Document: 491 U.S. 397 109 S.Ct. 2533 105 L.Ed.2d 342 TEXAS, Petitionerv.Gregory Lee JOHNSON. No. 88-155. Argued March 21, 1989. Decided June Syllabus During the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Texas, respondent Johnson participated a political demonstration to protest policies of Reagan administration and some Dallas-based corporations. After march through city streets, burned an American flag while protesters chanted. No one was physically injured or threatened with injury, although several witnesses were seriously offended by burning. convicted desecration venerated object violation Texas statute, State Court Appeals affirmed. However, Criminal reversed, holding that State, consistent First Amendment, could not punish for burning these circumstances. The court first found Johnson's expressive conduct protected Amendment. concluded criminally sanction order preserve as symbol national unity. It also held statute did meet State's goal preventing breaches peace, since it drawn narrowly enough encompass only those burnings would likely result serious disturbance, this case threaten such reaction. Further, stressed another prohibited peace be used prevent disturbances without punishing desecration. Held: conviction is inconsistent Pp. 402-420. (a) Under circumstances, constituted conduct, permitting him invoke conceded expressive. Occurring at end coinciding Convention, expressive, overtly nature both intentional overwhelmingly apparent. 402-406. (b) has asserted interest support unrelated suppression expression therefore permit application test set forth United States v. O'Brien, 391 367, 88 1673, 20 672, whereby important governmental regulating nonspeech can justify incidental limitations on Amendment freedoms when speech elements are combined same course conduct. An implicated record. Expression may basis audience takes offense disturb government cannot assume every provocative idea will incite riot but must look actual circumstances surrounding expression. dissatisfaction Federal Government's does fall within class "fighting words" seen direct personal insult invitation exchange fisticuffs. This Court's forbid "imminent lawless action" and, fact, law specifically prohibiting peace. Texas' preserving nationhood unity related thus, falls outside O'Brien test. 406-410. (c) latter conviction. restriction content based, aimed protecting physical integrity all designed protect from knowing abuse causes others. subject "the most exacting scrutiny." Boos Barry, 485 312, 108 1157, 99 333. prohibit verbal nonverbal merely because society finds offensive disagreeable, even where our involved. Nor foster its own view relating it, designated symbols communicate limited messages. Moreover, create exception principles alone. 410-422. 755 S.W.2d 92, (Tex.Cr.App.1988), BRENNAN, J., delivered opinion Court, which MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion, post, p. 420. REHNQUIST, C.J., dissenting WHITE O'CONNOR, joined, 421. STEVENS, 436. Kathi Alyce Drew, Tex., petitioner. William M. Kunstler, New York City, respondent. Justice BRENNAN Court. 1 publicly means protest, Gregory desecrating law. presents question whether his We hold not. 2 * While taking place Dallas 1984, dubbed "Republican War Chest Tour." As explained literature distributed demonstrators d speeches made them, purpose event certain marched chanting slogans stopping corporate locations stage "die-ins" intended dramatize consequences nuclear war. On occasions they spray-painted walls buildings overturned potted plants, himself took no part activities. He did, however, accept handed fellow protestor who had taken flagpole targeted buildings. 