Document: 129 S. Ct. 2710 (2009) Andrew M. CUOMO, Attorney General of New York, Petitioner, v. THE CLEARING HOUSE ASSOCIATION, L.L.C., et al. No. 08-453. Supreme Court United States. Argued April 28, 2009. Decided June 29, *2714 Barbara D. Underwood, NY, for petitioner. Malcolm L. Stewart, Washington, DC, respondent Office Comptroller the Currency. Seth P. Waxman, The Clearing House Association, L.L.C. Cuomo, State Counsel Record, Solicitor General, Michelle Aronowitz, Deputy Richard Dearing, Assistant Julie Williams, First Senior and Chief Counsel, Daniel Stipano, Horace G. Sneed, Douglas B. Jordan, Attorneys, Currency, D.C., Elena Kagan, Matthew Roberts, to Department Justice, Federal respondent. H. Rodgin Cohen, Robinson Lacy, Michael Wiseman, Adam R. Brebner, Sullivan & Cromwell LLP, Edward C. DuMont, Catherine M.A. Carroll, Christopher E. Babbitt, Wilmer Cutler Pickering, Hale Dorr Lipsett, Noah A. Levine, Anne K. Small, Lauren Baer, Association Justice SCALIA delivered opinion Court. In 2005, Eliot Spitzer, sent letters several national banks making a request "in lieu subpoena" that they provide certain non-public information about their lending practices. He sought this determine whether had violated State's fair-lending laws. Spitzer's successor in office, is petitioner here. Respondents, federal Currency ("Comptroller" or "OCC") banking trade group, brought suit enjoin request, claiming Comptroller's regulation promulgated under National Bank Act prohibits form state law enforcement against banks. States District Southern York entered an injunction favor respondents, prohibiting attorney general from enforcing laws through demands records judicial proceedings. Appeals Second Circuit affirmed. 510 F.3d 105 (2007). We granted certiorari. 555 U.S. ___, 987, 173 Ed. 2d 171 (2009). question presented *2715 purporting pre-empt can be upheld as reasonable interpretation Act. I Section 484(a) Title 12, U.S.C., provision Act, 13 Stat. 99, reads follows: "No bank shall subject any visitorial powers except authorized by law, vested courts justice such be, have been exercised directed Congress either thereof committee duly authorized." Comptroller, charged with administering adopted, notice-and-comment rulemaking, at issue here designed implement statutory provision. Its principal provisions read "§ 7.4000 Visitorial powers. "(a) rule. (1) Only OCC representative may exercise respect banks, provided paragraph (b) section. officials not conducting examinations, inspecting requiring production books prosecuting actions, limited circumstances law. However, bank's (other than 12 CFR part 4, subpart C) required normal procedures. "(2) For purposes section, include: "(i) Examination bank; "(ii) Inspection records; "(iii) Regulation supervision activities permitted pursuant law; "(iv) Enforcing compliance applicable concerning those activities." § By its clear text, "prosecuting actions" "limited law." Under familiar Chevron framework, we defer agency's statute it administering. U.S.A. Inc. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 837, 104 2778, 81 694 (1984). There necessarily some ambiguity meaning term "visitorial powers," especially since are working era when prerogative writsthrough which were traditionally enforced vogue. give authoritative within bounds uncertainty. But presence uncertainty does expand deference cover virtually discern outer limits powers" even clouded lens history. They do include, expansive would provide, ordinary Evidence time statute's enactment, long line our own cases, application principles construction make clear. A Historically, sovereign's right visitation over corporations paralleled church supervise institutions founder *2716 charitable institution "to see [his] property [was] rightly employed," 1 W. Blackstone, Commentaries on Laws England 469 (1765). extension principle, "[t]he king visitor all civil corporations," ibid. could inspect control visited will. When was enacted 1864, "visitation" accordingly understood act examining into affairs corporation" "the government itself." 