Document: 458 U.S. 613 102 S.Ct. 3272 73 L.Ed.2d 1012 Quentin ROGERS, et al., Appellants,v.Herman LODGE al. No. 80-2100. Argued Feb. 23, 1982. Decided July 1, Rehearing Denied Oct. 4, See 459 899, 103 198. Syllabus Burke County, Ga., a large, predominately rural county, has an at-large system for electing members of its governing Board Commissioners. No Negro ever been elected to the Board. Appellee black citizens county filed class action in Federal District Court, alleging that elections violated, inter alia, appellees' Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendment rights by diluting voting power citizens. Finding blacks have always made up substantial majority county's population but they are minority registered voters, there had bloc along racial lines, past discrimination restricted present opportunity participate effectively political process, Court held although state policy behind electoral was "neutral origin," being maintained invidious purposes violation rights. The court then ordered be divided into districts County Appeals affirmed, holding properly required appellees prove discriminatory purpose, Court's findings were not clearly erroneous, conclusion "virtually mandated overwhelming proof." Held: 1. did err concluding applied proper legal standard, where it appears demonstrated understanding controlling standard observing determination intent "a requisite finding unconstitutional vote dilution" under Amendments. Pp. 616-622. 2. Where neither ultimate intentional nor subsidiary fact appear erroneous such agreed Appeals, this will disturb findings. 622-627. 3. Nor is any reason overturn relief discerned special circumstances would militate against utilizing single-member districts. Pp.627-628. 5th Cir., 639 F.2d 1358, affirmed. E. Freeman Leverett, Elberton, appellants. David F. Walbert, Atlanta, appellees. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 issue case whether violates County's 2 * located eastern Georgia. Eight hundred thirty-one square miles area,1 approximately two-thirds size State Rhode Island. According 1980 census, total 19,349, whom 10,385, or 53.6%, black.2 average age living lower than whites therefore constitute slight population. As 1978, 6,373 persons 38% black.3 3 Commissioners governs county. It created 1911, see 1911 Ga.Laws 310-311, consists five at large concurrent 4-year terms all qualified voters never districts, either purpose imposing residency requirement on candidates requiring residing district. In order nominated elected, candidate must receive votes cast primary general election, runoff if no receives first election. Ga.Code § 34-1513 (Supp.1980). Each run specific seat Board, 34-1015 (1978), voter may only once candidate. 4 Appellees, eight suit 1976 United States Southern brought behalf County. certified 1977. complaint alleged First, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, rights, as well their 42 U.S.C. §§ 1971, 1973, 1983, Following bench trial which both sides introduced extensive evidence, issued September 29, stating entitled prevail ordering App. Juris. Statement 62a. later detailed conclusions law stated while method "racially neutral when adopted, [it] purposes" Id., 71a, 96a. 5 Lodge v. Buxton, 1358 (CA5 1981). proceedings took place prior decision Mobile Bolden, 446 55, 100 1490, 64 47 (1980), correctly anticipated purpose. F.2d, 1375-1376. also 1380. We noted probable jurisdiction, 454 811, 86, 70 80 (1981), now affirm.4 II 6 At-large schemes multimember tend minimize strength groups permitting elect representatives A distinct minority, racial, ethnic, economic, group, unable yet able several unit minority's district particularly diluted occurs ballots strict majority-minority lines. While challenged "their winner-take-all aspects, tendency submerge minorities overrepresent winning party," Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 158-159, 91 1858, 1877, 29 363 (1971), repeatedly per se. supra, U.S., 66, S.Ct., 1499; White Regester, 412 755, 765, 93 2332, 2339, 37 314 (1973); 142, 1868. recognized, however, violate "conceived operated purposeful devices further discrimination" minimizing, cancelling out elements 149, 1872. 2339. Cases charging unconstitutionally dilute thus subject proof generally applicable Equal Protection Clause cases. Washington Davis, 426 229, 96 2040, 48 597 (1976), Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 252, 97 555, 50 450 (1977), clear "the quality claimed racially ultimately traced purpose." 