Document: 470 U.S. 116 105 S.Ct. 1102 84 L.Ed.2d 90 CHEMICAL MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION, et al., Petitioners,v.NATURAL RESOURCES DEFENSE COUNCIL, INC., al. UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, Petitioner, v. NATURAL Nos. 83-1013, 83-1373. Argued Nov. 6, 1984. Decided Feb. 27, 1985. Syllabus Under the Clean Water Act (Act), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is required to promulgate regulations establishing categories of pollution sources and setting effluent limitations for those categories. Because difficulties involved in collecting adequate information regulations, EPA has developed a "fundamentally different factor" (FDF) variance as mechanism ensuring that its necessarily rough-hewn do not unfairly burden atypical dischargers waste. Any interested party may seek an FDF make either more or less stringent if standards applied given source, because factors fundamentally from considered by limitation, are too lenient strict. In consolidated lawsuit, Court Appeals held was barred issuing variances toxic pollutant § 301(l ) Act, which provides "modify" any effluent-limitation requirement 301 insofar materials concerned. The court rejected EPA's view prohibits only modifications otherwise permitted other provisions on economic water-quality grounds, does address issue variances. Held: agency charged with administering statute entitled considerable deference, understanding sufficiently rational preclude substituting judgment EPA. Pp. 125-133. (a) statutory language foreclose statute. Although word "modify," read broadest sense ), would encompass change limitations, it makes little construe section forbid amend own standards, even correct error impose stricter requirements. no plain meaning used proper subject construction courts. 125-126. (b) legislative history evince unambiguous congressional intent waivers respect materials. An indication Congress did intend silence when amended regard grounds. 126-129. (c) prohibiting consistent Act's goals operation. regulation such explains purpose remedy were accurately drawn available original limitations. excuse compliance requirement, but instead represents acknowledgment all relevant taken into account framing originally, factors, properly considered, have justified—indeed, required—the creation subcategory discharger question. availability bearable enormous faced promulgating 129-133. 719 F.2d 624 (CA3 1983), reversed. Samuel A. Alito, Jr., Newark, N.J., petitioners both cases. Frances Dubrowski, Philadelphia, Pa., respondents. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 These cases present question whether certain promulgated under 86 Stat. 816, amended, 33 U.S.C. 1251 seq.1 2 * As part respondent Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) sought declaration 1311(l prohibited pollutants listed Act.2 Petitioners Chemical Manufacturers Association (CMA) argued otherwise. To understand nature this controversy, some background case law necessary. 3 basic federal legislation dealing water pollution, assumed form result extensive amendments 1972 1977. For direct who expel waste directly navigable waters—the calls two-phase program technology-based commanding comply best practicable control technology currently (BPT) July 1, 1977, subsequently meet generally standard economically achievable (BAT).3 4 Indirect dischargers—those whose passes through publicly owned treatment plants—are similarly pretreatment 307 1317(b), susceptible sewage systems interfere operation systems. Relying upon suggesting be comparable dischargers, see H.R.Rep. No. 95-830, p. 87 (1977), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 4326, 4462, pursuant consent decree,4 set indirect same approach discharging waters. 5 Thus, considers specific factors5 promulgates creating classes uniform discharge Since application varies basis industrial process variety substantial burdens create suitable limits, complicated time deadlines been accomplish task.6 Some plants find themselves classified within category they are, claim be, terms factors. result, plants.7 FDFvariance strict.8 6 1977 reflected Congress' increased concern dangers pollutants. then allows waterquality reasons §§ 301(c) (g).9 Section however, added amendments, provides: 7 "The Administrator modify applies list 307(a)(1) Act." 91 1590. 