Court exhausted his remedies on claim discrimination selection that indicted him, filed habeas corpus petition Federal Court, alleging denial due process equal protection Fourteenth Amendment, because gross underrepresentation Mexican-Americans juries. On basis evidence before it, concluded respondent made out weak prima facie case invidious discrimination, and, balance, court's doubts about reliability population statistics offered census records, coupled with its opinion constituted 'governing majority' caused it further conclude was rebutted State, dismissed. The Appeals reversed, holding failed rebut respondent's case. Held: Based all facts bear issue, such as statistical disparties (the 79% but, over an 11-year period, only 39% those summoned service were Mexican-American), method selection, any relevant testimony manner implemented, proof sufficient demonstrate intentional presumption competent evidence. Pp. 492-501. (a) None record Judge who selected commissioners, dealing principally instructions given them, did not call themselves testify. Without determined qualifications statutory time testing qualifications, inference explaining disparity reference literacy, mind, character, criminal can drawn whole. 497-499. (b) Nor Court's theory dispel discrimination. Because many facets human motivation, would unwise presume matter law beings one definable group will discriminate against members group. Furthermore, relevance governing majority elected officials questionable, even if has general applicability cases this kind, inadequate permit approach. 499-500. 524 F.2d 481, affirmed. Thomas Parker Beery, McAllen, Tex., petitioner. David G. Hall, San Juan, respondent. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered Court. 1 sole issue presented whether Texas, person petitioner, Sheriff Hidalgo County, successfully prisoner's showing process. In brief, claiming effective rebuttal, asserts: 2 'This list (of respondent) indicates 50 percent names appearing thereon Spanish. 3 5 returned indictment, 7 petit jurors, presiding at trial, served notice appear Spanish surnames.' Brief Petitioner 6. * This occasions considered workings selection. See Hernandez v. 347 475, 74 667, 98 L.Ed. 866 (1954); Cassell 339 282, 70 629, 94 839 (1950); Akins 325 398, 65 1276, 89 1692 (1945); Hill 316 400, 62 1159, 86 1559 (1942); Smith 311 128, 61 164, 85 84 (1940). employs system, relies community large.1 procedure begins judge's appointment three five persons commissioners. Tex.Code Crim.Proc., Art. 19.01 (1966).2 then 'shall less than 15 nor more 20 citizens county' compose actual drawn. 19.06 (Supp.1976-1977).3 When least 12 court pursuant summons, 'test qualifications.' 19.21. set 19.08: juror 'or legal accusation theft felony.' Interrogation oath specified juror's 19.22. precise questions asked 19.23, which, most part, tracks language 19.08. finds meet they impaneled jury. 19.26. II 4 Respondent, Rodrigo Partida, 1972 92d County burglary private residence night intent rape. border counties southern Texas. trial jury, sentenced eight years custody Department Corrections. He first raised motion new Court.4 support motion, testified existence area introduced 1970 records. figures show 1970, 181,535. United States Bureau Census, Census Population, Characteristics vol. 1, pt. 45, § Table 119, p. 914. Persons surname totaled 143,611. Ibid., id., 129, 1092.5 assumption Mexican-Americans, these 79.1% county's Mexican-American.6 Respondent's data compiled records 1962 showed average percentage Spanish-surnamed 39%.7 1/2-year period during charge, 45.5%. selected, 50% surnamed. last introduced, again census, illustrated number ways tend underprivileged, including poverty-level incomes, desirable jobs, substandard housing, lower levels education.8 either attacking allegations demonstrating unreliable way. nevertheless, denied trial. 6 appeal, Criminal affirmed conviction. Partida 506 S.W.2d 209 (1974). Reaching merits held make view, should shown how females juries married men Anglo-American surnames, excused reasons age health, reasons, listed met citizenship, lack Id., 210-211. Quite beyond uncertainties statistics, found impossible believe could directed light elective positions substantial representation recent juries.9 211. essence, refused own kind. exhausting remedies, protection, quaranteed under-representation At hearing transcript petitioner taken. reviewed State's stated tried appoint greater ethnic groups. instructed exemptions provided law. silent, however, regard potential problem identifiable admitted results produced lists 'representative balance community.'10 App. 84. themselves, ones position explain apparent provide information operation process, never called. 8 'bare case' 'a long continued disproportion composition County.' 