Document: 512 U.S. 997114 S.Ct. 2647129 L.Ed.2d 775 Bolley JOHNSON, Speaker of the Florida House Representatives, et al., Appellantsv.Miguel De GRANDY, al. Miguel Appellants, v. UNITED STATES, Appellant, FLORIDA, Nos. 92-519, 92-593 and 92-767. Supreme Court United States Argued Oct. 4, 1993. Decided June 30, 1994. Syllabus * In these consolidated cases, a group Hispanic voters, black Federal Government claim that Florida's reapportionment plan for State's single-member Senate districts ("SJR-2G") unlawfully dilutes voting strength Hispanics blacks in Dade County area, violation § 2 Voting Rights Act 1965. The State Court, review required by Constitution, declared valid under federal state law, while acknowledging time constraints precluded full authorizing any interested party to bring challenge court. plaintiffs chose, however, pursue their claims A three-judge District reviewed totality circumstances as Thornburg Gingles, 478 106 2752, 92 25, concluded three Gingles preconditions establishing dilution were satisfied, justifying finding vote dilution. Specifically, court found proceeded largely along racial lines, producing system "tripartite politics"; area could constitute majority 11 4 districts, but SJR 2-G had created only 9 3 with majorities; an additional majority-black district have been drawn; minorities suffered historically from official discrimination, social, economic, political effects which they continued feel. imposed remedial majority-Hispanic but, concluding remedies senatorial mutually exclusive, left 2-G's force. Held: 1. properly refused give preclusive effect Court's decision validating 2-G. Pp. ____. 2. There is no where spite continuing discrimination bloc voting, minority voters form effective majorities number roughly proportional respective shares voting-age population. While such proportionality not dispositive, it relevant fact be analyzed when determining whether "less opportunity than other members electorate participate process elect representatives choice," 42 U.S.C. 1973(b). (a) This assumes without deciding first factor has satisfied cases. (b) proof factors necessary make out set lines violates 2, necessarily sufficient. Rather, must assess probative significance after considering all arguable bearing on issue equal opportunity. Here, misjudged relative importance historical equating failure maximize majority-minority districts. Dilution cannot inferred mere guarantee maximum influence. (c) Ruling proposes, matter law occurs whenever exists, would likewise provide bright-line decisional rule derogation statutory text. indication electoral polarization, guarantee, serve short-cut strength. (d) need reach States' argument should assessed statewide basis cases challenging electing body jurisdiction. recast this litigation comes before up until now litigated basis, smaller geographical scale. 3. leave undisturbed was correct. However, reaching its decision, once again misapprehended legal test As case appears support P. 815 F.Supp. 1550, (N.D.Fla.1992) affirmed part reversed part. SOUTER, J., delivered opinion REHNQUIST, C.J., BLACKMUN, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, GINSBURG, JJ., joined, Parts III-B-2, III-B-4, IV KENNEDY, joined. filed concurring opinion. judgment. THOMAS, dissenting opinion, SCALIA, Joel I. Klein, Washington, DC, Florida, No. 92-519. James A. Feldman, C. Allen Foster, Greensboro, NC, Grandy, 92-593. Justice SOUTER Court. 1 These are about meaning facts show it, 1965 applied challenges legislative See 79 Stat. 437, amended, 1973. We hold can here, where, voters' dispositive districting, choice." Ibid. On day 1992 session, including Grandy (De plaintiffs) complained against speaker president Senate, Governor, officials (State). complainants alleged chosen senators since 1982 malapportioned, failing reflect changes population during ensuing decade. Conference NAACP Branches individual (NAACP similar suit, case.1 Several months complaint filed, April 10, 1992, legislature adopted Joint Resolution (SJR 2-G), providing currently at issue. called dividing into 40 120 House, based data 1990 census. Constitution required, attorney general then petitioned declaratory judgment legislature's apportionment law. Fla. Const., Art. III, 16(c). so declared, constitutional conformity recognizing right Florida. re Constitutionality 2G, Special Apportionment Session 597 So.2d 276, 285-286 (Fla.1992).2 responded amending complaints charge new violating 2.3 They claimed " 'unlawfully fragments cohesive communities otherwise impermissibly submerges process,' pointed areas around or populations formed politically cohesive, reasonably compact (or more one), if fragmented each among several packed just few. Wetherell, 1559-1560 (ND Fla.1992). 5 Department complaint, naming elected defendants claiming diluted two parts votes covered (including Miami) covering much Escambia Pensacola).4 App. 75. action held 5-day trial, followed immediately hours-long hearing remedy. 