Document: 428 U.S. 153 96 S.Ct. 2909 49 L.Ed.2d 859 Troy Leon GREGG, Petitioner,v.State of GEORGIA. No. 74-6257. Argued March 31, 1976. Decided July 2, Stay Granted 22, See 1301, 3235. Rehearing Denied Oct. 4, 429 875, 97 197. Syllabus Petitioner was charged with committing armed robbery and murder on the basis evidence that he had killed robbed two men. At trial stage Georgia's bifurcated procedure, jury found petitioner guilty counts murder. penalty stage, judge instructed it could recommend either a death sentence or life prison each count; free to consider mitigating aggravating circumstances, if any, as presented by parties; would not be authorized imposing unless first beyond reasonable doubt (1) committed while offender engaged in commission other capital felonies, Viz., robberies victims; (2) for purpose receiving victims' money automobile; (3) "outrageously wantonly vile, horrible inhuman" "involved depravity (the) mind defendant." The second these circumstances returned death. Georgia Supreme Court affirmed convictions. After reviewing transcript record comparing similar cases court upheld sentences murders, concluding they resulted from prejudice any arbitrary factor were excessive disproportionate applied cases, but vacated ground, Inter alia, rarely been imposed offense. challenges imposition under statute "cruel unusual" punishment Eighth Fourteenth Amendments. That statute, amended following Furman v. Georgia, 408 238, 92 2726, 33 346 (where this held violative those Amendments statutes left juries untrammeled discretion impose withhold penalty), retains five crimes. Guilt innocence is determined trial; jury, must charge lesser included offenses when supported view evidence. Upon verdict plea presentence hearing where hears additional extenuating aggravation made known defendant before trial. least one 10 specified exist designated writing can imposed. In bound recommended sentence. its review (which automatic), State whether influenced passion, prejudice, factor; supports finding statutory circumstance; "is considering both crime If affirms include decision reference has considered. Held: judgment affirmed. Pp. 168-207; 220-226; 227. 233 Ga. 117, 210 S.E.2d 659, Mr. Justice STEWART, POWELL, STEVENS, concluded that: 1 does not, all violate 168-187. 2 (a) Amendment, which interpreted flexible dynamic manner accord evolving standards decency, forbids use "excessive" because involves unnecessary wanton infliction pain grossly severity crime. 169-173. 3 (b) Though legislature may punishment, required select severe possible, heavy burden rests upon attacking judgment. 174-176. 4 (c) existence accepted Framers Constitution, nearly centuries recognized invalid Per se. 176-178. 5 (d) Legislative measures adopted people's chosen representatives weigh heavily ascertaining contemporary decency; argument such require Amendment construed prohibiting undercut fact four years since Furman, supra, decided, Congress at 35 States have enacted new providing penalty. 179-183. 6 (e) Retribution possibility deterrence crimes prospective offenders are impermissible considerations determining should imposed, cannot said legislative necessary some clearly wrong. 183-187. 7 (f) Capital viewed invariably P. 187. 8 2. concerns expressed arbitrarily capriciously met carefully drafted ensures sentencing authority given adequate information guidance, best system provides proceeding apprised relevant provided guide information. 188-195. 9 3. sentenced constitutional. procedures their face satisfy there specific findings character defendant, thereafter reviews comparability similarly situated defendants ensure particular case disproportionate. Petitioner's contentions changes removed elements arbitrariness capriciousness condemned without merit. 196-207. opportunities scheme affording an individual mercy through prosecutor's unfettered whom wishes prosecute bargain them; jury's option convict offense; Governor pardoning commute do render unconstitutional. 199. 11 arguments certain too broad vague lack merit, need overly constructions already narrowed judicial construction. One provision impermissibly Court. procedure allows grants reflects misinterpretation ignores determine proportional also urges scope considered wide, desirable much possible makes decision. 200-204. 12 automatic safeguard against prejudicial factors. very petitioner's 204-206. 13 WHITE, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST, 14 1. scheme, overcome constitutional deficiencies 346, old system, only guides exercise will first-degree murder, gives power imposes obligation decide being administered class discriminatory, standardless, rare fashion. properly performs task assigned statutes, discriminatory reasons freakishly category set aside. wholly failed establish perform instant incapable performing adequately cases. Thus carried out consistently 220-224. 15 Petioner's decisions bargaining declining standardless result freakish assumption prosecutors motivated charging factors than strength likelihood convicts; felony same questions guilt 224-225. 16 penalty, however whatever crime, cruel unusual untenable stated White's dissent Roberts Louisiana, 325, 337, 3001, 3008, 974. 226. 17 BLACKMUN concurred 405-414, 2811-2816, (1972) (Blackmun, J., dissenting), Id., 375, S.Ct., 2796 (Burger, C.J., dissenting); 414, 2816 (Powell, 465, 2842 (Rehnquist, dissenting.) 18 G. Hughel Harrison, Lawrenceville, Ga., petitioner. 19 Thomas Davis, Atlanta, respondent. 20 William E. James, Los Angeles, Cal., California, amicus curiae. 