Document: 428 U.S. 364 96 S.Ct. 3092 49 L.Ed.2d 1000 SOUTH DAKOTA, Petitioner,v.Donald OPPERMAN. No. 75-76. Argued March 29, 1976. Decided July 6, Syllabus After respondent's car had been impounded for multiple parking violations the police, following standard procedures, inventoried contents of car. In doing so they discovered marihuana in glove compartment, possession which respondent was subsequently arrested. His motion to suppress evidence yielded by warrantless inventory search denied, and thereafter convicted. The State Supreme Court reversed, concluding that obtained violation theFourth Amendment as made applicable States Fourteenth. Held: police procedures followed this case did not involve an "unreasonable" Fourth Amendment. expectation privacy one's automobile is significantly less than relating home or office, Cardwell v. Lewis, 417 583, 590, 94 2464, 2469, 41 325. When vehicles are impounded, routinely follow caretaking securing inventorying cars' contents. These have widely sustained reasonable under This practice here, there no suggestion any investigatory motive on part police. Pp. 367-376. S.D., 228 N.W.2d 152, reversed remanded. William J. Janklow, Pierre, S. D., petitioner. Robert C. Ulrich, Vermillion, respondent, pro hac vice, special leave Court, 423 1012. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 We review judgment South Dakota, holding local violated Federal Constitution, Fourteenth Amendment, when conducted a routine lawfully municipal ordinances. 2 (1) 3 Local ordinances prohibit certain areas downtown between hours a. m. 6 During early morning December 10, 1973, Vermillion officer observed unoccupied vehicle illegally parked restricted zone. At approximately m., issued overtime ticket placed it car's windshield. citation warned: 4 "Vehicles ordinance may be towed from area." 5 10 o'clock same morning, another second parng violation. circumstances were reported headquarters, after inspected, city impound lot. From outside at lot, watch dashboard other items personal property located back seat floorboard. officer's direction, door then unlocked and, using form pursuant car, including compartment unlocked. There he found contained plastic bag. All items, contraband, removed department safekeeping.1 late afternoon appeared claim his property. retained 7 Respondent arrested charges marihuana. denied; convicted jury trial sentenced fine $100 14 days' incarceration county jail. On appeal, Dakota conviction. 152. court concluded prohibition against unreasonable searches seizures. granted certiorari, 923, Ct. 264, 46 248 (1975), we reverse. 8 (2) 9 has traditionally drawn distinction automobiles homes offices relation Although "effects" thus within reach Cady Dombrowski, 413 433, 439, 93 2523, 2527, 37 706 (1973), examinations upheld office would not. 589, 2468, 325 (1974); supra, U.S., 439-440, 2527; Chambers Maroney, 399 42, 48, 90 1975, 1979, 26 419 (1970). reason well-settled twofold. First, inherent mobility creates such exigency that, practical necessity, rigorous enforcement warrant requirement impossible. Carroll United States, 267 132, 153-154, 45 280, 69 L.Ed. 543 (1925); Coolidge New Hampshire, 403 443, 459-460, 91 2022, 2034, 29 564 (1971). But also where immediate danger presented jurisdiction. 51-52, 1981; Cooper California, 386 58, 87 788, 17 730 (1967). Besides element mobility, requirements govern because with respect office.2 discharging their varied responsibilities ensuring blic safety, law officials necessarily brought into frequent contact automobiles. Most distinctly noncriminal nature. 442, 2528. Automobiles, unlike homes, subjected pervasive continuing governmental regulation controls, periodic inspection licensing requirements. As everyday occurrence, stop examine license plates stickers expired, if violations, exhaust fumes excessive noise, noted, headlights safety equipment proper working order. 11 further diminished obviously public nature travel. Only two Terms ago, noted: 12 "One lesser motor its function transportation seldom serves residence repository effects. . A little capacity escaping scrutiny. It travels thoroughfares both occupants plain view." 2469. 