Document: 441 U.S. 322 99 S.Ct. 1727 60 L.Ed.2d 250 William Riley HUGHES, Appellant,v.State of OKLAHOMA. No. 77-1439. Argued Jan. 9, 1979. Decided April 24, Syllabus An Oklahoma statute prohibits transporting or shipping outside the State for sale natural minnows seined procured from waters within State. Appellant, who holds a Texas license to operate commercial minnow business in Texas, was charged with violating by load purchased dealer licensed do Oklahoma. Appellant's defense that unconstitutional because it repugnant Commerce Clause rejected, and he convicted fined. The Court Criminal Appeals affirmed, relying on Geer v. Connecticut, 161 519, 16 600, 40 L.Ed. 793, which had sustained against challenge Connecticut forbidding transportation beyond game birds been lawfully killed decision rested holding no interstate commerce involved, power, as representative its citizens, "owned" common all wild animals State, control "ownership" reduced possession, exercised power prohibiting removal Held : is Clause. Pp. 325-339. (a) supra, overruled. Time has revealed error result reached through application 19th century legal fiction state ownership animals. Challenges under regulations should be considered according same general rule applied other resources. 326-336. (b) Under rule, this must inquire whether challenged regulates evenhandedly only "incidental" effects commerce, discriminates either face practical effect; serves legitimate local purpose; and, if so, alternative means could promote purpose well without discriminating commerce. P. 336. (c) out purposes sale, thus overtly blocking flow at State's border. not "last ditch" attempt conservation after nondiscriminatory alternatives have proved unfeasible. It rather choice most discriminatory even though would seem likely fulfill purported more effectively. 336-338. (d) States may protecting conserving animal life their borders ways consistent basic principle pertinent economic unit Nation, when becomes an article use cannot limited citizens one exclusion another 338-339. 572 P.2d 573, reversed. R. M. Helton, Wichita Falls, Tex., appellant. Bill J. Bruce, Asst. Atty. Gen., Okl., City, Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 question presented Okl.Stat., Tit. 29, § 4-115(B) (Supp.1978), violates Clause, Art. I, 8, cl. 3, United Constitution, insofar provides "[n]o person transport ship were . ."1 2 Appellant Hughes near Tex. ranger arrested him charge Falls Hughes' stating: 3 "The Supreme held numerous occasions fish state's border are, so far capable ownership, owned sovereign capacity benefit people. Because such exercise police regulate taking, subsequent property rights acquired therein. Lacoste Department Conservation, 263 545, 44 186, 68 437 (1928); 793 (1896) As stated Lacoste, protection wildlife peculiarly state, great latitude determining what are appropriate protection. 4 " law does prohibit hatcheries her selling stock anyone, resident nonresident, therefrom freely exported. However, served protect depletion Oklahoma's streams exportation. No allowed export Such prohibition clause ." 575 (1977). 5 We noted probable jurisdiction, 439 815, 74, 58 106 (1978). reverse. (1896), relied, In circumstance, survive appellant's attack. 6 * few simple words Clause—"The Congress shall Power To among several "—reflected central concern Framers immediate reason calling Constitutional Convention: conviction order succeed, new Union avoid tendencies toward Balkanization plagued relations Colonies later Articles Confederation. See H.P. Hood & Sons, Inc. Du Mond, 336 525, 533-534, 69 657, 662-663, 93 865 (1949). accordingly interpreted authorization congressional action, but also, absence conflicting federal statute, restriction permissible regulation.2 cases defining scope regulation areas silence reflect often controversial evolution rules accommodate interests.3 decided relatively early evolutionary process. hold time resolution case, today 7 State.4 involved. This conclusion followed turn view taking also possession.5 By virtue qualify taken by, example, State: imports right keep property, chooses, always jurisdiction every purpose." U.S., 530, S.Ct., 605. Accordingly, raised serious doubts exchange constituted "commerce" all; any event qualification imposed removed transactions involving commerce.6 8 Field first Harlan dissented, rejecting artificial formalistic Court's analysis game. They affirmed provide game, "so contravene commerce."7 Their "[w]hen food uses man, State."8 