Document: 450 U.S. 544 101 S.Ct. 1245 67 L.Ed.2d 493 State of MONTANA et al., Petitioners,v.UNITED STATES al. No. 79-1128. Argued Dec. 3, 1980. Decided March 24, 1981. Rehearing Denied June 1, See 452 911, 3042. Syllabus By a tribal regulation, the Crow Tribe Montana sought to prohibit hunting and fishing within its reservation by anyone who is not member Tribe. Relying on purported ownership bed Big Horn River, treaties which created reservation, inherent power as sovereign, claimed authority nonmembers even lands owned in fee simple non-Indians. Montana, however, continued assert regulate non-Indians reservation. The First Treaty Fort Laramie 1851, signatory tribes acknowledged various designated their respective territories, specified that, making treaty, did "surrender privilege hunting, fishing, or passing over" any dispute. In 1868, Second established Reservation, including land through River flows, provided that "shall be . set apart for absolute undisturbed use occupation" Tribe, no except Government agents ever permitted pass over, settle upon, reside in" To resolve conflict between State, United States, proceeding own right fiduciary filed present action, seeking declaratory judgment quieting title riverbed States trustee establishing have sole an injunction requiring secure Tribe's permission before issuing licenses District Court denied relief, but Appeals reversed. It held banks river were trust Tribe; could nonmembers, resident nonmember owners those lands; hunt fish remained subject Montana's game laws. Held : 1. Title passed upon admission into Union, having conveyed beneficial 1851 1868. As general principle, Federal holds under navigable waters future granted such when they enter there strong presumption against conveyance States. treaty failed overcome this presumption, since it terms formally convey Indians at all. And whatever property rights 1868 created, language enough sovereign's riverbed. Cf. v. Holt Bank, 270 49, 46 197, 70 L.Ed. 465. Moreover, situation time presented "public exigency" would required Congress depart from policy reserving beds Pp. 550-557. 2. Although may belonging has non-Indian 557-567. (a) nowhere suggested intended grant while obligated most residing used occupied thereby arguably conferring control lands, can only extend exercises "absolute cannot apply subsequently alienated Puyallup Washington Game Dept., 433 165, 97 2616, 53 667. Nor does federal trespass statute, 18 U.S.C. § 1165, prohibits trespassing fish, "augment" regulatory powers over lands. That statute limited Indians, reserved deliberately excluded fee-patented scope. 557-563. (b) "inherent sovereignty" support regulation Through original incorporation well specific statutes, Indian lost many attributes sovereignty, particularly relations tribe tribe. Wheeler, 435 313, 98 1079, 55 303. Exercise beyond what necessary protect self-government internal inconsistent with dependent status tribes, so survive without express congressional delegation. Here, longer bears clear relationship relations. Non-Indian hunters fishermen do agreements dealings themselves civil jurisdiction. nothing suggests threatened political economic security justify regulation. 563-567. 9 Cir., 604 F.2d 1162, reversed remanded. Urban L. Roth, Butte, Mont., petitioners. Louis F. Claiborne, Washington, D. C., respondent U. S. Thomas J. Lynaugh, Billings, Indians. Justice STEWART delivered opinion Court. 1 This case concerns sources scope claims all boundaries. We certiorari, 445 960, 100 1645, 64 234 review decision Ninth Circuit substantially upheld claim. 2 * originated Canada, some three centuries ago migrated now southern Montana. 19th century, warfare Crows several other led sign territories. 11 Stat. 749 C. Kappler, Affairs: Laws Treaties 594 (1904) (hereinafter Kappler). identified approximately 38.5 million acres territory and, Article 5, Reservation roughly 8 acres, flows. 15 649. II agreed 3 Several subsequent Acts reduced slightly fewer than 2.3 acres. 