Document: 500 U.S. 614 111 S.Ct. 2077 114 L.Ed.2d 660 Thaddeus Donald EDMONSON, Petitionerv.LEESVILLE CONCRETE COMPANY, INC. No. 89-7743. Argued Jan. 15, 1991. Decided June 3, Syllabus Petitioner Edmonson sued respondent Leesville Concrete Co. in the District Court, alleging that Leesville's negligence had caused him personal injury. During voir dire, used two of its three peremptory challenges authorized by statute to remove black persons from prospective jury. Citing Batson v. Kentucky, 476 79, 106 1712, 90 69, Edmonson, who is black, requested court require articulate a race-neutral explanation for strikes. The refused on ground does not apply civil proceedings, and impaneled jury, which consisted 11 white 1 rendered verdict unfavorable Edmonson. Court Appeals affirmed, holding private litigant case can exercise without accountability alleged racial classifications. Held: A may use exclude jurors account race. Pp. 618-619. (a) Race-based exclusion potential violates excluded persons' equal protection rights. Cf., e.g., Powers Ohio, 499 ----, 1364, 113 411. Although conduct parties lies beyond Constitution's scope most instances, was pursuant course state action therefore subject constitutional requirements under analytical framework set forth Lugar Edmondson Oil Co., 457 922, 939-942, 102 2744, 2754-2756, 73 482. First, claimed deprivation results right or privilege having source authority, since would have been able engage discriminatory acts 28 U.S.C. § 1870, authorizes cases. Second, must all fairness be deemed government actor challenges. has made extensive procedures with overt, significant assistance government, see, Tulsa Professional Collection Services, Inc. Pope, 485 478, 486, 108 1340, 1345, 99 565, no utility outside jury trial system, created governed an elaborate statutory provisions administered solely officials, including judge, himself actor, exercises substantial control over dire effects final practical denial individual's opportunity serve petit discharging her. Moreover, question involves performance traditional governmental function, Terry Adams, 345 461, 809, 97 L.Ed. 1152, challenge selecting entity quintessential body attributes actor. Furthermore, injury allegedly aggravated unique way incidents see Shelley Kramer, 334 1, 68 836, 92 1161, courtroom real expression government's within confines compounds insult inherent judging citizen color his her skin. 618-628. (b) raise claim person whom opposing party service Just as criminal context, Powers, supra, third-party standing are satisfied context. there reason believe daunting barriers suit juror, id., at S.Ct., any less imposing simply because service. relation between venireperson challenging just close it See ----. Third, demonstrate he she suffered concrete, redressable race, discrimination selection casts doubt integrity judicial process places proceeding doubt. 628-631. (c) remanded determination whether established prima facie approach Batson, U.S., 96-97, 1722-23, such required offer explanations P. 631. 895 F.2d 218 (CA1990), reversed remanded. KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion WHITE, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, SOUTER, JJ., joined. O'CONNOR, filed dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA, opinion. James B. Doyle, Lake Charles, La., petitioner. John S. Baker, Jr., Baton Rouge, respondent. Justice KENNEDY Court. We decide before us their Recognizing impropriety bias courtroom, we hold race-based rights challenged jurors. This originated United States component Fifth Amendment's Due Process Clause. Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 74 693, 98 884 (1954). 2 * construction worker, injured job-site accident Fort Polk, Louisiana, federal enclave. Company Western claiming employee permitted one company's trucks roll backward pin against some equipment. invoked Seventh Amendment 3 our decision 69 (1986), striking denied request proceedings. As impaneled, included person. assessing total damages $90,000. It also attributed 80% fault Edmonson's contributory negligence, however, awarded sum $18,000. 4 appealed, divided panel Circuit reversed, applies attorney representing purpose excluding basis 860 1308 (1989). held become actors when they limit cases "would betray fundamental principle [that] state's use, toleration, approval based race clause." Id., 1314. consider Batson. 