Document: 453 U.S. 490 101 S.Ct. 2882 69 L.Ed.2d 800 METROMEDIA, INC., et al., Appellants,v.CITY OF SAN DIEGO al. No. 80-195. Argued Feb. 25, 1981. Decided July 2, Syllabus Appellee city of San Diego enacted an ordinance which imposes substantial prohibitions on the erection outdoor advertising displays within city. The stated purpose is "to eliminate hazards to pedestrians and motorists brought about by distracting sign displays" preserve improve appearance City." permits onsite commercial (a goods or services available property where located), but forbids other noncommercial using fixed-structure signs, unless permitted 1 ordinance's 12 specified exceptions, such as temporary political campaign signs. Appellants, companies that were engaged in business when was passed, suit state court enjoin enforcement ordinance. trial held unconstitutional exercise city's police power abridgment appellants' First Amendment rights. California Court Appeal affirmed first ground alone, Supreme reversed, holding, inter alia, not facially invalid under Amendment. Held: judgment case remanded. Pp. 498-521; 527-540. 26 Cal.3d 848, 164 Cal.Rptr. 510, 610 P.2d 407, reversed Justice WHITE, joined STEWART, MARSHALL, POWELL, concluded its face. 498-521. (a) As with media communication, government has legitimate interests controlling noncommunicative aspects billboards, Fourteenth Amendments foreclose similar communicative billboards. Because regulation a medium often impinges some degree aspects, courts must reconcile government's regulatory individual's right expression. 500-503. 2 (b) Insofar it regulates speech, meets constitutional requirements Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Comm'n, 447 557, 100 2343, 65 341. Improving traffic safety are governmental goals. directly serves these goals no broader than necessary accomplish ends. 503-512. 3 (c) However, general ban signs carrying Amendments. fact may value messages relating more values communications offsite does justify prohibiting occupant from displaying his own ideas those others. Furthermore, because exceptions be conveyed billboards throughout industrial zones, allow conveying zones. cannot characterized reasonable "time, place, manner" restriction. 512-517. 4 (d) Government restrictions protected speech permissible merely favor one side over another subject public controversy. Nor can prohibition all carried particular mode communication upheld rationally related nonspeech interest. Courts protect against legislative intrusion, rather defer rational judgments this area. Since official strong private advertising, claim same outweigh communications. 517-521. 5 BRENNAN, BLACKMUN, practical effect constitutes total use communicate applicability, whether noncommercial, appropriate analysis totally only if show sufficiently interest furthered thereby any narrowly drawn restriction would promote less well achievement goal. Under test, Diego's since (1) failed produce evidence demonstrating actually impair Diego, (2) goal, (3) asserted esthetics areas. banning allowing constitutional, give officials discretion determine instance proposed message "commercial" "noncommercial." 6 Floyd Abrams, New York City, for appellants. 7 C. Alan Sumption, Cal., appellees. 8 WHITE announced delivered opinion, POWELL joined. 9 This involves validity imposing 10 * Stating City," prohibit "outdoor display signs."1 subsequently defined term "advertising sign" "a rigidly assembled sign, display, device permanently affixed attached building inherently permanent structure constituting, used of, advertisement public." 856, n. 513, P. 2d, 410, (1980). "Advertising signs" include "directs attention product, service activity, event, person, institution business."2 11 provides two kinds prohibition: falling categories. Onsite "designating name owner premises upon placed, identifying premises; manufactured produced rendered placed." 13 specific categories exempted include: signs; located at bus stops; manufactured, transported, stored city, purposes; commemorative historical plaques; religious symbols; shopping malls; sale lease vehicles; depicting time, temperature, news; approved temporary, off-premises, subdivision directional "[t]emporary signs."3 scheme, on-site permitted, everywhere forbidden exceptions. 14 Appellants time passed. Each owns number (approximately 500 800) These areas zoned purposes, most them leased owners appellants maintaining remaining useful income-producing life 25 years, each fair market between $2,500 $25,000. Space made "all comers" copy changed regularly, usually monthly.4 nature described parties follows: 15 "Outdoor customarily purchased basis presentation requiring multiple exposure. Usually large variety locations utilized advertiser's message. An advertiser will generally purchase 'showing' involve utilization metropolitan area."5 16 Although purchasers space seek convey message, their have also been broad range social messages. 17 After extensive discovery, filed stipulation facts, including: 18 "2. If enforced written, Ordinance 10795 City Diego. 19 20 "28. Outdoor increases sales products produces numerous direct indirect benefits public. Valuable commercial, information communicated through advertising. Many businesses politicians persons rely forms insufficient, inappropriate prohibitively expensive." Joint Stipulation Facts Nos. 28, App. 42a, 48a. 21 On cross-motions summary judgment, alone did reach argument. Without questioning stipulated including "eliminate Diego," reversed. It purposes proper application municipal authority zoning land promoting welfare." Cal.3d, 858, Cal.Rptr., 514, P.2d, 411 (footnote omitted). rejected argument relied certain actions Court, dismissing want federal question appeals several state-court decisions sustaining displays.6 sought review arguing grounds threatened destruction prohibited Due Process Clause We noted probable jurisdiction. 