Document: 448 U.S. 371 100 S.Ct. 2716 65 L.Ed.2d 844 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.SIOUX NATION OF INDIANS et al. No. 79-639. Argued March 24, 1980. Decided June 30, Syllabus Under the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, United States pledged that Great Sioux Reservation, including Black Hills, would be "set apart for absolute and undisturbed use occupation" Nation (Sioux), no treaty cession any part reservation valid as against unless executed signed by at least three-fourths adult male population. The also reserved Sioux' right to hunt in certain unceded territories. Subsequently, 1876, an "agreement" presented a special Commission but only 10% population, provided relinquish their rights Hills territories, exchange subsistence rations long they needed. In 1877, Congress passed Act (1877 Act) implementing this thus, effect, abrogated Treaty. Throughout ensuing years, regarded 1877 breach treaty, did not enact mechanism which could litigate claims until 1920, when jurisdictional was passed. Pursuant Act, brought suit Court Claims, alleging Government had taken without just compensation, violation Fifth Amendment. 1942, claim dismissed held it authorized 1920 question whether compensation afforded adequate price moral one protected Just Compensation Clause. Thereafter, upon enactment Indian Claims 1946, resubmitted Commission, effected taking were entitled 1942 decision bar under res judicata. On appeal, affirming Commission's holding want fair honorable dealings on Government's evidenced, ultimately award $17.5 million, interest, damages lands surrendered gold trespassing prospectors prior passage Act. But court further merits been reached its therefore such barred noted if acquisition amounted unconstitutional interest. 1978, (1978 providing de novo review regard judicata, authorizing take new evidence case. affirmed holding. so affirming, court, order decide or noncompensable act congressional guardianship over tribal property, applied test made good-faith effort give full value land. test, characterized exercise Congress' power eminent domain property. Accordingly, interest principal sum $17.1 million (the market 1877), dating from 1877. Held : 1. 1978 constituting mere waiver judicata effect judicial rejecting validity legal States, violate doctrine separation powers either ground impermissibly disturbed finality decree rendering Claims' earlier judgments case advisory opinions, overstepped bounds granting jurisdiction claim, while prescribing rule left adjudicatory function perform. Cherokee v. 270 476, 46 428, 70 L.Ed. 694. Congress, broad constitutional define "to pay Debts . States," may recognize obligation debt direct appropriation, waiving otherwise defense States. When returned following pursuit enforcement right. way attempted prescribe outcome merits. Klein, 13 Wall. 128, 20 519, distinguished. Pp. 390-407. 2. analysis factual findings fully support conclusion "mere change form investment property," but, rather, property set aside exclusive occupation, implied make Sioux. That obligation, must now paid. principles "must [be] presume[d] acted perfect good faith with Indians complaint is made, [it] exercised best judgment premises," Lone Wolf Hitchcock, 187 553, 568, 23 216, 222, 47 299, are inapplicable particular measure appropriate protecting advancing tribe's interests, subject Clause, nature, answer based consideration all presented. While reviewing second-guess legislative serve required, considering pursuance manage control Indians' welfare, engage thorough impartial examination historical record. A presumption cannot advance inquiry. 407-423. 220 Ct.Cl. 442, 601 F.2d 1157, affirmed. Louis F. Claiborne, Washington, D. C., petitioner. Arthur Lazarus, Jr., respondents. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 1 This concerns South Dakota, colorful, many respects tragic, chapter history Nation's West. Although litigation comes down since $17 necessary, understand controversy, some length chronology setting. 2 * For century has claimed unlawfully April 29, 15 Stat. 635, Art. II occupation herein named." Id., 636. concluded culmination Powder River War 1866-1867, series military engagements tribes, led great chief, Red Cloud, fought protect integrity earlier-recognized incursion white settlers.1 3 included several agreements central issues First, established tract land bounded east Missouri River, south northern border State Nebraska, north forty-sixth parallel latitude, west hundred fourth meridian longitude,2 addition reservations already existing Missouri. "solemnly agree[d]" unauthorized persons "shall ever permitted pass over, settle upon, reside [this] territory." Ibid. 4 Second, members tribes select within cultivation. 637. assist becoming civilized farmers, promised provide them necessary services materials, four years. 