Document: 440 U.S. 568 99 S.Ct. 1355 59 L.Ed.2d 587 NEW YORK CITY TRANSIT AUTHORITY et al., Petitioners,v.Carl A. BEAZER al. No. 77-1427. Argued Dec. 6, 1978. Decided March 21, 1979. Syllabus Petitioner, New York City Transit Authority (TA), which, in operating the subway system and certain bus lines City, employs about 47,000 persons, of whom many are employed positions that involve danger to themselves or public, enforces a general policy against employing persons who use narcotic drugs. TA interprets its drug regulation encompass current users methadone, including those receiving methadone maintenance treatment for curing heroin addiction. Respondents, two former employees were dismissed while they treatment, refused employment because brought class action, alleging, inter alia, TA's blanket exclusion all addicts treatments was illegal under Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964 Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. The District Court found violates Clause, granted injunctive relief however, authorized exclude from specific categories safety-sensitive also condition eligibility on satisfactory performance program at least year. Subsequently, held even though not adopted with discriminatory purpose, it nevertheless related any business needs. Appeals affirmed Court's constitutional holding without reaching statutory question. Held: 1. An amendment Rehabilitation 1973 after certiorari granted, if construed proscribe enforcement rule denying users, does render case moot, since respondents' claims arose before itself passed, have been awarded monetary relief. More importantly, however this might construe Act, concerns prompted grant certiorari—the lower courts' departure procedure normally followed addressing questions same case, concern courts erroneously decided merits such questions—would still merit attention. Pp. 580-581. 2. statistical evidence which respondents relied support conclusion prohibiting narcotics, interpretation violated VII. 583-587. (a) statistic 81% referred medical director suspected violations narcotics either black Hispanic indicates nothing racial composition using only challenged extent is apply users. Nor record provide information number black, Hispanic, white methadone. 584-585. (b) 63% public programs indicate how these ever worked sought work TA; tells otherwise-qualified applicants participated over year, improperly excluded by analysis; affords no data 14,000 private programs, leaving open possibility percentage blacks Hispanics significantly greater than minorities population City. 585-586. (c) Even showing considered be sufficient establish prima facie discrimination, rebutted demonstration (and rule's application users) "job related." finding motivated animus forecloses claim merely pretext intentional discrimination. P. 587. 3. regularly drugs, violate failing include more precise special rules progressed satisfactorily their one year who, when examined individually, satisfy criteria nonsensitive jobs. 587-594. as postpones until has completed, rather accepting an intermediate point uncertain line—such treatment—is rational neither unprincipled nor invidious sense implies disrespect subclass. 590-592. assuming broader necessary actually qualified TA, probably unwise large employer like rely instead individualized considerations every job applicant, circumstances assumptions matters personnel do implicate principle safeguarded Clause. 592-593. 558 F.2d 97, reversed. Joan Offner, petitioners. Deborah M. Greenberg, respondents. Mr. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. 1 refuses employ In subsequent opinion, court 1964. well important had erroneously, led us certiorari.1 438 904, 98 3121, 57 1146. We now reverse. 2 (TA) operates It many—perhaps most—are public. For example, some 12,300 motormen, towermen, conductors, operators. jobs attended unusual hazards must performed "persons maximum alertness competence." 399 F.Supp. 1032, 1052 (SDNY 1975). Certain other jobs, cranes handling high-voltage equipment, "critical" "safety sensitive," others, classified "noncritical," potentially impact overall operation transportation system.2 3 reflected Rule 11(b) Rules Regulations. 4 "Employees use, possession, tranquilizers, drugs Amphetamine group barbiturate derivatives paraphernalia used administer derivatives, except written permission Medical Director—Chief Surgeon System." 