Document: 475 U.S. 503 106 S.Ct. 1310 89 L.Ed.2d 478 S. Simcha GOLDMAN, Petitionerv.Caspar W. WEINBERGER, Secretary of Defense, et al. No. 84-1097. Argued Jan. 14, 1986. Decided March 25, Syllabus Petitioner, an Orthodox Jew and ordained rabbi, was ordered not to wear a yarmulke while on duty in uniform as commissioned officer the Air Force at Base, pursuant regulation that provides authorized headgear may be worn out doors but indoors "[h]eadgear [may] . except by armed security police performance their duties." Petitioner then brought action Federal District Court, claiming application prevent him from wearing his infringed upon First Amendment freedom exercise religious beliefs. The Court permanently enjoined enforcing against petitioner. Appeals reversed. Held: does prohibit challenged being applied petitioner even though its effect is restrict required That require military accommodate such practices face view they would detract uniformity sought dress regulations. Here, has drawn line essentially between apparel visible which not, reasonably evenhandedly regulates interest military's perceived need for uniformity. Pp. 506-510. 236 U.S.App.D.C. 248, 734 F.2d 1531 (1984), affirmed. REHNQUIST, J., delivered opinion BURGER, C.J., WHITE, POWELL, STEVENS, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion, WHITE joined, post, p. 510. BRENNAN, dissenting MARSHALL, 513. BLACKMUN, 524. O'CONNOR, 528. Nathan Lewin, Washington, D.C., Kathryn A. Oberly, respondents. Justice REHNQUIST Court. 1 Goldman contends Free Exercise Clause United States Constitution permits uniform, notwithstanding mandating personnel. Columbia penalizing yarmulke. Circuit reversed ground Force's strong discipline justified strict enforcement requirements. We granted certiorari because importance question, 472 1016, 105 3475, 87 612 (1985), now affirm. 2 rabbi. In 1973, he accepted into Armed Forces Health Professions Scholarship Program placed inactive reserve status studied clinical psychology Loyola University Chicago. During three years scholarship program, received monthly stipend allowance tuition, books, fees. After completing Ph.D. psychology, entered active service officer, accordance with requirement participants program serve one year each subsidized education. stationed Base Riverside, California, served psychologist mental health clinic base. 3 Until 1981, prevented He avoided controversy remaining close station cap over when doors. But April after testified defense witness court-martial cap, opposing counsel lodged complaint Colonel Joseph Gregory, Hospital Commander, arguing petitioner's practice violation Regulation (AFR) 35-10. This states pertinent part will [w]hile AFR 35-10, ¶ 1-6.h(2)(f) (1980). 4 Gregory informed indeed violate this outside hospital. Although virtually all time base spent hospital, refused. Later, attorney protested General Counsel, revised order Petitioner's request report civilian clothing pending legal resolution issue denied. next day formal letter reprimand, warned failure obey 35-10 could subject court-martial. also withdrew recommendation extend term approved, substituted negative recommendation. 5 sued respondent Defense others, preliminarily regulation, v. 530 F.Supp. 12 (1981), full hearing prohibiting uniform. 29 EPD 32,753 (1982). Respondents appealed Circuit, (1984). As initial matter, determined appropriate level scrutiny clashes constitutional right neither nor rational basis. Id., 252, F.2d, 1535-1536. Instead, it held must examined determine whether "legitimate ends are achieved," id., 253, 1536, "designed individual degree." Ibid. Applying test, court concluded "the renders permissible." 257, 1540. denied petition rehearing en banc, judges dissenting. 238 267, 739 657 6 argues him, prohibits religiously motivated conduct should therefore analyzed under standard enunciated Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 406, 83 1790, 1795, 10 965 (1963). See Thomas Review Bd. Indiana Employment Security Div., 450 707, 101 1425, 67 624 (1981); Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 92 1526, 32 15 (1972). we have repeatedly is, necessity, specialized society separate society." Parker Levy, 417 733, 743, 94 2547, 2555, 41 439 (1974). Chappell Wallace, 462 296, 300, 103 2362, 2365, 76 586 (1983); Schlesinger Councilman, 420 738, 757, 95 1300, 1312-13, 43 591 (1975); Orloff Willoughby, 345 83, 94, 73 534, 540, 97 L.Ed. 842 (1953). "[T]he insist respect without counterpart life," supra, U.S., S.Ct., prepare perform vital role. Brown Glines, 444 348, 354, 100 594, 599, 62 540 7 Our review regulations grounds far more deferential than similar laws or designed society. encourage debate tolerate protest extent tolerance state Amendment; accomplish mission foster instinctive obedience, unity, commitment, esprit de corps. See, e.g., 2365; Greer Spock, 424 828, 843-844, 96 1211, 1220, 47 505 (1976) (POWELL, concurring); 744, 2556. essence "is subordination desires interests needs service." 