Document: 460 U.S. 226 103 S.Ct. 1054 75 L.Ed.2d 18 EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY COMMISSION, Appellantv.WYOMING et al. No. 81-554. Argued Oct. 5, 1982. Decided March 2, 1983. Syllabus The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 makes it unlawful for an employer to discriminate against any employee or potential between the ages 40 and 70 on basis age, except "where age is a bona fide occupational qualification reasonably necessary normal operation particular business, where differentiation based reasonable factors other than age." In 1974, definition "employer" under § 11(b) was extended include state local governments. After supervisor Wyoming Game Fish Department involuntarily retired at 55 pursuant statute, he filed complaint with Equal Opportunity Commission, alleging violation Act. Commission ultimately suit Federal District Court appellees, State various officials, seeking relief behalf others similarly situated. dismissed suit, holding that insofar as regulated Wyoming's employment relationship its game wardens law enforcement violated doctrine Tenth Amendment immunity articulated National League Cities v. Usery, 426 833, 96 2465, 49 245, which struck down Congress' attempt extend wage hour provisions Fair Labor Standards Held: extension cover governments valid exercise powers Commerce Clause, both face applied this case, not precluded by virtue external constraints imposed commerce Amendment. Pp. 235-244. (a) purpose Cities, supra, protect States from federal intrusions might threaten their "separate independent existence." A claim congressional power legislation invalid can succeed only if (1) challenged statute regulates States, (2) regulation addresses matters are indisputably attributes sovereignty, (3) States' compliance would "directly impair ability 'to structure integral operations areas traditional governmental functions.' " Hodel Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Assn., 452 264, 287-288, 101 2352, 2365-66, 69 1. first requirement met but even assuming, arguendo, second met, does impair" State's "structure functions." 236-239. (b) degree intrusion sufficient override choice regulatory authority States. Appellees no substantial stake retirement policy assuring physical preparedness perform duties. require abandon those goals, public decisions underlying them. Under Act, may assess fitness individualized dismiss whom finds be unfit. Moreover, appellees remain free continue do precisely what they doing now, demonstrate "bona qualification" job warden. And nothing nature suggests will have unintended consequential effects decisionmaking areas, such allocation financial resources pursuit broad social economic policies. distinguished. 239-242. 514 F.Supp. 595, reversed remanded. Sol. Gen. Rex E. Lee, Washington, D.C., appellant. Bruce A. Salzburg, Cheyenne, Wyo., appellees. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 1967, 81 Stat. 602, amended, 29 U.S.C. 621 seq. (1976 ed. Supp. IV) (ADEA Act), age."1 question presented case whether Congress acted constitutionally when, United Wyoming, action brought (EEOC Commission), held that, least certain classes workers, unconstitutional. 595 (1981). direct appeal 28 1252, we noted probable jurisdiction. 454 1140, 102 996, 71 291 (1982). We now reverse. 2 * Efforts prohibit arbitrary discrimination date back 1950s.2 During floor debate over become Title VII Civil Rights 1964, amendments were offered House Senate ban well race, color, religion, sex, national origin. These opposed part did yet enough information make considered judgment about discrimination, each defeated. 110 Cong.Rec. 2596-2599, 9911-9913, 13490-13492 (1964), EEOC, Legislative History 5-14 (1981) (hereinafter History). did, however, provision, 715, 78 265 (since superseded 10 1972, 86 111), directed Secretary "make full complete study tend result because consequences economy individuals affected," report results Congress. That transmitted approximately one year later. Report Labor, Older American Worker: (1965), 16-41. 3 1966, submit specific legislative proposals prohibiting discrimination. Amendments 606, 80 845. draft bill early see 113 1377 (1967), President, message older Americans, recommended enactment expressed serious concern problem Special Message Proposing Programs Pub.Papers 32, 37 (1967). undertook further own, Committees conducted detailed hearings proposed legislation. See Employment: Hearings Before Subcommittee Committee Public Welfare, 90th Cong., 1st Sess. (1967); General Education also Retirement Individual before Select Aging, 4 whose findings confirmed throughout extensive fact-finding undertaken Executive Branch Congress, came following basic conclusions: Many employers adopted limitations had prohibited them own anti-discrimination laws, although many able operate successfully without aggregate, these marked effect upon workers. Although rarely sort animus motivating some forms large stereotypes unsupported objective fact, often defended grounds different actual causes. (4) available empirical evidence demonstrated lines fact generally unfounded overall matter, performance workers good younger (5) Finally, profoundly harmful two ways. First, deprived productive labor millions treasury substantially increased costs unemployment insurance Social Security benefits. Second, inflicted individual psychological injury accompanying loss opportunity engage satisfying occupations. 