Document: 532 U.S. 661121 S.Ct. 1879149 L.Ed.2d 904 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.PGA TOUR, INC., PETITIONERv.CASEY MARTIN No. 00-24. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Argued January 17, 2001Decided May 29, 2001 Syllabus Petitioner sponsors professional golf tournaments conducted on three annual tours. A player gain entry into tours various ways, most commonly through successfully competing a three-stage qualifying tournament known as "Q-School." Any member public enter Q-School by submitting two letters recommendation and paying $3,000 fee cover greens fees cost carts, which permitted during first stages, but have been prohibited third stage since 1997. The rules governing competition tour events include "Rules Golf," apply at all levels amateur do not prohibit use "hard card," applies specifically petitioner's requires players walk course tournaments, except "open" for each senior tour. Respondent Martin talented golfer afflicted with degenerative circulatory disorder prevents him from walking courses. His constitutes disability under Americans Disabilities Act 1990 (ADA), 42 U.S.C. 12101 et seq. When turned pro entered Q-School, he request, supported detailed medical records, permission cart stage. refused, filed this action Title III ADA, which, among things, an entity operating "public accommodations" make "reasonable modifications" its policies "when ... necessary afford such accommodations individuals disabilities, unless can demonstrate making modifications would fundamentally alter nature accommodations," 12182(b)(2)(A)(ii) (emphasis added). In denying petitioner summary judgment, Magistrate Judge rejected contention, others, play areas competitions places accommodation" within III's scope. After trial, District permanent injunction requiring permit cart. Among rulings, court found rule's purpose was inject fatigue skill shot-making, injected cannot deemed significant normal circumstances; determined even cart, suffers coping his greater than able-bodied competitors endure course; concluded it game accommodate Martin. Ninth Circuit affirmed, concluding, inter alia, courses, including areas, accommodation permitting "fundamentally alter" those tournaments. Held: 1. plain terms, prohibits equal access basis disability. Cf. Pennsylvania Dept. Corrections v. Yeskey, 524 206, 209. That provides, general rule, "[n]o individual shall discriminated against full enjoyment privileges place accommodation." 12182(a). phrase defined terms 12 extensive categories, 12181(7), legislative history indicates should construed liberally people disabilities wide variety establishments available nondisabled. Given rule comprehensive definition accommodation," apparent their rounds fit comfortably coverage, protection. occur "golf course[s]," type identified accommodation. 12181(7)(L). And, relevant times, "leases" "operates" courses conduct As lessor operator, must discriminate "individual" "full privileges" Ibid. "privileges" playing tours; indeed, former privilege thousands pay, latter one they vie. individuals. rejects argument golfers members class protected III-i.e., "clients customers covered 12182(b)(1)(A)(iv)-but providers entertainment sells, so "job-related" discrimination claims only brought I. Even if were limited, entirely appropriate classify who pay chance compete and, successful, subsequent events, clients customers. conclusion consistent case law analogous context II Civil Rights 1964. See, e.g., Daniel Paul, 395 298, 306. Pp. 12-19. 2. Allowing despite requirement, modification nature" Q-School. theory, might constitute fundamental alteration these ways: (1) It essential aspect golf, diameter hole, unacceptable affected equally; (2) less change has peripheral impact itself nevertheless give disabled player, addition required III, advantage over others therefore character competition. persuaded waiver work either sense. carts inconsistent essence always shot-making. contained hard cards neither attribute nor indispensable feature golf. attempt distinguish generally played highest level, where, claims, "outcome-affecting" violate principle identical substantive rules, thereby altering events. argument's force mitigated fact impossible guarantee will exactly same conditions individual's ability sole determinant outcome. Further, factual argument-that "outcome affecting" because adversely affect performance-is undermined Court's finding significant. predicate accepted, legal position fatally flawed refusal consider Martin's personal circumstances deciding whether runs counter ADA's requirement individualized inquiry conducted. Sutton Air Lines, Inc., 527 471, 483. There no doubt allowing given uncontested endures walking. does impair said athletic event. 