92, 539. 8 These aspects life do course, render entirely nugatory context guarantees Amendment. 304, 2367. "within community there simply same [individual] autonomy larger community." 751, 2559. present case, evaluating justify particular restriction conduct, courts give great deference professional judgment authorities concerning relative interest. 305, 2368; 93-94, 540. Not only " 'ill-equipped impact any intrusion authority might have,' 2368, quoting Warren, Bill Rights Military, 37 N.Y.U.L.Rev. 181, 187 (1962), been charged Executive Legislative Branches carrying our Nation's policy. "[J]udicial apogee legislative congressional raise support armies make rules governance challenged." Rostker Goldberg, 453 57, 70, 2646, 2655, 69 (1981). 9 considered traditional outfitting personnel standardized uniforms encourages personal preferences identities favor overall group mission. Uniforms sense hierarchical unity tending eliminate outward distinctions those rank. considers them during peacetime war ready provide effective moment's notice; necessary habits developed advance trouble. acknowledged "[t]he inescapable demands obedience orders cannot taught battlefields; habit immediate compliance procedures reflex no reflection." 2365. To end, promulgated 190-page document, "Air members performing duties, clothes duty." 1-6 rest document describes minute detail various items It authorizes few individualized options certain pieces jewelry hairstyle, these severe limitations. Table 1-1, 1-12.b(1)(b) general, 1-6.h Indoors, A narrow exception rule exists indoor ceremonies. 1-6.h(2)(d) addition, commanders discretion permit other designated living quarters nonvisible generally. Department Directive 1300.17 (June 18, 1985). 11 requires requirements unless accouterments create "clear danger" undermining asserts "unobtrusive" danger accommodated. failed prove specific unobtrusive threaten discipline. assertion contrary mere ipse dixit, actual experience scientific study record, contradicted expert testimony exceptions fact desirable increase morale making humane place. witnesses feel quite beside point. desirability decided officials, mandate abandon judgment. Quite obviously, yarmulke, described silent devotion akin prayer, objectionable probably others. hold portions here regulate 13 Affirmed. 14 whom POWELL join, concurring. Captain presents especially attractive case applicable His faith readily apparent. familiar sight.1 addition significance wearer, evoke deepest admiration—the symbol distinguished tradition2 eloquent rebuke ugliness anti-Semitism.3 Goldman's duties performed setting modest departure creates almost impairment Moreover, record before us, reason believe policy had retaliatory motive—he testifying behalf defendant proceeding.4 Nevertheless, argued,5 I test validity merely applies who sincere beliefs conflict commands. 16 BRENNAN unmoved Government's concern "while seem obtrusive Jew, turban Sikh, saffron robe Satchidananda Ashram-Integral Yogi, dreadlocks Rastafarian." Post, 519. correctly points "turbans, robes, us case," suggests cases fairly reference reasonable based "functional utility, safety considerations, goal polished, appearance." explained, approach attaches weight itself. Because professionals attach plausible interest, recognize legitimate admiration "rag-tag band soldiers" won Revolutionary War persuade Government exaggerated 17 uniformity, however, dimension still greater me. treatment faiths. very strength claim Sikh Rastafarian dismissed "so extreme, so unusual, faddish image public confidence ability destroyed." 518. If code basis multifactored proposed inevitably decisionmaker's evaluation character sincerity requester's faith—as well probable reaction majority favored member faith—will play critical decision. For difference dreadlock hand, other, "appearance"—it Rastafarian, other. business drawing persons commands universal application.6 18 demonstrates, neutral, completely objective visibility. hostility against, special for, faith. An yarmulkes represent fundamental true principle supports rule. reason, join Court's 19 MARSHALL joins, 20 invokes protection fulfill obligations male Jew—to cover head omnipresent God. response abdicate role principal expositor protector liberties credulous unsupported assertions necessity. dissent. 