639.3 5 Third, benefits conferred agreed September 17, 1851, occupy territories outside reservation, reserving "right North Platte, Republican Fork Smoky Hill river, buffalo range thereon numbers justify chase." expressly withdraw opposition building railroads lands, attacks settlers, posts roads Platte River. Fourth, XII provided: 6 "No portion described common shall force said Indians, three fourths occupying interested same." Ibid.4 7 years relative peace Dakotas, era tranquility disturbed, however, renewed speculation contained vast quantities silver.5 1874 Army planned undertook exploratory expedition into both purpose establishing outpost those who accepted terms Treaty, investigating "the country about dreamy stories have told." Jackson, Custer's Gold 14 (1966) (quoting annual report Lieutenant General Philip H. Sheridan, Commander Military Division Missouri, Secretary War). Colonel George Armstrong Custer close 1,000 soldiers teamsters, substantial number civilian aides. journey began Abraham Lincoln July 2, 1874. By end month mid-August confirmed presence fields region. discovery widely reported newspapers across country.6 florid descriptions mineral timber resources land's suitability grazing cultivation, received wide circulation, creating intense popular demand "opening" settlement.7 obstacle "progress" occupancy 8 Having them, placed position having threaten force, occasionally it, prevent settlers Indians. example, 1874, Sheridan sent instructions Brigadier Alfred Terry, Department Saint Paul, directing him companies Reservation. At same time, let known he "give cordial settlement Hills," should "open up settlement, extinguishing Indians." App. 62-63. Sheridan's published local newspapers. See id., 63.8 9 Eventually, Executive Branch decided abandon preserve territory. letter dated November 9, 1875, met President Grant, Interior, War, resistance miners, "it being his belief increased desire complicated troubles." 59. These orders enforced "quietly," ibid., President's remain "confidential." 59-60 (letter Sherman). 10 With Army's withdrawal role enforcer influx increased. practical course secure citizens mine gold. Toward end, spring appointed commission negotiate headed William B. Allison. leaders aware refused sell less than $70 million. offered rental $400,000, payment $6 relinquishment Hills. negotiations broke down.9 11 winter 1875-1876, hunting territory Teaty. December 6, reasons entirely clear, Commissioner Affairs agents notify hunters return agencies January 31, treated "hostiles." Given severity winter, compliance these impossible. February 1, Interior nonetheless relinquished hostile Sioux, exercising treaty-protected rights, Department. campaign "hostiles" Sitting Bull's notable victory forces battle Little Big Horn 25. victory, course, short-lived, deprived weapons horses, leaving completely dependent survival Government.10 12 meantime, increasingly dissatisfied failure living become self-sufficient.11 entitlement expired 1872. Nonetheless, each two $1 appropriated feeding August enacted appropriations bill "hereafter there appropriation subsistence" first grounds ceded accommodation calculated enable self-supporting. Aug. 15, 19 176, 192.12 requested appoint another commission, Manypenny, arrived early commenced meetings head men various tribes. impressed longer rations. commissioners text prepared advance. provisions other third meridian, north, needed ensure survival. setting out obtain tribes' agreement ignored stipulation Reservation joined males. Instead, chiefs leading men. It population.13 resolved impasse enacting 1876 law Feb. 28, Act), 254. abrogating Manypenny leaders.14 legitimized settlers' invasion throughout solemn reserve perpetuity One historian commented reaction words: 16 "The thus affected gotten talking yet, during last few maintained organization called Association, holds year studying intention presenting government additional reimbursements it. Some think Uncle Sam owes $9,000,000 deal, will probably hard matter prove it." Fiske, Taming 132 (1917). 17 Fiske's words prophetic. 18 Prior general applicability States.15 after lobbying, succeeded obtaining forum adjudication "under treaties, agreements, laws misappropriation funds tribe band bands thereof." 3, ch. 41 738. statute, 1923, filed petition 1942. lengthy unanimous opinion, Tribe 97 613 (1942), cert. denied, 318 789, 63 992, 87 1155 (1943). 60 1049, 25 U.S.C. § seq., hear determine grievances arisen previously. 1950, counsel Commission. initially ruled failed Ind.Cl.Comm'n 646 (1954), aff'd, 146 F.Supp. 229 (Ct.Cl.1956). motion vacate affirmance record inadequate, due failings former counsel. granted directed consider reopened presentation evidence. 19, 1958, entered reopening announcing reconsider claim. 265-266; see 182 912 (1968) (summary proceedings). Following filing amended petition, claiming again constituted paid, ensued period procedural sparring between Government. Finally, October 1968, questions briefing determination: (1) What acquire Act? (2) What, any, given rights? And (3) acquisition? 