Document: 391 U.S. 145 88 S.Ct. 1444 20 L.Ed.2d 491 Gary DUNCAN, Appellant,v.STATE OF LOUISIANA. No. 410. Argued Jan. 17, 1968. Decided May 20, Rehearing Denied June See 392 947, 2270. Richard B. Sobol, New Orleans, La., for appellant. Mrs. Dorothy D. Wolbrette, appellee. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered the opinion of Court. 1 Appellant, Duncan, was convicted simple battery in Twenty-fifth Judicial District Court Louisiana. Under Louisiana law is a misdemeanor, punishable by maximum two years' imprisonment and $300 fine. Appellant sought trial jury, but because Constitution grants jury trials only cases which capital punishment or at hard labor may be imposed,1 judge denied request. sentenced to serve 60 days parish prison pay fine $150. review Supreme Louisiana, asserting that denial violated rights guaranteed him United States Constitution. The Court, finding '(n)o error ruling complained of,' appellant writ certiorari.2 Pursuant 28 U.S.C. s 1257(2) this alleging Sixth Fourteenth Amendments secure right state criminal prosecutions where sentence as long years imposed. We noted probable jurisdiction,3 set case oral argument with 52, Bloom v. State Illinois, 194, 1477, —-. 2 19 age when tried. While driving on Highway 23 Plaquemines Parish October 18, 1966, he saw younger cousins engaged conversation side road four white boys. Knowing his cousins, Negroes who had recently transferred formerly all-white high school, reported occurrence racial incidents Duncan stopped car, got out, approached six At boys onlooker testified, did cousins. testimony dispute many points, witnesses agreed spoke each other, encouraged break off encounter enter about car himself purpose away whites testified just before getting slapped Herman Landry, one boys, elbow. not merely touched him. concluded proved beyond reasonable doubt committed battery, found guilty. I. 3 Amendment denies power 'deprive any person life, liberty, property, without due process law.' In resolving conclicting claims concerning meaning spacious language, has looked increasingly Bill Rights guidance; first eight have been held protected against action Due Process Clause Amendment. That clause now protects compensation property taken State;4 speech, press, religion covered First Amendment;5 Fourth free from unreasonable searches seizures excluded evidence illegally seized;6 Fifth compelled self-incrimination;7 counsel,8 speedy9 public10 trial, confrontation opposing witnesses,11 compulsory obtaining witnesses.12 4 test determining whether extended respect federal proceedings also phrased variety ways opinions question asked among those "fundamental principles liberty justice lie base all our civil political institutions," Powell Alabama, 287 45, 67, 53 55, 63, 77 L.Ed. 158 (1932);13 it 'basic system jurisprudence,' re Oliver, 333 257, 273, 68 499, 507, 92 682 (1948); 'a fundamental right, essential fair trial,' Gideon Wainwright, 372 335, 343—344, 83 792, 796, 9 799 (1963); Malloy Hogan, 378 1, 6, 84 1489, 1492, 12 653 (1964); Pointer Texas, 380 400, 403, 85 1065, 1067, 13 923 (1965). claim us meets these tests. position other hand, imposes upon no duty give case, regardless seriousness crime size Because we believe American scheme justice, hold guarantees which—were they tried court would come within Amendment's guarantee.14 Since consider appeal such appellant's demand refused. 5 history frequently told.15 It sufficient present purposes say time written, existence England several centuries carried impressive credentials traced Magna Carta.16 Its preservation proper operation protection arbitrary rule were major objectives revolutionary settlement expressed Declaration 1689. 