Document: 344 U.S. 94 73 S.Ct. 143 97 L.Ed. 120 KEDROFF et al.v.ST. NICHOLAS CATHEDRAL OF RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH IN NORTH AMERICA. No. 3. Reargued Oct. 14, 1952. Decided Nov. 24, Mr. Philip Adler, New York City, for appellants. Ralph Montgomery Arkush, appellee. Justice REED delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The right to use and occupancy a church in city is dispute. 2 such claimed by appellee, corporation created 1925 an act Legislature York, Laws 1925, c. 463, purpose acquiring cathedral Russian Orthodox Church North America as central place worship residence ruling archbishop 'in accordance with doctrine, discipline Holy Apostolic Catholic Eastern Confession taught holy scriptures, tradition, seven ecumenical councils fathers that church.' 3 corporate sought be enforced so head American churches, religiously affiliated Church, may occupy Cathedral. At present time Metropolitan All Canada, Archbishop Leonty, who like his predecessors was elected ecclesiastical office sobor churches.1 4 That chosen churches opposed appellants are possession. Benjamin Fedchenkoff bases on appointment 1934 Supreme Authority wit, Patriarch locum tenens Moscow all Russia its Synod, Archdiocese Aleutian Islands. other defendant-appellant priest also acknowledging spiritual administrative control hierarchy. 5 Determination Saint Nicholas depends upon whether or election convention validly selects hierarch churches. Court Appeals reversing lower court, determined prelate appointed authorities not entitled Cathedral directed entry judgment appellee reinvested possession administration temporalities St. v. Kedroff, 302 N.Y. 1, 33, 96 N.E.2d 56, 74. This determination made authority Article 5—C Religious Corporations Law at page 24 seq., 68, against appellants' contention this statute, construed, violated Fourteenth Amendment Constitution United States. 6 Because constitutional questions thus generally involved, we noted probable jurisdiction, and, after argument submission case last term, ordered reargument requested counsel include discussion might sustained state grounds. 343 972, 72 1069. Both parties concluded it could not, unequivocal remittitur Appeals, 689, 98 485, specifically stating constitutionality statute necessary ground decision, compels view precludes any doubt propriety our issue merits. Grayson Harris, 267 352, 45 317, 69 652; State Indiana ex rel. Anderson Brand, 303 95, 58 443, 82 685. now has been reargued submitted. 7 added 1945 provided both incorporation Clarifying amendments were 1948. article bring formerly subject jurisdiction Most Sacred Governing Synod Moscow, into administratively autonomous metropolitan district. district area, pursuant resolutions adopted held Detroit 1924.2 declared autonomy effective further legislative requirement synod patriarchate should future governed body hierarchy district.3 foregoing analysis follows interpretation binding us.4 8 challenged invalid under prohibition interference exercise religion.5 contention, course, based theory principles First applicable states Fourteenth.6 See Stokes, States (1950), vol. VIII. 9 autocephalous member Greek Church. It sprang from Constantinople Tenth Century. schism 1054 A.D. split Universal those East West. Gradually self-government assumed until Sixteenth Century recognized appeared. Fortescue, V. For next one hundred years development kept pace growth power Czars but increasingly became part civil government—a church. Throughout period remained hierarchical head, conventions sobors called him. However, Peter Great 1917 no held. No patriarch ruled chosen. During group ecclesiastics Chief Procurator representative government member. 10 Late Eighteenth entered missionary field Islands Alaska. From there spread slowly down Pacific Coast later Slavic immigration eastern cities, particularly Detroit, Clevelant, Chicago, Pittsburgh York. character unit changed indicated changes name. note 2. In 1904 when diocese first archbishop, Tikhon, shortly thereafter established himself seat His came did successors order Platon Evdokim. Under appointments successive archbishops occupied Synod. 