Document: 551 U.S. ___ (2007) PARENTS INVOLVED IN COMMUNITY SCHOOLS, Petitioner v. SEATTLE SCHOOL DISTRICT NO. 1 ET AL. CRYSTAL D. MEREDITH, CUSTODIAL PARENT AND NEXT FRIEND OF JOSHUA RYAN MCDONALD, JEFFERSON COUNTY BOARD EDUCATION No. 05-908. Supreme Court of United States. Argued December 4, 2006. Decided June 28, 2007.[*] ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT. SIXTH ROBERTS, C. J., announced the judgment and delivered opinion with respect to Parts I, II, III-A, III-C, in which SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, ALITO, JJ., joined, an III-B IV, joined. filed a concurring opinion. part judgment. STEVENS, dissenting BREYER, opinion, SOUTER, GINSBURG, CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS Court, JUSTICES ALITO join. The school districts these cases voluntarily adopted student assignment plans that rely upon race determine public schools certain children may attend. Seattle district classifies as white or non-white; Jefferson County black "other." In Seattle, this racial classification is used allocate slots oversubscribed high schools. County, it make elementary assignments rule on transfer requests. each case, relies individual student's assigning particular school, so balance at falls within predetermined range based composition whole. Parents students denied under solely because their brought suit, contending allocating different basis violated Fourteenth Amendment guarantee equal protection. Courts Appeals below upheld plans. We granted certiorari, now reverse. I Both present same underlying legal question whether had not operated legally segregated has been found be unitary choose classify by making assignments. Although we examine framework, specifics two plans, circumstances surrounding adoption, are some respects quite different. A School District operates 10 regular 1998, plan issue case for App. 05-908, pp. 90a-92a.[1] allows incoming ninth graders from among any district's schools, ranking however many they wish order preference. Some more popular than others. If too list first choice, employs series "tiebreakers" who will fill open school. tiebreaker selects admission have sibling currently enrolled chosen next depends student. approximately 41 percent white; remaining 59 percent, comprising all other groups, classified purposes nonwhite. Id., 38a, 103a.[2] percentage points overall white/nonwhite balance, what calls "integration positive," whose "will serve bring into balance." 38a. See Involved VII, 426 F.3d 1162, 1169-1170 (CA9 2005) (en banc).[3] still necessary select after using tiebreaker, geographic proximity residence. never schoolslegally separate racesnor ever subject court-ordered desegregation. It none-theless attempt address effects racially identifiable housing patterns Most live northern most backgrounds southern part. supra, 1166. Four Seattle's located northBallard, Nathan Hale, Ingraham, Rooseveltand five southRainier Beach, Cleveland, West Chief Sealth, Franklin. One school Garfieldis less center Seattle. 38a-39a, 45a. For 2000-2001 year, were oversubscribedBallard, Roosevelt, Garfield, Franklinso much 82 ranked one choice. Three positive" school's enrollment previous year was greater 51 percentBallard, Roosevelt. Thus, nonwhite (107, 27, 82, respectively) selected three top choice received placement would considered, tiebreaker. 39a40a. Franklin its 69 percent; 89 assigned operation otherwise been. Ibid. Garfield only during 1999-2000 guidelines, although years Garfield's predominantly nonwhite, give preference students. 39a. Community Schools (Parents Involved) nonprofit corporation parents race. concerns illustrated Jill Kurfirst, sought enroll her ninth-grade son, Andy Meeks, Ballard High School's special Biotechnology Career Academy. suffered attention deficit hyperactivity disorder dyslexia, but made good progress hands-on instruction, his mother middle teachers thought smaller biotechnology program held promise continued success. accepted selective but, School. 143a-146a, 152a-160a. commenced suit Western Washington, alleging use Equal Protection Clause Amendment,[4] Title VI Civil Rights Act 1964,[5] Washington Act.[6]Id., 28a-35a. summary district, finding state law did bar survived strict scrutiny federal constitutional claim narrowly tailored compelling government interest. 137 F. Supp. 2d 1224, 1240 (WD Wash. 2001) I). Ninth Circuit initially reversed interpretation Act, 285 1236, 1253 (2002) II), enjoined integration id., 1257. Upon realizing litigation resolved time decisions 2002-2003 withdrew 294 1084 III), vacated injunction, and, pursuant Rev. Code §2.60.020 (2006), certified state-law question 1085, 1087 IV). determined State bars preferential treatment programs "where gender qualified applicant over applicant," "[p]rograms neutral, such [district's] plan." Dist., 1, 149 660, 689-690, 663, 72 P.3d 151, 166, 153 (2003) banc) V). court returned further proceedings. 690, P.3d, 167. panel then again ruling question. VI, 377 949 (2004). while achieving diversity avoiding isolation interests, 964, achieve 980. rehearing en banc, 395 1168 (2005), overruled decision, affirming Court's determination interest, 3d, 1192-1193. certiorari. 547 U. S. (2006). B Public system metropolitan Louisville, Kentucky. 1973 maintained system, Newburg Area Council, Inc. Board Ed. Cty., 489 F.2d 925, 932 (CA6), remanded, 418 918, reinstated modifications, 510 1358, 1359 (CA6 1974), 1975 entered desegregation decree. Hampton Cty. Bd. Ed., 753, 762-764 Ky. 1999). decree until 2000, when dissolved achieved status eliminating "[t]o greatest extent practicable" vestiges prior policy segregation. 102 358, 360 (2000). Oklahoma City Dowell, 498 237, 249-250 (1991); Green New Kent 391 430, 435-436 (1968). 2001, dissolved, voluntary case. 05-915, p. 77. Approximately 34 97,000 black; 66 white. McFarland Schools, 330 834, 839-840, n. 6 2004) (McFarland requires nonmagnet maintain minimum 15 maximum 50 percent. 81; 842. At level, address, designated "resides" specific area assigned; resides "grouped clusters facilitate integration." 82. assigns ways: kindergartners, first-graders, new submit application indicating second cluster; do cluster district. "Decisions assign available space guidelines District's current 38. reached "extremes guidelines," contribute imbalance there. 38-39, After assignment, grade levels permitted apply between Transfers requested number reasons, lack guidelines. 43.[7] When petitioner Crystal Meredith moved August 2002, she Joshua McDonald, kindergarten year. His mile home, no spaceassignments May, class full. another cluster, Young Elementary. This miles Bloom Elementary, whichlike schoolwas home. Tr. 1-49 through 1-54 (Dec. 8, 2003). Space Bloom, intercluster transfers allowed, Joshua's nonetheless because, words "[t]he adverse effect compliance" Young. 97.[8] Kentucky, violations Amendment. asserted interest maintaining diverse (in relevant respects) 837.[9] Sixth affirmed per curiam relying reasoning concluding written "would useful purpose." 416 513, 514 (2005) II). __ II As threshold matter, must assure ourselves our jurisdiction. argues lacks standing none members can imminent injury. Even if maintains reinstitutes argues, affected seek positivetoo speculative harm standing. Brief Respondents 16-17. argument unavailing. group's elementary, middle, 299a-301a; Affidavit Kathleen Brose Pursuant Rule 32.3 (Lodging Involved), complaint declaratory injunctive relief behalf "denied those future," 30a. fact possible group race-because undersubscribed advantagedoes eliminate injury claimed. Moreover, also being "forced compete seats uses deciding factor admissions decisions." held, form forced race-based prejudice plaintiff, Adarand Constructors, Peña, 515 200, 211 (1995); Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors America Jacksonville, 508 656, 666 (1993), validly children. challenging standing, notes ceased pending outcome litigation. But vigorously defends constitutionality program, nowhere suggests favor resume Voluntary cessation does moot controversy unless "subsequent events ma[ke] absolutely clear allegedly wrongful behavior could reasonably expected recur," Friends Earth, Laidlaw Environmental Services (TOC), Inc., 528 167, 189 (2000) (quoting States Concentrated Phosphate Export Assn., 393 199, 203 (1968) (internal quotation marks omitted)), heavy burden clearly met. challenge jurisdiction, Oral Arg. 48, obliged ensure exists, Arbaugh Y & H Corp., 546 500, apparently 45, levels. he addition, damages complaint, sufficient preserve ability consider Los Angeles Lyons, 461 95, 109 (1983). III well established distributes burdens benefits classifications, action reviewed scrutiny. Johnson California, 543 499, 505-506 (2005); Grutter Bollinger, 539 306, 326 (2003); Adarand, 224. recently reaffirmed, "`racial classifications simply pernicious permit exact connection justification classification.'" Gratz 244, 270 Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 537 (1980) (STEVENS, dissenting); brackets omitted). satisfy searching standard review, demonstrate here review "narrowly tailored" "compelling" 227. Without attempting set forth interests might assert, suffices note cases, evaluating context, recognized qualify compelling. remedying past intentional discrimination. Freeman Pitts, 503 467, 494 (1992). Yet shown law, decrees. previously 1975. it, "eliminated associated former segregation effects," thus "unitary" status. Hampton, 2d, 360. accordingly discrimination defending Nor it. emphasized remedied mandatory traceable segregation, "the Constitution without more." Milliken Bradley, 433 267, 280, 14 (1977). Freeman, 495-496; S., 248; 717, 746 (1974). Once status, wrong allowed racebased Any justified basis.[10] higher education Grutter, 328. body "in context education." focused alone encompassed "all factors diversity." 337. described various types sought: "[The school's] makes there bases admissions, provides examples admittees lived traveled widely abroad, fluent several languages, overcome personal adversity family hardship, exceptional records extensive community service, successful careers fields." 338 (brackets internal quoted articulation Justice Powell's Regents University California Bakke, 438 265 (1978), noting "it simple ethnic diversity, specified guaranteed justify race." 324-325 (citing quoting 314-315 (opinion Powell, J.); Instead, consideration "a far broader array qualifications characteristics origin single though important element." U.S., 325 315 entire gist analysis individual, member group. applicants "highly individualized, holistic review," explained, importance individualized race-conscious paramount." point narrow tailoring engaged indeed assessment effort explained "patently unconstitutional." 