Document: 441 U.S. 520 99 S.Ct. 1861 60 L.Ed.2d 447 Griffin B. BELL et al., Petitioners,v.Louis WOLFISH al. No. 77-1829. Argued Jan. 16, 1979. Decided May 14, Syllabus Respondent inmates brought this class action in Federal District Court challenging the constitutionality of numerous conditions confinement and practices Metropolitan Correctional Center (MCC), a federally operated short-term custodial facility New York City designed primarily to house pretrial detainees. The Court, on various constitutional grounds, enjoined, inter alia, practice housing, for sleeping purposes, two individual rooms originally intended single occupancy ("double-bunking"); enforcement so-called "publisher-only" rule prohibiting from receiving hard-cover books that are not mailed directly publishers, book clubs, or bookstores; prohibition against inmates' receipt packages food personal items outside institution; body-cavity searches following contact visits with person requirement detainees remain their during routine inspections by MCC officials. Appeals affirmed these rulings, holding respect "double-bunking" had failed make showing "compelling necessity" sufficient justify such practice. Held : 1. does deprive liberty without due process law contravention Fifth Amendment. Pp. 530-543. (a) There is no source Constitution Appeals' compelling-necessity standard. Neither presumption innocence, Due Process Clause Amendment, nor detainee's right be free punishment provides any basis 531-535. (b) In evaluating restrictions detention implicates only protection deprivation law, proper inquiry whether those amount detainee. Absent an expressed intent punish, if particular condition restriction reasonably related legitimate nonpunitive governmental objective, it not, more, "punishment," but, conversely, arbitrary purposeless, court may permissibly infer purpose constitutionally inflicted upon qua addition ensuring detainees' presence at trial, effective management once confined valid objective imposition dispel inference as punishment. 535-540. (c) Judged above analysis record, practiced did matter hence violate respondents' rights under While have taxed some equipment facilities certain common areas MCC, mean meet standards required Constitution, particularly where appears nearly all released within days. 541-543. 2. Nor do rule, searches, packages, room-search guarantees. 544-562. Simply because prison retain subject limitations. must "mutual accommodation between institutional needs objectives provisions general application," Wolff v. McDonnell, 418 539, 556, 94 2963, 2975, 41 935, principle applies equally convicted prisoners. Maintaining security preserving internal order discipline essential goals require limitation retraction retained both prisoners Since problems arise day-to-day operation corrections susceptible easy solutions, administrators should accorded wide-ranging deference adoption execution policies judgment needed preserve maintain security. 544-548. [SCQ!]] First Amendment but rational response officials obvious problem preventing smuggling contraband sent outside. Moreover, operates neutral fashion, regard content expression, there alternative means obtaining reading material, rule's impact limited maximum period approximately 548-552. property especially view fact handy devices contraband. 553-555. (d) Assuming detainee retains diminished expectation privacy after commitment facility, Fourth simply facilitates safe performance thus render "unreasonable" meaning 555-557. (e) Similarly, assuming Balancing significant interests institution interests, can conducted less than probable cause unreasonable. 558-560. (f) None described constitute "punishment" violation These were reasonable responses concerns, and, event, duration so far concerned. 560-562. 2 Cir., 573 F.2d 118, reversed remanded. Andrew L. Frey, Washington, D. C., petitioners. Phylis Skloot Bamberger, City, respondents. Mr. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 Over past five Terms, has several decisions considered challenges prisoners.1 This case requires us examine detainees—those persons who been charged crime yet tried charge. parties concede ensure legitimately incarcerated Government prior determination guilt infra, 533-535, n. 15; see 18 U.S.C. §§ 3146, 3148, scope trial primary focus case. lawsuit was United States Southern challenge words Second Circuit, "intervened broadly into almost every facet institution" enjoined fewer 20 statutory grounds. largely Court's rulings held "be subjected 'restrictions privations' which 'inhere itself justified compelling necessities jail administration.' " Wolfish Levi, 124 (1978), quoting Rhem Malcolm, 507 333, 336 (CA2 1974). We granted certiorari consider important questions raised resolve apparent conflict among Circuits.2 439 816, 76, 58 107 (1978). now reverse. 3 * constructed 1975 replace converted waterfront garage West Street served City's federal since 1928. It located adjacent Foley Square courthouse its housing being detained custody criminal offenses Courts Eastern Districts Jersey. Under Bail Reform Act, § system committed other drastic his trial. detainees, also houses awaiting sentencing transportation serving generally relatively short sentences service capacity lodged writs habeas corpus ad prosequendum testificandum issued upcoming trials, witnesses protective custody, contempt.3 4 differs markedly familiar image jail; barred cells, dank, colorless corridors, clanging steel gates. include most advanced innovative features modern design facilities. As stated: "[I]t represented architectural embodiment best progressive penological planning." F.2d, 121. key element 12-story structure "modular" "unit" concept, whereby each floor one self-contained residential units traditional cellblock construction. Each unit turn clusters corridors private dormitories radiating central 2-story "multipurpose" room, inmate access 16 hours day. Because our particulars concept design, we need discuss them further. 5 When opened August 1975, planned 449 inmates, increase 50% over former facility. Id., 122. Despite dormitory accommodations, 389 rooms, occupancy. construction, however, number began rise "unprecedented" rate. Ibid. Bureau Prisons took steps accommodate unexpected flow assigned despite efforts, population rose time opening. To provide space increased population, replaced bunks many double bunks.4 Also, week newly arrived sleep cots until they could transferred became available. See id., 127-128. 