13 interests what called "community functions," 441, 2528, frequently taken custody. Vehicle accidents present one occasion. To permit uninterrupted flow traffic some preserve evidence, disabled damaged will often highways streets behest engaged solely traffic-control activities. Police remove violate thereby jeopardize efficient movement vehicular traffic.3 authority seize impeding threatening convenience beyond challenge. departments generally automobiles' developed response three distinct needs: protection owner's while remains custody, Mitchell, 458 F.2d 960, 961 (CA9 1972); claims disputes over lost stolen property, Kelehar, 470 176, 178 (CA5 potential danger, 61-62, S.Ct., 790. viewed essential respond incidents theft vandalism. See Cabbler Commonwealth, 212 Va. 520, 522, 184 S.E.2d 781, 782 (1971), cert. 405 1073, 92 1501, 31 807 (1972); Warrix State, 50 Wis.2d 368, 376, 189, 194 addition, attempt determine whether abandoned. 15 almost uniformly state courts, virtue localized considerable occasion deal issue.4 Applying "reasonableness,"5 courts overwhelmingly even characterized "search,"6 intrusion constitutionally permissible. See, E. g., City St. Paul Myles, 298 Minn. 298, 300-301, 218 697, 699 Tully, 166 Conn. 126, 136, 348 A.2d 603, 609 People Trusty, 183 Colo. 291, 292-297, 516 P.2d 423, 425-426 (1973); Sullivan, N.Y.2d 69, 73, 323 N.Y.S.2d 945, 948, 272 N.E.2d 464, 466 (1971); supra; Wallen, 185 Neb. 44, 173 372, 912, 2211, 568 (1970); Criscola, 21 Utah 2d 272, 444 517 (1968); Montague, 73 Wash.2d 381, 438 571 Clark, 32 Ill.App.3d 898, 336 892 (1975); Achter, 512 S.W.2d 894 (Mo.Ct.App.1974); Bennett 507 1252 (Okl.Cr.App.1973); Willis, Mich.App. 436, 208 204 All, N.C.App. 284, 193 770, 414 866, 51, 38 85 Godbee 224 So.2d 441 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1969). Even seminal decision relied reaching contrary result, Mozzetti Superior Cal.3d 699, Cal.Rptr. 412, 484 84 expressly approved activities resulting view. 16 majority Courts Appeals likewise intrusions. Judge Wisdom observed: "(W)hen take custody sort container (such as) itemize held (This reflects) underlying principle fourth amendment proscribes only Unreasonable searches." Gravitt, 375, 378 1973), 1135, 879, 761 (1974) (emphasis original). 18 Superintendent, 528 1142 (CA4 1975), pending, 75-1463; Barker Johnson, 941 (CA6 1973); 960 Lipscomb, 435 795 1970), 401 980, 1213, 28 331 Pennington, 249 (CA5), 404 854, 97, 30 Boyd, 436 1203 1971); Cotton 371 385 1967). Accord, Lowe Hopper, 400 F.Supp. 970, 976-977 (SD Ga.1975); Spitalieri, 391 167, 169-170 (ND Ohio 1975); Smith, 340 1023 (Conn.1972); Fuller, 277 97 (DC 1967), conviction aff'd, 139 U.S.App.D.C. 433 533 cases recognized inventories include examination since customary place documents ownership registration, 251, well temporary storage valuables. 19 (3) 20 decisions point unmistakably conclusion reached federal reasonable. first case, Black inquiry before us: "But question here Authorized By law. rather Reasonable Under Amendment." 61, 790 added). 22 And, last writing said: 23 "(T)he does require every warrant. prohibits 'unreasonable seizures.' relevant test reasonleness opportunity procure warrant, but reasonableness seizure all circumstances. cannot fixed Per se Rules; each must decided own facts." 509-510, 2059, (concurring dissenting) 24 applying adopted Framers, consistently intrusions otherwise lawful process aimed protecting forfeiture statute. though criminal setting7 carried out week nonetheless search, contraband found, despite fact probable cause established. said language explicitly here: 25 "It hold having retain length time, right, protection, it." 61-62,8 791. Term, Harris 390 234, 88 992, 1067 (1968), introduction seized who, conducting taking means safeguard it, registration card lying metal stripping door. Rejecting argument necessary, justifiable "taken protect custody." Id., 236, 993.9 27 Finally, private garage existed believe fruits crime. sole justification incursion incident community's safety. Indeed, protective instituted "were impression" incapacitated driver, Chicago officer, required carry service revolver times; grounds weapon might available vandals. 2525. carefully noted accordance department, ibid., factor tending ensure limited scope extent necessary function. F.Supp., 169. distinguished Preston 376 364, 881, 777 (1964), holding, invalidating vagrancy arrest, "stands proposition challenged could justified arrest." 444, 2529. therefore raise issue constitutionality oa holdings Cooper, Harris, And Point way correct resolution case. None cases, course, involves precise situation here; but, obliged look facts light principles set forth these prior decisions. "(W)hether meaning depends upon ." 