266. 21 Six later, 4-to-1 vote, preliminary questions. 33 151 (1974). Amendment through application lack jurisdiction, determined then went find lands. assumed promise rations, limiting conditions. n. 14, supra. circumstances, relationship acquired. Moreover, indication relate Applying announced Three Tribes Berthold 543, 390 686 (1968), pursuant rather trustee Hills.16 22 appeal interlocutory order, arguing alternatively collateral estoppel, due. Without reaching merits, decision. Nation, 207 234, 518 1298 (1975). court's majority recognized impact limited determination available followed acquired unfair dishonorable dealing damages, 1050, 70a(5). Only Ct.Cl., 237, F.2d, 1299.17 16, remarked Grant's duplicity breaching keep trespassers pattern duress practiced starving get agree sale concluded: "A more ripe rank never, probability, found our history, not, whole, disgrace pleases believe." 241, 1302. 24 "rightly wrongly", 249, 1306, observed awarded obtained correct situation, not. Ibid.18 petitioned writ certiorari, denied. 423 1016, 96 449, 387 where rights-of-way $3,484, payments considered offsets. 316. moved enter final favor amount supra, deferred entry view legislation pending dealt 26 13, statute defenses estoppel. conduct novo. Pub.L. 95-243, 92 153, amending 20(b) 70s(b) (1976 ed., Supp. II). 27 Acting sitting en banc, Chief Judge Friedman, reservation. 1157 (1979).19 doing so, articulated Berthold, 691, asking "a land," 452, 1162, taking, distinguished statements seemingly contrary result 299 (1903), involving compensation. 465, 1170.20 28 rate 5%, 1877.21 29 We 444 989, 62 418 (1979), important case, long-standing concern significant economic import III 30 twice denied petitions certiorari litigation, (1943); (1975), we confronted time amendment, above noted, 70s(b)(1976 II), takings approved provides: 31 "Notwithstanding provision law, claimants thirty days date sentence, 1974, adjudging (19 254), fifth accordingly. conducting review, receive evidence, oral testimony, party wish issue amendment novo." 153. 32 Before turning "has inadvertently limit separates power." 147, 519 (1872). A. There objections might raised constitutionality framed powers. opinions. Hayburn's Case, Dall. 408, 409, 410-414, 436 (1792) (setting forth views Circuit Courts, among complements Jay, Justices Cushing, Wilson, Blair, Iredell, Mar. 23, 1792, 243, because subjected decisions Courts concerning eligibility pension Congress). objection reach effectively reviewed reversed 1975 cognizable Such interfere independent functions Judiciary. 34 second Wall., 146; Yakus 321 414, 467-468, 64 660, 687-686, 88 834 (1944) (Rutledge, J., dissenting). Of context removal single purview, estoppel passing doubt free accordance applicable rules law. infra. 35 before Claims. argument Court, explicit questioning, advanced beyond limits power.22 interfered debated, House Representatives, body "technical defense" permit enact.23 36 debated floor immediately apparent. requires us examine proper courts recognizing determining light roles tripartite system government. Our amendment's Court's precedents, leads conclude neither separation-of-powers legislation. B 37 starting point 694 (1926). concerned Special 1919, 40 1316, conferring hear, consider, heretofore allowed alleged owing arising May eighteenth, nineteen five." referred 5% simple claims, accrue liability. 252 (1905). judgment, award. 202 101, 123-126, 588, 598-599, 50 949 (1906). compound lump accrued 1895. prompted reconfer Cherokee's 38 Ultimately, original U.S., 487-496, S.Ct., 432-435. 1919 referring Claims." 485-486, 432. bears examination: 39 April, 1906 (202 101 [, 949]), to, large decided, quite clear quoted, here mooted foreclosed act, well advised this, possible construction put therein expressed desire, far concerned, waive re-examine allowed, Nation. Solicitor General, representing government, properly concedes view. clear." 486, 432 (last emphasis supplied). dispositive here. consistent precedent States." U.S.Const., I, 8, cl. speaks directly discussed above. scope debts seems construed Realty Co., 163 427, 1120, 215 (1896). There, stated: 42 term 'debts' includes rest merely equitable honorary recoverable individual. nation, speaking broadly, 'debt' individual grows justice; when, words, considerations binding conscience honor individual, although recognition extends founded." 440, 1125-26. 43 Other clearly establish tie debts, rely Nock 451 (1867). 44 Nock, precise invaded joint resolution, 608, "in equity justice," even though previously favor. rejected resolution "judicial powers" judgment. Rather, 45 "It unquestionable, Constitution invested powers; doubted direction little rendered Congress. do attempt nor grant trial judicially ; court; administration justice. intents purposes defendants, come say plead bar, interpose defeated recovery before." 