Document: 407 U.S. 345 92 S.Ct. 2119 32 L.Ed.2d 783 Gerald SHADWICK, Appellant,v.CITY OF TAMPA. No. 71—5445. Argued April 10, 1972. Decided June 19, Syllabus City charter provision authorizing municipal court clerks to issue arrest warrants for breach of ordinances held comport with requirements the Fourth Amendment that be issued by a neutral and detached magistrate who must capable determining whether probable cause exists issuance warrant. The clerks, though laymen, worked within judicial branch under supervision judges were qualified make determination there is believe code violation has occurred. 250 So.2d 4, affirmed. Daniel A. Rezneck, Washington, D.C., appellant. H. Bee, Tampa, appellee. Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 Florida, authorizes certain Tampa Municipal Court.1 sole question in this case these qualify as magistrates purposes Amendment. We hold they do. 2 Appellant was arrested impaired driving on warrant clerk court. He moved quash warrnt ground it nonjudicial officer Fourteenth Amendments. When motion denied, he initiated proceedings Florida courts means State's writ common-law certiorari. state culminated holding Supreme Court '(t)he deputy are 'magistrates' . purpse issuing United States Constitution .' 5 (1971). noted jurisdiction, 404 1014, 697, 30 660 (1972). 3 * A appointed city from classified list civil servants assigned work statute does not specify qualifications necessary job, but no law degree or special legal training required. clerk's duties receive traffic fines, prepare court's dockets records, fill out commitment papers perform other routine clerical tasks. Apparently may subpoenas. not, however, sit judge, search even felony misdemeanor violations laws. only those charged having breached Tampa.2 4 Appellant, contending requires 'judicial officers,' argues limited authority constitutionally invalid. reasons applications whatever nature cannot assured discerning, independent review compelled when performed less than officer.3 It clear, would officer' appellant's theory. There some suggestion brief lawyer judge himself.4 more complete portrayal position disqualified officers merely because lawyers judges, lack institutional independence associated judiciary members service, clerk, 'an executive official,' enjoy statutorily specified tenure office.5 II Past decisions mentioned prior warrant, Whiteley v. Warden, 401 560, 564, 91 1031, 1035, 28 306 (1971); Katz States, 389 347, 356, 88 507, 514, 19 576 (1967); Wong Sun 371 471, 481—482, 83 407, 414, 9 441 (1963); Jones 362 257, 270, 80 725, 735, 697 (1960); Johnson 333 14, 68 367, 369, L.Ed. 436 (1948). In cases term appears have been used interchangeably 'magistrate.' supra, supra. others, intended simply underscore now accepted fact someone police prosecution determine cause. supra; very implies, course, connection branch. But never could grant regardless system type involved. Jones, at 270—271 U.S., 735—736 S.Ct., implied Commissioners, many whom nonetheless 'independent officers.'6 6 frequently employed 'magistrate' denote warrants. Coolidge New Hampshire, 403 443, 449—453, 2022, 2029—2031, 29 564 566 1036 S.Ct.; 356—357, 514 Ventresca, 380 102, 108, 85 741, 745, 13 684 (1965); Giordenello 357 480, 486, 78 1245, 1250, 1503 (1958); 13—14 368—369 Lefkowitz, 285 452, 464, 52 420, 76 877 (1932). Historically, defined broadly 'a public officer, possessing such power—legislative, executive, judicial—as government appointing him ordain,' Compton Alabama, 214 1, 7, 605, 607, 53 885 (1909), or, narrower sense inferior justice peace.' Ibid. More recent definitions much changed.7 7 An examination Court's reveals terms interchangeably. Little attempt made define either term, distinguish one other, advance definitive requirement. find commendment all reside exclusively judge. Such requirement incongruous federal until recently widely nonlawyers.8 8 To extract further significance above terminology both unnecessary futile. substance Constitution's turn labeling party. traditionally represented an assurance will proceed without crime committed person place named involved crime. Thus, meet two tests. detached, requested search. This long insisted inferences drawn instead being judged engaged often competitive enterprise ferreting crime.' 