449 897, 265, 66 127. II 22 Early cases aimed considerations. See Packer Utah, 285 105, 52 273, 76 L.Ed. 643 (1932); St. Louis Poster Advertising Co. Louis, 249 269, 39 274, 63 599 (1919); Thomas Cusack Chicago, 242 526, 37 190, 61 472 (1917).7 decisions, we given plenary consideration involving challenges statutes ordinances limiting preferring occasions summarily affirm local legislation directed 23 Suffolk Hulse, 439 808, 99 66, 58 (1978), involved distinguished billboard former permitting latter. dismissed presenting appeal ordinance, rejecting submission, repeated case, violates definition "billboard," however, considerably narrower here: "A directs business, commodity, service, entertainment, attraction sold, offered existing elsewhere lot displayed." sweep scope admittedly Southampton, N.Y., unlike contained provision establishment centers could located. repeatedly although dispositions merits, extend "the precise issues presented necessarily decided actions." Mandel Bradley, 432 173, 176, 97 2238, 2240, 53 199 (1977); see Hicks Miranda, 422 332, 345, 14, 95 2281, 2290, 45 223 (1975); Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 671, 94 1347, 1359, 662 (1974). challenged prohibits support decision below. 24 disposed upholding occasions. Markham Washington, 393 316, 89 553, 512 (1969), Newman Signs, Inc. Hjelle, 440 901, 1205, 59 (1979), both facial extended designated roadways uses. instances Our recent action Lotze 444 921, 257, 62 177 "as applied" challenge Washington In erected, property, expressing views. prohibited, ordered removal. raising statute. our holdings pertinent, quite relying attack. supra. pointed out, do after consideration, Illinois State Board Elections Socialist Workers Party, 180-181, 983, 988-989, 230 (1979); supra, 1359; Fusari Steinberg, 419 379, 392, 533, 541, 42 521 (1975) (BURGER, J., concurring). They present justification declining reconsider prior full opinion. "It unusual find previous action." Yakima Indian Nation, 463, 477, 20, 740, 749, 740 Tully Griffin, Inc., 429 68, 74-75, 219, 223-224, 50 227 (1976); Usery Turner Elkhorn Mining Co., 428 1, 96 2882, 2891, 49 752 (1976). Probable jurisdiction having consider constitutionality proceed so. III faced problem applying principles unique forums See, e. g., Consolidated Edison 530, 2326, 319 (1980) (billing envelope inserts); Carey Brown, 455, 2286, 263 (picketing residential areas); Schaumburg Citizens Better Environment, 620, 826, 73 (door-to-door on-street solicitation); Greer Spock, 424 828, 1211, 47 505 (1976) (Army bases); Erznoznik Jacksonville, 205, 2268, 125 (outdoor movie theaters); Lehman Shaker Heights, 418 298, 2714, 41 770 (1974) (advertising city-owned transit system). Even cursory reading opinions reveals times yield societal interests. cogency Jackson's remark Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 97, 448, 458, 93 513 (1949): method communicating law unto itself" reflect "differing natures, values, abuses dangers" method.8 deal here 27 Billboards well-established different messages.9 Clark dissent below: 28 "The symbol venerable political, ideas. From poster 'broadside' billboard, placed prominent role American history, rallying causes." 888, 533-534, 430-431. 29 record indicates besides typical uses, 30 publicize 'City motion' candidates municipal, national offices, judicial office, propose marriage, employment, encourage seat belts, denounce United Nations, Prisoners War Missing Action, Crusade charitable socially-related endeavors provide directions traveling public."10 31 But whatever function, remains "large, immobile, like structures . regulation." Id., 870, 522, 419. Moreover, designed stand out apart surroundings, creates set problems land-use planning development. 32 Billboards, then, combine aspects. media, medium, " '[A] escape task assessing stake weighing allegedly served regulation.' Linmark Associates, Willingboro, 431 85, 91, 1614, 1617, 155 (1977), quoting Bigelow Virginia, 421 809, 2222, 2234, 44 600 (1975). Performance requires particularized inquiry into conflicting here, beginning appraisal character affects communication. 33 construed restricts That ways: first, reference structural characteristics sign; second, content, sign. Thus, applies "permanent 2. Within class, located, occupant, exemptions prohibition, To how constructed, what carries. 34 allowed; barred; prohibited. advertise services; he others, nor IV 35 Appellants' principal submission elimination contend bar neither advertisements even former, raise arguments because, bulk consists advertisements, amount advertising.11 consistently protection afforded opposed evaluating contention separately speech. 36 extension protections purely relatively development jurisprudence. Prior 1975, considered outside Valentine Chrestensen, 316 52, 920, 86 1262 (1942). construction severely cut back Virginia Pharmacy Consumer Council, 425 748, 1817, 48 346 (1976), plainly proposing transaction enjoys protection: A completely suppress dissemination truthful entirely lawful activity fearful information's disseminators recipients. decision, equate indeed, expressly indicated contrary. id., 770-773, 24, S.Ct., 1830-1831. 779-781, 1834-1835 (STEWART, concurring).12 continued develop, communications, context Amendment, treated differently. Bates Bar Arizona, 433 350, 2691, 810 attorneys subjected blanket suppression issue there constitutionally protected. continue observe distinction indicating regulated situations latter be. 379-381, 383-384, 2706-2708, 2708-2709. Ohralik Ohio Assn., 436 447, 98 1912, 56 refused invalidate lawyer's suspension practice face-to-face solicitation pecuniary gain. course doing so, again recognized common-sense legal varieties speech: 38 "To require parity alike invite dilution, simply leveling process, force Amendment's guarantee respect kind Rather devitalization, instead limited measure protection, commensurate subordinate position scale while modes might impermissible realm expression." 456, 1918. Young Mini Theatres, 427 50, 69, 32, 2440, 2452, 310 STEVENS difference price product ideological "that tolerate latter." U.S., 91-92, 1617-1618, Friedman Rogers, 8-10, 887, 893, (1979). 40 Finally, 341 (1980), held: Constitution accords lesser guaranteed expression turns 562-563, 2349-2350 (citation then adopted four-part test determinating fully protects concerns misleading. otherwise valid seeks implement interest, advances (4) reaches further objective. 