Document: 436 U.S. 307 98 S.Ct. 1816 56 L.Ed.2d 305 Ray MARSHALL, Secretary of Labor, et al., Appellants,v.BARLOW'S, INC. No. 76-1143. Argued Jan. 9, 1978. Decided May 23, Syllabus Appellee brought this action to obtain injunctive relief against a warrantless inspection its business premises pursuant § 8(a) the Occupational Safety and Health Act 1970 (OSHA), which empowers agents Labor search work area any employment facility within OSHA's jurisdiction for safety hazards violations OSHA regulations. A three-judge District Court ruled in appellee's favor, concluding, reliance on Camara v. Municipal Court, 387 523, 528-529, 87 S.Ct.1727, 1730, 1731, 18 930, See City Seattle, 541, 543, 1737, 1739, 943, that Fourth Amendment required warrant type involved statutory authorization inspections was unconstitutional. Held : The without or equivalent violated Amendment. Pp. 311-325. (a) rule searches are generally unreasonable applies commercial as well homes. supra, supra. 311-313. (b) Though an exception requirement has been recognized "closely regulated" industries "long subject close supervision inspection," Colonnade Catering Corp. United States, 397 72, 74, 77, 90 774, 775, 777, 25 60, does not apply simply because is interstate commerce. 313-314. (c) Nor fact employer by necessary utilization employees his operation mean he opened areas where alone permitted scrutiny Government agents. 314-315. (d) Insofar experience date indicates, requiring warrants make will impose no serious burdens system courts. advantages surprise through opportunity inspecting prior notice be lost if, after entry inspector refused, ex parte can obtained, facilitating inspector's reappearance at further notice; appellant Secretary's entitlement depend demonstrating probable cause believe conditions premisesviolate but merely reasonable legislative administrative standards conducting satisfied with respect particular establishment. 315-321. (e) Requiring that, practical matter, warrantless-search provisions other regulatory statutes unconstitutional, reasonableness those depends upon specific enforcement needs privacy guarantees each statute. 321-322. 424 F.Supp. 437, affirmed. Solicitor General Wade H. McCree, Jr., Washington, D. C., appellants. John L. Runft, Boise, Idaho, appellee. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 Section (OSHA Act)1 (Secretary) Act's jurisdiction. purpose inspect No process expressly under Act. 2 On morning September 11, 1975, entered customer service Barlow's, Inc., electrical plumbing installation located Pocatello, Idaho. president general manager, Ferrol G. "Bill" Barlow, hand; inspector, showing credentials,2 informed Barlow wished conduct working business. inquired whether complaint had received about company. answered no, Barlow's turned up agency's selection process. again asked enter nonpublic business; response inquire warrant. none. Thereupon, refused admission employee He said relying rights guaranteed States Constitution. 3 Three months later, petitioned Idaho issue order compelling admit inspector.3 requested issued December 30, presented January 5, 1976. admission, sought own assertedly OSHA. court convened. 1976, it favor. 437. Concluding 1727, 930 (1967), 943 controlled case, held invo ved here4 An injunction entered. appealed, challenging judgment, we noted 430 964, 474, 54 309. 4 * urges enforce meaning Among things, relies Act, 29 U.S.C. 657(a), authorizes represents congressional construction courts should reject. Regretably, unable agree. 5 Warrant Clause protects buildings private To hold otherwise would belie origin Amendment, American colonial experience. important forerunner first 10 Amendments Constitution, Virginia Bill Rights, specifically opposed "general warrants, whereby officer messenger may commanded suspected places evidence committed."5 recurring point contention Colonies immediately preceding Revolution.6 offensiveness engendered acutely felt merchants businessmen whose products were inspected compliance several parliamentary revenue measures most irritated colonists.7 "[T]he Amendment's commands grew large measure out colonists' writs assistance . [that] granted sweeping power customs officials King smuggled goods." Chadwick, 433 1, 7-8, 97 2476, 2481, 53 538 (1977). also M. Leasing 429 338, 355, 619, 630, 50 530 Against background, untenable ban intended shield residence. 