Document: 390 U.S. 570 88 S.Ct. 1209 20 L.Ed.2d 138 UNITED STATES, Appellant,v.Charles JACKSON et al. No. 85. Argued Dec. 7, 1967. Decided April 8, 1968. Ralph Spritzer, Washington, D.C., for appellant. Steven B. Duke, New Haven, Conn., appellees. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The Federal Kidnaping Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1201(a), provides: 2 'Whoever knowingly transports in interstate * commerce, any person who has been unlawfully kidnaped and held ransom or otherwise shall be punished (1) by death if not liberated unharmed, verdict jury so recommend, (2) imprisonment term years life, penalty is imposed.' 3 This statute thus creates an offense punishable 'if recommend.' sets forth no procedure imposing upon a defendant waives right to trial one pleads guilty. 4 On October 10, 1966, federal grand Connecticut returned indictment charging count that three named defendants, appellees this case, had transported from Jersey harmed when liberated.1 District Court dismissed indictment,2 holding Act unconstitutional because it makes 'the risk death' price asserting trial, thereby 'impairs free exercise' constitutional right.3 Government appealed directly Court,4 we noted probable jurisdiction.5 We reverse. 5 agree with provision imposes impermissible burden exercise right, but think severable remainder statute. There reason invalidate law its entirety simply capital punishment clause violates Constitution. therefore erred dismissing kidnaping indictment. I. 6 One fact at least obvious face itself: In case where victim defendant's assertion may cost him his authorizes jury—and only jury—to return death. does dispute proposition. What disputes conclusion subjects seeks increased hazard punishment. As construes statute, elects tried cannot put even recommends—unless judge agrees should imposed. Moreover, argument goes, avoid attempting plead guilty waive trial. For accepts plea approves waiver, remains free, Government's view convene special limited purpose deciding whether recommend penalty. contends that, chooses submit question guilt, imposed both concur imposition. understanding concludes operate penalize contest guilt before jury. It unnecessary decide here would follow statutory scheme envisions,6 Congress enacted. 7 At outset, reject gives discretion set aside recommendation So far as are aware, once entire 34-year history jury's discarded judge.7 apparently have us assume either judges always agreed recommendations under statute—an unrealistic assumption best8—or they abdicated their duty independent judgment on issue fact, explanation simpler one. unequivocally states recommend,' 'shall *.' word 'shall,' 'may.'9 acceding without exception death, carried out mandate 8 nonetheless urges overlook Congress' choice imperative. Whatever might assumed past, now asked construe eliminate power fix approval presiding judge. '(T)his reading,' said, conform 'to long tradition courts arbiter sentence.' And would. difficulty intentionally passed Act. Over forcefully articulated objection sentencing represent unwarranted departure settled practice,10 rejected version left court's discretion11 instead chose alternative shifted single 12 onus inflicting death.12 To accept suggestion role treated merely advisory ultimate deliberately placed other hands. 9 thrust was clearly expressed House Judiciary Committee drafted it: Its was, quite simply, permit designate kidnaper.'13 'recommend' describe what do designating obscure basic congressional objective making rather than sentence. contrary contention stand. 10 Equally untenable unique system convening jury, consent, sole he told initially implication. reasoning runs follows: permits infliction whenever recommends. state many words recommending must impaneled determine well. Therefore specially convened finds support analysis Seventh Circuit decision construing mean 'an affirmative (is) made jury,' including solely after court accepted plea. Seadlund v. United States, Cir., 97 F.2d 742, 748. Accord, Robinson 264 F.Supp. 146, 153. But say 'a jury.' says demands concedes jury' means those naturally suggest: general conviction acquittal passes innnocence. Thus, such convened, reference alone, determining punishment.14 Yet argues eliminated altogether guilty, assumes completely new meaning. accused live die. 11 give strangely bifurcated