Document: 403 U.S. 124 91 S.Ct. 1858 29 L.Ed.2d 363 Edgar D. WHITCOMB, Governor of the State Indiana, Appellant,v.Patrick CHAVIS et al. No. 92. Argued Dec. 8, 1970. Decided June 7, 1971. Syllabus This suit was brought by residents Marion and Lake Counties, challenging state statutes establishing County as a multi-member district for election senators representatives. It alleged, first, that laws invidiously diluted votes Negroes poor persons living in 'ghetto area' County, second, voters multimember districts were overrepresented since true test voting power is ability to cast tie-breaking vote, had greater theoretical opportunity such than singlemember districts. The tendency legislators vote bloc alleged compound this discrimination. three-judge court, though not ruling squarely on second claim, determined racial minority group with specific legislative interests inhabited ghetto area Indianapolis, County; operated minimize cancel out strength group; redistricting alone would leave impermissible variations between others State, thus requiring statewide redistricting, which could await 1970 census figures. court held unconstitutional, gave until October 1, 1969, enact reapportionment legislation. No legislation ensued, drafted plan using single-member throughout State. elections ordered be accordance new plan. Court granted stay judgment pending final action appeal, permitting under condemned statutes. Under those statutes, based 1960 census, there maximum variance population senate 28.20%, ratio largest smallest 1.327 house 24.78%, 1.279 1. Held: reversed case remanded. 305 F.Supp. 1364, Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion respect Parts I—VI, finding that: 1 Although, advised 1971, Indiana legislature enacted apportionment providing state-wide districts, moot. Pp. 140—141. 2 2. validity justiciable, but challenger has burden proving unconstitutionally operate dilute or political groups. 141—144. 3 3. actual, distinguished from theoretical, impact individual been sufficiently demonstrated record warrant departure prior cases involving neither findings below nor sustains view overrepresent their compared even if delegation tends voting. 144—148. 4 4. Appellees' claim fact number who proportionate proves invidious discrimination, notwithstanding absence evidence less participate process, valid, malproportion due voters' choices losing contests. 148—155. 5 5. trial court's conclusion that, unique interests, underrepresented lack own voice, supported findings. Moreover, assuming county contrary majority's wishes, no constitutional violation, situation inheres whether single- multi-member. P. 155. 6 6. Multi-member have proved inherently violative equal protection, but, unconstitutionality, it clear remedy system lines drawn ensure representation all sizable racial, ethnic, economic, religious 156 160. 7 7. District erred brushing aside entire policy without solid equitable grounds doing so, considering more limited alternatives. 160—161. 8 WHITE, joined Chief Justice, BLACK, BLACKMUN, concluded, Part VII, improper order basis excessive variances shown record. That because shifts its 1965 decision upholding statutory disparties intervening decisions Court. 179—180. 9 DOUGLAS, BRENNAN MARSHALL, current plan, also variances, redistricting. 10 William F. Thompson, Ind., appellant. 11 James Manahan, appellees. 12 (Parts I—VI), together an (Part VII), THE CHIEF JUSTICE, BLACKMUN propriety ordering announced 13 We before us Equal Protection Clause districting apportioning general assembly elections. principal issue centers provisions constituting includes city electing 14 * bicameral consisting representatives 100 members 50 members. Eight 31 senatorial 25 39 are is, represented two elected at large district.1 here challenged, eight 15 house. On January 9, six five whom filed described them 'attacking constitutionality provide General Assembly seats *.'2 Plaintiffs3 Chavis, Ramsey, Bryant force effect within certain tracts what termed 'the area.' Residents particular demographic characteristics rendering cognizable interest distinctive areas substantive law. With districting, said, elect three one senator, whereas present 'have almost control over cancelled other groups' County. mechanism party organization influence chairmen nominating candidates additional factors frustrate exercise area. 16 Plaintiff Walker, Negro resident smaller