Document: 435 U.S. 589 98 S.Ct. 1306 55 L.Ed.2d 570 Richard NIXON, Petitioner,v.WARNER COMMUNICATIONS, INC., et al. No. 76-944. Argued Nov. 8, 1977. Decided April 18, 1978. Syllabus During the criminal trial of several petitioner ex-President's former advisers on charges, inter alia, conspiring to obstruct justice in connection with so-called Watergate investigation, some 22 hours tape recordings made conversations petitioner's offices White House and Executive Office Building were played jury public courtroom, reels tapes admitted into evidence. The District Court furnished jurors, reporters, members attendance transcripts, which not as evidence but widely reprinted press. At close trial, four defendants convicted, after an earlier unsuccessful attempt over objections obtain court permission copy, broadcast, sell portions tapes, respondent broadcasters petitioned for immediate access tapes. denied petitions grounds that since convicted had filed notices appeal, their rights would be prejudiced if respondents' granted, transcripts apprised tapes' contents, public's "right know" did overcome need safeguard defendants' appeal. Appeals reversed, holding mere possibility p ejudice out-weigh right access, common-law judicial records required release its custody, therefore abused discretion refusing access. Held: 1. Considering all circumstances, does authorize question from Court's custody. Pp. 597-608. (a) inspect copy is absolute, decision whether permit best left sound court, a exercised light relevant facts circumstances particular case. 597-599. (b) Because congressionally prescribed avenue provided by Presidential Recordings Materials Preservation Act, whose existence decisive element proper exercise respect it necessary weigh parties' competing arguments against though only potential source information regarding these historical materials, presence alternative means tips scales favor denying release. 599-608. 2. First Amendment guarantee freedom here press must permitted generally has never physical available copying. There this case no truncated flow public, contents given wide publicity elements media, Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn, 420 469, 95 1029, 43 328, distinguished, under about superior general public. 608-610. 3. Nor Sixth trial. While understanding highly publicized may remain incomplete absence ability listen form judgments meaning, same could said live witness' testimony, yet there constitutional have such testimony recorded broadcast. confers special benefit nor require or any part it, broadcast satisfied opportunity attend report what they observed. P. 610. 179 U.S.App.D.C. 293, 551 F.2d 1252, reversed remanded. William H. Jeffress, Jr., Washington, D. C., petitioner. Floyd Abrams, New York City, Edward Bennett Williams, respondents. Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 This presents Columbia should respondents certain advisers. Respondents wish broadcasting sale Circuit held refusal copying was abuse discretion. United States Mitchell, 1252 (1976). We granted certiorari, 430 944, 97 1578, 51 791 (1977), reasons follow, we reverse. 2 * On July 16, 1973, before Senate Select Committee Campaign Activities revealed petitioner, then President States, maintained system recording Oval his private office Building. Hearings Related Before Activities, 93d Cong., 1st Sess., 2074-2076 (1973). A week later, Special Prosecutor issued subpoena duces tecum directing produce federal grand eight meetings one telephone conversation offices. When refused comply subpoena, ordered production recordings. In re Subpoena Nixon, 360 F.Supp. 1, aff'd sub nom. Nixon Sirica, 159 58, 487 700 November submitted seven nine subpoenaed informed other two missing. 3 March 1974, indicted individuals1 for, among things, investigation 1972 burglary Democratic National headquarters. preparation styled Mitchell,2 Prosecutor, second tecum, documents relating 64 additional conversations. motions quash. 377 1326 (1974). certiorari judgment affirmed. 418 683, 94 3090, 41 1039 accordance our decision, turned camera inspection. arranged copies admissible portions. It retained gave Prosecutor.3 4 began October Judge Sirica. course, taped courtroom. containing entered earphones prepared Prosecutor. evidence, 5 Six weeks begun, broadcasters4 motion seeking at Petitioner opposed application. Mitchell consuming Sirica's time, matter transferred Gesell. 6 December 5, Gesell privilege exhibits custody clerk, including question. 386 639, 641. minimized opposition motion, declaring neither alleged property interest asserted executive sufficed prevent already publicly aired available, transcription, world large. Id., 642. cautioned, however, "overcommercialization evidence." 