Document: 401 U.S. 437 91 S.Ct. 828 28 L.Ed.2d 168 Guy Porter GILLETTE, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. Louis A. NEGRE, Petitioner, v. Stanley R. LARSEN et al. Nos. 85, 325. Argued Dec. 9, 1970. Decided March 8, 1971. Rehearing Denied in No. 325, April 26, See 402 934, 1521. Syllabus Petitioner who was convicted for failure to report induction, and petitioner sought discharge from the armed forces upon receipt of orders Vietnam duty, claim exemption military service because their conscientious objection participation conflict, as an 'unjust' war, pursuant § 6(j) Military Selective Service Act 1967. That section provides that no person shall be subject 'service United States who, by reason religious training belief, is conscientiously opposed war any form.' Petitioners also challenge constitutionality construed cover only objectors all violative Free Exercise Establishment Religion Clauses First Amendment. Held: 1. The those oppose 'participation form' applies participating not object a particular only, even if latter character. Pp. 441—448. 2. Section does violate Clause 448—460. (a) on its face discriminate basis affiliation or petitioners have shown absence neutral, secular bases exemption. 450—453. (b) provision focuses individual belief sectarian affiliations. P. 454. (c) There are valid neutral reasons, with central emphasis maintenance fairness administration conscription, congressional limitation 'war form,' therefore cannot said reflect preference. 454—460. 3. Clause. It designed interfere practice penalize theological position. Any incidental burdens felt justified substantial governmental interests relating conscription. 461—462. 420 F.2d 298, 418 908, affirmed. Conrad J. Lynn, New York City, Gillette. Richard Harrington, San Francisco, Cal., Negre. Sol. Gen. Erwin N. Griswold, respondents. Mr. Justice MARSHALL delivered opinion Court. 1 These cases present question whether rather than such, relieves objector responsibilities service. Specifically, we called decide scruples conflict within purview established provisions1 relieving Both invoke constitutional principles barring government interference exercise religion requiring neutrality matters religion. 2 In Gillette wilful induction into forces. defended ground he should been ruled exempt war. support his unsuccessful request classification objector, this had stated willingness participate national defense sponsored Nations peace-keeping measure, but declared opposition American operations Vietnam, which characterized 'unjust.' concluded could conscience enter serve during period conflict. Gillette's view duty abstain involvement seen unjust is, words, 'based humanist approach religion,' personal decision concerning guided fundamental deeply held views about purpose obligation human existence. 3 District Court determined there fact administrative denial case. upheld, criminal charge rejected, doubt sincerity character petitioner's ran affirming conviction, Appeals beliefs 'were specifically directed against Vietnam,' while relevant 1967, 50 U.S.C. App. 456(j) (1964 ed., Supp. V), 'requires 'to form." 299—300 (CA2 1970). 4 Negre, after Army, completion basic training, commenced proceedings looking Application denied, Negre judicial relief habeas corpus. found Army's rejection application discharge. Habeas affirmed appeal, because, language Appeals, 'objects wars,' 'not qualify separation (from Army), objector.'2 909—910 (CA9 1969). Again, raised quality views. line counseling numerous texts, devout Catholic, believes it faithful Catholic between 'just' wars, forswear latter. His assessment became clear mind infantry now firmly would contravene 'all I taught my training.' 5 We granted certiorari these cases, 399 925, 90 2256, 26 792 (1970), order resolve vital issues power raise armies, affected guarantees affirm judgments below both cases. 6 * Each claims nonconstitutional right relieved virtue scruples.3 turn proper construction provides: 7 'Nothing contained title require combatant form.'4 8 This controls exemption, asserted administratively prior point induction. Department Defense Directive 1300.6 (May 10, 1968), prescribes post-induction status honored, valid, various branches forces.5 Act, courts, incorporated regulations issued Directive,6 thus standards measuring in-service objectors, such same statutory tests applicable pre-induction situation. 