Document: 508 U.S. 520 113 S.Ct. 2217 124 L.Ed.2d 472 CHURCH OF the LUKUMI BABALU AYE, INC. and Ernesto Pichardo, Petitioners,v.CITY HIALEAH. No. 91-948. Argued Nov. 4, 1992. Decided June 11, 1993. Syllabus * Petitioner church its congregants practice Santeria religion, which employs animal sacrifice as one of principal forms devotion. The animals are killed by cutting their carotid arteries cooked eaten following all rituals except healing death rites. After leased land in respondent city announced plans to establish a house worship other facilities there, council held an emergency public session passed, among enactments, Resolution 87-66, noted residents' "concern" over religious practices inconsistent with morals, peace, or safety, declared city's "commitment" prohibiting such practices; Ordinance 87-40, incorporates Florida cruelty laws broadly punishes "[w]hoever . unnecessarily cruelly kills any animal," has been interpreted reach killings for reasons; 87-52, defines "sacrifice" "to kill ritual not primary purpose food consumption," prohibits "possess[ion], sacrifice, slaughter" if it is "any type ritual" there intent use food, but exempts licensed [food] establishment" killing otherwise permitted law; 87-71, animals, same manner 87-52; 87-72, "slaughter" "the food" slaughter outside areas zoned slaughterhouses, includes exemption "small numbers hogs and/or cattle" when exempted state law. Petitioners filed this suit under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, alleging violations rights under, inter alia, Free Exercise Clause First Amendment. Although acknowledging that foregoing ordinances religiously neutral, District Court ruled city, concluding, things, compelling governmental interests preventing health risks fully justified absolute prohibition on accomplished ordinances, exception conduct would unduly interfere fulfillment interest because more narrow restrictions be unenforceable result religion's secret nature. Appeals affirmed. Held: judgment reversed. 936 F.2d 586, (CA 11 1991) Justice KENNEDY delivered opinion respect Parts I, II-A-1, II-A-3, II-B, III, IV, concluding question were enacted contrary free exercise principles, they void. Pp. ____. (a) Under Clause, law burdens need neutral general applicability. Employment Div., Dept. Human Resources Oregon v. Smith, 494 872, 110 1595, 108 876. However, where application, must undergo most rigorous scrutiny: It narrowly tailored advance interest. Neutrality applicability interrelated, failure satisfy requirement likely indication satisfied. (b) ordinances' texts operation demonstrate have object suppression Santeria's central element, sacrifice. That targeted evidenced 87-66's statements "commitment," words "ritual" Ordinances 87-71. Moreover, latter various prohibitions, definitions, exemptions "gerrymandered" care proscribe members exclude almost killings. They also suppress much than necessary achieve stated ends. legitimate protecting could addressed stopping far short flat sacrificial practice, regulations disposal organic garbage, regardless why kept, methods slaughter. 87-72 appears apply substantial nonreligious overbroad, invalidated functions tandem worship. (c) Each pursues only against motivated belief thereby violates burdening 87-71 substantially underinclusive regard since drafted forbid few those occasioned while many types deaths reasons either prohibited approved express provision. assertions "self-evident" "important," eradication insects pests "obviously justified," euthanasia excess "makes sense" do explain religion alone bear burden ordinances. These carcasses open places consumption uninspected meat, neither pursued conviction. face, does regulate like manner, explained commercial numbers" cattle implicate professed desire prevent preserve health. (d) cannot withstand strict scrutiny required upon meet Smith standard. accomplish asserted interests. All four overbroad respects proffered objectives analogous achieved narrower burdened lesser degree. where, here, government restricts protected Amendment fails enact feasible measures restrict producing harm alleged sort, given justification restriction regarded compelling. KENNEDY, J., REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, STEVENS, SCALIA, SOUTER, THOMAS, JJ., joined, Part II-A-1 II-A-2, joined. concurring part judgment, judgment. BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, Douglas Laycock, Austin, TX, petitioners. Richard G. Garrett, Miami, FL, respondent. Court, II-A-2.* 1 principle may so well understood recorded our opinions. Cf. McDaniel Paty, 435 618, 98 1322, 55 593 (1978); Fowler Rhode Island, 345 67, 73 526, 97 L.Ed. 828 (1953). Concerned fundamental nonpersecution was implicated however, we granted certiorari. 503 ----, 112 1472, 117 616 (1992). 