6 This already unreasonable, In U.S., S.Ct., held: 7 "[E]xcept certain carefully defined classes cases, property proper consent 'unreasonable' unless authorized valid warrant." same day, ruled: 8 "As explained Camara, houses presumptively if conducted businessman, like occupant residence, constitutional right go free from official entries property. too, placed jeopardy decision violation laws made enforced field authority evidenced 1739. 9 These cases prohibition intrusions during civil criminal investigations. Ibid. reason found "basic [which] safeguard security individuals arbitrary invasions governmental officials." 528, 1730. If government intrudes person's property, interest suffers government's motivation investigate breaches standards. It therefore appears some applies, require case. "pervasively regulated business[es]," Biswell, 406 311, 316, 92 1593, 1596, 32 (1972), inspection." 60 (1970). indeed exceptions, they represent responses relatively unique circumstances. Certain have such history oversight expectation privacy, see Katz 389 347, 351-352, 88 507, 511, 19 576 could exist proprietor over stock enterprise. Liquor (Colonnade ) firearms (Biswell type; when entrepreneur embarks business, voluntarily chosen himself full arsenal regulation. 11 Industries these fall "certain cases," referenced 1731. element distinguishes enterprises ordinary businesses long tradition supervision, person who chooses must aware. "A central difference between [Colonnade Biswell ] one engaged federally licensed accept benefits their trade, whereas petitioner here businessman industry effect consents restrictions him." Almeida-Sanchez 413 266, 271, 93 2535, 2538, 37 596 (1973). 12 clear import our closely exception. rule. Invoking Walsh-Healey 1936, 41 35 seq., attempts support conclusion all commerce subjected health conditions. But degree federal involvement circumstances never specificity pervasiveness mandates. quite unconvincing argue imposition minimum wages maximum hours employers contracted prepared entirety regulation minutest detail. fictional sense voluntary later single conducts affecting commerce; current practice law, few having 13 derive Colonnade-Biswell -type drawing analogies labor law. Republic Aviation NLRB, 324 793, 65 982, 89 L.Ed. 1372 (1945), upheld solicit union nonworking time efficiency compromised. By opening employees, yielded so much allow exercise National Relations owner prevailed intrusion nonemployee organizers, even plant hours. NLRB Babcock & Wilcox Co., 351 105, 76 679, 100 975 (1956). 14 critical case objection being agent.8 Employees prohibited reporting violations. What observe daily functions undoubtedly beyond employer's privacy. however, employee. Without stands better position than member public. observable public observable, warrant, well.9 not, operation, thrown open That report, use, noncompliance observes furnishes justification place restricted search.10 II 15 nevertheless stoutly argues scheme requires searches, discretion contained regulations protect would. thereby asserts actual whatever might be. Because "reasonableness still ultimate standard," 539, 1736, suggests decide needed arriving sensible balance necessities incremental protection owners afford. only exempting give "full recognition competing interests stake." 16 submits ins ections essential afford hence preserve surprise. While dangerous outlawed include structural defects cannot quickly hidden remedied, regulates myriad details amenable speedy alteration disguise. risk interval initial request procuring following owner's refusal permission, latter corrected thus escape notice. suggestion executed delay notice, preserving surprise, expresses concern strain experienced system, courts, advance become standard practice. 17 We unconvinced, prevent statute, them less effective. place, great majority expected normal course warrant; Court's attention widespread pattern refusal.11 insist impeded delay. penalty giving search, 666(f), regulations, CFR 1903.6 (1977), indicate contemplated. However, promulgated providing permit complete inspection, shall attempt ascertain reasons report superior, "promptly take appropriate action, including compulsory process, necessary." 1903.4 (1977).12 choice proceed refused; basis available present practice, effectiveness crippled wish refuse lapse while obtains process.13 Indeed, kind apparently anticipated provides operator.14 endangers efficient administration OSHA, adopted it, particularly it. apparent why entry, procedures seek reappear establishment inspected.15 Whether proceeds secure premises. Probable law required. For purposes this, justifying issuance based existing violation16 "reasonable [establishment]." 