330. contrast, considered "exposure people, cultures, ideas, viewpoints," ibid.; race, students, determinative alone. argue factors, preferences, affect comes play, decisive itself. weighed others reaching Grutter; factor. Like Michigan undergraduate struck down Gratz, 275, "do provide meaningful applicants" instead "nonindividualized, mechanical" way. 276, 280 (O'Connor, concurring). employ limited notion viewing exclusively terms black/"other" County.[11] see Metro Broadcasting, FCC, 497 547, 610 (1990) ("We Nation alone, teeming divergent communities knitted together traditions carried forth, above all, individuals") dissenting). "Board Statement Reaffirming Diversity Rationale" speaks "inherent educational value" "[p]roviding opportunity attend enrollment," 128a, 129a. plan, Asian-American African-American, Native-American, Latino balanced, 30 Asian-American, 25 Latino, 20 not. hard understand how allow results viewed concerned "`broadly diverse,'" 329. Prior courts appeals rejected unconstitutional attempts implement plans-such herein primary secondary See, e.g., Eisenberg Montgomery 197 123, 133 (CA4 1999); Tuttle Arlington Bd., 195 698, 701 Wessman Gittens, 160 790, 809 (CA1 1998). Ho San Francisco Unified 147 854, 865 however, other, permissible largely reliance 1166; 514; Comfort Lynn Comm., 13 2005). upholding though, relied considerations unique institutions education, light expansive freedoms speech university environment, universities occupy niche tradition." 312, 313 J.). "[c]ontext matters" applying scrutiny, repeatedly noted addressing 327, 328, 334. expressly articulated key limitations holding defining type broad-based educationbut disregarded lower extending uphold governed Grutter. Perhaps recognizing cannot sustain both assert additional distinct briefing before contends helps reduce concentration concentrated prevent having access desirable 19. similar goal, phrasing educating integrated environment." 22.[12] Each socialization flow learning diversity Grutterit sense promote directly parties amici dispute marked impact test scores objective yardsticks achieves intangible benefits. debate need resolve, employed goal social diversity. design operation, directed pure simple, condemned illegitimate. tied demographics, rather pedagogic concept level needed obtain seeks 31 (within average" percent), 49 minority percent). 103a. designed "equally Black systemwide," 842, . African-American equivalent average district-wide enrollment" 81. then, require least students; There County's plan; times figure. comparison demographics districtwhatever happen be drive required "diversity" numbers. degree realize benefits; tailored, Manager Enrollment Planning, Technical Support, Demographics, board attaining approximates demographics." 42a. offer evidence happens coincide respective districtsor districts, since addressed Indeed, brief assumes track breakdown 05908, 36 ("For `racial balance' end itself measure goals foster likely achieved"). asked diverse," expert said "sufficient numbers avoid feeling kind specter exceptionality." 276a. defend proposition anything outside posed "specter way avoidance AsianA-merican, white, definition concentrated. Similarly, referred "at percent" representation "to visible enough difference," "small isolated groups strong school." 159, 147. replicating "an AfricanA-merican enrollment." McDonald's listed "other" black, allowing guideline compliance leave. 21. time, Elementary 46.8 black. 73. approach proportionality Young, nothing preventing either becoming "small" "isolated" fact, extreme unnecessary stated goals, even defined districts. example, applied exceeded resulted 30.3 21.9 6.8 0.5 NativeA-merican, 40.5 Caucasian. 39.6 30.2 8.3 1.1 20.8 308a. actual enrolling regard yields substantially diversity.[13] admit undefined "meaningful number" genuinely body. 316, 335-336. matter disagreement 346-347 (SCALIA, part); 382-383 (Rehnquist, 388-392 (KENNEDY, dissenting), majority concluded count back pool arrive regarded diversify Here reference working backward forward demonstration purported benefits, fatal flaw existing precedent. reaffirmed "[r]acial own sake." 494. Richmond J. A. Croson Co., 488 469, 507 (1989); 307 J.) ("If petitioner's purpose merely origin, facially invalid"). reiterated "outright balancing" Accepting balancing imposition throughout American society, contrary repeated recognition "[a]t heart Constitution's protection lies command Government treat citizens individuals, components racial, religious, sexual national class." Miller Johnson, 900, 911 (1995) 602 omitted).[14] Allowing "effectively assur[e] always life, `ultimate goal' `eliminating entirely governmental decisionmaking irrelevant human being's race' achieved." Croson, 495 (plurality O'Connor, Wygant Jackson 476 320 (1986) turn Fullilove, citation An "linked proportional races support indefinite appropriate mixture views [program] continues reflect mixture." 614 validity concern "no logical stopping point," Wygant, 275 opinion); omitted); 343, demonstrated tie demographics. districts' shift, 103a (describing "current percentage" (emphasis added)). "share[d] hope" expressed preferences longer identified 1192. defended consequences patterns. sweep mandate claimed rulings societal action. Shaw Hunt, 517 899, 909-910 (1996) ("[A]n alleviate interest"); 498-499; 276 opinion) ("Societal discrimination, more, amorphous imposing remedy"); 288 judgment) ("[A] agency's `societal' is, actions, deemed sufficiently pass muster"). principle substance, semantics. Racial transformed unconstitutional" relabeling "racial While verbal formulations describe promoteracial isolation, integration differs balance. 257a ("Q. What's your understanding suffers isolation? don't that"); 228a-229a ("I think we've sat said, `Define exactly quantitative terms.' conversation"); 1-90 2003) How define ?" "A. Well, want up population"). phrases integration," certainly sort reflected plan. desegregation, stressed required, Milliken, ("[A desegregation] contemplating substantive right [to a] mixing infirm law" omitted)); Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg 402 24 (1971) ("The desegregate mean every whole"), already eliminated system. banc declared "when (or problem), effective means solution." 1191. foregoing conclusory However closely related labeled diversity" else. To fellow individuals group, fundamentally cross-purposes end. C must, ends. minimal assignments, effective. results, end, shifting small tie-breaker 2000-2001; able 293 162a. Of these, 209 choices, 87 whom Eighty-four 29 3 due waitlist capacity adjustments. 162a-163a. one-third difference, identify 52 ultimately adversely assigned. concluded: "[T]he tiebreaker's annual shuffle few handfuls schoolsabout dozen Latinos Ballard, perhaps Asians on. met proving marginal changes outweigh cost subjecting hundreds disparate color skin." F.3d, 984985 (footnote first- second-choice 95 transfers, account roughly 5 35 timeand presumably given lead denial. 844-845, nn. 16, 18. estimates Opposition 7, 4; 46. explains, process, `mostly influence subtle indirect ways.'" 8-9. suggest preferable, casts doubt necessity classifications. indispensable tripling schoolfrom 4 14.5 320. claims "because firm Board's `provide administrators authority facilitate, negotiate collaborate principals staff 15-50% range.'" 7 842). Classifying schoolchildren according binary conception precedents Nation's history failed show methods explicit goals. Narrow "serious, faith workable race-neutral alternatives," 339, yet alternative plansmany express classificationswere little consideration. 224a-225a, 253a-259a, 307a. alternatives, primarily Compare 519 (racial "as last resort"). IV BREYER's dissent takes fails ground result reach law. selectively inapplicable precedent dicta dismissing holdings, alters misapplies well-established framework assessing challenges greatly exaggerates today's decision. begin with, BREYER post, 18-24. Not go far, reason. distinction caused central jurisprudence generations. 14; 495-496 ("Where resegregation product private implications"). elides de jure facto casually intimates attendance illegal 5, 18, 23,[15] credit judicial determinationunder rigorous standardthat fundamental ways facts presented McDaniel Barresi, 39 (1971), 23-24, 29-30, highlights removed discussion actually cases. Georgia county "dual system," McDaniel, 41, questions obligation disestablish include remedies issued effect. 12. us, how-ever, unitary, dual remedies therefore applicable here. dissent's persistent refusal accept distinction insistence just like ones "devised schools," 47explains inability why remedial decide heavily 16-far themselves. 3, 22-28, 19-20; 31. acknowledges two-sentence dicta, 22, asserts demonstrates "basic "authoritative guidance." Post, 30. Initially, Term, "we bound follow fully debated." Central Va. College Katz, 356, 363 That particularly true that, decided, confirmed applies us. infra. "technical" "theoretical," 30, about dicta. Cohens Virginia, Wheat. 264, 399-400 (1821) (Marshall, (explaining binding). put extraordinary weight admitted statement something remotely say. addresses objective; says meansrace conscious otherwisethat objective. reason omission enough, involve characterization permits local boards criteria positive race-related goals" isat besta dubious inference. 22. entitled Swann, caseswhether permissible. Further, cites "prevailing assumption" embodied very pertinent. features Tometz Waukegan Dist. 61, Ill. 593, 596-598, 237 N.E.2d 498, 500-502 (1968), Illinois "state settled uncontroversial." 25. statute requiring race-consciousness drawing boundaries-an beyond scope Importantly, rational-basis 600, N. E. 502 legislative essentially reasonableness"), grudgingly recognizes improper Other cited similarly inapplicable. Citizens Better Goose Creek Consol. Independent 719 S.W.2d 350, 352-353 (Tex. 1986) (upholding rezoning review).[16] looks footnote 458 457, 472, (1982), 56-57, passing propriety absence Crawford Angeles, 527 24, referendum prohibiting challenged, inappositein reserved 535, 11. Such reservations preliminary analyses course merits questionas evidenced issue. Eisenberg, 133, Comfort, 13. controlled claiming existence "follows fortiori" 64-66, accusing us tacitly overruling 64-66. overreads suggesting renders constitutionally interest; unconstitutional," exceedingly careful describing furthered "not "far characteristics" element. take word. classifying schoolchild "less burdensome, hence 47, consideration" "paramount," review." Certainly stark undertaken foregoing, appeal stare decisis rings hollow. 