Document: 441 U.S. 91 99 S.Ct. 1601 60 L.Ed.2d 66 GLADSTONE, REALTORS, et al., Petitioners,v.VILLAGE OF BELLWOOD al. No. 77-1493. Argued Nov. 29, 1978. Decided April 17, 1979. Syllabus Section 812 of the Fair Housing Act 1968 (Act) provides that rights granted by § 804 against racial discrimination in sales or rental housing "may be enforced civil actions appropriate United States district courts." Respondents (the village Bellwood, one Negro and four white residents resident a neighboring municipality) brought separate District Court under petitioners (two real estate brokerage firms certain their employees), alleging they had violated "steering" prospective homeowners toward specified 12- 13-block integrated area ("target" area) Bellwood steering customers away from "target" area. It was further alleged been injured having its market wrongfully manipulated to economic social detriment citizens individual respondents denied right select without regard race deprived professional benefits living an society. Monetary, injunctive, declaratory relief sought. Prior bringing suit, respondents, purportedly but not fact seeking purchase homes, acted as "testers" attempt determine whether were engaged steering. Four six reside The summary judgment for both cases, holding who only testers thus at most indirect victims violations, lacked standing sue 812, which limited "direct victims" violations. Appeals reversed remanded, although capacity testers, entitled prove discriminatory practices documented testing them, adversely affected area, society; requirements Art. III satisfied respondent village; 810 Act—which "person aggrieved" violation may seek conciliation Secretary Urban Development (HUD) if fails bring suit court—and provide alternative remedies available precisely same class plaintiffs; conclusion Trafficante v. Metropolitan Life Ins. Co., 409 205, 209, 93 364, 366, 34 415, extends " 'as broadly is permitted Article III,' applicable cases 812. Held : 1. correctly interpreted §§ providing plaintiffs, with result like 810, broad III. Trafficante, supra. This construction consistent language legislative history interpretation HUD, agency primarily assigned implement administer Act. Pp. 100-109. 2. facts complaints revealed initial discovery are sufficient III, except respect two do within judgments should have entered. 109-116. (a) If, alleged, petitioners' actually begun rob balance stability, has challenge legality conduct. 109-111. (b) allegation losing character because conduct satisfy constitutional limits these respondents' protest intentional segregation community vary simply defined terms city blocks rather than, supra, reference apartment buildings, instead determined presence absence "distinct palpable injury" respondents. Warth Seldin, 422 490, 501, 95 2197, 2206, 45 343. Moreover, extent allege injury resulting diminution value homes due conduct, convincing evidence such decrease would allow contest 111-115. 569 F.2d 1013, affirmed part. Jonathan T. Howe, Chicago, Ill., petitioners. F. Willis Caruso, Lawrence G. Wallace, Washington, D. C., States, amicus curiae, special leave Court. Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion 1 Title VIII Civil Rights 1968, 82 Stat. 81, amended, 42 U.S.C. 3601 seq., commonly known (Act), prohibits throughout Nation. case presents statutory questions concerning VIII. 2 * Petitioners this firms, Gladstone, Realtors (Gladstone), Robert A. Hintze, (Hintze), nine employees. municipal corporation suburb Maywood. During fall 1975, other persons consulted petitioners, stating interested purchasing general suburban acting engaging "steering," i. e., directing home buyers equivalent properties different areas according race. 3 In October commenced action Act, 3612,1 Gladstone employees Northern Illinois, VIII, 3604.2 Simultaneously, filed virtually identical complaint Hintze salespeople court. complaints, illuminated subsequent discovery, charged steered approximately 12 13 dimension other, predominately areas. White customers, contrast, allegedly Bellwood. described complaint.3 "Village . [its] illegally [the] village," "have society." App. 6, 99. requested monetary, relief. 