384 F.Supp. 79, 90 (S.D.Tex.1974) (emphasis original). examination despite justifying inquiry, weak. believed reflect true situation accurately, changes impression demographic characteristics Mexican-American community. hand, recognized key-man highly subjective, 'archaic inefficient,' 91, factor arguing tolerance differences. rebutted. distinguished preceding involving similar disparities. findings, dismissed petition.11 9 Fifth Circuit reversed. 481 (1975). It agreed succeeded making found, showing. contributed little absence specific disparity. abdication responsibility introduce controverting evidence, entitled prevail. 10 We granted certiorari consider itself not, otherwise burden proof. 426 934, 96 2645, 49 385 (1976). III 11 A. 'it laws try defendant particular race color issued . have, solely color, excluded ..'12 U.S., 477, S.Ct., 670. Alexander Louisiana, 405 625, 628, 92 1221, 1224, 31 536 (1972); Carter Jury Comm'n, 396 320, 330, 518, 523, 24 549 (1970). also Peters Kiff, 407 493, 497, 2163, 2165, 33 83 (1972) (plurality opinion); 507, 2170 (dissenting opinion). While earlier involved absolute exclusion group, later established principle constitutes constitutional violation well, purposeful Turner Fouche, 346, 532, 567 (1970); supra; Whitus Georgia, 545, 552, 87 643, 647, 17 599 (1967); Swain Alabama, 380 202, 824, 13 759 (1965); (1950). Recent fact official act unconstitutional racially disproportionate impact. Washington Davis, 229, 239, 2040, 2047, 48 597 (1976); see Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 252, 264-265, 555, 563, 450 (1977). Nevertheless, Heights, '(s)ometimes clear pattern, unexplainable grounds race, emerges effect action when legislation appears neutral face.' 266, 564. application principles considered: 'It racial systematic Negroes 'unequal discrimination.' discriminatory purpose may proved well combined failure informed eligible Negro community, non-neutral procedures .. With out, 'the shifts permissible criteria monochromatic result.' (v. U.S.,) 632, 1221.' 241, 2048. supra, 266 n. 13, 14 Thus, order occurred context employed resulted belongs. step establish recognizable, distinct class, singled treatment laws, written applied. 478-479, 670-671. Next, degree proved, comparing proportion total called significant time. 480, 671. Norris 294 587, 55 579, 79 1074 (1935). proof, sometimes 'rule exclusion,' available proving delineated class.13 Finally, noted above, susceptible abuse supports 2048; 630, 1225. Once purpose, B. case, longer open dispute clearly class. See, e. g., supra. Cf. White Regester, 412 755, 767, 93 2332, 2340, 37 314 (1973). illustrate disadvantages subject. Additionally, respect Mexican-Americans; surnames just easily questionnaires notations card colors Avery 345 559, 73 891, 1244 (1953).14 16 but that, Mexican-American.15 difference 40% (1970) (60% population, 37% lists). Since why reliable, we take base comparison.16 mathematical disparities accepted adequate within range here. For example, (1967), tax digest amounted 27.1% taxpayers, 9.1% venire. Sims 389 404, 88 19 634 (1967) (24.4% lists, 4.7% lists); Jones 24, 4, 25 (19.7% 5% list). agree enough selection.17 Supporting conclusion subjective. facial constitutionality course, applied.18 479, noted, readily identifiable. 18 therefore shifted Inexplicably, practically dealt them. 207, 209, 828, 829, illustrates usefulness testimony, sets detail followed commissioners.19 particularly revealing rebuttal record: 'How state, so-called 'wet-backs' south side Rio Grande; migrant workers residents County; illiterate read write; many. felony; none record.' S.W.2d, 211 added). fact, small part reported native born. 6, some draw 8, These disputed present problems amenable resolution appellate court. emphasize, saying here explained another case; simply do so 361, 540. 21 C. our presently record, filled evidentiary gap. circumstances Indeed, dissent POWELL does suggest appropriate. Post, 514-516, 516 7. complex one, widely differing views held, such, somewhat precipitate judicial view barren this.20 22 questionable. certain demonstrates nothing motivations methods lists. arguably Mexican-American. Knowing this, forced rely reasoning rejected kind find benefit simple behavioral presumption, way operated doing so. supply once leaves unchallenged 23 inadequacy Among deficiencies indication enjoyed status, relative power inherent offices uncertain political Even presumably greatest, discrepancy between substantial. developed fully satisfy rebuttal. IV Rather relying approach question faintly defined prefer look disparities, implemented. standard, two opportunities so, affirm Appeals' ordered. 26 MARSHALL, concurring. 27 I join BLACKMUN's sensitive feel compelled write separately, express my profound disagreement expressed dissent. 