Document: 369 U.S. 367 82 S.Ct. 787 7 L.Ed.2d 809 Dean RUSK, Secretary of State, Appellant,v.Joseph Henry CORT. No. 20. Argued Oct. 11, 1961. Decided April 2, 1962. Oscar H. Davis, Washington, D.C., for the appellant. Leonard B. Boudin, New York City, appellee. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion Court. 1 Section 349(a)(10) Immigration and Nationality Act 1952 provides: 2 'From after effective date this a person who is national United States whether by birth or naturalization, shall lose his nationality by— 3 '(10) departing from remaining outside jurisdiction in time war during period declared President to be emergency purpose evading avoiding training service military, air, naval forces States. For purposes paragraph failure comply with any provision compulsory laws raise presumption that departure absence was States.'1 4 The appellee, Joseph Cort, physician research physiologist. He born Massachusetts 1927. In May 1951 he registered Selective Service Board under so-called 'Doctors' Draft Act.'2 A few days later left Cambridge, England. 1953, while still England, repeatedly notified draft board report physical examination either at an examining facility Europe. disregarded these communications, September 1953 ordered him Brookline, Massachusetts, induction into Armed Forces. failed as directed remained 1954 indictment charging evasion returned District Court Massachusetts. Earlier year, British Home Office had refused renew residence permit, Cort gone Prague, Czechoslovakia. has been there ever since. 5 1959 applied our Embassy Prague passport, original passport having long since expired. His application denied Passport Department State on ground lost citizenship § military service. Subsequently, Department's Review Loss affirmed decision Office, same ground. 6 then instituted present action against Columbia, seeking declaratory injunctive relief. complaint alleged not abroad evade obligations, event unconstitutional. three-judge court convened. moved dismiss upon 360(b) (c) provide exclusive procedure which could attack administrative determination citizen. rejucted contention, holding it judgment injunction. On motions summary judgment, determined appellee avoid Relying Trop v. Dulles,3 held, however, unconstitutional, consequently appellee's divested. accordingly entered declaring citizen enjoining denying Herter, 187 F.Supp. 683. This direct appeal judgment. only question we decide today correct entertain If not, must vacate complaint.4 8 support its relied Declaratory Judgments Administrative Procedure Act. 685. Act, 48 Stat. 955, amended, 28 U.S.C. 2201, U.S.C.A. 9 'In case actual controversy within jurisdiction, except respect Federal taxes, States, filing appropriate pleading, may declare rights other legal relations interested party such declaration, further relief sought. Any declaration have force effect final decree reviewable such.' 10 11 'Except so far (1) statutes preclude judicial review (2) agency law committed discretion— 12 '(a) RIGHT OF REVIEW.—Any suffering wrong because action, adversely affected aggrieved meaning relevant statute, entitled thereof. 13 '(b) FORM AND VENUE ACTION.—The form proceeding special statutory subject matter specified statute or, inadequacy thereof, applicable (including actions judgments writs prohibitory mandatory injunction habeas corpus) competent jurisdiction. Agency civil criminal proceedings enforcement extent prior, adequate, opportunity provided law.' 60 243, 1009, 1009. 14 provides part: 15 'No subsequent legislation held supersede modify provisions do expressly.' 244, 1011, 1011. 16 their face appear clearly permit brought here State. view confirmed decisions establishing available remedy secure citizenship—decisions rendered both before enactment Perkins Elg, 307 325, 59 884, 83 L.Ed. 1320; McGrath Kristensen, 340 162, 71 224, 95 173. Moreover, fact plaintiff never thought bar nature. Stewart Dulles, 101 U.S.App.D.C. 280, 248 F.2d 602; Bauer Acheson, 106 445; see Flemming Nestor, 363 603, 80 1367, 1435. 17 It appellant's position, despite broad litigate claim one Court, but confined instead procedures set out subsections (b) 360 1952. establishes determining claims American those without country. Subsection (a) covers claimants 'within States' authorizes head claimant right privilege citizenship—except cannot if issue arises connection exclusion proceeding.5 Subsections deal 'not States.' former limitations, issuance certificates identity 'for traveling port entry applying admission.' latter subsection declares issued certificate 'may apply admission entry, all relating conduct involving aliens Judicial corpus otherwise.6 18 Thus, posed method reviewing State's forfeited citizenship. More precisely stated, whether, liberal Congress intended native country living travel thousands miles, arrested, go jail order finding We find nothing language, legislative history, prior leads us believe purpose. 