one, discrimination against Negroes, although Negroes.4 one-third larger approximately voter does vary inversely 23 assemblymen disproportionate advantage County.5 remaining plaintiffs presented claims here.6 17 A convened tried 18, 1969. Both documentary oral testimony taken concerning composition area, manner chosen residence tenure, performance County's assembly.7 18 containing conclusions July 28, holding plaintiffs. Chavis v. Whitcomb, 1364 (SD Ind.1969). See 1359 (1969) (pre-trial orders) 307 1362 (statewide implementing order). In sum, concluded must disestablished and, disparities directly related phenomena complaint, redistricted. More particularly, first identifiable Indianapolis.8 located northern half Center Township 'Center ghetto,' comprised 28 contiguous parts four others.9 contained 1967 97,000 nonwhites, 99% 35,000 whites. proceeded compare these tracts, representative tract 211, predominantly white, relatively wealthy suburban Washington northwest corner 220, Township, middle class Negroes. Strong differences found terms housing conditions, income educational levels, rates unemployment, juvenile crime, welfare assistance. contrasting inhabitants hand 211 220 indicated ghetto's 'compelling urban renewal rehabilitation, health care, employment training opportunities, welfar, relief poor, law enforcement, quality education, anti-discrimination measures.' F.Supp., 1380. These addition shared rest county, metropolitan transportation, flood control, sewage disposal, education. 19 then turned showing residences each assemblies during period through 1968.10 Excluding district, located, average 13.98% population, 47.52% 34.33% 17.8% 4.75% 5.97% non-ghetto 23.32% done little better. Also, alone, only 0.66% county's once—in 1964 senator—and times—with 1962 1968 assembly. 'Negro Ghetto population' senator 'were districts' 1385. From data gross inequity representation, legislators, other. 20 characterized tending coalesce take common positions proposed 'largely result constituency, obviates substantial, minority, constituency.' Ibid. Related rule, candidate unless his carried election;11 organizations substantial selection lection (an diminished districting), well upon actions assembly; at-large made difficult conscientious make rational selection. 21 merits may summarized follows: 22 There exists element, Ghetto,' special various law, diverging significantly nonresidents ghetto.12 minimized strong exercised parties candidates, inability assure themselves prospective choice any accountable voters. 24 Party nominations, know responsibility legislator diverge majority effective interests. Although arguably responsible voters, including ghetto, '(p)artial responsiveness (not) (to) total informed concern few legislators.'13 26 they relate group, namely residing deprive protection laws. 27 As subdistricted insure distribution comprises both senate. (See Burns Richardson, 384 73, 88, 86 1286, 1294, 376 (1966).) To redistrict Statewide required, figures estimated available year. 8. possible comply requirement prohibiting crossing dividing counties apportionment14 still meet requirements adumbrated recent cases.15 30 9. Walker's he discriminated while deemed untenable. capacity, Walker 'probably received representation' 'he fewer therefore, speak him,' theory 'critical' votes. But declined hold latter ground proved, absent County.16 respect-consideration given uniform principle reapportioning assembly.17 Turning proper remedy, essential. recognizing complaint directed thought act indicating required reapportionment.18 Judgment withheld respects, however, give remedying malapportionment exist court.19 so 'might wish consideration principles proceedings.' Id., 1391. First, eschewed indication entitled legislators—districts should eye color blind, sophisticated gerrymandering countenanced. Second, keep mind inhering deciding election. Referring bloc-voting, delegations disproportionately application here.' 'as member whole, voice legislature, having him comparable voter' district. Single-member thought, equalize among avoiding diluting groups therefore recommended making apportionment.20 32 15, judicially noticed called reapportion Following further hearings examination plans submitted parties, adopted followed plaintiffs' suggested scheme, said protect legally dilution strength.' 