meaning slightest indication contemplated scheme. Not legislative much hints sitting folllowed separate proceeding If impanel recognized elsewhere enacted perhaps total silence subject could viewed tacit incorporation practice into law. background against which legislated barren precedent sort impliedly authorized. maintains failure provide more oversight can correct. twice, expressly authorized defendants convicted jury,15 wholly inadvertent, hardly province fashion remedy. Any attmept fraught gravest difficulties: were sentence, how hearing proceed? each side required show? standard proof govern? extent conventional rules evidence abrogated? privileges enjoy? Congress, unlike legislatures proceedings cases,16 addressed itself none these questions.17 13 thing fill minor gap statute—to extrapolate design details inadvertently omitted. another create whole cloth complex novel unwilling rescuing charge unconstitutionality. recognize cases occasion chosen latter course, ad hoc basis ground jury.18 know kinds particular adopted, widely varied, fairly applied. clear: Individuals forced defend lives tailor-made guidance ordinarily find body procedural evidentiary spelled advance trial.19 notes decisional trend sought place most humane construction legislation.' asks extend uncharted direction, compulsion benefit guidance. That decline do. II. 14 Under therefore, abandons assured executed; ingenuous enough seek stands forewarned wish spare will Our problem Constitution establishment penalty, applicable assert inevitable effect provision, discourage Fifth Amendment guilty20 deter Sixth demand chill rights penalizing choose them, then patently unconstitutional. But, notes, limiting recommends imposition objective: avoids drastic mandatory every case. sense, selective established ameliorating severity extreme wished provide.21 15 suggests operates mitigate punishment,' irrelevant 'may incidental inducing full measure.'22 agree. said objectives, pursued needlessly rights. Cf. States Robel, 389 258, 419, 19 508; Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 488—489, 81 247, 252, 231. chilling 'incidental' intentional; excessive. answer clear. course goal entirely legitimate achieved some example, between life case—regardless determined.23 Given availability alternatives, clear justified ostensible purpose. impose violation manner penalizes right. See Griffin State California, 380 609, 85 1229, 106.24 16 urge, Government, relied coerced pleas involuntary waivers evil necessarily coerces encourages them. A need inherently coercive order Thus tends insisting innocence demanding implies enters involuntarily.25 alleviate, totally eliminate, infirmity 17 alternatively proposes Court, supervisory powers, instruct all attempts efforts however voluntary well-informed attempted be. way, assure charged aggravated possible induced forgo consequence 'solution' force strong desire acknowledge themselves families spectacle expense protracted courtroom proceedings. true insist Singer 24, 783, 630, also 'that criminal (no) absolute court.' Lynch Overholser, 369 705, 719, 82 1063, 1072, 211. occasionally full-dress matter course. Quite apart cruel impact requirement greatly prefer clear—as recognizes automatic rejection 'would rob process flexibility.' observed:26 'The traditional fundamental. existence necessary practical administration Consequently, require unambiguous expression part withhold authority specified cases.' approach inaugurated conclude impetus come saved judicial reconstruction. III. remaining fall constitutionally deficient. evidently must, disagree. Champlin Rfg. Co. Corporation Commission Okl., 286 210, 234, 52 559, 565, 76 L.Ed. 1062: 21 unconstitutionality defeat validity provisions. Unless evident legislature provisions within power, independently not, invalid dropped fully operative law.'27 22 test, authorizing whole. McDowell 274 426, 429. Spillers State, Nev., 436 P.2d 18, 23—24. 23 functionally elimination way alters substantive reach leaves unchanged operation. circumstances, inconceivable decided authorize discard informed include us.28 24 happens confirms common sense alone originally 1932 contained provision.29 majority favored yielded opposition Senate expediency.30 Only Congressman worth enacting punishment.31 obviously felt otherwise.32 When added 1934, substantially respect.33 prompted enactment 1932—the relying local authorities investigate prosecute kidnaping34—had vanished during intervening two years. crime ruled beginning. difficult imagine compelling severability. 