2 J. Bouvier, Law Dictionary 790 (15th ed. 1883). Lower mean superior superintending officer, who visits corporation examine manner business, enforce observance regulations." Nat. Youngstown Hughes, 6 F. 737, 740 (C.C.N.D.Ohio 1881). "visitor" companies incorporated State, simply virtue role sovereign: "legislature founded it." Guthrie Harkness, 199 148, 157, 26 50 130 (1905) (internal quotation marks omitted). This relationship between sovereign allow use writssuch mandamus quo warrantoto "whenever [wa]s abusing power given it, or, . acting adversely public, creating nuisance." Wilgus, Private Corporations, 8 American Procedure pp. 224-225 (1910). commissions "exercise supervision" State. I. Wormser, Corporations 80, 100, 101, 4 Modern (1921). B Our cases always oversee corporate affairs, quite separate famous Dartmouth College case, Story, describing corporation, wrote "subject controlling authority legal visitor, amend repeal statutes, remove officers, correct abuses, generally superintend management [its] trusts," "liable no control." Trustees Woodward, Wheat. 518, 676, 681, 629 (1819) (concurring opinion). "genera[l] superintend[ence]" stood contrast action court chancery, acted "not itself possessing power. but jurisdiction. redress grievances, frauds." Id., 676.[1] Guthrie, supra, held shareholder his private individual exercising power" he petitioned force records, id., 159, 4. *2717 "[C]ontrol justice," said, visitorial, drew nonvisitorial "su[ing] State" "supervision Currency," St. Louis Missouri, 263 640, 44 213, 68 486 (1924), Missouri bring anti-bank-branching bank. said only perform administrative oversight, "inquir[ing] warranto excess charter powers." 660, 213. if applicability substantively pre-empted, then must rest [State] with" Government, ibid.[2] most recent decision, Watters Wachovia Bank, N.A., 550 1, 127 1559, 167 389 (2007), not, dissent contends, post, 2731, "suppor[t] OCC's statute." To contrary, fully accord well established distinction enforcement. "`general control'" subsidiary bank, U.S., 8, because "multiple audits surveillance rival oversight regimes" cause uncertainty, 21, 1559. "[G]eneral control" "oversight" worlds apart All parties case agreed Michigan's regime imposed banks; sole operating subsidiaries enjoyed same immunity visitation. addresses answers other question. foregoing involve exclusive precluded States, also preclude agencies. Of course not. See, e.g., America Trust Sav. Assn. Douglas, F.2d 105-106 (CADC 1939) (Securities Exchange Commission investigation fraud powers"); Peoples Danville 449 Supp. 254, 260 (W.D.Va.1978) (same). sum, unmistakable utterly consistent teaching jurisprudence, both before after enactment two different things. credible argument contrary. And contrary what says, pre-empts former. C consequences cast doubt upon validity. No one denies *2718 leaves place substantive affecting See Brief Respondent 20; 29; 2730-2731. rule says valid, non-pre-empted Ibid. bark remains, bite admits, considerable understatement, result "unusual," "Bizarre" more apt. As Louis: "To demonstrate binding quality deny involves fallacy made apparent mere statement proposition, essentially inherent very conception sharp "unusual" reading propounded regulation, limiting produce entirely commonplace resultthe precise contemplated Louis, valid corollary obligatory enforceable results." 659-660, 213 (emphasis added). Channeling attorneys law-enforcement proceedings (rather allowing them "visitorial" oversight) preserve while honoring fact rather merely theory Congress's decision system echoes many mixed state/federal regimes Government exercises leaving place. Wyeth 1187, 51 suggested 484(a)'s otherwise inexplicable reservation "vested justice." described earlier, normally conducted writs warranto. exception possibly exempt visitation, else swallow conceivable purpose criminal lawsuits. sure, justice" phrased prohibition just discussed, cannot that, explicable attempt courts' affected.