240, 2048. Neither involved dilution, cases observed proved applies relying upon, among others, Wright Rockefeller, 376 52, 84 603, 11 512 (1964), districting case, illustrate showing long types equal protection discrimination. Heights, 265, 563; 2048.5 7 Davis rejected notion invalid simply because affect greater proportion one race another. 242, 2049. However, recognized need direct evidence. "Necessarily, often inferred from totality relevant facts, including fact, true, bears more heavily another." Ibid. Thus determining existence "demands sensitive inquiry circumstantial evidence available." 266, 564. 8 called upon apply these principles election Mobile, Ala. governed three commissioners who exercise legislative, executive, administrative municipality. 59, 1495. City Commission runs numbered posts can vote. 59-60, 1495-96. Plaintiffs scheme statutory constitutional provisions. concluded "violates plaintiffs improperly restricting access process," Bolden 423 F.Supp. 384, 399 (SD Ala.1976), commission form government replaced mayor nine-member Council 404. 571 238 1978). This reversed. 9 Stewart, writing himself other Justices, contention Amendment, " 'conceived [a] devic[e] . discrimination.' 1499, quoting 1872.6 Such "is aspect basic principle Amendment," Regester consistent with principle. 69, 1501. Another plurality. 101, 1517 (WHITE, J., dissenting). 10 plurality went conclude failed comply standard. analyzed plaintiffs' claims light set forth Zimmer McKeithen, 485 1297 1973), aff'd grounds sub nom. East Carroll Parish School Bd. Marshall, 424 636, 1083, L.Ed. 296 (1975) (per curiam ).7 list factors8 gleaned should consider assessing constitutionality schemes. Under Zimmer, dilution established "upon aggregate factors." 1305. view "decided misunderstanding necessary show Clause—that effect sufficient." 71, 1502. presence indicia relied afford some purpose," mere those criteria substitute 73, 1503. likewise flawed. Finally, courts "insufficient case." STEVENS satisfy his rule. He concurred judgment reversal. Four thought sufficient One them, BLACKMUN, nevertheless he believed remedy imposed. 12 Because employed evidentiary factors outlined urged infirm same reasons led reversal Mobile. do agree. fundamentally, we unconvinced wrong Not rendered considerable time after judge benefit Nevett Sides, 209 Fifth Circuit assessed impact motivated element claim ." 219. "[t]he group plan attack exists intended diminish efficacy group." 226. explained important considerations arriving intent, plaintiff limited factors. "The task before finder determine, whose favor 'aggregate' preponderates. peculiarly dependent facts each 224 (footnote omitted). 13 referred Sides 68a. Furthermore, recognizing identified considered, aware "not factors" could well. Statement, 70a. proceeded deal what considered commissioners, "although purposes." Id, 71a. That "while origin subverted 90a. For most part, dealt progeny, stated: 14 "Judge Alaimo constitutionally [and] treat absolute, rather them extent question intent." 1376. 15 Although tenable argument contrary, inclined disagree Appeals' III A. 16 769-770, 2341, factual findings, "representing blend history intensely local appraisal design Bexar reality, otherwise." Columbus Education Penick, 443 449, 468, 99 2941, 2952, 61 666 (1979) (BURGER, C.J., concurring judgment). Our recent Pullman-Standard Swint, 456 273, 1781, 72 66 (1982), emphasizes deference Rule Civil Procedure 52 requires reviewing give court's fact. "Rule 52a broadly aside unless erroneous. does make exceptions purport exclude certain categories 287, 1789. differential seniority resulted discriminate pure 52a's clearly-erroneous standard." 287-288, Swint issues commonly treated matters. 288, 1790. purposes, hold frequently reluctance two courts. See, e.g., Berenyi Information Director, 385 630, 635, 87 666, 670, 17 656 (1967); Blau Lehman, 368 403, 408-409, 82 451, 454, (1962); Graver Tank & Mfg. Co. Linde Co., 336 271, 275, 69 535, 537, 672 (1949). agree record us, none B found 66a, n. 3, voters. 71a-72a. There 72a-73a. Hence, candidates, Commission. These bear Voting lines allows ignore interests without fear consequences, lose solely race. sensible expect least exclusion. 766, 18 our cases, insufficient themselves absent less processes choice. Jewish Organizations Carey, 430 144, 167, 996, 1010, 51 229 (1977); 765-766, 2339; 149-150, 1499 (plurality opinion). Both supporting support inference organized primarily around 1978), deemed suggested 1973). 