Document: 473 U.S. 531 105 S.Ct. 3304 87 L.Ed.2d 381 UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.Rosa Elvira MONTOYA DE HERNANDEZ. No. 84-755. Argued April 24, 1985. Decided July 1, Syllabus Upon her arrival at Los Angeles International Airport on a flight from Bogota, Colombia, respondent was detained by customs officials when, after examination of passport and the contents valise questioning officials, she suspected being "balloon swallower," i.e., one who attempts to smuggle narcotics into this country hidden in alimentary canal. She incommunicado for almost 16 hours before sought court order authorizing pregnancy test (she having claimed be pregnant), an x ray, rectal examination. During those given option returning Colombia next available flight, agreeing or remaining detention until produced monitored bowel movement. chose first option, but were unable place refused use toilet facilities. Pursuant order, conducted hospital proved negative, resulted obtaining 88 cocaine-filled balloons that had been smuggled Subsequently, suppression hearing, District Court admitted cocaine evidence against respondent, convicted various federal offenses. The Appeals reversed, holding respondent's violated Fourth Amendment because did not have "clear indication" canal smuggling time detained. Held: traveler border, beyond scope routine search inspection, is justified its inception if agents, considering all facts surrounding trip, reasonably suspect contraband canal; here, facts, their rational inferences, known clearly supported reasonable suspicion smuggler. Pp. 536-544. (a) Amendment's emphasis upon reasonableness consistent with creation standard cover case such as intermediate between "reasonable suspicion" "probable cause." 537-541. (b) effects needed balance private public interests when law enforcement must make limited intrusion less than probable cause. It thus fits well situations involving border: type gives no external signs, inspectors will rarely possess cause arrest search, yet governmental stopping border are high. 541-542. (c) Under circumstances, detention, while long, uncomfortable, humiliating, unreasonably long. Alimentary cannot detected amount which other illegal activity may investigated through brief stops. When ray alternative simply awaiting movement, left only two practical alternatives: detain necessary confirm suspicions turn loose interior carrying drugs. Moreover, both length discomfort solely method illicit drugs country. And presence articulable smuggling, required pass interior. 542-544. 731 F.2d 1369 (9th Cir.1984), reversed. Andrew Lewis Frey, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Peter Marvin Horstman, Angeles, Cal., respondent. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 Respondent Rosa Montoya de Hernandez Colombia. found canal, bench trial A divided panel United States Ninth Circuit reversed convictions, Constitution (1984). Because conflict decisions Courts question importance resolution laws, we granted certiorari. 469 1188, 954, 83 961. We now reverse. 2 arrived shortly midnight, March 5, 1983, Avianca Flight 080, direct 10-hour Her visa so passed Immigration proceeded desk. At desk encountered Customs Inspector Talamantes, reviewed documents noticed made least eight recent trips either Miami Angeles. Talamantes referred secondary further questioning. another inspector asked general questions concerning herself purpose trip. revealed spoke English family friends States. explained Spanish come purchase goods husband's store Bogota. recognized Bogota "source city" narcotics. possessed $5,000 cash, mostly $50 bills, billfold. indicated appointments merchandise vendors, planned ride around taxicabs visiting retail stores J.C. Penney K-Mart buy $5,000. 3 hotel reservations, stated stay Holiday Inn. could recall how airline ticket purchased. opened small they about four changes "cold weather" clothing. shoes high-heeled pair wearing. Although checks, waybills, credit cards, letters credit, produce Colombian business card number old receipts, fabric swatches displayed photo album. 4 point Over years apprehended dozens smugglers arriving 080. See App. 42; v. Mendez-Jimenez, 709 1300, 1301 (CA9 1983). 