Document: 488 U.S. 179 109 S.Ct. 454 102 L.Ed.2d 469 NATIONAL COLLEGIATE ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION, Petitionerv.Jerry TARKANIAN. No. 87-1061. Argued Oct. 5, 1988. Decided Dec. 12, Syllabus Petitioner National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), an unincorporated association consisting of approximately 960 public and private universities colleges, adopts rules governing member institutions' recruiting, admissions, academic eligibility, financial aid standards for student athletes. The NCAA's Committee on Infractions conducts investigations, makes factual determinations, is expressly authorized to impose penalties upon members that have violated the rules, but not sanction a institution's employees directly. After lengthy investigation allegedly improper recruiting practices by University Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), state university, found 38 violations, including 10 respondent Tarkanian, UNLV's basketball coach. imposed number sanctions UNLV, requested it show cause why additional should be if failed suspend Tarkanian from its athletic program during probation period. Facing demotion drastic cut in pay, brought suit Nevada court, alleging he had been deprived his Fourteenth Amendment due process rights violation 42 U.S.C. § 1983. Ultimately, obtained injunctive relief award attorney's fees against both UNLV NCAA. Concluding conduct constituted action jurisdictional constitutional purposes, Supreme Court affirmed relevant part. Held: participation events led Tarkanian's suspension did constitute "state action" prohibited was performed "under color of" law within meaning NCAA cannot deemed actor theory misused power possessed virtue law, since decision while compliance with recommendations, turn into under law. Although must assumed as participant promulgation Association's some minor impact policy source adopted collective membership, vast majority which located other States. Moreover, adopt transform them actor, retained plenary withdraw establish own standards. investigation, enforcement proceedings, consequent recommendations they resulted delegation because: delegated no take specific any employee; acted adversaries throughout proceedings; enjoyed governmental powers facilitate investigation; indeed, could not—directly discipline only threaten chose Furthermore, even assuming truth argument so great practical alternative comply demands, does follow therefore acting Pp. 191-199. 103 Nev. 331, 741 P.2d 1345, reversed remanded. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., BLACKMUN, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. WHITE, filed dissenting opinion, BRENNAN, MARSHALL, O'CONNOR, joined, post, p. 199. Rex Lee, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Samuel S. Lionel, Vegas, Nev., respondent. Justice STEVENS Court. 1 When became head coach at 1973, Jerry inherited team mediocre 14-14 record. App. 188, 205. Four years later won 29 out 32 games placed third championship tournament sponsored belongs. Id., 188. 2 Yet September 1977 informed going him. No dissatisfaction once described "the 'winningest' active coach," id., 19, motivated suspension. Rather, impetus report detailing violations personnel, involving Tarkanian. university's two ordered further unless severed all ties between intercollegiate 3 pay,1 1983.2 Ultimately NCAA.3 1345 (1987) (per curiam). liability may upheld 1983.4 We granted certiorari review Court's holding engaged when conducted recommended disciplined. 484 1058, 108 1011, 98 977 (1988). now reverse.5 4 * In order understand four separate proceedings gave rise question we decide, useful begin description relationship among three parties 5 initially employed year-to-year basis tenured professor 1977. He receives annual salary valuable fringe benefits, status highly successful enables him earn substantial income sports-related activities such broadcasting sponsorship products. 6 branch state-funded institution. university organized operated pursuant provisions Nevada's State Constitution, statutes, regulations. performing their official functions, executives unquestionably act 7 members, virtually 4-year colleges conducting major programs United Basic policies are determined conventions. Between conventions, governed Council, appoints various committees implement programs. 8 One fundamental "is maintain athletics integral part educational athlete body, doing, retain clear line demarcation college professional sports." 80. It has calls "legislation," ibid., members. This legislation applies variety issues, aid, By joining NCAA, each agrees abide enforce rules. 9 bylaws provide shall administered Infractions. supervises investigative staff, determinations concerning alleged rule "impose appropriate violation, or recommend Council termination membership."6 particular, institution suffer imposes prescribed authorized, however, directly.7 also representatives institutions "are expected cooperate fully" administration program. 