[3] On pragmatic level, difference If chooses pursue court, will treated like litigant. An litigant file lawsuit, survive motion dismiss, endure *2719 rules procedure discovery, risk sanctions claim frivolous discovery tactics abusive. Judges trusted prevent "fishing expeditions" undirected rummaging evidence unknown wrongdoing. far full range sovereign. Courts enter protective orders "unreasonable annoyance, expense, embarrassment, disadvantage, prejudice," N.Y. Civ. Prac. Ann. 3103(a) (West 2005), sua sponte, 3104(a). contrast, reason. II therefore, comport statute. Neither differs text discussed separately. Evidently realizing exclusion too extreme contemplated, limit sweep following passage set forth basis Register: "What recognize `states retain regulate areas contracts, debt collection, acquisition transfer property, taxation, zoning, criminal, tort law.' [citing Ninth case.] Application these implementation authorities typically affect content extent Federally-authorized business establishes infrastructure surrounds supports ability business." 69 Fed.Reg. 1896 (2004) (footnote reconciled regulation's almost categorical 7.4000(a)(1) actions."[4] Nor justified subsection (a)(2)(iv) defines include "[e]nforcing applicable. concerning" "activities law," 7.4000(a)(2)(iii). latter phrase interpreted distinctively (leaving free nonbanking laws), so (a)(2)(iii), uses terminology, "regulation activitieswhich thinks case. Anyway, specifically authorize permit fall calls *2720 U.S.C. 24 Third (power contracts); Seventh ("all incidental necessary carry banking"). "implementation" "infrastructure" found nowhere purpose, resting neither nor statute, attempts declined do: laws, least III fails persuade us. fundamental contentionthat grant lawsrests logical fallacy. establishes, 2726, (and contest), compel concludes 2727, deemed That conclusion obviously follow. example, powers, assuredly honor obligations default. Does taking executing judgment payment considered power? Many things compelled well. critical being compelled, has invoked it. exists argues intrude the, "`the historic police States,'" 2732, (quoting Rice Santa Fe Elevator Corp., 331 218, 230, 67 1146, 91 1447 (1947)), because, maritime involvement field dates earliest days Republic,'" 2733 Locke, 529 89, 108, 120 1135, 146 (2000)). reason, concludes, raise sort federalism concerns prompt presumption pre-emption. pre-emption, think unnecessary giving plain terms Neither, however, should incursion makes traditional minimized. Although assuring national-bank inhered creation nonpre-empted until 1966. Financial Institutions Supervisory 1966, Tit. III, 80 1046-1055. first during lifetime every current hardly "from Republic." hand, enforced banksand banking-related 85 years, evidenced 656, Anderson *2721 Luckett, 321 233, 237, 248-249, 64 599, 88 692 (1944) (state commissioner revenue abandoned-bank-deposit "judicial proceedings"); Lord Paul, 313 N.W.2d 390, 393 (Minn. 1981) treasurer unclaimed-property "specific toward" bank); Clovis Callaway, N.M. 119, 130-132, 364 P.2d 748, 756 (1961) deposits); Portland, 61 Or. 551, 554-557, 123 712, 714 (1912) bank-specific escheat bank).[5] seeks minimize "declare pre-emptive scope [National Act]" "interpret[s] `visitorial powers.'" Post, 2732. much kind. It without reason contained regulations Activities Operations entitled "Preemption." function define thereby category reserved forbidden Any "declares preemptive NBA," What logic application: declares "[s]tate prosecut[e] actions." 7.4000(a). nothing is. IV Applying difficult. "Visitorial refers supervisory corporations. allows demand, process mediated similar means. reasonably "conducting examinations [and] banks," 7.4000, conducts capacity supervisor When, brings sovereign-as-supervisor, sovereign-as-law-enforcer. Such lawsuit thus erred extending definition courts, 7.4000. present stated of" action; implicit threat voluntarily honored, taken. assumed, agree, threatened unlawful request-cum-threat enjoined. Here bringing suit, obtaining search warrant based probable cause, General's issuance subpoena *2722 Executive Law, permits subpoenas connection "repeated fraudulent illegal acts carrying on, transaction Exec. 63(12) 2002). exempts ban Accordingly, below affirmed applied executive vacated insofar actions. * reversed part. ordered. THOMAS, whom CHIEF JUSTICE, KENNEDY, ALITO join, concurring dissenting holds used (NBA), 484(a), "administrative oversight" including "inspect[ion of] demand." Ante, 