Document: 387 U.S. 1 87 S.Ct. 1428 18 L.Ed.2d 527 Application of Paul L. GAULT and Marjorie Gault, Father Mother Gerald Francis a Minor, Appellants. No. 116. Argued Dec. 6, 1966. Decided May 15, 1967. [Syllabus from pages 1-3 intentionally omitted] Norman Dorsen, New York City, for appellants. Frank A. Parks, Phoenix, Ariz., appellee, pro hac vice, by special leave Court. Merritt W. Gren, Toledo, Ohio, Ohio Ass'n Juvenile Court Judges, as amicus curiae. Mr. Justice FORTAS delivered the opinion This is an appeal under 28 U.S.C. § 1257 (2) judgment Supreme Arizona affirming dismissal petition writ habeas corpus. 99 Ariz. 181, 407 P.2d 760 (1965). The sought release appellants' 15-year-old son, who had been committed juvenile delinquent to State Industrial School Gila County, Arizona. affirmed against various arguments which included attack upon constitutionality Code because its alleged denial procedural due process rights juveniles charged with being 'delinquents.' court agreed that constitutional guarantee law applicable in such proceedings. It held Arizona's be read 'impliedly' implementing 'due concept.' then proceeded identify describe 'the particular elements constitute hearing.' concluded proceedings ending commitment Gault did not offend those requirements. We do agree, we reverse. begin statement facts. I. 2 On Monday, June 8, 1964, at about 10 a.m., friend, Ronald Lewis, were taken into custody Sheriff County. was still subject six months' probation order entered on February 25, result his having company another boy stolen wallet lady's purse. police action 8 verbal complaint neighbor boys, Mrs. Cook, telephone call made her caller or callers lewd indecent remarks. will suffice purposes this say remarks questions put irritatingly offensive, adolescent, sex variety. 3 At time picked up, mother father both work. No notice left home. other steps advise them their son had, effect, arrested. Children's Detention Home. When arrived home 6 o'clock, there. Gerald's older brother sent look him trailer Lewis family. He apparently learned custody. so informed mother. two went deputy officer, Flagg, also superintendent Home, told 'why Jerry there' said hearing would o'clock following day, 9. 4 Officer Flagg filed 9, 1964. served Gaults. Indeed, none saw until corpus August 17, entirely formal. no reference any factual basis judicial it initiated. recited only 'said minor age eighteen years, need protection Honorable Court; (and that) minor.' prayed regarding care executed formal affidavit support petition. 5 Gerald, mother, brother, Probation Officers Henderson appeared before Judge chambers. work out city. complainant, one sworn hearing. transcript recording made. memorandum record substance prepared. Our information subsequent derives entirel f rom testimony Judge,1 proceeding conducted months later. From this, appears 9 questioned judge call. There conflict what he said. His recalled dialed Cook's number handed Ronald. admitted making McGhee testified 'admitted these (lewd) statements.' conclusion hearing, 'think it.' back own parents. 11 12, after detained since released driven home.2 explanation why kept Home released. p.m. day release, received note signed Flagg. plain paper, letterhead. Its entire text follows: 'Mrs. Gault: 7 'Judge McGHEE has set Monday 1964 11:00 A.M. date further Hearings delinquency '/s/ Flagg' appointed father, present McGhee. Witnesses differed recollections 15 again admit remarks.3 But 'there some admission statements. He—he didn't more serious statements.'4 Again, present. asked Cook 'so she could see done talking, dirty talking over phone.' 'she have speak communicate time. talked once—over 'referral report' officers court, although disclosed listed charge 'Lewd Phone Calls.' 'for period minority (that is, 21), unless sooner discharged law.' An effect entered. recites 'after full deliberation finds child, years.' appal permitted cases. 3, referred Superior vigorously cross-examined actions. account fact probation. 'under section * code you found delinquent?' 12 answer forth margin.5 In substance, came within ARS 8—201, subsec. 6(a), specifies 'delinquent child' includes 'who violated state ordinance regulation political subdivision thereof.' 13—377. Criminal provides person 'in presence woman child uses vulgar, abusive obscene language, guilty misdemeanor *.' penalty specified Code, apply adult, $5 $50, imprisonment than months. acted 201, 6(d) definition who, phrased it, 'habitually involved immoral matters.'6 13 Asked matters,' testified, somewhat vaguely, years earlier, July 2, 1962, 'referral' concerning 'where baseball glove lied Police Department there 'no hearing,' accusation' relating incident, 'because lack material foundation.' seems remained mind relevant factor. nuisance phone calls past which, boy's testimony, 'silly calls, funny something like that.' 14 dismissed writ, appellants review That stated considered assignments error urging (1) 8—201 8—239, unconstitutional does require parents children apprised specific charges, proper provide appeal; constituted absence adequate hearing; failure notify certain including th r ights counsel confrontation, privilege self-incrimination; use unsworn hearsay testimony; make Appellants asserted remove without showing finding unsuitability, miscellany errors law. down elaborate wide-ranging stating court's conclusions issues raised aspects process. jurisdictional brief Court, urge us all points passed They hold invalid face applied case because, contrary Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment, institution pursuant virtually unlimited discretion, basic are denied: 16 1. Notice charges; 17 2. Right counsel; 3. confrontation cross-examination; 19 4. Privilege 20 5. proceedings; 21 6. appellate review. 