1362, 1365 employed crossed where necessary, judicial notice location nonwhite expressly aimed giving 'recognition whose grievance lead (sic) litigation.' 1366. 33 enjoined officials conducting existing prepared court. Jurisdiction retained pass future unconstitutionality apportionments State.21 34 Appeal following we noted probable jurisdiction, 397 984, 90 1112, 1125, 392 (1970), State's motion our case, 396 1055, 748, 757 declared unconstitutional Legislature passed, signed, soon become 1972 provides II 35 long past appearance abolishing mootness emerges. Neither deems mooted events. Appellees, below, urge appeal dismissed moot vacated, practice cases, outstanding invalidating conflict provision forbidding division purpose senators. If invalidated courts respect, argued involved litigation simply reappear decision. attorney appellant, taking somewhat different tack, urges jurisdiction legality subsequent purpose, others, determining remedied, arise Indiana. 36 agree central issues decided. do not, details Court, event revision light III 37 line Gray Sanders, 372 368, 83 801, 821 (1963), Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 84 506 (1964), Kirkpatrick Preisler, 394 526, 89 1225, 519 (1969), Wells Rockefeller, 542, 1234, 535 recognizes 'representative government essence self- medium people, every citizen inalienable right full participation processes bodies.' U.S., 565, S.Ct., 1383. Since most citizens find qualified representatives, '(f)ull requires, equally legislature.' Hence, schemes 'which same unequal numbers constituents,' 563, 1382, value And hence houses apportioned basis.' 568, 38 question pressed modern cases. questions focused population-based afforded Lucas Forty-Fourth Colorado, 713, 1459, 632 decided undesirable features intimation 'that subdivision, constitutionally defective.' 731 n. 21, 1471. Subsequently, when such, presented, per se illegal Clause. Fortson Dorsey, 379 433, 85 498, 401 (1965); (1966); Kilgarlin Hill, 386 120, 87 820, 771 (1967). Burnette Davis, 382 42, 181, Harrison Schaefer, 383 269, 929, 750 (1966).22 far latter. systems subject challenge circumstances 'operate elements population.' Fortson, 439, 501, Burns, 1294. Such tendency, enhanced elects proportion either lacks running geographical subdistricts, Fortson. insisted carry elements. yet sustained attack. IV Plaintiffs level quite distinct challenges charge bestows several advantages allegation illegally minimizes cancels considered former persuasive factor prescribing uniform, basic scheme 40 asserting outside recognize assumption suffered placed times another cured allocating instead assigned level. They demonstrate mathematically size increase increased gives undue chances determine outcomes consequence obtains wholly effectiveness later furnished successful candidates. did quarrel mathematics, we. like note position remains one23 witness conceded, knowingly avoids 'not into account might affect actual residents, include affiliation, race, previous go situation.'24 real-life demonstrated, least record, 41 impressed branch discriminate assertion whatever choosing be, nevertheless reasons. least, critical represent tend bloc, tantamount votes.25 sustain position,26 appears eliminated 1368—1383. 42 ready, wherever exist, plural itself unduly enhances district's day-to-day operation legislature. it, posited. 43 fashioning relief, appeared embrace idea bloc-voting fail deal Legislature. Nor showing. tended occur defendants' advantageous stick together. nothing demonstrates counted anything generally. advantage, blocvoting develop representing widely scattered State.27 Of course start bill. shows suggests skirmish affecting come differently 44 Rather unacceptable outstate favor struck down worked segment others. identified substantive-law populous likely consisted districts.28 major deficiencies approach. 45 needs emphasis Civil War Amendments designed civil rights vigilant scrutinizing allegedly conceived purposeful devices hesitation striking contrivances can fairly infringe Fourteenth Amendment rights. Sims Baggett, 247 96 (MD Ala. 1965); Smith Paris, 257 901 1966), aff'd, F.2d 979 (CA5 1967); see Gomillion Lighfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110 (1960). Allen Board Elections, 393 544, 817, (1969). suggestion similar economic concede, 'there minorities.' Brief Appellees (Plaintiffs) 28—29. Accordingly, lie reach supra. 