Document: 441 U.S. 281 99 S.Ct. 1705 60 L.Ed.2d 208 CHRYSLER CORPORATION, Petitioner,v.Harold BROWN, Secretary of Defense, et al. No. 77-922. Argued Nov. 8, 1978. Decided April 18, 1979. Syllabus Petitioner, as a party to numerous Government contracts, was required comply with Executive Orders 11246 and 11375, which charge the Labor ensuring that corporations benefit from contracts provide equal employment opportunity regardless race or sex. Regulations promulgated by Department Labor's Office Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP) require contractors furnish reports about their affirmative-action programs general composition work forces, notwithstanding exemption mandatory disclosure under Freedom Information Act (FOIA), records obtained pursuant Order shall be made available for inspection if it is determined requested furthers public interest does not impede agency functions, except in case prohibited law. After Defense's Defense Logistics Agency (DLA), designated compliance responsible monitoring petitioner's practices, informed petitioner third parties had an FOIA request certain materials been furnished DLA petitioner, objected release materials. The were subject OFCCP rules, then filed complaint District Court seeking enjoin documents. Petitioner contended, inter alia, barred inconsistent Trade Secrets Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1905, imposes criminal sanctions on employees who disclose make known, any manner extent "not authorized law," classes information submitted agency, including trade secrets confidential statistical data. Finding jurisdiction decision review Administrative Procedure (APA), held fell within Exemption 4 FOIA, relating commercial financial information; whether may must withheld thus depended applicable regulations; here regulation states no officer employee violate proscribes specified disclosures withheld. Both sides appealed, Appeals vacated Court's judgment. While agreeing compel withholding falls its exemptions, analysis proceed APA, reached different conclusion interpretation 29 CFR 70.21(a). In Appeals' view, regulations are "authorized law" virtue those regulations. Held: 1. exclusively statute affords private right action disclosure. language, logic, history show provisions exempting material only meant permit withhold information, mandate nondisclosure. Congressional concern agency's need preference confidentiality; itself protects confidentiality entities submitting this endorsed collecting information. Pp. 290-294. 2. type threatened meaning theory relied source authorization. 295-316. (a) addresses formal well acts individual employees, there nothing legislative Congress intended phrase have special, limited traditional understanding properly promulgated, substantive "force effect law." order "substantive" "legislative-type" rule affecting rights obligations (as do at bar), product congressional grant authority, conformity procedural requirements imposed Congress. 295-303. (b) issue cannot based 201 11246, amended, permits units promulgate supplemental consistent FOIA. Since exempt outside ambit rely authorization Act's exemptions. adopted 11246—which speaks terms rules "necessary appropriate" achieve Order's purposes ending discrimination deal it—to nexus between some delegation requisite authority When enacted statutes arguably (the Property Administration Services 1949, Titles VI VII Civil Rights 1964, Equal Employment Opportunity 1972), concerned business possible find these asserted here. Also, one readily pull logic public's access files importance protecting statistics. 303-308. (c) Legislative found 5 301, authorizes heads departments prescribe govern internal departmental affairs custody use records, provides authorize limiting availability public. Section 301 "housekeeping statute," authorizing organization, procedure, practice opposed "substantive rules." There indicate power Thus, scope Act. 308-312. (d) also defect precludes courts affording them force law, since they "interpretative rules" without complying APA's requirement interested persons given notice proposed rulemaking comment before rule" promulgated. An regulation" "authoriz[ation] 312-316. 3. However, afford violation statute. Where has implied "there least statutory basis inferring civil cause sort lay favor someone." Cort v. Ash, 422 66, 79, 95 2080, 2088, 45 26. Nothing prompts such inference; nor indication intent create action. Most importantly, necessary effective purpose, DLA's data APA. 316-317. 