Document: 335 U.S. 160 68 S.Ct. 1429 92 L.Ed. 1881 LUDECKEv.WATKINS, District Director of Immigration. No. 723. Argued May 3, 4, 1948. Decided June 21, Rehearing Denied Oct. 11, See 69 14. Mr. Kurt G. W. Ludecke pro se. Stanley M. Silverberg, for Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice FRANKFURTER delivered the opinion Court. 1 The Fifth Congress committed to President these powers: 2 'Whenever there is a declared war between United States and any foreign nation or government, invasion predatory incursion perpetrarted, attempted, threatened against territory by makes public proclamation event, all natives, citizens, denizens, subjects hostile being age fourteen years upward, who shall be within not actually naturalized, liable apprehended, restrained, secured, removed as alien enemies. authorized, in such his thereof, other act, direct conduct observed, on part States, toward aliens become so liable; manner degree restraint which they subject what cases, upon security their residence permitted, provide removal those who, permitted reside refuse neglect depart therefrom; establish regulations are found necessary premises safety.' (Act July 6, 1798, Stat. 577, R.S. § 4067, amended, 40 531, 50 U.S.C. U.S.C.A. 21.) 3 This Alien Enemy Act has remained law land, virtually unchanged since 1798.1 Throughout one hundred fifty executive interpretation decisions lower courts have an authority now questioned, further claim made that if did comes Act, could give him power.2 Obviously issues properly brought case here. 333 865, 785. 4 Petitioner, German enemy,3 was arrested December 8, 1941, and, after proceedings before Hearing Board January 16, 1942, interned order Attorney General, deted February 9, 1942.4 Under President, 14, 1945, directed from enemies 'who deemed General dangerous pease safety States.' Proclamation 2655, 10 Fed.Reg. 8947. Accordingly, 18, 1946, ordered petitioner's removal.5 Denial writ habeas corpus release detention under this affirmed court below. Cir., 163 F.2d 143. 5 As explicitly recognized recent Administrative Procedure some statutes 'preclude judicial review.' 10, 60 237, 243, 1009. Barring questions constitutionality, 1798 statute. Its terms, purpose, construction leave no doubt. language employed hardly clearer, rendered doubtful, incomplete always dependable accounts we debates early Congress.6 That scope established controlling contemporaneous construction. 'The act concerning enemies, confers president very great discretionary powers respecting persons,' Marshall, C.J., Brown v. 8 Cranch 110, 126, 504, 'appears me unlimited legislature make it.' J., Lockington Smith, 15 Fed.Cas. 758, 761, at page 760, 8,448. nature President's power enemy rejects notion may pass judgment exercise discretion.7 view expressed Iredell shortly passed, Case Fries, 9 826, 5,126, every judge whom question come held statute barred review.8 We would read it came us without impressive gloss history. 6 with vested had executed through others. He provided were 'deemed General' dangerous.9 But finding, behest, likewise subjected scrutiny courts. For thing, contingent finding fact 'dangerous.' careful call dangerous.' short answer voice conscience. A review transmuted into judicially reviewable action because chooses exercised narrower limits than authorized. 7 And reach while summary survive cessation actual hostilities.10 effect nullifies deport deportations practicable during pendency colloquially known shooting war.11 Nor does lag behind common sense. War cease cease-fire order, conferred process begins when but exhausted stops.12 Anderson, Wall. 56 70, 19 615; Protector, 12 700, 20 463; McElrath 102 426, 438, 26 189; Hamilton Kentucky Distilleries & Warehouse Co., 251 146, 167, 106, 112, 64 194. state war' terminated treaty legislation Presidential proclamation. Whatever modes, its termination political act.13 Id. Whether open Court find though merely formally kept alive ended, too fraught gravity even adequately formulated compelled. Only few months ago rejected contention relation challenged terminated. Woods Cloyd Miller 138, 421. Nothing happened calls qualification view.14 It still true, said eyed most jealously, 'We armies abroad exercising our peace terms allies mention enemies.' supra, 147, 425 (concurring opinion). situation today strikingly similar 1919, where observed: 'In facts knowledge, been referred to, yet concluded, railways national control virtue powers, activities close, cannot man restored footing, unable conclude ceased valid.' 163, 111, branch Government Germany end. On contrary, proclaimed 'a exists.' 