643. And because administrative mechanical difficulties, he prohibited until over. Ibid. He requested parties submit proposals procedures minimize overcommercialization inconvenience time. order January 1975, rejected joint insufficient. 643-644. Noting back 7 4, Sirica without prejudice 397 186. Observing men declared granted. Immediate might "result manufacture permanent phonograph recordings, perhaps commentary journalists entertainers; marketing probably involve mass merchandising techniques designed generate excitement air ridicule stimulate sales." 188. Since not, view, 188-189. also noted passage Act (Presidential Act), 88 Stat. 1695, note following 44 U.S.C. § 2107 (1970 ed., Supp. V),5 duty thereunder Administrator General Services (Administrator) Congress regulations governing general. Under proposed Congress,6 distribution delayed 41/2 years. Although doubted covered issue here, viewed suggesting overriding importance. F.Supp., 189. 8 reversed. stressed importance assigned burden proving limitations privilege. court's event retrial outweigh 302-304, F.2d, 1261-1263. concluded "abused allowing those diminished interests confidentiality interfere tapes." 302, 1261. remanded development plan elease, noted—in apparent contrast admonitions Gesell—that "court's power control uses are put once released . sharply limited Amendment." 304 n. 52, 1263 52 (emphasis original). review requires II 9 Both acknowledge records, differ scope warranting restrictions it. An infrequent subject litigation, contours been delineated precision. Indeed, directly point—that is, addressing applicability third parties—has cited discovered. A. 10 clear courts country recognize documents,7 documents.8 English practice, see, e. g., Browne Cumming, B. & C. 70, 109 Eng.Rep. (K.B.1829), American decisions do condition enforcement proprietary document upon lawsuit. support issuance writ compelling found, example, citizen's desire keep watchful eye workings agencies, State ex rel. Colscott King, 154 Ind. 621, 621-627, 57 N.E. 535, 536-538 (1900); Ferry N.J.L. 332, 336-339 (1879), newspaper publisher's intention publish concerning operation government, Youmans Owens, 28 Wis.2d 672, 677, 137 N.W.2d 470, 472 (1965), modified grounds, 685a, 139 241 (1966). But see Burton Reynolds, 110 Mich. 354, 68 N.W. 217 (1896). 11 uncontested, absolute. Every supervisory own files, where files become vehicle improper purposes. For inspection bowed insure "used gratify spite promote scandal" through publication "the painful sometimes disgusting details divorce case." Caswell, 18 R.I. 835, 836, 29 259 (1893). Accord, 320 A.2d 717, 723, 727 (Del.1974). See King 25 Wyo. 275, 168 730 (1917). Similarly, serve reservoirs libelous statements consumption, Park Detroit Free Press Co., 72 560, 568, 40 731, 734-735 (1888); Cowley Pulsifer, Mass. 392, 395 (1884) (per Holmes, J.); Munzer Blaisdell, 268 App.Div. 9, 11, 48 N.Y.S.2d 355, 356 (1944); Sanford Boston Herald-Traveler Corp., 318 156, 158, 61 N.E.2d (1945), sources business harm litigant's competitive standing, Schmedding May, 85 5-6, 201, 202 (1891); Flexmir, Inc. Herman, 799, 800 (N.J.Ch.1945). 12 difficult distill relatively few comprehensive definition referred identify factors weighed determining appropriate. cases recognized agree case.9 event, undertake delineate precisely right, assume, arguendo, applies here.10 B 13 advances supporting tapes.11 14 First, argues voice, intend appropriate unfairly.12 Services, 433 425, 2777, 53 867 upholding constitutionality al divested insists, point fully responsive argument. asserting themselves. likens party voice course lawful wiretap police officers introduced tape. use one's give rise license commercial exploitation. 15 maintains privacy infringed aural distributed public.13 contention. reasoned playing written Act—in contemplated ultimate copies—any realistic expectation disappeared. U.S.App.D.C., 304-305, 1263-1264. Furthermore, ruled "impressed 'public trust' " ordinary claims. 305, 1264. add reproduction actual conversations, reflecting nuances inflections, more accurate informing important than verbatim transcript. disputes claim "accuracy," emphasizing played. If electronic fractions necessarily taken out context, presented. safeguard, taste medium, distortion cutting, erasing, splicing strong motivation titillate well educate listeners. insists infringe privacy, resulting embarrassment anguish himself persons who participated every reason believe confidential. 16 Third, (1974), authorized most consistent judiciary ensure prosecutions. concluded, thrust protect proceeding; relate actually longer confidential, 305-306, 1264-1265, afforded protection. 