5 product process deliberation formally begun 1964 1967. preamble emphasized discrimination.3 relevant here employment, including discharge age. Section 4(a), 623(a).4 protection limited, 65, 12(a), 631, raised 1978, 3, 92 189. order insure permitted use neutral criteria directly dependent recognition occasionally justified, provided otherwise practices 4(f)(1), 623(f)(1). 6 ADEA, originally passed apply Government, political subdivisions, fewer 25 employees. issued 1973, committee found gap coverage serious, commented "[t]here . like corporate world, government managers create environment young sometimes better old." Improving Law, 93rd Sess., 14 (Comm. Print 1973), 215, 231. substantive prohibitions having 20 Governments.5 II 7 Prior district court decision every upheld constitutionality 1974 Congress's either Clause Fourteenth Amendment.6 8 This arose out involuntary Bill Crump, Division Department. Crump's dismissal conditions Wardens who reach "the approval [their] employer."7 Crump conciliation efforts failed, officials declaratory injunctive relief, pay, liquidated damages Mr. 9 Court, motion defendants, suit. It 245 (1976), officials. F.Supp., 600. held, citing Pennhurst School Halderman, 451 1, 1531, 67 694 (1981), application ADEA could justified explicitly invoked passing amendments. III claimed exceeded scope affirmative grant Clause8 enacting ADEA. U.S., 840-841, S.Ct., 2468-69; Heart Atlanta Motel 379 241, 243-244, 85 348, 350-351, 13 258 (1964). Rather, argue respect wardens, 11 Usery grounded imposition regulations might, left unchecked, "allow 'the Government [to] devour essentials sovereignty,' 855, 2475 (quoting Maryland Wirtz, 392 183, 205, 88 2017, 2028, 1020 (1968) (Douglas, J., dissenting)). therefore drew "affirmative limitation [congressional Clause] akin contained Constitution." 841, 2469. principle functional doctrine, ultimate sacred province autonomy, ensure unique benefits system enjoy existence," id., 845, 2471 Lane County Oregon, 74 (7 Wall.) 71, 76, 19 L.Ed. (1869)), lost through undue interference core functions. FERC Mississippi, 456 742, 765-766, 2126, ---- - ----, 72 532 (1982); Transportation Union Long Island R. Co., 455 678, 686-687, 1349, 1355-1356, 547 Inc., 286-288, (1981).9 12 summarized hurdles confront unit should immune legitimate regulate commerce: "[I]n succeed, reasoning must satisfy three requirements. there showing 'States States.' address 'attribute[s] sovereignty.' third, apparent 2365-66 (citations omitted; emphasis original). 15 "Demonstrating requirements guarantee challenge succeed. There situations interest advanced justifies submission." 16 Id., 288, n. 29, 2366, omitted). 684, 9, 1353, 9. requirement—that "States States"—is plainly case.10 "undoubted attribute sovereignty"—poses significantly more difficulties.11 need definitively resolve issue, nor occasion final balancing step inquiry described Hodel,12 convinced impose forced involve B 17 management parks clearly function. 851, 2474. As already emphasized, Ibid. Our issue impairs depend, itself, considerations degree. 852, 2471, 2474; 769-770, ----. conclude sufficiently less so unnecessary us express "assur[ing] duties." Brief 18.13 still, very least, Put another way, requires achieve goals careful manner 771; cf. supra. Perhaps important, 232-233. Thus, distinct contrast situation 848, 2472, discretion way thinks best being overridden entirely, merely tested standard. Court's scheme purporting regulate, impact set priorities wide range decisions. 849-850, 2473.14 Indeed, spelled detail how threatened virtual chain reaction almost certainly decisionmaking. 846-852, 2471-74. Nothing portends anything same wide-ranging profound threat governance. most tangible identified financial: forcing pay minimum overtime rate leave money vital programs. test drawn "particularized assessments impact," vary time time, generalized inquiry, essentially legal rather factual, into obvious allocate resources. 