4 moved arguing "no actionable claim sue" statutes relied upon complaint, there existed controversy between parties meaning Constitution," failed prudential federal courts. Id., 78, 143. Judge presiding over decided whom Congress extended court expressly adopted reasoning TOPIC Circle Realty, 532 1273 (CA9 1976), involving similar those here. Ninth Circuit intended limit even though 415 (1972), 8104 3610, broadest plaintiffs Since admittedly any might wished purchase, concluded were, most, Gladstone's violations As ruled did discuss contention limitations on jurisdiction. his own also judgment. 5 Seventh consolidated appellate review. first considered significance merely genuinely homes. noted while precluded race, "the generate suggesting perfectly permissible inference [petitioners] engaging, allege, practice all buyer prospects come through doors." 1016 (1978) (emphasis original). Thus, "of 6 then turned question minima satisfied. Observing similarity allegations here accepted constitutionally it presented read itself consequence claimed portion Although aspect directly controlled found satisfied.5 7 Having before it, addressed Court's ruling unlike affords acts challenged. After considering recent federal-court decisions construing provisions, concluded, contrary decision plaintiffs. Constitution,' U.S., S.Ct., 367, quoting Hackett McGuire Bros., Inc., 445 442, 446 (CA3 1971), seen remanded proceedings. 8 sought review We certiorari resolve conflict TOPIC, consider important raised 1968. 436 956, 98 3068, 57 1120 (1978). With limitation n. 25, infra, we now affirm. II 9 decisions, some detail doctrine "In essence litigant decide merits dispute particular issues. inquiry involves jurisdiction exercise. dimensions founded concern about proper—and properly limited—role courts democratic 498, 2205, 343 (1975). 10 eliminate claims plaintiff make out himself defendant. order must show he personally suffered actual threatened putatively illegal Duke Power Co. Carolina Environmental Study Group, 438 59, 72, 2620, 2630, 595 (1978); Village Arlington Heights Dev. Corp., 429 252, 260-261, 97 555, 560-561, 50 450 (1977); Simon Eastern Kentucky Welfare Org., 426 26, 38, 96 1917, 1924, 48 (1976); supra 499, 2205; Linda R. S. Richard D., 410 614, 617, 1146, 1148, 35 536 (1973). Otherwise, exercise "would gratuitous inconsistent limitation." 1924. 11 Even when falls boundaries, still lack principles judiciary seeks avoid deciding import where no vindicated access litigants best suited assert claim. For example, normally peculiar distinct group part, than "shared substantially equal measure large citizens." 2205. He legal interests third parties.6 Ibid. Accord, 263, 561. may, legislation, expand full permitting litigation "who otherwise barred rules." 2206. event, however, abrogate minima: A always "a himself," ibid., likely redressed granted. insisted Their argument, Court, fullest see proceed, proscribed Respondents, hand, argue issue critical one, understood applied reach minimum If correct, squarely presented.7 14 Petitioners' argument centers points. First, uses term aggrieved," "[a]ny person practice," describe section. By lacks definition potential referring explicitly suits enforce elsewhere Second, informal disputes Department state agencies pursuing judicial remedy. See 4, But complainant proceed 15 From facts, infer congressional plan create distinct, overlapping, remedial avenues Under argue, victims—both direct indirect—of generally "aggrieved." protect volume generate, administrative expertise agencies, involve local governments national fair goals, interposed prerequisite invocation power "indirect 16 does specifically refer "persons allows invoking provision need quick, authoritative solution: victimized wrongful refusal rent sell dwelling place Appeals, contend, illogical permit ignore, option, scheme set up 810. either indirectly all, former alone. 17 Finally, supports view. That reflects concerned used instrument harassment.8 contend individuals harmed invoke substantial opportunity abuse kind. 18 find statute's history. Nothing suggests contemplates more restricted operative phrased passive voice—"[t]he sectio[n] courts"—simply avoiding plaintiff. therefore, indicate To contrary, face contains restrictions plaintiffs.9 19 Contrary contention, structured keep reaching courts, assure process runs course. 