19-29. 204 F.3d 994, affirmed. ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT Stevens, J., delivered Court, Rehnquist, O'Connor, Kennedy, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. Opinion Justice Stevens Court. 1 raises questions concerning application 1990, 104 Stat. 328, seq., gifted athlete: first, protects qualified entrant disability; second, contestant denied 12182(b)(2)(A)(ii), allow ride when contestants walk. 2 * PGA nonprofit formed 1968, cosponsors About 200 participate TOUR; about 170 NIKE TOUR1; 100 SENIOR TOUR. TOUR typically 4-day leased operated petitioner. entire field usually competes 18-hole Thursday Friday; survive "cut" Saturday Sunday receive prize money amounts aggregate scores four rounds. revenues generated television, admissions, concessions, contributions amount $300 million year, much distributed money. 3 ways gaining particular For example, wins top-15 winners tour, earns right Additionally, obtain spot official rounds, week tournament. Most participants, however, earn way 4 reference from, members. covers players' Each thousand stage, consists different locations. Approximately half them second also includes 72 holes. Around 168 advance final one, where 108 Of finalists, fourth qualify membership rest significance illuminated there 25 country.2 5 Three sets govern First, jointly written Golf Association (USGA) Royal Ancient Club Scotland, played, millions amateurs private country clubs throughout worldwide, professionals petitioner, USGA, Ladies' Professional Association, Senior Women's Association. Those time.3 6 Second, "Conditions Competition Local Rules," often described require open rounds.4 On limited age 50 older, carts. seniors, prefer walk.5 7 Third, "Notices Competitors" issued specific Such notice may, explain how Rules applied water hazard man-made obstruction. authorize speed up unusual distance between green next tee.6 8 basic Golf, cards, weekly notices equally competitions. witnesses explained "the Masters Tournament, very level key everyone tee off hole tested 72-hole event exist days event." App. 192. 9 Casey golfer. amateur, won 17 Oregon junior 15, state championship high school senior. He Stanford University team 1994 National Collegiate Athletic (NCAA) championship. professional, 1998 1999, based 1999 performance, 2000. season, 24 cut 13 had top-10 finishes, coming twice once. 10 (ADA Act).7 Since birth Klippel-Trenaunay-Weber Syndrome, obstructs flow blood leg back heart. disease progressive; causes severe pain atrophied leg. During part college career, progress disease, could longer course.8 Walking caused pain, fatigue, anxiety, created risk hemorrhaging, developing clots, fracturing tibia badly amputation required. reasons, requests Pacific Conference NCAA waive carry own clubs. granted.9 11 card successful stages. refused review records action. possible competitor Although bound injunction, support litigation, USGA voluntarily granted similar sponsors, Open. moved judgment ground exempt coverage ADA "private clu[b] establishmen[t],"10 alternatively, scope Title.11 viewed commercial enterprise industry economic benefit rather club. Furthermore, after noting statutory included course,"12 spectators. operator not, view, "create enclaves facility thus relegate hop-scotch areas." 984 F. Supp. 1320, 1326-1327 (Ore. 1998). Accordingly, motion judgment. At did contest "that round golf." 994 1242, 1244 Rather, asserted condition competition, waiving reason Petitioner's evidence testimony number experts, some greatest history. Arnold Palmer,13 Jack Nicklaus,14 Ken Venturi15 critical factor tournament, particularly last day psychological pressure maximum. Their makes clear that, well competitive They express advantage.16 14 Rejecting necessity inappropriate, stated independent duty inquire issue, ascertain reasonable plaintiff without frustrating rule" Id., 1246. judge "by circumstances." 1250. presented evidence, found, mile round,17 "undeniably greater" course. 1251. observed: 15 "[P]laintiff walks, getting out With step, hemorrhaging. stress fatigue; plus added serious injury. put it, gladly trade good To perceive puts him-with condition-at gross distortion reality." 1251-1252. 16 result, "not Tour's cart." 1252. accordingly appeal Circuit, challenge rejection claim club," renewed contention portion " 'behind ropes' it." 997 (2000). Appeals resting incorrect assumption participants public. pointed university, users highly selected mean 998.18 opinion, select circle comparable "[a]ny pays $3000 supplies try school." 