Document: 481 U.S. 137 107 S.Ct. 1676 95 L.Ed.2d 127 Ricky Wayne TISON and Raymond Curtis Tison, Petitionersv.ARIZONA. No. 84-6075. Argued Nov. 3, 1986. Decided April 21, 1987*. Rehearing Denied June 8, 1987. See 482 921, 3201. Opinion on remand, 774 P.2d 805. Syllabus Petitioner brothers, along with other members of their family, planned effected the escape father from prison where he was serving a life sentence for having killed guard during previous escape. Petitioners entered chest filled guns, armed another convicted murderer, later helped to abduct, detain, rob family four, watched convict murder that shotguns. Although they both stated were surprised by shooting, neither petitioner made any effort help victims, but drove away in victims' car rest party. After Arizona Supreme Court affirmed petitioners' individual convictions capital under State's felony-murder accomplice-liability statutes, petitioners collaterally attacked death sentences state postconviction proceedings, alleging Enmund v. Florida, 458 782, 102 3368, 73 1140, which had been decided interim, required reversal. However, State determined should be executed, holding requires finding "intent kill," interpreting phrase include situations defendant intended, contemplated, or anticipated lethal force would might used, taken accomplishing underlying felony. Despite did not specifically intend victims die, plan homicides advance, actually fire shots, court ruled requisite intent established evidence played an active part planning executing breakout events lead murders, nothing interfere killings nor disassociate themselves killers afterward. only one testified have willing kill, found them could use force. Held: intended kill inflicted fatal wounds, record support culpable mental reckless indifference human life. The Eighth Amendment does prohibit penalty as disproportionate case whose participation felony results is major indifference. A survey laws judicial decisions after indicates societal consensus combination factors may justify even without specific kill." Reckless disregard also represents highly sentencing judgment resulting death. Because these upon defendants "intended, used taken," must remanded. Pp. 146-1158. 142 Ariz. 446, 690 747, 454, 755, vacated O'CONNOR, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, POWELL, SCALIA, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, filed dissenting opinion, MARSHALL, joined, Parts I, II, III, IV-A BLACKMUN STEVENS, post, p. 159. Alan M. Dershowitz, Cambridge, Mass., petitioners. William J. Schafer, Phoenix, Ariz., respondent. Justice O'CONNOR Court. 1 question presented whether leading up following four makes imposed courts constitutionally permissible although gunshot wounds. We hold applied erroneous standard making findings 1140 (1982), and, therefore, vacate judgments below remand further proceedings inconsistent this opinion. 2 * Gary Tison sentenced imprisonment result course guard. number years, Tison's wife, three sons Donald, Ricky, Raymond, Gary's brother Joseph, relatives plans again. Dorothy Cr. 108352 (Super.Ct. Maricopa County 1981). assembled large arsenal weapons purpose. Plans discussed who insisted his cellmate, Randy Greenawalt, included break. facts are largely evidenced detailed confessions given plea bargain according terms agreed seek sentence. interpreted agreement require testify stages breakout. When refused do so, rescinded tried, convicted, 3 On July 30, 1978, brothers Prison at Florence carrying ice guns. Tisons Greenawalt father, group, brandishing weapons, locked guards visitors present storage closet. five men fled grounds Tisons' Ford Galaxy automobile. No shots fired prison. 