6 At end hearing, July 1, ruled bench. It plan's provisions because "more [SJR 2-G's] nine may drawn having creating regressive upon voters," offered calling Juris. Statement 2a, 203a. fourth addition provided 2-G, expense area. Id., 202a; F.Supp., 1560. minds implication finding, observing meant remedy, saying Plan did violate all.5 event, ordered elections using 7 later, expanded 25 (1986). explaining County's politics," "ethnic . predominate over other[s] .," 1572, cohesion within none between two, id., 1569, tendency non-Hispanic whites bar groups candidates except given makes majority.6 1572. further nearly one million combined relatively functional 1568-1569, whereas fewer districts; drawn, 1576. Noting bore past both 1574. findings practical effect, exclusive; consequently deferred work "fairest" accommodation ethnic South 1580. 8 stayed 505 ----, 113 930 (1992), noted probable jurisdiction, 507 1249, 122 648 (1993). II Before going heart we consider refusal argues dismissed res judicata fair litigate see 285 (Fla.1992). premise, false, exaggerating afforded ignoring court's own judgment's limited scope. Given mandate resolutions 30 days, 16(c), accepted briefs evidentiary submissions, trial. words, "impossible conduct complete factual analysis contemplated article III," holding accordingly "without prejudice protestor question validity filing petition alleging how Act." So.2d, 282, 285-286. 10 balks express reservation blaming returning claims. But free choice forgo further, optional hardly converted following "full litigate," McCurry, 449 90, 104, 101 411, 420, 66 308 (1980), require. For matter, gives greater itself do, Marrese American Academy Orthopaedic Surgeons, 470 373, 384-386, 105 1327, 1334-35, 84 274 (1985), made plain preliminary look does not, course, argue bars States, action. contends instead Government's deserved dismissal Rooker/Feldman abstention doctrine, losing barred seeking what substance appellate party's loser's rights. Columbia Appeals 460 462, 482, 103 1303, 1314-15, 75 206 (1983); Rooker Fidelity Trust Co., 263 413, 416, 44 149, 150, 68 L.Ed. 362 (1923). invocation inapt unlike position ask directly attacked proceeding. Cf. supra, 468, n. 472, 8, S.Ct., 1307, 1309, (suing Appeals); Rooker, U.S., 414, 149 (seeking null void). merely seeks time, claims, like those private plaintiffs, courts. III 12 merits crux power mirrors share area's (i.e., 20 districts); power, according State, said missed conclusion mistaking our precedents require Hispanic-controlled 13 takes us back ground last Term Voinovich Quilter, 1149, 500 (1993); Growe Emison, 1075, 388 Growe, requires meeting same threshold conditions multimember district: 'sufficiently large geographically district' "; 'politically cohesive' 'the white vot[e] sufficiently enable usually defeat minority's preferred candidate.' 1084 (quoting 50-51, 2766, 2767). Of reflected amplify later "the mechanically regard nature claim." 1157. 14 explained manipulation dilute members, fragmenting bloc-voting routinely out-vote them, packing them small minimize influence next door. 1155. Section prohibits either sort line-drawing result, 'interact[ing] social conditions,' impairs ability protected class candidate voters." 47, 2765).7 15 Plaintiffs failed former prove cohesiveness group, latter showed significant Voinovich, 1158. contrary, found, challenge, presence preconditions. dispute centers quite different questions: numerous factor; whether, even expected substantial proportion percentage 16 When votes, condition possibility existing choice. contrasting least 64 percent Hispanic. figures disputed, parties disagree sufficiency super-majorities allow agreed compensate who vote, most commonly recent immigrants become citizens States. 1567-1568. protests fully half residents region citizens, result lack enough cross-over groups. assumptions, justify tinkering disappears. 17 winner. parties' ostensibly disagreement raises characteristic (e.g., age, citizenship) ought touchstone proving devising sound resolved, related so-called (that is, devise potentially influential one). past, will assume absolute ---- - 1154-1155; also 5, (declining issue); 46-47, 12, 2764, (same). B 18 company assessing circumstances. generally feel, 1573-1574. Without more, apparent assumption done create super-majority done, erroneous, show. 19 prompted reading amendment.8 2(a) amended "standard, practice, procedure results denial abridgement citizen account race color [or membership language group]. ." 2(b) provides abridgment "based circumstances, shown processes leading nomination election subdivision equally open participation subsection less extent office circumstance considered: Provided, That nothing section establishes numbers population." 