21 Sol.en. Robert H. Bork, Washington, D. C., argued United States, 22 Judgment Court, opinion announced STEWART. 23 issue law violates 24 * petitioner, Gregg, accordance stages, stage. established November 21, 1973, traveling companion, Floyd Allen, hitchhiking north Florida picked up Fred Simmons Bob Moore. Their car broke down, continued after purchased another vehicle cash carrying. While still Florida, hitchhiker, Dennis Weaver, who rode them let about p. m. A short time later men interrupted journey rest stop along highway. next morning bodies Moore discovered ditch nearby. 25 On 23, reading shootings Atlanta newspaper, Weaver communicated Gwinnett County police related concerning victims, including description car. afternoon, Simmons' car, arrested Asheville, N. C. search incident arrest .25-caliber pistol, shown used kill Moore, pocket. warnings Miranda Arizona, 384 436, 86 1602, 694 (1966), signing written waiver his rights, signed statement admitted shooting, then robbing He justified slayings grounds self-defense. day, transferred Allen taken scene shootings. arriving there, recounted events leading slayings. His version follows: intended rob them. took pistol hand positioned himself improve aim. As came embankment toward fired three shots fell near ditch. close range, shot into head each. valuables drove away Allen. 26 medical examiner testified died bullet wound eye wounds cheek back head. further several bruises abrasions probably sustained fall dragged pushed embankment. Although did testify, detective substance Allen's statements indicated directly account accurate. own defense. confirmed described detective, denied truth ever having accuracy. fear self-defense, testifying attacked him, wielding pipe knife.1 27 submitted charges felony-murder nonfelony-murder theories. self-defense declined instruct manslaughter. armed-robbery theory offense intimidation. 28 place neither prosecutor nor lawyer offered Both counsel, however, lengthy dealing generally propriety weight guilt. count. what appropriate facts parties mitigation aggravation. 29 Finally, "would (imposing) death" circumstances: 30 "One to-wit (Simmons Moore). 31 "Two automobile indictment. 32 "Three outrageously inhuman, (Sic ) involved Tr. 476-477. Finding verdicts 34 convictions 659 (1974). record, evidence, requirements law, that, nature cases.2 robbery, improperly murders murders. 127, S.E.2d, 667. We granted application writ certiorari limited challenge violation 423 1082, 1090, 47 93 (1976). II 36 Before issues understand penalty.3 our (1972), six categories crime: murder,4 kidnaping ransom victim harmed, robbery5 rape, treason, aircraft hijacking.66 Ga.Code Ann.§§ 26-1101, 26-1311, 26-1902, 26-2001, 26-2201, 26-3301 (1972). defendant's traditional manner, 37 Sims State, 203 668, 862 (1948). Linder 132 Ga.App. 624, 625, 208 630, 631 verdict, finding, conducted whoever determination essentially bench trials. hearing: 38 "(T)he (or jury) shall hear extenuation, mitigation, prior criminal pleas nolo contendere absence conviction pleas: Provided, admissible. counsel prosecuting attorney . regarding imposed." § 27-2503. (Supp.1975). 39 accorded substantial latitude types introduce. Brown 235 644, 647-650, 220 S.Ed.2d 922, 925-926 (1975).7 Evidence during resubmitted. Eberheart 232 247, 253, 206 12, (1974).8 40 assessment instructions "any otherwise (10) .." 27-2534.1(b) nonstatutory delineated statute. convicted death, except treason hijacking, tried find statute.9 judge) finds elects 26-3102 specify circumstance(s) found. 27-2534.1(c) rommended §§ 26-3102, 27-2514 41 addition conventional appellate process available special expedited direct appropriateness case. directed "the well errors enumerated way appeal," determine: 42 "(1) Whether influence anything factor, 43 "(2) Whether, judge's circumstance section 27.2534.1(b), 44 "(3) 27-2537 45 sentence, consideration. 27-2537(e) (Supp. 1975).10 46 complete trial, separate report judge, transmitted 27-2537(a) 1975). form 61/2 page questionnaire, designed elicit It requires characterize ways test disproportionality Included responses detailed quality representation, race played role and, whether, court's judgment, copy served defense counsel. Under authority, affirm remand resentencing. remains executive clemency.11 III address initially basic contention is, Constitution. Part IV opinion, we 48 number occasions assumed asserted constitutionality punishment. foundation decision, asked method carrying allowed stand Amendment.12 But until never confronted squarely fundamental claim always, regardless enormity followed addressed resolved Four Justices unconstitutional per se ;13 reached opposite conclusion;14 Justices, agreeing applied, open question imposed.15 now hold history prohibition reviewed length.16 phrase appeared English Bill Rights 1689, Parliament accession Mary. Granucci, "Nor Cruel Unusual Punishments Inflicted:" Original Meaning, 57 Calif.L.Rev. 839, 852-853 (1969). appears punishments unauthorized jurisdiction court, involved. 860. American draftsmen, phrasing drafting primarily concerned, proscribing "tortures" "barbarous" methods punishment." 842.17 50 earliest raising claims, focused execution pass muster. itself issue, criterion evaluate mode similarity "torture" methods. Wilkerson Utah, 99 130, 136 (1879) ("(I)t safe torture others line cruelty, forbidden amendment ."); re Kemmler, 447, 930, 933, 519 (1890) ("Punishments involve lingering ."). Louisiana ex rel. Francis Resweber, 329 459, 464, 67 374, 376, 91 L.Ed. 422 (1947) (second attempt electrocution failure initial "an unforeseeable accident" "(t)here (was no inflict proposed execution"). 