Document: 420 U.S. 425 95 S.Ct. 1082 43 L.Ed.2d 300 Cheryl Spider DeCOTEAU, Natural Mother and Next Friend of Robert Lee Feather Herbert John Spider, etc., Petitioner,v.The DISTRICT COUNTY COURT FOR the TENTH JUDICIAL DISTRICT. Don R. ERICKSON, Warden, Petitioner, v. FEATHER et al. Nos. 73—1148, 73—1500. Argued Dec. 16, 1974. Decided March 3, 1975. Rehearing Denied April 21, See 421 939, 1667. Syllabus The Lake Traverse Indian Reservation in South Dakota, created by an 1867 treaty, held terminated returned to public domain 1891 Act which, ratification a previously negotiated 1889 Agreement between affected tribe United States, not only opened all unallotted lands settlement but also appropriated vested sum certain per acre payment for express cession relinquishment 'all' tribe's 'claim, right, title, interest' lands; therefore Dakota state courts have civil criminal jurisdiction over conduct members on non-Indian, within reservation borders. face its surrounding circumstances legislative history point unmistakably this conclusion. Mattz Arnett, 412 481, 93 2245, 37 92, Seymour Superintendent, 368 351, 82 424, 7 346, distinguished. Pp. 1086—1095. No. 87 S.D. —-, 211 N.W.2d 843, affirmed; 73 1500, 8 Cir., 489 F.2d 99, reversed. Bertram E. Hirsch, New York City, petitioner DeCoteau. William F. Day, Jr., Winner, S.D., respondent District County Court Erickson. Harry Sachse, Orleans, La., as amicus curiae, special leave Court. Larry Gustafson, Britton, respondents Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion 1 These two cases, consolidated decision, raise single question whether treaty States Sisseton Wahpeton bands Sioux Indians, was 2 [Amicus Curiae Information from page 426 intentionally omitted] domain, 1891, c. 543, 26 Stat. 1035. In each asserted Sisseton-Wahpeton Tribe acts done though borders, been owned settled non-Indians since Act. parties agree that did if these are 'Indian country,' defined 18 U.S.C. § 1151,1 depends upon retained status after 1891.2 We hold, reasons follow, Reservation, consequently non-Indian 3 * boundaries enclose approximately 918,000 acres land. Within boundaries, there reside about 3,000 tribal 30,000 non-Indians. About 15% land is form trust allotments'; individual tracts when rest were sold 1891. allotments scattered random pattern throughout area. remainder purchased settlers presently inhabited 4 It common ground here occurring beyond State's jurisdiction, being instead proper concern or federal authorities. cases before us, however, State Indians based 5 DeCoteau, natural mother Feather; enrolled Tribe. Both children assigned foster homes order Tenth Judicial Dakota. gave up adoption 1971, later separated her through neglect dependency proceedings court, initiated Welfare Department. On August 31, 1972, commenced habeas corpus action alleging had lacked asking they be released custodial process respondent. After hearing, Circuit denied writ, finding possessed because 'the patented land, which portion omissions giving rise Order occurred, Country.'3 While acknowledging court noted 'had relinquished (the question) under terms agreement ratified Congress, 1891.' Supreme affirmed,4 6 Bands their lands, Government paid every purchased. . This, then, outright sale States. Congress became part domain.'5 relators 73—1500 who convicted various violations penal laws committed boundaries. relators, custody penitentiary, separately petitioned writs summarily petitions, Appeals Eighth reversed.6 DeMarrias 319 845, leaving allotted jurisdiction. But present case overruled it inconsistent with principles statutory construction established 346. accordingly '(t)he remain 1867. scene alleged crimes is, therefore, country. no try appellants.' 103. granted certiorari 417 929, 94 2638, 41 232, resolve conflict effect Dakota's II 9 When Nation rebelled against 1862, remained loyal Federal Government, many serving 'scouts' troops. This loyalty went unrecognized, confiscated rebellion. belated act gratitude, entered into permanent area, provided self-government supervision agents.7 10 familiar forces soon began work Reservation. A nearby growing population white farmers, merchants, railroad men urging authorities Washington open general settlement. suffering disease bad harvests, developed increasing need cash direct assistance.8 11 Meanwhile, [had] altered policy toward tribes. 