28 As Brother observes, post, 507-508, there categories ultimate 'demonstrated preponderance 'deliberately systematically den(ied) (respondent's class) right participate administration justice," 517, quoting 628-629, (1972). First, That reveals years, grossly underrepresented County. demonstrates, ante, 496-497, 17, sizable chance. then, very discriminated choice jurors. 29 Second, concerning constructed panels ample opportunity since entirely discretionary identified. 35 plan. 130, 165, (1940); 1161, 289, 671, (1954). Thus itself, buttresses suggested statistics. 30 every am aware where both procedures, established, required ostensibly nonneutral results. line decision almost century ago Neal Delaware, 103 370, (1881), extends supra.1 Yet us insufficient though explanation marked POWELL's lies third category presented: dominance control County,' 507-508. Like assume without indeed minority groups 'inclination assure fairness' 516. Although concedes possibility violate 'inclination,' 514-515, apparently regards theoretical real. reject absent alternative disparate emphatically disagree. 32 place, assumptions nature, plausible sound, fly face great deal social science research. Social scientists frequently respond prejudice attempting disassociate point adopting majority's negative attitudes towards minority.2 Such behavior occurs frequency among achieved measure economic success thereby gained acceptability dominant group.3 But valid, still them foundation ruling. seems me especially reviewing claims solemn avoid basing decisions broad generalizations If history taught anything, danger stereotypes. treat acted. reliable answer question, said times,4 produce operated. affirming Appeals. 34 Chief BURGER, whom REHNQUIST join, dissenting. dissent, identify flaw opinion. What characterizes 'wash.' suggest, common sense demands, figures, starting point. 1225, (1972), looked 'proportion blacks ..' (Emphasis supplied.) 36 relating undermines 'disparity' existed instance. Particularly where, here, numbers class actually panels, rightly rests upon challenger meaningful all, attaching force exactly one-half now challenged allegedly Mexican-Americans. previously length sort challenging system. reason doubt large numbers. challenger's venire included member him none. best token inclusion us, contrast, involves neither tokenism exclusion; rather, used resulting situation, incumbent adduce To obligated disproportionately individuals service. 38 Respondent whatever respect. otherwise. contrast approach, accepts analysis, Bureau's adults 72%, implies, outset, therefore, manifestly overinclusive. 39 beginning. basic service.1 relied 22.9% schooling all. Ante, 488-489, 8. requirement literacy English language, approximately 20% adult-age likely disqualified ground alone. 40 reliance overbroad defect. bore surnames. Other same predominantly September 1971 list, 70% January Term, 55% 1972, what truly representative mechanical use County's practices indefensible. know, cannot establishing complained 1970. Accordingly, totally inaccurate years;2 alleged increased improperly. 41 Therefore, disagree implicit approval impact 42 STEWART, 43 findings 'clearly erroneous.' Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 52(a); Gypsum Co., 333 364, 394-395, 68 525, 541-542, 746.* Given Upon reverse judgment add agreement dissenting opinions THE CHIEF JUSTICE POWELL. 44 POWELL, 45 falls into categories: federal proceedings shows 80% proportionately represented lists; second, outlining third, judicially noticed 46 today considers dispositive proportional wholly random. occur chance agreeing unique finding today's stemmed causes Mexican-Americans.1 47 holds Equal Protection Clause merely 'resulted belongs.' 494. By holding, blurs traditional distinctions misapplies analysis mandated decisions. Amendment apply prosecution. Hurtado California, 110 516, 111, 232 (1884). complaint forgoes institution instead through prosecutorial information, do. Gerstein Pugh, 420 103, 116-119, 95 854, 864-865, 54 chooses proceed constraints imposed Amendment. beginning Strauder West Virginia, 100 303, 664 (1880), if, result 335-337, 339, 526-527, 529, 287, 631, 403-404, 1279, (1945). points applicable rather defendant's see, reflects fair cross-section community.2 'representative' derives Amendment's explicit Sixth Taylor 419 522, 692, 690 extent Amendments applicable, need 'systematically exclude(s) distinctive fail(s) reasonably thereof.' 538, 702. challenge applies, Clause. Proof explicitly (1976), said: 'Our Term 'Disproportionate irrelevant, touchstone 242, 2049. .' 563. 52 identified following standards resolving issues purpose: 53 'Determining motivating demands inquiry circumstantial direct available. 'bears heavily another,' supra 2049 important Sometimes face. Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 220 (1886); Guinn States, 238 347, 926, 59 1340 (1915); Lane Wilson, 307 268, 872, 1281 (1939); Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 81 125, (1960). relatively easy. rare. Absent pattern stark Wo, alone determinative, evidence.' (footnotes omitted). essentially jury.3 stated: announced demonstration 'systematic' has, emphasized factual necessary each takes account possible explanatory factors. progressive decimation striking rest demonstrated improbability alone, neutral. 56 Alexander, 21% Negro; commission consisted 'all white,' white judge; persons, (5%); Negro. 627, 1223, 1224. array 'striking.' isolation, constitute Only determining 'provided easy discrimination' satisfied shift State. 1225.4 57 Considered together, 'such (other) available.' B 58 critical dispute: presided Mexican-American; foreman, Mexican-American,5 verdict guilt year indicted, 52.5% addition, judges. influence surprising Garza, able jurist unique. Every reaching majority, electorate officials.6 ignored opinion, body vested authority 484-485, advance circumstances, rational inferences democratic society render improbable Garza observed: 'If people charge choose want, unlikely themselves.' 90. 60 favor of, against, share attributes premise underlies recognizing personal Discriminatory viewed unfairly excluding inclined defendant. 309, 664. Were perceived likelihood defendants suppose legitimate race. complain. panel, high threshold brand officers intent: 'An allegation panel challenges essential element proper fairness arm government charged offenses. lightly courts disregard standard justice.' 400-401, 1278. 63 respect, say 'lightly' disregarded sworn duty inclination Mexican-Americans.7 C 64 matters noticeable defeating outset rebutting significance limited shifting going forward presenting calling attention subject deliberate Here, while substantially proportionate population. responded facts, presence entered notice. together sufficed production assuming give rise burden. close intentionally F.Supp., least, erroneous.8 66 labels 'inexplicable' judge. 498. Perhaps fairly faulted did. until lawyers, familiar cases, thought prevailing 67 There unreality Justices decide levers remote manipulating 'against judges scene, today, rejecting took erred grievously. reinstate principal mode random U.S.C. 1864. generally Sperlich & Jaspovice, Grand Juries, Jurors Constitution, Hastings Const.L.Q. 63, During covered statute amended omit freeholders county. Tex.Gen.Laws, c. 131, 1. change bearing us. Prior 1965, 'sixteen men.' legislature substitute words 'twenty persons' 1965 722, 317. 1967, persons. 1967 515, jump, forth 7, infra. habeas, argued timely procedure, waived might have. merits, free Coleman 377 1152, 190 (1964); cf. Francis Henderson, 425 536, 542 5, 1708, 1711, 149 abandoned waiver certiorari. purposes, terms 'Spanish-surnamed' 'Mexican-American' synonyms designation 'Persons Language Surname.' include whose mother tongue families head household spouse tongue. surname, uses term, 8,000 Immigration Naturalization Service. reports. 2, oral argument, counsel illegal aliens inflate countyhs Tr. Oral Arg. 10-12. noncitizens makes practical difference. 119 breaks down 181,535 composed groups: parentage, foreign noncitizenship logically sustainable probable naturalized citizens. 22,845 'foreign born' category. becomes 158,690. Assuming foreign-born counted (an favors State), reduced 143,611 120,766. Using adjusted 76.1% figure 3%, thus negligibly, smaller throughout litigation. consistency, shall continue refer entire unreliable. organized follows: Year Av. Percentage surnamed per 37.5% 1963 5.75 35.9% 1964 4.75 29.7% 16.2 30.9% 1966 7.5 20.25 7.25 35.8% 1968 6.6 33% 1969 9.4 47% 10.5 Of 870 39%, table 17-18. regarding educational background variety accept suggestion. tested time, unbiased list. exercised means winnowing lacked ability write, done. effect, illiterate. difficult valid raw data, incomplete places definition 'literacy' undoubtedly event. discuss argument compounds difficulties. One gap younger pool. reports cover above. limitation eligibility qualification vote. 19.08 (Supp.1976-1977). apply, became vote 21. Tex.Elec.Code, 5.01 (1967). (In 1975, franchise over. 1975 682, 3.) prove favorable sufficiently useful, exists level 80,049 13,205 schooling. (Data McAllen-Pharr-Edinburg Standard Statistical Area. SMSA identical County.) 55,949 12,817 24,100 races groups, 388 Translated percentages, schooling, 1.6% others 43,132 23,712 represent 65% 66,844 35%. creates compared suggestion Justice, 504-506, allowance defeat venires Justice's concerns account. described infra, significant. assumes pool, detailed calculation 50. disparity, inappropriate tribunal, undertake below tested. rest, instead, taken compilation provides summoned. foreman Seven observed, typically reduction stage. court, 60% 55%, 43%. speculated cultural. 