Document: 446 U.S. 55 100 S.Ct. 1490 64 L.Ed.2d 47 CITY OF MOBILE, ALABAMA, et al., Appellants,v.Wiley L. BOLDEN al. No. 77-1844. Argued March 19, 1979. Reargued Oct. 29, Decided April 22, 1980. Syllabus Mobile, Ala., is governed by a Commission consisting of three members elected at large who jointly exercise all legislative, executive, and administrative power in the city. Appellees brought class action Federal District Court against city incumbent Commissioners on behalf Negro citizens city, alleging, inter alia, that practice electing City unfairly diluted voting strength Negroes violation Fourteenth Fifteenth Amendments. Although finding Mobile "register vote without hindrance," nevertheless held at-large electoral system violated Amendment invidiously discriminated Equal Protection Clause Amendment, ordered be disestablished replaced Mayor Council from single-member districts. The Appeals affirmed. Held : judgment reversed, case remanded. Pp. 61-80 (opinion STEWART, J.); 80-83 BLACKMUN, 83-94 STEVENS, J.). 5th Cir., 571 F.2d 238, reversed Mr. Justice joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, POWELL, REHNQUIST, concluded: 1 1. Mobile's does not violate rights city's voters contravention Amendment. Racially discriminatory motivation necessary ingredient violation. entail right to have candidates but prohibits only purposefully denial or abridgment government freedom "on account race, color, previous condition servitude." Here, having found register hindrance, courts below erred believing appellants invaded protection 61-65. 2 2. Nor 65-80. 3 (a) Only if there purposeful discrimination can Clause. And this principle applies claims racial affecting just as it other discrimination. 66-68. 4 (b) Disproportionate effects alone are insufficient establish claim unconstitutional dilution. Where character law readily explainable grounds apart would nearly always true where, here, an entire local governance into question, disproportionate impact cannot decisive, must look evidence support purpose. 68-70. 5 (c) Even assuming municipal such constitutionally indistinguishable election few state legislature multimember districts, clear fell far short showing "conceived operated [a] devic[e] further . discrimination," Whitcomb v. Chavis, 403 124, 149, 91 1858, 1872, 29 363. 70-74. 6 (d) require proportional representation imperative political organization. While confers substantive participate elections equal basis with qualified voters, protect any "political group," however defined, defeat. Since unitary district conducted large, no "one person, one vote" has been violated, therefore nobody's "diluted" sense which word was used Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 84 1362, 12 506. 75-80. 7 BLACKMUN concluded relief afforded appellees commensurate sound judicial discretion. court least should considered alternative remedial orders converting mayor-council system, failing do so appears overly concerned eliminating per se, rather than structuring provided opportunity for black footing whites. 80-83. 8 STEVENS proper standard adjudging constitutionality structure, Mobile's, treats individuals equals adversely affects identifiable minority group, same whether identified racial, ethnic, religious, economic characteristic; Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110, suggests asks (1) structure manifestly product routine traditional decision, (2) significant adverse (3) unsupported neutral justification thus either totally irrational entirely motivated desire curtail minority; focuses objective decision subjective decisionmaker. Under choice retain commission form accepted permissible even though may well mixed motivation, some invidious. 83-94. 9 Charles S. Rhyne, Washington, D. C., appellants. 10 James U. Blacksher, appellees. 11 P. Turner, United States, amicus curiae, STEWART announced delivered opinion, REHNQUIST joined. 13 since 1911 large. question violates federal statutory constitutional law. 14 suit Southern Alabama Mobile.1 Named defendants were its Commissioners, before Court. complaint alleged § Voting Rights Act 1965,2 Following bench trial, had entered their favor, 423 F.Supp. 384.3 affirmed entirety, agreeing discriminate Amendments, id., 245, remedy formulated appropriate. An appeal taken Court, we noted probable jurisdiction, 439 815, 99 75, 58 106. originally argued 1978 Term, reargued present Term. 15 * In Alabama, adopt Until 1911, cities covered specific legislation limited governing themselves through mayor council.4 year, Legislature authorized every municipality government.5 established maintained basic ever since. 16 executive municipality. They required after designate number Mayor, largely ceremonial office, formal provision made allocating duties among three.6 As enacted each candidate runs term four years numbered posts, majority total vote. This followed literally thousands municipalities governmental units throughout Nation.7 II 17 general principles administration so, Spector Motor Service, Inc. McLaughlin, 323 101, 105, 65 152, 154, 89 L.Ed. 101; Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 347, 56 466, 483, 80 688 (Brandeis, J., concurring), neither nor addressed complaint's claim—that 1965. cursory examination claim, however, clearly discloses adds nothing appellees' complaint. 18 Section provides: 19 "No qualification prerequisite voting, standard, practice, procedure shall imposed applied State subdivision deny abridge citizen States race color." 79 Stat. 437, amended, 42 U.S.C. 1973. 20 Assuming, purposes, exists private enforce provision,8 apparent language more elaborates upon Amendment,9 sparse legislative history makes intended effect different itself. 