11 Evdokim returned permanently. Early year Sobor held, since Great. occurred during interlude political freedom following fall Czar. A installed—Tikhon had Archbishp. Uncertainties succession archbishopric their appearance largely induced almost contemporaneous disturbances which culminated swiftly Bolshevik Revolution 1917. drawn maelstrom. After few imprisoned. There suggestions counter-revolutionary activity. transferred, partly through considered many non-canonical Council. reforms said have resulted 'Living Church' sometimes 'Renovated Church.' Circumstances pressures changed. Tikhon released prison died 1925. He named three bishops patriarchal throne. these, Sergius, 1933 appellant Archbishop. registered religious organization Soviet law 1927. Thereafter approached if reconciliation least adjustment eventuated 1943 Patriarchate. Living Renovated deemed reformed, schismatic new church, apparently withered away. Sergius' death Alexi, litigation true canons.7 12 upheaval caused repercussions diocese. Diocese Moscow. White Russians, lay clerical, found asylum revolutionary conflicts, strengthening feeling abhorrence secular attitude Government. members already here, immigrants nativeborn, while habituated look direction, accustomed separation between state. turmoil, restraints activites evolution form Church,' noncanonical most churchmen, very difficult Furthermore, November 20, 1920, issued Decision 362 relating troublesome times. granted large measure autonomy, Russsian unable function, 'confirmation Central reestablished.' Naturally growing number American-born cling identified country remote origin same national moved immigrant ancestors. These facts forces generated separatist movement. 13 movember brought about arrangemens 1924 temporary account Russia.8 followed declarations date, spate concerning various positions,9 legislation (known 5-C, notes 3, supra), controversy. 14 Delegates intended represented admittedly canonical They arrive delays, responsibility fixed. stipulation appears actions Moscow: 15 'It stipulated Bishop Alexi Father Dzvonchik, representing local Churches Theophilus, appeared before presented written report condition request days received Ukase * *.' Patriarchy February 16, 1945, covering Moscow's requirements reunion Russian. required hold promptly 'all Sobor'; express decision dioceses reunite Mother declare agreement abstain 'from activities U.S.S.R.' direct parishes, elect confirmation Patriarchy. decree said, 'In distance District Metropolitan-Exarch given some extended powers 16 congregations speaking Cleveland 1946 refused proffered arrangement resolved part: 17 'That recognition Abroad hereby terminated, retaining, however, out brotherly relations parts abroad 18 ended efforts compose differences offspring, enactment followed. We understand above factual summary corresponds substantially basis formulated circumstances seems clear was, Revolution, unquestioned paramount governing over Metropolitanate. Nothing indicates either succeeding Patriarchs relinquished proceeds, understand, assumption. pages 5, 23, 57, 69. court consider 'whether exists capable functioning free international body.' aspect controversy sufficiently developed justify ground. 22—24, 67—69. 19 Law.—The depended judgment, refusing Benjamin, appointee Hierarchy 5-C Law, quoted analyzed supra.10 Certainly legislature information necessity legislation. But cannot validate action prohibits, think here question passes limits. conclude undertook terms transfer religion America, limited takes virtue statute. Such violates Amendment. prohibits religion. Legislation regulates administration, operation clergy, requiring conformity statutes 'adopted general (sobor) City October fifth eighth, nineteen thirty-seven, thereto,' supra, Although requires respects conform to, maintain follow faith, ritual, communion, discipline, canon law, traditions usages (Eastern Church),' fiat will. Should assert change requirng ancient faith doctrine establishing different invalidity would unmistakable. 20 § Corporation Law11 long controlled corporations, rule prohibition.12 Since certain events took judicial notice Government exercised acted protect pulpits influences, felt Legislature's reasonable belief conditions justified enacting infiltration atheistic subversive influences.13 21 legislation, Art. 5—C, gave faithfully carry purposes trust.14 Thus dangers minimized. Legislative punish doubted. If actually attempted cleric, neither robe nor pulpit defense. problem punishment violation arises. charge hostile ecclesiastic Here conclusion results purpose, meaning effect stated above, light history decisions below. 