22 42 (1882); 31, 26 1039-1040 (1891); ch. 1624, 33 352 (1904); 890, 50 884 (1937). addition, General Allotment Act 1887, 119, 24 388, 1920, 41 751, authorized issuance patents individual allottees Under these Acts, allottee alienate his after holding 25 years. Today, 52 percent allotted members them, 17 itself, 28 owns less percent. 4 Since 1920's, stocked construction dam made trout possible. also contains game, State. 1950's, Tribal Council resolutions respecting Resolution 74-05, occasion lawsuit. resolution 5 On October 9, 1975, endeavored filing plaintiff (1) (2) (3) 6 relief sought. 457 F.Supp. 599. determining river, court invoked intend divest itself sovereign reasoned here, 465, circumstances relevant insufficient rebut presumption. thus concluded had until Union. dispute found "[i]mplicit Supreme Court's Oliphant [v. Suquamish 191, 1011, 209] recognition power, nor unless act Congress." F.Supp., 609. Because gave non-Indians, exercise granting withholding land. All resided concurrently 1165 (which makes offense permission), 7 1162. Finch, 548 822, vacated grounds, 676, 2909, 1048, appellate pursuant although noted impose criminal sanctions nonmembers. held, two implicitly deprived non-member Finally, non-members respondents seek establish substantial part claim asking us recognize River.1 question whether therefore continues hold benefit retained public then Choctaw Nation Oklahoma, 397 620, 627-628, 90 1328, 1332-1333, 615. Though riparian nonnavigable streams adjacent riverbed, carries interest Packer Bird, 137 661, 672, 210, 212, 34 819; Railroad Co. Schurmeir, Wall. 272, 289, 19 74; 10; 43 931. Rather, incident sovereignty. Martin Waddell, 16 Pet. 367, 409-411, 10 997. Union assume sovereignty "equal footing" Pollard's Lessee Hagan, How. 222-223, 229, 565. After enters governed state law. State's remains one limitation: paramount ensure remain free interstate foreign commerce. Oregon, 295 14, 610, 615, 79 1267. established, sometimes below high-water mark water, "[and defeat new State,] order perform international obligations, effect improvement promotion convenience commerce nations among carry out purposes appropriate objects Territory." Shively Bowlby, 152 48, 14 548, 566, 38 331. But because underlying strongly government, supra, S.Ct., will "some duty exigency." U.S., 55, 199. 566. A deciding water must, therefore, begin must infer "unless intention was definitely declared otherwise plain," 199, rendered "in especial words," 411, confirmed embraces stream," 212.2 12 applied principles reject lake. lake lay wholly boundaries Red Lake been entered Minnesota joined promised "set withhold sale, of" Chippewas, large tract land, Sept. 30, 1854, 1109, "a sufficient quantity permanent homes" Feb. 22, 1855, 1165. Hitchcock, 185 373, 389, 650, 656, 954.3 "which approaches waters; anything evincing purpose treating State." 58-59, 200. "[t]he done reserve way occupation aboriginal territory." Id., 58, 13 case, like Chippewa fail all, instead chiefly represented covenant recognized Laramie, Art. Kappler 594-595. referred insofar said "do surrender tracts country heretofore described," statement bearing contrast, expressly described detail4 stated herein named. ." May 7, II, 650. stated: "[T]he solemnly agrees persons, so, officers, agents, employes reservations discharge duties enjoined law, shall article Ibid. Whatever expressed "clear Pet., "definitely very Holt, occupy implicitly, exclude others it, respondents' reliance provision simply begs precise extent exclusivity attaches. mere fact lies make especially reference might conveyance. Appeals' Finch decision, rested construed F.2d, 829. Such construction, examination. recognized, ibid., concede, retains navigational easement lying public, regardless Therefore, phrases "no permitted," seem mean literally, give exclusive Thus, if same ownership, "right exclusivity" meaning ascribed it.5 though establishment "appropriate purpose" justifying see, e. g., Alaska Pacific Fisheries 248 78, 85, 39 40, 63 138, record shows, nomadic buffalo, important diet life. App. 74. Cf., 88, 41; Skokomish France, 320 205, 212 (CA9). For reasons, we conclude error otherwise. III parties raised broad questions about issue narrow one. 1165-1166, readily agree. agree permits condition entry charging bag creel limits. What respect regulate, prohibit, those, tenants employees, whose occupancy owners. 