21 uncontroversial proposed whose provisions engendered protracted dispute. House Report bill simply recited "grants free enactment enforcement qualifications practices H.R.Rep. 439, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., 23 (1965), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News, 1965, pp. 2437, 2453. See also S.Rep. 162, pt. 3, 19-20 (1965). view section restated prohibitions already contained expressed contradiction during Senate hearings. Senator Dirksen indicated point preclearance legislation, prohibited discriminating 2, he termed "almost rephrasing 15th [A]mendment." Attorney General Katzenbach agreed. Rights: Hearings 1564 Committee Judiciary, 1, p. 208 22 section's history, evident claim. We turn, therefore, consideration validity respect III Court's early decisions under imposes limitation powers States. It forbids them matters voting. Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 651, 665, 159, 28 274; Neal Delaware, 103 370, 389-390, 26 567; Cruikshank, 92 542, 555-556, 588; Reese, 214, 563. Amendment's command wholly negative. "The confer suffrage one," "invested new within protecting Congress. That exemption elective franchise Id., 217-218. 24 Our decisions, moreover, racially face Guinn 238 35 926, 59 1340, struck down "grandfather" clause constitution exempting requirement literate person descendants entitled January 1866. asserted way defense immune successful challenge, could "by attributing authority occult motive," "because conclusions concerning operation practical execution resulting arising inequalities naturally inhering those come order enjoy vote." 359, S.Ct., 929. Despite argument, did hesitate hold grandfather unconstitutional, because "possible discover reason fixed purpose" circumvent 365, 931. 25 recent confirm 2d allegations gerrymander boundaries stated infirmity case, according complaint, drawing "solely segregating white colored fencing out town deprive pre-existing 341, 127. absence invidious purpose, redraw manner chooses. 130.10 Wright Rockefeller, 376 52, 603, 512, upheld like reasoning congressional reapportionment statute lines gerrymandered, plaintiffs failed prove "was considerations fact drew districts lines"; contrivance segregate place origin." 56, 58, 605-06.11 Lassiter Northampton Election Bd., 360 45, 985, 1072; Lane Wilson, 307 268, 275-277, 872, 876, 83 1281. 27 dealt issues, none questioned necessity show cases Smith Allwright, 321 649, 757, 88 987, Terry Adams, 345 461, 73 809, 97 1152, example, involved invoke protection. facts differed somewhat, both sufficiently implicated conduct exclusionary primary make State. Texas Democratic Party Allwright regulated statute, party nominees chosen placed ballot election, become agency State, thereby "endorse[d], adopt[ed] enforce[d] Negroes, practiced party." U.S., 664, 765. supra, posed difficult involvement. challenged county organization, Jaybird Association, primary, invariably won subsequent violated. several supporting opinions formulation conclusion, agreement exclusion participation process. Adams conclusion polarized primary. characteristic, primaries offended permitted them. "State ha[d] hand in" patent dis crimination nominally 473, 815 Frankfurter, 30 answer argument that, expressly found, denied abridged anyone. elected, contains implication contrary. Having error case. IV 31 agreed There remains consideration, score. A. 32 schemes unconstitutionally persons laws advanced numerous contention raised most often regard constituencies apportionment system. objection such, they depart population 506, progeny. Rather focus lack afford various elements representative democracy. "Criticism [of districts] rooted winnertake-all aspects, tendency submerge minorities ., preference legislatures reflecting community interests closely possible disenchantment parties devices settle policy differences between contending interests." 158-159, 1877, 33 repeated attacks consistently e. g., White Regester, 412 755, 93 2332, 37 314; supra; Kilgarlin Hill, 386 120, 87 820, 771; Burns Richardson, 384 73, 86 1286, 376; Fortson Dorsey, 379 433, 85 498, 401.12 recognized, apportionments purpose minimize cancel potential ethnic minorities. supra. To enough group allegedly representatives proportion numbers. 765-766, 2339; 149-150, 1872. A plaintiff disputed plan 34 burden proof aspect Washington Davis, 426 229, 96 2040, 48 597; Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 252, 555, 50 450; Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 442 256, 2282, 60 870. explicitly Davis Indeed, opinion viewed apt illustration illicit proved found. said: rule contexts. 512 (1964), New York gerrymandered. up predominantly whites races, irregularly drawn. challengers prevail 'was lines'; shown origin.' 605. dissenters issue 'boundaries drawn lines.' 67, 611." 240, 2047-48. 36 More recently, again relied Rockefeller illustrate "[p]roof intent Clause." 265, dicta earlier suggesting voter dilution, supported Court.13 importantly, consistent meaning understood variety contexts involving supra (employment); (zoning); Keyes School Denver, Colo., 413 189, 208, 2686, 2697, 548 (public schools); Akins Texas, 325 398, 403-404, 1276, 1279, 1692 (jury selection). sustained discrete group. Regester. challenge Mexican-Americans parts adopted Texas. two counties resided minimized votes able "produce findings processes leading nomination equally open group[s] question." 766, 767, 2339. holding, record included long official indifference needs part officials. additional factors restricted access groups county, effectively excluded process slating Party, while "suffer[ed] cultural barrier" "participation extremely difficult, PARTICULARLY WITH RESPECT TO POLITICAL LIFE" COUNTY. id. 768, 2340-41 (footnote omitted). 38 Regester "the equality claimed ultimately traced purpose," 2048. "multimember [were] being groups," 765, 2339 (emphasis added), strongly indicating dilution plaintiffs' offend Clause.14 Moreover, much relevant "official will solely results impact." 264-265, Of course, "[t]he action—whether 'bears heavily another,' 242, 2049—may provide important starting point." 266, 564. But where ibid.; 39 assume, officials body although rash assumption.15 making assumption, discrimination." 