18th century Blackstone could write: 6 'Our therefore wisely placed strong two-fold barrier, presentment between liberties people prerogative crown. necessary, preserving admirable balance constitution, vest executive laws prince: yet might dangerous destructive very if exerted check control, justices oyer terminer occasionally named crown; then, France Turkey, imprison, dispatch, exile man obnoxious government, an instant declaration their will pleasure. But founders English have, excellent forecast, contrived * truth every accusation, preferred shape indictment, information, appeal, should afterwards confirmed unanimous suffrage twelve equals neighbours, indifferently chosen superior suspicion.'17 7 Jury came America colonists, received support them. Royal interference deeply resented. Among resolutions adopted Congress Colonies (the Stamp Act Congress) 19, 1765—resolutions deemed authors 'the most colonists'18—was declaration: 8 'That inherent invaluable British subject colonies.' Continental Congress, resolve 14, 1774, objected judges dependent Crown alone salaries alleged crimes colonies; declared: 10 respective colonies are entitled common England, more especially great inestimable privilege being peers vicinage, according course law.'19 11 Independence stated solemn objections King's making 'judges alone, tenure offices, amount payment salaries,' 'depriving cases, benefits Trial Jury,' 'transporting Seas pretended offenses.' itself, Art. III, § 2, commanded: 'The Crimes, except Cases Impeachment, shall Jury; said Crimes committed.' Objections absence bill met immediate submission adoption Rights. Included which, things, provided: 14 'In prosecutions, accused enjoy speedy public impartial district wherein committed.'20 15 constitutions original trial. Also, constitution entering Union thereafter form another cases. 16 Even skeletal considering importance recognized For example, said: 17 'Those emigrated country brought them 'as birthright inheritance, part fenced around interposed barriers approaches power."21 18 continues receive support. guarantee serious cases; dispensed it; nor there significant movements underway do so. Indeed, three recent constitutional revisions, Maryland, Michigan, York, carefully preserved judgment crime.22 aware prior prevailing contains statements contrary holding today hence must obligation extend persons jurisdiction. relies Maxwell Dow, 176 581, 448, 44 597 (1900); Palko Connecticut, 302 319, 58 149, 82 288 (1937); Snyder Commonwealth Massachusetts, 291 97, 54 330, 78 674 (1934). None however, dealt purported dispense entirely provision applied States—a since repudiated—and prevent trying defendant noncapital offense fewer than men jury. deal provided. neither actually issue, although both contain important dicta ordered Amendments. These observations, though weighty respectable, nevertheless dicta, unsupported holdings refuse defendant's charged crime. Perhaps directly stake, Court's remarks took note past current developments regarding trials, its functions, attempted inquiry into how well performing job, discuss possible distinctions supra, rejected Palko's discussion self-incrimination clause. Respectfully, reject Federal Constitutions reflect profound way enforced administered. A granted defendants order oppression Government.23 Those wrote knew experience necessary protect unfounded charges eliminate enemies too responsive voice higher authority. framers strove create independent judiciary insisted further action. Providing gave safeguard corrupt overzealous prosecutor compliant, biased, eccentric judge. If common-sense tutored perhaps less sympathetic reaction single judge, it. Beyond this, provisions decision exercise official power—a reluctance entrust plenary powers over life citizen group judges. Fear unchecked power, so typical Governments respects, expression insistence community participation determination guilt innocence. deep commitment Nation defense enforcement qualifies under Amendment, respected States. 