Document: 379 U.S. 559 85 S.Ct. 476 13 L.Ed.2d 487 B. Elton COX, Appellant,v.STATE OF LOUISIANA. No. 49. Argued Oct. 21 and 22, 1964. Decided Jan. 18, 1965. Rehearing Denied March 1, See 380 926, 879. Nils Douglas, New Orleans, La., for appellant. Ralph L. Roy, Baton Rouge, appellee. Mr. Justice GOLDBERG delivered the opinion of Court. 1 Appellant was convicted violating a Louisiana statute which provides: 2 'Whoever, with intent interfering with, obstructing, or impeding administration justice, influencing any judge, juror, witness, court officer, in discharge his duty pickets parades near building housing State * shall be fined not more than five thousand dollars imprisoned one year, both.' LSA—Rev.Stat. § 14:401 (Cum.Supp.1962). 3 This charge based upon same set facts as 'disturbing peace' 'obstructing public passage' charges involved forth 453, ante, tried along those offenses. on this also sentenced to maximum penalty under year jail $5,000 fine, cumulative 24. These convictions were affirmed by Supreme Court, 245 La. 303, 158 So.2d 172. appealed Court contending that unconstitutional its face applied him. We noted probable jurisdiction, 377 921, 84 1222, 12 214. I. 4 first consider appellant's contention must declared invalid an unjustified restriction freedoms guaranteed First Fourteenth Amendments United States Constitution. 5 passed 1950 modeled after bill pertaining federal judiciary, Congress enacted later 1950, 64 Stat. 1018, 18 U.S.C. 1507 (1958 ed.). Since time, Massachusetts Pennsylvania have similar statutes. Mass.Ann.Laws, c. 268, 13A; Purdon's Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 4327. The resulted from picketing courthouses partisans defendants during trials involving leaders Communist Party. prompted adverse reaction both bar general public. A number groups urged legislation prohibit it. At special meeting held 1949, Judicial Conference following resolution: 'Resolved, That we condemn practice courts, believe effective means should taken prevent it.' Report States, 203 (1949). Special Committee Proposed Legislation Prohibit Picketing Courts appointed make recommendations subject. Ibid. In Conference, dated September 23, at p. 3, stated: 'The sentiment associations individual lawyers has been is practically unanimous favor courts.' Upon recommendation Committee, prompt enactment then-pending bill. 17—18 Similar made American Bar Association, numerous state local associations, judges. Joint Hearings before Subcommittees Committees Judiciary S. 1681 H.R. 3766, 81st Cong., 1st Sess.; H.R.Rep.No.1281, S.Rep.No.732, Bills Condemning Before Congress, 33 J.Am.Jud.Soc. 53 6 statute, unlike two previously considered, precise, narrowly drawn regulatory proscribes certain specific behavior. Cf. Edwards v. South Carolina, 372 229, 236, 83 680, 683, 9 697. It prohibits particular type conduct, namely, parading, few specified locations, courthouses. 7 There can no question legitimate interest protecting judicial system pressures courthouse might create. are committed government laws men, it utmost importance justice absolutely fair orderly. recognized unhindered untrammeled functioning our courts part very foundation constitutional democracy. Wood Georgia, 370 375, 383, 82 1364, 1369, 8 569. safeguards relating integrity criminal process attend every stage proceeding, starting arrest culminating trial 'in courtroom presided over judge.' Rideau Louisiana, 373 723, 727, 1417, 1419, 10 663. doubt they embrace fundamental conception trial, exclude influence domination either hostile friendly mob. room proceedings such intervention; mob law antithesis due process. Frank Mangum, 237 309, 347, 35 582, 595, 59 L.Ed. 969. (Holmes, J., dissenting). may adopt necessary appropriate assure all stages free outside control influence. review obviously safeguard vindicate State's assuring law. Nor does infringe constitutionally protected rights speech assembly. conduct subject statute—picketing parading—is regulation even though intertwined expression association. examples many application principle forms mixed regulated prohibited. most classic these pointed out long ago Holmes: stringent protection would protect man falsely shouting fire theatre causing panic.' Schenck 249 47, 52, 39 247, 249, 63 470. punished encouraging commission crime, Fox Washington, 236 273, 573, uttering 'fighting words,' Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 62 766, 86 1031. parading labor disputes. Hughes Superior 339 460, 70 718, 94 985; Giboney Empire Storage & Ice Co., 336 490, 69 684, 93 834; Building Service Employees, etc. Gazzam, 532, 784, 1045. But cf. Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 60 736, 1093. authorities clear, said Giboney, 'it never deemed abridgment freedom press course illegal merely because initiated, evidenced, carried language, spoken, written, printed.' supra, 502, 691. Bridges California, 314 252, 190, 192, Pennekamp Florida, 328 331, 66 1029, 90 1295, do hold contrary. Both cases dealt power judge sentence contempt persons who published caused writings commenting proceedings. They newspaper editorials, editorial cartoon, telegram sent leader Secretary Labor. Here deal power—a 'based common concept undefined nature.' 260, 192. Rather, reviewing punish infringes substantial Cantwell Connecticut, 296, 307—308, 900, 904 905, 1213; supra. concerned here pure form comment citizen official. case alone, but conduct. expressly distinction when said, 'In holding this, mindful essential society vigilant press. 263, 194, 159 A.L.R. 1346. cannot consistently Constitution abridge obviate slight inconveniences annoyances. Schneider State, 308 147, 162, 146, 151, 155. placards used inseparable grave offense against important immunize unlawful control.' U.S., 501—502, S.ct. 690. valid dealing so interests fact intermingled bring protection. II. 11 now case. group 2,000, led appellant, paraded demonstrated courthouse. Judges officers attendance their respective functions. undisputed major purpose demonstration protest what demonstrators considered 'illegal' 23 students previous day. While had arraigned day certain, charged violation law, judges responsible trying them passing legality then building. is, course, true will influenced only see hear court. However, human; legislature right recognize danger some judges, jurors, other officials, consciously unconsciously demonstrations courtrooms prior time trial. properly being misjudged minds Suppose picketed weeks signs asking indictments dismissed, completely uninfluenced demonstrations, dismissed indictments. possibility conclusion circumstances judge's action product intimidation did flow orderly working Sess., 4. invokes clear present doctrine support argument here. He says, relying Bridges, '(n)o reason exists apply different standard peaceful front cases.' (Appellant's Br., 22.) defines situations whether presents justice. 14 already differences between one, 480. drafted pristine totally character. Even assuming applicability test, thing conclude mere publication Labor, however critical court, quite another crowds, demonstrating prohibited legislative determination experience inherently threatens therefore reject III. 15 additionally argues conviction violated there evidence obstruct official required statute. Thompson Louisville, 362 199, 80 624, 654. agree within 'due process' rule enunciated Louisville. various witnesses Cox himself stated students. Thus, matter normally step series legal vicinity where students' take place. contained normal called try just Ronnie Moore, student demonstration, defense stated, understand testimony, injustice; he felt 'moral persuasion' hoped effects. controlling affirmative manifesting plain ensuing prisoners unfair unwarranted. lights appellant 2,000 seeking obstruction irrelevant motives condemned Holmes construe unduly point process, regardless good bad. 16 contains direct taking Louisville doctrine, without evidence, compelled proof intent. surely infer circumstantial evidence. least, pending, charged, presumed intend officials. Screws 325 91, 107, 65 1031, 1038, 89 1495 (opinion DOUGLAS). 17 Absent appropriately applicable entirely considerations if, example, actions mayor city unrelated proceedings, happened office located re Brinn, 305 N.Y. 887, 114 N.E.2d 430; Hearings, 20. IV. are, however, objections arising 'in,' 'near' took place west sidewalk, far side street, exactly 101 feet steps and, judging pictures record, approximately 125 itself. raised failure define word renders unconstitutionally vague. Lanzetta Jersey, 306 451, 618, 888. Note, Void-for-Vagueness Doctrine 109 U.Pa.L.Rev. 67. lack specificity 'near.'1 render vague, least sight hearing courthouse,2 respect how be, foresees degree on-the-spot administrative interpretation officials responsibility administering enforcing apparent demonstrators, here, justifiable tend rely Louisiana's statutory policy preserving order around counsel encouragement reliance. discretion term concerns limited streets areas immediate narrow proper role making determinations concerning place, duration, manner demonstrations. 