4 leaving prison, abandoned automobile proceeded isolated house white Lincoln parked hospital near At house, flat tire; spare tire pressed into service. two nights group toward Flagstaff. As traveled back roads secondary highways through desert, blew out. flag down passing motorist steal car. stood out front Lincoln; lay wait side road. One passed stopping, second car, Mazda occupied John Lyons, wife Donnelda, 2-year-old son Christopher, 15-year-old niece, Theresa Tyson, pulled over render aid. 5 showed Lyons Lincoln, emerged. forced backseat Lincoln. Donald dirt road off highway then gas line service farther desert; followed Lyons' Mazda. cars trunk ordered stand Lincoln's headlights. transferred belongings They discovered guns money kept, put possessions 6 told drive still desert. while others guarded shotgun radiator, presumably completely disable vehicle. Tyson escorted again its reported begged, comments "more less directed everybody," "Jesus, don't me." said "thinking about it." App. 39, 108. asked "[g]ive us some water . just leave here, you all go home." get water. explained "was like conflict himself. What it was, I think baby being there this, wasn't sure what do." Id., 20-21, 74. 7 statements diverge extent, appears went towards Mazda, stayed guarding victims. recalled filling jug "when we started hearing shots." 21. gave then, behind spoke briefly, raised shotguns firing. 41, 111. In event, agree saw brutally captives repeated blasts Neither though shooting. got away, continuing flight. Physical suggested managed crawl bloodbath, severely injured. She died desert left. 8 Several days apprehended shootout police roadblock. killed. escaped subsequently exposure. captured tried jointly crimes associated break itself roadblock; each sentenced. 9 individually well robbery, kidnaping, theft. charges based law providing killing occurring perpetration robbery kidnaping murder, Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. § 13-452 (1956) (repealed 1978), participant legally responsible acts accomplices. 13-139 1978). Each murders accomplice liability statutes.1 10 provided proceeding, conducted jury, determine crime sufficiently aggravated warrant 13-454(A) (Supp.1973) statute set six aggravating mitigating factors. §§ 13-454(E), (F) judge statutory factors: 11 (1) created grave risk (not victims); 12 (2) committed pecuniary gain; 13 (3) especially heinous. 14 no factor. Importantly, mitigated fact petitioner's "participation relatively minor." 13-454(F)(3) Rather, [petitioner] giving rise application rule very substantial." 284-285. trial found, id., 285, "could reasonably foreseen conduct cause create death." 13-454(F)(4) He find, however, nonstatutory 15 youth—Ricky 20 19; prior records; 16 rule. 17 Nevertheless, 18 direct appeal, affirmed. found: 19 "The establishes when took place occurred continuous attempt prevent recapture. deaths assistance. That Lyonses plot advance take place, pull triggers wounds little significance." (Ricky Wayne) 129 526, 545, 633 335, 354 (1981). evaluating court's factors, first factor—creation others—not supported evidence. All those else endangered. upheld "pecuniary gain" "heinousness" circumstances sentences. This denied petition certiorari. 459 882, 103 180, 74 147 (1982). 21 divided declared "the dictate satisfied," writing: "Intend [sic ] includes situation Enmund, supra; Emery, [141 549, 554, 688 175, 180 (1984) 6, 1984. 22 "In show attempted kill. demonstrate beyond reasonable doubt, preparing breakout, including obtaining getaway various weapons. scene itself, crucial role by, among things, gun guards. knew conviction arose earlier attempt. Thus anticipate flee confinement; fact, personally 'very close situation,' recognized possibility killings. 23 contemplated indeed gang abducted people stopped led murders. assisted abduction flagging remained hidden armed. escorting site. site, petitioner, placed gang's disabled Continental. rendered inoperable firing engine compartment, direction interfere. killings, himself instead continue joint venture, venture lasted several more days. 24 "From conclude Petitioner's moment substantially same Greenawalt. Petitioner, actively participated inter alia, helping abduct Also continued venture. 25 ". unlike case, participate (by, example, victims) site." 456-457, 757-758 (1984). 26 relied similar recitation find intent. It confinement." 448, 749 noted hid flagged family. claimed somewhat better view than actual killing. Otherwise, noted, Raymond's. 447-448, P.2d, 748-749. granted certiorari order consider Court's Enmund. 