Document: 425 U.S. 25 96 S.Ct. 1281 47 L.Ed.2d 556 J. William MIDDENDORF, II, et al., Petitioners,v.Daniel Edward HENRY al. Daniel Petitioners, v. Individually and in his Capacity as Secretary of the Navy, Nos. 74-175, 74-5176. Argued Jan. 22, 1975. Decided March 24, 1976. Syllabus The Uniform Code Military Justice (UCMJ) provides four methods disposing cases involving servicemen's offenses: general, special, summary courts-martial, disciplinary punishment pursuant to Art. 15 UCMJ. General courts-martial special which may impose substantial penalties, resemble judicial proceedings, nearly always presided over by lawyer judges, with counsel for both sides. Article punishment, conducted personally accused's commanding officer, is an administrative method dealing most minor offenses. A court-martial, lying between informal procedure procedures general designed "to exercise justice promptly relatively offenses" proceeding a single commissioned acting judge, factfinder, prosecutor, defense (with jurisdiction only noncommissioned officers other enlisted personnel), who can maximum sentences: 30 days' confinement at hard labor or 45 without confinement; two months' restriction specified limits; reduction lowest pay grade; forfeiture two-thirds one month. If accused does not consent trial case will either be referred dismissed. Various members Marine Corps (hereinafter plaintiffs) charged part "unauthorized absences" brought this class action District Court challenging authority military try them providing counsel. All plaintiffs had consented writing tried counsel, after having been advised that they could court-martial provided apprised sentences imposable under procedures. entered judgment plaintiffs. Appeals vacated remanded reconsideration light its opinion Daigle Warner, 490 F.2d 358, wherein it held there no right Sixth Amendment absolute Fifth due process every defendant might imprisoned, but that, line Gagnon Scarpelli, 411 778, 93 1756, 36 656, required where makes request based on timely colorable claim (1) he has (2) are mitigating circumstances, assistance necessary order adequately present defense. Held: 1. There since "criminal prosecution" term used Amendment. Pp. 33-42. (a) Even civilian context fact result loss liberty Ipso facto mean purposes, supra, 788-789, 1762-1763, 665; In re Gault, 387 1, 30, 87 1428, 1445, 18 527, 547; when taken into account occurs rather than community considerations supporting conclusion least strong factors were dispositive those cases. charges against here have common-law counterpart carry little popular opprobrium; nor penalties comparable sanctions. 34-40. (b) unlike criminal trial, adversary proceeding. 40-42. 2. Nor Due Process Clause require 42-48. Though from implicates process, question whether embodies depends upon analysis interests regime subject, making deference must given Congress' determination I, § 8, Constitution, should type P. 43. Supporting decision presence would convert brief, hearing, readily convened concluded, attenuated proceeding, pre-empting time personnel thus consuming resources unwarranted degree. See U. S. ex rel. Toth Quarles, 350 11, 17, 76 100 L.Ed. 8. 45-46. (c) feels essential situation envisaged reliance elect provided, though expose himself possibility greater kind choice, often cases, constitutionally decisive. 46-48. 493 1231, reversed. Nathan R. Zahm, Sherman Oaks, Cal., Henry others. Harvey M. Stone, Dept. Justice, Washington, D.C., Middendorf, pro hac vice, leave Court. Mr. REHNQUIST delivered 1 February 1973 plaintiffs1 then United States Central California Five plaintiffs2 absences"3 violation 86 UCMJ, 10 U.S.C. 886, convicted sentenced, Inter alia, periods ranging 20 days labor. three plaintiffs, whom charged, unauthorized absence assault, 128, 928, ordered stand convened. Those awaiting informed provided. prior afforded refuse if so desired. event such refusal their proceed counsel.4 Plaintiffs' records reviewed approved5 Staff Judge Advocate 65(c), 865(c). Plaintiffs did file petition review Navy 69, 869.6 2 Court, seeking habeas corpus (release confinement), injunction future resulting uncounseled convictions, vacating convictions previously convicted. 