538, 1736. plan derived neutral sources as, example, dispersion various types across given area, desired frequency lesser divisions rights.17 doubt consumption energies obtaining exceed manageable proportions. Finally, inspectors constitutionally infirm. Some cited industry, pervasive apply. envision resort federal-court employing language cases18 others.19 short, base today's facts concerned do retreat holding statute real imagined other, different schemes. 20 agree protections afforded marginal fail justify entailed. devolves almost unbridled executive officers, field, whom search. contrast, provide assurances containing criteria.20 Also, then there advise scope objects limits proceed.21 perform, underlie decisions statutes.22 (1967); (1967). conclude concerns expressed suffice vitiate obtained. III 21 entitled declaratory judgment unconstitutional insofar purports authorize enjoining extent.23 22 So ordered. 23 BRENNAN took part consideration 24 STEVENS, BLACKMUN REHNQUIST join, dissenting. Congress enacted ensure compliance, routine, nonconsensual inspections. Today holds prohibits cause. I disagree both holdings. 26 contains two separate Clauses, flatly prohibiting category conduct. states "shall violated";1 second unequivocally except "upon cause."2 question "unreasonable" Clause. 27 involving investigation activity, See, e. g., Coolidge New Hampshire, 403 443, 91 2022, 564. There is, though probable-cause satisfied. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 96 3074, 49 1116; Terry Ohio, 392 1868, 889; South Dakota Opperman, 364, 3092, 1000; 87. program challenged my falls category. 28 linked "textually concept" 370 n.5, 3097. routine are, definition, inspected. Hence, measured requirements Clause, automatically unreasonable. acknowledged importance recognizes invalidate programs. Yet, rather analyzing programs "Reasonableness" invalid avoids blanket notion "probable cause" relaxed whenever believes need "searches" outweighs protected 30 approach disregards plain unfaithful struck Framers Amendment—"the procedural Constitution directly events preceded revolutionary struggle England."3 preconstitutional includes controversy England aid seditious libel facilitate collection duties imposed Parliament. Framers' familiarity wi h abuses attending provided principal stimulus restraints embodied 31 "[O]ur fathers overreaching warrants. perhaps too say feared more enough prime object concern. Far looking saw oppressive ."4 Since immediate evil directed, surprising precise issuance. particularized means circumscribe power. subsequent jurisprudence emphasizes dangers posed cause, limit searches. course, true existence normally satisfies dilute effort force every definition "search" into judicially developed, warrant-preference scheme. 33 Fidelity original understanding therefore, leads application valid, comport correct view inspections, undertaken sense, "new-fangled warrant" use Clark's characteristically expressive term sufficient validate them.5 34 Even faithful Government's fails procedure. determining class "the weighed individual ." 555, 3081. Several considerations persuade me favor Congress. determined workplace furthers accomplish goals legislation. assessing side balance, today substitutes what effectuate truly ingredient effective, representative program, retained advance. assures unduly burden resources b inspection. 36 analysis Congress' determination warrantless-inspection adjunct surely rate deny increase covered businesses, premises, inspector. problem avoided visit. adoption undercuts explanation create undue problems. For, many demand little solace charged OSHA; faced refusals added costs generated futile trips sites denied, compelled adopt prediction behavior turn accurate, essentially empirical. issue, defer regarding uncomfortable second-guessing how substantive best achieved. Thus, offers alternative judgment. told event, Secretary, indicated bases prescribing denied entry. provides: "The Area Director consult Assistant Regional Solicitor, promptly views permitting delaying until disagree. background presumably aware obviously thought keep denials minimum. circumstances, orderly procedure dealing believed occasional denial imply caused numerous administratively acceptable. 38 "frustrate" purpose, additional interests.6 function traditional interposition magistrate citizen zealous objective served newfangled As acknowledges, "entitlement th t 'reasonable [establishment].' " Ante, 320. show "a .." 321. magistrate's contemplated deviates schedule drawn higher level agency officials. 