22 shall consider emphasize indicate whether decision respect requirements Federal Constitution.7 II. 23 requisite validity reaches fault, engaged conduct prohibited law, otherwise misbehaved consequence freedom curtailed. accord decisions courts federal constitutions.8 24 heretofore decided precise question. Kent v. United States, 383 541, 86 1045, 84 (1966), valid waiver 'exclusive' jurisdiction District Columbia tried adult criminal District. Although our turned language statute, emphasized necessity fairness' satisfied proceedings.9 Haley 332 596, 68 302, 92 L.Ed. 224 (1948), admissibility, general jurisdiction, confession boy. Amendment prohibit coerced confession. Douglas said, 'Neither man nor can allowed stand condemned methods flout law.'10 To same Gallegos Colorado, 370 49, 82 1209, 325 (1962). Accordingly, while cases relate restricted subject, they unmistakably that, whatever may impact, neither Bill Rights adults alone. 25 impact provisions totality relationship state. even For example, here concerned procedures pre-judicial stages process, direct attention post-adjudicative dispositional See 48, infra. problems presented case. These determination 'delinquent' misconduct part, institution. As proceedings, little current dissent proposition role play.11 problem ascertain requirement 26 inception system, wide differences tolerated—indeed insisted upon—between accorded juveniles. practically jurisdictions, granted withheld addition case, entitled bail, indictment grand jury, public trial jury.12 frequent practice rules governing arrest interrogation observed juveniles.13 27 history theory underlying development well-known, but recapitulation necessary opinion. movement began country end last century. statute adopted Illinois 1899, system spread every Union, Columbia, Puerto Rico.14 laws sustained 40 jurisdictions variety attacks.15 early reformers appalled penalties, given long prison sentences mixed jails hardened criminals. profoundly convinced society's duty confined concept justice believed 'guilty' 'innocent,' 'What he, how become best interest save downward career.'16 essentially good, it—was 'to feel object (the state's) solicitude,'17 trial. procedure therefore altogether inapplicable. apparent rigidities, ec hnicalities, harshness substantive discarded. idea crime punishment abandoned. 'treated' 'rehabilitated' procedures, apprehension through institutionalization, 'clinical' rather punitive. 29 results achieved, coming conceptual grief, insisting adversary, parens patriae.18 Latin phrase proved great help rationalize exclusion scheme; meaning murky historic credentials dubious relevance. chancery practice, where, however, used power act loco parentis purpose protecting property interests child.19 trace doctrine jurisprudence. common seven incapable possessing intent. Beyond age, subjected arrest, trial, offenders.20 old days, deemed authority fewer adults. 30 right state, patriae, deny available elders elaborated assertion unlike 'not liberty custody.' attorn parents, go school, etc. If default effectively performing custodial functions—that if 'delinquent'—the intervene. doing so, deprive rights, none. merely 'custody' entitled.21 basis, involving described 'civil' 'criminal' restrict when seeks liberty.22 31 highest motives most enlightened impulses led peculiar juveniles, unknown comparable context. theoretical is—to least—debatable. And remarked supra, satisfactory.23 demonstrated unbridled however benevolently motivated, frequently poor substitute principle procedure. 1937, Dean Pound wrote: 'The powers Star Chamber trifle comparison *.'24 standards necessarily meant receive careful, compassionate, individualized treatment. based always produced fair, efficient, effective procedures. Departures established principles resulted procedure, arbitrariness. Chairman Pennsylvania Council Judges recently observed: 'Unfortunately, loose high-handed crowded calendars, either singly combination, too often, depriving fundamental process.'25 32 Failure observe instances, might avoided, unfairness individuals inadequate inaccurate findings unfortunate prescriptions remedy. primary indispensable foundation individual freedom. essential term social compact defines delimits exercise.26 Frankfurter said: American small measure, procedure.'27 But, addition, fashioned generality instruments distillation evaluation facts conflicting welter data life adversary enhance possibility truth emerge opposing versions data. 'Procedure 'scientific method' science.'28 33 claimed obtain benefits offset disadvantages normal discuss, observance standards, intelligently ruthlessly administered, compel States abandon displace process.29 important, think, should candidly appraised. Neither sentiment folklore cause shut eyes, startling reported exceptionally reliable study repeaters recidivism Standford Research Institute President's Commission Crime Columbia. Commission's Report states: 34 'In fiscal 1966 approximately 66 percent 16- 17-year-old Youth Aid Division previously. 1965, 56 Receiving repeaters. SRI revealed 61 sample referrals 1965 previously least once 42 twice before.' Id., 773. 35 Certainly, figures high rates among (supra, n. 26), lead conclude protections reduces crime, functioning free inhibitions largely done, reduce rehabilitate offenders. mean denigrate suggest offenders valuable. features proponents unique benefit impaired domestication. commendable processing treatment separately way affected discussion.30 Further, important avoid classifying 'criminal.' offender now classed 'delinquent.' course, reason continue. disconcerting, come involve slightly less stigma adults.31 statutes adjudication operate civil disbi lity disqualify service appointment.32 application interfere provisions. 36 protected disclosure deviational behavior. summary Courts sometimes defended law's policy hide youthful gaze bury graveyard forgotten past.' claim secrecy, rhetoric reality. Disclosure records discretionary jurisdictions. Statutory restrictions almost invariably records, evidence many routinely furnish FBI military, request government agencies private employers.33 Of importance records. keep complete file 'police contacts' discretion departments requests law-enforcement agencies, Armed Forces, generally comply.34 Private employers word forms produce arrests contacts furnished well agencies.35 37 event, why, consistently cannot continue deems appropriate, improve provision confidentiality interesting note, argument justification type attacked purposes. 