312 569, 61 762, 1049; Poulos 345 395, 73 760, 97 1105. generally discussion 24, pp. 463—466, ante. unbridled allow pick choose among expressions view ones permit use facilities, invalidated passages aplied traffic permissible, constitute waiver beyond police. Obviously telling purposes permissible cry allowing commit, murder, robbery.3 19 record clearly shows gave permission across street testified him street. testimony uncontradicted corroborated present. Police Chief White told 'he confine' 'to street.'4 James Erwin, news director radio station WIBR, agreed given assembly remained designated time. When Sheriff Clemmons sought break up announced, 'now, you allowed demonstrate.'5 'no objection' 'being assembled street.' Finally, brief contend granted. Rather statement conceded demonstrate agreement granted courthouse—at period contends seven minutes—was confirmed oral 20 police recommend, suggest, further actually was. admittedly notice planned prepared stationed themselves equipment keep As approached courthouse, met suggested elsewhere, disband, affirmatively could sidewalk steps. area effectively blocked off rerouted. highest city, presence Mayor, effect meet did, steps, closer effect, advised terms 22 Raley Ohio, 360 423, 79 1257, 1344, Due Process Clause prevented refusing answer questions investigating relied assurances commission, express implied, privilege refuse answer, available them. situation presented analogous Raley, deem controlling. case, acted sustain 'would sanction indefensible sort entrapment convicting exercising him.' Id., 426, S.Ct., 1260. obtained circumstances. say own, inside, fortiori, defied requiring away inside reverse considerations. 482, 24 remains final point: Sheriff's disperse. somehow removed grant reliance officials' construction This, accept. ordered leave, peacefully too nor limit originally expired, erroneously concluded threatened breach peace. dispersed: 'Now, demonstrate. Up until your less peaceful, doing disturbance peace, got broken immediately.' 459—462. correctly conceived, dispersal order. still justified continued belief original stay additional minutes meeting. addition, if accept version sole terminating exceeded limits6 police, sustained. Assuming appropriate—as justifiably permission—nothing peace statutes broad sweep authorizes draw line, statutes, approved ground. Indeed, allowance unfettered itself procedure 463—466. event, nothing limitation, thus, ground remove accorded permission. 25 Of mean call halt becomes violent. that, administered ordinances, reasonable limits assemblies related policies dispersed exceeded. sustained basis 26 Nothing interpreted sanctioning riotous commendable motives, conflict ordinances designed promote order, community disorder, regulate traffic, private property, governmental 27 Liberty exercised reaffirm repeated holdings command basic encompasses social protest, preservation treasured democratic society. decisions violence dedicated liberty everyone opinions beliefs citizens obey regulations. equally requirement regulations give warning illegal; involves scope stifle Amendment freedoms, 'need breathing space survive,' NAACP Button, 371 415, 433, 328, 338, 405; limitations conduct; equal hand. requirments liberty. '(f)reedom viable indivisible concepts.' Gibson Florida Legislative Investigation Comm., 539, 546, 889, 893, 929. 28 principles requires us judgment Louisiana. 29 Reversed. 30 BLACK, concurring dissenting 31 I concur Court's reversing Cox's prohibiting obstructing passages, reasons differ somewhat opinion. separately my voting On hand, witnesses, crowds seek picketing, patrolling, business homes live, protects forbidding interferences constitutional, written applied. showed dispute think affirmed. 32 ample jury found facts: December 14, 1961, arrested put picketing. night others plans carry "demonstration," parade march, through parts ending "protest" "illegal arrest" picketers. neither streets. next morning, 15, plan out. Some protesters marched jail. county officers, inferences drawn, picketers minutes. sang songs things Later Cox, group's leader, crowd "move on." followers did. Officers tear gas ran away. arrested. THE BREACH-OF-PEACE CONVICTION. breach-of-the-peace statute1 construed vague Amendments. Winters People York, 333 507, 509-510, 68 665, 667, 92 840. conditions people want views highways, leaves defined enforcement officers. forbids congregate picket streets, congregating patrolling while speak using ordinary way permits. types mentioned, regulating conduct—patrolling marching—as distinguished speech, condition indirectly impinging press, religion, appeared suppressing sufficient outweigh individual's engaging closely freedoms. 161, L.ed. 155: 34 "Mere preferences respecting matters convenience well directed personal activities, insufficient justify diminishes exercise vital maintenance institutions. And so, arise, delicate difficult task falls weigh appraise substantiality advanced enjoyment rights." also, e.g., Brotherhood Railroad Trainmen Virginia ex rel. Bar, 1113, 89; Alabama Patterson, 357 449, 78 1163, 1488; Martin City Struthers, 319 141, 862, 87 1313; Lovell v.City Griffin, 303 444, 58 666, 949; Grosjean Press 297 233, 56 660. discussed length Barenblatt 109, 141-142, 1081, 1100-1101, 1115, validity does, should, "weigh circumstances" protect, destroy, press,and religion. 