6 On November 28, four months opened, named respondents initiated filing petition writ corpus.5 certified behalf sentenced alike.6 up veritable potpourri complaints implicated virtually institution's practices. Respondents charged, deprived overcrowded conditions, undue length confinement, improper inadequate recreational, educational, employment opportunities, insufficient staff, objectionable purchase books.7 7 opinions series orders, conditions. With "presumed innocent 'any beyond necessary alone, necessity.' ex rel. F.Supp. 114, (1977), Detainees Brooklyn House Detention 392, 397 1975). And while acknowledging measured different standard Eighth declared "an inferior minority . ways found unconstitutional rest" would cruel unusual States, 428 339 (1977).8 8 Applying cross-motions partial summary judgment, prohibited court's ruling magazines except publisher club.9 After remaining issues, doubling areas, use temporary containing property, requiring expose body cavities visual inspection visits. relief favor officials.10 9 although rejected "parameters judicial intervention more restrictive detainees." 125.11 Accordingly, remanded determine "adequate." But approved employed enjoining confinement. therefore rooms. 126-127. purposes review (since petitioners rulings), granting conducting visits, institution, 129-132.12 II 10 first step decision, shall address referred parties, alleged will treat review, believe employed, conclusions leads "double-bunking." A. 11 dispute incarcerate However, reasoning "premise treated proven guilty," concluded "rights afforded unincarcerated individuals," "merely comport contemporary decency prescribed clause eighth amendment." 124. Rather, held, Ibid., 336. standard, "deprivation cannot cries fiscal necessity, administrative convenience, cold comfort jails worse." acknowledged, "ignore" admonition Procunier Martinez, 416 396, 405, 1800, 1807, 40 224 (1974), "courts ill equipped deal increasingly urgent administration," "not [be] wise [it] second-guess expert matters better informed." 124.13 12 Our fundamental disagreement fail find standard.14 Both seem relied "presumption innocence" substantive necessity. 124; F.Supp., accord, Campbell McGruder, 188 U.S.App.D.C. 258, 266, 580 521, 529 (1978); 1975); supra, Feeley Sampson, 570 364, 369 (CA1 1978); Hampton Holmesburg Prison Officials, 546 1077, 1080 (CA3 1976). innocence support rule. 13 doctrine allocates burden proof trials; serve admonishment jury judge accused's solely evidence adduced suspicions arrest, indictment, introduced Taylor Kentucky, 436 478, 485, 98 1930, 1935, 56 468 Estelle Williams, 425 501, 96 1691, 48 126 (1976); re Winship, 358, 90 1068, 25 368 (1970); J. Wigmore, Evidence 2511 (3d ed. 1940). inaccurate, shorthand description accused 'remain inactive secure, prosecution taken produced effected persuasion; .' 'assumption' indulged absence contrary evidence." U.S., 484, 12, S.Ct., 1934, 12. Without question, plays role justice system. "The undoubted axiomatic elementary, lies foundation administration law." Coffin 156 432, 453, 15 394, 403, 39 L.Ed. 481 (1895). application before even begun. 14 what termed "indisputable rudiments process" fashioning test. doubt protects detainment. Nonetheless, infringe other, specific guarantee Constitution. issue here. concerned initial decision detain curtailment necessarily entails. Gerstein Pugh, 420 103, 95 854, 863, 43 54 (1975); Marion, 404 307, 320, 92 455, 463, 30 (1971). courts below question suspected committing formal adjudication guilt. 111-114, 861-863. substantial interest crimes available trials ultimately, sentences, pending furthering interest. Tr. Oral Arg. 27; Stack Boyle, 342 1, 4, 72 3, (1951).15 Instead, when aspect express challenged, punishment, 535-537, understandable desire comfortable possible conceivably coalesce point. seems clear rely warrant extent discomfort, suffices say level delineated cases Roe Wade, 410 113, 93 705, 35 147 (1973); Eisenstadt Baird, 405 438, 1029, 31 349 (1972); Stanley Illinois, 645, 1208, 551 Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 85 1678, 510 (1965); Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 625, 67 1042 (1923). B implicate think detainee.16 For Clause, punished accordance law.17 Ingraham Wright, 430 651, 671-672 40, 674, 97 1401, 1412-1413 1414, 51 711 (1977); Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 165-167, 186, 83 554, 565-567, 576, 644 (1963); Wong Wing 163 228, 237, 977, 980, 140 (1896). A lawfully adjudged guilty crime. He "judicial prerequisite [the] extended restraint [his] arrest." 863; Virginia Paul, 148 107, 119, 536, 540, 37 386 (1893). And, he bail hearing. 3148.18 circumstances, concededly him long otherwise 17 Not disability imposed amounts sense, however. Once exercised conceded authority obviously entitled employ calculated effectuate detention. Traditionally, meant which, how antiquated, results restricting movement manner restricted walk streets Whether called jail, prison, center, detain. Loss freedom choice inherent incidents interferes live comfortably little convert "punishment." recognized distinction punitive measures regulatory restraints may. See, e. g., 168, 567; Flemming Nestor, 363 603, 613-614, 80 1367, 1374-1375, 1435 (1960); cf. De Veau Braisted, 160, 1146, 1154, 1109 (1960). examined automatic forfeiture-of-citizenship immigration laws sanction amounted mere restraint. impossible compress sentence paragraph, tests traditionally applied act nature: 19 "Whether involves affirmative restraint, historically regarded comes play finding scienter, promote aims punishment—retribution deterrence, behavior already crime, rationally connected assignable it, excessive relation relevant inquiry, often point differing directions." 168-169, 567-568 (footnotes omitted). forfeiture citizenship legislative history "conclusively" showed measure punitive, circumstances constituted law. 167-170, 566-569, 576. 21 factors identified Mendoza-Martinez useful guideposts determining accompanying sense word. decide incident purpose. 613-617, 1374-1376.19 punish part officials, "whether [the restriction] [to it]." 