19 began ability process. Past contribute low registration, Rights Act 1965, denied process means literacy tests, poll taxes, white primaries. result "Black suffrage virtually non-existent." Black registration increased following point eligible so. 72a. On basis "past adverse lingers date." education effect. schools recently 1969, still remain essentially segregated completed formal whites. 74a. 20 exclusion prevented participating Democratic Party affairs elections. Until lawsuit filed, member Executive Committee Party. property ownership requirements difficult serve chief registrar selection grand jurors, hiring employees, appointments boards committees oversee government. 74a-76a. historical Evidence drawing discrimination, shows practices utilized, abandoned enjoined illegal civil legislation, laws which, though face, maintain status quo. 21 Extensive cited officials unresponsive insensitive needs community,9 increases likelihood equally open blacks. ranged effects haunt courthouse infrequent appointment committees; overtly pattern paving roads; complaints, forced take obtain school jury desegregation; role played incorporation all-white private donated public funds purchase band uniforms. 77a-82a. 22 depressed socio-economic proportionately incomes below poverty level. 83a. Nearly 53% families three-fourths poverty-level income. whites, received "was qualitatively inferior marked degree." 84a. Blacks pay even similar work, menial jobs 85a. Seventy-three percent houses occupied lacked plumbing facilities; 16% white-occupied suffered deficiency. results part lingering discrimination." 23 "has practical matter, maintenance statute providing determined representatives, legislature defers wishes matters purely application. "have retained minimized system." addition, indicated enhance minorities. 143-144, 1869. sheer geographic nearly Island, get polling places campaign office." 91a. concluded, matter law, tends impair 92a. requirement, (Supp.1980), "to minority" "deny seats, enhances appellee's lack prevents cohesive concentrating single "[a]ll reside Waynesboro, 'lilly-white' [sic] neighborhoods. To extent, denial becomes enhanced." 93a. 24 None underlying us erroneous; said, decline essential denying 767, 2340, "sufficient sustain [its] and, record, them." IV 25 find found, 'exceed' tailored cure 'condition offends Constitution.' Milliken Bradley, 433 267, 282, 2749, 2758, 53 745 (emphasis deleted), 418 717, 738, 94 3112, 3124, 41 1069 (1974).10 26 Affirmed. 27 POWELL, REHNQUIST joins, dissenting. 28 establishes upheld reversed establish intent. id., 1503 J.). based Yet finds unexceptionable. affirmed concept "intent" fiction, erred "its failure identify relevant." 74, 20, 1503, 20. answer today affirms decision. Whatever wisdom cannot reconciled persuasively case. variances largely sociological presented But kind enough. merely fall short, "fell far short[,] [an was] [as a] 70, 1501 added), 1872, (1971). I believe controls dissent. 30 relies capacity federal courts—essentially free standards propounded Court—to determine systems "being population." Ante, 622. invited engage deeply subjective inquiries motivations structuring governments. Inquiries "unseemly," Karst, Costs Motive-Centered Inquiry, San Diego L.Rev. 1163, 1164 (1978); intrude courts—with vaguest direction—into area concern. 31 Emphasizing considerations, STEVENS, post, 642-650, argues forcefully focus seriously mistaken. much says. share views entirely, write separately. 32 understand it, STEVENS' critique approach rests am fundamental agreement. 33 appropriate distinguish between "state inhibits individual's right affects various groups." 83, 1508 (STEVENS, judgment); 632, 637-638, 16. distinction, fundamentally different involving barriers voting. here register freely choose. differs one-man, one-vote person's weighty others. 34 Second, impossible especially remedial aspect—from actions redress gerrymanders. 650-653. 35 correct arguing used unlawful defined judicially manageable reviewable. 633, 642-650. absence compelling judiciary unwarranted undertaking restructure systems. inherently area, identification seeming necessarily suggest enforceable judicial remedy—or short quotas representation. Any system, course, antithetical democracy. 36 accommodate irrelevant establishment Amendment. 