B 9 dissenters increasingly prevailed cases. Indeed, rejected resources than subject strictures pretext distinctions Geer. 10 erosion began 15 years decided. A addressed designed gas produced wells West Kansas Natural Gas Co., 221 229, 31 564, 55 716 (1911). Based reasoning parallel Geer, urged "conserve" own stressing supply sources fuel Nevertheless, Court, passage reminiscent dissents condemned obvious protectionist motive arguments powerful reaffirmation vision Framers: 11 recognizes [gas] intrastate seeks being conservation. If singular situation might result. Pennsylvania coal, Northwest timber, mining minerals. And why products field brought principle? Thus enlarged, enlargement, influence need pointed out. consequences tend? it, it; embargo retaliated embargo, will halted lines. yet we said 'in matters foreign there lines.' instead States, appears welfare, welfare transcends But let us say each made greater division resources, created, those it. purpose, result, Constitution States. turning backward done authority instrumentality court." 255-256, 571. 12 distinguished prohibitory offensive valid "exercise gas" "universal justified nature states." Id., 257, 572; see id., 252-254, 570 (distinguishing Ohio Oil Co. Indiana, 177 190, 20 576, 729 (1900)). 13 challenges exports emerged dominant approach. See, e. g., Virginia, 262 553, 598-600, 43 658, 665-666, 67 1117 (1923);9 Today's Pike Bruce Church, Inc., 397 137, 142, 90 844, 847 (1970): 14 "Where effectuate public interest, incidental, upheld unless burden clearly excessive relation putative benefits. found, then degree. extent tolerated course depend interest promoted lesser impact activities." (Citations omitted.) formulation employed last Term strike down New Jersey's resource landfill disposal waste generated Philadelphia Jersey, 617, 624, 98 2531, 2535, 57 475 eroded point virtual extinction Geer's theory over came Missouri Holland, 252 416, 382, 64 641 (1920). Missouri, animals, attacked Migratory Bird Treaty Act ground interfered boundaries. Writing Holmes proper treatymaking power. He commented passing artificiality rationale: "To put claim upon title lean slender reed." 434, 384. 17 Foster-Fountain Packing Haydel, 278 1, 49 73 147 (1928), undermined directly. Louisiana forbade shrimp until heads shells removed.10 relied state-control-of-ownership rationale.11 Anyone granted "a qualified sold State." Only head shell did taker possessor acquire "title sell 'beyond limit[s] reservation.' 3. 18 Ignoring niceties "title" concentrating struck protectionism abhorrent resembled cases, cited approval, 10-11, 13, 3-4, 5.12 part permitted become commerce." 12, 4.13 Limiting complete embargoes created anomalous burdensome laws enjoyed 19 Packing's implicit shift away became explicit Toomer Witsell, 334 385, 402, 1156, 1165, 92 1460 (1948), violations Privileges Immunities certain South Carolina out-of-state fishermen: whole theory, fact, now generally regarded expressive shorthand importance people preserve exploitation important resource. necessary conflict between vital policy consideration constitutional command like powers, discriminate States." 21 Although reference challenge, equally applicable challenge.14 Douglas Seacoast Products, 431 265, 97 1740, 52 304 (1977), dispelled score. argument Virginia's swimming territorial empowered forbid fishing federally ships nonresidents while permitting residents fish, Products explicitly embraced dissenters: 22 "A stand position owner private pure fantasy talk 'owning' birds, Neither nor Federal Government, hopeful fisherman hunter, these creatures they possession skillful capture. 539-540, 608, (Field, J., dissenting). 'ownership' language appellant understood 19th-century expressing 'the resource.' [Citing Toomer. ] modern analysis, simply conformity Constitution." 284, 1751.15 C 23 case before times present facts essentially fours Geer.16 conclude therefore expressly overrule bring our analytical framework into realities. Overruling eliminates anomaly, decisions distinguishing statutes imposing extreme burdens (essentially total embargoes) immune challenge. At time, adopt makes ample allowance preserving, inconsistent concerns underlying ownership. II 24 articulated precedents governing types 847, quoted, 331. (1) (2) (3) show discrimination rests party challenging validity demonstrated, falls justify both terms benefits flowing unavailability adequate interests stake." Hunt Washington Apple Advertising Comm'n, 432 333, 353, 2434, 2446, 53 383 Furthermore, considering bound "[t]he name, description characterization given legislature courts State," determine itself law. Dept. 550, 188, (1924); 10, 3; supra. 