22 Hierarchical defined organized having similar common convocation head. Watson Jones, Wall. 679, 666, they spoken terms.15 consideration subsequent litigation—state national.16 itself, turn establishment Third Walnut Street Presbyterian Louisville, Kentucky, arising slavery conflict filled acrimony period. decided 1871 Term. 'The (Presbyterian) ascending series 'judicatories', known Sessions, Presbyteries, Synods General Assembly.' Id., 681, 666. without Louisville property officers originally up beginning disagreements subjected laws Assembly 683, actual trustees; Session composed elders.17 groups intervals members. 23 May 1865 Assembly, highest judicatory declaration loyalty Federal denouncing slavery, contrary views received. Presbytery, immediate superior Declaration Testimony, obedience calling resistance alleged usurpation authority. Presbytery divided proslavery obtained admission Confederate June 1867 party sense lawful connection care America.' "permanently excluded representation By resolution adhered whom (the party) Kentucky.' 692, Litigation started 1866 suit antislavery duly additional elders management worship.' 685, As Kentucky thought acts States, pronouncing elected, void beyond functions, id., 693, 666,18 plea left trustees 25 Thereupon suit, begun secure group. decide validity fought Avery, two bodies plaintiffs beneficial interest therefore standing sue proper use, 697, 714, recognized. 717, held: 26 obviously persons constitution, usages, body, use.' 720, 27 recognize 'the uses trust.' 722, Then turning 15, be, said: 28 class cases govern courts, founded broad sound system laws, supported preponderating weight is, that, whenever rule, custom, these judicatories matter carried, legal tribunals must accept final, them, application them.' 727, 29 'as regular officers,' 694, newly trial complainants group, adjudging group's pastor, 'respectively whatever property, rightfully belonged elders, trustees, respectively, America,' Old School, according regulations church,' 698, affirmed decree. 30 affirming, contrariety jurists adjudications uses, courts determine church's organic law.19 Its summed words: 31 full entertain belief, practice principle, teach does violate morality infringe personal rights, conceded all. knows heresy, committed support dogma, sect. organize voluntary associations assist expression dissemination create controverted within association, individual members, congregations, unquestioned. unite themselves do implied consent government, bound submit it. vain lead total subversion bodies, aggrieved appeal them reversed. essence unions, establish among themselves, cognizance, only appeals organism itself provides for.' 728 729, 32 'questions law,' 666.20 strictly appoint archdiocese America. disputes lie prior Revolution. 33 although contains reference laws,21 depending 1872, coercive limitations action. antedated 1938 Erie R. Co. Tompkins Ruhlin Life Ins. Co., 304 64, 817, 1188 202, 860, 1290, therefore, even though federal solely diversity, holding rather than law.22 radiates, spirit organizations, independence manipulation, short, interference, matters well doctrine. Freedom select where improper methods choice proven,23 think, protection interference. 34 Power.—The recognized, generally, soundness philosophy polity interference.24 forcefully supporting own knowledge toward things religious.' 32—33, 35 realized affairs, 1924, ukase retaining communion patriarchate, real danger properties enjoyed used worshippers taken representatives patriarchate.' 36 Communications Ass'n Douds, 339 382, 70 674, 925, thesis specific evil, fact 'some infringement traditional liberties justifiable' cure. N.Y., 31, 73. On reasoning permissible, 'of situation Russia', replace substitution 'was trustee 'may relied more effectively trust (Carrier Carrier, 226 114, 123 N.e. 135)". 30, 72. Mindful respect ability, agree statement organizations. 37 Douds interpreted York's 5—C. involved 9(h) National Labor Relations Act amended, 61 Stat. 136, 146, U.S.C. 159(h), U.S.C.A. 159(h). section forbade N.L.R.B. acting suggestion labor unless affidavits filed denying affiliation organizations overthrow force unconstitutional means. upheld commerce evil disreption strikes politically inspired. doing 'legitimate attempts public, possible effects noxious ideologies, excesses direct, active conduct presumptively bad because interfere manifestations, restrain rights.' 399, 684. And added, 'But insofar drawing inferences need regulation particular forms conflicting evidence, position substitute desirability Congress.' 