5 requested female take area conduct patdown strip search. felt abdomen firm fullness, wearing girdle. contraband, pairs elastic underpants paper towel lining crotch area. 6 returned reported discoveries, charge told he agreed inspector's request x-rayed answer query pregnant. ray. withdrew consent learned would handcuffed en route hospital. then gave movement rebut inspectors' suspicions. placed office under observation. went wastebasket women's restroom, inspect stool capsules telephone call. 7 sat office, observation, remainder night. night attempted Mexican flying via Mexico City morning. transport lacked land City. permitted leave, informed bowels moved. remained most curled up chair leaning side. offers food drink, noted exhibited symptoms "heroic efforts resist usual calls nature." F.2d, 1371. 8 shift change o'clock afternoon, landed, still defecated urinated partaken drink. test, Federal Magistrate issued just midnight evening, authorized involuntary provided physician considered claim pregnancy. taken later turned out negative. Before results known, removed rectum balloon containing foreign substance. formally arrest. By 4:10 a.m. similar balloons; over days total 528 grams 80% pure hydrochloride. 9 After hearing possession intent distribute, 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1), unlawful importation cocaine, §§ 952(a), 960(a). 10 convictions. "justifiably high level official skepticism" good motives, decided let nature course rather seek immediate magistrate's warrant 1372. Such "plain suggestion" smuggler previous Appeals. Quintero-Castro, 705 1099 1983); 1302 cf. South Dakota Opperman, 428 364, 370, n. 96 3092, 3096, 3097, 49 1000 (1976). applied case. questioned "humanity" decision hold moved, knowing suffer "many humiliating discomfort" submit x-ray concluded "the officers [respondent] continued observation insufficient support 16-hour detention." 1373. 11 Government contends smuggler, sufficient justify detention. In judgment below argues, inter alia, any event internally. 12 commands searches seizures reasonable. What depends circumstances seizure itself. New Jersey T.L.O., 325, 337-342, 733, 740-743, 720 (1985). permissibility particular practice judged "balancing individual's promotion legitimate interests." Villamonte-Marquez, 462 579, 588, 103 2573, 2579, 77 22 (1983); Delaware Prouse, 440 648, 654, 99 1391, 1396, 59 660 (1979); Camara Municipal Court, 387 523, 1727, 18 930 (1967). 13 Here took international border. Since founding our Republic, Congress has Executive plenary authority without warrant, regulate collection duties prevent introduction Ramsey, 431 606, 616-617, 97 1972, 1978-1979, 52 617 (1977), citing Act 31, 1789, ch. Stat. 29. This long Congress' power police entrants Boyd States, 116 616, 623, 524, 528, 29 L.Ed. 746 (1886). As recently: 14 " 'Import restrictions persons packages national rest different considerations rules constitutional domestic regulations. broad comprehensive powers "[t]o Commerce Nations," Art. I, 8, cl. 3. Historically prohibited articles entry.' supra, 618-619, S.Ct., 1979-1978, quoting 200-Ft. Reels Film, 413 123, 125, 93 2665, 2667, 37 500 (1973). 15 Consistently, therefore, protect Nation examining entering country, qualitatively Routine subject requirement suspicion, cause, warrant,1 first-class mail supra. Automotive travelers stopped fixed checkpoints near individualized even stop based largely ethnicity, Martinez-Fuerte, 543, 562-563, 3074, 3085, 1116 (1976), boats inland waters ready access sea hailed boarded whatever. These cases reflect longstanding concern protection integrity is, anything, heightened veritable crisis caused narcotics, see Mendenhall, 446 544, 561, 100 1870, 1880, 64 497 (1980) (POWELL, J., concurring), increasing utilization smuggling. desperate appears relatively addition smugglers' repertoire deceptive practices, it also exceedingly difficult detect.2 these difficulties. Title 19 1582 provides "all coming countries shall liable . [by regulations]." agents "stop, examine" "vehicle, beast person" officer suspects there "merchandise duty." 482; 1467, 1481; CFR 162.6, 162.7 17 Balanced sovereign's rights Having presented admission, subjected criminal Government, 482, entitled free unreasonable seizure. But expectation