21 some structure statute's "totality circumstances" 46-51, 2764-2767. listed put forward Report treating amendments,9 22 "[w]hile many [them] through submergence unless there conjunction use impede Stated succinctly, able supported insular group." 48-49, 2765-2766 (footnote omitted) (emphasis original). 23 thus summarized now-familiar (compactness/numerousness, voting) "necessary preconditions," 50, district. 24 clearly identified claim, declined sufficient combination, sense examination exist, combination demonstrated true degree, variable depending facts, 55-58, 2768-2770, ultimate conclusions equality inequality intended Congress judgments resting comprehensive, limited, canvassing facts. Lack success evidence dilution, courts examine opportunities enjoy processes. 46, 79-80, 2781-2782; 98-99, 2791-2792 (O'CONNOR, judgment). To sure, easy although readily imagined unsurprising include essential factors, still addressed explicitly, isolating arguably act judgment.10 If isolated sufficient, standing alone, every fortiori goes series difficult grasp. total submergence, partial submergence; chance place none, some. down reasonableness drawing places rather another, closer calls. beyond ambit loom correspondingly larger, factfinders rest uncritically assumptions force pointing 26 us, fall complex side divide, requiring determine provision somewhat sought votes. critically think here measured tending measure 27 commit error exhausting enquiry Consistently received relations outside immediate confines behavior history society present day. critical asking persistent larger portended dilutive newly proposed districting scheme, whose pertinent features proportionality,11 scheme deny 28 Treating focus enquiry, do apparently effectiveness numbers, record 50 located primarily county. Likewise, considers County, indicates 45 nine), 47 1580; 180a-183a. proportionality. evidence, thwart exclude Hispanics, encourage perpetuate it. Thus legacy, cleavages characterize politics today, grounds cast voters. 29 urge weight fragmentation, allegedly accomplished way drew certain specific lines: line 116 separates heavily neighborhoods 112 Kendall Lakes area," divides "neighbors making housing development Lakes," 114 "packs" Districts 102 109 "fragmen[t]" them. 1569 (internal quotation marks omitted). agree split lumped) grouped single spread several) employed standards used elsewhere inconsistent treatment might violation, face finding. Indeed, propositions recites point phrased findings, recitations testimony plaintiffs' expert witness. well credited testimony, wary adopting witness's findings. imputed accounts boil separate portions neighborhoods, another draws This, say elsewhere, more. combining virtually inevitable befalls size. Attaching labels "packing" "fragmenting" phenomena, enjoys obscured thumb anything short consistent societal occurred occur. define (plus incidents bias occurs) causes dangers, courted. 31 Assume hypothetical jurisdiction 1,000 divided 100 each, totally polarized lines. With geographic dispersion satisfy compactness requirement, careful placed control Each 51 remaining added groupings safety scattered seven districts.12 likely extreme manipulation, bare strictly tends obscure very object statute run counter textually stated purpose. One suspect famine, entitled (much infer) feast. However prejudiced be, absurd suggest above numerical strength13 process. Failure 32 While, obvious reasons, agrees leverage possible definitive societies, impart determinacy applying own: population.14 Proportionality defined, 11, safe harbor scheme. 33 text considered purpose, ideal attempts foster. An inflexible textual command absence circumstances." "totality" springs ingenuity local governments hobbling McCain Lybrand, 465 236, 243-246, 104 1037, 1042-44, 271 (1984), recognized 1982: "since adoption Act, [some] jurisdictions substantially moved direct, over[t] impediments sophisticated devices strength," (discussing 5). modifying endorsed view White Regester, 412 755, 93 2332, 37 314 (1973), "whether 'equally open' depends searching evaluation 'past reality,' 766, 770, 2339, 2341). jurisdictions, reality included reprehensible practices ballot box stuffing, outright violence, discretionary registration, property requirements, poll tax, primary; censurable discriminatory, at-large elections, runoff anti-single-shot devices, gerrymandering, impeachment office-holders, annexation deannexation territory, creation elimination elective offices.15 Some expedients occur numerically demonstrable proportionality; voters.16 short, good reason been, remain, chary entertaining simplification urges us. 77, 2780 ("[P]ersistent representation [may] accurately group's representatives"). 34 Even unexplored premise highly validity: portion consideration), rights traded off class. Under view, blatant gerrymandering county's member irrelevant offset half, long bottom line. Baird Consolidated City Indianapolis, 976 F.2d 357, 359 (CA7 1992) ("A balanced foreclose way"); Richmond 422 358, 378-379, 95 2296, 2307-2308, 245 (1975) (territorial aimed diluting forbidden regardless actual effect). 