19 confers 'any action.' would culminate litigation whose being attacked, Attorney General. Whether properly considered presents insubstantial question. Putting side conceptual difficulty, noted very terms simply wishes assert 'may' holder As said, 'The language section shows no intention remedy, persons adopted outlined (c). Neither does indicate are existing remedies.' F.Supp., 20 predecessor 503 1940, 54 1137. That authorities institute suit federal courts determine citizenship, abroad. addition, broadened venue permitting 'district permanent residence.' Finally, enter prosecute personally.7 21 history indicates understood merely confirmation law, most clarification it.8 What concededly novel about designed admitted personally condition deportation adverse decision. At some misgivings were expressed might utilized gain disappear general populace.9 22 ensuing years abuses anticipated did, indeed, develop, predominate concern limit easy-entry 1940 occurred. Thus Senate Committee studied immigration problems two half found 'has used, considerable number cases, where existed.' S.Rep.No.1515, 81st Cong., 2d Sess., p. 777; also Joint Hearings Submittees Committees Judiciary S. 716, H.R. 2379 2816, 82d 1st pp. 108—110, 443—445. describing became Committee, stating '(t)he bill modifies 1940,' explained 23 'that previously physically government net require made accordance normal procedures. These include status can adjudicated.' S.Rep.No.1137, 50. 24 grammatical construction, seems obvious 'such person' referred Report chosen obtain seek claim. is, course, person. 25 sufficient, think, show cut off abused fraudulent prosecuting spurious claims. satisfied did intend foreclose lawsuits claimants, try prevailing 26 reasons, hold prescribed (c), pursued one. accord previous concerning relationship §§ subsequently enacted See Shaughnessy Pedreiro, 349 48, 75 591, 99 868; Brownell Tom Shung, 352 180, 77 252, 225. teaching cases will broadly remedial unavailable clear convincing evidence intended. 27 With issues presented appeal, reargument October Term, 1962, follow 19. ordered. 29 Case reargument. 30 BRENNAN, concurring. 31 While I agree reasoning join opinion, wish note my interpretation supported serious doubt construed dissenting constitutional. Compare, e.g., Witkovich, 353 194, 201—202, 779, 783, 784, 765. 32 Necessarily implicit denial individual expatriating act enumerated 401 assumption theretofore Accordingly, follows advanced dissent just admittedly deemed citizen, incidents including freedom re-enter country, unreviewable relegated alien confronted barriers limited access enjoys. may, consistently requirements due process, circumscribe grants jurisdiction1 deny peremptorily initiates treatment least doubtful enough should, reasonably possible, interpreting accomplish result. 33 360(b), sole avenue following consequences result: identity, granted official good faith substantial basis. initially denied, taken. failed, attempt review. mean conclusively converted gained court. hand, forthcoming stage, ordered, entry—if afford passage—there 'subject chapter would, words, submit detention although assumed once expatriated. Should encounter enter, finally get court, 'in otherwise,' whatever limitations scope imply. 34 construe resulting stark limitation fundamental totally unreviewable. according dissent's avenues open putative expatriate abroad, conversion alienage. To read throws bind tread constitutional quicksand. 35 finds shelter Ju Toy, 198 253, 644, 49 1040, resolve doubts suggested. precise degree finality accorded refusal based petitioner claimed, native-born Toy expatriation officials purported withdraw existed. Even 'the mere (persons entry) claimed citizens them Constitution hearing,'2 attaching hearing. enjoyed 'obviously deprives liberty * *. result loss property life, makes life worth living. Against danger deprivation sanction afforded proceedings, Fifth Amendment affords protection guarantee process law. difference security over adverted court.' Ng Fung Ho White, 259 276, 284—285, 42 492, 495, 66 938. 36 HARLAN, whom FRANKFURTER CLARK join, dissenting. 37 notwithstanding foreign resident, me manifestly wrong, light governing hardly more clear. 38 depends entitled: 'Proceedings Declaration Event (the administrative) Denial Rights And Privileges National.' full margin,1 summarized follows: 39 administratively 'is States,' bring establish citizenship,2 unless was, already involved 'exclusion' proceeding. five denial, district resides residence. (Subsection '(a).') 