Document: 403 U.S. 528 91 S.Ct. 1976 29 L.Ed.2d 647 Joseph McKEIVER and Edward Terry, Appellants,v.State of PENNSYLVANIA. In re Barbara BURRUS et al., Petitioners. Nos. 322, 128. Argued Dec. 9 10, 1970. Decided June 21, 1971. Syllabus The requests appellants in No. 322 for a jury trial were denied, they adjudged juvenile delinquents under Pennsylvania law. State Supreme Court, while recognizing the applicability to juveniles certain due process procedural safeguards, held that there is no constitutional right court. Appellants argue because tried proceedings 'substantially similar criminal trial,' note press generally present at members public also enter courtroom. Petitioners 128 North Carolina, where their denied general was excluded. Held: A by not constitutionally required adjudicative phase state court delinquency proceeding. Pp. 540—551, 553—556. 438 Pa. 339, 265 A.2d 350 275 N.C. 517, 169 S.E.2d 879, affirmed. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, STEWART, WHITE, concluded that: 1 1. applicable standard fundamental fairness, as developed Gault, 387 1, 87 1428, 18 527, Winship, 397 358, 90 1068, 25 368, which emphasized factfinding procedures, but our legal system necessary component accurate factfinding. P. 543. 2 2. Despite disappointments, failures, shortcomings procedure, court's stage. 545—550. 3 (a) Court has heretofore ruled all rights assured an adult accused are be imposed 545. 4 (b) Compelling might remake proceeding into fully adversary effectively end idealistic prospect intimate informal protective 5 (c) Imposing on would remedy system's defects greatly function. 547. 6 (d) States should free experiment achieve high promise concept, may install system; or judge use advisory particular case. 7 (e) Many statute judicial decision deny trial, great majority have faced issue since supra, Duncan v. Louisiana, 391 145, 88 1444, 20 491, considerations involved those cases do compel 548—549. 8 (f) Jury entail delay, formality, clamor system, possibly trial. 550. (g) Equating with ignores aspects concern, sympathy, paternal attention inherent system. BRENNAN 10 Due proceedings, 'criminal prosecutions,' does require provide trials demand so long some other aspect adequately protects interests Sixth Amendment intended serve. context, protected allowing individuals bring community's bear upon trials. Since statutory bar trials, claim made excluded over appellants' objections, judgment 11 HARLAN concurred judgments these ground States, either process. 557. 322: 12 Daniel E. Farmer, Philadelphia, Pa., appellants. 13 Arlen Specter, appellee. 14 Michael Meltsner, New York City, petitioners. 15 Robert Morgan, Raleigh, N.C., respondent. 16 Alfred L. Scanlan, Washington, D.C., National Council Juvenile Judges, amicus curiae. 17 [Amici curiae information intentionally omitted.] BLACKMUN announced opinion WHITE join. 19 These narrow precise whether Process Clause Fourteenth assures * arises understandably, series already factors juvenile: 21 Haley Ohio, 332 596, 68 302, 92 L.Ed. 224 (1948), concerned admissibility confession taken from 15-year-old boy first-degree murder. It facts developed, barred confession. Douglas, three Justices joined, said, 'Neither man nor child can allowed stand condemned methods flout requirements law.' U.S., 601, S.Ct., 304. 22 Gallegos Colorado, 370 49, 82 1209, 325 (1962) 14-year-old same effect. 23 3. Kent United 383 541, 86 1045, 84 (1966), 16-year-old charged housebreaking, robbery, rape District Columbia. propriety waiver jurisdiction 'after full investigation,' permitted statute. latitude possessed within determine it retain waive 'assumes regularity sufficient circumstances satisfy basic well compliance requirement 'full investigation." 553, 1053. 24 4. 527 (1967), 15-year-old, probation, committed Arizona delinquent after being apprehended complaint lewd remarks telephone. Fortas, writing reviewed just cited observed. 'Accordingly, relate only restricted subject, unmistakably indicate that, whatever impact, neither Bill Rights adults alone.' 13, 1436. 26 focused 'the determination 'delinquent' result alleged misconduct his part, consequence he institution' and, this, said 'there appears little current dissent proposition role play.' Ibid. adhered to: 'We reiterate this view, here connection adjudication 'delinquency,' part Constitution.' Id., 30—31, 1445. process, proceeding, embrace adequate written notice; advice counsel, retained appointed; confrontation; cross-examination. privilege against self-incrimination available juvenile. refrained deciding must appellate review transcript recording hearings. 