97. do purport confer subpoena investigators. They state: "The procedures essential require full complete disclosure institutional information course inquiry." Ibid. 11 During included professors, mathematics professor, dean graduate school. were faculties institutions; one represented university. Investigation 12 On November 28, 1972, notified president initiating preliminary inquiry requirements UNLV. As result inquiry, decided "Official Inquiry" warranted advised February 25, 1976. That advice series detailed allegations recruitment athletes period 1971 1975. Many implicated investigate incident. 13 With assistance Attorney General counsel, thorough charges. October 27, 1976, comprehensive response containing voluminous exhibits sworn affidavits. denied specifically concluded completely innocent wrongdoing. Thereafter, days hearings counsel presented views facts challenged credibility investigators informants. many charges supported, find committed Most serious finding University's obligation cooperation investigation.8 Committee's findings proposed summarized detail so-called "Confidential Report 123(47)." 122-204. 14 2-year participate postseason appear television. removing appealed most Council. hearing arguments attorneys representing August 1977, unanimously approved recommendations. Discipline 15 Promptly after receiving report, directed vice schedule determine whether applied. hearing; not. expressed doubt sufficiency evidence supporting findings,9 "given terms our adherence substitute—biased be—our judgment witnesses infractions committee Council." 75. respect sanctions, options: 16 "1. Reject requiring us disassociate Coach risk still heavier e.g., possible extra probation. 17 "2. Recognize ultimate arbiter these matters, thus reassigning Mr. present position—though without adequate notice—even believing wrong. 18 "3. Pull grounds you will execute what hold unjust judgments." 76. 19 Pursuant president's recommendation, accepted second option "be relations, formal informal, Intercollegiate probation." 70. Lawsuit Against 20 day before become effective, court declaratory officers. defendants had, 1983, property liberty guaranteed States Constitution. Based stipulation testimony offered trial enjoined suspending ground procedural substantive appealed. 21 joined party, amicus curiae brief arguing there actual controversy UNLV; thus, dismissed. Alternatively, contended exceeded jurisdiction effectively invalidating though party suit. Should exist, argued, necessary litigate scope relief. Finally, contested court's conclusion process. agreed remanded permit joinder v. 95 389, 594 1159 (1979). 22 consequently amended complaint adding promptly removed Federal District substantially altered nature litigation. held, original waived right remove first filed, motion remand case court. delay, judge 2-week bench resolved issues favor. arbitrary capricious. reaffirmed earlier injunction barring disciplining otherwise enforcing Confidential Report. Additionally, "any University," show-cause order, taking 34. 23 Two weeks entered, petition Asserting this time claimed 1988, again sought removal litigation changed substantially. declined join petition, realigned plaintiffs because actually wanted prevail. remanded, Ninth Circuit agreed. Pet. Cert. A120. Even ruled, awarded almost $196,000, 90% paid 41-42. fee order. Not surprisingly, scored total victory except pay fraction fees, appeal. 24 protected Constitution afforded insofar pertained narrowed "only prohibit 123(47) adoption those penalties." 343, P.2d, 1353. reduced fees.10 25 predicate disposition, held action. Several strands supported holding. First, reviewing "UNLV's imposition Tarkanian," 335, 1347, rather than appropriately. Second, regarded regulatory "many either government supported." Third, stated employee traditionally exclusive prerogative state" escape responsibility disciplinary delegating duty entity. 336, 1348. next pointed Lugar Edmondson Oil Co., 457 922, 937, 2744, 2753, 73 L.Ed.2d482 (1982), deprivation federal attributed state-created charged can fairly said actor. Summing up action, stated: 26 prong [of ] met received privilege Thus, alleges caused exercise created state. Also, instant case, considered actors. authority over personnel decisions imposing jointly NCAA." 337, 1349. II 27 Embedded jurisprudence dichotomy subject scrutiny Amendment's Due Process Clause,11 conduct, affords shield, matter how unfair be. Shelley Kraemer, 334 1, 13, 68 836, 842, 92 L.Ed. 1161 (1948); see Jackson Metropolitan Edison 419 345, 349, 449, 452, 477 (1974). general protections extend "private abridging individual rights." Burton Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 715, 722, 81 856, 860, 45 (1961). 