563-566, 2350-2351. agree approach taken determining articulated Hudson, assert fails test. agree. There little controversy fourth criteria. suggestion unlawful doubt twin further—traffic city—are goals.13 far too late either safety, Railway Express Agency, York, 106, 533 (1949), esthetics, Penn Transportation 438 104, 2646, 57 631 (1978); Village Belle Terre Boraas, 416 1536, 797 (1974); Berman Parker, 348 26, 33, 75 98, 102, (1954). Similarly, reject and, therefore, part sufficient believing unattractive, obviously perhaps effective solving they create them. gone seeking meet Indeed, stopped short accomplishing ends: allows specifically 43 serious question, third criteria: Does "directly advance" city? inadequate connection safety. meager point matter eliminates viewed streets highways reasonably relates safety." 859, 515, 412. Noting "[b]illboards intended to, undoubtedly do, divert driver's roadway," ibid., "distracting contributes accidents invokes continuing controversy," agreed many manifestly unreasonable should aside. likewise hesitate disagree accumulated, lawmakers reviewing real safety.14 nothing suggest unreasonable. said context, 109, 465: "We trespassing intensely specialized had relation City. authorities relation. And advanced shows palpably false." result second ordinance—advancement esthetic speculative recognize very nature, wherever however perceived "esthetic harm."15 States municipalities, chosen minimize presence structures.16 Such subjective, defying objective evaluation, reason carefully scrutinized rationalization purpose. ulterior motive so suspicions itself. nevertheless argued denigrates beauty defeats justifiable terms location; identical equally multiply Despite apparent incongruity, rejected, least implicitly, advertising.17 (1969); 46 not, objectives esthetics. altered underinclusive Second, believe periodically changing presents acute Express, 110, 465. Third, speech—onsite advertising—more speech—offsite reflects latter, stronger instance—onsite advertising—its yield. judgment. it, conclude enterprise—as interested public—has place leasing enterprises elsewhere. 116, 468 (JACKSON, concurring); Bradley Utilities 289 92, 577, 579, 77 1053 (1933). follow weight permitted. area resolution conflict purvey light above analysis, interests, advance sum, insofar V follow, above, accorded greater effectively inverts affording exception carry freely explain why places threatening safe driving detract tolerates all, choose limit content messages; concerning connected site messages.18 contains permit various ban. fixed identify piece owner. Any symbols, plaques societies organizations, news items telling erected discharge signs.19 No meeting regardless 51 distinguish relative choice evaluate strength between, 462, 2291; Police Dept. Chicago Mosley, 408 96, 92 212 (1972). With subjects discourse: debate control search truth." 538, 2333. similarly zones.20 appellees' appropriately unacceptable "manner" ideas; rather, Signs banned times. observed manner "they justified without serve significant leave open ample alternative channels information." 771, 1830. Here, assumed "alternative channels" available, just opposite: "Many expensive."21 estate "For Sale" applicable "Although theory sellers remain free employ alternatives, [certain are] marketed leaflets, sound trucks, demonstrations, like. options realistically relegated cost autonomy signs[,] likely deliberately information[,] satisfactory." 93, 1618. 54 distinguishes ways location content. Whether distinctions themselves take domain restrictions. VI 55 rhetorical hyperbole THE CHIEF JUSTICE's dissent, considerable common opinion suggested dissent. Both problems, regulating expression, conduct 'a careful competing expression.' Post, 556. gives half inquiry.22 Chief writes "[a]lthough ensure 'further[s] interest' problem, Court's duty essentially neutral leaves adequate means messages." 561.23 belief essence democracy," never infringement rights.24 By "essentially neutral," JUSTICE mean things. He long concept neutrality last Term 537, There, Commission's discussion, viewpoint expressed, controversial policy unconstitutionally freedom hostility content-based extends viewpoints, discussion entire topic." Ibid. hand, contents rule, this, course, correct, see, (1972); fact, facts case: messages—such advertisements—over Except imply favored de minimis sense, violated neutrality. Taken literally reversal striking down antisolicitation grounds: argue preventing distribution leaflets litter, applied hence violate principle neutrality, left Martin Struthers, 141, 862, 87 1313 (1943); Schneider State, 308 147, 60 146, 84 (1939). dissent's assertion contrary, consistent democracy stands footing deferring area: "Mere preferences beliefs respecting matters convenience personal activities, insufficient diminishes rights vital maintenance democratic institutions. arise, delicate difficult falls weigh circumstances appraise substantiality reasons enjoyment rights." 161, 151. misconceives function situation, misunderstands significance prohibition. characterizes negligible," post, 562, opines borders frivolous "allowing forbidding infringed speech." 565. That, infringes infringement, does. great establishments offer, conceded except excepted. agrees rule balanced argues transgress independently assigned seems affords legislature need make choices. 567. makes sense abstractly, surely evaluated case. Governmental revealed concrete steps communications? answer, cases, negative. VII 64 face.25 remanded court.26 ordered. whom BLACKMUN joins, concurring 67 Believing before us," ante, plurality decide "whether Amendment," ibid. Instead, concludes containing violating sending signal municipalities bifurcated regulations pass muster. Ante, 521, 25. I write plurality's itself raises relies unanticipated cases. 68 Cal.Rev. Tex.Code Ann. § 18090.2 (West Supp.1970-1980).1 bans advertising2 few largest on-premises identification "signs designating Juris. Statement 107a. 70 Other functions, benches stops, sites, time/weather/news longer 90 days removed election pertain. 