Document: 392 U.S. 514 88 S.Ct. 2145 20 L.Ed.2d 1254 Leroy POWELL, Appellant,v.STATE OF TEXAS. No. 405. Argued March 7, 1968. Decided June 17, Rehearing Denied Oct. 14, See 89 65. [Syllabus from pages 514-516 intentionally omitted] Don L. Davis, Austin, Tex., for appellant, pro hac vice, by special leave of Court. David Robinson, Jr., Washington, D.C., appellee. Peter Barton Hutt, American Civil Liberties Union et al., amicus curiae. Mr. Justice MARSHALL announced the judgment Court and delivered an opinion in which THE CHIEF JUSTICE, BLACK, HARLAN join. 1 In late December 1966, appellant was arrested charged with being found a state intoxication public place, violation Vernon's Ann.Texas Penal Code, Art. 477 (1952), reads as follows: 2 'Whoever shall get drunk or be any at private house except his own, fined not exceeding one hundred dollars.' 3 Appellant tried Corporation Texas, guilty, $20. He appealed to County Law Travis County, where trial de novo held. His counsel urged that 'afflicted disease chronic alcoholism,' 'his appearance (while was) * own volition,' therefore punish him criminally conduct would cruel unusual, Eighth Fourteenth Amendments United States Constitution. 4 The judge county court, sitting without jury, made certain findings fact, infra, 521, but ruled matter law alcoholism defense charge. $50. There no further right appeal within Texas judicial system,1 this Court; we noted probable jurisdiction. 389 810, 97, 19 62 (1967). I. 5 principal testimony Dr. Wade, Fellow Medical Association, duly certificated psychiatry. consumed total 17 transcript. Five those were taken up recitation Wade's qualifications. next 12 Wade examined appellant's counsel, cross-examined State, re-examined defense, contain virtually all material developed is relevant constitutional issue face here. sketched outlines 'disease' concept alcoholism; there generally accepted definition 'alcoholism'; alluded ongoing debate medical profession over whether alcohol actually physically 'addicting' merely psychologically 'habituating'; concluded either case 'chronic alcoholic' 'involuntary drinker,' who 'powerless drink,' 'loses self-control drinking.' testified he had alcoholic,' 'by time has reached (the intoxication) able control behavior, (who) point because uncontrollable compulsion drink.' also responded negative question 'the willpower resist constant excessive consumption alcohol.' added jailing attention operate neither rehabilitate nor lessen desire alcohol. 6 On cross-examination, admitted when sober knew difference between wrong, affirmatively act taking first drink given instance 'voluntary exercise will.' Qualifying answer, stated 'these individuals have compulsion, while completely overpowering, very strong influence, exceedingly coupled firm belief their mind they are going handle it now on causes somewhat clouded.' concerning history drinking problem. reviewed many arrests drunkenness; unable stop drinking; intoxicated actions could remember them later, did become violent; arrest occasion tried. morning been discontinue drinking. part, cross-examination went 7 'Q. You took eight o'clock you wanted drink? 8 'A. Yes, sir. 9 And if drank it, keep drunk? 10 Well, I supposed here trial, didn't take drink. 11 afternoon, then couldn't afford more come court; right? sir, that's right. 13 So exercised your will power kept anything today 14 15 Because what do finally pass out picked up? 16 want happen today? 18 No, Not 21 only 22 sir.' 23 redirect examination, lawyer elicited following: 24 Leroy, isn't real reason why just enough money buy 25 give me. 26 other words, drinks yourself? 27 28 really controlled amount morning, it? 29 30 start drinking, how can take? 31 32 Evidence closed. State effort obtain expert psychiatric its even explore witness frequency, timing, location bouts, substantial disagreement nature disease, efficacy treatment prerequisites effective treatment. It nothing examine illuminate might meant reference 'compulsion' 'not overpowering,' 'an influence,' inquire into proper role such adjudication. Instead, contented itself brief argument charge 'is legally sane knows wrong.' Following abbreviated exposition problem before court indicated intention disallow claimed alcoholism.' Thereupon submitted, entered, following 'findings fact': 33 '(1) That destroys afflicted person's constant, 34 '(2) alcoholic does appear volition under symptomatic alcoholism. 