8 aftermath continued practice occasionally granting BPT also explicitly allowing standards10 BAT requirements.11 these granted variances, infrequently.12 9 NRDC here challenged pollutants.13 earlier case, Fourth Circuit had similar argument, finding ambiguous therefore deferring administrative agency's interpretation permitted. Appalachian Power Co. Train, 620 1040, 1047-1048 (1980). Contrariwise, Third ruled favor NRDC, against CMA, holding forbids issuance National Assn. Metal Finish ers EPA, (1983). We certiorari resolve conflict between Courts decide important environmental law. 466 957, 104 2167, 80 551 (1984). reverse. II 10 states insists expressly 301, namely, 301(g) allow urged, very This deference; sustain it, we need permissible might adopted "complex statute" one Train 421 60, 75, 87, 95 1470, 1480, 1485, 43 731 (1975); Chevron U.S.A. Inc. 467 837, 2778, 81 694 Of course, clearly expressed contrary Agency, our duty enforce will Congress. Chevron, supra, at 843, n. 9, S.Ct., 2782, 9; SEC Sloan, 436 103, 117-118, 98 1702, 1711-1712, 56 148 (1978). 11 itself enough require affirmance Appeals, since face must If sense, is, alteration correct. But Furthermore, reading manner what 307(b)(2) directs: there "revise" "from time, technology, processes, operating methods, alternatives change." concede, Tr. Oral Arg. 25-26, cannot every standards. thus kind variance, while confine partial permit. asserts like revision than (g) modification, since, become evident, think reasonable position, conclude Agency's should defer unless structure reveal submits intent. disagree. B 12 understood light evolution. 301(c), allowed waive requirements case-by-case circumstances justified waiver. Pub.L. 92-500, 845. Senate proposed amending See S. 1952, 92d Cong., 2d Sess., 30 Leg.Hist. 58414 S.Rep. 95-370, (Leg.Hist.), 44 4369, 677. At bill became 301(g), where impair quality, which, 28-29, 582-583.15 contain ). That Conference Committee, deleted prohibition redrafted prohibit conventional thermal discharges well pollutants.16 While Committee Report explain reason proposing Representative Roberts, House floor manager, stated: 13 "Due pollutants, identified modification prescribed section, specifically, neither based capability nor quality considerations shall available." 328-329 (emphasis added). 14 Another issue. NRDC's theory, merely tinker wording bill, boldly moved eliminate Committee's intention, odd communicate House, few months before construed permit silently abolish. E.I. du Pont de Nemours 430 112, 97 965, 51 204 upheld class relying waivers. Id., 128, 975. undoubtedly aware Du Pont,17 absent expression will, reluctant infer so ignore thrust decision. Edmonds Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, 443 256, 266-267, 99 2753, 2759-2760, 61 521 (1979).18 15 argues discussion supports position. Several legislators' comments seemed equate "modifications" "waivers" "variances."19 Many statements, came context discussing "waiver" (g), See, e.g., 123 Cong.Rec. 39183-39184 458, 461 (Sen. Muskie); 38961 331 (Rep. Roberts); pp. 40-44, 673-677 (discussing modifications). Simply Members Committees referred authorized "variance" provisions, mean 16 After examining statute, agree CMA intention U.S., 842-843, 2781-2782, 9. C 17 Neither convinced threaten frustrate scheme up spelled out itself. 40 CFR 403.13(b) recognized, laudable corrective mechanism, "an acknowledgement . limitation without reference full range current practices, refer." Crushed Stone Assn., 449 64, 77-78, 101 295, 303-304, 66 268 It essentially, exception standard-setting process, rather fine-tuned it.20 18 persuaded argument inconsistent goal Act. uniformity among category, demanding "similar point characteristics limitations," 92-1236, 126 (1972). admonished take diversity each industry appropriate subcategories. 455. 19 concedes could rules Act21 source rest consider drawing produced failure subdivide broad category.22 dispute reduced over means define subcategories order achieve particularly persuasive deference interpretation. Cf. Vermont Yankee Nuclear Corp. 435 519, 543, 1197, 1211, 55 460 (1978); NLRB Bell Aerospace Co., 416 267, 293, 94 1757, 1771, 134 (1974). 