999. saw "no justification statute draw line beyond performance athletes becomes excellent restricted deprives situs Nor find distinguishing "use pleasure pursuit living." Consequently, remain 18 merits, dispute both solution problem providing regarded central Like issue "whether so." 1001. "an intensively fact-based inquiry," concluded, correctly resolved trial judge. words, "[a]ll otherwise engage disability." 1000. 19 ruled favor, Seventh came contrary failed "America's greatest-and democratic-golf Open." Olinger Assn., 205 1001 (2000).19 endorsed altered eliminated remove stamina (at least stamina) set qualities designed competition." 1006 (internal quotation marks omitted). Circuit's physical ordeals endured Venturi Ben Hogan walked Open victories 1964 1950 amply demonstrated importance tournament.20 alternative holding, bear administrative burdens evaluating 1007. 20 merely assumed disagree threshold our grant certiorari, 530 1306 (2000), encompasses question conflict courts. IV 21 Congress enacted remedy widespread studying need legislation, "historically, society tended isolate segregate improvements, forms continue pervasive social problem." 12101(a)(2); see 12101(a)(3) ("[D]iscrimination persists employment, housing, accommodations, education, transportation, communication, recreation, institutionalization, health services, voting, services"). noted many takes "outright intentional exclusion" "failure existing facilities practices." 12101(a)(5). thoroughly investigating problem, "compelling need" "clear national mandate" eliminate individuals, integrate "into mainstream American life." S. Rep. 101-116, p. (1989); H. R. 101-485, pt. 2, (1990). 22 provided broad mandate. See 12101(b). fact, Act's "most impressive strengths" "comprehensive character," Hearings 933 Senate Committee Labor Human Resources Subcommittee Handicapped, 101st Cong., 1st Sess., 197 (1989) (statement Attorney General Thornburgh), "a milestone path more decent, tolerant, progressive society," Board Trustees Univ. Ala. Garrett, 531 356, 375 (2001) (Kennedy, concurring). effectuate sweeping purpose, forbids major life, employment (Title I Act),21 services II),22 III).23 now, matter, applicability treatment wishing 23 prescribes, "[g]eneral rule": "No goods, facilities, privileges, advantages, person owns, leases (or to), operates categories,24 "should liberally" "equal access" nondisabled.25 26 seems apparent, addition, then, Certainly, offered Martin, course, appear 209 (1998) (holding text II's prohibition entities" "unmistakably State prisons prisoners coverage"). 27 argues otherwise. position, assert (as Court) club altogether coverage. admits accommodation.26 contend Appeals) competitors' area "behind ropes" accommodation, notwithstanding status reframes arguing ADA.27 28 According concerned customers" seeking "goods services" whereas persons places.28 goes, course" "place exhibition entertainment," 12181(7)(C), like actor theater production, provider consumer sells bring 'clients accommodation.' "29 "job-related"30 I-but contractor found) employee. 29 quotes appears 12182(b)(1)(A)(iv), states: "For purposes clauses (i) (iii) subparagraph, term 'individual individuals' refers enters contractual, licensing arrangement." Clauses subparagraph discriminating "individual individuals" certain ways31 directly indirectly contractual arrangements entities. hand prohibitions avoided means contract, while clause (iv) relationships expand accommodation's obligations 30 recognizes, literally applicable prohibiting individuals.32 contains limitation, 12182(a), 12182(b)(1)(A)(iv) provides limitation "[f]or of" separate subparagraph. Nevertheless, contends (iv)'s restriction subparagraph's fairly describes protection whole. 31 We decide construction correct, falters terms. If customers," (whether situated entertainment") simultaneously offer public-that watching it. difficult expensive former, nonetheless consideration fee, requisite acquires opportunity succeeds identifies serves (spectators tournaments) preclude having another (players whom discriminate. literal expansive read suggested broadly.33 32 Our 1964, 78 243, 2000a race, color, religion, origin. 2000a(a). 306 (1969), applying Lake Nixon Little Rock, Arkansas, we held "in sport activity" "spectators listeners." persuasive lower opinions Evans Laurel Links, 261 474, 477 (ED Va. 1966), establishment black "is spectators entertainment."34 And Wesley Savannah, 294 698 (SD Ga. 1969), association violated municipal (and only) white paid compete.35 These cases V 33 noted, 12182(a) forth disabilities. depends proper "discrimination," include: 34 failure policies, practices, procedures, accommodations." 