Document: 476 U.S. 498 106 S.Ct. 2039 90 L.Ed.2d 490 SOUTH CAROLINA et al., Petitionersv.CATAWBA INDIAN TRIBE, INC. No. 84-782. Argued Dec. 12, 1985. Decided June 2, 1986. Syllabus In 1760 and 1763, respondent Indian Tribe surrendered to Great Britain its aboriginal territory in return for the right settle permanently on a 225-square-mile tract of land now located South Carolina. 1840, conveyed Carolina State's establishing new reservation Tribe. 1959, Congress, pursuant changed policies concerning affairs, enacted Catawba Division Assets Act (Catawba Act) authorizing division tribal assets. Section 5 that provided revocation Tribe's constitution, rendered inapplicable members special federal statutory protections Indians, made state laws applicable same way they apply all "other persons or citizens." 1980, brought an action Federal District Court against petitioners (South other claimants tract), seeking possession trespass damages period dispossession ground 1840 conveyance was null void because United States never consented it as required by Nonintercourse make effective. The granted summary judgment petitioners, part claim barred statute limitations. Appeals reversed, holding that, under interpretation Act, limitations did not apply. Held: explicit redefinition relationship between Government reflected Act's clear language requires application claim. But whether bars should be determined remand. Pp. 506-511. 740 F.2d 305 (CA 4 1984), reversed remanded. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, which BURGER, C.J., BRENNAN, WHITE, POWELL, REHNQUIST, JJ., joined. BLACKMUN, filed dissenting opinion, MARSHALL O'CONNOR, joined, post, p. 511. James D. St. Clair, Boston, Mass., petitioners. Don Brantley Miller, Boulder, Colo., respondent. Justice STEVENS Court. 1 At issue this litigation is "Tract Land Fifteen Miles square" described 1763 treaty King England Head Men Warriors.1 tract, comprising 144,000 acres 225 square miles, near northern border Carolina; some 27,000 title different parcels within tract. specific question presented us applies answer depends Congress 1959 authorize See 25 U.S.C. §§ 931-938. We hold applies, but we do reach 2 Simply stated, Tribe2 claims had undisputed ownership before first passed 1790;3 prohibited any without consent States; gave land. Accordingly, purported void. Among defenses asserted petitioners4 contention even if valid passage enactment § Because only review, necessary describe much historical material record. 3 * what North at issue. For purposes motion, disputed retained when Acts were passed. By leased most, all, white settlers. interest State entering into "Treaty Nation Ford." treaty, agreed, "Tract," spend $5,000 acquire reservation, pay $2,500 advance, nine annual payments $1,500 ensuing years. 1842, purchased 630-acre Tribe, then apparently membership about 450 persons.5 This still held trust contends perform obligations treaty—it delayed purchase over 21/2 years; spent $2,000 instead land; actually "new" original 144,000-acre Still more importantly, noted, maintains entire transaction Act. 6 various times during 1900 1943, leaders applied citizenship "final settlement their State."6 Petitioners argue these merely sought full performance but, our decision, accept position asserting thus challenging itself. event, both officials representatives took plight Tribe.7 7 response concern, December 14, State, Office Affairs Department Interior entered Memorandum Understanding intended provide relief require release State.8 Pursuant agreement, 3,434 cost $70,000 Tribe.9 agreed contributions available sums welfare assist with education, medical benefits, economic development. part, conduct affairs basis Government's recommendations; thereafter adopted Constitution approved Secretary Reorganization 476. 8 1953, decided basic change affairs. House Concurrent Resolution 108 August 1, 1953,10 marked beginning "termination era"—a continued mid-1960's, endeavored terminate supervisory responsibilities tribes.11 policy, identified likely candidate withdrawal services.12 Moreover, desired end restrictions alienation lands order facilitate financing homes farm operations.13 after discussions Bureau assured would jeopardized legislation terminating services, resolution supporting such distribution assets Tribe.14 After receiving advice supported disposal responsibility individual members, 73 Stat. 592, provides preparation roll, 931; council's designation sites church, park, playground, cemetery purposes, 933(b); remaining among enrolled 933(f). also termination services 935. It explicitly states shall manner non-Indians. Ibid. 3,434-acre been acquired result 1943 distributed Tribe; revoked Constitution, effective July 1962. 