Document: 433 U.S. 425 97 S.Ct. 2777 53 L.Ed.2d 867 Richard M. NIXON, Appellant,v.ADMINISTRATOR OF GENERAL SERVICES et al. No. 75-1605. Argued April 20, 1977. Decided June 28, Syllabus After appellant had resigned as President of the United States, he executed a depository agreement with Administrator General Services that provided for storage near appellant's California home Presidential materials (an estimated 42 million pages documents and 880 tape recordings) accumulated during terms office. Under this agreement, neither nor Administration (GSA) could gain access to without other's consent. Appellant was not withdraw any original writing three years, although make copies. initial three-year period except recordings. With respect recordings, agreed originals five years reproductions only by mutual agreement. Following five-year would destory such tapes directed, all were be destroyed at death or after expiration 10 whichever occurred first. Shortly public announcement bill introduced in Congress designed abrogate it, about months later enacted Recordings Materials Preservation Act (Act) signed into law Ford. The directs GSA take custody have them screened Government archivists order return those personal private nature preserve having historical value available use judicial proceedings subject 'any rights, defenses privileges which Federal person may invoke.' is also directed promulgate regulations govern eventual some materials. These must account seven guidelines specified § 104(a) Act, including, inter alia, need protect person's opportunity assert legally constitutionally based right privilege his family are nature. No publicaccess yet become effective. day law, filed an action District Court challenging Act's constitutionality on grounds, its face it violates (1) principle separation powers; (2) privilege; (3) privacy interests; (4) First Amendment associational rights; (5) Bill Attainder Clause, seeking declaratory injunctive relief against enforcement Act. Concluding since no public-access taken effect consider injury protected interests allegedly caused taking their screening archivists, held constitutional challenges merit dismissed complaint. Held: 1. does violate powers. Pp. 441-446. (a) regulation Executive Branch's function control disposition itself principle, Branch became party when Ford Carter's administration, acting through Solicitor General, urged affirmance Court's judgment. Moreover, remains employees branch. P. 441. (b) separate powers intended operate absolute independence, but determining whether separation-of-powers proper inquiry requires analysis extent prevents from accomplishing assigned functions, where potential disruption present then determined impact justified overriding promote objectives within Congress' authority. 441-443. (c) There nothing rendering unduly disruptive Branch, branch full materials, being facially ensure can released release barred inhering 443-446. 2. Neither confidentiality. 446-455. In view specific directions account, 'the party's privilege,' purely there reason believe restrictions ultimately established will adequate executive 449-451. mere who previously performed identical task other former Presidents suggestion activity way interfered confidentiality, impermissibly interfere candid communication views advisers more intrusion confidentiality than camera inspection approved States v. Nixon, 418 683, 94 3090, 41 1039. 451-452. Given safeguards built prevent disclosure implicate requirement returned him, minimal Presidency resulting archivists' viewing course process, claims yield important congressional purposes preserving maintaining lawful governmental purposes. 452-454. 3. unconstitutionally invade privacy. While has legitimate expectation communications, viewed context limited status figure, lack overwhelming majority (he conceded saw 200,000 items), virtual impossibility segregating apparently small quantity comprehensive screening. When combined sensitivity interests, unblemished record discretion, likelihood promulgated further moot fears reviewed 'a host persons,' apparent claim merit. 455-465. 4. significantly chill rights. His clearly outweighed compelling promoted Since archival least restrictive means identifying appellant, burden measure claim, speculative light provisions protecting improper disclosures guaranteeing him review before permitted. 465-468. 5. Clause. 468-484. However expansive prohibition bills attainder, serve variant Equal Protection invalidating every burdens persons groups plausible individuals. Clause serves bulwark tyranny, do so limiting choice legislating universe, benefits, all. 468-471. specificity referring name automatically offend time passage concerned preservation papers already housed libraries, constituted class one, alone justify decision proceed dispatch while accepting predecessors' ordering Public Documents consideration generalized standards successors. 471-472. Congress, lodging GSA's pending promulgation regulations, did 'inflict punishment' meaning attainder. 473-475. (d) Evaluated asserted availability evidence historically relevant one nonpunitive legislative policymaking, history showing intent punish appellant. 475-484. D.C., 408 F.Supp. 321, affirmed. Herbert J. Miller, Jr., Nathan Lewin, Washington, Sol. Gen. Wade H. McCree, Detroit, Mich., Robert E. Herzstein, appellees. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 Title I Pub.L. 93-526, 88 Stat. 1695, note following 44 U.S.C. 2107 (1970 ed., Supp. V), (hereafter Act), Services, official recordings provide orderly processing purpose returning nature, determine conditions upon eventually retained. question unconstitutional violation doctrines; 2 On December 19, 1974, four successor, Gerald R. Ford, 93-526 law. next day, Columbia, under 105(a) exclusive jurisdiction entertain complaints legal validity, Administrator. Appellant's complaint challenged number grounds sought enforcement. A three-judge convened pursuant 28 §§ 2282, 2284.1 Because required 104 governing effective, questions going possibility future published ripe review. It found 'no justification court now reach . (which) might eliminate, limit, cast (the claims) different light.' 336 (1976). Accordingly, 'to propriety alleged facial unconstitutionality statute,' id., 335, therefore Id., 374-375. We noted probable jurisdiction, 429 976, 483, 50 583 affirm. 3 * Background 4 issue consist conversations. Upon resignation, pack ship California. This shipment delayed Watergate Special Prosecutor advised continuing At same time, requested Attorney give respecting ownership practice absence statute contrary supported possible exception.2 43 Op.Atty. (1974), App. 220-230. General's emphasized, however: 5 'Historically, been consistent acknowledgement peculiarly affected interest subjecting rights ex-President certain limitations directly related character records government activity.' 226. 6 September 8, issuance opinion, Arthur F. Sampson, announced authority 2107. Weekly Comp. Pres.Doc. 1104 (1974). shall refer Nixon-Sampson See Nixon 389 107, 160-162 (DC 1975) (App. A). recited retained 'all equitable title Materials, including literary property rights,' accordingly 'deposited temporarily' 'existing facility belonging States.' 160. stated donate' 'with appropriate restrictions.' Ibid. 'shall placed secure areas gained two keys,' possession Archivist members staff. exceptions material here, 'not deposit materials' reserved 'make reproductions' authorize prescribed him. exercise 'right formality retain (them) .' 161. 7 treated separately. They donated 'effective 1, 1979,' meanwhile remain depost.' however '(s)ubsequent 1979 (Mr. Nixon) direct' event (his) 1984, first occur.' Otherwise withdrawn, reproduction made 'mutual agreement.' 162. Access until 1979, expressly others 8 followed later, 18, introduction S. 4016 13 Senators Senate. bill, designed, passed Senate October 4, 1974. awaiting House Representatives 17, suit That consolidated suits Freedom Information 552 ed. supra.3 version 3, final 9, 19. II 9 Law Titles. I, consists 101 106. II, amends Chapter 33 44, Code, add 3315 3324 thereto, establish National Study Commission Records Officials. Section 101(a) notwithstanding understanding (e. g., agreement), receive, obtain, retain, complete conversations recorded officer employee 11 '(1) involve individuals who, conversation, employed Government; '(2) White office Office Buildings located Columbia; Camp David, Maryland; Key Biscayne, Florida; San Clemente, California; 12 '(3) beginning January 1969, ending August 1974.' 