35 '(3) Powell, defendant herein, 36 Whatever else may said them, fact' recognizable, traditional sense term used law; premises syllogism transparently designed bring scope Court's Robinson v. California, 370 660, 82 1417, 758 (1962). Nonetheless, dissent us adopt these 'findings' critical examination; use basis holding 'a person punished condition essential constitute defined crime part pattern occasioned disease.' Post, 569. 37 difficulty position, show, goes much too far little knowledge. record utterly inadequate permit sort informed responsible adjudication alone support announcement important wide-ranging new principle. We know about circumstances surrounding bout resulted conviction, Powell's problem, indeed itself. hardly reflects sharp legal evidentiary clash fully prepared adversary litigants traditionally expected major cases. put witness, arresting officer. three—a policeman long drunkenness, psychiatrist, himself. 38 Furthermore, inescapable fact agreement among members means say 'alcoholism' 'disease.' One works field states articulating 'disease alcoholism' 'alcoholism definitions practically none.'2 This same author concludes recognizes such.'3 widespread 'disease,' simple should attempt treat problems. stops. Debate rages separate meaningful biochemical, physiological psychological sense, represents peculiar manifestation some underlying disorders.4 39 Nor consensus 'manifestations E. M. Jellinek, outstanding authorities subject, identifies five different types alcoholics predominate States, display broad range occasionally inconsistent symptoms.5 Moreover, wholly distinct types, relatively rare country, nations cultural attitudes regarding alcohol.6 Even limit our consideration symptoms typically manifestations called 'alcoholism.' example, considers two truly suffering attain believes requisite degree dependence alcohol.7 applies label 'gamma 'that species (1) acquired increased tissue tolerance alcohol, (2) adaptive cell metabolism *, (3) withdrawal 'craving,' i.e., physical dependence, (4) loss involved.'8 A 'delta' alcoholic, hand, 'shows three characteristics gamma well less marked form fourth characteristic—that is, instead inability abstain.'9 Other approach problems classification entirely manner and, account large psychosocial factors seem play 'problem drinking,' define terms earliest identifiable abnormality patterns.10 40 appears similar Jellinek's 'gamma' largely defined, later stages, drink, abstain No below, course, determine Powell properly diagnosed terms. focus here, exclusively upon abstain. Assuming makes compartmentalize diagnosis formless tremendous gaps knowledge remain, fill. 41 court's 'finding' 'destroys alcohol' covers multitude sins. suffered 'exceedingly overpowering' least carefully stated, mystifying. Jellinek insists conceptual clarity achieved distinguishing 'loss control' once individual commenced 'inability abstain' place.11 Presumably both order make recognized. Yet fail crucial distinction, serious read finding 42 testify began appeared ingested. Appellant's day certainly appear, however, cast doubt conclusion sufficiently reasons control. However be, factual difficulties reading show sober, will,' undertaken influence' overpowering.' Such concepts, juxtaposed fashion, meaning. 