Document: 436 U.S. 658 98 S.Ct. 2018 56 L.Ed.2d 611 Jane MONELL et al., Petitioners,v.DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES the CITY NEW YORK al. No. 75-1914. Argued Nov. 2, 1977. Decided June 6, 1978. Syllabus Petitioners, female employees of Department Social Services and Board Education City New York, brought this class action against its Commissioner, Chancellor, city York Mayor under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, which provides that every "person" who, color any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage State subjects, "causes to be subjected," person deprivation federally protected rights, privileges, immunities shall civilly liable injured party. In each case, individual defendants were sued solely in their official capacities. The gravamen complaint was had as a matter policy compelled pregnant take unpaid leaves absence before such required for medical reasons. District Court found petitioners' constitutional rights been violated, but held claims injunctive relief mooted by supervening change maternity leave policy. That court further Monroe v. Pape, 365 167, 81 473, 5 492, barred recovery back pay from Department, Board, city. addition, avoid circumvention immunity conferred Monroe, natural persons capacities officers local government also enjoy on governments decision. Appeals affirmed similar theory. Held : 1. supra, after examining legislative history Civil Rights Act 1871, now codified particularly rejection so-called Sherman amendmen , Congress 1871 doubted authority impose civil liability municipalities therefore could not have intended include municipal bodies within "persons" subject Act. Re-examination compels conclusion would thought 1983 constitutionally infirm if it applied governments. confirms included among applies. Accordingly, Pape is overruled insofar holds are wholly immune suit 1983. Pp. 664-689. 2. Local governing (and officials capacities) can, therefore, directly monetary, declaratory, those situations where, here, alleged unconstitutional implements executes statement, decision officially adopted promulgated whose edicts acts may fairly said represent governments, like other "person," deprivations visited pursuant governmental "custom" even though custom has received formal approval through government's decision-making channels. 690-691. 3. On hand, language compel did intend because employs tort-feasor—in words, cannot respondeat superior 691-695. 4. Considerations stare decisis do counsel overruling inconsistent with opinion. 695-701. (a) departed prior practice completely immunized Moreover, since reasoning does allow distinction drawn between school boards, Court's many cases holding boards actions especially principle case extended suits Kenosha Bruno, 412 507, 93 2222, 37 109. 695-696. (b) Similarly, extending absolute several instances refused immunize federal jurisdiction 696-699. (c) arranged affairs an assumption they can violate indefinite period; accordingly, no reliance interest support immunity. 699-700. (d) Finally, appears beyond doubt misapprehended meaning Were equally state officers, yet clearly apply all agreed subjected unquestionably provide remedy, broadly construed, forms violation rights. Therefore, without clear statement history, present, there justification excluding covered 700-701. 5. entitled immunity, lest today's "be drained meaning," Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 248, 94 1683, 1692, 40 90. P. 701. 532 F.2d 259, reversed. scar G. Chase, Brooklyn, N. Y., petitioners. L. Kevin Sheridan, City, respondents. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 commenced July 1971.1 reasons.2 Cf. Cleveland LaFleur, 414 632, 791, 39 52 (1974). sought backpay periods unlawful forced leave. Named Mayor. capacities.3 2 cross-motions summary judgment, Southern moot declaratory filing complaint, changed policies relating so employee unless she medically unable continue perform her job. 394 F.Supp. 853, 855 (1975). No one challenges conclusion. conclude, however, complained supra. F.Supp., at 855. Nonetheless plaintiffs' prayers denied damages come ultimately and, hold otherwise "circumven[t]" 492 (1961). See 3 appeal, petitioners renewed arguments Education4 "municipality" that, event, erred barring award defendants. Second Circuit rejected both contentions. first "it performs vital gov rnmental function . significantly, while right determine how funds appropriated spent final say deciding what appropriations be." 263 (1976). defendants, when F.2d, 264. Yet, "have paid amenable Pape," proceed. Id., 265. 4 We granted certiorari 429 1071, 97 807, 50 789, consider "Whether and/or independent 'persons' equitable nature them capacities?" Pet. Cert. 8. 