Document: 413 U.S. 15 93 S.Ct. 2607 37 L.Ed.2d 419 Marvin MILLER, Appellant,v.State of CALIFORNIA. No. 70—73. Argued Jan. 18—19, 1972. Reargued Nov. 7, Decided June 21, 1973. Rehearing Denied Oct. 9, See 414 881, 94 26. Syllabus by the Court Appellant was convicted mailing unsolicited sexually explicit material in violation a California statute that approximately incorporated obscenity test formulated Memoirs v. Massachusetts, 383 413, 418, 86 975, 977, 16 1 (plurality opinion). The trial court instructed jury to evaluate materials contemporary community standards California. Appellant's conviction affirmed on appeal. In lieu criteria enunciated plurality, it is held: 1. Obscene not protected First Amendment. Roth United States, 354 476, 77 1304, 1498, reaffirmed. A work may be subject state regulation where work, taken as whole, appeals prurient interest sex; portrays, patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined applicable law; and, does have serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value. Pp. 23—24. 2. basic guidelines for trier fact must be: (a) whether 'the average person, applying standards' would find interest, supra, at 489, 1311, (b) depicts describes, law, and (c) lacks If law thus limited, Amendment values are adequately ultimate independent appellate review constitutional claims when necessary. P. 24—25. 3. 'utterly without redeeming social value' articulated Memoirs, rejected standard. 4. measure essentially factual issues appeal patent offensiveness standard prevails forum community, need employ 'national standard.' 30—34. Vacated remanded. Burton Marks, Beverly Hills, Cal., appellant. Michael R. Capizzi, Santa Ana, appellee. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. This one group 'obscenity-pornography' cases being reviewed re-examination earlier involving what Harlan called intractable problem.' Interstate Circuit, Inc. Dallas, 390 676, 704, 88 1298, 1313, 20 225 (1968) (concurring dissenting). 2 conducted mass campaign advertise sale illustrated books, euphemistically 'adult' material. After trial, he violating Penal Code § 311.2(a), misdemeanor, knowingly distributing obscene matter,1 Appellate Department, Superior California, County Orange, summarily judgment opinion. based his causing five advertising brochures sent through mail an envelope addressed restaurant Newport Beach, opened manager mother. They had requested brochures; they complained police. 3 four books entitled 'Intercourse,' 'Man-Woman,' 'Sex Orgies Illustrated,' 'An Illustrated History Pornography,' film 'Marital Intercourse.' While contain some descriptive printed material, primarily consist pictures drawings very explicitly depicting men women groups two more engaging variety activities, with genitals often prominently displayed. 4 * case involves application State's criminal situation which been thrust aggressive sales action upon unwilling recipients who no way indicated any desire receive such materials. has recognized States legitimate prohibiting dissemination exhibition material2 mode carries significant danger offending sensibilities exposure juveniles. Stanley Georgia, 394 557, 567, 89 1243, 1249, 22 542 (1969); Ginsberg New York, 629, 637—643, 1274, 1279—1282, 195 (1968); U.S., 690, S.Ct., 1306; Redrup 386 767, 769, 87 1414, 1415, 18 515 (1967); Jacobellis Ohio, 378 184, 195, 84 1676, 1682, 12 793 (1964). Rabe Washington, 405 313, 317, 92 993, 995, 31 258 (1972) (Burger, C.J., concurring); Reidel, 402 351, 360—362, 91 1410, 1414—1415, 28 813 (1971) (opinion Marshall, J.); Joseph Burstyn, Wilson, 343 495, 502, 72 777, 780, 96 L.Ed. 1098 (1952); Breard Alexandria, 341 622, 644—645, 71 920, 933—934, 95 1233 (1951); Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 89, 69 448, 454, 513 (1949); Prince 321 158, 169—170, 64 438, 443—444, 645 (1944). Cf. Butler Michigan, 352 380, 382—383, 524, 525, 412 (1957); Public Utilities Comm'n Pollak, 451, 464—465, 813, 821—822, 1068 (1952). It this context we define used identify State regulate infringing Fourteenth 5 dissent BRENNAN reviews background problem, but since now undertakes formulate concrete than those past, useful us focus landmark somewhat tortured history Court's decisions. 