43 asserts cannot accurately unless withdrawal.12 underwent spree conviction review time. attempting deal alcoholic's absence symptoms, reduced unintelligible distinctions (a 'psychopathological phenomenon' apparently serve instances functional equivalent 'craving' symptom withdrawal) 'impulse' (something differs control, craving attributes alcoholic).13 scholars equally unhelpful 'compulsion.'14 44 thing man deprived hands begin shake, suffer agonizing pains ultimately hallucinations; quite another retains 'free will' resist. simply impossible, present knowledge, ascribe useful meaning latter statement. definitional confusion reflects, undeveloped art inevitably attendant importation scientific models system predicated set assumptions.15 II. 45 Despite comparatively primitive denied destructive beverages social health problems.16 lowest current estimate places number 'alcoholics' America (definitional aside) 4,000,000,17 most inclined figure considerably higher.18 compounded percentage country 'invisible'—they possess secret, uncharitable attitude society toward refrain seeking source.19 gainsaid legislative response enormous general inadequate. 46 yet known method treating vast society. Some particular forms therapy remissions drug. But doctors workers respect alcoholism, treatments cases agreed-upon scale.20 Most psychiatrists difficult than behavioral disorders, believe impossible cure psychotherapy; indeed, whole, particular, severely criticised prevailing reluctance undertake problems.21 Thus possible that, manpower facilities available full-scale attack find ourselves help bulk 'visible'—let 'invisible'—alcoholic population. 47 However, attempted indigent woefully lacking throughout country.22 tragic return numbers helpless, sometimes dangerous frequently unsanitary inebriates streets cities opportunity adequately jail provides. city tolerate affairs. cannot, not, tell assurance buildings, equipment trained personnel available, provide slightly higherclass jails habitual inebriates. run grave risk accomplished beyond hanging sign 'hospital'—over wing jailhouse.23 48 virtue criminal process least, duration penal incarceration outside statutory limit; universally true petty offenses, short whole. 'Therapeutic civil commitment' lacks feature; committed until 'cured.' Thus, otherwise affirm subject locked indefinite period conditions before, hope receiving prospect periodic 'freedom.'24 49 Faced unpleasant reality, assert dealing aspects never defended rational. picture penniless propelled aimlessly endlessly through law's 'revolving door' arrest, incarceration, release re-arrest pretty one. condemn practice across-the-board, perhaps ought clear promise better world unfortunate people. Unfortunately, forthcoming. If, addition coherent treatment, consider almost complete implementation rehabilitation program, context value. held Constitution requires sanctions solely achieve therapeutic rehabilitative effects, serves purposes criminals drunks. 50 Ignorance likewise impedes assessment deterrent effect drunkenness. high conceal problems, avoiding displays shunning indicative powerful operates inhibit revelation existence Quite probably attributed harsh moral shame associated Criminal degrading Anglo-American condemned defect, reinforce taboo, presume other, stronger feelings against murder, rape, theft, antisocial conduct. 51 Obviously, deterred excess violate laws kind undeterred. longstanding still raging validity deterrence justification conclusions ineffective group people appreciate consequences acts. Certainly case, monosyllabic answer perfunctory one-line question, effectiveness deterring getting times. III. 52 claims facts Cruel Unusual Punishment Clause Amendment applied Amendment. primary purpose clause always considered, so, directed punishment imposed statutes; ordinarily fitness imposed. See, e.g., Trop Dulles, 356 86, 78 590, 630 (1958); Louisiana ex rel. Francis Resweber, 329 459, 67 374, 91 L.Ed. 422 (1947); Weems 217 349, 544, 54 793 (1910).25 53 Appellant, seeks application (1962), involved statute making 'be addicted narcotics.' imprisons thus (with narcotic addiction) criminal, though touched drug guilty irregular behavior there, inflicts unusual *.' Id., 667, S.Ct., 1420—1421. fall holding, since convicted, occasion. sought mere status, California Robinson; regulate privacy home. Rather, sanction create safety hazards, public, offends esthetic sensibilities segment community. seems cry convicting addict, 'mentally ill, leper 666, 1420. 55 so viewed brings small way substantive law. see limiting principle prevent becoming, aegis Clause, ultimate arbiter standards responsibility, diverse areas law, country. 