3 ended front City Hall, unfurled flag, doused kerosene, fire. burned, protestors chanted: "America, red, white, blue, we spit you." dispersed, witness collected flag's remains buried them backyard. though testified been 4 Of approximately 100 demonstrators, alone charged crime. criminal he Tex.Penal Code Ann. § 42.09(a)(3) (1989).1 trial, convicted, sentenced year prison, fined $2,000. Fifth District affirmed conviction, 706 120 (1986), 92 (1988), not, 5 began recognizing symbolic Amendment: "Given context organized demonstration, speeches, slogans, distribution literature, anyone observed appellant's act have understood message appellant convey. clearly 'speech' contemplated Amendment." Id., 95. To engaging speech, two interests: neither supported 6 Acknowledging yet decided Government value, nevertheless decision West Virginia Board Education Barnette, 319 624, 63 1178, 87 L.Ed. 1628 (1943), suggested furthering curtailing impermissible. "Recognizing right differ centerpiece freedoms," explained, "a mandate fiat feeling citizens. Therefore, very carve out prescribe approved messages associated status purports represent." S.W.2d, 97. Noting th shown "grave immediate danger," supra, 639, S.Ct., 1186, being stripped special endangered 7 flag-desecration disturbance And emphasized, particular " 'Serious offense' occurred," admitted, "but there breach nor record reflect situation potentially explosive. One equate 'serious incitement peace." 96. 42.01 (1989), Citing 333 demonstrated ability 8 Because reversed ground 42.09 unconstitutional applied him, state address argument was, face, unconstitutionally vague overbroad. granted certiorari, 488 907, 257, 102 245 now affirm. II 9 rather than uttering insulting words.2 fact somewhat complicates consideration under determine challenging See, e.g., Spence Washington, 418 405, 409-411, 94 2727, 2729-31, 41 842 (1974). If next decide regulation free 377, 1679, 672 (1968); Spence, 414, n. 8, 2732, 8. expression, then less stringent standard announced regulations noncommunicative controls. See 1679. is, O'Brien's test, ask justifies more demanding standard.3 411, 2730. A third possibility simply facts, drops picture. U.S., 10 literally forbids abridgment "speech," long recognized protection spoken written word. rejected apparently limitless variety labeled whenever person intends thereby express idea," 376, 1678, acknowledged "sufficiently imbued communication scope Fourteenth Amendments," 409, 11 In deciding possesses sufficient communicative bring into play, asked "[a]n intent convey particularized present, [whether] likelihood great viewed it." 410-411, Hence, natu e students' wearing black armbands military involvement Vietnam, Tinker Des Moines Independent Community School Dist., 393 503, 505, 89 733, 735, 21 731 (1969); sit-in blacks "whites only" area segregation, Brown Louisiana, 383 131, 141-142, 86 719, 723-24, 15 637 (1966); uniforms dramatic presentation criticizing Schacht States, 398 58, 90 1555, 26 44 (1970); picketing about wide causes, see, Food Employees Logan Valley Plaza, Inc., 308, 313-314, 1601, 1605-06, 603 Grace, 461 171, 176, 103 1702, 1706, 75 736 (1983). 12 Especially pertinent decisions flags. Attaching sign 409-410, 2729-30; refusing salute 632, 1182; displaying red Stromberg California, 283 359, 368-369, 51 532, 535-36, 1117 (1931), held, find shelter Smith Goguen, 415 566, 588, 1242, 1254, 39 605 (1974) (WHITE, judgment) (treating "contemptuously" pants small sewn their seat conduct). That little difficulty identifying element flags should surprising. serve country; might say, visible manifestation hundred years nationhood." 603, 1262 (REHNQUIST, dissenting). Thus, observed: 13 "[T]he form utterance. Symbolism primitive effective way communicating ideas. use emblem symbolize system, idea, institution, personality, short cut mind mind. Causes nations, parties, lodges ecclesiastical groups seek knit loyalty followings banner, color design." 1182. 14 Pregnant content, readily signifies Nation combination letters "America." automatically concluded, any action respect Instead, characterizing purposes, considered occurred. example, emphasized Spence's taping "roughly simultaneous concededly triggered Cambodian incursion Kent tragedy." 410, Washington conceded, communication, stated concession inevitable record." 16 purposes oral Tr. Oral Arg. 4, seems us prudent Washington's Spence. part—indeed, culmination—of coincided convening Party renomination Ronald President. At reasons follows: "The Flag renominated powerful statement you agree couldn't time. It's quite just position [juxtaposition]. new patriotism patriotism." Record 656. communication," 2730, implicate III 17 generally freer hand restricting 376-377, 1678-1679; Clark Creative Non-Violence, 468 288, 293, 104 3065, 3068, 82 221 (1984); Stanglin, 490 19, 25, 1591, 1594, 18 (1989). proscribe elements. "[W]hat termed generalized guarantee freedom makes inadequate singling proscription. directed must, like itself, justified substantial showing need requires." Non-Violence Watt, 227 U.S.App.D.C. 55-56, 703 F.2d 586, 622-623 (1983) (Scalia, dissenting) (emphasis original), rev'd sub nom. supra. short, stake, helps valid. 