Document: 440 U.S. 332 99 S.Ct. 1139 59 L.Ed.2d 358 Arthur F. QUERN, etc., Petitioner,v.John JORDAN, etc. No. 77-841. Argued Nov. 8, 1978. Decided March 5, 1979. Syllabus In Edelman v. Jordan, 415 651, 94 1347, 39 662, it was held that retroactive welfare benefits awarded by a Federal District Court to the plaintiff class, reason of wrongful denial Illinois officials prior entry court's order determining wrongfulness their actions, violated Eleventh Amendment, and in an action under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 "a federal remedial power, consistent with is necessarily limited prospective injunctive relief . may not include award which requires payment funds from state treasury." Edelman, supra, at 677, S.Ct., 1362. On remand, ordered send each member class notice informing him he denied public assistance entitled, together "Notice Appeal" recipient could request hearing on benefits. The Appeals reversed ground proposed form would have been barred but stated remand "mere explanatory applicants advising them there administrative procedure available if they desire determine whether or be eligible for past benefits," returnable appeal also provided. Held: 1. Neither Monell New York City Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 98 2018, 56 611, legislative history cited decision, nor this Court's Amendment cases subsequent cast any doubt Edelman's holding & does abrogate immunity States. Section explicitly clear language indicate its face intent sweep away States; focuses directly question liability shows Congress considered firmly decided Hutto Finney, 437 678, 2565, 57 522, distinguished. Nor reaffirmance case render meaningless insofar as States are concerned. Pp. 338-345. 2. modified contemplated constitutes permissible "retroactive Such effect simply informs members existing procedures receive determination eligibility benefits, suit end, court can provide no further relief. Whether decides take advantage left completely discretion particular member, playing role decision. And will rests entirely state, agencies, courts, legislature, court. 346-349. 563 F.2d 873, affirmed. William A. Wenzel, III, Chicago, Ill., petitioner. Sheldon H. Roodman, respondent. 1 REHNQUIST, Justice. 2 This sequel 662 (1974), we five Terms ago. plaintiffs, Amendment.1 issue now before us same may, those mere entitled We granted certiorari resolve apparent conflict between decision United Seventh Circuit Third Fanty Commonwealth Pennsylvania, Public Welfare, 551 (CA3 1977).2 435 904, 1447, 55 494 (1978). believe comes involves little, any, unbroken area, affirm judgment Circuit. 3 Following our Northern Illinois, upon motion plaintiff, recipient: "[Y]ou were you amount $———." Jordan Trainor, 405 F.Supp. 802, 809 (1975).3 Enclosed required mailing Appeal," when signed returned Department Aid, requested That stated: "The department illegally delayed processing my AABD application, and, consequence, me I am entitled." Id., 810. 4 Appeals, en banc, found since least purported decide should used satisfy claims without consent State appropriate officials. 875 (1977).4 reason, A simple provided." Ibid. view, such violate distinction set forth relief, permitted retrospective not: 5 envisage create 'liability' against state. might result matter determination, No created. labeled equitable restitution damages defendant makes out incidental expense connected preparation notice. It has suggested record included regular monthly mailing. necessary information computer. There indication substantial." F.2d, 876. 6 Under procedure, stated, given more than "they gathered sitting courtroom reading listening news accounts had attracted attention." 877-878.5 Three judges dissented majority's revised Amendment. 7 reaffirmed rule evolved earlier private parties seeking impose must paid treasury U.S., 663, 1355; see Kennecott Copper Corp. Tax Comm'n, 327 573 (1946); Ford Motor Co. Treasury, 323 459, 65 347, 89 L.Ed. 389 (1945); Great Life Ins. Read, 322 47, 64 88 1121 (1944). rejected notion because lower grant styled "equitable restitution" But pointed landmark Ex parte Young, 209 123, 28 441, 52 714 (1908), court, enjoin conform future conduct requirements law, even though injunction ancillary treasury. 