101(b) provides understanding, reasonable efforts papers, documents, memorandums, transcripts, objects constitute (as defined 210) covering 14 102(a) prohibits destruction 102(b) makes (giving priority Prosecutor) response subpoena proceedings. subject, however, defenses, invoke ..' 102(c) affords designated writing, 'subsequent regulations' issued 103. n. 46, infra. 102(d) according 103 agency department use. maintained Washington otherwise necessary carry out assure protection loss unauthorized persons. 15 104, pertinent part, submission proposed each 104(b)(1) end 90 days unless either adopts resolution disapproving them. factors 104(a), namely: 16 truth, earliest date, abuses power popularly identified generic term 'Watergate'; 17 proceedings; 18 general access, accordance procedures information relating Nation's security; 19 '(4) individual's fair impartial trial; 20 '(5) limit materials; 21 '(6) significance, likely described paragraph (1); 22 '(7) heirs, sole use, significance.' 23 vests Columbia hear validity regulation, decide actions involving title, ownership, custody, possession, payment award just compensation 105(c) holds individual deprived compensation. 105(b) severability provision providing affect regulation. 106 authorizes appropriation sums Title. III Scope Inquiry 24 correctly focused administer remaining Government's possession. designing infringement or, ultimately, F.Supp., 334-340. construction plainly wording 104.4 25 Regulations implementing 102 103, require regulate promulgated, CFR 105-63 Public-access submitted not, set disapproved Resolution. S.Res. 244, 94th Cong., 1st Sess. (1975); 121 Cong.Rec. 28609-28614 (1975). second set, withdrawn. 428, 2d (1976); 122 10159-10160 six third set. H.R.Res. 1505, cannot effective package consequently preparing fourth Congress. Brief Appellees 8-9, 26 concluded effect, once explicitly 105, worked archivists. 339-340. Judge McGowan, Court, quoted Watson Buck, 313 387, 402, 61 962, 967, 85 L.Ed. 1416 (1941): 27 'No foresee varying applications these conceivably made. applied manner still contravene Constitution another. contingencies attempted envisioned advance applications, courts main wiser delay passing phases faced cases particular specifically injured. Passing significance manifold broad apply analogous advisory judgment hypothetical case.' 336. Only Term we situation declining adjudicate Environmental Agency process revision, stating: 'For Court) form hinted at, wholly novel.' EPA Brown, 431 99, 1635, 1637, 52 166 (1977). Thorpe Housing Authority, 393 268, 283-284, 89 518, 526-527, 474 (1969); Rosenberg Fleuti, 374 449, 451, 83 1804, 1806, 1000 (1963); Raines, 362 20-22, 80 519, 522-523, 524 (1960); Harmon Brucker, 355 579, 78 433, 503 (1958). too, therefore, our merits several addressing requiring 29 decided are, course, considerable importance. touch relationship between coordinate branches Government, Legislative, Government. arise unique issues occasion heretofore address. speaking comprehensively canvassed claims, thorough none Our independent examination brings us conclusion, differs somewhat questions. IV 30 Claims Concerning Autonomy 31 product joint intervenor-appellees that, circumstance, case truly controversy concerning powers, because, argued, incumbents presently responsible American people action. reject argument incumbent hold President, heard hold, breach 32 argues broadly encroaches prerogative internal operations offends autonomy Branch. divided interrelated parts. First, contends delegate subordinate disclose prescribe disclosure. To so, contends, constitutes, more, impermissible interference Legislative matters inherently business solely 34 Second, narrowly, authorizing 'broad, undifferentiated' manner, publication affirmatively established, presumptive communications recognized 1039 He erred respects rejecting contention. Initially, distinguishing evaluating asserts unlike very state secrets sensitive military diplomatic matters, concedes survives termination President-adviser much attorneyclient creates it. applying balancing test concluding fact legitimately included substantial inroads necessitated Finally, authorization thereby impairing ability obtain advice conduct imposed duties. A. Separation Powers 35 outset Carter supports claim. administration Carter, vigorously sustaining constitutionality. over keystone statutory scheme, himself appointed President. career selecting similarly employees. 36 interpretation doctrine inconsistent origins doctrine, recent decisions contemporary realities political system. True, said 'each departments (must remain) entirely free coercive influence, direct indirect, .,' Humphrey's Executor 295 602, 629, 55 869, 874, 79 1611 (1935), '(t)he sound application master own house precludes imposing another there.' 630, S.Ct., 874. O'Donoghue 289 516, 740, 77 1356 (1933); Springer Philippine Islands, 277 189, 201, 48 480, 482, 72 845 (1928). 37 But pragmatic, flexible approach Madison Federalists Papers Story5 affirmed ago supra. opposition duces tecum criminal investigation. Although acknowledging duty initially interpret itself, due great branches, U.S., 703, 3105, squarely rejected contemplates division branches. Rather, unanimous essentially embraced Jackson's view, expressed concurrence Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. Sawyer, 343 635, 863, 870, 96 1153 (1952). 38 'In structure dividing allocating sovereign among coequal Framers system, independence.' 707, 3107 (emphasis supplied). 39 Like find rests 'archaic airtight government,' 342.6 disrupts balance focuses functions. 711-712, 3109. 40 highly officials 'for (Administrator' s) regulations.' 102(d); 105-63.205, 105-63.206, 105-63.302 For less intrusive place outside perform function. proceedings, qualified defense, valid privilege. Similarly, recognizes both 104(a)(5), 104(a)(7). guard Branch.7 And 'does presidential insofar Congressmen entitled it.' 119. applicable inherent Thus, whatever possibilities conflict contained renders and, face. And, abundant precedent mandatory See, e. V); Privacy 552(a) Sunshine 552b (1976 ed.); 2101 seq.; variety statutes, 8-9 (census data); 6103 (tax returns). Such generated never considered invalid invasion autonomy. Cf. Mink, 410 73, 83, 93 827, 834, 119 (1973); FAA Robertson, 422 255, 95 2140, 45 164 (1975).8 Similar exists instance, augmented seeks attain. infra, B Privilege Having necessarily violated Administrator's narrowly shields scrutiny. start what supra one.9 argued subpoenaed regard disagreed, stating 'neither highlevel sustain absolute, unqualified ..'10 706, 3106. derives supremacy area responsibilities,11 distinguished President's undifferentiated (communications)' particularized military, diplomatic, national security importance balanced functioning Judicial struck because district obliged provide,' impediment primary 706-707, 3107. Unlike involves assertion whose invoked. nonfederal appellees rely anomaly contend Presidency. Acceptance proposition would, inquiry. contention draws Reynolds, 345 7-8, 73 528, 532, 727 (1953), 'belongs it: claimed waived party.' believed statement strong support contention, unnecessary. 343-345. sufficed, privilege, if 'carries weight himself.' 345. true charged performance Constitution. inhibited disclosing confidences predecessor believes discourage presentation advisers. shield burdensome requests duties, see 714, 3110; cf. Eastland Servicemen's Fund, 421 491, 501-503, 1813, 1820-1821, 324 Dombrowski Eastland, 387 82, 84-85, 87 1425, 1427, 577 (1967) (per curiam), incumbent. addition, obvious checks incumbent's abuse Nevertheless, think states sounder adopt 46 'This Unless assurance expect receive frank submissions facts opinions discharge duties depends. exchange measured few tenure; benefit individual, Republic. Therefore tenure.' 33. 47 detracts intrudes needs follows, presumed vitally best position assess invocation accordingly. contents fall scope 'in (a President's) responsibilities,' 711, 3109, 'of office,' 713, shaping policies making decisions,' 708, Of stake, most items personally familiar. 49 bases given confidence adversely decisionmaking. called catalogued professional governed directions, restriction An barrier practically necessary. As careful research demonstrates, unyielding. All Hoover Johnson deposited libraries example follow) disclosure.12 processes sorting lodgment involved often imposed. 