'nonspeech' sufficiently applicability relatively lenient cases expression." 1679; see stating, moreover, "in last analysis little, if any, different time, place, manner restrictions," Clark, 298, 3071, highlighted requirement unconnected come rule. 19 applies here, therefore, facts before us, applies. offers separate interests conviction: second A. claims desecration.4 actually occurred occur flag. Although stresses disruptive behavior during toward Brief Petitioner 34-36, admits "no time flagburning response flagburning." 34. emphasis protestors' disorderly actions prior arriving Hall surprising given t charges brought fails show reaction evidence offered trial testimony persons 6-7. position, amounts claim necessarily basis.5 Our precedents do countenance presumption. contrary, recognize principal "function system invite dispute. indeed best high induces condition unrest, creates conditions are, stirs people anger." Terminiello Chicago, 337 1, 69 894, 896, 93 1131 (1949). Cox 379 536, 551, 85 453, 462, 471 (1965); Dist. 508-509, 737-38; Coates Cincinnati, 402 611, 615, 91 1686, 1689, 29 214 (1971); Hustler Magazine, Inc. Falwell, 46, 876, 881-882, (1988). odd conclude "if speaker's gives offense, consequence reason according constitutional protection," FCC Pacifica Foundation, 438 726, 745, 98 3026, 3038, 57 1073 (1978) (opinion J.), ban disagreeable ideas unsupported presumption disagreeableness provoke violence. 22 permitted riot, instead required careful asking "is inciting producing imminent produce action." Brandenburg Ohio, 395 444, 447, 1827, 1829, 23 430 (1969) (reviewing rally Ku Klux Klan). arguments demonstrate potential peace," 37, potential, eviscerate Brandenburg. decline do. "likely average retaliation, cause Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 574, 62 766, 770, 1031 (1942). reasonable onlooker regarded id., 572-573, 769-770; Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 309, 60 900, 905-06, 84 1213 (1940); 3038 J.). 24 thus maintaining facts. worry disable suggest Brandenburg, 1829. And, already tends confirm keep 327-329, 1167-1168. B 25 asserts government's value directly activity" affixing equally persuaded apparently, concerned lead believe either stand unity, reflects other, positive concepts, concepts reflected exist, enjoy Nation. These concerns blossom person's treatment communicates message, "to expression" meaning O'Brien. altogether. IV consider 27 "[w]e confronted prosecution activity," "[a]ccordingly, examine care advanced [petitioner] prosecution." add, prosecuted idea; country, situated core values. 318, 1162; Frisby Schultz, 487 474, 479, 2495, 2499-2500, 101 420 28 knew politically "serious offense." disposing dirty torn, law: federal designates preferred "when longer fitting display," 36 U.S.C. 176(k), quarrel disposal. 45. against impairments others.6 concedes much: "Section 42.09(b) reaches severe acts carried i offensive. mandates abuse, kind mistreatment innocent, intentionally offend other individuals." 44. Whether violated depended impact conduct.7 tells based. Boos, constitutionality display 500 feet foreign embassy 'public odium' disrepute.' 315, 1160. Rejecting neutral "our international obligation shield diplomats offends dignity," 320, 1163, "[t]he emotive 'secondary effect' itself. 321, 1164 (plurality opinion); 334, 1171 (BRENNAN, judgment). 30 According restricted conveyed. character 1164.8 31 argues survives close analysis. Quoting extensively writings chronicling historic role society, emphasizes 'special place' reserved 22, quoting 601, 1261 something, matter what symbolizes; indeed, difficult how highly Johnson's. Rather, determinate range meanings. 20-24. treats tend cast doubt referents exists, conveyed harmful prohibited.9 32 bedrock principle underlying itself disagreeable. 