Document: 484 U.S. 219 108 S.Ct. 538 98 L.Ed.2d 555 Cynthia A. FORRESTER, Petitionerv.Howard Lee WHITE. No. 86-761. Argued Nov. 2, 1987. Decided Jan. 12, 1988. Syllabus Respondent, an Illinois state-court judge, had authority under state law to appoint and discharge probation officers. After hiring petitioner as a officer later promoting her, respondent demoted then discharged her. Petitioner filed damages action in Federal District Court 42 U.S.C. § 1983, alleging that she was on account of her sex violation the Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. Although jury found favor, court granted summary judgment ground he entitled absolute immunity from civil suit. The Appeals affirmed. Held: A judge does not have suit 1983 for his decisions demote dismiss employee. Pp. 223-230. (a) Because threat personal liability can inhibit government officials proper performance their duties, various forms official been created. Aware, however, such may also salutary effect encouraging perform duties lawful appropriate manner, this has cautious recognizing claims other than those decided by constitutional or statutory enactment. Accordingly, applied "functional" approach which nature functions entrusted particular is examined order evaluate exposure would likely exercise functions. Even with respect immunities certain Congress President, careful extend scope protection further its purposes require. 223-225. (b) Judges long enjoyed judicial adjudicatory acts, primarily protect independence insulating judges vexatious actions disgruntled litigants. Truly must be distinguished administrative, legislative, executive occasionally assigned perform. It function performed—adjudication—rather identity actor who performed it—a judge—that determines whether attaches act. 225-229. (c) Respondent's were administrative rather adjudicative nature. Such are indistinguishable branch responsible making similar personnel decisions, which, no matter how crucial efficient operation public institutions, 1983. reasoned lawsuits ex-employees could interfere quality judge's decisions. However true be, it serve distinguish hire fire subordinates. In neither case danger will deflected effective great enough justify immunity. This imply qualified immunity, like available make discretionary unavailable employment question here. 229-230. 792 F.2d 647 (CA7 1986), reversed remanded. O'CONNOR, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., BRENNAN, WHITE, MARSHALL, STEVENS, SCALIA, JJ., joined, all but Part II BLACKMUN, joined. Mary Anne Sedey, St. Louis, Mo., petitioner. Rosalyn B. Kaplan, Chicago, Ill., respondent. Justice O'CONNOR Court. 1 requires us decide decision subordinate employee, officer, alleged 2 BLACKMUN joins opinion. sex, We conclude acts should held absolutely immune. 3 * Respondent Howard White served Circuit Judge Seventh Judicial State Presiding Jersey County. Under law, adult officers, removable discretion. Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 38, ¶ 204-1 (1979). addition, designee Chief Circuit, juvenile officers at pleasure. 37, 706-5 4 April 1977, hired Forrester officer. prepared presentence reports offender cases, recommendations disposition placement cases. She supervised persons recommended revocation when necessary. July 1979, appointed Project Supervisor County Juvenile Intake Referral Services Project, position carried increased supervisory responsibilities. nonsupervisory summer 1980. He October 1, 5 lawsuit United States Southern 1982. violations Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964, 78 Stat. 253, amended, 2000e et seq., 1871, Rev.Stat. discriminated against awarded $81,818.80 compensatory Forrester's dismissed course lawsuit. 6 White's motion notwithstanding verdict denied, moved new trial. motion, holding weight evidence. "judicial immunity" too, granted. appealed. 7 divided panel affirmed grant judgment. majority immune activities implicating substance cases before them, although they shielded "from trials life generally." 647, 652 (1986). Some members staff aid functions, suits reluctant replace them even after losing confidence work. distort decisionmaking thereby indirectly affect rights Here, "inextricably tied consistently considered acts." Id., 657. Unless felt free Forrester, thought, own might decline. therefore view holding, unnecessary erred granting 8 dissent, Posner argued only given 9 Goodwin v. Louis County, 729 541, 549, cert. 469 828, 105 112, 83 55 (1984), Eighth hearing certiorari, 479 1083, 107 1282, 94 140 (1987), resolve conflict. 10 Suits monetary meant compensate victims wrongful discourage conduct result liability. Special problems arise, exposed damages. To extent encourages these carry out pay do not, accomplishes exactly what should. By nature, create perverse incentives operate duties. many contexts, expected impartial imaginative, above informed considerations interests decisionmaker. engaged definition governing, often adverse effects persons. When threatened taken pursuant well induced act excess caution otherwise skew ways less full fidelity objective independent criteria ought guide conduct. way, exposing same legal hazards faced citizens detract rule instead contributing it. 11 led creation officials. Aware have, undeniable tension between ideal obligation answer court. Running through our fair consistency, questions express approach, we examine class lawfully entrusted, seek Officials exemption burden showing justified overriding policy, recognized category "qualified" avoids unnecessarily extending traditional concept See, e.g., Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 1683, 40 90 (1974); Butz Economou, 438 478, 2894, 57 895 (1978); Harlow Fitzgerald, 457 800, 102 2727, 73 396 (1982). 