Document: 422 U.S. 405 95 S.Ct. 2362. 45 L.Ed.2d 280 ALBEMARLE PAPER COMPANY et al., Petitioners,v.Joseph P. MOODY al. HALIFAX LOCAL NO. 425, UNITED PAPERMAKERS AND PAPERWORKERS, AFL-CIO, Petitioner, v. Joseph Nos. 74—389, 74—428. Argued April 14, 1975. Decided June 25, Syllabus Respondents, a certified class of present and former Negro employees, brought this action against petitioners, their employer, Albemarle Paper Co., the employees' union, seeking injunctive relief 'any policy, practice, custom or usage' at plant violative Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964, as amended by Equal Employment Opportunity 1972, after several years discovery moved to add backpay demand. At trial, major issues were plant's seniority system, its program employment testing, backpay. The District Court found that, following reorganization under new collective-bargaining agreement, employees had been "locked' in lower paying job classifications,' ordered petitioners implement system wide seniority. court refused, however, order for losses sustained plaintiff discriminatory on grounds that (1) Albemarle's breach was not have 'bad faith,' (2) respondents, who initially disclaimed interest backpay, delayed making claim until five complaint filed, thereby prejudicing petitioners. also refused enjoin limit testing program, which respondents contended disproportionate adverse impact blacks shown be related performance, concluding 'personnel tests administered undergone validation studies proven related.' Respondents appealed preemployment issues. Appeals reversed Court's judgment. Held: 1. Given finding unlawful discrimination, should denied only reasons if applied generally, would frustrate central statutory purposes manifested Congress enacting eradicating discrimination throughout economy persons whole injuries suffered through past discrimination. Pp. 413-422. 2. absence bad faith is sufficient reason denying being concerned with employer's 'good intent intent,' 'Congress directed thrust consequences practices, simply motivation,' Griggs Duke Power 401 424, 432, 91 849, 854, 28 158. 422-423. 3. Whether respondents' tardiness inconsistency demand excusable whether they actually prejudiced are matters will open review Court, remand, decides again decline award. 423-425. 4. As clear from Griggs, supra, Commission's Guidelines employers determine professional related, such impermissible unless shown, professionally acceptable methods, 'predictive significantly correlated important elements work behavior comprise relevant jobs candidates evaluated.' Measured standard, study materially defective it not, because odd patchwork results application 'validated' two general ability used all skilled lines progression are, apparently, now required; compared test scores subjective supervisorial rankings, affording no means knowing what job-performance criteria supervisors considering; (3) focused mostly groups near top various progression, but fact best those working line score well does necessarily mean permissibly measures qualifications workers entering level jobs; (4) dealt job-experienced, white workers, themselves given applicants, younger, largely inexperienced, many instances nonwhite. 425-435. 5. In view facts during appellate stages litigation has apparently amending departmental organization use made tests; standards proof relatedness evidentiary procedures involving clarified; provisional pending efforts may authorized, remand fashion necessary relief. 436. 474 F.2d 134, vacated remanded. 1 Francis V. Lowden, Jr., Richmond, Va., Co. 2 Warren Woods, Washington, D.C., Halifax Local No. 425. 3 J. LeVonne Chambers, charlotte, N.C., Moody others. 4 James Turner, Atty., Dept. Justice, Div., United States, amicus curiae, special leave Court. 5 Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion 6 These consolidated cases raise questions 78 Stat. 253, 86 103, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e seq. (1970 ed. Supp. III): First: When applicants lost opportunity earn wages an employer engaged federal district follow deciding award deny backpay? Second: What must show establish pre-employment racially effect, though intent, sufficiently 'job related' survive challenge VII? 7 * respondents—plaintiffs Court—are paper mill Roanoke Rapids, N.C.; petitioners—defendants owner, labor 425.1 August 1966, filing Commission (EEOC), receiving notice right sue,2 States Eastern North Carolina, asking permanent violated VII. assured suit involved any monetary awards basis, 1970, discovery, ruled issue considered trial. 