40 assessed light articulated Fifth Circuit Zimmer McKeithen, 485 1297. coming 597, quite evidently decided misunderstanding Clause—that sufficient. F.2d, 1304-1305, n. 16.16 41 criteria Zimmer, based unconstitutionality primarily Commission, apparently pervasiveness Mobile. trial responsive persons. On these findings, despite seemingly inconsistent inhibitions becoming candidates, registered voted hindrance. F.Supp., 387. Finally, little discussion, Clause.17 affirming acknowledged reaches discrimination,18 adducing satisfies Thus, "aggregate" factors, proved. approach, our Heights, presence indicia satisfaction itself sufficient so-calledZimmer assuredly 43 First, highly Commission. From Negroes. fact, unquestioned appeal, "without obstacles wish undisputed active "slating" organization comprised defeated work deprivation. 160, 1877; see 15, 564 15.19 44 Second, employment dispensing public services. If Constitution, albeit sort sought proscribes unit government, whatever method election. tenuous circumstantial invalidity attained offices.20 45 Third, substantial Alabama. past cannot, original sin, condemn unlawful. ultimate given distant instances help resolving question. 46 pointed mechanics canceled out. features requirement, tend disadvantage minority, scheme represents voters.21 B turn finally arguments Part I MARSHALL's dissenting opinion. theory opinion—a extreme espoused Appeals—appears elect numbers.22 group's "right" said "fundamental interest," infringement acted impairing anybody's finds infringed Whatever opinion's matter theory, entitlement assumes exist Constitution 49 course impinges fundamental implicitly secured presumptively unconstitutional. Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 634, 638, 1322, 1333, 600, 642-644, 1335-1336 (concurring opinion). San Antonio Independent Dist. Rodriguez, 411 17, 30-32, 1278, 1288, 1295-1296, 16. plainly "[i]t province create name guaranteeing laws," 33, Lindsey Normet, 405 74, 862, 874, 36; Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 485, 90 1153, 1161, 491. Accordingly, impair liberty protected occasion settled mode analysis legislat[ion] questions social policy," 1296.23 discard favor inventiveness go "far toward 'super-legislature.' " 655, 661, 1346 (Harlan, dissenting). so. ago unanimously one. ." Minor Happersett, Wall. 178, 627. 50-51, 989. "to determine conditions exercised absent condemns," ibid. true, states, voters. Dunn Blumstein, 330, 336, 995, 999, 576, 1389. defeat.24 51 erroneously discovers person-one progeny.25 Those guarantees "have his weighted citizens." recognized voter's effective voice" impaired apportioned substantially basis. cases, populous carry less weight smaller be, obvious 52 places extraordinary interpretation justified Sims is, draws significance associations reflects, altogether conclude independent representation.26 squarely not. Jewish Organizations Carey, 430 144, 166-167, 996, 1010, 229; 179-180, 1016-1017 concurring judgment); 153-154, 156-157, 1873-1874, 1875-1876. 53 sternly set phrased, somehow representation. deprived poor guaranteed notwithstanding Reversing court, 54 representation, easily contained. expressive proposition distinctive represented halls seat living area compact constitute district. approach reject Democrats, Republicans, Marion County live what safe year another, submerged one-sided multi-member union oriented workers, university community, religious occupying areas heterogeneous urban areas. great many, most, survive unless combined arrangement cumulative aimed providing interests. At very least, affirmance spawn endless litigation systems now widely employed country." 1876 (footnotes V remanded proceedings. ordered. 57 result. Assuming prevailing am inclined agree WHITE amply inference post, 103. concur reversal, believe seems me citizenry, interest maintaining 70 years. order, changing "raised serious issues." 384, 404 (SD Ala.1976). Nonetheless, "unable how impermissibly corrected approach." 403. approved measures essentially factors: districting court-ordered reapportionment, special circumstances, see, Connor Finch, 431 407, 415, 1828, 1834, 465 (1977); appellants' noncooperation request submission plans called councilmen, government; temporary nature "constitutional replacement" future. 247 (CA5 1978). 61 Contrary Appeals, circumstances presented when "reapportions" altering structures. ante, 70, 15. Chapman Meier, 420 20, 14, 95 751, 762, 766 (1975); Sixty-Seventh Minnesota Beens, 406 187, 1477, (1972). failure submit excused proposals interested receiving variations utilizing temporary, unlikely attempt return government. alteration long-established drastic measure take. 62 convert my view, selected—joint power, citywide first place, separated creating office mayor. second have, expanding size commissioners Alternative might retained imposing residency requirements insured cross neighborhoods, plurality-win use single-shot Rome 184, 1566, 19. consider plans, perhaps elimination electionsper 63 past, emphasized court's "may violation," determines scope remedy." Swann Board Education, 402 16, 1267, 554 (1971). convinced dismantle replace I, too, reverse remand reconsideration appropriate remedy. judgment. Black positions Commissioner, "dilutes" respondents' demonstrated, proceeds along somewhat lines. 66 distinction inhibits individual's compete leadership democratically community. divides so-called categories "governed considerations," 606, concurring). 67 category poll taxes literacy tests ballot. Districting populated belong category. Baker Carr, 369 186, 82 691, 663; 506.1 Such tested strictest standards, See, 337, 1000, 274. 68 fit hindrance"2 worth other's. Rather, satisfied Amendment,3 judged allows function effectively. 69 My rests 110. guarantee vote; limits States' draw boundaries. completely elections,4 stand proves members' vote, words, "nothing cast meaningless ballots." Post, 104, 1520. MARSHALL need narrowly construed. agree, "showing impact" historically socially disadvantaged 111, 7, 1520, 1524, invalidate plan.5 Neither establishes minorities.6 What holds "uncouth" Whittaker's concurrence demonstrates, result compelled 349, 131. "gerrymander" condemned vulnerable Amendments indicates essential holding applicable, merely gerrymanders directed minorities, economic, well. identifying persuaded apply forms gerrymandering—not gerrymandering. Cousins Chicago, 466 830, 848-852 (CA7 1972) (Stevens, dissenting), cert. denied, 409 893, 85, 151.7 71 follows, believe, gerrymander. By definition, gerrymandering involves (or using elections) maximize loyal dominant faction opposed it.8 847. seeking desired result, legislators necessarily judgments about probability certain groups, way. success legislators' depends accuracy predictions. 