567-568; 617, 1376. Thus, "punishment."20 Conversely, goal—if purposeless—a ibid.21 mindful inquiries spring requirements answers reflect rather idea operate Cf. Lovasco, 431 783, 790, 2044, 2049, 52 752 Russell, 411 423, 435, 1637, 1644, 36 366 (1973). 22 One further discussion. assert, concede, "essential insure trial." Brief Petitioners 43; 33. undoubtedly justifies original confine manner, accept argument Government's made person. "If government arrest end form detention." U.S.App.D.C., 529. stem manage detained. operational concerns go are, strictly speaking, shows example, able take weapons illicit drugs reach detainees.22 Restraints maintaining discomforting experienced here attempt detail precise enough recognize punishment.23 C 23 analysis, claim violated fails. intimated punishment; instead, contravened test, today reject. convinced therefore, Amendment.24 24 total 75 square feet. designated "double-bunking," contains bunkbed, furniture, wash basin, uncovered toilet. Inmates locked p.m. 6:30 a.m. brief periods afternoon evening head counts. During rest day, move about freely areas. Based affidavits visit unconstitutional. conclusion: (1) inmate, 336-337; (2) confining room cell size "fundamental denia[l] decency, privacy, security, simply, civilized humanity ." 339. agreed petitioners' arguments larger pleasant cells involved 26 "[W]e lack double-celling consideration comparison footage substitution doors bars, carpet concrete, windows walls. show justification double-celling." 127. 27 disagree sort "one man, cell" lurking given people endure genuine privations hardship might raise serious nothing approaching shown record.25 28 spend seven eight day presumably sleeping. adequate sleeping.26 remainder time, area. 337, conclusion buttressed stay MCC. Hutto Finney, 437 678, 686-687, 2565, 2571-2572, 57 522 Nearly supra. share toilet admittedly small place another days violates Constitution.27 III 29 challenged ground guarantees, Amendments. seemed approach fashion contested restrictions. stated "once determined restrictions, permitted safeguarded." "second-guess informed. Concern minutiae distract detached overriding presented it: Constitution?" 124-125. injunction MCC's unjustified interferences inmates. 129-132. view, heed own "second-guess" administrators. established principles inform evaluation issue. First, forfeit protections reason conviction prison. Jones North Carolina Prisoners' Labor Union, 433 129, 2532, 2540, 53 629 Meachum Fano, 427 215, 225, 2538, 49 451 555-556, 2974-2975, 935 (1974); Pell Procunier, 417 817, 822, 2800, 2804, 495 (1974). "There iron curtain drawn prisons country." 2974-2975. So, enjoy speech religion Fourteenth Amendments, supra; Cruz Beto, 319, 1079, 263 Cooper Pate, 378 546, 84 1733, 1030 (1964); protected invidious discrimination race Equal Protection Lee 390 88 994, 1212 (1968); prevent additional life, liberty, fortiori, crimes, least enjoyed insisted second proposition: "Lawful incarceration brings withdrawal privileges rights, considerations underlying penal system." Price Johnston, 334 285, 68 1049, 1060, 1356 (1948); 125, 2538; 555, 2974; 2804. well limits rights. application." 2975. possess full range freedoms individual. 32 Third, detainees.28 "[C]entral themselves." 823, 2804; 2540; 412, 1810, appropriate safety personnel escape unauthorized entry. infringes guarantee, evaluated light administration, safeguarding 826, 2806; 412-414, 1810-1812. 33 Finally, correctly solutions. 128, 2539; 404-405, 1807-1808; 321, 1081; 228-229, 2540-2541.29 "Such peculiarly province professional expertise record indicate exaggerated considerations, ordinarily defer matters." 827, 2806.30 observe that, occasion, "experts" Act Congress state legislature. merely administrator will, case, grasp domain reviewing judge, correctional Legislative Executive Branches Government, Judicial. 1807; 229, 2540. teachings mind, examination 34 At lower courts' decisions, Prisons' facilities, receive materials club. 129-130. warden affidavit "serious" caused bound received unidentified sources App. 24. noted "proper thorough" items, remove covers hardback leaf through page drugs, money, weapons, secreted material. "This search inordinate staff time." "there risk material club contain contraband, significantly reduced drain resources." justifications "severely impermissibly restricts inmates" 130. desirable Subsequent Appeals, amended permit bookstores publishers clubs. Fed.Reg. 30576 (1978) (to codified CFR 540.71). addition, informed proposes amend allow paperback books, magazines, soft-covered source. 66 49, 69, 51. regards "more dangerous security," intends unless bookstores. Id. 69 request enjoins 69; 59-60.31 conclude That problem. hardly emphasized serviceable easily bindings. E. Woods Daggett, 541 237 (CA10 1976).32 They difficult effectively. difficulties posed necessity carefully inspecting sources. Therefore, experts control prohibitions sweeping 2806. 38 influenced factors. expression. 828, 2807. burdensome insufficient. 'alternative [communication as] factor' 'we [are] balance [legitimate] interests.' 824, 2805, quotingKleindienst Mandel, 408 753, 765, 2576, 2582, 683 322 2, 1081, 1082 restriction, us, allows soft-bound bookstores, "relatively large" library 340.33 possibly cost published materials, "other avenues" loss "cost advantages fundamentally values." 130-131, 2540-2541. sum, considering "reasonable 'time, manner' regulatio[n is] Grayned Rockford, 104, 115, 2294, 2303, 222 seeCox Hampshire, 312 569, 575-576, 61 762, 765-766, 1049 (1941); Cox Louisiana, 379 554-555, 464-465, 471 Adderley Florida, 385 39, 46-48, 87 242, 246-248, 149 (1966). package Christmas. three testified introduction "traditional file cake kind situation" concealment "in heels shoes [and] seams clothing." 80; 24, 84-85. allowed, "substantial Second, thefts, gambling, conflicts, "age-old you I don't." 85. storage sanitary result packages. 67, 80. permitted, commissary.34 dismissed "dire predictions." unconvinced asserted institutions greater ownership commissary, official fears theft, conflicts allowed. believed sanitation assured housekeeping regulations. ordered promulgate regulations commissary. 152-153. accepted affirmed, ceiling permissible dollar value goods restrict 132. provision restriction. assume, present based alike 545. stated, absolute; institution. 