8 July 1971, question November 9, 'strictly segregated' 'lines progression' prior January 1, reserving higher more whites. 'racial identifiability' persisted 1968, when reorganized agreement. found, left classifications.' formerly 'Negro' merely tacked bottom 'white' lines, promotions, demotions, layoffs continued governed—where skills 'relatively equal'—by seniority.' Because previous history overt segregation, whites categories. Accordingly, 'plantwide' 9 seniority' program.3 explained: 10 'In instant case there evidence non-compliance Act. It appears company early 1964 began active recruitment Maintenance Apprentice Program. Certain merged own initiative, judicial decisions expanded then existing interpretations Act, defendants took steps correct abuses without delay. . 11 addition, back pay equitable remedy. plaintiffs' filed nearly institution action. prayed pleadings. Although neither party can charged deliberate dilatory tactics bringing cause apparent substantially granting affirmative might chosen exercise unusual zeal having rights earlier date known issue.' 12 program. required high school diploma pass tests, Revised Beta Examination, allegedly measure nonverbal intelligence, Wonderlic Personnel Test (available alternative Forms A B), verbal facility. After decision 158 (1971), eve industrial psychologist relatedness' His current judgments competence ten groupings selected middle progression. showed statistically significant correlation ratings three Test, seven either Form B battery both Tests.4 experts challenged reliability these studies, concluded: 13 'The personnel related. carried burden proving 'necessary safe efficient operation business' therefore, permitted However, education requirement conjunction requirements alone adequate mental reading 14 did seek court's judgment, denial refusal tests. divided Fourth Circuit judgment ruling awarded enjoined, 134 (1973). held could properly requested acted id., 142: 15 'Because compensatory nature strong congressional policy embodied VII, discretion same manner attorney fees II Thus, complaining successful obtaining injunction ordinarily circumstances render unjust. Newman Piggie Park Enterprises, 390 400, 88 964, 19 1263 (1968).' (Footnote omitted.) 16 held, 138, error 17 'to approve done analysis, allow require where all, person entrance into one validated progression.' 18 so holding 'gave great deference' 'Guidelines Employee Selection Procedures,' 29 CFR pt. 1607, EEOC issued 'as workable set employers, unions agencies determining selection conform obligations contained title .' 1607.1(c). We granted certiorari5 evident conflict governing backpay6 showing tests.7 20 particular member and, so, how much, review. equities individual never reached. Though least some members obviously loss wage opportunities account unlawfully seniority, decided anyone class. declined make stated grounds: lack 'evidence Act,' 'the prejudiced' demanded contrary representation late progress litigation. Relying directly (1968), reversed, 'special circumstances.' argue error—that virtually unfettered abuse here.8 21 point. attorneys' 'ordinarily' awarded—i.e., circumstances'—to plaintiffs injunctions public accommodations, 1964. While fee discretion, 2000a—3(b), determined actions vindicated plaintiffs, acting 'private attorneys general,' very circumstances. There is, course, equally eradicate practices. But applying standard provision 2000e—5(k), see Northcross Memphis Board Education, 412 427, 428, 93 2201, 2202, 37 48 For guidance must, look elsewhere. 22 contend scheme provides guidance, beyond indicating within discretion. disagree. true automatic mandatory remedy; like other remedies courts 'may' invoke.9 implicitly recognizes calling remedy another, and—owing structure judiciary—these choices first instance courts. discretionary 'inclination, judgment; guided sound legal principles.' Burr, 25 F.Cas. No.14,692d, pp. 30, 35 (CC Va.1807) (Marshall, C.J.). power bestowed Congress, part complex legislative design historic evil national proportions. 