6 Although, plenary consideration, we decided merits over score principal defendant board5—and, indeed, some jurisdictional counterpart, 28 1343, provided only basis jurisdiction6—we indicated Mt. Healthy Doyle, 274, 279, 568, 573, 471 (1977), last Term question presented here open "another day." day overrule 1983.7 7 * "Congress undertake bring corporations ambit [§ 1983]." U.S., 187, 484. sole inference Congress' "Sherman amendment" bill became 17 Stat. 13, precursor Amendment corporation damage done property inhabitants private "riotously tumultuously assembled."8 Cong. Globe, 42d Cong., 1st Sess., 749 (1871) (hereinafter Globe). Although amendment seek amend Act, although obligation created vastly different 1, nonetheless concluded must meant exclude coverage " 'the House [in voting amendment] solemnly judgment power upon county town organizations, mere instrumentality administration law.' 190, 485 (emphasis added), quoting Globe 804 (Rep. Poland). This thought, showed "constitutional municipalities," 486 type liability.9 8 A fresh analysis debate law side mustered support, shows, incorrectly equated "obligation" Representative Poland spoke "civil liability." A. An Overview 9 There three distinct stages consideration 1871. March 28, Shellabarger, acting select committee, reported H.R. 320, "to enforce provisions fourteenth Constitution United States, purposes." 320 contained four sections. Section limited passed amendment.10 Sections dealt primarily "other purpose" suppressing Ku Klux Klan violence States.11 wisdom constitutionality these sections—not 1983—were almost congressional sections amended. finished initial debates April 7, week later Senate voted out bill.12 Again, section introduced. 10 Immediately vote Senate, Senator introduced his amendment.13 bill, added end bill. Under rules, discussion allowed attempts made amendment, form, place corporations, inhabitant municipality inflicted assembled."14 11 acquiesce number amendments including respective versions sent conference committee. since, noted, verbatim Houses Congress. 12 18, committee completed work 320. main features draft these:15 First, cause given 13 "any riotously assembled together intent deprive him laws deter punish exercising right, reason race, color, previous condition servitude ." Second, county, city, parish riot occurred maintained either legal representative. Third, unlike proposed, substitute satisfied who committed violence. If liable, collected 14 "by execution, attachment, mandamus, garnishment, proceeding aid execution applicable enforcement judgments corporations; [would become] lien well moneys treasury parish, thereof." 15 ensuing report, kind explained purpose enlist making "responsible" damage.16 Statutes drafted theory, he stated, long force England States.17 critical differences extant English statutes: substitute, most statutes, lacked short statute limitations imposed whether notice impending riot, authorized exercise police power, exerted reasonable efforts stop rioters caught punished.18 16 House. opponents, ranks supported Federal Government not, consistent Constitution, obligate keep peace neither obligated nor charters. And, objection, opponents unwilling nonperformance duty require perform. position reflected Poland's quoted Monroe.19 Because report second called duly issued report. abandoned instead, having knowledge [that conspiracy afoot], prevent preventing same," attempt same, conspiracy.20 form 1986. 18 sketched above readily developed considering shows conclusively objections raised amendment—on our based, see 664—would prohibited creation remedy infringed expressly ambit, finally necessary interpret confirm indeed whom B. Debate First Conference Report 19 style argument proponents largely legal, frequent references Supreme Courts States. Proponents discuss detail favor constitutionality. Nonetheless, possible piece which, prosecute crimes "in States," questions power. account sponsor complete. 20 Shellabarger began stating "there domain involved measure unexplored." App. 67. analogies, however. With respect Fourteenth Amendment, Privileges Immunities Clause, relied Washington Corfield Coryell, F.Cas. 230, Wash.C.C. 371 (CC ED Pa.1825), defined privileges Art. IV: 21 'What fundamental are[,] perhaps more tedious than difficult enumerate. They may, comprehended following general heads: protection Government;'— 22 "Mark that— 23 'protection Government; enjoyment life liberty, acquire possess kind, pursue obtain happiness safety .' 69 Wash.C.C., 380-381. 24 Building citizens owed disputed amendment21 then considered role providing protection. Here again precedents: 25 "[Congress always] assumed enforce, persons, f Constitution. Most restrain relate [Art. I, 10,] divisions political powers General Governments. These prohibitions States be, been, enforced courts declaring void encroachment powers. Thus, thus sufficiently, 'enforced' But class. where secures liabilities 26 "These are: first, fugitives justice;[22] second, service, (or slaves;)[23] third, 'citizens States.'[24] 27 "And, sir, these—the deemed legislation provisions—the for, affirmatively interfered protect persons." 69-70. Of mentioned closest analog ironically, implementing justice fugitive slave IV—the Feb. 12, 1793, 302—the sustained 1842, Prigg Pennsylvania, 539, L.Ed. 1060. There, Story, writing Court, IV gave slaveowners unhindered possession slaves whatever might found. Pet., 612. process recovering runaway inadequate hostile slaveowner, negated left implementation. 614. guaranteed turn Story "natural inference" itself ensure appropriate (in Necessary Proper Clause sense) right. 