42 trenched too cavalierly properly concern plain disagreed affected interests. again unguided inappropriate. Union; Procunier; Martinez. devised modified way coping order, sanitation. problems. Certainly, mandate "lowest denominator" institutions. Corrections permitting risks fights purchased "It conclusively wrong view." 132, 2542. concluding irrational. detainees35 44 conducts unannounced living irregular intervals. "shakedowns" cleared units, team guards room. Prior watch searches. Officials lead friction frustrate distracting moving ahead team.36 45 procedure stand necessity."37 "[a]t [petitioners] pattern violence disruptions taxing powers control—a remotely approached Warden's expressions—the banishing searched rejected." 149. instances thievery. 148-149. saw "no whatsoever belongings distance," removal "obstructive." 46 identify invalidating infringed indicated founded 149-150. argued Lanza York, 370 139, 143-144, 82 1218, 1220-1221, 384 (1962). realities scope. 143, 1220. Assuming, arguendo, nonetheless 47 No represent neither zealous advocate prisoners' suggest conduct search. Detainees' drawers, beds, searched, rulings. Permitting lessen invasion privacy; conceivable beneficial effect theft misuse conducted. itself, then, Amendment.38 D including strip institution.39 cavity discover deter 70-72, 83-84. upheld strip-search absent concealing 147-148. proved instance search, affirmed. "gross outweighed government's actual utility." 131. Admittedly, instinctively gives pause. Stroud 251 15, 21, 50, 52, 64 103 (1919), prohibits unreasonable Carroll 267 147, 280, 283, 543 (1925), 50 test reasonableness capable definition mechanical application. balancing intrusion, conducted, initiating Ramsey, 606, 1972, 617 Martinez-Fuerte, 543, 3074, 1116 Brignoni-Ponce, 422 873, 2574, 607 Terry Ohio, 392 1868, 889 Katz 347, 507, 576 (1967); Schmerber California, 757, 86 1826, 908 unique fraught dangers. Smuggling occurrence. attempts secrete documented 71-76, cases. Ferraro 590 335 (CA6 Park, 521 1381, 1382 (CA9 discovered attempting smuggle testament effectiveness technique deterrent import opportunity arises.40 underestimate degree invade doubt, noted, occasion guard abusive fashion. 147. Such abuse condoned. manner. 771-772, 1836-1837. contemplated rules ever cause. can.41 IV Part III, Amendment.42 suggested housed there.43 suggestion; argue satisfy 51-53. depends appear 538-539. Ensuring both. Supra, 539-540; 546-547, 28. reasons set forth III,supra, concerns. met heavy actuated 23,supra. expected applicable V ago judiciary completely "hands-off" administration. recent years, discarded attitude waded complex arena. deplorable Draconian Nation's known recounting here, rightly condemned sordid aspects systems. same have, name become enmeshed operations. Judges, all, human. They, others society, natural tendency solutions intractable workable actually trained running examination. answered whose plan best, branch initially devise plan. scrupulously observed. mean, or, statute. wide "judgment calls" confided Judicial Branch Government. is, accordingly, reversed, proceedings consistent opinion. 55 ordered. POWELL, concurring dissenting part. join discussion intrusion one's occasioned cause, suspicion, anal genital dissent MARSHALL, dissenting. 59 holds provided proclaim impose "arbitrary purposeless." Ante, 539. sufficiently ineffectual, dilutes according unlimited officials' impositions. Conspicuously lacking meaningful factor, unsupportable, presumptively afford bail.1 my departs precedent purports follow precludes More fundamentally, context labeled challenges, outweigh deprivations suffered. premise unlike prisoners, "punished." invokes enunciated 567-568, (1963), quoted ante, 537-538 omitted): 62 63 nature severity impositions weight elements, responsive few lines restates reformulation appraisal constitutes loses concerning excessiveness, indeed, eschews alternatives, recommendations Department organizations. 542-543, 25, 543-544, 27, 554. By elimination, contracts broad sensitive seeks sanitize motives prohibit irrational behavior. reformulated, lacks real content. critical factor assessing unrealistic extreme. relies narrow involve Acts, decisions. supra (Nationality 1940 Immigration Nationality 1952); (1960) (Social Security Act); (New Waterfront Commission Act). discerning behind enactment, engage function, usually benefit preceded passage motivation frequently public record. bear establishing circumstantial retrospective explanations self-serving. Particularly unwilling look security,2 prove insurmountable. 65 believe, erroneously good faith, "zeal varieties excess," 141 (SDNY 1977), litigation area corroborates conclusion.3 focuses effectively eliminate excess. Indeed, "detail 540. "the punishment." pursues productive, mandates terms, deprivations, inflicting them. If vindicated, them, focal analysis. Although professes direct regarding purpose, exercise formality. Almost including, concedes, chains shackles, 593 20, broadly, facility." 380 1977) (Coffin, C. J., dissenting). Yet toothless irrespective excessiveness infringed.4 reviewed rationality requires. majority affords "wide-ranging" security." 547.5 Reasoning prisons, concludes administrators' determinations security-related issues context. nn. 29. Yet, implicitly acknowledges, 545, adjudicated extensive "who society orderly governance." (1977). 264 9, 527 tolerance concomitantly less. blindly deferring judgments delegates punished. This, abdication unquestionably function. 70 Even agree advance terms incarceration, secure defendants' essentially indistinguishable punishment.6 involuntarily "to family friends enduring attachments normal life," Morrissey Brewer, 471, 482, 2593, 2600, 484 (1972). previously "infamous 1376; 233-234, 979, (1896); 669, 1411, inevitably cumulative restraint.7 71 balances assertedly served8 Clause. tangible physical psychological harm inflicts tangible, significant, stake. heavier bear. Bates Little Rock, 361 516, 524, 417, 480 Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 634, 89 1322, 1331, 600 (1969); Kusper Pontikes, 414 51, 58-59, 303, 308-309, 260 Incarceration clearly represents profound infringement increases deprivation. rigorous rational-basis mandates. 