Document: 433 U.S. 229 97 S.Ct. 2593 53 L.Ed.2d 714 Benson A. WOLMAN et al., Appellants,v.Franklin B. WALTER al. No. 76-496. Argued April 25, 1977. Decided June 24, Syllabus Appellants, citizens and taxpayers of Ohio, brought this action against appellees, certain state officials others, challenging the constitutionality all but one provisions Ohio Rev.Code Ann. § 3317.06 (Supp.1976) authorizing various forms aid to nonpublic schools, most which are sectarian. The scheme authorizes funding for use schoolchildren within district where school is located following purposes: (1) purchasing secular textbooks approved by superintendent public instruction in schools loan children or their parents, on request either, made (§ 3317.06(A)); (2) supplying such standardized tests scoring services as used with personnel not being involved test drafting scoring, no financial 3317.06(J)); (3) providing speech hearing diagnostic psychological (except physicians) performing local board education employees, physicians hired a contract basis, treatment be administered premises (§§ 3317.06(D), (F)); (4) students needing specialized attention therapeutic, guidance, remedial employees State Department Health, performed only centers, mobile units off 3317.06(G), (H), (I), (K)); (5) loaning pupils parents upon individual instructional materials equipment kind that "incapable diversion religious use" 3317.06(B), (C)); (6) field trip transportation provided students, special permissible if buses unavailable 3317.06(L)). A three-judge District Court held statute constitutional respects. Held: Those portions provide books, testing services, therapeutic constitutional. relating unconstitutional. Pp. 235-255; 255. 417 F.Supp. 1113, affirmed part, reversed part. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion respect Parts I, V, VI, VII, VIII, finding that: 1 1. Providing will create an impermissible risk fostering ideological views; hence there need excessive surveillance church-state entanglement. provision health well does have primary effect aiding religion, Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 602, 616-617, 91 2105, 2113, 29 745; see also Meek Pittenger, 421 349, 364, 368 n. 17, 95 1753, 1762, 1764, 44 217. Appellants do challenge part physician, nursing, dental, optometric 3317.06(E)), basis drawing different conclusion services. Diagnostic unlike teaching counseling, little educational content, limited contact diagnostician has child same opportunity transmitting sectarian views teacher/counselor-student relationship. Sections 3317.06(D) (F) 241-244. 2 2. (including those rendered units) offered sites physically educationally identified school, advancing religion. Since entanglement created. (K) 24-248. 3 3. Even though material ostensibly neutral equipment, it inescapably direct substantial advancement education, supra, at 366, S.Ct., 1763. It impossible separate function from sectarian, inevitably supports role schools. 3317.06(B) (C) 248-251. 4 4. can control timing frequency trips, recipients service rather than children, trips (like maps charts Pittenger ) close supervision teachers necessary ensure funds would involve U.S., 619, 2114. Section 3317.06(L) 252-255. 5 BLACKMUN, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, STEWART, POWELL, concluded: 6 In order pass muster under Establishment Clause must legislative purpose; principal neither advances nor inhibits religion; foster government See Roemer Maryland Public Works Bd., 426 736, 748, 96 2337, 2345, 49 179; Committee Education Nyquist, 413 756 772-773, 93 2955, 2965-2966, 37 948; 612, 613, 2111. 235-236. 7 textbook system strikingly similar systems Board Allen, 392 236, 88 1923, 20 1060, followed. 3317.06(A) 236-238. 8 program, interest standards met, controlled thus religion supervision. Levitt Education, 472, 2814, distinguished. 3317.06(J) 238-241. 9 WHITE REHNQUIST concurred judgment (as services) reasons stated 387, 1774, (REHNQUIST, J., concurring dissenting part), 756, 813, 2982, 948 (WHITE, dissenting). P. 10 Joshua J. Kancelbaum, Cleveland, appellants. 11 Thomas V. Martin David Young, Cincinnati, appellees. 12 (Parts VIII), together II, III, IV), POWELL joined. 13 This still another case presenting recurrent issue limitations imposed First Amendment, applicable States Fourteenth 351, 1756, 217 (1975) church-related elementary secondary Ohio. They authorize aid. appellees Superintendent Instruction, Treasurer, Auditor, City School Columbus, and, request, representative potential beneficiaries statutory program. court was convened. Wolman Essex, 1113 (ND 1976). We noted probable jurisdiction. 429 1037, 730, 50 747 (1977). 