Document: 430 U.S. 144 97 S.Ct. 996 51 L.Ed.2d 229 UNITED JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS OF WILLIAMSBURGH, INC., et al., Petitioners,v.Hugh L. CAREY al. No. 75-104. Argued Oct. 6, 1976. Decided March 1, 1977. Syllabus After New York State had submitted for the approval of Attorney General its 1972 reapportionment statute with respect to Kings County and two other counties which were subject §§ 4 5 Voting Rights Act 1965, he concluded that as certain districts in not met burden under § demonstrating redistricting abridging right vote by reason race or color. In May 1974 a revision those portions plan objected, including provisions elections state senate assembly from County. The did change number nonwhite majorities but size most districts. To attain majority 65%, it was felt would be acceptable district Hasidic Jewish community located (which been 61% plan), portion white population, part community, reassigned an adjoining district, also split between senatorial though within one such plan. Petitioners, on behalf brought this suit injunctive declaratory relief, alleging violated their rights Fourteenth Fifteenth Amendments. Petitioners contend 'would dilute value (their) franchise halving effectiveness,' solely purpose achieving racial quota, they assigned electoral basis race. Upon motions (who advised object plan) intervenor, District Court dismissed complaint, holding petitioners enjoyed no constitutional separate recognition Jews; disenfranchise them; considerations permissible correct past discrimination. Appeals affirmed. Noting left approximately 70% only 65% county white, court held underrepresent population. court, relying Allen v. Board Elections, 393 544, 569, 89 817, 833-834, 22 could use effort secure Act, reasoning contemplated legislature have 'to think terms'; because 'necessarily deals color, corrective action must do same.' Held: judgment is Pp. 155-168; (opinion White, J.); pp. 179-180 Stewart, J.). 1 510 F.2d 512, 2 Mr. Justice joined Brennan, Blackmun, Stevens, criteria attempting comply violate Amendment. 155-165. 3 (a) Under 5, new revised plans are among voting procedures, standards, practices may adopted covered without ruling specified does racially discriminatory effect. supra. 157-159. (b) Compliance cases will often necessitate drawing lines, Constitution prevent deliberately creating preserving black particular order ensure complies 5. Beer United States, 425 130, 96 1357, 47 629; City Richmond 422 358, 95 2296, 45 245. 159-161. (c) Permissible confined eliminating effects districting apportionment. P. 161. 6 (d) A cannot Amendment merely uses specific numerical quotas establishing 162. 7 (e) shown offered prove minority thus more than authorized require nonretrogression principle supra, has accepted constitutionally valid. 162-165. 8 Stevens Rehnquist, that, wholly aside York's obligations preserve strength County, permits draw lines way percentage roughly approximates nonwhites county. Though individual where increased about became likely candidates elected, long whites, group, provided fair representation, there cognizable discrimination against whites. See Gaffney Cummings, 412 735, 754, 93 2321, 2332, 37 298. 165-168. 9 Powell, having failed show either effect discriminating them race, petitioners, who erroneously awareness legislative unconstitutional per se, affording relief seek. 179-180. 10 Nathan Lewin, Washington, D.C., petitioners. 11 Louis H. Pollak, Philadelphia, Pa., NAACP others. 12 Sol. Gen. Robert Bork, States. 13 George D. Zuckerman, City, respondents. 14 WHITE announced filed opinion STEVENS joined; Parts I, II, III BRENNAN BLACKMUN; I IV REHNQUIST. 15 Section 1965 prohibits political subdivision implementing unless obtained Columbia, 'does denying account color . ..'1 question presented whether, circumstances case, attempt 16 * N. Y., together (Manhattan) Bronx Counties, virtue determination literacy test used these three November 1968, Director Census fewer 50% voting-age residents voted Presidential election 1968.2 Litigation exemption unsuccessful,3 necessary States Columbia insofar concerned Kings, York, Counties. On January 31, 1974, congressional, senate, seats General. accordance regulations governing his review, considered submissions interested parties criticizing defending plan.4 Those included assertions polarized created diluting (blacks Puerto Ricans).5 April covering Bedford-Stuyvesant area Brooklyn, placed thereunder demonstrate neither nor color.6 17 challenged General's objections filing three-judge Columbia. Instead, sought meet what understood primary general go forward statute.7 plan, essentials majorities, 91%, 61%, 53%; again now all 75% nonwhite.8 As districts, both seven majorities. However, four 85% 95% nonwhite, 76%, 52%, respectively; smallest 67.5%, largest decreased greater 90% 80% 90%.9 report committee stated changes made overcome Department objections' 'substantial majorities' districts.10 18 One communities affected revisions Williamsburgh area, 30,000 Jews live. entirely (61% nonwhite) (37% nonwhite); create substantial staff member testified course meetings telephone conversations officials, 'got feeling 65 percent probably approved figure' population located, plan.11 figure, district. 