2714, 34 366, 1; see 140, 422; Fleming Mohawk Wrecking Lumber 331 116, 67 1129, 1132, 91 1375. assuming functions agencies yield suggestion unconditional surrender disintegration Nazi Reich left government capable negotiating peace. belief justifiably fit internment active hostilities do lose potency mischief period confusion conflict characteristic guns silent Peace come.15 These matters judges neither technical competence nor official responsibility. brings final question. Is valid construed it? same considerations reason, authority, history, led reject reading statutory 'declared war'16 mean 'actual hostilities,' support validity power. If war, held, justify local rent control, fortiori, validly supports given require protracted argument defect resort only challenge existence war,' done case.17 almost old Constitution, savor doctrinaire audacity offensive emanation Bill Rights.18 hearings utilized Executive secure informed basis argue right retry hearings, bespeak denial due withhold Such abused, doubt, bad reason having supervise exercise, whatever legal formulas supervision nominally confined. In distribution constitutional among three branches Government, optimistic Eighteenth Century Iredell, speaking pertinent: 11 'All systems suppose administered men sense honesty. country, ultimately depends people, power, presumed generally will choose description; not, case, sure, remedy. fools, foolish laws. knaves, knavish ones. can never until fools knaves themselves, which, thank God, likely ever character American people.' (Case 836, 5,126.) hold full responsibility just constitutionally placed it—on States. Founders wisdom Commander-in-Chief also guiding organ affairs. entrusted vast outside world Congress, throughout whole life nation, disposition war. history worth more volume rhetoric.19 Judgment stay entered 2, 1948, vacated. 13 BLACK, DOUGLAS, MURPHY RUTLEDGE join, dissenting. 14 petition alleged petitioner, legally admitted resident about deported country 'dangerous' enemy, afforded notice fair hearing determine whether he holds, argued presidential proclamation, petitioner General's inquiry truth allegations.1 goes I understand opinion, not. holding unnaturalized person, good bad, loyal disloyal citizen coming here, summarily seized, review, modify, vacate, reverse, affect deportation order. DOUGLAS reasons dissenting why believes aliens, hearing, law. agree many gives determined law.2 countries think idea contemplated here pure fiction. Furthermore, lends slightest ended both, World interval Armistice conclusion formal Germany, unequivocally required deported. relies 1798. §§ 21—24, 21—24. grant extraordinarily broad restrain 'to removal' owe allegiance authorized 'whenever States' event attempts threatens 'any incursion.' statute, assume my purposes, sufficiently acting Germans 'declared' second going on, real danger Germany. unlike passed later years, expressly prescribe events purposes mark invasions. 165, note 1, cases called interpret best carry out purpose connection particular intended protect, 56, 69, 702, 463, evil guard against. 437, 189. Judicial Determination End War, 47 Col.L.Rev. 255. 16 time widespread hostility France certain groups asserted infiltrated spies preaching 'subversive' ideas activities. Otis, chief congressional spokesman measure, fears '* * band spread end introduction country' might join 'in attack us, plunder property *.' Annals 5th Cong., 2d Sess. 1791. Congressional discussions measure appear pp. 1573—1582, 1785—1796, 2034—2035, Sess.,3 show beyond reasonable doubt extraordinary prevent residing extending aid comfort dangers fighting imminently threatened. Indeed, persistent expressions anti-French sentiments aggressive sponsorship companion Sedition Acts, recorded saying tranquility, should desire put like hands Executive; but, tim citizens ought considered treated watched different own country.' bill third time, Gallatin pointed already possible remove friends enemies; interpreted consideration, aimed providing laid restraints way security.' supported bill. 2035. 17 now, would, Department State, 5, armed forces land sea completely subjugated unconditionally surrendered. 'There central accepting maintenance administration compliance requirements victorious Powers.' State went declare Russia, Great Britain, assumed 'supreme respect including possessed High Command, state, municipal, authority.' Dept.Bull. 1051. March 17, told 'Almost *' 15. 18 Of course nothing fiction say Germany.4 else support, affords today's laws authorize peacetime banishment person unreviewable single individual. used fictional wars. previously out, fervent legislation, repudiated vest peacetime. Consequently, far broader meaning vociferous champions series anti-alien anti-sedition represents entirely new Act. nearly 150 asked allow allowing them access fact, less two first Word Gregory that, although continue ratification treaty, then deported.5 requested enact time. thereafter introduced endorsed both Secretary Labor joint letter 'immediate consideration' 'gravity situation.' Hearings House Committee Immigration Naturalization H.R. 6750, 66th 1st 42—43. Several Palmer submitted substantially statements Senate Committees H.R.Rep. 143, 2; S.Rep. 283, 2. Report 25—28. recommendations Wilson 41 593 (1920), 157, amended floor Representatives deportation. 