51 confined embodied outlawed 18th century. Instead, manner. early "a principle vital, capable wider mischief gave birth." Weems 217 349, 373, 544, 551, 54 793 (1910). Clause forbidding fastened obsolete acquire meaning public becomes enlightened humane justice." 378, 553. U.S., 429-430, 2823-2824 Trop Dulles, 356 86, 100-101, 78 590, 597-598, 630 (1958) (plurality opinion). 52 Philippine Cadena temporal falsifying official document. imprisonment chains, hard painful labor; loss many civil rights; subjection lifetime surveillance. acknowledged cruelty pain" present challenged 366, 549, rely rejected proposition reaches "inhuman barbarous, like." 368, 549. Rather, proportion between offense: 53 "Such penalties amaze formed conception relation state even offending citizens practice commonwealths, believe precept justice graduated proportioned offense." 366-367, 549.18[n] Later, denationalization soldier escaped Army stockade became deserter day. concept proportionality holding, plurality observed dicta "(f)ines, depending crime." 100, 598. 55 substantive limits punished discussed Robinson 370 660, 82 1417, 758 (1962). status addicted narcotic drug held, effect, mere addiction. abstract actual irrelevant: "Even day 'crime' common cold." 667, 1421. Most recently, concurring opinions applicable employed 56 clear foregoing precedents regarded static conce. Chief Warren said, oft-quoted phrase, "(t)he draw decency mark progress maturing society." Supra, 101, Jackson Bishop, 404 F.2d 571, 579 (CA 1968). Cf. 666, 1420. Thus, values sanction Amendment. develop below more fully, see Infra, 175-176, call subjective requires, rather, look objective indicia reflect attitude sanction. make perceptions respect sanctions conclusive. dignity man," "basic underlying Amendment." 597 This means, least, "excessive." When (in case, murder) rather (the crime) consideration, inquiry "excessiveness" aspects. First, pain. 392-393, 2805-2806 dissenting). 136; 381, 554. Second, opinion) (dictum); 367, B 58 Of course, awareness courts. mean judges play, restraint power. 59 "Judicial definition, often conflict Constitution means requires. respect, come us different posture. seems conceded obligations judiciary bar legislatively approved not." 313-314, 2764 (White, concurring). 60 433, 2825 dissenting).19 61 But, insure bounds overreached, act ajudges might legislators. 62 "Courts representative bodies. They good reflex democratic society. informed, therefore most dependable, within narrow limits. essential detachment, founded independence. History teaches independence jeopardized courts become embroiled passions assume primary responsibility choosing competing political, economic social pressures." 341 494, 525, 71 857, 95 1137 (1951) (Frankfurter, affirmance judgment).20 63 Therefore, assessing selected democratically elected measure, presume validity. so long cruelly inhumane And attack people. 64 true part intertwined weighs standards. "(I)n society legislatures, courts, constituted respond consequently moral people." 383, 2800 deference owe legislatures federal 465-470, 2842-2844 enhanced specification "these peculiarly policy." Gore 357 386, 393, 1280, 1285, 1405 (1958). 664-665, 1419-1420; 103, 599 opinion); 933. Caution lest become, "under aegis Punishment Clause, ultimate arbiter throughout country." Powell Texas, 392 514, 533, 88 2145, 2154, 1254 (1968) reversed amendment. ability people express preference normal processes, ballot referenda, shut off. Revisions light experience. 461-462, 2839-2840 C 65 discussion point sought identify principles addressing claim. specifically note precedent strongly support negative answer question. 66 acceptance England. common-law rule mandatory murderers. McGautha 402 183, 197-198, 1454, 1462-1463, 711 (1971 20th century although breadth diminished, narrowing subsequently widespread adoption laws expressly granting mercy. 199-200, 1463-1464. Woodson North Carolina, 280, 289-292, 2978, 2984-2985, 944. apparent text Framers. ratified, every State. Indeed, First legislation 9, Stat. 112 (1790). Fifth Eighth, contemplated prosecution cases: 68 "No person capital, infamous presentment indictment Grand Jury .; subject twice put jeopardy limb; deprived life, liberty, property, due ." 69 over three-quarters later, contemplates deprive "life, property" law. 70 For centuries, repeatedly expressly, Utah,99 134-135, inflicting said: "Cruel authorities referred quite sufficient show shooting executing degree category, eighth amendment." 72 Rejecting unusual," 933 reiterated: 73 cruel, word implies something inhuman extinguishment life." 74 Again, remarked: "The protects man inherent suffering extinguish humanely." 99, 597, Warren, wrote: 75 "Whatever terms accomplishing purposes history, widely accepted, cruelty." ago, petitioners companion predicated evolved longer tolerated. evolutionary end, finally impact Justices.21 Three unwilling go far; focusing inflicted, conclusion constitutionally invalid.22 76 today renew "standards decency" argument, developments Have substantially assumptions rested. Despite continuing debate, dating 19th century, morality utility evident large continues regard 77 marked indication society's endorsement response Furman. States23 provide person. 