851-852, Hodel, 292, 33, 2368, 33. cannot negative finances. seniority get paid seniority, continued accrue when retire. But costs, largely speculative right, outweighed number factors: Those long employed, pension all, contribute fund. And, retire, likely, actuarial receive years retire early.15 Admittedly, amici point out, health benefit plans increase automatically included provision specifically disclaiming construction similar received all respects identical 4(f)(2), 623(f)(2) IV).16 21 citizens tool pursuing policies beyond immediate managerial goals. See, e.g., 2472 (offering jobs below persons possess "minimum requirements"). Appellees, purposes statute. whatever broader imagined not, convinced, bring breadth importance Cities.17 IV 22 governments, Clause. decide Amendment.18 reversed, remanded proceedings consistent opinion. 23 So ordered. 24 STEVENS, concurring. While I join opinion, explanation my appraisal additional comments larger perspective view issues. 26 analysis, construing granted Constitution. important remember clause Framers' response central gave rise Constitution itself. previously noted, Rutledge origins words: 27 "If liberties others, great indispensable democratic freedoms secured First assure framed adopted. Only later added, popular demand. secure freedom trade, break barriers flow, Annapolis Convention called, adjourn Philadelphia. Thus generating source lay rising volume restraints Confederation check. proximate cause our existence today. "As evils wont do, dictated character remedy. clause. No prohibition trade among states been effective force agreements. treaties too difficult negotiate securing complex method give needed relief. Power adequate enforce required. Hence, necessity creating entirely new government. 30 "So stroke bold proved successful, founded nation, find reduce restrictions. solved causative historic action, introducing power." W. Rutledge, Declaration Legal Faith 25-26 (1947), quoted Stasczuk, 517 F.2d 53, 58 (CA7) (en banc), cert. denied, 423 837, 46 56 (1975).1 31 occasions has given miserly Clause.2 needs dynamic constantly expanding changed, construed reflect intent Framers Constitution—to confer mission. repeatedly repudiated cases narrowly clause.3 development judicial accommodated transition purely local, regional, economy.4 Today, course, international mechanism single nation possibly regulate. 32 statutes (1974), exercised market. denied power,5 chapter history closed.6 universal agreement proposition ample terms economy. Because interdependence segments magnitude comprehensive Congressional market private sectors effective. 33 transcend text arguably applicable case. questioning pure fiat Usery. Neither Amendment,7 Constitution, affords support judicially constructed Clause.8 placed category E.C. Knight, Hammer Dagenhart, Carter Coal —cases subsequent rejection universally regarded proper. think plain incorrectly decided, inconsistent entitled deference stare decisis ordinarily commands precedents. Notwithstanding believe served prompt Cities' modern embodiment spirit Articles Confederation. 34 My conviction enact unrelated views merits piece intimated dissent enhances price inevitably reduces people ready, willing, work—and thereby aggravates ameliorates problems. believe, contrary view, burdens mandatory account exceed personal are, totally irrelevant task am obligated perform. novel point—it made learned experienced judges.9 emphasize limit proper power, overlooked criticize work product. 35 constitutional power. exercising services individuals—either prescribing age—may sector market, confine sector? If enable mission, answer. 36 Chief BURGER, POWELL, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR join, dissenting. decides today dictate states, standards governing selection employees, charged protecting homes crimes fires. reads allow usurp fundamental function, reexamined document fail grants strictures expressly implication. required wholly significance limits itself sovereign powers. Accordingly, hold (Age Act) unconstitutional affirm 38 begin analyzing rationale, relied enacted 621, protections employers, H.R.Rep. 93-913, 93d 2d 1-2 (1974).1 39 several recent investigate legislate see, (1976); Association, (1981); R.R., wisdom restricted afforded To improperly intruded rights, three-prong test: "First, [National supra], [426 U.S.,] 854 [96 2474]. 'attributes 845 2471]. 852 2473]." 2365-2366. 41 For meet prong test, [is] 288 2366 Fry 421 542, 95 1792, 44 363 (1975); 856, (BLACKMUN, concurring). 