347. thus always erosion leaves 51 left bare advisers.13 agree framed, readily resolved. constitutes personnel concerns. Indeed, practice, past well aware future, confidential basis suggested why instant rather Libraries impair finding 'record discretion handling unblemished.' justifications shown comparable sustained enacting exhaustively reveals purposes, acted regular deal perceived purposes.14 should dependent happenstance whim prior define channel current obligations.15 Nor people's reconstruct come truncated present.16 act rectify hit-or-miss characterized attempts entrusting expert trusted disinterested professionals. Other led seek desire restore source facilitating airing events leading understand how operated guage necessity remedial legislation. Thus thought aid investigative power, see, repeatedly referred Judiciary they shed civil litigation, social doubted. supra17 54 objectives, scheme adopted overbroad. voluminous bear (and prompt mandated 104(a)(7)). commingled requires, like predecessors, systematic attempt segregate official, personal, 355. Even intermingle historians policymakers, communications. intermingled classification contemplated furthered. fraction Presidency, 56 short, conclude severe must, presume 'reverses' presumption favor Nixon. preserved guideline itself. If written protections nevertheless prove inadequate safeguard usurpation enough problem factual context. present, V 57 entered life voluntarily surrendered secured elect themselves sportlight. New York Times Sullivan, 376 254, 84 710, 686 (1964). argues, stripped privacy, fundamental expression guaranteed Fourth, Fifth Amendments.18 58 addressed performed. 'Since (appellant) invaded premature actually reviewed.' 358. denominating troublesome challenge plaintiff raises 357, reasoned proportion implicating quite bulk attached. touchstone legality processing, reasonableness. Balancing touching entails, unreasonable hence unconstitutional: 59 'Here, served 364. 60 'is difficult mingling midst vastly greater nonprivate objectives. narrowed carefully tailored represents level promotion importance.' 367. One element avoiding Whalen Roe, 589, 599, 876, 64 intervention officials, unrelated acts done capacity. usually withheld finances, 360.19 assume case, pattern de facto acquiescence gives rise Katz 347, 351-353, 507, 511-512, 576 (1967).20 reach. abstract; rather, weighed Camara Municipal 523, 534-539, 1727, 1733-1736, 930 (1967); Terry Ohio, 392 21, 1868, 1879, 889 (1968).21 test, weaker wanting Emphasizing precautions utilized State unwarranted medical computer bank objection York's program grounds. Not here mandate aimed preventing undue dissemination but, Whalen, even long-term information; 104(a)(7) 62 pertain, Most prepared seen widely circulated items, suggest calam extends saw. 435, 1619, 71 Further, logical offices primarily relate disclosed public. Dionisio, 14, 764, 771, 67 supra, 351, 511. Therefore, embracing, example, 'extremely others, wife, daughters, physician, lawyer, clergyman, close friends, diary dictablets wife's files,' 359, relates massive volume commingled.22 63 judging reasonableness rejection argument. 359. privileges, presumably 104(a)(7),23 identity achieved, parties concede, tantamount warrant search seizure 'papers effects.' 'blanket authority,' precisely kind Fourth prevent, "the real evil man's (in) rummaging effects him." 148, quoting Poller, F.2d 911, 914 (C.A.2 1930). brief continues, 150-151: 65 '(Appellant's) thoughts spoken, exposed whom know select, confidence. group (him), historical, opened review.'24 66 principally relies Stanford Texas, 379 476, 506, (1965), reliance misplaced. invalidated obtaining 'sweeping many-faceted which, things, outlaws Communist Party various offenses, punishable imprisonment up years.' 477, 507. authorized books, records, illegal activities. spending hours Stanford's house, police officers seized half books works Sartre, Marx, Pope John XXIII, Hugo Black, Theodore Draper, Earl Browder, marriage certificate, insurance policies, household receipts, correspondence. 479-480, 508-509. search. analogized Stanford, invalidation. 366-367, 63. agree. vast remotely interest. presents opposite situation: orders minimizing seize furtherance investigation exposure trial. contrast, undertaken separating 68 with, noted, 'an discretion,' 365. hardly differ materially intention library, essential. contemplation defeat indicate special tenure personnel, Presidents, appear first.' (citation omitted). 69 electronic surveillance conducted Omnibus Crime Control Safe Streets 1968, 2510 seq. 363. analogy apt. similarities procedures. Both expected reviewing surveillance, unconnected Yet render Unconstitutional. Cf., Donovan, 413, 658, 652 (1977); Berger York, 388 41, 1873, 1040 (1967). 363-364. 70 inappropriate procedure meet requirements enumerated authorization, specification offenses intrusion, particularity' seized, minimization duration wiretap, conversation (6) exigent circumstances justifying wiretap procedure. 157. parallel far perfect, many considerations supporting argue process. permits investigate crimes serious 2516, normal techniques failed 2518(3)(c). unavailability follows commingling documents.25 interception nonrelevant minimized, 2518(5), minimize intrusions, goal reinforced account.26 minute portion implicates interests27 negates conclusion solution sum, 104(a)(7), persons,'28 150, compelled VI During head spent working partisan matters. arising activities, segregated mass entails speech. summarized Court: 'It invades formulation critical speech association, sanctions expressive activity, significantly, learn substance especially refuse associate furthermore 'saddled' positions communicated private, leaving unable future.' 367-368. arguments essence again 368. challenge, raise acknowledged 'appear remove took place.' concluded, adequately discreet significant.' 369. conclusion. 74 is, involvement polities closely Amendment, Buckley Valeo, 424 612, 659 (1976), 'compelled disclosure, seriously infringe association belief Amendment.' 64, 656. met override Kusper Pontikes, 414 51, 58-59, 303, 308, 260 O'Brien, 391 367, 376-377, 1673, 1678-1679, 672 (1968); Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 488, 81 247, 252, 231 (1960), 'particularly 'free institutions' involved.' 66, 657. identification 84, 665. burden, guaranteening 105(a).29 75 reasons, 'necessarily inhibits (the) freedom (of Presidents) reduces 'quantity diversity' Nation receiving leaders.' 168. significant, moreover, concern deterred signing urging VII 76 address attainder proscribed Art. Constitution.30 premise engaged "misconduct," "unreliable custodian" generally deserving 'legislative blameworthiness,' 132-133. pervaded key features attainder: legislatively determines guilt inflicts punishment identifiable 381 437, 445, 447, 1707, 1713, 1714, 484 (1965); Lovett, 328 315-316, 1073, 1078-1079, 1252 (1946); Ex parte Garland, Wall. 333, 377, 366 (1867); Cummings Missouri, 277, 323, 356 (1867). almost instructive, sketch outline case. Brown 504 Labor-Management Reporting Disclosure 1959, 504, crime member labor union. detailing infamous ingredient 'separation powers,' organizing principles system government. 442-443, 1711-1712. Just confines adjudicating concrete 'cases controversies,' too 'reflect Framers' suited politically judges juries ruling blameworthiness of, levying upon, persons.' 1713. focusing easily sanction forfeiture job office, long deemed 316, 1079; Wall., 320. earlier unquestionably gave generous reading broader still. essence, establishes offended whenever imposes undesired consequences indvidual generality. faulted singling opposed disfavored treatment. characterization obviously proves much. By arguing attainted dislikes, removes anchor ties guarantee realistic conceptions punishment. cripple legislating, adverse legislation complain lawmakers generality.31 Furthermore, finds subjectively feel, complain, subjected 324, 1083 (Frankfurther, J., concurring).32 surely equal doctrine,33 individuals.34 'bulwark tyranny.' 