Document: 533 U.S. 262121 S.Ct. 2135150 L.Ed.2d 326 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.IDAHO, PETITIONERv.UNITED STATES et al. No. 00-189. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED Argued April 23, 2001Decided June 18, 2001 Syllabus suit involves a dispute between and Idaho over ownership submerged lands underlying portions Lake Coeur d'Alene St. Joe River. The Tribe once inhabited vast acreage about what now Idaho, traditionally used River for food, fiber, transportation, recreation, cultural activities. In 1873, agreed relinquish compensation all claims its aboriginal outside bounds specified reservation included part river virtually lake. agreement required congressional approval, but President Grant set land aside an 1873 Executive Order, which reservation's northern boundary directly across An 1883 Government survey indicated lands. When Congress neither ratified nor compensated Tribe, petitioned make proper treaty authorized negotiations. 1887, cede rights except within Order reservation, promised compensate hold forever as Indian land. Still, did not ratify agreement. 1888, Interior Secretary responded Senate enquiry boundaries, reporting appeared embrace small fragment lake's navigable waters flowed through reservation. Also approved railroad right-of-way crossed waters, directed Tribe's consent obtained compensated. Responding growing desire obtain public interest negotiations produced new 1889, portion, including two-thirds lake, compensation. 1890, passed bill ratifying 1887 1889 agreements, while was pending House, Statehood Act, admitting Union. 1891, agreements. initiated this action against quiet title trust current intervened assert those lands, counterclaimed favor. District quieted trustee, beneficiary, bed banks lake Ninth Circuit affirmed. Held: National holds title, Pp. 9-18. (a) Armed with strong presumption defeat State's under v. Alaska, 521 1, 34, looks Congress's declarations intent when resolving conflicts claimed reserved conveyed by statehood, e.g., id., at 36. two-step cases asks whether intended include federal and, if so, future Ibid. Where, here, Branch initially land, test satisfied clearly includes recognizes way demonstrates state title. Id., 41-46, 55-61. Here, has conceded intended, interpreted, 9-11. (b) recognized full extent it bar passage issue. Idaho's concession, Circuit, on notice regarding scope prudent light Court's findings facts. That court concluded related water had been continuously important throughout period prior confirming granting Federal could only achieve goals promoting settlement area, avoiding hostilities extinguishing agreeing background Order's inclusion such turn were Senate's 1888 request Secretary, whose response consistent results. manner then proceeded deal shows preservation absent contrary central complementary objectives dealing pressures white establishing permanent legislation. expressly plain object tribal interests consent. sought extinguish reduce size, so authorizing It also honored boundaries requiring right-of-way. anything consensually ceded would remain benefit, objective flatly odds view meant transfer balance State have amounted act bad faith accomplished unspoken operation law. position later manifestations understanding statehood affected 11-17. 210 F.3d 1067, ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT Souter, J., delivered Court, Stevens, O'Connor, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. Opinion Justice Souter Court. 1 brought Idaho. question We does. 2 * more than 3.5 million acres northeastern area 95 F. Supp. 2d 1094, 1095-1096, 1099-1100 (Idaho 1998).1 Tribal members waterways 1099-1102. depended everything from potatoes harvested fish weirs traps anchored riverbeds banks. 1100. 3 Under 1846 Great Britain, acquired region d'Alene, see Treaty Regard Limits Westward Rocky Mountains, 9 Stat. 869, right possession held resident tribes, generally Oneida Nation N. Y. County Oneida, 414 661, 667 (1974); Cohen, Handbook Law 486-493 (1982 ed.). 1867, face immigration into territory, 2d, 1102, Johnson issued setting comparatively modest although apparently unaware until least 1871, 1102-1103. found 1867 unsatisfactory, due their failure adequate provision fishing uses waterways. Commissioner Affairs second time, insisted key valleys because "we yet quite up living farming" "for we need some hunting fishing." App. 27. 