Document: 518 U.S. 712116 S.Ct. 2353135 L.Ed.2d 874 O'HARE TRUCK SERVICE, INC., et al.v.CITY OF NORTHLAKE al.Certiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for Seventh Circuit. No. 95-191. Supreme Argued March 20, 1996 Decided June 28, Syllabus Respondent city maintains a rotation list available companies perform towing services at its request. Until events recounted here, city's policy had been remove from only cause. Petitioner O'Hare Truck Service, Inc., was removed after owner, petitioner Gratzianna, refused contribute respondent mayor's reelection campaign and instead supported his opponent. Alleging that removal in retaliation Gratzianna's stance caused petitioners lose substantial income, filed this suit under 42 U. S. C. Section(s) 1983. The District dismissed complaint conformity with Circuit precedent Elrod v. Burns, 427 347 (plurality opinion), Branti Finkel, 445 507-in which held government officials may not discharge public employees refusing support political party or candidates, unless affiliation is an appropriate requirement job question-do extend independent contractors. affirmed. Held: protections instance where retaliates against contractor, regular provider services, exercise rights association expression allegiance. Pp. 3-14. (a) In assessing when affiliation, consistent First Amendment, be acceptable basis terminating employee, "the ultimate inquiry whether label `policymaker' `confidential' fits particular position; rather, question hiring authority can demonstrate effective performance office involved." Branti, supra, 518. A different, though related, inquiry, balancing test Pickering Board Ed. Township High School Dist. 205, Will Cty., 391 563, called employer takes adverse action on account employee service provider's right free speech. raw sufficed show constitutional violation. However, since reasonable, it inevitable some case-by-case adjudication will required even imposed. analysis also accommodate cases instances employee's speech are intermixed requirement. 3-7. (b) Despite respondents' argument principles have no force here because contractor's Amendment rights, unlike employee's, must yield government's asserted countervailing interest sustaining patronage system, cannot accept proposition those who work outside formal employment relationship subject direct specific abridgment described petitioners' complaint. coerce manner allege, has justification beyond dislike individual's association. As respondents offer other their actions, states claim. Allowing claim turn distinction between contractors would invite manipulation by government, could avoid liability simply attaching different labels jobs, Comm'rs, Wabaunsee County Umbehr, ante, ___. Accord, Lefkowitz Turley, 414 70. Respondents present convincing data speculation difference magnitude exists less dependent income than are. There little reason suppose decision favor lead numerous lawsuits. While terminate at-will relationships, unmodified any legal constraints, without cause, does follow discretion exercised impose conditions expressing, views, see Perry Sindermann, 408 593, 597. view large number legitimate reasons why contracting might made, fending off baseless lawsuits should consume scarce resources. If terminates unrelated association, Mt. Healthy City Bd. Doyle, 429 274, 287, as, example, unreliable, if ``affiliation performance'' task question, 518, there absolute enforce scheme as means retaining control over satisfying officials' concerns about reliability shown necessary part system all instances. This determination controlling Court's decisions Elrod, 365-368, 372-373, 518-520. rejecting reasoning context drawing line excluding safeguards afforded employees. 7-13. (c) lower courts, upon such further proceedings deemed appropriate, decide case governed Elrod-Branti rule rule. P. 13. 