27 5. DeBacker Brainard, 396 28, 163, 148 (1969), presented, habeas corpus, challenge Nebraska providing hearings 'shall conducted without manner.' However, appellant's hearing had antedated decisions 491 (1968), Bloom Illinois, 194, 1477, 522 been given prospective application DeStefano Woods, 392 631, 2093, 1308 DeBacker's case deemed inappropriate one resolution issue. His appeal therefore dismissed. Black separate dissents, took position entitled described 'a surely justice English-speaking world,' 34, 166 Douglas Amendments 'where offense if person adult, crime triable jury.' 35, 167. 28 6. 368 (1970), 12-year-old having money woman's purse. conviction except proof beyond reasonable doubt every fact constitute charged,' 364, 1073, then went hold, 1075, applicable, too, 'during adjudicatory stage proceeding.' From six cases—Haley, Gallegos, kent, DeBacker, Winship—it apparent 30 Some attendant equal nature. Among appropriate notice, confrontation cross-examination, self-incrimination. Included, also, doubt. 31 however, yet enforced Indeed, specifically going far: 32 mean conform even usual administrative hearing; we hold measure up essentials fair treatment.' Kent, 562, 1057; 30, 33 although hopes aspirations Judge Julian Mack, leaders Jane Addams School1 supporters noted disappointments performance experience resulting widespread disaffection. 555—556, 1054—1055; 19, 1438—1439. There been, time, both appreciation who devoted, sympathetic, conscientious, disturbed concern about untrained less than imbued understanding approach complex problems childhood adolescence. praise its purposes, alarm defects. 34 insisted successive spell doom deprive 'informality, flexibility, speed.' 366, 1074. On hand, precisely opposite effect expressed two dissenters Winship. 375—376, 1078—1079. II 35 With substantial background turn cases: 36 322. McKeiver, age 16, May 1968 larceny, receiving stolen goods (felonies law, Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 18, §§ 4704, 4807, 4817 (1963)) acts delinquency. At time represented counsel.2 request heard Theodore S. Gutowicz Common Pleas, Family Division, Branch, Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania. McKeiver findings violated law Commonwealth. 11, § 243(4)(a) (1965). appeal, Superior affirmed opinion. 215 Pa.Super. 760, 255 921 (1969). 37 15, January 1969 assault battery police officer conspiracy (misdemeanors 4708 4302 counsel's C. Bruno Branch Pleas County. Terry charges. This followed commitment preceding week teacher. He committed, earlier charge, Youth Development Center Cornwells Heights. 762, 922 38 granted leave consolidated them. single question considered, phrased court, 'whether court.' answer, dissenting, negative. (1970). We probable jurisdiction. 399 925, 2271, 791 39 details offenses set forth Roberts' 341—342, nn. 2, A.2d, 351 need repeated any length here. suffices say McKeiver's participating youths pursued young teenagers cents them; never before arrested record gainful employment; testimony victims somewhat inconsistent 'weak'; Terry's consisted hitting fists stick when broke boys' fight others watching. 40 Burrus approximately 45 black children, ranging years,3 subjects summonses issued Hyde 1969. 41 charges arose out demonstrations county late children protesting school assignments consolidation plan. Petitions filed Carolina highway patrolmen. Except relating James Lambert Howard, petitions respective wilfully impeding traffic. charge Howard riotous noise disorderly O. A. Peay School Swan Quarter; interrupted during regular sessions; defaced furniture. misdemeanors N.C.Gen.Stat. 20—174.1 (1965 Supp. 1969), 14—132(a), 14—273 42 several groups Hallett Ward, sitting lawyer appeared juveniles. Over objection, cases, each denied. 43 evidence solely No offered witness. various occasions observed walking along Highway 64 singing, shouting, clapping, playing basketball. As result, interference marchers asked paved portion warned committing offense. They refused left roadway immediately returned. custody. respect 16. 