46 satisfactorily prove choice. discovered allowed register choose desired support, affairs occasions chosen. purport show regularly excluded slates denying chance occupying seats.29 reasonably Republican won 1968, voted heavily Democratic success. cannot sure facts ignored question, seems unlikely afford overlook slating candidates.30 Clearly, 1964—the Democrats won—the slated plaintiff.31 failed slate satisfactory years. Absent sure, reasonable infer them, justifiable complaints about representation. Republicans, always candidates—although nominated area.32 failure populations emerges function built-in bias 'cancelled out' held, euphemism defeat polls. 47 comes this: results along Democrats, suffers disaster too many typical American district-oriented, head-on races parties. wins, lose. Arguably candidates' supporters men defeated; denied own. denial deny so-called 'safe' wins year after 48 Plainly, saw unlawful created Republicans predictably safe seats, political, minorities being 'unrepresented' consequences flowing viewed differently. Conceding delegation, just winning candidate, partial allegiance equivalent undivided representatives; influencing significant guarantee representatives.33 adequately some reserved serving majority. whites lost, Party, or, conversely, years defeat? think not. mere concerned outcome outvoted invoking remedies where, here, access system. 49 gap reasoning. measurably differ Presumably respects ghetto. matters, necessarily community views. difficulty support it. Plaintiffs' purported disregard interests; defendants claimed contrary. recurring situations indicate wishes majority, follow violated discriminatory platforms extent predetermine issues. tendencies inherent surely visit precisely views rejected V 51 Court's holding, guaranteeing easily contained. expressive proposition halls numerous enough command seat represents compact constitute district.34 approach reject live another, year, submerged one-sided vote.35 union oriented workers, university community, ethnic heterogeneous cities areas. Indeed, great many, most, survive analysis combined arrangement proportional cumulative interests.36 At very affirmance spawn endless now country.37 52 insensitive objections voiced plans.38 prevalent early history, colonial much adoption Amendment.39 Criticism rooted winner-take-all aspects, submerge party's electoral position, preference legislatures reflecting closely disenchantment settle contending intraparty fights issue-oriented seemed inadequate minorities, economic; rather, heard forum public finally fashioned. view, experience insight Amendment. Surely problems unbearable carefully capacity overrepresenting underrepresenting short unprepared district-based plurality them. presently misconceived applying invalidate VI 53 Even correct explain why compelled disestablish intrude necessary entered putting supportable alternative creating leaving otherwise intact, possibility satisfied simple reside Cf. 54 likewise loss understand how justified eliminating forthrightly detriment residents. examine intradistrict 55 remedial powers equity adequate task, unlimited. Here broadly so. VII 56 time, defendant's wrong reapportionment. After reapportionment, 'it becomes beyond adduced set forth Supreme call Assembly.' evidence, figures, showed Senate 20, 80,496, 13.68% 5, 106,790, 14.52%, 28.20% similar. variation ranged 41,449 53,003 35, 24.78% 1.40 excess of, nearly to, 25.65% 1.30 legislatures41 Swann Adams, 385 440, 569, 501 convincing malapportionment, refrained allow session When suggestion, time companion decided.42 Maryland Committee Fair Representation Tawes, 656, 673, 1429, 1438, 595 (1964). 57 accept argument attack met 'substantial equality' Reynolds. Stout Bottorff, 249 488 Ind.1965). Defendant argue 1969 acceptable test, considerably refined decision, contends decennial 'rational approach' problem, once 10-year period. reading misconstrues thrust respect. Decennial presumptively method avoid 'daily, monthly, annual biennial reapportionment' shifted State.43 Here, permissible excessive. 58 reverse remand proceedings consistent opinion. 59 ordered. 60 61 STEWART joins I opinion, violate He dissents reasons expressed dissenting 744, 1477, 632. 