881-882; Council Los Angeles Taxpayers Vincent, 466 789, 804, 2118, 2128, 80 772 Bolger Youngs Drug Products Corp., 463 60, 65, 72, 2875, 2879, 2883, 77 469 (1983); Carey Brown, 447 455, 462-463, 2286, 2291, 65 263 (1980); 745-746, 3038; Young Mini Theatres, 427 50, 63-65, 67-68, 96 2440, 2448-2450, 2450-2451, 49 (1976) Buckley Valeo, 424 16-17, 612, 633-634, 46 659 (1976); Grayned Rockford, 408 104, 115, 2294, 2302-2303, 33 222 (1972); Police Dept. Chicago Mosley, 95, 2289, 212 Bachellar Maryland, 564, 567, 1312, 1314, 570 382, 1681; 142-143, 724-725; 535-536. Street York, 394 576, 1354, 572 (1969), words critical sustained "failed properly demanded citizen," constitutionally guaranteed 'freedom intellectually . diverse contrary,' 'right things touch heart existing order,' one's opinions including defiant contemptuous." 593, 1366, 642, 1187. government, compel evince "To sustain compulsory say Bill Rights guards individual's speak mind, left open public authorities utter mind." 634, 1183. 34 Barnette Constitution leave Jackson described society's defining deserving frequent repetition: "If fixed star constellation, official, petty, shall orthodox politics, nationalism, religion, matters force citizens confess word faith therein." here insufficient flag-misuse [Spence's] light privately owned significantly impaired facts," invalidated." 415, 2732. 1254 (to convict onto "contemptuous" "[t]o interfering proper unacceptable controlling majority legislature"). 35 nothing suggests it.10 precedents, attempts convince allow outright destruction depend distinction between distinction, shown, moment here. 402-403. addition, involved protected. focus precise misses point decisions: enduring lesson, disagrees dependent mode chooses idea.11 wherever endanger role, promotes role—as where, ceremoniously burns flag—we saying comes impairing integrity, symbol—as substitute "short mind"—only direction. "prescribe orthodox" burn attitude representation 37 never ensure referents. Indeed, invalidated actor portraying member Armed Forces 'wear uniform armed portrayal discredit force.' 1557, 772(f). proviso, "which leaves Americans praise war Vietnam send prison opposing survive country 63, 1559. 38 perceive apply case. enter territory having discernible defensible boundaries. Could theory, flags? copies Presidential seal? Constitution? evaluating choices warrant unique status? so, forced consult preferences, impose citizenry, 466-467, 2293-2294. There indication—either text interpreting it—that juridical category exists surprised learn framed wrote construe known reverence Union Jack. virtually sacred whole—such discrimination race odious estructive go unquestioned marketplace (1969). decline, joust 40 ends, means, object. gainsaid Nation, legitimate making efforts "preserv[e] unalloyed country." 412, 2731. reject suggestion, urged counsel Johnson, lacks "any whatsoever" displayed. 38. Congress has, enacted precatory describing §§ 173-177, legitimacy recommendations. encouraging protest. "National officials persuasion example question. problem compulsion employed permissible achievement." 640, 1186. fortified today's conclusion forbidding punishment played feelings inspires. paraphrase Holmes, submit nobody suppose gesture unknown man change Nation's towards Abrams 250 616, 628, 17, 1173 (1919) (Holmes, 'is peace,' 31, Sutherland DeWulf, 323 F.Supp. 740, 745 (SD Ill.1971) (citation omitted), statute's implicit assumption offense," danger; were, take burned. 42 tempted deservedly cherished community strengthened, weakened, today. reaffirmation inclusiveness reflects, toleration criticism source strength. proudest images immortalized anthem, bombardment survived Fort McHenry. resilience, rigidity, sees flag—and resilience reassert 43 feel differently matters. persuade wrong. courageous, self-reliant men, confidence power fearless reasoning processes popular danger flowing deemed clear unless incidence evil apprehended so befall opportunity full discussion. expose discussion falsehood fallacies, avert education, remedy enforced silence." Whitney 274 357, 47 641, 649, 71 1095 (1927) (Brandeis, concurring). precisely involved, one' burner exploit uniquely persuasive imagine appropriate waving own, better counter burner's saluting burns, surer dignity by—as did—according respectful burial. consecrate desecration, doing dilute represents. V judgment 45 Affirmed. concurring. I write qualify well, says necessary explain ruling. join reservation, keen sense case, others exacts toll. prompts me add pages few remarks. 