9 commenced dispossession. All Judges recused themselves, Judge Willson Western Pennsylvania designated try case. development substantial record uncontested facts, petitioners' motion judgment. His dismissal initially panel Fourth Circuit, 718 1291 (1983); sitting en banc, panel's opinion. (1984). importance case, requested views Solicitor General certiorari, 471 1134, 105 2672, 86 691 (1985). reverse. II 10 central dispute. As currently codified, provides: 11 "The constitution tribe sections 461, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466 470, 473, 474, 475, 478, 479 Secretary. Thereafter, entitled performed Indians status statutes affect them, several them citizens jurisdiction. Nothing subchapter, however, States." 12 provision establishes two principles unmistakably language. First, are no longer members. Second, precisely fashion others. 13 disagreed reading concluded word "them" second sentence could refer who encompass Relying canon doubtful expressions legislative intent must resolved favor Indians,15 inapplicability applicability 14 construction regarding ambiguities does permit reliance exist; nor disregard clearly expressed Congress.16 seems antecedent words "their" compound subject clause sentence, namely, "the members." To read otherwise give contorted abruptly divorces from third, conflicts purpose philosophy Termination According ordinary meaning, moreover, reinforced fact section Constitution. most incongruous preserve whose has while withdrawing protection tribe.17 15 Without well established unless there conflict policy.18 Although policy may preclude type absence congressional contrary, County Oneida v. Nation, 470 226, 1245, 84 169 (1985), suffices reestablish usual principle striking contrast situation Oneida, represents Catawbas; intentional members; plain statement law Catawbas 16 That consequence significance have accorded redefining particular Indians. long recognized removes restraints fully subsequent claims.19 Similarly, emphasized terminated sweep taxation."20 These reflect understanding remove fundamental respect legislation. 17 found support conclusion nonapplicability nothing affects rights Carolina.21 thrust Appeals' reasoning date necessarily violates 6. contradicts meaning 5's reference laws. view obstacles law. cannot preserve, own force, immunity defeating negating 5.22 Most fundamentally, simply speak 18 Finally, relied heavily assurance affected legislation.23 Even assuming provisions sufficiently ambiguous warrant history, believe misconceived import assurance. argument immediately extinguished became Rather, assume remained exactly obligation proceed assert timely person citizen result, unlike Appeals, perceive contradiction 19 conclude III 20 respondent's unnecessary court review Court's better evaluate than are,24 remand case consideration 21 so ordered. 22 whom O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 23 931 seq., divide up federally supervised sell mortgage allotments. today concludes incidental effect applying Catawbas' pre-existing longstanding 1840. I feel reconciled traditional approach regulating therefore dissent. 24 Too often neglect past. domains law, intricacies peculiarities deman[d] appreciation history." Frankfurter, Foreword A Jurisprudential Symposium Memory Felix S. Cohen, Rutgers L.Rev. 355, 356 (1954). Before arrival settlers, occupied Treaty Pine Tree Hill, relinquished bulk exchange assurances allowed live peace small portion territory, miles each side (144,000 acres), surrounds includes Rock S.C. Three years later, Augusta, again "remain satisfied Tract square," British once promised molested King's subjects said Lines." App. 35. reserved 1763—"a mere token the[ir] large domain"—that rise litigation. J. Brown, (1966) (Brown). 