19 Shortly after General, sued Williamsburgh, each plaintiff's quota therefore violation alleged assignment diluted power injunction restraining officials enforcing improper standards objecting 20 June 20, hearing petitioners' motion preliminary injunction. July informed implementation moved party ground him Act; intervenor dismiss complaint claim upon granted. granted Jews, discrimination.12 Organizations Wilson, 377 F.Supp. 1164, 1165-1166 (EDNY 1974). 21 divided 512 (CA2 1975). first jurisdiction review objection plan.13 agreeing here14 went address claims voters denied equal protection laws abridged noted majorities; given assuming followed lines. Id., at 523, n. 21. canceled out whites Court's decisions White Regester, 755, 314 (1973), Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 91 1858, 29 363 (1971). then observed case present whether legislature, 'starting afresh,' so bolster strength, rather 'narrower' Act. F.2d, 524. answered decision (1969), at-large supervisors below reasoned 525. (Emphasis original; footnote omitted.) 'so districting, even based considerations, conformity unchallenged directive least absent clear showing resultant unfairly prejudicial challenge.' Ibid.15 23 We certiorari, 423 945, 354, 46 276 (1975). affirm. II 24 argue Legislature, although seeking construed Amendments revising along lines.16 rejecting claim, we propositions: First, whatever might true contexts, apportionment never permissible; second, if redraw remedy residual reapportionments, findings here prior discriminations justify increase districts; third, 'racial quota' acceptable; fourth, foregoing propositions infirm, actually unconstitutional, particularly arguments, explain, foreclosed our construing sustaining constitutionality fourth IV. 25 It apparent face history, itself broadly remedial sense 'designed Congress banish blight ..' South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 308, 86 803, 808, 769 (1966). plain, however, 'repeatedly try(ing) cope problem facilitating case-by-case litigation discrimination,' id., 313, S.ct., 810, dissatisfied approach, required judicial situations judicially remedies cure devised stringent measures, which, seek whenever implement procedures. 4, came administratively determined conditions experience proved indicative existed already indicated, p. 148, 1968 age presidential year. At point, escaped coverage undertaking appropriate discriminate years, unsuccessfully made. 3, 26 Given involved, evident Act's prohibition instituting procedures dependent proving apportionments operation aimed preventing until capacity examined court. Although recognizing 'stringent remedies,' 'an uncommon exercise congressional power,' nevertheless sustained 'permissibly decisive' response 'the extraordinary stratagem contriving rules various kinds sole perpetrating adverse federal decrees.' U.S., 334-335, 822 (footnote omitted). 27 court's color.' relied below, potential 'dilution' 'nullify (its) ability elect candidate choice S.Ct., 834. When renewed 1970 1975, well aware application redistricting. extension, Commission Civil newly gained minorities danger being predominantly districts.17 unmistakably cognizant phase eliminate Former Katzenbach 'has broadest impact areas reapportionment,' Senate House reports recommending extension referred specifically role screening protect opportunities elected public office.18 28 Allen, compliance That correctly read become clearer later cases. 629 (1976), satisfy 'effect' established permit lead retrogression position effective franchise.' 141, 1364. This satisfied members protected majority. ibid. But met, clearance given, reapportionmment implemented. 30 issue Court, Orleans councilmanic none before. previous law fact modify carving large enough however many additional test. There division 5; eight Justices participated implicitly proposition revise increasing produced 141-142, 1364; 144, 1365 (White, J., dissenting); 158-161, 1372-1373 (Marshall, dissenting). Indeed, eventually drawn avoiding dilution attaining 54% while concentration. App. O.T.1975, 73-1869, 341-342. 31 taken similar approach applying city Boundaries through annexation. Where annexation reducing blacks city, proscribed can avoided post-annexation 'fairly reflects Negro exists annexation' afford (it) representation reasonably equivalent enlarged community.' 