'delinquency.' specified. held, 'notice,' must advised 'of case' later initial judge. Obviously, 'bury' child's transgressions. defers point limited preparing defense explanation. 38 urged informal court. conception fatherly touched heart conscience erring youth problems, paternal advice admonition, extreme situations, benevolent wise institutions provided guidance career.'36 Then, now, goodwill compassion admirably prevalent. recent studies have, surprising unanimity, sharp gentle conception. appearance actuality fairness, impartiality orderliness—in short, essentials process—may impressive therapeutic attitude far concerned. study, sociologists Wheeler Cottrell laxness 'parens patriae' followed stern disciplining, contrast adverse feels deceived enticed. 'Unless appropriate followed, fairly treated resist rehabilitative efforts personnel.'37 suggested judges fail appropriately take account, demeanor conduct, emotional psychological whom confronted. While will, introduce degree regularity determine delinquency, contested nothing kindly replaced opposite,no rule question ordinary hearings disposition child. 39 Ultimately, confront reality portion deal A misconduct. where restrained years. consequence—and practical called School. matter euphemistic title, 'receiving home' 'industrial school' confinement incarcerated greater lesser world becomes 'a building whitewashed walls, regimented routine institutional hours *.'38 Instead sisters brothers friends classmates, peopled guards, custodians, employees, 'delinquents' anything waywardness39 rape homicide. view extraordinary Constitution exercise implied process.' Under Constitution, condition justify kangaroo traditional ideas indeed, contemplated establish precisely prank adolescence brutal threatening consequences himself society corrected?40 notions, assume home, working careful inquiry disciplined dealt despite previous transgressions.41 us, except conversation school 'wanting Grand Canyon father,' directed different determining violation penal statute.42 difference between safeguards discarded possible instead 18. 41 18, proceedings.43 offense immediately involved, maximum fine jail Instead, sentence apply, substantial constitution. search, seizure, pretrial interrogation. assure charges decide course prepare defense. clear represented counsel, and, felony required unable afford it. confession, voluntariness. opportunity cross-examination guaranteed. So gulf State's requires bridge sturdier mere verbiage, reasons persuasive cliche provide. developed close correspondence realities routines.'44 Judge's patriae unlimited. admonition function 'parental' invitation arbitrariness.'45 With youth, place reaching tremendous ceremony assistance reasons.'46 announced 'We conform usual administrative measure up fair treatment.'47 reiterate view, connection 'delinquency,' part Constitution.48 43 turn III. 44 NOTICE OF CHARGES. 45 allege alternatively constitutionally defective hearings. 8. night, orally next afternoon written paper Thursday Friday, delinquency.' 46 'petition' reciting minor's welfare.' alleging terms 'neglected, dependent delinquent.' explicitly states allegation sufficient, 'without facts.'49 upon, to, shown parents.50 47 rejected denied notice. knew exact nature detention home.' pointed Gaults objection.' past,' advanc n otice taking necessary. infant guardian delinquency.51 judge, denied, reasonable prepare.' 48 agree Notice, comply requirements, sufficiently advance scheduled afforded, 'set particularity.'52 obvious, discussed above, shielding knowledge approved below. 'initial hearing' merits. timely; conceivable deferral proposed below, yield notified, writing, allegations earliest practicable time, event permit preparation. sort described—that proceeding.53 allow youth's parents' stake giving timely notice, meet. Nor, circumstances reasonably waived.54 IV. RIGHT TO COUNSEL 49 fatally express thereto. '(t)here disagreement (among jurisdictions) counsel.'55 noted Dept. Public Welfare Barlow, 80 249, 296 298 (1956), 'that representation choosing.' (Emphasis added.) characterized requiring officer neglected, children,' representing court.56 argued parent relied protect infant's interests.' Accordingly counsel.' duty, representation; specifically situation discerns instance exercised. agree. officers, scheme, arresting officers. initiate petitions verify, here, child; testify, adjudicatory fact, witness Nor represent involved. contention foreclosed Court.57 issue loss seriousness prosecution. needs cope law,58 skilled facts, insist submit 'requires guiding hand step him.'59 Just U.S., 561—562, S.Ct., 1057—1058, indicated agreement Appeals Circuit equally carrying awesome prospect incarceration 21.60 50 During decade, decisions,61 experts,62 legislatures63 increasing recognition view. one-third retained right, assignment combination these. similar provisions.64 51 recommended 'procedural child,' 'Counsel wherever coercive possibility, affirmative choice parent.'65 authoritative 'Standards 52 z Family Courts,' published Bureau Health, Education, Welfare: 53 'As component guaranteed 14th amendment, family financially employ Standards, p. 57. 