40 'physically' there, parent age 16, (i) 'certificate identity' enable (subsection '(b)'); (ii) General, judicially reviewed otherwise.' ultimately excluded '(c).') 41 shown later, among things, departed comparable procedural 1137, 1171—1172, expressly abroad,' status.3 new extract Committee's (S. 2550), which, minor addition deletion,4 now bears Act: 'Under governmental diplomatic consular officer decided 43 limiting exclusively prohibits person's arose reason of, with, modification always germane proceeding, adjudication appropriately made. 44 S.Rep. accompany 2550, (Emphasis added.) 45 holds, well Act; nonresident claimants; Congress' 'predominant concern' enacting fend possible misuse effecting country; lies Judgment conclusions, plainly inconsistent congressional purpose, reflected itself foregoing report, refuted beyond background 360. 46 Prior silent deportation, exclusion, cases. 1905 temporarily departed, trial citizenship; inquire conventional limits review.5 1040 (Holmes, J.). 1922, resident status, thus turning availability geographical location claimant. 938 (Brandeis, 47 1934 passed. 955—956; amended. 1939, 1320. However, Elg decision, continuing nonresidents until Congress, first specifically dealt Under greatly tightened expanded. During debates lest 'day court' 86 Cong.Rec. 13247. led alike, and, latter, authorizing, requiring, provisional issuable aid filed. Note 3, supra. recognized possibility abuse liberalized part achieve pressing claims; guard abuse. written should furnished 'a sworn showing (declaratory judgment) basis'; authorized approval prescribe regulations certificates.6 50 Commencing soon close World War II, perhaps recent repeal Chinese Exclusion Communist successes China, large suits filed claimants. carried wake fully when 503. Such principally three kinds. First, increase volume entries many obtained incident institution abandon arrival stream population. Second, experienced difficulty adjudicating 'derivative' exposed screening; often assertion foreign-born child frequently difficult disprove. Third, dockets cluttered suits. See, ex rel. Dong Wing Ott Shaughnessy, 116 745, 751—752, aff'd, Cir., 220 537; Mar Gong McGranery, 109 821, rev'd sub nom. Brownell, 209 448. By end 1952, 1,288 instituted. Ly Shew 110 50, 54—55, vacated remanded 219 413; Annual Reports General 1956 (pp. 111—113) 1957 121—123). state affairs contributed small revamping us, investigation pursuant 1947 Resolution authorizing study laws. S.Res. 137, 80th Sess. (1947). 51 step direction occurred 1950 Senator McCarran introduced 3455, 359 'Judicial Proceedings National,'7 earliest version what Report8 accompanying bill, observing permitted without' file suits, went say proposed 359: 52 spite definite restrictions use bona fide (see supra, U.S., 389—390, S.Ct., 799—800), subcommittee interpretation, therefore recommends modified *.' 53 Read surely 'privilege' changed optional, necessary, appurtenance suit, maintain itself. Since 'in' need bringing suit. proposal 'entry' problem something independently character citizenship.9 This, seen, forefront discussions. Early year additional bills placed House. 716,10 revision earlier 2379,11 Representative Walter, 'citizenship' third, 2816,12 Celler, (making reference location), respects substantially like 55 bills13 attention sharply focused what, any, (other than revealing points statements submitted behalf Departments Justice.14 took position nonresidents,15 proposals quite different. suggested doubt, it; persons, optional basis, coming suits.16 Justice, recommended frivolous required equivalent, come test procedures.17 56 objects amended unable passport. protect adding 'visa.' document described manner authorize proceed national, usual manner. intent suggestion claiming through screening, interrogation, investigation, Naturalization complete record each entering thereof.' Hearings, 721. evident fill gap 716 respecting nonresidents; they contemplated limiting, entirely doing away unrestricted statute; envisaged constituting abroad; negative idea situated choice between remedies 57 Following redrawn 2055,18 Walter 2379, revised 5678,19 consultation representatives Departments.20 proposals, testing corpus.21 combination suggestions Department.22 eventually passed House.23 deletions,24 reported 2550 Senate. Supra, 386—387, 798. 58 squarely faced making, chose course. accepted 2550,25 1, unambiguous course events, understand how Government's contention lacked successfully challenged, times resided least, Court's contrary conclusion rest insecure kind reasoning. Certainly, past lend 1320, threatened line time, addressed 389, 799. 