44 morning December 5, office principal persons session moving furniture around; disarray; closed noon; student authorized principal's office. found 'an act punished custody order entered declaring 'in more suitable guardianship' him County Department Public Welfare placement institution 'until such Board Correction Superintendent determine, laws State.' suspended commitments placed probation years conditioned violating none State's laws, reporting monthly Welfare, home p.m. evening, attending approved Director. None confined 46 groups. Appeals Burrus, N.C.App. 523, 167 454 (1969); Shelton, 487, 168 695 deleted commitment, otherwise 879 Two justices dissented certiorari. 1036, 1379, III 47 instructive review, illustration, substance observes, 343, 352, '(f)or sixty-five gave consideration area'; Gault 'is paradox, broad time'; evidences far-reaching disillusionment anticipated benefits system'; enumerated four declined rule claimed rights, id., 344—345, 353; 'confronted sweeping rationale carefully tailored holding,' 345, safeguards 'Gault courts caused significant 'constitutional domestication' proceedings,' 346, 354; including reasonable-doubt established 'insure will operate atmosphere orderly enough impress gravity situation impartiality tribunal permit operate' (footnote omitted), 347, 'proper inquiry, then, 'fundamental' meaning Duncan, context operates above safeguards,' 348, inquiry turned 'upon elements render essential protection accused's normal process.' 48 Roberts inhere system: (1) Although realizing 'faith quality bench entirely satisfactory substitute process,' 355, judges 'to take different view counterparts courts.' 354—355. (2) While regrets inadequacies, utilizes much diagnostic rehabilitative services' 'far superior 348— 349, 355. (3) conceding post-adjudication 'has many respects fallen far short goals, reality harsher theory,' declaration significantly onerous finding guilt' 'we convinced practices contain seeds truly brought forth.' (4) Finally, 'of possible could applied courts, most likely disruptive unique nature 'would probably alteration traditional practices.' 'will give protection' addition 'might destroy character proceedings.' 349—350, 49 concluded, 350, 356, confident 'that properly structured fairly administered serve societal needs infringing individual freedoms.' IV 50 impartial '(i)n prosecutions' federal guaranteed Amendment. Through now which—were court—would come Amendment's guarantee.' believes American scheme justice.' 149, 1447, (1968); 210—211, 1486—1487, (1968). 51 This, course, automatically answer issue, reason prosecution,' reach Amendment, regarded devoid merely usually civil label. 554, 1054; U.s., 17, 49—50, 1438, 1455—1456; 365—366, 1073—1074. 52 Little, indeed, gained attempt simplistically call 'civil' 'criminal.' avoided wooden approach. Before decided 1967, Fifth guarantee Malloy Hogan, 378 1489, 653 (1964). So, Pointer Texas, 380 400, 85 1065, 923 (1965), Alabama, 415, 1074, 934 Yet did peremptorily apply reading reveals opposite. And standard-of-proof evident separated standard, first displayed 361 365, 1071 1073. 53 Thus, accepting play,' 1436, task jury, ascertain impact requirement.' 13—14, V 54 juveniles' argument trial.' initiated petition charging penal code violation conclusory language indictment; detained prior building substantially prison; are, fact, cells counsel prosecution engage plea bargaining; motions suppress routinely decided; rules applied; customary common-law defenses available; admitted courtrooms; room; arrest reported (from sources, rather records); once delinquent, until what amounts prison (see Bethea, 75, 76, 257 369 describing correctional Camp Hill 'maximum security youthful offenders'); stigma attached approximates 55 particularly urge supposed primary discretionary intake procedure permitting disposition adjudication, flexible sentencing emphasis rehabilitation; realization depend dispensing jury; factual issues hand very matters purposes; purpose former indistinguishable trial; provides independent factor; shown manageable; exists why traditionally accorded people subject involuntary incarceration lengthy periods; deserve healthy scrutiny. VI 56 All litigants agree fairness. procedures. confrontation, naturally flowed emphasis. But cannot it, sure, content pursue ways determining facts. Juries required, example, equity workmen's compensation, probate, deportation cases. Neither used military stated, assert, trial—held alone unfair defendant treated 158, 1452. DeStefano, others, retrospective action felt integrity seriously Williams Florida, 78, 1893, 446 saw magic 12-man case, thus revealing concepts themselves inflexible. 