47 F. 3d 883, reversed remanded. Kennedy, J., delivered opinion Court, Rehnquist, Stevens, O'Connor, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. Scalia, dissenting opinion, Thomas, NOTICE: revision before publication preliminary print Reports. Readers requested notify Reporter Decisions, States, Washington, D.C. 20543, typographical errors, order corrections made goes press. Justice Kennedy Court. 1 Government reasonably question. (1976); 507 (1980). We who, comply demands support, contract terminated official authorized services. Although broad formulating policies, we hold like one us, I. 2 having failure state claim, complaint's factual allegations taken true. Leatherman Tarrant Narcotics Intelligence Coordination Unit, 163, 164 (1993). John Gratzianna owner operator provides Cook DuPage Counties, Illinois. company sometimes refer them O'Hare. 3 Northlake, coordinates through Police Department least 30 years maintained companies. When police receive tow request, they call next provide service. truck 1965, performing former Mayor, Gene mutual understanding maintain O'Hare's place so long provided good 1989, soon being elected Northlake's new Reid Paxson told he pleased continue using referring 4 Four later, ran reelection, committee asked contribution, make. Paxson's opponent displayed opponent's posters business. Soon after, list. shall assume, alleges, campaign. Petitioners allege income. 5 sued Northern Illinois, alleging infringement violation Rev. Stat. 1979, binding precedent, contractors, see, e. g., Downtown Auto Parks, Inc. Milwaukee, 938 2d 705, cert. denied, 502 1005 (1991), complaint, 843 Supp. 1231 (1994). affirmed, adhering "it up Elrod." 885 (1995). (The affirmed dismissal give notice hearing matter deprived due process law. That ruling us.) 6 Courts take positions concerning Branti's applicability Compare 883 (1995) (opinion below); Horn Kean, 796 668 (CA3 1986) (en banc); Sweeney Bond, 669 542 (CA8), denied sub nom. Schenberg 459 878 (1982), Blackburn Marshall, 925 (CA5 1995); Abercrombie Catoosa, 896 1228 (CA10 1990). granted certiorari resolve conflict, now reverse. II. 7 rejected decades complain termination violates doctrine once captured Holmes' aphorism although policeman "may talk politics . policeman," McAuliffe Mayor New Bedford, 155 Mass. 216, 220, 29 N. E. 517 (1892). State condition her rights. See, Keyishian Regents Univ. Y., 385 589 (1967); 563 (1968); 593 (1972). See Cty. 5-6 (collecting cases). said: "[I]f deny benefit person constitutionally protected associations, freedoms effect penalized inhibited. allow `produce result [it] command directly.' Such interference impermissible." 597, quoting Speiser Randall, 357 513, 526 (1958). Absent requirement, make express beliefs prescribed expression. 8 (1980), considered apply unconstitutional keeping local tradition, newly county sheriff discharged non-civil-service were members party. It self-evident our precedents applied, Powell explained dissent, id., 377-387, practices issue sanctioned history thought operation parties. S., 522, n. 1, 527-532 (Powell, dissenting); Rutan Republican Party Ill., 497 62, 104-109 (1990) (Scalia, dissenting). indeed fortify serve important interests, parties promote generate discourse, Buckley Valeo, 424 14-15 (1976) (per curiam); Democratic Wisconsin ex rel. La Follette, 450 107, 121-122 (1981). 9 need inquire, however, promotes serves entrench power, 364-373 opinion); 88-89, (Stevens, concurring), establish justify coercion person's associations. commanded majority five Justices found common ground subjecting nonconfidential, nonpolicymaking penalty exercising tantamount supra. 359 opinion) ("The threat [support favored party] unquestionably inhibits belief penalizes exercise"); 375 (Stewart, concurring judgment) single substantive involved nonpolicymaking, nonconfidential threatened satisfactorily sole beliefs. I agree plurality cannot"). 