1871, tribes longer regarded sovereign nations, regulate affairs statute contractual agreements statute.9 12 1887, General Allotment (or Dawes Act) enacted attempt reconcile Government's reponsibility Indian's welfare desire settle .10 13 empowered President allot portions and, woth consent, sell surplus settlers, proceeds sales dedicated Indians' benefit. U.S., at 496-497, S.Ct., 2253. 14 Against background, series negotiations took place objective opening year, banker, D.W. Diggs, sent Secretary Interior request behalf local whtie community made available commerce, farming, development.11 15 May, Diggs met council leaders, told him would consider selling reserved first pay 'loyal scout claim' believed owing Treaty. Spokesmen quoted press month follows: 16 'We never thought keep our lifetime. 17 '. Now has come we some one go to, right wrongs. taken severalty. They waiting patents. anxious get willing should sold. don't expect reservation. want benefit sale. If government will what owe, pleased opening. There left 880,000 acres. pays acre, asks me do anything, I am always it. hope you right. 'If this, both whites (and illustrates holding half dozen keys (in a) perpendicular position, separately), stand way pressing them other), key. meet body. one. 19 money up. Your committee needn't discouraged, 20 become citizens vote. laid say hearts. .'12 21 By summer, Commissioner Affairs apparently won over, 1889, he set draft instructions guidance Commission negotiate lands.13 pursuant Act, allotment already 'virtually completed,' least (i.e., unallotted) lands.' 22 proposed suggested might 'inadvisable,' fact proceeded such total three representatives14 appointed November, weeks meetings promptly ensued. transcribed,15 records show wished conditions: member, regardless age sex, receive 160 acres; appropriate moneys make good outstanding claim'; adequate price arrived land.16 23 December, reached contract signed required majority male adult members. Its terms17 accurately summarized his report Interior:18 24 'By article 1, cede, sell, relinquish, convey remaining additional shall made. 25 'Article provides $2.50 ceded. back annuities, continues annuities $18,400 until July 1901. 27 equalization so person, including married women, acres.' 28 Harrison immediately submitted approval. subsequent largely irrelevant issues aspects bear notice. First, several reports commented recognized effected simple unqualified certain.19 Second, could altered, debate centered disposition acquired Agreement; decided homestead laws.20 Third, included comprehensive other providing Government.21 employed language virtually identical Agreement, described rather than 'unallotted' portions, result merely reduction size reservations.22 intended clear sponsors legislation: 29 'All pending treaties purchase confirmed provisions bill. 30 'The bill carries largest appropriation ever carried bill, extinguishes title great opens hardy progressive pioneers ..'23 31 pretend any modification amendment themselves. ratify those, then take estate way, money, whatever agreed landed estates parcel divide out among people fashion think most conducive occupancy country honest, laborious, earnest, faithful people.'24 32 appropriations necessary carry surrender large reservations domain. main cost $1.25 $1.50 ten eleven million All settler except obtained reservation, acre.'25 33 As passed recited $2,203,000 ceded scout' claim. 27, 1038. immediate distribution members, capita basis, funds were, agreed, 'placed Treasury credit said. (at five percent interest) education civilization said thereof.' 1039. further 160-acre 'as practicable,' 29, Finally, tribe, completion enlarged process, ceded, sold, relinquished, conveyed States' 'only entry acre) townsite excepting sixteenth thirty-sixth sections school purposes, subject wherein located,' 30, 34 11, 1892, declared 'of embraced saving Indians.'26 rapidly 35 jurisdictional wholly clear, appears unalloted) unquestioned 1960's. eliminated maps published 1908; thereafter, area 'open' 'former' while more recent ones characterized simply 'reservation.'27 agents active regularly welfare;28 'trust' periodic Executive Orders.29 constitution appear 1946, extended 'Indian-owned lying territory original confines Reservation.'30 1963, reservation; highest (South Dakota) repeatedly jurisdiction,' Department like position. F.2d, 846. 