667-668, 1357-1358; Milliken Bradley, 433 267, 289, 97 2749, 2761, 53 745 (1977); Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 237, 1683, 1686, 40 90 (1974). doctrine Young difference one hand other.6 8 Petitioner official devotes significant part his brief attack send. is, however, Court, review behest just petitioner insists tilting windmills attacking respondent suggests eviscerated later decisions 611 Brief Respondent n. 37. See Aldridge Turlington, TCA-78-830 (N.D.Fla., 17, 1978); Skehan Board Trustees Bloomsburg College, 590 470 1978). As noted above, [42 U.S.C.] treasury, supra." disagree respondent's suggestion. "limited local government units purposes," 690 54, 2035 Edelman. Alabama Pugh, 438 781, 3057, 1114 (1978); 522 supra; Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 96 2666, 49 614 (1976); supra.7 9 While separate opinions supra,8 debated continuing soundness after Monell, score largely dispelled 10 days Hutto. Pugh held, over three dissents, joined violating complaint based claim violation Eighth Fourteenth Amendments similar made said: "There doubt, Corrections unless consented filing suit. (1974); Worcester County Trust Riley, 302 292, 58 185, 82 268 (1937)." 782, 3058.9 11 both "local units," supra. latter " 'threshold fact congressional authorization,' lacking present express amendment making Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964 applicable governments. 452, 2669, quoting 672, 1360. 12 Mr. Justice BRENNAN opinion concurring argues States' "most likely incorrect." Post, 354. To reach conclusion relies "assum[ptions]" drawn post, 355, "occasional remarks" contains little debate 1871, 17 Stat. 13, precursor 1983, 15,10 reference "bodies politic" Feb. 25, 16 431, "Dictionary Act," 355-35711 finally general itself, 356. But, unlike Brother BRENNAN, unwilling believe, basis slender "evidence," intended override traditional sovereign therefore conclude neither reasoning additional arguments BRENNAN's opinion, justify different reached Edelman.12 13 supporters opponents 1871 believed ceded Government many important powers previously within exclusive province individual States.13 Many remarks quoted amply demonstrate point. 359-365. Monroe Pape, 365 167, 173-176, 81 473, 476-478, 492 (1961). logic, circumstances surrounding adoption compels, warrants, leap proposition overturn constitutionally guaranteed several States.14 Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 71 783, 95 1019 (1951), attempt interpret word "person" withdrawal historic legislators. words bear repeating here: 14 "Did statute mean tradition freedom achieved England War carefully preserved formation National Governments here? Did subject legislators civil acts done sphere activity? limits §§ statute—now 43 47(3) 8—were spelled debate. cannot Congress—itself staunch advocate freedom—would impinge so well grounded covert inclusion us." 376, 788. 15 Given importance immunity, Members 42d overrode surely lengthy point paraded along other evils thought Act. Instead, passed only Member mentioned direct financial consequences enacting silence itself Our consistently clearer showing purpose able marshal. Employees Missouri Health Dept., 411 279, 93 1614, 36 251 (1973), concluded did lift Fair Labor Standards 1938, 29 201-219, absence "by constitutional swept away. easy infer legislating pursuant Commerce Clause, grown vast proportions applications, desired silently deprive long enjoyed another Constitution." 285, 1618.15 1964, 2000e et seq., "threshold authorization" sue employer, explicit availability governments event Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Attorney General failed bring conciliation agreement. 448 1, 449 2, 2667 2668 2669; 1972, 86 105, 2000e-5(f)(1); H.R.Rep.No.92-238, pp. 17-19 (1971); S.Rep.No.92-415, 9-11 S.Conf.Rep.No.92-681, 17-18 (1972); H.R.Conf.Rep.No.92-899, (1972), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News p. 2137. Finally, last Term, Attorney's Fees Awards 1976, 1988, authorize fee awards payable sued capacities. 693-694, 2575-2576. Although statutory separately words,16 focusing liability; suggestion immune awards." 698 31, 2578 31. Also, rendered respect attorney's fees Ibid.; 285-286, 1618-1619. By contrast, (1908).17 turn, then, caused disagreement Courts Appeals: constitute treasury"? think falls side line rather side.18 preparing notice.19 giving lead inexorably it, effect, amounts monetary award. chain causation seeks establish means unbroken; numerous missing links, supplied, all, approved apprises existence whatever already law appeal, told, virtually identical sent Aid every reduction sending trigger machinery. member; plays State, court.20 18 properly viewed 290, 2762. wish pursue. raises objection it. "given what courtroom." 