Document: 539 U.S. 194 UNITED STATES et al.v.AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION, INC., al. No. 02-361. Supreme Court of United States. Argued March 5, 2003. Decided June 23, Two forms federal assistance help public libraries provide patrons with Internet access: discounted rates under the E-rate program and grants Library Services Technology Act (LSTA). Upon discovering that library patrons, including minors, regularly search for pornography expose others to pornographic images by leaving them displayed on terminals or printed at printers, Congress enacted Children's Protection (CIPA), which forbids receive access unless they install software block obscene prevent minors from accessing material harmful them. Appellees, a group libraries, Web site publishers, related parties, sued Government, challenging constitutionality CIPA's filtering provisions. Ruling CIPA is facially unconstitutional enjoining Government withholding failure comply CIPA, District held, inter alia, had exceeded its authority Spending Clause because any complies conditions will necessarily violate First Amendment; constitutes content-based restriction forum subject strict scrutiny; that, although has compelling interest in preventing dissemination obscenity, child pornography, use filters not narrowly tailored further interest. Held: The judgment reversed. 201 F. Supp. 2d 401, CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST, joined O'CONNOR, SCALIA, THOMAS, concluded: 1 1. Because libraries' does their patrons' Amendment rights, induce Constitution, valid exercise Congress' spending power. wide latitude attach receipt policy objectives, South Dakota v. Dole, 483 U. S. 203, 206, but may "induce" recipient "to engage activities would themselves be unconstitutional," id., 210. To determine whether employing software, must first examine societal role. fulfill traditional missions facilitating learning cultural enrichment, have broad discretion decide what patrons. This held two analogous contexts make judgments deciding private speech available public. Arkansas Ed. Television Comm'n Forbes, 523 666, 672-674; National Endowment Arts Finley, 524 569, 585-586. Just as analysis heightened judicial scrutiny were incompatible role television stations former case latter, so are consider content making collection decisions. Thus, principles relied out place context this case. neither "traditional" nor "designated" forum. See, e. g., Cornelius NAACP Legal Defense & Fund, Inc., 473 788, 802-803. Unlike "Student Activity Fund" issue Rosenberger Rector Visitors Univ. Va., 515 819, 834, acquired order create publishers express themselves. Rather, provides such same reasons it offers other resources: facilitate research, learning, recreational pursuits furnishing materials requisite appropriate quality. fact reviews affirmatively chooses acquire every book collection, review makes available, constitutionally relevant distinction. decisions most exclude print collections subjected little sense treat online differently. Moreover, vast quantity rapid pace changes, cannot possibly segregate, item item, all inclusion not. While could limit just those sites found worthwhile, do only cost excluding an enormous amount valuable information lacks capacity review. Given tradeoff, entirely reasonable reject approach instead certain categories content, without individualized everything made Concerns over software's tendency erroneously "overblock" protected falls outside users intend dispelled ease disabled. Pp. 203-209. 2 2. impose condition LSTA subsidies requiring them, receipt, surrender right speech. Assuming appellees assert "unconstitutional conditions" claim, claim fail merits. When appropriates funds establish program, entitled broadly define program's limits. Rust Sullivan, 500 173, 194. As Rust, here denying benefit anyone, simply insisting spent purpose authorized: helping obtaining quality educational informational purposes. Especially traditionally excluded collections, reasonably parallel limitation programs. helps carry these programs, permissible Rust. Appellees mistakenly contend, reliance Corporation Velazquez, 531 533, 542-543, distort usual functioning libraries. In contrast lawyers who furnished legal aid indigent no pits against there assumption, was case, free benefactors might donated funds. 