36 approved new 1966, stated that: extend Article III Treaty February 19, 1867.'31 Apparently, legal code exercise field solicitor rendered extinguished lands.32 1973, DeMarrias, decision review, early 1974, months preparation, formally law lands. does lightly conclude terminated. '(W)hen once therefrom Congress.' Celestine, 215 278, 285, 93, 95, 54 L.Ed. 195. congressional intent must overcome rule '(d)oubtful expressions resolved favor weak defenseless wards nation, dependent protection faith." McClanahan Arizona Tax Comm'n, 411 164, 174, 1257, 1263, 129, quoting Carpenter Shaw, 280 363, 367, 50 121 122, 74 478. Accordingly, requires 'congressional determination terminate expressed history.' 505, 2258. Nice, 241 591, 696, 60 1192. particular, stressed may survive mere settlement, even placed supra, supra. 38 case, Act,' 'surrounding circumstances' 'legislative history,' conclusion leading plainly certain, interest 432-437. Agreement's language, adopted vote precisely suited purpose: 39 hereby claim, limits apart aforesaid four made.'33 40 indistinguishable used sumcertain, same nn. 22, That stripped status, can hardly questioned, party acknowledges much. legislation return 'pulbic domain.' 440-441. Cf. 504 n. true unique all, major of, But, historical retain former undiminished, satisfied retention provide fulcrum affairs. situation, exclusive limited allotments. 1151(c). Pelican, 232 442, 396, 58 676. With hindsight, argued better advised carved diminished addition cannot rewrite statute. For reinstate entire theory ill-advised, us well ambiguities Indians. give broadest possible scope, remains base canon construing complex treaties, statutes, contracts define license disregard intent. 42 termination Seymour. so. adhere without qualification holdings reasoning those decisions. gross differences facts ignored. Mattz, 1892 Congress34 Klamath River northern California. 'subject entry, purchase' fund considered provision continued settlements, case. 1151(a). very different instrument. unilateral agreement, consented. settlement; appropriates vests certain—$2.50 acre—in contrast, benefited indirectly, establishing uncertain future settlers. Ash Sheep Co. 252 159, 164—166, 241, 242, 64 507. Furthermore, militated persuasively termination. represented retreat previous attempts vacate terms; consistently continuing one, despite legislation. 503—505, 2257. fully consistent purpose. 44 Seymour, 1906 Congress35 southern Colville Washington. Like character; purchases applied confronted straightforward ceding certain. sharply contrasted "vacated" restored "to domain" 355, 427. analogous 45 Thus, departing from, following reaffirming, guiding 46 Until quo, exercised 80 years. Counsel oral argument resented authority suffered end calamitous residents alike. competing pleas adjudge, task narrow ratifying it, spoke clearly. Some wish spoken differently, remake history. 47 judgment 73—1148 affirmed, 1500 48 ordered. 49 Judgment APPENDIX TO OPINION OF THE TREATY FEB. 1867, STAT. AS AMENDED 509 51 Whereas understood Sissiton Warpeton Santee numbering twelve hundred fifteen persons, preserved obligations during outbreak Medewakantons freely perilled lives rescue obtain possession women captives hostile bands; another bands, thousand participate massacre fearing indiscriminate vengeance whites, fled prairies northwest, where still remain; 52 confiscating reservations, support these, friendly (that) homeless wanderers, frequently intense subsistence clothing protect rigors high latitude, although times prompt rendering service called repel raids punish depredations person property whites; 53 subdivisions Sissitons ask, representatives, adherence friendship recognized, enable agricultural life relieved dependence chase precarious subsistence: into, city, district Columbia, nineteenth day February, A.D. Lewis V. Bogy, Affairs, H. Watson, commissioners, undersigned chiefs headmen follows, wit: 55 I. council, continue relations bind themselves individually collectively use influence extent ability prevent adjacent making demonstrations 56 II. cede construct wagonroads, railroads, mail stations, telegraph lines, improvements require, across claimed (including hereinafter designated) route routes selected government, bounded south east line 1851 Red river North mouth Goose river, north running source thereof westerly Devil's lake Chief's Bluff head James west Mocasin thence Kampeska lake. 57 III. consideration above mentioned, important services Warpetons represented, confiscation improvements, heretofore surrendered Crow Creek prison 1866, viz.: Beginning Travers(e), along lake; Reipan northeast Coteau des Prairie(s), passing Skunk lake, foot Traverse, beginning. 