26 suggests driven agreements colonists' repeated continuing encroachments lands.1 Some purchase, see, e.g., id., 165, Carolina, elsewhere, "[f]rom very abuses marred transfer titles individuals English colonists." F. Prucha, American Policy Formative Years (1962). Indeed, Provincial Council notice 1739 "generally obtained . unfair representations, fraud circumvention, making gifts presents little value, practices, great resentments animosities created amongst toward inhabitants Province." An restrain prevent purchasing Lands First Laws 160-161 (J. Cushing ed. 1981). private acquisition grant license Crown Governor, steps stop territory. Clinton & Hotopp, Judicial Enforcement Restraints Alienation Land: Origins Eastern Claims, 31 U. Maine 17, (1979). Recognizing "great frauds committed Indians," October shortly signing Augusta—flatly forbade further purchases tribes. Proclamation reprinted W. Washburn, 2135, 2138 (1973). 27 early followed similar policy. Since 1790, codified reenacted amended 177, broadly sale Government. Despite prohibition—which 1793 extended include outright acquisitions "claim" protected lands, see Mar. 1793, 8, 330—mounting pressures settlers 19th century led enact series purporting leasing Initially, leases signed seem posed threat B.S. Massey, knew time later served Carolina's agent "[t]hey strong felt themselves greatness, governed laws, working best spots out poorer portions men." Report Governor (1854), Record, Ex. 11. 28 1830's, nearly Augusta proved disastrous, rents paid old horses, cows bed quilts clothes, prices whites set articles taken." soon reduced "a starvation distress," ibid., ultimately efforts Ford. Under "treaty"—which joined approved—the promises. sum $16,000 resettlement payments. pledged "of value five thousand dollars," including 300 "good arable fit cultivation" thinly populated area satisfactory 38-39.2 29 Legislature promptly lessees acres, requiring reimburse proportionately advances 18, 3, S.C.Stats. 103 (1840). Unfortunately, showed less enthusiasm fulfilling contractual allowing wander homeless uncompensated years, reportedly buy back 630 agriculturally undesirable 18th-century Tribe.3 continues Catawbas. unclear ever received State. 30 146 since Ford repeatedly pressed taken illegally. 1900's, petitioned relief, arguing it. Commissioner advised 1906 1909 seek behalf. He explained "state Indians" responsibility, and, consequently, participation transaction.4 1908, Attorney reached conclusion, legislature outstanding acres. 1908 Op.S.C.Atty.Gen. 29-32. nonetheless press visiting 1910, example, asked prospects recovering "their square"; he told take court. 21, pp. 11-12 (letter C. Davis Comm'r Affairs, Jan. 5, 1911). seeds dispositive planted providing Catawbas, placing supervision. Evidently concerned grievances sought, unsuccessfully, waiver Id., 48 Ass't Auditor, Aug. 28, 1941). Preliminary drafts included waiver, 49, dropped doubted legality using agreement deprive might enforceable court, 43-44 (memorandum Dept. 13, 1942). 32 1958, suggested financial difficulties alleviated distributing ending alienation, concern proposal jeopardize those claims. 53, 7-8 program officer Tribal Programs Branch Chief, 30, 1959) (quoted ante, 510, n. 23). calling Congressman, Robert Hemphill, introduce secure distribute assets; specifically requested, "nothing Tribe." 103. 33 Representative Hemphill draft "to accomplish desires forth Resolution." 50. bill "drawn carry resolution." 111. majority approval, introduced explaining given consent. Cong.Rec. 5462 (1959). bar pursuing 1763. 34 1970's, spurred favorable legal rulings elsewhere country, renewed request 1977, rebuffs legally unjustified, establish prima facie operated prospectively only, rights. formally institute behalf already initiated officials. Brief Opposition 3a. withdrawn effort emphasize favored negotiated possible, backed Congress. Hearing, 15-17 (statement Leo M. Krulitz, Interior). fruitless, 1980 suit. 35 complaint asserts treaties 1763.5 claims, 414 661, 666-678, 94 772, 776-783, 39 (1974) (Oneida I), matter 240-244, 1254-1257, (1985) II). Where, here, specified limitations, courts generally borrow closely analogous frustrate See, Wilson Garcia, 261, 266-267, 1938, 1942, 85 254 (1985); DelCostello Teamsters, 462 151, 158-163, 2281, 2287-2290, 76 Occidental Life Ins. Co. EEOC, 432 367, 97 2447, 2454, 53 402 (1977). 36 II, violate noted 1950 giving New York jurisdiction civil disputes involving carefully crafted exempt operation Sept. 1950, 64 845, 233. Furthermore, general enactments imposing certain tort contract actions anywhere excluded to, of, real personal property." 