4 Following further negotiations, (for compensation) substantial negotiators "set apart secure" exclusive use Indians, protect . occupancy persons." 33. described covered (then called Joseph), sliver cut off boundary. 33-34; 1095-1096. 5 Although own terms binding without 36-37, directing "withdrawn sale C£ur d'Alne Indians." Exec. Nov. 8, reprinted Kapler, Affairs: Laws Treaties 837 (1904). which, found, "to usual practice meandering line along mean high mark." 1108; 14, 20 (expert trial testimony).2 fixed total 598,499.85 acres, necessarily "included boundaries." 1108. 6 As 1885, Tribe. inaction prompted petition again, "make us peace friendship ... your petitioners properly fully portion them; [and] present reserve confirmed them." 350-351. response, borders Act May 15, 1886, ch. 333, 24 44. 7 "all right, claim they have, ever had, said Territories [Washington, Montana] elsewhere, Territory known Reservation." 378. Government, return, "[i]n consideration foregoing cession agreements Reservation shall homes Indians no sold, occupied, open settlement, otherwise disposed residing reservation." 379. 8 before, either party Congress. 382. January having expressed uncertainty adopted resolution "inform Idaho," specifically, "whether how much Joseph Rivers." S. Misc. Doc. 36, 50th Cong., 1st Sess., (1888). February report Affairs, stating "the appears very north reservation," "[t]he flows 76, Based largely, appears, report, Appeals (as does here) See Opening Brief Appellant 98-35831 (CA9), p. 17 ("Certainly, concedes executive branch construed lands"); Petitioner 17. 10 shortly after receiving Secretary's Washington Railroad Company extension order, commonly 30, 336, 25 160. Notably, alone (no one else being mentioned) right-of-way, 3, 161; Reply 16. 11 prepared agreement, however, owing certain itself. House Committee recalled promptly "sundry reasons, among acquire additional wit, valuable specially dedicated situate[d] end necessary citizens sundry reasons. contains numerous, extensive, mineral ledges. large bodies timber... magnificent sheet water, ." H. R. Rep. 1109, 51st (1890). 12 But simply alter unilaterally. Instead, understood entitled beneficially defined, Appropriations negotiate tribe Indians," purchase release agricultural chiefly minerals timber sell." Mar. 2, 412, 4, 1002. Later year, reached approximately exchange $500,000. 198; 1113. line, like old one, ran General Simpson, negotiator reassured "you still lower lake." 183. And, both 199. 13 On 7, 2828, Sess. (1890); 21 Cong. Rec. 5769-5770 10, referred where parallel already reported Affairs. 2775 14 July Union "on equal footing original States," 656, 26 215. "accepted, ratified, confirmed" Constitution, ibid., "forever disclaim[ed] lying [Idaho] owned tribes" provided "until thereto extinguished same disposition absolute jurisdiction control congress Const., Art. XXI, 19 15 A little month later, August 19, identical recommended. 2988, March 543, 20, 1027, 1029. convey Frederick Post "portion [the] 1031, purported sell 1871.3 property, located Spokane Falls, three channels islands, enough south shores water-power improvements." 16 1894, another time lakeside townsite Harrison, Aug. 290, 28 322, 389; 1117. covering land" embraced tract 392. Like earlier cession, else. acting capacity trustee (in benefit Tribe) exterior encompass third River.4 counterclaimed, seeking 9-day trial, "in favor interested trusteeship, 1067 (2000). granted certiorari, 531 1050 (2000), affirm. II 18 Due importance waterways, "strongly identified sovereign power government." Montana 450 544, 552 (1981). 261, 284 (1997); (1997). allow enter "equal footing" regard interest, early constantly adhered policy territory ultimate States." Holt Bank, 270 49, 55 (1926); Shively Bowlby, 152 48-50 (1894). Therefore, contrast law governing surface Scott Lattig, 227 229, 244 (1913), default rule passes newly admitted State. Shively, supra, 26-50. Specifically, beneath " '[a] deciding must begin presumption' title." 34 (quoting Montana, 552). presumption, looked resolve statehood. 