Document: 530 U.S. 290120 S.Ct. 2266147 L.Ed.2d 295 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.SANTA FE INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT, Petitionerv.JANE DOE, individually and as next friend for her minor children, JANE JOHN et al. No. 99-62. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Argued March 29, 2000 Decided June 19, CERTIORARI TO APPEALSFOR FIFTH CIRCUIT Syllabus Prior 1995, a student elected Santa Fe High School's council chaplain delivered prayer over public address system each home varsity football game. Respondents, Mormon Catholic students alumni their mothers, filed suit challenging this practice others under Establishment Clause First Amendment. While was pending, petitioner school district (District) adopted different policy, which authorizes two elections, first determine whether "invocations" should at games, second select spokesperson deliver them. After held elections authorizing such prayers selecting spokesperson, District entered an modifying policy permit only nonsectarian, nonproselytizing prayer. The Fifth Circuit that, even modified by Court, invalid. Held: District's permitting student-led, student-initiated games violates Clause. Pp. 9-26. (a) Court's analysis guided principles endorsed Lee v. Weisman, 505 577. There, concluding rabbi graduation ceremony violated Clause, minimum, Constitution guarantees government not coerce anyone support participate religion its exercise, otherwise act way establishes state religious faith, tends do so, id., 587. argues unpersuasively these inapplicable because policy's messages private speech, speech. delivery message invocation here-on property, school-sponsored events, school's system, speaker representing body, supervision faculty, pursuant explicitly implicitly encourages prayer-is properly characterized "private" Although relies heavily on cases addressing forums, e.g., Rosenberger Rector Visitors Univ. Va., 515 819, it clear pregame type forum discussed cases. simply does evince intent open indiscriminate use body generally, see, Hazelwood School Dist. Kuhlmeier, 484 260, 270, but, rather, allows one student, same entire season, give invocation, particular regulations confine content topic student's message. majoritarian process implemented guarantees, definition, minority candidates will never prevail views effectively silenced. See Board Regents Wis. System Southworth, 529 ---, ---. Moreover, has failed divorce itself from invocations' content. involves both perceived actual endorsement religion, see Lee, U.S., 590, declaring take place "has chosen permit" student-delivered invocations, "shall" conducted "by high council" "[u]pon advice direction principal," must consistent with goals, include "solemniz[ing] event." A most obvious method solemnizing event. Indeed, expressly "invocation," term primarily describes appeal divine assistance and, used past School, always entailed focused conclusion "private speech" also established factors beyond text, including official setting delivered, Wallace, 472 73, 76, sham secular purposes, 75, history, indicates intended preserve long-sanctioned 596. 9-18. (b) rejects argument distinguishable observances. part argument-that there no impermissible coercion product choices-fails reasons above explaining why mechanism dual turn speech into issue resolved election would controversy case demonstrates students' unanimous issue. One Clause's purposes remove debate kind governmental control. 589. ultimate choice attributable students, decision hold constitutionally problematic clearly State, here attendance extracurricular event, unlike ceremony, voluntary-is unpersuasive. For some cheerleaders, members band, team themselves, mandated, sometimes class credit. minimizes immense social pressure, truly genuine desire, felt many involved event American football. Id., 593. demands schools force difficult between attend risk facing personally offensive ritual. 18-21. (c) respondents' facial challenge necessarily fail premature: No yet been policy. assumes concerned serious constitutional injury occurs when forced worship she chooses But requires keep mind myriad, subtle ways values can eroded, Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 694, guard against different, equally important, injuries. mere passage purpose perception establishment religion. See, Bowen Kendrick, 487 589, 602; Lemon Kurtzman, 403 602, 612. As above, text circumstances surrounding enactment reveal purpose. Another violation warranting attention implementation electoral subjects vote. Through scheme, turns empowers majority improper messages. award power alone acceptable. Cf. foregoing reasons, invalid face. 21-26. 168 F.3d 806, affirmed. Stevens, J., O'Connor, Kennedy, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. Rehnquist, dissenting opinion, Scalia Thomas, Opinion Justice Stevens Court. 1 who occupied elective office game season. practice, along others, challenged proceedings were pending permits, but require, initiated led all games. Appeals We granted district's petition certiorari review holding. 