567. minimum, substantially Where gravity, importance9 harms, demonstrate serves administration.10 73 presenting justifications, adduce constraints operates. course, competence comity Their estimation consequences acts weight. repeatedly context, "cannot encompass failure cognizance claims." Bounds Smith, 832, 1491, 1500, individuals stake, abdicate responsibility evaluate independently deprivations. undertaking evaluation, sure, survive worse prisons. assist constraints. 74 weighs serves. substantiality increases, significance countervailing objectives. facts remand double-bunking excluding considerations. readily ascertainable prevail detailed unnecessary. harms overcrowding.11 conclude, "genuine time," 542, inappropriate produce suggesting otherwise. discerned disputed fact, avoiding remand, varies applied. Rather pronouncing overbroad aphorisms "lurking Clause," leave dictates.12 76 limiting decided unnecessary.13 information ideas dispute. Martin Struthers, 319 141, 862, 1313 (1943); Georgia, 557, 565, 1243, 1248, 542 Red Lion Broadcasting Co. FCC, 395 367, 1794, 1806, 371 Brandenburg 444, 448, 1827, 1830, (1969). elaborated above, infringing found, showing.14 77 warden, averred elaboration thorough incoming covers. Further, asserted, magazines," ascertain offered why limitations electronic fluoroscopes detect stores.15 recorded untoward experiences rules." 130 78 intend deprecate. precedents, apparently recognized, 341 1977); 130, see, Shelton Tucker, 364 488-490, 81 247, 252-253, 231 Keyishian Board Regents, 589, 602-604, 675, 683, (1967). relaxing implicated. 79 resolution decides questions, obtain Denial surely heightened viewed indignities 73. observed, severe discomfort cosmetics, things eat, smoke, chew. "[t]he strong dependence deepest miseries incarceration—the possessions." 150. Given burden. ameliorating belied, recognize, 553, policy purchases $15 doubtless adopted much governing Miller Carson, 401 835, 885 (MD Fla.1975), aff'd, 563 741 (CA5 Giampetruzzi 406 836, 842 institutions, 35-pound month, clothing magazines. 152.16 demarcate minimum. cast convenience. obligated doubts. reasoned harsher deemed institutions." 152. showing, swept formulate suitable alternative, 153. competing minimal prerogatives. affirm cells. Routine unavoidable incarceration. lapse jailhouse door, Bonner Coughlin, 517 1311, 1316-1317 (CA7 1975) (Stevens, J.); Lilly, 1240, 1244-1245 1978). needless intrusions privacy. unobserved invite disrespect possessions generate steal plant 148-149, significant. argues allowing violent confrontations enable conceal substantiated intrusive accomplish establish grievous dignity decency. someone defense attorneys, her clothing, bend over, spread buttocks, display officer. Women assume posture vaginal inspection, men genitals. neglects note, pressures, humiliating spectacle 77. stripping "unpleasant, embarrassing, humiliating." 146. psychiatrist placed degrading position possible, 48, amply corroborated testimony themselves. 36-37, 41.17 evidence, moreover, engendered sexual assault, threats guards, forgo surprisingly, asserts inspections. necessary, argues, crediting findings below, overlooks facts. out, wear one-piece jumpsuits zippers front. insert object cavity, jumpsuit, upper torso. 45; Joint Nos. 77-2035, 77-2135 (CA 2), p. 925 (hereinafter App.). occur glass-enclosed continuously monitored officers, 140, 147; 1208-1209,18 feat extraordinarily difficult. medical testimony, inserting rectum painful "would visiting areas." 49-50, probably inserted. 50. Additionally, entering visitors thoroughly metal detector, fluoroscope, hand. 93; 601, 1077. Correction officers handbags over. 1077-1078. Only blinding rationale. gravity invoke indisputable unnecessarily "shocks conscience." Rochin 165, 172, 205, 209, 183 (1952). Rochin, police petitioner swallowed Here, suspicion wrongdoing. redressed, principled reading, dictates uphold indiscriminate highlights bankruptcy basic today, extend permit. unthinking convenience stake individuals, offense inability bail. dissent. STEVENS, whom BRENNAN joins, 91 equal case.1 An empirical formally like convicts innocence. be—no acceptable community equality status dominant goal—it obnoxious country, work change character society. case.2 unusual. women crimes. liberty. case.3 significant—and venture enduring—part recognition premise. squarely "under law."4 535. expressly embodied Bill Rights. word "liberty" used "history, reason, course decisions," experience "those entrusted" interpreting Anti-Fascist Committee McGrath, 123, 162-163, 624, 643-644, 817 (Frankfurter, concurring). Leis Flynt, 457, 698, 708, 717 (STEVENS, opinion, latter proposition indisputable.5 worthy emphasis principle. mistakenly implied encompasses either created statute regulation Rights.6 Today, help statute, regulation, derived person's itself. accordingly abandoned parsimonious majestic concur abandonment. company. Some (MCC) criminals.7 goal, apart does.8 true address. Notwithstanding impression 562, "prisoners":9 limited, purpose.10 Houchins KQED, Inc., 438 37-38, 2588, 2608-2609, 553 intention commit immediate future.11 imply poses community. always quite functioned assumption posting flight,12 trial.13 unable pay bond, subjecting felons. onerous obstreperous arrestees. man propensity toward violence, escape, subversion dumped pool second-class citizens regulate have. him, treatment personal, human punishment.14 legitimate, goal meantime, unlawful performed task past, continue perform future. Having difficulty narrowly abdicates correction enforce guarantees process. 100 addressing motivated punish" wards, 538, purposeless," Lest exacting, abjectly defers 'conclusively wrong.' quotingJones 2541, 629.15 101 subjective rules. reached untenable unduly permissive. 102 Any reduce facility's warehousing function characterized purposeless" "conclusively shown" mission.16 term "intent" administrator. "encourage hypocrisy unconscious self-deception."17 inflicted, sanction. 104 short, careful reveals attenuated classifications barbaric treatment. theory defined permissive 105 unequivocally obeisant framework correct 106 leading 644. manifestations congressional purpose." 169, 568.18 upon—the wording construction predecessor Reports 169-184, 568—would unavailable19 untrustworthy.20 cases, actions issue, "criteria" face" punitive. Illustrative listed Court: 567-568. 108 Today disavow criteria Mendoza-Martinez. footnote, 539 answer criticism explains regular dungeons, chains, smaller guards. Commendably, rejects stating avail ability harsh alternatives give punish. 