457-458 (emphasis original). favor.24 substantially reaffirmed Pope 323 89 (1944). "notwithstanding determination, limitations, release, acceptance partial allowance, determine, render upon" contract. 27, 56 1122. Pope's according formula measuring work performed. deciding computing claimant mathematical formula. 375, 379-380, 53 570, 571-572 Based reading (1872) (see discussion infra, 402-405), unconstitutionally independence. 380-382, F.Supp., 572-573. trial, how 387, 5, 575, 5. 48 differed interpretation disturb denying damages. "While inartistically drawn Act's seem create petitioner's existed 21. instrument invade function: 49 "We perceive Congress's imposing none before, performed petitioner beneficial thought adequately compensated. Article I Constitution, restricted obligations legally creation honorary. 215]. legal, moral, plainly encroach adjudicating legal. [Footnote citing cases omitted.] Nor conformity liability prescribed 486 432, 694]." 9-10, explaining province reference specified formula, stressed required pursue usual manner, necessarily conclusive that, stipulated facts, still consent. 10-12, 21-22. 51 To sure, specifically declined "just what Klein rightly sought, pendente lite, require relitigation suit." 8-9, viewed question. conclude, answered Klein. 52 (1872), arose facts: administrator estate V. deceased owner sold Between sued proceeds sale. His lawsuit Abandoned Captured Property 1863, 820, cause action noncombatant owners proof "never aid comfort present rebellion." legislation, issued proclamation pardon" engaged rebellion" desired resume allegiance Government, condition maintain oath. pardon restoring persons' rights. 737. Wilson's amnesty oath cured participation rebellion," administrator, Wilson 559 (1869). Klein's later similar Padelford, 531, 788 (1870), Presidential purged participant "of whatever offence committed relieved [him] penalty incurred." 543. announcement proviso effects: admissible behalf loyalty Supreme dismiss, pardon. henceforth treat claimant's receipt pardon, protest, rebellion, dismiss jurisdiction. 12, 1870, 251, 230, 235. 54 proviso. notwithstanding 'such exceptions appellate jurisdiction' [of Court] expedient." 145. III, proviso's effect: 55 "[T]he language shows does intend withhold except means end. Its controlling deny pardons adjudged have." Thus construed, respects: courts, manner controversy 57 ascertain existence facts thereupon declare ceased, dismissing bill. way? us, court. affirmed, intestate claimants. Can allowing own favor? legislature Judicial it? 58 59 ". [Congress] itself conferred, decision, settled adverse favorable suitor? itself." 146-147. "is liable exception impairing infringing Executive." 147. toward changing 148. 61 was, Pope. reasons. obvious importance fact attempting Thus, grounded debts. important, way." 146. like waived instance ultimate supra.25 C judgments, "reversed" nor, matter, As explicitly recognized, place. generally facts. reasons, decisions, judgments. reaffirm Amendment, warranted. respect, cry legislatively "consent judgment" Pope, yet And, distinguishable sum, implicitly IV relied "good effort" developed (1968). designed reconcile lines conflict. line, exemplified recognizes "that possesse[s] paramount reason authority implied, opposed strict 565, 221. recent Shoshone 244, 81 360 (1937), holds, nonetheless, "[t]he extend 'to others, purposes, rendering, assuming render, compensation.' " 497, Creek 295 103, 110, 681, 684, 79 1331 (1935)). Tribe, Cardozo, distinction conflicting characteristically pithy phrase: "Spoliation management." 498, 253. 66 distinguishes principle applicable: 67 simultaneously benefit plenary thinks sovereign domain, meaning Constitution. situation people, capacity other. can hats, wear time. 68 "Some guideline identify acting. basic types action: Where makes transmutes money, taking. substitution assets traditional trustee." 691. 69 standard erroneous.26 contends erred insofar indicate affirmatively equivalent argues true acting reasonably intended promote welfare tribe." Brief 52. derives principally Hitchcock. 71 Wolf, representatives Kiowa, Comanche, Apache governmental officials enjoin enforcing Medicine Lodge 1867, 581. future "unless 585. issue, 1900, 672, requisite males residing 72 conflict treaties 566, 73 exists abrogate presumably circumstances arise disregarding stipulations demand, themselves, so. When, therefore, never contingency availed policy, particularly towards (Emphasis original.)27 74 contentions ceding fraud, "[A]ll matters, event, solely authority, courts." 222. 75 penultimate paragraph observations constitute 76 complained 77 bill, relations confederated Kiowas, Comanches, Apaches existed, statutes supplementary thereto disposition purported surplus allotted benefit. Indeed, presents 294, [23 115, 183,] term, administrative possessed power, who, held, wards presume branch premises. judiciary inquire motives If injury occasioned, understood implying, relief sought redress courts. constitutional." supplied.) 