210-214. 3 KENNEDY concluded if, represents, librarian unblock filtered disable filter significant delay adult user's request, There substantial interests stake here: protecting young inappropriate legitimate, even compelling, Members appear agree. interest, show users' burdened degree, statute face. If some specific if shown election view way, as-applied challenge, facial challenge. 214-215. 4 BREYER agreed "public forum" doctrine inapplicable statute's provisions Amendment, reach ultimate conclusion through different approach. raises special concerns, he require "rational basis" restrictions. At time, "strict scrutiny" warranted, limiting rigid test unreasonably interfere inherent "selection" library's collection. restrictions examined speech-related where circumstances call heightened, "strict," scrutiny—where, example, complex, competing constitutional potentially harm justified unusually strong governmental interests. key question instances one proper fit. asked disproportionate light both justifications potential alternatives. It considered legitimacy objective, extent tend achieve other, less restrictive ways achieving ultimately works proportion objective. satisfy demands. Its objectives—of restricting comparably minors—are "legitimate," indeed often "compelling." No clearly superior better fitting alternative been presented. contains important exception limits harm: allows permit patron "overblocked" upon request. comparatively small burden imposed seeking legitimate materials, said cause when relation objectives. 215-220. 5 C. J., announced delivered opinion, JJ., joined. KENNEDY, post, p. 214, BREYER, 215, filed opinions concurring judgment. STEVENS, dissenting 220. SOUTER, GINSBURG, joined, 231. 6 APPEAL FROM THE DISTRICT COURT FOR EASTERN OF PENNSYLVANIA 7 Solicitor General Olson argued appellants. With him briefs Assistant Attorney McCallum, Deputy Kneedler, Irving L. Gornstein, Barbara Herwig, Jacob M. Lewis. 8 Paul Smith appellees. brief American Association, Theresa A. Chmara, Daniel Mach, Elliot Mincberg, Lawrence Ottinger. Christopher Hansen, Ann Beeson, Steven R. Shapiro, Charles Sims, Stefan Presser, David Sobel Multnomah County Public al.* 9 REHNQUIST THOMAS 10 address problems associated availability 114 Stat. 2763A-335. Under installs constitute obscenity invalid ground rights. We now reverse. 11 access, assistance. First, established Telecommunications 1996 entitles qualifying buy discount. 110 71, 47 § 254(h)(1)(B). year ending 30, 2002, received $58.5 million discounts. Redacted Joint Trial Stipulations All Parties Nos. 01-CV-1303, etc. (ED Pa.), ¶ 128, 16 (hereinafter Jt. Tr. Stip.). Second, pursuant (LSTA), 3009-295, amended, 20 9101 seq., Institute Museum state administrative agencies "electronically lin[k] educational, social, services," "assis[t] electronic networks," "pa[y] costs share computer systems telecommunications technologies." §§ 9141(a)(1)(B), (C), (E). fiscal appropriated more than $149 grants. Stip. 185, 26. These programs succeeded greatly bringing libraries: By 2000, 95% Nation's provided access. J. Bertot McClure, Libraries 2000: Summary Findings Data Tables, (Sept. 7, 2000), http://www.nclis.gov/statsurv/2000plo.pdf (all visited Mar. 25, 2003, Clerk Court's file). 12 connecting Internet, information. But also much easily obtained. 419 Pa. 2002). accessibility created serious ages, pornography. Id., 406. Some printers. 423. 13 problems, became concerned illegal Rep. 105-226, (1998). learned adults "us[e] computers then exposed staff, passersby, children," "minors acces[s] libraries."1 14 blocks effective way uses resources. 20-26. before almost 17% used least terminals, 7% Research Center Ill., Survey Access Management 8, http:// alexia.lis.uiuc.edu/gslis/research/internet.pdf. A can set material, "Pornography" "Violence." 2d, 428. tries within category, screen appears indicating blocked. 429. sometimes present nevertheless trigger filter. minimize problem, blocking into like "Education," "History," "Medical." 428-429. add delete 429, anyone ask companies furnish particular sites, 430. 15 Responding information, CIPA. "a safety includes operation technology protection measure . protects access" persons "visual depictions" "obscen[ity]" "child pornography," "harmful minors." 