637. Despite sharing concerns position developed, accept view. central prevention official conduct discriminating race." 239, 2047, (1976). unwilling abandon kind, join opinion. Nonetheless, him calls "objective" vote-dilution Unlike direct, reliable, unambiguous indices If held, think should, reliance prevent federal-court officials—at until enough objective warrant discovery complex, politically charged area. By prescribing rule manageable. And faithful protective Clause. 38 too attenuated reverse basis. 39 40 legacy left scars Georgia.1 amply supports guaranteed Amendments Constitution. legitimately validity measures, legislative judicial, designed prohibit guarantee afforded Public roads paved areas live;2 employment opportunities government;3 maintained.4 Nor, my opinion, doubt about amendment require covered jurisdictions kinds perpetuate "As reserved powers States, Congress use rational effectuate prohibition voting." South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 324, 86 803, 816, 769. might indeed wise accelerate transition commensurate amending jurisdictions. today, own conception sound command. entirely interpretation sympathetic laudable goals, presented. raises questions encompass immediate plight disadvantaged errs structure governmental identifying acceptable, adjudicating kind. 43 entry business reapportionment 1962 preceded lengthy scholarly debate over play Frankfurter described Colegrove Green, 328 549, 1198, 90 1432, "political thicket."5 decided 1946, declined entertain challenge congressional Illinois 1901 become grossly unequal great growth urban population.6 dissent, advocated statewide, representatives; argued virtue convenient have—namely, gives people effective voice government, constitutional." 574, 1212. 44 1962, changed course. another statute, doctrine foreclose review. Baker Carr, 369 186, 691, 663. represents landmarks jurisprudence. 45 Two aspects Carr relevance decides today. review focused dominant importance satisfactory determination.7 articulation reference intent.8 host arisen wake ofBaker shared characteristics. They formulated, refined, known one-person, rule; attached significance decisionmakers adopted attack. 46 quite methods analysis employed. features raise decide whether, singly combination, valid. testing rules conditioning payment tax,9 burdens independent candidates,10 new residents Armed Forces vote,11 prohibiting crossovers party primaries,12 filing fees,13 disadvantaging parties Presidential elections.14 procedure turn legislators enacted subjectively declaration invalidate wherever found. Alternatively, employ depends judges' appraisals why particular localities chosen govern way. Constitution protect machinery influence impermissible Constitutional challenges identical procedures neighboring communities produce totally results, procedures—or admissible discovered concerning motivation—could different. deciding abruptly rejects former considers latter. starts premise atlarge is, unobjectionable. otherwise valid unconstitutional, makes very reason. apparently critical importance: (1) control; (2) character minority.15 49 troubled analysis. survive scrutiny easy implies. Assuming, valid, since change constitutionality. Even consideration, maximize majority. ante, 616.16 are, many Three noteworthy, shed unidentified people, win qualifications duties office separately designated position.17 commissioner election; leading plurality, held. Third, requirements; thus, single, neighborhood.18 assumes concentrated hands small community acceptable—or perhaps preferred—form municipal government,19 immediately apparent additional help entrenched desirable legitimate.20 serve—particularly viewed combination—is assist power, legitimate Tennessee "no policy, arbitrary capricious action." 226, 714 original). Unless independently justified, justification participation elections.21 argued—presumably assumed references proving improper motive context—that type deprives law. appellants sought policies justify rules. result, provide adequate traditional standards.22 itself justification, unnecessary. MARSHALL dissent : "Whatever merits applying motivational allocation gratuitous benefits, completely misplaced where, here, distribution protected interest." 