3 allowed suit action, expunged all plaintiffs' released class7 confinement, issued worldwide Because our disposition merits, we occasion reach Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 23, actions, applicable petitions corpus, see Harris Nelson, 394 286, 89 1082, 22 281 (1969), properly determined remedial was entitled enforced outside territorial limits district court sat. 4 Appeals' 358 (CA9 1973). likewise imprisoned. However, citing 656 (1973), hold "accused defense, circumstances." made exception rule "is reasonably available," instance required. 365. We granted certiorari. 419 895, 95 173, 42 139 (1974). 5 * UCMJ offenses committed servicemen: administered officer 815. judges prosecution defense.8 authorized award any lawful sentence, including death. 818. Special bad-conduct discharge, up six labor, per month months, member, grade, 19, 819. Parker Levy, 417 733, 750, 94 2547, 2558, 41 439, 454 (1974).9 6 occupies position nonjudicial courtroom-type courts-martial. Its purpose, simple form procedure." Manual Courts-Martial P 79A (1969) (MCM). It personnel. 20, 820. presiding acts inform name accuser call witnesses desires call.10 M 79D (1). court-martial; do dismissed court-martial. 7 sentence elements imposed are: month's labor; 820.11 II 8 constitutional much debated12 never squarely resolved. Reid Covert, 354 37, 77 1222, 1241, 1148, 1174 (1957). Dicta Ex parte Milligan, Wall. 2, 123, (1866), said "the framers doubtless, meant limit jury, sixth amendment, persons subject indictment presentment fifth." Quirin 317 40, 63 3, 19 (1942), " 'cases arising land naval forces' . expressly excepted Amendment, deemed implication Sixth." 9 find unnecessary finally resolve broader aspects question, conclude even these within meaning Amendment.13 This conclusion, course, answer ultimate shift frame reference Amendment's guarantee "(i)n prosecutions" prohibition deprivation "life, liberty, property, law." 11 Argersinger Hamlin, 407 25, 92 2006, 32 530 (1972), provision extended misdemeanor prosecutions courts conviction imprisonment. doubtless equivalent Yet outcome itself, en life, applicable. respondent faced prospect being sent prison revocation probation, nonetheless proceeding." took pains observe: 12 "(T)here critical differences trials probation parole hearings, society probationer parolee stakes preserving differences. 13 "In State represented prosecutor; formal rules evidence force; enjoys number procedural rights lost raised; and, jury make presentation understandable untrained jurors. short, system own unique characteristics. hand, represented, orientation described above; employed; hearing body familiar problems practice parole." Id., 1763, 665. 14 527 (1967), involved juvenile threatened confinement. although holding required, went say: 'We indicate conform requirements usual hearing; measure essentials fair treatment.' 548. 16 Court's distinction various notwithstanding potential neither hearings proceedings," equally relevant assessing role military. 17 is, noted above, types proceedings imposes discipline punishment. remove apply before simply because seem inescapable level For so-called "nonjudicial punishment," administratively imposition man "correctional custody" more consecutive days.14 815(b).15 But think well peculiar military, mechanical application Argersinger. Admittedly distinguishable earlier sentenced close orthodox prosecution. Gault distinguishable: possible initial nevertheless Fourteenth seems us indisputably clear, therefore, purposes first prosecution." When consider addition community, believe Gault. dissent points out, Post, 56-57, n. 6, gave weight rehabilitative purpose involved, factor Undoubtedly factually here. together surely proposition proceeding" about sufficiently distinguish traditional trial. different many respects, important community. latter factor, long decisions bit significant, controlling weight, purpose. 