25 Section forbids "overtly blocks [the] borders." 2535. facial fatal defect, regardless "the evil can reside legislative ends." 626, 2537.17 minimum invokes strictest scrutiny alternatives. 26 argues "readily apparent measure." Brief Appellee 8. maintaining ecological balance avoiding inordinate numbers purpose. consider States' similar health safety citizens. Firemen Chicago, I. 393 129, 89 323, 289 (1968). "conservation" narrower longer "keep Greer used force bear full costs "conserving" effective measures available. 27 Far choosing least alternative, chosen way places limits dealers; limit how disposed State.18 Yet commercially significant number sale.19 certainly effectively.20 28 III 29 overruling leave powerless conserve borders. clear, however, "our Nation,"H.P. 537, 665, "becomes 538, 608 30 Reversed. REHNQUIST, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, dissenting. 32 seeming preoccupation recent relating must, I suspect, appear curious casual observers institution.1 curious, pronouncements (1896). For less year ago unreservedly reaffirmed principles announced Baldwin Montana Fish Game 436 371, 386, 1852, 1861, 56 354 Today, overrules decision. disagree dissent. 33 headlong rush characterizes "rest[ing] involved." Ante, 327. true rationales killing ferae naturae leaving prevent ever becoming objects 530-532, 604-605. Since effectively prevented entering stream basis 532, 600.2 dispute rejection theory; points out, rationale long today. 329; My objection line reasoning, undoubtedly majority unnecessary sustain decision3 unneeded disposition case. one—not Court—contends issue subjects set up sort strawman facilitate toppling which, respects, enunciates remained vital, albeit somewhat refined, today.4 34 expressed derived Roman located kind trustee, 529, 604. Admittedly, "own" conventional sense word.5 1861; 1751, (1977); 401-402, 1164-1165, (1948); 383, concept doctrine obsolete. 392, 1864 (BURGER, C. concurring). recognized describing substantial preserving regulating boundaries 1751; 1165. 35 recognition variety maintain supra; Huron Portland Cement Detroit, 362 440, 80 813, 852 (1960); Patsone Pennsylvania, 232 138, 281, 539 (1914); Manchester Massachusetts, 139 240, 559, 159 (1891); McCready 94 391, 248 (1877); Smith Maryland, 59 71, How. 269 (1855). sure, absolute.6 accorded wide fashioning wildlife. Unless directly conflicts treaty,Douglas 283-285, 1752; Kleppe Mexico, 426 546, 96 2285, 2295, (1976); 384; allocates access manner Fourteenth Amendment, Takahashi 410, 1138, 1478 represents naked enterprises favor in-state businesses unrelated conservation, 4, special prevail. matter "Balkanized" resulting pattern activity.7 36 free-swimming found waters. "[T]he serve[s] exportation." (Okla.Crim.App.1977). statutory scheme artfully accomplish purpose.8 range circumstances extremely broad, particularly where, here, is, most, minimal. 288, 1753 (Rehnquist, concurring dissenting part); 552, 188; cf. 1864; 2294. 37 Contrary think minnows. least, showing record us. Cf. Florida Lime Avocado Growers, Paul, 373 132, 154, 83 1210, 1223, (1963). where permits naturally doing. Oklahoma; evenhanded application. (Supp. 1978). competition. SeeHunt Nor requires nonresident business, condition exporting minnows, move portion operations pursuit economy. SeeToomer Johnson 16, 6, 155 145, 849, 174 (1970). And, notwithstanding protestations contrary, blocked ante, 336-337. anyone else, many wishes, transported hatchery On record, fail commodity impeded regulatory scheme.9 38 procure requiring purchase his persons seine increases doing business. There nothing indicate desirable items So indicates, fungible. minimal destined my view, outweighed population. affirm judgment Appeals. 4-115 full: "A. source having Director. "B. except that: "1. Nothing contained herein possessing three dozen minnows; "2. shipment regularly hatchery. "C. fee section be: residents, One Hundred Dollars ($100.00); nonresidents, Three ($300.00). "D. Any provisions punished fine ($100.00) Two ($200.00)." apply hatchery-bred "natural" Wildlife Conservation Code. Another provision Code dealer's trap State—except bait—§ 4-116 1978), take concerning sale. prolific national legislation state. While vests states, states draw states. Perhaps interpretation written word, advanced solidarity prosperity Nation meaning silences 534-535, 663. 