20 argues, echoing below, render meaningless ignores clear difference modifications, explained Stone. A satisfies qualifies "simply [it] afford cost already considered" limitation. 78, 304. forces "a displacement calculations performed, incomplete unexpected effects, costs happened fall particular operator, another better off." Ibid. specifically unavailable grounds justify modifications. 403.13(e)(3) (4) Both source's inability pay foreseen costs, lack significant impact irrelevant procedures. Ibid.; Crown Simpson Pulp Costle, 642 323 (CA9), cert. denied, 454 1053, 102 596, 70 588 (1981). 21 Acting timetables,23 collect analyze large amounts technical concerning complex categories.24 Understandably, apprised fail unique applicable during categorical rulemaking nationally binding tempered flexibility offers, repugnant Act.25 III 22 Viewed entirety, demonstrates sensible tailoring promulgates. absence directive contrary, accept conclusion gives term (l draws support evolution intended altogether obviate decision Pont. 23 Here position advent administration, 1970's.26 supported policy considerations. sit judge relative wisdom competing interpretations. construction, fairly understood, language, goals, Nor administration undermine Congress.27 24 25 ordered. 26 MARSHALL, whom BLACKMUN STEVENS join, O'CONNOR joins Parts I, II, III, dissenting. 27 cases, maintains issue, basis, individualized national limit power provision withdraws authority today defers though Congress, evidenced history, structure, purpose. I judicial 28 requires regulate two types facilities: (1) "direct" i.e., facilities waters; (2) "indirect" works prior requirements, conducts proceedings nationwide, (e.g., iron steel plants). 29 phased implementation progressively dischargers. By existing "best available" (BPT). 301(b)(1)(A), 844, 1311(b)(1)(A). 1984, obligated achievable" (BAT). 301(b)(2)(A).1 "pretreatment" including public facilities. 307(b). Pursuant decree, using ante, 119. levels. 31 1978, issued contained factors" (FDF). Fed.Reg. 27757 adjustment nationwide standard. 403.13(b)(1) obtain relating 403.13(c)(ii). 32 petition review filed Circuit, First, lacked inherent Second, if, general, grant enacted bans agreed latter Finishers 624, 644-646 (1983).2 remanded back considering variances.3 advances—and to—two independent constructions ban provisions—§§ (g)—and apply nonstatutory. changes made enactment containing provision, objectives enacting deal vigorously comprehensively extremely serious problem caused pollutants—establish provision's scope meant considerably broader attributed effort strengthen exceptions 34 strained attempt characterize way bring them outside prohibition, contends procedure alternative "revising" doing, relevance central feature Act—that pointedly determined general rules, uniformly validates outcomes substantially protective environment mandated individual soften hardship rules. such, disallowed 35 about useful adjuncts regulatory schemes applicability. choice courts first instance, mandate. Here, choice. weighed that, whatever merits schemes, simply inappropriate pollution. stand. 36 proscribes (g). can showing discharger's nonetheless progress, 301(c),4 adequately protects 301(g).5 limited )'s intent; show "modifications." 37 1590, 38 "modification." phrase "may requirement," toxics. Nothing suggests qualifying prohibition. On unqualified. 39 terms, universal scope, Moreover, said, evidences firmly establishes effectively integral program. canon purposes deemed fails discuss 41 regarded one. example, Senator Muskie, major drafter manager remarked: 42 seriousness toxics just beginning understood. New reported day unacceptable concentrations aquatic environment, fish shellfish, mother's milk. Empirical evidence shown statistical correlation Orleans' drinking cancer mortality rates; Kepone destroyed James River, America's most productive, historic rivers; PCB's pervasive ruined fishing Hudson River Great Lakes; carbon tetrachloride recent material contaminate Ohio River; pesticide endrin found Mississippi; perhaps worst all, ones know yet. out, cause concern. imperative controlled." 39181 Legislative History (1978) (1977 Leg.Hist.).6 Similarly, 45 "[Toxics] polluted commercial sport fishing, many bodies constitute hazard health yet fully recognized." 38960 327. 