57 recognize, recognized before, fond proponents early reformers generations ago realized. devastating commentary failures whole, contained President's Commission Law Enforcement Administration Justice, Task Force Report: Delinquency Crime 7—9 depth disappointment accomplished. Too often falls stalwart, protective, communicating figure envisaged.4 unwillingness facilities concerned, insufficiency scarcity professional help, inadequacy dispositional alternatives, lack knowledge contribute dissatisfaction experiment.5 58 Report, 7, 'To failed goals true States. failure striking highest.' 59 shortcomings, conclude requirement. number reasons: 60 refrained, decided, taking easy way flat holding What done Winship aptly Commonwealth Johnson, 211 62, 74, 234 9, (1967): 61 'It clear us attempted strike judicious balance injecting orderliness seeking reverse trend (pointed 556, 1045) whereby receives worst worlds: *." 62 possibility, least, matter precept, put effective intimate, 63 concededly pre-Gault, notable making recommendation despite vivid description deficiencies disappointments. Had vital handling juveniles, suggestion appeared. intimations, instead, quite way. Report 38. Further, expressly recommends abandonment return courts.6 dictum equitable. 149—150, n. 14, 65 imposition strengthen greatly, all, fact-finding function, would, contrarily, attrition assumed ability function manner. Meager hoped-for advance field, alternative regressive, lose gained, tend again place squarely routine 66 concept promise. reluctant grave dimensions, still promise, say, here, accomplish goals. So depends availability resources, interest public, willingness learn, cause cure. perhaps learns best doing. disallow further seek new elusive answers young, feel experimentation imposing go forward. If, wisdom, feels desirable kinds, impediment installing embracing feature. That, obligation. 67 7. Of course abuses. refrain saying point abuses dimension. resources dedication unfairness. 8. is, nothing prevent judge, need, demonstrated, using jury. 69 9. 'The practice large states conclusive accords plainly worth considering 'offends principle rooted traditions conscience ranked fundamental.' Snyder Massachusetts, 291 97, 105, 330, 332, 78 674 (1934).' Leland Oregon, 343 790, 798, 72 1002, 1007, 96 1302 (1952). passing least Columbia these.7 achieved decision.8 statutes circumstances.9 70 10. led Fucini, Ill.2d 305, N.E.2d (1970); Bible State, 254 319 (Ind.1970); Dryden Commonwealth, 435 S.W.2d 457 (Ky.1968); Md. 419 Hopkins 227 So.2d 282 (Miss.1969); J.W., 106 N.J.Super. 129, 334 D., N.Y.2d 90, 313 N.Y.S.2d 704, 261 627 Agler, Ohio St.2d 70, 249 808 Turner, 253 Or. 235, 453 P.2d 910 See Estes Hopp, 73 Wash.2d 263, 205 McMullen Geiger, 184 Neb. 581, N.W.2d 431 To contrary Peyton Nord, N.M. 717, 437 716 semble, Nieves 280 F.Supp. 994 (SDNY 1968). 71 11. Stopping proposing Uniform Act, 24(a), July Conference Commissioners Laws; Standard Art. V, proposed W. Sheridan, Standards Courts Dept. H.E.W., Children's Bureau Pub. 437—1966); Legislative Guide Drafting Acts 29(a) (Dept. 472—1969). 12. If injected right, possibly, stressed Committee Senate when, through Senator Tydings, recommended, Congress approved, provision Bill, abolition S.Rep. 91—620, pp. 13—14 13. arguments advanced identical underlie proceedings. necessarily equate proceeding—or it—with Whether equated Concern inapplicability exclusionary evidence, judge's awareness juvenile's contents social file; appearances familiar witnesses officers workers—all create likelihood pre-judgment chooses ignore seems us, contemplates. 74 formalities superimposed existence. Perhaps ultimate day, moment disinclined impetus it. 75 Affirmed. 76 concurring. 77 find facts, body better job conscientious judge. Nevertheless, consequences guilt severe Constitution mandates official power insuring, demanded, community participation serious deprivations liberty hedge corrupt, biased, political justice. not, considered hence restrictions normally I join plurality concluding clause afford improper acts. proceeds theory defendants responsible actions. establishes chosen conduct reprehensible injurious deter them crime. Guilty blameworthy; branded such, however pursues ends 79 For rests deterministic assumptions. Reprehensible mature malevolent choice environmental pressures (or them) forces control. Hence legislative stigmatize branding criminal; blameworthy punishment others. Coercive measures, employed, retribution punishment. Supervision confinement aimed rehabilitation, convincing error simply pains penalties. Nor make object lesson own merits demerits be. typical authorize last longer period behavior demonstrates remains unacceptable risk returned family. authorization seriousness performed. 