21 Of 'its weaknesses potential misuse,' Singer States, 24, 35, 783, 790, 630 debate, century, write administration wisdom permitting untrained laymen determine facts proceedings.24 Although debate intense, powerful voices either side, controversy centered some severest critics juries acknowledge arguments much stronger.25 addition, heart express implicit assertions incapable adequately understanding issues fact, unpredictable, quixotic, little better roll dice. Yet, exhaustice study understand sound conclusions presented differ result arrived, usually serving created employed.26 22 urges assures cast integrity conducted Plainly, import holding. Our conclusion judicial system, general grant offenses preventing miscarriages assuring provided defendants. assert, trial—or particular trial—held unfair never fairly treated Thus doubts practices, courts, accepting waivers trial27 prosecuting petty extending trial.28 However, fact places alone; prefer court.29 satisfied bench likely serves intended prosecutorial unfairness likely.30 II. Louisiana's final contention even conviction valid here petitioner prison. persuaded. doubtless true category provision31 requirement carrying penalties up months require otherwise qualify offenses, Cheff Schnackenberg, 384 373, 86 1523, 629 (1966). penalty authorized relevance severe enough, mandates Columbia Clawans, 300 617, 57 660, 81 843 (1937). locality gauge social ethical judgments.' U.S., 628, S.Ct., 663, question. Clawans jailed days, 90-day focused assured Legislature made question, insist 24 think not. So-called always exempt comprehensive language provisions. There substantial Framers depart established common-law practice, consequences convictions thought insufficient outweigh efficient simplified resulting availability inexpensive nonjury adjudications. same considerations compel boundaries ill-defined, ambulatory. explicit provision, definitional task necessarily falls pass validity legislative attempts identify or, legislature addressed itself problem, themselves face instance. draw line spectrum crime, separating infractions. This process, essential, cannot wholly satisfactory, requires attaching different events near line, little. 25 length term enough counseled refer objective criteria, chiefly existing practices Nation. defined $500 fine.32 49 50 include year jail.33 Moreover, late triable six-month term, appear exceptions rule.34 need not, settle exact location crimes. is, based contemporary standards country, offense.35 Consequently, deny 26 below reversed remanded inconsistent opinion. 27 Reversed remanded. BLACK, whom DOUGLAS joins, concurring. 29 holds courts III courts. With I agree reasons given my dissent Adamson People California, 332 47, 68, 67 1672, 1683, 91 1903. dissent, 90, 1695, position, Twining Jersey, 211 78, applicable 323, 151, 288, decided 1937, saying '(t)here rule,' went add make unlawful abridge statutes 30 'freedom speech safeguards encroachment like freedom press peaceable assembly benefit counsel *. situations immunities government force specific pledges amendments concept thus, through become states.' Id., 324—325, 151—152. 31 And explain, 326, 152, certain Rights' bringing 'within absorption.' refused Palko, read overruling point, 'implicit liberty' 'absorbed' protections invasion. situation 89, 1695 that, while 'I nation complete Rights,' '(i)f choice selective applying none them, choose process.' 799. am happy extent Government. today, self-incrimination, counsel, witnesses, confront seizures. 32 All mark, course, departure doctrine enforceable makes spirited forceful discredited doctrine. me repeat historical logical challenge contained Appendix What 1947 product research. My appraisal followed Senator bad way, suspect, learn value what debates, committee discussions, reports, various steps passage bills, resolutions, proposed amendments. Brother HARLAN'S history, objectors, heavily criticism written Professor Charles Fairman published Stanford Law Review. Stan.L.Rev. (1949). studied article extensively, including references, view completely failed refute inferences suggested dissent. Fairman's 'history' legislatures passed Instead relying kind negative pregnant, convinced far wiser rely said, importantly, sponsored Congress. know Senate Congressman Bingham, steered House, Howard, introduced Senate, members look seek real offered. vote sponsors oppose tell means. appendix leaves