46 334 (House Subcommittee memorandum). 47 primary "of increasingly evident hazard." 326 Roberts). 39219 549 Moynihan) ("There room compromise here: controlled"). safe toxics, prevent weakening knew effects rule industry, went forward nonetheless. legislators lead "new restrictive previously contemplated." 38993 411 Buchanan). realized "millions dollars clean-up waters." 38952 305 unlike ibid., high stake. 502(13) (defining "toxic" "cause death, disease, behavioral abnormalities, cancer, genetic mutations, physiological malfunctions (including reproduction) physical deformations"). 48 readily apparent complete completely goal. offers why promoted banning advanced well. points singled pernicious standpoint effective fact, converse true, provided exemptions areas areas. 49 firms driven bankruptcy strictly avoiding bankruptcies social goal, automatically outweighed protecting environment. reflects tension goals: long firm higher 50 decided force legitimate attainment forced expend additional resources "economically achievable." now prohibited, wholly counterintuitive. effect contending compelling nontoxic context—as statute—but least expected, much logical result. 52 almost certainly defined guidance how go doing so. Only assurance interests sufficient importance outweigh foremost 53 conference ultimately included provide further proposition suggested three undergird theory—subsections (c), 301—only subsection amendments. 1311(c). interest here. prohibit, 95th 1st 26(c) 584. goals. Like amendment 54 changed ways. took reworded discharges, left unaffected bill's Third, creates applicability explaining changes, petitioner deliberations, "it repeating identical limiting clause [for pollutants] end put separate )." Brief 29-30. debates suggest thing "decided"; discussed all. cleaning fact objective remarkably unsuccessful Indeed, undisturbed belies CMA's explanation. More importantly, strongly improve style expand subsections Subsections authorize exceptions, their "the (b)(2)(A)."7 attempting consolidate (b)(2)(A) Instead, "any section," includes numerous addition (b)(2)(A).8 57 appears once expanded past, secondary (h), Petition Enforce Mandate Petitions Review 1040 (CA4 1980). FMC Seatrain Lines, Inc., 726, 745, 93 1773, 1784, (1973) (administrative "longstanding"). 58 summary, FTC Raladam 283 643, 648, 587, 590, 75 L.Ed. 1324 (1931). Court, draw opposite conclusion. so, hand, other, rests explanation activity nothing. 126-127. D 59 attach great regarding "appropriate." According reverse clear. 28-29. contention, finds persuasive, 127-128, misunderstanding stake 60 challenge BAT. difficulty upholding context, "categories classes" 301(b)(1)(B). Pont, 127, 974. contrast, "point sources." 301(b)(1)(A). chemical manufacturers necessary, inappropriate. industry's challenge, industrywide regulation, allowance—such variances—was variations plants. broadly endorsed noteworthy, cites dispositive sentence opinion, reads: 62 "We authorizes [BPT] 1983 [BAT] allowance plants, done limitations." 63 taking limitations.9 When cited concluded "§ unambiguously use establish qualify way, problem. refers comes logically related discussion. 64 123, 974.10 ascribes presumably point. 65 portion relies, absolutely bearing "appropriate"—to employed supra —when 72, (1980) ("[Du ] indicated necessary aspect sources"); id., 73, 12, valid"). facts rationale issues distinction crucial significance sources," "for 307(a)(2) added) (toxics); 301(b)(2)(A) (BAT); 307(b)(3) (pretreatment). appropriate, context.11 scarcely attribute regulation. permit, standards; said anything legal development place, eight years later. 67 There moreover, shows believed—correctly, turns context. 95-370 674.12 misreading ignoring say "construed abolish." Ante, 128.13 E 68 relies heavily statement Roberts: 69 However, statements restrict provision. Muskie 71 "Like potential pollutants." 39183 458 72 ("Strict still damaging get waiver") (referring "denial waiver" toxics) Buchanan) 73 Taken whole, "modifications," strongest score course debates, managers "specifically" example." accepted words insufficient overcome probative indications emerge analysis history. And, pointing definitely direction, doubt F 74 determination compels repeatedly final authorities construction. They reject reached adjudication rulemaking, mandate implement." FEC Democratic Senatorial Campaign 31-32, 38, 41-42, (1981) (citations omitted). 