56 suggested stands 'simple' 'subtle' '(c)riminal penalties inflicted powerless change.' 567. view, 'condition' 'occasioned disease' thus, apparently, lacked element mens rea. merits doctrine surely follow Robinson. entire thrust Robinson's interpretation accused act, engaged interest preventing, historical common terms, actus reus. constitutionally 'involuntary' compulsion.' 57 Likewise, acknowledges, distinction 'status,' 'condition,' case. distinguish condition, perfectly concerned, intoxication. relevance interpreted 'status' suggest cover situation addiction involuntarily. U.S., n. 9, factor determinative shown indication himself addict. 58 Ultimately, then, troubling extended meet content responsibility. decision limited characteristic involuntary afflicts' individual, '(i)t foreseeable' 'in offenses driving car intoxicated, assault, robbery.' 559, 2. limitation fiat. logic alcoholics. If convicted intoxication, convict exhibiting normal respects, suffers kill, overpowering.'26 alcoholics, confine arbitrary bounds envision. 59 imagine involving aggressive neurosis sober; suffices remove inhibitions normally aggressions, result engages assaultive becoming intoxicated; Without untrue rationale principles advanced avoid unaccountable behavior. 60 Traditional common-law concepts personal accountability considerations federalism lead disagree appellant. conclude, general, irresistible performance acts event articulated rea.27 61 aside centuries-long evolution collection interlocking overlapping utilized assess deeds.28 doctrines reus, rea, insanity, mistake, justification, duress historically provided tools constantly shifting adjustment tension evolving aims changing religious, moral, philosophical, views man. thought province States. Nothing fruitful impelled defining insanity test Yet, task inexorably extension contends test, unlawful product mental defect,' Durham 94 U.S.App.D.C. 228, 241, 214 F.2d 862, 875, A.L.R.2d 1430 (1954), dimension regard responsibility lesser standard, right-wrong M'Naghten's Case.29 experimentation jurisdiction indicates magnitude Carter 102 227, 252 608 (1957); Blocker 107 63, 274 572 (1959); 110 41, 288 853 (1961) (en banc); McDonald 114 120, 312 847 (1962) Washington 129 29, 390 444 formulating rule reduce, eliminate, experimentation, freeze developing productive dialogue psychiatry rigid mold. write Constitutional formulas whose meaning, let relevance, lawyers. 63 Affirmed. 64 whom joins, concurring. 65 While agree grounds forth MARSHALL's sufficient require affirmance wish amplify my 66 Those favor change rely notions wisdom erect barrier, desirability clear. To position significantly efforts announcing revolutionary tightly restrict wide variety harmful drunkenness extent great sociological data cited change. Stress approaches it. pointed enforcement constitutes burden police. Then argued whatever claiming treatment; contrary, has, scientists, effect. All all, arguments like highly technical critique deciding another. 68 Of irrelevant duty rather legislation, end matter. proponents insist offering pronouncements questions policy, am compelled add arguments, venturing realm talking about. 69 Public history, explicitly proscribed 1606 English statute, Jac. 1, c. 5. offense every Union. police assigned enforcing spend me each local Never, wildest stretch power, State's struck down spent constituted, expert's opinion, burden. 70 Jailing definitely therapeutic, value insubstantial. As appellee notes, removed streets, danger, food, clothing, shelter 'sober up' regain ability automobiles street. 'therapeutic' curing seldom relied heavily themselves stress discovered. 71 Apart functions For thing, gets off street, cause harm ways people, isolation considered function addition, several functions—it potential additional incentive may, strengthen frequency experiences. 72 These values served assume greater significance light alternatives commitment replace. compulsory severe penalty view. presumably long, longer often lasts 'sick' cured. course carry stigma labeled 'crime.' 