28 "Careful 'state action' requirement preserves area freedom limiting reach law" avoids control. Lugar, U.S., 936-937, 2753-2754. Congress enacted 1983 statutory remedy specified issue occurred law; attaches wrongdoers "who carry badge represent capacity, accordance misuse it." Monroe Pape, 167, 172, 473, 476, 492 Classic, 313 299, 326, 61 1031, 1043, 85 1368 (1941): "Misuse power, made wrongdoer clothed taken 'under of' law." 30 argues claims functions clothing behalf Similarly, Therefore, reasoned, entities deprive interests, making well 31 These contentions fundamentally misconstrue case. typical raising state-action issue, decisive step harm plaintiff, sufficiently involved treat occur creates legal framework North Georgia Finishing, Inc. Di-Chem, Inc., 601, 719, 751 (1975); delegates West Atkins, 487 42, 2250, 101 40 (1988); sometimes knowingly accepts benefits derived unconstitutional behavior, supra. usual ask provided mantle enhanced harm-causing actor.12 uniquely mirrors traditional Here final Tarkanian—his suspension—was A decides employees, Clause Accord, Cleveland Board Education Louder- mill, 470 532, 105 1487, 84 494 (1985); Regents Colleges Roth, 408 564, 2701, 33 548 (1972). Thus being separated relations program, mirror image requires through analytical looking glass resolve Clearly influenced party. But entity, suspended participated critical extent activities, actions turned 34 examine regarding rulemaking. promulgating rules; assumed, therefore, determinations. several hundred similarly affected policies. Those institutions, necessarily follows speaking organization independent particular State.13 Cf. Allied Tube & Conduit Corp. Indian Head, 486 492, 501, 1931, 1937, 100 497 (1988) ("Whatever de facto [private standard-setting] enjoys, conferred government. . ."). 35 nonetheless might lie embracing transformed See S.Ct., 2753. govern would true Bates Bar Arizona, 433 350, 97 2691, 53 810 (1977), established transgressed bar toto American Code Professional Responsibility. 360, n. 2697, 12. follow, ABA's formulation reexamine and, necessary, reject promulgate own. 362, 2698.14 So here, alternatively stayed worked legislative amend harsh, unfair, unwieldy.15 Neither nor role sufficient reason concluding promulgated recruitment, performance. 36 asserts member, subscribed statement "enforcement institution." is, course, delegate thereby make recently physician who contracted prison attend inmates' medical needs employee. commitment adhere enforceable itself. 37 Indeed, notion promise tantamount partnership agreement transfer certain belied history quite obvious used best efforts winning coach—a goal diametrically opposed interest ascertaining investigators' reports. investigated much more like partners dispassionate search truth. agent purposes proceeding. correctly characterized remaining which, competitors effective evenhanded Just state-compensated defender acts capacity she represents client conflict State, Polk County Dodson, 312, 320, 445, 450, 70 509 (1981), properly viewed odds interests entire membership university.16 investigation.17 witnesses, contempt assert sovereign individual. Its greatest expulsion membership. Contrary premise not—indeed, directly employee.18 express demand unconditionally; rather, cause" declines 180. acknowledged options suspension: risked perhaps withdrawn voluntarily Association. 39 demands. sure true,19 assume monopolist agency threatened refusal deal it, Jackson, 351-352, 453-454 (State's conferral monopoly convert actor). analysis causing [can] attributable State." ironic indeed conclude UNLV—sanctions steadfastly protracted adversary proceedings—is Nevada. developed enforced 41 reversed, inconsistent opinion. ordered. 43 whom O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 44 All agree employee, here I did. different prior cases. notes, "typical plaintiff." Ante, 192. majority's view "uniquely case," committed, conceded Because difference, finds "step glass" evaluate 193. 46 situation unknown certainly unique. Adickes S.H. Kress 398 144, 90 1598, 142 (1970), Dennis Sparks, 449 24, 183, 66 185 (1980), faced actors cases carried official. actors, "jointly officials action." 27-28, 186-187. 47 illustrative. Dennis, production minerals oil leases owned plaintiff. dissolved appeal having issued illegally. plaintiff then conspired seeking injunction—a corporation—the sole owner corporation, sureties bond corruptly issuing injunction. "willful participant[s] joint agents." 186. Adickes, supra, 152, 1605 (plaintiff entitled prove police officer "reached understanding" her arrest impermissible grounds). 48 embraced 391, 1159, 1160 (1979), "[a]s contractually administer legislation." 49 "determine[s] related violations," 98, 101. agreement, very process.1 50 fact binding becoming merely "promise proceedings." 196. agreed, appointed found, accept "findings way superior [its] own." 74. 