877-878. 19 Affirmed. 20 whom MARSHALL joins Parts I, II, judgment. 21 For reasons dissent 687, 1367, concur Court.1 22 * deeply disturbing, engage today's gratuitous departure customary judicial practice unnecessary holding. today correctly rules below "properly relief." Ante, 349. sufficient sustain goes conclude, patently dicta, purposes Rev.Stat. 1979.2 23 because, ago, (1976), "Congress 'appropriate legislation' enforcing provisions suits impermissible contexts." 456, 2671. If therefore, abrogated statute.3 Fitzpatrick, "[t]he 187-191, 484, (1961), exclude cities municipal corporations ambit; being case, defendant." 2669.4 premise undercut (1978), re-examination municipality indeed statute.5 concurrence 703, 2581, "surely open construed make liable all kinds, notwithstanding Amendment." 24 dicta close named party alleging unconstitutional conditions confinement. presented "[w]hether mandatory issued violates State's exceeds jurisdiction courts 1983." 782-783, 3058. defendant. 25 stand 1983. Not fail mention frames addressed "consented suit." Since Alabama's irrelevant encompassed apparently first half immunity" considering deciding second half—whether "exceeds 1983."6 26 parsing strengthened consideration short per curiam, day Term briefs merits argument. petition respondents' opposition filed February 6, 1978, April respectively, months announced. They thus benefit Monell's major re-evaluation 1983.7 Respondents raise possibility 1983.8 not, phrases then aware ofMonell, ante, 340 9, detailing implications anomalous address consider issue. 27 reliance particularly briefed argued instant case. Indeed, states flatly "the banc rest term 'person' includes states, opposed officials, ambit. Petitioner's Writ Certiorari." Reply 14. concurs, stating "it confront far-reaching States, municipalities." Thus, significance ever having presentation issue, either arguments. pure fiat. II fiat disturbing most incorrect. originally enacted 1871. Amendment.9 exemplifies "vast transformation" worked structure federalism Nation War. Mitchum Foster, 407 225, 242, 92 2151, 2162, 32 705 (1972). prohibitions "are directed .. actions political body denominated instruments modes taken." Virginia, 100 339, 346-347, 676 (1880).10 fifth section provides power enforce these legislation." "Congress, virtue ., whenever disregarded Legislative, Executive, Judicial State. mode enforcement discretion." Virginia Rives, 313, 318, 667 (1880). 30 Congress' themselves, merely officers. logical assume, effectuating "interpos[ing] people, guardians people's rights," themselves. Certainly plain enough statute. 31 created cause "any person" who, "under color statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, usage State," deprived rights, privileges, immunities secured Constitution States." less two enactment Act, provided "in hereafter extend applied bodies politic corporate context sense."11 431. "[s]ince nothing 'context' calling restricted interpretation 'person,' prima facie 'bodies politic' among entities sued." 689-690 53, 2035. Even dispute phrase corporate" certainly referred States.12 Heim McCall, 239 175, 188, 78, 82, 60 206 (1915); McPherson Blacker, 146 24, 3, 869 (1892); Poin- dexter Greenhow, 114 270, 288, 903, 912, 185 (1885); Cotton How. 229, 231, 675 (1851); Chisholm Georgia, Dall. 419, 447, (Iredell, J.), 468 (Cushing, J.) (1793); Utah Building Comm'n American Indemnity Co., 105 11, 16, 140 P.2d 763, 766 (1943); Comm'rs Hamilton Noyes, Am.L.Rec. 745, 748 (Super.Ct.Cincinnati 1874); J. Wilson, Works 305 (1804); cf. Keith Clark, 454, 460-461, 1071 (1877); Munn 113, 124, 77 Georgia Stanton, Wall. 50, 76-77, 721 (1868); Butler 402, 416-417, 472 Penhallow Doane's Administrators, 92-93, 507 (1795) J.); Mass. Const., Preamble. during very debates corporate. See, e. g., Globe, Cong., 1st Sess., 661-662 (1871) (hereinafter Globe) (Sen. Vickers) ("What State? Is corporate?"); id., 696 Edmunds). Thus expressed Congress, manifested simultaneously politic, embraced reinforces conclusion. reported House H.R. 320 Representative Shellabarger. At time Shellabarger bill meant aid preservation human liberty "liberally beneficently construed."13 Globe App. 68. give "[f]ull force five" (Rep. Stoughton),14 800 Perry); 685 45, 2033 like themselves.15 481-482 Wilson); Edmunds).16 was, Kerr who instantly recognized, "against rights Union." 