443, 1712, refers context, focus enactment fairly rationally understood. deals exclusively papers. casts wider net establishing commission study recommend regarding federal officials. light, explained passage, demanded immediate attention. libraries. argue, 'appellant's created imminent danger contracted phlebitis, die.' 41. satisfied implicated. Forbidden merely consequences. inquire 'inflict(ed) proscription 315, 1078; 456-460, 1718-1721; 82 useful starting point leveled experience England parliamentary offers ready checklist deprivations disabilities disproportionately ends 9. named immediately suspect. originally connoted sentencing death.35 Article proscribes enactments pains penalties, Acts inflicting execution. 323-324, 1082-1083 (Frankfurter, concurring); 323; Z. Chafee, Three Human Rights 1787, p. (1956). Generally disloyal Crown State, 'pains penalties' consisted wide array punishments: commonly imprisonment,36 banishment,37 punitive confiscation sovereign.38 country's resulted addition list barring participation employments vocations, mode branded disloyal. (barring clergymen ministry subscribing loyalty oath); employment); unions). Needless say, suffered forbidden hands ordered property,39 105 'just compensation.' undercuts colorable punitively confiscated property, 'owner (thereby) put monetarily occupied taken.' 397 16, 803, 805, (1970); accord, 317 369, 373, 276, 279, (1943). feature falls ended determination traditionally judged prohibited treatment precluded new fashioned guarantee. looked beyond functional existence punishment, analyzing type severity imposed, reasonably purposes.40 319-320; Hawker 170 193-194, 573, 575, 1002 (1898); Dent West Virginia, 129 114, 128, 231, 235, 623 (1889); Trop Dulles, 86, 96-97, 590, 595-596, 630 (1958) (plurality opinion); Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 168-169, 554, 567-568, 644 (1963). Where appear, disadvantaged decisionmakers. 86 Application leads For, previously, 452-454, apparent. stressed '(i)nformation (that) needed prosecutions Watergate-related crimes.' H.R.Rep. 93-1507, 'public gaining significance. health vitality Ibid.41 text instructs retention policymaking. Legislation trials responsibility 'due justice,' 3110, adversary depends carrying commitments play discovery truth bounds Branzburg Hayes, 665, 688, 92 2646, 2660, 626 (1972); Blackmer 284 421, 438, 375 (1932); Blair 250 273, 281, 468, 471, 979 (1919). monuments heritage fully established. Gettysburg Electric Co., 160 427, (1896); Roe Kansas, 278 191, 160, 259 (1929).42 legislature responsibly accomplish implication policy inflict individual. strictly motivational one: inquiring evinces punish. 308-314, 314, 1075-1078; 169-170, 568. unequivocally found: 'There presented us, record, design impose penalty wrongdoings. namely, regulatory character.' 373 cogent disagreeing Committee Reports, formally explaining reasons punishing penalizing Reports reference properly lie competence: Supra, 476-478. More specifically, seems clear Houses predominantly precipitated resolve undo recently negotiated departed materials.43 Along lines, 2, stated: 'Despite implemented, result them.' S.Rep. 93-1181, aspersions contain condemnation behavior meriting infliction Members floor debates encroaching blameworthy offenses. opponents legislation, mischaracterizing embodied bill,44 'one partakes characteristics 120 33872 (1974) (Sen.Hruska), sponsor responded denying sanctions: 91 word guilty So relation my style pulchritude compared Queen Sheba.' 33959-33960 (Sen. Ervin). respect, stands marked contrast 312, 1077, Report 'subversive unfit continue employment.' 448, 78th Sess., We, formal moral unlawful 1079. sentiments probative intentions largely major prompted prohibition: fear legislature, pander inflamed popular constituency, expedient openly mantle judge worse still, lynch mob. 161.45 overeaching here. 'specific aspects square measure.' 373. Whereas complains question, 140, auspices Administration, 101, minimum period, 40. deprives 'ready access' 'Richard designate times 102(c).46 construed safeguarding inspect, copy, issue, 375, paralleling confiscated. 105(c); 475. belie interpretation. promulgating 104(a)(5). importantly, preserves inhere proceeding, assures commands docket cases.' emphasized expedited Nixon's 33854 recognize to' articulated ease safeguards, confirm soundness Congressional Research Service: '(B)ecause penalties Clause.' 33853 (1974).47 mentioned posture controversy. alternatives (here Congress) achieved Today, framing alternative available: 'If institute enjoin 'unreliable custodian' 'engaged misconduct' 'would prohibition,' determination, allegations blameworthiness.' 137. doubt selected course. be, chose full-fledged reliability adopted. doubtless earlier, resisted scrutiny day.48 rational fairminded objectionable today appears endorse. sure, unambiguously demonstrate poses difficulties suggests contrary, buttresses read 98 blind plea turbulence unprecedented history. invalidate inferences asked draw personalized scene look terms, voted nonexistence explanations effect. persuaded suggestive unconstitutional. 99 Affirmed. 100 STEVENS, concurring. Presidents. singles name, history, denied papers; prolonged litigation statute; scrutinized implicitly condemns unreliable custodian subjects humiliating Bills typically powerful leaders Acts, Parliament statesman reputation, leadership. motivation victims relentless attacking enemies height power.1 care. 'stand acts, matter form, ascertainable trial Constitution.' 1079, 1252. concept deprivation, deprivation permissible deprive deportees, group, Flemming Nestor, 363 603, 1367, 1435, single, benefit. 614, 1374. mark rarely narrow legislation; normally rulemaking deciding cases. 442-446, 1711-1713, 484. am 'appellant Ante, 472. unmentioned decisive regard. accepted pardon2 committed doing, Orloff Willougby, 90-91, 534, 538-539, 842. though unmentioned, unrealistic historic consequence decision.3 statute, avoid specificity. notice facts, unwilling uphold enact popularity nadir. calling' person.' 320, 356. relates, occupants. Without imputing similar reservation join qualification influence vote 107 WHITE, concurring part 108 concur Part VII, opinion. reached VII; 'punishment' 462, 1722, (1965) (White, dissenting). append observations 109 collection diaries, conversations, correspondence 'personal actual transaction business.' Tr. Oral Arg. 55. identified, 38-40, 57-59. declares (without order) promptly disclaim deliver him.' 459 22. delay. occur approval, effectuate. 110 Also, 'are But, questionable sufficed withhold letters diaries; particularly (5), construed. Purely interest, oral argument.* 111 recognition sufficient predicate Historical condemning 668, (1929); declared wants 112 BLACKMUN, 113 My POWELL, post, 492. refrain joining short sharing 498 501-502, submission, hinders Chief Executive's dispositive issue. willing significant consideration, convinced dispositive. mean detail. Political guide veto. 114 remind oneself instances transition friendly easy. hostile. hope anticipation describes, ante, 472, one,' model successor persuasion. 115 Brother POWELL observes, 503, 'difficult ahead' future. Reserving certainly 116 117 Parts substantially Amendments Clause.1 118 begins archivists.' 439. qualifications restrict today's decision. Act) purport complex officers. (The problem, resignation threat impeachment. one.' Less weeks impeachment, H.R.Rep.No. 93-1305, pp. 10-11 charges impeachable obstructed break-in activities administration. 1-4. month granted pardon temporarily facility, years. produced. death, immediately. Pres. Doc. 1104-1105 Those drafted sponsored uniformly emergency extraordinary arrangement Senator Nelson, measure' principal 'protective custody' 33848, 33850-33851 123 '(T)here urgency us. existing died tomorrow, immediately; catastroph(e) standpoint.' 33857. Ervin remarked: 124 really situation, story known collectively affair.' 33855. 125 Efforts floor. scandals, Javits 'we ex-President.' 33860. S.Rep.No.93-1181 126 essential lose sight pardon, impetus overstatement termed unique. share REHNQUIST's foreboding 'will daily stand veritable sword Damocles succeeding advisers.' Post, 545. lead comes 127 emergency, concentrated deliberately subsequent review, reconciling long-range advisors, public, observed: 128 'The section listed 104(a). latitude afforded. 335 (1976) (footnote resolved 'Is content conceivable falling 104(a)?' 334-335. 130 437. circumstances, eye toward practices afford asserted. 104(a)(5) 131 materials.' 132 observed considering factor, meaningful selection permit administrative classifications 339-340.2 substantive adopted, traditional forbid advisors fixed participating communications.' 