2415(c).6 text history evinced belief enforce property not, be, filing deadlines statute. Borrowing "would violation Congress' will." U.S., 244, S.Ct., 1256. 37 determining exempts principle, analysis begin firmly rule—which implicitly reaffirms, 506 —that construed Indians' favor. 247-248, 1258-1259; Bryan Itasca County, 426 373, 392, 96 2102, 2112, 710 (1976); Northern Cheyenne Hollowbreast, 425 649, 655, 7, 1797, 274 DeCoteau 420 425, 444, 95 1082, 1092, 43 (1975); Santa Fe Pacific R. Co., 314 339, 353-354, 62 248, 255, L.Ed. 260 (1941); Alaska Fisheries States, 248 78, 89, 40, 41, 63 138 (1918); Choate Trapp, 224 665, 675, 565, 569, 56 941 (1912); Handbook Law 221-225 (1982). rule method breaking ties; reflects altogether proper reluctance judiciary chosen disadvantage people ago dependency. particularly appropriate primarily benefit Absent "clear plain" Pacific, 353, assumed intend belie "avowed solicitude" 354, "backhanded" abrogation limitation rights, Menominee 391 404, 412, 88 1705, 1710, 697 (1968). 38 evidently finds Congress," ----, relies largely 5. renders "special "all Indians." "apply [the Catawbas] Neither provisions, my view, able bear weight places upon A. "services" "statutes" agree makes along statutes, 505-509. means went effect, statutorily selling services-and-statutes expressly abrogate place procedural conditions had, broad neither "service" "statute." 40 "long claims." Ante, 508. cases cites proposition emergence past 1254-1257. More cited involve patents issued alleged remain property. arising because, "[o]nce patent issues, incidents are, matters local vindicated courts." 676, 781. I, assertion controversy rest solely derived scope will rests protects, continuously formation possessory wholly apart normally separately protect possession." 677, 782. Here, "asserts present law." 41 how removing can fairly signal unambiguously removal trigger periods, lifted land, requirement approve stem aside territory,7 derives title8 treaties.9 With title, least, " 'put form came accepted rule—that extinguishment States.' 240, 1254, quoting 678, 782.10 42 There indicates common-law undistributed codification. Nor anything indicate meant independent source protection. rejecting destroyed hunt fish, noted: use 'statutes' potent evidence mind." 1711 (emphasis original). way, terms suggests, anything, sources Surely selection impose requirements based common law.11 B directs jurisdiction." understood 506-507. Clearly, term encompasses plaintiff cause action. 44 distinction critical. "laws States" placed footing non-Indians regard Just non-Indian's state-law Catawba—or Tribe—must meet requirement. If non-Indian brings claim, raised 45 Of course, governs question, notwithstanding borrowing context My point here answered instruction "in manner" Subjecting group extent far subjecting unique decision deemed contrary And unsettled treated differently statute-of-limitations indication thought all.12 C 46 rely exclusively discussed above; emphasizes whole represented "explicit Catawbas," protection" 508; 510.13 seriously "eminently sound vital canon" favor, surely redefinition" limited terms. supra, refused Menominees' fish. Regardless thinking behind 1950's, faced statute, 'strain implement [an assimilationist] rejected.' 389, 2111, Rosa Band Kings 532 663 (CA9 1975). 47 Such straining inappropriate where behest, wishes, "affect status" One, distinguish formally, does, preserving "status" claim's smacks kind semantic trap consistently attempted avoid construing governmental ostensibly treaties, interpreted Choctaw Oklahoma, 397 620, 631, 1328, 1334, 615 (1970); Jones Meehan, 175 11, 49 (1899); Worcester Georgia, Pet. 515, 582, 483 (1832). unqualified century-old grievance itself No one voting Members someday nevertheless expired initiation lawsuit comports promises 1950's. either conclusion. breaks faith require. evinces desire mislead sometime today. Apparently, full-blood speaks Charlotte Observer, 6, 1C, 420. 1,200 percent Carolina.14 differ conspicuously rural neighborhoods "[a]n unobservant tourist drive through unawares, many do." Hudson, (1970). modern-day "think like Americans Southeast." 