35 differs afflictions uncomfortable difficult, capacity. cases, necessary. case, narrow 36 ways. changing six inches modification.36 Alternatively, reason, competition.37 sense.38 37 initial observe From early on, shot-making-using cause ball teeing away few strokes possible.39 still reflected declares: "The Game stroke successive accordance rules." Rule 1-1, (italics original). Over years, changes equipment, design, method transporting hole.40 Originally, used bag. Then bags, caddies, pulled hand, eventually motorized carried "Golf started appearing increasing regularity 1950's. Today everywhere. encouraged. thing, play, another, great revenue producers."41 nothing penalizes using observed, widely accepted world game.42 optional buried appendix Golf,43 itself. 38 Indeed, either. already mentioned, permits stages until 1997, well. supra, 2-4. Moreover, allows 4, n. 6. although enforces Amateur championships.44 39 Petitioner, distinguishes recently) Q-School-golf "highest level." "[t]he goal highest-level athletics assess compare competitors, task meaningful rules."45 possibly therefore, event.46 submits, "to element shot-making,"47 effect loss stroke. consequence, seeks talent elite sufficiently 40 is, all, weather produce harder head winds leader closest pursuers. lucky bounce save shot two.48 Whether happenstance probable likelihood Syndrome pure outcome resulting enforcement rule. 41 credited professor physiology expert calculated calories expended (about five miles) approximately 500 calories-"nutritionally Big Mac." Supp., What more, energy 5-hour period, numerous intervals refreshment. low intensity activity, primarily phenomenon motivation ingredients. heat humidity, fluid exercise option majority chosen walk, relieve strategic reasons.49 Eric Johnson testified, keep rhythm, stay warmer chilly, develop better sense elements riding cart.50 43 accept performance-its flawed. language ADA. previously stated, "individuals" 12101(b)(1), end exception "policies, procedures" reasonably modified doing what offered, 12182(b)(2)(A)(ii). comply command, determine person's person, yet time alteration. 61; 102 (public "are decisions facts individuals"). 483 (1999) ("[W]hether inquiry"). 44 sure, anyone demonstrated, best waived working Therefore, "highest-level" sacrosanct effectively requirement. But provision carves exemption athletics, "exhibition entertainment" (L), unintended unexpected, 12101(a)(1), (5). were, situations expressly anticipated ambiguity. demonstrates breadth." U.S., 212 omitted).51 45 Under evaluated basis, discussed, turn influence serve "easily walking." compromised slightest impairing do, offers desire enter. requires.52 request granted. 46 admittedly imposes operators strictly adhering fair respect indiscriminately disabilities.53 surely, kind, intended attention handful carefully weigh letter, determining tolerable. 47 48 ordered. 49 Scalia, dissenting Thomas, NOTES: name changed Buy.com Generally, maintain succeeding go again, perform level. Instead, Appendix lists "optional" conditions, related transportation: "If desired following suggested: "Players times stipulated round." 125. provides: Committee." 127. similarly permitted. 129. recent "approximat[e] closely possible." 152. 1251 156-160 (Notices Competitors 1997 Bob Hope Chrysler Classic, AT&T Pebble Beach Pro-Am, Quad City Classic). 12102 part: 'disability' means, individual- "(A) mental impairment substantially limits life activities ." Before extreme declined. Tr. 564-565. asked teams' reaction coach testified: "Q. Was complaint ever you coaches allowed gave the- "A. complaints? No sir, exactly-exactly opposite. Everybody recognized was, every coach, my knowledge, wanted welcomed there. Did constituted extent didn't your level? Not sir." 208. 12187 provisions subchapter exempted (42 2000-a(e)) religious organizations entities controlled organizations, worship." 12181(7). factors Tour lose more? Oh, is. happened. difference winning said, I've lost opens stroke." 177. Mr. Nicklaus, understanding why course? Well, fitness 190. So telling tends accumulate tournament? Oh definitely. There's doubt. . Does you've talked about, Venturi, manner you-you there's doubt, big part. game. decisions." 236-237. Based experience, believe Nike carts? Yes, absolutely. Why say so, sir? would-it take Now, factor, aid, cetera, understand testifying now plaintiff. You just talking terms? 238. id., 177-178 (Palmer); 191 (Nicklaus). "In place, course-even move essence, 25% roughly miles length, 11/4 miles." explained: 'secondary, undergraduate, post-graduate school[s].' 