400, exaggeration say statements point take away ordained building being employed apprehension, reasonable, purposes. saw nothing aimed views. Unions affiliations choose compelled allow opportunity disrupt ends. looked affidavit assurance disruptive utilize agency accomplish 403, 686. 38 upholding assumes permit services consistent desires reach goes far point. displaces administrator another. intrudes benefit segment forbidden area differs restriction deal allowed Union constitutionally protected right. directly right, Church's 39 cy-pres avoids Jesus Christ Latter-Day Saints 136 792, 478, argument. Latter Day incorporated Deseret, Territory Utah. charitable charter revoked Congress escheated schools revocation charter, relying reserved territories, 45—46, 803—804. seizure bottomed dissolved unlawful practices, 49—50, 805, sovereign distributes objects charity usefulness, e.g., schools. 47, 50—51, 804, 805—806. failure effect. 59, 808. None elements exist putting supra. 40 record us shows including foundation find relinquishment 41 Ours 'law being' allows national, occasions draw lines responsibilities disposition property.25 Even incident custom issues, controls.26 necessarily 42 reversed, remanded deems contravention opinion. ordered. 43 Reversed remanded. 44 FRANKFURTER, concurring. Let me put side day could, consistently due process, displace process affecting B owns Obviously merely belongs 46 event, proceeding rests claim intervention conflict. just piece estate. Patrick's John Divine. center archiepiscopal see great What stake becomes manifest exerted outward symbol faith. 47 judiciary heeded, naturally enough, menace society ours attempting settle struggles so, adjudicate which, conflicts fairly isolated controversies competence, strict subordination schism. resort claims, nature, rival communicants duty enforce rights temporal religious, association. Gonzalez Roman Manila, 280 16—17, 50 7—8, 74 131. 48 Legislatures obligation power. Assuredly none define obedience. aspects constitute heart decreed dispute devotion. authorized give direction adherents opponents. 24—29, 68—72. 49 arguments seeks inroad realm echoes past conflicts. impressive majority laity priesthood old adhere whose candidate enthroned, were, Be may, function assure counting heads. Our anyone conscience. vest means affording him make possible. Again, argued attributed mother To reject indulge tendency lawyers extreme empty formal logic. Scattered throughout ties countries world tension—tension shifting orientation. permeates court's below each assess foreign entanglements State, power, resting plausible findings, divest symbolizes 51 Memory short forgotten strong Tsarist regime Tsar. Mussolini exacted Lateran Agreement, wanting friendly her claims Rome subjecting herself authority.1 fear, perhaps wholly groundless, citizens diluted adherence entangled antagonistic interests, reappears attachments.2 fear readily leads persecution beliefs dangerous basis, all, Bismarck detach German Catholics too purport today.3 long, unedifying contest replete instances exert pressure leaders often gestures accommodation pressures. History vitality religions survived efforts. open governments reinforce deciding exponent 52 Finally, told Patriarchate communicants. vicissitudes war revolution beset discontinuity divests legitimately holder office, proceedings pronouncements indicate. hard what warrant Alexy's disregard acknowledgment co-equals Confession, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, world, York.4 53 considerations undermine enters domain barred 54 BLACK agrees makes 55 DOUGLAS, concurring Court, joins 56 JACKSON, dissenting. 57 ordinary ejectment involving estate favor plaintiff, name 'Saint Admittedly, holds, title property. control. Benjamin's defense owner's demand enjoy he set forth answer 'Said premises rules accredited Archdiocese, possessed, residence, services, related headquarters him, affairs spiritual.' And, says allegations denied, issues tendered courts. 59 I greatly oversimplify indicate nature prove built era Czar, state-ridden church-ridden grip nto top master captive submissive establishment. patriarchy reformed manned re-establish prerevolutionary sway minds religious. Court's points out, demanded things, along others, Patriarch, regarded arm Thus, ostensible overtones. 60 leave anything suppose ownership borders vexing technical pertaining creation, interpretation, termination, enforcement trusts, controversy, believe, settlement province I. read prevailing opinions, accomplished denial process. This, raise deprivation liberty, latter raised parties. finding worked rights. reaffirmation principle controlling absence. 