1169. further totally 20 power: treaties, "augmented" "inherent" believe neither source supports court's conclusion. A. 21 assure safe passage settlers across Tribes; compensate Tribes loss animals, timber, forage; delineate boundaries; promote intertribal peace; iden tifying committed depredations earlier, create designate 284 361, 364, 366, 368, 151 Ct.Cl. 281, 285-286, 292-293. Only merely eight described." 595.6 Indeed, signed undoubtedly hunted fished treaty-designated Crows. 1167. Treaty, 649, size treaty. named, friendly willing, consent admit amongst them .," (emphasis added) "the thereby, conferred lands.7 occupation." allotment alienation result amended, 331 seq., 751.8 If restrict non-Indians.9 23 667 (Puyallup ), included virtually identical Laramie. apart, far necessary, surveyed marked [and no] white man [was to] Seeid., 174, 2622. argued words amounted interference. rejected argument, finding, part, "clashe[d] history notably Puyallups alienated, simple, great majority abutting River. "[n]either continue grounds 'exclusive use.' " indicates, read light Accordingly, provides somehow anything, absence authority, statute's provides: "Whoever, lawful permission, willfully knowingly goes belongs tribe, band, group either are restriction imposed use, trapping, thereon, removal peltries, therefrom, fined Indians.10 wished jurisdiction easily incorporating definition "Indian country" 1151: "all limits Government, notwithstanding patent, rights-of-way running reservation." Subcommittee House Committee Judiciary proposed done. Department Interior recommended doing letter dated 23, 1958. pointed previous Report, H.R.Rep.No.2593, 85th Cong., 2d Sess. (1958),11 bill contained implication controlled States.12 adopted language, reach B 27 Beyond relying entire Reservation. 1170. application 74-05 recently reviewed noting "unique aggregations possessing both territory," id., 323, 1086, punish violate careful note 326, 1087. distinguished divested: 29 "The areas implicit divestiture occurred involving 30 These limitations rest our territorial necessarily freedom independently determine external self-government, prescribe enforce laws, different type. They involve virtue tribe's status." (Emphasis added.) 31 addition offenders, retain membership, domestic members, rules inheritance members. 322, n. 18, 1085, 18. Mescalero Apache Jones, 411 145, 148, 93 1267, 1270, 36 114; Williams Lee, 358 217, 219-220, 269, 270, 251; Kagama, 118 375, 381-382, 1112-1113, 228; see McClanahan Arizona Tax Comm'n, 164, 171, 1257, 1261, 129. relations,13 authorize adopt 74-05. 32 209, rejecting Stressing diminished sovereigns, quoted Johnson's concurrence Fletcher Peck, Cranch 87, 147, 162—the first Court—that governing every person themselves." 1021. determined matters,14 relied proposition activities sure, forms reservations, taxation, licensing, means, consensual relationships commercial dealing, contracts, leases, arrangements. 223, 272; Morris 194 384, 712, 48 1030; Buster Wright, 135 947, 950 (CA8); Confederated Colville 447 134, 152-154, 2069, 2080-2082, 65 10. conduct threatens direct integrity, security, health welfare Fisher Court, 424 382, 386, 96 943, 946, 47 106; 220, 270; Catholic Missions Missoula County, 200 118, 128-129, 200-201, 398; Gay, 169 264, 273, 340, 343, 740.15 No circumstances, involved case. threaten complaint allege imperil subsistence Tribe.16 Furthermore, findings, left unaltered Appeals, traditionally accommodated "near exclusive" 609-610. statutory scheme prevent limiting forbidding still IV reasons opinion, reversed, remanded proceedings. 35 ordered. STEVENS, concurring. 