privacy interior, see, e.g., Carroll 267 132, 154, 45 280, 285, 69 543 (1925); Florida Royer, 460 491, 515, 1319, 1333, 75 229 (1983) (BLACKMUN, dissenting), right individual struck much more favorably Supra, 538. previously what incoming purposes Cf. U.S., 618, 13, 1979, 13. held initial permissible 1372, 1300 language comes Schmerber California, 384 757, 86 1826, 908 (1966), think misapprehended significance phrase context used Schmerber.3 viewed 1302. words indicate necessity particularized might within body individual, enunciating third threshold No court, including one, ever adopted standard. See, Winston Lee, 470 753, 759-763, 1611, 1615-1618, 84 662 (1985) (surgical removal bullet evidence). Indeed, Appeals, faced identical case, strict suspicion. Mosquera-Ramirez, 729 1352, 1355 (CA11 1984). do verbal cause"; dealing reasonableness, mens rea, Bailey, 444 394, 403-406, 624, 631-633, 62 575 (1980), subtle gradations obscure elucidate meaning provision question. 20 canal.4 contexts signs indeed. "particularized objective basis suspecting Cortez, 449 411, 417, 101 690, 695, 66 621 (1981); id., 418, Terry Ohio, 392 21, 18, 1868, 1879, 889 (1968). need belabor implausible story, 533-536. trained many certainly "inchoate unparticularized 'hunch,' Terry, 27, ----, 'common-sense conclusio[n] human behavior' 'practical people,'—including government rely." 346, 746, 23 final issue whether related initially. regard cautioned courts should indulge "unrealistic second-guessing," Sharpe, 675, 686, 1568, 1576, 605 (1985), "creative judge[s], engaged post hoc evaluations can always imagine some means objectives accomplished." Id., 686-687, 1575-1576. "[t]he fact might, abstract, accomplished 'less intrusive' does not, itself, render unreasonable." 687, Cady Dombrowski, 433, 447, 2523, 2531, 706 Authorities allowed "to graduate response demands situation." Place, 696, 709, 10, 2637, 2646, 110 (1983). Here, warrant; procure, apparent fault inspectors. undoubtedly exceeds approved consistently rejected hard-and-fast limits, supra; 10. Instead, "common sense ordinary experience govern rigid criteria." 685, 1575. 24 rudimentary knowledge judges common humankind tells us -type presents few, signs; quick frisk do, nor available, They offered submitting procedure. alternative, suspicions, last longer typical stop, 25 followed former doubt expected recently disembarked full stiff abdomen, extended delay. visible call nature, labeled "heroic," disappointed humiliation discomfort. Our prior delays investigatory attributable suspect's evasive actions, 687-688, 1576; 697, 1581 (MARSHALL, concurring judgment), principle applies here well. alone responsible duration 26 conclude occurred where leans heavily Government. merely investigative role. charged, along immigration protecting bring anything harmful communicable diseases, explosives. 1182(a)(23), 1182(a)(6), 1222; 162.4-162.7 1103(a). analogous tuberculosis carrier bodily processes dispel introduce agent 42 pt. 34 (1984); 1582. 27 Respondent's indeed, humiliating; Adams Williams, 407 143, 92 1921, 1922, 32 612 (1972), -stop said require policeman lacks precise information shrug his shoulders allow crime occur escape." 145, 1923. analogy, period verify unreasonable. therefore 28 Reversed. STEVENS, judgment. If person kind disclosed record assume significant innocent undergo procedures. rule announced cannot, ground prolonged "resulted country." Ante, 544. 30 was, however, choice made; easily determined concealing justified. I believe nonpregnant incident concur 31 BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL joins, dissenting. confront "disgusting saddening episode" Nation's border.1 Shortly De fit profile "alimentary smuggler."2 give attempt. thorough failed uncover go local abdominal resolve matter. approached handcuffs lead away, "she crossed arms chest began stepping backwards shaking head negatively," protesting: "You going put me. That insult my character."3 33 Stymied efforts, course: lock away adjacent manifest room "until peristaltic functions movement."4 leave excreted squatting pursuant watchful eyes attending matrons. responded: "I your degradation I'd die."5 locked hours. Three shifts matrons came during time. bed couch lie, hard chairs