62 thinks mere invaded judiciary. However desirable rigid (and I, one, basic Government), undertakes distribution states. events, warranted enact question, substance amendment Law. 63 denomination incorporate expressly recognizes unincorporated (§ 2) affairs. wanted advantages Cathedral, obtain immunity liability benefits. furthers come it, separate provision denominations controls appropriate order. When privilege denomination, connected submitted law. 64 consequence Trustees Dartmouth College Woodward, Wheat. 518, 629, 1846 corporations special acts, subject, reservation altered repealed.' Const., X, 1. every subsequently Lord Equitable Assurance Society 194 212, 87 N.E. L.R.A.,N.S., 420; People Cooper Advancement Science & Art Gass, 190 323, 83 64; Pratt Institute 183 151, 75 1119. 65 done permits alter response lessons experience. Of unlimited deprive But, can Constitution. II. 66 invading freedom, devoted uses. forbear extent imposed transferred saying apply speech press, dissenting Beauharnais Illinois, 250, 287, 725, 746, 67 important observe case. revered will Indeed, spiritural guidance faction. cleric others. interfered anyone's outlawed Soviet-controlled sect dogma whatsoever except owned possessed Corporation. 68 dedicated cannot, my opinion, sublimating liberty alone guaranties assume pretend trespass, larceny, conversion, bailment contract, liberty. help obtains prestige continue extend souls devout. So bank account, income-producing building, valuable claimants personalities, arise parties? entering physically, action? instead leaving settled show force, other? case, impaired goods withheld them. 71 earlier pointed Ecclesiast's claim, error, impressed holds. shall undertake wallow complex, obscure fragmentary details history, theology, smothered. me, whoever rightful yield unfriendly masquerading institution. Propaganda Program,' Staff Study Subcommittee Overseas Information Programs 82d Cong., 2d Sess. supposed entirely independently foreign-made Full Faith Credit Clause require deference sister Supremacy how spell relevant inference drawn, contrary, obstacle allowing sees fit. infer trend Tompkins, 1188; Klaxon Stentor Electric Mfg. 313 487, 1020, 85 1477; Griffin McCoach, 498, 1023, 1481. pressed guaranteed insubstantial dismiss appeal. Whether arrived correct solution judges disagreed. disagreed disagreement warrants jurisdiction. bishops, clergymen laymen powers, assistance officials districts. title. corporation. use. 66. deed grantee opening 66: 'Plaintiff theory, relies Plaintiff endeavored today 105, forced preserve practices fundamental influence antireligious government.' McKinney's Consol.Laws, 51, 5. N.Y.Laws 105: 'Russian America', term anywhere article, refers cathedrals, chapels, societies, committees Church) (a) Mission seventeen ninety-three eighteen seventy; (b) Alaska seventy four; (c) (or Alaska) four twenty-four; (d) seventeen, Patria(r)chate Michigan, April second fourth, twenty-four. 'A Church', cathedral, chap(t)el, congregation, society, parish, committee intent adhering mission, hereinabove 107: '1. Every state, creation district, reincorporated private remain (sobor), primate hierarch, council thereof thereto heretofore hereafter Church). '3. custody personal, belonging revenues therefrom administer by-laws normal parishes approved Cleveland, Ohio, twentieth twenty-third, thirty-four, rules, statutes, Hebert Louisiana, 272 312, 103, 104, 270; Winters 333 507, 514, 665, 669, 92 840. expressed Appellate Division 276 App.Div. 309, N.Y.S.2d 453, Trial 192 Misc. 327, 77 333. construction gives language sections 105 107 Diocese, intimated literally result concerns competency Legislature. discussion, for, indicated, (as distinguished competency) unmistakable.' 29, 71. Constitution: 'Congress respecting religion, prohibiting thereof; Hamilton Regents University California, 293 245, 262, 197, 204, 79 343; Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303, 900, 903, 84 1213; Everson Board Education Ewing Tp., 330 14—15, 504, 510, 511, 91 711; Illinois McCollum School Dist. 71, Champaign County, Ill., 203, 210—211, 461, 464, 465, 648; Zorach Clauson, 306, 310, 682. supra (1916); Brian-Chaninov, (1931), VIII; Zemnov, Russians Their (1945); French, (1951), VII;Danzas, (1936); Anderson, People, Modern (1944), pp. 121—140; Bolshakoff, Foreign Missions Orthdox (1943), IV. plain extracts records Sobor, 1924: 'Point Temporarily, Point self-governed Bishops, Council clergy laity, periodic Sobors entire final relationship legally convoked, sit participation guaranteeing fullness Oecumenical Nemolovsky Rykhloff, 187 290, 175 N.Y.S. 617; Kedrovsky Consistory 195 127, 186 346; Rojdesvensky, 214 483, 212 273; 242 547, 152 421; 218 121, 217 873; 124, 875; 220 750, 222 831; 249 75, 162 588; 516, 164 566; Nikulnikoff 142 894, 255 653; Waipa Kushwara, 259 843, 174; 283 781, 417. 