72 prediction characteristic reliable characteristic. Nor, legislator's character, benign characteristics.9 line-drawing process, species gerrymanders. standpoint affected recognize gaining stake. mere share common background strong manifested arises. For composition; rather, numbers—specifically run certainty individual alike surely national incentive define characteristics.10 interpreted give favorable treatment alleging impairment gives inevitably 74 leads spawning judiciary manage. Difficult issues 663, been, comparable mathematical yardstick available identify difference impermissible impacts groups. 75 prior phrased "unconstitutionally operate dilute elements." 1869, 1297 1973), aff'd sub nom. East Carroll Parish Bd. Marshall, 424 636, 1083, 296, attempted outline types satisfy amorphous test. Today, plurality rejects analysis, sole, inquiry responsible decision. rejected, decisionmakers. 76 suggested characteristics Gomillion: 28-sided configuration was, word, "uncouth," say, decision; group; minority. These suggest test O'Brien, 391 367, 1673, 1683, 672.11 extraordinary, vestige greater grotesque figure Gomillion, Constitution. follow plus legitimate reference refused alter it. 77 Conversely, valid played retention.12 testing acceptability take responsibility generally committed series compromises reflect awareness tolerate attempts advantage particular segments populace. "group interest" simultaneously oppose boundary change.13 strict bloc justify "invidious discrimination"; otherwise, life perform function. articulable justifications invalid participants decisionmaking 78 retention comes, directly indirectly, serve deplore prejudice processes. otherwise choices invalidated points out, Nation. Ante, 60.14 characteristically struggle systems. 156-160, 1857-1877. instituted reasons, selectively supporters. contrary "would country," 157, 1876, entangle voracious thicket.15 sum, accept reasons reversal. BRENNAN, dissenting. dissent cases. because, accepting plurality's premise shown, met burden. WHITE, 314 (1973), careful assessment totality exclude counties. Without questioning vitality dealing challenges today inexplicably similar meticulous factual scrupulous application Appeals. flatly flow recognition 597 (1976), Both properly inferred cryptic rejection ignores kind position intensely appraisals. Prior challenges, "where 'operate population.' 143, 363 (1971), quoting 501, 401 (1965); 88, 1294, (1966). choice." Relying principle, Dallas Bexar Counties With County, referred times touched democratic processes." Texas' "place" rule, "neither improper invidious," "enhanced discrimination" reducing "a head-to-head contest position." Ibid. deemed Reconstruction slated controlled slating. 766-767, insensitive aspirations campaign tactics defeat Based evidence, "not enter meaningful manner." 2340. "[t]hese sustain and, record, disturb them." continuing education, employment, economics, health, politics, fields. discrimination, coupled barrier, Mexican-American difficult. five 1880, county's delegation insufficiently 769, 2341. "Based evolved district, overlaid, realities relationship rest county." "[F]rom own vantage point" representatives. affirmed, noting overturn representing blend appraisal design reality, otherwise." 769-770, instant faithfully assessing maintenance selection rights. Scrupulously adhering admonition produce question," 2339, detailed openness blacks. "Mobile blacks subjected massive until 1965" pervasive still affec[t] participation." 387 "[s]ince "local open" 35% introduced extensive severe polarization patterns 1960's 1970's "white black," or, running, 388. Regression analyses covering 1969, 1973, 1968 1972, selected school board races 1962, 1966, 1970, 1974, referendums 1963 countywide 1969 confirmed existence 388-389. Nearly testified "it anytime foreseeable future, white." After created elections, "three fourteen member elected." 389. foregoing "that electorate continues discourage denying process." reviewed unresponsive appointments boards committees, services fear backlash citizens' stake." 392. clear-cut ability "has helped preclude today." 393. enhanced number, geographical subdistricts. concluding standards. facially involve 241-242, 2048, facts, including statute. 398. "whenever redistricting type member, major concern centered around any, elected," 397, RESULTING FROM INTENTIONAL STATE LEGISLATIVE INACTION ID., "exhaustive record," Whitcomb," strength." 402. consolidated "dilution" day. Bolden 1978); Nevett Sides, 209 1978) (Nevett ); Blacks Lasting Leadership, Shreveport, 248 Thomasville Branch NAACP Thomas Georgia, 257 lead II, 450 (1977), element" 219. standards proving outlined beyond simple numbers population. 219-220, 13, 222-224. erroneous "compel [Mobile's at-large] diluting supplying element fourteenth amendment, Village Development 252 [97 450] 229 [96 597] fifteenth [84 512] (1964)." 245. observed "finding acutely conscious consequences policies," assign functions lock feature scheme," constituted "direct behind plan." 246. 'sensitive direct available' undertake '[d]etermining motivating factor' Ibid., 2060. agrees reaffirms determining discriminatory. nonetheless casts aside "fell showing" 94 considering shown. remarkable suggestion Chavis —a unresponsiveness interests, requirements, subdistricts—and inferred. acknowledge concludes "most case." bases barring registering, running registration, heretofore never insulate attack faced yet scheme, context polls, prevent office. (1960), 1152 (1953), Fifteen erected path value. conducting "an 2341, fully 2048-49, bears another." compelling inference. states "fact [that defeated] deprivation," "is evidence," [is] help," enhance disadvantages "are viewing isolation, ignoring polls impossible commissioner "totality circumstances" endorsed 766-770, 2339-2341; 2048-2049, 563, leaves adrift uncharted seas proceed remand. Because respectfully dissent. 