21 recently difference diverse tightly regimented 749, 453 "cannot equated code. It, versions Articles War preceded it, regulate conduct sphere left unregulated. While code carves out small segment declares criminal, essays varied regulation larger activities knit community." Ibid. Much proscribed "criminal" sense word. 749-751, 454. Here example, solely absence," offense carries opprobrium. Conviction likely consequences beyond immediate meted misdemeanors vagrancy larceny stamp "bad character" conviction.16 23 By same token, limited limits.17 Sanctions affecting property interest grade attendant pay, detention portion pay. 24 Finally, procedurally quite place, nature touchstones counsel18 petty (1972). relied Gideon Wainwright, 372 335, 83 792, 799 (1963), held: 26 "(I)n justice, person haled cannot assured unless him. obvious truth. Governments, state federal, spend vast sums money establish machinery defendants crime. Lawyers prosecute everywhere protect public's orderly society. 344, 796, 805. 27 function participant He guided admonition MCM: "The procedure. thoroughly impartially inquire sides matter assure Government safeguarded." specifically enjoined attend provisions paragraph: 28 cross-examine witnesses. aid cross-examination, desires, ask questions suggested accused. On behalf accused, obtain attendance witnesses, administer oath examine them, tend disprove negative guilt charges, explain omissions show extenuating grounds mitigation. Before determining findings, testify merits remain silent give full opportunity election." MCM (3). 29 significant parallels description focused. takes place society, distinctive qualities, Amendment.19 III concluded this, applying standards adopted standard depend serviceman's unable agree applied context. 31 recognize appear subjected consequently law guaranteed individual subject. Wolff McDonnell, 418 539, 556, 2963, 2974, 935, 950 33 particular Congress, forces, U.S.Const., As Burns Wilson, 346 137, 140, 73 1045, 1048, 97 1508, 1514 (1953): 34 "(T)he men armed forces perforce conditioned meet certain overriding demands duty, civil agencies determine precise balance struck adjustment. Framers especially entrusted task Congress." (Footnote omitted.) 35 requires Alderman, U.S.C.M.A. 298, 46 C.M.R. 298 (1973). Dealing areas branches, judgments normally great deference. 2-to-1 decision, majority itself sharply divided theory, reject necessity. Quinn Argersinger's expansion binding tribunals courts.20 Supra, 300, C.M.R., 300. Duncan, concurring part, disagreed, reasoning precedent "there demonstrated necessity demanding nonapplicability." 303, 303. found convincing preclude Chief Darden, dissenting, disagreed Quinn, pointed court's recognizing need balancing protection needs." 307, 307. Taking issue stated belief "possesses competence evaluate effect morale implementation above 308, 308. Given member necessity, taking Darden's statements equal force Members previous decide militating favor extraordinarily weighty overcome Congress.21 37 observed 787, 175, 665: 38 introduction alter significantly (accused), turn provide counsel; lawyers, training disposition, advocates bound professional duty available arguments support clients' positions contest vigor adverse views." 39 quickly rapidly consumes degree Congress felt what warranted relative insignificance tried. Such lengthy burden Armed Forces virtually participants, whose better spent possibly protracted disputes discipline.22 40 5, (1955): "(I)t primary business armies navies fight ready wars arise. soldiers maintain merely incidental army's fighting function. To extent responsible performance diverted trying basic served. (M)ilitary probably constituted way qualifications Constitution civilians federal courts." only, 43 "a 44 claim, air views vindicate rights, formal, counseled counsel.23 Thus, stands considerably favorable who, longer incarceration, counsel.24 true exercising option subjects detriment frequently approved difficult daily defendants, plead guilty lesser included offense. E. g., Brady States, 397 742, 749-750, 90 1463, 1469, 747, 757 (1970). gives all. Furthermore, elects serious bear increased penalties.25 choices system: like rest legal system, replete situations requiring 'the judgments' course follow. McMann Richardson, (759) 769, (90 1441, 763). Although right, dimensions, follow whichever chooses, token forbid him choose." McGautha California, 402 183, 213, 91 1454, 1470, 711, 729 (1971). 