37 repeatedly ambiguities should resolved favor tribes.1 emphasis rule favoring indicate dispositions territories applicable reservations. However, following I opinion. unanimously unequivocally references Bank hardly characterized enthusiastic, 634, 1336, purport abandon modify Bank. Douglas, joining wrote separate explain why he supplied "exceptional circumstances" rule.2 seven Justices participated decision.3 WHITE, THE CHIEF JUSTICE Black dissent, heavily line 645-648, 1341-1343, above, concurrence, appears accepted rule. four Justices, change settled 40 significant me STEWART, author today. Just is, am satisfied differ significantly Whether voted differently cases Member decided answer. am, convinced exception controlling. join BLACKMUN, whom BRENNAN MARSHALL join, dissenting part. years ago, reaffirmed 'in sense naturally understood Indians.' Fishing Vessel Assn., 443 658, 99 3055, 3070, 61 823 (1979), quoting Jones Meehan, 175 11, 44 49 (1899). today disregards construction. intended, understood, belong dissent much otherwise.1 outset intended. 675, 3069. With party presumptively superior negotiating skills knowledge recorded, responsibility avoid taking advantage side." 675-676, 3069-3070. Obviously, here. mean, ask inquiry need go meant concedes Ante, 556. holds, exigency existed factual premise bases conclusion open serious question: central diet," 599, 602 (Mont.1978), evidence trial ate supplement buffalo substitute meat scarcity.2 45 Even true came being, follow Crow. informs opposite true. actuated somewhat conflicting purposes: desire provide obtain cession ultimate reservation's Retention each purposes. First: intent converted nomadic, settled, agricultural people.3 17, 749, Kappler), precipitated depletion forage constantly increasing number crossed Plains California. Aggrieved depredations, opposed passage, force.4 settlers, called together Nations, pronouncement Commissioner emphasized Government's concern destruction depended.5 treaty's explicitly tracts" 595 added), further, annuity form "provisions, merchandise, implements." alternative means demonstrated more clearly Nation. Taylor, met 1867, "fast disappearing," furnish "homes cattle, enable you raise supply stock your families disappeared."6 Proceedings Great Peace Commission 1867-1868, pp. 86-87 (Institute Development Law (1975)) Proceedings). Given traditional mainstay Indians' disappearing, inconceivable deprive "potential food reservation."7 832 (CA9 1976), 1048 (1977). 138 (1918).8 Second: necessitated "exigency" creation Cherokee Reservations discussed 615 (1970). cases, responded pressure return relinquishment territories.9 Choctaws Cherokees received 'to inure exist nation live it,' 625, 1331, assured 1867 receive home yourselves children forever, Father permit trespass." Proceedings, 86. during negotiations reflect understanding.10 628, consisted "one undivided exterior metes bounds." essentially highly analysis Oklahoma surrounded sides Oklahoma's "at least strained," inside bounds, "seems encompassed grant." mention bed. 1333. "natural inference" drawn grants bounds conveyed, rivers." 1336. Donnelly 228 243, 259, 449, 453, 57 820 (1913). offers plausible explanation failure draw here.11 Nation, laid portion Arkansas border lends weight Interpreting setting boundary "down main channel river," midpoint channel, Brewer-Elliott Oil & Gas 260 77, 60, 140 (1922).12 631-633, 1334-1335. t up "mid-channel Yellowstone river." mid-point channel; follows fortiori reservation.13 51 assuming, arguendo, defies common suggest Treaties.14 "your country," land," 287-291, 364-367 (1960). Further, undertook "against commission people States," damages suffered thereby; return, 2, build roads military posts 594. telling. time, whites Instead, addressed representatives gathered 1867: "We learn valuable mines discovered instances taken possession whites. travelled settlements being driven away fast disappearing. know rapidly occupying sent arrange plan relieve you, possible, bad consequences things difficulties." 