62 table included findings: 63 APPENDIX TO OPINION OF COURT TABLE NO. 7Separate HARLAN. Earlier Term remarked evident malaise Court' field qualifications Oregon Mitchell, 400 112, 218, 260, 312, 272 (1970) (separate writer). Today's opinions decided1 confirm diagnosis. Past local governmental units equality practicable,' Hadley Junior College District, 50, 56, 791, 795, practicable' standard Wesberry 7—8, 529—530, 481 congressional forbade 6%. Today 12% variation. Abate Mundt, 182, 1904, 399. Other constituencies 'under (1966). holds reason, 'misconceived Clause.' Ante, Prior stated 'once specified, way evaded.' 381, 809, (1963); 59, 796, (1970). opponents school bond again proponents. Gordon Lance, supra, 1889. justifies wondrous relying combinations factors. Mundt relies need flexibility arrangements, preserving integrity subdivisions, longstanding tradition behind New York's finds elementary probability simplistic guide resolution essentially practical power; history country fear 'affirmance 157. Lance 'federal analogy' prevalence anti-majoritarian constitutions States. my relevance considerations foregoing undeniable unanswerable. marvel, dismissed, singly combination, began ended best understood, think, reflections deep personal commitments pure majoritarian democracy. strain nonconstitutional sources clearly revealed Brother Douglas, speaking said: 'The conception Declaration Independence, Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Fifteenth, Seventeenth, Nineteenth mean thing—one person, vote.' philosophy majoritarianism head, led today, nature regards rule imperative social organization, compromise furtherance merely ends. ignores overcomes Constitution democracy, federal republics, subordinate body face. generally Baker Carr, 369 186, 297—324, 82 691, 753 767, 663 (1962) (Frankfurter, J., dissenting). implicitly rejects supplied earlier referred regarded good help. conclusory 'debasement' 'dilution' 'voting power' 'representation' explanation concepts are. answers hardly apparent, observes today: 'As year.' 153. coherent realistic notion meant restrained extreme lengths gone pursuit will-o'-the-wisp 'one man, An interesting illustration implausible definition shed doctrine provided model Professor Banzhaf, refers ante, 144—146.2 uses measure will ballot Two assumptions made: habits electorate alike; him. assumptions, roughly 300,000, voter's casting decisive .00146. compared. Multi-Member Electoral Districts—Do Violate 'One Man, One Vote' Principle, 75 Yale L.J. 1309 However, Banzhaf's reveals minor results. For instance, temper changes one-half percent,3 individual's reduced 1,000,000. Or 300,000 committed—say 15,000 10,000 B4—the rough 120,000,000,000,000,000,000. Obviously comparison astronomical characteristics, effects 28% de minimis, deviations norm (1962), Avery Midland 390 474, 88 1114, (1968), pale insignificance.5 surprising declines Banzhaf. considers purports equalizing. 2, Instead enmeshed haze slogans numerology obscured vision field, remands 'for (its) opinion.' 163. inexplicit mandate interpretation inquire matters Legislature,' 147, 'recurring 155, 'any districts.' 148. appropriate subjects inquiry, readily mind. implicit appellees ultimately prevail recognized is: manifestation frustration trapped 'political thicket' looking out. complete vindication Frankfurter's warning nine ago 'of mathematical quagmire (apart divers inappropriate elusive determinants) today catapults lower country.' 268, 738, (dissenting opinion). bears morass gotten departing sound field. Frankfurter separate 589, 1395, 152, 279, hope day frankly error ways ever undertaken restructure processes. directions dismiss complaint. MARSHALL concur, part concurring part. 'no Senatorial apportionment, shall divided.' Art. 4, § implemented senators, large. contains townships Indianapolis. lawsuit commenced require subdivision practiced Certain contended deprived county. 'ghetto': 'A primarily residential section higher relative density substandard overall socioeconomic status prevailing often social, legal, restrictions custom.' 1373. Applying extensive Township. contrasted House 1960. senators; came 67 concluded: Townships apparent *. upper middle-class 14.64% 52.27% 41.79% 41.14% (approximately large), 9.51% (less one-fifth Township) 17.91% three-sevenths Township).' element severely minimized, minimization occurred virtue exert nomination process black unable assured '(u)nder continue 1399. Based acts enforcement. newly necessary. divided despite 6, Constitution. seven eighth Johnson Morgan Counties. mandated conducted approved passing promulgated. stayed order. 