17 Finally, facilitate commercialization below argument, "question taste" take precedence 306, 1265. rejoins matters induce deny libel litigation. See, (1893); App.Div., N.Y.S.2d, 356. Moreover, widespread h legitimate interests; marginal gain outweighed unseemliness enlisting obtained purpose, exploitation "at cocktail parties, comedy acts dramatic productions, manner occur enterprising, imaginative, antagonistic recipients copies." Brief 30. C point, normally faced task weighing advanced courts.14 side incremental immensely occurrence arguably inconsequential despite dissemination printed transcripts. Also presumption—however gauged—in records. identified above, assessed context Underlying each crucial fact cooperation furthering plans. court—as custodian sitting President, solely satisfy "fundamental demands due process law fair administration justice," supra, 713, S.Ct., 3110—has responsibility sensitive appreciation led production. demand. Otherwise, exist danger partner material "to scandal," 259, corresponding assurance benefit. 19 decide how balance struck resolved basis reviewed above. additional, unique consideration below. directed documents. materials screened Government archivists so nature returned while value preserved proceedings and, eventually, accessible Thus, created procedure processing releasing terms meeting congressional approval, interest, here.15 major objects Act. centralized preservation "orderly processing" materials. Second, mandated protection "rights [petitioner] individuals infringement itself or, ultimately, retained." 436, 2787. To ends, formulate number different factors.16 provides legislative appraisal assuring material, safeguards. 20 argue policies Legislative Branches, possess resources assessing implementation rights, any, voices These brought bear frustrate achievement goals orderly affected persons. Simply stated, can carried itself. Sirica—as 595-596 scheme established 189; cf. Monjar, 954 (CA3 1946). appeals pending, merely petition prejudice, contemplating reconsideration exhaustion appeals.17 confront hold, 21 emphasize application presume issues Administrator's independent statutory standards. remains free, disapproval, design believes will advance Act.18 Questions validity finally implemented future proceedings. U.S., 438-439, 444-446, 450, 455, 462, 464-465, 467, 2787-2788, 2790-2791, 2793, 2799, 2800-2801, 2802, 2820-2821; id., 503-504, 2820-2821 (POWELL, J., concurring). concededly singular case, hold next consider whether, claim, Constitution impels us reach result. III 23 both Neither supports conclusion. 24 328 (1975), prevented prohibiting publishing name rape victim placed "in domain official records." 495, 1046. guarantees "access" meaning publish—exhibits displayed open court. argument misconceives Broadcasting. Our affirmed accurately contained serves information-gathering agent reporting learned entitled know. 491-492, 1044-1045. instant precluded utilizing saw fit simply to, domain. press—including reporters media—was heard. Reporters free comment publish. media. presented guaranteed tapes—to access—must applicable. 26 grants "Once beyond confines courthouse, news-gathering agency publicize, within limits, representatives heard seen line drawn courthouse door; within, reporter's greater member public." Estes Texas, 381 532, 589, 1628, 1663, 543 (1965) (Harlan, Cf. Saxbe Washington Post 417 843, 2811, 514 (1974); Pell Procunier, 817, 2800, 495 Zemel Rusk, 16-17, 1271, 1280-1281, (1965). 27 contend trial.19 They history, based inflection emphasis. first place, proves too much. witness, 539-542, 1631-1632. words Black, "a employ instruments persecution," Oliver, 333 257, 270, 499, 506, 92 L.Ed. 682 (1948), 583, 1653 (Warren, concurring); 588-589, 1662-1663 trial—or requirement That abundantly existed IV erred reversing remand directions prejudice.20 30 So ordered. 31 WHITE, whom BRENNAN joins, dissenting part. 32 I dispositive my somewhat different, here. true 101(a) delivery retention original hence involved 101(b) differently cast: 33 "(b)(1) Notwithstanding agreement pursuant section title 44, Code, shall receive, retain, make reasonable efforts obtain, complete possession papers, documents, memorandums, constitute M. covering period beginning 20, 1969, ending August 1974. 34 "(2) purposes subsection, term 'historical materials' 2101 Code." 35 "Historical materials" defined "including books, correspondence, pamphlets, works art, models, pictures, photographs, plats, maps, films, having commemorative value." 36 Obviously, far broader sweep 101(a). originals well. sought contain occurred during critical 101(b)—January later time remove copies, like originals, period. value, equal significance. unlikely effort them. 37 Of compelled seek produced specified surely receive deal them statute. 