73 need continued approaches. totally barred avenue process, cope From learn possibly unwise, convinced unwise or, above qualified area legislatively wise unwise. 74 justify sweeping us. 'voluntariness' controlling specific human immune When caused own' force, clearly thinking force nevertheless 'his' sense.1 undoubtedly commits personality regarded responsible. Almost punishing action 'compelled' elusive 'irresponsible' aspect personality. already indicated, justified deterrence, isolation, decisions 'volition,' based clinical bear necessary correspondence overall objectives furthered imposing punishment. reasons, think situations morally blameworthy, Morissette 342 246, 240, 96 required inquiry defendant's excuse anyone was, complex, 'compulsion.'2 75 status narcotics involved, stating: 76 'We hold Amendment.' (Emphasis added.) 77 comes 'condition.' many-faceted converting protecting actual step refused decision. admit, pure crimes, whatever, sound was. Although objections applicable statutes 'symptomatic' explain lack voluntariness encounters logical difficulties.3 raised crimes attempts conduct, were, 79 particularly obnoxious, reasonably involves propensity, commit offense; avoided fundamental requirement proved solidly established attempt, conspiracy, recidivist crimes.4 eminent authority isolated instance, jurisprudence, all.5 80 refusal proof spell out, nonetheless perceived expressed propensity unreliable rebut; provides protection false charges. Blackstone, Commentaries 21. Perhaps distinguishing, desires day-dream fixed intentions pose threat society; extending unthinkable, '(t)here evil. inhibited expression fantasy; absurd natural mechanism illegal.'6 81 contrast, prove involve none inherently good irrelevant. considerations, proper. IV. impact limits proposed illusory. original boundaries discarded, soon wayside forced 'compulsion,' term. result, choose illustration, recognition 'irresistible impulse' crime; contrary jurisdictions.7 83 reach decision, broader still, basic premise blameworthy. proposition sympathetic feel situations. supra. legislatures allowed freedom culpability prerequisite crime. E.g., Dotterweich, 320 277, 134, (1943). tool employed goals, Amendment's extend viewpoint them. 84 'compulsions' words sweep startling. ruling addict 'being' possession drugs matter, using sex offenders voluntary disease. More speaking, Nation, whenever overrule Leland Oregon, 343 790, 1002, 1302 majority dissenting joined stressed indefensibility 800—801, 1008—1009; id., 803, 1009 (Frankfurter, J., dissenting). 85 would, greatest accept qualifications 'right wrong' insanity; category.8 recognized defenses rule, comparable presented (mens rea), devastating, admissibility evidence relating instructions jury. determine, 'pattern' 'conditions' 'part' pattern, parts compulsions resulting uncertainty easily surpass experienced District Columbia Circuit similar, complicated, insanity.9 created capacity settle wisely, impose doctrinal rigidity understanding incomplete. V. 86 Perceptive students early date learned successful job permitted rules adopted Nation 1789, feared straggling, struggling along Atlantic composed ever central point. years on, crept cautiously westward Pacific Ocean National planted flag far-distant Islands Hawaii frozen peaks Alaska. During remembered tranquil orderly functioned communities peculiarly affairs rules. 87 forget lesson today. asked most-distant apply protect drunken beaches Alaska best care soil. Court, recognizing experience beings laws, board Platonic Guardians establish binding community victim large, complex diversity peoples Americans must govern revolutionary—it departs ancient faith safest guide nation ours follow. suspect propitious Judge Learned Hand, wisely said: 'For myself irksome bevy Guardians, assuredly not.' Bill Rights (1958). confess age-old ethical foundations practical effectiveness. establishes impenetrable barrier persons who, bare propensities, wrongful act. refuse plunge concrete murky insistence person, layman expert, claim understand, safely predict. join conviction. 