12 generally quite sparing recognition One species beyond challenge: legislative created Speech Debate Clause, Const., Art. I, 6, cl. 1. here, Gravel States, 408 606, 622-627, 92 2614, 2625-2628, 33 583 (1972); see Hutchinson Proxmire, 443 111, 123-133, 99 2675, 2682-2687, 61 411 (1979); Doe McMillan, 412 306, 93 2018, 36 912 (1973); Brewster, 501, 2531, 507 Johnson, 383 169, 86 749, 15 681 (1966); Kilbourn Thompson, 103 (13 Otto) 168, 26 L.Ed. 377 (1881). Furthermore, facts analogous us, indicated Congressman sex-discrimination aide whom fired, unless afforded Clause. Davis Passman, 442 228, 246, 2264, 2277, 60 846 id., n. 25, S.Ct., 2278, 25 (reserving immunity). 13 Among officials, President arising acts. Nixon 731, 2690, 349 based President's "unique scheme," 2701, indiscriminately aides, Harlow, supra, Cabinet level Mitchell Forsyth, 472 511, 2806, (1985). Nor highest protected federal law. See supra. III 14 As class, comparatively sweeping form though one perfectly well-defined. apparently originated, medieval times, device discouraging collateral attacks helping establish appellate procedures standard system correcting error. Block, Stump Sparkman History Immunity, 1980 Duke L.J. 879. More recently, "the settled doctrine English courts centuries, never aware of, country." Bradley Fisher, Wall. 335, 347, 20 646 (1872). Besides protecting finality judgments inappropriate attacks, concluded, prosecuted 348. years since decided, quick find legislation diminish common-law protections extended process. Pierson Ray, 386 547, 87 1213, 18 288 (1967). On contrary, Executive Branch quasi-judicial U.S., 513-514, 2914, prosecutorial "intimately associated phase criminal process," Imbler Pachtman, 424 409, 430, 96 984, 47 128 (1976). common law's rationale freeing process harassment intimidation—has thought require advocates witnesses. Briscoe LaHue, 460 325, 1108, 75 (1983); 512, 2913. 16 reasonably wonder judges, developing immunities, inevitably more sensitive ill dangers contexts. Cf. 528, n., 2921, (REHNQUIST, concurring part dissenting part). undertaken cut back least dealing whose peculiar know own. At time, cannot pretend writing clean slate ignore compelling reasons broader some 17 variously described. 348, again 554, emphasized frequently disappoint most intense ungovernable desires people have. pointed below, principal characteristic adjudication prosecution, two areas generously provided. F.2d, 660. If personally liable erroneous resulting avalanche suits, frivolous vexatious, provide powerful avoid rendering provoke suits. 660-661. timidity hard detect control, manifestly adjudication. means litigants themselves consequences Most mistakes wrongs open correction ordinary mechanisms review, largely harmful side-effects paradigmatic involved resolving disputes parties invoked jurisdiction court, particularly controversial. Difficulties arisen attempting draw line truly appropriate, simply happen done judges. defined protects serves, person attaches. 19 articulate precise general suggest intelligible distinction occasion Thus, example, informal ex parte proceeding within deprived character. Sparkman, 435 349, 363, 1099, 331 (1978). Similarly, acting disbar attorney sanction contempt invoking power "possessed admit attorneys practice," become virtue allegation malice corruption motive. Wall., 354. noted: "Against [judges'] irregular action, whatever motives proceeding, provided private numerous remedies, remedies must, resort." Ibid. Administrative essential very functioning courts, similarly regarded Ex Virginia, 100 (10 339, 676 (1880), declined county charged indictment discriminating basis race selecting trial jurors county's courts. reasoned: 21 "Whether him determined character, character agent. Whether importance. duty committed office judge. . That selected makes difference. So court-criers, tipstaves, sheriffs, &c. Is election appointment act?" 22 charge reach Court's analysis any obvious way confined circumstance. 23 Likewise, promulgate code attorneys. Supreme Virginia Consumers Union Inc., 446 719, 1967, 64 641 (1980). explaining why judicial, furnished standard, said: "Although clear issuance Bar Code propounding rulemaking." 1974. case, enforce treated prosecutors, thus amenable injunctive declaratory relief. 734-737, 1975-1977. Pulliam Allen, 466 522, 104 1970, 80 565 (1984). Once again, performed, it, analysis. IV 24 think capacity Forrester. Those acts—like others supervising employees overseeing court—may important providing necessary conditions sound system. issue, adjudicative. hires fires meaningfully district assistant attorneys, indeed made institutions (some courts), yet suggests give rise below decisions: "The evil avoided following: loses hesitates because litigation. retains appearing victims, decision-making decline." 658. 27 There considerable force analysis, serves Indeed, delegate subordinates, there somewhat reason cloak Scherer, 468 183, 3012, 82 139 818, 2738. Absolute "strong medicine, [officials' being] deflect[ed duties] great." 660 (Posner, dissenting). here enough. significant that, authority, brought court's "jurisdiction," converted into acts," lift substance. State's Code, nonetheless concluded Union, 28 so trial, able claim complained reversed, remanded proceedings consistent 29 ordered.

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