5 full then ordered rehearing en banc. banc affirmed judgment (CA5 1990). concluded peremptories litigants constitute and, result, implicate guarantees. dissent reiterated arguments vacated courts appeals issue. Dunham Frank's Nursery & Crafts, Inc., 919 1281 (CA7 1990) (private venirepersons race); Fludd Dykes, 863 822 (CA11 1989) (same). Cf. Dias Sky Chefs, 1370 (CA9 (corporation Batson-type objection trial); De Gross, 913 1417 (government case), reh'g ordered, 930 695 (1991); Reynolds Little Rock, 893 1004 (CA8 (when involved litigation, racially manner). granted certiorari, 498 41, 112 18 (1990), now reverse Appeals. II A. 6 In 411 (1991), defendant, regardless object prosecutor's Our conclusion rested two-part analysis. following opinions Carter Jury Commission Greene County, 396 320, 518, 24 549 (1970), clear those relied well-established rules defendant jurors' 7 upon century jurisprudence dedicated elimination prejudice process. See, 84, 1716; Swain Alabama, 380 202, 203-204, 85 824, 826-827, 13 759 (1965); Carter, 329-330, 523-524; Neal Delaware, 103 370, 386, 26 567 (1881); Strauder West Virginia, 100 303, 25 664 (1880). While these decisions were part directed prosecutor other officials context intimated permissible Thiel Southern Pacific 328 217, 220-221, 66 984, 985-986, 1181 (1946). Indeed, harms juror than trial. 220, 985-86. either case, sole denying honor participating system justice. 8 That act Constitution committed official, answer same offends guarantees if attorney. protections individual liberty general only government. National Collegiate Athletic Assn. Tarkanian, 488 179, 191, 109 454, 469 (1988). Racial discrimination, though invidious contexts, action. Moose Lodge 107 Irvis, 407 163, 172, 1965, 1971, 32 627 (1972). Thus, legality issue here turns extent restrictions. 9 structures Government, actions, regard certain liberties specified matters, actions States. With few exceptions, Thirteenth Amendment, do entities. 461; Flagg Bros, Brooks, 436 149, 156, 1729, 1733, 56 185 (1978). limitation "preserves area freedom limiting reach law" "avoids State, agencies responsibility cannot fairly blamed." 936-937, 2753, 482 (1982). One great permit citizens structure relations choose constraints decisional law. 10 To implement principles, time where sphere ends begins. authority dominate activity participants constraints. action, explores "essential dichotomy" public sphere, attendant obligations. Lodge, 1971. begin discussion analysis Lugar, 937, 2753-54. There considered due State's procedure allowing obtain prejudgment attachments. asked first resulted 939-941, 2754-2756; second, charged could described 941-942, 2755-2756. 12 inquiry here. By very nature, significance Their assist impartial trier fact. recognized value this regard, particularly 98-99, 1723-1724, obligation allow them. Ross Oklahoma, 487 81, 88, 2273, 2278, 101 80 (1988); Stilson States, 250 583, 586, 40 28, 29-30, 63 1154 (1919). Peremptory law, deems appropriate given number otherwise satisfy Legislative authorizations, well limitations, date far back founding Republic; common-law origins predate that. Holland Illinois, 493 474, 481, 110 803, 905 (1990); Swain, 212-217, 831-834. Today jurisdictions, statutes make limited available both us, exercised provides, inter alia: 14 "In cases, each shall entitled Several defendants several plaintiffs single purposes making challenges, additional them separately jointly." 1870. 15 Without authorization, Act Congress itself, acts. 16 Given authorization clear, remainder centers around second test, aspect often factbound inquiry, 939, 2754-55, disclose principles application. precedents establish that, determining particular character, relevant examine following: relies benefits, 565 Burton Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 715, 81 856, 45 (1961); performing 1152 (1953); Marsh 326 501, 276, 265 (1946); cf. San Francisco Arts Athletics, Olympic Committee, 483 522, 544-545, 2971, 2985-2986, 427 (1987); Kraemer, 1161 (1948). Based application circumstances here, 17 state-sanctioned remedies rise, level Professional, 485, 1344-45, found "the officials." 1345; (1982); Sniadach Family Finance Corp., 395 337, 89 1820, 23 349 (1969). disputed participation part, exist. discussed above, alone administers. qualifications service, 1865, outlined selected. end, district adopt plan locating summoning eligible 1863; Plan Louisiana (on file Administrative Office Courts). plan, procedures, policies random fair cross section community, 1861, non-exclusion color, religion, sex, national origin, economic status, 243; 1862. Statutes prescribe many details 1863, defining wheel, 1863(b)(4), voter lists, §§ 1863(b)(2), 1869(c), commissions, 1863(b)(1). establishment assignment grand juries, 1863(b)(8), lawful excuse 1863(b)(5), (6). At outset process, complete qualification forms prescribed Courts. 