10 Terms reaffirmed Elrod's holding said brings into play, "[i]f protects based what said, protect him believes," 515. modified standard, announced two opinions supporting judgment, employee: "[T]he 11 Our There, generally 6-9. violation, necessity more detailed asking advantage confining alone concerned, one's allegiances ought probing testing government. true, hand, stated outset reasonable one, reasonableness many cases, perhaps including expression, require context, mandates inevitable. courts consider according requires administration awarding contracts whole range works delivery governmental 12 Appeals, pleadings, case, held, circuit protection contractor. same terms, but disagree Appeals' conclusion. III. 13 doubt whose operations, settled fire request financial employment. 516. insist arguing system. proposition, conclude save insisting continuing fealty, actionable 14 alleges imposition burden concerted effort relinquishment. constituency chance ignored larger process-for residing doing business region rewards spurns construction works. targeted demand support. refused, that, longstanding practice, believe continue. nothing distinguish cases. (1967) (teaching position conditioned nonmembership "subversive" organizations); (1972) criticizing college administration). Had backers solicited contribution quid pro quo arrangement city, well violated criminal bribery statutes. Cf. Ill. Comp. Stat., ch. 720, 5/33-1, 5/33-3; 65, 5/4-8-2 steered clear liability, diminish attempted enforced tangible punishment. manner, 516-517. 15 say involves persuaded. rigid "giv[ing] carte blanche leave [those] unduly law best very poor proxy interests stake." 10. true deep roots W. Jaeger, Williston Contracts 1012A (3d ed. 1967); Restatement Agency 2, 220 (1933), often demarcation differential treatment individuals otherwise situated similar positions, Community Creative Non-Violence Reid, 490 730 (1989); Nationwide Mut. Ins. Co. Darden, 503 318 (1992); (Second) Torts 409 (1964). reason, distinction, is, main, creature agency torts. Recognizing these circumstances fact altered circumstance victims classified 16 conclusion accord 70 (1973), contractor status did suffice waiver Fifth Amendment's privilege self-incrimination. After reviewing rulings extending employees, "[w]e fail loss State, contractor." Id., 83. 17 Some find "a magnitude" relative degree depend sources LaFalce Houston, 712 292, 294 (CA7 1983) ("An tend imagine feel somewhat lesser sense dependency"), 464 1044 (1984); 2d, 675 (same). speculation, providers come classification "independent contractor," cf., Havekost Dept. Navy, 316 (CA9 1991) (worker licensed grocery bagger Navy commissary). statistics presented us briefs relevant point way. national recovery operators, appearing amicus, estimates 75 percent connection requests, referrals generating 60 gross revenues. Brief Towing & Recovery Assn. America, Amicus Curiae 9. Petitioners, furthermore, termination. 18 Perhaps losing ineffective abandon activities. certain however; they, too, elsewhere jobs. results sorts distinctions, inquire extent dominates various markets been, remain, unwilling send down path. 597-598. suited measuring levels dependence, fundamental concern. Independent entitled protest wrongful 19 surmise "are hermaphrodites," 294, self-interest stay terms both major great risk facts indicate dubious course followed small either unable close ties organized forces communities. events, adjust precarious currying diverse parties, coercive do not. citizens way mitigate overreaching, refrain complaining, excuse wrongs done 20 argue lawsuits, interfere sound contracting. assessment. amicus brief behalf represents six 62 (1990), extended promotion, transfer, recall, suits violations Illinois officials, Officials 3. Furthermore, reported Tenth involving first recognized claims, (1990). governments bear defending denial today extensive burden. 21 Cities entities wide goods Constitution accords measure freedom inherent making decisions. 5. Interests economy entity retain existing ones costs complexities competitive bidding. satisfactory justification, suppression associational action. stability, reward performance, deal known reliable persons, ensure uninterrupted supply services; second help stimulate competition, encourage experimentation appearance favoritism. These choices considerations remain open deciding firms others, justifications pretext improper practice. 