39 Unlike itself suspect violating plainly accepts proposition random reasonable. workplaces desire presence permittees, rare instances harbor 40 purposes, then, procedure? serve three functions: inform him lawful assure demanding 532, 1732, 930. examination context reveals adds pertinent slight benefit insufficient identify overriding essential. supposed improperly departed established responsible extent harassment reduced necessity precisely effect. 'in accordance criteria accident number exposed industries.' 321 n.17. If, scheme, gain informing superiors seeking submit nonroutine just likely deterred prospect intention making false representations seeks bad-faith proceeding. 42 asserted adequately achieved doubts status adequate reassure regard before sta utory conditioned presentation credentials. 657(a)(1). credentials state name, officer, contain photograph signature. doubts, toll-free call verify authority. Usery Godfrey Brake Supply Service, 545 F.2d 52, (CA 1976), await order. 43 "where performed employer," 657(a)(1), "to regular times, manner conditions, structures, machines, apparatus, devices, equipment, materials therein 657(a)(2). 1903 broad, purport restrict apprised scope. perform informational function, superfluous. 44 way formality. enormous cost enforcing dimensions guise construing formalities overtaxed resources. 45 Congress, obligation obey mandate past "has sensitive broad 'reasonableness' authorizing searches." 290, 2548, (WHITE, J., dissenting). 1116, respondents stopping vehicles check aliens permanent checkpoints away border. location governed criteria. rejected respondents' argument fixed reviewed aCamara observed reassuring visible manifestations exhibited checkpoints. 46 Moreover, although method deemed stops did Border Patrol operated "[t]he checkpoint locations left largely officials, exercised applicable [and] [m]any incidents committed 559-560, n.13, 3083. difficulty assuming allocating limited "unlikely locate bears arbitrarily oppressively motorists clas Id. 559, 47 role balancing advanced situations which, exercising special exclude aliens. Until today, concerning premises.7 unquestionably protection, "recognized nature existence, permissible purely context." 353, 629, 530. caterer alcoholic beverages, noting "Congress design powers liquor deems meet evils hand." Id., 76, 777. And 87, sustained firearm dealers Gun Control 1968 primarily evaluation stake.8 48 concludes deference accorded addressed peculiar engages due narrowly confined. longevity bearing achieve program. conception constitute urgent remain static. recent vintage awareness according considered 1968. "[f]ederal traffic deeply rooted control undeniably" interest. 315, 1596. significant interests, made. respected legislating industry-by-industry basis. inquiry directed found. restricting illegal firearms, unreasonable; tailored matter Similarly, workplace, extends 51 distinguish ground 'accept trade .' 313. view, them, fiction consented fact, contexts. Here, comply governing activities. situations, validity regulated, embodying Nation's limitation businessman's preventing viewing relate 52 us involves contractor. authority.9 access equipment used claim confidentiality.10 industrial further, wisdom life, decline device achieving power.11 respectfully dissent. carry chapter, presenting owner, operator, agent charge, authorized— "(1) times factory, plant, establishment, site, environment employer; "(2) manner, therein, privately employer, agent, employee." 84 Stat. 1598, 657(a). n. refuses infra, 317, 12. res judicata bar arose earlier reserved issue. Commager, Documents History 104 (8th ed. 1968). Dickerson, Writs Assistance Cause Revolution Era (R. Morris 1939). Stamp 1765, Townshend Revenue 1767, tea tax 1773 notable examples. 53, 63. commentary, S. Morison, W. Leuchtenburg, Growth 143, 149, 159 (1969). ordered contempt refusing honor order, now once, objection. Cf. Air Pollution Variance Bd. Western Alfalfa Corp., 416 861, 94 2114, 607 (1974). automobile-search helpful cases. automobiles occupy due, among factors, quick mobility car, registration car driver, plain-view observations car's contents. Cady Dombrowski, 433, 441-442, 2523, 2528, 706 (1973); Chambers Maroney, 399 42, 48-51, 1979-1981, 419 so, abandoned searching automobile. recognize impact choose resist searches; development record determine impediment effective true, asserts, forbid proceeding prescribe rules deem responsibilities "including establishment." 