615. 29 Prigg, argued counties appropriate—and hence constitutional—method ensuring citizen's right.25 much adoption statutes devices riot.26 serious remaining "whether, integer part State, it, such, obligations obedience laws."27 answered affirmatively, citing Comm'rs Aspinwall, How. 376, 735 (1861), cases28 upholding e Contract municipalities.29 30 amendment—whose views important down amendment—did dispute Shellabarger's claim protection, n. 21, units fastened create forces, requirement levied directly, indirectly imposing breach municipalities. complete Blair:30 31 "The proposition known entirely new. It altogether precedent country. go into Union lay please municipalities, creations alone. 32 ". [H]ere carry effect rests municipality, obligation, provision I am assent to. parallel hundred least meet case. laid put should regard, failing very proper suffer neglect. 33 [T]here certain duties belong inhere be. step add obligations, utterly destroy municipality? occurring [will] [it] municipality. 34 "Now, day, Collector Day, Wall. 113, 122 (1871)] tax, tax salary officer. Why? Simply involves destroy, give respect. 1060 (1842) officer; command officer whatever, such; ask difference commanding creature duty." 795. 35 Any impute unitary theory is, course, fraught difficulties, Members speak issue amendment. two considerations lead us conclude substantially reasons stated Blair: Blair's precisely Poland, authoritative 664, shared large addressed amendment.31 exegesis reigning explain, precedent—albeit survived, Ex parte Virginia, 100 339, 347-348, 676 (1880); Graves ex rel. O'Keefe, 306 466, 486, 59 595, 83 927 (1939)—and formula advanced participants debates. 36 cited Blair, clearest time debates, recent pronouncement doctrine coordinate sovereignty Blair placed limits enumerated National protecting prerogatives. income Massachusetts judge, independence legitimate spheres imperiled instrumentalities executed "subject control another government." Wall., 127. Day apparently rested taxing "power acknowledges will body tax," id., 125-126; cf. McCulloch Maryland, 316, Wheat. 579 (1819), national order interference States.32 example, addition confirming broad legislate Fugitive Slave 672, "insist states means 615-616.33 And McLean "[a]s principle," true "that [Act 1793]." wondered "positive" clause seemed affirmative assistance, rather restraint government, secure 664-665. 38 Had correct suggestion envisioned little insisted afford protection34 individuals peace. However, argument, foreclosed impossible Kentucky Dennison, 66, 717 (1861). asked Governor Ohio, hand Lago, wanted Kentucky, 1793,35 implemented IV, cl. Chief Taney, unanimous Act: "[W]e think clear, Government, officer, it; possessed overload fill up time, disable performing character incompatible rank dignity elevated State." How., 107-108. rationale Dennison —that Nation impede activities—is obviously identical animated Day. 676. indicated, disabled carrying duties. name, stands Congress,36 discussed Day37 series cases38 mid-1860's invalidated ground threatened function.39 ample view putting Hobson's choice keeping paying damages, attempted indirection thereby threatening "destroy States." 41 choice, did, applied. distinguished merely peace, Amendment. precedents, confer jurisdictio entertain seeking using Constitution—which far went: 43 "I presume [to peace] [a] ordinary restrictions jurisdiction. enforcing liability, existing own contract, law, courts, widely thing devolving new them, whatever." 794. Burchard agreed: 44 "[T]here usually laws, people commission offenses herein enumerated, burning buildings injury person. Police cities qualified concerned, equal afforded performance. 45 Rep. Willard, n.30, 46 dual limit violated it. set quite understandable. So vindicating enlisting action. principles announced logic, history. remembered same rendered vigorously municipalities—an effort various relief, ordering taxes discharge federal-court judgments, once infraction found.40 judicial Constitution's express frequently, must, notwithstanding anything permissible, interpretation hands judiciary. Since simply Amendment—a situation analogous grant diversity municipalitiess suppose barrier 47 votes Congress, opposed something used law.41 Prigg-Dennison-Day purposes, others recognized,42 magnitude agents—including corporate agents—of State: Both impeded sort assert all, conscious applying corporations.43 Thurman, exhaustive critique 1—inter alia, complaining 217—and latter onPrigg grounds, unequivocally constitutional.44 Those similarly believed despite C. Bill 48 From foregoing discussion, apparent nothing prevented violations remains, describing 1—"any person"—covers persons. examination application rules construction show cover 49 explain 1: "[Section 1] former slaves, deprived virtue citizenship." 68. 51 By people, whites, went mischief addressed. reservation 1866 controlled approved "the supreme Union" Swayne, sitting circuit, concluded: 'We act.' describe "This act remedial, preservation human liberty All authorizing liberally beneficently construed. strange civilized monstrous rule interpretation. As your everywhere else wise interpretation, largest latitude words employed uniformly construing defend remedies wrongs people. Jay say: 53 'Where remedial contend ought construed liberally, generally laws.'