111a-112a; 495, 3.3 71 Let me share plurality. warranting protection. observes 501. Tocker, Standardized Advertising: History, Economics Self-Regulation, History Regulation 11, 11-56 (J. Houck ed. 1969); F. Presbrey, Development 497-511 (1929). stipulated, 72 products, services, new being introduced consuming public, Motion' 23, 46a-47a.4 appearing newspapers, television, radio, alternatives dissuaded active appear satisfactory. 1618, (1977). Indeed "[m]any Black presumption instruments others inventive genius bring being, shall censorship prohibition." 461, (1949) (dissenting opinion). 74 Where characterization thus analytical framework apply. believes contrast, my view speaker who wants express sorts alter overall Unlike off-premises "is, speaking, 'all-comers', fashion newspaper broadcasting forum 22(c), 46a.5 Speakers opportunity applicability None advertiser. chooses buy narrow categories, foreclosed announcing billboard. semantic implications, suggests plurality's. Instead apply tests developed analyze content-neutral communication.6 Most recently, Schad Mount Ephraim, 452 61, 2176, 671 (1981), assessed asserted" intrusive borough's live entertainment. 70, 2183. For example, (1939), struck handbill leafletting restrictive achieve goal prevention infringe important privilege. 162, (1943), invalidated forbade engaging time-honored door-to-door solicitation. Jamison Texas, 318 413, 416-417, 669, 671-672, 869 (1943) (distribution handbills); Hague CIO, 307 496, 518, 954, 965, 83 1423 (1939) (opinion Roberts, J.) pamphlets). Ely, Legislative Administrative Motivation Constitutional Law, 79 Yale L.J. 1335-1336 (1970). Of notes, "[e]ach itself' 'differing dangers' method." 501, 458 (Jackson, inSoutheastern Promotions, Ltd. Conrad, 420 546, 1239, 1246, 448 (1975), observed: "Each standards suited problems." obvious problems: immobile depend eye-catching visibility value. At special associated genus entertainment borough literature Struthers. hold ban, restriction, i. e., anything Applying instant activity. 72, 2184. First, quarrel come forward joint silent issue. hesitates safety," 509, quick accept conclusions substitute furthers safety.7 "not visible boundary premises," 111a, street "boundary premises" regulation's 78 think aesthetics "[i]t [city] community beautiful," (1954), exercised contravention "[t]he evidence, immediately experience, poses uses; arrived defensible conclusion entertainment." 73, 2185. Substitute word "billboards" words "live entertainment," sentence true enhanced "it experience" negligible impact aesthetics. John Donnelly Sons Campbell, 639 F.2d 6, (C.A.1 1980) (Pettine, judgment), aff'd, 916, 3151, 999.8 80 "[s]ome sections scenic, blighted, strips vehicle contain attractive office buildings, functional older establishments." 8, 43a. 81 inconsistent oil storage tanks, blighted areas, strip impose notion convinced seriously comprehensively addressing aesthetic environment. demonstrate comprehensive coordinated effort address contributors unattractive underinclusive. 214, 2275, say none all. view, attacking incrementally sequentially represent sensible solution. contemplated likely, commitment improving physical environment doubt. showing making attractive,9 tailored any,10 creating aesthetically pleasing genuine substantial. requirement where, consequence. 82 jurisdictions easily burden proving acknowledge Williamsburg, Va. able prove authenticity Tr. Oral Arg., 22-25. surprised Federal much trouble Yellowstone National Park, existence surrounding landscape. urban burden.11 2187 (BLACKMUN, strike treatment commercial-noncommercial mistaken factual departs precedents. Part pick billboards.12 V, concludes, whole 513. 85 apparently reads solely limitation notedsupra, read depends strictly identity premises. enterprise, substance commercial. enterprise noncommercial. Just supermarket barbershop name, headquarters group. presume that, haircuts, "Vote Brown," Proposition 13." More importantly, constitutional.13 me, raised right—before approving billboard—to correct "our speech," 504-505, errs assuming unit put deciding individual clear. determinations entail officials, danger curtailing guise Cantwell Connecticut, 296, 900, 1213 (1940), reviewed statute money groups Secretary Welfare Council. provided relevant part: 88 "Upon person behalf [solicitation], secretary cause conforms efficiency integrity, find, approve charge certificate effect." 302, 902. conditioning ability solicit license, grant rests determination cause, lay liberty Constitution." 307, 904-905. Specifically State's arbitrary capricious acts officer review, [the official's] funds depends. [T]he availability remedy system licensing still restraint which, field press, inadmissible." 306, 904. 91 Saia 334 558, 560, 1148, 1149, 1574 (1948). Frankfurter : is, 'religious' opens wide mere official." 564, 1152 According precisely troubled line starting Lovell 303 444, 451, 666, 668, 949 (1938). Southeastern 552-553, 1243-1244 (theatrical performance auditorium); Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 394 150-153, 935, 938-940, 162 (1969) parading); Staub Baxley, 355 313, 321-325, 277, 281-284, 302 (1958) (solicitation); Kunz 340 290, 294, 312, 315, 280 (1951) (public meetings); 560-562, 1149-1151 (sound trucks); 904 163-164, 151-152 (handbills); 516, 964 (handbills). 2463, dissenting); Hynes Mayor Council Oradell, 610, 617, 1755, 1759, 243 2291, approach, fear, generate providing grist future additions list, previously existed. thing classify involved, another—and dispositively so—for regularly way Cities equipped traditional 564-565, 1151-1152 (FRANKFURTER, dissenting), based unhappy dealing following series ones permit: "Visit Joe's Ice Cream Shoppe"; "Joe's Shoppe uses highest quality dairy products"; third, "Because Joe thinks good you, please shop fourth, "Joe says supports; lower prices you Shoppe." Or Padres baseball fans team—who together rent "Support Padres, team." May Automobile "Be patriot—do Japanese-manufactured cars" therefore forbid it? What Chrysler?14 authorizing sort regular immediate line-drawing entities. anything, difficulty 764, 1827, noting element," "[t]here element, added." continued: "Our pharmacist, cast himself commentator store-to-store disparities drug prices, giving competitor proof. him not." 764-765, 1827. Cf. Murdock Pennsylvania, 111, 874, 1292 (1943). 