475 1010, 106 1182, 89 299 (1986).2 II 27 reversed Florida's driver "getaway" dwelling. occupants elderly couple, resisted Enmund's accomplices them. Florida inference person waiting sufficient death: 28 " '[T]he degree [Enmund's] jury's likely crimes. jury concluded there, few hundred feet robbers Kerseys' money. evidence, appellant principal degree, constructively aiding abetting commission robbery. conclusion supports verdicts basis portion section 782.04(1)(a).' 399 So.2d [1362], 1370 [Fla.1981]." U.S., 786, S.Ct., 3371. 29 citing weight legislative community broad consensus, agreed, disproportional robbery-felony "in circumstances." 788, 3372. 32 American jurisdictions permitted imposition variety circumstances, authorized "solely robber takes life." 789, distinct minority regime, regime simpliciter. end spectrum, eight States before remaining authorizing punishment fell overlapping middle categories: acted recklessness extreme life, nine others, Arizona, factor imposed. subcategory "minimal [statutory] circumstance." 792, 3374. Two defendant's "relatively minor" 791, 3373.3 30 surveying States' next examined behavior juries cases assess attitudes cases. Of 739 row inmates, 41 assault. physically absence collaborated scheme designed inmates absent physical presence, assault persuasive considered 31 Against background, undertook own proportionality analysis. Armed serious offense, plainly excessive; violates Fourteenth Amendments' proscription 'against punishments excessive length severity greatly disproportioned offenses charged.' Weems United States, 217 349, 371, 544, 551, 54 L.Ed. 793 (1910) (quoting O'Neil Vermont, 144 323, 339-340, 693, 699, 36 450 (1892)); cf. Coker Georgia, 433 584, 97 2861, 53 982 (1977) (holding rape). Furthermore, so tangential deterrent retributive purposes advanced imposing unconvinced "that threat will measurably deter has intention purpose taken." 798-799, 3377. reaching conclusion, rarely robberies, such occur resulted if acknowledged, "[i]t different likelihood substantial share blame somehow felony." 799, difference related punishment, retribution. heart retribution rationale criminal directly personal culpability offender. While generally wide discretion deciding how much exact penalty, "unique irrevocability," Gregg 428 153, 187, 96 2909, 2931, 49 859 (1976), inquire relevant facets character offender." Woodson North Carolina, 280, 304, 2978, 2991, 944 (1976). Thus, focus [had to] culpability, shot insist 'individualized consideration constitutional requirement sentence.' supra, 798, 3377 Lockett Ohio, 438 586, 605, 98 2954, 2965, 57 973 (1978)) (emphasis original). Since attenuated since proof state, 790-791, 3373-74, 33 explicitly dealt subsets assessing Amendment. pole himself: minor actor scene, state. Only small within almost never exacted crime. held clearly polar case: murderer killed, equally limited accordance local warranted. brothers' fall neat categories. 34 argue strenuously "intend kill" concept understood common law. accept true. Traditionally, "one intends certain consequences desires knows acts." W. LaFave & A. Scott, Criminal Law 28, 196 (1972); see 625-626, 2983-2984 (opinion J.) (equating purposeful conduct); Perkins, Rationale Mens Rea, 52 Harv.L.Rev. 905, 911 (1939). point out, either act desired to, would, 35 "intent" traditional sense. Instead, reformulate species foreseeability. wrote: 456, 757. 37 definition broader described Participants violent felonies robberies can frequently "anticipat[e] anticipated. Indeed, bloodshed inherent foreseeable foreseen; reason felons arm themselves. reformulation amounts restatement itself. category murderers finds 38 hand, clear outside whom disproportional: rather minor, us. Cabana Bullock, 474 376, 689, 88 704 (1986). 39 brought handed murderers, By admission prepared furtherance performed innocent fate entrusted known previously robbed gunpoint do. killing, assist before, during, chose endeavors, ending battle final showdown. 40 differs slight details only. Like intentionally murderers. particularly father's murder. He, too, fully aid position These indicate anything minor; subjectively appreciated taking issue prohibits intermediate value address point. now task determining bars circumstances. 