810(d) appears give commence HUD completes chooses pursue efforts.10 resort dissatisfied results delays conciliatory efforts HUD.11 plausible drawn mechanisms redress: immediate court, simple, inexpensive, procedure, followed fail.12 20 gave little help determining proper scope 210, specific support view plaintiffs.13 Early proposals legislation contained remedies.14 nonjudicial avenue later added theory expeditious less burdensome method resolving complaints.15 There condition prior agency. complainants alternative, remedy offered option desired use it. 21 apparently understanding Representative Celler who, chairman House Judiciary Committee, summarized floor House.16 Similar perceptions reflected reports proposed Justice17 Committee.18 consistently treated provisions.19 familiar principles, seeTeamsters Daniel, 439 551, 566 20, 790, 800 58 808 (1979); Udall Tallman, 380 1, 16, 85 792, 801, 616 (1965), stated agency's statute ordinarily commands considerable deference. 22 identified nothing reliance expressed intent harassment unconvincing. Nowhere suggest attempted deter possible limiting Indeed, pointless, given relatively easy provided 810.20 23 Most agree parallel E. g., Wheatley Neighborhood Coalition Jenna Resales F.Supp. 486, 489-492 (E.D.N.Y.1977); Park Forest Fairfax P-H EOHC ¶ 13,699, pp. 14,467-14,468 (N.D.Ill.1975); Council Bergen County Multiple Listing Serv., 1071, 1081-1083 (N.J.1976). Howard W. P. Bill Atkinson Enterprises, 412 610, 611 (W.D.Okl.1975); Miller Poretsky, 837, 838 (D.C.1976); Young AAA Realty 350 1382, 1384-1385 (M.D.N.C.1972); Crim Glover, 338 823, 825 (S.D.Ohio 1972); Johnson Decker, 333 88, 90-92 (N.D.Cal.1971); Brown Lo Duca, 307 102, 103-104 (E.D.Wis.1969). notable exception (1976), rely. reasons stated, believe declined follow TOPIC. Standing broa[d] Constitution.' 367.21 IV 24 light "accept true material construe favor complaining party," challenged largely basis pleadings.22 25 gist Bellwood's effectively manipulates village: Some whites so refrain showing them what available; conversely, Negroes solely falsely lead suitable price range conclusory abbreviated good pleading suggest, construed favorably affecting village's composition, replacing presently neighborhood segregated one. 26 adverse consequences attendant "changing" can profound. significantly reduce total number market, prices deflected downward. phenomenon exacerbated perceptible increases minority population attributable precipitate exodus residents. Cf. Zuch Hussey, 394 1028, 1030, 1054 (E.D.Mich.1975), aff'g remanding, 547 1168 (CA6 1977); Barrick Inc. City Gary, 354 126, 135 (N.D.Ind.1973), aff'd, 491 161 (CA7 1974); Mitchell, 335 1004, 1005 (N.D.Ga.1971), aff'd sub nom. Bob 474 115 (CA5), cert. denied, 414 826, 94 131, 38 59 (1973).23 significant reduction property values injures municipality diminishing tax base, threatening ability bear costs government services. Other harms flowing realities racially unlikely.24 said before, "[t]here importance" "promoting stable, housing." Linmark Associates, Willingboro Tp., 431 85, 94, 1614, 1619, 52 155 (1977). B 27 appeared capacities. practices. pressed Brief 14-15, therefore question. directed. litigation. 28 target They transformation predominantly depriving Trafficante. case, complex San Francisco complained landlord's exclusion nonwhites stigmatized "white ghetto" advantages community. Noting importance "benefits interracial associations," keeping statement noneconomic injuries suffice standing, Sierra Club Morton, 405 727, 734-735, 92 1361, 1365-1366, 31 636 requirement harm. 29 distinguishable harm "community," whereas "society." Reading whole, remembering encounter stage, attach difference word choice. one's "society" arguably exceptionally generalized or, purposes, could conceivably obliged motions made So construed, context, done carefully reside.25 us, III.26 30 distinction complex, Trafficante,27 residential neighborhood. factual differences, controlling case. note differences run how views environment. Apartment dwellers often mobile, attachment such, able react quickly perceived changes. homeowner well deeper attachments mobile. Various inferences purpose analysis, perceive categorical occupants imposed compact Bellwood.28 buildings. Rather, injury," "neighborhood" whose composition being extensive heavily sparsely populated, lacking shared commercial intercourse resident. genuine ascertainable discrete trial.29 32 addition claiming loss fairly well.30 obvious source absolute relative subject proof another certainly V 33 conclude remains open course, trial.31 adequacy express it.32 hold entered records Perry Sharp. Subject exception, affirmed.33 ordered. REHNQUIST, STEWART joins, dissenting. 