822, 2232, abortion clinic weekly newspaper—although advertisement—was that: "Viewed entirety, potential diverse audience—not readers possibly offered, curiosity about, in, development, reform Virginia. Women's Pavilion possibility organizations there, unnewsworthy." nonideological impossible draw accuracy." 319, 2725, (BRENNAN, dissenting). engage imaginative exercises haven Encouraging behavior job officials—who already inclined potentially Accordingly, reverse STEVENS, dissenting part. Diego.1 answering focuses somewhat ironically, abridge enough speech.2 holds signs"3 messages, permissible. undercut (plurality opinion), join Parts WHITE's reasoning leads While leaving permissible, 20,4 finds flaws improperly "afford[s] And, excepts guilty "choos[ing] discourse." 515. possible applications am satisfied survives standing raise. plurality, us confront reserved My affirmative answer upheld; affected JUSTICE. 102 business. critical differences so-called "onsite" signs.5 large, standardized change periodically.6 "advertise businesses, located." 22, 45a. covered ordinance7 ever 103 enforced, consequences predictable. profitable destroyed.8 now access communication.9 whatsoever owner's signs.10 consumers space. 104 operations. predicated BRENNAN customers—the 504, agree, hypothetical claims whose unaffected 105 purposes.11 conceivable public-spirited eccentric businessman record, discloses past, assume best infrequent. speculate judge save day questions separate market. 106 vicariously fundamental adjudication.12 explanation Broadrick Oklahoma, 413 601, 610-611, 2908, 2915, 830 omitted), merits emphasis repetition: 107 "Embedded rules governing adjudication heard conceivably Court. Austin Aldermen, Wall. 694, 698-699 [19 224] (1869); Supervisors Stanley, 305, 311-315 [26 1044] (1882); Hatch Reardon, 204 152, 160-161 [27 188, 190-191, 415] (1907); Yazoo M. V. R. Jackson Vinegar 226 217, 219-220 [33 40, 41, 193] (1912); Wurzbach, [280 U.S.], 399 [50 169]; Carmichael Southern Coal Coke 301 [57 868, 1245] (1937); Raines, 362 [80 519, 524] (1960). closely vicariously. McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 429-430 [81 1101, 1106-1107, 393] (1961). rest fussiness judges. conviction roving commissions Nation's laws. Younger Harris, 401 37, [91 746, 754, 669] (1971). judgments, Mr. Marshall recognized, necessity adjudicating litigants Court: 108 'So opposition constitution; constitution conformably law, disregarding constitution, law; governs duty.' Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 178 [2 60] (1803). 109 "In principles, 'weighty countervailing policies.' 22-23 523-524]." 110 doctrine laws validly may, unnecessarily reach, inhibit parties. plays jurisprudence.13 nonetheless exception. "[a]pplication overbreadth manifestly, medicine," employed "sparingly resort." Broadrick, 613, 2916. explained "plainly sweep": 111 laws, broadly worded, deter unknown extent, comes effect—at prediction—cannot, confidence, invalidating face enforcing proscribe. Alderman States, 165, 174-175 [89 961, 966-967, 176] (1969). way, particularly real, well, judged statute's sweep. 818 substantially overbroad exist cured case-by-case sanctions, assertedly, applied." 615-616, 2917-2918 omitted).14 112 likelihood adverse users remote attempt adjudicate record. Surely parallel appellants.15 changes provisions avoid central frontal attack customers.16 advertisers side. 113 economic enhance curtail exchange services,17 sometimes facilitate ideas, impressions. Procedural deliberative body debate. implicit assumption net adverse. indulged. 114 correctly view,18 reduction quantity now.19 cannot, sustained marketplace includes thousand hire. 115 unequivocal language "abridging reducing convinced, incorrect. supported healthy 116 Archaeologists "graffiti" describe informal inscriptions tombs ancient monuments. graffito familiar culture Egypt Greece, Italian decorative art 15th century, today subways walls buildings.20 inexpensive numbers people; creators graffiti publicly themselves. Nevertheless, protecting damaging trespasses securing beautiful surroundings uninhibited pictures places. categorically quantitative restraint, municipality outlaw graffiti. 117 proposition. interprets "loud raucous" amplifiers, proposition enforce curtails effectiveness communication.21 Justices thought "cities restrict absolutely amplifiers busy area." 462 (Black, Douglas Rutledge, JJ., dissenting).22 Kovacs, believe, forecloses fall limitating market.23 118 accepted excluding neighborhoods pleasant enhancing values. work Reasonable men assign weights essential unsightly sections, citywide, unquestionably parts Those psychological economic. suburban resident toils factory invests capital properties. 119 legitimacy supporting city-wide plan beyond dispute, questions. biased another, subtle agenda debate? popular unpopular gradually increasing restraints? 120 hint bias actions. inadequate. volume excessive worthy attention. threat 121 persuaded, am, wholly impartial permissible,24 understand additional plurarity somehow choosing dictum withstand 122 concern embodied select topics implicate concern. identified regulations, implicated attempting topics, 2330, shaping danger. 123 extent relate all,25 influence issues. periods, 101.0700(F)(12), arguably matter. occur plan. clocks, thermometers, historic plaques, like, 124 question. hazardous during campaigns protect. especially party candidate, suspect. aggregate, doctrinaire statements contexts group aggregate compromise zealous adherence tell citizen say." 63, 2448, J.). "conditioned sovereign's agreement intend detail JUSTICE, respectfully 126 BURGER, dissenting. 127 Today takes extraordinary—even bizarre—step act risks perceives posed joining eyesores exercising class needs. 