78 relies italicized sentence quotation Several adjoining passages paragraph, lead meant state us. "purported consideration" fact, $2 678; 555. contrast, background "reveals 'purport' 'adequate consideration,' meaningful negotiation arm's-length bargaining, paying price." 475, 1176 (concurring opinion). 80 able property." family 320 acres, 480,000 acres common, paid remaining surplus. 677-678. opening itself, Part based, part, "Congress matter." Earlier "Plenary beginning, always deemed political one, controlled department government." idea amenable review. view, discredited cases, laid Delaware Tribal Business Comm. Weeks, 430 73, 84, 911, 918, 173 (1977).28 82 holding, suggests results "relief Unlike Legislative responded resolution. Parts waives immunity, directs resolve appear apply Wolf's deference. Tillamooks, 329 40, 46, 552, 555, 95 738 (1946) (plurality 83 foregoing relevance More significantly, 's commend enduring kind every alleged,29 affairs. cognizant "this [is] absolute. extending measures tribe, limitations inhering pertinent restrictions." 109-110, 684. Accord: Menominee 391 404, 413, 1705, 1711, 697 (1968); FPC Tuscarora 362 99, 122, 557, 584 (1960); Klamath 304 119, 123, 799, 801, 1219 (1938); 111, 115-116, 794, 797, 1213 497-498, 251-252, (1937). 84 below, command nature. mean imply second-guess, perspective hindsight, interests tribe. thoroughgoing 85 turn inquiry guided standard. was. approve formulation ought emulated faced resolving here: 86 "In [them], look objective revealed Acts committee reports, submitted officials, reports commissions relating acquisition. 'good effort' 'transmutation property' concepts opposite sides coin. They reflect trust fairly (or faith) attempts ward value. faulted hindsight demonstrate equivalence. hand, Indians) acquires him, extent transmuted ward. essential element adequacy gave avoided government's assertion 451, 1162.30 D next item 'consideration' possibly showing 'full value' took requirement furnish became self-sufficient." 458, 1166. finding supported record, seriously contend otherwise.31 found, engaging exhaustive Committees legislators spoke indicated forced surrender. 458-462, 1166-1168. unchallenged 90 lending weight conditions "further show undertaking themselves giving up, instead coerce capitulating demands." 461, 1168. add nearly ago analogous 91 Choctaw 119 35, 75, 94, 306 (1886), Senate "was fair, just, equitable." year, cattle improvements annuity $20,000 commencing removal, educational agricultural services. 38, 96. thereafter latter treaty's compensate ceded. contest fairness Senate's Indian's arguments, accepting "furnish[ing] nearest approximation justice case," 95, observed: notorious abundantly appears pressure bear whole evidently purposely executed, much stipulated, effectuate policy removal. most noticeable thing, careful money ownership computed ten millions acres." 37-38, 93 induce remove 94 nowhere ceded; expenditures afford incur executing homes. meager pittance." conclusions, valuable land, extinguish off-reservation contention subsequently spent $43 (over three-quarters century) critical did—and assuming—at cost fulfill obligation." 462, basis believing anticipated self-sufficient, fulfillment feed entail behalf. reached, E aforementioned involved [the States] tribe."32 Southern Kansas R. 135 641, 657, 965, 971, (1890), title, "are objects germane execution it; only, owner." emphasized reasonable, disturbed." 659, 971. uncertain indefinite self-sufficient 98 readily apparent undertaken surviving transition nomadic life agrarian lifestyle chosen them. Those studied agree. 11, removing boundaries reasonable quid pro quo depriving life, Hills.33 V 99 1868. now, last, ordered. 102 WHITE, concurring 103 infirmity correctly concur 104 REHNQUIST, dissenting. 105 requesting ruling exchanged lands—an believed Yet today permits reopen 1943, reject events am convinced constitutionally proceeding, justifying respondents opportunity accounts realistic one. dissent. 106 738, submit highlight found. decide, suggests, lacked ante, 384. improve exchanging 900,000 territory, efforts unsuccessful. "believed serious conflicts develop 659. "incapable supporting themselves." 107 embarked "endeavored 1875 arrive mutual 681. Negotiation failed, turned design agreement, parties." 668. emphasized: 108 encountered wisdom necessities surrender pay." 667. 109 certiorari. 110 During unconstitutionally. pleaded defense. "exercising consent substituted something conceived equivalent." 1298, 1303 relieving disability lifted disagrees one." 1303. equities entailed unwarranted. Again, 111 relitigate merits" added.) Neither generated arbitrarily affording embraces second, latter-day 112 refrains boldly characterizing action, occurred, relitigating ordered trial. nothing authority. 