2 Our review confirms officials who did understand, failed perceive, chose ignore fact official actions violated Nation's essential commitment freedom. challenged had impermissible object; events secular ends defense beliefs. We invalidate enactments reverse Appeals. 3 A. 4 This case involves originated nineteenth century. When hundreds thousands Yoruba people brought slaves from eastern Africa Cuba, traditional African absorbed significant elements Roman Catholicism. resulting syncretion, fusion, Santeria, way saints." Cuban devotion spirits, called orishas, through iconography Catholic saints, symbols often present at rites, devotees attend sacraments. 723 F.Supp. 1467, 1469-1470 (SD Fla.1989); 13 Encyclopedia Religion 66 (M. Eliade ed. 1987); American Religious Experience 183 (C. Lippy & P. Williams eds. 1988). 5 faith teaches every individual destiny God, fulfilled aid energy orishas. basis nurture personal relation Religion, supra, 66. ancient roots. See generally 12 id., 554-556. Animal mentioned throughout Old Testament, see 14 Encyclopaedia Judaica 600, 600-605 (1971), played important role Judaism before destruction second Temple Jerusalem, 605-612. In modern Islam, annual commemorating Abraham's ram stead his son. C. Glasse, Concise Islam 178 (1989); 7 456. 6 According teaching, orishas powerful immortal. depend survival Sacrifices performed birth, marriage, cure sick, initiation new priests, during celebration. Animals sacrificed include chickens, pigeons, doves, ducks, guinea pigs, goats, sheep, turtles. neck. eaten, after rituals. F.Supp., 1471-1472; 66; M. Gonzalex-Wippler, 105 (1982). adherents faced widespread persecution practiced secret. rites remains infrequent. 1470; 67; Gonzalez-Wippler, Santeria: 3-4 (1989). Nation exiles revolution. estimated least 50,000 practitioners South today. 1470. B 8 Church Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. (Church), not-for-profit corporation organized 1973. religion. president petitioner Church's priest holds title Italero, highest faith. April 1987, Hialeah, Florida, school, cultural center, museum. Pichardo indicated goal bring faith, including into open. began process obtaining utility service receiving licensing, inspection, zoning approvals. efforts licenses permits smooth, 1477-1478, received needed approvals early August 1987. 9 prospect midst distressing Hialeah community, announcement prompted hold 9, resolutions passed later meetings set forth appendix opinion. 10 A summary suffices beginning meeting. First, adopted expressed residents "that certain religions propose engage peace safety," "[t]he City reiterates acts groups safety." Next, ordinance, incorporated full, penalty, Florida's laws. Fla.Stat. ch. (1987). Among subjected criminal punishment animal." 828.12. desired undertake further legislative action, municipality enacting legislation relating conflicted 828.27(4). To obtain clarification, Hialeah's attorney requested whether 828.12 "a group sacrificing practice" "making unlawful." responded mid-July. He concluded "ritual purposes consumption" "necessary" Fla.Op.Atty.Gen. 87-56, Annual Report Atty.Gen. 146, 147, 149 (1988). appeared define "unnecessary" "done without useful motive, spirit wanton mere pleasure being sense beneficial person Id., 149, n. 11. advised law, ordinance conflict. 151. first hortatory enactment, 87-90, "great concern regarding possibility ritualistic sacrifices" prohibition. resolution policy oppose sacrifices animals" within organization practicing "will prosecuted." September three substantive addressing issue 87-52 defined kill, torment, torture, mutilate private ceremony owning possessing "intending purposes." restricted application prohibition, "kills, slaughters ritual, flesh blood consumed." contained slaughtering "licensed establishment[s]" "specifically raised Declaring, moreover, "has determined limits health, welfare morals community," then provided "[i]t shall unlawful person, persons, corporations associations corporate Florida." final Ordinance, slaughterhouse use. exemption, processing sale per week accordance law." unanimous vote. Violations each punishable fines exceeding $500 imprisonment 60 days, both. Following enactment these action pursuant 1983 United States Southern Florida. Named defendants mayor capacities. Alleging petitioners' complaint sought declaratory injunctive monetary relief. defendants, finding immunity constitute harassment, 688 1522 Fla.1988). 15 9-day bench trial remaining claims, no violation Clause. 1467 Fla.1989). (The court rejected here.) neutral," 1476, about "prompted" establishment 1479, end whatever reason practiced, 1483. found target "on face," though event regulating [religious] conduct" violate "when [the conduct] deemed welfare." 1483-1484. Thus, that, most, effect "incidental [their] effect." 