42 legislatures' inquiry.4 largest categories Four authorize showing life.5 substantial6 statutes least more, expressly account mitigation murder.7 requirements significantly overlap general, greater minimum, jurisdictions, classified permitting simpliciter,8 simply additional aggravation murderer,9 where, short occur. forbid raise recklessness.10 recent authorization regardless powerfully suggests our society reject grossly 179-181, 2928-2929 Stewart, JJ.); 594, 2867. 43 Moreover, permit approve disapprove reached particular cases, note apparent loss See, e.g., Clines State, 280 Ark. 77, 84, 656 S.W.2d 684, 687 (1983) (armed, entry, nighttime private dwelling plus contemplated), cert. denied, 465 1051, 104 1328, 79 723 (1984); Deputy 500 A.2d 581, 599-600 (Del.1985) (defendant scene; victims; conflicting killing), pending, 85-6272; Ruffin 420 591, 594 (Fla.1982) present, codefendant raped victim, codefendant's victim venture); People Davis, Ill.2d 1, 52, 69 Ill.Dec. 136, 161, 447 N.E.2d 353, 378 Holman, triggerman, Holman circumstances), 464 1001, 507, 78 697 (1983); Selvage 680 17, (Tex.Cr.App.1984) (participant jewelry store security killed; weapon chase); Allen 253 Ga. 390, 395, n. 321 S.E.2d 710, 715, ("The [Enmund Florida] turn mere important responsibility case"), 470 1059, 105 1774, 84 834 (1985). 44 backdrop, midrange majority nearly reluctant impose simpliciter.11 45 critical facet individualized determination commits Deeply ingrained legal tradition idea conduct, ought punished. ancient malice aforethought early distinguish deserved "Benefit Clergy" spared. Hen. ch. (1531); Edw. 12, (1547). Over time, came inferred circumstances; reaction, Pennsylvania became jurisdiction between degrees reserving "wilful, deliberate premeditated" Pa. Laws 1794, 1766, pp. 186-187 (1810). More recently, (1978), plurality weighing system guided discretion, vacating Ohio authority "[t]he victim." 608, 2966 Burger, C.J.); Eddings Oklahoma, 455 104, 869, 71 (1982) (adopting plurality). importance forbidding shown 46 narrow "intended unsatisfactory means definitively distinguishing most dangerous Many do, criminally liable all—those self-defense justification excuse. Other intentional homicides, criminal, often felt undeserving provocation. nonintentional inhumane all—the tortures caring lives dies, shoots someone utterly indifferent desire unintended consequence victim's property. every bit shocking moral sense Indeed modern codes alike G. Fletcher, Rethinking 6.5, 447-448 (1978) ("[I]n law, establishing egregious form homicide. For Model Penal Code treats 'manifesting life,' equivalent knowing killing"). logical inevitable life—the permits careful Similarly, implicit knowingly engaging activities carry causes natural, inevitable, result. 47 involvement rather, court, "substantial." Far merely sitting acting involved element kidnaping-robbery entire sequence activity culminating subsequent high level implicates deaths. Accordingly, focuses 48 rejected required. precisely delineate types states mind warranting here. committed, combined satisfy requirement.12 former exists; latter ordered. 50 MARSHALL joins, STEVENS join IV-A, dissenting. 51 revolt grieve learn reported, many erupted towering yell" justice.1 Yet central figure tragedy, man arrange Greenawalt's chose, exposure arrest him bring trial. presents events. precedents Constitution compel answer reaches today, dissent. Under doctrine, occurs felony, she commits, attempts commit, commit doctrine thus imposes cofelons curious living fossil era punishable death; felon respect understandably superfluous, because executed committing felony.2 Today, virtually European Commonwealth countries, cannot commit. persists. jurisdiction. illustrate how, prosecutor argued matter caused nonetheless 173-174, 185, 191. judge's instructions consistent prosecutor's argument. 179, 218-219. petitioners, anyone. 280-289. verdict committed. against "heinous, cruel depraved manner" carried 282-283. result, sentence.3 "did [and] ." "of significance," non-participation shooting controlling [brothers] kidnapping, assisting detention committed." 