table. wished sleep lie down hard, uncarpeted floor. instead "sat clutching purse," "occasionally putting table nap."6 Most wept pleaded home."7 repeatedly begged permission husband tell him you doing me."8 Permission denied. Sobbing, insisted "make phone home talk children them know everything right."9 again fact, highly "unusual" "each someone entered room, pictures show person."10 demanded attorney contacted.11 Once again, far outside world knew, vanished. although already stripped searched probed, halfway ordeal repeat process—"to ensure safety surveilling officers. result negative."12 35 passed, finally mind consult obtain body-cavity search.13 Hernandez, "very agitated," led hospital.14 balloon. approximately 3:15 morning 6, advised Miranda rights. balloons. 36 "[T]hat degraded offend sensibilities decent citizen questioned."15 face. For "[i]t fair summary history say safeguards liberty frequently forged controversies very nice people." Rabinowitz, 339 56, 69, 70 430, 436, 94 653 (1950) (Frankfurter, dissenting). standards fashion ferreting guilty apply equally innocent, "may exercised unfit ruthless responsible." Brinegar 338 160, 182, 1302, 1313, 1879 (1949) (Jackson, dissenting).16 Nor "veritable narcotics." There "[s]tern hallmark healthy self-confident society." Davis 328 582, 615, 1256, 1272, 90 1453 (1946) "But democracy presupposes moral atmosphere reliance intelligence whereby effective administration justice achieved due civilized formulated Bill Rights." Ibid. issue, instead, this: Does permit traveler, alien, sort treatment sanction judicial nothing low-ranking something amiss? today concludes grants sweeping unmonitored officials. reasons 'balancing interests.' 537. goes assert "balance border," warrant. Thus investigation authorities "reasonably contraband." 541. "hard-and-fast limits" detentions, 'common criteria.' 543. Applying "reasonableness" instant "[r]espondent seizure." 38 STEVENS takes somewhat tack. Apparently convinced health x-irradiation beings stand established minimal little concern, believes own initiative warrantless rays wish avoid indeterminate detentions. proceed examination, justified." 545 (concurring judgment). 39 dissent. Indefinite detentions "for investigation" state, society. Dunaway York, 442 200, 2248, 60 824 Brown Illinois, 422 590, 95 2254, 416 (1975); Mississippi, 394 721, 89 1394, 676 (1969). opinion, confine tolerable spoiled meat diseased animals, simple activity. indefinite "reasonable" approval magistrate. showing Finally, probable-cause STEVENS' proffered exposure criminal-investigative purposes. 40 * Travelers routinely questioning, patdowns, belongings. measures, involve invasions typically travelers, violate "national self requiring enteringthe identify himself in, belongings lawfully brought in." (1925).17 Individual singled briefly investigation. (1968).18 point, involves severe intrusions values protects stringent required. example, may, purposes, ripen approximating full-scale custodial arrest—indeed, arrestee, unlike detainee this, basic call, warnings, bed, prompt nearest magistrate, appointed attorney, consideration bail. addition, intrusive techniques searches, stomach-pumping.19 41 falling categories presumptively officer. "Though speaks broadly 'unreasonable seizures,' definition 'reasonableness' turns, part, specific clause." 297, 315, 2125, 2135, 752 (1972). "The Amendment, often grasped zealous officers, denies inferences men draw evidence. Its consists drawn neutral detached magistrate competitive enterprise crime. yield rule, officer, agent." Johnson 333 13-14, 68 367, 369, 436 (1948). 43 Accordingly, emphasized Warrant Clause mere "dead language" bothersome "inconvenience somehow 'weighed' claims efficiency. be, important working part machinery government, operating matter check 'well-intentioned mistakenly overzealous executive officers' system enforcement." 2136; Coolidge Hampshire, 403 443, 473-484, 91 2022, 2042-2047, 564 (1971).20 44 have, sure, authorization exigent impractical counterproductive. holding, reaffirmed must, whenever practicable, advance procedure." 