1484. 16 proceeded determine underlying and, so, balance "governmental interests." "[t]his 'balance depends cost altering activity allow continue unimpeded versus imposed activity.' " Ibid., quoting Grosz Miami Beach, 721 729, 734 1983), cert. denied, 469 827, 108, 83 52 (1984). risk, both participants public. court, kept unsanitary conditions uninspected, places. 1474-1475, 1485. Second, emotional injury children witness animals. 1475-1476, 1485-1486. Third, cruel unnecessary killing. method used "unreliable humane, sacrificed, produce great deal fear stress 1472-1473, 1486. Fourth, restricting legal determination accompanied factual findings. 17 Balancing competing interests, "fully justify sacrifice" 1487. 'unduly interest' e.g., regulation carcasses—would nature 1486-1487, nn. 57-59. defeat enforcing 18 Eleventh Circuit affirmed one-paragraph curiam Judgt. order reported 586 (1991). Choosing rely Court's recitation promoting children, simply consistent Constitution. App. Pet. Cert. A2. declined address 876 (1990), decided opinion, "employed arguably stricter standard" applied Smith. A2, 1. II 19 Amendment, Fourteenth Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303, 900, 903, 84 1213 (1940), provides "Congress make respecting thereof. ." Const., Amdt. (emphasis added). argue "religion" meaning Nor it. seem abhorrent some, "religious beliefs acceptable, logical, consistent, comprehensible others merit protection." Thomas Review Bd. Indiana Security 450 707, 714, 101 1425, 1430, 67 624 (1981). Given historical association between worship, 2, assertion integral "cannot bizarre incredible." Frazee Illinois Security, 489 829, 834, 109 1514, 1518, 103 914 Neither nor courts below, questioned sincerity reasons. consider claim. 20 constitutional protection cases proposition even incidental particular practice. supra. becomes apparent case, failing requirements fail requirements. begin discussing neutrality. 21 Establishment forbids disapprove general. See, Board Ed. Westside Community Schools (Dist. 66) Mergens, 496 226, 248, 2356, 2370-71, 191 (1990) (plurality opinion); Grand Rapids School Dist. Ball, 473 373, 389, 3216, 3225-26, 87 267 (1985); Wallace Jaffree, 38, 56, 2479, 2489-90, 86 29 Epperson Arkansas, 393 97, 106-107, 89 266, 271-72, 228 (1968); Abington Schempp, 374 203, 225, 1560, 1573, 844 (1963); Everson Ewing, 330 1, 15-16, 504, 511-12, 91 711 (1947). cases, benefit religions, dealt different, formulation emphasis, here. allege attempt disfavor ceremonies commands, dispositive analysis. 22 At minimum, protections pertain discriminates some regulates undertaken Braunfeld Brown, 366 599, 607, 81 1144, 1148, 563 (1961) 69-70, 527, Indeed, "historical instances intolerance gave Clause." Bowen Roy, 476 693, 703, 106 2147, 2154, 90 735 (1986) (opinion Burger, C.J.). J. Story, Commentaries Constitution §§ 991-992 (abridged 1833) (reprint T. Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 467 (1868) 1972); McGowan Maryland, 420, 464, 1153, 1156, Frankfurter, J.); Jeannette, 319 157, 179, 63 882, 888, 1324 (1943) (Jackson, result); Davis Beason, 133 333, 342, 299, 300, 33 637 (1890). some. (1978), example, State disqualified clergy holding offices, "impose[d] special disabilities status," U.S., 877, S.Ct., 1599. On principle, municipal unconstitutional prohibit preaching park Jehovah's Witness permit course mass Protestant service. Niemotko 340 268, 272-273, 71 325, 327-28, 95 (1951). Larson Valente, 456 228, 102 1673, 72 (1982) (state statute treated denominations favorably Clause). 23 targeting never permissible, 626, 1327-28 303-304, 903 infringe motivation, 878-879, 1599-1600; invalid unless There are, course, ways demonstrating conduct. text, minimum neutrality discriminate face. lacks facial refers discernable language context. contend test "ritual," strong connotations. Brief 16-17. agree claim discrimination, argument conclusive. origin, current admits meanings. Webster's Third New International Dictionary 1961, 1996 (1971). 556 ("[T]he word ultimately became very term common usage"). furthermore, terms, referring practices. 24 reject contention advanced Respondent 15, inquiry text issue. Facial determinative. extends beyond discrimination. "forbids subtle departures neutrality," Gillette States, 401 437, 452, 828, 837, 28 168 "covert beliefs," 2154 Official targets distinctive treatment shielded compliance protects hostility masked, overt. "The survey meticulously circumstances categories eliminate, were, gerrymanders." Walz Tax Comm'n York City, 397 664, 696, 1409, 25 697 (1970) (Harlan, concurring). record compels conclusion element compel improper choice support conclusion. council's discloses Santeria. recited "residents citizens "reiterate[d]" [such] groups." No suggests, maintained, mind 26 evident considered. Apart real evidence object. sure, adverse impact will always lead targeting. For social quite apart 442, 1113-14. Reynolds 145, 244 (1879); Ely, Legislative Administrative Motivation Law, 79 Yale L.J. 1205, 1319 (1970). subject hand implicate, multiple concerns unrelated animosity, suffering mistreatment visited hazards disposal. But considered together disclose remote concerns. design accomplishes instead gerrymander," 1425 concurring), petitioners 27 members. show result. consumption." definition excludes narrows proscribed category further, exempting Kosher slaughter, 1480. discuss differential two itself independent violation. 