42 pause aimed regulating capacity 630(b). argues, run counter prongs test. Turning then two, assume Highway Patrol Warden Wyo.Stat. 31-3-101 seq., sought laws. Tr. Oral Arg. 5. goal surely recreation 2474, activities protected Even essence choose—subject limits—who Cf. Oregon Mitchell, 400 112, 123, 91 260, 272 (1970) (Black, J.). poachers destroy fish reserves going complain, authorities justify actions selecting wardens. Since bears responsibility delivering services, sovereignty choose 43 activity instructive inquire entities attempted finding units conclusive, persuasive laws methods insuring efficient workforce research indicates one-half violate Act.2 More while mandating carefully preserved select employees chooses. government, 633a, exceptions built enactment. Certain categories employment—such officers—were excluded, addition, provides "[r]easonable exemptions section established [Civil Service] Commission."3 defining qualifications essential sovereignty. third operations. cites ways interferes inform difficulties, economic, engendered 45 dispute caused individuals. upper end scale, cost wages still greater. since calculate maximum salary service, greater retires.4 because, group, carry higher-than-average risk illness. Pollock, Gettman, Meyer, Analysis Physical Fitness Coronary Disease Risk Dallas Area Police Officers, J. Occup. Med. 393 (1978); N.W. Shock, Cardiac Performance Age, Cardiovascular Problems, 3-24 J.H. Hall J.D. Zwemer, Prospective Medicine (1979). are—especially enforcement—also prone on-the-job injuries, employer's disability increased. generally, D.W. Gregg V.B. Lucas, Life Health Insurance Handbook (3d 1973); S.S. Huebner, K. Black, Jr., (10th 1982). Non-economic hardships equally severe. Employers prevented hiring physically job. occupy disproportionate share upper-level supervisory positions, bar impedes promotion opportunities. Lack opportunities tends undermine employees' incentive strive excellence, fulfilling objectives. 47 hardly objectives decreasing increasing promotional impermissible: cited "enclaves" example, rule Armed Services, 1251, Foreign Service, 4052, despite passage Services continues, apparently, officers positions command vigorous infirmities associated 96-1462, 96th (1980), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1980, p. 6333. Similarly, Post Office acknowledging "unfairness age," 96-992 Pt. concluded remains Service "for maintenance predictable career patterns," prevent "unavailability worldwide assignment," "restore 'flow' [i.e. opportunities] system," 15. 335. grasp just reconciles comply rigid standards. 48 answers contentions arguing possible effectuate According appellant, adverse mitigated 623(f)(2), "observe plan retirement, pension, plan, subterfuge evade chapter. ." reject notion exception significant extent. reality exception, develop Drafting burden states. doubtful could, practical lower fall part, hazardous occupations, thus protection. Stated perhaps want keep his unwilling bear risks injuries. shallow alternative retirement. 50 623(f)(1), Commission's answer state's deliver effectively, solution either. permissible [BFOQ] business. superficially, appears offer means lessening administrative retiring unfit basis, practice. absence statutory guidelines, courts faced have—in appellant's urgings—established high standard constitutes qualification. Typical seems approach taken Arritt Grisell, 567 1267, 1271 (CA4 1977), requiring prove: 51 "(1) bfoq invokes business ., cause, i.e., factual believing within class unable safely efficiently duties involved, impossible impractical deal basis." 52 Tamiami Trail Tours, 531 224 (CA5 1976). Given medicine, virtually prove Johnson Mayor Baltimore, 515 1287, 1299 (D.Md.1981), 944, 1440, 656 53 track record, say 623(f)(1) avoiding impairment operations.5 54 satisfied runs afoul turn alluded BLACKMUN's concurring Hodel. argues preventing demands security programs, eliminating flow "is bald assertion prerogative arbitrary." Appellant, 19. simply accurate resting "sovereign" right discriminate; read it, asserting needs. Nor theoretical outweigh real danger fire burn control firefighters cope; criminal escape law-enforcement officer's reflexes slow react swiftly apprehend offender; officer injured killed defend himself. them; nonetheless insufficient dealing dangers rational manner. means. ratified after Amendment, subject discussed earlier connection may, bestowed affecting Ex Parte Virginia, 100 339, 345, 676 (1880); Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 2666, 614 (1976). mean "blank check" intrude details states' will. repealed ratified: limited. becomes operates transfer function deciding lawbreakers. 57 outer reaches civil war always uncertain. One factor is, clear: act lurks. flaw analysis instance, one—not Congress6—has determined rights Judiciary determination, schemes twice, Massachusetts Board Murgia, 307, 2562, 520 police, Vance Bradley, 440 93, 99 939, 59 171 (1979), officers; rejected equal challenges. instances, arrived conclusion examining, rational-basis guarantees defined mandatorily suspect class. policemen "protect[ing] uniformed police," 314, 2567; foreign service personnel perception "opportunities available," quality occupying critical conduct relation," "minimize[ ] superior reason poor vitality," 103-104, 944 946. using solving Were asked review Bradley Murgia. Like military personnel, FBI agents officers, highway patrol motivate advancement; considers safety highways preserves well-being citizenry. short, said applying 60 appellant used recognized City Rome 446 156, 176-177, 1548, 1561, 64 119 (1980); supra; Jones Alfred H. Mayer 409, 437-444, 2186, 2202-2205, 1189 (1968); South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 803, 769 (1966); Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 1717, 828 (1966), prohibits guard encroachment guaranteed rectify past finding, 309, 808, abrogated infringed Court.7 use, 656, 1726, "specially informed competence" invalidated intrusive appropriate ends state. Instead, sustained first, define independently law, second, done here. agree neither proposition. 