101, despite wrong, 51 short, NCAA-conducted hearings, facts, [UNLV] action," actor.2 52 objections implicitly rejected Dennis. Initially, relies indicating 196-196. same Dennis: Only judge, using Next, points free time. 194—195. considering options, noted "[p]ull completely." well. simply irrelevant entered agreement. What mattered withdrawn, so. 54 extensively provides attempts avoid opportunity opposition, undercut Surely permitted seek persuade grant finally key there, conspiracy, ultimately 55 states "[i]t Nevada." agree. Had refused responded hard harmed Here, results would. Under actor.3 56 respectfully dissent. coach, annually (in lieu professor) $125,000, plus 10% net proceeds NCAA-authorized games, camps clinics, product endorsements, realized writing newspaper column, radio 'THE JERRY TARKANIAN SHOW,' appearing television bearing name." 18. compensation "entirely contingent [Tarkanian's] continued Head Basketball UNLV." alone, earned about $53,000 year, found. section provides, part: "Every person who, statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, usage, Territory Columbia, subjects, causes subjected, citizen thereof rights, privileges, immunities secured laws, liable injured equity, proper proceeding redress." authorizes discretion prevailing reasonable costs. under-color-of-law equivalent. Rendell-Baker Kohn, 830, 838, 2764, 2769, 418 (1982); 928-935, 2749-2752, 482 (1982). novel lower courts entertained years. Courts Appeals purposes. E.g., Minnesota 560 F.2d 352 (CA8), cert. dism'd, 434 978, 600, 472 (1977); Howard 166 U.S.App.D.C. 260, 510 213 Parish 506 1028 (CA5 1975); Associated Students, 493 1251 (CA9 1974) Since Blum Yaretsky, 991, 2777, 534 day, contrary. McCormack 845 1338 1988); Karmanos Baker, 816 258 (CA6 1987); Graham 804 953 1986); Arlosoroff 746 1019 (CA4 1984). Spath 728 (CA1 1984) (dictum). 98. Among "against institution" are: "(1) Reprimand censure; "(2) Probation year; "(3) "(4) Ineligibility Championship events; "(5) invitational meets tournaments; "(6) control administration; "(7) vote serve Association, both; "(8) Prohibition sports teams participating outside competition period; "(9) prospective student-athletes sport ." 103-104. Upon misconduct violated, "show why: "(i) penalty if, (or Council), corrective department circumstances warrant, interests; "(ii) recommendation terminated involved, interests." 104. 141-150, 190, "Most charge attempted frustrate application getting people 'change story' fabricate bodies countervailing evidence. am convinced adequately supports yet remember composed distinguished scholars, administrators, lawyers, believed otherwise." 72. incurred litigation, explained, prevailed, eligible allowed services "No life, liberty, property, Const., Amdt. 14, 1. 351, 453, (1974) ("[T]he close nexus regulated entity latter treated itself"). would, consisted entirely sovereign. Clark Arizona Interscholastic 695 1126 1982), denied, 464 818, 104 79, 78 (1983); Louisiana High School St. Augustine School, 396 224 1968). dissent apparently relationships universities, bulk 202, 2. Petitioners Bates, circumscribing attorney advertising §§ Sherman Act, 2, First Amendment, applicable Amendment. 353, 2693. existed deciding doctrine enunciated Parker Brown, 317 341, 63 307, 87 315 (1943), immune Act liability. reached merits petitioners' discussing 363-384, 2698-2709. means identical, existence justifying immunity antitrust somewhat similar contexts, example, State. Compare Hoover Ronwin, 466 558, 569, 1989, 1995, 80 590 (1984) required showing 'clearly articulated affirmatively policy' replace regulation") (citation omitted), 2753 responsible"). degree arguably intertwined pertinent. Hoover, 569-570, 1995-1996 721-726, 859-862, penalties, imposed, "upon newly discovered prejudicial error procedure followed processing Committee." 107. review, investigator biased 1984. 20. "reduce eliminate penalty" prevailed. 108. "joint participants" Brief Respondent 42. draw support (1961), lease restaurant publicly parking structure entailed "an incidental mutual benefits," 724, 861: tax exemptions restaurant, rent payments authority, increased business both. interdependence, discriminated account race. 725, 861. parties' coincide, Burton; clashed attempt antagonists, participants, ground. relies, corrupt perform judicial act. explained: "[H]ere defendant conspiracy bribery judge. allegations, conspiring consequence himself damages Immunity change character judge's co-conspirators. dependent jurisdiction, broadly construed. Private conspire connection 28-29, 186-187 (footnote citations omitted). suggestion impropriety respecting Indeed seems depended initial 203. contrast, conspirators formed bargain remained completion conspiracy's objectives. 149-150, 1603-1604, (1970) (private service proof rights). urges hold, usurped traditional, function. Quite properly, point overriding function fostering amateur level. For "critical," Univ. Okla., 468 85, 120, 2948, 2970, 82 (1984), let alone exclusive, San Francisco Arts Athletics, Olympic Committee, 483 522, 545, 107 2971, 2985, 427 ("Neither coordination function"). instead State's employees. "[A]s connected athletics, standards, employees," contends. obligated Tarkanian." 34-35 (emphases original). overlooks prohibits direct whole intended bring Suspension toward achieving goal. desire remain powerhouse Nation's understandable, nonmembership obviously thwart unpalatable mean nonexistent. Our limited solely question. given, although constitutionally inadequate. notes have, 182, 5. 1338, 1346 258, 261 953, 958 1019, 1021-1022 none cases, address here. E.g. McCormack, 1346. Arlosoroff, subsequent principally rely, challenging Duke, never arisen argue that, invalid. Tr. Oral Arg. 49.

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