mind opposed believed Rights) 33 addition 'history,' states words clauses section exceedingly peculiar heretofore intrusion henceforth well." Dissenting opinion, n. 9. response can 'No enforce privileges citizens States' seem eminently expressing idea apply States.1 precious 'privilege' citizenship Rights? suggest reading 'privileges excludes renders meaningless. certainly way. cited appendix, worthwhile reproduce here. 34 'Such character spoken second fourth old Corfield Coryell, Fed.Cas. 546, 3,230 (E.D.Pa.1825)). To immunities, whatever be—for fully entire precise nature—to added personal guarantied secured Constitution; press; peaceably assemble petition Government redress grievances, appertaining people; keep bear arms; exempted quartering soldiers house consent owner; seizures, search seizure virtue warrant issued formal oath affidavit; informed nature accusation him, vicinage; excessive bail cruel unusual punishments. 35 'Now, sir, mass privileges, rights, Constitution, recited, worthy attention settled thus it, solely party They operate slightest degree restraint prohibition legislation. 36 '* object amendment therefore, restrain times guarantees.' Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2765—2766 (1866). 37 From conclude, HARLAN, anything, 'exceedingly peculiar' differently do. 38 wish disagreement forthright frank restatement doctrine,2 want point out appears basic difference us. His view, indeed Twining, 'due evolving concept' entails 'gradual inclusion exclusion' ascertain 'immutable member disregard.' prescribing clearly ascertainable command obey interpreting rather leaving decide formulation embodies principl(e) government' liberty,' conduct 'shocks judge's conscience' runs counter similar, undefined undefinable standard. phrase permanent meaning, shift accordance judges' predilections understandings best country. means 'no deprived find consistent immutable government.' impossible unconfined limit governmental power. 39 Another tenet restated HARLAN fairness.' 'fundamental fairness' par shocking conscience Each tests depends ethics morals instead requiring depend fixed Nothing law' suggests controls sense values. origin Chapter Carta declares taken, outlawed, banished, destroyed, proceed prosecute lawful land.'3 (Emphasis added.) As early 1354 used statute Carta,4 end 14th 'law land' interchangeable. attempt so-called period liable sudden arrest summary commissions sure definite procedural improvised try take accord land already existed committed. gives Americans, whoever wherever happen be, unprejudiced using procedures pre-existing laws. word legal justifies mean deem 'arbitrary,' 'unreasonable,' 'unfair,' 'contrary civilized standards.' standard pursuant guaranteeing alike land. 40 Finally bothered 'according encroachment,'5 interferes federalism novel economic experiments. guise able experiment afforded Goldberg concurring 923: 41 'to impair increase but, rather, governments favor safeguarding individual. promotes undermines policy avoiding excess concentration state, underlies concepts federalism.' 414, 1073. 42 seems totally advocates strike down practice finds 'unreasonable' 'unfair' and, urge develop own procedures. Yet approach Brothers FORTAS (see post, p. 211.) does effect restricts majority willing approve case-by-case basis. No concerned allowed use full scope sees fit. why continually fought expansion authority broad, interpretation permits like. 43 closing emphasize strongly ever incorporation doctrine, alternative, historically supportable incorporation. properly, field keeps roaming notions policies outside desirable And, importantly me, having worked STEWART dissenting. 45 Every jurisdiction provides ancient institution, is; plays role does; endure, shall. felonies, prohibited alone. answer mandated longer 'no.' 46 borne primary responsibility operating machinery borders, adapting circumstances. exercising responsibility, conform requirements fundamentally respects. impose encourage nationwide uniformity sake; adherence forms old; rules fairness. 