36 Amendments, think, government, federal, restrict purposes. amendments engage publicly owned privately property. National Labor Board Fruit Vegetable Packers Warehousemen, Local 58, 76, 1063, 1073, 129 (concurring opinion). Were otherwise, anywhere else listen speakers hear. Picketing, utilized communicate ideas, Amendment. 464-466, 720-722, Bakery Pastry Drivers Helpers 802, Wohl, 769, 775-777, 816, 819-820, 1178 (Douglas, concurring). 37 breach-of-peach nondiscriminatory application, Mussser Utah, 95, 96-97, 397, 398, 562. Edwards, it, property owners supply Bell Maryland, 378 226, 344-346, 1814, 1878-1879, 822 (dissenting What read hold, Federal Carolina congregate, picket, capitol grounds, rather absence gatherings assembling petition redress grievances. broad, policemen unlimited enforce specific, whenever policeman makes decision own expressed provoking provoke Such provide laws, moment-to-moment beat. Compare Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 369-370, 1064, 1070-1071, 220. kind provides perfect device whose suit superiors, leaving talk anyone agree. Feiner 340 315, 321, 71 307, 95 267 opinion); Peters Hobby, 349 349-350, 75 790, 799-800, 99 1129 Barsky Regents, 347 442, 463-464, 74 650, 661-662, 98 829 Shaughnessy Mezei, 206, 217-218, 625, 631-632, 956 Ludecke Watkins, 335 160, 173, 1429, 1436, 1881 invalidating vagueness Moreover, exception organizations tries access others, Part II opinion, street-obstruction infra. For breach-of-peace 38 OBSTRUCTING-PUBLIC-PASSAGES sidewalks,2 convict Negroes sidewalks protesting racial discrimination, unions treatment union members. require town open views, all. worth noting objectives much common. frequently discrimination members employment. Negro Alliance Sanitary Grocery 552, 561, 703, 707, 1012. opens assembly, advocacy, denying opportunity discrimination. above, about highways. Standing, marching back specifically permitting attempting willing thus prescribe whom allows assemble discuss. seems me censorship odious form, deny voice subjects, amounts, invidious forbidden Equal Protection Amendment.3 points out, despite apparently permitted favored block gatherings. 40 CONVICTION FOR PICKETING NEAR COURTHOUSE 41 LSA-Rev.Stat. (Cum.Supp.1962), anyone, conditions, residence "with influencing" them.4 Certainly stood court's states, testified. obvious performed duties there. attempts inference consent apart chief authorize violations laws,5 strong, emphatic come official, state, federal. leave move. fail reversal denies given, authoritatively anyway, soon afterwards revoked. show boisterous violent indecent language "demonstrators," march performance brings squarely prohibitions alternative unless unconstitutional, 42 like resembles,6 dangers inhere huge doors arrests performing duties. adjudicate controversies, civil, calmness solemnity according procedures. rightly administered, lives safety secure, throngs clamor processes jailhouse doors. administer Use always proved disastrous run, whatever fleeting benefits achieved. minority groups, venture suffered suffer multitudes substitute glamorous dependable temperate Experience demonstrates earnest, honest, patriotic, kind-spirited multitude today, fanatical, threatening, lawless tomorrow. noble goals today supplanted tomorrow mobs pressuring precisely opposite ends. 43 Minority need bear mind Constitution, treat power, indeed duty, Those encourage patrol choose, advance end, service cause, country. am confident mistaken believed history past years kept coercive kind. Government ordained precious, sacred, jeopardized subjecting intimidatory practices fatal wherever poison streams wholly unwilling join moving country single direction. 44 CLARK, 45 According majority effort intimidate Rouge procure release agitated staging modern Donnybrook Fair preferred resolve controversy submit procedures contacting secure bail early prisoners. 46 14:401, attack haec verba became applies sits. disturbances occurred buildings courts. Naturally, hardly expected progeny phrase "in court" author pleased work. 47 excuses brazen defiance upholds—on subtle seizes acquiescence laudable motive avoid possible bloodshed find confined St. Louis Street—101 steps—would "near" enough violate holds constitutes "indefensible entrapment," citing 1344 (1959). 48 With deference, novel theory. apposite. young Cox—2,000 strong—was distance replete singing, cheering, clapping waving banners drew attention whole square occupants obliged sit-in custody aroused extent cheered i returned activity. confronted interference One needed conducted eyes ringing ears throughout 49 faced "situation accomplished." From beginning proceed march; twice requested turn school; each occasion refused. Finding stop force confine Street 50 All including limited. minutes, claims program Regardless amount upon, implies relevant deciding activity inclusion limitation me, inconsistent made. finding ignore hold—as sub silentio—that once occupy remain indefinitely. Once close zone refusal leave. Thus meanwhile empowers eject submit, complete frustration State. 