370-371, 2304, 245 Accord, Petersburg 354 1021 (D.C.1972), summarily aff'd, 410 962, 1441, 35 698 (1973). Richmond, reduced proportion 52% 42%, ward system nine wards 64%. Had (reflect) community,' follow sufficient statutory requirements. 32 Implicit then, rejected extent accept view used, all, apportionments. unwilling overturn cases, however. authorization avoid constitutional. Contrary argument, mandates any se rule using factors Nor second argument apportionment.19 33 Moreover, process decide how figure example, registered voters.20 minimum definition, 'black district' black. percentage, inevitably arrive means opportunity representative obtain Unless construction Our stand much. 34 Having broad turn question, infirm. hold not, grounds. addressed Part III, shown, prove, Beer, acceptability purposes depends comparison apportionment, occurred 1966. Yet evidence record 65%. For proved, accomplished nothing restoration 1966 levels.21 successful challenge apportionment; otherwise amounts attack non-retrogression. 36 absence regarding creation 30% related valid mandate maintaining strength. less whole (35%). reflected need take difference total population.22 Because, said inquiry focuses ultimately franchise,' 1364, eligible great importance inquiry.23 voters. 142, reasonable conclude vicinity achieve accede defense Appeals. Because essentially correct, affirmed addressing obligation 38 affords independent, particulars Whether free Constitution, Amendments; convinced infringed. 39 doubt preparing legislation purposeful manner. represented slur stigma discern violative abridgment meaning 40 enhance representatives Nevertheless, fencing participation processes county, minimize cancel Compare 765-767, 2339-2340, Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110 (1960), 751-754, 2330-2332, 298 objected whole. observed, countywide white. Thus, strictly according underrepresented relative share 41 likely, bloc voting, instead opponents, own race; grounds race.24 Furthermore, voter lost polls person whom vote. Some candidate, supporters, always loses. 153-160, 1874-1878. 42 occurs, unfortunate practice. rare; regularly happens, unlikely However disagreeable result be, authority found unacceptable majority, supporting candidates, infringed process. Their Democratic Republican submerged year adherents tend straight line. 43 follow, powerless consequences when practiced polls. upheld 'drawn conscious intent rough approximation statewide strengths Parties.' 752, 2331. recognized vulnerable groups fenced invidiously minimized,' 2332 (emphasis added); there, ascribed Rather, viewed alleviate allocation 44 little different kind unable multimember single-member representation. substantially expense voters, previously legislators proportional share. If intentional reduction permissible, State, employing sound principles compactness equality, repeatedly outvoted sufficiently numerous whose residential patterns Gaffney: '(C)ourts (no) warrant invalidate tolerable limits, undertakes, group party, recognize and, provide sort halls State.' Ibid. when, amended plan.25 Affirmed. 48 MARSHALL took consideration case. 49 BRENNAN, concurring part. 50 join WHITE's opinion. effectively demonstrates firmly establish expansive oversee See, e. g. Georgia 411 526, 532, 1702, 1706, 472 (1973); 566, (1969). establishes my satisfaction method securing applied Brooklyn instance arbitrarily casually selected. Yet, carries us further down road race-centered devices heretofore traveled serious questions fairness attend matters offer explanation position. starkly overt employed brief, following refusal certify powers, unnamed known threshold populations Prompted necessity interference upcoming election, complied. Department's unofficial instruction resulted explicit pursuant pattern closely approximating While demographic outcome 'underrepresent population' throughout ante, 154, indeed, very definition precludes underrepresentation overrepresentation complain subjected classification adversely altered status. 52 motivated animus, 378, 2307, (1975); Wright Rockefeller, 376 52, 58, 84 603, 606, (1964); 347, downgraded franchise, 534, 1707; 1869, (1971), promptly characterize resort 'suspect' prohibit use. circumstances, tainted necessarily saved outcome, segregation into 'separate equal' blocs still g., 2307; 53-54, 603-604; infra, 172-173. follows, therefore, involved here, imposed avowed intention clustering viable preexisting groupings, similarly prohibited, distinctiveness avoids arise considerations: permissibility preferential treatment disadvantaged generally, particularized instance. 53 broader plausible distinctions rests propriety so-called benign discrimination: cast context class setting aims demean insult group. Even policy plausibly find expression disadvantages registration turnout redefinition perhaps, distribution power. Such decision, view, raises sensitive issues doctrine policy. Unlike opinion,1 am content leave thorny another day, existence makes unnecessary alone suffices support affirmance before us. 54 begin settled every forbidden. race-conscious variety settings. Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg Bd. Education, 402 25, 1267, 1280, 554 (1971); Montgomery 395 225, 1670, 263 (1969); Franks Bowman Transp. Co., 424 747, 772-774, 1251, 1268-1269, 444 (1976); 160. Once exist fashioning affirmative policies,2 identify further, determine reliance sanctioned, binding criterion (under Act) generates problems dimension relevant other, tolerated remedies. focus instructive consider some frequently raised race-assignment practices. 55 purportedly disguise perpetuates disadvantageous plan's supposed beneficiaries. Accordingly courts considerable difficulty ascertaining truly furthers illicit objectives. An aiding group's guaranteeing safe offices, or, hand, 'contrivance segregate' thereby frustrating potentially efforts coalition building across Compare, positions plaintiffs Wright, 603-604, intervenors, 62, 608 (Douglas, complaints benign. Rican groups, 'nonwhite' category, protested weaker invalidated districting. 295. complained loss 'safe' seat inadequacy target figure. 296-297. These objections, argued memorandum endorsing reapportionment, ill unpersuasive. illustrate risk otherwise. concern, course, undercut theoretical legitimacy usefulness policies. minimum, suggest careful device, cloaked garb. And detection policies proves impossible excessively crude, invalidating race-drawn 56 Second, pursuit objectives, serve stimulate society's latent consciousness, suggesting utility basing factor ideally bears relationship individual's worth needs. Kaplan, Equal Unequal World: Equality Problem Special Treatment, 61 Nw.U.L.Rev. 363, 379-380 act stigmatize recipient intended systemic institutional inequities, imply recipients' inferiority especial protection.3 Again, speak wisdom selective, classifications. historically led treat classifying individuals vitiated context. 57 Third, especially interpreting embraced Protection Clause, ignore social reality unjust society, classification. impression injustice heightened natural consequence 'discrete insular' called bear immediate, direct costs 373-374; cf. Ely, Constitutionality Reverse Racial Discrimination, U.Chi.L.Rev. 723, 737-738 (1974). Perhaps surprisingly, indications example just decisionmaking operation. respondent-intervenors pains emphasize mandated attained strategies slice half. authorities, chose localize burdens reassignment redistribute varied diffused range Brief Respondent-Intervenors 29-31. accuracy appraisal, unfairness magnified coherent like Hasidim disproportionately 58 decisionmaker embarks sorting, weigh concerns discussed promoting justice society beset deep-rooted inequities. believe adequately struck balance enacting carefully conceived scheme embodied decides 'reverse discrimination' pure simple, minimizes treatment, legitimates overt, 59 largely relieves judiciary grapple difficulties distinguishing malign constituted champion interests accompanying availability materials proposed CFR 51.19 (1976). initial coupled factfinding competence Department, reduces likelihood complicated silently escape officials. practical matter, prepared accord deference objectives furthered 60 Similarly, history provides reassurance reinvigorating partisanship, authorize race-oriented product deliberations. Enacted 'voluminous legislative' consideration, 309, (1966), represents unequivocal well-defined consensus national 'sterner elaborate measures,' ibid., promise franchise. Insofar intrinsically involves calculations, charged task defining constituencies simply close eyes origin,4 is, consistent consensus. Whatever indirect undesirable counter-educational far-reaching devices, confront opting activist supervised 'insidious pervasive' evil violations, 808 'specially competence' Morgan, 384 641, 656, 1717, 1726, 828 (1966); Morton Mancari, 417 535, 555, 94 2474, 2485, 290 (1974), techniques, including, outright leaves, expressed participants litigation: worked localizing morally undifferentiated whites,5 peculiarly injustice. normative emotional appeal, reasons drains vitality. 62 important recall oversight jurisdictions exhibited infringing triggering U.S.C. 1973b (1970 ed. Supp.). nexus localities enhances authority6 over benefited (as whites) earlier patterns. obvious nature enactment hardly dominated belie possibility injury provisions.7 Finally, deprived vote, detrimental reapportionment. True, configuration, press legal voice Hasidim. 6. terms interests, suffer attributable relegation nonwhite-dominated sentiments mpetitioners indirectly 'protected' remaining preserved obviously persuaded reinforce remedy. 