546, 556, 355, 365 acknowledged shootings occur, theory 55 decision addressed, "whether valid Amendments 787, Earl individuals rob. shoot anyone, concerning regard strictly doctrine. 1362, 1369 56 reversing "overwhelming evidence" "[s]ociety's rejection murders." 794, 3375. observed that, failed "Enmund's culpability." explained, rejected, culpability. "Enmund yet treated attributed Kerseys. impermissible Amendment." Ibid. added). 58 obviously cast considerable doubt constitutionality case. Following decision, review. prevented they, First, defined broadly, adopting equates foreseeability harm: 59 [sic] 757 60 reviewed, passage quotes length, ante, 144-145, link actions make time shootings. [have] anticipate[d] held, vote 3-2, establish "intended" (within meaning ) 61 comply erroneous, foreseen." Ante, 151. lower standard, occurred, penalty. therefore properly rejects today misguided preserve equating harm. my view, completes analytic work necessary decide reversed. 62 chosen announce new substantive liability: "major requirement." 158. remands standard. observes, dictum, 151; ibid. ("These [both sons] life"). 63 this. dictum mens rea applicable record. Second, assuming categorized, objective jurisprudence defendants. Finally, illustrative profound problems plague sentencing. 64 relies sufficient, life.4 But were, restrict vision us," 151, improper.5 limiting insulates articulated today. open thorough evidentiary hearing. stress abrogates independently fairly applying 391, (1986) ("Considerations federalism comity counsel ability primary protectors rights defendants"). 65 overlooked regarding trivial. uncontradicted attempting give 39-41, 74-75, 109. engaged repacking occurred. 75. returned water, distance ("farther room") started, 40-41, 111, turned 113. done afterward.6 Both, expressed feelings surprise, helplessness, regret. statement Raymond's illustrative: 66 "Well, know dad nobody hurt [the brothers] wanted hurt. And [killing kidnap victims] expecting it. surprise happen. feel bad happening. wish [have done] something stop it, happened too late it's going live lives. always there." 462, 763; 242.7 67 light surprising rested ground escape, probation officer—who reviewed sons' states—did recommend discrepancy aspects ignore underscores reliable 397-407, 702-708 (BLACKMUN, dissenting); 407-408, 708-709 (STEVENS, dissenting). III 68 Notwithstanding unwarranted observations applicability basic flaw today's failure sort analysis past require. Creation enough proportionate category. words, deserves intending review kind raising question, Solem Helm, 463 277, 3001, 77 637 (1982); (1977), offers reasons view. persons falling "is murderers." 157. To dispositive, examples property." Influential commentators approved persons, examples, manifesting life.8 exception punished homicide; "those reserved question. involves "most murderers" considerably difficult apply rubric convincingly killed.9 70 context—where killed—that nevertheless seems indispensable turns entirely another. Factors surrounding presence insofar illuminate serve, independent qualitatively lies nature choice made. way has. chooses recklessly punishment. her 72 choices rooted belief "freedom consequent duty normal choose good evil." Morissette 342 246, 250, 240, 243, 288 (1952). faithful belief, "universal persistent mature systems law," ibid., ensure receives conforms made.10 Differential essential retain relation culpability" justice depends. Washington, Cal.2d 777, 783, Cal.Rptr. 442, 402 130, 134 (1965) Traynor, C.J.). ultimate sanction—if ever used—must greatest. Cf. ("It fundamental 'causing harm causing unintentionally' (citation omitted)); Gypsum Co., 422, 444, 2864, 2877, 854 (1978). Distinguishing action WHITE stressed distinction grounds. "[S]ociety judgment, deep roots history destroy 75 76 "[T]he type punish ALI (1962) recklessness: undertaken knowledge follow. conscious producing death, aside." 626-628, 2984-2985 added; footnotes omitted). prerequisite said, "measurably contribut[e]" "social purposes"—deterrence retribution—which accepted justifications 3377, 183, 2929, If contribute, 'is purposeless needless pain suffering' hence unconstitutional punishment." quoting 592, 2866. lack state—was decisive served purposes. With deterrence, "quite taken. 