48 therefore empowers overturn congressional 49 Reversed. 50 STEVENS consideration 51 STEWART dissents, believing accorded 52 POWELL, BLACKMUN joins, concurring. 53 I substance opinion, join it. write separately emphasize which, my view, distinguishes One expresses fundamental basis distinction: 54 "This recognized specialized separate society." 743, 2555, 451 55 Parker, say also has, again developed laws traditions during history." Only last Term Schlesinger Councilman, 420 738, 757, 1300, 1313, 591, 609 (1975), said: 56 governing (military) history; founded exigencies powerful now past. Their contemporary vitality repeatedly 57 "make Rules Regulation Forces." Court-martial means Forces, known Founding Fathers. analogous to, with, courts. ignore history, tradition, centuries read late date, requirement violations law.1 58 recognize, one's surrendered entering Services. applied, held, "unique exigencies" necessarily govern service. 758, 2562, 458. recognition founding Republic enacted legislation Services,2 current 16(3)UCMJ, 816(3). 59 compels equating, 60 MARSHALL, BRENNAN dissenting. 61 absent waiver, "no imprisoned offense, classified petty, misdemeanor, felony, trial." 2012, 530, 538 Today refuses proceedings. Assuming applies holds characteristics, inapplicable them. dissent. 62 Preliminarily, aside, clear me citizen surrender appointed enters inconceivable, severe life imprisonment imposed, affords facing day's supra. Surely sworn risk lives defend derive some benefit become firmly entrenched jurisprudence past several generations. (1963); Powell Alabama, 287 45, 55, 158 (1932). arise placed guarantee. That explicit "in prosecutions." Since, observed, "convened adjudicate law," Parisi Davidson, 405 34, 42, 815, 820, face. 64 legitimate dispute among scholars, true, intended Ante, 1286-1287, 12.1 historical somewhat ambiguous, reading sources suggests plainly showed contrary certainly determinative scope Hughes observed: 65 "If statement adoption to-day, clauses confined interpretation framers, conditions outlook time, refutation." Home Bldg. & Loan Assn. Blaisdell, 290 398, 442-443, 231, 241, 78 413, 431 (1934). 66 Application follows logically naturally modern right-to-counsel decisions, fully incarceration.2 See, supra; usually case-by-case basis, extends qualified viewed replacement 67 ordinarily counsel.3 characteristics deprive status today. major addressed turn. 68 face, surprising one. No less directed adjudicating "charges lead Nevertheless, finds mandated combination factors:4 limitations tried, discipline." 19. am totally unpersuaded others singly combination, justify dying "one safeguards insure human liberty." Johnson Zerbst, 302 458, 462, 1019, 1022, 82 1461, 1465 (1938). 69 states, adjudge excess 16B (MCM).5 length wholly irrelevant applicability Aware however short seldom trivial 'petty' matter" Baldwin New York, 399 66, 73, 1886, 1890, 437, 443 (1970) (plurality opinion), duration, Insofar today uses 30-day ceiling defendant's holding, finding "inapplicable" rejecting very holding.6 B 70 further observes "(m)uch 'criminal' word," 38, intimates "beyond military." 39. observations misleading irrelevant. 71 generally deal offenses, 79, statutory Any noncapital triable 820.7 Moore, 687, 697, 311, 321 (1955). And while counterpart, proportion actually constitute civilian.8 Indeed, servicemen assault. suggest, does, chargeable sector. 72 punishment" ——, inaccurate. central distinctions regarded conviction.9 collateral life. Army acknowledged: "Conviction (any) creates record color subsequent misconduct soldier. survive effected, unlikely record, second retain status. devastating career. passover promotion list serve initiation elimination action. 