Document: 342 U.S. 246 72 S.Ct. 240 96 L.Ed. 288 MORISSETTEv.UNITED STATES. No. 12. Argued Oct. 9—10, 1951. Decided Jan. 7, 1952. Mr. Andrew J. Transue, Flint, Mich., for petitioner. Robert W. Ginnane, Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice JACKSON delivered the opinion of Court. 1 This would have remained a profoundly insignificant case to all except its immediate parties had it not been so tried and submitted jury as raise questions both fundamental far-reaching in federal criminal law, which reason we granted certiorari.1 2 On large tract uninhabited untilled land wooded sparsely populated area Michigan, Government established practice bombing range over Air Force dropped simulated bombs at ground targets. These consisted metal cylinder about forty inches long eight across, filled with sand enough black powder cause smoke puff by strike could be located. At various places signs read 'Danger—Keep Out—Bombing Range.' Nevertheless, was known good deer country extensively hunted. 3 Spent bomb casings were cleared from targets thrown into piles 'so that they will out way.' They sacked or piled any order but dumped heaps, some accumulating four years upwards, exposed weather rusting away. 4 Morissette, December 1948, went hunting this did get deer. He thought meet expenses trip salvaging these casings. loaded three tons them on his truck took nearby farm, where flattened driving tractor them. After expending labor trucking market he realized $84. 5 occupation, is fruit stand operator summer trucker scrap iron collector winter. An honorably discharged veteran World War II, enjoys name among neighbors has no blemish record more disreputable than conviction reckless driving. 6 The loading, crushing transporting broad daylight, full view passers-by, without slightest effort concealment. When an investigation started, Morissette voluntarily, promptly candidly told whole story authorities, saying intention stealing property abandoned, unwanted considered value Government. indicted, however, charge 'did unlawfully, wilfully knowingly steal convert' United States $84, violation 18 U.S.C. § 641, U.S.C.A. provides 'whoever embezzles, steals, purloins, converts' government punishable fine imprisonment.2 convicted sentenced imprisonment two months pay $200. Court Appeals affirmed, one judge dissenting.3 7 trial, times investigating officers, testified appearances believed cast-off intend property, wrongful intent. trial court, unimpressed, ruled: '(H)e because abandoned knew property. * That defense. I don't think anybody can defense another man's piece property.' court stated: 'I permit you show man abandoned. hold there question refused submit allow counsel argue whether acted innocent intention. It charged: 'And instruct if believe testimony case, intended take it. right (A)nd claim private And effect: young (and says did), permission (he was), cent evidently guilty offense charged here. If government, guilty. intent did. Therefore, either side, guilty.' Petitioner's contended, 'But taking must felonious intent.' ruled, however: 'That presumed own act.' 8 suggested 'greater restraint expression should exercised', affirmed because, 'As interpreted statute, appellant beyond shadow doubt, evidenced even admissions.' Its construction statute creates several separate distinct offenses, being knowing conversion ruled particular requires element conclusion required failure Congress express such requisite Court's decisions v. Behrman, 258 280, 42 303, 66 619, Balint, 250, 301, 604. I. 9 In those cases construe mere omission enactment mention dispensing deemed precedents principles generally applicable penal statutes, authorize conviction. Indeed, adoption literal reasoning announced do more—it sweep crimes, when expressly preserved, ancient requirement culpable state mind. We re sume their historical background convincing effect ascribed comprehensive contemplated inconsistent our philosophy law. 10 contention injury amount crime only inflicted provincial transient notion. universal persistent mature systems law belief freedom human consequent ability duty normal individual choose between evil.4 A relation mental punishment harmful act almost instinctive child's familiar exculpatory didn't mean to,' afforded rational basis