109 reconcile footnote rejection shackles confirms sanctions "affirmative disabilit[ies]" "historically punishment," possibility too, draw detained—suggesting scrutiny perhaps important, unnecessary disparity demonstrated importance ibid., drawing 110 discussed character. All forestall potential feared, cavities. fear (except bookstores) food, visit, guard. 111 smuggling. punishes 112 leave. recognizes premise, dismisses asserting 'withdrawal limitation' 1059, 1356.21 disagree. punishments exact, qualifies subject's dignity.22 disability" "has punishment."23 113 proper, posing special risks. along punished, long-term ongoing operations, escape.24 certainly background suggests danger jail. regulation. apply indiscriminately all. 114 criminals there, group. MCC.25 dangerous—not least—of jeopardy true, then some, inescapable. 115 indeed confirmed objective. doubted. specifically alone underscores societal importance. affront being.26 communicates he, friends, trusted. process, eliminates contacts world. searching absence, care, offends interest, "minimal dignity," ibid. engender "deep degradation" "terror" 147: price high altogether. 148. 116 contrast individual, insubstantial. supports refusal distance. disruption purported fears. ban observing present. 117 fare better. "untoward experience" 340 predictions" simple clear, crimes—where dangerous, likely problem, appropriate—packages sorts routinely admitted inspection. incapable performing similar entitlement unsupported barter introduce ignores sold 152-153, immune spoilage. 118 search—clearly greatest indignity—may justifiable mandated demonstrable improvement surprising.27 fully clad. imposing nerves agility." expect, none, attempt, let succeed, surmounting explicitly Weapons instruments, concern, detecting commonly airline required, disrobe, inspected, open hands arms reveal concealed objects. procedures, "amply satisf[y]" demands 119 be, finds, eager explained easiest take. withdrawn savings effort administrators, violated. 120 inflict excessively harmful, judged historic citizen. deny read loaned friend relative temporarily confined, gifts out presence, compel exhibit risk, none arguably reasonable, separate intermingling groups, burdens denying indignities. rules.28 121 resolved judgment. compiled legal erroneous.29 incomplete, discloses required. Three dictate result. 122 earlier emphasized, classes representations contrary, 153 conceives vacation rigors life. opposite conclusion—that instead rigors—is revealed classes. 123 acknowledges twice accommodate.30 building crucial indication So later abandonment crowded oppressive one. architect detain, jailer permissible, compelled probable. complying preliminary return capacity. conclusive reasonableness. 542-543 25. lawful excessiveness. new cost, arguing extra past.31 125 punitive,32 together motion easier preconviction articulate occurred. citizen's something explicit statement invalid phrased, satisfied unexplained it. respectfully demeaning qualities. Norris Frame, 585 1183 1978) (case below); Main Road Aytch, 565 Patterson Morrisette, 564 (CA4 Duran Elrod, 998 group nondetainees comprise, daily basis, 40% 60% population. 1977). spent 73% 127 unsentenced half three-quarters month 85% 129 Of "designated" order. never exceeded these, 6; 11-12; 33-35 (affidavit Larry Taylor, Warden, dated Dec. 29, 119. belongs, termination representative's moot claims unnamed members class." 11, 861 Sosna Iowa, 419 393, 532 (1975). controversy complaint filed pursuant Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 23, remains 402, 559. Gerstein, "capable repetition, evading review." 400-401, 557-558; 11; Kremens Bartley, 133, 1709, 1717, 184 Art. moot. propriety plead jurisdiction "Amended Petition" Court—namely, 1361—that jurisdiction. orders 1331(a). using distinct Preiser Rodriguez, 475, 499-500, 1841-1842, Lake Country Estates, Inc. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency, 440 391, 1171, (1979). contest certification action. providing actions, petitions relief. correctness regard. Middendorf Henry, 30, 1281, 1285, 556 (1976). breadth follows: "As action, decried phone service; 'strip' searches; inmate's presence; typewriters; interference with, monitoring of, mail; disciplinary grievance procedures; classification prisoners; non-English speaking inmates; unsanitary conditions; poor ventilation; food; denial furloughs, transfers; religious freedom; inadequately staff." 7. Administrative Procedure (APA) capricious" APA. 122-123, 141; infra. confiscation supplying specified outgoing mail. 341-344. issues: units; confinement; facilities; commissary; social attorney visits; telephone uniforms; availability detention; bathroom area; diets Muslim women's "lock-in." 125-165. "[a]n obligation amendment furnishes shelter, sanitation, safety." 125. reliance APA erroneous. 8, enabling legislation vests discretionary Attorney General, 'agency agency discretion law' exempt APA, breach mandate. 125; 701(a)(2). inapplicable kept unlocked, local long-distance unchanged schedule commissary requests 125-126, 16. cross petitioned disposition unlawful, excess rated suitably quartered dormitories." 128. changed resulting litigation, reconsideration 129. typewriters uniforms. 132-133. NAACP Legal Defense Educational Fund, amicus curiae, General's duty "suitable quarters" 4042(2). Amicus Curiae 22-46. passed courts; urged party Knetsch 361, 370, 137, 128 cited 333 1974) (Rhem ); 1041 ). I's came Brenneman Madigan, 343 142 (ND Cal.1972), Tate Short, 395, 668, (1971); Williams 399 235, 2018, 586 dealt imprisonment fines costs. welfare eligibility travel. Shelton, school board disclosure associations teacher. Detainees. imprison comply requirements, 5, provisions, 3148. allege requisites 43. legitimacy goal. 33; 27. We, hand, "cruel unusual" 671-672, (1977): "Eighth State complied associated prosecutions. Lovett, 328 317-318, 1073, 1079-1080, 1252 (1946). [T]he acquire power secured adjudication, pertinent Amendment." STEVENS departure (1979), Paul Davis, 424 693, 1155, Post, 580-581, 6. citations textual indicate, decisional bar. (1896), subjection hard labor "at authorities, acting color deliberately child misconduct restraining appreciable pain, hold implicated." (Emphasis supplied.) novelty inconsistency includes historical exceptions plea—exceptions summarily contempt court. Wilson, 421 309, 1802, 186 Bloom 391 194, 1477, Barnett, 376 681, 984, Cooke 517, 767 (1925); Ex parte Terry, 289, 77, (1888); Crim.Proc. 42. 