61 Allowing statutorily fundamentally alters line flexibility safeguards, Mitchell finally imposing extent substitute "role arbiter," 305 (Harlan, dissenting). involved area suffrage, special competence reasons significant, portions Voting 1970 lowering voters elections, barring literacy tests forbidding disqualifying presidential elections failure residency requirements, majority alter voting elections. portion thought "plain history" lacked 125 294, 349 (Black Stewart, JJ.); 154-215, 280-310 J.); license "overstep letter restriction," 287, 345 (Stewart, 62 me, leads hint body 1789 classification outlawed. Yet much indicate retain surrendered, feel serve citizens.8 63 assume, redefine Pub.L. 93-350, 356, codified 8335, firefighters. Over eight elapsed air traffic controllers, 8335(a), 8335(b), firefighters, Panama Canal Alaska Railroad, 8335(c), members 1251. transferred establishing choosing wisely realized body, analyze decision, diversity risks, climate, geography, demography. determine performed, making hands restrictions unmistakably contemplated Intrusion lead ill 65 infinite disposal, parts country diverse susceptible uniformly solution. sparsely populated stamina; encountered Rhode Island, far land area, mountains, wilderness. Problems confronting Maine unlike Hawaii Florida. Barring tailored undermines allowed industrial live flag rural small, densely coexist large, ones. 66 reserved Brandeis' classic conception laboratories, New Ice Co. Liebmann, 285 262, 311, 371, 386, 76 747 (1932) (Brandeis, dissenting), turned heads assert officers. Flexibility experimentation permits solutions problems, profit experiences rest. Procrustean mold takes conditions. antithesis authors system. joins, 68 THE CHIEF JUSTICE's dissenting write separately record STEVENS' Nation's history. STEVENS begins startling observation "was itself." Ante, 244 (emphasis added). At observes "this mission." 246-247 added).1 "National 249 deny removing Constitution's purposes. suggest, statesmen assembled Philadelphia delegates debated ratification conventions. doubt differences principal shortcomings sure few Founding Fathers problem," elimination "central mission" Constitutional Convention. Creating 18th century interstate commerce. true, properly reach, accommodate unanticipated unimaginable changes, particularly transportation communication, occurred ratified. written Founders' adopting nearly centuries ago little relevance world today, disagreed. purports rely intent. 246. write—briefly, subject—to place historical perspective, suggest federalism utterly subservient was, name implies, constitute provisions, therefore, relating establishment checks balances, conferred branch. Plan, initial proposal entire began work, focuses framework mentioning commerce.2 73 Apart Founders stated Preamble Constitution: "to form perfect Union, establish Justice, domestic Tranquility, provide common defence, promote general Blessings Liberty. differ concerns Confederation: "their liberties, mutual welfare." Art. III. "general Welfare" embrace (despite language not), clear "against invasion [and] dissentions Union" importance. Speech Edmund Randolph (May 1787), reprinted M. Farrand, Records 1787, (rev. 1937) (J. Madison).3 delegated solely If, looks delegated, position "central" patriots formed Union. enumeration Article I, "Power collect Taxes."4 followed Debts" Then, Preamble, comes "provide Defence Welfare." note score followed. evident tax Defence" loomed prominence. teach 77 never know system, comprising retained measure authority. debates surrounding adoption ratification, development, Convention, ratified, understood embodied government's mission," mission accomplished expense governments.5 imposes particular, recognizes States: "The respectively, people." implicit propriety limitation. argued unnecessary, necessarily people.6 Furthermore, inherent Members electors chosen Representation apportioned regardless population. Full Credit gives "public Acts, Records, Proceedings." IV, republican State. state-by-state fourths 79 contemporary intended James Madison, Father Constitution," explained York: defined. Governments numerous indefinite. former principally objects, war, peace, negotiation, which, ordinary course affairs, lives, properties people; internal order, improvement, prosperity State." Federalist 45, 313 Cooke 1961). Madison's contemporaries shared view. Letter Roger Sherman Oliver Ellsworth Governor Connecticut (Sept. 26, (description Constitution) (The "powers [vested Congress] respecting interests union, specially defined, matters."). 