20, 1879. permissibly custody determination "prerequisite restraint following arrest." Gerstein Pugh, 420 103, 114, 854, 863, 54 (1975).21 Mallory 354 449, 451-452, 1356, 1357-1358, 1479 (1957); McNabb 318 332, 342, 63 608, 613, 819 (1943); 3501(c); Fed.Rule Crim.Proc. 5. persuasive reason principles lengthy occurring To invokes precedent stating neither searches. ante, 537, (1977). matter, reexamine foundations.22 authorize wide-ranging control unquestioned, carried investigating Wong Wing 163 228, 231, 235-236, 238, 977, 978, 980, 981, 140 (1896); Abel 362 217, 250, 80 683, 702, 668 (1960) (BRENNAN, correct acceptable century ago, stressed "this frozen practices existed passage." Payton 445 573, 591, 33, 1371, 1382, 639 (1980); Tennessee Garner, 471 1694, 1702, 85 46 contends, required, phraseology Clause. Brief 29, 26.23 Even assuming become Part II, infra, reasoning runs squarely contrary Court's administrative-warrant cases. safeguarding security individuals arbitrary officials" fundamental require, except "certain carefully defined classes cases," "[p]robable required." 1731, (1967); Marshall Barlow's, Inc., 307, 312, 320, 98 1816, 1820, 1824, 56 305 (1978). fire, health, housing-code inspections, Seattle, 541, 1737, 943 (1967), occupational inspections workplace, arson investigations, Michigan Clifford, 464 287, 104 641, 78 477 (1984) (plurality opinion); Tyler, 499, 1942, 486 Almeida-Sanchez 266, 279-285, 2535, 2542-2546, 596 (1973) concurring) (prior areawide roving border); 322-324, 2139-2140 national-security wiretaps). 47 Something gone fundamentally awry jurisprudence plumbing, heating, ventilation, gas, electrical systems" person's home,24 investigate back rooms poke charred remains gutted garage, isolation wrongdoing. administrative charged "should sole utilize constitutionally sensitive pursuing tasks," "unreviewed discretion too readily pressures incriminating overlook potential privacy." 317, 2136. "relatively invasion[s]" interests, 1735, carry grave "arbitrary oppressive interference personal individuals," 554, 3081, (1976); Ortiz, 891, 895, 2585, 2588, 623 273-275, 2539-2541. conditions Hernandez' case—indefinite confinement squalid cut off world, absence amenities vilest hardened criminals, repeated searches—in ways surpassed declined "minor resulting questioning," 565, 3086, surely parallel "minor" extreme invasion dignity occurs today. 48 suggests suspicious-looking ultimately One "internal searches"—rectal vaginal examinations stomach pumping estimated percent examined.25 similarly women contraband.26 precisely minimize risk harassing people requires intervention 481, 2045. safeguard inconvenient nuisance efficiency," ibid., points unusual efficiency concerns suggesting overridden run border-search Certainly "exigent circumstances" supporting Government's interest proceeding expeditiously telephonic warrant—a procedure "ideally suited peculiar needs authorities" day detained.27 supports evasion requirement, analogizing line argues stops." set forth views proper stops,28 detail enough present note today's extraordinary example date studied effort employ converting balancing process—a process "in thumb apparently planted firmly side scales." 720, 1593, allows "any Brignoni-Ponce, 873, 882, 2574, 2580, 607 (1975) (emphasis added). Allowing "however takes" get cooperate, station "legitimate" state fully pursued, deciding State's require. flatly prohibits "wholesale security" individuals, application analogy "would threaten swallow" safeguards. 213, 2257; 726, 1397.29 staggering begin 27-hour 50 "discomfort" country," speculates 'heroic' prevented point. 544 indeed internally, rationalizations jurisprudence, "prevent hindsight coloring evaluation 3086. Beck 379 89, 96, 223, 142 (1964). had, most, Neither notion petty excrete command; relies elsewhere body" sanctioning "much typical" this. And, respect 'unrealistic second-guessing,' 542, predict unfamiliar surroundings land, frightened exhausted "cooperate" authorities.30 51 "reasonable," premise traveler's "expectation [is] interior." 