244-246, 1683-84. recite feature exclusive concern. net gerrymander occurs offering consumption. careful drafting ensured although prohibited, humane unpunished. Operating similar fashion "inten[t] extending keeping itself, applies consumed food. exempts, specifically purposes," exception, too, seems intended cover Again, practical falls others: If is—unlike sacrifices—unaccompanied occur ritual," again prohibition; still properly pattern parallels prohibitions. contributes gerrymander. 87-40 statute, Its broad punishing claims epitome 13-14. problem, interpretation Killings unnecessary, whereas fall what se basis, deems hunting, pests, necessary. 22. hunting fishing sport unnecessary. concludes live rabbits train greyhounds Kiper State, So.2d (Fla.App.), 328 845 (Fla.1975). Further, requires evaluation killing, represents system "individualized assessment relevant conduct," 884, 1603. As individualized available, "may refuse extend 'religious hardship' reason." 1603 708, 2156 Respondent's ordinance's necessity devalues judging them import singled out discriminatory treatment. 722, 17, 2164, (STEVENS, Lee, 455 252, 264, 3, 1051, 1059, 127 judgment); 30 find unreasonable infer, persuasive indications contrary, visits "gratuitous restrictions" conduct, 520, 1186 J.), seeks effectuate motivation. 31 disposal, prevented, garbage. so. counsel conceded oral illegal occurred licensed, inspected, slaughterhouses. Tr. Oral Arg. 45. 42, 48. threaten accepted secrecy lack authority require regulations. 58-59. difficult how themselves, private, enforceable ban public, not. suspect freedoms curtailed isolated collateral harms themselves direct regulation. Schneider 308 162, 151-52, 155 (1939). 32 analysis, With ensuring adequate treatment, logical response concern, possession true federal regard, "simultaneous instantaneous severance sharp instrument"—the slaughter—is humane. 1902(b); 828.23(7)(b) (1991); results arteries, less reliable therefore 1472-1473. should classification said 87-72—unlike —does appear overbroad. purposes. day enacted, others, opening Church. implausible suggest decide survive existed separately; functions, rest question, 34 determining can guidance equal cases. Harlan related context "[n]eutrality mode analysis." (concurring opinion). Here, circumstantial evidence. Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 429 555, 563-64, 50 (1977). Relevant includes, background decision challenge, specific series leading administrative history, contemporaneous made decisionmaking body. 267-268, 564-65. objective factors Personnel Adm'r Mass. Feeney, 442 256, 279, 24, 99 2282, 2296, 870 (1979). 35 'because of,' merely 'in spite 2296 revealed preceding claimed experienced problems Church, 27, 46, supposed problem meeting just weeks minutes taped excerpts session, record, exhibited residents, council, toward crowd attended interrupted critical cheers brief comments taunts. Councilman Martinez, supporter prerevolution Cuba "people put jail religion," audience applauded. 36 Other vein. noting outlawed questioned, "if [religion] homeland [Cuba], country?" Cardoso "are everything country stands for." Mejides he "totally distinguished "real purpose." "Bible says allowed continued, "but purposes, I don't believe Bible allows that." Echevarria, asked, "What opening?" 37 Various comparable comments. chaplain Police Department told sin, "foolishness," "an abomination Lord," "demons." "We helping sharing truth Jesus Christ." concluded: "I exhort you exist." commented 87-66 "This community tolerate citizens. Similar deputy attorney. history worshippers 38 sum, leads conclusion: animosity own terms exercise; gerrymandered killings; defense. below committed clear error 39 turn next rule 879-881, 1600-01. selective extent, selection paramount "protect[s] observers unequal treatment," Hobbie Unemployment 480 136, 148, 107 1046, 1053, 94 190 (1987) judgment), inequality legislature decides worthy 40 government, pursuit impose guaranteed jurisprudence. Cohen Cowles Media Co., 501 ---- - 111 2513, 115 University Pennsylvania EEOC, 493 182, 201, 577, 588-89, 571 (1990); Minneapolis Star Tribune Co. Minnesota Comm'r Revenue, 460 575, 585, 1365, 1371-72, 75 295 (1983); 245-246, 1683-84; Presbyterian Mary Elizabeth Blue Hull Memorial 440, 449, 601, 606, 658 (1969). precision standard evaluate protect rights. 