82 earliest principles recognized, Government. 1798, Thomas Jefferson drafted Kentucky Resolutions,7 legislature protest unpopular Alien Sedition June 18, c. 54, 566; 25, 58, 570; July 6, 66, 577; 14, 74, 596. Madison Resolutions, Assembly. Elliot, Debates 528-529 (2d 1863). treated asserted enabled interpose Thirty later, expanded John C. Calhoun nullification doctrine—the extreme eventually led War Between States.8 Works 1-57 (R. Cralle 1859) (original Exposition 1828). 83 limited confined South. England vehemently Embargo Dec. 22, 1807, 451, defense. 1809, Connecticut, legislature, refused Jan. 506, embargo.9 story similar: denounced "unjust, oppressive unconstitutional, legally binding state." Resolutions Legislature (Feb. 15, 1809), Ames, Documents Relations (1906). When 17, 1813, 88, declared "a manifest abuse power" "sovereignty States"10 "interpos[ing] "oppression," 1814), 71-72. Daniel Webster, famous defense power.11 84 assumption theory. contours changed centuries, component again. refer highlights go dissent. mention last Term alone powers.12 Community Communications Boulder, 40, 835, 810 (1982), exemption antitrust 'under sovereign, save subtract authority,' 49, 839 Parker Brown, 317 341, 351, 313, 87 315 (1943)), acting "in powers," 48, 839. cities, stressed 48-54, 839-842. unanimously Railway state-owned railroad. reached conclusion, railroad "constitutionally function[s]." 683, 1353. Energy Regulatory Comm'n Utility Policies "constituted Amendment," 752, element reaching conclusion. 758-771, sum, reminds Fathers, participated phases power—including accepted 200 years.13 His Instead declares "[t]he Usery." 248 easy function—however sovereign—that preempted. infra, 231-233. (1967) (statement Sen. Javits); Note, S.Cal.L.Rev. 1311, 1325 (1974). "(a) hereby that— productivity affluence, themselves disadvantaged especially regain displaced jobs; "(2) setting practice, desirable disadvantage persons; "(3) incidence unemployment, long-term resultant deterioration skill, morale, acceptability relative ages, workers; numbers growing; problems grave; "(4) industries goods "(b) [Act] age; employment; help meeting arising employment." 621. 4(a) 623(a), that: "It shall employer— refuse hire compensation, terms, conditions, privileges individual's limit, segregate, classify deprive adversely affect status employee, [Act]." roughly parallel covering agencies organizations. §§ 4(b), (c), 623(b), (c). agencies, organizations, retaliating seek 4(d), 623(d), publishing types discriminatory notices, 4(e), 623(e). amending (At amended "employee" 11(f) 630(f) exclude elected non-civil-service appointed officials.) separate 633a IV), created jurisdiction Commission. bound Act's State, 70, removed cap 189, 631(b) IV). E.g., 1269-1270 1977); Carpenter Pennsylvania Liquor Control Bd., 508 148 (ED Pa.1981); EEOC 503 1051, 1052-1053 (MD Pa.1980); Marshall Delaware River Bay Auth., 471 886, 891-892 (Del.1979); Florissant Valley Fire Protection Dist., FEP Cases (BNA) 973, EPD (CCH) ¶ 30,520 Mo.1979); Remmick Barnes County, 435 914 (ND Aaron Davis, 424 1238, 1239-1241 Ark.1976); Salt Lake City, 718 (Utah opinions lead, Campbell Connelie, 542 275, 280 (NDNY 1982); Taylor Montana Game, 523 514, (Mont.1981), Appeals declined so, Calumet, 686 1249, 1251-53 (CA7 Elrod, 674 601, 603-612 McCroan Bailey, 543 1201, 1205-1207 (SD Ga.1982); Kenny District, 1194, 1196-99 (Mont.1982); Minneapolis, 537 750, 756 (Minn.1982); Bleakley Jekyll Park 536 236, 240 Los Angeles, 122, 124 (CD Cal.1982); 526 1135, 1137-1138 Cal.1981); Adams James, 80, Ala.1981); 1292 (Md.1981). 31-3-107 Wyo.Stat.Ann. (1977), "[a]n year-to-year fifty-five (55), prescribe." covered 65. [t]o Nations, Indian Tribes." 8, cl. 3. Graves York, 306 466, 489-490, 602-603, 927 (1939) (Frankfurter, worth emphasizing, marks specialized "A wealth precedent attests displace pre-empt conflict law. enactments obviously curtail prerogatives choices subjects consider Supremacy result." 290, 2367 added; citations 759, "there attaching impaired Congress" "[o]ne undoubted employ functions, hours compensation called overtime." 2471. Precisely meant sovereignty" somewhat unclear, amplify understanding concept. can, circumstances, vehicle tied, things, welfare providing unemployed, 2472. connected execution assimilated 850, 2473 (relating unimpeded role provider emergency services). 