38 therefore, instructions deliver forthwith. 39 MARSHALL, dissenting. As "seek[ing vindicate precious common predates itself." 301, 1260 today recognizes assumes applicable Ante, 598-599, 11. substantial making 599. nevertheless holds that, contrary rulings below, significant interest. finds "decisive" 607. express covers "original recordings," 101(a), undisputed ante, 593-594 3, 603-604 15. commendable display candor, conceded apply. Supplemental 42 Nothing Act's history suggests intended defer Branch regard contrary, "expertise" secure approval promulgated post, 616, (STEVENS, dissenting). clear, moreover, people full affair." S.Rep. 93-1181, p. Hence extent assistance deciding strongly indicates Appeals. class one," 472, 2805, obligated adhere historic role Judiciary sides concede ours resolve. dissent. STEVENS, 45 judge properly arises infrequently. essentially answered reference Only egregious merit reversal; when Court1 Appeals2 concurred, justifying virtually insurmountable. Today's represents departure practice appellate observe housekeeping practices. 46 protecting dignity Presidency, real avoiding associated further largely eviscerated, entirely normal presumption reinforced characteristics conduct itself, disclosed great Full affect institutions. distinguished judge, intimately familiar ramifications place correct balance. 47 Today overturns d cisions giving conclusive weight 1695.3 requiring suppress manifests Congress' settled resolve provide much physically possible quickly possible."4 surprising responded post-argument request supplemental briefs expressly disavowing reliance expertise gained deferring case.5 now rely judge's considered ironic, mildly. respectfully follows: John N. Attorney head Re-election President; R. Haldeman, Assistant serving Chief Staff; Ehrlichman, Domestic Affairs; Charles W. Colson, Counsel Robert Mardian, Kenneth Parkinson, hired Committee's counsel June 1972; Gordon Strachan, staff assistant Haldeman. Crim. 74-110 (D.C.1974). Defendant Colson pleaded guilty charges him dismissed. Strachan's severed ultimately acquitted Parkinson found Mardian conspiracy. Ehrlichman conspiracy, obstruction justice, perjury. convictions 181 254, 559 (1976), cert. denied, 431 933, 2641, 250 (1977). Mardian's conviction 178 207, 546 973 instituted him. Clerk described procedure: "White separate subpoenas. group 1973 instance, received purported entire reel portion conversation. "As U. S. al., CR 74-110, approached, reproduced using technical supplied Portions cases, enti e previously reproduced. Two simultaneously designated Copy series subpoenas aforementioned marked identification Exhibits 74-110. 50 reels. "In Government's some, all, Some, again published jury. Those either whole Where entirety, deletions Deletions effected modifying exhibit skipping deleted interrupting transmission jurors' headphones. originally constituted. "The jurors aids listening exhibits. Exhibits, individual counsel, news media used others matched many instances present courtroom." Affidavit James F. Davey, 26, pp. 2-3; App. 24-25. retains not. stored Archives. 101 V), Services. September 17, three television networks informally asking Hart, consulted judges advised permitting 2, network allowed. Radio-Television News Directors Association formal 12, Public System joined day. Warner Communic tions, Inc., detailed discussion Fed.Reg. 2670 (1975). disapproved. S.Res. 244, 94th Sess. 121 Cong.Rec. 28609-28614 infra. McCoy Providence Journal 190 760, 765-766 (C.A.1), 342 894, 200, 96 669 (1951); Fayette County Martin, 279 Ky. 387, 395-396, 130 S.W.2d 838, 843 (1939); Nowack Auditor General, 243 203-205, 219 749, 750 (1928); Egan, 205 N.Y. 147, 154-155, 469 (1912); Nevada Title Guaranty Trust Co. Grimes, Nev. 50, 82-86, 84 1061, 1072-1074 (1906); Brewer Watson, 71 Ala. 299, 303-306 (1882); People Gibson Peller, Ill.App.2d 372, 374-375, 376, 378 (1962). jurisdictions expanded Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 116, 43.7 Sloan Filter El Paso Reduction 117 504 (CC Colo.1902); Sackett, C.C.P.A. 1214 (Pat.), 136 248 (1943); 724-727 (Del.1974); Williston Herald, O'Connell, 151 758, 762-763 (N.D.1967). Ex parte Uppercu, 239 435, 140, 60 368 (1915). least 1894. Drawbaugh, App.D.C. 404 (1894). Burka, 289 376 (D.C.App.1972). 