59, indisputably automobile. Cf. Lawson, 487 468, 471 (CA8 1973). violations. owner, left extended period, subject impoundment, make arrangements safekeeping belongings. itself prompted presence view number valuables inside Cady, whatever procedure, essentially like throughout country, pretext concealing motive.10 record conclude prevailing country overwhelming conduct remanded proceedings inconsistent opinion. 33 Reversed 34 POWELL, concurring. 35 While I join add express additional views why valid Amendments. questions: (i) impermissible, (ii) not, 36 * central purpose security individuals arbitrary invasions government officials. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 873, 878, 95 2574, 2573, 607 Camara Municipal 387 523, 528, 1727, 1730, 930 our dispositive permits "searches"1 automobiles.2 Resolution requires ighing societal advanced justify protected interest individual citizen Martinez-Fuerte, 543, 555, 3074, 3081, 1116; 878-879, 2573 Ortiz, 891, 892, 2585, 623 447-448, 2531, Terry Ohio, 392 1, 20-21, 1868, 1879, 889 (1968). 534-535, 1734. Court's opinion, see Ante 3369, support searches: danger; property; (iii) Except rare associated impounding unsearched occasional exist discounted entirely. 791, harmful consequences those great, appear effective identifying advance classes impoundments represent greater risk. Society important minimizing false filed diminish lower morale, impairing effectiveness police.3 clear, however, completely ddiscouraging claims, possibility accompanying assertion item intentionally omitted records. significant t policeman citizen. argued locked doors rolled-up windows afford normally enjoy.4 many owners temporarily unattended several days last. substantial grain valuable storage. attained posting guard alternative prohibitively expensive, especially smaller jurisdictions.5 39 Against weighed citizen's traditional home, 561-562, 3084; 896 n. 2, 2588; 590-591, (plurality opinion), unrestrained constitute serious emphasizes, strictly accord regulations Department.6 Upholding type provides general automobiles.7 40 agree Constitution searches, turn next II speaks broadly terms "unreasonable seizures,"8 definition "reasonableness" turns, least part, more specific dictates Warrant Clause. District 407 297, 315, 2125, 2135, 752 Katz 389 347, 356, 507, 514, 576 (1967); 1730. explained 357, "(s)earches without warrants unlawful 'notwithstanding unquestionably showing cause,' Agnello 269 20, 33, 4, 70 145, 'that deliberate, impartial judicial interposed ..' Wong Sun 471, 481-482, 83 407, 414, 441." Thus, although "(s)ome '(t)he reasonable,' Rabinowitz, 339 56, 66, 430, 435, 653 (1950)," "(t)his accepted." 16, 2136. Chimel 395 752, 89 685 (1969). few defined consent unless authorized Almeida-Sanchez 266, 269, 2535, 2537, 596 Stoner 483, 486, 889, 856 (1964); S.C 1730; Jeffers, 342 72 93, 95, 59 (1951); 30, 145 (1925). 42 validated (1925), establish "automobile exception" requirement. (1964). Rather, demonstrate " 'for purposes constitutional difference houses cars,' quoting 52, 1981, search.9 43 consideration fall established exceptions requirement.10 conditioned reveals none othese implicated here. "probable cause." context protects individual's legitimate overzealous officer. "Its consists requiring inferences (concerning cause) neutral detached magistrate instead being judged competitive enterprise ferreting crime." Johnson 333 14, 68 367, 369, (1948). 316-318, Inventory order discover discretionary determination based conditions present. rules policy occur whenever seized. evaluate. 44 related prevent hindsight affecting evaluation search. 565, 3086; cf. Watson, 411, 455 22, 820, 843, 598 (1976) (Marshall, J., dissenting). justification. absence impair post-search particular Warrants investigation. absent consent, areawide building code inspection, buildings searched. emphasized "(t)he effect (the existing been) occupant discretion official field," "when (an) inspector demands entry, ha(d) knowing involved require(d) premises, limits inspector's power himself (was) acting authorization." 532, 1732. 47 concerns absent. owner present, nor, real likelihood period time. More importantly, hands officer: usually choice scope.11 48 sum, constitutional. MARSHALL, whom BRENNAN STEWART join, dissenting. today holds closed ordinary attempting secure contains valuables, presents custodians public.1 Because sound elaboration principles, dissent. 