Document: 544 U.S. 581 CLINGMAN, SECRETARY, OKLAHOMA STATE ELECTION BOARD, ET AL.v.BEAVER AL. No. 04-37. Supreme Court of United States. Argued January 19, 2005. Decided May 23, Under Oklahoma's semiclosed primary law, a political party may invite only its own registered members and voters as Independents to vote in primary. When the Libertarian Party Oklahoma (LPO) notified State Election Board it wanted open upcoming all regardless affiliation, board agreed Independents, but not other parties' members. The LPO several Oklahomans Republicans Democrats then sued for equitable relief, alleging that statute unconstitutionally burdens their First Amendment right freedom association. District upheld on grounds did severely burden respondents' associational rights any imposed was justified by asserted interests preserving parties viable identifiable interest groups ensuring results accurately reflect members' voting. Reversing, Tenth Circuit concluded severe narrowly tailored serve compelling state interest. Held: judgment is reversed, case remanded. 363 F. 3d 1048, reversed 1 JUSTICE THOMAS delivered opinion except Part II-A, concluding system does violate Any imposes minor legitimate interests. Pp. 586-587, 591-598. 2 (a) protects citizens' "to band together promoting among electorate candidates who espouse views." California Democratic v. Jones, 530 567, 574. Regulations imposing must be interest, when they impose lesser burdens, "a State's important regulatory will usually enough justify reasonable, nondiscriminatory restrictions." Timmons Twin Cities Area New Party, 520 U. S. 351, 358. In Tashjian Republican Conn., 479 208, 224, n. 13, left question whether prevent from inviting 586-587. 3 (b) rights. disagrees with argument no less than at issue Tashjian, thus apply strict scrutiny Tashjian. applied without carefully examining Not every electoral law burdening subject scrutiny, which appropriate if severe, e. g., supra, 582. Requiring register before participating minimally voters' Moreover, distinguishable. an even substantial Connecticut closed Unlike require Independent affiliate publicly primary, S., 216, 7. Although, like earlier allow "broaden opportunities joining . act," requires "intervening action potential voters," ibid., this since many regulations take some participate process. Such barriers between voter do compel scrutiny. See Bullock Carter, 405 134, 143. To deem ordinary widespread these would virtually regulation hamper ability States run efficient elections, federal courts rewrite codes. Constitution result. 591-593. 4 (c) advances number recognizes important: It "preserv[es] [political] groups," Nader Schaffer, 417 Supp. 837, 845 (Conn.), aff'd, 429 989; enhances electioneering party-building efforts, Supp., 848; guards against raiding "sore loser" candidacies spurned contenders, Storer Brown, 415 724, 735. 593-597. 5 (d) declines consider expansion challenge include ballot access registration laws. Those claims were neither raised nor decided below, see, Cooper Industries, Inc. Aviall Services, Inc., 543 157, 168-169, respondents have pointed unusual circumstances warranting consideration now, see Taylor Freeland & Kronz, 503 638, 645-646. 597-598. 6 THOMAS, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, SCALIA, KENNEDY, II-A unwilling disaffiliate another order LPO's forms little "association" — him. 235. But right, others has constitutional. reasons underpinning Timmons, show minimally. As regulate internal processes, authority exclude unwanted members, or capacity communicate public. And just Minnesota conditioned party's nominate candidate choice candidate's willingness party, conditions welcome into voter's dissociate his current choice. If prevented associating desired standard bearer because he refuses also same. slighter LPO. Disaffiliation difficult: Other wish simply need file form changing registration. Voters are "locked in" Kusper Pontikes, 414 51, 60-61, nominal effort free 587-591. 7 O'CONNOR, BREYER III, most Court's reasoning, wrote separately emphasize two points. First, constitutionally cognizable one through should minimized dispose case. Second, while correct properly under review, standing alone modest, rights, interests, there concern laws governing recognition changes affiliation unreasonably restrict A realistic assessment would, case, examination cumulative effects overall scheme; finding more trigger probing review justifications. 