—1 sec. 429." App., 54 sentiments expressed opening speech echoed Edmunds, manager Senate: 55 believe nobody objects to, defining secured assailed [of 1866], become Constitution." 568. is] simple really reenact[s] 569. 57 "secure[d] white men colored men." 696. 58 Houses, statements supporters corroborated enacting rights.45 could, harms remedied further, excluded sweep Cf., e. g., 346-347, Home Tel. & Co. Los Angeles, 227 278, 286-287, 294-296, 312, 510 (1913). One need rely alone, understood corporations. Bingham, discussing Barron Baltimore, 243, 672 (1833), mind. "In [that] taken public use, COMPENSATION AND THERE WAS NO REDRESS FOR THE wrong globe 84 added). Bingham's remarks indicate takings cities, Barron, redressable 85. More generally, confirm, logically vehicle redress takings, viola ions uncompensated takings.46 Given purpose, beggars exempted suit, insisting instead compensation taking capacity unit benefit taken.47 60 treated virtually purposes statutory analysis. always so. When status Marshall, "as such" term III Judiciary 1789. Bank Deveaux, Cranch 61, 86, (1809).48 1844, Deveaux unhesitatingly abandoned: 61 "[A] doing business particular state, intents person, artificial capable being citizen person." Louisville R. Letson, 497, 558, 353 (1844) 752. 62 years Cowles Mercer County, 118, 121, 86 (1869), Letson automatically doctrine, routinely courts49 fact Congress.50 63 "usual" word extend evidenced months passed. 64 hereafter 'person' politic context sense." 25, 431. 65 Municipal phrase "bodies corporate"51 "plain meaning" Indeed, Judge, 1873 read Dictionary way involving plaintiff defendant.52 Northwestern Fertilizing Hyde Park, 393, (No. 10,336) ND Ill.1873).53 II 66 Our applies.54 bodies,55 body's officers. touchstone allegation responsible terms decisionmaking Harlan, Adickes S. H. Kress Co., 398 144, 167-168, 90 1598, 1613, 142 (1970): customs usages 1983] persistent widespread discriminatory practices written permanent settled constitute 'custom usage' law."56 67 background caused tort. particular, tortfeasor—or, 68 begin originally passed: "[A]ny subject, subjected, shall, contrary notwithstanding, party equity, 13. 70 italicized plainly imposes policy, "causes" another's At easily vicariously existence employer-employee relationship tortfeasor. specifically A's tort B's B "caused" suggests Congr §§ attach causation absent.57 Rizzo Goode, 423 362, 370-371, 96 598, 602, 561 71 Equally important, problems associated chose imposition unconstitutional. To disagreement about employer torts nexus relationship. W. Prosser, Law Torts 69, p. 459 (4th ed. 1971). justifications tend stand out. common-sense notion blameless accidents reduced employers bear cost accidents. See, ibid.; F. Harper James, Torts, 26.3, pp. 1368-1369 (1956). spread community whole insurance 26.5; 459.58 72 offered amendment: make resulting arbitrary enactment affirmatory passing perfect regulation." 777 (Sen. Frelinghuysen). insufficient sustain perceived difficulties less objectionable. forward "we look [the punishment mutual insurance." 792 Butler). 73 agents. Instead, lawmakers inflicts entity moving 660-662, reverse below. doing, occasion address, full contours sketch cases, development day. 74 adjudication because, situation, mistakes legislation, see, Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 671, 14, 1347, 1365, 662 (1974), never mechanically prohibit earlier decisions determining statutes. Continental T. V., Inc. GTE Sylvania, Inc., 433 36, 47-49, 2549, 2559, 568 (1977); Burnet Coronado Oil Gas 285 406 443, 454, 76 815 (1932) (Brandeis, J., dissenting) (collecting cases). Nor "place shoulders burden error." Girouard 328 70, 826, 830, 1084 (1946). 75 immunizes departure practice. Fed.Cas. 393 Ill.1873); Manchester Leiby, 117 661 (CA1 1941); Hannan Haverhill, 120 87 Douglas Jeannette, 319 157, 877, 1324 ( 943); Holmes Atlanta, 350 879, 141, 776 (1955), suits.59 defect led administration. 673-682. For reason, cases—decided 5, supra —holding immunizing 109 (1973).60 questioned, "disregard implications [100] years." Brown Shoe 370 294, 307, 82 1502, 1514, (1962); Cranch, 88 (Marshall, J.) ("Those weight point bar bench"). reaffirmed occasions,61 scarcely warp woof question. blanket established cabined boards. Yet extension expressions intent. wake decisions, shown hostility strip boards.62 recognizing often desegregation suits, exception twice grants assist complying decrees.63 regard Attorney's Fees Awards 1976, 2641, 1988 (1976 ed.), allows prevailing parties discretion court) suitsto attorney's fees losing parties, stated: 77 "[D]efendants officials. attorneys' fees, items costs, official, capacity, agency control, (whether named party)." S.Rep.No.94-1011, (1976); U.S.Code Admin.News 5908, 5913 added; footnotes omitted). 78 Far showing events 1961 benefits awards Aldinger Howard, 427 2413, 276 (1976), joinder impossible.64 79 Frankfurter "[t]his area commercial presumably, expected stability decision." 