1974, piracy results death.24 These recently attempted Primarily (i) specifying weighed deciding (ii) making post-Furman Statutes statewide referendum occurring brought attention, California effect negating ruling People Anderson, Cal.3d 628, 100 Cal.Rptr. 152, 493 P.2d 880, cert. denied, 406 958, 2060, 344 violated Constitution.25 79 significant reliable index 439-440, 2828-2829 Powell, Trial Crimes, Wash. & Lee L.Rev. (1966). "one important functions selection (between case) maintain link community penal system." Witherspoon Illinois, 391 510, n. 15, 1770, 1775, 776 (1968). recent decades discriminating death.26 relative infrequency indicate rejection reluctance feeling irrevocable reserved small extreme 388, 2803 actions fully compatible judgments, reflected necessity 1974 254 persons Furman,27 end 1976, 460 sentences. 80 seen, demands acceptable ask comports human core "invalidate deem less serve ends penology," 451, 2834 totally penological justification gratuitous suffering. 135-136; 81 principal purposes: retribution offenders.28 part, expression outrage particularly offensive conduct.29 function unappealing many, ordered asks legal processes self-help vindicate wrongs. 83 instinct man, channeling administration serves promoting stability governed begin organized unable 'deserve,' sown seeds anarchy self-help, vigilante justice, lynch law." 308, 2761 (Stewart, 84 "Retribution dominant law," Williams New York, 337 241, 248, 1079, 1084, 1337 (1949), inconsistent 394-395, 2806-2807 id., 452-454, 2835-2836 dissenting; 531, 535-536, 2153, 2155-2156 community's belief themselves grievous affront humanity death.30[n] 85 Statistical attempts worth deterrent potential occasioned great deal debate.31 simply bn inconclusive. opponent "(A)fter inquiry, probing know, systematic easily visible 'deterrent' 87 inescapable flaw conditions constant time, states. (and effects, another, large) tell attributable presence 'scientific' say, soundly based impossible, methodological path tangle suggests itself." Black, Punishment: Inevitability Caprice Mistake 25-26 studies suggest significantly greater penalties,32 convincing empirical supporting refuting view. nevertheless safely murderers, threat little effect. others, undoubtedly deterrent. There hire, enter cold calculus precedes act.33 prisoner, adequate.34 89 value complex factual resolution statistical local flexibility approach 403-405, 2810-2812 just responsible effort define criminals effective 90 sum, say Legislature Considerations federalism, evaluate, consensus sanction, conclude, dea thus unconstitutionally severe. unique irrevocability. 286-291, 2750-2753 (Brennan, concurring); 306, 2760 stake, sensitive observed. Alabama, 287 45, 71, 55, 65, 158 (1932); Reid Covert, 354 1, 77, 1222, 1262, 1148 (1957) (Harlan, result). concerned here deliberately offender,35 suitable offense, offender, reaching it. 94 Constitution's ban punishments, recognize kind justice. Because uniqueness created risk inflicted capricious White exacted atrocious meaningful distinguishing few 313, (concurring). examined struck lightening unusual. For, (capital crimes), reprehensible these, were) among random handful (T)he tolerate systems permit 309-310, 2762 concurring).36 mandates afforded body matter grave spared, suitably minimize action. certainly novel area exercised informed "(f)or sentences, together propensities offender." Pennsylvania Sullivan Ashe, 302 51, 59, 61, (1937). Oklahoma, 358 576, 585, 421, 426, 516 (1959); 1083.37 Otherwise, consistent rational manner." Bar Association Project Standards Criminal Justice, Sentencing Alternatives Procedures 4.1(a), Commentary, 201 (App. Draft President's Commission Law Enforcement Administration Challenge Crime Free Society 144 (1967); ALI, Model Penal Code 7.07, Comment pp. 52-53 (Tent. 1954).38 cited authority. experienced daily faces difficult vital accurate order able typical indispensable prerequisite reasoned live die 98 "to hardly 'the society.' "39 creates problems. Much relevance guilt, extremely fair question.40 problem, scarcely insurmountable. Those studied answer. drafters Codconcluded: "(If unitary used) bearing example previous accused, ground though excluded irrelevant alone. lawyers understandably confidence solution admits trusts instruction disregarded ". obvious bifurcate proceeding, abiding strictly rules conviction, once opening analogue ordinary issue; conducts sentence." 201.6, 5, 74-75 1959). 101 Spencer 385 554, 567-569, 648, 655-657, 606 Report Royal Punishment, 1949-1953, Cmd. 8932, P 555, 574; Knowlton, Problems Discretion Cases, U.Pa.L.Rev. 1099, 1135-1136 (1953). stake likely elimination identified Furman.41 102 procedural alone guarantee especially performed jury. Since members little, experience sentencing, unlikely skilled given. Relating Procedures, 1.1(b), 46-47 (Approved 1968); Justice: Society, Task Force Report: Courts (1967). To extent problem correctible. clear, alleviated guidance representing society, deems 103 idea decisionmaking proposition. Juries careful how apply merits lawsuit. virtually unthinkable follow course traditionally operated fixed law.42 Gasoline Products Co. Champlin Refining Co., 283 498, 513, 1188 (1931); Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 51. erroneous given, retrial required. hallmark guided deliberations. 