1966 establishes liberal release. Section 3146 part: "Any offense, punishable death, shall, appearance officer, recognizance unsecured bond officer determines, discretion, release assure required." Frankfurter 324, 1083, (1946) (concurring opinion): Figuratively deprives enjoyed. deprivation." cannot. condition, face Retribution deterrence loading throwing dungeon conceive situation harsh, achieve accomplished methods, de minimis concerned." 1414. 369. operating manageable warning "[s]uch 335. determination. forbidding still numbers transferring handful services tasks chosen method "double-bunking"—was Governmental constitutional. Vance Bradley, 93, 939, 171 (1979); Dandridge 1153, 1161, 491 (1970). moot, legality "double-bunk" again. Reply 33-35, 56-57; W. T. Grant Co., 345 629, 632-633, 894, 897-898, 1303 (1953). understand walking "double-bunked" 127; 337. Respondents' minimum groups misplaced. 41, 41; Battle Anderson, 388 Chapman Rhodes, 434 1007 (SD Ohio Suffolk County Jail Eisenstadt, 360 676 (DC Mass.1973); American Public Health Assn., Standards Services Institutions Manual Adult Institutions, Standard 4142, National Sheriffs' Handbook Architecture factual disparity, instructive minima; rather, recommended organization question. draft Policy Task Force determinative Dept. Justice, Force, (Draft, June distinguished practices, so. pose lesser 57. system, 3146. result, records. (CA2), pp. 1393-1398, 1531-1532. resident lengthy convicted. 52. Those difficult, problems, Branches, Branch. 126, 1807-1808. dependent happenstance. What said bears repeating here: "Prison responsible discipline, securing rehabilitating, resources allow, custody. Herculean obstacles discharge duties explication. Suffice America intractable, point, decree. Most expertise, comprehensive planning, resources, executive branches government. reasons, reform. reflects healthy realism." changes occurred certiorari, respondents, citing Sanks 593, (1971), urge dismiss improvidently validity modified. 68. Sanks, instant events transpired "had drastically undermined premises plenary functioning adjudicate it." 145, 595. "completely blurred, altogether obliterated," "potentially immaterial." 152, 598. Unlike substituted entirely scheme wholly invalidated below. dispute, "blurred" "obliterated," "immaterial." limit fairly comprised certiorari. Pet. Cert. ("[w]hether publishers"). Rule 23(1)(c). portions soft-cover books. "With places resort measures, [petitioners'] invocation stake." 340. line 132-133, 2542, "Responsible threat[s security], compile dossier eve riot." reject again, now. Jones, "informed though 'unimpressive submitted communication public.' added.) 133 2542 825, 414, 811. consists 3,000 reference texts fiction nonfiction works, 5,000 assorted paperbacks, nonfiction. offers sale newspapers (CA2) 102-103 Robert Harris, Education Specialist, Oct. 19, Other donated periodically distributed use. per $50 note affects "[T]he start corridor typical block, removed area, variety opportunities possession down window, swallowed, methods contraband." 78. because, 'compelling,' warden's explanation "certainly weightless," abused trust reposed failing respect. But, abuses violations, recover damages damage destruction property. entirety, analyzed authorities they, courts, conflicting affecting 2539. male, lift genitals buttocks female visually inspected. touched procedure. 131; 70, 56. detection 556-557 3082 (1976), logic elaborate less-restrictive-alternative insuperable barriers search-and-seizure powers." existence Money, nonmetallic smuggled Another mentioned closely close constant avoid confidentiality intimacy afford. obviate abolish we, 16; Marcera Chinlund, 595 1231 1979). 748-749. challenge. Daughtery 476 292 (CA10), cert. denied, 872, 112, Hodges Klein, 412 896 (DCNJ 1976); Bijeol Benson, Ind.1975); Penn El Riddle, 1059 (ED Va.1975). concessions 548-550. post-trial memorandum "[w]ith 153; Post-trial Memorandum Civ. 6000 (SDNY) 212 passing supported citation confession error" adverts "reasonably assure" defendant's studies defendant administered, penalizes indigent defendants. ABA Project Criminal Pretrial Release 1-2 Thomas, 11-19 Advisory Goals, Association Service Agencies, Performance Goals Diversion 1-3 glosses n., 561 motive underlie illustrates indifference inquiry. Collins Schoonfield, 344 257, 283 (Md.1972) (warden censored newspaper articles jail); 278 (mentally disturbed shackled infirmary); Milwaukee Petersen, 353 1157, 1164 Wis.1973) (detainees pages letter; notice relatives next deleted grounds); Manicone Corso, 365 (EDNY 1973) (newspapers banned disrupt create fire hazard); 878 hospital chained bed); O'Bryan Saginaw, 582 Mich.1977) $500 prevented attending services); Vest Lubbock Commissioners 444 824 Tex.1977) letter six letters facilitate censorship; authorized refuse mail deliver "abusive" language). "loading dungeon," impermissible. am heartened concession, force lest reader, reiterates times 531, 540-541, 544, 546-548, 551, 557 38, 562. Chief Judge "[i]t impossible, playing fast loose English language, intent." (dissenting opinion). Accord, 267, 530 criteria, would, My empty semantic exercise. respects imposes criminals. characterization obscure balanced justifications. Motor Vehicle Orrin Fox 96, 112-113, 413, (MARSHALL, concurring); Poe Ullman, 367 497, 1752, 1776, 989 (1961) (Harlan, dissenting); Moore East Cleveland, 494, 499, 1932, 531 (1969) (free speech); (1977) (access courts). Blackstone observed 200 years ago: "Upon whole, offence bailable, bail, county gaol mittimus ; abide till imprisonment, said, punishment: dubious interval prisoner ought utmost humanity; loaded fetters, hardships absolutely requisite .." Blackstone, Commentaries 300. overcrowding mental (testimony "psychologically destructive homosexual impulses, tensions aggressive tendencies"); 388, 398 273, 536 (overcrowding impair health" detainees); 1007, 1020 single-bed done grows suddenly 600, 900? figure magnitude. designates "security restrictions" standards. 568-571. continuing contested, least, invalid. 576-578, 1240 denominate publisher-only "time, regulatio[n]," 552, substitute showing. proposition, alter place, exercising (1972) (ordinance demonstration 150 feet day); (1941) (permissible license parade); 464, 571 (1965) (city parades rush hour); (1966) (public jail). 