598-608. 8 J., opinion, II-A. REHNQUIST, C. SCALIA JJ., full, O'CONNOR BREYER, filed concurring part judgment, post, p. 598. STEVENS, dissenting GINSBURG, joined, SOUTER, Parts I, II, 608. 9 Wellon B. Poe, Jr., Assistant Attorney General Oklahoma, argued cause petitioners. With him briefs W. A. Drew Edmondson, General. 10 James Linger brief respondents.* 11 CERTIORARI TO UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR TENTH CIRCUIT. 12 Court, 13 system, Appeals held violates association Parties. We hold not. 14 * election provide Okla. Stat. Ann., Tit. 26, § 1-104(A) (West 1997), unless opens well, 1-104(B)(1). 2000, secretary voters, regard affiliation. 1-104(B)(4) (requiring notice Independents). Pursuant 1-104, parties. declaratory injunctive relief Western App. 20. 15 After hearing, declined enjoin 2000 primaries. 2-day bench trial following election, found Further, "preserving groups, [and] insuring voting members." Memorandum Opinion, Case CIV-00-1071-F (WD Okla., Jan. 24, 2003), Pet. Cert. 55-56 (hereinafter Opinion) (internal quotation marks omitted). therefore Id., 72-73. 16 On appeal, Court. constitutional 1057-1058 (2004). Finding none compelling, enjoined using law. 1060-1061. Because Appeals' decision prohibits casts doubt 23 States,1 we granted certiorari. 542 965 II 17 grants "broad power prescribe `Times, Places Manner holding Elections Senators Representatives,' Art. §4, cl. 1, matched control over process offices." 217 (1986); 358 (1997) (quoting Tashjian). Amendment, things, citizens 574 (2000). However, Ibid. 18 struck down, inconsistent 225. This presents open: 13. acknowledged, opening including parties, raise[s] different combination considerations." persuaded 19 At outset, note unlike infringe sought discover names NAACP Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 449, 451 (1958); interfere restricting activities central purpose, Claiborne Hardware Co., 458 886, 895 (1982); Button, 371 415, 423-426 (1963); disqualify public benefits privileges, Keyishian Regents Univ. N. Y., 385 589, 595-596 (1967); 577. canvass electorate, enroll choice, engage same Oklahoma. merely leaving selection people party. Nothing 1-104 prevents switching status.2 allowed 20 words, brought want associate LPO, least formal sense. They remain Republican, Democratic, Reform yet assist selecting Party's general election. Their casting particular election,3 rather banding fellow committed goals ideas. 573-574, ("As `interest' group belong, falls far short indeed can fairly characterized interest"). happy votes, membership rolls. 21 235 (SCALIA, dissenting). That might numerous primaries, cast ballots candidates, given race. "dual associations," 601 (O'CONNOR, judgment), seemingly boundless ones. "If concept extended" desire box, "it ceases analytic use." dissenting); cf. Wisconsin La Follette, 450 107, 130 (1981) (Powell, dissenting) ("[Not] conflict rules concerning participation nomination creates rights"). 22 For instance, considered prohibiting multiparty, "fusion," appears nominee 353-354. Minnesota's putting forward major challenged 354-355. "though trivial [were] severe." 363. remained govern themselves internally wished. had regulated decisionmaking process, compelled persuasion, could "those few individuals both already also, forced choose, prefer party." 24 our anything, "[t]he moment choosing nominee" matters more, 575, "`the crucial juncture appeal common principles translated concerted action, hence community,'" ibid. 216). "`standard bearer,'" 359; 575 25 general, "anyone `join' asking time (at most) registering within state-defined reasonable period election." 596 (STEVENS, Parties county change 4-119 2005). 60-61 (1973), reason, too, requirement unduly hinder attract persuade make minimal necessary switch B 26 Respondents argue According respondents, disagree. required U.S., 210-211. having adopted rule contended Connecticut's infringed voters. Applying advanced ban willing 217-225. 