9134(f)(1)(A)(i) (B)(i); 254(h)(6)(B)(i) (C)(i). defines "[t]echnology measure" covered by" 254(h)(7)(I). permits "disable" enable bona fide research lawful purposes." 9134(f)(3); 254(h)(6)(D). disabling permitted "during adult." during person. 9134(f)(3). associations, Association (ALA) Portland, Oregon (Multnomah). They States officials responsible administering Court, three-judge convened 1741(a) 2763A-351, note following 7001. 17 After trial, ruled enjoined Clause, Const., Art. I, cl. 1, because, court's view, "any Amendment." 453. court acknowledged "generally subjects about rational [basis] review." 462. distinguished inaccessible. "The central difference," stated, "is providing virtually unlimited number topics, speakers, attempting restrict library, professional judgment, determines particularly valuable." Ibid. Reasoning "the provision expressive activity," analyzed "designated forum." 457 (citation internal quotation marks omitted). likened "traditional fora sidewalks parks" "promotes values manner." 466. 18 Based grounds, contemplated forum, therefore scrutiny. Applying standard, "in or, minors," 471, interests, 479. noted probable jurisdiction, 537 1017 (2002), 19 206 (1987). unconstitutional." requires,2 we our society. pursue worthy enrichment. Appellee ALA's Bill Rights states should "[b]ooks resources enlightenment people community serves." 420 (internal missions, Although seek array goal never "universal coverage." 421. Instead, "that greatest direct community." end, collect deemed "requisite quality." See W. Katz, Collection Development: Selection Materials (1980) ("The librarian's responsibility separate gold garbage, preserve everything"); Drury, Book xi (1930) ("[I]t aim selector give public, wants, best read advantage"); App. 636 (Rebuttal Expert Report Donald G. Davis, Jr.) ("A hypothetical produced dubious value, actually detrimental trying find want really need"). 21 government 672-673 (1998), generally apply station's editorial regarding presents viewers. "[B]road rights speakers antithetical, general rule, staff journalistic statutory obligations." 673. Recognizing "would [also] risk implicating courts left discretion." 674. 22 Similarly, 569 upheld art funding required (NEA) criteria explained "[a]ny considerations taken account grant-making process consequence nature arts funding." 585. particular, "[t]he very assumption NEA awarded according `artistic worth applicants,' absolute neutrality inconceivable." (some expressly declined analysis, reasoning conflict "NEA's mandate esthetic judgments, inherently `excellence' threshold support." 586. 23 underlying Forbes Finley selecting NEA, missions. staffs enjoy 24 relied, 457-470, 802 (1985) (describing types forums). resource—which did exist until quite recently—has "immemorially trust and, time mind, purposes assembly, communication thoughts between citizens, discussing questions." International Soc. Krishna Consciousness, Inc. Lee, 505 672, 679 (1992) "rejected status extends beyond historic confines." supra, 678. doctrines surrounding forums extended situations history lacking. 25 Nor definition affirmative choice open up property Cornelius, 802-803; Perry Assn. Local Educators' Assn., 460 37, 45 (1983). inaction permitting limited discourse, intentionally opening non-traditional discourse." 802. 819 (1995). 465. Rosenberger, University Virginia subsidized manner student publications except based religion. fund giving money groups wished publish, discriminate basis viewpoint. 26 situation different. themselves, collects books authors speak. "encourage diversity views speakers," 805 (noting, upholding participation Combined Federal Campaign (CFC), CFC activity"). recognized, another method school library." 106-141, (1999). "no technological extension stack." Ibid.3 27 disagreed whereas available. 462-463. distinction, reasoned enjoys selections. distinction relevant. quality-based furnishes somehow taint make. need depends identifying suitable worthwhile material; play source. Most already deem inclusion. differently, reason. 28 29 Like dissents fault —that is, block. 