8(g)(2), 657(g)(2). resp ct Part 1903.4, referred text, follows: "Upon Compliance Officer, duties, inspect, review records, employee, 1903.3, accompany Officer physical 1903.8, terminate confine areas, materials, interviews raised. endeavor refusal, therefor Director. When proceeded conferred 657. change Operations Manual supports inference administrators start, eventually concluded jeopardized least obtained 1972 included section "warrants," provision dealt warrants: "In performance indication commencement interfere investigation, attempted. Cases Administrator alerted." Dept. V-7 (Jan. 1972). latest manual, incorporating changes November 1977, deletes provision, leaving "compulsory process" Field Manual, Vol. V, pp. V-4 - V-5. form, "process"; short §§ 111 1114 (1976 ed.), crime forcibly impede, intimidate, inspectors, account duties. instituted filing "Application Affirmative Order Grant Entry affirmative issue." argued, interference Barlow's. Court: "IT IS HEREBY ORDERED, ADJUDGED AND DECREED America, Department Administration, duly designated representatives, known 225 West Pine, Occ pational (29 651, seq.), designed Act; set forth pertaining C.F.R., 1903; representatives Inc. commenced soon practicable completed promptness; extend things (including files, papers, processes, controls, facilities) furnishing causing death harm complying Standards rules, orders Administration may, option accompanied 8(e) agents, hereby enjoined restrained anyway whatsoever interfering and, to, five days Order, furnish copy officers managers, addition, post employee's bulletin board premises; respects forthwith." concerned, appear currently calling process." 8(f)(1), 657(f)(1), written determines "there grounds danger exists, practicable." Brief Petitioner 7, schedule" investigation. "Such inspections," explains, "now called Programmed Inspections, carried industries. U. CCH Employment Guide ¶ 4327.2 (1976)." Federal Metal Nonmetallic Mine "Whenever operator mine chapter preventive relief, temporary injunction, restraining district 733(a). institute Each appropriate." 818. Another example Clean grants compliance" Environmental Protection Agency's 7414 ed., Supp. I), action" recover penalty. 7413(b)(4) I). Exemplary Animal Welfare Agriculture; vested "specifically enforce, restrain kinds arising chapter." 2146(c) ed.). Similar agricultural Acts; see, 674 (meat product inspection); 1050 (egg inspection). Internal Code, excise actions, render decrees internal laws." 7402(a). gasoline (one 1677, gas transporters "failure preclude granting [by court]." 1679(a). filed represented Act." described, "part "in chapter" employer" "inspect investigate" "pertinent Inspections "during manner." echo respects. 1903.3 They explain "indicate 1903.7(a) samples photographs authorized, 1903.7(b) disruption operations 1903.7(d) reflected foregoing language. Delineating care documents involved. 8(c) 657(c), "make, preserve, [of Labor] Health, Education Welfare" records activities relating developing information causes prevention occupational accidents illnesses. Regulations maintain periodic reports "work-related deaths, injuries illnesses" contemplated, accurate exposures potential toxic harmful describing items examined, "make available" reports. regulation, published related Further, 1903.7 specified review" "such designations 1903.3." position, reject, effected "all controls understood judicial satisfy address functional submission constitutionality 8(a). declined rely (1977) Tr. Oral Arg. 19. Of here, revised occasion people persons, houses, effects, seizures, "[A]nd Warrants supported Oath affirmation, searched, persons seized." J. Landynski, Search Seizure Supreme (1966). T. Taylor, Two Studies Constitutional Interpretation 547, 1741, (Clark, passed cognizant light enormity task desirable unforeseeable period, capacity Senate Committee Public Welfare, Legislative 1970, 92d Cong., 1st Sess., 152 (Comm.Print 1971). rejection especially puzzling finding practices reasonable, significantly Adams Williams, 407 1921, 612; 706; 1000. time, scope, legality "We concluding where, interest, possibilities abuse threat impressive dimensions, statute." actually decided result reaches today. establishment; buildings, protecting residential manifest. building was, locked warehouse "enter interior dwellings, often necessary," 1738, extended cover delineated My confined influenced favorable dissent Clark joined Justices Harlan Stewart. demonstrate, doctrine stare decisis compel govern holding. secrets employer. 664-665; 1903.9 renders statutes. E. 813 (Federal Coal 1969); 723, 724 Act); 603 (inspection meat food products). above, alter fact. "envision refused" irrelevant since invalidated

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