121, 1529.23 analysis, characteristics irrelevant. uphold arbitrary—but invidious—system invalidate—if proved—a perfectly acceptable 54 Ever joined concerned emphasis criterion adjudication.24 regarded restraint judges tool exercising confined legislature.25 My principal concern subjective-intent unrelated quantum confers judiciary. power. adjudication premised case-by-case possibly impartial administration embodied 55 ephemeral focuses When 1976, 58 white. process—through outlawed 1965—and enable overcome injustice, served, voting, control Whether continued so depended mix factors—the continuing increase blacks, exodus dominate politics. 56 formed achieve administration, boundary drawn two. presumably ironic fits precisely.26 57 continue basis, guarantees seats possible frozen decree complete administration. Since judge's unquestionably benign invidious—and, unlike officials, event standard—that accomplished violating future, inconceivable likely desire harbor "invidious" reason, unconstitutional. two, influential. affected return undermine certainty seats.27 Of mandate permit all-black commission—and so—those keep returning sum, consciousness Perhaps familiar maneuvering accuracy reliability intentions not. possess expertise, afraid planting seeds unexpected harvest. 59 costs doubts associated litigating motive, significant routine trials, "motives" bodies.28 Often reason.29 reform movement 19, attempt strictures Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 1362, 506, account enactment countless Whose control? Obviously responsible attitudes government.30 Assuming actors" critical, how mental discovered? Must proposal defeated? What motives or, indeed, official? Is selfish stay system? 60 avoids problems failing asks. Presumably, according scarcely identifies manner changes made. unsuccessful replace incongruous allegedly harbored mentioned. Undoubtedly, proves prejudice wrongful acts leaders. every animus—and remedied court—the test demonstrate Certainly influenced considerations. convinced, affords right—and case—to way "discriminatory." ratify concludes stereotypical women society? memorial Jews slaughtered World War civic leaders cause meritorious victimized Palestinian refugees? adopt holiday Martin Luther King, Jr., deserve commemorated? refusal Medicaid funding abortions intend abort fetus?31 62 broad. Moreover, incorrect assuming retain machinery. surely characteristic politicians throughout country. implementing sort majorities wide variety techniques limit aggressive characteristics, seeking can, ways. Hasidic Kings N.Y.,32 Puerto Ricans Chicago,33 Spanish-speaking Dallas,34 Bohemians Cedar Rapids,35 Federalists Massachusetts,36 Democrats Indiana,37 Republicans California38 deliberate maneuvers stated, device serves standards. majority's candidates—regardless nature interest cohesion—the just entering thicket"; vast wonderland activity. 63 obvious response suggestion involves decisions disadvantage Governmental discriminates individuals least, presumptively irrational.39 enjoy benefits responsibilities citizenship democratic society. Persons races, like religious faiths beliefs, eyes 65 Groups associate together common goals. voluntarily issue, ethnic heritage, belief, race, bond cohesion strength. referring groups, consistently that, borrow BRENNAN's phrasing, Zobel Williams, 457 2309, 2318, (BRENNAN, concurring). Thus, "differences color, nativity, opinions [or] affiliations,"American Sugar Refining Louisiana, 179 89, 92, 43, 44, 102, redistricting plans economic discrimination," 363; biases "tending areas." Abate Mundt, 182, 187, 1904, 1907, 399. Indeed, recognizes "distinct 616. gave inconsistent tenet Those pursue arena said alliances consciousness—as opposed forms consciousness—is irrational. creates danger contrary group's interests. number background create gerrymandering. strong manifested arises. character." Cousins Chicago, 466 830, 852 (CA7 1972) (Stevens, dissenting), cert. denied, 409 893, 85, 151. unrealistic ground factor 67 Racial association system. look forward day goal best achieved eliminating vestiges motivate identifiable units. Whenever society disadvantaged, "bloc." respect, groups. permanent differently would, feature others; trait delay—rather advance—the Douglas: 68 "When State, multiracial, multireligious seeks weld separatist; antagonisms relate religion generated; seek representative partisan. war ideal, footing here." 67, 611, (dissenting conviction misuse mean action. written before, gerrymander grotesque boundaries condemned Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110, intolerable fences Republican Irish-Catholic 1510 (opinion extends broad vulnerable undefined pick choose almost condemned. groups—such Georgia—should given oppression application choice temporary period history. leadership predominates shield tactics opponents underestimates resourcefulness, wisdom, holding.40 71 respectfully Dept. Commerce, Bureau Census, Data Book 1977, p. (1978). Census Population Housing, PHC80-V-12, (Mar.1981). 