4. contemplated place limits action, reviewable person "adversely affected aggrieved" provision judicial person. Because did reach documents remanded consider would 317-319. 3d Cir., 565 F.2d 1172, remanded. Burt A. Braverman, Washington, D. C., petitioner. Barbara Allen Babcock, Asst. Atty. Gen., respondents. Mr. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 expanding range federal regulatory activity growth sector economy increased agencies' demands activities individuals corporations. These developments paralleled related secrecy abuse power. (hereinafter FOIA) response concern, but largely unforeseen tendency exacerbate uneasiness governmental For able obtain containing thought confidence. 2 This belongs class popularly denominated "reverse-FOIA" suits. Chrysler Corp. Chrysler) seeks grounds origins 19th century personal We agree Third Circuit purely But we court's 1905. Therefore, vacate judgment remand so can fall 3 * As sex.1 United States other forces.2 (DLA) (formerly Supply Agency) Chrysler's practices.3 written (AAP's) annually submit Employer Reports, known EEO-1 Reports. conduct "compliance reviews" "complaint investigations," culminate Review Reports (CRR's) Complaint Investigation (CIR's), respectively.4 agencies. Those state 552, 6 "records generated amended) . copying functions OFCC[P] Agencies law."5 7 It voluntary regulation, over above mandated gravamen case. 8 controversy began May 14, 1975, when 1974 AAP Newark, Del., assembly plant October CIR same facility. Nine days later, relying OFCCP's exemptions copy CIR, never seen it. responded following week both released five later. 9 On day Delaware Newark granted temporary restraining barring requiring give days' releasing similar Pursuant order, July 1, received Hamtramck, Mich., plant. amended regard Hamtramck well. 10 three arguments support prayer injunction: FOIA; 42 2000e-8(e), 44 3508, ease reference will referred "confidentiality statutes"; finally discretion insofar conflicted rules. 28 1331 (APA). §§ 701-706. conducted trial de novo all claims; presented extensive expert testimony during August 1975. 11 20, 1976, issued opinion. "manning" tables, FOIA.6 reasoned holding tables withheld, depending regulations, governing enabling gives department control 70.21(a) (1978), stating That section unauthorized essence, read 1905 merely prohibition sensitive restriction official actions taken 12 Schlesinger, 1172 (1977). agreed nine also, like Court, rejected reliance statutes, either because statute, terms, disagreed By proscribed standard inapplicable. 13 view erred conducting review; should record. record inadequate directed supplementation. conflict Circuits7 cases, certiorari, 435 914, 98 1466, 55 504, now further proceedings. II 14 decided number cases last few years.8 Although face squarely question ex proprio vigore forbids agencies disclosing public, course intimated answer.9 have, moreover, consistently recognized basic objective disclosure.10 15 contending bars relies argues exempted material. specifically 4: 16 "(b) [FOIA] apply matters are— 17 "(4) privileged ." 552(b)(4). 19 contends general, particular, reflect sensitivity privacy interests nongovernmental entities. contention conceded inexorably impose affirmative duties sought.11 fact, supported 20 organization straightforward. Subsection (a), 552(a), places obligation sets out specific modes (b), 552(b), lists simply set subsection (a). demarcates disclose; foreclose 21 is, perhaps, demonstrated most convincingly examining relief. (a)(4)(B) district "jurisdiction production improperly complainant." 552(a)(4)(B). bar disclosure, fortifies our belief Chrysler, shared incorrectly interpreted attempt meet demand open government while preserving workable decisionmaking.12 appreciated that, sphere enterprise, much responding unconditional reporting sentiment latitude, circumstances, desired submitters.13 submitters' 22 Enlarged undoubtedly cuts against concerns entities, matter policy balancing accommodation desirable. hold design disclosure.14 23 history. dissatisfaction resulted later desirable.15 Statements Senate House example, Report states: 24 "[The FOIA] up standards categories .." 25 " legitimate reasons nondisclosure [the designed cases." 26 disclosure.16 27 therefore conclude limit necessarily follows III contends, however, even suit injunctive relief premised provides: "Whoever, being thereof, publishes, divulges, discloses, makes law coming him his reason examination investigation by, return, report with, relates secrets, processes, operations, style work, apparatus, identity, data, amount income, profits, losses, expenditures person, firm, partnership, corporation, association; income return thereof book abstract particulars examined provided law; fined more than $1,000, imprisoned year, both; removed office employment." 