1498 (1957), sustained under federal punishing 'obscene, lewd, lascivious filthy . .' key holding rejection claim were Five Justices joined stating: 6 'All ideas having even slightest importance—unorthodox ideas, controversial hateful prevailing climate opinion—have full protection (First Amendment) guaranties, unless excludable because encroach limited area important interests. But implicit utterly importance. same expressed Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 571—572, 62 766, 768—769, 1031: 7 ". There certain well-defined narrowly classes speech, prevention punishment never thought raise Constitutional problem. These include lewd .. well observed utterances essential part exposition slight value step truth benefit derived from them clearly outweighed order morality. (Emphasis opinion.) 8 'We hold within constitutionally speech press.' 484 485, 1309 (footnotes omitted). 9 Nine years later, (1966), veered sharply away concept only three plurality opinion, new obscenity. held definition 10 'as elaborated subsequent cases, elements coalesce: established dominant theme whole if affronts relating description representation matters; value.' Id., 977. 11 sharpness break Roth, represented third element emphasized White's dissent, id., 460—462, 999, further underscored went state: 'The Supreme Judicial erred book 'unqualifiedly worthless before can deemed obscene.' cannot proscribed found 419, 978 (emphasis original). 13 presumed 'obscenity' importance,' required prove affirmatively Thus, repeated words produced drastically altered prosecution negative, i.e., value'—a burden virtually impossible discharge our proof. Such considerations caused wonder meaning all. 459, 998 (Harlan, J., also 461, 999 (White, dissenting); Groner, 479 F.2d 577, 579—581 (CA,5 1973). 14 Apart initial formulation case, majority given time able agree determine constitutes obscene, pornographic States' police power. See, e.g., 770—771, 1415—1416. We seen 'a views among members unmatched other course adjudication.' 704—705, 1314 concurring dissenting) (footnote omitted).3 remarkable, freedom press courts always remain sensitive infringement genuinely expression. there few eternal verities. tried theory 311 incorporates three-stage test, supra. abandoned unworkable its author,4 Member today supports formulation. II much categorically settled Court, unprotected Kois Wisconsin, 408 229, 2245, 33 312 (1972); 354, 1411—1412; 1309.5 Amendments treated absolutes omitted).' 642, 932, cited. Times Film Corp. Chicago, 365 43, 47—50, 81 391, 393—395, 403 (1961); 780. acknowledge, however, inherent dangers undertaking form statutes designed carefully limited. 682—685, 1302—1305. As result, confine permissible scope works depict describe conduct. That written authoritatively construed.6 offense which, sex, portray do 17 230, 2246, quoting 1311; adopt constituional 977; commanded adherence time.7 21. regulates construed, power appellante 232, 2247; Massachuetts, 459 460, 204, 1686 York Co. Sullivan, 376 254, 284 285, 710, 728, 686 (1964); 497—498, 1315—1316 emphasize function propose regulatory schemes States. await their legislative efforts. possible, give plain examples could announced supra: 19 Patently representations descriptions acts, normal perverted, actual simulated. masturbation, excretory functions, lews genitals. 21 Sex nudity exploited limit films exhibited sold places public accommodation live sex places.8 At minimum, prurient, depiction merit protection. 230—232, 2246—2247; 487, 1310; Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 101—102, 60 736, 743—744, 1093 (1940). For example, medical education physicians related personnel necessarily use graphic illustrations human anatomy. resolving inevitably questions continue rely system, accompanied safeguards judges, rules evidence, presumption innocence, protective features provide, rape, murder, host offenses against society individual members.9 BRENNAN, author opinions opinions, supra; Ginzburg 463, 952, (1966); Mishkin 958, 56 Memoiors former position maintains Congress, distinguish expression, Paris Adult Theatre I Slaton, 49, 73, 2628, 2642, 446 (Brennan, Paradoxically, indicates suppression avoid unconsenting adults, juveniles, although gives indication how division between nonprotected drawn greater precision these purposes commercial consenting adults only. Nor indicate Constitution fines authority willing month past age weilling 'juvenile' younger. 