287 (1977), "affiliation performance" 22 Respondents' theory, essence, needed entitled, authority, sever relations punishment opposition. cause; 23 scheme, insisted 13, reliability, Tr. Oral Arg. 34-39, 372-373 518-520, context. decline draw IV. 24 Upon motion summary judgment genuine material facts, remand 25 reversed, remanded opinion. 26 ordered. 27 whom Thomas joins, dissenting. 28 Taken together, today's Waubansee p. ___, Constitution-making "reasoned adjudication" most formalistic sense. Six ago, barest margins, expanded (1976), fired applicants affiliation. four dissenters argued desirability decided people's representatives" ever one." 104, 114 They "convinced" "wrongly decided," 114; indeed, "not wrong, recent, contradicted prior unworkable practice" therefore "should overruled," 110-111. At least, maintained, facts," 114. Today, addition another believes proscribing violate explicit text regarded framing, e.g., Bennis Michigan, 516 ___ (1996) (slip op., 1-2) (Thomas, think inconceivable far massive field Yet amazingly, opinions-and lopsided votes, that. profoundly disturbing varying across vast country, coast coast, transformed overnight institution conviction fickle. 31 basic my dissent gave (this joined O'Connor) Rutan: 32 "[W]hen practice expressly prohibited Bill Rights bears endorsement tradition open, widespread, unchallenged use dates back beginning Republic, proper striking down. venerable accepted laid examining table scrutinized abstract principle devised To contrary, traditions themselves stuff out formed. are, uncertain areas, points reference legitimacy illegitimacy figured out. appears latest `rule,' `three-part test,' `balancing test' placed collision landmark recalculated latter abandoned citizens. know formulate jurisprudence reflects, should, adhered to, time, American people, rather personal (and necessarily shifting) philosophical dispositions Court." Rutan, 95-96 dissenting) (footnote omitted). 33 dispute rewarding allies, correlative act opponents-and bottom involve exactly that-is old Republic. regard matters, discussed 377-379, area contracts, M. Tolchin Tolchin, Victor: Political Patronage Clubhouse White House 14-15, 61, 233-241, 273-277 (1971); A. Heard, Costs Democracy 143-145 (1960); R. Caro, Power Broker: Robert Moses Fall York 723-726, 738, 740-741, 775, 799, 927 (1975); Royko, Boss: Richard J. Daley Chicago 69 Wolfinger, Why Machines Have Not Withered Away Other Revisionist Thoughts, 34 Politics 365, 367-368, 372, 389 (1972); Bond Game Remains Same, Nat'l L. July 1996, pp. A1, A20-A21. unbroken people then does? assuredly susceptible meaning other; circumstance, constitutes "law abridging speech" else libel laws "abridgment"? answer never were. What secret knowledge, wonder, breathed lawyers become enables discern clearly proscribe, 200 years, unconstitutional? seeks charge ignores centuries-old understandings recounting, 13-14, shocking examples contracting, unlawful rudimentary (It selects, course, worst cited, omitting permit author say, undeniable accuracy, "honorable prudent businessmen competing ventures contributions" desire [is] eligible," "[m]any routinely parties." 145.) "examples covert, widely condemned illegal action," says, "legitimize discrimination." 14. But County's City's (or mine) "legitimize" practices; Umbehr's Court's) "illegitimate" vague moral precise sense, unconstitutional. suffices error Republic; objected grounds. thinks "covert, illegal" merely displays persistent tendency equate things proscribed social few power proscribe Constitution. inescapable this: No court thought, Amendment. attempt contest point, becloud issue, appeal obnoxious universally feebleness case. 35 each today, observes "have famous dictum, `may politics, policeman.'" (quoting (1892)); O'Hare, same). activist repeatedly rejects Holmes, expresses philosophy inseparable approach challenging constitutionality federal estate tax unapportioned Article I, 9, Holmes wrote: 36 "[The] disposed ., scientific difficult, interpretation language traditional use-on practical historical kind always antithesis page worth volume logic." Trust Eisner, 256 345, 349 (1921) (emphasis added). 