539. law-abiding reached "expect" thrown ordered wastebaskets, medical procedures—all agents. travel borders escape unchecked discretion. curious lesson American awaits arrival. Olmstead 277 438, 485, 564, 575, 72 944 (1928) (Brandeis, dissenting).31 disagree "choice" "justified." Medical x-rays diagnostic technique; exactly why sharp debate among community cellular chromosomal rays, perspective (it six life-expectancy32) successive generations. "additivity" factor—the cumulative effect biological genetic well-being—has particularly disturbing debate.33 53 dangers gravamen dispute STEVENS; immediately employed tool Rather, crux disagreement lifetimes, inherent coupling "law enforcement" tools technology. least, informed, deliberate [judicial] determinations invade another's guilt indisputable great." 770, 1835, (1966). "[s]earch warrants ordinarily dwellings, absent emergency, concerned." incision, pumping, x-irradiation. seeking probe cavity, impermissible actually occurred. II additional reason: context, outset. Hayes Florida, 811, 815, 1643, 1646, (1985); 207-208, 212-216, 2253-2254, 2256-2259; 602, 605, 2261, 2262; 726-727, 1397-1398. same elementary 55 commonly asserted "border exception" investigations.34 justifications exception necessarily limit breadth. derives unquestioned paramount self-protection 285. 272, 2539 (border condition "seeking cross borders"); entry"). Subject applicable guarantees Rights, self-protection" plenary. Thus, notes, testing entry. entry, exhaustive processing examinations, scrutinized exacting care.35 that, appropriate wastes scrutiny rays. Contrary reasoning, stark alternatives forcing procedures allowing "pass alternative: instruct refuses burdensome entry conditioned entrant's freedom objects requirement. Surely preventing potentially excludable crossing vindicated voluntarily borders. 57 course, mean laws soil. law, arrested like violations, investigation, limitations governing stops anywhere else country.36 promptly meaningful choice: agree eventual 58 disagrees. oral argument "definitely" policy "not people, they're drug return checked out" citizen, resident "[w]e back." Tr. Oral Arg. 48. authoritarian twilight zone enter leave. trapped soil, Government." 539, 482. notwithstanding protected Rights everywhere watered-down technically accommodate itself assaults autonomy moment muster provide grounds open-and-shut damages action violations civil Nothing underlying premises ring unbridled authoritarianism freedom's served sending way elsewhere. nevertheless propose subjecting possible punishment, everyone 236-238, 980-981; 702 dissenting).37 Chief rests "a practical, nontechnical conception affording best compromise accommodating" "often opposing" liberty. 176, 1311 361-362, 753-754, obviously met, met courier profiles, rumor report, 'strong suspect.' Henry 361 98, 101, 168, 170, 134 (1959). fruit authorities' affirm reversing conviction. III indefinite, involuntary, violates charter extract ransom permits actions tempting, look graphically illustrates crisis" trafficking. enduring struggle society's defend lawlessness, easy light insistence scrupulous liberties invoked behalf unworthy. easy. History bears testimony disregard extinguished, heedlessly first, stealthily, brazenly end." 597, 1263 61 616-619, 1978-1980; 272-273, 2539-2540, (1973); 288, 2547 (WHITE, (1925): "Travellers boundary DeMontoya, 1984) (required surgery; swallowed condoms); Pino, 1357 120 pellets); Mejia, 1378 (CA5 1983) (75 balloons); Couch, 688 599, 1982) (36 capsules); (120 Saldarriaga-Marin, 734 1425 1984); Vega-Barvo, 1341 (135 (102 1352 (95 Castrillon, 716 1279 (83 Castaneda-Castaneda, 1360 (2 smugglers; 201 Caicedo-Guarnizo, 723 1420 (85 Henao-Castano, 1364 Ek, (30 Padilla, 1367 (115 Gomez-Diaz, 712 949 (69 D'Allerman, (80 Contento-Pachon, 691 (129 balloons). stated: forbid [beyond body's surface] chance desired obtained. clear indication found, disappear unless search." 769, 1835. hold. issues suggest view any, nonroutine strip, Both parties decide aliens lesser border; raised consider Holtz, 479 1973) (Ely, dissenting) (re disrobing woman police"). Specifically, "had paid cash ticket, source port embarcation, currency, short piece luggage, confirmed speak English, planning shopping using taxis transportation." 1369, Declaration Teodora A. Mendoza ¶ (Mendoza Declaration), 58; Jose Angel Serrato (Serrato 47. 18-20, 25, 28, 58. 17, Id. 19, 48; Marilee S. Morgan (Morgan 49. Jerome Gonzales (Gonzales 55. id. 15, 54. 