'in light large objectives Hecht Bowles, 321 321, 331, 64 587, 592, L.Ed. 754 (1944). That nature, Curtis Loether, 415 189, 197, 94 1005, 1010, 39 260 (1974), hardly meaningful shielded thorough Mitchell Robert DeMario Jewelry, 361 288, 292, 80 332, 335, 323 (1960), face silent statute, enjoyed 'historic equity' workmen discriminated Fair Labor Standards 1938, 52 1069, amended, 217 (1958 ed). simultaneously noted (leave) little room reimbursement.' U.S., 296, 337. 23 '(e)quity eschews mechanical rules (and) depends flexibility.' Holmberg Armbrecht, 327 392, 396, 66 582, 584, 90 743 (1946). invokes Chancellor's conscience further transcendant purposes, principled consistent 'equity (which) varies foot.'10 Important goals frustrated regime 'produce(d) different breaches duty situations cannot differentiated policy.' Moragne Marine Lines, 398 375, 405, 1772, 1790, 26 339 (1970). 24 therefore measured inform observed 429—430, S.Ct., 853, primary objective prophylactic one: 'It achieve equality remove barriers operated favor identifiable group over employees.' Backpay obvious connection purpose. If faced prospect order, incentive shun practices dubious legality. reasonably certain 'provide(s) spur catalyst causes self-examine self-evaluate endeavor eliminate, far possible, last vestiges unfortunate ignominious page country's history.' N.L. Industries, Inc., Cir., 479 354, 379 (CA8 1973). 27 purpose This care arm full powers. equity 'secur(e) complete justice,' Brown Swann, Pet. 497, 503, 508 (1836); Porter Warner Holding 328 395, 397—398, 1086, 1088 1089, 1332 '(W)here federally protected invaded, rule beginning alert adjust grant relief.' Bell Hood, 678, 684, 773, 777, 939 deals economic character occasioned racial antiminority terms 'complete justice' relief' acquired meaning Where concerned, (district) decree possible eliminate effects bar future.' Louisiana 380 145, 154, 85 817, 822, 709 (1965). And injury character, '(t)he wrong done, law gives remedy, compensation shall equal injury. latter measured. injured placed, be, situation he occupied committed.' Wicker Hoppock, Wall. 94, 99, 752 (1867). 'make whole' history. expressly modeled National Relations Act.11 Under '(m)aking unfair practice vindication enforces.' Phelps Dodge Corp. NLRB, 313 177, 61 845, 1271 (1941). See Nathanson 344 27, 73 80, 82, 97 23; NLRB J.H. Rutter-Rex Mfg. 396 258, 263, 417, 420, (1969). assume aware Board, since inception, matter course—not randomly standardless violations peculiarly deliberate, egregious, inexcusable.12 Furthermore, passing bills limiting rejected, re-enacted original form.13 Section-by-Section Analysis introduced Senator Williams accompany Conference Committee Report 1972 strongly reaffirmed VII: 30 provisions subsection intended give exercising powers most possible. dealing section 706(g) stressed scope victims whole, attainment rests upon elimination complained of, requires aggrieved restored position discrimination.' 118 Cong.Rec. 7168 (1972). 31 makes clear, Congress' vesting variety 'discretionary' trial courts, invite caprice, rather 'fashion(ing) (of) possible.' 32 follows which, discrimination.14 appeals maintain provision, consonant twin objectives, while time recognizing often keener appreciation peculiar cases. 33 tested standards. ground faith.'15 faith—by maintaining knew illegal highly questionable legality—he claims whatsoever conscience. But, mere opens door equity; depress scales favor. awardable faith, become punishment moral turpitude, than workers' injuries. read out worker's less real his inflict faith.'16 obsence intent' motivation.' 854. Watson City Memphis, 373 526, 535, 83 1314, 1319—1320, 529 (1963); Wright Council Emporia, 407 451, 461—462, 92 2196, 2202—2203, 51 (1972).17 To condition awarding faith' enormous chasm between nothing statute justifies creation drastic categorical distinctions remedies.18 34 grounded asserting filed. concluded 'prejudiced' conduct. 'that broad aims fully developed even raised post-trial stage litigation,' F.2d, 141. contains raising indeed had.19 Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 54(c) directs 36 'every final whose rendered entitled, pleadings.' 