65-66. misstatements noncontrolling pronouncements, candidly dismisses significance holdings 31-33, 35-36, arguing should beneficent malicious purposes, 31-36. reiterated, "`all [imposed government] analyzed reviewing scrutiny.' " 505 227; emphasis added Court). ("[G]overnmental  long circum-stances prohibitedshould subjected detailed inquiry" omitted)). intentions motives stating repudiated asymmetry exclude races." original). many. Our reject analysis. insisted so-called `benign' classifications"); 227 (rejecting idea "`benign'" "different standard"); 500 ("Racial suspect, assurances intention suffice"). rules govern new; pressed past, see, 282 (BREYER, judgment); 301 (GINSBURG, 243 316-317 rejected. 289-291 disadvantage minorities, distinctions inherently suspect call exacting examination"). reasons rejecting enough. "The `benign classifications' confidence distinguish harmful criteria. History teach humility.. `[B]enign' carries independent meaning, reflects acceptance generation's conclusion politically acceptable burden, imposed reasonable." 609-610 226 ("`[I]t benign'" 298 J.))). move `separate equal' `unequal benign.'" 638 (KENN-EDY, bringing races" (putting aside purely black-and-white nature plans), excluding 28-29. Again, odds precedent, "protect[s] persons, groups," ibid. ("[A]ll racea `in prohibited,' Hirabayashi [v. States, 81, 100 (1943)]should inquiry laws infringed" (first original); 636 ("[O]ur protects citizen group" dissenting)); 289 (Fourteenth creates rights "guaranteed individual. rights"). goes back, Brown Education, 349 294, 300 (1955) (Brown II) ("At stake plaintiffs nondiscriminatory basis" dissent, "`individualized scrutiny' beside point." 55. position familiar claim: justifies means. He admits "there `a state-mandated label,'" 67, confident worth paying. insists "detailed examination, ends means." 236 added). Simply worthy free discriminate Despite evaluated "standard `strict' traditional word," 36, purports 37. evident, brand unlike precedents. affected, failure concludes divorced evaluation casesother "often effect." 46.[17] combination development difficulty endeavor, controlling constitutional. more. keeping view apply, urges deference issues. 21, 48-49, 66. "is jurisprudence. actors policies justified." 506, 1. 501 country blind executive pronouncements place analysis"); Virginia Barnette, 319 624, 637 (1943) against creaturesBoards Education excepted"). unjustified alarm. predicts decision "threaten[s]" "[h]undreds statutes regulations." 61; 27-28. mentionsfor provision No Child Left Behind measurable objectives achievement major §6311(b)(2)(C)(v)have pertinent issues necessarily survive 58-62. These meanse.g., where construct resources academic offerings attract schoolsimplicate validitynot Rather, analytic evaluate today, warrants cataclysmic concerns. Under approach, showing chosenclassifying discriminating them basis. * embraced unclear, terms, costs undeniable. "[D]istinctions ancestry odious people founded doctrine equality." 214 dividing "notions inferiority politics hostility," 493, "reinforce belief, history, judged skin," Reno, 509 630, 657 "endorse divided blocs, contributing escalation hostility conflict." 603 Rice Cayetano, 495, (2000), "[o]ne principal treated forbidden demeans dignity person merit essential qualities." All contexts statements madegovernment contracting, voting allocation broadcast licenses, electing officersbut heard. 347 483 (1954) I), deprived opportunities regardless facilities tangible equal, separation grounds themselves denoted inferiority. 493-494. inequality separating find violation 1954. ("`The [of segregation] sanction law' "). "full determining nonracial basis." 300-301 side faithful heritage Brown, spelled out clearer: prevents states differential Appellants Nos. 2, Reargument O. T. 1953, (Summary Argument). What do, accord race? counsel appeared it: "We contention develop argument, equal-protection clause affording citizens." (Robert L. Carter, Dec. 9, 1952). ambiguity statement. And prevailed soon practicable basis," "determining non-racial basis? Before told skin. demonstrating once againeven reasons. 300-301, stop judgments Circuits reversed, remanded ordered. concurring. Today, holds entities experiment deem socially desirable. wholly concur JUSTICE's write separately contentions (hereinafter dissent). Contrary arguments, reseg-regation occurring Louisville; segregation; student-assignment Accordingly, unconstitutional. Disfavoring color-blind Constitution, hand racean reminiscent advocated segregationists S (1954). today half-century ago. demanding permitting threatened succumb threat boards' "eradicat[e] earlier segregation." 4. rhetoric, neither resegregation, compelled undertake remediation. mere incantation remediation difference. Because authorized measures imbalance. schooling, deliberate "carry pupils (1971); Monroe Comm'rs Jackson, 450, 452 6; 435 ("[T]he State, acting officials, organized `white' `Negro.' systems ago I[, 483,] later II[, (1955)] abolished").[1] match approximate demographic makeup population large. Cf. 460 (1982). segregation.[2] presently observed innocent decisions, including choices. 25-26; Missouri Jenkins, 70, 116 (THOMAS, inevitably linked Dayton Brinkman, 406, 413 (1977); 443 526, 531, (1979) se violation"); (1992); 31-32; cf. 740-741, 19 arguably danger resegregation. Louisville reestablished separates statistics Appendix contrary. 69-72. most, trend toward classroom However, amount raise ignore meaning word us.[3] Just generally prohibits decisionmaking, circumstances. First, formerly sometimes remedy Second, willing authorize unit responsible. 504 (1989). explicitly resting strands doctrine, invokes supposed Properly analyzed, fall category proceeds motives. 371 part) 239 judgment)). categorically prohibited 326; Part II-A, "has proven automatically fatal" 121 concurring); ("[R]acial discriminations prohibited"). appropriately so. abhors favored illegitimate motives, places registers all." 353 Therefore, general rule, decisionmakingregardless contextis 2 carved exception "history sets deliberately carry race."[4] 5-6. required.[5]Green, 437-438; Fordice, 745 (1992) concurring).[6] state-enforced separation, affirmative vestiges. Neither measure, claim. therefore, plan.[7] Federal decree, ante, 7; 376-377 2000), Since Louisville. here, instituted dissolution Constitution. Aside units 277 opinion). Regardless remediation, 524-525 judgment), actions taken forward-lookingas opposed remedialjustifications 24-34. forward-looking 24-29, oral disavowed Louisville's "depend[ed] segregation," Furthermore, responsible, `strong necessary.'" opinion)). Establishing "strong evidence" proper findings regarding unit's 504. "define [and] remedy," 505, "inherently unmeasurable wrongs," 506. Assertions plainly insufficient. 504; 274 Univ. Cal. 265, 310 (1978) findings. failing adverting allegations complaints substitute discriminationeven settlements complaining parties. 505; 279, slate cleared 2000 effectively remediation.[8] intimation purpose, qualifies measure. demonstrates, some-times discrete reason, conflates concepts imbalance: equates plane above, distinct. necessarily, get era sponsored 496; 118 "remedy" Remediation one-time process involving redress inflicted entity. point, remedied, unitary. Unlike ultimate Individual natural course, shift changing basisa continuous culpable party discernable point. outright Lacking cognizable serves avoids unquestioningly accepting assertions scientists completely ignoring fervent debate. Ultimately, corrupted all. emerges version "strict scrutiny" combines hollow harmlessness reflexive conventional wisdom. demands word." 36. informed dissents concurrences judges. 34-36 1193-1194 (Kozinski, 28-29 (Boudin, concurring)). Those judges reasoned "aimed oppressing blacks" "seek edge another." 27 1193 They persuaded differed "certainly benign disfavor segregate create quotas group," 28 concurring), original evils addressed," 29; 1195 Instead Judge Kozinski "robust realistic rational 1194. arguments inimical precedents.[9] unusually classification. classifications").[10] lesser problems diminished slightest presence intent oppress real well-meaning decisionmaking. 228-229. Purportedly infirmity invidious 240 ("As concerned, government's drawn sincere desire help disadvantaged"). supposing mattered analysis, believes. 34-35. "[R]acial paternalism unintended poisonous discrimination." 241 demonstrate, "bring together," 29, someone gets excluded, excluded letter informing kindergartener choosing child's 97. Doubtless, letters went operation. exclusion, precisely pits another, exacerbates tension, "provoke[s] resentment believe wronged variation consistently 326. Though discomfort standard. search accepts tenuous grouping term "`integration.'" "`[I]ntegration,'" told, "three elements." None elements unsubstantiated produce represented element independently. According involves setting conditions board's supported IB, supra. sundry unrelated "housing patterns, employment practices, economic conditions, attitudes." General varied trends "too opinion), "[i]t sheer speculation" decades-past trends, 499. Consequently, seeking gauge remedy. 498. geared broad ills "`no point,'" ibid., threaten become "ageless timeless 342 (stating "requirement point"). offers "integration." Next, balanced improve outcomes support, science research propositions hotly disputed scientists. reality, apparent coerced achievement. Scholars differing opinions arise balancing. receive genuine Crain Mahard, Desegregation Achievement: Review Research, 42 Contemp. Probs. 17, 48 (1978). Others circumspect. Henderson, Greenberg, Schneider, Uribe, Verdugo, Quality Schooling African Students, Beyond 166 (M. Shujaa ed. 1996) ("Perhaps effect, negative, strategies help, hurt, difference whatsoever. focusing detracts improving schools"). demonstrable Armor Rossell, Resegregation Color Line: Perspectives Race Ethnicity 239, 251 (A. Thernstrom eds. 2002). amicus briefs mirror divergence Supporting boards, assured "both early recent statistical econometric analyses. indicate arising settings." Educational Research Association Amicus Curiae 10. Another "school modest students." 