46. Shellabarger, introducing bill, explicit, stressing need "necessary affirmative legislation personal guaranties, persons itself." 70. 80 375 Lowe); 568 Bingham elaborated point: 33 extended amendments Constitution. These amendments—thirteen, fourteen, fifteen—do, judgment, vest protect citizens individuals never granted. 34 35 "Why advance omission commission, unlawful combinations conspiracies people? right, inflict wrongs free full protection laws; bound oath affirmation support said, deny equal laws, Constitution, except extent limitations shown, citizen remedy. took property compensation, press, speech, conscience, bought sold men Who dare say, amended, nation abuses denials right combination persons?" 83, 85 (emphasis added).17 37 necessary, Senator Edmunds gave assault through neglect .," 697, "State," corporation organized thing manifested, represented entirely, fully functions, execution functions respectively devolved." 696. 607-608 Pool). 38 common ground, that, Wilson argued, meaning legislative, judicial, executive"; "appropriate legislation," "legislation adequate meet difficulties encountered suppress existing, furnish remedies penalties suppression infractions citizens"; legislation. 481-483. Those Blair, example, rested including aimed "corporate capacity": inhibitions [Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth] capacities, prohibited alone performed 41 "As individuals, presume capacity character acting such, sustained view tenth article number evident capacity; respectfully call attention gentlemen favor bill." 208.18 209. produced anguished outcry committed unrevised notions sovereignty. Arthur, complained "reaches draws despotic circle central domestic, internal, institutions offices asserts arbitrary paramount control protected, peculiar sense, thereof. Having this, swallowed up institutions, tribunals, leaves shadow once were." 365. 44 answer course, irrevocably profoundly altered balance Governments: 45 "If thinks going too far national supervisory fundamental do agree him. wise permit devotion reserved carried privileges immunities. 46 "We remember perverted admit true significance, arrayed themselves threatened existence. placing check arrogance some fourteenth adopted people. propose trench been, amendment, behalf clearly Constitution; laws protected domestic administration interfered pursuance thereof supreme land. constitution, tested peril experiment." 502 Frelinghuysen). 47 reconstructed union, III 48 historical context, evidence action. pronounces avoiding evidence. chooses hear, eloquent "silence." deafening ears listen. question, briefs, argument, relying precedent equally ill-informed controlling, resolutely opines longer pronounce unavoidable clarity. cedes rectify erroneous misinterpretation. intention plain. MARSHALL, 50 dissenting 688, 1368, 287, 1619, (1973). Moreover, affirmance here follows logically Accordingly, join opinion. greater detail Fanty, alleged manner collected members' reimbursement Philpott Essex Welfare Board, 409 413, 590, 608 agreed, while require notify legal obligation disability refund payments. opinions, reversed. Chief Judge Seitz Garth, result, "borderline," voted reverse controversy. Hunter grounds relevant here. However, disagreed Because qualifying Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 23(b)(2), received complaint, original them. Eisen Carlisle Jacquelin, 417 156, 177 14, 2140, 2152 732 23(e). Rule 23(d)(2), "for otherwise fair action." Prior ordering notice, submit cost notifying them, involved, issues affecting equities response submitted response. indicated approximately 20,000 33,500 class. 34a. identifying running department's computer period cull names members. claimed mailings disputed allegations Court. panel requiring "jurisdictional bar exercise concerning inaction Aged, Blind, Disabled Program." 