9 For purposes determining focal phrase, 'conscientiously language, straightforward reading, can bear one meaning; must amount personally Welsh States, 398 333, 340, 342, 1792, 1796, 1797, 308 (1970); id., at 347, 357, 1799, 1805 (concurring result). Kauten, 133 703, 707 1943). little 'in read modify 'war' 'participation.' On first implicate involving plainly covered 6(j). other war.' strain good sense phrase otherwise mean word still used unqualified, generic sense, meaning such. Thus, however clause parsed, remains run form.7 10 A different result supported reliance materials legislative history.8 amici episode pronouncement history 6(j), predecessor provisions, tends overthrow obvious interpretation words themselves.9 11 true reveal deep concern situation absent special put hard choice contravening imperatives suffering penalties. Moreover, indications reluctance impose stems recognition value action democratic community large, respect general proposition may sometimes override demands state. Seeger, 380 163, 170—172, 85 850, 856—857, 13 733 (1965); Macintosh, 283 605, 631 634, 51 570, 577—578, 75 L.Ed. 1302 (1931) (dissenting opinion). generally System Monograph 11, Conscientious Objection (1950). But countervailing considerations, Congress,10 simply do Congress intended recognize whatever claimant responsibility incidents recognized running claim, focus concern. 12 Finding comfort wording rely heavily dicta decisional law dealing whose indicated certain reservations abstract nature. instructive none relied embraces variance adopt today.11 Sicurella 348 385, 403, 99 436 (1955), presented previous occasion Jehovah's Witness wars possess requisite although 'theocratic war' commanded Jehovah. noted reservation highly abstract—no occurred since biblical times, contemplated. Congress, hand, 'real shooting 391, S.Ct., 406, Sicurella's did undercut wars. Plainly, those, like petitioners, variety reasons consider unjust, war.12 14 emphasized our explicating 'religious belief' cognate clauses issue. here petitioners' 'religious' 733, 308, misplaced. Nor necessarily falls 6(j)'s expressly excluded class13 'essentially political, sociological, philosophical views, merely moral code.' Rather, hold persons war—'participation form'—and solely exempting section, though roots claimant's personality 15 further clarify holding. Apart reservations, two sorts use force thought lower courts defeat claim. Willingness self-defense, home family, immediate acts aggressive violence toward community, has regarded inconsistent See, e.g., Haughton, 413 736, 740—742 1969); Carroll, 651, 655 (CA3 1968). surely defensively situations mentioned quite fight some others. Cf. U.S., 389, 405. Somewhat more apposite instant say complete certainty convictions existing state unalterable. Owen, 415 383, 390 (CA8 Unwillingness deny possibility change mind, hypothetical future circumstances, humble casting belief. At rate difference sincere only. II 16 argue 6[j], violates Amendment 'Congress make respecting establishment religion, prohibiting free thereof *.' contend interferes failing relieve service, when While clauses—pertaining 'free exercise' 'establishment' religion—overlap interact many ways, see Abington School Schempp, 374 203, 222—223, 83 1560, 1571—1572, 844 (1963); Freund, Public Aid To Parochial Schools, 82 Harv.L.Rev. 1680, 1684 (1969), best contention, despite overtones, gist complaint impermissibly discriminates among types affiliation.14 17 assumption nature well Court's decisions construing ask how permitted fail, upheld Act. properly construed, effect. Yet conclude mechanical fashion, all, works 18 An attack founded disparate treatment invokes what perhaps Clause—the ensuring Epperson Arkansas, 393 97, 103—104, 89 266, 269—270, 21 228 (1968); Everson Board Education, 330 1, 15—16, 67 504, 511, 711 (1947). Here 19 amounts overreaching undue affairs Walz Tax Commission, 397 664, 675, 1409, 1415, 25 697 695, 1425 (opinion Harlan, J.). contrary, greater 'entanglement' expansion Necessarily issue 'neutrality.' And matter prohibits abandoning imprimatur favor adherents sect organization. Engel Vitale, 370 421, 430 431, 1261, 1266—1267, 601 (1962); Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 495, 81 1683, 982 (1961). metaphor 'wall' impassable barrier Church State, taken too literally, mislead analysis, supra, 668—669, 1411; Zorach Clauson, 343 306, 312—313, 72 679, 683, 96 954 (1952), stands least activities touch sphere, they purpose, evenhanded operation, primary impact. 222, 1571; id. 231, 1576 (Brennan, J., concurring); 305, 1615 (Goldberg, concurring). 20 critical weakness arises face, apart course says anyone specified grounding belief,' position required. Draft 1917, 4, 40 Stat. 78, extended affiliated 'well-recognized organization' forbade members' attempt sects apparently broke down practice, n. 19, 1810 result), 1940 Training 5(g), 54 889, discarded restriction.15 Thereafter framed broad terms compatible 'its long-established policy picking choosing beliefs.' 