76 1711, 745-746, 1784-1785; Volkswagenwerk FMC, 390 261, 272, 88 929, 935, 1090 (1968); Brown, 380 278, 291, 85 980, 988, 839 (1965); Social Security Board Nierotko, 327 358, 369, 637, 718 (1946); Burnet Chicago Portrait 285 16, 275, 280, 587 (1932); Webster Luther, 163 331, 342, 963, 967, 179 (1896). 77 (1984), rely. reviewed treated pollution-emitting devices grouping encased single "bubble." ground "stationary source." Analyzing "parsing text actual 861, 2791. "unilluminating." 862, Given conclusions, appropriate. 78 discerned traditional techniques reaffirmed principle "[t]he judiciary intent." 9.14 79 My disagreement center behind Court's commands second surface, plausible 307(b)(2), "following established promulgation standards." contemplates revised notice-and-comment sources. (3); "revision," proscribed substantively indistinguishable variance. according stems achieved granted, reaching (1978), free choose procedures substantive ends. 11, 36. revising Compare 304(b)(2) (statutory standard) 403.13(d) (1984) (FDF provision). 31; 403.13(e) acknowledges established—and revised—for "categories" (pretreatment standards); 11; (toxic standards), basis. nothing precludes defining discharger. 31. 82 logic superficially powerful. can, discharger, able procedure? end, quarrel accepted. 132-133. "[a]bsent constitutional constraints agencies fashion pursue methods inquiry capable permitting multitudinous duties." Yankee, 1211 omitted); Chenery Corp., 332 194, 202-203, 1575, 1580, 1995 (1947). 83 withstand superficial analysis. examination Act—the ignore—reveals attached method directed "make sources, distinguished plant determination." 304 added).15 Dingell, conferees, described "very important" stated plant-by-plant desired, and, avoided." 118 33758 (1972), 254-255. Conferees 304(b) class." 33697 172 130, 976; American Iron Steel Institute 526 1027, 1051 1975) ("Congress ") letter urging President approve William Ruckelshaus, Administrator, observed categories, processes involved, age equipment, cost, national, industry-wide basis." 36775 145 difficult imagine set—and revised—on "force" introduction technology. levels average performance various sizes, ages, unit category." 33696 (1972) 169 Muskie). levels, look performer 170. requiring "average best" "best" seeks foster technological innovation. La Pierre, Technology-Forcing Federal Statutes, Iowa L.Rev. 771, 805-829 (1977); Note, Forcing-Technology: Air Experience, Yale L.J. 1713 (1979). Unlike 307(b), evaluating group applicant, focuses solely applicant program, ascertain together situated Quite initial screening States, times filed, unlikely identification new 403.13(k) 89 leads results fundamental ways attained contemplated If, production processes—and, compliance—are significantly eligible applicant's peculiar situation. 403.13(d)(5), (6) (1984); 14. turn situation, possible lower cost. efficient dischargers—as proceeded scale—it far mechanism. aggregate, defines BAT-level performer. group, performer—the others standards.16 spur innovation extent 307(b) revisions. preceding environmentally unsound probably compelled purchase subjected procedure, demand incentives run, possibility tightening cheaper. envisioned iterative elimination harmful discharges. 170 92 identify indeed uniquely situated. sets else do, revisions.17 inapposite; intended, reasons, dischargers.18 exclusively chose IV arguments disallows here, Part led adoption indicate banned wanted ensure exacerbated II-B, supra. 96 serve softening mediate demands comprehensive solutions other. Diver, Policymaking Paradigms Administrative Law, Harv.L.Rev. 393 Exceptions, costs. small errors irreversible catastrophic results.19 equity give rationality. 431-432; Regulatory Values Exceptions Process, 938, 955, required, permissible, make. gap fill. 843-844, 2782. resulting furtherance controlling judgment. explicit ban. TVA Hill, 437 153, 2279, 117 Endangered Species "to insure actions authorized, funded, carried jeopardize existence" endangered species "result destruction habitat species. ." 1536 (1976 ed.). Even focused quoted "admits exception." 173, 2291. "clearly" showed viewed preservation importance. 