14 * enacted after Court's May 1975 decision obviously attempt conform teachings decision.1 so acknowledged oral argument. Tr. Oral Arg. 21. broad outline, transportation. 15 initial biennial appropriation Legislature implementation sum $88,800,000.2 App. 27. Funds appropriated paid State's districts then expended them. All disbursements equivalents amount per pupil may exceed 16 parties stipulated during 1974-1975 year were 720 chartered Of these, More 96% enrollment attended more 92% Catholic Id., 28-29. that, they called, testify operate general bishop diocese; principals members Church; less one-third orders; "in probability majority faith"; many rooms hallways these decorated Christian symbol. 30-33. teach subjects required meet minimum standards. state-mandated five-hour day expanded include, usually, one-half hour instruction. Pupils who faith attend classes participate exercises activities, teacher doctrine courses taught Ibid. 17 officials, none covered discriminate admission hiring race, creed, color, national origin. 29.3 18 "Although stipulations evidence several significant points distinction, character substantially comparable 615-618, 745 (1971)." F.Supp., 1116.4 II 19 mode analysis questions defined three-part emerged decisions. muster, purpose, 179 (1976); (1973); 2111, (1971). present we difficulty first prong test. satisfied challenged reflects Ohio's legitimate protecting its youth fertile environment State.5 As usual our cases, analytical criteria. 21 before, again here, wall separation maintained between church "is blurred, indistinct, variable barrier depending circumstances particular relationship." Lemon, 614, 2112. Nonetheless, numerous precedents "have become firmly rooted," 761, 2959, now guidance. therefore turn task applying rules derived decisions respective issue. III Textbooks 22 expenditure funds: 23 "(A) To purchase been attending parents. Such loans shall based requests submitted located. shall, administrative convenience, his parent prepare submit collective summaries district. section, 'textbook' means any book substitute uses text class program he regularly attends." 24 parties' reflect operation accord dictates statute. addition, stipulated: 25 "The state. Common suppliers supply books both pupils." 35. 26 "Textbooks, including substitutes, Act reusable workbooks, manuals, whether bound looseleaf form, intended source study given group copy expected available each group." 36. 27 bears striking resemblance 1060 (1968), (1975).6 Indeed, distinction appellants defines "textbook" "any substitute." argue "book substitute" might include auxiliary assert, constitutionally loaned. Part infra. find argument untenable light statute's subsections (B) (C), stipulation defining "limited manuals." claim shows intent 49, vague fail insure abuse assistance programs, citing Meek, 372, 1766, grounds, however, doubt Education's reading statute, fear using subterfuge. read, provides protections programs consideration Allen Meek. 28 alternative, urge overrule decline do. Accordingly, conclude IV Testing Scoring 30 "(J) state." 31 These "are measure progress subjects." 48. Nonpublic either tests. 1124. payment costs administering tests.7 32 736 (1973), invalidated New York reimbursement church-sponsored expenses teacher-prepared testing. reasoning behind straightforward. unconstitutional because "no available, assure internally prepared free instruction."8 480, 2819. 33 There question insuring receive adequate education. 479-480, 7, require utilized fulfill compulsory-education requirement instruction, 245, 246, 1927, 1928, examine fulfilled. Levitt, 2818-2819; 28. Cf. Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 534, 45 571, 573, 69 L.Ed. 1070 (1925). Under section issue, ensuring met. content result. serves prevent teaching, avoids found Levitt. Similarly, inability eliminates gives rise agree V Services 34 expenditures 35 "(D) receiving service. 36 "(F) service."9 observed school. stipulated, (with exception perform education; basis; purpose determine pupil's deficiency assistance; defect take place premises. 37-38. 38 assert impermissible. staff engage unrestricted conversation occasion, responsibilities. further communication intrusion influence. 39 dangers insubstantial render 1121-1122. agree. contain common thread stated: 40 "Our Everson 330 1, 67 504, 711 (1947),) permitted secular, neutral, nonideological facilities, materials. Bus transportation, lunches, supplied thought offend Clause." 2113 (emphasis added). 41 1764. recognize fact subsection (E) publicly funded schools.10 perceive 42 did hold portion Pennsylvania authorized "remedial accelerated guidance counseling testing, services" 367, counselor "fail occasion beliefs responsibilities." 