59 IV. Cut Yanktonais Sioux, easterly waters same; nearest Cheyenne river; down opposite lower Aspen island, 61 apportioned (160) sixty family, (21) twenty-one years, belonging entitled locate thereon, permanently cultivate soil means conform surveys, surveys made; whom occupy consecutive years thereafter patent fifty tract fenced, ploughed, crop: Provided, (That) authorize transfer thereof, thereon descend heirs persons obtaining patent. 62 VI. And, further, destitution hereto, resulting will, own discretion, time deemed requisite system operation 1862; including, advisable, establishment manual labor schools; employment agricultural, mechanical, teachers; improvement farms; generally objects wisdom deem promote bands. 63 VII. An agent located Traverse; whenever (500) reservaton competent superintend educational, mechanical interests VIII. expenditures authorized respective hereinbefore specified, manner directed law; goods, provisions, groceries, articles—except materials erection houses articles facilitate operations agriculture issued mixed-bloods either unless performed produce delivered: That, reason age, sickness, deformity, unable labor, issue supplies 65 IX. withdrawal civilized habits them, desirable encouragement afforded hunting support, trade furs peltries specified second contemplated rely solely subsistence, supply clothing, &c., forth eight, And member hereto white, mixed-blood, Indian, employ authority, permitted hunting, trapping, purposes. 66 X. adopt rules, regulations, security property, advancement civilization, prosperity direction agent, expense organize force sufficient laws, rules regulations prescribed Department: amended sanction agent. B 67 AGREEMENT RATIFIED BY ACT MAR. 1035 68 Whereas, section 'An severalty Territories purposes,' eighth, eighteen eighty-seven, 'That herein provided, sooner,' best lawful release conformity held, time, consent conditions just equitable complete Congress; executing Congress. 69 desirous disposing third nineteenth, sixty-seven, situated partly Dakota: 70 Now, pursuance aforesaid, Agency, twelfth eighty-nine, Eliphalet Whittlesey, D. W. Charles A. Maxwell, duly thereto, chiefs, headmen, witnesseth: 71 ARTICLE 72 stipulates agrees dollars cents sole Indians; same, centum annum, purposes:' religious society organization now occupying, educational date instrument, occupied fixed States: Provided cession, sale, relinquishment, conveyance forty-two seven seventy-eight thirty-seven cents, together dollars, stipulated agreement. 75 76 capita, amount found due served armies people, war families descendants, fourth twenty-third, fifty-one, wrongfully unjustly deprived sixteenth, sixty-three, relief damages sustained depredation, injuries Indians'; rate annum first, sixty-two, eighty-eight less pro rata share six sixteen eighty-six fifty-two numbered nineteen fifty-three, House Representatives, Fiftieth session. 77 annually July, eighty-eight, latter period cease, aforesaid; thirty 78 79 quantity, allotted, acres, individual, object equalize land; patents article, limitations referred to. 81 concluded eighth eighty-four, granting Chicago, Milwaukee Saint Paul Railway, accepted, confirmed. 83 84 witness whereof hereunto hands seals year written. 85 ELIPHALET WHITTLESEY, 86 DIGGS, CHAS. MAXWELL, 88 89 foregoing having explained we, undersigned, stipulations, conditions, therein contained. 90 Simon Ananangmari (his mark), others. 91 DOUGLAS, BRENNAN MARSHALL join, dissenting. 92 my view suit prosecutions involved second. so-called country' regime relinquishes here. Here, Mazurie, 419 544, 710, 706 (1975), 1151, occurred 'within of' 'notwithstanding issuance ..' Petitioner DeCoteau brought courts, seeking parental minor children, tribe. relevant court's 505. Approximately incidents ruled pertaining nontrust happened 'non-Indian country.' 