2 * Independent political subdivision State Texas, responsible education more than 4,000 small community southern State. includes primary schools, intermediate junior school. Respondents sets current former respective mothers. family Catholic. permitted respondents (Does) litigate anonymously protect them intimidation harassment.1 3 commenced action April 1995 moved temporary restraining prevent violating imminent exercises. In complaint Does alleged had engaged several proselytizing practices, promoting Baptist revival meeting, encouraging membership clubs, chastising children beliefs, distributing Gideon Bibles premises. They allowed read Christian invocations benedictions stage ceremonies,2 overtly 4 On May 10, interim number issues.3 With respect impending graduation, provided "non-denominational prayer" consisting "an and/or benediction" could presented senior selected graduating class. determined without scrutiny preapproval officials. References figures "such Mohammed, Jesus, Buddha, like" "as long general thrust non-proselytizing." App. 32. 5 response portion order, series policies months dealing functions. enacted July ceremonies format August October provided: 6 " `The board class, counsel principal designee, elect secret ballot choose benediction shall exercise. If so ballot, list volunteers, ceremonies.' 811 (CA5 1999) (emphasis deleted). 7 parties stipulated after adopted, "the have commencement [and the] voted, graduation." 52. vote seniors benediction.4 8 July, another eliminating requirement "nonsectarian nonproselytising," providing if enjoined enforcing automatically become effective. 9 titled "Prayer Football Games," similar graduations. It authorized Like contained parts, initial statement omitted fallback provision added limitation preferred enjoined. 31, according parties' stipulation, voted games- . chose allow say games." 65. week later, separate election, they "to 66. 10 final (October policy) essentially though omits word "prayer" title, refers "messages" "statements" well "invocations."5 validity us.6 11 did enter precluding enforcement first, open-ended Relying our 577 (1992), "action `coerce in' exercise." Pet. Cert. E7. Applying test, concluded appealed distinctively beliefs,"7 delivering "over prior baseball coerces participation events."8 Both appealed, contending permissible alternatives agreed Does. 12 followed precedent announced rules. Jones Clear Creek Dist., 977 F.2d 963 court student-led approved nonsectarian ceremonies. hand, later rule applied graduations school-encouraged school-related sporting events. Thus, Doe Duncanville 70 402 (1995), described "a significant, once in-a-lifetime event" contrasted athletic events far less solemn extraordinary." 406-407.9 13 case, explained: 14 "The controlling feature Duncanville: games-hardly sober annual appropriately solemnized distinction [the District] points difference. Regardless spontaneously frequently-recurring, informal, officials present authority stop prayers. we indicated Duncanville, II hinged singular context singularly nature ceremony. Outside nurturing context, Prayer Policy cannot survive. therefore reverse court's holding District's] alternative extended irrespective presence restrictions." F.3d, 823. 15 judge rejected majority's his created limited purpose10 neutral accommodation noncoerced, private, speech.11 16 certiorari, following question: "Whether petitioner's Clause." 528 1002 (1999). conclude, Appeals, does. 17 Amendment Federal provides "Congress make law respecting prohibiting free exercise thereof." Fourteenth imposes those substantive limitations legislative subdivisions. Wallace Jaffree, 38, 49-50 (1985). middle function, Lee. case: 18 principle accommodate supersede fundamental imposed dispute `establishes [state] so.' 587 (citations omitted) (quoting 678 (1984)). 19 reminds us "there crucial difference endorsing forbids, Free Speech Exercise Clauses protect." Ed. Westside Community Schools (Dist. 66) Mergens, 496 226, 250 (1990) (opinion J.). certainly agree distinction, persuaded regarded speech." 20 These property government-sponsored Of course, every government's own. held, example, individual's contribution government-created 819 (1995). involving forums,12 cases.13 "evince either `by practice,' [pregame ceremony] `indiscriminate use,' generally." 270 (1988) Perry Assn. Local Educators' Assn., 460 37, 47 (1983)). Rather, invocation. moreover, message, infra, 14-15, 17. By comparison, claim mail despite fact speakers much broader range topics here.14 Perry, "selective access transform forum." 47. 21 Granting time not, preclude finding forum. Here, however, Fe's ensures deemed "appropriate" delivered. That is, 22 Recently, --- (2000), explained determine, vote, expressive activities receive benefits problematic: 23 "To extent referendum substitutes determinations viewpoint neutrality undermine protection program requires. whole theory treated views. Access forum, instance, depend upon consent. here." -- (slip op., 16-17). 