30 two parts argument: case, 31 court deciding plants.17 "law" 32 established variety contexts law."18 doctrine implementing pre-empt Supremacy Clause.19 take clear showing contrary could narrower understanding. 33 traced Rev.Stat. 3167, revenue officers. very little concerning original bill, passed 1864.20 re-enacted times, modification, remained part laws until 1948.21 statements time re-enactments primarily feckless corrupt agents,22 early Bureau Internal Revenue, field agents substantial contact information.23 34 1948, 3167 consolidated statutes—involving Tariff Commission Commerce—to form Act.24 explicitly bound members employees.25 Commerce embodied differences form. addressed Foreign Domestic Director, contained sanctions.26 Unlike exception effort "consolidat[e]" essentially borrowed statute.27 predecessors lends used meaning. 35 Nor anything respondents' suggestion address action—i. e., "antileak" bind expansive unprecedented approved head Attorney General Brownell long after enacted, reading difficult reconcile Congress' consolidate ranking officials, 3167.28 settled understanding—previously Justice—that continually articulated upon efforts decades increase information.29 existence means dispositive, shed light enacting See Red Lion Broadcasting Co. FCC, 395 367, 380-381, 89 1794, 1801, 371 (1969); FHA Darlington, Inc., 358 84, 90, 79 141, 145, 132 (1958). sum, appropriate inquiry 36 characteristics requisites. central distinction among APA hand policy, practice" other.30 A defined authoritative sources offer definitions negative inference.31 Morton Ruiz, 415 199, 94 1055, 39 270 (1974), noted characteristic inherent concept rule." described rule—or "legislative-type rule," id., 236, S.Ct., 1074—as "affecting obligations." Id., 232, 1073. important touchstone distinguishing "binding" 235, 1074. 37 "substantive," vested Congress, exercise quasi-legislative rooted limitations body imposes. Batterton Francis, 432 416, 425 n. 9, 97 2399, 2405 53 448 (1977): 38 "Legislative, substantive, 'issued implement as, proxy Securities Exchange Commission. Such law.' "32 Likewise promulgation conform supra, grants "assure fairness mature consideration application." NLRB Wyman-Gordon Co., 394 759, 764, 1426, 1429, 709 (1969). pertinent 40 respondents providing certainly affect obligations; closer question, authority. 41 published memorandum setting forth he promulgating 70.71 pt. 70 Fed.Reg. 3192-3194 (1973). Part directs "adopt orders deems thereof." establish somewhat obscure roundly debated commentators courts.33 establishes program eliminate contracts. decide 1949,34 1964,35 1972,36 notion reasonable contractual procurement authority.37 arguable reasonably contemplation think and, unless implies collect grantlegislative here.38 43 relationship becomes remote examines Order. end Government. One "purpose scope" indicates underlying rationales: "to public," cooperate 60-40.1 (1978). argue "[t]he purpose combat employment, aegis." Brief Respondents 48. Were clearly identifiable, might "compatibility" force. thread strained violence principles separation powers denominate particular "legislative" credit "binding say binding akin statutes. What reviewing contemplates issued. Possibly best illustration remains Frankfurter's National States, 319 190, 63 997, 87 L.Ed. 1344 (1943). argument Communications 1934 chain broadcasting beyond specification technical, engineering requirements. Before reaching conclusion, probed language Only careful parsing arbitrary prescribed procedures. 46 "Our duty findings evidence, us 'public interest' furthered retarded Chain Regulations. responsibility valid exercise." 224, 1013. 47 argue, explicit commonly statute."39 48 "The military department, distribution performance business, custody, use, preservation papers, property. public." 49 antecedents go back beginning Republic, affairs. into 1874 current version 1958. 50 Given relatively uncontroversial history, itself, seems regulate own 1958 amendment 1905.40 51 invoking Congressman Moss sponsored added sentence "does accompanying stated: 52 "Nothing [§ 301] shows executive S.Rep. 1621, 85th Cong., 2d Sess., logical corollary observation indeed what "rules procedure rules."41 54 suggest position. During debates assured status carefully detailed title Code, 1905." 104 Cong.Rec. 6550 statement significance, amendment. robs Moss' import. If why (and presumably House) 1905? Under interpretation, first 301. 