54 credible heard declaration ran heart aside "forever." Chief Blackfoot, responded: Country rivers West." 88. inescapable them.15 understanding strengthened mid-channel reservation; likely interpretation placed half belonged accordingly deduced them. fact, lead absurd results. Gold 1858, sluicing operations begun stream western 1862; hundreds prospectors lured news, penetrated territory. N. Plummer, 109-110 (1974). noted, Taylor remarked mining territory, specifically indicated intrusions. Yet reached indicates licensees removing minerals banks; view, future. answer similar fully here: [the Indians] considered precluded exercising basic bed, think unlikely otherwise."16 635, 56 confronted almost There, argument silence regard disputed riverbeds fatal claimant principal 465 (1926), "should regarded plain." flatly pointing "nothing requires courts blind grantor."17 blinded today, respectfully River.18 According respondents, restricting focuses entirely sports duck surface parties, assumed largely activities. quiet concession acquired well. was, course, aware once Rosebud Sioux Kneip, 430 584, 588, 1361, 1363, 660. Hitchcock term." 656. "[C]ommencing where 107th degree longitude west Greenwich crosses south Territory; thence north along meridian River; point 45th latitude; east parallel latitude place beginning. recent construe argue resembles singular exception. finding based peculiar Those arose unusual issue, formed basis decision. Id. 622-628, 1330-1333. Immediately Revolutionary War, peace protection Tribes, Georgia Mississippi. succeeding bought room encroaching guaranteeing ceded. soon betrayed promise. relocated newly Territory, overrun series forced relocate farther west. Ultimately, Tribes' refused leave eastern doubting reliability promises Mississippi, anxious relocation westward abolish distribute finally aimed rectifying past suffering hands Territory pledged laws government embraced Dancing Rabbit Creek, 27, 1830, 333-334, 1331. 1835, containing provisions promising become Territory. 626, 1332. concluding surrounding special promise never 634-635, Neither historical origins crucial counterparts impaired privilege. specifically. "unoccupied viz., outside boundaries, 1920 Act. S.Rep.No.219, 66th 1st Sess., (1919). Senate Report "is accordance adherence expression [General Act]." Ibid.. follows: "While attention called, qualifies reason suppose patent thereon So reveals, efforts completely enactment Acts." 1168 (footnote omitted). view nevertheless bar non-resident eventual assimilation population. Organized Village Kake Egan, 369 72, 82 562, 569, 573, "gradual extinction titles." Draper 164 240, 246, 107, 109, 419. Secretary Affairs designed eventually eliminate See, Ann.Rep., vol. 25-28 (1885); p. (1886); IV-X (1887); XXIX-XXXII (1888); Ann.Rep. 3-4 (1889); VI, XXXIX (1890); 3-9, (1892); (1894). throughout debates allotment, "civilization" population accomplished, dissolution Cong.Rec. 779 (Sen. Vest), 782 Coke), 783-784 Saunders), 875 (Sens. Morgan Hoar), 881 Brown), 905 Butler), 939 Teller), 1003 Morgan), 1028 1064, 1065 Plumb), 1067 Williams) (1881). There suggestion legislative authority. debates, consistently equated affairs 785 876 878 Hoar 908 Call), Edmunds Williams). purchasing avowed government. imagined peaceful advanced fee-holders property. sale surplus repudiated 1934 Reorganization Act, 984, 461 seq. occasioned tied Bouchard, 464 1316, 1336 (W D Wis.); Pollmann, 364 995 (D C Mont.). No.2593 became unlawful hunt, trap, tribe: owners, example, private club keep off fee. One comes prosecuted law trespasser enjoys immunity. "Non-Indians tried charges. trespassers." Subsequent Reports Senate, H.R.Rep.No.625, 86th (1959); S.Rep.No.1686, (1960), refer lands" owners" rather country." legislation [18 1165] certain others, fills gap property." 