21 * ruling paramount override Dr. free claim, overlooks serious nature claim. regulations, rather right, issue. declares selecting "military officials judgment." Ante, 509. wanted hat keep warm bald spot majority. Mere constitutionally protected. Amendment, restrains Jewish serviceman from, punish yarmulke.1 22 attempts, unsuccessfully, minimize burden rights. yarmulke," observant Jews "objectionable." sets up absolute bar fulfillment duty. most indoors, where forbade cap. Consequently, asked tenets every work-day. II 23 asserted substantial entitled meaningful evades responsibility eliminating, name only, judicial interfere rights 24 protect treasured liberties, able command sacrifice many freedoms enjoyed endure limitations retain. 354-357, 599-601, (1980); 848, 1222, 743-744, 2555-56, 2559, Notwithstanding acknowledgment, steadfastly maintained 'our citizens stripped basic doffed clothes.' 2367, (1983) (quoting 188 (1962)); see also, 599. And, hesitated, due lack expertise affairs delegated coordinate branch, strike down restrictions function, see, 66-67, 2652-53, (1981) (citing cases), never abdicated obligation review. 67, 2653. 25 Today eschews mandated adopts decisions affecting subrational-basis standard—absolute, uncritical "deference authorities." 507. branch sufficiently important outweigh person's rights, seems accept conclusion, matter how absurd be. 26 review, mean credit arguments defy common sense. When burdens provide, minimum, credible explanation contested likely proffered interest.2 Unabashed dixit wutweigh right. 27 undermined permitting yarmulkes. restates offering requests interests. Had given consideration compelled decide favor. B 28 maintains brief jeopardized whenever granted. Service trained arbitrary reflexively. Non-Jewish perceive unauthorized begin question unswerving obedience. Thus shall fighting forces slip treacherous slope toward unkempt appearance, anarchy, and, ultimately, defeat hands enemies. contention subverted if allowed surpasses belief. lacks offers general proposition. While perilous services arbitrarily refuse requested satisfy preferences, advance, least, doing so. 30 Furthermore, logically defend content insisting depends adherence whatever established. If, Usher admitted trial, App. 52, codified exemptions "no-headgear-indoors" sanctioned deviation rules. 31 dress, establishes preeminence identity, thus fostering corps loyalty transcends bonds. brief, characterizes individuality badge ethnic strongly suggesting that, such, drive wedge divisiveness services. First, purported complete elimination identification itself belied service's own expressly abjures total uniformity: "(1) American elected representatives draw conclusions effectiveness what see; presents. instill leave doubt lives responds 33 "(2) Appearance image. Neither expects appearance. Each within limits, express through her However, disciplined can relied job excludes fad." &Par; 1-12a(1) (2) (1978).3 34 seriously contended destroyed. Under standards, then, 35 allows men rings bracelet "neat conservative," nonuniform, design. 1-12b(1)(b) (1978). apparently permitted if, often rings, associates wearer denominational school secular fraternal organization. emblems religious, social, identity deemed unacceptably divisive, rationally 36 allow, rightly so, manifestations diversity. clear some attend services, Christian, Islamic, yet Barracks mates Mormons temple garments, tzitzit, Catholics crosses scapulars. come different faiths backgrounds secret kept them. find totally implausible suggestion overarching threatened were uniforms. contrary, reminder shared proud embraces unites pluralism. 38 Finally, obtrusiveness purely relative, standardless notes Rastafarian. yarmulkes, allow forms grooming. 39 dangles classic parade horribles, specter brightly-colored, soldiers." Brief 20. turbans, evaluated reasons reviewing legitimately grooming reasoned in, example, functional appearance.4 1-12a (1978) (identifying neatness, cleanliness, safety, four elements code's "high appearance"). striking here. 40 intimations, available determining style consistent appearance—the conservative" jewelry. No why judged criterion. Indeed, argument declared himself willing color believes best comports Tr. 18. 1985) grants commanding officers crosses, STEVENS favors "visibility test" involve among 512-513. rejects health, criteria code, fears standards servicepersons obligations, preventing others fulfilling theirs. But, visible/not effect. restricts number servicepersons. visibility individuals whose outer garments indistinguishable mainstream Christians duties. my view, selection greatest possible freely. 