47 uneasy illogical compromise views Justices interpreted. framed concedes nothing procedure Nevertheless, reverses conviction: holds, reason apparent incorporates including, sometimes trivial accompanying baggage contexts. raised continuing undiscriminating fastening justice,1 again respect, altogether topsy-turvy. 48 correct least last 135 Founders States.2 wont security rested primarily dispersion across system.3 considered unnecessary some4 others curb possibility abuse central creating.5 Civil War dramatically altered relation highly restrictions couched broad terms: citizenship; immunities; law; equal 100 difficult Jaffe called intermediate premises.'6 been, Where properly define content terms 'life, property' law'? few intention drafted simply, exclusively, action.7 accepted often elsewhere,8 meant incorporate, limited to, overwhelming marshalled demonstrates, conclusively, Congressmen legislators wrote, debated, ratified 'incorporating' Rights9 breadth generality suppose mid-19th conceptions 'liberty' increasing new 'intermediate premises.' short, sense, supports put straitjacket development law. 51 disagree total virtue, lacking approach, internal consistency: Rights, word, clause, precedent because, wanted accept source premises' found. irrelevant guidance articulated. 52 Apart absolute incorporationists, see method analysis logic. start accords traditions government. involving discriminating adjudication 'incorporation,' albeit difficult, throughout 19th century. exclusion,'10 seeking, recognition tolerance experimentation disparity, inhere disregard.'11 restricted past, 'would quality age, render progress improvement.'12 Nor details, '(t)he profess remedies. Great diversities respects exist separated imaginary line. On right. prescribes modes proceeding.'13 Through gradual isolating freedoms Americans contervailing objective. also, law,' Constitution's imprison individual 55 relationship process' twofold. place clear parallel Second, accidental overlap, evidence, 56 An phenomenon parallelism historic commitment, partial definition offered Holmes, dissenting Gitlow 268 652, 625, 69 1138. principle included used, somewhat larger latitude sweeping governs ought govern States.' 672, 632. Frankfurter, speaking Wolf Colorado, 338 25, 27—28, 1359, 1361, 93 1782, 59 one's privacy police—which core Amendment—is society. Clause.' paralleling 158, ruled case: 61 involved violating institutions' obviously compelling prevail embraced specifically Constitution.' 63. Later, felony cases.14 ruled, adjudication, stale;15 resolution adversary guaranteed;16 fairness demands impartially selected.17 hardly needs redemonstration. 62 instances, logically critical thing, deemed, context fundamental. explained Cardozo, Chief Hughes Brandeis Stone, 288: 63 'If absorbed absorption belief sacrificed.' 152. 64 Referring Cardozo continued: 65 turn prosecuted court. turned laid substance hearing.' 327, 153. 66 then explain State, desirable, liberty: division wavering broken hasty catalogue other. Reflection induce view. emerges perception rationalizing discrete instances coherence. immunity prosecution indictment importance. so, essence liberty. abolish violate 'principle rooted ranked fundamental.' Few narrow provincial maintain enlightened them.' 325, Today's still remains unwilling incorporationists' This, accepted, afford cogent apparently, us, situations, unfair. compromised ease incorporationist simply assumed incorporated Fourteenth, jot-for-jot case-for-case, ignored. Then 'in' 'out.'18 justified starting conclusion. problem discover articulate proceedings, assume whole body developed constituting regarded unit. rise numerous subsidiary questions respecting surely given, give, attributable Founders; announced carries Court; subprinciple equally 70 Examples abound. 