221-222, S.Ct., 503 (dissenting part). "arrange affairs" indefinitely arrangement. encourages wrong. 80 stringent test propriety proposed Harlan Monroe65—"that appear [Monroe ] [section]," 192, 487 (concurring opinion)—the proper. iability everyone alike—knew constitutional. Seesupra, 680-682. moreover, absent supporting corporation—which present—there above, Parts opinion.66 petition briefed below, scope Bivens Six Unknown Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 397-398, 91 1999, 619 (1971). V Reversed. APPENDIX TO OPINION COURT 85 follows: "That house, tenement, cabin, shop, building, barn, granary unlawfully feloniously demolished, pulled down, burned, destroyed, part, together; whipped, scourged, wounded, killed offense previ servitude, damnified living, widow representative dead; recovered competent district committed, name injured, representative, parish. property, real personal, recover amount costs interest, engaged accessory jurisdiction." 663. text is: together, offense, committing joined payment thereof unsatisfied, action, therein next returned thereof. motion additional joined, done. paid, paying, subrogated plaintiff's judgment." 749, 755. 89 relevant conspired negl ct refuse do, wrongful representatives." POWELL, concurring. 92 join views. Few frequently (1961), decades ago. Focusing light widened access permitted expansive interpretations reach measure. opened wide courthouse door entities—even authorization. oddness result, weakness historical evidence demonstrated today. gravity prompts me write. addressing alleging conduct probably unauthorized actionable law,1 conclusive intention injury. reading, thorough canvass "misapprehended controlling provision," (Harlan, concurring). formal, conflict Due Process decides "not reject [wisdom] comes late," Henslee Planters Bank, 335 600, 290, 293, 259 (1949) (Frankfurter, dissenting). 95 demonstrates, extreme example "riot act" vicarious subdivisions consequences lawlessness. implicated concerns marginal pertinence operative legislation—now 1983—that person" "under of" "subjects, causes any" defeat proposal, none supports observation fundamentally "antagonistic," 191, entities alike accountable working violation. Opponents troubled proposal's unprecedented provision, exposed demands lienors. Ante, 673-674, 30. opposition Representatives focused amendment's peacekeeping empowered maintain forces. 673-675, 679-682.2 correctly rejects produce anomalous result monetary causing deprivation, fully with, remediable under, law. unlikely specific authorization exclusively injury.3 elaborated Part opinion, best acceptance limitation actual wrongdoers, i. e., liability. Levin, Immunity Doctrine, Geo.L.J. 1483, 1531-1535 (1977). Wood Strickland, 420 308, 922, 214 (1975); Procunier Navarette, 434 555, 855, (1978). Today recognizes applies implementation tradi ionally hesitant constructions common-law rules. "Stare policy," 406, 447, dissenting), cautionary countervailing circumstances.4 concur 99 usual precedent. cut directions. rulings premised amenability suits. progeny, actually Court—whether injuries direct policies. was] circumstances [t]here [was] superior." Brief O.T.1960, 39, 21.5 Respondents expose "Chicago based ordinances of." Respondents, 26. Thus broader resolve contentions case.6 101 Moor County Alameda, 411 693, 1785, 596 (1973), asserted deputies sheriff," 696, 1789, 1988. rejecting vicarious-liability claim, 710, 27, 1796, 's reading challenge concerning County," 700, 1790; O.T.1972, 72-10, 9. 102 Only confront claimed Kenosha, city's initiative.7 103 line cases—from —is reconcile principled sub silentio now, question, continued adhere grave cast ante, 663 boards," squarely presented. board inclusion nominal opinions explici reference party, discussions awarded, Green School 391 430, 437-439, 441-442, 1689, 716 (1968); Milliken Bradley, 267, 292-293, 2749, 745 (1977) (Powell, concurring judgment). points out, 696-697, nn. 62, 63, holdings, longstanding. predated Monroe. 104 Even away "may members Young, 209 123, 441, 714 (1908)," post, 716-717, difficulty remains rationalizing precedents. relief. Cohen Chesterfield 326 1159, 1161 (ED Va.1971), rev'd, 474 395 (CA4 1973), rev'd remanded, (1974); Tinker Des Moines Dist., 503, 504, 733, 731 (1969). Vlandis Kline, 445, 2230, (1973). claimsfor official-capacity suable. (1974).8 Moreover disturbed closing avenues government. suggested import, analogy, Eleventh fiction Young 264-266 (CA2 1976). approach, tension "a bifurcated application" generic 1983" "depending them." 513, 2226. non-"person" damages. avoids difficulty. 690 55. 105 should, analogy Fed. (1971), imply Ed. 571, aspect inquiry "special factors counselling hesitation Congress," 396, 2005, "explicit declaration [municipality] money remitted effective vi w 397, 2005. persuasive re-examination inferring "an explicit declaration" Rather constitutionalize better course confess error record straight, today.9 106 Difficult nevertheless remain substantial line-drawing "when custom" inflict "government 1983." 694. department board; reserves availability Initial resolution available common 720-721, lower courts. 