128 Relying simplistic platitudes matter, dearth communicate, industry attempts growing every faces preserving disposition exhibits insensitivity delicacy cities desiring mitigate dangers mentioned must, elect unsatisfactory options: "noncommercial" many, dangerous, environment; altogether. lurking recesses today's not-so-veiled option, too, soon withdrawn. arm voracious appetite power—this power—with vengeance, reaching absorbing concepts authority. 129 130 occasion government. fear become mesmerized broad, controlling, torn original setting. overlook cogent admonition 131 "mechanically apply[ing] doctrines contexts. situation calls, 76, 2455, (POWELL, 132 Columbia Broadcasting System, Democratic Committee, 412 94, 134, 2080, 2102, 772 (1973) 133 really regarding manner, defined, part, Regardless label discussing simple basic question: citizens' eliminating ugly buildings roadways, define pose danger, whether, instances, public's outweighs perceived. industry's superficial sloganeering adopt uncritically. General indeed apply, "each ultimately ." Erznoznick 209, 2272, 134 135 136 recognize, '[e]ach problems.' n.8 opinion); 527-528 judgment) (quoting Ltd., 1245, (1975)). Accord, LaRue, 409 117, 390, 396, 342 Red Lion FCC, 395 367, 386, 1794, 1804 Joseph Burstyn, Wilson, 343 503, 371 (1952); concurring).1 uniqueness factors weighed; balance shift turned another. Heffron International Society Krishna Consciousness, 640, 2559, 298 (1981). Regulating vastly 137 Some level chooses, past week Heffron, one's views desired." 647, 2563 (emphasis added). Black, speaking Adderley Florida, 385 39, 48, 242, 247, 149 (1966) added), "vigorously forthrightly rejected" "people propagandize protests whenever please." 138 trucks town's borders; available. distinguishing (1948), seven months earlier, chief truck. seen single regulate attendant risk medium. 560-561, 1149-1150. 139 afford 82-83, 451 Reed, Frankfurter, concurring, expressed broadly: 140 "So prescribe noisily be, discriminate among inroads peace, supervise limits safeguarding steadily narrowing opportunities serenity reflection." 458. 141 Jackson, separately, core proposition, writing type freedoms "unless undertakes censor broadcasting." 142 Later, Warren, O'Brien, 391 376, 1673, 1678, 672 (1968), 143 "[W]hen 'speech' 'nonspeech' elements combined conduct, element incidental limitations freedoms." 144 1979 Term, once reaffirmed "serve communication." 535, 2332, standard almost 647-648, 2564. 75-76, 2186, 145 146 eradicate perceives—and perceive—as dangerous thrust citizens. done mind: disfigurement motorists.2 acknowledges—as must—that scenic "are goals." 507-508. 528 (traffic safety). But, acknowledged authority, largely ignores it. 147 recognizes, 508-510, selected exceed seen. When distraction harm, adds moving traffic; obviously, erect carriers catch eye traveler.3 addition, adversely environment, destroys perspective landscape visual pollution city.4 Pollution air breath water drink; offend ear. 148 effectuate select. "These controlled opinion." 96-97, (Frankfurter, seminal substituting disallowing offensive "further[s] interest," 2183, primary federalism, gravely damage undertake throttle "grass roots" system. 150 remarkable ipse dixit, states 520. restricted form implicates violation. confuses coverage Schauer, Categories Amendment: Play Three Acts, Vand.L.Rev. 270, 275-276 151 process eradicating harms, suppresses discriminating suppressing generally. attempted category censored information; thought. "attempt[ed] debatable advantage people Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 785, 1407, 1420, 707 (1978) Madison School District Wisconsin Employment Relations 167, 175-176, 421, 426, 376 vast majority "merely disapprove speaker's view." Niemotko 268, 282, 325, 333, 267 result). aside infra, 566, differentiated regard topic. 537-538, 2333; (1980); 784-785, 1420; 2290. undertaken determine, paternalistically, 'what self-government.' Gertz Robert Welch, 323, 339, 2997, 3005, 789 Rosenbloom Metromedia, 403 29, 79, 1811, 1837, 296 (1971) (MARSHALL, dissenting)). 152 billboards—whether social, religious—are inseparable audience media: magazines, mail, pamphlets, etc. True, methods "eye-catching"—or cheap—as billboards,5 heretofore disproportionately disadvantaged vis-a-vis spreading 789, 1422. 864, 153 154 billboards; holding Constitution, receives "noncommercial"—i. religious, social—speech. giveth, taketh away virtually everything. 156 bizarre twist logic, hardships needs citizens classes scope—for time-and-temperature plaques—the dubious premises, town, village country respond noted, alternatives: 157 whatsoever, 158 numerous, pedestrians. 159 Otherwise, up ever-increasing menace hints—and subtly—that option withdrawn invoke 20. insensitive modern dweller devoid foundations. 160 161 provided—the sole ordinance—are number, peculiar needs, remotely endanger valid. 512. generally, preferred allowed differentiate noncontroversial things conventional markers, borders—if trespasses—on "there justifying selective exclusions distinctions. exception, acknowledging conveyed, (1977) (for signs), information. instance, hand tipped opposite way.6 important, topic controversial; over, offer sale, establishment. setting ; nonexistent. trivializes hinging constitute genre. 163 despite focus, confronted vested official—the chief—an unlimited deny licenses trucks. "Annoyance cloaked annoyance sound. inherent vice." 1150. 150-151, 938, 322-325, 282-284, (1958); 451-452, 668-669, 546-548, 2338-2339 (STEVENS, judgment). allegation mask deterring "is condemned becoming 649, 2564.7 tranquility, residual achieve. simultaneous recognition speaker, deprive problem. "profound uninhibited, robust, wide-open Times Sullivan, 254, 710, 720, 686 (1964). 165 fatal flaw logic exempting "afford[ed] "greater protection" establishes regulation. differing degrees statutory speech—commercial noncommercial—otherwise muster respectively applicable. 