553 Social Scientists Amici 13-14 contains details magnitude precise mix realized. scientists' cautiously benefit "positive impact" "modest," 13, acknowledging appears math scores," 14, admitting "underlying gains clear," 15.[11] reports "[i]n study study, body, isolated, proves insignificant determinant achievement." Dr. John Murphy et al. 8; 9 ("[T]here K-12 class-room positively affects achievement"). surveys studies fair comprehensive shows consistent [educational] benefits." David 29. Add inconclusive "racially isolated" environments. Sowell, Education: Assumptions Versus 7-38 (1986). prominent example exemplary Dunbar ("[I]n period 1918-1923, graduates earned fifteen degrees Ivy League colleges, ten Amherst, Williams, Wesleyan"). example. 10-32 (discussing schools); Walker, Can Institutions Care? Evidence Segregated Children, 209-226 1996); Affirmative Action Around World: Empirical Study 141-165 enrollments outstanding results. Excuses: Lessons 21 High-Performing, High-Poverty 49-50, 53-56, 71-73, 81-84, 87-88 (2001); Thernstrom, Closing Gap Learning 43-64 Izumi, Have Overcome: HighP-overty, High-Performing (chronicling Hispanic California). attending historically colleges better colleges. 364-365 sources); 748-749 K-8 "African-American Academy," "nonwhite" 99%. 227a; Reply 1990 "increase achievement."[12] Academy History, online http://www. seattleschools.org/schools/aaa/history.htm (all Internet materials visited 26, 2007, Clerk file). report, "[a]cademic excellence" "primary goal." 2006 Annual Report, http://www.seattleschools.org/area/ siso/reports/anrep/altern/938.pdf. imbalanced environment reportedly produced "higher across reading, writing math." predicted, placed segregated" environment. Given relationship improved children, plausibly supports let compelling.[13] 121-122 concurring) learn surrounded environment"). much, democratically elected one." assertion inexplicable. boardsthe practices strictly scrutinizeto assess independently determination, deferred authorities once, 328-330, prompted uniquely education. 328 ("Our holding tradition giving university's decisions"). proposed testwhether compellingcalls mind 36-37. Williamson Lee Optical Okla., 348 483, ("It evil correction, correct it"). leave mercy officials evanescent handful adopt deferential abdicate responsibilities.[14] Finally, "democratic element" defines producing `pluralistic society' live." 39.[15] reflection, say "[p]referring "This forbids." Ibid.; 329-330; Navigating around inconvenient authority, intended "teac[h] engage cooperation Americans land hundred million Nation." 39-40. "generic lessons citizenship" sweeping interests. part). "uniquely relevant" `teachable' formal setting." 347. governments aspirational levelfrom state-sponsored 4-H clubs, Bazemore Friday, 478 385, 388-390 (Brennan, civil service. 347-348 democratic durational limit, Grutter's command. 342; 498; words, races. logically forever. limitless "timeless [its] decisionmaking.[16] addition defects, terms. state-compelled teaches improves attitudes relations. again, overstates data supposedly "black desegregated prejudiced schools." 40 By account, improvements depend increased contact occur guarantee, spend another. frequently aid efficient groupings often classrooms concentrations Yonezawa, Wells, Serna, Choosing Tracks: "Freedom Choice" Detracting Am. 38 (Spring 2002); Mickelson, Subverting Swann: First- Second-Generation Segregation 233-234 (Summer Charlotte, North Carolina). socially. Hallinan Interracial Friendship Choices Secondary 54 Sociological Rev., 72-76 (Feb. 1989); Clotfelter, Contact Extracurricular Activities, Urban 41-43 (Mar. interracial leads relations, capture putting roof interact. unclear relations.[17] researcher reviews intergroup relations unable come probable [;] virtually reviewers few, any, conclusions drawn." Schofield, Intergroup Relations: Literature, 17 356 (G. Grant 1991). deterioration seems St. John, Outcomes Children 67-68 (1975) ("A glance [the data] common negative findings"); Stephan, Effects Desegregation: Evaluation Years Advances Applied Psychology 183-186 Saks Saxe 1986). nearly exposure paucity supporting belief interest.[18] buttress follows fortiori 41. attainment critically dependent education: environment," "special tradition" occupied universities, freedom education[,] includ[ing] selection body." 329 interchange ideas integral 1208 (Bea, Extending cut loose theoretical moorings. Stripped baseless novel behalf, "those bulwark anarchy violence" responsible" constitute 351-352, 353. arguednor theythat violence. pursuing programs. criticisms traced rejection marginalize consigning me Members plurality.[19] 61. am comfortable company keep. My Harlan's Plessy: "Our color-blind, knows nor tolerates classes Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 559 (1896) (dissenting my rallying cry lawyers litigated Brown. 65 ("That dedicated belief"); 1952, precludes alone");[20] Memoriam: Honorable Thurgood Marshall, Proceedings Bar Officers X (1993) (remarks Motley) ("Marshall `Bible' turned depressed moments. known Mr. 552 (1896). know buoyed Marshall pre-Brown days ."). pin practice expectations, practical consequences, courts. ascendant decades. Plessy, providing railway cars reasonable regulation." 550. inquiring reasonableness large discretion legislature." likewise paid heed looking usages, customs promotion comfort, preservation peace order." Guided principles, "[W]e authorizes conveyances unreasonable, obnoxious acts Congress colored Columbia." 550-551. endorsed Plessy. decisively replicates distressing extent. "[e]ach embodies experience consultation." 47. expectation. Appellees Briggs Elliott, 76 power establish capable administration, taking conditions").[21] "weight [must given] knowledge, expertise, concerns," vigor, argued authorities. Kansas advocate determinations enables Topeka course").[22] "threatens calm disruptive round litigation," "risks serious Nation," 65. ending state-imposed separation. Davis Board, 37 ("Yet violates upheaval widespread effect; cause chaos reversal case").[23] foreshadowing ("[I]t difficult South Carolina here").[24] similarities segregationists' cautioned practicalities embrace Amendment.[25] lessen lessening eventually end.[26] 1954 today.[27] Whatever else established, possession. Court. preferable principles guide trumpeted contextual detailor collection details, 2-22-can "provide refuge judgment).[28] keep proscribe apart.[29] 28-34, 64-65. Amendment, constitutionalize faddish theories distinction. malleable. engineering "solve hand," enshrines theories. (Harlan, dissenting) deems dominant country. prestige, achievements, wealth power. So, not, continue eye superior, dominant, citizens.. citizens"). taught anything, beware elites bearing theories.[30] Dred Scott Sandford, How. 393, 407 (1857) ("[T]hey [members "negro race"] man respect"). really sure motivated relic future progressive? gamble unwilling take, allow. base students' "[o]ur citizens," holding. strive strength races, creeds, cultures uniting commitment parts community. remind highest aspirations unfulfilled. solutions mandated lawful. entrench prejudices overcome. issue, official labels proclaiming persons citizenselementary anotherare agree jurisdiction join IIIA IIIC provided below. JUSTICE, inconsistent implications Clause. hand, rests respectful submission misuse mistaken advance view, erroneous conflict basic principles. consequence, dissent) detail efforts basis; result, finds increasing isolation. 37-45. plurality, acknowledge 17-25. others, IIIB IV. Diversity, depending definition, pursue. `are interests.'" (1995)). "Absent measures, `remedial' notions politics." 493 (1989) restrictive alternatives demanded thorough works. bears justifying establish, detail, challenged program. meet mandate. deny son McDonald enrollment. concedes request "under say, 10; "kindergartens," explain discrepancy. Resort record, parties' Stipulation Facts, confuses matter. 43 ("Transfer applications or, grades Primary (kindergarten), plan"); 1"); Facts 3:02-CV-00620-JGH; Doc. 32, Exh. 44, (2003-04 Student Assignment Application, Section B) ("Assignment (Kindergarten) Grade Five maintained. enhance completed (Grade One)"). discrepancy straightforward error touches peripheries contrary, imprecise withstand 4-10. clear, decisions; oversight employed; race; situated 38, (indicating "based guidelines" explanation); 81 (setting blanket "[s]chools shall work cooperatively office [in question] annually encourage progresses midpoint guidelines"); 43, 76-77, 81-83; 837-845, 855-862 2004). litigation, "complex, multiple ambiguities problematic contradictions confusions result. Compare, ("Each [Jefferson County] area, called `resides area' school[, each] school' parent's guardian's residence area"); ("All reside"); ("There [an student's] except age completion grade"), ("Decisions [elementary] (acknowledging extremes guidelines"). construction complies competing propositions; problem. Courteven implicated initial denialwhether manner question, far-reaching, inconsistent, ad hoc forgiving reading record suggest. subjects construe State. gone 5-11. nevertheless, adequate respect. why, composed fewer half "white," crude categories "white" "non-white" decisions. 1-11. follows: "(1) enrollments; (2) potentially opt schools; (3) non-white equitable over-subscribed how, population, blunt furthers not." Ante, 15-16; 13-14. Far threatens defeat ends, convincing explanation design. evident now. chosen, despite ill fit, ends; inception expand liberty equality founded. Today enjoy society remarkable openness opportunity. significant, recognize confront flaws injustices remain. especially assurance enduring hope matter; reality does. preface imply all-too-unyielding instances when, account. plurality dismissive legitimate ensuring plurality's postulate race," 40-41, Fifty (1954), problem defies easy solution. Brown's schooling. endorse conclusion. mandates quo profoundly mistaken. Harlan color-blind" grievous took overrule. carriages. And, aspiration, axiom assent. world, regrettable universal principle. administration aspect composition. 