'jury' 'impartial jury.'19 obvious rule, imposed ago 'jury exactly twelve,'20 anything: significance mystics number 12. Again, verdict jurors courts,21 unanimity Britain, abandoned.22 71 One example relevant co-existence universally exception 'petty crimes' occasion, petty, guarantee.23 Individual reference guiding principle. discernible reason, drawn matter uniformly obscure borderline administering decisions demonstrably sounder reached legislatures, let imposition 72 'out,' concluding 'in.' basis differentiating praised, played things all. says 'fundamental' others, turns astonished help. 'analytically attempted. Instead, 'old,' 'much praised,' 'found Rights.' circular. 73 Since, grips beginning. When contends lacked element Believing, do, re-evaluation light later experience, appropriate merits assault 74 has, requisite process. leading 597, Peckham follows Court:24 75 'Trial affirmed 76 proceeded jurors, nature, judgment, provide organic change either. (T)he control qualification work conflict legislation open objections.' 603—605, 457—458. Territory Hawaii Mankichi, 190 197, 787, 1016 continue preannexation nonunanimous juries. Congressional Resolution Annexation municipal remain force. interpreted binding Territory. After allowing treason circumstantial 'We go farther, most, all, moment annexation; ground (Sixth grand indictment) concern sixty shown suited conditions islands, calculated conserve lives, wellbeing.' 217—218, 791. 79 Numerous liberty.25 80 re-examine decisions, overturned. virtues defects hotly debated time,26 lines argument.27 quite simple. proposition adhere, fair. above, apart theory mere shorthand else intelligibly mean. fairness,28 one. held, think, fairness, adequate substitute, cross-examine witnesses. demonstrated, nor, fact. virtues. affords ordinary valuable opportunity participate fostering, hopes, law.29 eases burden enabling share awesome responsibility.30 may, times, refusing harsh (although haphazardly, raising enforcement, defended disobey oaths).31 contribute desirably willingness judgments just.32 gainsaid, principal trial—the limitations tyrannous judiciary—has largely disappeared. live medieval colonial Judges enacted democratic decision, regal fiat. elected appointed people's officials, responsible distant monarch reviewing one.33 defects, multiplied emergence relative simplicity devised.34 cumbersome imposing cost money themselves,35 contributing delay justice.36 Untrained presumably adept reaching accurate judges, particularly complex.37 argued law, impairs it: average man, reacts favorably notion matters knows complex men,38 distorts adjudication.39 adjudicating attested expert following estimates. Parliament generally statutory unless 'considerable gravity' judges; consequently, outnumber Then, latter category, 84% Over ratio becomes per cent.'40 waiver permissible,41 statistics slightly revealing. Two experts estimated 75% guilty plea 40% remainder court.42 waiver, rate 90%.43 recognizes stating, 87 jury.' Ante, 158. agree. reverse appellant, absent suggestion unfair, unbounded can, unfairness, 89 persuaded formulated crimes.' ancient, true. Almost discovery 90 loving Subjects travailed encumbered coming keeping Weeks Sessions, Costs, Charges, Unquietness.'44 result, varying lesser flexible impose. widespread. 1776 '(v)iolations relating liquor, trade manufacture, labor, smuggling, traffic highway, Sabbath, 'cheats,' gambling, swearing, small thefts, assaults, servants seamen, vagabondage (and) hundred *.'45 94 Penalties heavy fines (with until paid), whippings, labor.46 95 cleaner slate, varied greatly conditions. whipping (up strokes), stocks hours), ducking stool, magistrates.47 magistrate could, theory, appealed stiff recognizance rare.48 York harsher. 'anyone adjudged magistrates idle, disorderly vagrant transported whence came, reappearance whipped constable thirty-one lashes each.'49 Anyone committing 'under Grand Larceny' unable furnish hours summarily justices.50 local variations, examples multiplied. 96 English-speaking communities another, serious, carry penalties, mattered much. charge robbery, defendant, actions, theft.51 relatively minor one: marginal advantages. Exactly adjustments, dockets difficulty summoning escapes me. 97 sum, wide range desirability effective used; considerable variation caseload, bearing almost perfect celebrated dictum invoked. 