50 When assimilated dispersed extent—and when, points out, thousands interests ancestral homeland, 499-500, 4—the ethereal, interest. demands justice cease wronged grow distinctive, innocent third parties account fashioning remedy. Today's handicaps obtain partial redress illegal expropriation twice attributing unarticulated trick hands. From perspective, proud here. 51 unambiguous encumber Black "[g]reat nations, men, keep word," FPC Tuscarora 362 99, 142, 80 543, 567, 584 (1960) (dissenting opinion), join Fort colonial officials, provides, relevant part: "And Warriors Confirmation Agreement heretofore White People declare Survey begun respective Governors Superintendant Parts promise engage aforesaid survey compleated Lines indulged Manner hunting Elsewhere." XI Colonial Records 201-202 (1763), Respondent, Inc., nonprofit corporation organized 1975. Like successor convenience, "Tribe" throughout 22, ch. 33, 4, 138. "No grant, lease, thereto, nation validity equity, convention Constitution." approximately named defendants complaint; sued class consist 1825 War chart indicated totaled persons. Papers 545 (1925). 1920 1700, Joint Res. 904, 1. 1930, Subcommittee Senate Committee hearings Senator Thomas Oklahoma wrote "subcommittee hundred seventy-five remnants band practically barren rock gradually starving death." Hearings H.R. 6128, Insular 86th Cong., 1st Sess. (unpublished), Insert (Minutes Conference, Oct. 1958) (6 56), Feb. 10, 1932, letter, Rhoads. contained extinguishing 49), deleted. Johnson-O'Malley Interior, Solicitor, Affairs. 50, 3. least $9,500 annually three extend privileges citizens, admission public schools. declared: "[I]t rapidly territorial limits wards prerogatives pertaining citizenship." H.R.Con.Res. 108, 83d (1953), 67 B132. compilation, 1954 1962, separate "Termination Acts," 11th Father 1048 criticized commentators. Cornell, Politics, Q. 113, 121 (1986); 1046-1059; Wilkinson Biggs, Evolution Policy, 139 (1977); Preloznik Felsenthal, Struggle Maintain Their Protect Rights Following Termination, N.D.L.Rev. (1975). ultimate wisdom is, September 1954, Study reported groups ready services. H.R.Rep. 2680, 2d Sess., 2-3 report Reports accompanying merge community attain comparable S.Rep. 863, (1959) ("The advanced economically neighbors"); 910, (same) U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 2671, 2672. adult male employed time: 47% industry, 20% skilled labor, 7% Armed Services, 15% odd jobs, 5% retired, 6% rolls. S.Rep., 4; H.R.Rep., Rep. Hemphill); 102. meeting January Antoine Washington, 194, 199-200, 944, 948-949, 129 Mattz Arnett, 412 481, 504-505, 93 2245, 2257-2258, 92 Oregon Fish Wildlife Klamath 473 753, 774, 3420, 3432, 87 542 ("[E]ven though 'legal Indians,' 447, 1094, (1975), ignore viewed 'fair appraisal,' Washington Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel Assn., 443 [658, 673, 99 3055, 3068, 61 823 (1979) ], runs counter tribe's claims"); Rice Rehner, 463 713, 732, 3291, 3302, 77 961 (1983) (canon "when tantamount formalistic intent"); Andrus Glover Construction 446 608, 618-619, 100 1905, 1911, 548 (1980); 1094 ("A intent"). Respondent argues Understanding. broader Indians"; them"; jurisdiction") added). 1941-1942, Board Regents Tomanio, 483-484, 1794-1795, 440 Johnson Railway Express Agency, 421 454, 1716, 1721, 295 Auto Workers Hoosier Cardinal Corp., 383 696, 703-704, 1107, 1111-1112, 192 (1966); Cope Anderson, 331 1340, 1341, 91 1602 (1947); Rawlings Ray, 312 96, 97, 605 O'Sullivan Felix, 233 318, 322-323, 596, 597-598, 58 980 (1914); Chattanooga Foundry Pipe Works Atlanta, 203 390, 397-398, 65, 79-80, 241 (1906); McClaine Rankin, 197 154, 158, 410, 411, 702 (1905); Campbell Haverhill, 155 610, 617, 217, 220, 280 (1895); McCluny Silliman, 270, 277, 676 (1830). Larkin Paugh, 276 431, 439, 366, 368, 72 640 (1928) ("With patent, prior terminated. put authority theretofore possessed reason restriction—so questions examination determination courts, appropriately Nebraska, being there"); Dickson Luck 242 371, 375, 167, 169, 371 (1917) [of Congress] entirely removed fee simple naturally fall State"); Waller, 243 452, 461-462, 430, 432-433, 843 ("We escape conviction act evidences allotted mixed-blood inhere capacity"); Schrimpscher Stockton, 183 290, 296, 107, 110, (1902) (after Wyandotte ran violation; Indian's heirs "were chargeable diligence recovery having lands"). (1976). Antelope, 430 641, 647, 1395, 1399, 701 (1977) ("[M]embers tribes official subject, virtue status, criminal Major Crimes Act"); Affiliated Ute Citizens 406 128, 1456, 741 (1972) (terminated bring invalidate allegedly fraudulent citizens). (1968), fishing pari materia preserved 1710. contemporaneous Menominee, "Nothing subchapter privileges, Carolina." 