5 Methadone regarded within meaning 11(b). No given person methadone.3 6 synthetic central nervous depressant. If injected into bloodstream needle, produces essentially effects heroin.4 legitimately three ways—as pain killer, "detoxification units" hospitals immediate means taking off heroin,5 long-range "methadone programs" part intended cure See 21 CFR § 310.304(b) (1978). taken orally regular doses prolonged period. As so administered, produce euphoria pleasurable associated heroin; contrary, prevents experiencing inject heroin, alleviates severe discomfort otherwise addict's discontinuance heroin. 7 About 40,000 receive 26,000 participate five major semipublic programs,6 involved 25 programs.7 sole purpose treat addiction years. 8 largely governed regulations promulgated State Drug Abuse Control Commission. Under regulations, newly accepted addict first detoxified, hospital. A controlled daily dosage then prescribed. require six week administered clinic, seventh day's dose may home. progress months, additional away although throughout most program, often lasts several years, there minimum requirement clinic appearances week. During visits, patient receives his but counseled tested illicit drugs.8 9 effective physical aspects But "that attempting overcome psychological life-style problems reach beyond what can cured methadone." F.Supp., 1039. crucial indicator successful patient's abstinence excessive alcohol. risk reversion alcohol abuse declines dramatically few months treatment. Indeed, "the strong majority" patients free use.9 significant not. On critical point, upon reveals among participants 12 months' tenure incidence approach exceed 25%.10 10 This litigation four action behalf been, would future be, subject discharge rejection reason participation program. Two treatment.11 both shortly treatment,12 he methadone.13 Their complaint alleged 1866, Rev.Stat. 1977, 42 U.S.C. 1981, 1964, 78 Stat. 253, amended, 2000e seq., 11 trial contains extensive concerning success employability ability prospective employers detect undesirable characteristics general, concluded substantial numbers just employable members normal personnel-screening procedures—at augmented method obtaining staffs programs—would enable identify unqualified individual basis. 1048-1051. hand, recognized one-third treatment—and good more—would unquestionably unemployable.14 After extensively reviewing evidence, briefly stated unconstitutional. rested legal proposition entity "cannot bar basis relation demands performed." Id., 1057. Because clear capable performing Constitution will tolerate 13 enjoined solely Recognizing, responsibility safety borne correlation between longevity capability, injunction words, could lawfully adopt excluding 14 Almost later filed supplemental allowing recover attorney's fees 2000e-5(k). determination premised court's Having already rationally needs reasoned statute exclusionary effect Hispanics. That proved, view, statistics: (1) consultant violation policy, Hispanic; (2) 62% 65% methadone-maintained Hispanic. 414 277, 278-279 1976). court, did find bias Hispanics; indeed, expressly purpose. 279. 15 holding. 97. While declined issue, award aegis recently enacted Attorney's Fees Awards 1976, 1988, provides adequate party prevailing claim.15 16 we certiorari, Congress amended 1973, 87 357, 29 701 prohibit discrimination "handicapped individuals" arguably includes abusers Pub.L. 95-602, 92 2984. Respondents argue mandates should therefore dismiss writ improvidently granted. satisfied, decide question presented petition. Before doing so, shall discuss case; error analysis 17 * contend recent 7(6) proscribes users.16 correctly interpret amendment, right enforce interpretation,17 moot passed,18 relief.19 Moreover, language statute, ambiguity,20 administrative judicial opinions specifically considering called our Of importance, perfectly attention.21 decline give construction stage litigation. II 18 Although consistently claims, focused primarily latter. Thus, afterthought order fees; issue. condone settled federal practice. "If doctrine deeply rooted process adjudication, ought pass constitutionality . unless adjudication unavoidable." Spector Motor Service, Inc. v. McLaughlin, 323 101, 105, 65 152, 154, 89 L.Ed. 101. deciding question, incumbent consider whether grounds dispositive.22 Whatever reasons so,23 dispose issue.24 19 findings Act. 20 established practice race equal access opportunities. crossed threshold, entire statistics prove VII.25 First, noted methadone.26 22 Second, programs—i. e., programs27—are know, TA. little anything particularly, year—the analysis. demonstrates, fact, figure virtually irrelevant portion included reasons—such alcohol28—or received assistance TA.29 Finally, absolutely City.30 23 At best, weak; establishing assuredly related."31 express rebuttal conclude failed III 24 Amendment "deny jurisdiction protection laws." announces fundamental principle: govern impartially. General evenhandedly comply principle. Only governmental unit adopts less arise. places meaningful restriction applicants; applicability satisfies further inquiry. Court, interpreted applicable limited interpreted, necessarily confronted reflects impermissible class. 