1930, 29,224, 22,698 78% black. Characteristics Population, pt. 2, (1943). percentage steadily diminished last years. stayed pending appeal Appeals. 439 948, 342, 339 April 6, 1981, disposition here. Purposeful invokes strictest treatment. Absent rationality. 247-248, 2051. With respect prohibits purposefully interference freedom Negroes "Having 'register hindrance,' error believing invaded [the Fifteenth] 65, 1499. Justices disagreed plurality's putting 84, 1509 1518 dissenting); 125-135, 1531-1537 (MARSHALL, express Act, 79 Stat. 437, amended, added nothing "legislative itself." 60-61, 1496. specifically "without approval expressed Appeals." 638, 1084. listed include unresponsiveness interests, tenuous preference districting, precludes elector Factors anti-single-shot provisions, provision subdistricts. "proof body claiming injury" 1375. inferred. Appellants contend allowed devise subdividing submit preclearance 439, 1973c. raised addressed court. address it. Adickes S.H. Kress 398 147, 1598, 1602, 142 (1970). arising bodies. merit contention, having previously parish (county) Certain discrimination—although pressing facing today—are haunting reminder Nation's laundromat within few blocks courthouse; itself, faded paint restroom doors conceal words "colored" "white." Dowdell Apopka, 511 1375 (MD Fla.1981). 2000e-2. Brown Education, 347 483, 74 686, 98 873. criticized announcing wrote: "Nothing clearer controversy bring active relations contests. From traditionally aloof. hostile involve politics people. pernicious intervention contest dressed abstract phrases "Courts ought enter thicket. unfairness secure legislatures apportion properly, invoke ample Congress. commands outside conditions circumscribe 'on Demand executive Authority,' Art. IV, duty sister deliver fugitive justice. fulfilment enforced. Kentucky Dennison, How. 717. faithfully executed compulsion, Mississippi Johnson, Wall. 475. Violation guaranty republican Pacific Telephone Oregon, 223 118, 224, 377. performance depend fidelity ultimately, vigilance rights." 553-554, 556, 1200, 1201. 112,000 914,000 persons. 557, 1202. "nonjusticiability function separation powers." 210, 706. emphasized, determination" consideration Coleman Miller, 307 433, 454-455, 972, 982, 83 1385, foreign justiciable turns, susceptibility handling"; definable barrier falls away"; "even litigation directly implicates powers, discoverable drive even-handed impel departments' dates hostilities' beginning ending." 211, 214, 706, 707, 708. Borden, 581, distinguished, republican"; Guaranty repository utilize State's lawful government." 222, 223, 712, 713. justiciable, emphasized determinations lacking." 714. "Judicial developed familiar, must, reflects Harper Virginia Elections, 663, 1079, 169. whenever affluence fee Voter relation wealth paying tax." 1081. "To introduce measure voter's factor." 668, 1082. noted: "It pointed mechanism deny color." 672, Storer Brown, 415 724, 1274, eligibility "inevitable judgment" "could reasonably diligent expected signature requirements, rarely unaffiliated succeed getting ballot?" 742, 1285. Mandel 432 173, 177, 2238, 2241, 199, 181, 2243 American Texas White, 795, 1296, 1313, 744. Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 92 995, 274; Carrington Rash, 380 85 775, 675. Kusper Pontikes, 414 51, 303, 260. Lubin Panish, 709, 1315, 702; Bullock Carter, 134, 849, 92. Williams Rhodes, 393 89 5, 24. somewhat puzzling. states cases." 617. paragraph, indicates "charging seems imply surmount hurdle prevail. unequivocally "racial classification, regardless purported motivation, extraordinary justification." Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 442 256, 272, 2282, 2292, 870. Chancellor Kent, recommended justice giving, possible, subdivisions state, due leave approaching majority, wholly overpowered combined numerical whatever national councils." J. Commentaries Law *230-*231, (c) (12th ed. 1873). 105, 1520, 158-160, 363. value individual 506. An Stewart considering applicability followed it: "Those 'have weighted citizens.' 