35 Finally, reject certainly condemn, promote efforts achieve Because simplest shield population, conclusiveness irresistible inducement bears recalling, virtues rely quintessentially race-conscious calculus aptly described "politics second best," B. Grofman, L. Handley, & R. Niemi, Minority Representation Quest Equality 136 (1992). lesson society's sometimes necessitate ensure opportunity, coalitions groups, order Those represent perfection voter, immune obligation pull, haul, trade find common ground, virtue slighted hasten waning racism politics. 36 that, obviously "to 1973(b), degree value assigned vary facts.17 No statistic concedes relevance confine affirmative defense, case, treat supports waived population.18 38 flaws. first, segregate totality, rendered insignificant defendant pleads defense. Second, importantly, come consideration scope, indeed, themselves, passed frame terms. points redistricting plans "Hispanic Florida," identifies "several State" violations occur, speaks terms (and County). 75-76. Nowhere allegations indicate "in Florida" specifically mentioned. alleges contours, demographics, patterns areas, neither trial nor statewide. voluntarily 1559, 13. occasion decide reference appropriate scope analyzing 39 sum, address standard unequal misconstruction equated misreading governing erroneous. 79, 2781. Having insufficient comparable Senate. understand location modify plan, correct instance. 41 creates five wholly County. five, percent, clear Two crossing county these, close majority, aid 1574, 1579. Within seven-district rough 44.8 15.8 black. Record, U.S.Exh. 7. 42.9 (three seven), 14.3 (one seven). something perfect (42.9 44.8; 15.8), opposite County.19 43 concentrated majority. indeed employing previously established labored legacy voted bloc, believed faced "two independent, viable claims." 1577. map, remedy and, deferring compromise policy, affirm undisturbed. produced indicating V being shown, decisions 46 ordered. concurring. 48 1965, 1973, "maximize" maximization principle, operated "on done." Ante, today error, maximization. ____ ("[f]ailure 2"); ante, (the improperly "equated districts"). 49 today's principle. opinion's central teaching defined relationship population—is always never dispositive. "[A]ny theory large." 84, 2784, (1986) Thus, evaluating 99, 2791-92 ("the challenged compared predicted undiluted employing, powerful dilution"). carefully searchingly access Nor States; immunize schemes challenge. crafted approach treats evidence. doing strength, yet remains faithful 2's understanding, I join djQ 52 violated feasible. impermissible majority- erroneous application 53 proportionality, ascertained comparing yield answer. 54 statute, part, provides: "The [in dilution]: 1973(b) By terms, addresses office, things synonymous, affront traditions such. representatives, majority-white false empirical matter. 1154, 1157-1158, Thernstrom, Whose Votes Count? Affirmative Action 210-216 (1987); Swain, Black Faces, Interests, ch. And fundamental level, reflects demeaning notion ascribe 'minority views' citizens." Metro Broadcasting, Inc. FCC, 497 547, 636, 110 2997, 3046, 111 445 (1990) (KENNEDY, dissenting); Jewish Organizations Carey, 430 144, 186-187, 97 996, 1020-1021, 229 (1977) (Burger, dissenting). 55 Although speak precise issue, thereof, unanimous Term, subject "[d]ividing [a cohesive] various [single-member] none" "device power" statute. 1155). fragmentation districts" acknowledged device, 1155, follows falls statistical norm. Washington Davis, 426 229, 242, 96 2040, 2049, (1976) (discriminatory impact allegation intentional discrimination). Both opinions (1986), understanding 16, (In "gerrymander allege potential vote"); 2784 judgment) ("[A]ny large"). equivalent (contrary precedents) brought 56 placing undue emphasis risks defeating goals underlying amended. provides, "never dispositive" "is [and] challenge." ____, concurring); 17. construction hesitate conclude inquiry. 57 important emphasize refer, construe purport implications. Chisom Roemer, 501 380, 418, 2354, 2376, 115 348 (1991) Operating regime relevance, lawful proper explicit goal effort avoid litigation. believe offending engage race-based minimum (in effect) granting preclearance, 1973c, redistricting. governmental actions, my tend entrench stereotypes Equal Protection Clause against. 636-637, 3046-3047 sorting persons intent divide serious questions. 