27 Respondents' reliance unavailing. initial matter, discussion magnitude Post, 605 judgment). See, 849 (Conn.) ("There infringement judicial warranted"), 989 (1976). Instead, cases clarified, severe. 582; itself, join late day 219. explained above, 590-591, requiring prior 28 Nevertheless, identified ways limited first true here affiliated These Libertarians primary; declare leave them Independents. 1-104(B)(1) 1997). 29 second act, intervening voters." act equally system: characterize good reason. Many regulations, generally, Rosario Rockefeller, 410 752, 760-762 (1973) (upholding months advance election). invariably "affec[t] degree individual's ends." Anderson Celebrezze, 460 780, 788 (1983). 30 143 (1972). result, beyond "that may, inevitably must, enact reduce election- campaign-related disorder." 358; 730 (1974). citizenry. C 31 provision places heavy omitted); Anderson, 788. Here, Nader, 845; id., Storer, 32 asserts, broad sense, reflec[t] Amended Supplemental Trial Brief Defendants 10, Record Doc. 63 attribution 845). wishes Democrats, well numbers dwarf roughly 300 Opinion 31-32 95% 1996 independents, Libertarians). permitted emerges "unconcerned with, hostile to," preferences majority 846. matter risk surrender identity exchange success. independent concerns integrity system. wants "avoid outcomes tend confuse mislead population extent [it] relies labels representative certain ideologies." Petitioners 845); Eu San Francisco County Central Comm., 489 214, 228 (1989). 33 "`[i]n facilitating effective operation [a] democratic government, reasonably classify according affiliations.'" 845-846 Ray Blair, 343 226, (1952)). classification mean much, limit roam purpose demonstration `commitment' whose participate." 847. commitment lessened retain Opening render imprimatur unreliable index actual philosophy, "would affiliations significantly meaningful system." 59. undermine role Cf. 34 retaining importance aids efforts. "It experience direct solicitation mail, telephone, face-to-face contact, active supporters campaign." 848. Yet turnout efforts depend large accurate Council Alternative Political Div. Elections, 344 J. Super. 225, 231-232, 781 2d 1041, 1045 (2001) ("It undisputed lists, information, essential information [party committees] campaign activities, canvassing fundraising"). 35 longer rolls cease reflection preferences. likely expending precious resources turn out votes elsewhere. South Dakota et al. Amici Curiae 20-21. encouraging 587 (KENNEDY, concurring), entitled protect plan primaries stable Tr. Oral Arg. 26. 36 Third, preventing raiding, "the organized blocs manipulate outcome 788-789, 9; 572. example, doubt, siphon off Or contender senses defeat launch candidacy defecting taking loyal undermining election.4 "temper[ing] destabilizing effects" precisely sort "party splintering excessive factionalism." 367; Davis Bandemer, 478 109, 144-145 (1986) serves discouraging temporarily While "unreasonably exclusionary restrictions," 367, "repeatedly politically neutral regulations" 369 III 37 Beyond expanded contend laws, taken together, effectively 15-18 (discussing joint §§ 1-108, 1-109, 1-110, 4-112, 2005)). 38 Though unsuccessfully provisions before, Rainbow Coalition Bd., 844 740 (CA10 1988) (rejecting provision, 1-108 1981 1987)), raise merits Before Appeals, complained i. e., Appellants' 03-6058 (CA10), pp. 5, 8-10, (challenging respondents); Plaintiffs' 9-25, 65 (same); Complaint 6-9, (same). evidence record how operate tandem actually ordinarily 168-169 (2004) (citing Adarand Constructors, Mineta, 534 103, 109 (per curiam)), warrant considering portions code day, 645-646 (1992). decline aspect challenge. 39 40 remains leaves courts. remanded further proceedings. 41 so ordered. Notes: ofamici curiae urging reversal Lawrence E. Long, Dakota, Craig M. Eichstadt, Deputy General, Gene Schaerr, Attorneys respective follows: Joseph Curran, Maryland, Thomas Reilly Massachusetts, Kelly Ayotte Hampshire, Patricia Madrid Mexico, Roy North Carolina, Mark Shurtleff Utah, Darrell V. McGraw, West Virginia. ofamicus affirmance Free Open Richard Shepard. Ariz. Rev. Ann. 16-241(A) 1996); Cal. Elec. Code 13102 2003); Colo. 1-3-101(1) (Lexis 2004); Conn. Gen. 9-431(a) (2005); Del. 15, 3110 1999); Fla. 101.021 (2003); Iowa 43.38, 43.42 Kan. 25-4502 (2000); Ky. 116.055 La. 18:1280.25 2005); Mass. Laws ch. 53, Neb. 32-312 (2004); Nev. 293.287 H. 659:14 19:23-45.1 1-12-7 (1995); Y. Law 1-104.9 163-59 Pa. 25, 292 (Purdon 1994); R. I. 17-9.1-24, 17-15-24 D. Codified 12-6-26 Va. 3-1-35 2002); Wyo. 22-5-212 1977-2003) argue, statutes difficult (either primary). 