113 vests Power States" federal vested powers, appellate-type alter terms, trials decided. judges 4, (1792), stated "no can, agreeable reversion, suspension, Legislature whom vested." interpreted "rested CONTROL THE EXERCISE JUDICIAL POWER requiring Claims" "require [a party]." 20, 21, 114 O'Grady, 647, 772 (1875), legitimize revise controversy; equally are, laws, absolutely parties, "[i]t re-examination revision tribunal 648. Chicago & Air Lines, Inc. Waterman S.S. Corp., 333 431, 568 (1948). exceeded ordering 115 characterization. process actions legitimate exercises processes. legitimately regulation jurisdiction; may, litigants, defenses. apparently concedes, name actions, rehear 116 heavily No doubt, legislative, be, power. justified permissible litigant's alternative nonjudicial characterizations simply unpersuasive. 117 categorize stating done "provid[e] place." essence regulate Admittedly, constitutes assignment inherently judicial—such assigning task rehearing error. guidelines identified enjoys proceedings class Johannessen 225 227, 613, 1066 (1912), regulates walks line exceeds sets retrial adjudicated issue. 145; 118 re hearing assign function, reviews adjudication; permissibly Ante, 391-392. concludes "review" (and denials certiorari) dictated govern adjudication. dictate negate often reverse error indicating heard again. "reviewed" reason, air claims. inevitably reflects dissatisfaction heard. certainly doubtful litigant instance. Unless deficiencies why fit public once again? opinions persuasive. judge persuasiveness courts—that judiciary's alone. Previously litigated them; says seeks 120 upheld agreeing encroached adjudicated. See, e. g., Pennsylvania Wheeling Belmont Bridge How. 421, 435 (1856); Hodges Snyder, 261 600, 435, 819 (1923). adversary chooses. spending is, enlarge (1944), rests distinction. 121 provided, have, recover Counsel persuade go far." changed try shift responsibilities satisfy constituents discarding trials. 122 waiver" prerogative. 407. different litigants regard, convincingly greater ordinary waiver, object accomplished waiver. full, impose legislature. 123 waived, Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 8(c), notice presented, sua sponte, raised. Hedger Transportation Corp. Ira S. Bushey Sons, 186 236 (CA2 1951); Evarts Western Metal Finishing 253 637, 639, (CA9), 358 815, (1958); Scholla Scholla, U.S.App.D.C. 201 211 (1953); Hicks Holland, 235 183 (CA6), 352 855, 83, (1956). policies underlying judicata: defendant's avoiding burdens defending suit, avoidance unnecessary waste. Sunnen, 591, 597, 715, 719, 898 (1948); Blonder-Tongue Laboratories, University Illinois Foundation, 402 313, 328, 1434, 1442, (1971); Parklane Hosiery Co. Shore, 439 322, 645, 552 (1979). reconsideration justification: 124 remember offspring, statutory defenses; adopted furtherance prompt efficient business theory unduly consume expense finally again." Warthen 157 798, 800 (1962). 125 matters defendant consented retains preventing misallocation second-guessing panels proceeding. Since apply, used mandate rehearing. acknowledged readjudication product "carried imposed statute." 126 (1926), dispositive. asked "presented considered." involve congressionally mandated 127 Here, identical comparison thing occurred "would 'a property.' 413. precisely 425-426. evolved. 434-437. dissenting aptly changed. evidence." 489, 1184. 128 private establishment uniquely judicial. eviscerated 129 Even countenance very persuasive account enactment. pointedly majority's untenable. else for?" 487, 1183. 130 rejects largely American West universally shared. undoubtedly greed, cupidity, less-than-admirable tactics employed episode West, share villainy either. me "revisionist" historians mores ago. 131 Different historians, writing conclusions inserted committees, positions materials opinion. unnatural, exact inexact) science. inferences draws Sherman reporting meeting leave stereotyped one-sided impression regarding gradual expansion National Proclamation Line King 1763 Pacific Ocean. 133 Ray Billington, senior research associate Huntington Library San Marino, Cal., 1963, respected student introduction book Soldier Brave (National Park Service, Dept. 1963) confrontations conniving administration: 134 "Three centuries bitter warfare tragic climax plains mountains America's Far seventeenth century, Opechancanough rallied Powhatan tribesmen Virginia intruders frontier stubborn resistance. times flamed open warfare: Phillips' rebellion Massachusetts Puritans, French Wars eighteenth Pontiac's assault British overlords 1763, Tecumseh's vain hold back pioneers 1812, Hawk War. decades, 1860 1890, suffered humiliating defeats walk man's road civilization. Few conquered people mankind dearly march progress outmoded. 