90 WHITE, concurring result. narcotics, 758, rehearing denied, 371 905, 202, 166 yield compulsion. Punishing convicts name. Distinguishing forbidding sick flu epilepsy permitting running fever having convulsion. Unless abandoned, Similarly, urge consume punishable drunk. 92 place. invalidated saying keeping drunks street welfare others, challenged ground interferes unconstitutionally frequent places. applying nonchronic drunk, excess, arranged appropriate path inebriation. 93 intoxicated. supports conclusion, knowledge.1 streets; home seen public. Before after becomes loses direct movements, financial resources capable drinker doing private, removing plans proves shielded knowingly failed feasible precautions committing remaining smallpox, epileptic, disease.2 remains hence somewhere.3 chronics homes, others not. unfortunates, compels because, place go economic station although destitution perpetuate condition. showing resisting impossible. bans single Amendment—the 95 begins movements forbid circumstances, satisfactorily arrangements extreme faculties issue. invocation satisfied us.4 Whether resisted 19, done inebriated lost wandered Indeed, strongly suggests ending wife, record. 97 Also, bearing officer staggered, smelled 'very drunk.' recollection arrest. usual substitute Neither elsewhere comprehend record, precisely retained stay preferred elsewhere. 98 unnecessary pursue bar showed night question.5 99 offended Constitution, concur affirming court. 100 FORTAS, DOUGLAS, BRENNAN, STEWART join, dissenting. 101 Article 103 Texas. destroyed alcohol; volition, Counsel contended penalize inflict punishment, 104 At observed 2000 block Hamilton Street Austin; staggered walked; speech slurred; loud boisterous; arrest; cooperative 105 approximately times 1949, primarily same: 'subject beverages, walking, incoherent.' proceedings, fined: 'down Bastrop it's $25.00 $20.00 (in County).' usually pay fines obliged work jail. rate working $5 fine unpaid. Code Crim.Proc., 43.09. 106 stand. tavern shining shoes. $12 week uses wine. family, contribute support. wine day. week. sleep, 'mostly' sidewalk. disturb peace interfere others. Association former President Association. doctor medicine, years. especially interested treated alcoholics; lectured written subject; various institutions interviewed dating back years; beer; 'he rarely passes binge'; finances, broke, secure friends him'; buys 'fifty cent bottle' wine, drink; ends passed joint sidewalk.' According 'has activity himself.' received referred Alcoholics Anonymous, association helping sent Hospital. 108 'Leroy stage.' 'we account' 'while 'firm on.' drink' 'does (to appearing intoxicated) enable develop willpower.' 109 fact: 111 112 cf alcoholism.'1 113 rejected entering law: Code.' 115 system. Tex.Code 4.03. filed jurisdictional statement 116 posed narrow challenge particular. concern infliction 'social' drinker—or trier found, 'resist relate 117 sole condition—being intoxication' public—which which, consequence Amendment, prohibits imposition 'cruel punishment.' raise detain otherwise; public.2 118 discuss, afflicted, 'will alcohol,' leads 'appear (not) true, discovered remain obscure, hard facts—medical especially, facts—that accessible instant analyzed. similarly deficient medical, diagnostic, few this, reject phenomena. 119 Alcoholism3 States.4 1956 designated hospitals care.5 significant development acceptance alcoholism.'6 concept, core agreed authorities, maintained something fault depending makeup him. Today alcohologists recognize concept. Recent intensification subject.7 groups active educating schools, physicians etiology, diagnosis, alcoholism.8 120 Authorities studies influences, vitamin deficiency, hormone imbalance, abnormal metabolism, hereditary proclivity. researchers convincing approach, emphasizing environment conflicts tensions. Numerous influence sociocultural factors. incidence ethnic higher others.9 121 identified. alcohologist, described discrete commonly alcoholics.10 habituative 'can addicting.'11 main nonprofessional involved. willfully drinking.'12 122 cases,13 discover invariably produce satisfactory results. recent study follows:14 123 'Although numerous kinds intervention drinkers, matching patient developed. urgent modifying improving existing methods, ones, careful well-designed evaluative studies. services little, any, program components.' 