338.3 133 procedural board positive afforded, nonetheless assume, protection. assumption upholding Administrator, 'consider retained.' 436. 134 dervies principle. exceeded assuming II. Myers 272 52, (1926). mandating interferes obligations. ground, represented functions Executive. 135 begin asking whether, putting side Constitution, Reid Covert, 354 70, 1222, 1258, 1148 (1957) (Harlan, concurring). Apart concerns 476-478, ambit investigate, inform legislate suspected corruption 136 pass 'preserve institutions impairment destruction, threatened force corruption.' Burroughs 290 545, 287, 290, (1934). servants, CSC Letter Carriers, 413 548, 2880, 796 bribery conflicts Burton 202 344, 1057 (1906); obstructions Haas Henkel, 216 249, 569 (1910); (1973). publicize corruption, maladministration inefficiency agencies Government.' Watkins 178, 200 33, 1173, 1185 1273 (1957). 137-138, 690-691; 137 informative recommendation impeachment deficiencies susceptible correction. Providing serving 138 (1952), buttressed characterizing steel mills 'legislative' I. 588-589, 867. last reaffirmed appointment 'Executive' vest 124-141, 684-693. presumptively avoids ensuring faithfully Branch.4 139 ground affirmative grant contravened creation opening-up scrutiny, impairs unfettered limits contravention distinction collateral 140 (Nixon I), presumptive, qualified, advisors. Observing 'those remarks temper candor appearances detriment decisionmaking process,' 705, 3106, 'constitutionally based' powers.' demonstrated, trial.' 3110. 141 understandably Comparing subpoenas encompassing 'demonstrated, need' outweigh destroy urges 142 undoubtedly force, sitting 'take Care Laws executed.' Here, powers': 143 'Far constituting autonomy, duties.' 29. 144 representation behalf Motion Affirm 15. representations precedence furthering hindering execution laws, province otherwise. 145 say lacks standing committee. impractical unknown, operation greatest deference. uncontroverted, believe, change administrations. incumbent, forum speak Branch.5 146 unmindful '(i)t emphatically is.' Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 177, (1803). reiterated I: 147 "Deciding delicate interpretation, ultimate interpreter Constitution." 704, 3105-3106, Baker Carr, 369 186, 211, 691, 663 (1962). 148 simply waive Constitution.6 149 ahead. forcefully THE CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST dissenting s written, indication oppose assertions rules timing emphasize time. 150 stake implicated existed. councils 'has communications,' 465, associations, way,' 467. Today's discussion foreclose assuring infringing Amendments. 151 BURGER, dissenting. 152 holding grave repudiation nearly practice. arises aftermath crisis culminated (Title 93-526) firmly respects. 153 disturbing subordinated seem situation. moments distress passions reminds coequal, check, turn, excesses others. joined haste 'do something,' historic, 'punish' person, tears fabric framework. 154 Any calling prohibitions citizen inevitably holding. Holmes, tendency 'great hard (to make) bad law,' went observe dangers 155 'some accident appeals feelings distorts hydraulic pressure doubtful, settled bend.' Northern Securities 193 197, 400-401, 436, 679 (1904) (dissenting opinion). 156 Well-settled bent 'hydraulic pressure.' 157 158 workings well-established developed compels coerces office.1 Next, sweeping modification 1789. 159 threshold matter, standard judged. usual benefits survive objective independently forbid, trenches guarantees, demanding required. legitimacy composition representative stake. Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 1362, 506 lessened reviews endangering speech, race. bearing heavy proponents carry. 161 Long ago, ordinary measuring impinging basic tripartite Kilbourn Thompson, 168, 192, (1880), Miller encroachments posed continued independence branches.2 cautioned affecting 'should watched vigilance, tribunal scrutiny.' (Emphasis supplied.) 162 role touches akin obtains guarantees. base framework liberties depend, upheld objective, trench heavily principles. 163 sense formalism. characteristic conceived federalism, structural Corwin, Griswold Connecticut, 501, 1678, 1690-1691, 510 judgment). pursuit vested President; Vice offices, creatures Constitution; agencies, Department owe Branch.3 165 footing. oversees, creature Legislature. originate command independent, Chief-Executive workpapers. 'watertight compartments,' 485, (1928) (Holmes, dissenting), powers.4 abstract philosophy; Taft, Brandeis 167 rule Government) control, restrain other.' Massachusetts Mellon, 262 597, 601, 1078 (1923). 168 530, 743, (1933), branches: 169 '(E)ach kept completely cooperate common controlled by, subjected, indirectly, to, departments.' 629-630, held: 171 open question. implied 172 Consistent noncoercion, unbroken George demands been, Taft's words, 'while request information, compel W. (1916). tradition produce foreign policy: 173 'To admit, demand negotiation dangerous precedent.' Messages 195 (J. Richardson Comp., 1899). 174 noting Curtiss-Wright Corp., 299 304, 216, 221, 255 (1936), Washington's refusal wisdom doubted.'5 175 fabric, then, coercion procure pertaining belong pertain words Executor, turned retention, GSA. 176 each, lies heart holdings immunity grants 'Speech Debate .'; refused confine literally spoken debate.' Powell McCormack, 395 486, 502, 1944, 1954, 491 (1969). reports, "to intimidation legislators) accountability possibly hostile judiciary." word, rooted able 177 departure noncompulsion. maintain 178 brushes aside noncompulsion, abandoning outright careful, unchallenged O'Donoghue's Executor. doctrine,6 substitutes, analysis, ill-defined 'pragmatic, approach.' 442. Recasting, 515-516, distills simplistic 'potential disruption' 'unduly disruptive' powers.7 179 patently ignores where, year unanimously allegation, showing, 'undue disruption.' There, impinge, modest appointments Election Commission, appointing law.8 180 postulated, engages facile demonstrates. told, since, being, 443-444. 181 superficial extreme. Separation-of-powers eroded goes 'minuet' directing employees, Secretary Doorkeeper House, possess Whether depends, custodians, commanded custodians act. command. 182 evaded, sham. 183 contrasted measures Departments created. production What nonmandatory, noncoercive legislated option breaches nonmandatory vital incident C 184 exercises files, workpapers 185 aspect Thompson: 186 (branch) other. 187 '(A)s confided exercised another.' 191. this: 188 Convention ordinance government, laid foundation basis, legislative, judiciary distinct, time.' Federalist 48, Cooke 1961) (quoting Jefferson). 189 1975 Term, Appeals meritless, 109-143, 677-693. 190 judges.9 room now, memorialize filing systems, unilaterally work obviously, natural duties.10 191 exception compulsory intrusions function, i. e., impaired 'than 3107, accommodation prosecutorial restricted indictment. examination, strict limits, single Judge. liberty Marshals.11 192 Welfare' purpose. made, allowed papers.12 entrusted Branch.13 D intruding clearer circumstances: 194 'A assist explore express privately. inextricably Lyndon stronger letter Administrator: '(S)ince recipient inviolability classes periods hereby reserve specify Hearing Subcommittee Operations, H.J.Res. 632, 89th (1965). 196 prerogative, inures himself; self-incrimination. illusory interposed countless thousands acting, contemplates, Government.14 197 agents, culling follow 'advisory' suggestions offered abrogates has, catalog privileged. fact, occupant rendered nullity.15 E 198 Does applies President? 199 effort 'remoteness' eliminate defects. office.16 empowered coerce risk denial large attending files sworn in.17 Absent (save Nixon), consult correspondence, workpapers, diaries congressionally interbranch conflict. Need Confidentiality 201 development expresses orally incalculable; perhaps crucial inhibiting turns counsel, leaders, diplomats statesmen. little countries representatives prefer memorialized aide. 'ghost' conferences, conferees choosing cautiously enlarged prospect Nixon: deliberations, values accord deference citizens added values, candid, blunt harsh decision-making.' 