54 'reviewed' National Convention 'found fault' it.66 Act contains statement: 55 'This declares minors choosing guardians67 neglect article three supervision seven. declaration often realization helpful reasoned determinations orders disposition.'68 'At commencement juvenile's 'right chosen assigned *.'69 California (1961) appointment counsel.70 57 curtailed, notified them, 58 proceeding, defined expressly retain confronted consideration choose waive right. potential commitment, chose waiver. Gault's 'intentional relinquishment abandonment' fully known right.71 V. 59 CONFRONTATION, SELF-INCRIMINATION, CROSS-EXAMINATION 60 hearings, self-incrimination observed. admissions ground obtained disregard self-incrimination.72 disregarded, argue conclusion, fundamentally during guarantees generally.73 first question, then, improperly decision, Constitution. purpose, briefly recall 62 recipient call, witness. replied present.' appears, spoken once, telephone. occasion. questioning appear record.74 Gerad each 'some statements (but not) uncertainty witnesses proceeding—the Judge, officer—as admit. 63 quoted avove. testify statement, incriminating 64 incriminate himself. think flexibility enhanced self-incrimination.' 65 reviewing Specifically, whether, unequivocal obliged penalized remaining silent. light Miranda Arizona, 384 436, 1602, 694 available, waived waived. recognized eliciting confessions scrutiny. Wigmore 67 distruct situations rough indefinite way, experience. collection statistics untrue confessions, instances loosely enough verified fortify observation human stresses person, especially mentality temperament, falsely acknowledge guilt. arises innocent placed acknowledgment guilt promising alternatives choose; chooses risk acknowledging guilt, preference worse alternative associated silence. principle, excluded conditions, testimonially untrustworthy *. (T)he feature testimonial one, analogous exclude narrations *.'75 69 caution. 224, reversed conviction murder, 70 transpired pause mature when, child—an easy victim law—is scrutinizing used. Age tender difficult race. judged themo re exacting maturity. unimpressed overawe overwhelm lad teens. instability crisis produces. lad, dead night relays police, ready inquisition. Mature men possibly ordeal midnight a.m. believe match contest. fear, panic. someone lean lest overpowering knows crush him. friend stood side relays, hour hour, dawn. lawyer guard sure farther, stopped short became coercion. critical questioning.'76 71 Haley, discussed, convicted notable decisions, Jersey boys adjudged Haley. contended tribunal inculpatory rejected, aside grounds inadmissibility Matters S., N.Y.2d 55, 277 N.Y.S.2d 675, N.E.2d 102 (1966) (opinion Keating, J.), Interests Carlo Stasilowicz, N.J. 225 A.2d 110 Proctor, J.). 72 related trustworthy, fruits fear coercion, expressions truth. roots are, deeper. tap stream religious reflects limits individual's attornment and—in philosophical sense insists equality state.77 words, broader deeper thrust prevents product coercion thought carry danger unreliability. One prevent force domination, overcoming investigation assist securing conviction.78 73 indeed criminals children. Fifth operation exception. scope comprehensive. White, concrr ing, Murphy Waterfront Commission, 378 52, 94, 1594, 1611, 678 (1964): 74 civil, judicial, investigatory adjudicatory. protects disclosures apprehend prosecution used.'79 75 expert 'distrust situations' passage 44-45, imperative adolescence. York, enacted start remain silent.80 attempt him,81 absent 'special circumstances' prior notifying relatives releasing Court.82 applies involuntary People 260 N.Y. 171, 183 N.E. 353, A.L.R. 1001 (1932), holding contrary, overruled statute. 76 Courts' concludes 'Whether transfer followed. Before interviewed (by police), legal refuse fingerprinted83 decide.'84 77 Against silence, 'criminal,' apply. true 'shall compelled himself.' However, availability invoked, exposure invites. may, inculpatory.85 78 unrealistic carve involvement. place, determine'd elinquency,' institution, regarded self-incrimination. feeble enticement label-of-convenience attached half assurance separate institutions, apart 'criminals.' transferred institutions86 least, deprivation liberty. one's 'civil.' 'compelled' threatened liberty—a command broadly generously implemented accordance teaching office mankind's battle freedom.87 79 equivalence offender, apprehended interrogated itself outside reach relinquish courts.88 'suspend' Court.89 urged, asserted, presumably silence good assumed therapy encouraged trust confidence toward officials widespread challenge reappraisals handling 81 accumulating aid 'individualized treatment,' below compelling questions, warning remainsi lent, serve purpose. observations Cottrell,90 others, probable induced confess 'paternal' urgings disciplinary action, reaction likely hostile adverse—the tricked punished.91 cast formidable doubt reliability trustworthiness 'confessions' Court's above. S. deals dramatic hoped, example. Two 12-year-old Negro assault aged domestics, died attack. schizophrenic locked security ward mental attacks. By bizarre, police. psychiatrist 'whatever expected get immediate situation.' 'confessed.' Both detail, albeit contained inconsistencies. Appeals, J., products boys. Appellate adjudging defendants delinquents reversed. 83 instructive Jersey. supra. body 10-year-old girl found. She strangled. Neighborhood questioned. appellants, confessed vivid detail complicity killing. fatigue extensive grilling. voluntary admissible. appeal, safeguard voluntariness rules, accused committing homicide 'has appurtenances trial,' participation county prosecutor, stenographic made, extended imposed homicide, second-degree murder years' imprisonment.92 involuntary, stressing station interrogated;93 interrogated;94 inconsistencies objective crime; protracted periods questioning. notedth e statements, 'significant weight voluntariness.'95 Ketcham proffer oral headquarters four involvement attempted robbery. Matter Four Youths, Nos. 28—776 J, 28—778—J, 28—783—J, 28—859—J, April 7, 1961. rest untrustworthy. 85 'Simply stated, rests opinion—after nearly busy bench thousands heard—that adolescents arrested violations distort truth.' appreciate arise behalf children, technique principle—depending competence tribunals administering privilege. permissible obtained, greatest voluntary, suggested, ignorance adolescent fantasy, fright despair.96 'confession' advising appears. 