24 funding nothing rather places mercy majority.15 Because "fundamental rights submitted vote; outcome elections," West Virginia Bd. Barnette, 319 624, 638 (1943), insufficient safeguards diverse 25 related "civic nonsectarian" acceptable minimized intrusion audience whole. "does lessen offense isolation objectors. At best narrows number, worst increases sense affront." 594. Similarly, while might ensure represented, minority; indeed, likely serves intensify offense. 26 invocations. succeeded doing claiming `one endorsement' "16 characterizing individual "circuit-breaker"17 process. Contrary repeated assertions "hands-off" approach realities situation plainly found "degree involvement" makes bear imprint thus put school-age objected untenable position." 590. 27 attempted disentangle developing two-step exposes entanglement. "board brief message." 104 added). principal." 104-105. separate, election. Even words votes, mandates "statement invocation" "consistent goals policy," solemnize promote good sportsmanship safety, establish appropriate environment competition." Ibid. 28 addition selection speaker, terms, invites states requirements "promote citizenship" "establish competition" further narrow types appropriate, suggesting solemn, nonreligious, commentary foreign prohibited.18 "invocation"-a assistance.19 fact, "invocation" expressed encourage precisely how understand results stipulation20 understood central question ceremony.21 recognize important role plays communities, sincere desire various occasions mark occasions' significance. activity elsewhere, comport 29 just Once composed, then large assembled regularly scheduled, function property. broadcast remains control fair assume clothed traditional indicia generally team, cheerleaders band dressed uniforms name mascot. written across field banners flags. crowd display colors insignia T-shirts, jackets, hats waving signs displaying name. "[t]he rise invocation." 30 listening perceive expression approval administration. activity, relevant questions "whether objective observer, acquainted statute, schools." 76 (O'Connor, concurring judgment); Capital Square Review Advisory Pinette, 753, 777 (1995) judgment). listener's for, objection to, unquestionably inevitable stamped seal approval. 31 history reinforce actuality, encouraged When entity professes arguably characterization entitled deference. nonetheless duty courts "distinguis[h] one." 75 32 According District, "foste[r] persons - [as to] solemniz[e] promot[e] establis[h] Brief Petitioner 14. note, specific necessary purposes. Additionally, content-limited suggests little expression." Furthermore, regardless considers occasion solemnity, foster solemnity when, constitutes sponsored And unclear what "solemnizing" non-religious. 33 Most striking evolution "Student Chaplain" candidly Games" regulation. viewed continuation previous dramatically illustrated conduct new replace occurred Given observations, light regular reasonable infer popular "state-sponsored practice." 34 sponsorship sends ancillary nonadherants "that outsiders, full community, accompanying adherants insiders, favored community." 688 (1984) concurring). message-over III 35 Its parts: choices; second, really voluntary. 36 "circuit-breaker" demonstrate mechanisms insulate coercive element aspect anew concerns system. stipulation games," 65, 37 served "preservation transmission beliefs responsibility committed sphere." coupled debates presumably precede each, impermissibly invade sphere. mechanism, considered evolved, reflects device determines divisiveness lines setting, result odds true "attributable students," 40, State," 38 "differs dramatically" contends "are passing interest students" "decidedly extracurricular," dissipating coercion. 41. Attendance game, showing up required diploma. correct arguing informal pressure strong senior's own 39 There whom seasonal commitments mandate attendance, importance attending participating complete educational experience. noted "[l]aw reaches formalism." 595. To assert feel "formalistic extreme." stressed observation "adolescents often susceptible peers towards conformity, influence strongest matters convention." gatherings community; bring together faculty friends years root common cause. Undoubtedly, voluntarily attend. ritual practical easy one. Constitution, "[i]t tenet require citizens forfeit price resisting conformance state-sponsored 40 regard purely voluntary, nevertheless effect coercing worship. enforce orthodoxy direct means." "[w]hat believers seem request nonbeliever appear dissenter attempt employ machinery orthodoxy." 592. command exact conformity price" joining classmates game.22 41 Religion making thereof. means commands impose prohibition schools. Lamb's Chapel Center Moriches Union 508 384, 395 (1993); 226 (1990); 59 "is secure liberty." Engel Vitale, 370 421, 430 (1962). interpreted prohibits praying before, during, schoolday. liberty protected abridged affirmatively sponsors IV 42 Finally, repeatedly premature fail. emphasizes, quite correctly, until actually delivers latest version certainty statements religious. concludes, survives challenge. 