166 creates, suggests, hierarchy types compels ranking higher list. looser analogous constrains discretion—it undermines scheme renders choices ipso facto irrational. "conced[e] 520; declined, area, powers permits. entity Williamson Lee Optical 483, 489, 465, 563 (1955) "legislature phase neglecting others"). protection—i. strictness applied—with outcome 167 via altogether, "value" speech.8 situations, recognizing latitude readily means, faithful treating classifications balancing run afoul Amendment.9 168 may—and must—take all-or-nothing yet interests," commended, condemned, same. 169 170 unleashes novel principle, unnecessary alien earlier cogently observes, "somewhat 540 misconstrues metropolis Hobson's rejects federalism denying Constitution. "an raw power," Doe Bolton, 410 179, 222, 739, 763, 201 (WHITE, high 171 REHNQUIST, 172 observations: boards sort, misfortune virtual Tower Babel, definitive clearly drawn; regret keenly contribution clangor, written close mine warrant obtain 173 sustain community, 32-33, 102-103, Williamsburg' major prevented taking mistakes predecessors. render unconstitutional. closest campaigns, treat self-limiting periods campaign. such, outlet, 174 convincing Nothing experience bench led better county commission Therefore, gained lost decisionmaking, judges second-guess administrative determinations. (New Series), March 1972. "B. OFF-PREMISE OUTDOOR ADVERTISING DISPLAY SIGNS PROHIBITED "Only hereinafter referred Division, prohibited: "1. use, facility produced, sold "3. advertises brand occurs conducted, interpreted billboards—for picket labor dispute small front yard proclaiming message." n.2, n.2. (quoted text). definition, focused billboard: excluded "picket ex rel. Pile, 603 337 (1979) (Oklahoma covering order problems). explicitly non-commercial possess 869, 521-522, 418-419. continues Brief Appellees 6. Section 101.0700(F) exempt regulations: maintained pursuant required Bench provided, Sections 62.0501 62.0502 Code. transported and/or exempt; used, form, manufacture storage. "4. Commemorative organizations. "5. Religious holiday decorations emblems orders societies. "6. malls, courts, arcades, porches, patios "7. lease; conform zone "8. depiction temperature "9. vehicles transportation including, buses taxicabs. "10. licensed vehicles, trailers; parked stationary "11. Temporary off-premise conditional granted Zoning Administrator. "12. structures, pertain." account entered Superior 12-20, 44a-45a. 47a. primarily due equal plaintiffs claimed resulted takings process. claims, fell frequent refrain: ("Each problems"); FCC Pacifica Foundation, 726, 3026, 3040, 1073 ("We 777, 781, 1098 (1952) tends problems"). description history (1929); 1969). 46a-47a. appellants, individuals groups, affordable audience. 419, 14. confused "commercial speech" interest" doctrine, activities unprotected abridges court, 381, 2707, Were otherwise, radio stations, theaters producers—often controversy—would overbroad. observed, 363, 2698-2699: "[O]ur though paid advertisement, Buckley Valeo, [96 612, 659] 254 [84 686] (1964); profit, Smith California, 361 215, 205] (1959); [63 1292] pay contribute money, supra; [60 1213] (1940). distinguished, 'must content.' [Virginia 346] 761 1825]." 761, 1825, STEWART'S comments worth 'wholly of' phrasing other. Ideological oral, literary, pictorial, theatrical, integrally exposition shape universe man. representations inaccurate assertions fact. "Commercial differs markedly confined promotion services. 'information value' interchange ideas." 779-780, (references footnotes Varney Green Williams, Cal. 318, 867 (1909), power. overruled here. California's current accord jurisdictions. 15, infra. E. B. Elliott Metropolitan Dade County, 1141, (CA 1970); Wash.2d 405, 420-421, 248, 258 (1968); Thruway Authority Ashley Motor N.Y.2d 151, 155-156, 218 N.Y.S.2d 642, 176 N.E.2d 568 (1961); Ghaster Properties, Preston, 425, 438, 200 328, 268 N.W.2d 741, 757 (N.D.1978); Lubbock Lubbock, 569 S.W.2d 939 (Tex.Civ.App.1978); Lotze, 59, 593 811, 814 Inhabitants, Town Boothbay 347 A.2d (Me.1975); Stuckey's Stores, O'Cheskey, N.M. 321, 258, re Opinion Justices, N.H. 762, 764 Department Works, Mass. 149, 193 N.E. 799, 813-814 (1935). 1980); 343; Des Plaines, Ill.App.3d 942, 946, 326 11-12; 1152; 757; 422-423, 259; 267; 402 368, 370, 373 263, 265 Sons, Bd., 369 206, 339 709, 717 Cromwell Ferrier, 279 225 753 (1967); Diamond Motors, Haw. 35-36, 825, 827 Metuchen, N.J. 198 270-271, A.2d, 764. 342; Sunad, Sarasota, So.2d 611, 614-615 (Fla.1960). Highway Beautification Act 1965, Pub.L. 89-285, Stat. 1028, amended, U.S.C. (1976 Supp.III), adjacent constructed funds. Government, lands. CFR 2921.0-6(a) statewide Maine, Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., Tit. 1901 seq. Hawaii, Haw.Rev.Stat. 264-71 seq., 445-111 Vermont, Vt.Stat.Ann., 10, 488 (1973). Howard Highways Colorado, 478 581 (C.A.10 1973); Baltimore, Md. 660, 370 1127, 1132 Modjeska Sign Studios, Berle, 468, 359, 255 Borough Raritan, 144, (Brennan, J.); Appeals Circuit took today: stated: impacts heavily speech—a inversion restrictions—and fewer coin—for short, impositions legally practically burdensome least." F.2d, 15-16. 1127 811 reached approval (1974), agency government-created us, indicate created expressive forum, STEVENS' insistence 540, 548, 16, "does 1965. Act, 131(c) ed., Supp.III). interstate highway systems. concerned, unzoned 131(d). States. reason, Whether, determined establishing actual go ignoring "ample" 552. Nowhere weakness factor analysis. notes labels substituted classification "prohibition" restriction." "labels" "categories," played past. adopts appears exclusively discussions (1981); 4, (1966); (1949). strict detailed pursues restriction—the inquiry. demonstrated excuse "offensive" "intrusive," "other [of communication] available." 561. Clause. know, any, today. "takings" aside, prevent severability clause, meaning clause properly responsibility courts. Dombrowski Pfister, 380 479, 497, 1116, 1126, (1965) ("The suffices benefit construction, indictments founded void face; until acceptable obtained, applied"); Liggett Lee, 288 517, 481, 487, 929 (1933) operation [severability clause] consequent law. issue, deem court"); Dorchy Kansas, 264 286, 291, ("In coming absence passing decide, also, severability. obliged court"). reflected approaches infringing Compare Thirty-seven Photographs, 1400, 822 (1971), Freedman 51, 60, 734, 649 (1965). inclusion susceptible treatment. judgment: forms. 