48 illustrates judicial often exercise. Branch share responsibility, flawed incomplete. For presented simple judged pure command Constitution. outcome laid door ours. hard sometimes make like. right, Constitution, result. commitment process that, except rare pause distaste result, perhaps fear undermining valued dictates decision. cases. 50 colleagues dissent advance why reminding among dismayed singular honor carrying battle. holds lonely age absolutes distrusted truths burdened unneeded apologetics. With views, rule Members urge, however painful announce. Though ourselves constant expressing beliefs share, sustains human spirit. today forces recognition costs commit us. poignant fundamental protects contempt. 52 shows, philosopher possess comprehend repellent statements Republic But appreciate enormity gave, technical So free. 53 Chief whom O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 54 unconstitutional, ignores Holmes' familiar aphorism page history worth volume logic." Trust Co. Eisner, 256 345, 349, 506, 507, 963 (1921). 200 years, occupied uniqu uniqueness prohibition 55 Revolution, served unify Thirteen Colonies home, obtaining sovereignty abroad. Ralph Waldo Emerson's "Concord Hymn" describes skirmishes Revolutionary lines: 56 "By rude bridge arched flood Their April's breeze unfurled, Here once embattled farmers stood 58 fired shot heard round world." 59 many colonial regimental flags, adorned pine trees, beavers, anchors, rattlesnakes, bearing "Liberty Death," "Hope," "An Appeal Heaven," "Don't Tread Me." distinctive "Grand Flag"—with stripes British corner—which flown January 2, 1776, troops Continental Army around Boston. By 14, 1777, after declared independence England, resolved: "That thirteen stripes, alternate white: union stars, white blue field, representing constellation." Journal 1774-1789, 464 (W. Ford ed. 1907). 61 adoption vessels harassing shipping sailed authorized Without treat captured seamen pirates hang summarily; treated prisoners 1812, naval up Chesapeake Bay overland sack Washington. They Patapsco River invest Baltimore, reduce McHenry Baltimore Harbor. Francis Scott Key, lawyer, permission board warships negotiate release prisoner. night, waiting anxiously ship, Key watched fleet firing Finally, daybreak, saw fort's still flying; attack failed. Intensely moved, scribble back envelope poem became anthem: "O dawn's early light, 64 What proudly hail'd twilight's gleaming, Whose broad & bright thro' perilous fight 66 O'er ramparts watch'd gallantly streaming? 67 rocket's glare, bomb bursting air, 68 Gave proof night there, O star-spangled banner wave 70 land home brave?" central tragic conflict, North fought South. lowering Sumter start G. Preble, History America 453 (1880). Southern formalize separation Union, adopted "Stars Bars" Confederacy. sound "Yes We'll Rally Round Boys, Once Again." President Abraham Lincoln refused proposals remove stars rebel conflict nations Government. 411. war's end, again flew over "an indestructible union, composed states." White, 74 (7 Wall.) 700, 725, (1869). 72 stories Civil told John Greenleaf Whittier's poem, Barbara Frietchie: 73 "Up meadows rich corn, Clear cool September morn, clustered spires Frederick Green-walled hills Maryland. 76 orchards sweep, Apple- peach-tree fruited deep, Fair garden Lord 78 eyes famished horde, pleasant morn 79 When mountain wall,— Over mountains winding down, 81 Horse foot, town. Forty silver 83 crimson bars, Flapped morning wind: sun noon looked one. Up rose old Frietchie then, Bowed her fourscore ten; Bravest town, She men hauled down; attic-window staff she set, loyal yet. street came tread, Stonewall riding ahead. slouched hat glanced: met sight. 'Halt!'—the dust-brown ranks fast. 95 'Fire!'—out blazed rifle-blast. shivered window, pane sash; 97 rent seam gash. Quick, fell, broken Dame snatched silken scarf; leaned far window-sill, shook royal will. 'Shoot, gray head, spare your country's flag,' said. shade sadness, blush shame, face leader came; nobler stirred life woman's deed word; 106 'Who touches hair yon head 107 Dies dog! on!' All day Sounded tread marching feet: tost heads host. Ever torn folds fell winds loved well; 110 "And hill-gaps sunset 111 Shone warm good-night. 