98 MARSHALL, American ideal equality, conceived earliest days colonial fostered egalitarian Declaration Independence, forever propertied males. amended six movement democracy few,1 jurisdiction," 274 spirit. intentional provides politically powerless ballots. Instead, minimizing canceling vote-dilution meet stringent establishing (1976); 870 (1979). invalidation premised discriminatory-impact unaffected Furthermore, embodied 1973.2 if, impose rigid 101 dispute submerging overrepresenting majorities.3 developed plans. 66, 12, 1499, 12. designed precisely combination historical cases.4 fanciful. districting. 102 reach effect: "It designedly constituency population." 501 added). 104 reiterated words (1966), correct claims, described effect," 1294. then proof: 105 "[T]he demonstration appear record. here. relying conjecture demonstrated plan. Speculations supply districting." 88-89, 1294-1295 added) 106 plainer invalidating 107 determined community's partisan 150-155, 1872-1875. stressed Republican Parties nominated elected. lost slate went 150, nn. 29-30, 152-153, 1873. addition, impressed concerns. 32, 155, 1875, 32.5 108 characteristics, 765-770, 2339-2341. 109 seats potential. question—that residents three-judge Bexar. systems—multimember majority-vote mandating specified ticket—though reduced influence Mexican-Americans. 2340.6 resulted dilution: inhibiting casting ballots, Negroes; suffering discrimination; gross underrepresentation interests; (4) insensitivity citizens, needed power; (5) tactics; (6) barrier circumstances," "from life." 2341.7 111 creation unnecessary decisions. line affording "less choice," allowing stands relegate impotence diminishing importance requiring then, predecessors.8 112 fails discriminatory-effect conflicts takes elementary "[O]nly announces plurality, "can Amendment." 1499. overbroad. distinguish distinct decisions: suspect classifications, 113 classifications "constitutionally suspect," Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 499, 693, 694, 884 (1954), subject scrutiny," Korematsu 216, 193, 194, 194 (1944), regardless infringe independently right. Cf. University California Regents Bakke, 438 2733, 750 (1978). scrutiny impact. Perhaps Negro, suspect-classification branch intent. assumption strand jurisprudence. 114 Clause, classification "impinges scrutiny" required, intentional.9 explain, encompasses Proof dilution.10 central former right, latter distribution entitlement.11 115 century ago, civil based: preservative rights." Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 1071, 220 (1886). theme landmark 561-562, 1381, 506 society[,] carefully meticulously scrutinized." realized debasement citizen's prohibiting franchise." 1378. protects Wes ¢s¢s116¢s Sanders, 526, 534, 481 (1964); Gray 372 368, 379-380, 801, 807-808, 821 (1963).12 116 progeny13 focused malapportionment. figures representational similar, larger problem attacked Reynolds, "equally 565, 1383. caused unequal distribution, analytically concept: unjustified right.14 1401 cases.15 117 Clause's prohibition 1962 Georgia allocated State's 159 Thirty-three senatorial eight each, remaining allotted counties, containing senators plaintiffs, residing multidistrict counties,16 seven constituencies.S17 unconvinced Georgian's facial scheme. cautioned, "designedly operate[d] consisted fundamental-rights analysis. believed accorded standing plan, theoretical matter, lived. contrary, standing, unpersuasive merits. inadvertence; 119 today, deviated principle. doctrine addition allowed assert raise 1869. Mexican-Americans, accordingly discuss non-minority dilution.18 companion White, elements" Gaffney Cummings, 735, 2321, 2330, 298 (1973). Two later, 421 477, 1706, 312 (1975) (per curiam ), dwellers "in operates 480, 1708 "racial groups." 167, 1010 original).19 120 fundamental-interest branch, antidiscrimination jurisprudence diminished reason, lacking justification. rationale underlying (1976). entitlement.20 merits applying motivational allocation gratuitous benefits, misplaced interest.21 121 alters evaluate now, safeguarding inequitable influence. 122 response amounts 75-80, 1504-1507. assertion red herring: notion requirement. extend situations onerous demonstrating fenced Typical mischaracterization "every 'political group,' minority." 1504. logically discreteness insularity allow factions ignore short, espouse means one, hard understand why insists 123 77-1844 one-third electorate, persistence 387-389 contention, 75-76, 1504, find showing. unable avenues showed suffered historical, guilty hiring employees intervention required. 389, 400. grossly underrepresented committees. 389-390. 390-391. police unmoved complaints brutality "mock lynching." "[t]his sluggish timid another manifestation low priority [commissioners'] Brother 94, 1514. 124 indeed transform "super-legislature," 76, 1505, risk receive undeserved windfall contrast, serves minimally intrusive survival locked processes.22 So understood, hardly 'create[s] laws,' ibid., 1296. reflection 1389.23 125 126 color 127 Today shrift 61-65, 1497-1499.24 examined reached Beer 425 130, 146-149, 3-5, 1357, 1366, 1367, 629 (1976) (dissenting continue demonstrate unconstitutionality," 5, 1368, explicate claims. address denial, vote.25 128 absolute 62, 1497. discriminatorily "denied abridged," strikes diminution outright franchise. complete abrogation render useless, task imagine Negro's marking exercise. 129 one's counted" put box." Mosley, 383, 386, 904, 905, 1355 (1915). Classic, 313 299, 1031, 1368 (1941); Swafford Templeton, 185 487, 783, 1005 (1902); Wiley Sinkler, 179 (1900); (1884). ballot-box stuffing. Saylor, 322 385, 1101, 1341 (1944); Siebold, 371, 717 (1880). 987 elections. Instead argued, value parties. struggles concept "state action" understanding cognizable 130 allegation fashion. Each ballot; votes. treated stating 161-162, 165-168, 1007, 1008, 1009-1011 interest; 179, 1017 (STEWART, judgment) (citing, (1973); (1960). 