682, 474-475 contends totally all. offers principal position: (i) "court records" access; (ii) custody; (iii) assertion third-party precludes assume (see text above) applicable, intimate view merits various contentions access" considerable ever decisive. disposition accorded factor weighed. Whatever claims text, standing object subpoenaed, recorded, allegations embarrassment, unfair appropriation thought confidential establish injury redressed favorable claim. present. Warth Seldin, 422 490, 498-502, 2197, 2204-2207, 343 develops lacks supra. relevant, discretionary proper. tapes—fairness defendants, appealing convictions—is consideration. All resolved. insist cover Section directs "receive, caused officer employee Federal which— "(1) who, conversation, employed Government; Buildings loc ted Columbia; Camp David, Maryland; Key Biscayne, Florida; San Clemente, California; "(3) 1974." 1695 added). "originals." areas. WHITE direct forthwith Administrator. reaches result construing conjunction 2101, sweeping ambit provisions generated (i. e., Jan. Aug. 1974). Apart period, broadly. 101(b). specifies duties entitlement briefed argued. 104 propose meet approval. pertinent "REGULATIONS RELATING TO PUBLIC ACCESS "Sec. 104. shall, ninety days date enactment [Dec. 19, 1974] proposing explaining 101. Such account factors: truth, earliest date, abuses governmental popularly generic 'Watergate'; proceedings; except proceedings, Nation's security; "(4) individual's impartial trial; "(5) party's assert legally constitutionally otherwise limit materials; "(6) significance, likely related paragraph (1); "(7) heirs, sole use, (1) subsection effect expiration submission report, unless disapproved resolution adopted regulation change subsection. apply (a). Any (7) (a), (a)." 1696-1697. fourth set final. 63626 disapproved, second, 428, 2d 122 10159-10160 six set. H.R.Res. 1505, (1976); 30251 94-368 (1975); H.R.Rep. 94-560 94-748 suggestion Stevens, 614, supported facts. eventually imposed stringent standards inconvenience. failed framed timing release, ever, evidence" 187 even speculative appeals, applications prejudice. Consequently, correctly characterized "have concurred," deem controlling—the 105-63.404(c) final "[r]esearchers comparable approved al.; Company, D.C. Miscellaneous 74-128." 63629 fact, procedures. Hence, reflect belief judiciary, delineating pass questions §§ 104(a)(5), (7), 105(a), (c). obviates common- questions. lawsuit arose independently party, arisen developed consider. Further, themselves dissemination. cannot accept representing sum, litigation utilized substitute safeguards forth relied deprivation defendant's 538, 1630, (1965); balancing undertaken instance. "We outcome readily above." Bigelow Virginia, 421 809, 826-827, 2222, 2235, 600 According Manual Clerks Courts 207.1 (1966), clerks "obtain direction, rule [to owners] destroyed stated appeal expired." addressed ownership stake speak remand. explained court: requested, photograph cost duplicating applicant, Clerk, long jurisdiction traditions. Absent 404, 407 [A]ny maintain secrecy, seem inconsistent belongs record, according long-established usage actice. carefully issue. From assiduously removed extraneous topics national security irrelevant strictly germane proceeding record. pardoned, protest affording greatest presidential 'consistent justice.' [418 715, 3111, (1974)]. His retrieved; accordingly rejected." 641-642 Like Appeals, infra, unlike majority, 606-608, read rejection suppressed. Explaining concurrence Gesell's views, stated: "Beyond this, militate decision. Presidency thus impressed trust,' prime circulation makes hypothetical spectators suddenly seems [R]ecordings Material[s] sounds find entry way unable conclude rejecting privacy. underlying records—interests especially concern Watergate—we say considerations deference impede rights." 1264-1265 (1976) (footnotes omitted). expressed disagreement aspect opinion. although MacKinnon dissented forthwith, views. 306-307, 1265-1266. "was below." 603. rejecting, embracing, S.Rep.No.94-368, H.R.Rep.No.95-560, planned forbid control, emphatically initial proposal. Senate's Report condemned best, unnecessary, worst, spirit letter act." supra,, 13. elaborated: evaluating regulation, basic intent legislation designed, limitations, possible. end, GSA research less recording." proposal, fears undue commercialization: "There risk reproduce exploit society. Founding Fathers accepted adopting speech protections amendment, researcher announce findings research." H.R.Rep.No.560, revised years ban end proposal twice. S.Res.428, H.R.Res.1505, S.Rep.No.94-748, 23-24 H.R.Rep.No.94-1485, approach latest approved, states: "Researchers .." expected soon approve Reports regulations, noting forbidden pending begin prosecutions completed. .R.Rep.No.94-560, 4; Administrator, "once approves adopt "similar procedures." Administration, Legal Explanation Access Regulations—Presidential P.L. 93-526, G-54

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