757. months ample merits. Now taken. compulsion decree certainly says, underlying case. (absent stay) used. retain attempt apply applied 584, 1393, 506. amended undo harm. By amendment requires consecutive assemblies; ratified vote. 16, 'an enumeration male age twenty-one years' Then next session, according above 21. fell disuse last 1921 663, time. Matthews Handley, 179 470 (ND Ind. 1959); Fruit Metropolitan School 241 621, 172 N.E.2d 864. constitution. Parker ex rel. Powell, 133 178, N.E. 836. initially sections immediately thereafter, remain unaltered census. S.J.Res. 26, Acts c. 464. 1971 Apportionment Act (2d Spec.Sess.), Census accepted correct. passed forthcoming. plain violation constitution obvious impetus outside.1 Federal 1393. Mooting accomplish nothing. void back beginning lawsuit. controversy alive reason wait decide growing determination happen vacate round issue. Indiana's date enactment—1851. change. lasts. 'to type meeting standards, State.' Accordingly redistricted State.2 intertwined. stated, 'portions relating County' severable partially erroneous let erroneous. involves State; properly 401, 1236, 535, gerrymander 'constitutionally impermissible.' gerrymander3 assembly—one vote—would seem (1) (2) avoidance weigh race another. done—and done—by astute drawing makes be. Lines weak strong, problem circumvent sentiments community. prevent Harlan computer grind totally popular overwhelming issues.' 551, 1240 (dissenting). easy device gerrymander. blacks. Lightfoot, U.s. 110, dealt intentionally exclude converse problem. surround white Gomillion, turning Tuskegee square uncouth twenty-eight-sided figure,' 340, 126, elevating Georgia's unit similar, factor. Georgia farmer rural up 99 urbandwelling brother. 821. operates 'upper-middle wealthy' suburbanites. motivation dealing 1294; 401. old harmony 1851 constitution, racially motivated, effects. Hunter Erickson, 385, 557, 616. ordinance regulating sale lease realty Thus, became difficult. agency disadvantage unconstitutional. 501. muster. doubts Dorsey resolved 506, satisfied, 'only 'designedly otherwise' (such operate) went suggest proof met. 'It if, contrast relation appropriately characterize rather one.' Between (Marion) (Lake) 26% controlled. subdistricting Dusch 387 1554, 656. used demanded appear demand severe discrepancies residency Townships, cf. Brennan, 187, 1908, 399, (3) pervasive (4) maintain 'common, undifferentiated' issues.4 Little spent already demands showed, Supremacy And, finally, exemplary. 1.017 1.020 tomorrow, ideological. agree. Our voting; Fifteenth says 'abridged' 'race, color, condition servitude.' Carr never intimated vote' 'race' gerrymandered, emphasizes irrelevant blacks known. Republican; identity purposely washed system, defect. asking impossible discourage joining chose. 'abridged,' read job, bringing problems. fault stating aspects considered. acted earnestly boldly festering revise cause sense update contribution enormous abiding initiative Sims. affirm judgment. indicated, shortly announcement superseded recently signed Governor. moot, evident, proceeds undisturbed attacked, 3, appearing Ind.Ann.Stat. §§ 34—102 34—104 I.C.1971, 2—1—1—3, 2—1 2—3, '34—102. representatives.—Representatives Twenty-sixth County: fifteen (15) *.' '34—104. senators.—Senators District—Marion (8) 1966.' Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 23(b). 1359, 1363 17, infra. defendant Whitcomb refer stood 'in sufficient negro change held.' detail 23, '(b)oth sole matter committees, typically other.' App. 15. Marilyn Hotz, she suburdan belt lying precincts indiviously her Rowland Allan (spelled 'Allen' opinion), independent voter, meaningful judgments confronted list party. arguments urged largely potential canceled opposing unrepresentative assemblymen. 1922, exceptions; geographically subdistricted, whichever countywide better whole fragmented parochial jealousies. unreliable opposed pleadings evidence. defined restriction custom. congruent omitted included. 1379—1381. differing substantially remainder unmistakably 'does ghettoized portion complaint.' 1380—1381. 'randomly selected typify Township,' id., 1374, except inhabitants, configuration Appendix post, p. 164. example importance affiliation 'winner all' Representatives election, 64 Democrats................ Votes Republicans........ Neff................ 151,822 Cox............... 144,336 Bridwell............ 151,756 Hadley............ 