56 remarks single legislator, sponsor, controlling analyzing considered Houses Congressmen, refute 1905.42 Of greatest "housekeeping" nature itself. evidence intent, Columbia "[s]ection Charles River Park "A," Inc. HUD, 171 U.S.App.D.C. 286, 293-294, 519 935, 942-943 (1975). 57 lack strict Recently occasion examine context rulemaking. Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Natural Resources Council, 519, 1197, 460 "extraordinary circumstances" province so. Yankee, 'a formula opposing social political forces come rest.' 547, 1213 (quoting Wong Yang Sung McGrath, 339 33, 40, 445, 449, 616 (1950)). Courts upset balance override choice procedures token, charged maintaining balance: "outline minimum essential procedures" H.R.Rep. 1980, 79th (1946); see Corp., 549 21, 1214 21. Certainly afforded Act.43 58 553, specifies promulgated.44 59 "As changes document relate solely interpretive practice, neither making participation therein 553. relieve restrictions interpretative delay date 553(d). immediately. "In accordance spirit comments, suggestions, 3193 61 treated 553(b). observed U.S., 2405: "[A] regulation. Varying degrees deference accorded administrative interpretations, factors timing consistency position, expertise." characterized enough prerequisites giving law.45 62 disposition comports sound practice. Here conflict: Government's confidentiality. strike balance. notions decisionmaking decisions comment. With consequence procedures, appropriate. B reject, (1975), rarely where done someone."46 inference. circumstances outlined present 1905—or same—might suggest, purpose," J. I. Case Borak, 377 426, 433, 84 1555, 1560, 423 (1964), APA.47 IV 64 avail violations separate dispositive outcome 10(a) "[a] suffering legal wrong adversely aggrieved ., entitled 702. Two exceptions reviewability 10. "statutes preclude review" "agency committed 701(a)(1), (2). Citizens Preserve Overton Park, Volpe, 401 402, 410, 91 814, 820, 136 (1971), latter applies "where 'statutes drawn broad apply,' quoting 752, 1st (1945). confronted regarding "the [agency] property," derive constitute "law apply." discussion demonstrates action.48 10(a). 65 decision. They disagree proper review. review, contend extraordinary 66 10(e) 706, 67 "(2) unlawful aside findings, conclusions be— 68 "(A) arbitrary, capricious, discretion, otherwise 69 "(F) unwarranted facts court." 71 previously stated, believe violates 706(2)(A). De ordinarily runs afoul concluded issue. proceedings 1905.49 issue—the 1905—will 706(2), unnecessary, unwise, stage express additional views 72 Vacated 73 MARSHALL, concurring. 74 I join complexity issues inevitably tend conclusions, wish emphasize today. 75 determine whether, absent directive, reveal functions. whatever regard, divulging types independently 60.40-1 60.40-4 degree release. holds not, sanctioned directly indirectly legislation.1 imposing obviously allow Ante, 298-312. Otherwise, Finally, requires "in 706(2)(A), prevent 1905.2 76 Our mean themselves excess jurisdiction, limitations, short right" 706(2)(C). recognizes, ante, 309 involves considerations instant Accordingly, validity 340 (1964-1965 Comp.). founded enactment. "authorize" 77 Based understanding, Comp.), prohibits "race, creed, color, national origin" contractors. 202 Order, contain whereby contractor agrees discriminate fashion ensure opportunity. 684 (1966-1970 1967, President Johnson extended 1965 prohibit 60-1.3, 60-1.7 convenience references DLA. 60-1.20, 60-1.24 term "alphabet soup" gained currency New Deal description proliferation new WPA PWA. terminology describe suggests era was, comparison, broth. 60-40.2(a). "shall disclosed," 60-40.4, AAP's "must disclosed" exceptions. 60-40.2(b)(1), 60-40.3. Manning job titles people perform each job. Compare Westinghouse Electric 542 1190 (CA4 1976), cert. denied, 431 924, 2199, 239 (1977), Sears, Roebuck & Eckerd, 575 1197 (CA7 1978); Dynamics Marshall, 572 1211 (CA8 Pennzoil FPC, 534 627 (CA5 1976); 935 Robbins Tire Rubber 437 214, 2311, 159 (1978); Air Force Rose, 352, 96 1592, (1976); FAA Administrator Robertson, 255, 2140, 164 (1975); 421 132, 1504, Renegotiation Bd. Grumman Aircraft Engineering 168, 1491, Bannercraft Clothing 1028, 123 (1974); EPA Mink, 410 73, 93 827, 119 "Subsection creates compelled disclosures. exclusive, 552(c), plainly concrete, determining disclosed." 832, (emphasis added). 361, 1599, 11, "disclosure, secrecy, dominant Act." replete desire loosen grip decisionmaking. "A democratic society informed, intelligent electorate, intelligence electorate varies quantity quality varies. machinery assure electorate." 