104 suggested deliberations impossible formulate,43 developed. faced "that realm main concrete case." 3, 1959) (emphasis original).44 somewhat general, thereby reduce fairly called arbitrary.45 Where relied 105 summary, guidance. general 106 intend above-described permissible constructed lines inevitably Furman,46 distinct basis. embarked exposition construct capital-sentencing meeting Furman's concerns.47 107 turn consideration procedures. wake chose provisions. II, Supra. "(a) commits unlawfully malice aforethought, implied, causes being." Ann., 26-1101(a) All "shall 26-1101(c) 108 act, murderers imposed.48 addition, circumstances. recommendation binding 27-2302 (Supp.1975), Statutory recommending 109 recommends No did: reach then, direction, die. attention Was felony? money? peace officer officer? heinous endangered lives persons? characteristics Does offenses? Are mitigate (E. g., youth, cooperation police, emotional crime).49 result, discretiontill exists, controlled produce non-discriminatory application." Coley 231 829, 834, 204 612, 615 110 caprice, appeal State's passion circumstance, compared 27-2537(c) 111 short, defendant. Moreover, guard situation comparable compares seem "no penalty) contends, cosmetic, continue practices remain 113 focuses discretionary action processing notes Further, choose him punishable verdict. finally, commuted Board Pardons Paroles. 114 stages determinative us. actor remove candidate contrast, dealt Nothing afford group offenders, focus particularized defendant.50 115 contends eliminate dangers caprice claims leave wish overbroad looks whole (as today) argues fails sufficiently Specifically, Gregg vague, mercy, wide. 116 attacks seventh authorizes torture, mind, aggravated battery victim," contending case.51 arguable battery. language way, reason adopt open-ended construction.52 seventh, McCorquodale 369, 211 577 (1974), homicide horrifying torture-murder.53 117 susceptible differing interpretations, creating juries.54 disagree. 27-2534.1(b)(1) "substantial serious assaultive convictions." demonstrated concern juries. Arnold 236 534, 540, 224 (1976), "sufficiently 'clear standards.' " points 27-2534.1(b)(3) speaks "great person." interpretation, reliance stood church gun indiscriminately audience. Chenault 234 216, 215 223 (1975). hand, kidnaped parking lot. Jarrell 410, 424, 216 258, 269 (1975).55 118 decline misinterprets 198-199. requirement prevent isolated create caprice. 119 objects, wide hearings. think wisely restrictions approve far-ranging argument. See, 922 So introduced preferable restrictions. 189-190. 120 assure defendants. "(w)hether s 27-2537(c)(3) (Supp.1975).56 sentence-review function, "if acts aside excessive." 616. occasion "we duty standard 861, 864, 213 832 425, 270 (standard "juries penalty"); Smith 24, 222 318 (1976) (found pattern" behavior). 121 responsibilities seriously. Coley, past situations like death." 835, at, 617. thereupon reduced Coley's imprisonment. Similarly, 26-1902 "unusual (armed robbery). cases." Gregg's hasollowed 285, 810, 814 (1974); 424-425, 270. Dorsey 591, 225 418 122 check particular, eliminates aberrant comes suffer V 123 centered arbitrarily. give Left unguided, freakish. procedures, permitted channeled. sentence; always circumscribed guidelines. affords assurance prompted here. 124 Accordingly, 125 ordered. 126 REHNQUIST join, 127 year offenses, out. I agree may. 128 receive Ann. 26-1101 (1972).1 208¢sce evidentiary immediately unanimously statutorily defined "aggravating circumstance."2 are: 129 kidnapping priorecord felony, 130 battery, burglary arson degree. 131 knowingly weapon device normally hazardous "(4) thing monetary value. 133 "(5) officer, former district solicitor duty. 134 "(6) caused commit agent employee 135 "(7) victim. "(8) corrections fireman performance duties. 137 "(9) in, from, lawful custody confinement. 138 "(10) avoiding, interfering with, preventing confinement, another." 139 Having merely (enumerated) Unless determines event designate doubt. 140 An aspect review. Prompt assist sustain supplied, questionnaire. questionnaire contains, disclose asking forecloses "all respecting defendant' guilt." 141 142 27-2534.1(b), 143 "similar cases" post Assistant created. "accumulate records January 1970, earlier date appropriate." 27-2537(f).3 "those consideration." 27-2537(e). 145 16-year-old 1973. driven drunk. down 1960 Pontiac using roll him. picking hitchhiker dropping off proceeded County, stopped urinate. st right result. 146 m., supplied possession purchased; $107 motel room staying stereo player. 147 arrived, admitting Simmons, asserting $400 taking moments why responded: "By God, wanted dead." 148 o'clock morning, released transported cars County. a. killed. Everyone got asked, presence, killing occurred. sitting seat half asleep. woke stopped. out, soon turned around told Allen: "Get we're going them." walked looked leaning get gone bank relieved coming shots. fell, staggered. circled approached men, lying ditch, behind. placed pulled trigger. Then went quickly trigger again. money, pockets. away. 149 finished telling story, officers happened. hung was. "You you blooded them," yes. know. indicted robbery. 150 behalf originally police. cross-examination, letter recounting instructing memorize burn letter. events, portion rebuttal, handwriting expert entire 151 murder4 refused submit manslaughter counts. 152 proceeding. However, emphasized murdered witnesses mistake guilty. doing stated: "Now, three, wherein Moore), consider, existed 154 155 156 157 far four, guilty, inquire "That Moore) forth indictment, 159 Now, doubt, refer count, 160 "If counts, event, 161 it, vile," etc. 162 murders; citing previously witnessed held: 163 "After hereto attached."5 164 sentences: 165 "Although passing, comparison (Code 27-2537(c), (3)), Ibid. 166 vacated. 