124 Present include hospitals, programs, outpatient clinics, centers, practitioners, facilities.15 Self-help organizations, aid andrehabilitation.16 125 identified specificity. crime, ordinances, Union.17 Task Force Drunkenness President's Commission Enforcement Administration reported '(t)wo million 1965—one America—were drunkenness.'18 population short-term institutions.19 Their processing police, trials process.20 126 lengthy prior arrests.'21 'There forty year charges urban center courts 125, 150, 200 period.'22 127 (or deterrent). offender caught door'—leading brief, unprofitable sojourn jail, eventually, arrest.23 jails, overcrowded suitable, inmates.24 128 Finally, commentators, judges,25 'there drearier example futility solve drunkenness.'26 'If effort, investment money, producing constructive results, satisfaction despite costs. accomplishes fundamental. seriously sentences deters addiction. Nor, heroic localities, suppose measures administered jails. weary continues, detriment law-enforcement function.'27 III 130 bears emphasis They dictate conclusion. settled medicine penology. Our embodied limitations inflicted, whether, us, preclude 131 Federal ordered. '(t)o user narcotics. instructed jury 'to continuing (it) acute; continues subjects reforms.' 662—663, 1418. 132 reversed illness such. ill.28 sentenced days prison offense, prescribe STEWART, speaking '(e)ven 'crime' cold.' 1421. 133 sublety, respectfully foundation liberty cornerstone relations civilized citizens: probability, elected tak conduct.29 'addiction'—a Once guilt. 134 elements—being status.30 defect avoid. testimony, alcoholic.' mean intoxication; places.31 135 specifically accused's presence own.' essence Ordinarily prescribed b validly call principle, applicability, implemented prohibition punishment,' construed command antecedent provision 1689 initially type inflicted.32 deny exact capital imprisonment sick.' 676, 1425 (Mr. concurring.)33 136 background referred, compel inhuman punishment' follows according 'constant compulsion' 137 reverse below. Ann.Tex.Code 4.03 (1966). Disease Concept Alcoholism (1960). (emphasis original). Joint Information Serv. Am. Psychiatric Assn. & Nat. Mental Health, Treatment Alcoholism—A Study Programs Problems 6—8 (1967) (hereafter Alcoholism). supra, 2, 35—41. quantities customarily meals, unaware 'drinking problem' signs disorder, intake reasonable amount—and including delirium tremens, daily portion Block, Alcoholism—Its Facets Phases (1965); 17. 13—32. 40. 37. 38. 6, 19—49. 41—42. 43. 41—44. clarify matters 'compulsive eater.' 40, 55, 308; 6—8; Note, Alcoholism, Intoxication Law, Col.J.Law Soc.Prob. 109, 112—114 444, 446—456 19—30, 43—49. 11. 43—44; Blum Braunstein, Mindaltering Drugs Dangerous Behavior: Alcohol, Justice, Report: (1967); 74—81; 13—17. 18—26. Encouraging pilot projects exist. 50—64, 82—108 'strongest barrier' abandonment presently custody drunks.' Challenge Crime Free Society 235 massive expenditures plants forthcoming, woeful shortage that: '(T)here likelihood fields minority drinkers. providing drinkers weekly contact psychiatrist once-a-month worker full States.' Cooperative Alcohol Easter Columbia, 33, 361 (1966), Report 486—490 amici curiae ACLU extremely spate litigation inebriate, recently told annual meeting Council Alcoholism: extract DeWitt Easter, Joe Driver, colleagues involuntarily time, euphemistic name 'civil hide permanent incarceration. caution rush headlong procedures remind exist ordinary sentence.' Quoted Robitscher, Psychiatry Changing Concepts Responsibility, Fed.Prob. 44, (No. 3, Sept. 1967). Cf. Nascent Right Treatment, Va.L.Rev. 1134 Substantive Harv.L.Rev. 635 Commonwealth Pennsylvania Phelan, 427 Pa. 265, 234 A.2d 540 (1967), cert. Phelan Pennsylvania, 391 920, 1803, 657 (1968). Lambert People 355 225, 228 (1957), omission, know, steps inform him, failure so. Packer, Mens Rea Supreme 1962 Sup.Ct.Rev. 107, aware prohibited Sayre, Rea, 974 (1932). Cl. Fin. 200, Eng.Rep. 718 (1843). carried someone else, 'he' entitled acquittal. Martin Ala.App. 334, So.2d (1944). cautious tentative thoroughly reform area, Chief Bazelon Appeals Circuit. cases, states: '(I)t sciences determination are. eliminate altogether, refashion tied model. experience. writer step.' 42, 457, (expressing Bazelon). 