175, 858. grants benefit either nullify grant somehow extend religions. single out organization creed treatment. Rather contention sort basis, commands another, carved protected courts.16 22 Properly phrased, accorded de facto discrimination happens, faiths themselves distinguish commending former forbidding latter, faiths—and individuals include distinction—cannot consistently imperative conscience. Of course, discrimination, rendering fatally underinclusive, brushed aside. observation makes religions, forbids subtle departures neutrality, gerrymanders,' abuses. 696, Braunfeld Brown, 366 599, 607, 1144, 1148, 563 (1961) Warren, C.J.); Illinois ex rel. McCollum 333 213, 232, 68 461, 475, 92 649 (1948) Frankfurter, Still alleging 'gerrymander' able show lines drawn. 107 109, 272—273; Education Central High Allen, 392 236, 248, 88 1923, 1929, 1060 McGowan Maryland, 420, 442—444, 1101, 1113—1115, (1961); 468, 1158 (separate follow, believe failed showing 23 6[j] serves number having nothing design foster sect, cluster religions.17 considerations pragmatic nature, hopelessness converting effective fighting man, 369, 1812 (White, dissenting), reflects forum conscience, higher always maintained.' 633, 578, (Hughes, C.J., dissenting). 856—857. conscription principle supremacy conscience.18 24 Naturally just affirmative character, going existence restriction Quite might exemption,19 hardly impermissible accommodate values, 'our happy tradition' 'avoiding unnecessary clashes dictates conscience.' 578 294—299, 1609—1612 309, 1617 (Stewart, 370—373, 'Neutrality' 'benevolence' way exemptions onerous duties, 669, 1411, so long tailored broadly enough purposes. draft area 30 years focused affiliation. adherence extraneous viewpoint. requirement never elevate conventional piety religiosity kind above faith. impossible intrudes 'voluntarism' life, 694 1424—1425 J.), enacting promote organizations traditionally claimant, seeking protection own beliefs, encourages membership putatively 'favored' organizations, painful dilemma precisely feels himself bound compromise B underlying secular, exist limiting 27 Government's need manpower, interest involved laws maintaining fair system 'who serve.'20 When Government exacts much, importance fair, evenhanded, uniform decisionmaking obviously intensified. argues jeopardized account intrinsically uncertain dimensions, granting theory involve real danger erratic discriminatory practice. virtually limitless subsumable under rubric, 'objection war.'21 All factors go nonconscientious dissent policy, appear concrete Indeed, over realm possible situations, likely political nonconscientious, otherwise. F.2d, 708. difficulties sorting two, sure considerable. time changeable nullification changing events. Since fasten enormous variables, ultimately subjective, depending facts relation judgment given factor congeries colors whole. short, objections deemed sufficient excuse considerable program excusing 'impossible conduct hope reaching consistent results. *' Brief 28. 29 part, provide careful definition carve protect. They explain why conflict—much less facet conflict—should whatever, connected hand remote tenuous ways.22 suggest solution problems arising altered circumstances quickly render moot. problem decisionmaking, context, commonplace chore weeding 'spurious claims,' minimize responsible body. example, unarticulated scheme objector's based feature current most regard incidental, predicated mistaken. itself 'sincere,' difficult know judge 'sincerity' conclusion toto ruled, connection 'the 'truth' open question'; rather, 'truly held.' 185, 863. Ballard, 322 64 882, 1148 (1944). concept much adjudicative weight. 31 Ours Nation heterogeneity codes, persuasions. bespeak establishing forgo enterprise distinguishing dissent. would-be succeed articulate, better educated, counseled. unintended discrimination—a claim's chances success familiar salient made appear. rate, discriminating complicated exemption—even one—the potential involvement' persons' affiliations, 'entangl(ing) classifications religious,' conscientious. 698—699, 1426—1427 Presbyterian Mary Elizabeth Blue Hull Church, 440, 601, 658 (1969). unfortunately exists takes differences account, dangers enhanced indeterminate scope were honored theory. 32 addition fairness, contends drawn 6(j)—between war—may assert. Opposition states brief, involves 'that particular,' sociological economic considered' deciding engage 24—26. Taken narrow justify distinction issue, 'political particular' rooted considered rejected process likewise viewpoint 'necessarily' well. Nonetheless, closer conjoined distinction. 