621-623, 2534-2535, (1978), clear "two-tired definition restrict support some exertion regulation. Gibbons Ogden, Wheat. 209, (1824); Willson Black Creek Marsh 245, Pet. 412 (1829); Cooley Board Wardens, 299, 996 (1852); Port Richmond Bergen Point Ferry Chosen Freeholders, 234 317, 821, 1330 Di Santo 273 34, 47 267, 71 524 (1927); Parker Brown, 317 341, 63 307, 87 315 (1943); Southern Pacific Arizona ex rel. Sullivian, 325 761, 65 1515, 1915 (1945); generally, F. Frankfurter, Marshall, Taney Waite (1937); Dowling, Interstate Power, Va.L.Rev. (1940); Power—Revised Version, Colum.L.Rev. 547 (1947). sole presents lawful (section Article I) allow during designated open season, killed, used, bought State? Or, otherwise, confine transmission State?" 522, 601. 522-529, 601-604. authorities question. 402 n. 37, 1165 (1948). [the game's] necessarily entered formed transaction subject, deprived mere articles element freedom contract essential attribute Passing, do, question, granting dealing internal follow subject-matter admitted, permitted, since external went along grant it." Our Brother REHNQUIST suggests offered "alternative decision" (in final paragraph 15-page opinion) "State, act valuable supply, remotely indirectly affected." Post, 340 That basis," sentence quoted REHNQUIST: adulteration food, although affected, carries existence belongs way, never object consent conditions deem best impose good." 535, 606 (emphasis added). Thus, basis" independent "state ownership" "no commerce" rationales, "preservation resource" premised rationales. event, met fate primary rationale. infra, 329-331, 9. 541, 609 dissenting); 543, (Harlan, 541-542, 543-544, 609-610 inconsistency overlooked Justices. 601, 666 (Holmes, Significantly, relies dissent discussion —the post, 340-341, West, 599-600, 666. passed July 1926. encouraged action (1924), "severance" tax skins furbearing alligators proposition therein." 549, 187. declined uphold "by prohibit, condition, Ibid. Rather reach issue, measure noting kept shipped 550-551, 188. despite citation actually compatible following views Justices preamble read follows: declare parts thereof Louisiana, reduction n., "[a] privately trade required satisfy demands needed 4. "As people, retained consumption releases taken, definitely terminates control. Clearly pursuance end trust deemed thereby entitled clause." 4-5. Hicklin Orbeck, 518, 531-532, 2482, 2491, 404-406, 1166-1167. 420-421, 1143, 1478, 1487 day Toomer, reviewed questioning inadequate ban alien residents. "In controlling things 'own,' including wildlife, absolute. compel confinement whenever hoarding impedes (1923); (1911)." 385-386, 354, 366, 367 285 21, 1752, "[W]hatever [a State's] ultimate accomplished coming reason, apart origin, treat them differently." 626-627, 2536-2537. brief, argues, apparently sales bait contends "returned" upset much "return." late appearance questionable factual assumptions underlie give flavor post hoc rationalization. bare assertion invoked 4-115(B). concedes "return" irrelevant aspects balance. TVA Hill, 153, 2279, 117 (1978) (snail darters); (elk); (1977) (menhaden); (1976) (wild horses burros). fact distinct destroys plaintiff proceeds. assigned affected. "Aside exercises thereto, regard conclusive. flows undoubted end, none efficiently called play, Kidd Pearson, 128 [9 346]; Hall De Cuir, 95 485 [24 547]; Sherlock Alling, 99, 103 [23 819]; [19 U.S.] [5 302]. (like covered here question) duty supply." 534, 606. York Silz Hesterberg, 211 31, 41-42, 12-13, 75, (1908); 666, (1923) Certain statements hope 337: "We purposes"; 338: term proprietary sense. 604 (" 'We correct country, proprietor common.' "). 528, (this possessed, remains "at day, incompatible with, restrained conveyed government Constitution"). fully balancing approach decisionmaking enunciated (1970), heavily Pike, stated: 847. Given primacy require grounds establish shown 344-345. 350, 2445, (1977): "[O]ur opinions that, Congress, residuum make nevertheless affect even, extent, it' "; 567, 670, (1949) (Frankfurter, dissenting) ("Behind distinction 'substantial' 'incidental' regulation, sometimes—of always—of protected touched." seems doubt imposes 337-338, 20. rationally concluded adequately population additional measures. Tr. Oral Arg. 18, 20, 21-23. Since, little, any, violated limits. putting aside come known "according resources," 335, still failed explain

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