63 Since parts inconsistent views herein, parts. 64 STEWART, POWELL joins, judgment. contention se. Acceptance mark egregious departure analyzed claimed dealing elective 66 contravention 110. They segregate'; interest; impair persons participate 512; 314; Louisiana 380 145, 85 709; Fortson Dorsey, 379 433, 498, 401. 67 Washington Davis, 426 229, 2040, 597. Disproportionate invidious present. Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 252, 256, 563, 450. finding undervalued numbers Cf. drew purpose. intent. Legislature acted forecloses voters.* 68 Accordingly, Court. 69 Chief BURGER, dissenting. 70 difficult fixed percentages analysis steps: (1) Is special Federal (2) objective? 71 72 strike gerrymandering. teaches anything, thought boundary sole, objective reaching predetermined ordinarily sequared Constitution. reveals disputed precisely place here. up scheme, composition several characteristics; contrary, appears applied. 73 principal notes rejected, conferred approval. official "got (from spokesman) figure." Ante, 152. Further testimony same revealing: 74 'Q: So your dividing Hassidic determination, impose appear impose? 75 'A: reason. spent full day around clock, come type maintain entity, evidenced clearly exactly percent, it's block block, didn't higher lower much possible.' 112 added). 76 solutions kept single 63.4% concentration, fear falling short 'exactly percent,' acceptable' Department. 115. 77 words emotionally loaded caution. undisputed shows firm fractional deviation deemed impermissible. see characterized strict today's casting clear-cut Gomillion. 78 79 My becomes 80 (1966) remedies' Congressional power' 822, 834, (1969) (the) (one's) choice.' acknowledged legislatures obliged terms. Perkins Matthews, 400 379, 397, 431, 441, 476 (1971) (concurring judgment), 541, 1711, (1973) (dissenting opinion), correctness acquiesced judgments stare decisis. presents quite situation. Faced straightforward redistrict 'a mechanically adhered designed tolerance 1.6% indication rigid fulfilling State's defined Beer. 82 plurality acknowledges recent 'there 65%,' speculating levels.' 163. proceeds assume undertaken lack surprising, since pleading stage. upheld, shouD least, done facts, suppositions. seriously considers doubt, should remand factual determinations proper action.1 sparse record, arbitrary Legislature. 83 devoid discrimination.2 rather, time pressure elections, 'in atmosphere hasty dickering,' 525, 526 1975) (Frankel, dissenting), standard formula treated mandatory. factually unsupportable assumptions. make assure assumed blocs, to, independently of, another. Not points opposite direction: five (65%) representatives. 48. assumption 'whites' 'nonwhites' form homogeneous entities foundation. category consists veritable galaxy origins, ethnic backgrounds, religious denominations. identical. fashion, described include, addition Negroes, Ricans. Memorandum Decision, U. S. Dept. Nos. V6541-47, (App. 294).3 'triggered' 2, expressly disavowed identity interest fact, controlled (3) reference unit may, starting point shaping remedy,' adherence quotas, this, deprives citizens bias racial, ethnic, quarrel choose union deliberate far certainly remain unified have, carved composed gerrymandering condemned Lightfoot. 87 biased manner here) reapportion neutral Manipulating 'deserved' promote goal legislature. puts imprimatur concept 'The vice lies placing behind induces prejudice polls.' Anderson Martin, 375 399, 402, 454, 456, (1964). 88 reached today name ironic. mathematical tends sustain ghettos notion clout maintained marshaling enclaves. suggests religion, origin properly represent voter's device endorsed today, moves step farther away society. retreat ideal American 'melting pot' curiously indeed decade. Americans repudiated mayors cities overwhelmingly square mechanical respectfully dissent Stat. 439, amended, 1973c, pertinent part: '(W)henever prohibitions set forth section 1973b(a) title sentence 1973b(b) shall enact administer qualification prerequisite standard, practice, procedure force institute qualification, prerequisite, enters failure procedure: Provided, enforced proceeding chief office interposed sixty days submission, except entered bar subsequent enjoin enforcement procedure. Any heard judges 2284 Title appeal lie Supreme Court.' 'standard, 1968,' 1973b(b). 4(a) years preceding 'for 1973b(a). litigation, ordered requirements ex rel. 419 888, 166, 134 Cir., 516 C.F.R. (1976) provides: 'Section providing submission alternative imposes function. Therefore, proof submitting base material authority, information results investigation conducted Justice. effect, notify authority. determines enter conflicting, resolve conflict 60-day period, shall, above-described applicable authority.' contains Included National Association Advancement Colored People letters prominent opposing legislators. 