80 Against light distinctive requiring juries am satisfied Court's holding. extent buffer corrupt overzealous prosecutor policies procedures obviate important necessity guard bias, eschewing blameworthiness evil itself operative force prejudice short-tempered opportunity corruption detriment temptation ends. 81 Not risks mandate lesser magnitude adjudications, flowing verdicts guilt. theory, gulf between delinquency, failings Moreover, unhappiness vague overbroad grounds faulty custody, institutional probationary, mitigated me remain differences courts. latter. strong dealing choose. extend frankly condemnation, punishment, deterrence permissible attributes compels invites so. 83 BRENNAN, concurring dissenting opinion's conclusion below me, therefore, among 'essentials 1445, based engaged adult. 359, 1070, importance commands, commands result: my Brother BLACKMUN's words, 'fundamental fairness (in) factfinding.' means bound serve.1 basis characteristics terms adequacy 'protect (juvenile) oppression Government,' Singer 24, 31, 783, 788, 630 protect complaint, eccentric judge.' 156, 1451, Examined light, defect us. allows himself essence conscience, embodied hears extent, obtained large, focusing exposing obtaining, necessary, executive redress medium indignation. Constitution, rejected notion substitution competence fear mask obtain For, practice, existence ostensibly beneficent noncriminal care guidance sympathy young. Juveniles able draw reservior unavailable defendant. ban admission trials.2 themselves, contradiction, assert admitted' Philadelphia.3 Most important, bare indication whom sought courtroom circumstances, situation. permits requires exclusion trials.4 'ordered room stated parents guardians, attorney hearing,' 525, 454, 456 notwithstanding petitioners' hearing. arise believed unlawfully discriminated schoolchildren, paradigm 'temptation ends.' Opinion ante 552. finally, opinions supporting respondent pointed feature Carolina's protecting petitioners misuse Cf. 188, 193, 1469, 1472, (1968) (Harlan, J., dissenting) (availability resort process' dispense trials). Accordingly, HARLAN, judgments. 89 myself constrained follow extended difficulty, premise seemingly accepted opinion, That actually become many, see 65, 1463, (1967). correct, why, systems restructured fit original purpose. When comes difficulty agreeing indeed author pale Duncan. concur 118—119, 1915—1916, DOUGLAS, BLACK MARSHALL concur, dissenting. offenders facing majority. believe guarantees Rights, 93 robbery (Pa.Stat.Ann., 4704 (1963)), larceny 4807), 4817) 246 probation. appellant 4708) 4302) youth center. appellants, aged face potential majority, 250, 94 students, age, statutes: 'disorderly conduct' building, 14—132 'wilful' interruption disturbance private school, 14—273; obstructing flow traffic street, Supp.1969). 95 Conviction crimes person, imprisonment institution. students term years; computed reached 21. Each hearings, law' above. thereupon ordered months. 'neither movement designed avoid 'guilty' 'innocent' 'clinical' 1437, 1438. policy 'punitive' uses prosecute 'confinement' reaches threshold faces prospect, 61, 1461 (concurring): 97 'Where infant seized charged, convicted years, think accordance provisions Undoubtedly defendant, plain denial laws—an invidious discrimination—to heavier punishments could, safeguards.' 98 Just sometimes confused crime, enforcement officials criminals. 99 'In 1965, 100,000 institutions. Presumably detention existed. Nonetheless, clearly undesirable adults.' Challenge Free Society 179 100 Even incarcerated better. One brick windows, locked steel doors, cyclone fence topped barbed wire, towers. maximum delinquents.' 369. 101 five-year incarceration. circumstances. 162, 1454, 491. makes provided speaks 'any person,' person'; 368. 102 33, 166, 167, refusal grant juvenile, forgery, decided. Black, noting viz., notice issues, benefit compulsory self-incrimination, him, added: 103 'I whatsoever like denying world.' 166. 104 added 105 'as Such behind facade forgery.' Practical urged cases.