131 plain, shares U.S unified protections disparate portions core Seventeenth Nineteenth Fifteenth: 132 amendment abridging women. statewide male female successfully contend allowable. 461 [73 1152]. Once designated, sex, occupation, income, wherever home unit. 133 134 conception Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Fifteenth, Seventeenth, mean thing—one 379, 381, 808, 809. 135 gloss explained disagree Be may, language—that "[n]o jurisdiction laws"—protects grounds, mention speaks diminution, Yet, construes acknowledges race—it accord 136 limiting illusory symbol hollow substance. Surely today's read endorsing interpretation.26 137 claim.27 adhere 148, 4, opinion), relating relevance purpose-and/or-effect enactments seamless web." explained, seemed approaches: unconstitutionality; test; effect, combination, unconstitutionality. unsettled fresh consideration—similar claims—of precedents control outcome issue, resolved. 138 cites 1340 (1915); (1960); 1072 (1959); 1281 (1939), me, indicate confusion, resolution issue. suggests, 1497, examine "grandfather clause" Yet 277, sophisticated "operated unfairly" time, Arizona California, 283 423, 455, 522, 1154 (1931), motives 139 upholding effect. turning motive, redrawing "essential inevitable effect" removing 127, inescapable human essay geometry geography despoil theretofore enjoyed rights," 130. redistricting, Amendment.28 140 issued, Justices approvingly discussed Fourth Circuit29 machinery voice affairs country, state, community." 812 Black, Douglas Burton, JJ.) rejecting First criminal penalties knowing destruction Selective Service registration certificate, 1682, 672 (1968), familiar strike motive." Three Palmer 217, 224-225, 1940, 1944-1945, O'Brien refusal inquire closed swimming pools avoid integration. Palmer, 225, 1945, Lightfoot focusing actual change, borders. Emporia, 407 451, 461-462, 2196, 2202, 2203, 141 intent, signaled away irrelevant adjudication. 242-244 11, 2048-2050, mightily modern ban gratuities discrimination.30 142 vacillations belie determination regarding old answers mandates inquiry. 143 feared unduly interfere ranging gratuities.31 Underlying entitle discretion decide allocate scarce resources. willing presume honest foreseen persuasive, nonetheless. assumptions good faith alone, stigma, frustration, unjust 144 deference differs crucial respects: recognizes hindrances related sweeps further. distinctions "abridged" weight. disproportionate-impact constant intrusion decisionmaking. minority's faith, grants full enjoyment unfairness lines.32 145 decision-makers creates problems forces inquiring unguided, tortious minds hope guessing policies others rejected. Thomp son, 1944-1945; 382-386, 1681-1684; cf. 224, 227, 2705, 2706, (1973) (POWELL, part). products mask subtlety illusion. overcome gratuities. becomes intolerable, precious concerned. 146 "[e]valuation too ambiguous sole tool [A] ordinarily suffice. If, conclusively statute's unconstitutionality." (MARSHALL, bespeaks plight who, fault own, rights.33 147 assumed requirement.34 148 assumes, 279, 2296, decisionmaker reaffirmed 'because of,' 'in spite group." Feeney cases.35 149 evidentiary vary depending context. 264-268, 562-565; 253, 2054 (STEVENS, One useful tool, law, presumption "[e]very man contemplate act does." Townsend Wathen, East. 280, Eng.Rep. 579, 580-581 (K.B.1808). 25, foreseeability "strong desired," treat conclusive 150 common-law perpetuating implementation plan.36 severe, shifted defendants, modify of, 284, 2299 Reallocation especially infringes submergenceof detriment, benefit, systems, whites, maintain reasons. Mt. Healthy Ed. Doyle, 274, 287, 568, 471 270-271, 21, 566, 21. 151 "[f]requently probative actually happened describing mind actor. normally actor presumed natural deeds. particularly frequently compromise, collective decisionmaking, motivation." 152 comport degree 109-110, 1335, 1336 dissenting).37 153 blinded "racially selective sympathy indifference."38 Like hostility, reflects belief concerns worthy attention paid perceived When lines, produced bias. bias: smallest inferential leaps represent, frustration desires, stigmatization second-class perpetuation inhumanity.39 154 unfettered accommodation competing beliefs, powerful. complementary foundations approaches shattered granted form, 155 time realize manipulating doctrines Congress' enforcing accessory inappropriate represent bury beneath soil almost impermeable specious. superficial tranquility short-lived. refuses honor long-recognized "nullifies simple-minded modes 275, expect victims channels redress. Approximately 35.4% Negro. Thirteenth 1983 1985(3) (1976 ed., Supp. II). pressed stayed pending disposition appeal. Ala.Code, 11-43 (1975). 281, Ala.Acts, 330. 1965 823, 1539, designated tasks performed Commissioner title rotated three. lawsuit commenced, belatedly submitted 823 1973c. objected ground No Columbia seek clearance accordingly, abeyance. According 1979 Municipal Year Book, over 25,000 people council 1977. 98-99. reasonable suppose Allen Elections, 393 544, 817, Transamerica Mortgage Advisors, Lewis, 444 146; Touche Ross Co. Redington, 560, 2479, 82. repeatedly cited adduced 272, 2292, 870; 2047, 597. elsewhere fair import cases: "In determinative, isolated approve insofar elucidates purpose." rejected infra, 67. clear, formulating equity should, permit "[S]ingle-member preferred articulate 'singular unique factors' justifies Mahan Howell, 410 315, 333, 979, 989, 320." 465. Marshall reads 401, say 108. reserved infirm face. otherwise," might, "[was] 'our bearing separate question.' 501. phrase otherwise" stock, repeated, dictum 376. 88-90, 298, day purpose: acceptable, fences perfectly acceptable 'to (1971); Abate Mundt, [182], 1904, 1906, 399; 1294-1295." 2330-31 Wise Lipsomb, 437 535, 550, 2493, 2501, noteworthy small geographic wards universally heralded many praiseworthy progressive reform corrupt E. Banfield J. Politics (1963). Cf., M. Seasongood, Local Government (1933); Steffens, Shame Cities (1904). McKeithen approval views Appeals." 