1864. Failure so result fines imprisonment, might willful misrepresentation material fact answering form. Ibid. typical counsel receive rely exercising G. Bermant, Selection Procedures Courts 7-8, (Federal Judicial Center 1982). Clerk summons employment pursuits. They travel courthouse, report lounges, assembly rooms, courtrooms direction officers. Whether selected panel, summoned per diem fixed 1871. 19 judge system. Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 47. determines range information discovered about affects cause judges even entire themselves, common practice instant tried. Rules Local Rule W.D.La. 13.02 (1990). oversees cause, remain involving multiple parties, decides how allocated among When lawyer challenge, advises excused. 20 absent court. jurors, constrains movement, subjects scrutiny examination. invokes formal court, discharge thus effecting "final denial" Virginia Rives, 313, 322, 667 direct indispensable purpose. enforcing "has itself [biased act], but elected place power, property prestige behind [alleged] discrimination." 725, 862. doing, "create[d] legal governing [challenged] conduct," Assn., 192, 462, discrimination. 21 state-actor next function evident body, power confers court's jurisdiction. noted performs critical functions guarding "insur[ing] continued acceptance laws people." 1369. commits facts Should invoke right, becomes principal factfinder, weighing evidence, credibility witnesses, reaching verdict. jury's factual determinations rule final. Basham Pennsylvania R. 372 699, 83 965, (1963). earlier Term, weigh gravity wrong determine degree interest punishing deterring misconduct. Mutual Life Ins. Haslip, 1032, (1991). preclusive issues later differ. Allen McCurry, 449 90, 411, 308 (1980). And jurisdictions true will incorporated enforceable These select, group Constitution. 22 If employees bound mandate race-neutrality. 192-193, 462-463; Rendell-Baker Kohn, 830, 2764, 418 least plurality (1953). scheme organization known Jaybird Democratic Association conducted whites-only elections select candidates run primary Ford Bend Texas. candidate win election. Clark's concurring drew Smith Allwright, 321 649, 664, 64 757, 765, 88 987 (1944), "any 'part machinery choosing officials' constraints." Terry, 819. concluded: "[W]hen electoral apparatus form devolves political uncontested choice whatever disguise, takes draw safeguards into play." 484, 821. through election qualified voters, greater force Though motive protect interest, objective proceedings representation body. Were constitutes delegates portion change character exercised. delegation occurred aid legislation occurs explicit authorization. find respondent's reliance Polk County Dodson, 454 312, 445, 70 509 (1981), unavailing. defender official duties. 325, 453-54; Branti Finkel, 445 507, 519, 1287, 1295, 574 recognizing adversarial nature. 323, n. 13, 452, 13. "[A] defense not, nature be, servant administrative superior. Held standards competence lawyer, . works canons professional independent behalf client." 321, 451. ordinary litigation party, exist litigant. jury-selection work end. using during selection. represents delegated attributable invoking 27 Atkins, 42, 2250, (1988), provides further illustration. physician contracted prison attend inmates' medical needs He regular payroll, "function[s] precise terms employment, [determined] State." 55-56, 2259. that: "Under care provided State. Doctor Atkins misused demonstrating deliberate indifference West's serious needs, resultant caused, sense state-action punish incarceration deny venue State needed care." 55, 29 contractual Here, initial sue all, counsel, ensuing tactical choices discovery requisite said however; participate important assistance. permitted, put risk open condition justice participation. 30 Finally, note more severe permits occur courthouse itself. Few law unfolds. Within stand it. view public, press witnesses give testimony, juries render verdicts, utmost ensure done. 31 Race raises questions there. mars prevents idea democratic becoming reality. Rose Mitchell, 443 545, 556, 2993, 3000, 61 739 (1979); Texas, 311 128, 130, 164, 165, 84 (1940). times addressed problem justice, "questioned premise dignity courts." 1366. forum B Having juror's rights, person's behalf. Powers: "[I]n course, assert own interests, rest relief interests third parties." 1370. noted, restriction admits "certain, exceptions," ibid., injury, exists hindrance party's ability interests. All well. 33 unable subjected bring behalf, "[t]he daunting." 1373. proceeding. Likewise, proceeding, "[v]oir relation, bond trust, jurors," "continues throughout trial." 1372. Exclusion severs way. 34 warrants consideration sufficient held: 35 "The prosecution causes cognizable concrete practice. Hardy, 478 [255], 259 [106 2878, 2880, 199 (1986) ] (recognizing defendant's 'neutral procedures'). dismissed predisposed favor defendant; true, excused cause. Rather, 'casts process,' [supra, 3000], doubt." ---- - 1371. 