tardy unfinished substitution deterrence reformation place retaliation vengeance motivation public prosecution.5 Unqualified acceptance doctrine English common Eighteenth Century indicated Blackstone's sweeping statement constitute first 'vicious will.'6 Common-law commentators Nineteenth early pronounced same principle,7 although few exceptions relevant present problem came recognized.8 11 Crime, compound concept, constituted concurrence evil-meaning mind evil-doing hand, congenial intense individualism deep root American soil.9 As codified enactments silent subject, courts assumed signify disapproval principle merely recognized inherent idea statutory affirmation. Courts, little hesitation division, found implication offenses taken law.10 unanimity adhered central wrongdoing conscious emphasized variety, disparity confusion definitions elusive element. However, jurisdictions, purposes different devised working formulae, scientific ones, instruction juries around terms 'felonious intent,' 'criminal 'malice aforethought,' 'guilty knowledge,' 'fraudulent 'wilfulness,' 'scienter,' denote knowledge, 'mens rea,' evil purpose culpability. By use combination tokens, sought protect who blameworthy infamous common-law crimes. 12 Balint Behrman belong category character, very antecedents origins. crimes involved depend consist forbidden acts omissions. This, while expressed Court, made clear examination century-old accelerating tendency, discernible here11 England,12 call existence new duties disregard ingredient industrial revolution multiplied number workmen increasingly powerful complex mechanisms, driven freshly discovered sources energy, requiring higher precautions employers. Traffic velocities, volumes varieties unheard subject wayfarer intolerable casualty risks owners drivers observe cares uniformities conduct. Congestion cities crowding quarters called health welfare regulations undreamed simpler times. Wide distribution goods became instrument wide harm dispersed food, drink, drugs, securities, comply reasonable standards quality, integrity, disclosure care. Such dangers engendered numerous detailed heighten control industries, trades, properties activities affect health, safety welfare. 13 While many are sanctioned strict civil liability,13 lawmakers, wisely not,14 make effective invoking sanctions applied technique prosecutions convictions. confronted multitude prosecutions, based statutes administrative regulations, what aptly 'public offenses.' fit neatly accepted classifications against state, person, morals. Many nature positive aggressions invasions, often dealt, neglect care, inaction imposes duty. violations result direct person create danger probability seeks minimize. threaten security manner treason, may regarded authority, occurrence impairs efficiency controls essential social presently constituted. respect, whatever violator, same, consequences injurious according fortuity. Hence, legislation matter policy, does specify necessary accused, violation, usually position prevent care society might reasonably expect exertion exact responsibilities. Also, penalties commonly relatively small, grave damage offender's reputation. Under considerations, turned construing holding alone makes crime. not, expressions misgiving. 14 pilot movement appears tavernkeeper selling liquor habitual drunkard know buyer such. Barnes State, 1849, 19 Conn. 398. Later Massachusetts holdings convictions adulterated milk forbidding sales require allegation proof defendant adulteration. Commonwealth Farren, 1864, Allen 489; Nichols, 1865, 199; Waite, 264. Departures tradition, mainly general classes, reviewed rationale appraised Chief Cooley, follows: agree rule intent, means rule. police is, impose irrespective violate them, degree diligence protection shall render impossible.' People Roby, 1884, 52 Mich. 577, 579, N.W. 365, 366. 15 turn Century, appeared New York enacted novel tenement houses, money penalties. Landlords contended establish violation. Judge Cardozo wrote answer: 'The asks us test meaning govern analogy, deceptive. wrongdoing, accompanying act, associated concept punished infamous. Even invariable But prosecution minor wider power. Prosecutions petty always class themselves. true, though form.' Tenement House Department City McDevitt, 1915, 215 N.Y. 160, 168, 109 N.E. 88, 90. 