36 ("Whether rests State, course, ultimately matter intent"); Utah Div. Lands 482 193, 201-202 (1987); 550-557; 57-59; Alaska Pacific Fisheries 248 78, 87-90 (1918); 48-51. issue refined somewhat dealt special reserving particular national purpose wildlife refuge or, Because imply land," Lands, 202, undertake cases. ask 36; Utah, 202. Our most recent case sort, addressed two parcels but, Branch. explained considered 42, 45, 56, compromised 42-43, 45-46, 58. Where undermined, explained, "[i]t plausible upland area," 39-40. 22 lands." concession sound one. lakebed adjacent emphasized continued depend fishing. Cf. 556 (finding water). determination unusual crossing east west. 39 (concluding following ocean side offshore islands shoreward islands). parties here concentrate question, lands.5 23 Appeals, point enquiry. Interior's nearly d'Alene," ("[Congress was] informed lands"). Again, 1114 ("The evidence Reservation"). merely impute knowledge survey, And preceding Congress: "The facts demonstrate influx non-Indians d'Alenes attempt confine settlement. Before agree these conditions, demanded enlarged Lakes rivers. Thus, 1107.6 This, summary, advice "navigable Rivers," Mis. 1. noted, answered affirmative, consistently indicating remarked difficult imagine circumstances 1114. shown readiness fight preserve 1858 defeated force military, misunderstood intending take 2-3. concern hostility arose again established, surveyor scene warned Surveyor "[s]hould fisheries excluded there will my trouble 30. 27 Hence, goal achieved fiat, Tee-Hit-Ton 348 272, 279-282 (1955), free define however saw fit, seemingly attained event 1886 took steps toward negotiation ceding Soon that, decided seek reduction size itself, advised fiddling likewise urged move diminish "should done, done all, should, receive taken." 129. Accordingly, undertook authorize consensual, "as sell," meantime recently clarified facts, provisions Acts thus turning abrogation might boundaries. explicit statutory unchanged final 1891 ratification course contained outer Nor, should added, hint delay pull fast allowing pass legal virtue eight months There delayed reason comparison respective bills, assure House's version.7 29 record answers argument indicates "valuable timber," thinking thing 6-7; Tr. Oral Arg. 12-13. ignores know modification solely intent, words, Indeed, implausibility underscored fact finding authorization lands," "[Congress 11, 31. 30 question. Eight passing entireties (including language land"), signal negotiated interim suggested Post. Confirmation beyond riverbed State.8 Finally, Harrison confirms Only years treated just (and else) lands; lines stop water's edge meander entire shore, statehood.9 31 sum, here. aware redefine them consensual transfer, guarantee retain remainder. indication modified let parts final. Any imputation secrecy dropping express evidence. therefore think negotiating history, mention subsequent events, "ma[k]e [it] plain," U.S., 55, stated confirmed, 32 judgment 33 ordered. Rehnquist, filed dissenting opinion, Scalia, Kennedy, Thomas, NOTES: Petitioner, challenge factual appeal. 1070 (CA9 2000). below, reply brief "commonplace" cross waters. 9. Ultimately, consequence; calculations showed included, 1108, appeal "[c]ertainly, generally, 44 667-668 (1974) (under common various Nonintercourse Acts, can consent). implicate Eleventh Amendment raised pressed 261 Arizona California, 460 605, 614 (1983). States's complaint motivated issuance permits construction "docks, piers, floats, pilings, breakwaters, boat ramps aids navigation southern one-third Lake." Complaint CIV94-0328-N-EJL (D. Idaho), pp. 6-7. accepted They reach alternative theory notwithstanding retained cannot Congress, Nation, 667-668; cf. Winans, 198 371, 381 (1905) (explaining "was grant them-a granted"). press unextinguished-aboriginal-title Respondent 25, n. 12. Annual Report (1873), 45 dissatisfied previous "[f]or [the Tribe's] country them"). (1981) (creation appropriate justifying lands). Given discussion of, things, go saying reference suggest constituted enactment expression behalf whole sufficient itself post, 5. says conveyance 18. suggests possibility even claiming hypothesizes relevant conveyance, doctrine apply say nothing below. Suffice actions Post, concededly dissent, cannot, "ha[ve] bestowed" upon 26-28 (1894) (citing Lessee Pollard Hagan, How. 212 (1845)). mentioning confirm prestatehood clear: bestowed barring contrary. 