136 "This epic struggle landmarks behind, monuments brave men, white, died endure." xiii-xiv. 137 Another highlights cultural differences brutal inevitable: 138 Plains seldom agriculture primitive arts, fine physical specimens; warfare, learned rifle, [were] formidable Eastern slowly yielded man. warred highly sign inter-tribal communication. effective unit village souls, seen wanderings encamped water-course tipis erected; pouring plain, women children dogs packhorses trailing travois, gaily dressed braves loped ahead horseback. lived day, robbed killed anyone away inflicted cruelty qualm, endured torture flinching." Morison, Oxford History People 539-540 (1965). 139 tragedy, deception, barbarity, virtually vice man 300-year Colonies square miles settler Biblical adjuration: "Judge ye judged." 749, parts Wyoming, Montana. detail Robinson, Dakota 356-381 (1904), reprinted Historical Collections (1904). Cloud's career warrior statesman recounted G. Hebard E. Brininstool, Bozeman Trail 175-204 (1922). approximately half area save narrow strip western portion. Dakota. schools teachers education children, seeds instruments planting, blacksmiths, carpenters, millers, engineers perform 637-638, 640. addition, deliver articles clothing "on day years." 638. An stipend $10 per person continued hunting; farming $20. Subsistence meat flour (one pound day) needs. 639. commentators complete Cloud 1904 gone war afterwards negotiated conceding everything demanded enemy exacting return." supra 387. explorations 1830's, capsulized 3-7 (1966). Center Studies completed project compiling contemporary newspaper expedition. Krause Olson, Prelude Glory correspondents traveled dispatches Midwest East. 6. 408-410; Tallent, (1975 reprint 1899 ed.); J. Vaughn, Reynolds Campaign 3-4 (1961). trail chief Fast Bear thieves' road." 24. Chroniclers expedition, extent, agreed. 120; Wards xxix, 296-297 (1972 1880 ed.). Tecumseh Sherman, Commanding Army, quoted Globe military's keeping old story, story Adam Eve forbidden fruit." 112. interview correspondent Bismarck Tribune, off recommend extinguishment title earliest moment practicable reasons." 233. ambivalence feeling commanding officers practicality desirability obligations, perhaps surprising chronicler describe dislodge invading "feeble." Hans, 522 (1964 reprint). Report Allison Annual 146, 158-195. unsuccessful 116-118, 416-421. 7, 294-321, 422-438. Twilight (1976), Standing Rock Edward Milligan states: "Nearly seven elapsed signing closer self-support signed. meantime expended thirteen dollars support. treatment moment, higher economics." ration broader convert farmers. Hagan, Policy: Too Late, Indian-White Relations: Persistent Paradox 157-169 (J. Smith Kvasnicka, eds., 1976). question, Professor Hagan supplement food subsist farming. Clauses reservations, inevitable clashes parties whites privilege eliminated. quickly anticipated, conversion lagged behind schedule. quantity supplied sufficient ration, quality frequently poor. carried all, others tended gratuity terminated possible. Service personnel better fight, typical late nineteenth-century member exposed doctrines social obscene grown drawing Appropriations consequently fell below levels secretary interior. "That starvation near-starvation sixty-odd quarter Civil manifest." 161 (footnotes omitted). defeat Battle 25, 119. commission's 439-442. He "As understood, making put, concerned. Defeated, disarmed, dismounted, mercy superior accept grace existing." 442. region wrote chauvinistic terms: material standpoint lost much, gained little. article lose Wyoming altogether excluded; fertile valley Belle Fourche compensation; portions reservation; supplies points receiving real gain embodied [Government's rations]. doubtless, realized destined soon slip grasp, regardless yield inevitable, "They assured continuance regular daily annuities guaranteed ask wives, relations, squaw indirectly, live wild, careless, unrestrained exempt existence? thousands obliged earn bread butter sweat brows, wolf door, satisfied." 133-134. "ratified confirmed" altered adding carving meridians, acres. wagon cut 255. exchange, civilization; instruction mechanical 1868." 256. fixed beef bacon flour, foodstuffs, discretion Affairs, conditioned, attendance school labor resided suitable markets crops employment performance Later reducing Rosebud Kneip, 584, 589, 1361, 1364, 660 (1977). 767; Tucker 1887, 505. removed date, $450,000. credit amounts credited accrued. compute Chairman Kuykendall dissented 341 48, 49, (1951) (recognizing "traditional rule" absent express "only arises entitles Amendment"). (1938), exertion implies i.e., plus produce contemporaneously taking." subsequent 70a, "for food, claim." Oct. 1499. offset eventually 240, 1301. Davis respect 1306. takings, mining gold, 466-467, 1171-1172. earlier-enacted IV-B, Nichols concurred result, distinguishing Wolf. created believe injunctive 474-475, 1175-1176. Bennett, Kunzig, dissented. dissenters read broadly dispose given. has, disposed 1182. response bench, "I say, 'You your lawsuit.' Tr. Oral Arg. 20. Representative Gudger Carolina persistently argued Committee enactment, stating: feel Federal Judiciary lower (in Claims) reversing Judiciary." H.R.Rep.No.95-529, p. (1977), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News pp. 433, 447. acknowledging "but my mind contravenes exclusively responsibility doctrine." 