2474 (stressing autonomy "those systems [their dual functions administering furnishing services] rest ") advancing management—even functions—should sovereignty." infra. maintaining integrity enough, themselves, invalidate 770, 2143, somehow interfere "enable who, due rigors [pension] benefit." They forbids continuing 55. "balance [its pension] fund periodically remained 55," restructuring program." Frankly, helped eligible 853, (distinguishing Economic Stabilization "operated pressures budgets them"). present version 4(f)(2) observe [the Act], excuse individual, permit [between 70] individual." clause, added 2(a), 189.) Senator Jacob Javits meaning compelled afford exactly workers." 31255 146. 805, 2213, 77; 123 34295 (1977) (remarks Williams), 482; 8218-8219 (1978) Javits), 539-540. minimal survives measured well-defined legislation, "justifies note, incidentally, strength negated happens small supra (no employees.) Once interest, once warrant reading ebbs flows insincere declaration, evaluate sufficiency matter analysis. reaffirm circumscribe 179, 1562, (1980). else erred unless "expressly 5," disposing argument sole "nothing [to ADEA] suggest[s] Clause," discern predicate supports mean, anywhere recite words "section 5" "Fourteenth Amendment" "equal protection," Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 476-478, 2758, 2773-2774, 902 (1980) (BURGER, C.J.), depend recitals undertakes exercise." Woods Miller, 333 138, 144, 421, 424, 596 (1948). construe 1539, adjudge validity, 16, 12, 1539. characterized "Congress intend[ed statute] enforceable obligations." unremarkable statement, "we quickly unstated intention Amendment." rules construction, divine ambiguous Here, was: observations whether, Rutledge's widely shared. 1934 article Harvard Law Review, Robert L. Stern wrote: defect Assembly commissioners 'take consideration States; examine states; uniform commercial permanent harmony; object. .' Representatives five September, 1786. revision convention revising Confederation, thereupon send May, 1787. centralized primary preparing constitution, likely narrow restrictive meaning." Stern, Which Concerns Than One, Harv.L.Rev. 1335, 1337, 1340-1341 (1934) (footnotes Beveridge, 310-312 (1916); G. Gunther, 127 (9th 1975) ("The condition proliferating rivalries provocations calling Convention"); Swisher, Development 25-27 1954); Gibbons Ogden, (9 Wheat.) 224, (1824) (opinion Johnson, J.) (the "conflict regulations, destructive harmony forming convention"). Kidd Pearson, 128 20-21, 9-10, 346 (1888) (manufacturing Congress); Knight 156 12-16, 249, 253-256, 325 (1895) (monopoly manufacturing power); Adair 208 161, 178-179, 277, 282, 436 (1908) (connection membership union authorize crime carrier membership); 247 251, 276, 529, 532, 1101 (1918) (Congress produced child labor); 298 238, 308-310, 871-872, 1160 (1936) (commerce wages, hours, working coal miners). Compare Stafford Wallace, 495, 524-525, 397, 404-405, 735 (1922) Hopkins 578, 592-598, 45-47, 290 (1898); Virginian Ry. Federation, 300 515, 557, 592, 604, 789 (1937) Employers' Liability Cases, 207 463, 498, 141, 145, 297 (1908); Sunshine Adkins, 310 381, 393-394, 907, 912, 1263 (1940) 297-310, 866-872; Darby, 312 100, 115-117, 457-458, 609 (1941) 269-277, 530-533; South-Eastern Underwriters 322 533, 542-553, 1162, 1167-1173, 1440 (1944) York Deer Lodge 231 502-512, 167, 169-173, 332 (1913); Mandeville Farms Sugar 334 219, 229-235, 1002-1005, 1328 (1948) 253-256. Wickard Filburn, 111, 118-125, 82, 85-89, 122 (1942) wheat marketing quota grown consumption farm, market); 1002-1005 price-fixing purchasers beet sugar growers state); Motel, Inc. 249-262, 353-362, (1964) racial places accommodation commerce); Perez 402 146, 154-155, 1357, 1361-1362, (1971) (Commerce loan-sharking commerce). 496-499, 144-145; 176-180, 281-283; 271-275, 531-532; 303-304, 869. 113-124, 456-462. Const.Amdt. 10. Stone wrote 124, 462, amendment truism surrendered. From beginning depriving resort adapted end." This, original observation. Marshall's Wheat.), 196-197, 23: regulate; prescribe governed. vested utmost extent, acknowledges limitations, prescribed constitution. questions arise bar. understood, though specified plenary nations, absolutely constitution identity people, influence constituents this, relied, abuse. solely, representative governments." weight earlier, delegate ratifying crucial regarding He fully conscious dramatic "[e]ach retains freedom, independence," word independence conveyed unequivocal VI, 2. contrasted supporters opponents ratification. 