'capital serve premeditation deliberation'. 3377.11 retribution, intent, together decisive. "American long intention—and guilt—to 'degree [his] culpability.' 800, 3378 "[p]utting avenge contribute ensuring gets deserts." 801, 3378. reiterated categorical rule: Cab- ana 386, 697. forth B abandoning handful cases.12 basis, concludes "[o]nly required." 158 believe punishment" 155. excludes abolished included, discovers approximately three-fifths nontriggerman contrary implication consonant jurisdictions," distinctly position.13 80 examine circumstance, Evidence infrequently applied, arbitrary unconstitutional. Furman 408 238, 92 2726, 346 (1972). statistics executions 1954 1982, "only 362 executed. 1955." 3375 militates Enmund.14 81 looked row, triggerman. case—Enmund—had (such Tisons) received country employed 796-797, 22, 3376-3377, 22.15 82 reviews updates Had remains aware single quarter century 796, 3376.16 lost challenge kill.17 aberration nationally internationally. roughly appear inadequate substitute proper analysis, Tisons. C 83 full range troubling examination revealed, until whenever undertakes series framed inquiry way. (1977). 292, 3011, (1983), summarized essence inquiry: sum, criteria, (i) gravity offense harshness penalty; (ii) criminals jurisdiction; (iii) jurisdictions." (Emphasis added.) 85 addressing best ignored guidance developed 86 Such limits power punish. care, involved, social penalty—retribution deterrence—are possess self-limiting principles. Professor Packer observed, deterrence "boiling oil; slow painful thought quick painless one." Packer, Making Punishment Fit Crime, 1071, 1076 (1964).18 Retribution, core logic crude "an eye eye," regarded "individualized consideration" administration justice" works "channe[l]" society's "instinct retribution." 308, 2761, (1972) (Stewart, concurring). Without channeling, execution torture appropriate torture.19 simple unfettered Constitution, disturbing civil sensibilities evolving standards decency" become rationally defensible. Trop Dulles, 356 86, 101, 590, 598, 630 (1958). 87 Framers principles otherwise prevailing theories principle individual's considerations inquiry, incongruous. similarly situated mattered expect, control. Unlike years behavior. reconciled analyses alone, validate analytically indistinguishable profoundly faithlessness precedent IV 1922, "five negroes Arkansas" appealed District dismissing writ habeas corpus. Moore Dempsey, 261 87, 265, 543 (1923). crux appeal "were hurried pressure mob due process law." order, Holmes Court: 90 "It certainly true mistakes corrected [by corpus]. whole proceeding mask—that counsel, swept irresistible wave public passion, Courts correct wrong, perfection machinery correction avoiding immediate outbreak securing rights." 91, 266. 91 (1972), procedural imperfect scant later, validated Georgia's machinery, 1977 resumed. afforded procedures deemed produce decisions. Moore, "perfection [State's] correction" secured rights. So (let alone Western own) execute "these unusual struck lightning unusual." 309, 2762 demonstrates, did, achieve capable "distinguishing [death penalty] not." 313, 2764 (WHITE, content Our demands respond goals courts' responsive other, visceral, demands. urge employ undoubtedly strong stir passion grasp. intuition daughters sometimes sins deeply consciousness.20 closely instincts tragicly anachronistic governed Constitution. 93 illustrates enduring truth Harlan's observation tasks identifying characteristics perpetrators call [of] express[ing] language ability." McGautha California, 204, 1454, 1466, 711 (1971) persistence doctrines murder) allow apportioning today's) "precisely [to] penalty," 158, demonstrates rules conform Arbitrariness continues infect procedure substance unusual. reason, 227, 2971, adhere prohibited Amendments, Together (see Rule 19.4). recodified broadened sex narcotics 13-1105(A)(2), (B) (Supp.1986). provisions modernized also. 13-301, 13-303(A)(3), (B)(2) (1978 Supp.1986). change diminished accountability devote brief merits arguing unconstitutionally construction statute. Godfrey 446 420, 100 1759, 398 (1980). question: "Is December 4, 1984 782 [102 1140] where—in words Court—petitioners 'did [victims] .' Pet. Cert. 2. encompass attack Arizona's express subject. 