33 Tacit limits overriding protecting integrity noncompliance. Despite component, logic sweeping. Thus 'interest' invoked problematical, seem refusal accord breathing space noncompliant inspired 34 perceived albeit grounds 'open doors selective disobedience law' jeopardize binding decisions. Report National Advisory Commission Service, Pursuit Equity: Who Serves Not Serve? (1967). Hamilton Regents University California, 293 245, 268, 55 197, 206, 79 (1934) (Cardozo, Other fields legal aside, undoubted itself, requires desires dissenting subordinated degree pursuit public depend inter alia particularistic factual assessments, assessments presumably overridden decides commit lives resources trial arms. Further, unreasonable suppose prepared assert objection, instead accept hardships risks agree points yet conclude, process. fear apparently, weaken feel cost, uneasiness prospect violence, serious 35 categorical, global stifling individualistic noncompliance, duties exacted, As very discussion, orderly exempted law, characteristics, burdensome dangers—dangers feared Commission—might arise available administered fairly uniformly situations. Should chosen unfairly capriciously, then mood bitterness cynicism corrode spirit values willing performance citizen's heart government. paragraph, conjunction without cognizable Congress. light concerns, supportable decided war—to killing war—has distinct intense status, not. 36 acted irrationally unreasonably Our analysis policies undertaken determine vel non justification find justifying violated. 37 Petitioners' remaining conscripting Strictly viewed, comparative examined isolation circumstance war.23 holding comports automatically settle harmony Amendment, reach own. 1571—1572. 38 revealed weight impact 39 farthest stance colliding fixed Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303—304, 60 900, 903, 84 1213 (1940); Jacobson Massachusetts, 197 29, 358, 362, 49 643 (1905); cf. Cleveland 329 14, 20, 13, 16, (1946). sure, bars 'governmental regulation such,' Sherbert Verner, 398, 402, 1790, 1793, 965 (1963), dissemination ideas. Fowler Rhode Island, 345 67, 73 526, 97 (1953); Follett Town McCormick, 321 573, 717, 938 (1944); Murdock Pennsylvania, 319 105, 63 870, 87 1292 (1943). misuse programs impede observance religions invidiously burden being indirect.' C.J.). prohibitory regulatory aims, condemn applications clashing justifiable aims. id.; supra. Clark, Guidelines Clause, 327 However, far unjustified. laws, applied others, ritual work penalty strictly relate directly impacts questioned. broadly, procuring manpower necessary purposes, armies. Art. I, 8. IV merit, follows case (No. 85) Negre's 325) Accordingly, 41 Affirmed. 42 Mr BLACK concurs Part 43 DOUGLAS, 85. 44 combat general, him extends 'who, form.'1 He follows: 45 'I assignment Armed Forces waged, 'Humanism.' essentially means love faith inherent goodness perfectability, confidence capability improve pains condition.' 46 substantially Sisson Sisson, D.C., 297 F.Supp. 902, appeal dismissed, 267, 2117, 608, where summarized draftee's 47 'Sisson's table ultimate ethical. real, pervasive, durable, commendable marshalling priorities formal residue culture, early shared companions family. What another derives discipline church, F.Supp., 905. 48 sincere, genuine, profound. faced squarely unable facts, refused follow Sisson. question, Can 'religion' required kill? answered Court.2 343, Fourteenth State university take training. 1302, denied naturalization 'would promise advance arms unless believed morally justified.' Id., 613, 571. compelling man kill involved. Most talk majority concerned 'serving nation 623, 574. Such can, place noncombatant roles. ruling 'dependent will individual, except provides.' Ibid. Macintosh squint towards said, presented. guide, Chief Hughes spoke Justices Holmes, Brandeis, Stone: 'Nor ground, opinion, exclusion Professor reference unjust. new attitude. Among eminent statesmen abroad condemned country entering Agreements renunciation presuppose preponderant sentiment aggression. If, recognizing mere disqualify citizen office country, applicant qualified admitted citizenship, constitute disqualification.' 635, 579. 52 think view. speaks main ingredients rights. bedrock speech implied 'conscience' certainly high 'right association' Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 247, NAACP Alabama, 357 449, 78 1163, 1488. Some indeed higher.3 53 Conscience often echo But, illustrates, product travail, meditation, sudden revelation related comprehension dimensions problem, ordinary sense. Tolstoy4 wrote Van der Veer, says, Christian, refuses motives, motives simplest kind, intelligible common men, nation, Mohammedan, Buddhist, Confucian, Spaniards Japanese. 'Van Veer commandment. 