203 vein, enhances efficiency approximately inception, permanent principled one-House veto accept device operations? efficacious, library Ann Arbor, turn accessible Branch? why, suddenly, Ford's supposed I? 204 Third, pointed 491: 'Political veto' indeed, occasion, disagree predecessors policy. Some 'Congressional Government'; adhered notions power. respectfully submit, idea controlling 205 despite applicability regarded all, instantly quadrennially high noon 20. President,18 entire 206 concede terminate candidly acknowledge tenure,' underlying explicit history; Truman 1953 occurring advising Congress: 207 you equally expired examined (was) President.' 33419 supplied.)19 208 institutional integrity assurance, retroactive well-founded place. assumed conferred Speech Member Brewster, 2531, 507 (1972). illogical loses moment 209 retains 448-449; concludes cut places emphasis 'supports 449. relevance clear. depend holder claim.20 correct today, wrong approval Campaign validate 210 unprivileged. pages, Several points represent; factor Regardless routine coming House. Mountains reports tucked away engage historians, event, elsewhere. want reflect processes. intensive afforded analytically void sheer numbers mask targets privileged 211 qualified. From premise, leaps indeed ways. rest issued; remedy statute's flaw permitting F 212 'core' impounded 213 leave justified. fails satisfy narrowness injured 214 concerns, ostensibly affects, way, provides, seen, residences D. C. (2). 215 deeply troubled admittedly intrusion. Its personal-privacy 'most troublesome' raised statute.21 memoranda reflecting admitted 'Among containing extremely dictabelts Segregating screening, listen 359 1976). 217 searching scrutiny.22 Statutes liberties, Moore City East Cleveland, 494, 499, 1932, 1935, 531 reversed; affected, measure. Abood Detroit Board Education, 209, 263-264, 1782, 1813-1814, 261 (1977) (Powell, 'exacting 218 'We sort (W)e subordinating exacting 219 Constitutional Once statute. 632. unnecessarily achieving Lamont Postmaster 301, 310, 1493, 1498, 398 (Brennan, 220 Two statute: operations23 posterity.24 important. Yet, unless, years' agents. face, need, Middle East, SALT talks, problems Panama.25 'need' 'generalized 221 mechanisms, 20-year-old insufficient achieve purpose.26 'historical seizing, hearing, preliminary line-by-line 222 embraces decisions, appointments, leader party; encompasses family, investments, intimate highest order, primacy papers.27 1935-1936. 223 'intimate affairs,' Bankers Assn. Shultz, 416 78, 1494, 1526, 812 (concurring enjoying Brennan way: 'Personal integral enclave.' Fisher 391, 1569, 1588, said, extension 420, 1585. Marshall point: 'Diaries author's privacy.' Couch 409 322, 350, 611, 626, 548 (1973) discussing 'deeply throughout ought request.' 431-432, 1591 supplied) echoes Lord Camden's oft-quoted description 'dearest property.' Boyd 616, 628, 524, 531, 746 (1886). 224 emerges clearly: interests. Amendment's searches seizures implicated.28 warrants descriptions scrupulous exactitude 511, proscribe language 'indiscriminate sweep 512. commanding commemorative value,' evidences sweep' denounced. 'broad broom' virtually agents combing roam something subjected. 225 recognizing kinds one-half tells inapposite. given. quantities objective; connection relied disposed quickly, C., 101(a), purpose, brought Prosecutor, 102(b), proceedings.' 104(a)(2). warrant' reminiscent odious colonial era. 226 'quantity' fallacious. home, describe exactitude.' 'numbers' vanishes unprotected outnumber wherever reviewed, accomplishes exactly forbids. 227 considerations, pervade include expressions privately politics, diplomacy, walks life, country. implicated, reveal relationships organizations. NAACP Alabama, 357 1163, 1171-1172, 1488 (1958), said: 228 one's associations.' 229 contributions, scrutiny' 230 world figure diminish Forced sanctioned reasons. think, sustain, condition candidate publicly membership organization religious, social, political. actively affairs Alabama. surprising. dealt State's undoubted dispensing drugs, forbid. 597 878 875 Hence, difficulty reaching regulating drugs reporting prescriptions, business, involved. 232 person. soundly factors: first, traditions, ratified Acts: appropriations purchase libraries; statutes permitting, charitable-contribution deduction nonprofit institutions. 233 'commingling' 'public' 'private' absent then-existing laws strongly categories 234 holdings, generalized, goals focus, represent 'paramount interests,' piece goals, arguendo, 'compelling' 'overriding' strike differently, choose liberties. Hynes Mayor Borough Oradell, 610, 620, 1755, 1760, 243 235 mitigating intrusion: matters; second, possible, carried specially trained 236 governmentally justifies indisputably 'generalized' 237 saved credentials, impeccable, knows contend, discreet. Despite lip service paid generally, monitor examine, reliably 238 furthermore, standardless unhesitatingly down areas. e.g., standards, help formulate examining, segregating, cataloging 239 passed, specialists classify objections Had permitted guidance direction, He, preservation, protected. participate minimized eliminated. experts, any, important, 'intrusion' consented eliminating consent cannot, nonconsensual invasion. Actual required, Schneckloth Bustamonte, 412 218, 2041, 854 (1973), drastically circumstances. 240 discreet, 'impeccable' officer, Governmental permissible. 241 cl. Marshall, 'involv(ing) Nixon' 'Presidential 101(a)(1), (b)(1). target. 242 infrequently dispute definition common-law early way. sentence Anything was, penalties.' tangentially 179, (1803),29 soon thereafter conclusively notion incarceration fell prohibition. 1810, Clause: confiscate both.' Fletcher Peck, 87, 138, 244 Ogden Saunders, Wheat. 213, 286, 606, 245 'By classing ex post obligation contracts together, becomes apparent; arbitrary tyrannical 246 practicing professions. (1867) priest); lawyer). sanctions; political, enjoyed, Cummings, 247 Warren prohibiting envision narrow, technical outmoded) 442, 1711, (1946), 248 '(The cases) 249 Lovett's salary indirect 'bad' associations. cases, elements: designation Garland-Cummings-Lovett-Brown-type notice, trial, hearing.30 disputes suffers infirmity, right. 251 tradition, exception, property. judicially ratified, Folsom Marsh, Fed.Cas. 342 (Mo. 901) (CC Mass.1841) (Story, Circuit Justice), Justices 252 consistently assumption. occasions Operations Res. 330, 84th (1955). hearings debate measure, Congressman Moss, supporter 'Finally, remembered Cong.Rec.9935 1955 testimony confirmed: 253 incumbency afterward. custom authoritatively challenged.' 32. 254 testified: 'As removed term. keeping retiring Presidents.' 14. 256 background, surprising 1974: 257 reverse unvaried Republic, call times.' Op.Atty.Gen. 1-2 258 escape, enjoyed starkly, selects. repeal Act; availed operative exclude, allowed. invokes Black sain done: 'Those wrote knew liberty, thinks deserves country duly courts.' 317, 1079-1080. apart likewise motives retribution vindictiveness requisite elements overlook retributive irrelevant bill-of-attainder analysis. flatly: archaic 'retribution." preventive purposes: 263 'Historical ban retribution. English judgment, associations cause trouble inflicted keep bringing feared event.' 458-459, 1720. 264 line demonstrating incurred disfavor forth rule,' 450, 1715; doing 'bills aimed. Wheat., 286. 265 implicit 'legitimate 472; 486. 266 Nothing ibid., acceptance "legitimate one." relies, beside point. Correct target sound, singled theories: culpably virtue pardon; confiscating Legislature 267 'uniqueness' individualized not. powerless exigencies administration; 'uniqueness.' forfeited retirement pay entitled, instead setting uniqueness abrogated library. 268 novel advanced Clause; STEVENS admirably me, demonstrates 269 270 discounted precedent. reported situations confronted treason Founding Fathers. Burr, F.Cas. (No. 14,694) Va.1807). Burr blameless; Father Lawyer hundreds technically 'carrying rebellion' States. weigh culpability Lovett literal 'class' 'class one' 'legitimate' 271 opinions, confined one'; harm jurisprudence enhance credit adherence stare decisis. perspective, pressure' Holmes spoke enforced REHNQUIST, 273 dispose Unfortunately, countenances outgoing inaugural stand. instructions. result, odds previous Believing Court.1 274 propositions. discourse advisers, heads ambassadors, prerequisite constitutionality, flow 'balancing' magnitude assertedly fostered 275 point, Nixon.2 occupants Office, run, precedential wary pure hostility. 276 dealing albeit ex-President. Executives Washington. JUSTICE, 509-510. obscure, least, seizing ex-President.3 potpourri powers,4 attached unclear. speaks allow 'hit-or-miss' 452-453. cryptic paragraph, 453-454, contains permissibly unclear uneasy restraining Brothers BLACKMUN 'unique'5 disgrace Nation. 