26 never questioned validity narcotics. Rather, originally contended covered rule; unobjectionable. entitled treated unequivocally relevant differences kind.32 27 longer need, justification, vigorously defend permissible undergoing another senior reliable dangerous system. 28 defect policies, according exempted requirements rules. Left intact requiring supervision abuse, them high-risk employment. Accepting rules, nonetheless denied satisfied criteria. short, having disparate simply permissible—and excused across-the-board consideration persons—the short total likely precise—and costly33—than currently enforces. marked point—whether later—the classification inevitably discriminate equally almost apt achieve full recovery.34 rigidly specify constitutionally mandated measure period guarantees recovery addiction.35 uncertainties rehabilitation precluded identifying bright line marking regression ends.36 By contrast, "no drugs" enforced supported legitimate inference long (or use) continues, degree uncertainty persists.37 Accordingly, line, rational. 30 simplest, assume correct applicant. Clause.38 recognized, created serves objectives efficiency.39 "is directed 'against' category represents choice made branch Government vested power make choices." Marshall United States, 417, 428, 94 700, 707, 38 618. circumscribe characterized unpopular trait affiliation, create reflect likelihood ruling majority.40 circumstances, significance rationality great respect ill-defined subparts whole. Mathews Diaz, 426 67, 83-84, 96 1883, 1893, 48 478.41 31 matter refuse car cleaners, track repairmen, drivers authorize interfere decision. judgment 32 Reversed. 33 POWELL, concurring dissenting part. 34 addresses, sustains, insofar applies "are " (emphasis supplied). Ante, 572-573, n. 3, ante, page. I concur Authority's applied 35 my view below present thought conceded concerned extended literal previous unsure past indicated 1036 1975).1 Second Circuit unequivocal. understood constituted "blanket participating successfully programs." (1977). 36 Petitioners' brief states, effect, problem "at years": 37 "[T]he people history completed completely stable years." Brief Petitioners 5. There similar recognition petition certiorari.2 39 Despite unanimity parties presented, today chooses limit decision explanation "neither squarely presents issue resolved litigation." cites statement lack proof policy's actual application. light admission users,3 fashioning relief.4 40 address recognizes difficult 581-592, 37. owe resolve issues properly afford guidance whatever Authority. agree absolute Vance Bradley, 93, 111, 939, 950, 171 (1979); Massachusetts Bd. Retirement Murgia, 427 307, 314, 2562, 2567, 49 520 (1976); San Antonio Independent School Dist. Rodriguez, 411 1, 40, 93 1278, 1300, (1973). affirm 41 BRENNAN, dissenting. Part WHITE's opinion. 43 WHITE, MARSHALL joins, 44 purports principles unique facts, result reached square respectfully, dissent. 45 initial matter, remand Appeals. provided fees. 278 deal VII, relying intervening passage 1976,1 infirm 99-100 (CA2 1977). disagree usually unexplored alternative relief.2 E. g., Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. NRDC, 435 519, 549, 1197, 1214, 55 460 And see Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 252, 271, 97 555, 566, 50 450 (1977), nearly identical circumstances. course obviate need considers factual analyzing 46 reservations disparate-impact hiring this, plaintiff show excludes protected disproportionate pool potential employees.3 out sufficient, strong, proving area 20% whole belongs groups.4 think fair conclude, have, suffer times much expect neutral "operate[s] ineligible markedly number" Griggs Duke Co., 401 424, 429, 91 849, 852, 158 (1971). 47 response says petitioners maintained clinics. 584-586. suggest, place, attacks facially valid Appeals, Dothard Rawlinson, 433 321, 331, 2720, 2728, 53 786 (1977); contention seems me complain makeup applicant irrelevancy allow discovery background pursuant rule. event, cannot assertions "reveals anything," "tells nothing," "virtually irrelevant." 