306 387-388 student-body compositions interfere offering devise treating fashion systematic, typing pursue means, strategic site zones neighborhoods; programs; recruiting faculty targeted fashion; tracking enrollments, performance, mechanisms tells unlikely demand Bush Vera, 952, 958 ("Strict redistricting performed consciousness Electoral lines `facially neutral' `classifications race'" 213)). Executive branches, generations procedures, candor whenever decisionmaker considers Assigning designation accordingly. respondent Yet, proposition. analysis"). resort judgment). noteworthy limited. necessary, nuanced, needs component. latter differ parents, role assumptions precedents; endorsement child segment presents prospective realms regulation; hurt anger prevents. premises incorrect. explicit, sweeping, classwide misreading me, tends undermine well-accepted guard freedom. critique agreement JUSTICE. correct, 12-13. notes, (1992), inform inquiry. interpreted foreclose disagree reasoning. principled limit areas afield permissive (which resemblance review) invite deployment rationale accepted, Congress, assuming exercise spending commerce power, nationwide. moreover, emphasizes control, 57, seem rhetorical analytical structure brings 244 (2003), 306. adhering 281 291 (SOUTER, 344 understandable, traditionto invoked, rare instancesthat positions face stake. Maritime Comm'n Ports Authority, 535 743, 770 ratify respect, baffling. involved procedures arose, college choices First latitude 312-314 invalid. 251. wrong, arguable sustained found, flexible diversity," 341 omitted), many, 340. mechanical formula preferred rigid criteria: siblings, distance whole talents consideration, application. That, draw opinions, brush decrees resulting second, presumptive invalidity State's differentiate individuals. immediate aftermath enforced Loving 388 (1967) (marriage); Orleans Park Improvement Assn. Detiege, 358 (1958) (per curiam) (public parks); Gayle Browder, 352 903 (1956) (buses); Holmes Atlanta, 350 879 (golf courses); Mayor Baltimore Dawson, 877 (beaches). proved correct. supervision efforts, teacher 8-10 (noting "may instrumentality Clause"). So was, observes, 1314, busing 1970's. factors. duty desegregate; 437-438 extended (1986), noted: reinforced discrimination: "To [a] door `remedial relief' disadvantaged dream lost mosaic wrongs." 505-506. From standpoint victim, true, stemming demeaning identity stems bias masked deep action, furthermore, historical present-day fact. Laws culture vice versa. responsibility persisting injustices. overlap instances, one. conceded function delimit powers Judiciary fashioning remedies. 746. ought altogether disregarded, sensitive issues, differently systematic There, too, reaches verge authority. Reduction undertake. contentious circumstances, divisive allocations (1978); 200. Notwithstanding concerns, wrong. Where legislatures remedy, 45-46 (1971). limitation confine nature, extent, duration assumption, premise, actions. absent howing refers Boudin presenting 1193-1196 (concurring 27-29 concurring))). oversimplify bit, main this: indirection policies? Does inefficient result? Why candid solve direct classifications? proceeds, problem, ignores dangers pressing Who nonwhite? label society. powerless change. Governmental march directions typologies divisiveness. corrosive discourse, bargaining chip political process. On degree. instrument leap forward. frustrating duality world adult, identity, persona, intervention moral ethical fulfill historic creating ensures exists Likewise, population. component plus needs, considered. Crude chits valued traded supply another's demand. statement, sure, invites response: stigma fate separated control. replication be: so, exhausted. continuing ethnic, back-grounds. Due variety factorssome influenced government, notneighborhoods entrusted directing bear creativity experts, administrators, resorting With dissenting. eloquent unanswerable entirety, add words. cruel irony (1955). sentence paragraph states: "Before 40. reminds Anatole France's observation: majestic la[w], forbid[s] rich poor alike sleep bridges, beg streets, steal bread."[1] ordered; indeed, books tell stories struggling schools.[2] ways, rewrites ("history heard"), Brewer Quarterman, 550 ___, (slip op., 11) (ROBERTS, adage victors"). rejects impose stigmatize exclude.[3] refusing obvious opinionsnone approached unanimity grandly scrutiny." (1995). wisest wooden integration. three-tiered reconfirms Craig Boren, 429 190, (1976) opinion).[4] look decided interim adherence tiers obscures message. best approval Judicial Massachusetts 1967 mandating Comm. Boston Mass. 693, 729.[5] Rejecting comparable today,[6] "It height act, enacted laudable opportunities, should, prescribing pupil founder unsuspected shoals Amendment." N.E.2d, 733 Invoking appellate jurisdiction,[7] prosecuted "dismissed substantial question." 389 572 curiam). appraisal appeal, constitutes overrules today. subsequent unanimous 16 then-Justice Rehnquist chambers Bustop, 439 1380, 1383 host 25-27,[8] disposition. loyal changed significantly 1968. conviction Member joined agreed GINSBURG join, longstanding integrate resemble Nation. represent promisedefforts permitted, encouraged "compelling." approved understood pays inadequate opinions' rationales, language, arise. reverses doing distorts announces obstruct deal growing racerelated undermines reality. name factual critical. "education governments." 493. thereby path dozens comply included restrictions transfers. Columbus Penick, 449, 455, (1979); Mobile 33, 37-38 441-442 requirements, left communities. (measures here), unanimously stated: "School traditionally charged formulate conclude, prepare pluralistic prescribed ratio Negro reflecting proportion discretionary authorities." districtssome lawsuits, administrative orders, voluntarily, ordersadopted, modified, experimented hosts kinds objective: Welch Light, v (1987) Welch) (prepared Commission Rights) (reviewing sample 125 constituting 20% enrollment, 18 years). techniques "from reassignment." "dictated district." Overall considerable More recently, stalled. Between 1968 1980, constituted fell 77% 63% (from 81% 57% South) direction rising 72% 69% South). 90% 64% 33% 78% 23% South), direction, 37% 31% almost 2.4 5% attended 1%. 2.3 72,000 six 99-100% minority. A, risk return (though law) resegregated, felt extend efforts. upshot myriad operating devised elements, sake eradicating integration, retrogression. histories typical stories. length highlight "compelling interests" (caused systems) (caused, generalized discrimination) meaningless dooming endeavor Third, real-world (however caused) complex, "conscious" began highly cities lawsuits alleged unconstitutionally residential helped create, maintain, aggravate pledged cities, city modified of, busing, desirability introducing city, evolved progressively diminish plans' facts. numerous sources, ease exposition cataloged, along corresponding citations, B, Segregation, 1945 1956. During World War significant Few residents section city. worked unskilled jobs. 3% total mid-1950's, 60% 80% 50% minority; southeastern sections 2. Preliminary Challenges, 1956 1969. 1956, memo reported restricting 1958, Harrison (with 75%) wrote board, "`boundaries accordance long-established standards arbitrarily McGilvra School, adjacent district.' 1963, National Advancement Colored People (NAACP) policy. criterion: irrespective criteria, two-thirds eight program's 8 transferred. 1969, 2,200 (of 10,383 total) 400 advantage decade, remained level. 3. NAACP's Legal Challenge Response, 1969 1977. NAACP lawsuit "unlawfully unconstitutionally" "establish[ed]" "maintain[ed]" city's 86 23 1,461 12 senior 1,151 78.8%) 900 (61.6%) Garfield. "mak[ing] enforc[ing]" "rules regulations," "drawing boundary lines" "executing policies" "predominantly building restrict negro discriminated teachers. responded busing. created buildings north "mixed" elsewhere. (i.e., schools). transport provoked opposition. Opponents lawsuit. 1976-1977, (300 200 students). 1,200 participated Thus 2,000 60,000 12,000 26 112 "segregated." Second Challenge, 1977, Department Health, Welfare's Office (OCR). perpetuated unlawful through, school-transfer need-lessly built areas, line-drawing maintenance inferior staff, pattern delay implementation promised OCR settlement agreement. became "Seattle Plan." 5. Plan: Mandatory Busing, 1978 1988. Plan 1978. imbalanced" schoolsCleveland (72.8% minority), (76.6% (78.4% Rainier Beach (58.9% minority). paired "triaded") "imbalanced" (say, third fourth grades) fifth sixth building. "black" remain consequently care grade. cataloged neighborhood block. blocks blocks. house closest sought. plan's implementation, 11 "imbalanced," i.e., "white." 1979, "balance." 1980 Cleveland "balance" (as it) Nonetheless, Plan, opposition 461466 voters initiative amended homes. 462. initiative. 464. initiativewhich prevented effectviolated 470. 6. Choice, 1988 1998. 1988, families Asian in. fallen 100,000 50,000. amounted 43% 24% Pacific Islander, Hispanics Native rest. feared caused, led abandon resembles wished attend, constraints. subset carefully distribution neighborhoods elsewhere acceptable. gave "over-represented" accounted population). residing neighborhood. 1995, 20,000 potential participated. About 68% 16% "acceptable" listed. 7. Current 1999 Present. 1996, 1999. deemphasize increase likelihood retained 30% centered minority/majority subsequently worst, pick (1999-2000 2000-2001). entering population; (We change school.) 2005-2006, years, Franklin's risen 90%. applied, typically assignment; 89% 97% assignment. objected Constitutions. (sitting Lawsuit, 1972. Kentucky geography-based 3,000 46,000 transfer. 1972, segregated. Fourteen nineteen nonvocational close totally Nineteen forty-six 100% Twenty-one Court-Imposed Guidelines 1972 1991. sued court. System, April absorbed combined suburbs. (For exposition, "Louisville" refer districts.) eventual victory Circuit, July order's requirements (newly enlarged) 135,000, populations ranged, 12% 40% exception), 12.5% 35% complex targets. redrawing zones, closing names, neighborhoods. extensive, 23,000 transportation fleet "operate morning late evening." meant (several following notice, published newspaper 1976, gives practice: Courier Journal, 1976 (reproduced Wilkinson, Bakke: Integration 1954-1978, 176 (1979)). monitored 1978, "`guidelines' composition" portion [previous] years." active docket portions 1984, percentages community, revised "guideline," namely "floating 10% countywide levels." simultaneously redrew boundaries four years. "magnet" adjusted alphabet-based estimated reassignment busing) 8,500 8,000 Choice Project Renaissance, 1991 1996. 1991, educationally unsound continued, Kentucky's newly Reform Act. conducted year-long consulted presentations, meetings, public's input. "Project Renaissance," Renaissance 15% 50%; range, drew geographical guide-lines; reassign missed line (called "clusters"). freely transferring (a) (b) Students magnet for, by, "open" Every 9th 10th grader criteriaone consisted attain Modified, 1996 2003. 