371, 1766. view employed depart neutrality "performing important integral dominant mission atmosphere dedicated belief constantly maintained." namely, counselors remained continuing premises.11 Schools Marburger, 358 29, (NJ 1973), summarily aff'd, 961, 94 3163, 1134 (1974). explicitly stated, seemed "to fall welfare regardless incidental benefit accrues schools." 371 21, unseverable 43 reason considering readily apparent. First, closely associated pressure allow greatly reduced. Second, child, involves chiefly objective professional methods detect treatment. nature relationship transmission attends student student. views. follows surveillance, §§ VI Therapeutic having attention.12 Personnel Health. 42. determination center, unit depend distance safety factors travel, adequacy accommodations centers." 46 concede remedial, served simultaneously. Brief 41-42, 46.13 Their situation facility students. isolates employee tailor approach reinforce children. employee, claimed, renders institution. express concern over danger merely annex 47 At outset, note posture properly concerning adjunct enterprise. construed we, "neither physicallynor functions school." 1123. Thus, neutrality. 48 diagnostician, therapist establish opportunities transmit analogous here advance activities. But, discussed emphasized arose pervasively 618-619, 2113-2114. existed there, likely deliberately subvert pressures alter behavior normal course. So long types truly religiously locations, perceived arise. site serve provoke concerns troubled Meek.14 influence therapist's exerted qualitatively pervasive institution, pupils. Neither arising maintain stance. hardly said property creates VII Instructional Materials Equipment 51 use."15 stored administer lending when "for efficient program." 52 Although exact clearly revealed, "It loaned new law former except extent requires capable issues supplied." 36.16 predecessor set forth included projectors, tape recorders, record players, globes, science kits, weather forecasting charts, like. Court, 1117, limited, could distinguish upheld 359-362, 1760-1762, 248, 1929. considered validity despite apparent goods, Stewart, writing 54 very integrated process is, large extent, devoted inculcation values belief. (2105) 2113. Substantial accordingly, necessarily results enterprise whole. '(T)he goes hand schools' existence. Within two inextricably intertwined.' 657, 2133. (opinion Brennan, J.)." 55 even had 56 Appellees seek avoid emphasizing contrast, parent. view, exalt form substance justify result Before decided directly Then, legislature channel goods through Despite technical change legal bailee, before: same; students; distributed impossibility separating flows support 57 compelled prior (1973). considered, among tuition whereby gave low-income sent cash grant $50 $100 (but 50% actually paid). attempted flowed observed, bus (1947), "has endeavor 'to guarantee former.' " 783, 2970, quoting If impermissible, how furthering fare better.17 unconstitutional.18 VIII Field Trips 58 59 "(L) commercial companies busses unavailable." 60 restriction trips; number lies parallel draws "would consist visits governmental, industrial, cultural, scientific centers designed enrich studies students." 49. choice destination, wide range locations. 61 1124-1125, feature indistinguishable concerned (1947). Jersey reimbursed cost sending parochial, carrier. analogized situations municipal carrier ordered carry reduced rate, police force protect way 512. critical examples, system, unrelated provided. passed often traveled home every make round travel aspect curriculum. 62 sharp contrast. controls range, destinations. recognized, alone sufficient invalidate 621, 2115. although location makes meaningful. experience begins discussion visited; continues pointing out items stimulating imagination; ends experience. experience, works unacceptable inevitable byproduct. 63 "We assume parochial guilty bad conscious design evade Amendment. simply person, affiliated her operated inculcate tenets, great remaining neutral." 618, 64 Funding therefore, treated buildings supra; declared 65 Moreover, authorities unable adequately without teachers. entanglement: 66 "A comprehensive, discriminating, restrictions obeyed Amendment otherwise respected. Unlike book, cannot inspected once personal subjective acceptance prophylactic contacts enduring church." 749, 2345. 68 IX summary, 70 71 ordered. 72 JUSTICE dissents opinion. 73 For REHNQUIST's (1975), WHITE's concur textbooks, IV, opinion) dissent opinion). 74 BRENNAN, 75 I join opinion, reversal insofar (L) (Supp.1976). 