936. "elementary render inoperative." Colautti Franklin, 439 379, 684, 596 Mountain Tel. Pueblo Ana, 472 237, 249, 2587, 2594, 168 Menasche, 348 528, 538-539, 75 513, 520, (1955) ("It duty 'to every statute,' Montclair Ramsdell, 107 147, 152 [2 391, 394, 431], rather emasculate section"). 1291, 1296 1983) (quoting official's "that 'any carrying Government' "). Pembaur Cincinnati, 475 469, 484-485, 1292, 1301, 89 452 University Michigan Ewing, 474 214, 224, 507, 523 Bishop Wood, 341, 345-347, 2074, 2077-2079, 684 Propper Clark, 337 472, 486-487, 69 1333, 1341-1342, 1480 (1949). letters written 1754 President Glen complained whites' settling too close them. Exs. 2. complaints, towns, prohibition frequently ignored. 163-166; P. Dammann, Miller Israel, History Reservation Lands, Settlement Hearing H.R.3274, 96th 135, 151-153 (Hearing). to" "by surrounded [who] cheat[ed] [by] partaking vices few virtues." "vices" Massey referred consumption alcohol; charged setting whiskey barrel tin cups inviting help themselves. charge memorandum attorney Chester Howe. Plaintiffs' Response Defendants' Motion Dismiss 80-2050-6 (CA4) 23, citing Record Group 75, National Archives Central Files 1907-1939, BIA File 1753-1906. 317, 320-322. Assuming correct, one-half lands. price reservation—which works roughly $3.17 per acre contrasts strikingly earlier—the approximate equivalent cents payable installments 20. Candelaria, 271 432, 442, 561, 563, 70 1023 (1926) (construing "Indian Tribe" 'body race, united leadership government, inhabiting sometimes ill-defined territory,' Montoya 180 266, 358, 359, 521 (1901); Passamaquoddy Morton, 528 370, 376-378 (CA1 1975) (applying lacking recognition). asks "be restored immediate possession" virtually 25, remedies, prevailed, equitable considerations. Yankton Sioux 272 351, 357, 143, 71 294 (1926). claimed ability judicial Tribes 1966; suits until 1982. "In 1972 1982, expire pre-1966 242, 1255. debates amendments 2415 deadline allow additional negotiation expropriations lands—including 123 22166-22167 (Rep. discussing others); 22168 Walsh); 22170 Hanley); 126 5748-5749 (1980) Holland, claim); 5750 Udall). difficult research, historically lacked adequate assistance administrative resources, played role bringing Collins); 22171 Johnson); 3289 (Sen. Cranston); 5745-5746 Clausen); 5747 Danielson); Swift). Weiss) ("[A]s numerous injustices suffered last 150 years—many hands Government—it incumbent people—our country's inhabitants—a chance grievances"); 3287 Melcher) (failure lead "mass injustices"). Similar considerations presumably motivated prescribed 2415. John Stuart, Superintendent 1772 letter were, "as considerable Extent Country besides[,] Subjects Settled World." 486-493 (1982); Original Title, Minn.L.Rev. Note, Title: Natives They Have Occupied Time Immemorial, Colum.L.Rev. 655 respected grants governments. Title Insurance Trust 265 484, 621, 622, 68 1110 (1924), Barker Harvey, 181 491-492, 690, 694, 963 (1901) (" 'There essential difference power temporary occupancy, subjected government permanent latter right, property, antecedes superior powers disposal' "); Mitchel 711, 283 (1835). sovereign 1823 Chief Marshall's McIntosh, Wheat. 573-574, 681 (1823), Constitution's Commerce Clause, Art. cl. relations exclusive province law," 234 1251, 4. 28-29 rejected suggestion somehow swallowed pre-empted Act; furnishes relief. 236-240, 1252-1255. requests constitutional 24. Reading liberally "so justice," Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 8(f), references suffice invoke alienated approval. Cf. Amicus Curiae Connecticut Mohegan O.T.1980, 80-1365, (describing "constitutionally based"). narrower especially States' brief defendants' dismiss, embrace rule. Plaintiff's Support Leave Supplemental Memorandum, 15. Because, add decide independently Britain, lease Why need discuss harder understand. [Catawbas'] assets" (1959); (1959), Each list mention 3; rightly 1944, Revocation hardly existence lose Solicitor); Claude Ayers, Member, Claim Committee); Proposed Use Analysis (1977), 251, 258.

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