2721. Based definition, "state general['s] bank." affirm Appeals' determinations ambiguous (OCC) interpret encompass efforts obtain fair respectfully concur NBA provides "[n]o 484(a). Through issued defining including: (ii) (iii) (iv) 7.4000(a)(2) (2005). further concluded pertains "powers judiciary governmental inspect, superintend, direct, regarding conduct 7.4000(b)(2). reasonable. (C.A.2 2007). Court's (1984), framework deciding "In Chevron, ambiguities statutes jurisdiction administer delegations *2723 agency fill gap fashion." Cable Telecommunications Brand X Internet Services, 545 967, 980, 125 2688, 162 820 "[i]f ambiguous, implementing reasonable, requires accept believes best interpretation." administrator [NBA]," NationsBank N.C., N.A. Variable Annuity Life Ins. Co., 513 251, 256, 115 810, (1995), rulemaking procedures promulgating 1895 (2004). result, falls heartland Chevron. Mead 533 229-230, 121 2164, 150 292 (2001); also, Smiley Citibank (South Dakota), 517 735, 739, 116 1730, 135 25 (1996) (deferring "`interest'" NBA). "It practice judgments agencies regard administering," "that extends laws." majority disagree. ante, 2715-2716. disputed and, so, concedes there "some Yet "can powers' history" definitional "do include. agree. susceptible meaning, Because words chosen starting point interpreting Dean 556 1849, 1853, 785 ("We start, always, language statute" omitted)); Asgrow Seed Co. Winterboer, 179, 187, 788, 682 (1995) ("When undefined, meaning"). enacted, defined "[i]nspection; superintendence; direction; regulation." Burrill, Glossary 598 (1860); 633 (1852) (defining corporation"). With corporations, "by itself, medium 634. previously looked definitions NBA. 158, (1905). "[r]egulation law" *2724 activities," §§ 7.4000(a)(2)(iii), (vi), fits comfortably broad dictionary "visitation." And, turn, petitioner's demand nonpublic comply appear qualify "superinten[d]" banks' federally operations "through 598; interfering internal operations. support argument, briefly alludes common-law history 2715-2716; Shabani, 10, 13, 382, 225 (1994) ("[A]bsent indications, intends adopt common terms"). doing, accepts "Congress then-familiar governancevisitationto clarify supervisors doing jurisdictions, condition respond perceived financial risk, hold creation." Petitioner 21-22. majority's view, unreasonable deference. 2717. determination, tradition permissible term. Indeed, thorough examination ancestry suggests opposite. notes, 2715-2716, concept originated Roman canon describe hierarchy's institutions, Pound, Visitatorial Jurisdiction Over Equity, 49 Harv. L.Rev. 369, 369-370 (1936). later expanded charities, universities, churches, visitor's duties narrow. university setting, "power confined offences college; ha[d] cognizance disobedience land." Kyd, 276 (1794) original). equally narrow governance ecclesiastical institutions. 467-472 (1765); 673-677, (Story, J., concurring). same, stronger similarly limited. instead broader assure *2725 ("The constituted appointed place, wherein jurisdiction: king's bench; where, where only, misbehaviors kind enquired redressed, controversies decided"); Kent, 241 (1827) (explaining "visitation justice"). "Civil towns cities; private, insurance, manufacturing, nature, [private] land, amenable tribunals abuse 244; Angell Ames, 684, p. 680 (4th 1852) ("Civil public created advantage, properly superintendency whose duty take care interest; whereas, object distribution benefaction, find jealous guardians zeal vanity founder, heirs, appointees"). invoking "compel domestic officers specific incumbent charters, ordinances 375 added); Merrill, Mandamus 194 (1892) "under state, breach corrected by" writ "may [the corporation's] charter, (footnotes omitted)). Merrill explained, actions employed carriers adhere "statutory duties, "exten[d] discrimination services." 162, 200; Grant, Practical Treatise Well Aggregate Sole 262 (1854) available "refuse[d] land").