12181(7)(J). universities intense, relatively admitted. clearly statute's F.3d, 998. Ford Olinger, bilateral avascular necrosis, significantly hinders description 1006-1007. 12111-12117. 12131-12165. 12181-12189. inn, hotel, motel, lodging, located building rooms rent hire actually occupied proprietor residence proprietor; "(B) restaurant, bar, serving food drink; "(C) picture house, theater, concert hall, stadium, entertainment; "(D) auditorium, convention center, lecture gathering; "(E) bakery, grocery store, clothing hardware shopping sales rental establishment; "(F) laundromat, dry-cleaner, bank, barber shop, beauty travel service, shoe repair funeral parlor, gas station, office accountant lawyer, pharmacy, insurance office, care provider, hospital, service "(G) terminal, depot, station specified transportation; "(H) museum, library, gallery, display collection; "(I) park, zoo, amusement recreation; "(J) nursery, elementary, secondary, postgraduate school, education; "(K) citizen homeless shelter, adoption agency, center "(L) gymnasium, spa, bowling alley, recreation." 12181(7) 59; 100. Reply Brief 1-2. complains exact below precludes assertion here. However, raised courts, advanced petition fully briefed merits parties. discretion Harris Trust Sav. Bank Salomon Smith Barney 238, 245-246, (2000); Carlson Green, 446 14, (1980). 10, 11. (quoting 12182(b)(1)(A)(iv)). 15; (Martin's straightforward discrimination-in-the-workplace complaint"). Clause denial participation, (ii) participation unequal benefits, benefits. (clause "applies subsection 12182(b)"); "does discrimination"). Contrary dissent's suggestion, view "everyone job" tryout" otherwise, customer." Post, (opinion J.). Unlike job bid (perhaps, necessarily, money), commit associated employment. 260 (trial commissioner Timothy Finchem) (petitioner lacks control compete, outside competition). unlike "other sports, baseball," post, 7, employed clubs, organizations. record proposition hire," ibid., sporting list example. 2000a(b). racial grounds. 197; Oral Arg. 11-12. (Scalia, dissenting) ("I suppose point well-known degree call game"). Accord, ("The assure deny (among things) events-not win events"). contemplates inquiries: "reasonable," "necessary" individual, decided likely vary logic priority three. routine essential. specifics claimed examined modification. concession sought necessary, reliance provision, occasion alternatives case. ancient game, tracing ancestry notables Mary Queen Scots her son James. shot-making recorded published 1744 Leith Links Edinburgh: "Articles & Laws Playing "1. Tee Ball, Club's length [previous] Hole. "2. Your upon Ground. "3. Ball Strike Tee. "4. remove, Stones, Bones Break sake Except Green/& only/ Ball. "5. comes Water, Watery Filth, liberty bringing behind Teeing Adversary Stroke "6. Balls anywhere touching lift till last. "7. Holling, honestly Hole, Adversary's lying "8. being taken up, way, Spot, struck drop misfortune. "9. man Holling allowed, mark Hole or, thing else. "10. stopp'd Horse, Dog, else, stop'd play'd lyes. "11. Club, proceed far Stroke, down Club; break, in, Accounted Stroke. "12. He, whose lyes farthest obliged first. "13. Neither Trench, Ditch, Dyke, preservation Scholar's Holes Soldier's Shall accounted Hazard; out/Teed/and Iron Club." K. Chapman, Green 14-15 (1997). M. Campbell, Random House International Encyclopedia 9-57 (1991); Magazine's 1-17 (2d ed. 1993). 1001, 1003 (CA7 2000). point, immediate past president trial) illuminating: "Tell court, would, Ms. Bell, plays ? golfers. weekend together would-would Golf? certainly hope so. Or members, that's-that's right. want 239. 3, supra. USGA's handicap system, rated walks rides she uses caddy carries player's formula account average score difficulty "tournament" 13. 37. drive Andrew Magee earlier year produced result expected. While foursome ahead green, teed 322-yard par four. surprise, reached bounced Tom Byrum's putter hole. Davis, Gets Ace Par-4, Ariz. Republic, Jan. 2001, C16, WL 8510792. also, himself noticed, injunction. 201. 179-180 (deposition Gerry Norquist); 225-226 Harry Toscano). 51 Hence, questioning courts properly directed Congress, drafted broadly, us. misguided Scalia's suggestion hands all. dissent, sponsored sports games, sum "arbitrary rules," "can pronounce 'nonessential' rulemaker (here TOUR) deems essential." 10-11. Whatever merit postmodern "What Is [Sport]," enshrine establishments" "religious competitions, carte-blanche authority themselves deeming matter short, reading renders word "fundamentally" largely superfluous, treats 52 dissent agrees. respondent disability"). 