43 argument, eroded," Lynch, 694 concurring), 44 "Santa invalidated basis `possibility likelihood' unconstitutional application." 613 (1988)). Our challenges, solely possible applications statute Writing Bowen, Chief "[a]s challenges grounds, Edwards Aguillard, [482 578 (1987)]; Mueller Allen, 463 388 (1983), assess constitutionality reference three articulated 612 (1971) guides `[t]he inquiry area,' supra, 394." 602. Under standard, invalidate lacks purpose." (1971). proper, challenge, examine 45 discussed, 17, reveals plain language spells out involvement specifies one, message-that "invocation." extremely selective restrictions confirm content-neutral regulation creates examination, need 46 comes step litigation brought institutional practices long-established tradition sanctioning insulates scrutiny. not. can, must, examination enactment. Whether "in legal answered judicial interpretation facts- Every judged unique ." 693-694 discussion sections, 15-18, exceeds limits. nevertheless, asks pretend understands clearly-that about accept obviously untrue: "solemnize" single-student, year-long position essential refuse blind eye arose, quells doubt 48 Therefore, simple prayer, violation. wait magnify injury. Alabama's unimplemented voluntary "moment silence" based "for sole expressing State's minute beginning day." 60; Church Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. Hialeah, 520, 532 (1993). ever offer fails Government efforts endorse evade reproach remote possibility attempts 49 likewise survive debate. alone, it, acceptable.23 undermines viewpoints. Such threatens imposition desiring Simply establishing procedure, entrusts inherently nongovernmental occurred.24 50 face, "must aware forum," 780 leads provide safe harbor sought. face 51 judgment accordingly, 52 ordered. Notes decision, noted, "apparently neither nor particularly respected." 809, n. 1999). About month filed, provided, part: "[A]ny administration, officials, counsellors, teachers, employees servants parents, else, covertly ferret identities Plaintiffs cause, bogus petitions, questionnaires, interrogation, downright `snooping', cease immediately. ANYONE TAKING ANY ACTION ON PROPERTY, DURING HOURS, OR WITH RESOURCES APPROVAL FOR PURPOSES ATTEMPTING ELICIT NAMES IDENTITIES PLAINTIFFS IN THIS CAUSE ACTION, BY BEHALF THESE INDIVIDUALS, WILL FACE HARSHEST POSSIBLE CONTEMPT SANCTIONS FROM COURT, AND MAY ADDITIONALLY CRIMINAL LIABILITY. wants addressed merits, harassment participants side." 34-35. 1994 president invocation: "Please bow your heads. "Dear heavenly Father, thank you allowing gather safely tonight. wonderful year spend Fe. teachers devoted hours us. Thank you, Lord, parents special blessing. pray blessing guidance moves forward future. bless journey home. Jesus' pray." 19. prohibited baccalaureate Ministerial Alliance, ordered deal "manifest infractions personnel, ridiculing, berating inappropriate students. clarify existing procedures excluding overt covert sectarian teaching, blatantly denominational terms spelling lessons, songs poems English choir classes, stories parables grammar lessons like, frank moral, religious, societal non-denominational non-judgmental." 34. giving thanked Lord keeping through gracing lives people closed: "Lord, ask You Your hand during help hearts rest lives. God's pray. Amen." 53. depart destination watch go ways. Grant trip throughout night. 54. Despite changes, provides: "STUDENT ACTIVITIES: "PRE-GAME CEREMONIES AT FOOTBALL GAMES pre-game competition. "Upon principal, spring, volunteer decide deliver, "If applicable district. Any nonproselytizing." instant contrast, infused explicit references Jesus Christ beliefs. accordingly finds ceremonies, overall manner E8. E8-E9. dissent overlooks incorrectly "prayer-only policy" Circuit. post, 6-7. "There brief, games-some listed promote, among things, honest play, clean competition, one's best, work, conceive pause so. "Having again relinquished editorial control, concerning value methods achieving them." 835. realize non-coerced, express personal involved. scripted, supervised, endorsed, suggested, edited Yet curse 836. 44-48, citing Rosenberger, (limited forum); Widmar Vincent, 454 263 (1981) Capitol 753 (traditional 384 (1993) forum). cases, argue shed resulting note creation shields Estalishment 772 judgment) ("I necessity carve out- exception test context"). internal organizations "[l]ocal parochial church groups, YMCA's, Cub Scout units." 39, 2. instead made, Democrat Republican, being partisan reflecting random individual. identifies typical "student president, newly prom king queen." Post, 5. 248 (plurality opinion)). Tr. Oral Arg. 7. Justice's hypothetical asked introduce guest biography accomplishments, (dissenting opinion), pose problems Webster's Third New International Dictionary 1190 (defining entreaty usu[ally] call offered meeting service worship"). 4-5, 4; facially neutral, forbids hide behind application formally criteria remain studiously oblivious effects actions." 534-535 (making point context). "We think Government's suffices compliance forfeiture inconsistency argumentation. acknowledge Deborah's spiritual imperative Daniel Deborah Weisman compelled societies wishes prevail, contingency balance urged graduation. calculus commands." 