187-188, 2298. exemption statute's requirements—other approved Congress—would inappropriate.20 100 itself, reasoning There, "would 'maximum feasible sources.' " 138, 980 (citation important, exceptions. circumstances, especially complying command implement requirements; instead, departures "exception[s] [a] applicability." 537 (CA2 1976). closely analogous functions. discussed, harshness 159. relieves obligation place hardship. 304; 674 32-33. temper—albeit slightly way—the relieve disproportionate share burden. 14.21 characterized 'safety valves' 1976); Hearings Possible Amendments Pollution Control Public Works Transportation, 98th 2706, 2741 (1983) (EPA Ruckelshaus describing "safety valves"); F.2d, 646 ("[T]he 'variance' assertedly safety valve"). type ban.22 103 accepts characterization hybrid: "more like" modification. 126. definition, rule. Clearly, exception.23 overlook differences cuts along entirely irrelevant—axis. prevail, undesirable. undesirable, differ shown, believe designed something 143. Rather, weaken criterion: Sections axis revisions foregoing dissent. 106 O'CONNOR, 107 join MARSHALL's demonstrate my alone affirming Appeals. express dissent disposition Hereinafter, to, interchangeably, entire name 1317(a)(1), publish Upon designation toxic, 307(a)(2), 1317(a)(2), discharge. 121, 971, (1977). 304(b), 1314(b). procedure. Lawsuits resulted decree placing criteria. ERC 2120, Env.L.Rep. 20588 (DC 1976), modified sub nom. 1833, 20176 1979), Gorsuch, 72-2153 (Oct. 26, 1982), 73-2153 (Aug. 2, 20185 sanctioned Fund, 205 U.S.App.D.C. 101, 115-116, 636 1229, 1243-1244 assessment 304(b)(2)(B) include equipment employed, engineering aspects techniques, achieving reduction, non-water impacts. 1314(b)(2)(B). 4, 403.13 part: Variances "(a) Definition. 'Requester' Industrial User [publicly work] person seeking limits specified Pretreatment Standard. "(b) Purpose scope. Standards collect, develop solicit affect or, development. adjust Standards, making stringent, subcategory. data indicates presents developing believing Standard further, existence justifies Standard, request initiated "(c) Criteria— General Criteria. if: "(i) controls requested; "(ii) Factors controlled Standards; "(iii) accordance [applicable procedural requirements]. "(2) Criteria limits. establishment requested difference; violation prohibitive 403.5; energy requirements) adverse "(iv) Compliance (either technologies alternatives) either: "(A) removal (adjusted inflation) proportion "(B) Standards. "(3) "(d) different. are: "(1) raw load User's wastewater: volume wastewater discharged; Non-water load; "(4) Energy technology; "(5) Age, size, land availability, configuration relate facilities; employed; changes; "(6) Cost "(e) following grounds: feasibility installing allows; assertion installed, paragraph (d) section; ability treatment; Discharge works'] receiving notice opportunity hearing. 125.30 Sources (NSPS) begin after publication 1316, ineligible 1311(c) Those [§ 301's limitations] owner operator satisfactory represent maximum operator; progress toward "(g)(1) concurrence State, (other 1314(a)(4) title, 1317(a) component discharges) that— "(C) maintenance assure protection supplies, propagation balanced population fish, wildlife, recreational activities, quantities reasonably anticipated pose risk human appear odds 33, 23, Reply 2-3, 29, 41. Resolution seeming adjudicate June 27736-27773, January 28, 1981, 9404-9460. 1978 differed respects 32854, 32893-32894 Opposition 7-8. 4,000 covered granted. 12. total four none estimates country approximately requests pending. 36, 28. involved. below reach 643-645 it. purposes, assume, deciding, Citations Environment Works, prepared Policy Division Congressional Research Service Library (Comm.Print 1978). waiver H.R. 3199, Sess. 1167. unnecessary. forbade materials, presence lends notion representative testified "fundamental provision" system "national, uniform, minimum Pollution, Ser. 95-H25, Pt. approving 545 1351 (1976), brought attention Referring report, Clausen, ranking minority member Resources, debate "full [the amendments] having interpreting law." 28976 374. report Clausen Power. Case Law (Committee Print compiled Transportation Congress), 95-35, 20, eliminating overrule Pont's due suggests, narrow Pont—and recognize arguably well, 975; Petitioner 20-21—this clause, declared 415.62 415.172 (1976). remain today. industries—as authored NRDC—EPA level interim measure pending potentially technology-forcing ERC, 2128, Env.L.Rep., 20588. electroplating unsuccessfully lawsuit e.g. 677; Sen. 458; Rep. 38959-38961 305. explained: "No excused clause. receive definition 32893 1317(b)(2). announced entertain petitions facilities, treating more, less, appropriate." 