36 outlaws aspects sale housing, widely routes into 3610,1 is, and, cannot days "by methods conference, conciliation, persuasion," held evinced 'a intention define 367. 37 second route VIII—§ 8122 "[t]he sections 803, 804, 805, 806 title ." 3612. Despite crucial our regarding today holds "[s]tanding Ante, 109, 366. I think ignores plain makes nonsense VIII's formerly sensible enforcement scheme. comprised rules self-restraint designed bar ill-suited litigate assert. dimension, asks party 'such personal stake outcome controversy' warrant justify court's powers behalf." 498-499, (1975) original), Baker Carr, 369 186, 204, 691, 703, 663 (1962). elements causation. demonstrate "personal stake" necessary Constitution, suffer bears 'fairly traceable' causal connection" action. (1978), 261, 561, Accordingly, objection party's based, relevant shown favorable decision." (1976). 39 alleges nonetheless asserts grievance citizens, Schlesinger Reservists Comm. Stop War, 418 208, 2925, 41 706 (1974), "rest parties" own. These rules, modification Congress, grant satisfying III's "to others, indeed, [to] public interest [his] claim." just enacting grants practice" indicated accord dwellers, themselves discrimination, free directed parties.3 Plaintiffs' "loss injury-in-fact 40 respondents—the five residents, community—brought petitioner 1982 homebuyers around Like society."4 Respondent Unlike proceeded choosing travel pertinent provides: "The amount State jurisdiction." 3612(a). indication authorize commencement rules. enforcing respondents—who discriminated petitioners—could hardly statutorily authorized "steered" effect reads structure me conclusion. 43 810—no times—to denominate claimant;5 wholly avoided term, preferring "plaintiff." voice, concludes "does 810." 103 added). point demonstrated Congress' affirmative section Constitution. follows indicates intend normal 44 Consistent 810's chosen section: "[T]he aggrieved protected 86, 3610(d) authorizes by," opposed "rights 806. Clearly, contemplated instituted secured enumerated sections. offended part: 46 "[I]t shall unlawful— 47 "(a) refuse after making bona fide offer, negotiate of, unavailable deny, color, religion, sex, origin. "(b) discriminate terms, conditions, privileges dwelling, services facilities connection therewith, 49 "(d) represent origin inspection, sale, available." 83, 88 729, 3604. 51 essence, persons6 reap "social Nor "wrongfully manipulated." [§ 804]." provisions restrict proceeding file Development, try correct persuasion." 3610(a). Secretary, defer whenever fair-housing laws recommence certification justice. 3610(c). Secretary's futile, comparable "substantially equivalent" legislation. 3610(d). 53 "plaintiff" similarly encumbered. deferring neither nor processes. appoint attorney waive payment fees, costs, security. 3612(b). Additionally, broader "prevailing plaintiff" awarded "permanent temporary injunction, restraining order, damages $1,000 punitive damages, together reasonable fees 3612(c). allowance counsel victorious claimant injunctive appropriate. contain 810(e), "[i]n pursuant 810], burden complainant." Given hard imagine why anyone voluntarily equally available. 54 When variant compared, logic private mechanism becomes clear. Immediate reserved practice; Only deemed magnitude appointment recovery compensatory fees. injure objects believed goals served extending permissible. Anyone practice, against, redress barring requiring exhaust procedures viable facilitate resolution disputes, intervention possible, encourage involvement effort discrimination. 