84-85. operating economic. higher socio-economic classes, tended peers. Consequently, low, concentrated end scale. unnecessary Thiel Southern Pacific 328 217, 984, 1181 (1946). Cases Arnold North Carolina, 376 773, 1032, 77 Eubanks 356 584, 78 970, 991 (1958); Reece 350 85, 76 167, (1955); Pierre 306 354, 757 Rogers 192 226, 257, 417 (1904); 177 442, 687, (1900); Bush Kentucky, 107 110, 354 (1883). idea behind rule complex. large, accident, contrary, class-related factors 564, (1977); 2048, 973; 165; dissenters argue subjectivity cuts remains, belongs dissenters' aspect theory, Part III-C infra; created subjective 1960 compile separate ascertain changed appreciably issue. remained constant. tenure well. shorter unwarranted. randomly sample modeled binomial distribution. Finkelstein, Application Decision Theory Discrimination Cases, 80 Harv.L.Rev. 338, 353-356 (1966). P. Hoel, Introduction Mathematical Statistics 58-61, 79-86 (4th ed. 1971); F. Mosteller, R. Rourke, Thomas, Probability Applications 130-146, 270-291 (2d 1970). expected 688. observed 339. drawing fluctuation predicted. point, model fall vicinity value. 270-290. predicted fluctuations value deviation, distribution square root product (here 870) times probability (0.791) non-Mexican-American (0.209). 213. deviation 12. samples, deviations, hypothesis suspect scientist. deviations. departure 10140. supervised similarly 174 calculated model, six. values Again, negligible, 1025. probably say, protestation commissioner considerations played enough. several occasions. E. 1226; 598, 583, L.Ed Neither discharged duties practicing benevolent traditionally disfavored minority, although immediately obvious enter 'one's kind.' (1935); Hale 303 613, 753, 82 1050 (1938); Patton Mississippi, 332 463, 184, (1947); (1945), panels; (1965), small, explained. Allport, Nature Prejudice 150-153 Rose, Negro's Morale 85-95 (1949); Simpson J. Yinger, Racial Cultural Minorities 192-195, 227, 295 1972); Bettelheim, Individual Mass Behavior Extreme Situations, Abnormal Psych. (1943); Brown Board Education, 483, 494, 11, 686, 691, 873 (1954) (noting self de jure segregation schools). Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie 213-216 (1957); 209; Kardiner L. Ovesey, Mark Oppression 313-316 (1962); Lewin, Self-Hatred Jews, Contemporary Jewish Record 219 (1941). 592, 581; 540; obviously rested patently overinclusive seek 486-487, Rather, Reynaldo referred 'rapidly changing' experiencing 'rapid growth.' erroneous' applies review proceeding. Wade Mayo, 334 672, 683-684, 1270, 1275-1276, 1647. strong cognizable Stone Powell, 428 465, 3037, 1067 'where full litigation Fourth claim, prisoner relief obtained search seizure trial.' 3052 Unlike Stone, complain conviction tainted violations ask excluded, moot determination cause itself. incremental extending correcting 'outweighed acknowledged costs vital Ibid. addressed briefed resolve nondiscriminatory will, mandate result. Nothing prevent seeking decisionmaking requiring lawyers law; segments areas unconstitutional. Davis sufficient, recognize lesser appropriate 'Because nature jury-selection task permitted extremes Gomillion.' illustration, cited 'insubstantial' foreclose corrective 359, 539. isolation. Georgia's peculiar appointing board education. circuit turn turn, layer control. students schools Negro, pupil having transferred elsewhere, education white, commission. suit instituted, 'Negroes inclusion.' 352, 536. pervasive continued, 338-339, 528, isolated insufficient, standing intent. 'opportunity 495, misplaced. repeatedly 'fair capable utilized accord, 'subjectivity' text, 515-516. Apart Turner, 3, sustained situations. Most involve minorities participation juries: (1955) (no years); Hermandez (1947) (1942) more); (1939) (1938) jurors); (1935) 'long number' (1904) (1900) (1883) (1881) (1880) jurors). remainder severe minority's inclusion: (Negroes constituting 24.4% taxpayers list); 19.7% venire); (1964) (one (1958) (1950) (limitation panel); (five 7-year period). inability sheriff, locate four original 83. law, concur presented. 20.19 mere dispositive. communities virtue historical significantly operates. contend seriously classic 'minority group' suffer 'relegated powerlessness.' Antonio School Dist. Rodriguez, 411 28, 1278, 1294, Here politically 'powerless'; majoritarian capability elect protect own. hold more, 504, stereotypes classes place reason, characterize 'adopt(ed) minority.' 503. type speculation lengths go buttress based representation. remotely resembles (1960), (1886). characterized 487 preoccupation loses sight standard. 'proportional representation' 528. 'to require deliberately deny (Mexican-Americans)

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