'admission' reduced 'admissions,' lacking certainty consequences.97 Apart 'admission,' based. testimony. 'sworn others officially structure.' enough. tribunals. Absent 'delinquency' 88 recommendations Bureau's conclusions. oath competent, evidence.98 provision.99 89 554, 1053, VI. 90 APPELLATE REVIEW AND TRANSCRIPT PROCEEDINGS. 91 ure construed confidential destroyed prescribed time.100 Whether all.'101 reverse affirmance reasons, hearings—or, conclusion. Cf. 561, 1057, context waiving local permissible: '* incumbent accompany considerations therefor.' illustrates, throw burden machinery corpus, saddle attempting reconstruct record, impose unseemly testifying events him.102 93 remanded inconsistent ordered. 94 Judgment directions. 95 BLACK, concurring. 96 out, plans promoted humane forward-looking people courts, sanctions harmful lenient line policy, legislators shrunk labeling preferred This, safeguards, Sixth Amendment,1 Sixth,2 selfincrimination Fifth,3 b y Sixth.4 holds, imprisoned strikes well-nigh fatal blow much Nation. reason, position my Brother STEWART pass squarely presented. majority I views unexpressed determined. circumstances, impelled views. 97 planners envisaged immunize 'punishment' 'crimes' effort indiscretions stigmas convictions. exalted ideal failed achievement beginning system. provisions, emphatic terms, charging laws, away turning groups latter occurred Young violating using vile offensive lady fined conduct. juvenile, secret, ordered, realistically, 'sentenced,' age. Thus, designed lighten criminality, ordered name penitentiary jail. 98 Where seized State, charged, Amendment. Undoubtedly defendant, equal laws—an invidious discrimination heavier punishments could, safeguards. consequently self-incrimination, young Gault. 'fairness, process'—require process,' unequivocally Amendments makes States. few words added HARLAN concurrence reads clause alone allowing fairness proceedings' fashion consistent 'traditions people." Rochin California, 342 165, 205, 183. believes gives power, weighing 'compelling interest,' 'imperative' 'necessary' comport notions 'fundamental fairness.' 100 subscribe interpretation Clause. Nothing permits 'fair distillations history' itself. law' evolved successor 'law land' Magna Charta plainly intended according existing land committed. proclamations promulgated fit attach new intimating meet 'decencies' changed consciences shocked legislation, federal. 101 And, existence buttressed created relying 'procedural.' labeled 'procedural' 'substantive,' 'tools which' unspecified 'rights vindicated,' very vitals sound cherished liberties people. makers. Freedom Nation secure moment 'should' 'should imposed' people.' though profess 'proceed restraint,' above write interpret judges. ominous sentence, more, HARLAN's bodes ill, judgment, legislative programs commands. Speaking Rights, says: 103 'These factors legislatures properly expect cautious deference judgments, conversely, responsibility ample achieving programs. proceed restraint.' 104 concerns Amendments; 'procedure' claims relates solely safeguards; claiming supreme fits tradition conscience. Constitutin vests judges, anywhere else. Consequently, vote invalidate 'unfair' violates obligatory Pointer Texas, 380 400, 412, 1065, 1072, 923 (Goldberg, concurring). me collides head-on respects mentioned. relevance would, violate enforce Rights. 105 WHITE, 106 join Part stage not, find Compulsion violation. armed has, asks party minor, answer, source. difficulty directly inform silent; reveal parties aware source, just already behalf. raise focus 107 recorded unsound applications See, 526, 1654, 694, Malloy Hogan, 1, 33, 1489, 1506, 653, dissenting opinions. views, prevailed. hope extending privilege, vigor, particularly nonadjudicatory 108 here. clearly ill-advised took decision. Johnson Jersey, 719, 1772, 882. vehicle resolving problem. Moreover, prejudice regard. 109 V HARLAN, concurring part. 111 Each distinctive employed imposed. commonly extends withdrawn processes justice, acts performed criminal. Such denominated criminal, characteristically administer penalties. systems, construes own, brings limitations places tribunals.1 follow, gone respects, fallen assessing demanded 112 am decides satisfy obligations premise, reasoning described, 'constitutional basis' systems 'debatable'; buttresses doubts marshaling suggests accomplishments expectations.2 observers, pertinent issues. discernible standard measurement relation unfortunately understood principally wisdom all. 113 source dissatisfaction, share supposed beyond assess legislation scarcely doubted adopt measures calculated persistent delinquency; abundantly plain, vexing communities throughout country. 114 treat specialized include Among premises obligation deprived Snyder Commonwealth Massachusetts, 291 97, 105, 330, 332, 674. doubly intensified First, traditionally justice; affects manner citizens. Quite obviously, erosion, evasion, Cns titution Second, recognize character closely resembled trials. device escape constraints, nonetheless examine circumspection provided. 115 central principal divided method measured. outset determined resort classification formulae simply imprecise analysis actual created. chiefly examined connected sources: first, 'settled usages modes proceeding,' Den ex dem. Murray Hoboken Land & Improvement Co., How. 272, 277, 372; second, lie base institutions'. Hebert Louisiana, 272 312, 316, 103, 104, 270 third, situation. FCC WJR, Goodwill Station, 337 265, 1097, 1104, 1353; Yakus 321 414, 660, 834. further, Poe Ullman, 367 497, 522, 1752, 1765, 989, compare 408, 1070. demands examination. 116 repeatedly 'interests affected' 'circumstances involved.' 1104. particular, interest' must, cases, clauses application. e.g., 442, 675; Bowles Willingham, 503, 520, 641, 650, 892; Miller Schoene, 276 279, 246, 247, 568. never warrant arbitrariness diminution assured Bldg. Loan Assn. Blaisdell, 290 398, 426, 231, 235, 413, element evaluated. 