* answered De Ciantis Providence, Rhode Island, Matter McCloud, 17-year-old female motion appendix dissent. concludes real traumatic' feeling deprived rights.' adds: 107 dealt expediently speedily rehabilitation. broken homes, ghettos; suffer low self-esteem; frequently symptom feelings inadequacy. Traumatic experiences accentuate past deprivation problem. attitude acceptance beginning goes '(t)rial safeguard prejudged' prejudiced reports submitted caseworkers Indeed child, category Magna Carta: 108 'No freeman imprisoned lawful peers, land.' 109 remanded youngsters. APPENDIX TO OPINION OF DISSENTING 110 Ciantis, J.: hereinafter referred sixth day September, 1969, Rape chile, seventeen old, Title Chapter 37, Section General Laws 1956. 111 TRAUMA 112 traumatic Who handcuffed, lineup, transported vehicles convey dangerous criminals, kind cell freedom lodging transferred state's 'hole' undergone experience? 113 meant impressive meaningful. realizes twelve objective citizens allow meaningfulness causing trauma involving influenced contacts. expose sight rights. (In) Reis,1 indicated inadequacies operates. approves filing untenable approved. duty adjudicate introduced pre-adjudicatory investigation. 114 principles compelled, state, one-man grand sit arising conducted. responsibility belongs BACKLOG 115 An backlog ultimately, impair functioning meaningful granting cases; few impeded 116 statute, Rubin Denver impaired Courts. seven months 1970, divisions fewer dozen dependency-neglect Michigan, Lincoln Detroit indicates five year 117 recent Florida (399 446) (June 22, 1970), twelve-member implemented facilitate transition cumbersome, 'formal,' expensive fact-finders. 118 expediency, suggesting 'supermarket' 'assembly line' forceful favor By pressure move too time. minority group occurrence 119 criticisms judges, caseload, weigh petition. Regardless merit criticisms, belief Granting determined faith parties 120 121 note, definite side i.e., aid PUBLIC TRIAL 122 affect philosophy. 123 Oliver2 reviews history Its origins obscure, evolved English common adopted Federal constitutions. following: 124 'Public key unknown parties. voluntarily forward testimony.' 125 spectators learn government acquire confidence remedies.' 126 contemporaneous (forum) restraint abuse power.' (P. 270, p. 506.) 127 deterrent publicity improve justice, theoretically practically. writes: 129 'Whatever classification admitting public. wholly exclude parents, relatives, friends, refuse counsel.' 266, 504.) 130 presently secret. Witnesses defense, workers, reporters, trainees, counselors, sheriffs Police, Armed Forces, Investigation access files. confidentiality summoned testify. 131 notes report PRESIDENT'S COMMISSION O(N) LAW ENFORCEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION CHALLENGE CRIME IN FREE SOCIETY wherein stated: 132 'A jurisdictions confidential; violated.' Furthermore, '(s)tatutory almost invariably records, furnish FBI military, agencies employers.' JUDGE'S EXPERTISE 133 aware created develop experts sifting breaking law; child's fate hands defeat will, continue final jurisdiction, psychological factors. factors, record, family educational background, phase. 134 Taking phase, society. expertise carrying philosophy 135 Trial prejudged. business learning extraneous unless evidence. demands trier acquainted department records possession. read account prove prejudicial, insure WAIVER JURY 136 Counsel questions or, parent waive. 137 hearing, discretion, and/or appoint guardian advise child. 138 My greatest percentage appear felony lived appalling lives parental neglect brutality, living conditions, poverty. produced maturity acquired later life. guidance, court-appointed explain implications waiver. bit stringently today plead guilty complaint. altogether. 139 explaining significance nolo contendere pleas, instructing prerogative witness stand, expected client manner suggests capable waiving fails distinction absolute waiver, wit, plea. client, conflict parents. appointed whose parents' continued rely good bar. 140 easily writing, open consent approval representing state. intelligently connected accomplished Court. PEERS 141 interesting raised concerning peers. suggested peers composed 'teenage Webster's Dictionary, Second Edition, 1966, defines peer equal, rank, quality, value. word 'peers' citizens, Grilli, Misc. 45, N.Y.S. 795, 797. phrase 'judgment peers' men, Simons, Kan. 752, 1052. 'Judgment borrowed Charta, Ex parte Wagner, Okl.Cr. 161, 1135. Declaration Independence equality men. Are second-class citizen, adult? construed women all-female juries, Negroes all-Negro juries. 