16 Soon, employers advanced prescribed Cardozo, again pointed out, penalizing intentional 'moderate amount', cautiously added sustaining power unintended 'we understood like length imprison. leave open.' ex rel. Price Sheffield Farms-Slawson-Decker Co., 1918, 225 25, 32—33, 121 474, 476, 477. 17 Thus, diverse reconcilable reasons, converged result, discontinuing inquiry limited regulations. Before long, similar growing reached judgments harmony consensus judicial opinion, led overlook need exposition context overruling indictment alleges making sale narcotic Taft, wrote: 'While scienter every crime, followed regard definition include *, modification respect under obstructed requirement. legislative construed court. *' supra, 251—252, 302. referred, 'regulatory measures exercise emphasis upon achievement betterment rather mala se,' drew citation supporting authority chiefly dealing regulatory offenses. Id., page 252, 20 day, determined Narcotic Drug Act saying, 'If one, knowledge it, 288, 304. 21 Of course, 'obstructed' finding assume convict obstruction help learn Congress. since exist force literally, work changes composition Had contemplated, hardly escaped numbered members especially interested informed concerning importance crimes.15 expected forth dissent, McReynolds Brandeis joined, omitting mention. 22 until recently occasion explicitly relate abandonment considerations expediency obtaining convictions, nor malum prohibitum classification peculiar quality offense. referred '* now type whereby serve regulation', continued, 'such dispenses conventional conduct awareness wrongdoing. interest larger puts burden acting hazard otherwise standing responsible danger.' warned: 'Hardship doubtless thus penalizes transaction consciousness totally wanting.' Dotter-weich, 320 277, 280—281, 284, 64 134, 136, 88 48.16 23 Neither nor, far aware, other undertaken delineate precise line set criteria distinguishing not. attempt closed definition, neither settled static. approval adherence circumstances applied. quite here expand 24 Stealing, larceny, variants equivalents, earliest existed before legislation;17 invasions rights stir sense insecurity community arouse demand retribution, penalty high and, sufficient involved, infamy felony, which, Maitland, bad word give thing.'18 State last resort, whom fall heaviest interpreting country, consistently retained larceny-type offenses.19 deviated, exception attention disclosed research. 25 Congress, therefore, omitted prescription light unbroken course decision constituent states Union offense, statute. Congressional silence elements adopting already well defined interpretation warrant contrary inferences creating whose guidance Act. Because latter class, cannot accept eliminating incorporated Nor exhaustive studies disclose well-considered applying offenses,20 deviations notable illustrative Government's contentions here.21 26 feat radically change weights balances scales justice. obvious doing away ease prosecution's path conviction, strip benefit derived innocence purpose, circumscribe heretofore allowed juries. manifest impairment immunities extended initiative. 27 spirit denies judiciary forthrightly22 admonishes enlarge reach constituting anything less incriminating components words used borrows art accumulated legal tradition centuries practice, presumably knows adopts cluster ideas attached each borrowed body learning convey unless instructed. absence direction satisfaction widely definitions, departure 28 641 denounced. II. 29 suggested, history imply something affirmative elimination least case. argument contest embezzlement, purloining, section. urged joined those, new, convert necessary. 