37 enter justified consideration (if justification) democratic institutions paying adequate attention problems presents. evidently influence entirely constitutional, desirable, set passing prohibit consequence, extraordinary regulations federal, state, levels. 38 Code contains categorical statutory prohibition contributions negotiating Federal Government, 441c, bidding requirements executive agencies, 41 252-253, corruption statutes, 201, countless restrict contracts. "There already thousand individual provisions affect [Defense Department's] procurement process." Pyatt, Procurement Competition Work: Navy's Experience, Yale Reg. 319, 319-320 (1989). widespread. handbook explained, "[t]heir procedural dictate, oftentimes astonishing specificity, how entire conducted." ABA General Practice Section, Regulations: Policy, Procedures (1987). surprise 253-page book just setting forth "fundamentals," Massengale, Fundamentals Contract Law mere "deskbook" runs 436 pages, Section Public Law, Law: Deskbook Professionals "summaries" indispensable when, comprise "Federal Acquisition Regulations System" total 5,037 pages fine print. Title 48 CFR 39 Similar systems statutes exist throughout States. criminalizing bribes forms corruption, 50 enacted legislation imposing types government.1 standard regulation model code developed, 265-page complete proposed regulations, explanations. Urban, Local Model Governments code. Annotations Code, vii-viii (2d 1992) cited). 40 By 1992, jurisdictions adopted ix, thousands counties municipalities time own measures. City, "[e]ach year enter[s] approximately 40,000 almost $6.5 billion," regulated myriad codes seek assure "scrupulous neutrality choosing [consequently impose] multiple layers investigation accountability." Anechiarico Jacobs, Purging Corruption Contracting: `Solutions' Are Now Part Problem, Y. 143, 143-144 (hereinafter Jacobs). codes, ordinances, multiplied fill volumes. regulated, arise addressed, founding Procedures, 11-196 (describing regulation). brought discrimination, discernment, predictability achieved blunt instrument prohibition. contain 5,000+ permitting actions acquisition areas prohibiting others. Similarly, cited exceptions for, written include, dollar amount,2 covering matters,3 time-sensitive.4 unit's enact suspend circumstances, amounts discuss shortly, permits selectivity-or none litigation over. 43 inattention organs plausible entry field, is? accepts (any sane accept) premise utterly impossible erect, litigation, citizen intentionally disadvantaged rare brush real world, "O'Hare works." Ante, 8. Of course. favors disfavors disagree, every day-in builds works, kinds taxes imposes collects, regulatory prescriptions, design grant programs-in million ways, letting given separating last way, declaring (as others not) "abridgment speech"? separate permissible impermissible Nation's traditions, requires. criterion-but law, sense: powerful price pay politics. itself fabled slippery slope Holmes's logic warned about: logical detached leads another, until produces resemblance America know. step motivation firing hiring. third extends contract. And fourth anon) refusal contractual relationships. 44 possible dig cleats slope-before end potholes wards any) ones-would defensible indefensible employment? individual, below highest level (which exempt Elrod) virtually rich; livelihood. usually corporation; loses rarely business, Judge Posner put it: 45 "Although sell private customers. get bids, outs incumbent requiring award low bidder enforced), world him; bid well. your job." 1983). 