152, 155 (1977). reaching relied summary Grubb Sterrett, 315 990 (N.D.Ind.), aff'd, 400 922, 91 187, 182 (1970), Indiana list affirmances overruled exhaustive. prefer Edelman: "[T]hat portion decree challenges much [Ex followed it]. funds, consequence compliance substantive federal-question compensation whose applications processed slower schedule court-imposed standard. virtual certainty pockets defendants measured terms loss resulting breach duty officials." 668, 1358. "Edelman '[t]he defendant.' 351. Monroe's "persons" "premise" "undercut." fallacy aptly demonstrated POWELL Hutto, where essential position ignores squarely adverting treatment Pape ." 708-709, 2583-2584, 6. fact, addition Two misapplied laid down 704, 2581 (POWELL, J., dissenting); 710, 2584 (REHNQUIST, dissenting). joining wrote suggest true." 2580. recognized curiously text face, says, 352-354. "without 1983," 352-353, labored disability. handed nearly month precise If, harbored doubts about continued validity waiver inconceivable taken extraordinary summarily reversing amendment. 665, 2023. sections drew certain crimes, President militia widespread Ku Klux Klan violence, authorized suspension writ habeas corpus circumstances. 665 2023 11. Dictionary "few construction statutes." Cong.Globe, 41st 3d 1474 (remarks Rep. Poland). came years passage 1866, 27, served model 68 Shellabarger); 183-185, 481-483, (1961); 362 17. characterizes "gratuitous" "paten[t] dicta." 350. useless discretionary conflicting interpretations correct, truth valid. arise blue; extensively discussed brother Finney Term. how characterized "dicta." attacked strip punish proscribe offenses borders, 396 Rice); 112 Moore); 117 Sen. Blair), authority called into territory quell disturbances, 647 Davis); 139 McCormick). Indeed Prigg-Dennison-Day cases, heavily militate 672-683, 2027-2032; Prigg Pet. (41 U.S.) 539, 1060 (1842); Kentucky Dennison, (65 66, 717 (1861); Collector Day, (78 122 (1871). (1880), decade substantially 676, 2028. (as ), reigning theory [the] day" enacted. "found [statute] possible courts." 1618. added statute's meaningless. Employees, 695, 2576, careful emphasize concerned expenses incurred litigation involved prelitigation conduct. 2576. imposed 'enormous fiscal burdens were, formal Fitzpatrick. 697 2027 27. Extending obviously place "enormous discloses imposing regarding Osborn Bank Wheat. (22 738, 204 (1824), similarly unpersuasive. 359-361, 16. Marshall's key inquiry officer real interest nominal party. Wheat., 858. Planters' 907, 244 (1824). Marshall emphasized four Governor Madrazo, 110, 73 (1828). Mandrazo, vessel carrying slaves seized delivered possession Georgia. proceeds placed Mandrazo libel naming others, Restitution although demand nominally sought forbidden governor, governor; sued, name, title. him, personally, officially. pronounced person, officer, appeared successor defendant; appealed bond executed governor information. chief magistrate style office, character, record. party, made. person natural brought proceeding thing, capable appearing defendant, pronounced, regularly pronounced." 123-124 added). How., 97-98, principles which, emphasized, "well known Congress" 679, 2568. Davis Gray, 203, 447 (1873), official, inconsistent suffices say repudiated (1945), "[W]hen essence recovery money real, substantial invoke defendants." 464, petitioner's arguments, contends Appeals' established disagree. play determined. re Sanford Fork Tool 160 247, 291, 414 (1895). "Circuit matters mandate court." 256, 293. Accord, Wells Fargo Taylor, 254 93, 205 (1920). constitutionality 1356. propriety lacked remand. contention remanded proceedings opinion," hold fashioned spirit "While controlling compass, issues." Sprague Ticonic Bank, 307 161, 168, 777, 83 1184 (1939), citing appears answers associated de minimis. January 1974, program replaced federal-funded Supplemental Security Income program. Pub.L. 92-603, 301, 1465. ultimately members, likelihood reimburse payments relating defunct total agency's Appeals. determines Comptroller draw, Treasurer from, appropriated current year outstanding authorization legislature. 5. lapse appropriations 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, resort Claims. facts influence pursue legislature approval affect 687-688, 1367-1368, "This circumstance, bars Rather, avail nonconstitutional ancient assert 298, 1625, (1973): surrendered Hamilton's words, 'in plan Convention,' formed Union, specifically enumerated powers. 