41 interests: non-religious endangers greater degree does. underinclusion substantial, inconsequential. Despite Many fishing—which Khedouri F. Khedouri, Inside Out 57 (1991)—is legal. Extermination mice rats home permitted. sanctions "stray, neglected, abandoned, unwanted animals," 828.058 (1987); judicially removed owners "for humanitarian reasons" "is value," 828.073(4)(c)(2); infliction pain "in medical science," 828.02; placing poison one's yard enclosure, 828.08; pursue take wildlife participate hunting," 828.122(6)(b), hunt wild hogs," 828.122(6)(e). concedes "neither applicable animals." 21. asserts, "different" Ibid. "important"; justified"; sense." ipse dixits 43 threatened 32, citing posed preceded not, hunters bringing houses, activity. testimony garbage restaurants, Record 566, 590-591, restaurants scope Improper causes risks, 1485, addresses exercise. 44 risk meat. eat fisherman catch undergoing inspection. Likewise, inspection meat sold owner "members household nonpaying guests employees." 585.88(1)(a) inspected contexts 45 group, organization" "slaughters processes sale, small 828.24(3) operations classified subjecting manner. 46 conclude, belief. "ha[ve] appearance society prepared [Santeria worshippers] itself." B.J.F., 491 524, 542, 2603, 2614, 443 (1989) (SCALIA, judgment). precise evil designed prevent. III 47 scrutiny. commands restrictive 'interests order' 628, 1328, Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 215, 92 1526, 1533, (1972). once "water[ed] down" "really means says." 1605. advances motivation rare follows already 48 compelling, drawn discussed, 16-18, 21-24, respects. absence tailoring invalidity Arkansas Writers' Project, Ragland, 481 221, 232, 1722, 1729, 209 49 demonstrated, Where established jurisprudence 'of leaves appreciable damage supposedly vital unprohibited." 541-542, 2613-14 judgment) (citation omitted). Simon Schuster, Members Crime Victims Bd., 502 501, 510-11, 116 540-541, 2612-13; Daily Mail Publishing 104-105, 2667, 2671-72, 61 399 (1979); 110, 2674-75 (REHNQUIST, above, extent asserted, conviction bears weight restrictions. serious IV commits tolerance, slight suspicion proposals intervention stem distrust practices, pause remember high duty secures. Those office resolute resisting importunate demands ensure sole imposing secular. Legislators devise mechanisms, overt disguised, persecute oppress here 51 Reversed. APPENDIX TO OPINION THE COURT provides: 53 "WHEREAS, 54 Constitution, Article Declaration Rights, Section Freedom, states freedom safety. "NOW, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED BY MAYOR AND CITY COUNCIL HIALEAH, FLORIDA, that: 56 "1. 58 potential conducted Hialeah; 59 828.27, Statutes, 'nothing section county control identical provisions Chapter penalty.' ORDAINED "Section Mayor Council hereby adopt Statute, 'Cruelty Animals' (copy attached hereto hereof), entirety (relating animals), penalty. 62 2. Repeal Conflict. "All parts conflict herewith repealed 64 3. Penalties. 65 "Any firm convicted violating punished fine, $500.00, sentence, sixty (60) both, discretion Court. 4. Inclusion Code. included Code addition amendment thereto, sections re-numbered conform uniform numbering 68 5. Severability 69 "If phrase, clause, paragraph judge decree competent jurisdiction, unconstitutionality phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs ordinance. 70 6. Effective Date. become effective signed Hialeah." Florida; 74 Attorney General [sic] Statute Cruelty Animals; 76 mirroring 77 78 FLorida [sic]. Any local 8, 80 consumption, 82 (Ordinance 87-40), now wishes 85 amended adding thereto (2) Sections 6-8 'Definitions' 6-9 'Prohibition Against Possession Of Slaughter Or Sacrifice', read follows: 6-8. Definitions Animal—any living dumb creature. 88 "2. Sacrifice—to "3. Slaughter—the 6-9. Prohibition Sacrifice. own, keep possess, goat, pig, cow young species, poultry, rabbit, dog, cat, animal, intending kills, consumed. Nothing rules promulgated Agriculture. 93 96 100 judgement 22, community; 104 desires qualified societies authorized investigate prosecute violation(s) herein forth, registration agents societies. mean: prevention seeking register investigating assisting prosecution authorization registered Office approval hearing (i.e., criteria) resolution, thereafter, empowered assist prosection Ordinance. hereinabove, appoint act hereunder. 7. 114 8. 9. 118 119 10. 120 121 122 premises house, safety 123 125 126 sanitation codes prescribed house. 