585-586.5 shadow doubt petitioners, majority minority groups. 5% rejected due rule, undoubtedly rejected. Why proportionally fewer whites secure absent practice? gives whatsoever rejecting sensible inference, where depends local knowledge, accept purport independent banks Potomac. very least, said, seek views complains groups up methadone-user insufficient wrongly excluded—that is, more. cannot, presume succeed presumption, rebutted, chance success, rebuttal. clinics, note "[b]etween .." population, wishes overturn fact clearly erroneous, so. Information Center Rockefeller University 61% metropolitan Puerto Rican (with 5.85% undefined). based 1,400-patient sample, Center, "was drawn random accurately City" believe study, reporting races racial-composition figures.6 everyone clinics white, highly unlikely assumption best,7 automatically substantially racially effect. 51 With respect, making impact. Obviously, stronger, unjustified displacing acceptance uncontradicted, evidence. Perhaps sensing that, goes say 52 burden relatedness. They results higher quality labor force, force necessary, cost decisions prohibitive. shown discussion infra, come close "demonstrably reasonable performance." Griggs, U.S., 436, S.Ct., 856. reasonably kind demanded Albemarle Paper Co. Moody, 422 405, 95 2362, 280 (1975). petitioners' own stipulation, 14, barrier "without study [its] relationship job-performance ability." supra, 431, 853. Washington Davis, 229, 247, 2040, 2051, 597 (1976), "involves probing review of, deference to, seemingly acts administrators executives appropriate ." Therefore, unlike majority, 587, 31, readily identifiable severable disposition facts below. conclusively maintenance—that "free drinking," 1047 1975) graduated remain years;8 predictor poor conduct categories; employee-screening mechanisms separate unsuccessful; exactly common suspect employees.9 challenge conclusions reviewed overwhelmingly findings. F.2d, 99. bears repeating, then, easily identified through procedures and, population. 54 Though argument here attack factfinding below, directly thesis. Instead, concludes misapplied found, imposes real constraint situation. placing escape it, population.10 asserted justification objective thus characteristic employability. "Employability," regard, mean particular member applicants, turn model worker. become discovered malingerer, thief, alcoholic, addict. All take risks. Employability, reference unsatisfactory employee chosen 56 opportunity, negative distinguished unsuccessful. dwell failures—those quit use. instance, makes 576, 10. "successful," such, 574-575,11 despite efforts put there, 590 33, injunction. 30% unsuccessful group, latter unconstitutionally burdened disqualifying fully justified "[has] performed."12 assumes unnecessarily broad cured, 592, selected precision. 574-575. upheld uninvolved employable. justify distinction groups, attached classification. majority's admits 58 Justification furthered "any precise" 590. narrowed ordered, operate precisely excluded. "bright line," magic years ended. "regression" ascertainable exists decreased generally anyone else.13 course, permitting not, employables overinclusive. "Overinclusiveness" primary fulfills secondary "overinclusive" all. 109, 949, (1979). employable, they, bad risks identified, serving end determine revert. goal fulfilled class: screening effort repeat, meet criterion average employees.14 dispositively different left irrationality invidiousness uncovered, fall Clause.15 60 wrong, marginally applicant,16 people, unemployable varying members, arbitrary Many again handicap employability.17 singled respondents—unlike ex-offenders, alcoholics mental patients, diabetics, epileptics, example—for sacrifice best ethereal nonexistent increased unemployability. Such assignment burdens classes similarly situated proffered type forbidden Clause.18 provides: "Considerations governing "1. right, sound discretion, therefor. following, controlling measuring character considered: "(b) Where appeals way conflict court; far departed usual proceedings, sanctioned call exercise supervision." 13,400 cars, buses, track, tunnels, structures. Another 5,600 stations, 2,000 engaged office tasks sums money. hires 3,000 new each terms, formerly drug, covering "[t]he situation entirely regarding program." 