8, 9. NAACP, classified Ricans entitled protections Hereinafter term refer Ricans, small (such Orientals) include statistics. conclusion exist' explained letter authorities follows: 'Senate abnormally high concentration neighborhoods significantly surrounding populous concentrated 53, 54, 56, (W)e know configuration rational alternatives exist.' 15. litigation. private compel Civ. 1460 (SDNY). 517 Table applicants intervention, 265, partially nonwhites. Interim Report Joint Committee Reapportionment, (the 17th 23d), 16th 25th). 53. 266; Report, 195; 54. 523 179; 181-182. Testimony Richard Scolaro, executive director injunction, 106; 517. Petitioners' summary denied. allegedly caused deprive rights. 22; Reply (filed Sept. 30, 1976). disposition reach issue. state: '(We not) permanent divide time.' original.) central premise control districts.' pointed responsibility 'quota,' pre-existing wrong 'presumptively odious' contained Amendment, forbids 'deny laws.' '(t)he condition servitude.' Commission's 18-month study, report, Political Participation 21-39, statement debates Judiciary members, successfully supported critical amendment extended during hearings 1969 connection extension. E.g., Hearings H.R. 4249, 5538, Similar Proposals (Voting Extension) Subcommittee Judiciary, 91st Cong., 1st Sess., 3-4 (statement Rep. McCulloch); (testimony Howard Glickstein, Acting Staff Director, Rights); 150 Thomas E. Harris, Associate Counsel, AFL-CIO); 818, 2456, 2507, 2029 (Amendments 1965) Constitutional 2d (1970) Frankie Freeman, member, 132 Joseph Rauh, Jr., Leadership Conference 427 Glickstein); 516-518 David Norman, Deputy Assistant Division, Justice). 407, 903, 1297, 1409, 1443 94th 124 (1975) Nicholas Katzenbach); S.Rep.No.94-295, 15-19 H.R.Rep.No.94-196, 8-11 (1975), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin. News 774. insist insufficient justification overlooks shift combat laws. shift. 328, (1966): 'After enduring nearly century systematic resistance advantage inertia perpetrators victims.' affirming issuance demonstrated stated: 'It plaintiff proof. What rendered formal dead making available smoother path clearance.' 538, 1709-1710, (Footnote true, decided denial dismissal action. record. 13-14, 1976); Tr. Oral Arg. 70-71. action, census data 55% 263. urged significant e.g., 219. statistical estimating ask sets estimates, actual somewhat lower. 265. regulation 'strongly urges' '(v)oting-age change, change.' 51.10(b)(6)(ii) note return represented, continues mitigated preservation rest Note, Stan.L.Rev. 84, (1972). Of increased. distinguish 'reasoned choice' coerced statute. limits endorsement instances intends 'no to' 165. agree qualifications, plainly intolerable. limited, merit consideration. concerning polarization motives policymakers formidable responsibilities courts. responsibilities, believe, greatly lessened involved. 175. 'cognizable 'as (are) .' 166. differ activities entitlements derives benefits legislator serving constituency 'mitigated,' compare 166 178. vicarious benefit fully answers Hasidim's doubts acceptance political-party applies affiliation keystone trade. Race, ideally, not. suggested acquired added generally arose decrees Arguably, court-imposed ripe accorded respect. decisive. tied 177-178. criticisms commonly leveled arousing consciousness imposing disproportionate relatively 'innocent' regardless regime. equitable utilizing fairly play legitimate phenomenon seems arisen women: dedicated advancing women appeared statutes facially advantages men. Kahn Shevin, 416 351, 1734, 189 strategy, surmises, good-faith favoring highlight stereotypes dependency helplessness. naive suppose decisions. motivations produce race: desire injure aconscious distribute neighborhoods, employ proxy affiliation. 753-754, 2331-2332. isolating closeted context, deciding realities process, undoubtedly explain 5's 'have (or) implausible unique Brooklyn. derived policies, overall strengthened. invoking Nonetheless, notes, enacted 'broadly remedial' mind, 156, activate 'which voting,' 156-157. probative Village 265-268, 563-565, 450 (1977). regard, notwithstanding worrisome implications 174-175, themselves protest anti-Semitism. Brest, 1975 Term, Foreword: Defense Antidiscrimination Principle, 90 Harv.L.Rev. undeniable contiguous understandably valid, see, 769; 1; exclusive forum standing raise substantive 1973l(b) Supp. V). invoked consequently me singularly rationale signal erosion last Term. explaining why, willing explicated states: 'In (35%).' proportionality absolutely relation complied with. White's 143-144, 1365, Bronx, Counties sweep ballots English Spanish. light counties, 'discriminatory device.' Torres Sachs, 381 309 (S.D.N.Y.) constitutes 10.4% entire one-third

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