76 however (plurality affirmance sustained 3317.06(A), (D), (F), (G), (J), (K). holds managed respects fashion condemned Clause. But "(t)he (First) nullifies sophisticated simple-minded . ." attempts prohibitions, Lane Wilson, 307 268, 275, 872, 876, 83 1281 (1939), event, ingenuity draftsmanship obscure subsidy amounts $88,800,000 (less sums finance today invalidated) just biennium. nowhere evaluates factor determining compatibility Clause, requires, 16, Its evaluation, deduction compels my divisive political unusual magnitude inheres suffices entirety offends Amendment's prohibition laws "respecting establishment religion." 373-385, 1767-1773, (Brennan, concurring); 640-642, 2124-2125, (1971) (Douglas, 511-512. 77 MARSHALL, 78 below, am remainder upholding 79 plurality upholds provision, precedent (1968). Ante, recognizes, "a tension" (1975). resolve tension overruling Allen. convinced largely responsible reducing "high impregnable" erected 18, 513, barrier," 2112, (1971), incapable vital 80 assumption school's twin separable. 245-248, 1927-1929. flatly rejected allowing schools: 81 (Lemon at, 2133) 82 strength left rationale undamaged difference pedagogical sectarianschools. convincingly demonstrates, ante, 249-250, difference. undercut recognition "the potential" forestall. 622-624, 2115-2116. annual appropriations larger lead "(p)olitical fragmentation divisiveness lines." 623, 2116. exists fund other supplies, or, teachers' salaries. BRENNAN noted, consider significance inherent 378, 1769 (concurring part). 84 course, unquestionable central process.1 should schools2 "(s)ubstantial whole." 1763-1764. substantial. "divisiveness would, 3317.06(A).3 85 By ourselves draw line acceptable consistent application responsive above. That line, believe, placed happen convenient reach programs' target populations assistance.4 General contrast assistance, function" schools,5 assist denominational expect disputes merits divide along lines. 86 addition paragraphs (B), (L), wrong side propose. authorize, respectively, trips. contention anything assistance. 87 (G) permissible. diagnosis, therapy. Like medical, paragraph appellants, promote children's well-being, indirect remote impact progress.6 (K), groups rubric "therapeutic services." 244-248. three like (G). Paragraph (H) assisting "developing meaningful career goals," "planning study." discuss "their a) needs, b) course selections, c) vocational plans, d) skills." collect organize information teachers, 45-46. description clear violation 89 Paragraphs (I) disabled indicates themselves plans students' regular classrooms. 47-48. improve performance classroom. treat them physical 90 Finally, ground assuring received meets legitimacy interest, obtain specified scores before promoted graduated, indicates, contains indication measurements taken compliance internal purposes done State, violates 92 Our troubling area lines seem arbitrary. No achieve greater tidiness accept broadest implications observation (sectarian) took sustain wholly institutions. itself overruled, perhaps persistent desire proper helping survive doomed. yet harsh Certainly few interest. Parochial quite apart alternative millions young Americans; afford wholesome competition schools; some relieve tax burden incident has, moreover, facilitating highest quality boundaries, whatever chosen keep perspective. point 20th century far removed prompted Framers Bill Rights. Walz Tax Comm'n, 397 664, 668, 1409, 1411, 697 (1970). democratic processes deep division remote, viewed positive contributions seems entirely tolerable oversight Court. sought principles preserve cherished safeguard resort blind absolutism. loss tidiness, too tolerable. Most tradition, With judgment. persuaded, hold, "inescapably (have) enterprise." 250. case, surely overruled Instead reaffirmed thereby holding least helpful uses, cf. lent Here expressly diversion. Therefore relevant "furnished request." 244 6, 1927. includes maps, classroom paraphernalia concept individuals transparent fiction. forbidden "direct aid" institution itself, whoever bailee. 362-366, 1761-1764. others meaningfully individuals, precedents. appropriate customarily writes salary takes outing. driver movement destination trip. principle Everson, approving STEVENS, 98 fundamental one. quote Clarence Darrow's Scopes case: 99 realm knowledge leaves off, begins, never needed arm support, wherever it, harmed pretend serve."1 100 drawn character. differentiate subsidies, globes other. reason, described plurality's adhere enunciated Black: 101 "No amount, small, levied activities institutions, adopt practice 511, 711. 