1036. settle afforded enforce, although, again, supporting admittedly "not [based on] deal" 1051. contends meager "former users" determinations persons. go further. aware offered trial, certainly none user ordered court. (As 12, named plaintiff, Frasier, time perceived next applied, notwithstanding assertion completion during weeks. injunction.) follows And, statements appeal off-hand erroneous characterizations Powell, post, 594-595, harder adjudicate concrete dispute adverse litigants. confine legality "Heroin needle. 'high'—euphoria, drowsiness—for thirty minutes, tapers hours. experiences sickness known 'withdrawal symptoms.' intense craving shot cycle starts again. typical day." 1038. detoxification accomplished "by switching gradually reducing zero detoxified free. hoped reduced leaves him withdrawal symptoms, 'physical dependence' narcotic." Ibid. "The semi-public are: "(1) Beth Israel treating 7100 patients; "(2) 12,400 (hereafter 'the program'); "(3) Bronx Hospital Albert Einstein College Medicine, 2400 "(4) operated Addiction Research Treatment (ARTC) 1200 "(5) Commission (DACC), 1100 patients. 26,000. appears financed federal, state city funds." 1040. "[V]ery [at trial] clinics." 1046. What able accurate clients 1046, 1050. States Food Administration issued area, §§ 291.501, 291.505 (1978), stringent effectively set standards case. in-clinic ingestion observed staff NYCRR 2021.13(b) occur frequency days thereafter second thereafter. 2021.13(c)(1). Tests required prevent hoarding take-home doses, alcohol, clinic-visit separation 2021.13(c)(2), 2021.13(g). "a comprehensive range rehabilitative services on-site professional supervision," 2021.13(e), voluntary irregular. "I successful, adjustment, keeping drinking." 1047. example: "Dr. Trigg testified 5,000 6,500-7,000 He 75% use." Similarly, figures somewhat 70% ARTC year's infer anywhere problems. Respondent Beazer November 1971 became enrolled program; terminated 1973. Reyes began 1972. 1975, Frasier October 1972 operator cleaner April half positively weeks 1034; App. 32A. characterization "former" inclusion "tenured" felt 32, apparent justification. Diaz entered December 1968 trial. helper 1970. summarized testimony largest programs: witnesses fairly family ties, education moderate amount service, vocational assistance, may, finished high school, record. final intensive supportive services, marginally, discharged brink discharge." 1048. reversed relating reinstatement backpay plaintiffs admitted being employ. Pet. Cert. 77a-78a. determined plaintiffs' account explicitly firing exclusively Section 504 394, forth 794, "No handicapped defined section 706(6) title, shall, handicap, in, benefits subjected activity Federal financial assistance." stipulated assistance. part, 706(6), redesignated, 2984, 706(7)(B) (1976 ed., Supp. III), term 'handicapped individual' (i) impairment limits person's life activities, (ii) impairment, (iii) impairment. purposes sections 503 relate employment, alcoholic abuser whose duties constitute direct threat property others." cause implied addressed Southeastern Community 78-711, cert. 439 1065, 830, 30. latest act cited occurred passed September 26, 93-112, V, went 17, supra. bring respondent amounts "otherwise handicap." Among issues, qualify individual[s]"—i. as) "physical activities"; "from job" "would others"; (3) qualified"—the phrase accompanying text. exaggerate altered law existed certiorari. heard Attorney "does federally-assisted .. Opinion Honorable Griffin B. Bell, Joseph Califano, Secretary, Department Health, Education, Welfare, Apr. 1977. attention Opposition A5-A6. "From Hayburn's Case, Dall. 409, Alma Timken-Detroit Axle [, 329 129, 67 231, 128,] Hatch Public Workers Mitchell, 330 75, 556, 754,] term, strict necessity disposing issues. earliest exemplifications, too repeating here, refusal advisory applications jurisdictional controversy limitation. U.S.Const. Art. III. determinations. For, addition, [has] developed, governance cases confessedly jurisdiction, series avoided passing pressed decision.' listed quoted, affecting legislation friendly, nonadversary proceedings; advance them; terms applied; ground disposed of; instance fails injured statute's operation, availed himself benefits; possible avoided." Rescue Army Municipal 331 568-569, 1409, 1419-20, 1666 (footnotes omitted), quoting Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 346, 466, 482, 80 688 (Brandeis, J., concurring). suggest (who presumably standing 1981) obtain backpay, complaint. 1981 unconstitutional subdivision allegation Cf. Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 445, 2666, 614; National League Cities Usery, 833, 2465, 245; 597; Fry 421 542, 1792, 363; Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 86 1717, 828. argued quite municipal agency's practices Acts Congress. theoretical explanations actions remains forced speculate explained haste naked presence theories. noting decision, ultimately awarded. Had therefore, initially failure California Regents Bakke, 265, 2733, 750. aired involves uncontroversial carefully briefed parties' suggesting remand. disposes exact provision substantive "Statistics competent caution irrefutable; infinite variety rebutted. usefulness surrounding circumstances." Teamsters 431 324, 339-340, 1843, 1857, 396 (footnote omitted). From submissions demonstrate policy. attempted hard face explicit 279 1976), forms Employment Opportunity twice area. claim, authorizes agency 23, probable comprising that: "TA manifestations definite morphine urine, consultation [the director] 86A added). stipulation characterize 1042-1045, dissent refers "due rule," 600, tell derived prepared researcher supplied funding, participants, 7, programs. To employability, indicating 34% 59% employed. inconclusive However, 33% methadone-patient Tr. 345 (Jan. 10, 575-576. [need not] always applicants," 330, 2727, 786, "evidence applicants" undermines figures. 340 20, 1857 20. 40% Hispanic—compared 36.3% 1970 census. Assuming duplicates 50% compared (The total-population force.) recognize, establish, goals efficiency barbiturates, amphetamines, 4, supra; 575-576, nn. 9-10; 577, 14; 28, 25% sensitive." 578. served by—even require—TA's seeking nonsafety-sensitive positions. 37, infra. demonstrates "manifest question." 432, 854, 158. 425, 2375, 280. Whether weak carry ultimate narcotic. id., 1044 ("The constant (a weeks), complaints drowsiness, insomnia, excess sweating, constipation, perhaps symptoms"). addicted None cured; otherwise, continuing supervision, structure weekly routines around mandatory periodic checks continues abuse. Employers review, sometimes verify, checks; supplies centers uniformly reliable, complete precision drop out, unemployable, time. specially abandoned (but applicants) "demonstrate more; faithfully abided [and] systematic tests observations, adjustment 1049. verifying above demonstrations from, about, clinics—a task problematic cases. 1050; Furthermore, once hired user, duty monitor precautions promotion repeatedly mistaken attributing "normal effort" suffice absence Post, 608. 608 14. Aggravating advanced dissent—that faulted unemployability "successfully users." 605. Aside misallocation underlies argument, note, 606, maintained," hence remaining offending cheaply something others prevented persons—such 1058. These evident legislative problem. 425-427, 705-706, marks dependence. employee/applicant visits hoarded physically disruptive simple urine test—as opposed test verify bona fides subject's suffices compliance belied alcoholics. hire drinking problems, deemed unfit prior drinking. situations rise discipline handled resources expend spend employees. Due Process creates "irrebuttable presumption" it. "[L]egislative classifications bear State's objectives. [427 520]. 'does [it makes] imperfect.' Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 485 [90 1153, 1161, 491.]" Confederated Bands & Tribes Yakima Indian Nation, 463, 501-502, 740, 762, 740. 108, 948, 171, Phillips Chemical Dumas District, 361 376, 385, 474, 480, ("Even underinclusive overinclusive, imperfect, 'perfection required' "). Since Barbier Connolly, 113 27, 923, "invidious discrimination," 30, 359—i. "with evil eye unequal hand" feeling antipathy" against, residents, Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 373-374, 1064, 1073, 220; Soon Hing Crowley, 703, 710, 730, 734, 1145; Quong Wing Kirkendall, 223 59, 192, 350; Holden Hardy, 169 366, 398, 383, 390, 780—and [such as] supplying water, preventing fires, lighting districts, cleaning streets, opening parks, objects." Barbier, 360. 239-241, 2047, 597. Quite plainly, interest safe efficient recognize motivation, challenges raise falls "invidious" side distinction. presumption illegality warrant especially "attentive judgment." Truax Corrigan, 257 312, 327, 124, 127, 66 254. "When determined, doubts night day, childhood maturity, extremes, fixed drawn, picked successive decisions, mark change takes place. Looked regard behind arbitrary. other. seen mathematical logical fixing precisely, legislature wide mark." Louisville Gas Electric Coleman, 277 41, 423, 426, 72 770 (Holmes, dissenting). "contends possibly withdrawn affected said "who described policy: denial rehabilitated Clauses Amendment." 