117 indicates 601,000 2% courts' 'about one-fifth crimes' adds rate steadily rising. All suggests, issues, mirrors vividly authorities values. hopeful solution speciaiz ed organized imposing consequences. identical, arrangements include, uniform insistence inappropriate, relatively dedicated imperfectly reflected 118 settled give widest judgments concern urgency Legislatures acknowledged, 'main guardian' interest, competence, understanding accepted 'wellnigh' conclusive. Berman Parker, 348 26, 32, 98, 102, 27. resolution embrace assessments guarantees; entrusted possess competence. therefore, defer encompass protection. 119 suffices summarize pertinent. realistically extend ancillary questions. Procedure creates beginnings futile. distinction legislature's preferences unavoidably framework system; meaningful former. substantive-procedural dichotomy nonetheless, tool analysis, stems premise ultimately welfare, themselves legislature selected. McLean Arkansas, 211 539, 547, 206, 208, 315; Olsen Nebraska, 313 236, 246—247, 862, 865, 1305. areas congruent thus functions bear Plainly, studied thoroughly objectives implementation program stake; if, completion studies, assessed certainty, restraint. 120 foregoing considerations, history, criteria measured here: fairness; preserve, possible, purpose; finally, orderly selection additional prove yet response crime. 121 Measured criteria, should, opinion, Amendment: affecting made; indigency, them; maintain equivalent, collateral tools vindicated, pursue unnecessary hindrance field. imposition intelligent assessment creating suitable deficiencies accurately judged. 122 fulcrum proceeding. Roller Holly, 176 409, 410, 520; Coe Armour Fertilizer Works, 237 424, 625, 628, 1027. ordinarily prerequisite rights; vindication fortuitous. spared 'favor grace' authorities. Central Georgia Ry. Wright, 207 127, 138, 47, 51, 134; 425, 628. 123 Provision assert defenses, liberty, Gideon Wainwright, 372 335, 792, 799, Griffin Illinois, 351 585, 891; inexperienced immature. Powell Alabama, 287 45, 158. illustrate poignantly difficulties proceeding's stages. modification proceedings: percentage incident courts;3 maintenance appreciably alter 124 remains cross-examination, expressed WHITE'S other, deep-seated, defer, present, 125 Initially, vouchsafe imperative. begins several points, 'all trial.' explain declare thereupon requisites voucher 'authoritative opinion,' consists contribute materially permises, wrong questions: trials transplanted intact courts. 126 approach adjudication. quite radically inconclusive,4 would.5 creation atmosphere thereby frustrate intensely broad effectiveness devices acknowledges, hazards self-accusation, avoided surround create conditions devised; but, unfortunately, haste seriously hamper alternatives. Surely illustrates prudence alike opportunities develop 127 confirmation considerations. uncertain, brought Many misfortune distressed; truancy, criminal.6 Efforts effective, noncriminal, children.7 literal acting parentis; standard, protection, punishment. certainly demand constricted devised prosecutions. Minnesota rel. Pearson Probate 309 270, 523, 744. remembered classifications vagaries illustrate, arbitrary ambiguous; imprudent, build rigid applicable, descriptive label better, me, unnecessarily restrictions, dependence illusory. satisfactory devised, can, 128 earnest inadvertently discourage solutions ys tems passive midst change; denies 'every quality age'. Hurtado 516, 529, 111, 117, 232. 129 Finally, fall. delinquent; form maintained follows, concur 130 STEWART, dissenting. 131 today obscure trials.1 wholly sadly unwise policy. 132 treating neglected whole mission opposite correction condition. act. 133 women devoted professional lives task bringing dark Charles Dickens meeting responsibilities society. century denying performance disappointingly hopes dreams courageous pioneers conceived them. approached ideal, accomplished administration agencies—in personnel, planning, financing, perhaps formulation approaches. 134 experience predict brightest progress dealing delinquency. serves convert 135 inflexible wisely inevitable catalog area invite backwards nineteenth era conventional trappings named James Guild killing Catharine Beakes. jury sentenced death hanging. executed. constitutional.2 136 dealings suppose brutally surely follow proceedings.3 Similarly, Armstrong Manzo, 545, 1187, 62. framed technical niceties indictment. Russell 369 749, 1038, 240. 137 'knew subpoena cross witnesses, 185, 760, 763. 193, P.2d, 768. WHITE correctly pp. 64-65, ante, compulsory 138 dismiss appeal. designated colleagues Judge. Const., Art. A.R.S.; Revised Statutes (hereinafter ARS) §§ 8—202. recollection Thursday, 11. memory; hereafter undated. blame other. 'certain statements' Henderson. 'Q. Now, tell of—of delinquent? 'A. Well, a—I amounts disturbing peace. can't section, amount to—and phone, presence, wrong, section. Section Subsection (d), habitually matters.' reads: "Delinquent includes: '(a) thereof. '(b) incorrigible, wayward disobedient, uncontrolled parent, custodian. '(c) truant '(d) deports injure endanger morals health others.' officer. 13—1403. inapplicable 8—221 Brothers Case Liquor, Juv.Ct.D.C., 2652—J, 66—2653—J, December 28, Ketcham); Standards Courts, Pub. 437—1966, cited Standards); 721 (1963) N.Y.Family Act). kind accustomed rely affairs.' Note, Delinquents: Police, Individualized Justice, Harv.L.Rev. 775, 794—795 Harvard Law Review Note): informality leads 'close adherence strict obtaining detriment.' assumption normally inadmissible weight. declared evidentiary practices overestimated, attorney 'technical objections' disrupt desired extent historical, experience, inquiry. Los Angeles, Tucson, Wisconsin Rapids, report unrelaxed evidence.' (Footnote omitted.) ruled correct proof persuaded convincing act.' Compare 'preponderance evidence' test, .Y .Family 744 (where 753, 758). 