129 (1891 ed.) (James speaking support: relies thirteen sovereignties existence, solecism theory nullity effect, sir, removal cause."); (Patrick Henry, opposition: "Who authorized speak of, We, instead states? characteristics soul confederation. compact, great, consolidated, states."). authority, resolved Spencer Texas, 385 554, 569, 648, 606 concurring); 191-192, 287 (Holmes, dissenting); Lochner 198 75, 539, 551, 937 (1905) along 93-259, 74. Extension FLSA Ala.Code 36-27-16(a)(1)(e) (Supp.1982) (police; 60); Ark.Stat.Ann. 42-455 65); Cal. GOV Code Ann. 20980 (West 1980) (highway patrol; Del.Code Ann., Tit. 11, 8323 (1974) 55); Idaho 50-1514(a) (Supp.1981) Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 24, 10-2.1-17 (police firemen; Ind.Code 36-8-3.5-20 Iowa 97B.46(3) (peace firefighters; Kan.Stat.Ann. 74-4975(b) (patrolmen; La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 42-691 1982) (law Md.Ann.Code, 88B, 53(1)(C) (1979) Mass.Gen.Laws 69(d) 1966) 83A(d) Mich.Comp.Laws 38.556(c) (1982) Minn.Stat. 423.075(1) Miss.Code 25-13-11 55) 21-29-245 Mo.Rev.Stat. 104.010 104.080 Mont.Code 19-6-504 60) 19-9-801 Neb.Rev.Stat. 81-2025(2) N.Y.Retire. Soc.Sec.Law 381-b(e) N.D.Cent.Code 39-03.1-18 Ohio Rev.Code 5505.16 Okla.Stat., 47, 2-305A Ore.Rev.Stat. 237.129(1) Pa.Stat.Ann., 65(d) (Purdon Supp.1981) R.I.Gen.Laws 45-21.2-5 S.C.Code 9-1-1535 (conservation Tenn.Code 8-36-205(1) Tex.Rev.Civ.Stat.Ann., 6423g-1, 11(d) (Vernon Supp.1982) Vt.Stat.Ann., 459(a)(2) Wash.Rev.Code 43.43.250(1) (state W.Va.Code 8-22-25(d) 15-5-307(a) 60). Institute Municipal Enforcement Officers Amicus Curiae 1a-7a, 160 municipalities violating 1978 Reorganization Plan Fed.Reg. 19807, 3781. exacerbated per month towards occupations actuarily sound spend rapidly. Simple invalidation inequity Appellee Of revamp correct problem. Forcing example wrought invoke BFOQ expose lawsuits choices. Defense costly time-consuming endeavor impermissible assumed oral argument, Solicitor Murgia sub silentio agreed altered guarantees. 17-18. notion. sustainable protected. squarely raise issue. pointing decided question, ground attempting safeguards suggested resolution hinges facts, defer facts. Cox, Role Determinations, U.Cinn.L.Rev. 187, 229-230 (1971). strictly concern, judgments Legislature. equipped legislators involving primarily extra-judicial lecture 1946. 244-245. "proximate existence" desire "democratic freedoms"; trade" colonies. (1947). Whatever sparked ante, focus attention formation begins, "Monday May 14th 1787 day fixed deputies Government." (footnote preliminary matters, 1-17, "main business," Madison), opened Randolph's speech proposing Plan. Almost Plan's resolutions dealt sixth all. stressing commerce, declared, "that ought impowered moreover incompetent, interrupted Legislation. 21. doubt, doubted essential, 41, pp. 269-276 1961) Madison). exclusive determining peace war." IX. major weakness inability taxes directly. 284 Hamilton). Remedying Paul, Taxation 4-5 (1954); (A. citation (1824), position, 248-249, irrelevant, concerned carried passengers Jersey steamboats licensed Ogden granting navigate waters. monopoly On contrary, navigation lies navigation. possesses, illustrates approval, departed formed. "commerce" incredible seemed ago, let day, 70. Alexander Hamilton, 84, 578-579 (Tenth "declaratory amendment"); Sprague, 282 716, 733, 220, 222, 640 (1931) confirm adopted, people. instrument ."). resolution, "[t]hat composing America united unlimited submission government; style title thereto, constituted purposes, definite powers, reserving, residuary mass self-government; whensoever assumes undelegated acts unauthoritative, void, force." Resolution 540 referring interesting history, interposition sound. event, laid history's bloodiest fratricides, ending Appomattox 1865. figures pertinent ever empower expansively session "[w]henever overleap bounds [sic Legislatures, emergencies, devolves arduous task—it right—it duty, shield liberty Jonathan Trumbull 23, promptly supporting Governor's concluding embargo "incompatible encroach[ed] immunities [the] 41. duty assist, concur giving aforesaid act, passed, Embargo." reserved, excessive 71. conscription enlistment minors, Webster measures solemn Governments" enforcement. "among objects exist." Conscription (Dec. Writings Speeches 55, (1903). Rivera-Rodriguez Popular Democratic Party, 457 2194, 628 ("Puerto Rico, state, autonomous entity, 'sovereign ruled Constitution.' Calero-Toledo Pearson Yacht Leasing 416 663, 673, 94 2080, 2086, (1974)); Corp. Ireland, Ltd. Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinea, 694, 703, 10, 2099, 492 (States 'coequal sovereigns system' World-Wide Volkswagen Woodson, 444 286, 559, 564, 490 (1980)); Engle Isaac, 107, 128, 1558, 783 (discussing punish offenders"); Assurance North Accident Ins. Guaranty 691, 704, 1366, 558 (recognizing Nation possessing powers"); Cabell Chavez-Salido, 432, 444-447, 735, 677 (relying police powers); Assessment Real Estate Assn. McNary, 108, 177, 182, 271 "of different, paramount sovereignty") Matthews Rodgers, 521, 525, 217, 447 (1932)). denigrate functioning embodies strong federalism.

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