[1] *2726 Even NBA, granting commissioners investigate ensure therewith. Feb. 23, ch. 14, 2, 1838 Mass. Acts 303 (authorizing "visit" "examine affairs" "complied transactions"); May 363, 1840 307-308 "found effect proceeded violation charter"). modeled York's regime. Knox, History Banking 422 (1903) (reprint 1969). agrees, understanding confuses "enforcement apply actors 296-a" "an 24; 2717 (concluding "a things"). capture section power," treatise explained "[a]s control, respect, individuals." Elliott, 90, (rev.3d ed.1900); Thompson, 475, 580 (2d ed.1908) ("In checks controls protection deal them"). "corporate affairs," parallel individuals protect rights "deal corporation. Wisconsin Chicago Northwestern 35 Wis. 425 (1874)  referred leading equity," L.Rev., 380 illustrates point. "restrain defendant exacting tolls carriage passengers freight maximum rates Wis., 432. "appl[ied] behalf public," 531, order "`to abuses save people,'" 572. general's included equity. 529-530. beyond roots authority. 530 grounds rests ancient; grown rapidly late comparatively obscure insignificant become great magnitude import"). *2727 sovereign-as-law-enforcer," 2721, rests. At lawwhether actionswere nature. Thus, distinct, merged 460, power, aspect, congress states, minutest details business" added)). construing narrowly, implicitly rejects William James Roscoe 2717, elucidating historical concept. Like OCC, each venerable scholars end, suggesting varied accordance nature organization supervision. possible narrower concluded. broader. proposition includes 2716-2719. prohibit 7.4000(a)(2)(iii) (iv). activities, 7.4000(a)(3), "including, tax, labor employment laws," 15 (citing Fed. Reg. 1896). although authoritatively party's modest supported reinforces reasonableness regulation. Put simply, selected multiple interpretations. nonetheless original structure compels us clause preceded directing appoint persons [every banking] association" "make detailed report association comptroller." 3, 106, 54, 116. addition, succeeded sentence compensation due examiners. contends placement indicates originally meant particular type "thorough examination" neighboring provisions. adds, 484 currently resides subchapter *2728 "Bank Examinations," still examiners Currency." 481. Petitioner's undermined, structural attributes subchapter. 484(b), "[n]otwithstanding" visitorial-powers prohibition, "State auditors may. review [a bank's] solely unclaimed way associated assigns, identify 484(b) never eliminated Other exceptions visitations "authorized One 3305(c), "[n]othing [§ 484] national" payroll reports unemployment tax purposes. Similarly, 62 lists. Both NBA's advocates. anything, crafted opposite true.[2] D contention conflicts decisions. 2716-2717. prevail showing adopted agency. *2729 "A court's prior trumps follows unambiguous room discretion." X, 982, 2688. These decisions construe directly addressing did seeking holding, contrasted interested" "public right" view keeping 158-159, draws embraced OCC. able right, interested ."). taken position action. (1924) (St.Louis), foreclose proceeding establish branch City Louis." 655, engage banking. 656-659, "Having determined finds justification States," open 2716-2717, n. stands retains preempted ("To vindicate then, them. Respondents counter holding broad. grants underlying activity issue. 33-34. Here, expressly authorizes mortgage loans. 371(a). unlike Louisin relevant state-law-proscribed wholly bankspetitioner According *2730 unauthorized "controlling reason" forbidding absent need decide party better argument. references noted above, insufficient "Since teaches authoritative, differently say legally wrong. Instead, may, choose construction, remains interpreter (within reason) statutes." 983, confront "authoritative" statute.[3] reliance misplaced Plant Dickinson, 396 122, 90 337, 312 (1969); (1944); Bay Fellows, 244 416, 37 734, 1233 (1917); Easton Iowa, 188 220, 23 288, 47 452 (1903); Waite Dowley, 94 527, 181 (1877); Commonwealth, 9 Wall. 353, 19 701 (1870). None addressed let alone definitive Finally, Michigan mortgage-lending 7-8, issue, reach aware exert 9-10, 1559 Mich. Comp. 445.1661 2002), 493.56b Supp.2005)); 34, (STEVENS, dissenting) (describing *2731 oversight").