142 restriction makeup systematic meet local requirements, particular, voting qualifications. 143 18-year-olds vote. Presumably, vote, Our legislature passage amendment teenage jurors so-called 'peers.' CRIMINAL PROCEEDING 144 equivalent spurious. discussed futility distinctions labels decisions. Because dictates commits shall called change Murder murder; robbery—they offenses, civil, regardless doer. 145 146 noteworthy express indicating civil. Island persons, existed adoption Constitution; certainly 'liberty' 'taken' 'imprisoned' 'outlawed' 'banished' (Henry Cherry & Webb, R.I. 97). 147 initially experiment, ceased loss stake compelled accord it; prevail. framers official, away 'protection individual.' secure blessings posterity.' composite liberal ideas came down centuries; Petition Rules Law; keystone preservation liberty. inserted Constitution. 149 Fortas' article, Equal Rights—For Whom?, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 401, 406 advised seen 'was middle interviewing' him. minutes interview. Counsel's office, Community Legal Services, represent earlier. App. 7A—277 7A—278(1) study revealed half received undergraduate degrees; fifth college education all; bar.' 'What emerges, this: helpful punitive. disappears, absence personnel limits technique. affix stigmatizing viewed employers, schools, armed services—by society generally—as criminal. treat ways. truants runaways junior operations justifiably informal, observing ordinary law—knowing else needing, admittedly imperatively child's. exercise powers errant back fold. increasing intervention reinforces unlawful impulses. concentrate science learning. vested turn, loathe cooperate innovative programs avail forward-looking methods.' 'Nevertheless, lead jettison remand country. trying lower fall heir graver; ideal treatment pursuing. revised recognition exceeded grasp. spirit animated fed humanitarian compassion children. understand threaten safety nurtured, aside hopeless sentimentality, civilized constant search alternatives crude limited expedient condemnation outrun reality. threatening conduct. Rehabilitating individualized protection, appropriately guiding deals nonetheless community. obliged employ excluding incapacitation, achieving protection. distinguish greater exclusive preoccupation it.' Ala.Code, (1958); Alaska Stat. 47.10.070 (Supp.1970); Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 8—229 (1956), Ariz.Laws, c. 223 (May 1970); Ark.Stat.Ann. 45—206 (1964); Del.Code Ann., 1175 Fla.Stat. 39.09(2) F.S.A.; Ga.Code Ann. 24—2420 Hawaii Rev.Stat. 571—41 Idaho Code 16—1813 (Supp.1969); Ind.Ann.Stat. 9—3215 Iowa 232.27 (1971); Ky.Rev.Stat. 208.060 (1962); La.Rev.Stat. 13:1579 (Supp.1962); Minn.Stat. 260.155 subd. Miss.Code 7185—08 (1942); Mo.Rev.Stat. 211.171(6) (1969) (equity controls), V.A.M.S.; Neb.Rev.Stat. 43—206.03(2) Nev.Rev.Stat. 62.190(3) N.J.Stat.Ann. 2A:4—35 (1952); N.Y. Act 164 165 Civ.Prac. 4101; 7A 285 N.D.Cent.Code 27—16—18 (1960); Rev.Code 2151.35 Ore.Rev.Stat. 419.498(1) 247 (1965); S.C.Code 15—1095.19 Utah 55—10—94 Vt.Stat.Ann., 651(a) Wash.Rev.Code 13.04.030; D.C.Code 16—2316(a) (Supp.1971). Daedler, 194 Cal. 320, 228 467 (1924); Cinque Boyd, Conn. 678 (1923); Fletcher, 251 520, 248 364 Page, 339 Mass. 313, 316, 159 82, (1959); Perham, N.H. 276, 449 (1962). Colo.Rev.Stat.Ann. 37—19—24 (Supp.1965); Kan.Stat.Ann. 38—808 Mich.Comp.Laws 712A.17 (1948); Mont.Rev.Codes 10—604.1 Okla.Stat.Ann., 1110 S.D.Comp.Laws 26—8—31 (1967); Tex.Civ.Stat., 2338—1, 13(b) W.Va.Code 49—5—6 (1966); Wis.Stat.Ann. 48.25(2) (Supp.1971); Wyo.Stat.Ann. 14—115.24 equitable imagine. protections purposes serves systems.' 150 1448, inescapable petty defendant's request. E.g., Clawans, 300 617, 660, 843 (1937). 245 'be separate' business. 269—402 applies Allegheny Both instant varying degrees control courtroom, admitted. *' Brief 110—24 exclusion, 7A—285 (not) offender.' 530, 887 Defender Service Neighborhood Services Program brief results survey plus forth. cities selected mostly metropolitan areas. Thirty processing 75,000 canvassed: '(W)e discovered surveyed, cumulative totaled less. remaining sample, statistics unavailable. During period, numbered less, sample. Tulsa, Oklahoma, 100% requested one-half years. Fort Worth, 1967. Detroit, 70—80% Between 1965 'very few.' sample total held.' showing Denver, Houston, Milwaukee, D.C. Reis, CrL 2151 333 257, 499, 682.

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