144,235 Murphy.............. 151,746 Baker............. 144,032 Dean................ 151,702 Burke............. 143,989 Creedon............. 151,573 Borst............. 143,972 Jones............... 151,481 Madinger.......... 143,918 DeWitt.............. 151,449 Clark............. 143,853 Logan............... 151,360 Bosma............. 143,810 Roland.............. 151,343 Brown............. 143,744 Walton.............. 151,282 Durnil............ 143,588 Huber............... 151,268 Gallagher......... 143,553 Costello............ 151,153 Cope.............. 143,475 Fruits.............. 151,079 Elder............. 143,436 Lloyd............... 150,862 Zerfas............ 143,413 Ricketts............ 150,797 Allen............. 143,369 65 Though 1/2 million House, high low varied thousand show, lost 48.69% Exhibit 10. (379 401) Richardson (384 376), Ghetto. regulations, sanitation, programs (aid families dependent children, medical etc.), garnishment unemployment compensation, Ghetto.' 1386. implicitly, expressly, witnesses, professor science, served sitting team large, split Article provides: Representative composed counties; (Emphasis added.) 'In status, plaintiff resides principle, discussed infra section, probably also, theoretically, casts decline stronger dilution, 1390. behalf belt, Allan, voter. resided Ramsey Only Bryant, recognition standing sue prayed for. appealed injunction denied, dismissed. Gunn University Committee, 399 383, 2013, 684 discussion 1391—1392. elections: staggering expire years, entirely valid mandatory legislatively devised 'However, herein provisional applicable 2-year completed interim, hand, conceivable event, fifty redistricts itself. province 4-year reinstate terms.' 1367. 'select senator' subdistrict exactly senator. 'Each (sub) tenure depends county-wide serve people home district; senator.' 438, 'operate(d) 66 presented. Burnette, summarily affirmed ruling, Mann 245 (E.D.Va. 1965), upheld Richmond, Va., Henrico weight suburbanites adherence Similarly, Schaefer Thomson, 251 450 (Wyo.1965), Wyoming splitting minimum. 68 vacated extraordinary circumstances. demonstration record.' 69 Kilgarlin, affirmed, curiam, 70 'insofar appellants allegations (the Texas plan) violating Amendment, franchise utilization singlemember, floterial 'crazy quilt." 121, backbone n alternatives (candidates), 2n combinations. example, A, B, C, X Y, combinations: 71 B C #1. #2. Y #3. #4. #5. #6. #7. #8. 72 hypothesizes tie-breaking, note. above, situations; situations, 73 (n-1)! n-1 ! 74 Dividing (critical votes) (possible combinations), arrives fraction theory's power. K 4/8, 50%. L 140/512, 28%. Conventional wisdom three. theory, 1/3 powerful K, powerful. deserves causes therein overrepresented. fuller Tr. 39. brief issue: presentation rise crucial significance.' 14. Weighted Voting Doesn't Work: Mathematical Analysis, Rutgers L.Rev. 317 (1965). urban-rural talked about. Antagonistic camps perhaps overemphasized. White & Thomas, Urban Rural Legislative Apportionment, W.Pol.Q. 724 Legislation uniquely routinely agreement encounter insuperable difficulties internally. Kovach, Some Lessons Reapportionment, Reporter (Sept. 1967). 1960—1968, township, names parties' 1920 1968. 1960—1968 exhibit 1960; 1962; 1964; 1966; designations exhibit, hearsay. (Plaintiffs), indicates 76 '(O)ne 'mini-slating conventions' purposes All subsequently primary. Black 77 conventions 'districts' contain small overwhelmingly defeated campaigned skin color. districts,' avowed commitment poor.' 78 1964. Ibid.; 131 (Ramsey), (Bryant). 79 figure testified 80 'Q. your experience, Mrs. Allen, aren't tickets put County? 'A. Yes. Among groups, others? you 5B representatives' homes primary, somehow reflect faction family, interest? Yes, does, explain. may. Back 1966, real primary fight Action real, areas, felt man slate, lived myself feel ready run office hiatus believe family historical ties Area, Committee's achieve geographical, economical diversity ticket. can't say successful, attempts. hard driving effort Committees place Township; not? over-all drive. has, ignored.' 145—148. 