221-222 (opinion Stevens, J.); 233-234 Souter, J.). Due limitations, "[m]any blocked [Web] pages contain completely innocuous person conclude matches companies' category definitions, `pornography' `sex.'" 449. erroneous difficulties, concerns encounters site, (at adults) found, permanently stated oral argument "library eliminate respect request patron," Oral Arg. 4. adults, authorizes altogether 9134(f)(3) (disabling minors); 254(h)(6)(D) adults). confirmed "librarian can, response patron, mechanism altogether," 11, "have explain why asking unblocked disabled," viewed unblocking inadequate too embarrassed 411. Constitution guarantee embarrassment.4 30 urge us affirm imposes doctrine, `may deny infringes his freedom speech' entitlement benefit." Board Comm'rs, Wabaunsee Cty. Umbehr, 518 668, 674 (1996) (quoting Sindermann, 408 593, 597 (1972)). argue funds, counters fails entities Columbia Broadcasting System, Democratic Committee, 412 94, 139 (1973) (Stewart, concurring) press interference; confers government"); 139, n. ("`The protect expression'" T. Emerson, System Freedom Expression 700 (1970))). Warner Cable Communications, Niceville, 911 634, 638 (CA11 1990); Student Govt. Trustees Mass., 868 473, 481 (CA1 1989); Estiverne Louisiana State Bar 863 371, 379 (CA5 1989). 31 assuming Within limits, "when program." (1991). family planning services forbidden abortion counseling. 178. Recipients challenged restriction, arguing impermissibly conditioned relinquishment 196. rejected recognizing [was] authorized." 32 true here. intended purposes.5 certainly insist 33 STEVENS asserts premise "[a] penalizing failing Internet-accessible unquestionably [the First] Post, 226. 230-231. But—assuming again rights—CIPA "penalize" choose unfiltered reflects decision subsidize doing so. wish offer "`A refusal activity, more, equated imposition "penalty" activity.'" 193 Harris McRae, 448 297, 317, (1980)). "`[A] legislature's fundamental infringe right.'" Regan Taxation Representation Wash., 461 540, 549 (1983)).6 34 533 (2001), "[d]istor[t] [u]sual [f]unctioning [p]ublic [l]ibraries." Brief ALA 40 (citing 543); 47-48 (same). differed "[i]n th[e] vital respect" represent clients welfare disputes advocate thus counsel control. S., 542-543. advocacy profession appeared. contrast, comparable assistance.7 35 Therefore, Eastern Pennsylvania 36 Reversed. Notes: * Briefs ofamici curiae urging reversal Texas Greg Abbott, General, Barry McBee, Jeffrey Boyd, Philip Lionberger, Amy Warr Ryan D. Clinton, Solicitors General; Law Justice Jay Alan Sekulow, Colby May, Ben Bull, James Henderson, Joel H. Thornton, John P. Tuskey, Laura B. Hernandez; Civil Union Peter Ferrara; Cities, Mayors, Commissioners Kelly Shackelford; Greenville, Carolina, Kenneth Bass III; Children Families Kristina Bullock, Bruce Taylor, Janet LaRue; Sen. Trent Lott Brian Fahling, Stephen Crampton, Michael DePrimo. amici affirmance Publishers, Rich, Jonathan Bloom, Morris, Jr.; Brennan Burt Neuborne, K. Abel, Udell; Cleveland Ogden; Partnership Progress Digital Divide Marjorie Heins. School Boards Julie Underwood, Naomi Gittins, Stuart Knade; Online Policy Group, Bromberg Morse; Wallace d/ b/a Ethical Spectacle Green Wallace. Act: Hearing 97 Senate Committee Commerce, Science, Transportation, 106th Cong., 1st Sess., 49 (1999) (prepared statement President Chief Counsel, Families). Obscene Material Available Via Internet: Subcommittee Telecommunications, Trade, Consumer House (2000) Burt, Dangerous Access, 2000 Edition: Uncovering Pornography America's (2000))(noting 2,000 incidents using pornography) Stevens misapprehends perform exceeds Clause. He asks answers "impose [CIPA's filtering] requirement" "allowing local decisionmakers tailor responses problems."Post, 220 (dissenting opinion). well-established precedent, inquiry. correctly 453 2002), requires unconstitutional" performed itself. directly regulate conduct; rather, exercised Power specifying Dole framework assessing constitutionality. Even proffered persuasive evidence hesitate import wholesale into" InternetDenver Area Consortium, FCC, 727, 749 Breyer, "[W]e wary notion partial analogy context, developed doctrines, compel full range new changing area." agree alternatives suffice meet goals. 223 J.) 410); 234 422-427). employ means applies. For above, see 205-208, pursued implementing decision. suggested own drawbacks. Close monitoring far intrusive transforming whom turn compliance officer many avoid. Moving places displays seen installing privacy screens recessed monitors, deliberately contrary, easier overblocking "`reduce population reading fit children.'"Post, 222, Butler Michigan, 352 380, 383 (1957)). Ashcroft Free Speech Coalition, 535 234, 252 (2002); Playboy Entertainment 529 803, 814 (2000); Reno Liberties Union, 521 844, 875 (1997)); 237-238 cases inapposite addressed regulation conduct, exercises Power. requests, reaching widest possible audience abridged." 