25 effort suggest contrary, 1934 amendment 'did increase penalties kidnaping; changed Act.' They note kidnapers whose victims unharmed. Such differential argue, needed injuring whom abduct.35 contend clause, distinguish harm kill victims.' Stressing concern victim's safety, 'it doubtful intend stand absent feature.' wrong history, 'absent feature.'36 length reflect kidnaper's treatment victim. logic, nothing obliterate distinction victims' invalidation provided Act—the precise result 26 frustration purpose—that crime. By unenforceable, leave whole, objection. prosecuted violating authority. 27 reversed remanded further consistent opinion. 28 ordered. 29 Reversed remanded. 30 MARSHALL took consideration 31 WHITE, BLACK joins, dissenting. 32 strikes down No raised about propriety participation imposition, confining impermissibly coerce encourage persons my view, however, vice interfere determined invalidates major portion Congress. waiver influenced so, I hold reverse judgment, carefully examined accepted, make sure neither nor encouraged 33 Because properly interpreted questions, take first step toward statutes arguably Count one: 'On September 2, CHARLES JACKSON, known 'Batman,' 'Butch'; GLENN WALTER ALEXANDER DE LA MOTTE; JOHN ALBERT WALSH, JR., herein, did transport commerce Milford Alpine, Jersey, John Joseph Grant, III, theretofore seized, kidnapped, away reward aiding escape arrest, liberated, Title Code, Section 1201(a).' two, transportation stolen motor vehicle York 2312, challenged us. 262 716, 718. 3731. 387 929, 87 2050, 989. Even interpretation sound, still observed, 'even discretionary, uncertain.' 717—718. appended discretionary bench mere defer extraordinary accepting approving position correct, remain escapes threat unless commence purpose, whereas automatically incurs same recommendation. district indicated feel bound see 151—153, since involved petition post-conviction relief. Although juries recommended number kidnapping cases, counsel stated oral aware aside. H. Kalven & Zeisel, American Jury 436—444 (1966). 'shall' precedes punishments: offender notion dispelled qualification attached second alternative: 'by formally responsible sentence qualifying pointless truism meant refer recommendation: imprisonment' recommend. reading final phrase complete redundancy, anomalous indeed twice pruned excess verbiage. Reviser's Note following 1201. Nothing language points result. examination original form demonstrates intended attribute it. stood 'shall, conviction, if, prior apply penitentiary 48 Stat. 781. form, unmistakably applies—i.e., death—then unless, absolutely purely formal transformations through alter structure. 75 Cong.Rec. 13288, 13295—13297 (1932). determine. *' 13288 Congressmen feared empowering jurors unduly reluctant convict. 13289, 13294 prerequisite punishment, immaterial binding concedes, determination largely See, e.g., 13297. H.R.Rep.No. 1457, 73d Cong., 2d Sess., (1934) (emphasis added). includes recommendation, beyond imprisonment. He Dressler, 112 972, 980. forbidding wrecking trains, '(w)hoever crime, resulted person, direct, or, order.' 62 794 (1948), 1992 prohibiting destruction aircraft, violators conduct causes waived 70 540 (1956), 34 aircraft-wrecking 34, interest reflects awareness overlooked area: letter Chairman Interstate Foreign Commerce, William P. Rogers, Deputy Attorney General, suggested behalf Department bill amended addition 'or stated: 'Under present phraseology invoke situation entered U.S.Code Congressional Administrative News, 84th 3149 3150 (1956). inserted aircraft July 14, 1956. Less month later, reconsidered technical amendment, 1043 included Cal.Penal Code 190.1 (Supp.1966); Conn.Gen.Stat.Rev. 53—10 (Supp.1965); Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 4701 (1963); N.Y.Penal Law McKinney's Consol.Laws, c. 40, §§ 125,30, 125.35 (1967). problems presented frequently noted. Frady 121 U.S.App.D.C. 78, 109—110, 348 84, 115—116 (Burger, J., concurring dissenting part); Note, California Penalty Trial, Calif.L.Rev. 386 (1964); Two-Trial System Capital Cases, 39 N.Y.U.L.Rev. 50 (1964). Kuh, Prosecutor Considers Model Penal 63 Col.L.Rev. 608, 615 (1963). surprising confronted concluded