30 alert decisive function seen prescribe mind, described variously 'intentional,' 'wilful,' 'knowing,' 'fraudulent' 'malicious,' indifferent act,23 increase punishment.24 specific specialized design injury.25 recognizes faith blameless defense, partial mitigation punishment.26 treason—the Constitution itself—requires duly witnessed overt aid comfort enemy also disloyalty enemy.27 bestowed significant found, directed to, instance eliminated 31 section concerned consolidation former sections Title 18, adopted 1940, Revised Statutes. pertinent antecedents, footnoted.28 find 1948 re-enactment collect scattered kindred category. Not differentiate disclosed. No inference drawn difference punishment. fits congressional offense; least, misdemeanor, hundred dollars felony.29 smuggled dominant put ill-fitting compromising company. apparently stood one-count indictmemt use.'30 32 language section, pains incriminate 'knowing' conversions. But, unwitting tort, recovery exemplary damages, defendant's motive, mistake, irrelevant.31 takes turns another, shield him restitution indemnity, well-meaning deprive own. 33 conversions qualification, unwitting, inadvertent Knowledge, identical most apt limitation. possession. facts, necessarily conversion. us, spoken seem alter bearing guilt. apparent how intentionally converted converted, fact truly 34 said, blush plausibility, that, part conversion, becomes meaningless duplication stealing, given itention. broader evolution throws legislation. 35 surprising considerable overlapping purloining grouped What codifiers gaps crevices separated men through breaches. books contain surfeit drawing distinctions slightly obtain advantages another's wanted instances. Probably certainly stealing. 'To lawful possession keep wrongfully.' (Italics added.) Irving Trust Co. Leff, 253 359, 364, 171 569, 571. Conversion, consummated taking, initial converter entirely lawful. Conversion misuse abuse unauthorized extent placed one's custody use. Money rightfully embezzle commingling custodian's own, intact. difficult abuses uses purloining. Knowing adds significantly punish 36 attribute parallels England32 States33 demonstrates serious drafting avoid loopholes cover suggesting here, without, departing intendment. 37 grounds inferring eliminate charged. III. 38 record, theory presence (a) decided (b) presumption conclusive, (c) predicated isolated circumstances. respects error. 39 Where accused charged, jury. authorities cited larcenous equally emphatic uniform issue. stated Andrews Flack, 125 324, 334, 267, 270, L.R.A. 807: 'It alike dictate natural justice, guilt system, (unless exceptional cases,) justify However be, however inconstrovertible intention, never Jurors perverse, ends justice defeated unrighteous verdicts; functions distinct, responding invade province destroying significance 40 follows withdraw prejudge issue raises act. tempting cast 'presumption' thinks probable facts. Supreme Florida, example, larceny selected declared exactly opposite here: open subsequent conceal denial, avowal, strong arises repelled evidence authorized. Kemp 146 Fla. 101, 104, 200 So. 368, 369. 41 presumptive conclusive overthrow effectively volition. assumption together logically proven artificial fictional effect.34 conflict overriding endows extends presumptions improvised judiciary. facilitate substituting limit. Tot States, 319 463, 63 1241, 87 1519. Moreover, supplied casings, was, 'Did property?' removal admitted. adequate convert, wrongfully Whether existed, determine, surrounding 43 jury, considering Morissette's seek self-interest witness, disbelieved profession concluded assertion afterthought. proper instructions end matter. bound seems inescapable logic judges. heaps spent left hinterland rust presented appearance junk, lack deprivation openness candor brand thief. done so, too 44 Reversed. 45 DOUGLAS concurs result. 46 MINTON consideration 341 925, 71 796, 95 1356. pertinent, reads: 'Whoever converts sells, conveys disposes voucher, money, thing department agency thereof, contract thereof; 'Shall fined $10,000 imprisoned ten years, both; exceed sum $100, $1,000 year, both.' Cir., 187 F.2d 427, 431. For brief Biblical, Greek, Roman, Continental Anglo-American see Radin, Intent, Criminal, Encyc.Soc.Sci. 126. extensive treatment development Law, Pollock History 448—511. 'Historically, substantive punishing vicious will. postulates free agent choice wrong choosing freely wrong.' Pound, Introduction Sayre, Cases Criminal Law (1927). Williams York, 337 241, 248, 69 1079, 1084, 93 1337, observed 'Retribution longer objective Reformation rehabilitation offenders become important goals jurisprudence.' prevalent modern penology offender crime.' 