225 242-243, mistakes acquiring terminals: quality, 206-208. argues procedures difficult unblocked, "will prior restraint speech." 225. argument, address, decision, Contrary Stevens' belief, obligation protected. 9121 ("It isthe [LSTA] (2) stimulate excellence promote individuals ages"); Conf. 104-230, 132 (The worlds knowledge, education allAmericans. [It is] intended, ability browse museums, treatment illness, Americans everywhere via libraries") holdings, ignores, clear onRutan Republican Party 497 62 (1990), Elrod Burns, 427 347 (1976), Wieman Updegraff, 344 183 (1952), misplaced. 227. invalidated action involved penalties, denial promotion outright discharge employment, nonsubsidies. Relying onVelazquez, "only involved, applies to, seeks communicate message," 228, unlike Title X "are designed foster transmit message." 229. misreads Velazquez viewpoint-based improper "`when [government] itself speak transmittal message favors expends encourage speakers.'" 542 834 (1995) (emphasis added)). ("[T]he salient point LSC [Legal Corporation] ." added)); Regents Wis. Southworth, 217, 229 Wisconsin exacts fee sole exchange ideas"); 830, [Student Activities Fund] forum"; "[T]he speakers"). Indeed, led Southworth implicate jurisprudence. raise government's advance message"). 206-208, rather 37 38 If, user, delay, represents fact. 11; ante, 209 (plurality 39 "Preliminary Statement," say take days, unavailable, especially branch well staffed main libraries." 411 232-233 (Souter, dissenting). That statement, however, finding. event, assumed allow patron." 485-486. challenge 219-220 (BREYER, judgment). 41 are, course, reasons, I concur Court. 42 43 (Act) sets Those technology, say, gaining minors. current form, function perfectly, fall scope (i. e., "overblocks") deems "underblocks"). 448-449 2002); 208-209 determining consequently plurality finds inapplicable, holds constitutional. determinations. plurality's way. 44 ascertaining constitutional, form scrutiny, examining requirements care. restricts public's Stanley Georgia, 394 557, 564 (1969) 874 (1997). And limitations bodies (here Congress) critically sources information—the accessed 200, 203-204 opinion); 225-226 (Stevens, dissenting); Ed., Island Trees Dist. Pico, 853, 915 (1982) (Rehnquist, dissenting) "designed freewheeling inquiry"). Reno, "vast democratic" medium World Wide Web, part, "comparable, readers' viewpoint, library"); 564, 566 (2002). reason, raised concern—as tax economic regulation, demanded imposing restriction. accept Government's suggestion presumption favor 409; 21-24. my demand application approach—that scrutiny." essence, kind (a editing). affects kinds 204, 207-208 properly selection either matter necessity due scarcity resources) design accordance development policies). 408-409, 421, 462; 208 (whether carried function) necessary create, maintain, select "collection" (broadly defined include available). Cf. Miami Herald Publishing Co. Tornillo, 418 241, 256-258 (1974) (protecting newspaper's control implies me believe context. 46 Act's Typically N. Y. Fox, 492 469 (1989); Denver 740-747 Turner 520 180, 227 (1997) (Breyer, part); Red Lion 395 367, 389-390 (1969). proportion. 480, stated: 48 "What `fit' ends chosen accomplish ends—a perfect, reasonable; single disposition whose served; employs but, put ., desired objective." (Internal citations omitted.) Cf., Central Hudson Gas Elec. Corp. Serv. Y., 447 (1980); O'Brien, 391 377 (1968); Clark Community Creative Non-Violence, 468 288, 293 (1984). substitute "balancing" flexible, though speech-protective, supplements latter flexible nonetheless legislature ordinary leeway expression issue. 480-481; Bd. Pharmacy Citizens Council, 425 748, 769-773 (1976). 50 harmful. objectives Miller California, 413 15, (interest prohibiting "legitimate"); 869-870 "shielding" exposure indecent "`compelling'"); New York Ferber, 458 747, 756-757 "provide relatively cheap effective" furthering 448. "overblock," screening perfectly "underblock," allowing escape detection 448-449. presented 207, 51 "overblocking" cause. points out, site; alternatively, librarian, "Please entire filter." 