'entitled' conduct improperly party. here tardy, inconsistent, demanding prosecuted eccentric fashion, prejudicial party, offend say, correct. prejudiced, excusable, Appeals, backpay.20 familiar 'clearly erroneous' factual findings 'abused' traditional locate 'a just result' case, Langnes Green, 282 531, 541, 243, 247, 75 520 (1931). On procedural regularity prejudice, 'broad VII' provide ready solution. III 38 unanimously forbids effect meets (has) manifest relationship question.' Id., 854.21 arises, prima facie i.e. select hire promotion pattern pool applicants. McDonnell Douglas 411 792, 802, 1817, 1824, 668 meet related,' remains devices, similarly undesirable serve legitimate 'efficient trustworthy workmanship.' 801, 1823. Such using 'pretext' 804—805, 1825—1826. we concept takes case. Carolina reserved 1965. Thereafter, allowed transfer jobs, transferees—white Negro—were attain median tests: 40 '(T)he purports Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test. Neither learn perform category jobs. 41 '. Both adopted, noted, ability. Rather, vice president Company testified, instituted Company's generally improve overall quality force.' 428—431, 852. note inadequacy devices infirmity diplomas degrees fixed capability,' 433, 43 'Nothing precludes measuring procedures; useful. forbidden giving mechanisms controlling force demonstrably reasonable performance. commanded abstract.' 436, 856. 44 Like uses (Forms purported facility Applicants 100 Exam Test's forms.22 viewed context plant, employes about 650 persons, converts raw wood products. organized number functional departments, each distinct theory move up acquire skills. varied greatly time. years, paid others, workers. unskilled 'end-tailed' onto greater lines. sense, least, still speak relatively 46 1950's modernized sophisticated equipment, entry soon force, enjoined use. 1950's, Examination (also case) screen dropped later, continued.23 47 added Tests 1963, intelligence called increasing sophistication operations. attempt validate relatedness,24 adopted 'norm' cut-off point discontinued segregation Tests, few succeeded doing so. Incombents whom hired before adoption them retain rights. record shows incumbents high-ranking tests.25 point, details record. eight departments. contends four 49 Four months went expert psychology 'validate' He spent half day devised 'concurrent validation' study, conducted officials, supervision. subjected statistical analysis. groupings, nine progression.26 Jobs grouped together solely proximity progression; analyze require. All, participated study—105 Negroes. Within grouping employee independent 'ranking' employee, relative coworkers, employee's supervisors. supervisors, know scores, asked 50 'determine ones felt irrespective doing, respective better rating ..'27 grouping, computed 'Phi coefficient' average rankings. Consonant conventions, regarded 'statistically significant' occurred chance times, fewer trials.28 basis results, constrained 'Guidelines' determine, 1607. draw reference established American Psychological Association.29 administrative regulations' promulgated pursuant formal Congress. heretofore do constitute interpretation enforcing agency,' consequently 'entitled deference.' 433—434, Espinoza Farah 414 86, 334, 339, 287 53 message case—that 1607.4(c). 54 Guidelines, respects: 55 Even otherwise adequate, required. correlations identical interchangeable facility, form obtained groupings. correlation. reliable, entitle impose Guidelines. 'no differences' studied unstudied 1607.4(c)(2). analysis attributes needed in, groups. accordingly exist among Indeed, study's checkered appear compel opposite conclusion. 56 rankings validation, quite plainly contemplate elicited demonstrated here.30 rank 'standard' extremely vague fatally divergent interpretations. previously grouping' asked, 57 (employees) ..'31 58 way precisely performance considering, considering whether, indeed, stable body kind.32 short, job-specific justify impact. 59 focused, cases, take capability next succeeding future utilized long-range fulfill genuine business need.' sensible approach issue, endorse it: 60 'If structures probably, period majority level, evaluated level. automatic, span potential expected change ways, level.' 