53 think assessing substantial burden overstated. indicates, years else sued PGA, (one Olinger) misplaced, nowhere limit easy evaluate. today's exercises benevolent compassion power impose. distorts structure common respectfully dissent. holds "custome[r]" "competition" practices profession. Ante, 17. finds, ante, 18, strange compelled "literal text" "expansive purpose" 2000a(a), park disagree. titles: discrimination, government entities, irrelevant "employees" employers employees, 12112(a), 12111(5)(A). protect contractors. Birchem Knights Columbus, 116 310, 312-313 (CA8 1997); cf. Nationwide Mut. Ins. Co. Darden, 503 318, 322-323 (1992). I, 12182 III. section persons. "enjoyment place. invoking "sweeping" "expansive" 13, argue "individual," disability, anything called "privileg[e]," valid claim. 14. interpretation, employees contractors come III: employee enjoys "privilege" contract. 54 interpretation. here (12182, principal provision) public-accommodation law, traditional laws provide rights "At innkeepers, smiths, profession refusing, Hurley Irish-American Gay, Lesbian Bisexual Group Boston, 515 557, 571 (1995) Heart Atlanta Motel, Inc. 379 241 (1964). Section types follow-on expansion etc." of-and plainly envisions "enjoying" customer. "auditorium" gathering," 12181(7)(D). Thus, "gathering" distinctive derived auditorium; auditorium presumably contracting clean not. "zoo" recreation," 12181(7)(I). "recreat[ing]" covered, animal handlers latest panda addresses "contractual" arrangements, party contract 12182(b)(1)(A)(iv). finally, regulations promulgated Department reinforce protections extend requirements," say, ensure accessibility goods CFR, Ch. 1, 36, B, 650 Surely 55 left interpretation muddle words overall scheme." Davis Michigan Treasury, 489 803, 809 (1989). excluded fewer mom-and-pop store laundromat worry nonpublic business handicapped employees-or litigation invite. Similarly, small large matter) special painters, electricians, workers contracted time. unreasonable exemptions crafted (for businesses accommodation) "enjoy" provide. public, conceivable according enjoy. 56 apparently agrees cognizable Amicus Curiae 18-19, implications regulations, (though explicitly state) cognizable. discussion littered vague statements history, 12, governmental II, 17-a reasoning commend untutored intellect. conceive of) exclude covering contractors, regarding concedes 57 part, assumes argument, pronounces "customer" played. me quite incredible. event, staged live TV audience, receipts (the audience's admission price advertisers) expenses cash prizes term) held, baseball games Yankee Stadium. ballplayers ballfields, mind League watch. different. bit difference, insofar concerned, remuneration (unlike ballplayers) fixed contingent-viz., purses compensation product endorsements assured. contingent success-real estate brokers, salesmen. 58 points out, 12181(7)(L) ("a recreation"); "goo[d], servic[e], facilit[y], privileg[e], advantag[e], accommodatio[n]" category "exercise seek "exercise" "recreate" events; (which golfer). customer buying recreation athlete selling others) 298 misplaced. golfer's practicing John Q. Public's frequenting 232-acre swimming, boating, sun bathing, picnicking, miniature dancing snack bar." Daniel, 301. 59 relies heavily says golfing "competing vie." 14-15. public's "enjoyment" California Bar Exam.1 TOUR-an tryout, casting movie walk-on tryouts baseball. Amateurs Join Pros New Season HBO's "Sopranos," Detroit News, Dec. 22, 2000, (20,000 attend Sopranos"); Bill Zack, Braves, Sporting Feb. 6, 1995 (1,300 would-be attended tryout Braves). enjoy trying grade, actors auditions, (I hesitate lawyers taking Exam). holding hire. bottom, performances bidding contracts grass applications bidding, applying-and out-are converted By reasoning, exists sell public; wherefore follows, night day, customer.2 60 Having erroneously "customers" consist practitioners, then answers-or accurate simply ignores-a question. "afford" disabilities; "modifications [that] privileges. inventory accessible features for, facilitate by, disabilities." CFR 36.307 ch. 61 content regulated. camera refuse cameras stock specially Had purposed impose enormous retail sector economy vast supervisory responsibility federal intention clearer imposed standards. hardly feasible judicial function shoestores single shoes one-legged price, Braille books Borders Barnes Noble bookstore chains stores." Doe Mutual Omaha Co., 179 560 1999). 