42 Implicit STEVENS' concurrence, arguments, characterized fairness concern. unfair minority dreadlocks, forth. appreciate share feelings faiths, am baffled formulation problem. What puzzles me implication neutral result disparate Sikhs troublesome existing Christians, Both suspect; either sustained, shown narrowly tailored means promoting perplexed related notion purposes analysis divided two categories—those without. dual category incorporate assumption fairness, perhaps, equal protection, belonging treated alike, differently category. practical categorization guise neutrality evenhandedness, religions distinctive fundamentally flawed leads intended prevent. relevant category—all Burdens independently another religion. enough say Rastafarians dreadlocks. 44 Unless promotes significant impermissible. advances "uniform treatment" religions. 512. shown, illusory, uniformly accommodating rejecting practices. directly, agencies define function assigned independent promote agency. Lee, 455 257-258, 102 1051, 1055-56, 71 127 (1982); (1972); furthered dress. demonstrated Part II-B(2), prohibition 45 utterly furnish neat conservative "distort approve deem expedient." Korematsu States, 323 214, 244, 65 193, 207, 194 (1944) (Jackson, dissenting). prevail. III 46 Through Rights, pledged ourselves attain human dignity parallel history. commitment acceptance pluralism achievements noble endeavor. Almost 200 drafted, set apart countries draws shores refugees persecution around world. Guardianship precious liberty exclusive domain federal courts. branches Government. providing satisfied much remove actions scrutiny. Nation preserved religion, trusting good government alone, vigilant oversight checking judiciary. 48 province second-guess judgments bound assure foundation necessity "The concept seductively broad," 369, 614 (BRENNAN, dissenting), decisionmakers themselves succumb allure public. Definitions influenced decisionmakers' experiences values. consequence, pluralistic societies ours, institutions dominated inevitably, inadvertently, insensitive values minorities differ military, ethic conformity unquestioning particularly impervious Religion Clauses quiet erosion majoritarian social dismiss unimportant, unfamiliar. ensure purpose realized. 49 services5 presented patriotic painful dilemma—the choice serving country. Should draft reinstated, compulsion replace choice. pain inflict servicemen clearly insensitivity design, unworthy unnecessary. refused rights; hope Congress correct wrong. 50 51 reverse Appeals, somewhat respectively O'CONNOR. considering costs allowing cumulative exemptions. Because, showing significant, dissent rejection 52 concedes wears conviction. Goldman, Jews, "a expression God aware God's presence." 156 (petitioner's deposition). anything, individual's desire follow preference, accommodated convenience allows. read Clause, correctly, "only highest otherwise overbalance claims religion." 215, 1533, "may in-road [only] least restrictive achieving compelling interest." 718, 1432, import Sherbert, made inroad results "evenhanded" facially requirement. "Rules rules" sufficient justification infringing liberty. 53 Nor compromised says sure, Services take account mission." 758, 2563, O'CONNOR point out, forfeit price enlistment. Except "interests order," soldiers civilians dictates 54 ordinary inroads modified context, produce minimally refusal covered indoors. agree serves supplement poses threat readiness. specifically found adverse performance, disruption operations base, complaints 32,753, pp. 25,540-25,541 55 way distinguishing exemption potential appearance perhaps conspicuous ways. theory, makes Like prescribing arbitrary; defended grounds. Particularly noncombat roles, variations prescribed attire frequently goals There distinguish aside degree service, criterion raises problems turbans latter obtrusive—or, suggests, less "polished" "professional," ante, 519-520, discriminate country's established, religions, average observer. conventional receive approach; precisely conventional. difficulty difficult them, favoritism appears establishment, avoiding 56 problem argument, me, doctrinal empirical. fear enlisted let alone granting noticeably impair service. Cf. 719, 1432-33; 407, 1795-96. trial introduction Army publication discussing variety denominations, traditions involving attire. Pamphlet 165-13-1, Religious Requirements Practices Certain Selected Groups: Handbook Supplement Chaplains indication whatsoever belong denominations describes, seek code. 57 circumstances, unwarranted. Reasoned judgments, respect, show one. future, besieged Goldman's, argue credibly circumstances warrant flat apparel. That, hand. 58 59 posed whether, psychologist, inside 60 slightest attempt weigh religion articulated, applied. perceives 61 acknowledges "Captain 511 (concurring). persuaded governmental "neutral, standard," 513, survive challenge. contrast, recognizes "overlooks [the] claim." 