209; (permitting "disable purposes"); 52 how (or compliance) prove onerous practices segregating in, closed stacks, interlibrary lending requests anonymous wait while obtains elsewhere. Perhaps rules obtain material. re Federal-State Universal Service: Act, FCC Rcd. 8182, 8183, 2, 8204, 53 (2001) (leaving determinations appropriateness compliant policies communities). considering practices. 54 dissenting. 55 "To patrons." Ante, 204. Accordingly, experiment curtailing children's displaying sexually explicit images. decided act unlawfully. 200. Whether requirement 93%, vastly question. Rather (CIPA) operates blunt nationwide "an information" individual librarians 208. unconstitutional. 56 unchallenged findings reveal defects foreseeable future. relies words phrases undesirable precisely explained: 57 engines harvesting able text only, critical importance, terms, covers `visual depictions.' 9134(f )(1)(A)(i); 254(h)(5)(B)(i). Image recognition immature, ineffective, unlikely improve substantially near None deposed image categorizing URLs. automated absence page harvested engine. problem complicated files words, i. file understand picture, photograph word, regular text, textual impossible. name logo engine recognize logo." 431-432 58 ever-changing character offering material,1 inevitable "underblocking," parents false security solving motivated enactment. Conversely, identify results thousands "contain blunderbuss mandates abridges Amendment. 59 effect functional equivalent host hundreds messages located throughout Nation. Neither suppressing unlawful children justifies overly suppress 255 (2002).2 60 experimentation, variety level: 61 "[L]ess being unwillingly patently offensive, content. visual depictions enforce penalties policies, ranging warning notification law enforcement, Less parental consent presence minors' staff. Finally, optional filtering, screens, placement sight-lines Internet." 410. consistent scholarly comment Congress.3 findings. "[a]ssuming difficulties," General's assurance mechanisms whenever requests. 209. cure infirmity statute. 63 Until know hidden removed. part kept unmarked, locked rooms cabinets, opened curious readers Inevitably, abridged. likely adopt respond doubt vary, impossible aggregate sites. Unless assume mere symbolic gesture, prohibits official consent, speaking "constitutes dramatic departure national heritage tradition." Watchtower Bible Tract Village Stratton, 536 150, 166 II 64 incorrectly 214. On 65 explains "worthy missions" "learning enrichment." 203. "libraries Thus province librarians, hesitated enter: 66 "A reason." 67 recognizes, always from, collections. "`business university academic grounds teach, taught, shall admitted study.'" Sweezy Hampshire, 354 263 (1957) (Frankfurter, result) omitted).4 purposes: "`Books serves.'" Association's Rights). deep commitment safeguarding freedom" "robust ideas," Keyishian 385 589, 603 (1967), protection. 68 844 think equally denied refusing identical rule. An abridgment threatened benefits pernicious penalty. 69 Our holding employment illustrate point. long settled "Congress `enact Republican, Jew Negro appointed office, employee attend Mass active missionary work.'" 183, 191-192 (1952). discharges, 347, 350-351 refusals hire promote, Rutan 62, 66-67 immune precedents firmly rejecting "Justice Holmes' famous dictum, policeman talk politics, policeman,'" (1996), draw penalty one's job job. Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 404 (1963) ("Governmental puts religion fine late day liberties infringed placing privilege"). 70 involve attempts employees. involves treasury controls expression. situation, specifically existing it, class cases, functioning," distorting struck down 543 (2001).5 question, then, distorts medium. discussed over- underblocking that. 71 controversial 173 (1991), rejection appellees' claim. 211-212. But, subsequent explained, speech—that message.6 discounts (LSTA) favored Government. clear, "[t]o access," "provide[s] information." 199, low-income communities, 254(h)(1), message. 72 construe passage modifying convey "`visual depictions' `obscene,' `child pornography,' `harmful minors,'" 407, expressed viewed, described topics. 