1995 "Planning Team," unofficial proposals improvement. "guidelines," boundaries. expanded pupils. forbade "Parent Assistance Centers" navigate "encourage level." 1999, attacking dissolve hold dissolution, old system" "demographic imbalance" "prevent[ed] dissolution." order. "overwhelming Decree purposes." "treated ideal obligationthey positive, well-rounded schools" "targets" ordered control scarce 2003 Subsequent 2000) court's determination. 2003, Meredith, unmodified portions, dealt ordinary, magnet, Meredith's aspects ongoing remedial. earnest undertook response filing OCR. grow faced periods severe followed suburban formulating periodically experience. rethought explored wide non-race-conscious policies. elaborate democratic, remedial, preserving districtwide quality reduced flight, forth. choice; (including families; gradually diminishing ways. particular, mark outer bounds population-related ranges. futility "race-conscious" THOMAS amendment, statute, ordinance, 6, laws. Yick Wo Hopkins, 373-374 (1886). disputes jure. Seattle's? Was facto? De jure? mixture? Opinions differed. Or adjudicated matter? difference? Is remand segregated, admitted? answer. Court) added)), ante 29-30 (assuming law," seeming concede measures). crucial variable. orderjust did. Coleman, KentuckyThe Year Decision, Educ. 254, 256, 261 (40 180 orders); Branton, Little Rock Revisited: Resegregation, 250, (1983) (similar Arkansas); Bullock Rodgers, Coercion Compliance: Southern Districts Guidelines, Politics 987, 991 Georgia); 39, 40, (Clarke Georgia). Letter Robert Kennedy, Attorney General, President (Jan. 1963) Kennedy Report), http://www.gilderlehrman.org/search/collection_pdfs/05/63/ 0/05630.pdf file) (reporting induce desegregation). order, dissolution. lawful day day? rest view? 12-13, Are avoided complying requirements? 12, 29-30. done opposite, emphatically forbid forbids same? complexity tasks difficulties change, retain teachers, (and will) parents' adapt intervention, parent actionwhere faith, insufficient hand. leaves legislatures, councils, communities" "try gravitate prove needs." Lopez, 549, 581 concurring)), cert. denied, 1061 (2005). background mind, question: prohibit here? Standard unbroken compel importance, repeat Swann. Burger, wrote: 16. technical lawa "wide culture." Dickerson 530 428, Mitchell 526 314, (1999); 331, 332 "`wide culture'" "adequate overrule" cases). 45 citing restated "[S]chool authorities," "have policy, conclude apart requirements." ThenJ-ustice echoed chambers), believed Swann's law: "While gravest doubts [a supreme court] [desegregation] action." (Emphasis original.) Clarke agency pressurepressure encountered). Barresi Browne, Ga. 456, 456-459, 175 S.E.2d 649, 650-651 (1970). white." 1970, 420, claimedas Seattlethat "never accurate. 6-9. McDaniel. Unless enforces North, grant permission Georgia. ("[S]teps invariably `differently race.' freeze target processes."). shown. York Harris, 444 130, 148-149 (1979), receiving funds disparities actionable dissenters 152 Stewart, also, 527, 535-536 (1982) ("[S]tate techniques, [S]chool feasible steps desegregate, effectuate desegregation" added)); (dismissing statewide criteria). Lower uncontroversial 1968, raceconscious undo segregation: [their] claim, defendants involved, act cause. constitution concerned. permits, prohibits, aimed reducing "State policies, reduction elimination imbalance, forbidden." 597-598, (citations omitted) Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Jersey, York, Connecticut, Fourth, Circuits). Offerman Nitkowski, 378 (CA2 1967); Deal Cincinnati 369 55, 61 1966), 847 (1967); Springfield Barksdale, 261, 266 1965); Pennsylvania Human Relations Chester 427 Pa. 157, 164, 233 A.2d 290, Booker Plainfield, Union 161, 170, 212 (1965); Pasadena 876, 881-882, 382 P.2d 878, 881-882 (1963) bank). quote illustrate prevailing assumption decided. sharp unexpected departure rulings; consensus emerged Numerous guidance decades follow. instance, Texas 1986 explaining: exceed properly value experience." 3523-53 (Ct. Tex. Ed.), dism'd 484 804 (1987). Zaslawsky 661, 662-664 court, F.2d, 663-664. Darville Dade 1002, 1004-1006 (CA5 1974); ex rel. Against Bussing Brooks, 80 121, 128-129, 492 536, 541-542 (1972) banc), grounds, Cole Webster, 103 692 799 (1984) banc); 362 417, 428-429 287 438, 447-448 (1972). enunciation valid enunciated-i.e., branch rooted validity. §6311(b)(2)(C)(v) (No Act); §1067 seq. (authorizing institutions). exhaustive, counted Presidential administrations measures. Exec. Order 10925, Fed. Reg. 1977 (1961) (President Kennedy); 11246, 12319 (1965) Johnson); Sugrue, Breaking Through: Troubled Origins Workplace, Colorlines: Action, Immigration, Options (Skretny Nixon's lobbying Philadelphia Plan); White, Action's Alamo: Gerald Ford Returns Fight Michigan, Time, Aug. 23, Ford's action); Schuck, Action: Past, Present, Future, Yale Pol'y Carter's affirmation action). 83-91. surprising. predicated understands forbidding exclusion. full slavery. Slaughter-House Cases, Wall. 71 (1872) ("[N]o fail impressed pervading [all Reconstruction amendments] slave race"); Strauder 303, (1879) ("[The Amendment] provisions purpose; namely, securing emancipated superior enjoy"). drafted defiance apart, together. R. Sears, Utopian Experiment Kentucky: Equality Berea, 1866-1904 funding, Freedman's Bureau, programs). Fischer, Struggle Louisiana 1862-77, (1974) remedies); Harlan, Reconstruction, 67 Hist. 664 (1962) (same); W. Vaughn, All: Blacks South, 1865-1877, 111-116 (same). former, lenient latter. Sometimes disagreed leniency affords include. (1986); (1980). THOMAS' "colorblind" approach. response? Harris show, untrue. 22-24. Many (to applies) 19-20. Report. meaningfully in, compulsory place. event, distinctionbetween desegregationseeks sensibly drawn. downplays "dicta." criticisms, miss hide corner obscure footnote, unread experts. prominently nine Justices, knowing read "dicta"-based overly mask radical Law mathematical logic. divide neatly "holdings" (Consider "status" (1978).) enunciated provides, provide, authoritative guidance. chooses principle, adequately retreat affixing "dicta" disagrees. before, countless continuously embodied. casesin Gruttersupplanted 11-12, 31-32, 34-35 (2003)). "were definitively `all scrutiny.'" 31, 227). "such interests." Several grants supra; circumstance critical casenot otherhas classificationsno excludemust same. overturning "fundamental purpose" "take differences" "fundamentally situations account." 228 "[s]trict trea[t] dissimilar equally objectionable." "treats person] unequally law." 229-230 phrase scrutiny's exclusionary "dispel condemn inclusive invalidate uses. "`strict theory, fact.'" elaborated: "Strict `strict fact.' invalidated "Context matters Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 343-344 (1960) (admonishing dealing derive content interpretive inclusion imperative generalizations, concrete rise them, disregard variant facts'). objectionable, examining sincerity advanced context." 326-327. elite refers, exclusive "fatal fact" harmfully exclude; 34-36. Today's reveals rewrite jurisprudence, application, transforming board. specified, Clause." 327 (1960)). dramatically other. census forms, expenditures diseases, police officers patrolling minority-race neighborhoods, minorities distributing goods services short supply, majority-minority electoral peremptory strikes remove jurors differences contexts, surprising identically them. Here, limits range. normally distributed supply. pit exacerbate tensions. unfairly alike. seek, compares present. 303 (1880); (1886); 483; Batson 79 469 630 (1993); 499 examines specifically, embody consultation, compared preceding Wessmann 809-810 1998) award commodity merit, rather, practice, electives. prefer popularity Roosevelt Seattle; popular; popular. Assessment, Information Office, Summaries 1999-2005, http://www.seattleschools.org/area/siso/disprof/2005/DP05 all.pdf. word, convinced judge "strict," disappointing, individual's aptitude ability"). Victims Happen Be Black, 97 433-434 (1988). abandonment criteria's need. aware pitfalls KENNEDY mention. 11-12 legislature accountable electorate, risks mention, helping 17-18 proportionate serves. fitting. "strict" described. 242-249 Apparently agrees ("Executive races"). precedents, 290 J.), alternative. embody. ask interest" fortiori. Hence, test. Consequently Applying Compelling Interest names. "diversity." "balancing." signify promoting "integration" term, school-by-school characterizes name, possesses elements. element: rightthe facilitated combat remnants school-related attitudes. hard-won gains. roots America's ("This children"). overcoming 345 Studies settings Living Learning: Linking Housing Pursuit Dream Deferred: Policy 15, (J. G. Kearney, V. Kay Powell); Hallinan, Outcomes: Science Evidence, Ohio 733, 741-742 (1998) Hallinan). conclusions. Armor, Forced 15-17 suggests, environments setting. Indeed gap grew (by seven points) implemented Powell 35. Conversely, Norfolk, resegregated decline commentator, "remarkably consistent" that: (1) classes, outcomes. 741-742. Multiple alumni occupations closed African-Americans, earn money fields. Desegregation's Impact Handbook Multicultural 597, 606-607 Banks 1995). Bowen Bok, Shape River Bok). "pluralistic society" live. play backgrounds. teaching insight. 745; Quillian Campbell, White: Present Future Multiracial 68 540, 541 Campbell); Dawkins Braddock, Continuing Significance Composition Inclusion Society, 63 394, 401-403 (1994) Braddock); Wells Crain, Perpetuation Theory Long-Term Desegregation, 64 Crain). Relations, 22-23 firmly determine, documented "interracial sociability friendship." 745. Campbell 541. Bok 155. companies graduation Braddock 401-403; Further adult housing. Cities witnessed tend 403. reinforce education; foresee civic virtue 16; 472-473. were, speaking, (recognizing "promotes cross-racial understanding, break stereotypes, [students] races," pointing skills increasingly global marketplace developed viewpoints" omitted; alteration original)). begins, begins absorb values days. "unless together, together." 783 Sweatt Painter, 339 629 (1950), McLaurin Higher graduate deeply world. Kluger, Simple Justice: Equality, x (arguing "affected minds, hearts, daily lives Americans"); Patterson, xxvii (2001) (identifying eagerly awaited dramatic modern times"). 