[4] exempt[ed] coverage [t]his matter Legislature's grace. For, recognize, force, i.e., spare involved." (citations omitted); "real estate lending, immune control"). deprives inspection practices lends weight three background trigger clear-statement overcomes might entitled. arguments doctrinal refusing First, interprets undermines important therefore triggers requirement clearly intentions, Gregory Ashcroft, 501 452, 111 2395, 410 (1991) ("[I]f alter usual constitutional balance intention unmistakably omitted; alteration original)). incorrect Constitution. congressional control. them, wise operation, proper permit." Farmers' Mechanics' 196 (1875); Watters, ("Nearly 200 years ago, McCulloch Maryland, 316, 579 (1819), supreme seen "proper permit" negative federal-state balance; preserves responsibilities assigned Congress. 22, ("Regulation *2732 Commerce Necessary Proper Clauses. Tenth Amendment, implicated here" (citation Second, [are] superseded unless manifest Congress," (1947). pre-emption pre-empted Altria Group, Good, 538, 556, 172 398 (2008) (THOMAS, ("[T]he `dissolves once conclusive intent express itself'") Cipollone Liggett 505 504, 545, 112 2608, 407 (1992) (SCALIA, part)); see, Riegel Medtronic, 552 128 999, 1003, 169 892 (construing Medical Device Amendments 1976, 21 360c seq., pre-emption). event, triggered regulates area significant presence." (2000). paradigmatic example firm "normally want forbid, impair significantly, explicitly granted." Barnett Marion Cty., Nelson, 25, 33, 1103, 134 237 (1996). legislation by, ordinarily preempt[s], 32, 1103. Congress' "legislat[ion] th[is] Republic" "extensive regulatory scheme" means "`assumption' nonpre-emption triggered." 1135. legislated alongside area, 2720-2721, conclusion, Franklin Square 347 373, 74 550, 98 767 (1954). Last, inapplicable flatly asserts is." declare statute; rather, objects itselfnot Smiley, 744, 1730 ("This (as opposed pre-emptive) pre-emptive. assume (without deciding) decided de novo courts. here; Congressnot agencyhas *2733 agrees term"and regulationthat "define[s] limit[s] States." threaten showed, agency, Congress, effected federalism-based objections ultimately turn single proposition: doubtful themselves. task scheme unusual "[b]izarre." 2718. unambiguously foreclosed text. structure, 484. identified principle require greater step pre-empting (including enforcement) though central concern allocation activities. reasons, Appeals. NOTES [1] THOMAS's (hereinafter dissent) distinguish ground college visitors (unlike for-profit corporations) 2725-2726, 1. so. Story's stated, irregularities abuses," Wheat., 673, 629, surely possess demonstration forceful. [2] depart 2730-2731 (2005)). again misses unbroken distinguishing contend true difference. stand [3] reject respondents' Riegle-Neal Interstate Branching Efficiency 1994, 102(f)(1)(B), 108 2349, 2350, 36(f)(1)(B), states respecting branching "shall enforced" Comptroller. converting infra, 2720, obligation preempts shed light refer century earlier. [4] end (applicable enumerated States): "except replicates ("No law"), certainly finding nonpre-empted. limitation illusorysaying, effect, to. Cases perhaps "permitting" question, "authorizing" context, "federal statutes. [5] added (b), examiners" 96 1521. looking concurrence guidance, seemingly supervising organizations. 2716, collegenot 562-563, civil, lay eleemosynary Eleemosynary according donors. corporations" Visitors historically "law strong corporationsi.e., sovereignswere empowered. 2717-2718. species crucial yields divergent understandings court. Moreover, failure analysis unreasonable. Contrary 2718, undermined 1994 (Riegle-Neal), 2338, operate interstate branches. host community reinvestment, consumer protection, establishment intrastate branches out-of-State chartered separately determines "discriminatory effect" branch. 2349-2350, 36(f)(1)(A). enforced, branch, 36(f)(1)(B). 46-48. suggestion short mark. 2; 2717-2718 ("[R]eading Louis"). majority, irrespective "would 2. assumption shared categorically distinct impossible verify assumption, raised defense Reply 6. doctrine interpretative value, passed "fully enforcement." ignores assumed Watters. allowed permitting "take appropriate operation "[t]o circuit name state" "any unsafe injurious act." 445.1661(e) 2002); Supp.2005).

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