14 369 486 1250 last Term voided attorney general 'who actively charge investigation later chief prosecutor trial.' Id., 450 2029 If, hand, detachment capacity do conjoin, satisfied Amendment's purpose. III requisite present hand. Whatever else neutrality might entail, clear require severance disengagement activities enforcement. showing here partiality, affiliation prosecutors police. record shows any enforcement activity which distort judgment requires. himself expressly refused allege anything effect.9 his work. sense, well termed officer.' While office appointment authority' desirable, absence features hardly disqualifying. Judges themselves take differing circumstances. Some appointed, elected legislative bodies people. Many subject re-appointment re-election. Most depend their salary level upon elevate higher prevailing respect judges. impeached: removed works 10 likewise failed demonstrate extends ordinances. presume able deduce facts affidavit before citizen guilty driving, peace, drunkenness, trespass, multiple common offenses covered code. too difficult task accomplish. Our entrusted nonlawyers evaluate complex significant factual data Grand juries daily rendering indictments, trial assess guilt proved beyond reasonable doubt. responsibility lay judgments betray belief arrest. 11 decide today question. considered actual based adequate Aguilar Texas, 378 84 1509, 12 723 (1964). did submit below, 237 231 (1970), (1971), we initially. single power lawfully vested, exercised. Nor need State lodge entirely outside sphere persons kind 'public officers' come associate Had divorced position, presented different considerations. Here, employee disassociated role On case, status questioned. What reject per se invalidation local Communities sound delegating competent personnel lawyers.10 face stiff unrelenting caseloads.11 pressured docket give brisk summary treatment clerk. All imply normally provide most desirable requests. our warns converting practice into constitutional commandment. recognizes plural diverse activities12 key national innovation vitality.13 entitled flexibility leeway designation magistrates, so probable-cause required them. affirm 15 Affirmed. relevant provisions set forth below: 1. Section 168.04 Fla.Stat. (1965), F.S.A. reads follows: 'The administer oath charging another offense ordinance, marshal accused brought mayor trial. may, station, oaths affidavits complaints complained against.' 2. 495 Charter enacted legislature 17, Chapter 5363, Laws 1903, police, policeman arrest, violating said city, presence knowledge ordinance shall policeman, presence, once affidavit, court, against violation, whereupon person.' 3. 160 61 2915, 1961, Clerk approval Mayor, appoint deputies, deputies selected approved Civil Service, exercise same powers himself, including One designated Court.' Tr. Oral Arg. 6, 20, 21. Brief 6; 10. 12—13; Reply 8. 8; 10—12. Commissioner has, replaced Federal Magistrates Act 1968, 82 Stat. 1107. Compton, notary deemed 'magistrate,' nowhere indicated denotes solely Webster's Dictionary (2d ed. 1957), defines '(a) clothed officer; invested narrowly, class summary, criminal, officials similar jurisdiction Random House (1966) (1) administration law' (2) minor peace justice, try criminal conduct preliminary examinations serious crimes.' Commissioners passage 1968. Even Act, exception lawyer's afforded part-time magistrates. U.S.C. § 631(b)(1). communities, rural sparsely settled areas, shortage available entrust persons. example, explicitly makes communities where bar available. See generally Mass Production Constitutional Ideal (C. Whitebread 1970). differ significantly Burke Superior Court, Ariz.App. 576, 579, 416 P.2d 997, 1000 (1966); Parks 236 874, 882 (Ct.App.Cal.1951); Kennedy Walker, 135 Conn. 262, 272, 63 A.2d 589, 594 (1948); Grano State, 257 768, 773—774 (Sup.Ct.Del.1969); Shadwick (Fla.1971); Swafford, Ind. 541, 546, N.E.2d 580, 584 (1968); ex rel. French Hendricks 252 213, 247 519 (1969); Bailey Hudspeth, 164 Kan. 600, 606, 191 894, 898 Guidry, La. 631, 635—636, 173 192, 194 Wampler Warden Maryland Penitentiary, Md. 639, 648, 594, 600 LaChapelle Shoe Machinery Corp., 318 Mass. 166, 168—170, 8, (1945); Paulick, 277 Minn. 140, 151 N.W.2d 591 People Richter, 206 Misc. 304, 306—307, 133 N.Y.S.2d 685, 688 (1954); Furmage, N.C. 616, 625—626, 109 S.E.2d 563, 570 (1959); Moseley Welch, 218 S.C. 242, 250, 62 313, 317 (1950); Jefferson, 79 Wash.2d 345, 348 349, 485 77, Sahley Thompson, W.Va. 336, 342—343, 870, 873 White Simpson, Wis.2d 590, 137 391 Van Brocklin, Wis. 441, 217 N.W. (1927). Harlan, Thoughts Dedication: Keeping Judicial Function Balance, 49 A.B.A.J. 943, 944 (1963).

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