112 "Barbara Frietchie's work o'er, 113 Rebel rides raids more. 114 "Honor her! let tear 115 Fall, sake, Stonewall's bier. 116 grave, 117 Freedom wave! 118 "Peace beauty draw 119 thy law; ever above down below town!" 121 Second World Wars, thousands countrymen died soil fighting cause. Iwo Jima War, Marines Japanese. reached top Mount Suribachi, raised piece pipe upright fluttered ascent cost nearly 6,000 lives. Memorial Arlington Cemetery memorializes event. Franklin Roosevelt labels, packages, cartons, containers export lend-lease aid, inform countries States' assistance. Proclamation 2605, Stat. 1126. 122 Korean war, successful amphibious landing Inchon marked raising hour Impetus enactment Desecration Statute 1967 troop morale Vietnam. Representative L. Mendel Rivers, Chairman House Services Committee, caused my mail increase percent boys writing going America." Flag, Hearings H.R. 271 Subcommittee Committee Judiciary, 90th Cong., 1st Sess., 189 (1967). Charles Wiggins stated: undermine troops. finding true attested received correspondence servicemen shock disgust conduct." Cong.Rec. 16459 123 symbolizes well presence battleships, airplanes, installations, Capitol county courthouses halls throughout country. Two prominently placed courtroom. Countless graves ones each called Decoration Day, Day. traditionally casket deceased members Forces, later deceased's family. 1481, 1482. provided half-staff upon death President, Vice "as mark memory." 175(m). identifies merchant ships, 454, laws commerce float." Guthrie, (17 How.) 284, (1855). 124 universally honored 1931, Star-Spangled Banner" anthem. 170. 1949, 14th 157. 1987, Philip Sousa's Stars Stripes Forever" march. Pub.L. 101-186, 1286. established Pledge Allegiance Flag" deliverance. 172. appeared postal stamps design least more, times symbol. Postal Service, Definitive Mint Set 125 Both numerous misuse Until 1967, States. Now, 700(a) provides that: 126 "Whoever knowingly casts contempt mutilating, defacing, defiling, burning, trampling $1,000 imprisoned year, both." 127 prescribed, inter alia, detailed rules occasion display, 174, 175, hoisting, lowering, passing 177. Alaska Wyoming, statutes flag.1 Most patterned Uniform Act 1917, provides: "No mutilate, deface, defile, defy, trample upon, standard, color, ensign shield." Proceedings Conference Commissioners Laws 323-324 (1917). passed I. Rosenblatt, Statutes: Analysis, 1972 Wash.U.L.Q. 193, 197. 128 history, embodying represent views party, philosophy. "idea" "point view" competing Millions millions regard almost mystical regardless sort social, political, philosophical have. invalidates Congress, 129 More ago Halter Nebraska, 205 34, 419, 696 (1907), upheld Nebraska forbade representations advertising articles merchandise. said: 130 "For appreciation deep affection. insults indignities put revere resented punished spot." 41, 131 Only Terms ago, San Francisco Arts Athletics, Olympic 483 522, 2971, (1987), grant exclusive "Olympic" Committee. thought "restrictio[n] [was] characterized primary congressional rewarding USOC's activities." 2981. stated, [or symbol] acquires 'as organization expenditure labor, skill, money' entity, entity obtain property symbol]." 2974, International News Service Associated Press, 248 215, 239, 68, 211 (1918). Surely similar 132 insists infringes Such freedom, course, absolute. Schenck 249 47, 247, 470 (1919). (1942), unanimous 133 "Allowing broadest language absolute well-defined classes prevention raise Constitutional problem. include lewd obscene, profane, libelous, 'fighting' words—those utterance inflict injury utterances essential exposition ideas, slight social step truth benefit derived outweighed morality." 571-572, 769 (footnotes omitted). 134 Chaplinsky's unlawful "address offensive, derisive annoying lawfully place." 569, 768. local marshal, ' "You God damned racketeer" "damned Fascist whole Rochester Fascists agents Fascists." Ibid. 135 said tendency denunciation wished; private. effigies leaders. streets conducted Hall. engaged "die-in" weapons. shouted various march, including: "Reagan, Mondale be? Either III"; "Ronald Reagan, killer hour, Perfect power"; "red, you, plunder, under." Respondent 3. none arrested prosecuted; proceeded stolen rightful owner statute. 