173, even inapposite. circumstances involved, eligible power stay deportation. alien, issue. Incidentally, reach applicability 1435, alien's social benefits, citizenship.26 61 868, 225, supporting instance, were, respectively, straightforward neither Unlike sections nationality, specific dealing relief,27 unlike case, sought run 'final' 62 When comes section, analysis anything, cursory unpersuasive. nonresidents, contained 360—s Act—was 'to it.' this, overlooked contrary. 388, 799, 6. 63 Proceeding premise, unequivocal directive concludes indeed remedy. said (b)), shores (c)). quotation case. withstand discussed. 64 considers 'predominate remedies. 'seems obvious' phrase person,' quoted (ante, 378—379, 794), refers grammatically elected pursue But stand up text Report, especially clause *,' (supra, 387, 798), considered. 65 deciding jurisdictional has, fear become victim put itself: 'More 67 sustain necessary 360, subdenly severe, irrational, capricious. unfavorable experience restored, alleviations, cases—a constitutionality upheld firm men Holmes Brandeis, JJ. acted fullest inquiry, debate, deliberation. 68 am grasp reached precluded making own father thought.28 163, 267—268, 1481(a)(10), 1481(a)(10). U.S.C.App. 454 et seq., U.S.C.A.Appendix, seq. Appellee regular registrant Universal Military Training 1948. 356 86, 78 590, 630. postponed consideration hearing merits. 365 808, 81 691, 690. 1252, taken unconstitutional party. 1252. An alternative basis 1253, providing appeals convened 2282, 2284, 2284. 2282 unanimous below, judges heard originally affect otherwise Thompson Whittier, 465, 712, 704; compare International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union Donnelly Co., 304 251—252, 875, 880, 1316. 360(a), 273, 1503(a), 1503(a): department independent agency, 2201 Title 28, Code, act, residence, hereby conferred courts.' 273—274, 1503(b) 1503(b, c): make residing admission. Upon proof satisfaction identity. From applicant who, approves writing reasons rules above provided. sixteen parent. '(c) (b), possession otherwise. provided: 'If executive person, regardless Columbia submission pending solely acquired States; provided.' example, managers House 'We rather situation here, cutting advisable chance given called day safeguarded extremely carefully feel prevented it. measure committee people writ corpus, feeling others right.' similar understanding indicated bill. 'Mr. FLOURNOY remains, able resort petition mandamus. CHAIRMAN. gentlemen, ought little application, certain conditions short temporary only.' 6127, superseded 9980, 76th 291—292. representative testified hearings '(I)t question, mind, you again.' 292; also, id., 294, 296. 1009; 2201. 282, 494, 261, 645, 1040: 'This *, irrespective say, disclosed authority nor existence laid Secretary. forth evidence, allege effect. But, entertained, petitioner, severe dismissed now, pass considerations.' title courts. 1503, 1503. Throughout 'nationality' spoken 'citizenship.' 503, 25, infra. 'G. DECLARATORY JUDGMENT fair hearing; evidence; principles 284, 495. effort allay wished assure other, feared remarks (Representative Rees), ante, 377, 793. 359, 239—240 (1950). 1515, 776—777 Service, reporting stated 'replace 503' conclusion.' Legislative History, & Vol. (Analysis 3455), 359—1 359—2. 262 (1951). 263—264 260—261 Subcommittees (Hereafter Hearings.) 'lay' witnesses views Committee. All highly critical 'Chinese derivative suit' (Supra, 390—391, 799.) questioning uppermost minds members aspect best adequate tight controls minimize dangers 106—109, 338—339, 443—444, 522. 'withdraws 1940.' 710. matters vein. 720. statement read: 2055, 277—279 5678, 150—152 Celler scarcely figured discussion. 'Following joint numerous conferences attended advisers representing unofficially versions abovementioned 2816) H.R.Rep. 1365, (1952), U.S.Code Cong. Adm.News 1679. added No included (b). Whereas relief, eligibility American-citizen meet residential retention After filed, status.' brief quotes extensively accompanied 5678—H.R.Rep. 87—88 (1952) prohibit claimant, However true Cort's reliance misplaced rejected conference Houses qualifying phrase, 'as deleted conferees respects. (a), 'deportation proceedings' deleted, disability (Compare 798.) Unied parent' cites opinions Circuit, 445, sweeping nature.' 'of nature' refer claims, inapposite refuse returning affording taking referring 683, Mung Ngow 122 709, D'Argento 113 933. now. 1961 amendments irony less ago tighten Public Law 87—301, 650 (effective 26, 1961), amending various respects, things thereby rejecting 1105a (Supp. III 1962), 1105a; 1086, 87th (1961), 1961, 2950.

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