1497, 89th (1966), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1966, pp. 2418, 2429. "Although vital operation democracy, nowhere affirmatively information." 813, (1965). See, e. g., added; footnote omitted): "[Exemption 4] through questionnaires mediation labor-management controversies. exempts customarily whom include confidence, citizen confide Moreover, obligated good faith receives, honor italicized passage 4's limitation discretion. 3: "It easy task interests, impossible either. protect must, necessity, abrogated substantially subordinated. Success lies encompasses, balances, yet emphasis fullest disclosure." 9; supra. informative compare Privacy 1974, 552a. permission. Even telling 1357, antihijacking measures, research development protection devices. "Notwithstanding FOIA], deem developed if, Administrator, information— "(B) 1357(d)(2)(B)." generally publish organizational final orders. Exception "requiring interest" "relating management agency." repealed 2, 5, 2419, 2423-2424 Moss, sponsor floor indicating "may withheld." 112 13641 (1966). E. 2405, (1977); Foti INS, 375 217, 223, 306, 310, (1963); Mersky, 361 431, 437-438, 80 459, 463, (1960); Atchison, T. S. F. R. Scarlett, 300 471, 474, 541, 543, 81 1375 (1937). Paul 245, 83 292 Free Bland, 369 663, 82 1089, 180 (1962); Public Utilities Comm'n California 355 534, 78 446, 470 Revenue 1864, 38, Stat. 238. codified 216 (1940 ed.): collector, deputy agent, clerk, divulge apparatus manufacturer producer visited discharge duties, expenditures, disclosed print appearing return; offense foregoing misdemeanor punished fine exceeding $1,000 imprisonment both, court; offender dismissed discharged 6893 (1894) (Sen. Aldrich) (expressing taxpayer's turned tender mercies poorly paid agents"); 6924 Teller) (exposing "idle curiosity officer"). Cong.Globe, 38th 2997 (1864) (Rep. Brown) 1864 "every petty officer" investigate citizens). virtually Washington bureaucracy created 1862, ch. 119, 432, Service traced. Researchers War 85% operations carried "including assessing collection taxes, handling appeals, punishment frauds"—and 20th century. L. Schmeckebier Eble, 40-43 (1923). Agents enter home establishment look taxable property books accounts. collected processed field. therefore, surprising comments period focused potential abuses breaches Washington-based bureaucracy. 304, 80th A127-A128 (1947). 1335 ed.), provided: member commission, employee, clerk divulge, processes copartnership, association embraced thereof. Any court, 176a "Any confidence individuals, corporations, firms confidential, supplied. Director anyone sworn reports, statistics domestic commerce identity individual, firm furnishing data." supra 24, A127. December 1953, opinion, advised Treasury himself noted: reviser Criminal Code describes consolidation sections formerly Code. three, expressly operated prohibitions agencies." Op.Atty.Gen. 166, 167 (footnote omitted). 221 (Atty. Gen. advising Chairman bound). accepted irrelevant "access" legislation action—to or, put differently, unit's files. inconceivable superiors release; Acts employing agency. legislation. imputed themselves. head—there interrelationship legislation, totally significant years evinces concomitant universal assumption embraces housekeeping custodial circumscribe clarified infra, 310-312. Also Subcommittee Constitutional Committee Judiciary hearings investigative effort, list compiled restricting listed them. Hearings 921, p. 986 Operations study authorities independent agencies, again prominent public" Operations, Statutes Availability 262 (Comm. Print Mar. 1960) (§ prohibiting information). 264-265, 2146-2147, deliberations particularly excepted "specifically statute." Robertson: "When 3, took note 'nearly 100 restrict records. modified FOIA].' (Emphasis added.)" 265, 2147. prior Aeronautics Board brought attention Committees 264, 2146 11. frequently cited H.R. 5012 al., 283 (1965) (cited Among citing Justice. 386 ("commercial assembled connection requirements"). (colloquy Rep. Schlei); General's Memorandum 31-32 (June 1967) (18 "nearly statutes" mentioned Report). recently, Sunshine observed: "[T]he 'not law,' justify withholding; hand, determines interest, ascertain forbidden 94-880, (1976), 2183, 2205. 553(b), (d). Neither attempted expound distinction. weight Manual (1947), heavily involved process enactment 1946. 