446-447 churches religious groups, politics government, health issues, careers, sports, travel). "frequent underblocking," 448, to. short, conveyed prohibited supported gets items get obscene, definitions such, since purports promote—indeed, past seem coherent message—Rust inapposite. 73 setting forth panel experts grant program. administration nonfederal Finley. 74 Further, great deal projects fund. award respondents performance artists applied funding. 577. posture not, 75 Also merely purchased Government-discounted receives discount program.7 9134(f)(1); 254(h)(6)(B) (C). paid service computers. Or section. elementary statute, discount, 76 unnecessary goal. (discussing alternatives). obnoxious rule enforced threat withhold benefit. 77 percentage indexed containing small. Recent estimates indicate 1-2% explicit. However, extremely large, approximately 100,000 sites." 2002) repeatedly reaffirmed inButler (1957), "reduce children." 252; objective shielding support blanket ban accomplished alternative"); materials. justify unnecessarily suppression adults"). "Indeed, area unwise. Locally solutions circumstances. makers boards, responding prevalence filters. position judge standards theMiller [v. (1973)] test. solution needed, extent, uniquely rural instance, reported urban areas. advocated additional nation's develop approaches, understanding methods work nothing, counter-productive. Imposing mandatory impede developing truly approaches governments assist effort sufficient approaches." Laughlin, Sex, Lies, Cards: Implications Use Software Filters Control Libraries, Drake Rev. 213, 279 (2003). Boyer, Academic Modern University: Experience Chicago 95 (2002) speak, write, teach freely precious right, universities course twentieth century slowly surely identity modern world") narrow reading,Velazquez "pit[ted]" 213. assessed turning harmonizing with, 543-544. Seeid., 541 (distinguishing counseling doctors amounted speech"); (unlike message" presented); (Rust "does "refusal more," inHarris (1980), "decision right," 78 GINSBURG joins, 79 225-230 opinion), 254(h) (6)(B)(i) (C)(i), Internet. reason hold power Article 8: Amendment's took own. respectfully dissent ground. 80 efforts barrier raw offerings otherwise there, children, uphold Act. "compelling," (1997), awkwardness feel terminal affect 81 majority colleagues, 219 judgment); 214 (Kennedy, judgment), could, consistently asking. realize represented policy, 4-5, communicated affected unequivocally indulge taking curse off practical Communications Commission, pointedly ("Federally-imposed directing measures overbroad imprecise, chilling speech, confusing schools leave knowledgeable varying communities"). "unblocking 487-488 82 construed, avoidance purposes, questions asked. says "may" unblock, must. addition, "bona purposes," 254(h)(6)(D), "lawful purposes" criterion anything subsume render research" superfluous, eligibility unblocking, see, Connecticut Nat. Bank Germain, 503 249, 253 ("[C]ourts disfavor interpretations statutes language superfluous"). uncertainty terms generosity complete Forsyth Nationalist Movement, 123, 130 (noting bars licensing schemes unduly officials, given "becom[e] view" omitted)).1 83 nonobscene examination, pictures one. concedes, 208-209, indiscriminate behavior mechanisms, known manufacturers lists maintained proprietary hence unavailable customers review, blocking"). 84 likewise justification object children. restricted areas screened casual glances. And, subjecting minimal inconvenience, (the record shows) dealing indecency conditions. 422-427. overkill degree illustrated terminal, Rcd., 8196, 30). 85 me, connection, use. answer no. chose adult's (and whatever else undiscriminating interrupt) lawfully see. censorship. True, censorship extend adult, intending user convince researcher purpose" provide. qualify discretionary agency presumptively owing guarantees merely, discussion matters seems absolutely essential." Bigelow Virginia, 421 809, 829 (1975) brackets 86 affecting censorship, describe instance (save, perhaps, perform. source"). up.2 87 selective be. shelf space, rest eye demand, maintaining civilized enquiry widely sorts people. Selectivity characteristics limited: extreme expect choices impermissible (reasons illegitimate), Democrats critiques organized Christianity unsympathetic. 