55 "not too helpful," Introduced Senate approved unchanged House, culled Congressional Record. brief debate preceding adoption Amendment 586, amended require exhaustion filing particularly enlightening. Senator Miller, introduced amendment, explained: 56 "I part my amendment U. law act. matter letting know Federal calendars crowded enough, adding load law." 114 Cong.Rec. 4987 (1968). Hart "recognizes desire us share remedies, adequate, availed unnecessary burdening clog calendars." seems unlikely frustrate concerns moving adopt opening 812's aggrieved." attorney's prevailing immediately discriminatees. commented 812(b) (c)—which security award plaintiffs—"reveal clear permit, encourage, afford wrongs aimed color skin." 5514-5515 (1968) meager marshaled thin expansive References describing "addition[al]" "alternative" ante, 106, nn. 18, dispositive: mechanisms. not, compel claimants. piece supporting Committee staff's "aggrieved person" 18. single, fleeting overwhelm indications worded 61 pushed join pressing narrowly confined limit. 62 1982, "All enjoyed inherit, lease, sell, hold, convey property." "§ comprehensive Jones Alfred H. Mayer 392 409, 413, 2186, 2189, 1189 Enacted 1866, bars public, property. 63 1982—the motivated interference rights. conceptually indistinguishable rejected Plaintiffs town Penfield, N.Y., members Zoning, Planning, Town Boards, town's zoning ordinance excluded ethnic groups. One nonprofit organized alleviate shortage low- moderate-income based residing Penfield ethnically community." 512, 2212. plaintiffs' distinguishing ground communities harmful others. "attempt raise putative parties," 514, 2213, standing. 64 Warth, practiced fail. 65 Because reverse Appeals. "As 803 exempted 803(b) 807, "(c) make, print, publish, cause made, printed, published notice, statement, advertisement, preference, limitation, origin, "(e) profit, induce representations entry origin." 729. 1982. lives outside Sharp Negroes. Any believes will irrevocably occur (hereafter 'person aggrieved') [of HUD]. Within thirty receiving expiration period subsection (c), investigate notice writing intends decides persuasion. Wherever title, notify constitute law, take official has, date offense attention, proceedings matter, so, carries forward promptness. event unless certifies judgment, circumstances protection justice unable obtain voluntary compliance thereafter, named insofar relate complaint: Provided, title. 85. agreed Leadership Open Communities, F.2d, 1017. nonconstitutional circumstances. See, e. 19, 1925 (1976) ("the plaintiff, regardless nature absolute, [must] least 'arguably zone regulated' framework arises," Data Processing Service Camp, 397 150, 153, 90 827, 829, 184 (1969)). intervening asserted 322 352, 353 (N.D.Cal.), 1158, 1161 disclaim provision, focuses exclusively Rather reconstruct whatever relationship implicit directly. clearly Allott. 5515 Both dissenting opinion, post, 124, emphasize .." since segregation, substantive determines 99-100. text, extend apply; long suffers defendant's infringed. central stage possesses violates someone's rights, lower divided enlisted aid referred completed time. Several 810(d), requires result. Green Ten Eyck, 572 1233, 1240-1243 (CA8 1978); Tatum Myrick, 425 809, 810-812 (M.D.Fla.1977); Sumlin Brown, 420 80-82 (N.D.Fla.1976); Blake & Bane, 402 621, 622 (E.D.Va.1975); 1385-1387 (M.D.N.C.1972). Others, following HUD's CFR 105.16(a), 105.34 time failure settlement. Logan Carmack Assoc., 368 121, 122-123 (E.D.Tenn.1973); Ballas, 331 1033, 1036 (N.D.Tex.1971). conflict, position serve screening deflect classes grievances appear paralleled required them. 810(c), suspend carried officials. Such deferral availability 810(d). conditions limitation. convinced variations dissent, 124-126, imply larger history, discussed contradicts suggestion. 105-108, 20. instructive compare VII 1964, 2000e-5. bypass commencing action, agency, complaint. 706(f)(1), Equal Employment Opportunity Commission 180 settlement, "right-to-sue" letter 706(b), EEOC instructed receives dismissing true. No required; asked "intends resolve" elect itself, thereby preempting complainant's exercising supervision enjoys authority statutes, apparent 706, effective buffer complainants. Dubofsky, Housing: Legislative History Perspective, Washburn L.J. 149 (1969). Three bills containing 1966: 3296, 89th Cong., 2d Sess.; H.R. 14770, 14765, Sess. introduced, only. Explaining 1966, Conyers stated: "Experience repeatedly quicker fairer. implements resolves frivolous invalid complaints. Conciliation easier procedure formal process. Also greater expense, involved, including seller, broker mortgage financier, system itself." 