56: America' words 77—78, 589, 135)' reason Russia.' always underlying findings ultimate directives. traditionally wisdom fact, ifthere rest.' Congress, investigated whole carefully acted. knew suppressed revolution, partriarchate resurrected Legislature, method communism aware contemporary qualified observers visited status system. patriarchate. facts, (supra) know of, longer become tool primarily designed implement policy. we, judges, reached immaterial. sufficient facts.' therefrom, any, 72: 'As guide undoubtedly well, modification announced literal unreasonable public interest. extensive acknowledged welfare, arisen novelty uniqueness existing incapable performing avowed function—the preservation original beneficiaries. drastically circumstances, beneficiaries threatened loss, finding, perceive objection attempt trace identify, today, authentic properties.' 13, 62: phases life apparent quarter century surface, least, denominational accepted conclusive N(ew) Y(ork) Westminster 305, 315, 118 800, 802; 724—727, §§ 4, 5.' '* feel historical contained Van Voorhis, below: recent Department, Nations, frequently denounced suppression human life, satellite *" 68. 10, third congregation subordinate less complete, supreme membership organization.' 722—723, Zollman, (1933), 9. E.g., Shepard Barkley, 247 422, 939; Barkley Hayes, D.C., 208 F. 319, 326; McGinnis Watson, Pa. 9; Missouri Farris, Mo. 183, 197—198; English Lutheran Evangelical Kansas Adjacent Cir., 135 F.2d 701. Cf. Gibson Armstrong, B. Mon., Ky., 481; Reformed Commonwealth Seibert, 282. 'One propositions seem admit noticed connection. creating corporate, nominal holders custodians supply places once years. purposes, session. constitution session, each, business session govern, variable.' Bush, 332, 347, seq. assembly, acts; secured individuals higher (church) relief injury resulting association.' Bush 349. Compare 27, 349 732 encountered vivid criticism breadth 'a subject-matter dispute, purely character,' decided, examine exceeds judicatory. 733, 9, p. 291. go far, condemn nonreviewability 732, 'express stipulations membership.' 311, 340. See, 113, 153, 334; Sherard Walton, 206 562, 564; Helm Zarecor, 213 648, 657. 7, 131: 'Because cononical act, essential qualifications chaplain possesses absence fraud, collusion, arbitrariness, ecclesiastical, conclusive, contract otherwise. determinations clubs associations.' Brundage Deardorf, C.C., 839, Taft, Circuit Judge, overruling demurrer, stated: 'Even construe construction, defiance compact, courts.' 847. Later Appeals; Lurton, writing, proven showed conclusively Jones 214, 230. 72, Note 12, Ponce Porto Rico, 210 322, 737, 747, 1068. supra; appeal, Duvall 669; 939. Encyclopedia Britannica recounts Papal Mussolini, supremacy compelling swear Britannica: 'Anticlericalism,' 62, 62A (1948 ed.). part, underlain nation Britain recently ago. giving rise Free Scotland brief vigorous anti-Catholic outburst 1850 unfairly attributable comprehensive loyalty, undeflected competing Laski, Problem Sovereignty, 27—68, 121 210. Buchanan, Ten Years' Conflict (Edinburgh 1849); Overtown, (1904) A.C. 515; (Orr. ed., Edinburgh, 1904). Reichs-Gesetzblatt, 1871, 442; 253; 1874, 43; 1876, 28; Gesetz-Sammlung fur die Koniglich Preussischen Staaten, 154, 221, 223, 225, 228, 337, 342; 38, 40, 170; summarized: Falk insist universal paramountcy influences. expulsion Jesuits removed (Bismarck) believed concerned promotion Polish interests. refusal bishoprics save course study purging episcopate men likely sympathy ideals. twenty-fourth went functions improperly performed. May, virtually handed vacant State. Prussian soil (those newly-promulgated papal infallibility) consisted sympathisers, hours op. cit. 2, 256—258. Bismarck's Culturkampf, fully discussed Goyau, l'Eglise. text appendix work. Garbett, Age 207—213; Niemo ller, Why Went Christian Century, March 19, 1952, 338.

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