206, 1019. Before interpreted confined benefit. Baker, 1377 1316 supra; Donahue California Cal.App.3d 557, Cal.Rptr. 310. Sanford, 547 1089 (CA9) (holding encroachments illegal unauthorized killing wildlife interfere reservations). Any refuted findings exercised 610. indeed adding reveals attempts forbid 1168, 11A. denying seriously ability fishermen. able rely enforcement patented 516-563, nn. 10-12. corollary, livable. California, 373 546, 83 1468, 1497, 542. Similarly, abdicated abused protecting managing wildlife, season, bag, impair stringent regulations parts 384 312, 410-411 Wash.), aff'd, 520 676 explained reasoning it: "[T]hese ordinary conveyancing. Nations exchange arm's-length transaction. choice consent. consequence, often (1899), doubtful expressions favor. 89, 41, (1918). Creek wherever founded doubt arise, favourably towards Choctaws.' 336." 630-631, 1334. went base construction: [United v.] [270 465] examined detail 'the disposal.' 58 [46 200]. error, given countervailing well-founded petitioners' favor." reviewing Reservations, Douglas wrote: "[W]hile domain retaining transfer 'not lightly inferred, plain.' 199]. exceptional here." 639, 1338. When decided, active Justices. Harlan participate consideration While ante, 550, plain statehood, mark. 39-40 (testimony Joe Medicine Crow, Historian). 90, Henry Old Coyote). historian "I eating fish" R. Lowie, 72 (1935), exist. 602. infra. generally 448 371, 380, 2716, 2722, 844 (1980) (discussing policy). events leading recounted 361 cert. denied, 366 924, 81 1350, 383 (1961); 238 (1935); Berthold 71 308 (1930). account published Saint Republican, Oct. 26, Mitchell ears always complaints Children. He grass timber consumed opening emigrants countries. losses desires you." Quoted Ct.Cl., 290, 366. communications Government. 287-288, 365 (letter W. Medill, Interior). commenced farming supplies; rations period Arts. VIII, IX 650-652. 1873 Commissioners negotiate diminishment instructed Mar. 1873, 321, "if locality [they should] include [in reservation] practicable. Blackfoot Conference: "There plenty deer, elk, antelope my country. beaver streams. too. yet dying starvation. decreasing, whenever gets scarce, tell Father. farming." 91. Edwin Thompson Denig, fur trader 1833 1856, remarked: "Every creek teems beaver, good fowl proper season." E. Of (1980). Fisheries, sued enjoin company maintaining trap Annette Islands Alaska, Metlakahtla lower sought, affirmed. noted: "That inclusive submerged upland needs little statement." 41. "for purpose—that safe-guarding advancing dwelling States." observed looked islands," statutes communities liberally construed, Indians." 42. homeland entirely, accept repeated diminishments distinguish case; indeed, distinction greater expectancy behind same: "to numbers migrations." 623, 1330. primarily crossing miners remaining 109-114 whereas "abandon prejudice lands," 595, "relinquish[ed] title, claims, [reservation] aforesaid." 288-291, 365-367; territories." 553. Claims, Nations. 291, 367; 271-272; contrary Shoshone 324 335, 349, 690, 697, 89 985 (1945) ("the execution [of 1851] described"). event, concedes, 553, 374-376, 2719-2721 April 29, Nation). "special origins" serve Equally unpersuasive 556, 5. Rather placing emphasis" promise, reinforced drew treaties. Brewer-Elliott, Osage bounded side "by 81, 62. Osages certainly line." added). vesting constituted (1894), navigable, earlier Fisheries. 8, supra. Bowlby. Later confirm 1891, 1040. Significantly, "mid-channel" river; prior cession, ceding affected stretch whole Counsel oral understand equal-footing doctrine times Treaties. Tr. Oral Arg. 13-14. Statements buttress 136 ("The Spirit mountains us, land"); 171 ("On Crows"). boundary. 555. retention obviously preclude beneath water. g. misplaced At Mud Lake, body Minnesota. Prior lake, "relinquished ceded" sold homesteaders. 52-53, 198. critical arises questionable preceding statehood been, area—unlike areas—"no formal ceded, affirmative therein. one, which, waters. 10, fails stands exception" Nation; Brewer-Elliott; Fisheries; disposition parcels consequence portions here unlike recognizes, 561, 173-174, 2621-2622, 11.

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