13-19. explain fully Seeinfra, alleged wished 4, 23; 3,id., 1. submitted point pair affidavits Mary Burnett (a Republican) Floyd Turner Democrat), asserting each Motion Preliminary Injunction, (attached affidavits). Based Turner's affidavit, stipulated voters" "registered [LPO] wish[ed] vote" Joint Stipulations Fact ¶ 32, 17. never claimed way, unable run-off elections. effective, defect office generally been member six filing. 5-105(A) days lack support means regularly petition recognized partiesIbid.; 1-109 2005) (Oklahoma's requirements). though up weeks after June eight 4-119; 1-102 (setting last Tuesday July). 42 whom joins judgment. 43 I Although agree write think claim implicates reason minimize those us, note, however, scheme elections; justifications offered State. 44 Nearly Nation now mandates select national statewide Galderisi Ezra, Congressional Primaries Historical Theoretical Context, Politics Representation 11, 17, (P. Galderisi, Lyons eds. 2001). constitute "`crucial juncture'" (2000) 216 (1986)), vital forum expressive 58 ("[A] basic function elections[, a] prime objective surely gain voice process"). bearers. pivotal, course, dictates range choices available often presumptive winner 45 "No country which, citizens, live," Wesberry Sanders, 376 (1964), one's integral freedom," Kusper, 57. repeatedly reaffirmed Fourteenth Amendments 574-575; 214; 56-57. Indeed, protection especially context aggregation is, essence individual like-minded polls. obviously plays critical determining message prospects success contest. 575; 122 ("[T]he `common advancement beliefs' necessarily presupposes identify association" 56)). 46 plurality questions ante, 588-589. Its doubts appear stem implicit premises: first, party; second, time. Neither premises sound, my view. signify personal commitment, accompanied faithful activism principally mandatory (and perhaps ministerial) prerequisite registering. 130, described Party"). fact episodic not, significance; reflects special character allows regular intervals shape government officials. 47 dual associations, fail why negate say, Democrat protected attending meetings making contributions. validity associations seems particularly clear where concerned. longstanding she maintain, nevertheless during cycles elections offices. refusal her abiding (which party), costs disaffiliation, infra, 606-607, both. part, significant augmenting sympathetic 48 None suggest superseding questioned, States' single ultimately trump dismiss inquiry genuineness, intensity, duration fruitful way approach challenges here. Primary sometimes isolated association, vitally level protection. Accordingly, invites seeks so, begin premise stake. From starting point, ask what manner justifiably 49 remainder analysis, am substantially accord reasoning. Our assigns that, "as practical fair honest order, chaos, accompany processes," balance flexible today. standard, rigorousness propriety depends upon rights." Burdick Takushi, 504 428, 434 (1997). intensive restrictions sustained 50 regime reviewing regulation. play regulating wholly arbiter. Rather, itself controlled power, presumably incentive game benefit. Recognition reality suspect regulations. Where genuinely threat apparent intervention. such become discriminatory effects, increasing erect competition. cases, applying heightened helps ensure limitations truly pretext anti-competitive restrictions. 51 Throughout proceedings lower courts, framed suit facial sum either unjustified 597-598, us. Assuming (as believe circumstances) provides avenues reregister Libertarians, modest altogether trivial: (for example) forfeit cycle, cannot define bounds broadly like. 610, associations). discriminatory. 