846 (1973). Erickson warden penitentiary Tribe, Appeals, ruling petitions corpus, respondents, 99 (CA8 1973). Feb. governed supervision, amended. No asked here; conceded contours 96 commissioners that, furnish wherewithal survive, S.Exec.Doc. 66, 51st Cong., 1st Sess., (1890). occasion Mar. sets 18, 388, authorizing Interior, approves, acquisition consents 'considered equitable.' 5, 389. undertook claim 'to reservation.' 1036. word suggest altered. 'for civilization' exception lands1 laws' purpose alter change lure onto whose leanings invigorate reservation.2 97 doubtful clauses see Alaska Pacific Fisheries 248 78, 89, 40, 41, 138 (1918), recently 2258, (1973), uses 'clear termination' disestablish diminish restore 'when desired.' instant also. respects language. contrast 'cede, forever absolutely kind character to' tract.3 Another convey, transfer, absolutely, reservation' tract.4 relinquish portion' named specifically described.5 'all metes bounds.6 unmistakable came 98 dimensions tragedy inflicted today's apparent management self-governing political community, impaired, 168, 1260, 129 (1973); Williams Lee, 358 217, 220, 269, 270, 251 (1959). 'closed' tears asunder. extends clause exempts reserves makes located.' Enabling reserve 16th 36th purposes; hence made.7 100 Today small percentage live office Bureau residing supports enforce exterior attitude (under functions), 26, perpetuates concept: 101 1867.' 102 Code asserts domain: 103 (Sisseton-Wahpeton Tribal) non-trust roads, waters, bridges, purposes.' 104 police court. rental housing 240 units. fire protection. employer. operates garbage collection disposal. governmental entity servicing Indians8 105 Mason-Dixon type drawn separating homesteading diminished; Units suitable homesteaders indeed difficult, looking current map, find substantial unit contiguous left. map picture, argument, shows 'crazy quilt pattern.' quilt' 'checkerboard' defeats guaranteed Art. X Treaty, 510, abrogated. 106 358, 428, 346 (1962), invited 1151. rejected offer saying: 107 '(W)here existence nonexistence ownership particular parcels enforcement officers operating search books determine offense, Government. Such impractical checkerboard avoided plain 1151 justification adopting unwarranted recreate confusion sought avoid.' 108 involves Indians—not (1975)—within takes homesteaded spot checkerboard; occur? Jurisdiction 'tract book' promises hectic. Many ambulatory. given move—the State, Government? contest unseemly, beneficiaries uncertainty. Without interference, violating puts responsibility supervise Checkerboard cripples fulfilling fiduciary responsibilities guardianship introduces element uncertainty agency modest leaders abdicate aggressive undertake losing battle superior authority. Miller nearly ago concerning importance reservation: 'They owe allegiance states, Because ill feeling, states often deadliest enemies.' Kagama, 118 375, 384, 1109, 1114, 228 (1886). 'Except otherwise 1154 1156 term chapter, (a) notwithstanding patent, rights-of-way (b) communities borders subsequently state, (c) allotments, titles extinguished, same.' 'reservation,' (such jurisdiction) hand, Even types conduct, quite limited. See, e.g., 129; 251; Worcester Georgia, 515, Pet. 483. concerned, face, applies questions 177—178, 17, 1265; Kennerly Montana, 400 423, 480, 507; 220—222, 6, 10, 270. Court's September unpublished. 50% mother's allegedly wrongful assumed petitioner's assumption. note, 1151(c) contemplates isolated obviously arise practical conflicts regard mobility territory. How us. 843. Id., N.W.2d, 845. 99. reprinted Appendix opinion. banker Milbank, S. Dak., wrote Interior: ' detriment interests, blocks progress lines completed. roads badly, impetus immigration attracted west. 'Any information render needed hastening appreciated.' National Archives Records Record Group No.75, Letters Received; Special Case 147 (Sisseton), Letter No.26163-1889, encls. 2,3, 5. enclosed 'resolution' local, counties promised secure appropriations, mentioned VI, compensation 1862 uprising. evident goal affort assure development. December 13, 1890, Governor 'destitute condition' urged 'at steps relieve necessities [of] long .slowlu death privation starvation.' 75, Received: 38462-1890 120, 566. purport invalidate impair prior obligation incurred s71. 