576, 1389. voice' impaired representation apportioned substantially populous carry weight smaller be, 'one person, vote' violated city unitary conducted large. nobody's 'diluted' sense word 77-78, 1505-1506 distinguishes popularized reformers shortly century Galveston Plan Des Moines Plan. infra. Other favored occurs—prohibitions cumulative incomplete voting—are Prohibitions partial inapplicable posts. "During evolution progressive solution problems, format variously plan, idea, plan. invented organization addition related techniques, probably Galveston—Des So popular idea towns reap advertising forefront innovation Consequently, cities boasted knowing full charters little resemblance Galveston's. essentials status. Benjamin DeWitt, early historian movement, explained: 'In differ minor details, common. four: "1. Authority responsibility centralized. "2. men authority vested small. "3. wards "4. man head department.' radical departure combination functions body. disregarded model powers. Sitting together, typical policy- ordinance-making council; but, separately, administered department day-to-day original charter provided mayor-president plus finance revenue, waterworks sewerage, streets property, fire police. Later division responsibility." B. Rice, Progressive Cities: Government Movement America, 1901-1920, pp. xiii-xiv (1977) noteworthy characterize units subjected excluded Act: Unfulfilled Goals, Report 38-50 (1981). proportional 75-76, 1504-1505 opinion); 122, 1530 democracy, meaningful ensure bodies responsive entire electorate. justified reduce indicate elimination well-organized consequence replacing words, effected invalidating impede changing unit. 80, 1507 (BLACKMUN, result). worth repeating statement Professor Ely MARSHALL: new-found enthusiasm motivation export fields business. strongly goods (that substantive right). covert something complainant granted Constitution, functioning government—the justifications counsel articulate non-provision, actually inspired can: irrespective denied. tragedy expand burgeoning awareness thoroughly mistaken count intentional." Ely, Centrality Limits Motivation Analysis, 1155, 1160-1161 (1978) original) (footnotes 597, "Frequently probative happened describing mind actor. normally actor presumed natural consequences deeds. true product compromise, collective decisionmaking, mixed motivation. unrealistic, hand, victim uncover actual decisionmaker conversely, deliberation participant decisional conscripting clerics invalidated atheist voted it." 253, 2054 (concurring Devil Himself Knows Mind Man," How Possibly Can Judges Know Legislators?, 1167, 1170 table breakdown selected age: Age (%) 2,048 1,482 (72.4) 556 (27.6) 2,029 1,407 (69.3) 622 (30.7) 2,115 978 (46.2) 1,137 (53.8) 2,112 947 (44.6) 1,175 (55.4) 2,217 803 (36.2) 1,414 (63.8) 1361, 512, New York placed four districts." 58, 606. Congressman Adam Clayton Powell intervened strenuously "that contended undesirable origin, unconstitutional." Karst inadequate conduct: "[E]ven center done, posed goodness evil officials' hearts. Courts unseemly, investigation 1950's attest. tender sensitivities bruised, purity her fail recognize highly suspect. behavior interaction multitude motives, operate margin consciousness, certainly argue prompted made, moral doubt? decision, toward generosity heightened?" 1164-1165 reject examination "In customary ascertaining achieve. committees, evidenced text, setting enacted, deeds sponsors opponents, 856 disadvantages justifications—as intent—are persuade observer legitimate, nondiscriminatory reasons, invalid. originally receiv[ed] franchise. disputes end, states' laws, old existed, disappeared. category. 1363, 7. Apart action," secret ballot explaining anyone whom, cast. reaction disfavored legislation. Mathews Lucas, 427 495, 520-521, 2755, 2769, 651 remember First protects unsound unpopular beliefs—including beliefs classes expound publicly. difference rejecting irrational belief legislation belief. Fresh air discussion better cures vicious secrecy dissembling. firmly legislator's casting biased vote, opinions, cf. Young Mini Theatres, Inc., 50, 63, 2440, 2448, 310 J.), prefer candid explanation litigation-oriented silence. Organization 229. 830 1972), 314. supra 78. term "gerrymander" arose shape salamander—formed Massachusetts Governor Elbridge Gerry's Jeffersonian Democratic-Republican phrase coined Federalists. Congressional Quarterly, 758 941. rely affirmative-action rationale, put side. rationale holding, inquire 1965. issue. claims.

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