795. (1966); Dotson, Cal.2d 891, 299 875 (1956); Pee U.S.App.D.C., 274 F.2d 556 (1959); Wissenburg Bradley, 209 Iowa 813, 229 N.W. 1075 (1930); Bryant Brown, 151 Miss. So. 184, 1325 (1928); Dendy Wilson, 142 Tex. 460, 179 S.W.2d 269, 1217 (1944); Johnson, 178 F.Supp. 155 (D.C.N.J.1957). 553, 1053. 601, 304 Justices). Enforcement Administration Challenge Free Society' (1967) Nat'l Comm'n Report), 81, 85—86; 71; Gardner, Court: Lawyers, A.B.A.J. Paulsen, Fairness Offender, Minn.L.Rev. 547 57); Ketcham, Legal Renaissance Nw.U.L.Rev. 585 (1965); Allen, Borderland (1964), 19—23; 791; Rehabilitation Col.L.Rev. 281 (1967); Comment, Offenders More Brickbats Another Proposal, U.Pa.L.Rev. 1171 (1966). 555, 1054 Directory Manual 2,987, 213 full-time Judges. 305. undergraduate degree, fifth college education all, members bar, three-quarters devote one-quarter matters. McCune, Profile Nation's (monograph, George Washington University, Center Behavioral Sciences, 1965), detailed statistical additionally quarter training About staff eighty ninety psychologist psychiatrist. Ibid. 'good compassion, virtues prevalent expertise, keystone venture, lacking.' 809. 697,000 (excluding traffic) disposed 17. Statistics—1965, Statistical Series States: Constitutional Context Cases, Sup.Ct.Review 167, 174. Julian Mack, (1909). 120. 109; op. cit. 173—174. objection Waite, How Far Can Be Socialized Without Impairing Individual J.Crim.L. Criminology 339, 340 (1922): parted avowedly needs, bridged humanity habitual corrective punitive conviction.' 173; Hurley, Origin Law, Child, Clinic, (1925), 320, 328. Chancery 310. Shears, Problems Peculiar 720 (1962) ('The him, so.'); Ex parte Crouse, Whart. (Sup.Ct.Pa.1839); Petition Ferrier, Ill. 367, 371—373 (1882). Appendix Prettyman U.S.App.D.C. (1959), lists effect. Even constituton al disregarded illustrates. 'There receives worst worlds: gets solicitous regenerative postulated children.' 556, 1054, citing Handler, Adversary System: Function Form, Wis.L.Rev. 7; Note; congressional materials 546, 1050, hand, writing concentrate failures live expectations founders, mind: 'Although shortcomings disappointing, cities operated better educated highly skilled, facilities services, refer clientele counterpart.' 78. Foreword Young, Social Treatment Delinquency (1937), xxvii. Civil 'Law Enforcement—A Equal Protection South,' 80—83, documents numerous 'local afforded (in process)' punish, intimidate, obstruct participants demonstrations. Poor Man, Calif.L.Rev. 707—709 Lehman, Juvenile's Counsel Hearing, Journal 53, late Arthur T. Vanderbilt, Chief foreword Virtue, Basic Structure Services Michigan (1953), x: zeal welfare workers moving are: jurisdiction; parties; cil d revert, spite intentions, primitive days chattel.' warned 'degenerate star chamber brand culture indigent Marion G. Woodward, letter reproduced Service 366, 368 (1944). Doctor Bovet, Swiss psychiatrist, monograph World Health Organization, Psychiatric Aspects (1951), 79, that: 'One definite fields exist applied, flimsy evidence, amateur psychologist, experimenting attractive figure.' 808. dramatized considerations: persons accounted crimes (Nat'l Comm'n, Report, 55) offenses (id., 56), year (Juvenile Statistics 2). nine youths traffic offenses) 55). Cottrell, Delinquency—Its Prevention Control (Russell Sage Foundation, 2; D.C.Crime Furthermore, goes undetected formally punished. '(A)lmost youngsters petty theft vandalism adolescence.' 28—29. 'self-report court.' 56; Statistics, 2—3. (see 69, infra) (see, nn. 80, 99, infra), 1965—1966 total 10,755 2,242 weredi smissed fact-finding girls, 306 1,051. Judicial Conference, Twelfth Annual 314, 316 (1967). (3) one-half (Delinquent Children Penal Institutions, 415—1964, 1). (4) commitment. Texas district action. Sawyer Hauck, 245 (D.C.W.D.Tex.1965). (5) (Harvard 793). Malinski 324 401, 781, 787, 1029 (1945) (separate opinion). Foster, Work, Action, Casework, 383, 386. 281, 321, passim Here again, pretension, coincide. justified quid quo. stage, cf. treatment, 87; 665—676, 686—687 (at 687 refers District's 'bankruptcy resources'), 692—695, 700-718 701 observes currently lacks rudiments diagnostic clinical services'); 32—35; 809; 709—712 Polier, View Bench (1964). Also, House, Inc., 'A' Term Bronx County Jury, Bronx, Trial Term, XII, March 21, 1967 (cf. Times, 23, 1967, col. 8). casts adequacy 773; custody, receiving Creek Stone, 379 (D.C.Cir. 1967); Kautter Reid, 352 (D.C.D.C.1960); White 647 (D.C.D.C.1954). Elmore 416, 355 841 Bazelon, C.J.); Clayton 358 548 C.J.). 35; Rich, Vt. 373, 216 266 Rouse Cameron, 373 451 Millard 468 '(T)he connotations terminology altered; 'persons supervision,' usually shortened 'pins." 140. 712 distinguishes supervision.' provision, 8—228. 784—785, 800. 87—88; Unfulfilled Promise Delin. 102—103 (1961). 785—787. 785, also, 286—289 privacy adequately protected. 285—286. 1966), 33. similar: '(T)here original expectation, obstacle engender injustice provoked seemingly all-powerful challengeless officers.' 85. 19. Holmes' Appeal, Pa. 599, 616, 530 (1954) (Musmanno, dissenting). (Sheerin) Governor, I.R. (Supreme Ireland); Trimble 187 483, 485—486 52—56. Cf., D.C. 692—693, inadequacy 'social records' corus devoid discussion this. centered whethed words. impressed allegedly stole purse—a offense, sharing 'along'. investigated explore Lake 264, 364 657 arose mentally ill. appellee's life, etc., text. 35. gap 80—81. U.S, 1054. speech conference 'must attainment caprice.' Juveniles, Journal, 14, 562, 1057. recommends 'Juvenile fullest feasible preliminary conferences dispose adjudication.' 84. 662—665. Since 'consent decree' expressing pre-adjudication post-adjudication disposition, process; hence regard applicability 8—222, B. appear, 'by personal service' 8—224. initiating acquired.' Thereupon authorize filed. 8—222. supplied 87. hearings.' context, see, Cole 333 196, 514, 644 (1948); Oliver, 257, 273—278, 499, 507—510, 682 (1948). Mullane Hanover Bank Tr. 339 306, 652, 865 (1950). Chaloner Sherman, 242 455, 136, 427 (1917). forecloses actually Gaults, adequate. Antieau, Cornell L.Q. 387, 395 (1961); 557 (1957). 