8, 119, Stat.388. Minneapolis Tribune, May p. (reproduced App. Respondent 19). Land Division, Book 188, Aug. 1889. Chief Division Board Commissioners, Diggs. Report councils S.Exec.Doc.No. 15—29 (1890) (Councils Report). negotiators reported 'advised tribe) desired dispose Commissioner, 7. continued: township missionary purposes informal inquiry learned plan interest, perhaps principal arising quantity admitting matter, believing buildings located, societies churches privilege purchasing them. preferred equalized outlined your annual report, remaining, four.' Ibid. irrational choice light unusually number Agree- ment specified. submitting Congress: 'This departure particular. gives heads families.' 1. During negotiations, evident. instance, Gabriel Renville, spokesman, stated: 'I things. past lots sales. help helped much Let (loyal claim) talk such, care shoe pacs, cash. buy ourselves cash, wish.' Councils 19—20. Michael ask .. (for paid, time. pleases us.' 21. explaining negotiator Whittlesey noted: 'After received 127,000 allotted; take, think, 130,000 allotments; 660,000 sell.' 22. aware taking insignificant step Renville little ours, nothing says sell. home, 25. final contains 918,780 127,887 yet almost impossible accurate completed numerous applications stated, known consideration, 1,500 1,600 souls, basis calculation, require 128,000 for, 256,000 662,780 agreement.' Secretary, 4—5. 3. Senate Committee Reservation.' 'As viewed lieu residue families, assume citizenship, implies respecting moral material 1887 allowed (24 Stat., 388). 112,113 240,002 leaves surplus, societies, 678,778 purchase, $1,696,945, estimated cover annuities.' S.Rep.No. 661, 3—4 Almost H.R.Rep.No. 1356, 8—9 Cong.Rec. 2809—2810, 3784 (1891) (remarks Congs. Holmann Perkins); id., 3453, 3457—3458 Sens. Pettigrew Dawes). 989. tribes: Citizen Band Pottawatomie 1016; Absentee Shawnee 9, 1018; Arapahoe Tribes, 1022; Coeur d'Alene (I), 1026; (II), 20, 1029; Gros Ventres, Mandans, Arickarees, 23, 1032; .' comparable: '—cede, 1016 (Citizen Indians). surrender, 1019 (Absentee whatever, implied, character, 1022 (Cheyenne Tribes). grant, quitclaim have, had, elsewhere, Territory Idaho 1027 (Coeur (I)). following-described 1030 (II)). Fort Berthold (as described) 1032 (Gros Arickarees). '—agree considerations 1040 (Crow Remarks Cong. Perkins, (1891). Sen. Morgan, 3455. Dawes, 3879. Proclamation President, Apr. 1017. Compare contained Annual Reports 1909, 1918, Map Lands Related Facilities compiled cooperation Geological Survey, Dept. Interior. cited memoranda letters, 80-odd refer 'reservation' 'former emerges. authors documents put significance label. 988 576. Exec. Orders 1916 (1914), 3994 (1924), 7984 (1938). delegated orders Fed.Reg. 11630 (1963), 15067 (1968), 34463 delegation 10250 (June 1951), CFR 755—757 (1949—1953 Comp.). extensions respect tribes, Acts June 1906, 326, 2, 1917, 976. I, Constitution Bylaws Oct. 1946. Revised By-laws 1966. Boundaries Field Solicitor's Opinion, Aberdeen Office, 1972. 1881, 'school lands' 1039, evidence Congress' vest State. draw contrary inference provision. reads: immediately, thereto act, (Emphasis added.) differ emphasized phrase refers 'lands States,' disagreement provision' indication qualify usual practice Indeed, omnibus provision,' applicable therein, reiterates 38, 1044. assume, counsel 'state law' govern presence absence 52. 80. 3187, Senator Gamble 'Under enabling admission Union, apply operative withdraw 29,000 387,000 amendment.' 1423, Congressman Burke said: admitted Union schools grant 22d something millions appropriation, accordance treaty.' negotiating quickly bringing arts township, send advantage exchange you. 10. advantages mentioned. One towns railroads markets near valuable. You hitch man pull together.' 1016. 1022. Arickaree, Ventre, Mandan 1032. 1040. problem domestic goes heart self-government. child's reference family structure. sympathetic knowledge individuals involved, background culture. fearful lose cultural identity. Accordingly resolution: 'WHEREAS, interested well-being Minor descent adoptive researching establish method social economic development strong feeling 'make (minutes 6th meeting) licensed home adopted.' 'THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED, Bert Association American grounds Roberts 7, 1972 nature.'

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