52 wishing By providing fixed party-related base close until date vote, facilitates planning. assuming availability reregistration procedures, inability rival presence anticompetitive restrictions, failure win allegiance. alone, obstacle indicate partisan self dealing lockup 53 essentially 593-597, adequate finally, distinguishable dissent application square articulated recent 602-603. respect stare decisis, distinguished greater 592, weaker here, compare 54 briefing oral law's operation, quite 12-24. follows. 55 Partisan July even-numbered year. field obtain "recognized" status. ibid.; 1-107, 5-104 1997 submit, later year (i. year), signatures equal five percent total gubernatorial Presidential determine sufficient. 1-108(3). attained status fashion 1980. receives Governor President able history), loses 1-109. regain status, go again. 56 participated, changed Independent. 1-110. noted, highly ranks and, indeed, contain sympathize motions re-registering purged rolls." A-48. turns out, permit 57 Most importantly, deadline makes submits deadline, conferred. 4-119. officially Monday next succeeding Wednesday. 5-110. characterization accurate, seem face genuine dilemma. hand, stick opportunity Alternatively, Independent, forfeiting declared know conduct tuned much candidate. 586 concurring). pose difficulty attracted coalesce comparatively cycle. 791-792 (1983) emergence cycle). 59 included full made attempt requirements relevant accordingly, gave various interrelate practice, seek them. Given posture, proper prudent us reformulated urge. 60 allegations troubling, raised, examine panoply apparently defensible combined effect Even separately, parts fall curtails freedoms. onerous; now. shown, weighty restriction required. 61 GINSBURG joins, SOUTER dissenting. 62 today diminishes value Amendment: citizen's mission. No functions sponsored third protection, elects speech, donate funds, ballot. vindicating outweighs punishing acts disloyalty. becomes lopsided reinforced override values, focuses legitimate. valid manipulating protecting competition, stunting growth new conducting orderly maximum overrides (or, conflicts with) 64 final simple. Occasionally, defining platform procedures supporting elected representatives. values conflict, faced choices. when, reinforce easy. enacted impairs both; denies affirm rejecting claims, certainly primarily interested candidate, happens lost sight principal primary: office. 445 (1992) casting, counting, recording elect officials, expression"). 66 focused three precepts. includes Classic, 313 299, 318 (1941); Terry Adams, 345 461 (1953). "integral procedure choice," eligible receive 318; Gray 372 368 (1963) (invalidating diluted "for choice." Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 555 (1964). Finally, assessing absolute denial focus realities situation, empty formalism. (identifying law"); Terry, 469-470 (noting Jaybird part" whole procedure" violated Fifteenth Amendment). 67 impact mere "burden"; prohibition.1 virtue preferred absolutely precluded answer registered) so-called "white primary" anything clear, cured subsequent Just "only counted" 469, official selected counts running. Burdick, 442 ("Because [petitioner] name preferred, vote"). 68 say whatever desire. strong normally outweigh uninvited voter.2 classifying limiting result classification. stand relation live, count depending factor, 565, too belong. deny absent overriding importance. 69 addition respondent's permits so. office, overstated. enabling disseminate give views, issues affect society. "vigorously place reserves for, accords, `select[s] best represents ideologies preferences.'" 224 (1989)). 70 believes enable core goes heart itself. "Freedom ." citations (1981). undoubtedly times, "limits community." (1986). 71 constitutional, argues nonexistent heavily burdened scheme. footnote Jones Democrats. 588-589 5). primaries; putative actively courting exist. More rejected arguments. 72 prohibit broaden undeniably exercise association." 214. Importantly, notion somehow diminished formally Republicans. 215 ("[C]onsidered standpoint enrollment element continuum affairs, sense important"). reasoned independents contributing financial events; anomalous "`basic function'" 216. examined State, lacking, down prohibition independents' 73 Virtually identical stake belief attracting diverse mainstream Like cognizant enjoy booth Republicans, 74 informed stringent automatically revert being independents.3 routinely otherwise instead Republicans.4 Thus, force 75 justification abridgment countervailing irrelevant insignificant. aggregate decision. 