514 (dissenting). properly claims. 63 BLACKMUN focuses ways pursue 526-527 (dissenting), nonetheless declines "to context," 526. 64 articulate apply examine light standard. today past difficulty, articulating burdening conduct. (1963), demonstrate policies interest" deprive claimants unemployment benefits work Thomas, 1432. 406-408, (1972), noted religion" deciding Amish exempt State's children age 16. (1982), stated State limitation essential overriding interest," Social system Gillette 401 437, 91 168 (1971) (rejecting challenges Establishment conscientious-objector objecting wars). 66 tests, similar, identical. One can, glean themes precedents. attempts deny unusually stake, denominated "compelling," "of "overriding." Second, harm adopted "least restrictive" "essential," "otherwise served." sensible attempting protected especial chance since aggregated sometimes intolerant powers state, substantially harmed type individual. principles civilian, context. unanimously, (1962)). flexible defending abandoning worth defending. 68 first here, therefore, unusual importance. perfectly step military. destroy freedoms. mission, members. notes, 'must life.' 507 (1975)). unquestionably presence cannot, implicitly believes, end honor acceptable. citizen pursuing cause remain bounds law. So, too, may, interests, restraints second precedents reached here: interest? 70 instances unique fragility necessitates rigidity preserve assertedly analogous pass muster sphere. Compare (1976), Metromedia, Inc. San Diego, 490, 2882, 800 West Virginia Board Education Barnette, 319 624, 630-634, 1178, 1181-83, 1628 (1943). Nonetheless, persuasively argues, convincing proof 517-520 518, force states: 72 "Neither 1-12.a.(2) assert, plausibly argue, decision hospital safety. And finally, creating discontent indiscipline worked, "[f]rom September 1977 May 7, objection raised uniform." 25,539 (1982) (emphasis added). 74 rare consistently enforcement, seeking unfounded, yield On facts belief Goldman. Napoleon assert sphere, factors one,* scales justice bear similarly disproportionate 75 respectfully brief: "Yarmulkes generally understood form observance. They commonly seen today's wherever found. campuses East Coast—have numbers young streets New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Miami, commonplace. increasingly centers commerce, including retail businesses, brokerage houses, stock exchanges. Attorneys courthouses York, attorneys sit Bar Section oral arguments." 11. Appeals' denial Judge Starr moved describe "symbol [a] roots deep venerable Western civilization itself" morality Judaeo-Christian tradition arisen." 268, 657, 658 N. Belth, Promise Keep (1979) (recounting history anti-Semitism States). intolerance country glimpsed Story's observation "not countenance, Mahometanism, Judaism, infidelity, prostrating Christianity; exclude rivalry Christian sects," J. Story, Commentaries § 1877, 594 (1851)—a has, explicitly rejected. Wallace Jaffree, 38, 52-55, 2479, 2487-2489, 86 (1985). Before provoked confrontation, extremely high ratings evaluations. 214-225. evaluators noted: "He bearing." 217. about 15, 22, acted until incident. (District finding court-martial, "no uniform"). mounted broad challenge argued narrower valid, i (stating Question Presented "Whether 'yarmulke'—an skullcap observance—while hospital"); ("The barring patently unsound. Indeed symbolic educational teaching defenders observance"). 263, n. 2, 1058, (STEVENS, judgment) ("In adopting presumption administrative convenience. keeping government—whether legislature merits differing claims"). 60, 2491 (referring established course religion"); Committee Public & Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 792-793, 93 2955, 2975-76, 948 (1973) ("A proper both compels 'neutrality' Abington School Schempp, 203, 226, 1560, 1573-74, 844 (1963) relationship man firmly committed position neutrality"). dark-colored measuring approximately 51/2 inches diameter. 3. continue personnel, regulation. 367, 613, (1980) think compelling-interest prong test. My 1978 1980 editions governed, sequentially, period identical respects case. ordering troops uniforms, become entangled machinery, requiring hair short grabbed combat louse-free field conditions. refer just because, emphasizes 20, 11, uniformed comparable Military Departments recent deals accommodation Letter, Aug. 27, 1808 war, moral considerations three-quarters, balance quarter"), translated quoted Cohen M. Cohen, Penguin Dictionary Quotations 268 (1962).

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