167 threshold supra. giving sentencer unguided discriminatorily,6 21¢s freakishly,7 infrequently8 sentencer; criteria purport all-inclusive; penalty.9 Consequently, inexorably declared 168 considerably overstated. considers death.10 plainly discretion, permitting dispense intangible write accept naked assertion fail. narrowly aggravating-circumstance requirement, expect Not defined. do, infrequently loses usefulness device. therefore, current escape infirmities invalidated satisfied might, consistency precisely whose : namely, 169 I. e., circumstance. 27-2537(c)(2) However lawfully "excessive disproportionate" collecting cases"11 1970. 27-2537(f) "imposed factor." 27-2537(c)(1) whenever across type question; effectively foreclosed future existence. Similarly classes rape. Compare 612 (1974) Coker 782 "generally state" whomurder robberies. Consequently correct establish, cases; so. 170 negotiating separately cause 171 behave fashion try felonies unsupported facts. asserts untenable. Absent contrary convicts. incompetent judgments prosecutorial serious; proof insufficiently strong. deemed acquit someone sample truly "similar." really "similar" respects fail am contrary. 172 amount separates suspects fromthose acquitted final analysis government, run humans, administer Imposition surely awesome participate Mistakes discriminations occur explain. tasks protecting achieves interfere enforce faith operate fundamentally 173 350, 3014, 174 concur affirmance. 175 Statement REHNQUIST: 176 join WHITE Court's holding 177 BLACKMUN, 178 (Blackmun 179 BRENNAN, dissenting. 180 "must society."1 STEVENS "evolving essence single viewed, invalidates conclude 181 257, 2735, (concurring opinion), read requiring solely made. 182 "From beginning Nation, stirred acute controversy. pragmatic frequently advanced, longstanding heated controversy explained differences practical wisdom government policy. bottom, battle waged grounds. country debated supreme can, inconsistency, putting nations western world, struggle ancient deeply rooted beliefs retribution, atonement vengeance other, personal born movement eighteenth scientific understanding motive forces conduct, growth sciences behavior nineteenth twentieth centuries.' forms backdrop operation 296, 2755.2 183 my embodies restraining civilized transgress laws. say: "For myself, hesitate assert progressed days rack, screw wheel development concepts, or, 'evolving decency' .."3 184 inescapably duty, individuals Bar, "moral concepts" declare screw, wheel, morally tolerable society.4 My civilization again canvass led conclusion. emphasize foremost punishes, treat intrinsic beings degrading dignity. compelled Clause. 270, 2742. 185 disagrees "(i)n deliberate uniquely dignity." 291, 2752. Brethren constitutes perceive principled limitation. Death calculated involves, nature, denial executed person's humanity. indeed 'lost rights.' 290, unusually pain, finality, enormity, punishment; prohibits pointless achieve 279, 2747. 186 fatal infirmity treats "members nonhumans, objects toyed discarded. (It is) premise vilest possessed 273, 2743. "subjects fate treatment guaranteed (Clause)."5 hold, alone, prohibited "Justice obviously shocking itself, 'official' offering redress adds instead defilement first."6 187 74-6257, 75-5706, Proffitt 75-5394, Jurek insofar upholds 188 MARSHALL, 189 314, 2764, length views concluded, 190 intention retracing "long tedious journey," 370, 2793, sole suggestion briefly Brethren's extinction 191 reasons. excessive. 331-332; 342-359, 2773; 2778-2787. second, people, purpes liabilities, reject unacceptable. 360-369, 2788-2792. 192 authorizing crimes, air resulting U.S.C. 1472(i), (n) (1970 ed., Supp.IV). candid acknowledge realistic acceptability turns, urged, Informed citizenry, enactment largely unaware critical better shocking, unjust, study, know differ consequences effects penalty.1 193 Even assuming, renders prediction citizenry uncertain whatsoever "even popular sentiment favor" 331, Ante, 173, 182-183 (opinion JJ.); 353-354, 3016, 974 here, accomplish legitimate well. 342, 2778 (Marshall, 194 nonexcessive retribution. canvassed data 347-354, 2781-2785.2 knowledge point, literally summarized follows Nations Committee: 195 "It agreed retentionists abolitionists, validity comparative deterrence, correlation lower rates crime."3 196 "capital 353, 2784. 197 Solicitor General brief relies study Isaac Ehrlich,4 reported deter Ehrlich import. 198 relationship Nation rate "execution risk" fraction actually executed. Comparing 1933 1969, increases associated rate.5 technique multiple regression control variables posited rate,6 risk. tentative period 1967 saved eight lives.7 199 conclusions severely criticized grounds.8 suggested, example, defective nationwide, state-by-state, aggregation abolished obscures rates. Ehrlich's methodology, decrease combined increase would, things equal, exist. if, change rate, rate.9 200 compelling criticism choice analysis. Analysis reveals disappears series corresponds depends ending period.10 cast doubts reliability conclusions.11 theoretical model cross-section 1950 executions deterrent.12 assistance Accord, Commonwealth O'Neal, —- Mass. ——, 339 N.E.2d 676, 684 Furman13 convincing, elsewhere. 202 retribution.14 notion credence Brothers Brother 3008. disturbing today's unfortunate decisions. multifaceted one, undertaken caution. level, reprobation insistence broken punished, sense central sanctions. recognition plays crucial approval punishment.15 consider. offer explanation retributive punishment: 205 'The law.' quoting supra inadequate justify Brennan utilization encourages private blood feuds disorders." 303, 2758 opinion).16 defies hands. 