1194 Strauss, Discriminatory Intent Taming 56 Chi. 935, 937 (calling anti-discrimination decision"); Dudziak, Cold Case, 91 32 (2004); Great Hindustan Times (New Dehli, May 20, 1954), 5; USA Takes Positive Step, Pilot (Lagos, acknowledgment "United nations removing life signs traces intolerance, arrogance discrimination"). surprised population," 17-18. includes eradicate remnants, "societal discrimination," children; prepared know, understand, backgrounds, furthering foresees. "compelling," is? compelling: "remedying "diversity convincingly President? Supra, underlie interest? tries conceptual ("segregation action") ("racial factors"). 28. do. Green, ("School systems" "affirmative whatever convert inw hich root branch"), (the "shown committed violation"). jure/de wrongs committed. Crawford, Bustop thing clear: germane indicate, vanish declares "unitary." pointed "one Past stubborn history. linger persist." 495. wisdom returning deprive part, faults integrating 15-17, convincingalthough mention author linking Line Curiae, Rosen, Created Equal, Y. Times, 11, commenting "`[w]e [racial] significantly'" "`did association achievement, there's big variation'" insist unanimity literature minds America. Tailoring objectives. 920 (1995), "tailoring" "rigorous passes strictest 390 (expressing "narrow fluctuation band[s]"). "quota." 335 ("Properly understood, `quota' fixed `reserved groups'" 496)). feature determines grade, (without "predominant factor" (allowing predominant factor"). ranges respects, quota "useful starting points" permissible, community's 46 (no "absolute prohibition [the] use" ratios "starting point"); 24-25 (approving "inflexible requirement"). 225, 232 (1969) "provided [school] system,'" "immediately" teachers" whole"). broad-range 341, approved. 26-27; Co. 232. becomes fraction non-merit-based assignmentsnot merit-based applications. severely, Disappointed flagship program; aspiration equal. 283. loses vain persuasive tailoring." consultation. experimentation 40-year abandoned replaced tried redrawn boundaries, construction, unrestricted IA 6-18. suited administrators. knowledge 741-42 ("No autonomy process"). Antonio Rodriguez, 411 49-50 (1973) (extolling participation tax dollars spent. locality tailor needs. Pluralism experimentation, innovation, healthy competition excellence"); Epperson Arkansas, 97, 104 ("Judicial interposition raises restraint. large, authorities"); 299 ("Full solution problems. elucidating, assessing, solving problems; governing principles"). Experience 1987, studied districts-92 factadopted strategies, pairing. Having looked briefs, reports, news stories, span Nation, discovered methods, model Louisville: "Here instance plans." modeland cannotthen tailoring" requirement imagined, understandable entirely. does, 27-28, officially superfluous (if implicit) impossible somehow proof hypothetical theirs). requirement. Care Rockford 205, 961 1335, 1338 (CA7 1992) (Easterbrook, ("Would adjudicate adopting on) ?"). numerical work. 18-20. 24-25; 46; obvious: 41% 85% whereas skew research-based supporting, minority pointis helpful limiting "white flight." Orfield, Metropolitan Impacts 125. detrimental "minority isolation." V, C, 115 Stat. 1806, §7231 (2000 ed., IV); CFR §§280.2, 280.4 (2006) (implementing regulations). point"? days, weeks, months validate cases? thin air? advice strongly lawfulness methods. accomplished desired aims (e.g., countering diversity) Nothing method accomplish Nevertheless, boards: 8. But, "strategic selection," 44 specialized 1920's; 1960's. Thompson Marr, Building Histories, 1862-2000 (2002). "drawing" "attendance zones" basis, 12-14. "allocating programs," this; "magnet extends granted. impact. 42. "recruiting faculty" tried, "tracking performance problem; cure wanted Both, true. adds confusion illustrates insufficiently "who decisions," "over-sight," decision" made; "which decision." deadline. 20. begun, dead-line passed, possibly causing apply. remainder KENNEDY's failures explanation, administration. answer remand. plan: Asian-Americans, Hispanic-Americans, Native-Americans, African-Americans minorities? 6-7. "diverse" ethnicity. 15-16 50/50 here; conjured imagination. Emergency Aid Act's Siqueland 116-117. Hanawalt 31; Pub. 95-561, Tit. (prescribing "minority" students); 55 HEW "minority"). federally insofar indicates similar, responses. fine require. determination? minority-ssistance program? divisiveness incompatible Regardless, object defect individuals' taken. arose "`the education.'" 23-year-old 13-year-old pupil. 46-48. 45. "individual[ly]." 13-15. merit; academic, artistic, athletic "merits" placement. "individualized features(1) historically-diminishing (4) (5) alternativestogether sum, Direct Precedent Two consists purposes," 370. challenge. of) conceivable (perhaps require) identical after? 380 dissolving interest"). incoherent. rightly hesitate disruptive. predecessor barred "burden[ed] State." 462-463, 483. adoption school-integration (plans schools), 483-487. conclusion, 15. approving university-admissions action" "[a]ttending ethnically school," 473, citizenship society," hope-fully "teaching harmony mutual heritage." interfered premised predecessors. (even race-conscious) implication 13th chime clock. precedent? V Consequences Founders document transmit time. Hence measured unsound. thing, Will all? ineffective. Sixteen unique. promulgated attempted 1987 breadth plans: [study] documents 1961 1985. heterogeneity immediately apparent. region size Las Cruces, Mexico, barely 15,000 City, 853 urban sizes, suburbs Virginia) rural Parish, Louisiana, Raleigh Virginia). Florida fit description, Clark Nevada others) consolidated Castle Delaware Kentucky). vary Initial Mobile, Alabama Mecklenburg Carolina, extreme, Santa Clara, relatively 1979 1965 Harford Maryland, 92 Compton, 99 1980s, Buffalo, virtual 50-50 split variation." (footnotes 24-28. Transfer Richmond, "one-way" receiver Fifty-three Puerto Rico enact interdistrict intradistrict Eight condition Eleven Open Enrollment: 50-State Report (2007), http://mb2.ecs.org/reports/Report.aspx?id=268. "[n]o nonresident exceeds resident Ark. Ann. §6-18-206(f)(1), 2007 Acts (2007). "[p]rocedures §3313.98(B)(2)(b)(iii) (Lexis 2006). "district native §3313.98 (F)(1)(a). Connecticut "preserve Conn. §10-266aa(b)(2) figures Education. §10-226a. regulation "[a]ny Proportion Comparable District, imbalanced." Agencies Regs. §10-226e-3(b) (1999). "mandatory §§10-226e-5(a) (c)(4). Interpreting recommends reallocating resources, etc.). Sheff O'Neill, 238 678 1267 (1996). "Despite initiatives intend disparities, infringe opportunity." 42, A.2d, 1289. minimum, surge Hundreds regulations purposes. 27. force meritorious displace calm. solve. important, play. unlawful) out, rise. educational, social, 20-21, disposal tool vitalthe need" deliberately. "`color-blind'" 26-27 353-354 part), feel 40-41 discrimination; Americans; troubled inner poverty correlated judge, dictate answers. educate administer aim. decide, slogan, "way 40-41. 1222 race"). outlaws Until representatives, options. ("[S]trict "[not] fact' judgment))). restricts eliminate) leeway. fear Conclusions length. necessary. showing, asserting, represents propound risk. opinion's long. short: "fails view. reveal conscientious resist fears flight now, emphasize skin, reside. reviewwhich egalitarian, planscontinue tradition. inextricably intertwined 2-21. unequivocally Clause, ratified War, distinguished excludes subordinates distinction, unity "for Sumner, Law: Unconstitutionality Separate Works Charles Sumner (1849) contemplates taught, together"). 21-37. schoolswhere gainmust be, fortiori, "avoiding isolation" "achiev[ing] population" combine discussed III-IV, 37-57. Its denial "test" significance. slows 57-63. serious. Yesterday, concerning cannot. institutional well. happened decisis? raceall moremake stronger test, transform fact"the opposite said. Swann? McDaniel? Crawford? Harris? Committee Boston? 1? vibrant logic, boards? rested leeway Now localities cope resegregation) law's peacefully settle people? accommodating good-faith visions upsets uncertainty, aggravating conflict. vision embodies? likens segregation's defenders. 39-41 (comparing Jim Crow polices); 28-32 caste slavery legalized subordination. lesson indistinguishable distortion compare Topeka, Kansas, 1950's dayto equate plight Linda (who school) (whose closer home declined). label." kind, terrible harms slavery, Brown? divided. drank fountains, rode buses, finest hour, promise. Amendments slaves. equalitynot paper, everyday democracy Americans. everyone welcomed handed down, Governor Arkansas militia block doors schoolhouse enter. dispatched 101st Airborne Division Rock, troops enforce Cooper Aaron, (1958). later, dramatically. alike, spurned complexities faced. challenges, hands instruments rid poverty. request. great strides equality, realized position, fear, regret. dissent. APPENDIXES OPINION Trends Percentage 90-100 Percent Nonwhite Majority Region, 1950-1954 Fall _________________________________________________________________________________________ | 1950- 1960-| Region 1989 |-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| 90-100% Northeast - 42.7 46.9 51.4 48.7 49.8 50.2 51.2 |------------|------|-------|-------|--------|--------|--------|--------|--------|--------| Border 60.2 54.7 42.5 37.0 33.7 39.7 77.8 24.7 22.4 23.0 26.0 31.1 30.9 Midwest 53 58.0 57.4 51.1 43.6 40.1 45.0 46.3 50.8 36.3 26.7 29.9 29.5 64.3 38.7 35.9 33.2 33.8 37.4 50-100% 62 66.8 69.9 72.5 79.9 75.4 77.5 78.3 71.6 67.2 60.1 59.2 64.8 67.0 80.9 55.3 54.9 57.1 59.3 67.3 69.0 78 77.3 75.3 70.3 69.5 69.4 67.9 73.3 72.1 68.1 67.4 76.7 76.6 63.6 62.4 62.9 64.9 70.1 |____________|______|_______|_______|________|________|________|________|________|________| Source: Brown: Rise Retreat (2004) (Table 2.1). Changes White Attended Average 1970-2003 (includes 1970 1980) ___________________________________________________________________________________________ % Change --------|----------------------------------------------------------------- 1970- 1980- 1991- |________________|_________|________|_______|_________|________|________|_________|_________| 60 33 -3 -5 |----------------|---------|--------|-------|---------|--------|--------|---------|---------| 70 47 -8 22 -1 -4 57 -16 -9 Indiana -6 58 -7 74 -2 Maryland 75 73 0 Mississippi Nebraska -13 Jersey -24 -11 Tennessee Wisconsin -10 Orfield Lee, Transformation Changing Nature 8) 2006), (Civil Project), http://www.civilrightspro ject.harvard.edu/research/deseg/Racial_Transformation.pdf. Student, 1968-2000 Modified Frankenberg, Society Schools: Losing Dream?, fig. 2003), http://www.civilrightsproject.harvard.edu/research/reseg03/ AreWeLosingtheDream.pdf (Frankenberg, Orfield) (using Dept. Center Statistics Common Core data). Minority Race, Sources IB IA: ¶1 Schmid McVey, Growth Distribution Races 7-9 (1964); 1954-1981, 17 (1981) (herein-after Hanawalt); Taylor, Movement West: Protest 1960-1970, 2-3 Siqueland, Order: Siqueland); Pieroth, Desegregating 1954-1968, (Dissertation Draft 1979) Pieroth). Pieroth 41; ¶2 11-13. ¶3 Complaint Adams Forbes Bottomly, Civ. 6704 Wash., 1969), 10-11. 