128 129 slaughters, 130 131 132 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 djQ whom CHIEF joins, 141 analyzes "neutrality" "general applicability" separate (Parts II-A respectively), allocates invalidating sections. distinction draw line somewhat different Court's. think necessary, frankly acknowledge "interrelated," ante, ____, overlap. 142 earlier describe characteristics cause nonetheless "law exercise" my view, defect primarily (e.g., excluding sect benefits, cf. (1978)), 703-704, 2153-54, C.J.); which, design, construction, enforcement certainly (in described) "nonneutral"; nonneutral sense) thought Because me matter consequence rubric ("neutrality," II-A, applicability," II-B) factor join II-A. 143 departs opinion's focus subjective lawmakers, i.e., actually elsewhere, virtually impossible singular "motive" collective body, see, Edwards Aguillard, 482 578, 636-639, 2573, 2605-07, 510 dissenting), long tradition refraining inquiries, Fletcher Peck, Cranch 87, 130-131, 162 (1810) (Marshall, O'Brien, 391 367, 383-384, 1682-83, 672 (1968). 144 Perhaps motive undertaken. Lovett, 1073, 1252 (1946). analysis (or Fourteenth, First). 639, 2607 dissenting). refer legislators laws, effects enacted: [of religion]. us business motives authors. Had resolutely ineptly "prohibi[t] Nor, consists entirely pure-hearted, enacts singles burdens. councilman ardent (as might case), invalid. 145 146 turns disagreement, bars aimed suppressing animal-sacrifice concur reservation. 147 hand, last free-exercise "neutral, applicable" run afoul effect. today dicta, despite agreement II, dicta appear, doubts merits adherence. write separately germane view presenting issue, re-examine declared. 148 offended. 878-880, 1599-1600. call distinguish noncontroversial before, offended applicable. applicability, turning relationship help get order, significance statement adoption particular, conception contains "requirement 220, 1535-36, (1972), hardly novel proposition; shorthand describe, part, commands. Jimmy Swaggart Ministries Equalization California, 378, 384, 688, 796 Indiana, 717, 1431, (1981); 1535; Committee Public Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 792-793, 2955, 2975, 948 (1973); 222, 1571, 627-629, 1328-1329, (1978) opinion) (invalidating non-neutral using term). anything unusual notion until today, exactly stating invalidation. (1953); 1372, 1683-1684, (1982).1 150 While is, self-explanatory, self-revealing. Lee Weisman, 505 2649, 2676, (1992) (SOUTER, concurring) (considering neutrality). face forbidding something requiring forbids. McConnell Posner, An Economic Approach Issues U.Chi.L.Rev. ("a economic if, normal intentions, arbitrarily imposes costs activities"). all, alcohol, affect wine differently nonbelievers, disproportionately of, say, Catholicism Judaism. Without sacramental wine, neutrality.2 151 necessarily follow observation, Prohibition; embraces point unremarkable enough formal neutrality, bar demanding object, accommodate differences formally Formal, Substantive, Disaggregated Toward DePaul L.Rev. 993 (1990). secures deliberate exhaust Clause's command; rather, safeguards right interference, substantive, formal, neutrality.3 152 Though modifier, plainly assumes sort. Distinguishing whose "object" effect," placed former reaches Clause; latter, application. 878, Justices rule, contrast, embracing termed "neutral said, "nonetheless offend Clause's] religion." 896, 1609 joined Brennan, Marshall, JJ.) (internal quotation marks citations saw flowing contrast "requir[es] interest." 894, 1608 supplied). 153 stands, then, along sufficient constitutionality definition, repeated constitutionality. "this [that is] here," adverts "fail requirements," applying tread troublesome ground. 154 considering, rightly observes "[a]t reasons," correctly finds standards. nondiscriminatory intimations dicta. "need rights," prohibitions "there thus power control, 1535, again, suggestions score 156 readily susceptible "fundamental principle," representative case. While, observes, example exercise, ibid., typical involving announced, decidedly untypical left prior standing, tension addressed, legitimately reexamining 157 developing standards enforceability mandates concepts indicating, hard foreclosing constitutionality: 158 "In variety '[a] may, religion.' Thomas, 717 [101 1431] (quoting 220 [92 1535] ). 159 "[T]o grounded police deny applicability." 160 Not decision, indeed, uniform" benefits reasonableness standard, "[s]uch precedent." 141, 1049, Rather, "[o]ur '[t]he asks observation justifies burden.' Ministries, 384-385, 692-693 Hernandez Commissioner, 490 680, 699, 2136, 2149, 766 (1989)). 161 Thus caused single exercise: 'only served overbalance 1328 1533). Compare McDaniel, 628-629, 1328-1329 (applying conduct) 215-229, 1533-1540 law). heightened 2149; 835, Comm'n, 1049; Bob Jones 461 574, 604, 2017, 2035, 257-258, 1055, (1982); 718, 1432; Sherbert Verner, 398, 403, 1790, 1793, 965 304-307, 903-904, (1940). mandated 881-885, 1601-1603, am persuaded. according "hybrid[s]" conjunction protections, speech press, parents education children." 