107 STEVENS, part. 108 advisory decision, III, V. REHNQUIST, CHIEF JUSTICE joins, dissenting. 110 Seventeen ago, then, remained silent, separate occasions. (1973); 277-279, Today, abandons offering elaborate 1961. agree "free disregard precedents," "considered maturely recently" Runyon McCrary, 160, 186, 2586, (1976) concurring), dissent. 111 repeatedly recognized, 175 2596; 671 strongest confronts legislation. shape according settle construction, interpretations, whenever sees fit. Brandeis: 112 matters commonly concern, correction practically impossible, decisions." 406-407, opinion) (footnotes 113 compelling justify abandonment firmly exposition persuasion itself: 114 "From my view, decisis, lesser extent, indications [United v.] Classic, [313 299, 1031, 1368 (1941)] Screws [v. 325 91, 1495 (1945)] justified." (footnote omitted; emphasis 115 demonstrate properly here. assertion, "was practice," 695, patently erroneous. Neither (1943), litigants recently Terms Hagans Lavine, 528, 535 1372, 1378 577 (1974): 116 "Moreover, silentio, bound subsequent brings us." source issues binding seems Marshall's remark More, 159, 172, 397 (1805).1 While weight, bench," 88, (1809), unconsidered assumptions outweigh explicitly 118 indication ever l enactments, deals 1871.2 1976 awardedto "[i]n 1981, 1982, 1985, 1986 title." enlarge suable substantive sections; already fees. admits, 699, "whether party," S.Rep.No. 94-1011, 5912, well-known 119 assertion "on indefinitely," beside point. expect retroactively officers' failure predict recognition innumerable indemnity founded assumption, justifiable decisis. obliterate expectations significant POWELL's "[w]e owe somewhat deference airing considerations." 709 6. Private able holdings obliged peruse briefs likelihood Marbury Madison, 137, (1803), forward, argued," 708 (POWELL, introduce intolerable uncertainty itself, Charles Lee behalf applicants—which, reproduced Reports anyone it—devotes invalidate enacted Secretary evidently appearance. 153-154. landmark likewise vulnerable Brother Mapp 367 643, 1684, 1081 requested Wolf Colorado, 338 1359, 1782 (1949); request amicus curiae. 646 3, 1684. Marbury, Mapp, countless retain vitality obvious flaws by-product adversary system, judges present "all undoubtedly field surely free abandon appealing.3 121 task discern expounded followed consistently since. esoteric branch silence reasonably indifference. year, hearings 35, 95th Sess. remove recognized 124 Cong.Rec. D117 (daily 8, 1978). circumstances, highest degree holdings. "beyond provision." unconstitutional, made. 20, begin, supplied provided: 123 sense reach. Not gives contexts felt chief concern Act's "words importing masculine gender females," inadvertent suffrage women. 41st 3d (remarks Sen. Sawyer). 125 factors, suggest sense," concluded. (1844), "citizens" III. knew label contexts, Pa 168, 357 U.S.Const., enjoyed contexts. presumed assured reenact[ed] 569 Edmunds). concluded, impeccable "citizen" "person." Insurance Orleans, 7,052) La.1870). 126 Furthermore, single voice represented retained Irvine Town Greenwood, S.C. 511, S.E. 228 (1911) cases), currently predominant proprietary acts, 29.6 (1956), early Bailey Hill 531 (N.Y.1842). Nevertheless, manner 127 floor liberal offer guidance enforced. concedes, Bingham bodies. related outset, propose detail," (1871), word, launched discourse beneficent "provide just therefor," 85, exercised 1.4 expositor Duncan Louisiana, 145, 165, 1444, 491 (1968) (Black, concurring); Adamson California, 332 46, 73-74, 1672, 1903 (1947) colleagues greater credence theories Duncan, 174-176, 1444 dissenting); Adamson, 64, 1672 128 lightly presumed, today, "should prima facie 'bodies politic' sued." ambivalent Member inkling emphasizes, 686 45, belief "are comprehensive used," 217 lengthy demonstrates parade horribles, "old Roman," implacable legislatures, Ibid. If, debate, idea designed counties, outraged objection. possibility Congress—in amendment—and 129 ineluctably circumstances. sheds considerable understanding context. aware contracts, 789 Kerr), skepticism sounding tort: 130 "Suppose obtained section, levy except courthouse, sell it? provides, too tort, delicto, entered assume absurd." 799 Farnsworth). 131 Whatever concept Admittedly embrace challenge. searching careful closer reached instructive alone focus rejected. benevolence falls doubt" tha Errors fallen ; ofMonroe 132 fountainhead torrent litigation years. Using vehicle, articulated previously unforeseeable enunciated treasuries officials' jurisprudence. None foresee practical removal advice segment diverse Nation, equipped results drastic inevitable find 133 affirm Appeals. amended September 1972, allege Title VII 1964, 253, amended, 2000e seq. (1970 Supp. V). 1972 discrimination suffered challenging pending date amendments. 856 (SDNY 1975). appeal. 261-262 restricted issue. 789. plaintiffs citywide forcing women fifth month pregnancy physician head employee's work. Amended Complaint ¶ 13-14. deny this, instituted. Answer 32-33. requiring seventh fell teacher term. &Par; 42, 18-19, 21. denied. 22, 37. 24, 11-12. Petitioners conceded enjoys purposes. 