10, 14-15. Planning Dept., Adopted Desegre gate Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Pupils Lincoln, September, 1971, (on file Library); 12-15; ¶4 Administrative Branch, (OCR, Apr. 1977) (OCR Complaint) (filed Exhibit 457); 23-24. Memorandum Agreement King (June 1978) Kiner 461; Proposed Alternative Plans: Eliminating Imbalance 1979-80 (Sept. Roe supra); 36-38, 40; 184, Table 151-152; 37-38; Motion Dismiss Affirm 1998 Kohn, Priority Shift: Fate Busing 27-30, 1996). 32-34. 84a; 5-7; VII). 39-42; Data Profile: DistrictSummary 2005, http://www.seattleschools.org/ area/siso/disprof/2005/DP05all.pdf; 9-10, 47; 309a; Assignments 2005-2006 (Apr. 2005), http://www.seattleschools.org/area/facilties-plan/Choice/050-6AppsChoicesBoardApril2005final.pdf. 151 1224 1162 I-B: 756, 1999) (Hampton 757-758, 762; 925 1973), 918 (1974), 1358 1974) curiam); Judgment Findings Fact 7045 7291 Ky., 1975) (1975 Findings). Attachment 4-16. Opinion Haycraft 7291, 1978), (1978 Memo Order). ¶5 Order, Sept. 1985), 3; Donald Ingwerson, Superintendent, 1984) (1984 Memorandum); 4-5 19, 1991) (1991 Memorandum). 1-4, 7-11 (Stipulated 72); P. 14-16. Stephen Daeschner, (Aug. (1996 1-4; 4-7, 2; 768. 5-8; 768, 359, 363, 370, 380-381. 834 2004); 513 3-4 2001). NOTES [*] Together Custodial Parent Next Friend Ed al., certiorari Circuit. [1] 1999-2002, 2001-2002 made. 9. rely, courts, 1169-1171 [2] 23.8 23.1 10.3 2.8 Native-American. 949, 1005-1006 VI) (Graber, [3] deviation bulk collected band, [4] "No laws." Const., Amdt. §1. [5] shall, activity financial assistance." 252, §2000d. [6] against, to, sex, color, ethnicity, employment, contracting." §49.60.400(1) [7] Middle 39-41, 82-83. [8] applicationthe 43. disputes, objection misapplied [9] plaintiffs. 7-11. 837, 864 [10] suggested mandated, "educational policy." in-chambers suggestion citations ascribe occasion emergency injunction Superior Then-Justice Rehnquist, denying relief, "equitable consideration[s]" counseled relief. 1383. resolution "significantly different" Camenisch, 451 390, (1981). [11] out. identifies form, service box." 303a. [12] incongruous dayrace-based decreecan next. segregationnot right. 494-496 eliminated, footing grounds. [13] played. 2005-2006-when tiebreakerthe 14.2 11.7 62.3 Caucasian, 2000-2001, used, Ballard's 17.5 10.8 10.7 56.4 4.6 283a. 48.9 33.5 6.6 10.2 0.8 36.8 32.2 5.2 25.1 0.7 284a. Hale's 17.3 61.5 2.5 17.9 13.3 58.4 3.4 286a. [14] website "emphasizing individualism collective ideology" "cultural racism," onto unsuccessful colorblind mentality." Harrell, Web Site Removed: Examples Racism Sparked Controversy, Post-Intelligencer, 2006, B1, B5. citizens. rights, law"). [15] "settled" 8-9, 23. memorandum OCR, existed agreement, "desire incovenience [sic] expense investigation," obligated initiate complaint. Rights, Welfare 11978); §80.7(c) [16] assumption," 25-27, proceeded now-rejected review. 1965). STEVENS adopt, relevance 202a tiebreaker). STEVENS's 729 (1967), dism'd, curiam), 3-5, inapposite inapposite; specify goaland suggestionwhich lawthat heavier justification." Mass., 700, 734 passage quotes point; language committee "shall imbalance." 695, 731; approves disposition belied saw cite dismissal afforded perhapsfor above believes [17] downplay "students criteria)." cease, 137a-139a. disincentives quarter sheds handled. paradigmatic Petitioners Bolling Sharpe, 28-30 (cataloging races); (listing "Statutory Constitutional Provisions Institutionalized"). reverently "`integration.' There-fore, "integrate" "hard-won gains" conflation gain trivializes accomplishment. aesthetics hypersensitivity sensibilities II-B, inherent underlies infuses Constitution" disestablishment Assessed manner, two. facto. seem. difficult, adopt. fits comfortably framework. Georgia's "[s]eparate Art. §1, ch. 2-6401 (1948). dis-establish system." elsewhere, exceptional. 124-125 Sustained resistance (like mixing) mandate, forever insulated temporary dictates Constitution." material, scholarly article relating 73-75, cast organizations filings 7-9, 214a, 225a, 257a. resolving 2000). done, "ha[d] effects." "incoherent," 56, daywhile remedyingand nextwhen finished. seemingly odd turnaround jealously guarded Clause's decisis, 65, ironic willingness depart originate Adarand. "rest[s] race" "subjected `most Korematsu 323 214, 216 (1944)); McLaughlin Florida, 379 196 (1964) (requiring "necessary, rationally related, accomplishment policy"); articles causal mixing. (1998). pages cites, remarks perform academically learn. advantages provide." 744. proxy truly shocking dereliction appear undercut 2004-to-2005 race-neutral) expect contingent mix. Card, http://reportcard.ospi.k12.wa.us/summary.aspx?schoolId= 1099&OrgType=4&reportLevel=School; http://reportcard.ospi.k12.wa.us/ summary.aspx?schoolId=1104&reportLevel=School&orgLinkId=1104&yrs=; http://reportcard.ospi.k12.wa.us/summary.aspx?schoolId=1061&report Level=School&orgLinkId=1061&yrs=; summary.aspx?schoolId=1043&reportLevel=School&orgLinkId=1043& yrs= (showing up, ended Sealth Ingraham Schoolsome plan). accuses "feel[ing] criteria" chastises deferring majorities. 62. sit "create Americans" "troubled schooling." engineers. perceived defer majorities escape behind veil modesty hides inflated Judiciary. confers sorts invidious. (based detect), Only majority. one's "democratic" interest) restricted 351-354 minted liberty. Lochner 198 (1905) (Holmes, Herbert Spencer's Statics"). Wygant. teacher-layoff theory `role models' `diverse' Respondents, 84-1340, 27-28; dissenting)). layoff 275-276 295 (White, cooperation, Outside understanding. prison inmates racially. 525-528 "numerous incidents violence." 502; 532-534 538-547, prisons killed. Beard Banks, 548 concuring killed injured rioting Johnson). [18] discussing element," repeats "sufficiently compelling." Strict Chevron-style reasonableness. Chevron Natural Resources Defense 467 845 (1984). [19] half-heartedly attacks underpinnings quarrel slaves members. 71-72 (1873)). discriminationindeed, Race-based 1860's 1870's [20] Juris. ("[W]e unqualified stripped action"); citizens"); field"). [21] outlaw legislatures"); important"); situation, strife made"); abolition "contrary customs, mores generations, fiercely irrevocably Accord, ("Today, faced"); (emphasizing "local circumstances" encouraging needs" "40-year history" approaches schools"); boards"). [22] ("`It universally itself, observance liberties field education'" 98 529, 532 (SC 1951))); ("Local self-government affairs happiness stability Nowhere education"); 54-55 ("What fiber competent? activities hearts young? wishes colored, ascertained unwelcome contact?"). ("[L]ocal pupils"); ("[W]hat boards?"); "that leeway"). [23] thousands Courts?"); delicate paramount tranquility solved otherwise"). calm"); ("Indeed, not"); (predicting "further conflict"). [24] Opposing Jurisdiction conclusively raised appellants"); 46-47 ample segregation"); Gebhart Belton, ("Respondents upset Legislatures, Courts, federal, years"); ("But may, somewhere, sometime moment repose announced, confidently upon, disturbance. times, pronounced doctrine. sixteen eighteen passed vis-a-vis 1862 Columbia"); D (collecting "[w]hich [e]nunciate [p]rinciple [s]tate [l]aws [p]roviding [r]acial [s]egregation [p]ublic [s]chools [c]onflict Amendment"). culture" ("Lower Swann"); ("Numerous follow"); "how principle"); guidance"); ("[T]oday's communities"); ("And [25] 16-17 inconsistencies answered'" Railway Express Agency, 336 110 (1949))); solve; realm abstract principles"); ("[Y]ou talk vacuum discussion"), document"). [26] abandoning feasible"), passes, end"), ways"); ("[E]ach plans"); "historically-diminishing districts). [27] benign. invidious? benign, 83 [South Carolina] color. happiness, welfare promoted 82-83 hours investigation confirmation Virginia's offend living races"); ("[T]o transition, doing, propose uplift advancement progress, onward sweep"). blindly [28] 8-9 urged [these policies] consequence expressions persuasive, controlling. legislate experimentally fields, tests met"); 18-19 truth equalitarian tantamount saying vindication enjoyment postponed postponement desirable"). [29] complicated stop? mixed? relocate together? "established disproportionately another"? 749 contours propounds beholder. [30] intentions, doubt, shelf tenure. dissenters, delegate responsibilities BREYER's. Federalist 51, Cooke 1961) men angels, necessary"). Website contained racism": "Those overtly covertly attribute normality whiteness, devalue, stereotype, `other,' different, than, render invisible. norms skin tones nude flesh orientation, emphasizing ideology, English ." B1. removed, offered comforting clarification "`to melting pot mentality.'" sent delegation "White Privilege Conference." Equity Conference, https://www.seattleschools. org/area/equityandrace/whiteprivilegeconference.xml. conference participant privilege" invisible package unearned assets cashing day, oblivious. weightless knapsack provisions, maps, passports, codebooks, visas, clothes, tools, blank checks." Questions Answers, http://www.uccs.edu/~wpc/ faqs.htm; Westneat, Obsessed B1 Le Lys Rouge (The Red Lily) (W. Stephens transl. 6th 1922). Bakke ("Everyone deliver centuries bondage"); Lawfulness Decisions, 421, 424-425 ("History, consent invited required. kept going wayan incontrovertible hardly consorts equality"). adhered 243, 248, 316 focus playgrounds, persons. dispel illusion exclusion twice confining wrongdoing class. 539. "ask Board[s'] actions[s] advanc[e] ("In guilty employing future"). 261-262 importantly subcontractors"). municipality Whenever notice committee, copy `The sharply section, exist cent excess fifty school.'" 731. 1954"), 1967, 67-759, implicit impermissible endorsing classical 539: `Our citizens' 1948 codified §1257, 929; repealed 662. Boston, unpublished ("Unlike Amendment"); shortly dismissed extensively acted Boston. 599-600, ("Too, January (Mass. 1967) 729, `for question.' 572").

Category: 1