51 POWELL recognizes, aside, compartments can ever "reasonable" search2 reconciliation intrusion, furthered 536-537, 1733, fails clearly articulate reasons clear me considerations alluded discussed insufficient result 52 begin with, appears suggest reference "diminished" privacy, Ante, person's integrity sacrificed interference compelling similar office. never correctly observes distinctions cases; discussion makes (1970), permitted probable-cause exigencies created automobiles, reaffirmed authorize Chambers, Carroll, 155-156, 286.3 contexts travel sacrifices publicity view, opinion); recognition, too, inapposite case.4 Nor concern apparently assumes ordinarily permissible insure running expectations regards 3084, 1116, equally word 'automobile' talisman whose fades away .," 461, 2035, (1971).5 "(a) Search, automobile, invasion privacy," 896, 2588, (1975) added), accordingly substantiality Search 269-270, 2538, Coolidge, Dyke Taylor Implement Mfg. Co., 216, 221-222, 1472, 1475, 538 (1964).6 53 event procedure 54 "three .; danger." 369.7 55 flagrantly misleading, belies relevance concerns. my "needs," separately together, suffice 56 measure, ignores given police's Valuables, Record 75, 98. indication tailored concerns, circumscribed. aside actual basis do blanket program "there automobiles," ante, 378.8 rationale entirely actually upon, surely upothe undifferentiated harm; contrary, indicating danger. SeeterrY V. OHIO, u.s., 21, 27, s.ct. 1879; 448, (1973). 57 Second, suggests measure claims. Again, belied record, declines discuss interpretation absolves "gratuitous depositors," obligation objects locking 159 (1975),9 Moreover, notes, 378-379, doubted work minimize frustrations claims.10 58 procedure. recognize genuineness pilferage. assume fiscally impossible end,11 conclusion. authorizes indeed nearly every12 impounded.13 matter routine; exceptional necsity. executing hypothesis benefit. obvious everyone want proves this; need prefer possessions. preference premise Nevertheless, according presume position consents agree. approach squarely consent;14 duty, analyze sufficient outweigh invasion. override explicit fulfillment requirements.15 undertaken threatened impoundment: 60 "(I)n justifying able articulable reasonably intrusion." 1880. 61 Such "specificity information action predicated teaching jurisprudence," 18, 1880, basic countless officials." 883-884, 2531; 1883. appropriate, exhaustion failure efforts identify facilitate obtain right refuse owner. Bumper North Carolina, 1788, 797 (1968).16 62 shows searching far short standards, impermissible suppressed. shows, value. thought adequate overnight street business area simply lock nothing show impoundment lot prove location pilferage,17 707, 84, particularly seem likely promptly, worth protecting.18 effort relies, must, re belongings, end inquiry. Here readily ascertained vehicle, 98-99, yet searched immediately steps locate advise him 32, 72, 79. benefit 63 elevates conservation mere possibilities above For remand should preclude corary others involving issues Oregon Hass, 420 714, 726, 1215, 1223, 570 64 Statement WHITE. 65 subscribe Brother MARSHALL's dissenting aspects concerning necessity obtaining most analysis conclusions consequently dissent trial, who testified follows: "Q. you car? "A. Mainly safekeeping, trouble past people getting breaking cars stealing stuff them. Do know broken unlocked? Both them locked, locked." 74. describing stated: It's old highway yard. wooden fence partially around kind dilapidated wire fence, makeshift fence." 73. (1967), Seattle, 541, 1737, 943 unconsented administrative entry dwellings commercial premises ascertain health conditions. contrast, inspections purposes. York alone, 108,332 during 1969. 71, 946, 465 contrast functions: "The officers usually, always, detection investigation crimes unrelated operation vehicle." 