247, 1083. illusory Bl.Comm. 21. Examples texts alterations successive editions consequence offenses,' hereinafter recited, traced Public Welfare Offenses, Col.L.Rev. 55, 66. Exceptions sex rape, victim's actual age determinative despite girl consent. Absence involves understanding insanity, subnormal mentality, infancy, volition due compulsion, inferred doctrines coverture. Most inroads negligence, involuntary manslaughter negligence arising Cf. Welansky, 1944, 316 Mass. 383, 55 N.E.2d 902. Holmes, Common considers chapter earlier pithy observation: 'Even dog distinguishes stumbled kicked.' P. 3. 126, 127, points rea readily act' elsewhere. Taft overstated allowance mentioned n. 8. trend causes, 55; Hall, Prolegomena Science 89 U. Pa.L.Rev. 549; Interrelations Torts, 753, 967. illustrated cases. 1814, held impure foods aware impurities. Rex Dixon, M. & S. (K.B.1814). thirty-two later, action enforce forfeiture tobacco, respondent liable of, suspect, Countering respondent's arguments, Baron Parke true instances produce mischief, suffer want examining tobacco received, warranty; inconvenience much greater, officers obliged prove knowledge. seldom able so.' Regina Woodrow, 404, 417 (Exch. 1846). Convenience emerged rationale. 1866, quarry owner nuisance caused dumping refuse river, spite plea played active management business nothing involved. His irrelevant. Stephens, L.R. Q.B. 702 (1866). Bishop, referring decision, says, And, properly limited, eminently worthy hereafter.' (8th ed. 1892) 1076. decisions, prohibiting food enacted. Adulteration Food (35 Vict. c. 74, (1872)); Sale Drugs 1875 (38 63). sustained proved butter, Fizpatrick Kelly, (1873), Betts Armstead, Q.B.D. 771 (1888), involving showing product measure up specifications. liability regardless roughly paralleled fault certain relationships, shown Workmen's Compensation Acts, vicarious others Motor Vehicle Acts. Consequences abolition aroused concern disinterested students penology. command admonish caution assuming expression, intends so. Encye.Soc.Sci. 130, popular axiomatic, system negates acceptance. vital retain support methods Again, probably academic taint. remains determination boundary spells condemnation thousands individuals. watchfulness jurist justifies itself insistence offender.' 56, says: inflict substantial morally innocent, mistake pure accident, outrage feelings nullify enforcement.' 549, somewhat disturbed trend, but, so-called suggests 'There continue mode best solution obtainable, content sacrifice principles. raising improvement.' Felton 699, 703, 875, time unreasonable attach culpability, consequently punishment, evade provisions *.' Law. revenues, Spies 317 492, 418; Scharton, 285 518, 416, 76 917. Russell Crime (10th ed., Turner, 1950) 1037. 465. jurisdictions culled digest. nearly point Johnson Tex. 375, horse running property; Jordan 107 Tex.Cr.R. 414, 296 S.W. 585, parts automobile car owner, acquitted; Fetkenhauer 112 Wis. 491, 294, honest, mistaken, jury; Devine People, Hun, N.Y., 98, practical joke weighed admitted Others purport Farzley 231 Ala. 60, 163 394; Nickerson Ala.App. 640, 119 243; Williams, 73 Cal.App.2d 154, 166 P.2d 63; Schiff 111 Colo. 333, 141 892; 368; Perdew Commonwealth, 260 Ky. 638, 86 S.W.2d 534, appropriation finder lost intent; Shaunding, 268 218, 255 770; Will, 289 413, 498; Van Vechten Eagle Fire Ins. 239 432, A.L.R. 1115; Thomas Kessler, 334 Pa. A.2d 187; 145 131, 708; Sandel 131 132, 97 225; Weeks 114 406, 855; Heskew Tex.App. 275; Page 148 Va. 733, 138 S.E. 510, reversible error exclude having tendency throw bona fides larceny; Butts 800, 133 764; Levy, 113 Vt. 459, 853, inadvertence larceny. 73, 84, cites classifies concludes subdivisions (1) illegal intoxicating liquor, (2) (3) misbranded articles, (4) antinarcotic (5) nuisances, (6) traffic (7) motor-vehicle laws, (8) passed safety, well-being community. Sayre syndicalism sedition cases, pressure strong, accomplished analogy Hennessy, Wash. 351, 195 211; Ruthenberg, 229 315, 201 358; Kahn, 56 Mont. 108, 182 107; Smith, 57 563, 190 107. Compare McClennegen, Cal. 445, 234 91. essence disloyalty. Cramer 325 1, 65 918, 1441; Haupt 330 631, 67 874, 91 1145, defeat treason. Hudson Goodwin, Cranch 32, 259; Gooding, Wheat. 460, 693. 81, Arson: willfully maliciously *'; 113, Assault: '(a) commit murder rape *. 