136 phrases—they succinctly extremely low addressee. case; obviously bitter dislike act, words, forcefully dozen ways. words," [is] [it] outweighed" avoiding probable highest courts grounds inherently inflammatory order. Royal, N.H. 224, 229, 305 A.2d 676, 680 (1973); Waterman, 190 N.W.2d 809, 811-812 (Iowa 1971); Mitchell, Ohio App.2d 16, 30, 288 N.E.2d 216, 226 (1972). 137 deny frame "symbolic speech." Far "one picture thousand equivalent inarticulate grunt roar fair indul ed antagonize five 812, 2132, (1984), employ conceivable method places." deprived protest—a profoundly many—and panoply disapproval policy. hearers—or group people—were opposed sought opposition symbol, expressions, punished. 138 dealing resolves 579, 1359, defendant street, shouting "We don't flag" "[i]f happen Meredith flag." ruled solely stand, expressly 581, 1360. 139 Warren, dissent, "I disgrace. [I]t faced issue, otherwise." 605, 1372. Justices Black Fortas expressed violate 610, 1374 (Black, ("It passes belief anything bars deliberate offense"); 615-617, 1377-1378 (Fortas, ("[T]he committed public. [T]he personality. Its regulation. 'own' ownership burdens responsibilities. property, sense; peculiar obligations restrictions. Certainly per se arbitrary beyond Constitution"). 140 (1974), college student displayed affixed removable tape window apartment. Unlike instant risk arresting officers student's facts." 2732-2733. note, "was permanently disfigure destroy 141 Ct. appellee, wore trousers, Massachusetts subjected liability "publicly contemptuously States." 568-569, 1244-1245. lower court's reversal appellee's phrase "treats contemptuously" vague. 1248. "[c]ertainly prevents legislature specificity constitutes forbidden flags." 581-582, 1251. 587, ("The regulate make, imitate, sell, possess, it. mutilation, defacement, otherwise seem mutilation Memorial. monument, protection"); 591, 1256 (BLACKMUN, ("Goguen's harming pants"). 142 this. awe felt bundled off rubric "designated symbols," ante, 417, prohibits "establishing." "established" feeling; done that. profound created enacts disrespectful 143 concludes regrettably patronizing civics lecture, presumably addressed Houses legislatures prohibitions objected burned: wrong." Ante, 419. final expositor established, Platonic guardian admonishing responsible truant school-children government. cry taxation representation" animated revolted English Crown Nation—the submitted passed. democratic legislate people—whether murder, embezzlement, pollution, 144 wisely places limits powers legislative majorities declaration "is, times, much delicacy, ought seldom, ever, affirmative, doubtful case." Fletcher Peck, (6 Cranch) 87, 128, 162 (1810) (Marshall, C.J.). Uncritical extension risks frustration governments instituted. decides pro con tolerated, inimal enjoined. conscript die fight. uphold case.2 145 146 analyzes Government, unique. host symbols, armbands, promoted emblems commercial identity, controlling. Even species logical developed interpretation contexts, intangible dimension inapplicable. 147 "nationhood unity." 407, 413, 9, characterize chosen growth fleurs-de-lis tricolor symbolized unity," vastly flags—the swastika, example—may outlived usefulness regimented nation. 148 proud courage, determination, gifts transformed fledgling world power. equal opportunity, religious tolerance, good peoples aspirations. carries dissidents abroad survival. 149 measured. future significant legitimate. Conceivably enhanced strong ultimate guarantor am unpersuaded. creation post bulletin boards graffiti Monument enlarge market pay. Similarly, judgment, sanctioning tarnish value—both cherish waves desire don robes martyrdom trivial burden occasioned requiring available, alternative (1969)—be employed. 150 emphasize propositions statutory 1187, (1943). profession 151 paramount neutrality communication." 70, 2452, opinion). respondent's relevance whatsoever concept "desecration" turn substance convey, offense. Accordingly, intending square nonetheless guilty knows misperceive message—will offended. possible understand respect, understanding lessen witnesses. "it offense" "reason "disagreeable ideas," 409. involves diminishes asset. 152 wrong blandly asserting values." chose policies. Had spray-paint motion projector—his facade Memorial, quality asset stake intangible, supports flag.