98 'one courageous choose, laboratory *.' Ice Co. Liebmann, 285 262, 280, 311, 371, 386, 747 (dissenting opinion). 99 available experiments prove done today: instead, good means, alternatives devise. affirm La.Const., VII, 41: 'All Cases, five, concur verdict; twelve, nine capital, verdict.' La.Rev.Stat. 14:35 (1950): 'Simple victim, weapon. 'Whoever commits fined dollars, imprisoned years, both.' 250 La. 253, 195 So.2d 142 (1967). 389 809, 98, Chicago, & Q.R. City 166 226, 979 (1897). See, e.g., Fiske Kansas, 274 380, 655, 1108 (1927). Mapp Ohio, 367 643, 1684, 1081 (1961). (1964). (1963). Klopfer North Carolina, 386 213, 988, (1948). Washington 388 1920, 1019 Quoting Hebert 272 312, 316, 103, 104, 270 (1926). represent 'incorporation' debate. Earlier seen asked, inquiring required imagined protection. (1937), stated: assumption processes theoretical schemes actual systems virtually characteristic developing contemporaneously fundamental—whether, Anglo-American regime sort justify exclude seized violation (1961); prosecutors comment failure testify, Griffin 609, 1229, 106 (1965); status narcotics addiction, Robinson 370 1417, 758 (1962). comply assistance, expense counsel. nn. 12, supra. determinations originally bind limitation maintained granting appeared older opining (1900). equitable easy imagine. alternative systems. undertaken construct system. uses punishments after jury's verdict. structure style process—the supporting framework procedures—are naturally complement connection reliance E.g., W. Forsyth, History (1852); J. Thayer, A. Preliminary Treatise Evidence Common (1898); Holdsworth, Law. Blackstone, Commentaries Laws 349 (Cooley ed. 1899). Historians pedigree. F. Pollock Maitland, Before Time Edward I, 173, (2d 1909). 349—350. R. Perry, ed., Sources Liberties (1959). 288. House Representatives 1789 submitted Article Fourteen: infringe conscience, press.' deleted adopting became Journal Session 72; Annals 76; Brennan, E. Cahn, 65, Dumbauld, 46, 215 (1957). indication intend Cf. (1927); 666, (1925). Thompson Utah, 170 343, 349—350, 620, 622, 1061 (1898), quoting Story, 1779. Irvin Dowd, 366 717, 721—722, 1639, 1641 1642, 651 ex rel. Toth Quarles, 350 11, 16, 4, (1955); Ex parte Milligan, Wall. 122—123, 281 (1866); Garbutt, Mich. 9, (1868). Proposed Maryland 1.07 (defeated referendum 1968); Michigan 14; 7b Nov. 7, 1967). (jury trial) 31, 788, tyrant Whitehall utterly subservient will; next overthrow diminish leave subject's hands countrymen. So instrument wheel constitution: lamp shows lives.' P. Devlin, 164 (1956). thorough extensive bibliography literature Hearings Recording Deliberations Subcommittee Investigate Administration Internal Security Committee Judiciary, 84th 63—81 (1955). H. Kalven, Jr. Zeisel, Frank, Courts (1949); Sidgwick, Elements Politics 498 (4th 1919). Kalven Patton 276, 854 (1930). Part II, infra. c. 2. asserts obligated interpretations inception designed operated environment consideration. particular, objects application 12-man found, 586, 450, barring instance appellate stage de novo Callan Wilson, 127 540, 557, 1301, 1307, 223 (1888). unlikely widespread changes processes. First, reconsideration, amply demonstrated decision. construed, permit greater year. Only Oregon less-than-unanimous convict However authorize first-stage lengthy penalties; listed briefs filed case. (1966); Schick 826, (1904); Natal 139 621, 636, (1891); Frankfurter Corcoran, Petty Offenses Constitutional Guaranty Jury, Harv.L.Rev. 917 (1926); Kaye, Offenders Have Peers!, U.Chi.L.Rev. 245 1. aside scheme, months. Jersey's offense, N.J.Stat.Ann. 2A:169—4 (1953), one-year upheld 4—3 attack Maier, N.J. 235, A.2d (1953). Sanabria, Misc.2d 464, 249 N.Y.S.2d (Sup.Ct.1964). sufficiently short offense,' category. (1966), criterion distinguishing factor reach imbedded authorization contempt, sentence. contempt unique bodied stating prosecuted, 401, determined forum understandable whole, Privileges Immunities Clause, Clause. exposition Rochin 342 165, 174, 205, 210, 183. Murray's Lessee Hoboken Land Improvement Co., How. 272, 372. Edw. 3, (1354). 