319 7, 1635 7; Parden Terminal R. 377 184, 84 1207, 233 (1964). Congressional enact part, former 1381-1385 (now 801-804 (1970 ed., Supp.II), Art. cl. remain 'because surrender, exists declaration voluntary waiver,' 300, 1626, occasion inquire voluntarily waived participation background precedents judgments payments." states: "Every usage, Territory, subjects, causes subjected, deprivation shall injured equity, proper redress." "An Provisions 13. employed question. ex rel. Gittlemacker Philadelphia, 413 84, 1969) ("In Supreme inescapable"); Williford California, 352 474, 476 (CA9 1965). discussion Civ. (ND Fla., observation STEVENS : "Surely intend Brothers 700 [98 2579, 522] (BRENNAN, concurring), 708-709 2583 6] part)." 783 3058 *] (1978) (STEVENS, Cf. 1977 Harv.L.Rev. 57, 325-326 entire follows: agency amenable Meredith Arizona, 523 481 (9th Cir. 1975); Curtis Everette, 489 516 (3rd 1973). conflict, principle, Kenosha Bruno, 412 507, 2222, 109 municipalities 'persons' Cert. O.T. 1977, 77-1107, 11-12. respondents unilluminating: "Supreme 19(1) 'granted special therefor.' raised Petitioners alleging: (1) Amendment; (2) jurisdiction; (3) 651 [94 662] (1974) Parte 123 [28 714] (1908) costs order. questions unimportant essentially irrelevant. "First, enjoined prison issued, 232 90] carry orders. Second, James Therefore, James. Third, counsel petitioners raise, argue trial Fourth, fit speak all. Fifth, and/or absolutely practical happened happen order." Opposition 9-10. said are, 'No abridge laws.' 346. "It empowered enforce, action, however put forth, executive, judicial. invasion be, people have, enact." "may" interpreted equivalent "shall": "Such use meanings defined perform function—to guide 'rules construction' Acts Congress. [Cong. 775 (1871)] Trumbull)." 689 government, consequently, .." Maurice, Fed.Cas. 15747, Brock. 96, (CC Va.1823). Van Brocklin Tennessee, 151, 154, 670, 845 (1886); Dugan 172, 178, (1818) (argument Wirt). construing Texas creating recover estate "as peaceable adverse thereof," "Of yet Sayles, 3140; Martin Texas, 61, 68." Stanley Schwalby, 147 508, 514, 517, 418, 422, 259 (1893). Shirey, 359 255, 257 79 746, 747 789 (1959); Ohio Helvering, 292 360, 370, 54 725, 727, 78 1307 (1934); Pfizer Inc. India, 434 308, 315-316 15, 584, 589 "there broadly 700, 2041. Lake Country Estates, Tahoe Regional Planning Agency, 391, 399-400, 1171, 1176-1177, 401 (1979). Thurman Ohio, limitation whatsoever employed, comprehensive used." 217 App.) One "express immunity," 344 applying Award "enacted 2578. "dea[l] citizens." 777 793 Willard Vermont, 320, Sherman inhabitants 'riotously tumultuously assembled,' 664, 2022, corporations: "I protection, anywhere, visited anybody failure duty, home Hence, objection, regard justice constitutionality, committed, obtained, enforced State." 791. 756-757 agreement, obligations municipalities, 681 40, 2031, "command whatever, such." 795 Blair). 799 Farnsworth); 113 (1871); (1842). Contrary stands principle whatever," 107, "militate[s] against" militates persons. Everyone officers, violations coordinate sovereignty, distinguished itself. 682, 2031. occasional act individuals," Morton), colored belief "State always instrumentalities," 334 Hoar), effectively acted. Burchard "In observance duties applies acts. interference prerogatives protect. refusal few restricted. enjoins fails appoint presidential electors, Legislature choose Senators, elect Representatives, power. doubtless officers discharge office assumed burdens, obligations, attaches punished law. What prohibition compel observe it? Its consummated acts." 314. noteworthy suing officer. 365-366 Arthur); 385 Lewis); Thurman). approach emerged concern "between other," 337, eliminated anomalous, way anticipate distinction, probably mind held: think, admits exception, depends Consequently, 11th restrains constitution necessity, construed, aliens. record, jurisdiction, whether, ought defendants; interest, parties." 857-858. Four again Marshall, (1828), remained unaltered, evidenced 1871: look beyond Making her prompted behind interest. shaping expressly relation case." 220. regardless preserve parties. introduced state," 350, "on record," inapplicable. modeled criminal custom," inhabitant Territory" act." "That [§ 2] identically 1] remedy application 2: penal [guaranteed Amendment], crime, punishes men, law." 85-86. distinguish, Blair fulfill Reconstruction Amendments.

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