74 "For man, handicap interfere job opportunities; counted difficulty enforcement agency; tends marked man."10 75 belies attach conviction. Paragraph 127C establishes comprehensive scheme offender unrealistic suggest impact lies exclusively out.11 Summary stigma, injury career, Quite apart flimsy factual lack already teaches triggered regardless how seem. 538. Logic suggestion activated deactivated C proceeding's nonadversary relatedly, protective functions third according helps Again, foundation. 79 characterizes "nonadversary," offers explanation characterization advances contention inapplicable. argument furnishing transform all, observation. something goal inapplicable, render unnecessary. 80 "nonadversary" convey unpersuasive. far delinquency (1967). proper punitive, parties striving adjudication best child," notion "kindly judge" highly appropriate 27, 1443, 545. confronted reality beneficial institution. offenders representation counsel.12 81 distinguished purpose; rather, violated UCMJ.13 goals insufficient justification denial fortiori similarly insufficient. conveyed characterizing independent reflected observation "function 41. responsibility act combined. officer's advise ability help assemble facts, accusers unnecessary, particularly prosecutor (1932), rejected judge "effectively discharge obligations accused," largely participate conferences sometimes partake inviolable character confessional." 61, 166. unrepresented opposed prosecutor. participants juvenile, mother, officers, judge. presumably interested welfare juvenile. been, 84 irreconcilable conflict roles inevitably prevents functioning effectively substitute instance, 831; 53H. An intelligent consultation testifying hurt involves sharing confidences Full take "defense counsel" playing serves unavailable "necessary S.Ct., L.Ed., 166, critical, tactical strategic decisions. helpful defendant, inconsistent bar adequate 85 sum, nothing assertedly "non-adversary" terms alternative renders D draws notions Concerns obedience occasion, imposing restrictions unconstitutional 458 denials group examination, comprises engaged endeavor national service, fraught danger sacrifice. After persuaded justified asserted discipline, efficiency, demand utilization expeditious seem, however, speedily commander, stigma just procedure.14 1962 amendments 15, greatly expanded availability resulted sharp decrease court-martial.15 pressing streamlined supply Moreover, guaranteeing preferral Fairly counsel;16 timesaving enjoyed 88 accept parties' "military necessity" view Argersinger, each services expense.17 fact, reduced afford must, necessity," denied Sustaining defeat principles equality defend; fairness subverted poor alone sacrificed cause necessity." (USCMA), expertise problems,18 giving hint posed problem. (1973).19 Duncan explicitly contains convinces followed 303 (concurring dissenting part).20 Alderman decided, Air Force courts-martial21 advancing theoretically argument. Priest, 564, 338 leads doubt dictated Virtually ignoring cast military-necessity justification, defers "counsel courts-martial." evaluation clearly deference, departure come validity Robel, 389 258, 264, 419, 423, 508, 514 (1967); 439 (1974); cf. York Times Co. 403 713, 2140, 822 case. 1956 1968 abolish altogether concurrent extending cot-martial. refers considered depth" 21. offered detailed specific feasibility And, importantly, indication defendants. discussion enough throw inferences, timing cited so. occurred substantially assume represents provided," months would, reason undertake concluding ever precludes vaguest terms, claims grant almost total Act rejects evaluated explains refusing acknowledged consequence exposure penalties. detail question.22 event, additional treatment issue, shall briefly assess significance. analogizes oneself According "not all." 47. analogy flawed pleads Necessarily whatever thereafter enable innocence; pleading ones. contrast, condition opting I. e., one, suspicion. entirely dissipated forfeits plea. leading plea negotiations actual plead. sentencing acceptance pleas abandonment unconstitutional. approves stages including, regards sailors marines,23 opts parallel accepted adjudicative phase proceeding.24 98 Conditioning subjecting suffers defect disapproved Jackson, 390 570, 1209, 138 (1968), capital correct carrying nullity; levels lower tier willing higher insist counsel.25 inconceivable tolerate result. IV 99 termed pervasive"26 today, protected juveniles adults, men27 expected justifications respectfully Both petitioned below. simplicity refer "plaintiffs" "defendants." Including original later intervened. assault superior 91, (UCMJ), 891. (Navy) Memorandum 10-72 El Toro Station stationed. Record 18. plaintiff Henry, following entry appears court-martial: Court-Martial, instead, Court-Martial Officer matter, safeguarded; (Sic ), addition, ) foregoing Courts-Martials )." 