546, 1213, Reactor Electricians, 367 396, 408, 1529, 1535, 924 (1961); Zucca, 351 91, 96, 671, 674, 964 (1956). refers "implement" "Such Manual, contrast "interpretive "general policy" Interpretive "issued advise construction administers." Ibid. "statements prospectively proposes discretionary power." Final (1941). Quoting Contractors Assn. Eastern Pa. Labor, 442 (CA3), 404 854, 92 98, (1971); Separation Powers Philadelphia Plan 931, 91st Sess. Jones, Bugaboo Quotas, 1970 Wis.L.Rev. 341; Leiken, Preferential Treatment Skilled Building Trades: Analysis Plan, Cornell L.Rev. (1970); Comment, Plan: Study Power, U.Chi.L.Rev. 723 (1972); Note, 11246: Anti-Discrimination Obligations Contracts, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 590 "[u]nder [the] Constitution States." 377, 471 seq. prefaced declaration policy: economical efficient system supply nonpersonal services, contracting, inspection, storage, issue, specifications, identification classification, transportation traffic management, pools systems personnel motor vehicle areas, utility repairing converting, inventory levels, forms representation State bodies; utilization property; disposal surplus management." 471. effectuate [its] provisions." 486(a). discrimination. Lower suggested 486(a) 11246. Farmer 329 (CA3 1964); Farkas Texas Instrument, 629 (CA5), 389 977, 88 480, (1967). F.2d, 167, suggestions dicta Orders. went hold, aspects ground "it suppliers run increasing costs delaying excluding labor pool minority workmen." 170. 2000d 2000d-4, 2000e 2000e-17. Significantly, usually 1964. 171-174. Title "empowered extend assistance activity, way grant, loan, contract," "which achievement objectives taken." President, enforcement terminating, refusing continue, failure section, file committees having full action." 602 252, 2000d-1. contains 602. Cf. Exec.Order 11247, 348 President. ratified series amendments cut supra; cf. Perkins Lukens Steel 310 113, 869, 1108 (1940); Youngstown Sheet Tube Sawyer, 343 579, 637, 863, 871, 1153 (1952) (Jackson, J., concurring). cite Jones Rath Packing 430 536, 1305, 1314, 604 proposition acknowledged 24. quite explicit. labeling meats flour pre-empted Meat Inspection (FMIA), Food, Drug, Cosmetic (FDCA), Fair Packaging Labeling FMIA meat misbranded "(5) package container bears label (B) accurate contents weight, measure, numerical count: Provided, variations permitted, small packages established, Secretary." 1(n)(5), 601(n)(5). FDCA. 1461, (1958): called 'housekeeping' help get administration underway spelling officials offices papers pertaining day-to-day restricted classified state." 3192-3193 mean, course, limitations" 10(e)(B)(3) approvingly experts "[§ requests dealt with—for centralizing head." Special "unanimously originally 1789 departments, misuse become twisted claim 12. debates. (1958); 6549 Moss), 6560 Fascell), 15690-15696 Sens. Hruska Johnston) Throughout assurances 6548 Brown), 6549-6550 Moss) frequent disclosable 6558 6564 Wright) exchange Congressmen Meader instructive. "Mr. MEADER. Chairman, gentleman [Mr. Moss], measure. paragraphs appear page report. said: "I unanimous points: "1. construed "2. erroneous department—a so-called function; yield points my measure accurately understands consensus legislation? MOSS. correct interpret it." 6562 Allegheny-Ludlum 406 742, 758, 1941, 1951, 453 (1972). 553: "(a) applies, according involved— "(1) foreign function States; property, loans, grants, benefits, Register, thereto named personally served actual include— time, place, proceedings; proposed; "(3) substance subjects involved. "Except hearing apply— practice; finds incorporates finding brief therefor issued) thereon impracticable, interest. "(c) participate submission views, oral presentation. relevant presented, incorporate concise purpose. hearing, 556 557 instead subsection. "(d) publication service less date, except— recognizes relieves restriction; policy; rule. "(e) Each petition issuance, amendment, repeal 10729 (1967); 15552 (1970). FCC Schreiber, 381 279, 85 1459, 383 (1965), misplaced. rule—that investigatory examiner dispatch ends justice" closed sessions—was unreasonable. impermissibly invaded applicability "all elicited camera." 295, 1470 original). actually injure Schreiber's competitively, ample seek denied." 296, 1470. Wyandotte Transportation 191, 379, 407 (1964); Pacific Rigsby, 241 482, 874 (1916). Jurisdiction 1331. Califano Sanders, 99, 980, 192 below, 2000e-8(e) 3508. 70.21 assumed unnecessary remand. We, relative ambits 552(b)(3). theoretical possibility practical significance similarity 312-316, satisfy although rectify shortcoming. below covers disclose. Disclosure covered would, holding,

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