1607.4(c)(1). test, cutoff permissible minimal drawing conclusion, detailed consideration normal speed promotion, efficacy on-the-job training device, low-level importance one, incumbent high-level company's battery. 1607.11. 62 workers; APA state 'essential' 63 validity subjects age educational vocational recommended practice.' C 5.4. likewise '(d)ata generated separately reported minority nonminority wherever technically feasible.' 1607.5(b)(5). 'differential likely 'feasible,' insured upper white. differential feasible More importantly, provide: 65 include relieve subsequent obligation inclusion becomes 1607.5(b)(1). (E)vidence satisfactory based compliance guidelines separate 1607.5(b) (5). 67 reasons, agree erred proved relatendness entitled outright reversal implied immediately plant. here, prudent course precise fashioning instance. During litigation, appropriate clarified today. Similarly, today specifically apprised available Company. authorize efforts, limited 1607.9. obtain decided, instance, free evidence, control procedures, warranted law. 68 vacated, remanded proceedings opinion. 69 ordered. 70 Judgment 71 POWELL Page 437 72 APPENDIX TO OPINION OF THE COURT CHART Results Validation Study Job Group N W-A W-B Caustic Operator, Lime Kiln Operator.................... .25 1.00** .47 C. E. Recovery 1st Helpers & Evaporator Operators...... .64** .32 .17 Wood Yard: Long Log Operators, Stackers, Small Equipment Operators Oilers.................... .00 .72* Technical Services: Mill Shift Testmen, Additive men, General Lab. asst., Samplemen... - .50* .75** .64* Mill: Machine Tenders Back Tenders.... .50** .34 6. Stock Room Helper....................... -.50 7. 3rd Hands, 4th Hands 5th Hands....... .43 .81** .60** 8. Chipper Unloader, Chain Operator........ .76* -.25 9. Pulp Helpers...................... .50 .80* 10. Plant: Plant Helper, 2nd Helper..................... .66* NOTE identified Chart B. indicates tested. single (double) asterisk "Phi" coefficient correlation, chart, 95% (99%) confidence. coefficients significant. 74 [NOTE: MATERIAL SET AT THIS POINT IS NOT DISPLAYABLE (GRAPHIC OR TABULAR MATERIAL)] MARSHALL, concurring. 76 I write observations issue. 77 affirms, proceedings, 'indeed (the) (for relief) had.' Ante, 2374. barrier make-whole liability established. laches, predicated prejudice defendant's tardy prayer compensation, particularly difficult establish. computed, respect affected amount direct result promote. this, petitioner promotions lucrative positions race, need additional offsetting computations earned period. 79 information compute nonpromotion records schedules normally maintained compulsion data favored promoted senior disfavored class, entailed. Rarely, ever, plausibly invoke doctrine laches usual passage put reach testimony relied was, speculative variety. subject, 'apparent' accrue App. 498. indulgent speculation clearly complainant surely penalizing represents.* posing '(w)hether prejudiced,' ante, 424 (emphasis added), recognized much. 81 us doubt uncertain posed them. Doubtful remain prove delay defense oppressive. 82 REHNQUIST, join 2000e—5(g) ed., III) construed awarded, method determined. 84 extent analogized damages, proper 200e III). Plaintiffs benefit enunciated Bigelow RKO Radio Pictures, 251, 265, 574, 580, 652 (1946): "The constant tendency find damages done. Difficulty ascertainment longer confused recovery' invasion plaintiff's Story Parchment Patterson (282 555, 248, 544,) 565.' thought flow wrongdoing, indistinguishable (not parties, discussed opinion), side jury Seventh Amendment critical. said explaining difference 812 88, s 3612, authorization treat here: 87 also, back-pay committed judge. comparable proves actual amount. Whatever merit 'equitable' characterization characterizing punitive Curtis, quoted description Story's Parsons Bedford, 447, 732 (1830), that: 89 amendment embrace suits admiralty jurisdiction, whatever settle rights.' extent, then, retains substantial notwithstanding jurisdiction exercises equitable, our replaced fairly characterized arguably subject Amendment. Thus believe latitude reposes supported considerations expeditious disposition numerous behalf frequently classes sitting jury. states, 419, provided