207 vein, reinforce marks avoided. akin differs individual's shrinking antisocial fears strongest conduct contention, inconceivable conforming says "right" realize "wrong" pre-empts hands reinforces purest sense. utilitarian portray valuable beneficial results. justifications think, accomplishment 209 termed purely appropriate, murderer's good.17 Some 74-6257 positively embrace sake punishment.18 state: (footnote omitted). quote Lord Denning's remarks British 212 outrageous insists wrong-doer deserves irrespective not.' 30. observations thought responded anarchy. implication me murderer "deserves" respected preservation carry latter notion, odds 343-345, 2779-2780 return evil done remind us, 182. "compor(t) Amendment," "(consistent) (other) men." 183. 598, standards, "because wrongdoer it" fall, total wrong-doer's worth.19 214 promote goal respectfully upholding cross-examination entitled, you," testimony err refusing voluntary Subsequent portions amended. None amendments changed scheme. references version. provides: being. Express take fellow creature, manifested external proof. Malice implied considerable provocation appears, abandoned malignant heart. "(b) being, malice. "(c) Section "A when, intent theft, takes property immediate weapon. intimidation years." currently decided. 1973 potentially eliminating perjury. 26-2401 (Supp.1975) broaden admissible hearing. 27-2503(a) 27-2534 (deletion limitation "subject evidence"). Essentially plea. plea, mitigation. Mitchell 160, 900 part: hijacking authorized, evidence: another. warranted deliberation. writing, foreman non-jury designation. Except found, 27-2534.1 encompassing convictions" obtain preserve appropriate. aid disposition appointment assistant employment staff members. 27-2537(f)-(h) Ga.Const., Art. 2-3011 (1973); 77-501, 77-511, 77-513 (1973 Supp. 1975) (Board Paroles refuses suspend sentence). (1947); (1890); 345 (1879). (1971); (1968); 405, 2812 2736 2765 240, 2727 (Douglas, 310, 2763 wrote position Members narrowest Stewart White. 36, Infra. 316-328, 2765-2772 derives debates various conventions ratify Federal Virginia delegate Patrick Henry objected vehemently banning punishments": "What distinguished ancestors? admit tortures, barbarous introduce France, Spain, Germany torturing, extort confession J. Elliot, Debates 447-448 (1863). objection Massachusetts convention: "They nowhere restrained inventing unheard-of annexing crimes; them, Racks Gibbets amongst mild instruments discipline." 111. remarked "has genius ours," noted bad attributes alien source." 377, values, abuse 371-373, 550-551, (1910); 258-269, 2736-2742 (1962), illustrates "in knowledge" doubtless universally nine addiction Robinson. Brief Appellant O.T. 1961, 15. 411, 2815 dissenting): "We allow preferences congressional action, distaste these. temptations cross policy great." Marshall, 257 2765. Douglas, Stewart, White, 2727, 2760, 2763. Ala.H.B. 212, 2-4, 6-7 (1975); Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-452 13-454 (Supp.1973); Ark.Stat.Ann. 41-4706 (Supp.1975); Cal.Penal 190.1, 209, 219 (Supp.1976); Colo. Laws c. 52, 4; Conn.Gen.Stat.Rev. 53a-25, 53a-35(b), 53a-46a, 53a-54b Del.Code tit. 11, 4209 Fla.Stat.Ann. 782.04, 921.141 (Supp.1975-1976); 27-2528, 27-2534.1, Idaho 18-4004 Ill.Ann.Stat. 38, 9-1, 1005-5-3, 1005-8-1A (Supp.1976-1977); Ind.Stat.Ann. 35-13-4-1 Ky.Rev.Stat.Ann. 507.020 La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 14:30 Md.Ann.Code, art. 27, 413 Miss.Code 97-3-19, 97-3-21, 97-25-55, 99-17-20 Mo.Ann.Stat. 559.009, 559.005 Mont.Rev.Codes 94-5-105 (Spec.Crim.Code Supp.1976); Neb.Rev.Stat. 28-401, 29-2521 29-2523 Nev.Rev.Stat. 200.030 N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 630:1 N.M.Stat.Ann. 40A-29-2 N.Y. 60.06 N.C.Gen.Stat. 14-17 Ohio Rev.Code 2929.02-2929.04 Okla.Stat.Ann. 701.1-701.3 Pa.Laws Act 46; R.I.Gen.Laws 11-23-2 S.C.Code 16-52 Tenn.Code 39-2402, 39-2406 Tex.Penal 19.03(a) Utah 76-3-206, 76-3-207, 76-5-202 Va.Code 18.2-10, 18.2-31 (1976); Wash.Rev.Code 9A.32.045, 9A.32.046 Wyo.Stat.Ann. 6-54 Antihijacking IV). 1968, "Shall commonwealth retain crime?" majority ballots answered "Yes." 2,348,005 cast, 1,159,348 voted "Yes," 730,649 "No," 458,008 blank. , 708, (1975) (Reardon, December 1972 Gallup poll 57% favored June Harris survey showed 59%. Vidmar Ellsworth, Public Opinion Penalty, Stan.L.Rev. 1245, 1249 1970 referendum, voters Illinois abolition 1,218,791 votes 676,302 votes. Governor's Study (Pa.1973). prisoners received 1961 varied high low 1972, fluctuations intervening years: 1962; 1963; 1964; 1965; 1966; 1967; 1968; 1969; 1970; 1971. Department National Prisoner Statistics Bulletin, 1971-1972, (Dec. 1974). estimated 20% 295-296, 2987, 31. 26-27 (Nov. Another incapacitation dangerous consequent prevention future. 651, 896, (1972); N.E.2d, 685-686 Packer, Limits Sanction 43-44 Denning, Master Rolls Appeal England, spoke "Punishment expresses denunciation wrong doing: revulsion felt reformative preventive nothing else .. Minutes Evidence, Dec. 1949, (1950). writer opposition academic gross, heinous, cold-blooded response." Raspberry, Washington Post, Mar. A27, cols. 5-6. Peck, Deterrent Effect Critics, Yale L.J. 359 Baldus Cole, Comparison Work Thorsten Sellin Bowers Pierce, Illusion Deterrence Research Ehrlich, Question Life Death, Am.Econ.Rev. 397 (June 1975); Hook, Sentence, Penalty America (H. Bedau ed. 1967); T. Sellin, Institute (1959). America, 258-332; 8932. Other apparently increasing frequency, bombs indiscriminate killings, extortion hostages kidnap execution-style statistics breaking above. overall trend nation, upward time. 1964, totaled 9,250. During ensuing decade, increased 123%, approximately 20,600 1974. announced, 18,520. fractional 1975 20,400, almost 10%. FBI, Uniform Reports, 1975, Preliminary Annual Release. criminal's proportionate kidnaping, judgments. 