36 sphere. implicates Civil counterparts, follow factfinders. And, observed, binding judgments criminal. mandated prohibiting various trials. demands nothing less. conclude entertain litigant's 37 role composition wide verdicts. But stereotypes price fair, too high meet standard Other means themselves impartiality skin test. society continue progress multiracial democracy, recognize automatic invocation retards hurt dispassionate special distinction, dispels fears preconceptions respecting attitudes. quiet rationality makes confront hostility offensive stereotypes. generality employed derives hidden unarticulated fear, neither entitles juror. believes harbors biases instincts, explored rational consists respect persons, classifications ancestry color. III 38 remains requiring requires circumstances, pattern strikes members 1722-23. leave instance develop evidentiary implementing decision. 39 consistent ordered. 41 THE CHIEF JUSTICE SCALIA join, dissenting. 42 concludes compose violation. little Not everything happens trial, design largely stage act; resolve disputes peaceful manner. erects platform; thereby responsible much like eliminate completely specter sweep broadly. Because I strike fundamentally matter dissent. 43 order violation, Unfortunately, deciding model consistency. Perhaps closely tied "framework peculiar present." 726, 862, (1961). Whatever reason, despite confusion, coherent emerged. stated ways, base, "constitutional [government] specific plaintiff complains." Blum Yaretsky, 991, 1004, 2777, 2785-86, 534 Constitutional "liability attaches wrongdoers 'who carry badge [the government] represent capacity.' " quoting Monroe Pape, 167, 473, 476, 492 44 met present case. rests primarily empirical assertions. "overt, government." Ante, 622. "involves 624. Neither assertions correct. begins perfectly accurate definition challenge. "allow jury." 620. description worth careful analysis, belies Court's conclusions peremptory. 46 "allow[s] parties," left wholly discretion longstanding 'arbitrary capricious species challenge' whereby 'sudden impressions unaccountable prejudices apt conceive bare looks gestures another' acted upon. Lewis 146 376, 136, 138, 1011 (1892), W. Blackstone, Commentaries *353. subtle discerned biases, fosters perception reality Ibid.; Hayes Missouri, 120 68, 70, 350, 351, 578 (1887); 219, 835, 481-482, trials, mechanism pursuit fairness. is, design, enclave government-managed 47 amasses ostensible evidence Federal Government's participation" ante, Most irrelevant hand. bulk practices describes—the location perspective forms, service—are entitlement strikes, use. furtherance distinct provide jury; Government things activity, judge's 623-624, merely prerequisites challenge; necessary challenge—in venire select—no building roads provision transportation riding bus. 48 entirety actual boils down fact: "When excused." 623-624. "advising" sure. de minimis, what "responsible" "represent" Blum, 2785-86; 461. "normally coercive encouragement, overt covert, 2786. 49 matter, "encourage" all. entirely up litigant, reasons doing consequence judge. acquiesce excusing point fact, virtually which, consent take absence personnel. Haith 231 F.Supp. 495 (ED Pa.1964), aff'd, 342 158 (CA3 1965) (per curiam ); Eberhardt, Ohio Misc. 39, 282 N.E.2d 62 50 cry found, example, called enforce restrictive covenants sellers did wish discriminate. covenants: "[B]ut active intervention courts, supported panoply petitioners free occupy properties restraint." 19, 845. facially contract. contrast, "exercised [and] inquiry." 835-36. "significantly encourage" mere response unexplained request. 51 another distinction impose conformance "Enforcement" hand, compel anyone discriminate; choice. Goldwasser, Limiting Criminal Defendant's Use Challenges: On Symmetry Trial, Harv.L.Rev. 808, 819 acquiescence convert state. 1004-1005, 2785-2786. 52 Nor kind involvement There, executrix estate providing notice creditors claims said, "pervasive substantial." 487, 1345-46. particular, publish notice. addition, "reinforced command expressly executrix] 'immediately creditors.' Notice encouraged positively required. comparable No compelled let 53 621, depended perceived symbiotic relationship restaurant parking leased space building. "so insinuated position interdependence with" "recognized joint participant activity." Burton, 861-62. Among "peculiar circumstances" leading stood profit restaurant's 724, 861. shown, falls short "interdependence" "joint participation." continuing vitality facts, Jackson Metropolitan Edison 419 345, 358, 95 449, 457, 477 (1974), support 54 analogy terminated Jackson's electrical approved commission. Nonetheless, termination grounds. done encourage practice: 55 "Approval commission regulated utility, weight side proposed ordering it, transmute initiated "state action." Respondent's allowed initiative comes action" Fourteenth Amendment." 