* 153 liberty equality irresistible motivating leaders Patrick Henry, Susan B. Anthony, Lincoln, schoolteachers Nathan Hale Booker T. Philippine Scouts Bataan, soldiers scaled bluff Omaha Beach. for—and demonstrates are—it worthy unnecessary 154 respectfully dissent. Penal (1989) full: "§ 42.09. Venerated Object "(a) commits desecrates: "(1) monument; "(2) worship burial; "(3) "(b) section, 'desecrate' damage, mistreat observe discover action. "(c) section Class misdemeanor." prosecutor's closing led chants denouncing 33-34. relies 578, 1358, obtained defying casting "either act" Street, remarks admits. jury uttered fl g emphasizes, though, instructed parties—that 'a acting promote assist commission solicits, encourages, directs, aids, aid offense.' 49. instruction defense challenged appeal, 120, (Tex.App.1986). argued law-of-parties merit pejorative themselves encourage require. Given additional bulk premised culpability sole actor," ibid., too unlikely theory reversing ground. facial challenge choose resolve violates Section regulates word, "knows" "will action," mean Cf. (statute encompasses tired might, drag mud, others, courts' interpretations precludes pose disposed narrower grounds, Relying (1968). violent feared connects 12, 11. favor courts. Monroe Fulton County, 739 574-575 (CA11 1984). overread insofar "related venture further area. tension 590-591, 1255-1256 (emphasizing construed circumstances); 597-598, 1259 (same). onlookers' mistreats "knows added). statute," argues, "refers effectuated, crowd." actor's actions, "likely" present. knowledge stresses; proved offering event, precious significance. kinds onlookers activity. inquiry bounded convicted. stole stolen. rely acquired, steal uses idea. trespass, onduct, arson. "Texas endorsing, protecting, avowing philosophy." 29. prefer Democrats Socialists, Republicans Democrats, beside point, argument. maintain assumes argue viewpoint another, mistaken; surely viewpoint. addressing validity contrary. "nearly virtue 7, 2731, important, continually purely speech. 38, 42, 45, 420, 421, 422, 423. 524, 2975, Congress' "authoriz[e] promotional 'Olympic,' relied THE CHIEF JUSTICE's 429, begin tell appears sanctioned, "his ways." Post, 431. Not assertion sit uneasily dissent's correct reminder occupies society—which "just forcefu[l]" it—but "rejected summarily" claim. Ala.Code 13A-11-12 (1982); Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-3703 (1978); Ark.Code 5-51-207 (1987); Cal.Mil. Vet.Code 614 (West 1988); Colo.Rev.Stat. 18-11-204 (1986); Conn.Gen.Stat. 53-258a (1985); Del.Code Ann., Tit. 11, 1331 Fla.Stat. 256.05-256.051, 876.52 Ga.Code 50-3-9 Haw.Rev.Stat. 711-1107 (1988); Idaho 18-3401 Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. &Par; 3307, 3351 Ind.Code 35-45-1-4 Iowa 32.1 (1978 Supp.1989); Kan.Stat.Ann. 21-4114 Ky.Rev.Stat.Ann. 525.110 (Michie Supp.1988); La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 14:116 1986); Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., 254 (1979); Md.Ann.Code, Art. 27, Mass.Gen.Laws 264, 265 Mich.Comp.Laws 750.246 Minn.Stat. 609.40 Miss.Code 97-7-39 Mo.Rev.Stat. 578.095 (Supp.1989); Mont.Code 45-8-215 Neb.Rev.Stat. 28-928 Nev.Rev.Stat. 201.290 N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 646.1 N.J.Stat.Ann. 2C:33-9 1982); N.M.Stat.Ann. 30-21-4 N.Y.Gen.Bus.Law (McKinney N.C.Gen.Stat. 14-381 N.D.Cent.Code 12.1-07-02 Rev.Code 2927.11 Okla.Stat., 372 Ore.Rev.Stat. 166.075 Pa.Cons.Stat. 2102 R.I.Gen.Laws 11-15-2 (1981); S.C.Code 16-17-220, 16-17-230 (1985 S.D.Codified 22-9-1 Tenn.Code 39-5-843, 39-5-847 (1974); Utah 76-9-601 Vt.Stat.Ann., 13, 1903 Va.Code 18.2-488 Wash.Rev.Code 9.86.030 W.Va.Code 61-1-8 (1989); Wis.Stat. 946.05 (1985-1986). 24-30. think merit. Club Assn. 2225, 2233, when, validly defendant, reach parties. "may satisfy fault cost, [it is] terms ordinary exercising common comply with." CSC Letter Carriers, 413 548, 2880, 2897, 796 (1973). "desecrate" "deface," "damage" "physically mistreat" "seriously offend" flagrant issue here—soaking lighter fluid igniting public—and examples improper etiquette cited brief. suggestion far-reaching introduction disparate-impact jurisprudence. obvious gravesite n utral denies extinguishing flame F. Kennedy bowing heads. Few protester extinguishes desecrated gravesite, prefaces explaining admiration unmitigated scorn late Likewise, bows disrespect. absolutely

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