58 Cong.Rec. 3366. command shown text committee reports assured ranking member reporting entitled counsel present, subpoena witnesses summon stenographer's minutes must taken.' 3373. 3367 3372. therefore over 'given existing laws.' H.R.No. 21 precisely status specifically prerequisite Yet sanctions procedure whereby deporte determination charge denied hearing. result rejecting Generals, acted 1920. Generals wrong believing treaty. making novel denies others kind guarantee. Japanese Immigrant (Kaoru Yamataya Fisher), 189 86, 100, 101, 23 611, 614, 721, explained 3373, supra 19—20, quoted DOUGLAS' opinion. 22 Court's seems fear somehow 'have mischief' complete subjugation least long 'peace come.' 'potency apprehension based emit Peace.' First Amendment nation's suppressed. avowed stifle ended.6 Others Acts prison punishment people dared express ideas.7 anti-free speech press philosophy Acts. disinter hoped Thomas Jefferson permanently buried pardoned last convicted violation Finally, wish attention Circuit Judge Augustus Hand himself Judges Learned Swan, cause. Believing saw discussing weight evidence Repatriation Board, added: 'However, face record hard relator compelled go back. much disclosed step; doubtful propriety Therefore shall, should, suggest justice perhaps better satisfied reconsideration light changed conditions, eighteen ago.' 144. 24 amiss, think, individual liberty tomorrow yesterday. Certainly lessened, particularly happen harmony governmental authorities period. segment protect arbitrary action, corrected Congress8 25 RUTLEDGE, concur, sole enemy.1 delimitation historic wholly one. narrow range arising proceeding. 27 undisputed protected clause Ff th Amendment. Wong Wing 228, 977, 140. Federal procedures affording ex rel. Vajtauer Commissioner, 273 103, 302, 303, 71 560. requires (Tisi Tod, 264 131, 134, 44 260, 261, 590), (Bridges Wixon, 326 135, 156, 65 1443, 1453, 89 2103; Chin Yow 208 12, 28 201, 202, 52 369; Low Wah Suey Backus, 225 460, 32 734, 1165), evidence. 560; Zakonaite Wolf, 226 272, 274, 33 31, 32, 57 218. Kwock Jan Fat White, 253 454, 566, 1010. rule restricted instances itself decided 1903, held. there, prescribed matter officer.2 Consistently principle Bridges rules governing reached corpus, administrative agency stated, 154, 1452, 2103, 29 dealing procedural protection alien. Though technically criminal proceeding, visits hardship deprives live work freedom. penalty—at times serious one—cannot doubted. Meticulous care lest deprived meet essential standards fairness.' 30 principles applicable classified general applicability adhered thereof. Petitioner 1945 addition 1942 Board. recites 'upon consideration presented' Boards, words Proclamation, dees thereof.' Those findings conclusions conform process. time-honored test. 31 type need greater intrusion affairs inquiries 'undesirable Mahler Eby, 549. Both involve satisfied, needs hour well detained time-consuming bores within. bars, passed. thought defend mock ground mere gratuity. unfair system government. Against provides protection. discretion officer override system. Due perish comes. limitations safeguarding liberties. Home Building Loan Ass'n Blaisdell, 290 398, 54 231, 235, 78 413, 88 A.L.R. 1481. There minor changes wording. duly brief amici curiae deem significance. advised 530 whose awaits outcome case. district that: born Berlin, 1890. f 1923 1933. returned 1933 became party. Later disagreements members sent concentration camp, escaped 1934, confined eight months. Sometime published book, 'I Knew Hitler' ('The Story Who Escaped Blood Purge'—'In memory Captain Ernst Roehm Gregor Strasser Nazis betrayed, murdered, traduced graves'), 1937. His naturalization 1939.' attitude thus court: 'Fundamentally, live, strive service am. Besides, thing midst defeated suffering body soul, futile frustrated something triumphant breathing foul air self-complacency, hypocrity, self-deceit.' No raised actions taken pursuant 2526, dated 6323, issued recited adduced 1945. examined substantial. infra. See, however, Kessler Watkins, 140; Citizens Protective League Clark, 81 U.S.App.D.C. 155 290. 'Such variance spirit law, object safety, imposing magistrate necessary, enabled judge. feel myself authorised impose congress, seen toi mpose. short, clear mind, attentive parts, congress judiciary auxiliary executive, effecting objects law; each department independently other, except former ordinances latter, decisions.' Citizen's 290; Schlueter 158 853; Hack 159 552; Von Ascheberg 1021; Minotto Bradley, 252 F. 600; Lockington's Case, Brightly, N.P., Pa., 269, 280; F.Cas. 8,448; Ex parte Graber, 247 882; De Lacey 249 625, L.R.A.1918E, 1011; Fronklin, 984; Grahl 261 487; cf. Banning Penrose, 255 159; Risse, 257 102; Gilroy, 110; Cicco Longo, 46 F.Supp. 170; Schwarzkopf Uhl, 137 898; D'Esquiva 903; Knauer Jordan, 337. exception initial 'contention consider proceeding status, view,' substantial rehearing, noted