52396 304(g) 1314(g), promptly guidelines 1314(c), proved beyond capability. lawsuits placed court-ordered Typically, engage data-collection effort, compiling discharged use, treatability economics industry. Often, segments reflect promulgated. task formulating illustrated followed BPT-level electroplating, below. 500 sent questionnaires 200 information. conducted on-site visits samples several days, inspect firsthand From visits, character water, derive combination methodologies judgments. 5, 3. initially situation considered. Particularly originally harbor fear breakdown grants legitimately chosen overturned. helped parties process. United States Allegheny-Ludlum 406 742, 755, 1941, 1949, 453 (1972); FPC Texaco, 377 40-41, 1105, 1109-1110, 112 (1964); Storer Broadcasting 351 192, 205, 763, 1081 (1956). Other critical Kennecott Copper 612 1232, (CA10 1979) (upholding across plants); Weyerhaeuser 197 309, 338-339, 590 1011, 1040-1041 (C.A.D.C.1978) "crucial" flexibility). 10, demonstrated technology." 306. Following Circuit's decision, 5132 403.13(b)(2) ("A Standard"). adopting No suggestion mootness parties, desires reinstate moot. Maher Roe, 432 464, 468-469, 2376, 2379-2380, 484 remand. 301(c): 845, provides, pertinent 304(a)(4) 307(a) administrator 1583, 1311(g). 32, 23; 1. unaware unpersuasive conferees familiar intricacies members Act; served argue seems 83-1373, 20-21. seem modest Such infra. 415.12, 415.22, 415.32, 415.42, 415.52, 415.62, 415.92, 415.112, 415.122, 415.132, 415.142, 415.162, 415.172, 415.202 (1977) (providing 415.13, 415.23, 415.33, 415.43, 415.53, 415.113, 415.123, 415.133, 415.143, 415.163, 415.203 (not providing standards). dealt dischargers: mandated, impermissible. 980; infra, 160-161. Also, noteworthy attract attention. decided, thousands actually received Ruckelshaus). 128-129, 18. What standards—for nontoxics—are Along lines, pollutant. designated toxic. 12; 13. acknowledged validity line precedents 1972, 1973). holds true—albeit lesser degree bounds. "revisions" acceptable determinations. (same theory confined willing tolerate determinations ludicrous hardly merit reply. 154-155. aim proceeding manner—consistent 307(b)(2)—EPA promotes important. problems often thresholds. biochemical oxygen (BOD) river exceeds level, life impossible. BOD relatively mistake high. B. Ackerman, Rose-Ackerman, J. Sawyer, D. Henderson, Uncertain Search Quality 265-266 consideration open scrutiny, guarantee mistakes occur. K. Davis, Discretionary 65-66 (1969). Hill consequence asked authorizing declined 3282, 2705-2706, 2724-2726, 2740-2741, 2747-2748 Commentators cases: fairness Aman, Equity: Analysis Rules, 1982 Duke 277, 293-294; Shapiro, Discretion: Next Stage, 1487, 1504 (1983); Schuck, Exception Becomes Rule: Equity Formulation Through 1984 163, 283-289. classification, exception. benefit accrue compliance. 311-312. classification statutes. Department Organization 7194(a); Gas 3412(c); Conservation 6393(a)(4), "special hardship, inequity, unfair distribution burdens." hardship" modification; "inequity burdens" statutes Overstreet North Shore 318 125, 494, 496, 656 (1943) (determining "engaged interstate commerce" Fair Labor Employers' Liability Act). "modification," "variance," interchangeably describe testimony, 1102, 1124, 1419. Roberts equated "modification" "waiver." 44, 27738 ("provision standards)"; 44-45, 1976) ("a limits"; regulations"; "modification procedure"). statutes, "exceptions," "variances," "adjustments," "exemptions" refer concept: Trade Traffic Safety 1410, 1417 (exemptions); 3412(c) (adjustments); Mine Health 811(e) (modifications, exceptions); Safe Drinking 300g-4 (variances); 7410(i) (modifications); 7194(a) exemptions); Aviation 1386(b)(1), 1421(c) (exemptions). equivalent proscribe argument. individually applicant. 156-158.

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