76 remarkable suggestion saddled nonlibertarian ultimate be, "libertarian." 594.5 seeking crossover Rightly wrongly, feels produce dilute business tell coalitions 581-582 producing centrist blanket primary).6 77 expresses create confusion. paternalistic belied confusion occur. A-43 "very simple eligibility posted polling runoff conducted"). 78 suggests impair empirical Democrat, attempting orthodoxy convenience Virginia Bd. Ed. Barnette, 319 624, 642 (1943) ("If star constellation, official, high petty, shall orthodox politics, nationalism, religion, opinion. ."). causes "Democrat" "Republican" proposition reject7), dilution fundamental immunized change.8 79 Fourth, concerned Parties, building accomplish. misplaced. if, rolls, mailing phone banks be,9 administrative inconvenience core, based fear successful convincing Far impermissible one. 367 (State "completely insulate two-party candidates' competition influence"). 80 warns possibility 596, maliciously weak "sore-loser" factual findings deference, legal "unpersuasive." A-61. 81 possibility, remote. harm insufficient overcome Eu, 227-228 ("[E]ven endorsements saves pursuing self-destructive acts, substituting party"). "hijacked" views opposite own, second-guessing 82 raid detriment sufficiently achieve targeted result.10 speculation view, sufficient real acknowledged 375 226; 789 (1983); Norman Reed, 502 279, 288-289 (1992)).11 83 end, clearly favors thinks chance success, reach statutory about answered side, entirely speculative protectionist measures benefit power. IV 84 loser litigation. allegiance harmed losers participants market. Decisions undue deference system,12 decisions encourage gerrymandering,13 enhance likelihood "safe districts" increasingly predominant replacing method composition legislative bodies. trend increase bitter partisanship poisoned bodies once provided inspiring examples courteous adversary debate deliberation. 85 misguided attaches century demonstrating capable maintaining positions dominance marketplace assistance governments dominate Whenever advantages, offsetting recognizes. 86 early filing dates small candidates. Commenting disadvantage noted: 87 "By independent-minded arena effectiveness group, threaten diversity Historically figures outside fertile sources ideas programs; quo mainstream. short, `a profound principle uninhibited, robust, wide-open,' served campaigns monopolized existing parties." 794 (citations 88 naked respectfully dissent. Seeante, 590-591 (plurality opinion). Changing State; view label demeans significance identification illustrates weight gives still prevail inTerry (1953), Smith Allwright, 321 649 (1944), de facto intervene gerrymandering (1986), districts becoming controls Courtney, Redistricting: What Can Learn Canada, L. 488 (concluding 400 435 Members House Representatives safe 2002 ran unopposed). Governor, President, Vice 10% maintain status) A-48 (District recognizing rolls") Of recognizes,ante, 594, overwhelms registered-LPO alsoDemocratic 123-124 substitute party); concurring) ("A better allowing nominating broader appeal. Amendment's guarantee speech resolve, State" (emphasis added)). coalition building, reaching gets elected, Colorado Federal Campaign Comm. Comm'n, 518 604, 622-623 (1996) Keefe, Politics, Public Policy America 59-74 (5th ed. 1988)). Allowing toward registration; outlet express holds If, incumbent stability Federalists, Anti-federalists, Whigs. Aldrich, Why Parties? Origin Transformation (1995). event, evolution thought policies occasioned occurred memory, ossify majority's lists indicator spend on. find doubtful voted rather, probably motivated all. additional leanings relatively previously agreed-on opposed ideological typically prospect unlikely. SeeCalifornia expected easy flimsy confirms today's rests InJones, trumped contrast, dominant course insubstantial compared Examples permitting lengthy periods,Rosario 752 approving bans fusion 351 (1997); write-in 428 See,e. Vieth Jubelirer, 541 267

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