63—65; Procedures Evidence Guidebook prepared Advisory (1962), 9—23 therein). 'knowledge' and/or object, excuse clarify considered, shows, uncertain 'hearings.' rightto rights. Because inadequate, ever necessary, Shioutakon U.S.App.D.C 71, 236 666, A.L.R.2d 686 Black 393, Poff, (D.C.D.C.1955). Long, 184 So.2d 861, 862 (Sup.Ct.Miss., 1966); (1956). 8—204, C, peace shall: '1. Look county. '2. Make investigations petitions. '3. heard interests. '4. Furnish require. '5. Assist sums paid '6. Perform 61, 158 (1932); 799 (1963). condemnation 13—377, prohibits vulgar of' (1932). means minimum under. Schinitsky, Record (N.Y. City Bar 1962); 568—573 (1957); 404—407 Sup.Ct.Rev. 187—189; Elson, Process, Child (Rosenheim ed.) 95, 103—105 (1962); 321—327 Parole Assn., Standard (1959) 19, NPPA 137, 323, Act, respectively). Only appointed. N. Y. 241, 728, 741; Calif.Welf. Inst'ns 633, 634, 659, 700 (appointment mandatory adult); Minn.Stat.Ann. 260.155(2) (1966 Supp.) Comment Legislative accompanying section); D.C.Code Ann. 2—2202 (Legal Agency attorneys indigents 395—396, 106—107 (1965), construing providing right). Other request, classes collected classified Riederer, Role J.Fam.Law 16, 19—20 Nte , 321—322 Skoler Tenney, Attorney Representation 77, 95—96 (1964); Recognition involves interference procedures; play rehabilitation. 324—327 86—87. forceful: single holds counsel. independent representative structure requires. accusers, cross-examine unaffected prejudicial unreliable participate meaningfully overwhelming competent lawyers invoke effectively. well-intentioned technical; influence understand cannot. Papers drawn language. Events confusing uninitiated. Decisions, unexplained, official challenge. appeals occur, impart healthy accountability. 'Fears adversary. partly true, desirable. Informality abused. disputed for. periods, advocates interests, offer inheres circumstances. formality bring defeat aims therapy; devide therapy, device. lawyers, formality, clients small, overworked staffs own. Experience prevailing seek reveals empty typically subjects sophisticated ask fails (is) enough, reveals. recommends: 'COUNSEL SHOULD BE APPOINTED AS MATTER COURSE WHEREVER COERCIVE ACTION IS POSSIBILITY, WITHOUT REQUIRING ANY AFFIRMATIVE CHOICE BY CHILD OR PARENT.' edition 'Standards,' Rosenheim, Courts: Old Wine Bottle, Fam.L.Q. (1967), author 'Standards' 1966, 1954, valuable diligent thoughtful search accommodation aspirations founders grim offers protection.' designated, minors. 242. 241. 741. accounts Isaacs, Lawyer Representing Minors Buffalo L.Rev. 501 (1963); Dembitz, Ferment Experiment York: Cases 508 512 introduction September 796. 288—291 York. 1962). 63, 85% 90% sign form. 646. recommend doption notification eliminate accuracy factfinding, appropriateness involves. 681—685. Zerbst, 458, 464, 1019, 1023, 1461 (1938); Carnley Cochran, 506, 884, Brown Fay, 273 (D.C.S.D.N.Y.1965). 653 415, 1074, 934 status Guarantees Santa Clara Wigmore, 822 (3d ed. 1940). 599—600, 303 Douglas, joined Justices Black, Rutledge; concurred Fortas, Cleveland (1954). Rogers Richmond, 365 534, 735, Culombe Connecticut, 568, 1860, 1037 Frankfurter, Stewart); McCarthy Arndstein, 34, 40, (1924). 724(a). Williams, Misc.2d 154, 267 sufficient render inadmissible, germane N.Y.S.2d, 106. inadmissible. 724 (as amended 1963, Supp.1966). Addison, A.D.2d 90, 243 fingerprinting 49. Delinquent Garrity 385 493, 562 Spevack Klein, 511, 636, 574 Haynes Washington, 1336, 513 609, 1229, 1960); 8—223, 8—228, A; 793. followed.' Harling 174, 295 161 1966). 37, N.J.Rev.Stat. 2A:4—37(b)(2), N.J.S.A. (Supp.1966); 2A:113—4, 2A:4—32, 'frightening atmosphere' 'harmful effects boy,' Rutane, 234, 234 777 (Fam.Ct.Kings show 'even though, wish (citing (1962)). 304: 'But knowing nevertheless confessed. assumes, fifteen, appreciation choice. indulge assumptions. recitals formalize Formulas prevail contradict cloak inquisitorial fought obtain.' 744(b) 'an uncorroborated respondent sufficient' Morales, 233 160 (D.C.Mont.1964), (18 5031 et seq.) i t 'was freely Morales sixteen experience.' 170. Jackson Denno, 368, 1774, 908 72—73. admissible influenced hearsay, gossip, rumor, types information. minimize inappropriate reports (bold eliminated). 336 (1967): incompetent justifiable. Particularly commission hearsay—such policeman events—contravenes sixth amendment confrontation.' 744(a). Willner Committee Character, 96, 1175, 8—238. 590, 891 'written 'and appeal.' verbatim stenotypist mechanical (p. 76) urges 78). 24, 28; 28. (of infrequency etc.) unsupervised.' observes, 86, 'records accountability.' prosecutions, enjoy accusation Also Amendment's 'No capital, infamous presentment Jury Assistance defence.' 84, purport grounds. criticism critics stemmed personnel resources 191—192; 46. incomplete, J. Fam.Law 77. 91% polled favored 88. BLACK recognizes apt today's 60. content inapposite Bureau, plus cogent steady rejection 186, 191. 561—562; McLean, Answer Kent, 456, 457; Alexander, 1206; 719; Siler, Need Defense 57—58. 32. Estimates range 26% 48%; variation categorizing charged. Sheridan, Juveniles Who Commit Noncriminal Acts: Why Treat Correctional System? Fed.Probation 'considerable.' 28—30. strange intent fastening absolute nonadversary willing lawyer's charge. Winters Beck, 907, 207, 137; DeJoseph 982, 443. Guild, Halst. 163, N.J.L. Am.Dec. 404. 'Thus, modern times, ten murdering bedfellow, appearing behavior tokens mischievous discretion; sparing dangerous public, propagating notion commit atrocious impunity, unanimously capital punishment.' Blackstone, stone, Commentaries (Wendell 1847). Until 13, ban thing testimonal unanimous Mississippi, 297 278, 285—286, 461, 464—465, 682, Hughes distinguished Brandeis, Cardozo. Tehan Shott, 382 406, 459, 453, January 'contrast' wrongful confession' self-incrimination'. 465. confusion doctrines stems, doubt, erroneous.

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