18, 448. Congressman, debates, elaborated amendment. departure doctrine, continue governed past." Cong.Rec. 2953 (1978). continued: sustained places call attention instance, uniformly nature proposes only. legislating, adjudicating. performing func- tion acted. propose land." Gudger's vis-a-vis shared colleagues. Roncalio emphasize violated $17,500,000 question." 2954. informed past mentioned 1881, 504 (which actually Senate), 1925, 812 (authorizing "de novo, basis, finding, claims"). Both enactments Subcommittee hearings conducted previous session. Hearing S.2780 Insular 94th Cong., 2d Sess., 16-17 (1976) Morris Thompson, Affairs). respectively, 29-32, 91-92, 368 (1932). Pressler proposed "[w]e indeed, groundwork decision; reached." 2955 Earlier, Meeds prevailing After summarizing point- ing Members do. technical defense, instances body, merits." 2388. S.Rep.No.95-112, (1977) ("The amendment] prohibitions forum"); 438. forum"). Treasury Senate. 608. "such fetter circumscribe justice." 455. reasoned limitation waivers immunity "[I]t enough defendants consent; first." 458. addressed ancient inferred type remnant far-distant past. affirmative legion. Mizokami 188 736, 740-741, nn. 414 1375, 1377, (1969) (collecting cases). list text, follows exhaustive): 225, 585, (1884); Lamborn 703, 724-728, 569, 576-578 (1946); 10, (1944); Richardson 948, 956-957 (1935); (1932); Garrett 304, 310-312 (1930). Richardson, equitable, questioned. replete grounds, prevented adjudicate proceeded too numerous citation here, whose rejected." 957. Two Appeals Eighth dismissals World Veterans' 1924, 445 (1952 ed.), reinstatement war-risk insurance prohibition favor, James 8th Cir., 897, (1937); Hossmann, 808, 810 (1936). relied, rationale Nock. completing precedents area, holdings views, respects, III's extension Power" Controversies Party." Williams 289 751, 1372 (1933). dispel conclusion. 12-14, 22-23. Harlan's plurality Glidden Zdanok, 370 530, 1459, 671 (1962), lays rest. Glidden, devotes lively prone modify assigned court." 1481. circumstance character, impliedly, "lively attention" impermissible interferences functions. "Throughout been, obligation. [46 694], enlisted Indeed confer bounties and, consenting enforceable undoubted 427 [16 peradventure [65 3]. entertain theretofore recovery—as, contract drafted exclude claims—was invoke computation specially authorizes hears function." 566-567, 1953, 585-589, 1491-1493 (opinion result). Clark plurality's suits "Controversies Party," III. Compare 562-565, 1479-1480 opinion), 586-587, 1491-1492 outset "taking" decisions. Kaiser Aetna 164, 383, 332 (1979); Penn Central Transp. New York City, 438 104, 2646, 631 "determin[e] 'justice fairness' injuries caused compensated disproportionately concentrated persons." Central, 124, 2659. "taken" wholly unique guardian event Clause apply. aspect reaffirmed, see, 594, 1367, contravention inconsistently Amendment: "nor use, compensation." press logical limits, "strict management disposal relaxed allow rational-basis test." 55, 46. 84-85, 918-919, Morton Mancari, 417 535, 2474, 2485, 290 (1974), confiscated interests. judging Due Process apt analogy here—whether guardianship. earlier, concede unilateral abrogation seek "were (1935). proffered ill-suited culminating "unrecognized" "aboriginal" compensable Tee-Hit-Ton 348 272, 285, 319, 314 (1955). declared permanently." 277, instances, "compensation 277-278, reveals assertion, base "assets" surrendered. possibility overcome indicia contrary. fashion, patently standard, departed 486-487, 1182-1183 (dissenting takes given, judicial, Monongahela Navigation 148 312, 327, 622, 626, 463 (1893). 382-383, "all civilization," mechani- cal vague "gave [under 1868 treaty]." reliance extended "not transfer Hills." 453, 1163, 3. obviously reservation's redefining borders; "cession rights." 255-256. "so fair" note incorrectly valued failing border. considered, along entirety, welfare. 58. post, 434-437, history. dissent fails description. dissent's allusion "writing committees," puzzling because, unaware exists. primary sources told discard raise specter creeping revisionism, erroneous unsupported suggested fail meet word order. author, nonrevisionist, neorevisionist, otherwise, prefers adopt, largely, assumes, faith. findings, today. 669-673, 685. divergence today, attribute 434-435, logically explained 1974 70a. offsets, "expenditures accompanied "[a]lthough couched objective—expediting famous case." S.Rep.No.93-863, (1974) 6111, 6112 (incorporating memorandum Tribes). disarmed areas reduced starvation, saying furnished took. short, wrongs: first, livelihood; secondly, stretched cover wrongs." 4-5, 6115. Introduction, xiv (1963) outmoded").

Category: 1