'poster panel' 12-foot 24-foot pre-printed posted, sheets. 'painted bulletin' 14-foot 48-foot painted period month, disassembled replaced moved six-month twelve-month period." refer billboards," "noncommercial billboards." Additional taxicabs; 111a-112a. Perusal photographs included appendix jurisdictional statement following: "Welcome Diego[:] Home 1,100 Underpaid Cops"; No-Growth Policy[:] Spend Your Money Los Angeles!"; "Voluntary Integration. Education Choice"; America's Environment Strike. Don't Buy Shell!"; "Get US out! Nations." traditionally classified categories: "on-premises" "off-premises." One describes: on-premise industry, custom-made contractor owned, agent. manufacture, on-premise. "Off-premise erects maintains producer service." Different play Not cited footnote "billboards minimal scrutiny relationship inconceivable hazards. 156, (1961), "There some, perhaps, devices interfere hazard ., disagreement validity. Matters determination, announced, disturbed unreasonable." Only discuss dism'd, 446 930, 2145, 783 935 (Tex.Civ.App.1978), cert. denied, 833, 741 (N.D.1978), 248 unreasonable," saying finding hardly heightened surprising three declined rationale, scrutiny. purported Until power, accompanied health, morals, welfare justification. below repudiated predicate action. 860-861, 413. motivation Hawaii com- mented 36, (1967), ordinance: "[The City's] brief 'does City's power.' Perhaps, 'weight authority' persuaded felt safer Circle amicus curiae presents, think, forthright ". mindful economics, morality. feel constrained." (Footnote omitted.) Haar, Land-Use Planning 403-408 (3d 1976). Judge Pettine Maine's ban: "Even gain quantum improvement vary involved. undeveloped eyesores; great, removal return pristine beauty. countless manmade intrusions natural perceptible margin obtained state's billboard." 23. Va., newly "shall design harmony Williamsburg Code 30-80 paramount, 42-43. accomplishment addressed proposition—either impermissibly independent underlying impinge distinctions, care. classic example section entitled "Purpose Intent," states: confusing located; displays; signing advertisement; work. intent aspect base instrumental attracting nonresidents visit, trade, vacation attend conventions; safeguard values; investment spaces; 106a-107a. effects detracts achieving aesthetics, identification. shown capable drafting promulgated La Jolla district: Control maintain unique, distinctive .. "One parcel estate, "Such 5" x 8" size four feet surface erected." 113a-115a. permissibility incorporate Likewise, elsewhere." demands implicating "common-sense differences" 'suggest insure flow unimpaired.' 1621, Consumers 771-772, n.24, 1830-1831, "false misleading signs." 1621. undoing company profit income communicators, customers percentage stay patronage alone. prescription "total ban" hypotheticals occur. Oil, Chemical Atomic Union, AFL-CIO, stating: Shell!" Statement; Exxon advertisement? Could Shell kind? stipulated. quoted reaction BRENNAN's purportedly quantity. public.' unlikely survive wish 536, parties' differences: 'on-site' On-site thereon "(a) seldom "(b) "(c) "(d) changes, monthly. savings loan association candidate mayor next Zoo car union grievance fifth month." 45a-46a. importance respective manufacturers. 5. established stipulation: 3, deals "with "If "Plaintiffs' gross annual income. "Enforcement suffer monetary losses." 48a, 49a. stipulation, public: manufacturers 13, 44a. All exclude 429, 1106, 393: "[T]he litigant immunities' 22; Gooding 405 1103, 408; Keyishian Regents, 589, 675, 629; 162. disagreed refusal entertained issues: conceive application, doctrine." 630, 2925 STEWART respects engaged. n.5, Ironically, invalidates ordinance—not broad—but enough. assumes repeal cure defects n.20. derive reliance vicarious curious indeed. Trade 246 231, 683 Trenton Potteries 273 377, 700. clear operating prospered n.8, nn.8, 9, A. Read Classic Graffiti Reisner, Graffiti: Two Thousand Years Wall Writing (1971); Pritchard, English Medieval (1967). Reed wrote: "That cheaply borrowed supporter, call forth charged nuisance easy publicity open." 88-89, 454. excerpt Black's seem clear, absolute paragraph phrase reads: "I aware 'blare' abuse intolerable nuisance. adequately community's disseminated received avenue trade reservation sentiment 'unrestrained amplifying intolerable.' sound, hours amplifer mind, things, amplifier dissent." 462. serve—for littering fraud—were indirectly 164, 155; 147-148, 865, 1313; 904, 1213; 636-639, 834-836, 73. hands found censorship. Schneider, 151-152; 964, 949; Cantwell, 305-307, efforts Jehovah's Witnesses, Lovell, 667; 413-414, 670, 869; 158, 149; Martin, 142, 862; 300, sensitive viewpoints. acknowledges, serves, further, 507-510, 511. suspect infer Douglas, vote 770, 306-308, 2718-2719. drawing analogy noted: commuters forced privacy precludes transforming captive audience." 2719. J.), Several disregarded pertain rate, construction. vehicular category, §§ 101.0700(F)(9), (10), storage, 101.0700(F)(3), 101.0700(F)(11). "for sale" ordinarily "permanently building." location, 101.0700(F)(2), (6), 101.0700(F)(1). 101.0700(F)(4), (5), (8), (12). spectrum intrusiveness 748-749, 3039-3040, (1978). Miami Herald Publishing Tornillo, 241, 2831, 730 mix correspondingly separable Congress, 1965 Congress hereby declares displays, Interstate System highways, recreational travel, beauty." 131(a) duly constituted body, guard defacing environs movement federally funded called well. 534, Surely, affairs "two forms," ft. tranquility. 2565, Before trial, stipulated: sweeping, conclusory, vague generalization inappropriate, expensive. suppressed acknowledges balancing: "As (even advertising), Prohibiting traffic. 536-540, willing buses. "ha[s] here." 19. dealt privately space, same: forgo "lurking doubts favoritism" granting advertisers. 304, 2717 arise allocating imagine favors districts. 562-563. intimate arise.

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