492-498. Unfortunately describes scant consolation concurrences fear, wishful thinking. 279 Were affirming surrounding serious. justification. 280 profitably pre-eminent occupies Suffice repository awesome indeed.6 spectrum confront Domestic affairs, direction Commander current, accurate, absolutely instructions subordinates. determinants quality furnished degree trust confide 448-449, cites approvingly General: 281 "Unless depends." 282 Dwight Eisenhower, advantage discharging responsibilities forces Europe Second World War attest discretion: 283 'And commander get free, unprejudiced subordinates, better basis.' States: 1955, 674 (1959). impressed Eisenhower: 285 'But little, slips expressing anybody; wreck added.) 286 utmost confidential, unreachable 287 understood discussed above, addresses uncertain confidants correctly, 'appropriation' uncertainty engendered decision, objection, 288 impeded probability blueprint Acts. 100-odd 104(a)(6). Either detract markedly brushing leaks. cull documents. strikes me naive, daresay shared suppose silent portions newsworthy. argument: 'Question: ask frivolous, hundred anything secret? 291 '(Laughter.) 292 'Mr. McCree: 'MR. not.' 46. 293 borders absurd cite (1977), invariably honor dedicated mind, columnists reporters avidly doctor drug patient Roe. received opposite. minimum, engender leaks 294 'general drawn. However, assumes adviser interpreted, confidences. old binding promulgated. anyone's guess ambiguous significance' definitively unknown definition. will, confidential. disclosed, 'go public' wrested sensitive. instructing answer suggest, 450-451, subsequently disclosed. ones when, longer resides restrained. 296 441, 502 representing unusual contributed 'unique.' 494 (POWELL, stance 'dispositive,' 498, mistaken. 297 attack framework, temporary protect. 298 POWELL'S limbo, communication, predecessor's sure communicating confidences, inhibited. blinks reality. bred hostility lameduck latter successor. substantiate recall transfer reins Adams Thomas Jefferson, James Buchanan Abraham Lincoln, Franklin Roosevelt, Harry Eisenhower. invitation unpopular incoming result. ascribe harboring shadow four-year sharply differentiates intrusions. permeates (1952) (Steel Seizure Cases), Order stoppage methods eventuality. 1876 postmasters approval. appoint 300 discrete disparage instance far-reaching hampering gather 301 indisputable dampening adoption constitutional.7 airtight, independence. pronouncement severely good so. 302 Surely ever 'balancing.' giving 'national interest' action, Steel Cases, recited, contradiction challengers, 'American fighting men nations Nations deadly combat aggression Korea'; weapons armed defense produced country, indispensable component materials'; industry jeopardize imperil resisting aggression, soldiers, sailors, airmen field.' 590-591, 868 quickly overridden 677, 933-934 (Vinson, C.J., violative nary mention relatively simple straightforward: legislate; impinged 867-868. Valeo.8 303 Branches well, regret dissent. convention court, Richey, U.S.App.D.C. 169, 513 reconsideration 172, 430 (DE 1975). Clerk then-available information. 228. stayed effectuating Sampson 'have District) cases,' U.S.App.D.C., 173, 188-190, F.2d, 431, 446-448. central constitutionality' dissolution stay entry 333-334, 10. Javits, sponsors 4016, criteria 104(a)) endeavor himself. unrestricted inserted today.' 33860 bill's draftsman, 33851. Ervin, manager 'Nobody's concerned, 33969. 33960 (remarks Sen. Ervin); 37902-37903 Rep. Brademas). 47, origin remarked Montesquieu, 'oracle' consulted 'did partial in, controul meaning, import amount this, whole department, constitution, subverted.' 325-326 original). Story wrote: '(W)hen maxim sense. meant affirm link dependence, other, slightest degree.' Story, Commentaries 525 (M. Bigelow, 5th 1905). also, K. Davis, Administrative Treatise 1.09 (1958); G. Gunther, Cases 400 (9th 1975); L. Jaffe, Action 28-30 Cox, Privilege, U.Pa.L.Rev. 1383, 1387-1391 (1974); Ratner, Self Incrimination, Illusion, UCLA Rev. 92-93 interpreted bring 340 23. 105-63.205 provide: agent attorney during, access.' 90. economic invaded, his, immune Story's 4,901 342, 347 Mass.1841), regardless lies, 'from service, embracing right, duty, publicity, writers.' go negated extended 'embracing information.' Significantly, limitation indicating belonged rights' 'limitations hand, foreclosed asserting distinguish 'executive' 'presidential' refers, 24. advise '(h)uman teaches process.' 705 15, meetings Farrand, xi-xxv (1911), sealed Convention. 475, 15th (1818). Warren, Making 134-139 (1937). Library exist Roosevelt Library, 0.5% restricted. percentage currently Eisenhower Libraries, 85% processed, processed 0.6% donor security-related) restriction. nonclassified complete, 99% nonsecurity classified unrestricted. removal 346 31. Aside mandates routes 7, 102(c); 105-63.301 defenses. privileges. states: 'Any eschewed wholesale Instead, manifested 337 102(d), phrase 'lawful use,' notified bar access. 338 18. exhaustive survey merged undre rubric accurate record.' 348-349. 3-5 37904 Abzug.) permissionial ernmental problems. 351-352. granted, unstable change. ongoing 102(d). 2-3, Implementing 31549-31550 Nelson); 33850-33851; 33863 33874-33875 Huddleston); 33875-33876 Ribicoff); 33876 Muskie); 33964-33965 37900-37901 101(b)(1), §§. 3-4, 33849-33851; Brademas); 37905 McKinney). Insofar VI, STEWART adherest 5898 607, 880, 360 54, surveyed Hoover. excluded gift, offer indicated select family. secretary. Again removed. 1948, 1954-1955, loan then. personnel. file executors Eisenhower's private. Kennedy's Kennedy, physically stored Johnson's affairs. declined failure bind toleration. 361-362. 101(b)(1) identified.' 58-59. enjoined 'processing, disclosing, inspecting, transferring, disposing coverage 375. (Watergate related) significance,' 37-38. contrasts donating purposes.' 68. substantiates assertion. Johnson, recommended Director played performing day-to-day processing. 365 60. meaningfully success subject's ignorance existence, displace automatic period. court. uniform determinations. found, 58, agree, III, detailed requirement, 2518. inapplicable supplemented eminent domain, report indicates calendar 1976 wire intercepts yielded nonincriminating U. Courts, Applications Orders Authorizing Approving Interception Wire Communications, Jan. 1976, Dec. 31, XII (Table 4). Throughout staff 'over accompanied lawyers, technicians secretaries (who) word-by-word 16. size enormous examine document. archivist 59. Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 394 147, 150-151, 935, 938, Cox Louisiana, 536, 453, 471 Staub Baxley, U.S, 313, 319-321, 280-281, Collins, 323 538-541, 326-327, (1945); Lovell griffin, 444, 452-453, 666, 669, 949 (1938), '(a) (with rights) treat nullity implementation 169. restraints expressional guided longstanding standards. '(n)o passed,' 10, Attainder, linking denunciation faults 130. consisting vulnerable overly specific, 471-472, breadth determinative disadvantages group. 474-475, 1728, dissenting); 34, Figuratively discomforting enjoyed. deprivation.' reasons' laws. Jurisdictional Statement 27-28. abandoned argument, underinclusiveness fatal Orleans Dukes, 427 297, 2513, 511 Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 657, 1717, 828 (1966), Williamson Lee Optical 348 461, 563 (1955) (opticians); Daniel Family Ins. 220, 550, 632 (1949) (insurance agents). Comment, Supreme Doctrine: Clarification, Calif.L.Rev. 212, 234-236 (1966); Bounds Specification: Suggested Approach Yale L.J. 330 conflict-of-interest prohibit individuals, Banking 1933, disqualified underwriting organizations Reserve Banks, 1717. disqualifications collected, 467-468, 1724-1725 Regional Rail Reorganization 419 102, 320 (upholding rail properties eight railroad companies Government-organized corporation). 1685 James, Duke Monmouth, treason: 'WHEREAS duke Monmouth kingdom rebellion, war king, allegiance; Be lords spiritual temporal, commons parliament assembled, same, convicted treason, suffer incur forfeitures traitor treason.' Jac. c. (1685) condemned King blood, whereby heirs inherit estate. Blackstone traced 'corruption blood' Norman conquest. 