870-871 Review probably myriad selections attacked someone, difficulty untangling factors behind 88 point, defies comparison acquisition. Whereas space acquire, spend something, after committed. Since difference calls Articles Confederation, (on facts these) necessitated space.3 acquires acquired. buying (unless loan obtained), entirety agrees. passing bought; keeping lacking acceptable "purpose," encyclopedia cutting thought unsuitable adults. B 89 claims conclusions missio[n]" library. 205; judgment) (considering practices"). argues, effect, called books, bowdlerizing let fact, conception mission mandated practice country implicit gloss standards, 90 Institutional America discloses evolution toward rooted, holdings.4 sure, apparently inspiration mid-19th-century Shera, Foundations Library: Origins Movement England, 1629-1855, 107 (1949), infancy "[m]oral censorship" assumed, E. Geller, Forbidden Books 1876-1939, early 20th century, moral arbiter coming Belden, President's Address: Looking Forward, Bull. Am. Libr. 273, 274 (1926) stand intellectual word"). European fascism fueled reaction Harris, History Western 248 (4th ed. 1995). upshot growing "all 156, end 1930s, librarians' "basic opposition [had] emerged," Krug Harvey, Intellectual Freedom: Historical Overview, Manual, pp. xi, xv (American 1974) Manual); Darling, Trends 315-316 (1979). 91 McCarthyism began assaults, appellee Rights, pt. maintain enforcing laws "there society extra-legal coerce taste others, confine adolescents, inhibit writers artistic expression." Read, 8; xv. So tell, prevailing ideal War II, fair ceased requesting might, indeed, literature published surveys period circulation apart request.5 aside isolated suggestion, Born, Freedom, 3, 4, 9, barring reader's age. refuse presume evaluate 92 postwar years dog bark. During second half issued series statements, dubbed Interpretations 13, commenting pointing opposed. pressure Sons Revolution Jersey labels "advocat[ing] favor[ing] communism," 1957 adopted "Statement Labeling," opposing censor's tool." 18-19. Again, later, age common across Nation forms, including, among cards only." 16. Nevertheless, opposed saying parent children— children—from services." 17. 93 1973, mentioned, shelves, 42. conceded "`closed shelf,' `locked case,' `adults only,' `restricted shelf' collections" "common States." 43. came terms: "While differs activities, removal purchase publications, albeit subtle form." Ibid.6 94 Amidst statements missing. word evaluation survived ALA, become nemesis sounding sampled.7 silence bespeaks gives hand, tolerating enquiry. C preacquisition rationale save historical practice. differently declining book, third added. Quite simply, smell rat control, removes shelves having nothing wear tear, obsolescence, lack demand. Content-based tell something 96 spoken features acquisition poor candidates complexity, go cover illegitimate managed sneak in. purchases, relative cost, on. judiciary shy reviewing sheer volume fire. Courts constituent disgruntled exactly wants read. place, legitimately initial longer play. Removal reflect assessment merit. blocking) obviously correlated few, facing deluge. keep throw enormous, perception underlay good 853 (1982), removing classics board members violates III 98 is. conventional patron's Fourteenth unjustified (as here) material.8 ground, breadth recipient, representation turns honored breach goes today foreclose alsoante, 215 (KENNEDY, Among things, ignores widespread utilization systems. loan, effectively therefore, refused "purpose" acceptable, "collect[ed] `requisite quality.'"Ante, ensuing sake world loan. Of allowed presumably greater Appellants hours used. reference commonly content-neutral rare Such ideas See,e. Fiske, Censorship: Study California 69-73 (1959); Moon, "Problem" Fiction, Censorship Sixties 56-58 (E. Moon 1969); Jones, Defusing Librarian's Guide Handling Conflicts 92-99 (1983); 173-182 (W. Daniels 1954). listing Interpretations, Peck, Cyberspace: What You Need Know 148-175 surprising emergence rise media 150-153, 176-179, 180-187. assume, occasion decide, originators wall attract, plaintiffs, unaffected action, idea does. rely experience acute injury look identified apt got along it). going engaging unjustifiable viewer's paternalistic adjunct core speaker. inBoard saw recognized students disfavored 865-868 Brennan, token, users, 10% comes solely 422. produces real suit redress denied.

Category: 2