112 18402 (1966). 1967 relief, again justified Hearings 1358 Subcommittee Affairs Banking Currency, 90th 1st Sess., 108 (testimony Roy Wilkins, Executive Director, NAACP, Chairman, Conference Rights). 1966 HUD. enacted informal, changed bills. bill occurred 9560 report explained Dirksen, ultimately states: court." 4908 Report "Section states conciliation-then-litigation approach 810]: occurred, 9612 authors single regulations every [who files HUD] notified 812." 105.16(a) handbook internal use, "additional remed[y] [that] pursued concurrently 810]." Field Operations Handbook (1971). ambiguity, taken opinion. 126-128. that, Miller's avail size extends. irrational requirement, incentive inexpensive lawsuit attractive many rendered meaningless. Apart dissent relies isolated, rhetorical remark Senator. affirmatively "private caption sentence oral advanced mentioned brief, 'person' 802(d)]." 1020 8. inclusion "corporation" Act's encompassed corporations argued "person," contending person." belatedly given, perhaps deservedly, cursory treatment there. circumstances, several admissions answers interrogatories, exhibits appended answers, maps below themselves, accept materials purposes issue. Mitchell brokers accused "blockbusting," exploiting fears change perpetuating rumors soliciting neighborhoods. unprincipled description reaction influx underscores threaten serious dislocation village. recognized, school linked closely segregation. Lee Nyquist, 318 710, 717 (W.D.N.Y.1970) (three-judge court), summarily 935, 1618, 105 (1971); National Advisory Disorders, 237 (1968); 2276 (remarks Sen. Mondale). previously indicated, 3, resides elsewhere. On record note, framed direct, indirect, Viewed event. Part perception incorrect. put clearly. intimate foreclose consideration if, remand, permits amend include "community" "society," differed prevented becoming Here, unimportant analysis situations, deprivation associations constitutes injury. housed 8,200 tenants. 206, 365. estimated 20,969 1975. Commerce, Bureau Census, Population Estimates Projections, Series P-25, 661, p. Ill. Shannon 305 211 (E.D.Pa.1969), 817-818 1970) (residents urban renewal project project's impact neighborhood's balance). Fox 416 954, 955-956 (E.D.Pa.1976); Marin Redevelopment Agency, 700, 702, 704 (N.D.Cal.1975). Comment, Act: Private Attorney General, Santa Clara Law. 562, 568-571 (1972). community, trial business brokers. participation residences type customers. Evidence kind establishment discover information, accomplished. village." dealt earliest stages litigation, usually pleadings, sometimes supported adequately adduced trial. prohibited 488 Real Estate One, 433 1140, 1144 (E.D.Mich.1977); 1075 issue, reason, Secretary. Complaints information form requires. Upon receipt furnish copy committed commit practice. course endeavors written consent concerned. employee guilty misdemeanor conviction thereof fined imprisoned year. hundred eighty occurred. based. reasonably answer him verified. transacts business. finds occur, enjoin section, complainant. "(f) Whenever individual, terminate compliance." 3610. occurred: continue satisfactory settlement forms court: And provided, encumbrance, consummated issuance issued purchaser, encumbrancer, tenant existence affected." application deem just, subdivision likewise subdivision. deems appropriate, permanent plaintiff: financially assume fees." suggestions 101 7, closing statement: "We vitality 810(a) generous gives unit management coverage statute." 212, 368. passing provision. Alleging "their race," 99, initially establish "testers." abandoned, electing stand nowhere else "Person" "one individuals, corporations, partnerships, associations, labor organizations, representatives, mutual companies, joint-stock trusts, unincorporated trustees, trustees bankruptcy, receivers, fiduciaries." 3602(d).

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