59. See, e. Joint 76-7295, pp. 1106a-1112a. imply invoked plaintiffs, improper certify 576-577, 12. proper disregard use," 1034 supplied), overlooks finding: "[I]t unquestioned withdraw stay Plaintiff person, ceased ago. "There maintaining regardless merits." representative interested inasmuch sought. unequivocal Beazer's position, unnecessary engage futile ritual reapplying terminating 1988. finds inappropriate remand." 583-584, 24. reversing key strongly contest, 600 6. 584; 329, 2726, "because of" race, color, religion, sex, national origin factors purely chance—a coincidence. 430, 853, (1971); 703(a), 2000e-2(a). Beyond statistically introduced disqualified aberration. 15, asserts 36.3. census Standard Statistical Area force: 15.0% 5.1% figure. 53. apparently also. correct, quotes 'evidence applicants' figures." 586, 29. "evidence"; hypotheses, ones that. Evidence, admissibly relevant, tend material fact. definition unrebutted probative them. objection raised opportunity remove suggestion, isolated Dr. Lukoff report FDA "Rockefeller Institute register," estimated 1,500 unreporting 252 9, Dole, professor physician Hospital, center maintains computerized inventory treatment" "[a]ll report, presume." 114 testify detailed documentation comes public" "comprise 25,000 40,000" "simpl[e] registry 115-116. unsupported undermine establishes wisdom remanding or, judgment, abiding the"two-court rule." 80% source unwritten confusion scope. "did 572 openly admit "have quote context majority: "It relatively flexibility more." "concrete litigants" former-users 573 relief, user. erred prior, read recited event preserved here. Defendants' Proposed Findings Fact 6-7 (filed Oct. 18, 1974) (Frasier "purportedly" 19, eligible, "his history" 2, 1973). 596 (POWELL, part). reads protecting cured. incredible punished triumph order, combined protect, numerous top experts field experienced Both sides nine development, 8-hour inspection facilities, one-sidedly favor. realized public-law demand story ruling. Chayes, Role Judge Law Litigation, Harv.L.Rev. 1281 (1976). own, chose articles unreliability dealing expressed base shifting opinions. allege subgroup, Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 15(b), implicitly shake months. 1048-1049. 1-year standard. sponsor amendments 580-581, 16, congressional alcoholism addiction, maintenance, poses [from employment]. 124 Cong.Rec. 37510 (1978) (Sen. Williams). subsequently revert, also, believes 591-592, 596-597 culled processing applications, eliminates invest unemployable. vacancies filled, event. somehow, read, 35, existing employees, submit urinalysis. Reading disclose educational qualifications she experience job-related difficulties. verifies get touch "this references types applicants." 1050 expert officers ordinarily hope acquire. fears ruled "where reliability furnished applicant's clinic. 1058; accord, Consequently, all, error, "can perform basically employees." 1048; 1037 hired, notation files assigned methods monitoring 1037. difficulty easy "[q]uite plainly" persons." 593 40. Heroin poor, composed previously politically powerless historical subjects majoritarian neglect. Persons interests protected, considered, decisionmaking. "[o]ne [petitioners] fee[l] reaction 83A. reconcile holdings bare desire harm interest." Dept. Agriculture Moreno, 413 528, 534, 2821, 2826, 782 afflictions sympathetic, illness, shared rich poor. Some weight 267-268, 564-565, studied accountable official body judgments today, nature policies responsibility. Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 88, 103, 1895, 1905, 495 592. York, exhibit democratic characteristics, together "circumscrib[ing] affiliation," 593, addicts. unfairly addicts, spurred "ruling majority." shows, circumstances; serious affliction affect antipathy extends happens "stereotyped relationship—other pure prejudicial discrimination—to made." Lucas, 495, 520-521, 2755, 2769, 651 (1976) (STEVENS, dissenting; footnote increases decrease sex drive. 1044-1045. Those disabilities unfortunate hardly inability janitor. hints obligation appear 588-589, 32. outside obligations, proved work. rare minor abilities "required hazardous tasks, driving machinery," 1045, motorman, "unique sensitivity." 1052. required. challenged, drinkers argues [petitioners have] [their] demanding benefit them, freedom resources. Williamson Lee Optical 348 483, 489, 75 461, 465, 563 (1955). situation, resources, experiment field, explaining asking special, beneficial treatment; why compete

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