'Thou shalt murder,' holds murder nature.' Tolstoy5 goes say: 56 Christian. wish brother man; obey, men. Thereby shows Christianity profess others reject; naught else life's following illumines 57 'Those men behave rightly reasonably so, prescriptions Christ, pointed eighteen hundred ago become identified 58 'sphere intellect spirit,' described domain West Virginia Barnette, 624, 642, 1178, 1187, 1628, gave form. said: 'A meaningful occupies life possessor parallel filled God admittedly qualifying comes definition.' 176, 859.6 59 Seeger answer 'opposed infirmity seems once guide. case: 61 'But, maintained. supreme obligation, principle, unquestionably lawabiding citizens. essence superior relation.' 633—634, 578. 62 written species invidious scruples. Black 'The lost follower atheist7 longer judicially entitled equal justice law.' 320, 687, (dissenting). recent 228, struck unconstitutional teaching doctrine evolution schools: 'Government democracy, national, theory, doctrine, hostile advocacy no-religion; aid, foster, militant opposite. mandates nonreligion.' 103 104, 270. Equal Protection Fifth due Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 500, 74 693, 694, 98 884, segregation race schools Schneider Rusk, 377 168—169, 1190, 218, reached penalties imposed naturalized, native-born generalized, equally standards. 65 assumed welfare soul test vitality 66 appropriate give content dictum 1187: '(F)reedom differ limited things much. substance order.' reverse judgment. 69 70 diffidence, doctrines raised. briefs authoritative lay scholar, Dr. John T. Noonan, Jr., brief deduce following: 71 Under part comply church wars.1 Conversely, wars.2 Commandment, kill,' 16th century Francisco Victoria, Dominican master Salamanca pioneer international elaborated 'If convinced injustice ought it, command prince. clear, authorize innocent person.' realized information prince counsellors causes proofs tokens ignorance subjects' normally informed, participate.3 Well 400 later, today, Baltimore Catechism exception Commandment 'soldier war.'4 No tell studying facts.5 Like obey Church. told stop preaching Sanhedrin, subordinate 'Peter apostles 'We men."6 changed. Pope Paul VI expressed 'On perceives acknowledges divine through mediation activity come God, end life.'7 determination rests provided guides. Victoria referred 'killing World War doctrine. Writing shortly Cardinal Ottaviani stated: '(M)odern fulfil conditions (as earlier essay) govern—theoretically—a lawful conceivable cause ever evils, slaughter, destruction, upheavals today entails. then, declaration justifiable.'8 full horrors modern Pastoral Constitution announced Vatican II: 76 development armaments science immeasurably magnified wickedness Warfare conducted weapons inflict immense indiscriminate havoc beyond bounds legitimate defense. stocked arsenals great powers employed fullest, almost reciprocal slaughter side other, speak widespread devastation world deadly aftereffects resulting 77 'All us undertake completely fresh reappraisal '(T)t thing wage self-defense; seek domination nation. '(e)very act destruction whole cities vast areas inhabitants crime merits firm unequivocal condemnation.'9 80 Catholic. 1951 four, family immigrated France.10 attended Bakersfield, until graduation school. Then Bakersfied Junior College years. Following that, inducted Army. goals wanted, however, convictions. agreed myself before making taking type stand permit understand explanation Vietnam. For, getting insight subject, unfair me anything, really knowing answer.'11 advanced knew violating concepts natural objector. denied. proceed shipment court-martial followed, acquitted. After filed form discharge, led war12 according day, provisions set infra, nn. 5, 6, accompanying text. active dispute 325 lacks intensity action. remains, concede mooted. pursue further. asked spared conflict—Gillette draft; further: 'As subsection, term code. claiming sustained local board shall, *, assigned defined President, lieu ordered perform civilian contributing health, safety, states: IV. Policy. (T)he essential man's accordingly bona fide Forces. 'IV. B. DoD Consistent members extent practicable equitable. recognized.' DOD 'Since standards, (conscientious status) registrants apply servicemen service.' also, Army Regulations AR 635—20 (July 31, 1970), 135—25 (Sept. 2, reading attaches 'war,' somewhat incoherent. allows forces, 'found adverse earliest history. 29—38 1775 Continental 'people Religious Principles Arms 33—34. Against background militia 170—171, (1965), 1864 explicitly federal 'are bearing arms, prohibited doing rules articles (of their) denominations.' 9. 1917 belonged 'any well-recognized forbid therein 78. Senate amendment legislation '(o)n undertaking Cong.Rec. 1478. Subsequent eliminated affiliation, grounded brlief.' 