18, unspecified persons, option purchasing unavailable. precepts selections uses carried visitors. 578. Department's Draft discourage volume mail, psychiatric procedures lasting emotional trauma, credibility injury dimension permanent scars. monitoring, time. 1208. forbidden lavatories, requesting well, built-in window observation. "No laws." U.S.Const., Amdt. "Excessive imposed, inflicted." 8. applies. provides, MARSHALL 568-569, added 230, 443, 701, 717; 405. appearances like, sentences. offer training sometimes environment. Webster's Third International Dictionary 1804 (As "often" used, "prison" major felonies: penitentiary reformatory, home"). Long-term postconviction backward-looking, normative components. pain "correct" misdeed, Pincoffs, Rationale Punishment 51-57 Gregg 153, 184, 2909, 2930, 859 (opinion STEWART, JJ.); H. Hart, Responsibility 4-5 158-173; F. Dostoevskii, Crime (Coulson transl. 1964); I. Kant, Philosophy Law 195-198 (W. Hastie 1887). contrast, assuring fellows' meantime. Its forward looking, general, non-normative. type future large implies moral affected, classified regulatory. Packer, Limits Sanction (1968). bill attainder analyzing "legislative post bellum statutes sympathetic Confederacy professions backward-looking individuals. Garland, Wall. 366; Cummings Missouri, 277, 356. loyalty oaths getting benefits job orientation Communications Assn. Douds, 382, 413-415, 691-692, 925; Garner Works, 716, 722-725, 909, 913-915, 1317. occasions, shielding potentially actions. McGinnis Royster, 263, 1055, 1061, 282. ("[I]t undertake programs rehabilitate clothed innocence"); ("Unless preserved, centuries struggle, lose meaning"). presumption—or, last Term, "assumption" 1934 n.12, 468, colors guilty, conviction. Relying assertion, mentioning Stack, states begun." 533. having recently reiterated "fundamental," 483, saying. instances, flight exceedingly low. "a 'excessive bail.' loosely 'indigents.' Studies very lowest levels bail—say $500, premium $25 $50—there percentage succeed making 10, 216. jurisdictions "bail jail" arrestees 211. whatever takes 3. 3146(a). logical corollary Excessive Bail" previous occasions individualization administered Woodson Carolina, 304, 2978, 2991, 944; Trop Dulles, 356 86, 100, 590, 597, 630. way, add impermissible "[I]f "rational basis" economic pass muster followed path proposed quotation steps. activity minor Rinaldi Yeager, 305, 1497, 577; Illinois Elections Socialist Workers Party, 173, 983, 230. Beyond puts legitimate; nexus open-ended "operational concerns" facing administrator, upheld. "[The approach] interested observer thinks, thereby depriving [between types activity] pretense objectivity. thinks off world outside, subjective] administering Treatment Punishment. legislature passes compulsory narcotics addicts hostility addicts, Punishment; compassion, Treatment. compassion? objections aside, definition? "Other left unintelligible consequences. [For] [t]o encourage self-deception." 32-33. 311, 1076-1077, 1252. assemblies publish deliberations. Starkweather Blair, 245 Minn. 371, N.W.2d 869 (1955). "[E]ven 'non-penal' plainly statute." 95, (plurality laced Price, 545-547, fails mention dealing O'Brien Skinner, 740, 702; Goosby Osser, 409 512, 36. "limited," reduced, deferential language "minimum rationality"—language activities selling hot dogs eyeglasses. Orleans Dukes, 297, 2513, 511; Williamson Optical 348 461, 563. victim devalues evident immediately demeans affording "diminished scope." diminution 558. blush, rationale told carry private, "reasonably" expect expectations privacy" purely connotation wake headlines announcing henceforth sanctity home enter residences will. component refers person" typically expects unchecked U.S Hence, may, violating tell negative: impossibility retreat home, places. exposed view. occur. classic example coincidence voting. Richardson Ramirez, 2655, recognizing vote, 54, 2670, Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 561, 1362, 506, felons vote. (finding absentee voting Clause). slave state, ironclad exclusion 2974, 935; 495; 263; 1212. "that [only those] inconsistent 384. 43-53, 2665-2670. 4. 356; 426-429, 939-941, 89; Mackin 348, 350-352, 777, 778, 909; 237-238, 980-981, 140. prospect incentive luxuries him. conducive development subeconomy subgovernment thrives Mattick, Prosaic Sources Violence, Occasional Papers University Chicago School, Mar. 1972. foregoing indicates, scope, differ. applying sets focusing adequately develop convicts. proceedings. Twomey, 479 719 1973). "restrictions property" "serve punishment" retributive makes "will [a] ai[m] punishment—retribution." aspect, '[p]unishment expresses denunciation wrongdoing.' JJ.), Lord Denning's Royal Capital Learned Hand editors Review (undated), reprinted U.Chi.L.Rev. paragraph "denunciatory" respects, civic doing wrong. 182, 2925, 2929 (fundamental violations "human dignity" punishment). ineffective offensive (e. searches). reserved save merits. remand. erroneous 530, 532-535, decisive reality, seriously debate, built person, more. array undisputed begin who, sworn court, ones drew, 'very planning principle.' Contrasting went say: 'Dormitories flexible thing, see. there's it's try put You can't third space, in, imaginative get utilization absoluteness two-person capability space. there. enough, know, double-celling.' said; demonstrates people, unwanted intimacy, eat write quiet another's shelf toiletries things, people. double-celled hang garment. double-decker singles air vent, winter blows onto bed foot level. Many blocked vents cope architecturally unintended unpleasantness. musty unpleasant smelling. beds drawers mounted casters convenient reconstruction dismantle caster arrangements; 'double' old lying occupants." 336-337 (footnote omitted; original). capacity, "movement facilities," exclusively convicts, leaves toilet," bunk renders furniture unusable, subjects "foul odors, stigma, humiliation, denials privacy," 339; (3) overall, "living grossly [have] semblance [for] toto consigned them," 135. expressly, findings. 542-543. error, made, inexplicable. Zenith Radio Corp. Hazeltine Research, 1562, 1576, ameliorative convince factfinder

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