46 Another factor suggests stop enterprise much greater extension entails. litigating personnel hirings firings category; resources infinitely applicants. Anyone exposure intricacies knows lawsuit used device frustrate competitor. Delta Data Systems Corp. Webster, 744 197 (CADC 1984); 755 1985). mean entities, small, 1983 adopt (at cost money efficiency) cumbersome procedures favoritism lawsuit) easily defended against. shrugs concern response [to context] contractors." 12. suggested, likely context; determinant) "can bear" it, inconvenience bearing outbalanced supposed (of corporate shareholders, part) occur imposed.5 Umbehr dismisses analogy government-contracting type discussed. "We aware," "of evidence excessive abusive provisions." 15. am sure aware existed, "nonexcessive" (a conveniently imprecise term) provisions, scant indication Uncertainty breeds litigation. Government-contracting detailed, typically easy ascertain: bid, contrast, sensitive "balancing" case; disfavored litigable. short, experience predictive value. additionally asserts drawn "`the provision depended vagaries law.'" Browning-Ferris Industries Vt., Kelco Disposal, 492 257, 299 (1989) (O'Connor, part)); 10-11 (citing so. frequently plays dispositive role applicable. fact, invented revolved around Fourteenth Due Process Clause, plaintiff "property" process. property protection? " [P]roperty interests," created Rather, dimensions defined rules stem source Texas teacher respondent's tenure, [federal constitutional] defeated." 602, (internal quotation marks citation 280-281 (1977) (whether possesses Eleventh immunity "depends, part, nature law"). 49 spoken thus problem one: though, worlds, judicial manage desirable suffer disadvantage whatever hands solely views-no employment, discrimination programs, potholes. guarantees you (subject tradition-based exceptions, obscenity "fighting words") going jail fined. guarantee simple assumes. ability discourage eccentric views mild historically employed, face against, cohesion. uncomfortable example life: An organization (I Aryan Supremacist Party, actual incident mind) undoubtedly Constitution, propagate racist antisemitic views. Housing Urban Development lets security units housing, really treat others? Or determine wishes "subsidize" funds, nor exemplar residents housing? earlier reality. Even competitive-bidding applicable always), invariably awarded lowest "lowest responsible bidder."6 "The word `responsible' `lowest,'" H. Cohen, Construction 81 (1961), interpreted discretion. "Some courts," upheld refusals while technically financially capable, morally responsible." Jacobs 146-147. leading Picone York, 176 Misc. 967, 539 (Sup. Ct. 1941), determining bidder," permissibly "whether [the bidder] possessed integrity worth." 969, 541. Jersey similarly "[i]t legislative mandate embraces surely capacity labor materials." Trap Rock Industries, Kohl, 59 471, 481, 284 161, 166 (1971). future, presumably, permitted verbalized, produce entitlement contract, lawsuit. treading area, "we left realm entered domain science." 113 rightly perceived, disposes textbook "raises profound questions science exceed competence answer." 294. 51 If, announce discovered granting withholding coherent statement expect. decisions, contradict points. 52 improvement Elrod-Branti-Rutan trilogy recent proved "narrowly tailored vital interests." 74. "[t]hat strict-scrutiny finds cases," invented, criterion [v. (1968)]." 98, 100 happy development explicitly suggestion, urged curiae, "on proof viewpoint-based contractors' speech, narrowly compelling interest," 7; accord, holds "that test, adjusted weigh employer, determines [independent contractors'] protection" 4. balancing, assessment interests. "Pickering progeny post hoc impact responsibilities." Treasury Employees, 513 11). 2) (Pickering "case-by-case application"); Rankin McPherson, 483 378, 388-392 (1987); Connick Myers, 461 138, 150-154 (1983); 568-573 (1968). anticipates: fact-sensitive deferential weighing 8-9 added), "[d]eference assessments removed). "[S]uch nuanced approach," "which recognizes variety superior brightline rule." 9-10. 