440, 2527 analyzing Vel non sought peculiarly investigations, routine, procedures. Note, Warrantless Searches Seizures Harv.L.Rev. 835, 850-851 (1974). unhelpful centers functions, subterfuge investigations. inapplicability setting , quite required, linked textually concept. assures legal investigative-enforcement process. With noninvestigative policies requirement, refers, inapplicable. Given benign Wyman James, 309, 317, 385, 408 N.Y.2d, 77, N.Y.S.2d, 952, N.E.2d, 469; 49-50, Other expressed doubts classifiable 286, 772, Petitioner, abandoned contention exempt reasonableness. Tr. Oral Arg. 5. narcotics charges, months instituted. was, certainty time held. Accordingly, automatically eventually forfeited State. California Appeal stated, instant nowhere discloses defendant's 234 Cal.App.2d 587, 596, 489 (1965). No limit legality presented, measures elements. acted properly opening reasons. scope. Respondent's once open vandals ready unobstructed access "consent" theory rests assumption exclusively municipality find firearm, drugs, crucial. Routine intrude "reasonable privacy." 360, 516, (1967) (Harlan, concurring). purpose, "searches" 15, 1878, 468 709-710, 90-91 (1971) (en banc). 591, opinion). principal factors application "plain view" doctrine. took possessory statute four until sale. trunk "which believed contain gun" 2531. 436-437, 2526. typical belief automobile's knew exposed interior I. e., 366, alone provide console discovered. liability relvant autombile removal closing doors, satisfied duty owed possession. (1975). Cal3d, P.2d, 90-91. 853 complete "inventory report" Department. survey vehicle's exterior—windows, fenders, trunk, hood—apparently damage, interior, "valuables" report completed. listed compartment. notation regarding locked. searched, always includes 33-34, 73-79. materials letters checkbooks "touch intimate affairs," "reveal much about activities, associations, beliefs." Bankers Assn. Shultz, 416 78-79, 1494, 1525, 812 (Powell, Fisher 425 391, 7, 1569, 1576, (1976). inter alia, "miscellaneous papers," checkbook, installment loan book, social status card. 77. is, carrying duties examining persons, houses, papers, effects, seizures, shall violated, issue, cause, supported Oath affirmation, persons things seized." turns primarily impracticability circumstances, 294, important. 2469; 279, 2542, (1973) 441-442, (1969); Warden Hayden, 298-300, 1642, 1645, Brinegar 338 160, 174-177, 1302, 1310, 1879 (1949); 153, 156, 283. McDonald 335 451, 454-456, 191, 192, 153 (1948); Mapp, 476 67, 76 (CA2 1973) (listing then-recognized requirement: hot pursuit; plain-view doctrine; emergency situation; (iv) search; (v) consent; (vi) arrest). example, offending "standard sheet" "all (discovered vehicles) safekeeping." Supra. consider, POWELL's conclusion, 377 petitioner conceded, 5, "search." 530, 1732, (1967): anomalous say fully suspected behavior." 790, quoted Infra. 993, invoked sense knowledge automobile." 281, 2544, below, stated entering remove, list, 158-159 certiorari Contrary assertion, 375-376, "prompted car." fact, plainly states inventoried, 74, procedure," "every search" 43, 44. 7. 377-378 articles areas. 763, 764-768, 2040, Despite confusion reflected 371, reliance federal-court approving 603 791: '(L)awful dispense it.' wholly unrealistic maintaining day papers effects 352, (opinion Court; 361, concurring)). implicit very safeguarding. observes, 380, sifting through secured employed this, note suitcases, boxes, containers themselves sealed, removed, intrusion. McDougal, 399, 671 supra. limitation remedy simple tokens, literature, medicines, face beliefs," 1526, "(i)n abandoned." 369. places nor it. stolen, directed at, stopped ownership. identified him. State's chief argument, posted vehicles, there. distinguish dicta recited 373. "crucial" case: "protection Public (413 (1973)), drugs" 10. rationale, absolutely record. looking dangerous items. shotgun shells opened shotgun. Aside untenable If asserted justifies logically area, custodial role vandalized weapons substances. Certainly permitting wrecked where, Inter hold. impose higher responsibility read Amendment's pre-eminence deterred all, effectively sealing unbroken seal certify 374 690, 700 (ED Va.1974), rev'd, 75-1463. believe, entitled assumption, 447, proceed Additionally, denial permission. communication prerequisite 700; Wis.2d, 413, N.W.2d, 678; Cal.3d, 708, 89. requiring, some, belie property-securing purpose. attempts analogize Dombrowski. weapon, 2529; Dombrowski 319 532 Wis.1970), cause. true lacks assure theirs. Matlock, 415 164, 171, 988, 242 consider premised executed forgo principle, consistent today, requires, harbor suspicions (amounting suppression hearing suggested thefts testimony refers thefts, 366 undisclosed pilferage inside. battery, risk loss severe. claimed possessions five street. 39, 93.

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