10, 1495, 653; 406, 1069, 923; Miranda Arizona, 436, 1602, 1622, 694. 1700, (dissenting); Ker 374 23, 44, 1623, 1635, 726 (concurring); 1497, 408, 1070, 615, 1233, 995, (concurring). Barron, Use Tiernan Mayor Council Baltimore, Pet. 243, 672 (1833), locus classicus viewpoint Federalist (Madison). Hamilton proponents 84; C. Rossiter, 1787: Convention 284, 303. 250, Marshall 'These demanded apprehended encroachments government—not governments.' Jaffe, Was Activist? Search Intermediate Premises, 986 71, 1686, 1903 J.); O'Neil Vermont, 144 366, 370, 693, 709, 711, 450 Harlan, J.) (1892); Black, 'Due Law,' Faith (1968). see, Poe Ullman, 497, 522, 539—545, 1752, 1774—1778, 989 (dissenting), Griswold 381 479, 1678, 1689, 510 Fairman, Does Incorporate Original Understanding, professor rest well.' He sifted mountain material comprising debates reports Houses immense corpus comments effects amendment, 'incorporation.' mentioned effectively (a) incorporation, (b) understood colleagues. report, superfluous duplicated Rights: find, hundreds pages added. whose lived Reconstruction reiterate questioning continued Walker Sauvinet, 678; Morrison, Interpretation, 140 Davidson 616. Holden Hardy, 169 389, 383, 387, 780. Hurtado 110 516, 529, 111, 117, 232. Missouri Lewis, 101 22, 989. 342—345, 795—797. 923. 651. dealing employed 653, Self-Incrimination disagreed reached. id., 1497. myself bound self-incrimination. 106. holding, arising 'out.' in, Compare Dennis 339 162, 519, 734. Rassmussen 197 514, 862. Andres 740, 880, 1055. requirements, 'our reconsideration 30. illustrate danger approach—that watered needless pursuit uniformity. 1645, 726. MR. JUSTICE alluded 38, 1509. Criminal 1967, 13. 223; 843; Colts, 282 177. issue Utah. permissible dictum. technical matter, statement chain reasoning imagine deciding Jordan 225 167, 176, 651, 1038, citing deprive altogether.' 721, 1641, 651; Fay 261, 1613, 1627, 2043; 152; 105, 332, 674; Brown 175 172, 175, 77, 119; 31. Deady, Am.L.Rev. 398, 399—400 (1883): 'Still experiment, everything bar human conceit, fashion speak something outlived usefulness. Intelligent well-meaning sneer awkward useless impediment convenient loop-hole escape popular rogues. Considering admitted foundation.' Memorandum Regarding System, printed 63—81. going (at 1780) advanced pro con haven't changed interim. Nor, impression, grows hotter colder. hot debate.' 107—108, (Cardozo, J.): 'So concerned, presence condition hearing thwarted absence, only.' by, Tocqueville. Democracy (Reeve tr.). Curtis, Judge Vand.L.Rev. 150 (1952). 'Juries relieve embarrassment exceptions. true, oaths, tempting office.' 157. G. Williams, Proof Guilt 257—263; 261. Stephen, General View 208—209. Sunderland, Inefficiency Mich.L.Rev. 302, 305: 'But changed, people. appointed, selected agents people, directly. weapon steadily diminishing justification continuance.' 303: 'Life young, growing complexity society controversies complex.' Green, Injustice, Jurid.Rev. 132, 133. Lummus, Juries Law's Delay, B.U.L.Rev. 487. McWhorter, Abolish 42. Statistics accumulate measure performance compare judge-jury comparisons values, obtain statistical comparison accuracy manner. passim. Boston, Some Practical Remedies Existing Defects Justice, U.Pa.L.Rev. 16: 'There interest, willingly commit along street 46: 'It consumes gallery playing sensational theatrical exhibitions whereby interest dignity swallowed morbid, partisan emotional parties immediately concerned.' 302. waive 1930, 854. 1957, Carroll, 161 339, aff'd, N.Y.2d 686, 171 812, 148 N.E.2d 875. 12—32. Oppenheim, Waiver 695, 728. Hen. 8, 7. 917, 928. authors' information Burn, Peace (1776). 930—934. 938—942. Ibid. 945. Vagrancy 1721, Col.L.(N.Y.) 56. Day, Magistrates' J.Crim.L.C. P.S., 346—347, 17. 'huge proportion' America, Puttkammer, 87—88, increased judicious weary prosecutors.

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