62 considering altered. TOUR's compliance store's "pairness" shoes. wishes pairs may; course) walk-around may. essentials details) 63 assumed) golf; inexplicably regards provided, confront respondent's supposed policy, practice, procedure attacks "fundamental alteration" analysis asking questions: "essence" "essential aspect" altered; change, 20-21. answers both. 64 answer question, worth pointing underlies false. Nowhere writ classic "essential" wishes, promote new (much promotes pitcher's plate "designated hitter")? rules-if feel truly test "real golf" team's baseball") withdraw patronage. rules. games) arbitrary, anyone-not States-can "nonessential" 65 assumes, obligation classic, Platonic golf-and correctness wrong turns get point-then Justices indeed awesome responsibility. rendered solemn laid pursuance Federal Government's "[t]o regulate Commerce foreign Nations, several States," Const., Art. 8, cl. Golf. am sure Framers Constitution, aware 1457 edict King James Scotland interfered practice archery, expected sooner later paths government, links, once again cross, judges august wrestle age-old jurisprudential study prepared them: someone around really golfer? answer, learn, yes. ultimately concludes, henceforth Law Land, "fundamental" 66 Either humility self-respect other) decline incredibly silly something ordinarily achievement object. object (that productive activity), game's arbitrary "essential." Eighteen-hole 10-foot-high basketball hoops, 90-foot baselines, 100-yard football fields-all none tradition (in modern times) insistence ruling body sport-both present (Many, golf-hence Mark Twain's criticism sport: spoiled.") dribble large, inflated hoop, criterion-destroying recognizability generic game-is surely "essentialness" "fundamentalness" applies, thinks cup 20. 67 dispensing federal-Platonic "golf" (and, implicitly, other, insist upon) moves test: effects nonessential analysis, finds "mitigated" weather, "lucky bounce," "pure chance" "be outcome." 25. guess follow Nicklaus luckiest time, challenged late phenomenal luck Tiger Woods. empiricism unpersuasive. "Pure randomly players, gives "lucky" break plays. Pure matters margin-a there; improves prospects couple strokes. granting nonhuman variables affecting justify adding variable favors player. 68 effort possible, fatigued 28. This, says, proves affected. Far thinking cabins prove destructive feature. Because step two-part [its] nature," utterly unprincipled ontology (pursuant golf's 3-inch hole), future involving determinative. resolving step-determining impermissible "competitive effect"-by measuring capacity requesting dispensation (so speak) guarantees sort findings. Which numerous, rich source lucrative litigation. One envision parents deficit convince son's hit pitched ball. (If prevent giving kid strikes determination baseball, metaphysically absurd.) 69 statute, long journey. impossible, measurement, uniform unevenly excellence. distribution precisely determines losers-and artificially "even out" distribution, emphasizes weakness, destroy "handicaps" customary golf-which, subtracting bad ones, varying abilities-are world, "fair able-bodied" "individualized" mandated "talented athletes." 29. mandates ridiculous thing. Agility, strength, speed, balance, quickness mind, steadiness nerves, concentration-these talents evenly distributed. wild-eyed dreamer managing bodies uneven God-given gifts writing enforcing misty-eyed supervision revolution. 70 71 My belief error mistaken ought close divided; Just youngsters strike, organized master) deem be, competitive-how strict raw aspects competition-they be. discussed above-not sententiously decrees "decent, [and] progressive," concurring)). will, run, accrue Now "fundamentalness," value autonomy incentive defend vigorously regulation. second-guessed requirements sport, assuredly wavered enforcement. lesson never modifications. tryouts. served incentives created. 73 Complaints "properly Congress," 27-28, 51. Kafkaesque fields exhibitions, "places athletes, organization them; Alice Wonderland things judicially determinable made-up game; Animal Farm fairness gets one's lack pronounced disability) handicap. "everybody finally equal." Vonnegut, Harrison Bergeron, Related Readings 129 Exam "examinations applications, licensing, certification, credentialing secondary post-secondary purposes." 12189. 12182, "customers," 12189 unnecessary. suggests "play[s] [his] pleasure," "over performance," 33. contractors-composers music, portrait artists, script writers, (some say) plumbers-retain respondent, minimum designated specifies. Community Creative Non-Violence Reid, 490 730, 751-753 (discussing sculptor). although, footnote, rare winner choose forgo order, preserve continuing play) contractually entitled demands relationship requires.

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