881, 1601, 1602. doubt [were] stake." 1536. Cantwell, 303-307, 903-905.4 And draws strikes untenable. hybrid another implicated, probably vast swallow situation exemplified associational peyote-smoking ritual. litigant provision, calls all. 163 confine victories, involved unemployment compensation systems, Frazee, supra; Hobbie, Sherbert, "stand[ing] place exemptions, refused accept explanation 142, 7, 7; 715-716, 2160-2161 727-732, 2166-2169 Brennan JJ.); 733, 2169 (WHITE, And, Smith: viewed hypothetical peyote use, defendants' form trial." McConnell, Revisionism Decision, 1109, 1124 ground involve across-the-board conduct." Chief Burger's plurality drew "denial benefits" criminalizes inspired inescapably objectionable 706, 2155 Powell employed ordinary 706-707, 2155-2156; 705, 2155, 15; 218, 1534; (noting "illustrative delicate balancing decisions shown"). 164 relied establishing embraced, (1879) Minersville Gobitis, 1010, 1375 879, 1600, subsequent rejection rule. Reynolds, upholding polygamy Mormon stressed evils associated polygamy, 166 ("polygamy patriarchal fetters stationary despotism"); 165, 168, regulated "pose[s] threat order." 1793; 1055-1056; University, 603, 2034; 230, 1540. originally renounced disregarding government's obligation views minorities," Opelika, 316 584, 624, 1231, 1251, 1691 (1942) Black, Douglas, Murphy, JJ.), explicitly overruled West Virginia Education Barnette, 642, 1178, 1187, 1628 (1943); 643-644, 1187-1188 (Black 165 Since 1940 repeatedly sets law's unanticipated suggesting really mean detecting recent opinions compelling-interest 884-885, palid, moderating test, eliminating altogether. event, trouble meant dozen several decades, particularly period year (1989).5 escape purport discrete defer political branches, uncertain categories. O'Lone Estate Shabazz, 349, 2400, 2404, 282 ("prison judged 'reasonableness' ordinarily infringements rights"); Goldman Weinberger, 475 503, 507, 1310, 1313, 478 ("Our military grounds deferential civilian society"); Johnson Robison, 415 361, 385-386, 1160, 1174-1175, 389 (1974); 462, 842, claimants constitutionally cognizable [t]he burden") citation omitted); Lyng Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Assn., 485 439, 450, 1319, 1326, 534 (1988) ("[T]his indirect coercion penalties outright [the] scrutiny" supra ); 606-607, 1147-1148, purported scrutiny, denied them. denial survived (all tax cases), "fundamental, overriding eradicating racial discrimination education," 2035; "doubt[ed] [was] one," Hernandez, seemed third. 261, 12, 1057, 12. think, provide slim word. Smith's virtues, comfortable fit settled 167 reexamined consistently principles stare decisis. with, "full-dress argument" announcement. Mapp Ohio, 367 643, 676-677, 1684, 1703, 1081 contended refusal exempt "settled principles," inasmuch regulating" "accommodate compromising O.T. 1989, 88-1213, p. 5; pp. 5-36; Reply 6-20. Respondents outcome facts 14-41, party squarely embrace, irrelevant dispute. Sound judicial "both vigorous defense" issues dispute, Christiansburg Garment 434 412, 419, 694, 648 sua sponte entitled deference full briefing argument. Ladner 358 169, 173, 209, 211, 199 (1958) (declining complex" concerning attack sentences "only meagre parties, "should dealing question"). rule's vitality precedent limited seeming want resolving presented O'CONNOR reached majority applying, parties requested, "our jurisprudence," 1613, resolved ground, going straight broader better supported restraint underlie decisis, 'formulate applied.' Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 347, 466, 483, (1936) (Brandeis, Liverpool, Philadelphia S.S. Commissioners Emigration, 33, 39, 352, 355, 899 (1885)). lacked announce especially play approaches sort "dicta followed sufficiently controlling." Humphrey's Executor 602, 627, 869, 873, 1611 (1935); Kastigar 441, 454-455, 1653, 1661-1662, 212 169 imply precedential weight. Over time, "part tissue law," Radovich National Football League, 352 445, 455, 390, 395, (1957) (Frankfurter, reliance unexpected Planned Parenthood Southeastern Casey, 2791, 2808, 674 By token, pointing vintage novelty reconsideration. "[S]tare decisis," Frankfurter wrote, mechanical formula," Helvering Hallock, 309 106, 119, 444, 451, 604 adhere complex lend simple, categorical rules, account considerations. 170 considerations full-briefing, necessity, decisions, One consideration warrants mention reexamination mind. presents usual follow, refrained overruling contain fundamentally odds relying 1600 reveal reading" correct one"). discussed intolerable resolved, pivotal. 