152, Bank-ruptcy concealment assets, false oaths claims, bribery: fraudulently 201, Bribery Graft: influence 471, Counterfeiting Forgery: defraud 594, Intimidation voters: 1072, Concealing prisoner: 61 Stat. 151, 162, Interference member National Labor Relations Board performance duties: 1069, 216(a), Violations Fair Standards Act: 251, 23, Packing barrels apples: 1112, Manslaughter, unlawful killing malice', voluntary, carries maximum years. 'with malice aforethought', murder, 1111, degree, death life imprisonment, or, second term life. 242, 242; Screws 91, 1031, 1495. I.R.C. §§ 145(a), 145(b), 53 62, amended, 145(a, b), stating Act, that: 'No subsection committed after prior subsection.' Penal McK.Consol.Laws, 40, 1306, 'Upon appropriated openly avowedly, title preferred faith, untenable.' U.S.Const. Art. III, 3, cl. 1. provision incrimination operations 'compassing' King. See 1441. To say Reviser's Note (1940 ed.) 82, 87, 100, 101 turn, Rev.Stat. 5438 5439. consider 1940 code interpretations. 82 carry use, purloin Anderson, F.Supp. 943, conspiracy District Yankwich said: including Ninth Circuit Appeals, object introduce Federal Code. 'In Frach Mass, 1939, 106 820, 821, words: 'Larceny 82.' 'This apply governing states.' 945. Trinder, 659, group boys, 'stealing' automobile. joy ride permission, fully intending return through. Their plans awry auto grief telephone pole. dismissing complaint, trespass; secret borrowing. likewise (18 82) terms, imports permanently 660. entitled 'Embezzling arms stores', provides: steal, embezzle, unlawfully sell, convey, dispose ordnance, arms, ammunition, clothing, subsistence, stores, furnished military naval service, 80 title.' appear relating proscribed moneys property', valuable whatever, moneys, goods, chattels, records, $5,000, five noted Crabb Zerbst, 99 562, dissent below length. feloniously carrying personal Code, 99, seven years' imprisonment. argued five-year limitation sentence 100 reduced ten-year also. rejected argument, specified broadening foreclose avenue might, process pleading, escape proving hair's breadth different. following observations: constitutes disputed. doubtful fixed formula (as 'larceny') strained application clearly Modern codes treat ways. Some define old declaratory broadened previously pretenses, breaches trust. above, broaden called, related tend complicate pleading practice. denominated 'theft' 'stealing.' offers clearer example compromise Section ed.)) deals robbery description 47 denounces included seeking pitfalls technical pleading. embezzlement name, definition. Then shade situation arise changing conditions envisioned purloin. restrict dishonest obtains belongs deprives benefits ownership, involve stealth attributed apply. prosecuted ed.)).' 564—565. reference Zerbst then operative, successor today's code. clarification, rob kind belonging 2112, 'Personal States', providing robs fifteen years.' recites portion said covered title', notwithstanding transported directly latter. forerunner receiving stolen hand. strictly considered, definitions. note renders 'knowingly use' States. 'converts' predecessors. use'. resembling use.' Revision crete recodify existence. suggestion embodied 641. defective if, failed expressly, fully, Carll, 105 611, 1135. Harker Dement, 1850, Gill, Md., Am.Dec. 670; Baltimore O.R. O'Donnell, 1892, 49 Ohio St. 489, 117. underlying assumes ownership supposed question. Row Home Sav. Bank, 306 522, 552, 160. vein, collected Am.Jur. 852—854. doubt appropriate action. proven, petitioner can. Larceny 1916, Geo. V, 50, 'to consolidate simplify triable Indictment Kindred Offences' '1. Act— '(1) steals who, consent capable thereof: 'Provided bailee owner. growth England, 1950), 1037 1222, material above taken. N.Y.Penal 1290, defines 'A taker, takes, withholds, action, debt contract, article kind, larceny.' further '2. obtained lawfully, provided subsequently withheld Historical discloses represents abolish kinds larcenies. Laws 1942, 732, provided: hereby policy interests people served, injustice avoided, abolishing hitherto differentiated sort theft twelve ninety wit: asportation, trick device, embezzlement.' Morgan, Instructing Jury Upon Presumptions Burden Proof, Harv.L.Rev. 59; Observations Concerning Presumption, 906.

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