1940, 889. enactment, has, survived revisions provision. sole argument specific utterly flawed. runs 1948 revision (1931); implicated remarked 'eminent abroad' 579; provision, fashioning belief.' 172—179, 857 861. dispute—'participation form'—was thereafter. service—his dissent, unwillingness disqualifying factor, loyalty oath, proceeding. (The later adopted Girouard 328 61, 64, 826, 827, 1084 (1946).) 50—51 Perhaps significant claimants done constitutional, statutory, grounds, defective admit relief. McFadden, 309 502 (N.D.Cal.1970), app. docketed, 422, O.T.1970; 902 (Mass.1969), dismissed want jurisdiction, 608 (1970). interpreted way, suffers infirmity, temptation expand constructional fiat 'save' it. noting theocratic 'without carnal weapons,' registrant 390, 406. plain purport statement wars' stake. Taffs 208 329, 331 1953), cert. 928, 532, 1081 (1954). Amendment's Due Process violated, embodied arbitrary capricious contravention 'equal protection' encompassed 499, 884 independent context 1425, (1970) survives drawn, neither nor invidious. invalidity restrictive lead cure 'underinclusiveness.' 76, Law Cases, 245 366, 389—390, 159, 165, 349 (1918), stage Clauses. sentence devoted complainants' argument, 'because unsoundness apparent more.' 165. 445—446. 23, infra. (1967) aptly Matters papers show, defensive pacific, otherwise; legal, prosecution means; implements humanely, all. one's more: foe, allies; fought; likelihood clash benefits, kinds, inevitable costs conflict; on. 3, class behalf collides already discussed, and, note previously suggested mandated Constitution. 264, 205, (1934); 623—624, 574—575; re Summers, 561, 572—573, 1307, 1313 1314, 1795 (1945). U.S.C.App. V). Powell, Constitution, Democracy Unity (W. Hutchinson ed. 1941). probably universal truth authority, social, economic, instinctively insistence Mehta, Studies Gandhism, p. ii (Calcutta, 1933). M. Konvitz, Liberty 106 Redlich & Feinberg, Individual Objector: Right Kill, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 875, 891 (1969): 'Free expression closely intertwined. core amendment's expression, represents oral manifestation acts, crisis similar manifestations verbal expressions thought. awesome society demand life.' L. Tolstoy, Writings Civil Disobedience Non-Violence 15—16. 327, 337 avoiding compulsion produces greatest number, concerned. condemnation implicit threat sanctions motivated Furthermore, cost principled severe, supernatural sanction loss self-respect.' four stating: (in Seeger) prompt registrant's confined source traditional parochial stem moral, ethical, wrong strength convictions.' 339—340, 1796. Article 'no Test Qualification Office Trust States.' 982, nonbeliever office. explained XXIII Pacem Terris (Paulist Press 1963): 'Human well-ordered prosperous people invested authority preserve institutions *. derive St. teaches God. Chrysostom: wisdom chance, ordained government, obey.' adds: 'When, fact, rulers them, obedience decreed men's dealings regulated Himself established.' civil authorities legislate allow anything contrary authorizations consciences citizens, men.' 51. De Indis Relectio Posterior, sive Iure Belli Hispanorum Barbaros, translated Classics International 173—174 (E. Nys 1917). 205 (official rev. 1949). Modern 'Deep discovers laid obey. Its voice, calling avoid evil, tells inwardly moment shun that. inscribed dignity lies observing judged.' Fagothey, Reason: Ethis Theory Practice (4th 1967) 'Hence obeyed, correct, invincibly erroneous (unrealized error). guide hes actions now. distinguished correct Therefore obliged forced absured conclusions 'Yet happens astray avoid, lose dignity. trouble good.' Acts 5:29 (Standard 1900). Declaration Religions Freedom 1:3 Documents Council II, 369 (Newman 1966). Life Day' Conference Bishops (Nov. 15, 1968): 'Whether modifications made, continue all-important peace, consciences. recall, Council, permanent uniprinciples,' 'man's it- Future Offensive War, Blackfriars, 415, 419 (1949). 79, 80. suggests parents left France France's Indo-China 'What certitude required? prudentially certain. Prudential absolute relative. excludes prudent opposite true, rule imprudent fears bare possibilities. strong satisfy important matter, safe theoretical chance wrong. every reasonable precaution, guarantee rare contingencies freaks 'For middle-aged baffled resistance draft, Stanford student useful parallel. 'Addressing hearing Committee Peter Knutson 'If, Second America entered Hitler's Germany, you allowed yourself drafted? Would blindly wrong?' 'That anti-draft stated. 'It far-fetched fought Hitler, beside point. If today's veteran try imagine drafted understanding generation draftees. breeding powerful frustrations, residues outlast war.'—L.H.—Lewiston (Ida.) Tribune.

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