12, 4, 14, Stipulation Re Trial Order Thereon, 64. initially suggested obtained, supervisor vetoed idea (1) 22-23, (2) "they issuance order," called several reiterated suggestion; Not elapsed order. 23. Another got contacting Magistrate, oath listening Kyle E. Windes 11, 40. 44-45; infra. Magistrate's observations behavior 42. concluded, "additional evidence" discovered implementing tainted improperly introduced trial. 9, 50. Jackson Brinegar: "We remember extent privilege sustain, interpret themselves push limit. remember, too, differs invoke protection. press, speech, religion, usually suppressions injunction. Other rights, impartial jury aid counsel, supervisory themselves. compensation taking property act terms money. single incident, perpetrated surprise, haste, kept purposely court's supervision moderation whose records stake opportunity injunction appeal disinterested intervention. citizen's quietly whatever undertake violence." 1314 (dissenting opinion). generally W. LaFave, Search Seizure 10.5, pp. 276-281 (1978) (LaFave). 281-286. 286-295; Note, From Bags Body Cavities: Law Border Search, 74 Colum.L.Rev. (1974); Comment, Intrusive Searches—Is Judicial Control Desirable?, 115 U.Pa.L.Rev. 276 (1966); Searches Yale L.J. 1007 Katz 389 347, 354, 507, 512, 576 Berger 388 41, 57, 60, 1873, 1882, 1884, 1040 96-97, 228-229, (1964); Sun 371 471, 481-482, 407, 413-415, 441 (1963); Agnello 269 145 (1925). 357, 751, original): "To dispensing undervalue apprehend violators law. personnel engaging predictably deter conducting otherwise conduct. unintended privacy; rather, thought necessary. Only exceed implicated context—that involved—is engage determine necessary." "Once custody, evaporate. danger commit crimes subside, increases significantly. consequences serious occasioned stakes high, essential furnish unfounded liberty." 863. Others agree. LaFave 325 (Ramsey flimsy satisfying explanation" refusing requirement); Colum.L.Rev., supra 82-86; U.Pa.L.Rev., 277. dissenting); Blefare 870, 880 1966) provides: secure persons, houses, papers, effects, seizures, violated, Warrants Oath affirmation, describing searched, things seized." Administrative Amendment: Cases, 1967 S.Ct.Rev. 19. Thompson 411 946, 948 1969); Morales 406 1298, 1969). (citing congressional hearings). "with intervening traffic" skill detection today." 38. are, published statistics discussed text. burden demonstrating practices. 500, 1326, statistical respecting disclose "it's it's public." 85; "[a] especially inappropriate obtained ." 29-30, 26. Coming expression purported travelers' incredible. 1584, (dissenting); 710, result); Kolender Lawson, 461 352, 362, 1855, 1861, 903 (concurring); 509, 1330 result). 505-506, 1325, 1328-1329 2262, ("The impropriety obvious. arrest, design execution, investigatory. detectives embarked expedition hope up. manner Brown's effected appearance calculated fright, confusion"). counsel observed argument: "What position well, [on] command sure you're An command, wouldn't heroic It's nervous afraid anyway confined time, guilt." 28-29. written school authorities: class petitioner dogs burst taught greater impression teacher hoped convey. grant certiorari teach lesson: '[t]he seizures'. Schools expect students learn lessons citizenship underpinning freedoms." Doe Renfrow, 451 1022, 1027-1028, 3015, 3018-3019, 395 (1981) denial certiorari). 749 373-374, 759-760 (STEVENS, 1423(2) (as naturalization, understanding fundamentals history, form States"). Gregg, Effects Ionizing Radiations Humans, Handbook Physics 404 (R. Waggener ed. 1982). 375-411; H. Cember, Introduction Health 177-199 (2d Department Human Services, Food Drug Administration, Public Service, Possible Genetic Damage Diagnostic X Irradiation: Review (1980). 619, 1978, 1980, (1977); 276-295. 1181 et seq.; 232 seq. 1701 707-710, 2644-2646; 499-500, 1325 210-216, 2255-2259, (1979). disavows 48, arrange flown able days. 22, 32; 55; &Par; 8-10, repudiated surveillance 37. ("I discharges illegally transported jail ward giving leaving forced investigations "is unsatisfactory apprehension day. approach remove disincentive materially reducing prosecution." 17-18, 9. enforce released consequence 709-710, 2645-2646; opinion) ("the [may not] arrest"); 211-216, 2255-2259; 881-882, 2580-2581, (1975).

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