263. Dayton Brinkman, 2766, 851 Vorchheimer Philadelphia, 430 703, 1671, 750 East Carroll Parish 424 636, 1083, 296 418 717, 3112, 1069 Bradley Richmond, 2006, 476 Keyes Denver, Colo., 413 189, 2686, 548 San Antonio Rodriguez, 1278, Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg Education, 402 1267, 554 (1971); Northcross Memphis 891, 246 (1970); Carter West Feliciana 396 226, 467, 382 (1969); Alexander 19, 29, Kramer Free District, 621, 1886, 583 Independent Comm'rs, 450, 1700, 733 Raney 1697, 727 Kent Va., Abington Township Schempp, 374 203, 1560, 844 (1963); Goss 373 683, 1405, 632 McNeese 668, 1433, 622 Orleans Bush, 569, 754, 806 (1961); 347 483, 686, 873 (1954). 792; Denver 548; 554; 246; 735; 1435. uphold rendering employees. II, infra. declined "policy considerations" 495. Douglas, author exclusion rest financial ruin 517-520, 494; 708, 1795, position. 522. Briefly, aimed Klan. President send militia wracked suspension writ habeas corpus rampant. 335-336 App.). 709. 663, Appendix infra, 702-703. denominated occurred. Execution run unit, inhabitant. 755, 703-704. "Let southern understand hue cry steps lawless holden responsible, wholesome." 761. unconcerned original well-to-do, Presumably locality whole. According Sherman, immediately Norman Conquest Geo. 4, ch. (1827). 760. During appeared Massachusetts, laws. 751 Shellabarger); 762 Stevenson); 771 Thurman); Such throughout England. 761 Sherman). Senators criticized imperfect impolitic drafted, Thurman. 770-772. 494, 664. 804, 704. 758 Trumbull); 772 791 Willard). Indiana giving 1866. Smith Moody, Ind. 299 (1866) (following Coryell ), referred Shellabarger). passed, prosecuted authority, infringing Coryell. charged devolve 673, 673-678. 2: "A Treason, Felony, Crime, flee Justice, Demand executive Authority fled, up, removed Jurisdiction Crime." 3: "No Person Service Labour Laws thereof, escaping another, Consequence Regulation therein, discharged Labour, Claim Party due." 751. 760 Sherman) ("If pass crime, ."). 751; 17, Compare based. Gelpcke Dubuque, 175, 519 (1864); Von Hoffman Quincy, 535, W all. (1867); Riggs Johnson 166, 768 (1868); Weber 210, 781 Supervisors Rogers, 162 (1869); Benbow Iowa 313, Durant, 415, 732 (1870). Fairman, History States: Reconstruction Reunion, 1864-1888, chs. 17-18 751-752. Others included: 791; 794; Burchard, 795; Farnsworth, 799. Willard took He dictate fulfilled delegated corporation, sheriff, etc. doubt, presumably delegated. 791. outside implicit structure in, (1871). ran jails courthouses. function, trade 763 Casserly). sound too, needed survive. ibid. Meriwether Garrett, 472, 501, 197 (1880) (recognizing o execution); J. Dillon, Corporations 445-446 (1873 ed.) (same). then-controlling principles, Acts 1792 1828. May 1792, 275; 1828, 278. 30, text, Lane Oregon, 71, 77, 81, Legal Tender accept tendered notes interfere activity. Taney 1793] execute choose so, state; legislature thinks proper, them. depend it." 630 670, "Be executi demand moreover copy indictment charging demanded, treason, felony certified authentic governor magistrate whence territory arrested agent demanding State] 302. officer." 788-789 Kerr). 764 Davis); Casserly); Thurman) (reciting logic ); Frelinghuysen); Kerr) 793 Poland); Farnsworth) (also reciting ). Warren Paul, Jones Estate Keep, Wis. 369 (1865); Fifield Close, Mich. 505 Hill, Tenn. (1866); Short, Ala. 385 (1867). Cooley, Constitutional Limitations *483-*484 (1871 ed.). positive whereas negative restraint. predicate fault 668. during strong Congressmen explains why 680, oppose saying defaulted state-imposed 682-683. 334 Hoar); Arthur); 367-368 Sheldon); Lewis); Thurman). 805 (exchange 795 Blair); 788 Kerr); Burchard); 216-217, n.45, 1880, 676, federalism directed 345-348. declared bill's Republic extent guarantied 81. continued: denial prot ction [And] shown, remedy. compensation, freedom press, speech, conscience, Who dare say, nation abuses denials combinations persons?" Perry, commenting remedied. mischief. legislate." 800. 376 Lowe); 428-429 Beatty); 448 Butler); 475-477 Dawes); 578-579 609 Pool); 182 Mercur). Other deliberately indifferent black citizens: "But systematic maladministration [state law], neglect refusal provisions, portion Whenever facts Amendment] empowers protection." 153 Garfield). 171-187, 475-484. Importantly inquiry, swept broadly. said: relates Its it—a grant, authorizes privilege, wrong-doer whatsoever controversy. bill], used." 216-217 Commentaries 1956 (T. Cooley 1873). Indeed obstacle takings. Sumner 392 13,611) Pa.1873) (awarding $2,273.36 $346.35 Philadelphia). citizenship litigation. 91. Sherman); 752 Shellabarger) ("[C]ounties, sorts, conflict, thoroughly personal existence, citizen, individual, inhabitant, note endow faculty sue States"). Kent, American *278-*279 (12th O. Maurice, Fed.Cas.No. 15,747, Brock. 96, Va.1823) ("The consequently, corporate"); Apps. D E O.T. 1960, corporate). noted discernible recover. F., 394. focusing "may," "[T]his definition person] allowable, mandatory, one." 486. review incorrect. Trumbull, sponsor, precedes object Act] get rid great deal verbosity 'he' females males." 