35 Chief whom Thomas join, dissenting. makes out proposition day Union, d'Alene. existence incoming borders. Decisions going back 150 establish shadow doubt. 37 "[T]he waters," bears repeating, "is incident sovereignty." 551 Recognizing relationship, "announced principle 'in trust' created." 196 (1987) 212, 230 duty lightly disregarded, rightly observes, our inquiry "begin[s] Ante, (internal quotation marks citations omitted). "disposals [of lands] during territorial regarded unless intention definitely declared plain." ("[The Court] infer plain, rendered clear especial embraces stream") 38 critical mistakes application here-errors significantly dilute doctrine. First foremost, misconceives historical events acted withhold entering At moment entered 215, vested accoutrements sovereignty, improper look admission discern previously divest I am applying determine intent. decision (1997), particularly illustrative timeframe inquiry. concerned Alaska's assumption Petroleum Reserve-Alaska (Reserve) Arctic Wildlife Refuge (Refuge). 4. stark today's decision, lengthy resisted entirely temptation delve treatment 1959. invitation do hardly obvious respect Refuge, apart" formally Interior. 46-47. "This application," observed, 1958, 1959, Union." 46. noted several admission, insofar put action. 56. give-contrary reasoning case-any import approved. focus instant crucial clear. See, 42 conclusion Reserve encompassed reinforced legislation, enacted Alaska"); ("We consider whether, proposed Range") (emphases added). Other indicate similar emphasis. 195; 551.1 40 concerned, ante, Well action, given assent entry thereby joined Government's follows Congress' acceptance explain of-much less after-Idaho's admission. By token, illuminated affirm Seltice's 16, approval 1894 so-called "Harrison cession," 16-17. Simply put, consequences instantaneous, uniquely character somehow bestowed. 41 Second, (at theory) (emphasis proceeds "intent" considering obviously resulting Congress." 44, 51; 1002, 144. undisputed occur gained willing divine best inchoate pre-statehood proceedings. house approve process 15. speaks "final" official houses mere formality. I, cl. 2. indisputable remains "Congress" Nor decisions support wander far afield. evaluated impact Pub. L. 85-508, 72 347, States. 41-42. "Congress title" came form duly statute rather inferences drawn preludes Acts. 41. abounds specificity, 11(b) identifying Reserve, 6(e) defining detail.2 So, too, Division statutes proceedings lacking 198-200 (discussing Utah's Sundry 505, 837, 371). 550-555 (considering treaties property Crow Indians). wisely relied sort past, unfortunate embark route today. 43 Third, despite relationship unwarranted below them. often probative 39. Even accepting conclusions dietary habits, inference access waters,3 follow leading established Order. perfectly wanted Indians' life conclude likely travel withholding perpetual 554 ([Although treaty] gave sole occupy implicitly, exclude others it, respondents' reliance begs precise exclusivity attaches"); ibid. lies especially overcome conveyance"). For reason, All miniscule crosses narrowest points. resolution, seems company pay significant lands: 46 hereby seventy-five feet width each aforesaid[;] road material, stone, earth, railroad; also, ground station-buildings, depots, machine-shops, side-tracks, turnouts, water-stations, exceed amount hundred thousand length station, station ten miles road." 138. 47 requirement primarily intrusion-and that-upon 48 today fails rise anywhere near level certainty require. "definitely 552. standard met forbidding [post-statehood] events. 89-90 (1918)." 1079, citation puzzling indeed, Fisheries. affirming Constitution unavailing. 7. Clauses disclaims boilerplate formulations compares precision employed Act. every 1912 disclaimer. (1889); XXII, Mont. Ordinance Wash. XXVI, Wyo. III (1894); Okla. (1906); M. (1910); Ariz. XX, par. (1910). Tellingly, Constitutions save Oklahoma's, Constitution. disclaimer, event, "owned held" justified. statement moreover, 43-45; IV, Power dispose needful Rules Regulations respecting Property belonging States" added)). majority too weight Reservation.

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