171 exists body extant rereading mark enquiry directed reviewed light rested origins. assert plain compelled permissible 1600. Suffice say respectable pre-Smith comes closer fulfilling announced. "[T]he ., gives 713, 1429, specifying flatly effect, seemingly 172 original overlooking opportunity unique transgression. Save handful passing remarks, explored attempts 1879 1890, 162-166, (1890), scholarship makes incomplete. Origins Historical Understanding Harv.L.Rev. 1409 (1990).6 curious creates stark prominent.7 173 explore century overlooked, note reexamine raising questions consonance understanding Durham, Call Conscience, 71, 79-85 (1992); Legal Policy, Justice, General, 38-42 (predating development Congress, origins post-Revolution constitutions pre-Revolution colonial charters, philosophy Framers adhered, activities fulfill needs State. If, "purpose secure liberty invasions thereof civil authority," 223, 1572, interpret accord natural reading, fact, implement Smith.8 174 uniform. Hamburger, Right Exemption: Perspective, Geo.Wash.L.Rev. 915 Bradley, Beguiled: Exemptions Siren Song Liberalism, Hofstra 245 appropriately accorded meaning. considers designs binding, interpretive surely ranks hierarchy inherent 175 refrain impeding nothing respective relationships democracy God. "Neutral, perspective non-adherent, unavoidable putting believer God government. answers pursuing ends, disobedience believes existing tension, faced. 176 177 Amendments agree. emphasize Amendment's occasions religion) disfavored done stand general, State's means." 907, 1615, (dissenting test. practice." Ante, wrongly decided, ignored value affirmative antidiscrimination principle. 908-909, 1616. arrive route. intentionally unintentionally "showing achieving 1432, create truly promote interest, overinclusive encompasses goal. circumstance, serve reason. situation, allegedly harmful statute's belies genuinely "of activity, stop Zablocki Redhail, 374, 673, 683, 618 marriage "grossly purpose"); Supreme Hampshire Piper, 470 274, 285, 19, 1272, 1279, 205 (1985) (a nonresidents lawyers move away retain membership bar"). 179 purportedly serve. overinclusive, explains, "legitimate well, "[d]espite sacrifice." "ordinances 180 such, automatically 402-403, 407, 1795, (1963) (holding interest). precisely 181 unlike majority, "[a] scrutiny." way, ipso facto, Otherwise, practices." 182 directly such. ibid. easy decide. harder requesting anticruelty Member concurs result, reflect strength present, decline reach, sincerely number organizations amicus briefs behalf interest,* demonstrates lightly. syllabus constitutes Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. JUSTICE, THOMAS II-A-2 WHITE joins SOUTER additional 28-31, 1486 occurs. locational restriction, restatement discussion, therefore, aside (one "selective[ly] impose[s] belief," ____) would, me, Accordingly, fairly clear, look perspective, deprive accommodation [would] 'reflec[t] differences.' 235, 1543, 409, 1796, (1963)); 2677, "wine Act, Title Stat. (1919). discovery words, structure operation, intentions ____ J.) conceptions challenge Amish compulsory school attendance parental recognized Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 571, 1070 (1925), pointed out. (citing 233, 1542). Yoder Pierce, due showing 'reasonable[ness].' 1542 535, 573). "free claim," inapplicable measured developed length 1542; 213-229, 1532-1540. Quickly reference rights, values Clauses." 234, 1542. Yoders school-attendance 1530, 4; certiorari 207, 1529; "conduct Clause" "regulatio[n] 1535. mentions speech. 307, 905, (1940)). quote portion (titled: "second," breach-of-peace playing phonograph records, 905) discusses cites law" "first," licensing solicitations, 903-905). 1601. implied considering version 1605, appraisal confuses Beason upheld denying vote encourage polygamy. Exactly took unclear. reading sometimes cases); 1600; 247, 1549 (Douglas, dissenting part); 1488, 404 Engel Vitale, 370 421, 425-436, 1261, 1264-1270, 601 (1962); 431-443, 1101, 1108-1114, (1961); 8-16, 508-511, (1947); concurring); 91-107, 2507-2516, dissenting); 232-239, 1576-1581, (Brennan, 459-495, 1153-1172 Everson, 31-43, 519-525 (Rutledge, true, supports summoned, persecution. remark observation: concerned victims persecution, inference requires. precious little member formerly persecuted nevertheless prevented drove special, [Framers] aware conflicts duties," Adams Emmerich, Dedicated hoped fueled indifference ignorance well. Washington Humane Respondent; People Ethical Treatment Animals, Jersey Rights Alliance, Foundation Advocacy Association, Prevention Defense Fund, Inc., Massachusetts Internationa l Citizens Farm Reform Movement, Performing Welfare Society, Student Action Corps Institute Fund Alternatives Research, Sanctuary, Jews Nations, Poultry Concerns, Respondent.

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