357, 456-57 (emphasis added; footnote omitted). similarity obvious. significant" amounts allows approves turn 57 effect Bros., warehouseman's sale goods entrusted storage New York Uniform Commercial Code Brothers' decision, 7-210 compel, threaten sell respondents' belongings." 1738. Similarly, compulsion, responsible. 58 essential stated, being control." 836. encourages nor Accordingly, 59 errs function. asserts, correctly, struck via "otherwise reason. establishes leaving unfettered establishing "Peremptory rejection. aimed disqualification, challenger." C. Lincoln, Abbott's Trials (3d ed. 1912), O'Neil Superior Iron 67 Mich. 560, N.W. 162 (1887). For incorrect, inconsistent says "[i]n [in trial], end." 627. incorrect "a 60 ancient heritage 212-218, 831-835 (tracing history); Holland, imported tradition trials 1872. ch. 333, Stat. 282; 215, 14, 833, 14. unrestrained older however. alternately, explanation, 217-218, 21, 834-835, citing J. Proffatt, Trial 72 (1877), F. Busch, Law Tactics (1949). function; "tradition" unguided correct "[w]ere [would] constitut[e] 626. always been. standard; Beyond this, misstated cites (1953), (1946), proposition imputed carries out "traditional function." 621. core activities effectively determined outcome county elections. Marsh, company owned town attempted prohibit sidewalks protected speech. reviewed parties. 157-160, 1733-35, reviewing Nixon Condon, 286 73, 76 984 (1932). explained thing common: exclusivity. public-function doctrine 'traditionally exclusively reserved State.' 157, 1734, Jackson, 352, 454. doctrine, comprise something traditionally does, does. Even characterize selection, never juries; Republic. contrary. seeks derive "serve[s] government," employee, 628. help position. event, broad proposition. doctor contract services More important, hired fulfill inmates. 53, 10, 57, 2257, 2260. doctor's responsibility, went job. closer RendellBaker (1982), West. former state-regulated functions. (electrical utility); (school). funded, unless prerogative encouragement 352-353, 454-455, 456-57; Rendell-Baker, 842, 840, 2771-72, 2770-71. meets criterion. C 65 None should news, controlled (1981). defender, trial.* circumstance, create purposes, lawyer's duties courtroom. client, country Attorneys whole; attorneys clients. An attorney's job "advanc[e] 'undivided client.' essentially office needed." 318-319, 449-450 (footnotes independently government: "[I]t enter 'not guilty' pleas, move suppress cross-examine closing defendants. peculiarly difficult detect activities." Dodson proceeding." 453. gainsaid yet actors. Where distinction? wishes defenders 626-627. minimum then, concede stands Both propositions head. actors, mean plainly asserts "an relation," ibid.; opposition another, precisely contrary ends. "work end" neutral litigants' That's point. approve way, litigants. 71 uses client definition, antithetical say acting purposes. "significant function," argument with; involve ultimate claim. anything, virtue location. Racism terrible thing. irrational, destructive, mean. Arbitrary abhorrent manifest resolution "quiet rationality." every opprobrious inequitable Clause prohibits respectfully 75 join O'CONNOR's dissent, demonstrates today's principle. write observe unfortunate consequences. benefits newly problematic. necessarily net rather minority obtaining diverse juries. already (which logically prosecutions) prevent so—so longer seek all-white seat possible. sure, ordinarily prove generally requires. So loss probably true—but unqualified gain either. sides sometimes assure 77 costs doubtful; enormous. added already-submerged factors (sex, age, views, status) burden enough discharged adversary process; is. combined Term objecting need sides, (and indeed, artificial entities corporations), lodge racial-challenge objections after denied, appeal denials—with consequence, successful, overturned. complexity increasingly Byzantine devotes energy sideshows merits Judging pre-Powers regime, certainty amount judges' lawyers' devoted Land diverted overall certainly suffer. Alternatively, abolish suffer different fashion. 78 follows produces desirable results, symbolic value. overhaul fashion—what magnificent demonstration institution's uncompromising judgments, actors! alas, high, paid courts. brought 1983, claims. therefore, "under law." 314, 447-48. 929, 2749-50, requirement identical

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