remedial NLRA. spoke breadth 198, (1941), said: '(W)e avoid rigidities either-or rule. pay, remembered, entrusted Board's discretion; mechanically compelled authority orders, stereotyped formulas availed itself freedom diverse, complicated situations.' agree, nonetheless, faith.' Good consideration, narrower created 2000e—12(b), expand applicable. n. 15, good faith. Nor say combination factors circumstances, Schaeffer San Diego Yellow Cabs, 462 1002, 1006 (CA9 1972); Georgia 906, 922 (CA5 cursory canvass Courts confront problems much suggests recurring problem area difficulty ascertaining causal violation ascertainable claimant St. Louis-S.F.R. 464 301, 311 1972), cert. denied, 409 1116, 913, 700 Eighth aptly described it, upheld Norman Missouri P.R. 497 594, 597 420 908, 826, 837 (1975). 'No nor pay. ..' 96 recongizes, 424-425, another factor presented detrimental reliance representations classwide 1966 replying motion summary represented backpay: understand exact sought plaintiffs. No money .. 98 (T)he specific Court.' 13—14. 99 Five asserted Petitioners argued below detriment statement ways including interim sale price ruinous owners faced, failure investigate prepare defenses old, resolution lawsuit. 146 (CA4 presents resolved reviewable ultimate conclusion 'abuse discretion' 424-425. isolation precluding conduct, preclude justifiably representations. governed considerations, thinly disguised defendants, It, avail 'of 1271. 101 BLACKMUN, concurring 102 concur 103 cast language emphasizes flexibility remedy: 104 finds respondent intentionally engaging complaint, appropriate, include, to, reinstatement hiring deems appropriate.' 261, 107, added). 105 Despite emphasis reasoned analogy once established, '(back pay) unjust.' 142 Today rejects circumstances' holds power, VII.' 415-417. With agree. goes suggest, refusing suggestion Instead, consider order. uncommon example, sex defend State's 'female protective' statute. See, e.g., Kober Westinghouse Electric Corp., 480 240 (CA3 1973); Manning Motors, 466 (CA6 410 946, 1366, 613 (1973); 1002 LeBlanc Southern Telephone Telegraph 460 1228 (CA5), 990, 320, 257 horns dilemma: violate presumptively valid good-faith exonerate see, supra; cf., 423 nn. 17—18, effort comply discriminatee expense derived 106 vacate insofar appeared Albemarle. join, absolute sine qua non validation. deserve deference due agency statements experience expertise. Nevertheless, adversary comment. theories dispute. simple truth attempts predict future, completely accurate. bear mind long characteristics desired, possesses effective weapon protecting unique capacity objectively standardized basis. fear too-rigid choice, save impossibly expensive engage quota selection. This, 107 Chief BURGER, dissenting part. 108 availability commits court. principle reviewing regarding policy. 109 emphasized liable practicing undisputed voluntarily not—and not-apply acts occurring passage. perpetuated pointed out, cure unclear considerable Moreover, act determination but, rather, lawsuit integrate minorities promptly developed.1 110 background, 'conditioned' 423, incorrect. disregarded irrelevant. notes, encourage "to history." 418. By taken, assessed attempted law, marginal bound Plainly, relate 'reasons 421. waited changing disclaiming belatedly thus suggesting desire 'made pursuit abused remedy.2 111 treatment troubling. Its entire wooden says, 'great (1971). misplaced. qualify exemption 703(h) 257, 2000e—2(h), device 'designed, discriminate history, expressing Congress.' 434, 855. 93—95, 339—340, 112 contrast, relies methods relatedness; interpret nowhere referred regulations submitted comment scrutiny Administrative Procedure Act.3 slavish adherence suggests, guides weight well-founded field testing. 113 conflicts experts. validating 'is workers,' found: 114 typical They Professional narrow range competence, broader range, tested.' 490—491. 115 Unless prepared hold similar erroneous, affirmance, instructions reconsider entitled. 116 changed hands changes irrelevant opinion, union aspect 5(f)(1) 798, 1822, Alexander Gardner-Denver 36, 44—45, 1011, 1017—1018, 147 (1974). 8, infra. exists 2, 1965, accrues charge EEOC. regard pre-1964 'strict segregation.' infra, 429-430. 