21.1(a). Vermont none unrelated correctional officer. 11, 3373, unchanged. Mississippi Nevada modified employed, Miss.Code Ann. 99-19-101(7) (Supp.1986); Nev.Rev.Stat. 200.030(1)(b), 200.030(4), 200.033(4)(a)-(b) New Jersey joined ranks N.J.Stat.Ann. 2C:11-3a(a), (c) (West Oregon authorizes Ore.Rev.Stat. 163.095(d), 163.115(1)(b) narrowed punishment: officers subject Vt.Stat.Ann., Tit. 13, 2303(b), Ark.Stat.Ann. 41-1501(1)(a) (1977 Supp.1985); Del.Code Ann., 636(a)(2), (b) (1979); Ky.Rev.Stat. 507.020(1)(b) (1985); Ill.Rev.Stat., 38, &Par; 9-1(a)(3), 9-1(b)(6) Conn.Gen.Stat. 53a-46a(g)(4) U.S.C.App. 1473(c)(6)(D). 13-703(G)(3) Supp.1986); Colo.Rev.Stat. 16-11-103(5)(d) Ind.Code 35-50-2-9(c)(4) Mont.Code 46-18-304(6) Neb.Rev.Stat. 29-2523(2)(e) N.C.Gen.Stat. 15A-2000(f)(4) (1983). Cal. 189, 190.2(a)(17) Supp.1987); Fla.Stat. 782.04(1)(a), 775.082(1), 921.141(5)(d) Ga.Code 16-5-1(a), 17-10-30(b)(2) (1984 1982); S.C.Code 16-3-10, 16-3-20(C)(a)(1) (1985 Tenn.Code 39-2-202(a), 39-2-203(i)(7) Wyo.Stat. 6-2-101, 6-2-102(h)(iv) dissent objects classification California simpliciter Carlos Superior Cal.3d 131, 197 79, 672 862 construed Post, ----. perceived federal limitations stemming Edmund. 147-152, Cal.Rptr., 90-94, 873-877. Idaho 19-2515(g) Okla.Stat., 701.12 (1981); S.D. Codified 23A-27A-1 Ala.Code 13A-2-23, 13A-5-40(a)(2), (b), 13A-5-51, 13A-6-2(a)(2) (1982 La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 14:30(A)(1) 1986); (1986); Supp.1986) (felony capital); N.M.Stat.Ann. 30-2-1(A)(2), 31-20A-5 Rev.Code 2903.01(B)-(D), 2929.02(A), 2929.04(A)(7) Tex. 19.02(a), 19.03(a)(2) (1974 Supp. Utah 76-5-202(1) Va.Code 18.2-31 purported affirming provides proposition ordinarily insufficient formal "dictate Enmund." 758 classic one, "a anticipated, used." 141 shown, ----, amounted foreseeable. separately, overlap. necessarily exhibits suffice indifference, provide significant finding. 297 Paul Dean Republic, Aug. 16, Commentaries Code: "At situation, sanction same. deal homicide failed. misdemeanors, allowed manner succeeded. misdemeanor, ALI, 210.2, 31, (Off. Draft 1980). notes, 146, 2, attribute face, seem violate broadly Petitioners' vehicle, robbing whatsoever subjective appreciation friend suddenly perfectly with, stealing flight Nothing aim. disjunction senseless unnecessary "on senselessness murders," that: defendants' evasion murdered. easily restrained travel kidnappings, theft reported." 283. solely inferences felonies. Their arms flight, conclusions significance rehearing, regard, referred 143-145. refer shootings, decision. Given address, superfluous. addition, "after" "watched victims," 152, license say "disassociate" 145 expressions courts, neglected. 233-234. Both lived home mother, visited believed model prisoner," week. Brief (citing Tr. Mar. 14, 1979, hearing). escape; thinking year, mentioned week day 50-51, 91. conditioned promise hurt; kept word. participated; retrieving testimony expect plausible speculation "subjectively report psychologist, sons, participation: "These unfortunate youngsters born extremely pathological exposed premier sociopaths history. severe influence personality structure youngsters. "I exerted strong, consistent, destructive subtle young essentially 'over heads.' Once defense brainwashing, deficiency, illness urge. There obsession, boys 'trained' victimized functioning volition. deeper psychological volition Mr. 'conditioning' amoral 11-12, 16. Fletcher's killing." 157 advocates replacing allows killer purpose, "recklessness crowd automobile, playing Russian roulette. 22-23. problem wanton, intentional, unintentional wanton deliberation. Fletcher explains point: "[W]hile calculation represent heinous cold-blooded feature wicked. Wanton wicked, detached reflection deed. Fitzjames Stephen 'sees boy bridge river barbarity, pushes drowns him.' Killing motive usually wicked one's goals." 