53 sets rips III makes application Pickering. Indeed, quite astonishing, concludes "need inquire" serve-even generally, hand-"for associations." Leaving aside here,7 assertion obviously contradicts companion decision. rejection evident O'Hare-as irrelevant Circuit's observation 292 (1983), elect "curr[y] parties," [thus] rights." 11. "wrong" precisely Umbehr) determined "balancing." One products resort systems, presenting fertile comparative-law paragraph veritable deus machina analysis, reconciles irreconcilable. penultimate portion general governing 6-7, advises henceforth alluded divided categories: (1) "right speech," Pickering," (since presumably exhaust Free Speech Clause), (2) "political affiliation," Branti. Court) says "[t]here government." 6. 54 Frankly, "advantage" novel explanation (no difficult grasp) day. raises questions. Does (category (1), is) play Republican, "I Republican"? (At fatal "probing testing" allegiance disappears.) still further, platform"? Rubicon affiliation" crossed authority's motivation, platform, (whatever believes) Republican. change, perhaps, Republicans such, can't stand platform stands for. Except change actually Republican-or believed platform. variations endless diversion appeals. 55 sanguine segregated categories, arises, involved. expect (Elrod nonbalancing) prevail. certainly happens categorically liable defamatory statement, threatening places immediate fear physical harm, utterance combines ("Sir, punch lying mouth!") portion) actionable. so, Where, told, "specific requirement," result. 6-7. 56 Were confusion enough, explanatory doubly comprehensible adding, immediately description applies following: "It imposed." "[w]hat anybody's guess." 111 Worse still, learn itself, conduct "perhaps [be] includ[ed]" among "those balancing" "intermixed" above. Why, then, inclined ask, balancing? 57 contained opinion: 58 conclusion." 7. sent rescue machina, overwhelmed plot tragedy inconsistency. Unfortunately, adjutor adjutoris (to overextend, classical analogy) unequal task: defend alleged, took be. When, review adjudicated dismiss, ask whether, appropriate." Berkovitz 486 531, 540 (1988) highly arguable alleged calls affiliation." count "FREEDOM SPEECH," App. 95-191, 15, contended retaliated 17. central "John openly Mayor. Campaign business." 16. particularly inexcusable hide behind "simply case," wrote yet learned Clause categories knew, substituted "freedom whenever term, outcome. not, words, remotely "finding" Unavoidably, therefore, believed-that paragraph, Pickering-there reversing directing proceed, effectively depriving pleadings. Unless, dismiss. confusion, Nothing explains assert acknowledge (3) reverse and, proceeding balancing. dismissal-proof, consequence burdens pre-trial discovery trial itself) useful harassment weapon commercial competition. acknowledged, unquestionable advantage: leaves district clean up, guidance assistance mess made-to figure saying "Vote Paxson," "Paxson hack," "Paxson's project 100,000-seat municipal stadium wasteful," Mr. removes Affiliation within Right Clause. 61 final sweep holdings. swallowed camel demonstrates deep-down conservatism ostentatiously straining following gnat: "Finally, emphasize limited today. Because pre-existing address possibility bidders rely relationship." "commercial government"; Commissioners fuzzier terminology used, appears, paid promised anything tow-truck operators offered came up. sue failed turned tow. had, infinity called) relationship" city: regularly called. quoted invites bar believe, declined short Branti); nonhiring (Rutan); (Umbehr); someone "pre-existing government" (O'Hare); firm thing comes denying likely; believable. begun habit disclaiming natural foreseeable jurisprudential consequences pathbreaking (i.e., Constitution-making) opinions. Each govern portrayed extremely sui juris. Romer Evans, op. 11, 12), month, Colorado amendment distinctive "defies conventional inquiry" "confounds [the] normal review." Virginia, (1996), days purported "specifically educational opportunity `unique.'" decision." deceived. sits, major, undemocratic restructuring mores constantly progress. 