'oppressive feudal tenure' hoped 'may abolished parliament.' Commentaries* 388. recommendation. Will. (1701): 'An Imprisonment Counter late horrid Conspiracy assassinate Person sacred Majesty.' Cooper Telfair, Dall. 721 (1800) ("all persons, (declaring treason) banished (Georgia)"); Wooddeson, Systematical View 638-639 (1792) (banishment Clarendon Bishop Atterbury). 23, 567, Revolutionary War, Tory sympathizers. James's Claim, (1780) ('John Parrock High Treason, estate advertised sale'); Respublica Gordon, 233, Ed. (1788) ('attainted adhering king Great Britain, commonwealth .'). unsettled underlie events, tainted misconduct. aspect. Packer, Limits Criminal Sanction (1968). purge boards unions regards subversive fill (union) 460, (72). undisturbed legislature's conduct. Terms 383 30, 1682, (1968), reconfirmed purported nullifying agreement: prosecutors, defendants, probably defendants' innocence accused. affair, branch, recurence affair inhibited.' domain facilities tangible realty intangibles Cincinnati Louisville Nashville 390, 400, 267, 481 (1912); Porter 473 1329 (CA5 1973). Particularly death. Hruska seizes distributes litigants affording papers.' 33871 proceeding. 481-482. Alexander ander Hamilton's legislatures cater 'momentary passions' "free people, heat violence .." supporters steadfastly avoided inflaming appealing 'passions' community. expediently circumvent courts. assert. 1181, challenged. 105-63.3 brief, paradigm constraints limitations. Brest, Conscientious Legislator's Guide Interpretation, Stan.L.Rev. 585 deposition accuracy statements invoked 586-590. Danby, Carnarvon recounted history: 'My Lords, Latin, English, learnt mischiefs these, ill fate prosecutors. farther back Elizabeth's reign: Essex run Sir Walter Raleigh, your Lordship Raleigh. Bacon, ran Lordships Bacon. Buckingham, happened Buckingham. Wentworth, afterwards Strafford, Vane, Vane. Chancellor Hyde, Chancellor. Osborne, Hyde; tell. let man dare Danby down, (Footnote omitted.) Burdick 79, 94, 270, 476. Calder Bull, 386, 648: 'That Charles 1st. England, beheaded; Oliver Cromwell Protecter England; Louis 16th, France, guillotined; happened; nonsense suppose, thereto.' 'QUESTION: Well what, did, let's someone account. Now, imagine McCREE: May 5? submit deprivation; adjudicated Well, agree; sooner papers? Indeed do. Can thinking Truman's diary, reported, dictated evening, day's conceive interest? acquainted it's Yes. Archivists journalists. are. everything is. protected, item over. reason, adequate. marvelous speculate happen, haven't acquiesced effective.' 38-40. '(Mr. HERZSTEIN, appellees:) there's Dictabelts, business. 'Now, clearly, 'One person(al) McCree mentioned, criterion calls conjunction Floor Senate, Could capsule summary difference returned, returned? HERZSTEIN: yes. Certainly letters, were, Dictabelt appropriations? That's doesn't bother incidental now. tapes, on. we've about. diary. Instead day. that's concession, feel covered start. Is concession think? that? About paper belongs forth, don't document documen(t). that. 'Beyond please Dictabelts diary? identified. about, minute, picking Nixon? problem. await stymied lawsuit, How General? 'MR dispositions effectiveness regulations. knowledge V, parts competing illustration, interests: '1. material. Identification signature, function), cursory glance contents, plaintiff's undermining Participation facilitate '2. voice body '3. them, effectuated.' 339-340 (footnotes 487-491, of: donor-imposed formulated (and) Johnson. restricted: '1) security-classified; '2) prejudicial affairs; '3) confidence; '4) corresponding '5) used embarrass harass families; '6) 'President 5, recommendations positions, derogatory Hoover, provision, instance.' 338-339 (citations 104(b) disapproval 17; 26, 11. antagonisms motivate implications Rights. chosen Carter. "any privilege," 496, 635-637, 870-871, (Jackson, concurring): 'When maximum, includes possesses plus delegate. only, (for worth) personify sovereignty. undivided Williams Suffolk Insurance Pet. 415, (1839): '(T)his ha(s) rule, conclusive.' Later, discuss legislation's 334 1961). superiority governments extensive precise complicated measures, frequently phrased terms. 1949 creating follows: efficient purchase, lease maintenance equipment agencies.' 759(a). international relations, State: furnish Printer copy treaty 2660. WHITE's 558, 2560, (1972) opinion), 'evil' 'executive secrecy Bickel, Morality Consent references omit Madison's department's exercising 'whole power' total subject. theme view: evident, (department) overruling respective 332 warned length inevitable 'encroachments' selective obscure show violation, usurped one-fourth members, 'approved' Nowhere clarified majority's disruption,' briefs Buckley. styled 'Brief Appellee Amicus Curiae,' method 6-7, 110-120. (see 65). reposed Commission,' defended Commission. only; procedures, 510-511. Constitution's silence Brennan's 532-533, 2547, (1972), quotes (1881), Coffin Coffin, Mass. (1808). legislators seizure. exercised, Obviously, category Appellees, intra confrontation, Marshals turning sophistry. pertained Judicial-Executive abrogated. '(w)e 712 'emergency' wake resignation. end. purports Besides omitting POWELL's 497. begs Civil aside, replace underlings patronage enjoy Elrod Burns, 2673, 547 pressed harmless 'harmless' manifestly 'harmful' escapes me. Truman, objected 522. impertinence, departing inauguration rightly offended, resolution, smooth consultations signs defends mean, approves numerous disagreement felt constrained repudiated 'Lovett Rider' 325, 1083, (1946) (Frank-furter, appearance alternatively, objection. Clients attorney-client interposing situated client easy privilege.' expectation' 'comprehensive consent,' 361, 2510-2520, imperfect, admitted, 364, decisions. Above stringent warrant, 1968. flatly desirable goal. Dixon Love, 1723, Mathews Eldridge, 319, 347-349, 893, 909-910, 'administrative efficiency' unformly 'overriding swiftly 'bald assertion(s).' Wright, 405 208, 223, 788, 796, Numerous welfare payments, 'clearly outweigh' promoting efficiency,' Goldberg Kelly, 1011, (1970) (opinion Brennan, J.). Shapiro 618, 634, 1322, 1331, 600 (1969), 'fundamental' travel,' 'rational statute) diminished substantially. disclaimed investigations, parties. overbreadth invalidated. tentative arrangements University Southern Los Angeles establishment 167-168. ripened invalidated, USC campus commerciai prescription core everyone admits noncriminal inapplicable. South Dakota Opperman, 428 3092, constitution passed.' 'If, prosecuted condemn endeavors preserve?' Cranch, 179. determine, value.' crucial. Freedman Maryland, 380 734, 649 Marcus Search Warrant, 367 717, 1708, 1127 (1961). separates frame. elapsed dissent devoted separately, 'privacy' powers' attacks coat colors, differing Property 'private,' paying dictabelt sense, afoul Eminent Domain Amendment. Many privacy' publicized famous article, Right Privacy, Harv.L.Rev. (1890). Privileges, jurisdictions, confidentially attorney; confidant client, respectively. states, 459, 'it Presidency.' Whatever types crystal executive-privilege enables sections heightens attempting 'purely Act.' How- ever, answers. conditioned phrase, 39, empty gesture. (6). papers'? replete state, private'? recollections, assumedly returned. dictation voice-activated taping reviewed. dictabelts, erode 553-558. approaching compartmentalized fashion obscures fallacy subscribe JUSTICE. thoroughly observation 'grave practice' write separately Watergate, distinction: emotional dispassionately, qualify us.' Brewer Williams, 1232, 1247, (Stevens, logic sign sufficiently nonetheless. offering Hence unnecessary bound observe, emphasizing, 443-444, lodged thin reed indeed. management nominate defining agency. physical placement solve infringed committee, divestiture concerned. 486-487, attribute empowers 'by Advice Senate' treaties, ambassadors ministers, enjoins executed,' 'give Union, Consideration Measures expedient.' received, gave, successful relations; 220-221, 'Not shown, external limited. realm, complicated, problems, nation. treaties Senate; negotiates. Into field intrude; March 1800, Representatives, organ nation nations.' Annals, 6th col. 613. Foreign Relations (February 1816), "The nations. manages competent how, success. committee surest pledge faithful duty. negotiations calculated safety. transactions nations, caution unity design, dispatch.' Relations, vol. 24.' inquiry, plausibly debates, Papers, arbiter transgressed fend off invalidation (1803), unconstitutional, issue: expand intervene (1926); (1935); reads 177.' 3105. 512, prosecution,

Category: 2