solution requires 'comprehensive piecemeal action.' Mount, N.J. 195, 224, 152 A.2d 343, 358 (concurring opinion). People Friend, 47 Cal.2d 749, 763, 306 463, 471, n. 7. Curry, 904, 914—915. informs pleaded arising sentenced legislatively issue, defense attorneys prepared advantage features designed clients. Executive Clemency 136, 167 relative novelty impaired effective representation jurisdictions contours fixed seems difficulties formidable amorphous case-by-case legitimize today. wonder Second Circuit, while foreclosing two-stage trials altogether, 'loath compel submit' 914. due forbids convicting Commonwealth Pennsylvania ex rel. Herman Claudy, 350 116, 223, 100 126. 913—914 8. Andres 333 740, 753—754, 68 880, 886—887, 92 1055 (Frankfurter, concurring). 431. Laboy 266 581, 585. Wash.Rev.Code 9.48.030, 10.01.060, 10.49.010 Cal. (Supp.1966). Zenoff, 22—23, Supreme Nevada recently forcible rape resulting great bodily injury affix penalty.' Nev.Rev.Stat. 200.360(1) 584. So, too, 106, comment testify silent ever testified pre-Griffin prosecution commented entitled release theory testimony regarded compelled. Willis, 628, 630. correctly severance recognizing presumption eliminating parts, Legislature satisfied remained 235, 565. whatever relevance explicit creating severability, Electric Bond Share Securities Exchange Comm'n, 303 434, 58 678, 683, 936, severability rarely turn presence absence clause. Champlin, stating test quoted above, cited severed despite Pollock Farmers' Loan Trust Co., 158 601, 635, 912, 919, 1108; Reagan 154 362, 395—396, 1047, 1053—1054, 38 1014; Field Clark, 143 649, 695—696, 495, 505—506, 36 294. observed 396, 1053, 1014, presumed legislating sake penalties, aid main fail, force, enactment.' 326, provided: 'That whoever cause transported, abet transporting, foreign confined, inveigled, decoyed, kidnaped, abducted, whatsoever shall, court, discretion, opposed reported 'imprisonment determine.' S.Rep.No. 765, 72d 1st (1932); 11878 ensuing debates, members principle. 13285, 13289—13290, Others argued lest lead execution. Id., 13304. Most id., 13283—13284, 13286—13287, 13295, persuade delay defeat. 13299, 13303. compromised views bill. Bomar, Lindbergh Law, Contemp.Prob. 435, 440 (1934). Dyer Missouri legislation anything, few them 13287 Cochran Missouri, introduced (H.R. 5657) stressed prompt law; end, 'willing go along strike 13296 13284, LaGuardia succinctly: '(I)f looking headline, in; real deterrent kidnaping, (Applause.)' 13299. Shortly thereafter, 1394, Senate's attitude markedly. year (S. 2841) less years, killing connection bank robbery. 78 5738 2113(e), direct.' 1461, forgotten attempt similar 1932, 1493, (1932), defeated 'in rush draft enact (kidnaping) suitable houses adjournment.' Finley, Geo.L.J. 908, 914, (1940). Taking cue robbery legislation, found ideal opportunity reassert 2252) begun 5737 S. 2252, retained determine,' 29, supra, 'death unharmed (1934); 8127—8128 After initial disagreement Senate, 8263—8264, conference, 8322; 1595, Sess. (1934), 2252 debate, 8767, 8775, 8778, 8855—8857 781 employed appearing 1201(a). 781, ranson otherwise, except, minor, parent thereof, late 1931 public became seriously concerned mounting incidence professional apparent inability cope aspects problem. Fisher McGuire, So-Called N.Y.U.L.Q.Rev. 646, 652—653 (1935). geographical position, city St. Louis 'had experienced numerous kidnapings handicap lines hindered her police officers.' 435 Largely response experience, Senator Patterson Cochran, identical bills 1525, H.R. 275, 191 (1931), 'kidnaped reward, unlawful purpose.' Several months baby March slightly modified Cochran. 35 36. legitimately doubt ability achieve supposed objective. regard, '(t)he kidnapper immediate, (Government's) best witness, way. suffice induce refrain victim, mitigation provision—itself supposition true.' Rationale Kidnapping, 53 540, 550 (1953). kidnapped suffering injuries liberated.' 324 282, 285, 65 666, 668, 89 944. result, '(o)nce (an) taken place, inducement until cure effected evidence, kidnapping, destroyed.' 289, 670 (Rutledge, dissenting). certainly murdered slain' kidnaper 'has gain (keeping) alive.' 13285 considerations influential omission 4, 670, dissenting), member hinted anti-kidnaping safety. law's fundamental preventing instance, unthinkable.

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