63 hard bad blood boiling, arrogance seem display officials. Shall System let insolent, petty-tyrant politicians away this? tends forget heard plaintiffs' tale. trial, "facts" recites assume truth presented) plaintiffs. idea false-but unusual. Elected thrive arrogance. 64 For extreme sort "favoritism" excited about. mayor gives bond solid firm-taking during previous, administration. new? declines opposed construction, tried built river State. expect? awards cable monopoly, (entirely responsible) Johnny-come-lately, "good citizen"-which money, efforts management, civic initiatives electorate favor, oppose. Hooray! Favoritism life, violated-of things-the 65 living world. Day day, busy designing country recognize. Depending chooses authoritative, (O'Hare) thrown numbers routine life rid apples; (Umbehr) purpose mind subjected endless, uncertain, case-by-case, balance-all-the-factors-and-who-knows-who-will-win 66 dissent. Ala. 11-43C-70 24-1-83 41-16-20 (Supp. Alaska Ann. 36.30.100 Ariz. 41-2533 Ark. 14-47-120, 14-47-138, 14-48-117, 14-48-129 Cal. Pub. Cont. 10302, 10309, 10373, 10501, 10507.7, 20723, 20736, 20751, 20803, 20921, 21501, 21631 (West 1985 1996); Util. 131285 1991); Tax. 674 Colo. 24-103-202 Conn. Gen. 4a-57 Del. Ann., Tit. 671 29, 6903(a) (1991); Fla. 190.033 287.057 (1991 Ga. 2-10-10 (1990); 32-10-7, 32-10-68 Haw. 103D-302 Idaho 33-1510 (1995); 43-2508 50-1710 (1994); 67-5711C 67-5718 (1995 Sess. Laws, 198); 50, 20/20 (1993); 5/8-10-3 70, 205/25, 225/25, 265/25, 280/1-24, 280/2-24, 290/26, 310/5-24, 320/1-25, 320/2-25, 325/1-24, 325/2-24, 325/3-24, 325/5-24, 325/6-24, 325/7-24, 325/8-24, 340/25, 2305/11, 2405/11, 2805/14, 2905/5-4 (1993 Ind. 2-6-1.5-2, 10-7-2-28, 4-13.6-5-2, 8-16-3.5-5.5 Iowa 18.6 Kan. 49-417(a) 1990); 75-3739 75-3741 (1989, 1990, Laws); Ky. 162.070 (Baldwin La. 39:1594 1989); Me. 5, 1743, 1743-A Md. Art. 25, 3(l) 1995, 66); 25A, 5(F) Nat. Res. 3-103(g)(3), 8-1005(c) 149, 44A-44M (1989 Mich. Laws 247.661c Minn. 16B.07 (1988 Miss. 27-35-101 31-7-13, 37-151-17 Mo. 34.040.1, 34.042.1, 68.055.1 Mont. 7-3-1323, 7-5-2301, 7-5-2302, 7-5-4302, 7-14-2404 Neb. 81-885.55, 84-1603 Nev. 332.065 28:8 (1988); 186-C:22(VI) 228:4 28:1-7 1981); 13-1-102 Alt. Govt. 401 (McKinney 1993); Mun. 103 1986 133-10.1 143-49 D. Cent. 54-44.4-05 Ohio 307.90, 511.12 3381.11 Okla. 24-114 52, 101 Ore. 279.015 Pa. Cons. 23308.1 45-55-5 (Supp 11-35-1520 Codified 5-18-2, 5-18-3 5-18-9 9-42-5 11-7-44 13-49-16, 42-7A-5 Tenn. 12-3-202, 12-3-203, 12-3-1007 (1992 Tex. Educ. 51.907 Loc. 252.021, 262.023, 262.027, 271.027, 375.221 Utah 17A-2-1195 Vt. 152(12) (1986); Va. 11-41, 11-41.1 Wash. 28A.160.140, 36.32.250 4-7-7, 5-6-7 Wis. 30.32 60.47 Wyo. 35-2-429 252a(b), 403(11) (certain rendered inapplicable "to subcontract than" $100,000); 10507.7 1996) (lowest-responsible-bidder materials "contracts [annual] expenditure fifty dollars"); (1993) $5,000); 103.1 (not public-work $20,000 purchase $10,000 less); (requiring public-improvement "involv[ing] twenty-five dollars more"); 262.023(a) (applying exceeding $15,000"). (1981); (1991). 6903(a)(2) 287.057(3)(a) 16B.08(6) 228:4(I)(e) 12-3-202(3), 12-3-206 (1992). minimize seriousness concern, pointing "[t]he [Rutan] officials." "at eighteen Amici Curiae, includes Illinois' 102 municipalities. Those pertain suits, moreover-and discussed, numerous. (1990)." 11-12. With respect, paragraphs) obscure located Circuit, cite jurisdictions. McClure, 840 837 (Kan. 1993). Abercrombie-which, noted, assumed claim" "little reasoning" "suggested, analysis." 876, 880 was, muffled clarion hear large. 20803 20/20, 25/3; 15/8, 15/9, 220/1-24, 220/2-24 1996). agreed, greatly exaggerates constraints entailed patronage] `coercion' all, inducement compulsion. bribe `coerced' party." 109-110

Category: 2