58 moral imperative neutrality driving Clause." J.A. Croson 488 469, 518, 706, 735, 854 (1989) Racial classifications "are odious people institutions founded doctrine equality," presumed invalid. Shaw Reno, 509 2816, 2818, 125 511 (1993) omitted); Bickel, Morality Consent 133 (1975). burdened benefited particular classification." Croson, 494, 722 (opinion J.); 520, 736 (SCALIA, Furthermore, "[i]t axiomatic legitimate suffer degree." Powers Ohio, 499 400, 410, 1364, 1370, 411 (1991); Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 560, 1138, 1147, 256 (1896) (Harlan, 59 principles apply boundaries. Douglas, joined Goldberg, years ago: 60 "When religious multiracial, multireligious weld together separatist; antagonisms relate religion issues generated. Since war democratic ideal, footing here." Wright Rockefeller, 376 52, 67, 603, 611, (1964) (dissenting opinion). 61 fashion, Chief Burger observed "use mathematical formula" assure "tends sustain existence ghettos promoting clout gained maintained marshaling racial, ethnic, enclaves." 186, 1020 Shaw, voiced agreement sentiments, "[r]acial purposes, balkanize competing factions; threatens carry longer matters—a Fourteenth Fifteenth Amendments embody, Nation continues aspire." 2832. 62 Our alluded to, resolve, broad rise protection 2828 differs kinds decisionmaking aware economic status, persuasion," difficulty purposefully distinguishes race" "not mean gerrymander, established, receive scrutiny legislation classifying race." 2826. original) went "a irrational understood strict Clause. 2832; 2828, 2830. responsibilities redistricting, reviewing courts, recognize embarks dangerous course. bear mind comply overriding demands issues. 63 observations, concur III-B-4 whom SCALIA joins, dissenting. reasons explain Holder Hall, --- 2581, (1994), vacate remand instructions dismiss actions asserted group. accordance views Holder, procedure" therefore respectfully dissent. syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 287, 499. congressional element resolved separately, 794 1076 Fla.1992) (three-judge court), appeal. step appeal, submitted preclearance pursuant 1973c (§ 1965). Five counties, preclearance. 1574 Attorney General preclear Hillsborough revise adjustments obtain 601 543 (Fla.1992); version adjusted 1557-1558. I, voluntarily. settled 5a, "do 2," subsequent earlier "should read imposed." 1582 added). Any conflict formulations consequence here. "This 'reviews judgments, statements opinions,' California Rooney, 483 307, 311, 107 2852, 2854, 258 (1987) (per curiam) Cutter Laboratories, 351 292, 297, 76 824, 827, 1188 (1956)), appealed relief "urge lend below," Dayton Bd. Ed. Brinkman, 433 406, 419, 2775, 851 (1977), impose recognizes "black," "Hispanic," "white" exclusive collectively exhaustive. follow practice indicators largest linguistic lines). gerrymanders played role Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, (1960); Perkins Matthews, 400 379, 91 431, 476 (1971); Connor Finch, 431 407, 1828, (1977). discriminatory identified, adding designed codify (1973). S.Rep. 97-417, p. (1982) U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 177 (hereinafter Report). 44-45, 2763, "[t]he specifies typically claim: voting-related subdivision; racially polarized; procedures enhance unusually prohibitions bullet voting; exclusion slating processes; education, employment, health, hinder effectively process; overt subtle appeals campaigns; public [Senate 28-29] notes demonstrating unresponsive particularized needs policy subdivision's contested tenuous value. 29." easier worth remembering challenges, liability 357 Seventh Circuit confronted City-County Council members. Voters chose large, representing entire four-member After redrawn rectify there, held, affirmed, "if considerations undiminished process." 359. "other considerations" (28 Council) constituted population; four seats tended go Republicans, Republicans 1991 361. "Proportionality" term links members' concept distinct clause "nothing proviso candidates, 29, (minority candidates' polls conclusive process). confirms namely minority-preferred whatever race. denied seat, group; affect determines outcomes ten Brief Appellees 92-593, 92-767, ("If prohibition 'less choice' natural meaning, assures established"). figure subset eligible registered (as students military often are). elevate status magic parameter, resolve dispute. J.M. Kousser, Shaping Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction Establishment One-Party South, 1880-1910 (1974); Undermining First Reconstruction, Lessons Vote (C. Davidson ed. 1984); Hearings Extension Subcommittee Civil Constitutional Committee Judiciary, 97th Cong., 1st Sess., 1999-2022, 2115-2120 (1981). say, "proportional" nonetheless "assur[e]" power. answer take leaving defensive utility. So, too, disproportionality, disproportionality well. "[T]here single, universally applicable measuring subdivision." 94-95, 2789 favors age According census available record, 7.15 corresponds eight Hispanic-majority (120 x7.15% = 8.58). calculates plaintiffs. 12.2 11.7 corresponding x 12.2= 14.64; 14.04). choose calculations concentrated, 53.9 13.5 Sixty five), black-majority marginally (60 53.9; 13.5).

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