114. At plaintiff, McLean, Upon supervisory level, findings These arguably failed exhaust remedies. urge exhaustion defer pending completion litigation Since undue interference courts, waive necessary. Sosna Iowa, 393, 396-397, 553, 555-556, 532, 538-539 (1975). "were (the date order) courts-martial" 357 F.Supp. 495, 499 features mandatory be, are, judge; senior presides. Appointed attorney, attorney obtained physical exigencies. expense, selection, "reasonably available." Arts. 16, 27(b), 27(c), 38(b), §§ 816, 825, 827(b), 827(c), 838(b). punishments correctional custody; extra duties; one-half months; grade. Enlisted attached embarked vessel bread water diminished rations. Correctional custody served allows normal intensive counseling. Persons serving custody, confined. 15(b). Department SECNAV Inst. 1640.9, Corrections Manual, c. 7, June 1972; Army, Pamphlet No. 27-4, Custody, Force, Reg. 125-35, Oct. 1970. Additionally, allow behalf. statement, unsworn, extenuation 79D. convening 60, 860, advocate. Not fourth except next inferior PP 127C. Compare, Wiener, Bill Rights: Original Practice, Harv.L.Rev. (1958), historic Henderson, Constitution: Understanding, 293 (1957), concludes intent Compare 1973), Betonie Sizemore, 496 1001 (CA5 1974). Brother MARSHALL's Louisiana, 391 145, 1444, 491 impose, empowered jury. Whatever "selective incorporation" absolutely similar observation: "While argued corrective nature, former distinguish. (87 527) Consequently, sustaining dispensed custody." 308 section (of lieutenant commander above) custody," 815(b)(2)(H)(ii), non-duty hours include "hard labor." 815(b). Our MARSHALL argues, 57-58, nn. 9, considers "criminal." Admiral Hearn, General, describe "criminal"; utilize service begin put (the) infractions" serviceman accumulated Joint Hearings Subcommittee Constitutional Rights Senate Committee Judiciary Services, 89th Cong., 2d Sess., (1966) (1966 Hearings). Assistant advantage adjudged company "nominal accuser," whereas knows Army's acknowledgment "collateral consequences" flowing 58-59. quoted text written response question: "What effects career court-martial?" disjunctive impossible tell both. conclusions drawn author article Va.L.Rev. 319 dissent, "impact conviction," considerations. inception operation year, discusses interaction corresponding 1951 Courts-Martial. Both, undergone revision intervening years. lightly assumed author's valid respect MCM, manner currently implemented services. notes, 57, technically practical ceilings 20. charge striking 90(1), 890(1) 10-year prosecuted occurred, delighted good fortune. 57-58 14% Of "nonmilitary" regard figure "substantial" apparently does. 304 462-463, (1938): realistic truth average skill tribunal power presented experienced learned counsel." discussed dispositive. Rather, combine conclusion. discussing independently attempting demonstrate grips analysis. Quinn's broad established. Concurring Culp, 199, 216-217, 411, 428-429 protections run 'unless excluded directly implication, itself.' Jacoby, 428, 430-431, 244, 246-247 (1960). Prior enactment positive abolished. instead objected thereto (unless refused punishment). 70A Stat. proposed rejected. Judiciary, 88th 1st Report Personnel, 34-36 (1963). Instead eliminated compromise favoring retention S.Rep. 1601, 90th U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1968, p. 4501. apparent depth. one-month period contrast minimum years 1448, 551 pertinent "(N)o objects thereto. ." 