255-257, 2734-2736 J.); 291-295, 2753-2755 J.). dissenters decision: decisive grievance even-handed justice; pattern." 398-399, 2808 Rules Procedure containing background prepared judge. Rule 32(c). importance obtaining underscored Rule's direction "afford opportunity comment (on report) relating alleged inaccuracy contained report." 32(c)(3)(A). elsewhere enable 303-305, 2991-2992. 1775 598 571. expected g. Bruton 123, 1620, 476 Denno, 378 1774, 908 (1964). Jackson, 390 570, 1209, (1968), pleaded maximum imprisonment, invalid, noted: inevitable discourage plead Sixth demand chill rights penalizing patently unconstitutional." 581, 1216. Md. Const., XV, 5: "In Judges Law, 593 (1971). Maryland judges, typically advisory 756; Wilson 239 245, A.2d 824 (1965). 204-207, 1465-1467; 595. proposes standards: Aggravating Circumstances. involving violence "(d) persons. "(e) accomplice of, commit, flight attempting rape deviate sexual intercourse force force, arson, kidnapping. "(f) avoiding effecting custody. "(g) pecuniary gain. "(h) manifesting exceptional depravity. Mitigating activity. mental disturbance. participant homicidal consented act. believed extenuation conduct. participation relatively minor. acted duress domination capacity appreciate criminality (wrongfulness) conform impaired disease defect intoxication. youth 210.6 (Proposed Official 1962). 285-286, 1507 (dissenting opinion): "(E)ven wise implemented formula mechanical decision." channel patterns pattern occur. Due Process separated guilt-determination process. purported concerns, Georgia. ruled overrule McGautha, tension McGautha's holding. rationally devise regularize undermined subsequent text, adhere enumerating 865, veiled indirectly placing unrealistic use. repair defects pointed arguably refuse charge, entered ordered, nullification permitted. clemency prohibited. Such notions vices 944, acquittal overturned retried afoul jury-trial Double Jeopardy prohibit President deciding, clemency, reprieve U.S.Const., grant certiorari, 162, "vagueness" "overbreadth" imprecision interpreting Florida's "especially cruel" "conscienceless pitiless unnecessarily torturous victim." Dixon, So.2d (1973). 242, 255-256, 2960, 2967-2968, 913. Two 27-2534.1(b)(7). explicitly 258 (State 27-2534.1(b)(2); 27-2534.1(b)(4); bystanders created, 27-2534.1(b)(3)); 810 27-2534.1(b)(2)). 25-2534.1(b)(7) vague. answering overbreadth section, provision, Supra; 2967-2968. last "by Special compile sentence's 166-168. measuring nonappealed homicides obtained uses purposes. Ross 361, 365-366, 356, appealed establishes ineffective. complains pre-Furman examination. inception comparison. "Murder. 26-1311; 26-1902; 26-2001; 26-2201; 26-3301. "Capital offenses; "Where, includes made, trying hijacking. provisions affect accepts guilty." Laws, 74, "At heard proper retire likewise returns resume pre-sentence hearing, Nolo pleas; provided, attorney, arguments, followed. fix prescribed cannot, law; instance error 27-2537(g) employ "And, provides, connection following. "Express intention, creature "Malice "Section Section, connection, perpetration homicide. pursuance unlawful collateral enough occurred presently committed, concurrent material accused full felony. "I he, "And deceased not. homicide, unintended, "Before did, aforethought deaths victims named. you, county Gwinnett, named murder." decided robbery-murder case: Lingo 226 496, 657; Johnson 511, 840; Pass 227 730, 779; Watson 229 787, 407; Scott 230 413, 338; Kramer 855, 805, 659. cited, burglary. victim's home, 27-2537(c)(3). Notwithstanding (see Appendix), 'wantonly imposed' above)." 865-866, 833 reviewed. similarities "All witnesses, seriously injured. juvenile driver get-away effective, mistreated murdered. callous Using 425-426, disobey phase convicting noncapital offenses. enormously definition significance "murder felony." refers "witness-elimination" Apparently supply incentive guns home persuade co-conspirators hope fewer states times citation statutes. 863-864, 832. Quoting Novak Beto, 453 661, 672 (CA5 1971) (Tuttle, dissenting part). Tao, Beyond Georgia: Need Morally Based Decision Notre Dame Law. 722, 736 A. Camus, Reflections Guillotine 5-6 (Fridtjof-Karla Pub. 1960). Sarat Vidmar, Opinion, Amendment: Testing Marshall Hypothesis, 1976 Wis.L.Rev. 171. Nations, Economic Social Affairs, pt. 159, (Working Paper 18, Bureau Research, Nov. 1973); 409. probability arrest, national aggregate percentage population age unemployment labor capita income. 398, 414. Passell Taylor, View (unpublished Columbia University Discussion 74-7509, 1975), reproduced App. E 75-5844; Passell, Penalty: Test, Deterrence: Inference, Rejoinder, 368 items data, explanatory variables, interdependence mathematical variables. 175-177. Suupra, 8, 197-198. 2-66 2-68. 197-198; 181, 183-185; 366-367. 8. Bailey, Murder Further Am.J.Orthopsychiatry 669 W. Bowers, Executions 121-163 355-358, 2765, 2778, 2785-2787. mentioned Surely necessary, solitary confinement purpose. 685 168, 896 Hart, Responsibility 8-10, 71-83 38-39, Mass., 687; 13, 335; 79. 72, 74-75, 234-235; 37-39. altogether clear. reenactment penalty," "answers retribution." 354, 3016 states: denigrate vestigial savagery motivation; solemn reasonably based, save innocent persons." 355, 3017. Cal.3d, Cal.Rptr., P.2d, 896.

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