102 test, invalid takes. financing buildings, materials, tests, schoolbooks equally invalid.2 give mission, heart religious.3 On hand, exclude possibility parts us manner. plainly into category.4 misgivings point, face. 103 efforts proved successful. "Corrosive precedents"5 firm decide cases. encouraged search ways achieving ends. 785, 797, 2971, 2977, 948. What state,6 'blurred, barrier,' 236. been, Darrow predicted, harm "both (this aid) serve."7 104 time decided, appeal pending 73-292 (SD July 1974). vacated remanded 982, 1985, 473 remand, entered consent order, dated November 1975, declaring repealed, violative Amendments, reserving successor legislation. plaintiffs original suit, shifted present, December 10, single judge temporary restraining enjoining defendants expending implementing 3317.06. Record, Doc. 10. February 13, 1976, parties, modified permit expend lend pursuant 3317.06(A). 18. command which, somewhat provides: "Health origin teachers." 1116. differences significant. private heretofore presumed elementary, higher reconsideration," Grit what relevant. instead: "However, since intend retain fit standard profile." 13-14. institutions aided Lemon: "This inculcating enhanced impressionable age pupils, particularly." 616, Tilton Richardson, 672, 684-689, 2091, 2098-2101, 790 opinion); 764-765, 2353, (1976). courses, devotional exercises, training, activity." Code sections 3329.06 (1972). Meek: "So schoolchildren, codified two." 360 8, 1761. say: provided." 8. summarized appellees: nothing reimburse incurred money permits send achievement arrange grading publishing organizations grade tests." 53. Further, approves "such read mean "Yet, total process, ignore examinations, authority drafted eye, unconsciously otherwise, precepts sponsoring church. 'assume Amendment.' (2105), conflict 'inheres situation,' state-supported activity indoctrination. id., 617, failed Nyquist Chapter 138 constitutes identifiable separable activities." regarding inseparable 481, unless district." understand impose quantitative qualitative limit "(E) service." mentioned auxiliary-services serious generating diagnostic-services unlikely effect. text, Meek's susceptible overtones. seen involving controversy provokes focus fact, hard believe generated offer uniform schoolchildren. much modest arousing correspondingly "(G) determined department facilities "(H) "(I) "(K) deaf, blind, emotionally disturbed, crippled, handicapped located." equal 9, supra. concession appellants' understanding Brother MARSHALL argues announce planning selection courses. Post, 261. involvement day-to-day curriculum We, stipulations. Rather, broad-scale, long-term student's choices areas choices. plan pose grave questions. stipulations, informed taken. approve sensible implement used, considerations safety, distance, near foreclosing practical response logistical difficulties extending desired community. "(B) hire clerical "(C) Counsel suggested "lendable use." 31. assertion, appears contrary stipulation, 36, representation 1118. individually. supplement 37, value derives respects, difficult arguable end up hands spend chose. 785-786, 2971-2972. 37. tuition, supporting church-school 787, 2972. An connected function. premised something ascertained diverted uses. explained: "In fire protection, sewage disposal, highways, sidewalks 17-18, (504), 512-513. citizens, 'so indisputably marked function,' fairly reflections toward founded principle. repeatedly purely courses." 781-782, 2970. law, follow matter stare decisis purposes. recent declined extend presumption lower setting. 1761-1764; 481-482, 2819-2820. Compare 774-780, 2966-2969, argued cover textbooks. 385, 1773 (Burger, C. part); 390-391, 1775-1776 (Rehnquist, When faced, extension unique created continued adherence announced subsequent choose latter 384, 1772 (BRENNAN, 252, 1931 (Black, texts formally reality power provided, 'any attends.' 237. distribute "loan request" them, books. silent returned summer recess. warning JUSTICE: "(I)n adjudication steps, 'the verge,' platform steps. momentum develops theory 'downhill thrust' easily motion retard stop." 624, 2117, soon remove plunge realms advocated Black, 250-254, 1930-1932. Black author based. improves well-being help educate making receptive educated. influenced indoctrinate whom deal tenets sect runs real, militate strongly explain, why indoctrination eye chart deliver messages. (Appellants services.) While sensitive subtle abuses, imaginable totally implausible evils. Arg., 154 Tenn. 105, 289 S.W. 363 (1927) (on file Papers, Library Congress) (punctuation corrected). tension, 251-252, 217, foreclose eventual inconsistent legislation, "entangled" religion: 2133 J.). generally Freund, Aid Schools, Harv.L.Rev. 1680, 1688-1689." 256, smaller involved. 63, 534 (Rutledge, 513. Board, 775, 2358, 179, spoke pernicious tendency tempt compromise abandoning it." presents apt illustration. qualify aid, relinquish exclusivity. whose policies creed perspective subjects, State.

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