92 lawyer chairman, 256; ward chairman longtime precinct committeeman, 77. ibid. addition, (1960), (1960, 1968) (three 1962, 1966) nonghetto asserted comparative approaches contention. authorities cited 38, infra, particularly piece Kovach series studies Collins, Dauer, David, Lacy, Mauer. course, witnesses differed E.G., 209—214, 223—229, 235—238, 256—258. David Eisenberg study, rigid insistence proved. prefer thereby minimizing acknowledged shortcomings each. generally, suspense definitive long-range output. Sokolow, Reapportionment: Numbers Policies?, W.Pol.Q.Supp. T. Dye, Politics, Economics, Public 260—277 Lockard, Politics Local Government 290—293 ed. 1969). Interestingly enough, Wright 52, 603, 512 limit proof, 'some intervenors strenuously kind origin, unconstitutional.' 57—58, 606. workings minority,' 'always shut wins. 254. 11, discussions Dixon, 516—527; Black, Theory Elections Constituencies, Can. J. Economics Pol.Sci. 158 (1949); Silva, Relation System Number Seats Apportioned 742, 744 seq. (1964); S. Bedford, Faces (1961); E. Lakeman Lambert, Voting, Democracies (1959); Blair, Cumulative Voting: Effective Device Illinois Ill. Studies Social Sciences November 1970, 46% 62% States National Municipal League, Nineteen Sixties (Rev.Nov.1970). 1955, reported 33% 75%, respectively. Klain, Look Constituencies: Need Recount Reappraisal, Am.Pol.Sci.Rev. 1105 (1955). phenomenon speculative, doubt switched decisions. decisions, Vermont's 1109. resulted colorful town 33,155 1962. Sixties, pt. I(b). Reapportioned Reynolds, Buckley Hoff, 243 873 (D.C., Vt. 1965). Reapportionment credited Maryland's Burdette, debated unchallenged. treatment see: R. Representation: Law 461—463, 470—472, 476—490, 503—507 (1968); Eisenberg, Redistricting: Major Issues Wake Judicial Decision (1962); Barnett, Unitary-Multiple Election Districts, (1945); Compared Values Singleand 504 Hamilton, Floterial 321 (1967) (includes Indiana); 742 Lindquist, Socioeconomic Status Political Participation, 608 (1955); M. A. G. Mauer, Evolving Patterns Redistricting Large Areas Interesting material debates surrounding passage 1842 statute 39, were, surprisingly, pre-Civil debates, congressmen submergence voting, shows, apprehensions ones. See, e.g., CongGlobe, 27th Cong., 2d Sess., 445—448, 452 453, 463—464. days, '(m)ultiple single ones exception,' '(f)or century Independence states lawmakers multiple constituencies.' 1113. trend toward ago, 37, 20; 504. 1842, Congress 25, Stat. 491. substance continued Rev.Stat. 1929. 1941, prescribed 'if elected,' redistricted, decrease exceeds apportioned, Nov. 762, amending 22(c) 1929, 27, U.S.C. 2a(c). 1967, reinstated requirement, 'except Ninety-first Congress.' 581, 2c, (1964 ed., Supp. V). Hawaii exception. districted 92d Congress. 12—32.5 (Supp.1969). regulate prohibit Health Vital Statistics estimates 36.83% 37.30%. base interim however. 13.096%, respectively, unwarranted Const., Defendants concede '(t)he violation' drew 'without meaningfully considered' dictates Appellant (Defendant) 49. true. 'would strive preserve township lines' possible, 'difficulty devising framework (of equality) precluded preservation lines.' none consideration, leaders caucus committee, 57—137, 198 228. careful 'we intimate frequent practicably desirable.' 1960-69 b Avg. Pop. Residence Percentage Legislators Senators Elected (By Average Population 60- Area) Twp. excluding Tract 220.......... 103,615 13.98 220...... 4,866 0.66 0 Ghetto............. 172,876 23.32 Ghetto.. 132,000 17.81 Pike Twp............. 11,031 1.49 Wayne Twp........... 105,961 14.30 Decatur Twp.......... 13,755 1.86 Perry Twp............ 59,778 8.07 Franklin 8,929 1.21 Lawrence Twp......... 49,553 6.69 Warren 78,872 10.64 County....... 741,234 (100%) ----------- ..............TABLE CONTINUED Percent 1960-68 Total 47.52................. 34.33 4.75................... 7.46 11.94 5.97 0...................... 10.45 2.99 19.01.................. 4.48 9.51................... 13.44 (100%).................. 11111515567 399; 1889, 273. mathematics,' implies situation." 145, 146. Precisely criticism applies, force, relevant difference arithmetic Banzhaf calculations one's fingers. precisely, follows altered prohability selecting 50.5% text assumes 275,000 B. 'There something fascinating science. gets wholesale returns conjecture trifling investment fact.' Mark Twain, Life Mississippi 109 (Harper Row., Wallace, Indiana: Case History, Ind.L.J. apportionment. promulgated Tyler Wells, Gerrymander Threat, AFL—CIO Federationist (Fed.1971). 'emphasized scheme. attuned saddled reflected ideology controlled leaders.' Note, Whitcomb: Gerrymandering, Rights, 521, 533

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