775 Trumbull's "may" "shall." mandatory use meanings guide "rules construction" Trumbull). "allowable, [but] mandatory" constructions, suggests, "rules" definitions across-the-board deviation practice—"[where] [defined] Certainly viewed matter. "context" calling politic" sued. certainly impediment Tenth Amendment's nondelegated Amendment." 291, 2762, League Cities Usery, 426 833, 2465, 245 irrelevant concluding Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 456, 2666, 614 Lincoln Luning, 529, 530, 363, 766 (1890). today pleading agent—at analysis—our necessarily name. Frankfurter's Nashville, St. Browning, 310 369, 968, 972, 1254 (1940): "It narrow conception jurisprudence confine 'laws' books, gloss Settled establish Equal Protection empty formalism Deeply embedded traditional ways petitioner complains, tougher truer dead text." Support treatment clue desired primary localities required. 670-673. came play knowingly neglected 756 Edmunds); 751-752 locality. species know wherewithal everything curb riot. 668; principally grounds Poland), plain substitute—which intervene violence, "neglect[ed] refuse[d] do," 704, 1986—that elements accepting basic Strictly speaking, few municipality's combined strong. third justification, superior, follows direction supervise enough 602. Each 191 50, 495 assuming state-law overrode "principal education board." 2763 heyday furor busing, adopt bills enter racial composition student students assigned conformity transport district, denying privilege attending chosen parent close transfer closed altering school, precluding contract member operates specifying contract." 1737, 93d 1207 (1973) controversy, 287, ability orders 619, 179, 2(a) 13534, 92d 2d (1972), failed. spurred finding eliminating minority group isolation improving quality children expenditure educational agencies access," 354, 1601(a) Emergency Aid 706(a)(1)(A)(i) 1605(a)(1)(A)(i) Assistant [w]hich plan undertaken requires segregated elementary secondary schools agency, elimination reduction schools." (Emphasis added.) "local agency" 1619(8) legally constituted administrative of, township, subdivision Indian reservation, combination districts, schools, 718 1617 institution provides: "Upon entry origin fee costs." Two Educational Opportunities 1974, plans extensive transportation has, expend amounts funds, depleting resources 1702(a)(3) respond sc ool "but [legislated] revised evidentiary standards priorities cases." Assn., Amici Curiae 15-16. reiterated cognizable exists 1703, 1706, 1708, 1710, 1718 assumes 211 516, forth 1710 Attorney institute 1706 title [which education] he— "(a) conditions education]." 219 termination court-ordered busing "if finds requirements whichever applicable, compliance Whether Hutto Finney, O.T.1977, 76-1660, cert. granted, 901, 295, note, Harlan's factors: "indications question]." 487. explained, useful served late facts. involve assay today—Moor (1976)—should Nothing affects Moor, 703-704, one, 2226 "nothing suggest[s] depending Chicago conducted warrantless, morning raid ransacking home. allegations charge 258-259, 473 dissenting part), hint 41-42, feature highlighted divided misconduct available, 172-183, (opinion Court), 193-202, 202-259, 679-680, improbable sphere operation promised contemplation charter—the amendment—but activities revealed definition, accords antitrust 1890 bearing Lafayette Louisiana Power Light 435 389, 1123, 364 (1978) (plurality opinion); Chattanooga Foundry 203 390, 65, 241 (1906); Pfizer, India, 585, 563 T.V., Sylvania Machinists Wisconsin Emp. Rel. Comm'n, 132, 2548, Braden 30th Judicial Ky., 410 484, 443 Griffin Breckenridge, 1790, 338, Boys Markets, Retail Clerks Union, 235, 1583, 199 ruled favor, stating: "[S]ince fails agents itself." Record, reason. 272 365-366 (CA7 1959). alternative underlying superior. advances values rational system law: (i) certainty (ii) conservative vision modification "at appealing," Rehnquist, 718; Holmes, Common (1881). But, necessity change, "simply persis[t] blind imitation past." Path Law, Harv. Rev. 457, 469 (1897). precedent, otherwise, disserves value certainty. considerations. premise canon accorded cases. recognize until inapplicable undermine precedential holding. 137 dissent, 718, essential Marbury. numerous occasions, breadth decide manner. dismissed dicta, confronted appreciation prompted 16, 2421, contest concerned pendent-party claim. ruling complaints requested. opinions, REHNQUIST's dissent makes "[s]ince rights." Post, 717. indemnify furthers attracting retaining members, harshness good-faith uncertain adjudication. pointed 278-279, 571-572, "jurisdictional" invoking meritorious invoke 1331. Bell Hood, 327 678, 682, 773, 939 697-699, mention refer agency." Appeals, 264-266, (1908). technically avenue responded granted. choosing subjection remotely result. ironic abandoning supposedly ill-considered Powell relies heavily admits holdings." 711. resorted implied Fifth Amendments. Richmond Elks Hall Assn. Redevelopment Agency, 1327 (CA9 1977), aff'g 389 (N.D.Cal.1975); Foster Detroit, 405 138, 140 (CA6 1968). chiefly strength arguments, seizes property. 54; 452, 674-677, 1361-1363,

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