foreclosed issue. added qualification, conformed language, presumably arbitrarily implied standard delegated necessarily stated 161, 194, includes remedy evils arisen rise progress' continues emergency. Stewart Kahn, 493, 507, 176. plainly adequate deal problems enforcement arise them. involved here.' legislative believe paraphrased sanction late date phrase 'state hostilities.' p. supra. point received below Hand, L. said: 'Appellants' argues preceding enactment Law Gallatin, Otis others, 'war' fact. effect. Section Art. Constitution states free 'Migration Importation' 1808 stand proposed limited however how failure limit indicated implication. objected limiting declared. wished add 'hostilities' failed attempt, o t meant exist dealt finally invoked, conditions invoked. fully met present appellants' War. indication made, contended adopted, powerless obliged unprotected either secrets potential inimical quite prior regarded carried warfare themselves interference effective military operations.' pages 142, suggested Chairman reflects contrary But, out: conclusions. When exclude was, referring conditions.' (dated Feb. 1919) observation: books persons excluded custody Unless you, set highly persons.' Sess., contradictory views Gregory, reflect exigencies guide confirming legislation. manifested Gregory's recognition survived apprehend, restrain, aliens. generally, cited another him, claimed indicate deviation otherwise uniformly accepted touch true Hirshberg Malanaphy, 168 503, denying Appeals Second Circuit, conflicting Congress. 19, course, r ovisions fixing expiration confer Executive. e.g., 194 (collection terminates proclamation). can, day defined leaves concluded usual Government. Cf., address recommending European recovery program, universal training, temporary reenactment selective H.Doc.No.569, 80th Order 9957, 2503, take possession transportation August 29, 1916, 39 619, 645, 1361, 1361. 'Rapid taking place Europe policy security. Almost greatest wars, stability world.' 1. conceded 'formally declared' 55 796, U.S.C.A.Appendi, section additional restrained older reviewed responsible 'An Aliens,' approved 25, 570, crimes States," 596, instant Enemies,' significant statutes—the Acts—were vigorously contemporaneously attacked unconstitutional, issue James Madison, report Virginia Resolutions, carefully caustically differentiated friendly follows: next observation is, fallacy thrown blending nations. With intimated them; treat Writings Madison (Hunt, Editor) 360, 361. Similarly, Jefferson, author Resolutions 1799, 'which assumes friends.' (Ford, 466. questioning repeal. correcting decision. apparently anticipated appropriating funds expenses, incident maintenance, care, detention, surveillance, parole, ofa lien wives dependent children, expenses return bona fide Pub.L. 166, 1947, 61 279, 292. 'And appropriation use stands confirmation Chief Brooks Dewar, 313 354, 361, 979, 982, 85 1399.' 1375; Isbrandtsen-Moller Co. 300 139, 407, 562. holds merits petitioner. Nevertheless quotes context paragraph written protest procedure. quotation anyhow, strange Hitler camp disloyalty imprisn ed four Nazi. Immediately contained following statement: 'Far me, thrust goodwill anybody insist community servants ill seek pitiful illegal means. Therefore, propose voluntarily man, deportee, earliest opportunity allowed sixty days settle sailing date.' attempt bolster reference sentences record? Compare Mitsuye Endo, 323 208, 243; Korematsu 214, 193, above frequent references weeks adoption places 1973—2028. cites 421, suggests holding. nonexistent hostilities. Decision remote relevancy seeks concurring addressed number 'been 4067 Revised Statutes' (section 1798), custody. stated: regulate bring therefore, expelled nor, once it, prevented returning country. have, caused prepared inclosed draft bill, provisions self-explanatory.' (Italics added.) H.Rep.No.1000, 65th 3d 1—2. position reiterated representatives enacted 3—21. conformity Generals. justification appears adopt advanced 1947. emphasized difficulty 'because reasoning persuasive shows Hence punishment. deportation, (if authorized) sabotage, etc., invasion. Nevertheless, 'the activities.' 'inimical activities' relate matters—not concerned Moreover, difficult endanger keep possess.' Ad send disadvantage statutes—they away reasons. Bowers, Hamilton, 1925, c. XVI, 'Hysterics,' XVII, Reign Terror'; Morison, Life VIII, 'A System Terror.' 1947 'return' 'bona authorizing strained inference drawn. elsewhere deny over. Until so, am unwilling attribute attempted requirement 556, 688, reversed grounds, 858; 600. Cf. DeLacey 1011. complain receive. 565. said, 721: opportunity, heard, officers, depends,—not regular, occasion, according forms procedure, prompt, vigorous appropriate officers act. competent Treasury officer, year cause respects jurisdiction, population, illegally giving heard involving remain recognized.'

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