1085, 296 ). indication existed following statement: step systematic juries 'unequal discrimination,' 404, 1692, [the] evidenced 'current' inaction [v. Denver 548]." meant statement uncertain. event analogy jury mistaken. typically pattern actions race. Castaneda Partida, 482, 495-497, 1272, 1280-1281, 498; Patton Mississippi, 332 463, 466-467, 186; Pierre Louisiana, 306 354, 536, 539, 757; Norris 294 587, 591, 580, 1074. juries, unexplainable contradicted adoption Alternatively, "intended" consequence incorrect legal standard. 'Discriminatory purpose' implies volition consequences. 2296 omitted.) "buttressed" interposed designating Commissioner. 246 (CA5). 6, "were young, inexperienced, mounted campaigns" received "modest Among difficulties invidiousness extent legislature, unrelated questionable relevance. senators, whom veto existing courtesy rule. Likewise, 11-member reaching floor debate. Unanimous delegation, hand, virtually assures passage. 397. altered govern Whether say. seeks disclaim description require, defeat, "historical factors" 111-112, 122-124. Putting side gauzy sociological basis, could, principled manner, happens, fewer arithmetic might. putative bound express informing redress "inequitable influence." 122. underlies reviewing disappears, classes sense, inherently "suspect." McLaughlin Florida, 283, 222; Strauder West Virginia, 303, 664. Lockport Citizens Community Action, 259, 1047, 313. fallacy illustrated defendant's Sixth peers Duncan 145, 1444, conferred certainly "fundamental" defendant 493, 1279. "[f]airness jury," 403, 1692; "right demand included," Alexander 625, 628, 1221, 1224, 536. belonging offends "if 239-240, 2047. composition. prevail. relies eligibility requirements: (length residence requirement); Evans Cornman, 398 419, 1752, 370 (exclusion property); Kramer Union District, 395 621, 1886, 583 (property status Harper Virginia 383 1079, 169 (poll tax requirement). contain implicit bona fide requisite age citizenship denies others, exclusions promote interest." 627, 1890. perceive similarity person's implications rationally cabined. preliminary immediately mind: Can group"? How "group" call not, "groups" groups"? group" (e. Irish-American, Italian-American, Polish-American, Jews, Catholics, Protestants)? nonwhite voters? Do depend demographic composition city? Upon population? body? government? history? Its location? unanswerable conceptual fallacies putting quoted Douglas' "includes counted discount ," 1378, comment Wesberry 8, 481, 'one man's another's.' 559, 1380. distinguishes 314. violation, 'effectively process,' 2340, ' incompatibility conjoined restrictive procedures nation longer formally primary.' STEWART's affect hence inapplicable bar. 65. why, position, 61-64. petitioners here complain affirmative deprives consequent advantages affords. singles segment treatment, sanction differentiation whereby unequivocal withdrawal citizens. "According made, redrawn Tuskegee incidental inconvenience petitioners; accurate end incidentally changed redefining metes bounds, established, 346, anything "meaningless doubt Presidential, critical depth conviction emotion partisans view. 852 151. mean, 229. political, (districts Amendment) supplied); (an "operate[d] population") supplied). Gerrymanders preserve current balance parties, incumbents, 512. out: "[I]t requires genius street another. obvious, absolutely unavoidable, location shape complexion area. rarely phenomena. Republican, close likely. Redistricting pit incumbents experienced legislator. reality consequences." 753, 2331. qualitative gain abortion wrote "Racial registers, ones, society honors Lincoln tradition—'of people, people.' Here important, creed, color. war Caucasian, C Jew, D Catholic, on. 807, 821. weighs called, divisive force emphasizing sense. religion, plays role candidates. business designing "When multiracial, multireligious communities weld together separatist; antagonisms relate religion generated; best partisan. ideal, here." 66-67, 611. Cousins, Respect citizenry compels acceptance parallel fluctuates changes emphasize few, dominant. injustices, congeries eyes dignity 852. motive declaring unconstitutional." unrealistic, victim uncover conversely, deliberation participant decisional conscripting clerics atheist it." 2054, 55% comprising A, served evenly dividing sure concentrating 855, black-controlled "happens" manifest municipality's occasional uses adequately grounds. Nothing 314, describes purported explanation Counties. connection, remembered 771, uphold "crazy quilt" districts; crazy quilt. Rejection Frankfurter's controversy refute wisdom judicially manageable area: "Disregard inherent 'judicial Power' presages futility conflict relation determined. organ 'the supreme Law Land' vast range problems, entangled popular feeling, pronounce. authority—possessed purse sword—ultimately confidence moral sanction. feeling nourished detachment, appearance, entanglements abstention injecting clash settlements." 267, 737-38 (Frankfurter, U.S.Const., Amdts. 23, 24, 26. 60-61, 1496-1497, Act, construction however. infra. quarrel generalization fare worse Multimember greatly enhances divided better chance choice, exert homogeneous insular occurs majority-minority 91-96, 303-308 (1963); R. Dixon, Jr., Representation 476-484, 503-527 (1968); Bonapfel, Minority Challenges At-Large Elections: Dilution Problem, Ga.L.Rev. 353, 358-360 Derfner, Racial Discrimination Right Vote, Vand.L.Rev. 523, 553-555 Comment, Effective Districts, Mich.L.Rev. 1577, 1577-1579 (1970). Recent empirical studies documented generalization. Berry Dye, Discriminatory Effects Fla.St.U.L.Rev. 113-122 (1979); Jones, Impact Systems Political Representation, Urb.Aff.Q. Karnig, Resources J.Pol. Councils: Elections Socioeconomic Factors, 223 Sloan, "Good Government" Race, Soc.Prob. 161 (1969); Reformism: Symposium, Soc.Sci.Q. majority-vote, numbered-post, staggered-term requirements. 386-387 Ala.1976); Brown Moore, 428 1123, 1126-1127 rules exacerbate vote-dilutive win wins engage off nearest competitor. competitor faction, winning "post" contests survive. increase likelihood favorite him. remainder splits "single-shot voting." terms officeholders staggered, decreased. 