51 Because unable "near," interpretation, since feel refutes made, respectfully dissent finding. 52 follow logic controlled petitioners reversed propounded hearing. turns actuality all, heat southern avoiding potentialities race riot. large endangering tenuous chosen waive prosecution advice tendered conducting determined go regarding acts. Here, petitioner divided officer. noted, fait accompli. distinctions, enticement agents establish Raley-type entrapment. arguendo admits Chief's determination, binding certainly discretion. 54 reading favorable would, consented location. consent, knew official—city, national—could forgive laws. missed school, head Criminal Division Department Justice. 55 taught Nation mobs, integrationists white supremacists. Our gives today. contemporary drive successful framework Goals, laudable, pursued mobocracy end lead restraints expression. To permit, condone, anarchistic devices disaster. imprimatur misfortune love regret. must, therefore, Brother BLACK facet Clause.1 And, seen, arrive latter Act 57 declares peace" disperse officer offense. Each elements unequivocal language. York challenged grounds 267.2 upheld Feiner's disorderly charge. "far situation" Feiner: "There person 80, compared lineup [2,000] [250] onlookers. Perhaps [appellant's]speech animated setting created greater riot disorder. conversant almost spontaneous combustion Southern communities [Sheriff's] averted catastrophe." 243-244, 688, 697 Clark, J.). instant Fields 375 44, 149, 107 (1963). went peculiar fields ambiguity upholds. words " "below cost" Dairy Products Corp., 29, 594, 561 (1963), cited. exclusion activities unions, regard condemning passages. dissent. WHITE, HARLAN joins, part. filed III although everything says conviction, particularly unqualified extended exhortations sit-ins restaurants, governed 697, reversed. Regretfully, application. remarkable emasculation prohibitory meetings authorities. indication who, pointing announced meeting, "most kind, reluctance desires start." magnitude abutting buildings. sheriff "we parish." "any organization" received "had Parish Courthouse," "colored white, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, organization, *." Similarly respects "have mass picketing." response GOLDBERG'S "arrangements usually depending size arrangements cooperation crowd." view, together short justification converting into open-ended licensing approach invention litigated parties below. develop refute factual underlying rationale. 67 Under uncritical seem unavoidable middle rush hour location hour, day, risking sidewalks. bizarre intrusion management Furthermore, necessarily license circumstance. Two possession entire block. entrances impossible. If entitled holds, nevertheless unnecessary continue ad infinitum. requested. asked well. reached rhetoric ordinance. contrasted, proscribing acts 500 foreign embassies, legations, consulates District Columbia. (1938); D.C.Code, 22—1115. McKinney's Consol. Laws, 40, Penal Law 600 (prohibiting 200 courthouse). 561; Cole Arkansas, 196, 514, 644 (holding done 'at near' exists, issue context faced). Institute, Model Code 2.04(3)(b) thereon, Tentative Draft 4, 17—18, 138—139; Hall Seligman, Mistake Mens Rea, U.Chi.L.Rev. 641, 675—677 (1941); Ferguson, 134 Cal.App. 41, P.2d 965. subjectively permission, subjective ever communicated 485, infra, full 457, n. 2, conflicting whether, 14:103.1 (Cum.Supp.1962) part; "Whoever occasioned thereby: (1) congregates providing herein bona fide organization lawful concerted accomplishing securing wage standards, hours employment highway, fails refuses move on, municipality, parish, act committed, authorized guilty disturbing '14:100.1 part: "No wilfully free, convenient bridge, alley, road, passageway, entrance, corridor passage building, structure, watercraft ferry, impeding, hindering, stifling, retarding restraining thereon therein. "Providing more, conditions. courthouse: "[H]e "Whoever, occupied uses sound-truck resorts residence, both. Philadelphia Bank, 374 350-352, 1715, 1734-1736, 915; California Power Commission, 369 484-485, 901, 903-904, 54; Socony-Vacuum Oil 150, 225-227, 811, 846, 1129. Parts Section 722 Consol.Laws, "Any whereby occasioned, commits conduct: "1. Uses offensive, disorderly, abusive insulting behavior; "2. Acts annoy, disturb, interfere obstruct, offensive others; "3. Congregates police; "4. By causes collect, except lawfully addressing

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