38(b) 838(b) provides: him, selection available, 827 title." criticizes failure discuss point. inapposite. Contrary assertion adult Months received. U.S., 29, 547. speculate waiver follows, suggests, 71-72, two-tier context, penalized play. Here, presented. customarily involve unknown case, absence." sure, law. typically discipline. address serious, felonies charged. Services statute 827. referring Code, "Congress attempted necessities (governing discipline) ensuring formulate mechanism competing adjusted. result, created integrated 757-758, argue intend point right's applicability, 293, 303-315 materials therein, 18th century assistance. 318. opposite point, treatises, Practice 23-26 mention codes 22-23, role. 27-32. "(w) e reject, premise crimes punishable lawyer." 30-31, 2009, 535 538, 159, 1452, 491, 501 (1968). indicated express exemption grand exempts "inferentially, (Sixth Amendment) jury." O'Callahan 395 261, 1683, 1685, 291, 296 (1969). inferences settling jury-trial settled issues well. pure used, mind, still Many analyzed below Part Infra, (1973); Morrissey Brewer, 408 471, 2593, 484 adopts approach mandates Gagnon, 789 12, L.Ed.2d, looks questionable, least. intimates, 35, relating informality This, inaccurate reflection Gagnon. Gagnon's 782, 1759, 662, stage dependent conducted. prosecution, determinative: 'Parole arises end sentence. Revocation deprives individual, entitled, conditional observance restrictions.' (408 U.S.), 480, (2593) 2603 (33 484)." 781, 661. reached considering Secondary process. assuming "parallels" probation-revocation conducted, 41-42, lends prescribed Executive Order September supplement (UCMJ). attempts evade mandate relying 4, McKeiver Pennsylvania, 528, 1976, 647 (1971); 1990, 648 (opinion Brennan, J.). undoubtedly predominantly shown, manifestly did, pose threat 820 "popular opprobrium" crime places considerable stock, 39, magnitude punishment; could, "practical effect," future. 921, 928. Figures supplied 1973, "nonmilitary offenses." Brief Federal Parties 33; Fidell, Court-Martial: Proposal, Harv.J.Legis. 571, 599 121 1056 1966 testimony, punished "begins acquire convictions." 33. Personnel 87th 838 (1962). 594-596; Feld, Martial Sentence: Fair Foul, 319, 322 (1953). Gerald duration. 22. contained limitation Whenever "which commitment institution juvenile's freedom curtailed." 41, 1451, 554. age-old manifest destiny retributive justice. '(M)ilitary continues primarily instrument justice.' Glasser, Captain Columbia Forum 46, (1969)." 266, 1687, Differences advanced "confinement" Shamel, 361, 116 (1973) (Quinn, Between 1969, year dropped 85,166 28,281, percentage caseload 64% 26%. 573. chief phenomenon powers accomplished 1963." 572. While, final Supp. Mem. 3-4, themselves concede "it ascribe changed experience injection proceedings." Nothing lengthened (testimony Brig. Gen. Kenneth Hodson, Asst. Adv. Gen., Army); Maj. W. Manss, Force); Rear Adm. Wilfred A. Navy); 626 (letter 1965, Chairman Acting Counsel Treasury). acknowledging "(t)here appointment court-martial," Treasury indicated, policy (in Coast Guard) 627. question-and-answer exchange letter Corps: "Question: Are permitted official Defense assist courts? "Answer: (A)lthough regulation, accord requests otherwise, requests? Yes, reasonable requested 939. (1975); Noyd Bond, 683, 694, 1876, 1882, 631, 643 USCMA final, 876. indeed ironic statutorily barred appealing secured rejection through lawsuit, originally Alderman. (1974), cert. pending, 73-6642, Ninth Circuit "(w)hile argues suffer severely courts-martial), scant record." 366. majority, argument, declines disagree. (1972) decided recognized, albeit another affect briefed detail. concurred Priest opinion. factors, plus Duncan's (Duncan, J., part). me, "option" (1967) unmentioned "voluntarily" harsher Neither object internal guidelines determination, Handbook, Guide Trial Procedure, 3-3 3-5, 27-7 contain provision. "option scheme" presents sort undercuts 63-69. disposed Yet, Thus unattainable claimed sustained Kentucky double jeopardy attacks Colten Kentucky, 104, 1953, 584 careful note "cannot, not, face 119, 1961, 594. Schaefer, Federalism Criminal (1956). Officers

Category: 0