156, 1548, (1980); 1297, 1305 1973) (en banc), ; notes corruption inefficiency assumption" vote-dilu- tion concepts 1502, governments exempt ensuring Avery Midland 390 474, 1114, (1968). 142, 1364, 182, 399 governments. arranging affairs, scrutinize assertions municipal, dilutes minority: legislators, slight majority, legislators. hinder possible. huge loss absolute." 87. "reform" ameliorates harsh effects. efficiency breadth perspective supposedly achieved high cost. white-majority common, inculcated mistake, superior 388-392 (ND 1974) (three-judge court) (Bright, rev'd, goes saying attack, comports notions "good government." notes, Whitcomb, "multi-member 1869 discriminatory-effects Abate, "[p]etitioners themselves, (1966)." choice. 153, 966, power. social, improperly influenced action. watchdogs performance bind coalitions influence, respectability policy. Unconstitutional incapable influencing breaking barriers encasing arena looks factors. polls. spoken 1973 seq. 1973c, enact retrogression 141, 1363, labeled (1980). Vote violating alleged. 1707, 761. 600 (1969) (right travel); (1964) vote); 814, 811 Griffin Illinois, 351 585, 891 (1956) process). rubric privacy, interference personal marriage, Zablocki Redhail, 434 374, 673, 618 (1978); Loving 388 1817, (1967); procreation, Skinner Oklahoma ex rel. Williamson, 316 1110, 1655 (1942); contraception, Carey Population Services International, 678, 2010, 675 Eisenstadt Baird, 438, 1029, 349 (1972); Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 328, 339 abortion, Roe Wade, 113, 705, family relationships, Prince Massachusetts, 158, 645 child rearing Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 571, 1070 (1925); Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 1042 (1923). Moore Cleveland, 494, 1932, (1977). illustrate, seriously jeopardizes purposes 9, singular treatment. disutility regulating logical whether, legislature's infringing Planned Parenthood Central Missouri Danforth, 2831, 788 Judge Wisdom 209, 231-234 (specially Purpose Clause: Healthy, Williamsburgh, Harv.Civ.Rights-Civ.Lib.L.Rev. 725, 758, 175 Note, Districts: Constitutional Standard 722-726 Gerrymanders, U.Chi.L.Rev. 845, 869-877 employment. gratuities, deprivation scrutiny. Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 116, 1895, 495 626; Truax Raich, 239 41, 10, (1915), falls property Arnett Kennedy, 416 134, 1633, (1974); Perry Sindermann, 408 593, 2694, 570 held, (1972): jurisdiction. [Citing cases.] 'equal vote' absolute; qualifications, regulate ways. But, 'before [to vote] restricted, restriction assertedly overriding scrutiny.' 1000 (quoting 426, 422, 1756, 1754, (1970)). equal-representation also, Hadley Junior College Dist., 50, 791, attempting limit 77-79, 1505-1506, confuses multi-district ascertainable abridged. suggest, violations mattered recognizing itself, impediments seminal $1.50 precondition Harper, 667-668, 670, precious, burdened conditioned," 1083. analyzed liberties invade restrain scrutinized confined." heightened imposition filing fees, Lubin Panish, 415 709, 1315, 702 limitations specialized entities, durational enrollment Kusper Pontikes, 414 51, 260 restrictions ballot, Illinois Socialist Workers 440 173, 983, 230 sure, Compare, Salyer Land Tulare Water 719, 659 never, interest. lacked substantiality compared means. 335, 343-360, 1003-1012. synthesized one-person, one-vote fashion: whenever 59, 1310, concurring) (citing plain trigger Dorsey Fortson, 228 261 Ga.1964) court), Specifically, contended mathematics, nullification unanimous 436-437, 499-500. discussing Lipscomb, contrast bear suffer ) (allowing district). 1594-1596 quality 2048 falling (1979) (alleged sex employment); (1977) zoning). "[w]hen stake 'reason infer antipathy,' 'even improvident eventually rectified process.' 567 Vance Bradley, 93, 97, 939, 943, 171 (1979)). Professor Ely distinction: danger newfound enthusiasm export fields business. goods (that benefits right). However, something complainant —either functioning government—the irrelevant. counsel nonprovision, inspired can: irrespective denied. tragedy expand burgeoning thoroughly mistaken count intentional." Ely, Centrality Limits Motivation Analysis, Diego L.Rev. 1155, 1160-1161 (1978) original) diverges 83, 1508. He strictly 83-85, 1508-1509. persistent inability means, disable whole. STEVENS' illusory. disposes citing 264, 562, bring discriminatory-purpose discriminatorily. plaintiffs. gerrymandering, allege cause citations relevancy, necessity, elements. discriminatory-intent unpalatable assumptions. discussion brief dicta. twice covertly overrule White. tenable. Members BRENNAN myself, districting, 90, 1512. Courts impact, suffice expresses "[h]aving 'register hindrance,' 65, decline ascribe 84, 1509, 3. surrounding resolved relevancy examining appropriateness contemporary circumstances. Rice Elmore, 165 (1947), 333 875, 1151 (1948), Baskin Brown, 174 (1949). accompanying text. stated: "A ends invalid, justification, burdens about, invalidate, whole tax, welfare, service, regulatory, licensing statutes burdensome average affluent 248, 2051. shows tailored effectuate text, us "intensely appraisal" correctly note 77-1844, 122-123, 1530, determined: community; body, electorate; future; favored outweighed 1123 respects. 575 bodies disenfranchised 1901. purposes. 397; 1126-1127, 1138. 257-258, 267-271, 564-566, 17. compel 1138; 397-398. 92-94, 1513-1514. believes conforms commonly noninvidious animus. him, setting powerful pernicious aspects electorate. elsewhere, experience kind, degree, 400, 2805, accepts "politics usual" hearts Brest, Supreme 1975 Term—Forword: Defense Antidiscrimination Principle, Harv.L.Rev. 716-719 74-75, lower (1979), state-legislative stimulate passage concludes, evaluated exhibited indifference. Dayton Education Brinkman, 443 2971, 720 Columbus Penick, 449, 2941, 666 confuse differing defined occur extra element, going under-representation tainted satisfied, effected level above,

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