1420, contracted innocently involuntarily, voluntarily addicted. compared cold, quickly Glanville Williams puts '(t)hat responsibility.' Williams, Law—the General Part (1961). conspiracy 631, 663, 668; R. Perkins, 482, 531—532 (1957). 4, 762. Model § 4.01, 160 (Tent.Draft 1955). 862 (1954). encountered related H.R.Rep. 563, 87th Cong., 1st Sess. shortcomings acknowledged itself, opinion. gave due transcript counsel. judge's view appraising represented well-considered well-supported judgment. finding, rest Analysis preoccupation dealt By precluding brought remote contemplated, duration, values. transitory 'being public.' 'Being' 'getting' 'going' necessarily duration. And, slight importance life alcoholic. necesary 'acts' adhere implicit trivialize drawing nonexistent line minutes volitional proximate permissible Marshall disagreements description analysis possessed satisfy deem assertion defense. nowhere disputed, persistent insistent fails reasons. establishing novel construction radical consequences. compulsive elements crime—for powers. poorly circumstanced, powers cognitive faculties, manage movements. consistent unconstitutional Outside impact. Concerning drugs, addictive addiction, use. Beyond faculties. heroin (although conviction), helplessly will, regained much. insofar authorizes violating depend understand knowing problem.' (Opinion MARSHALL, ante, 521-522). 'traditionally' sit finder fact. submit sat triers add, lest misunderstanding, right, adduced made, became declare invalid. 567 570. confess, too, 'about itself,' know—that are, competent plausible. 560—562. foreseeable decisive here—namely disease—could robbery. independent flow syndrome afflicts herein variously defined. 'alcoholic' alters living pattern.' 'those attained shows noticeable disturbance interference bodily health, interpersonal relations, functioning.' Keller, Nature Extent Problem, Understanding 315 Annals Polit. Soc.Sc. O. Diethelm, Etiology Chronic (1955); T. Plaut, Problems—A Plaut); Aspects (1963) (published Roche Laboratories); Service Health) Alcoholism); Cecil Loeb, Textbook Medicine, 1620, 1625 (1959). ranks top four Association: Reference Committee Education Hospitals, Proceedings House Delegates, Seattle, Wash., Nov. 27—29, 1956, p. 33; 163 J.A.M.A. H. Haggard Explored (1942); A. Ullman, Know Difference (1960); D. Pittman C. Snyder, Society, Culture, Drinking Patterns Col.J. 24—28 Health Department Education, Welfare). interesting pieces assembled, affinity it.' 9. 35—41 Bacon, Do Drink, 55—64 medically returned citizen?' life, source, enables combat 13. 13—26. 31—40; Plaut 53—85. 173—191 Justice) Report). Ibid. Col.J.Law. 3—4. 1. F. Allen, Borderland (1964). Gordon, Revolving Door: Police Case Inebriate Pittman, Alcoholic Offender Appendix Report. answered asked: 'Is rehabilitated confining attention? 'Would putting released? monetary alcohol?' MacCormick, Correctional Views Crime, Delin. (1963). Murtagh, Arrests Intoxication, Fordham L.Rev. Guttmacher Weihofen, 319 (1952). 8—9 teachings sickness sick. age enlightenment barbarous action.' 678, 1426 (Douglas, concurring). involuntarily.' likely contracted, activity, society, purchasing crimes. supported 'voluntary' afflicted. distinguished 'act': 'This punishes purchase, sale possession, disorderly administration. purports prosecuted 'at continuously there.' 23, White, 549—551, fairly encompass Brother intoxicated' 'resisting drunkenness' 'avoiding WHITE agrees reversal, 'impossible.' Accordingly, WHITE's '(the) (he) judgment, amply 'it (Powell) issue.' (1910). 635, 636—645 Convictions violations circuits. (1966); Driver Hinnant, 761 (C.A.4th Cir. 1966).

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