595-596. accuses "essentially invalidat[ing] hyperbole. school, reason, now subjected "misconstrue[d] [of] `prayer' `religion,' 3-4. reiterate facts recent "students prayer." 65-66 (emphases Games." 99 since eliminated apparently change sufficiently unnecessary. 53 Thomas join, dissenting. 54 distorts conclude student-message disturbing tone opinion; bristles hostility things life. Neither faithful meaning recalled George Washington himself, very Congress passed Bill Rights, proclaimed day "public thanksgiving observed acknowledging grateful signal favors Almighty God." Presidential Proclamation, Messages Papers Presidents, 1789-1897, p. 64 (J. Richardson ed. 1897). 55 learn late practice. Salerno, 481 739, 745 (1987), "operate unconstitutionally conceivable set render wholly invalid." (1988). overbreadth concern refrain fear prosecution, Los Angeles Police Dept. Reporting Publishing Corp., (1999), 5-7), justification "chilled" existence nonreligion. inevitably be. 56 venturing realm prophesy, decides "need inevitable" invalidates ante, 24. applies rigid oft-criticized 602 (1971).1 57 checkered career decisional 398-399 (Scalia, (collecting opinions criticizing Lemon); 108-114 (1985) (Rehnquist, dissenting) (stating Lemon's "three-part represents effort craft workable historically faulty doctrine; sound doctrine service" (internal quotation marks omitted)); Committee Public Religious Liberty Regan, 444 646, 671 (1980) (Stevens, (deriding sisyphean task trying patch blurred, indistinct, variable barrier Lemon"). gone binding 679 ("[W]e emphasized unwillingness confined single criterion sensitive area- apply `test' [citing Marsh Chambers, 783 Larson Valente, 456 228 (1982)"]). today, mentioned test. Agostini Felton, 521 203, 233 (1997) entanglement merely statute's effect"); Hunt McNair, 413 734, 741 (1973) "no helpful signposts"). 58 here, holds "policy events." Ante, 26. reliance conclusions misses mark. First, misconstrues "majoritarian election" "religion."2 22, contrary, two-fold whereby all, campaign platforms focus elected. lead 90 percent If, implementation, operated fashion, record applied, unduly suppressed threat speaking ability popularity. campaigning begin implement restrictions.3 60 ignores possibilities granting pray, "regardless acceptable." 25. occur government, say. Support elections. queen, opportunities view, grant offices, publicly 61 Second, purpose, violation." plausible purposes: "[T]o Where "expresses purpose" enactment, "courts defer stated intent." 74-75 388, 394-395 (1983) (stressing "reluctance attribute motives discerned statute"). grants deference to-and appears openly hostile toward-the wastes sham. 62 dismisses solemnization "invites messages." 14; U. S, 693 concurring) (discussing "legitimate occasions"). concludes strange view "religious nature, example urging fought fairly. rendition national anthem, verse "And motto: `In God trust.' logic, singing anthem believes illegitimate voters disagree. Nothing prevents choice.4 63 bases violations written, 16, 22. context-attempted order-actually acting diligently come within governing law. formulate precedent, prayer-only 1992). went eventually settled gave doing, exhibited willingness comply with, exceed, restrictions. having purpose.5 conclusion. issue, given rabbi, "directed controlled" official. 588. words, potential proceed, student. "crucial protect," endorsement. opinion) original). 65 Had criteria-like skills popularity-and chosen, accord, pass muster. 630, (Souter, ("If criteria, (not actor) harder State"). 66 seems demand completely endorses undoubtedly requirement, jurisprudence "content neutrality." concept guide determining strict look neutrality" reviewing loudness Ward Rock Against Racism, 491 781 (1989), picketing, Boos Barry, 485 312 somehow controls inquiry. 67 actions neutral. Bethel Fraser, 478 675 (1986) (allowing sanctions who, nominating fellow assembly, referred candidate elaborate sexually metaphor). violate restrict certain categories. favorable introduction unconstitutional. Solemnization encourages" prohibit non-religious, like "commentary policy." 68 manner, enough case. I Appeals. rightly looked "guid[e] [t]he inquiry." 22-23 (citing federal noting considering statutes kind, strike down anticipation funds." omitted). guide, stringently Bowen's admonition warrant misinterpretation 25, policy-a 65-66, 99-100. opposed regarding misplaced. particularly, mandated financial applied" record, Southworth applicable. impropriety operation. remanded determination others. 14-15. cynical permits messages, tolerates mean improperly it. reluctantly admits, tolerance. ("[N]othing schoolday"); 673 ("Nor separation state; accommodation, tolerance, religions, toward any"). (1985), grounds. struck Alabama moment silence meditation. 59. Here originally More importantly, "unrebutted evidence" pointed 58, "conceded below daily classroom activity," 77-78 evidence concession here.

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