254 (footnote omitted; emphasis fidelity, decline child morally illegal adult act. harmful child's presumed reflect capacity choice, accordingly reduced. depart justified "competent observers experience notion ingredient justifiable itself." 283, quoted infra, goal decisions, neglects States. E.g., Clark Louisiana Penitentiary, 694 F.2d (CA5 1982) (under kill); Garcia, 539, 205 684 826 (death kill), 469 1229, 366 cite distinguishable cited "apparent consensus" ("There source appellants necessity met resistance" immediately appellants, sustaining blows head face metal chain mortal wound chest"), 599 ("Deputy in, murders"), ("Evidence abundantly Ruffin's premeditated Karol Hurst"); ("Unlike effectuate safe Ventura Roberts pursued companion store"). fifth 52-53, 151-52, 378-379 successive burglaries resident), "knew" Thirteen Columbia NAACP Legal Defense Educational Fund, Death Row U.S.A. (Aug. 1986). According 154—156, 10, cataloged 176. Los Angeles adopts Mo. Rev. Stat. 565.001, 565.003, 565.020 intentionally, knowingly, deliberately death); Cons. 2502(a), (d), 1102 killing); Vt. (Supp.1986) (only penalty); Wash. 9A.32.030, 10.95.020 (1985) circumstance). general announced Md. Code, Art. 27, 410, 412(b), 413(d)(10), 413(e)(1), 413(d)(5) (1957 possible child); N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 630:1, 630:1(III), 630:1-a(I)(b)(2) enforcement officer, hire, kidnapping). ignores executions, data available, present. 148, 795, focused breakdown not, information relevant, summary tell us, average nontriggermen reveal results. worth noting Ganter, Ill.App.3d 316, 19, 371 1072 Ganter store, store's owners. murderer. Thomas range, provocation helpless position. accomplice, accountable 328, Ill.Dec., 27-28, N.E.2d, 1080-1081. 20-30 years; 3-6 years. 321, 327, 23, 1076, 1080. decided, Netherlands Australia offenses, Cyprus, El Salvador, Argentina except wartime violation military Amnesty International, America, Penalty 228-231 (1987). Lists published (Mar. 1987). Review 1982 reveals and/or remain victim; minimum Green Zant, 738 1529, 1533-1534 (CA11) (case malice-murder theory, theory), 1098, 607, 716 Skillern Estelle, 720 839, 844 1983) (evidence "plotted advance" eventual victim), sub nom. Procunier, 1067, 192 (listing totals Oct. are: Correll, 148 468, 478, 715 721, 731 "verbally encouraged" proceed Martinez-Villareal, 441, 702 670 975, 339, 324 Hooper, 538, 703 hire), 1073, 834, 805 Bishop, 521, 698 1240 assaulted mine shaft); Poland, 388, 183 (defendants victims), aff'd, 476 147, 1749, 123 Villafuerte, 1230, 1234, Fisher, 686 750 1066, 548, 436 James, 141, 685 1293 990, 398, 332 Harding, 492, 1247 victim); Libberton, 132, 1284 Jordan, 504, 169 Smith, 138 673 1074, 1429, 753 Richmond, 136 312, 666 death), 986, 435, 367 McDaniel, 188, 665 Gillies, 135 500, 662 1007 killing). otherwise, 155 156, rest, utilitarian unjust commonly dispensed. Law, 415 ("Judges traffic readily tempted philosophy suspect violation, punitive fine carefully future"). sophisticated propose principles, "no misery unchecked." H. Hart, Responsibility (1968). Hart points "do unwillingness 'punish' broken all, objection strict rea." Hart's "civilized thought" limit "by demand innocent," "punishments maintain scale reflects, albeit roughly, offenses. approximation ideal treating ones differently." 80. identifies vitality jurisprudence. Robinson 370 660, 667, 1417, 1421, ("Even 'crime' cold"); (Enmund's "punishment tailored guilt"). defended community's thirst thereby keep peace. guilty threatens violence. "channeling" replicate vengeance exact. socialize vigilantism. stated: insulation baser selves. 'cruel unusual' avenues channeled. Were empty return rack case." 345, 2780, (concurring opinion). 237-241, 2975-2977, (1976) (MARSHALL, dissenting) legitimate goals). prophets warned Israel theirs jealous God, visiting iniquity fathers children unto third fourth generation hate [Him]." Exodus, 20:5 (King James version). Horace, Odes 6:1 (C. Bennett trans. 1939) ("Thy fathers' sins, O Roman, thou, guiltless, shall expiate"); Shakespeare, Merchant Venice, Act 5, ("Yes, truly, look you, laid children"); Ibsen, Ghosts (1881).

Category: 0