419 1068, 654, 664 petition rehear en banc. ultimately ruled, question, 'senior circuit judges originally assigned division hearing authorized participate banc.' 417 622, 624, 2513, 2514, 358 compare 1973), Pettway Cast Iron Pipe 494 211 1974), Head Timken Roller Bearing 486 870 Castro Beecher, 459 725 (CA1 1972). unnamed parties charges reject contention. confronted unanimous exhaustion members. Rosen Public Service Gas 775, 780 1969), 477 90, 95—96 Robinson Lorillard 444 791, 802 1971); 919—921 876; Bowe Colgate-Palmolive 416 711, 719—721 (CA7 1969); 378—379 ratified construction Pub.L. 92—261, 103. House Representatives passed bill, H.R. 1746, 92d Cong., Sess., barred, 3(e), 'neither (with EEOC) named thereto.' Senate Welfare recommended, instead, re-enactment of-the limitation, cited approval personally EEOC, S.Rep.No. 92—415, p. 4942 bill House's 4944, position. Committee's notes '(a) rejected Committee,' 7168, 7565. accepted Chambers. 7170, 7573. provides: (payable agency, organization, responsible practice), appropriate. Commission. Interim earnings amounts earnable diligence operate reduce allowable. admission hiring, reinstatement, payment him admission, suspended, expelled, advancement suspended discharged color, religion, sex, origin 2000e—3(a) title.' Eldon, L.C., Gee Pritchard, Swans. *403, *414, Eng.Rep. 670, 674 (1818). Section 10(c) NLRA, 454, 160(c), 'unfair practice,' 'shall issue' 'requiring cease desist effectuate policies subchapter.' 'an 'may enjoin' 'and 5(g) framers NLRA model. 6549 (1964) (remarks Sen. Humphrey); 7214 (interpretative memorandum Sens. Clark Case). versions remedies, injunctions, 'shall' anomaly removed Substitute 656, 12814, 12819 (1964). 'minor change,' 12723—12724 Humphrey). away model denigrate status discharge presumptive owed employer,' Mastro Plastics 354 170, 178 (CA2 1965). NLRB's (1969), inception pursued practically uniform orders requiring action.' First Annual 124 (1936). '(I)n discharges, refusals employ reinstate, demotions 8(3), offer Report, Second 148 (1937). unsuccessful restrict supra. 4917, 4919—4920 (1972) Ervin Javits), Compare House, analyzed (1972), liberal i.e., necessary, carefully articulate reasons. recently systems. taken recruit black departments strict 1968 merger. modeled, 11, practice' 421, 405; Machinery 1321, 1328—1330 1970); Laidlaw 1969). complete, narrow, immunity undertaken conformity with, written (Equal Opportunity) Commission.' 2000e—12(b). upset choice recognize narrowly defined defense. declaratory relief, sexual statutes inconsistent Motors Rosenfeld Pacific 1219 1971). occasion decide 2000e—7. 20; 802—803; Hayes International 456 112, 116, 121 were, cumulative independent. may, question. construing 2(h), pertinent 'be administration designed, origin.' informed reduced 'locally validated' introduced, made. officials recall barest outlines alleged unsubstantiated hearsay. explained official, casual fashion: 'I befor, short Verbal Intelligence had, uh, probably behind So, consultation institute Wonderlic, addition Beta, bit exceedingly (W)e locally, primarily, the, conducting as, didn't get co-operation we'd taking certainly Norms my nationally a, eighteen (18).' 1971 effort, 430, accumulated (101 white) Some study. testified 'couldn't guys low, low Beta. couldn't wouldn't charts appended listed. ranking official oversaw displayed Appendix Association, Educational Manuals (1966) (hereafter Standards). volume title, containing modifications, 1974. refer 1607.5(a). Very Secretary contractors. 60—3.1 provide, §§ 1607.5(b)(3) (4): '(3) behaviors adequacy identify described; additionally, techniques, appraisal form(s) rater(s) included evidence. proficiency, time, supervisory ratings, attendance tenure. represent critical revealed careful analyses. '(4) possibility bias inherent evaluations, techniques developed, closely examined bias. unfairly criterion supervisor's when, insure groups.' escape neutral, on-the-scene oversight, come Studies controlled interested care. formulation, founded 'chosen zeal,' limitation reflect it; event support entirely justified type degree experience.' follows: delay.' points 20, cumulative. exclusion doing. formality universally accepted. Guideline relating validation,' 435, questioned Association. 914

Category: 1