23 Under holdings today, will 'hard core' regulating construed. satisfied specific prerequisites provide fair notice dealer activities bring prosecution. 491 492, 1312—1313. 643, 1282.10 inability regulated ultimate, god-like altogether removes Congress regulate, then pornography exposed juvenile, passerby, adult alike, as, indeed, Douglas contends. Douglas' position, see Thirty-seven Photographs, 363, 379—380, 1400, 1409—1410, 822 (Black, Douglas, 491—492, 950, 974 196, 1682 508—514, 1321—1324 (Douglas, belief, DOUGLAS stands alone. 24 Brennan emphasizes 'institutional stress' justification change view. Nothing '(t)he number docket ample testimony placed Court,' quite rightly remarks examination contested 'is hardly source edification Court.' 92, 93, 2652. He notes, agree, 'uncertainty creates continuing tension ..' problem say certainty until least obscure standards, pronounced so.' 25 certainly true absence, single view proper testing strain both courts. first decided 1957, agreed isolate expression Now abandon casual practice (1967), attempt positive guidance alike. 26 easy road, free difficulty. amount 'fatigue' should lead convenient 'institutional' rationale—an absolutist, 'anything goes' Amendment—because lighten burdens.11 'Such abnegation judicial supervision field inconsistent duty uphold guarantees.' 187—188, 1678 Brennan, J.). remedy 'tension courts' arbitrarily depriving reserved Constitution, enjoyed exercised continuously adoption day. 482—485, 1307—1309. 'Our admits 'substitute facing up tough problems involved every case.' (Roth 498, 1316); Manual Enterprises, Day, 370 478, 488, 82 1432, 1437, 639 Harlan, J.) 188, III 27 National fundamental limitations powers vary mean are, be, fixed, uniform national precisely 'prurient interest' 'patently offensive.' fact, Nation simply too big diverse reasonably expect all 50 formulation, assuming prerequisite consensus exists. When triers asked decide consider 'prurient,' unrealistic require answer abstract adversary lay jurors usual factfinders prosecutions, historically permitted draw guided limiting instructions law. To structure proceedings around evidence 'community standard' exercise futility. noted before, sought incorporate tripartite Memoirs. This, 'national' enumerated correctly regarded controlling jury, that, determining 'dominant 'goes substantially beyond customary limits candor decency,' apply 'contemporary California.' 29 During defense assumed relevant making determination hypothetical entire America. Defense counsel objected expert standards12 judge 'statewide' standards. On appellant contended state, rather national, violated Amendments. 30 conclude neither alleged failure offer standards,' nor court's charge errors. requires unascertainable attempting matter fact. Warren pointedly commented 200, 1685: 'It my belief said reference meant standards—not standard, sometimes argued. believe provable events, enunciate one, unreasonable local divine one.' 32 realistic sound read requiring people Maine Mississippi accept tolerable Las Vegas, City.13 Hoyt Minnesota, 399 524—525, 90 2241 (1970) (Blackmun, Walker 398 434, 1884, 385 434—435, 1884 Cain Kentucky, 397 319, 1110, 334 319—320, 1110 581—583. O'Meara & Shaffer, Obscenity Court: Note 40 Notre Dame Law. 1, 6—7 458, 997 203—204, 505—506, 1319—1320 People different tastes attitudes, diversity strangled absolutism imposed uniformity. made clear 508—509, 963, primary concern so far aimed deviant group, judged impact particularly susceptible person—or indeed totally insensitive one. 1311. discredited Regina Hicklin, (1868) L.R. Q.B. 360. requirement California' serves purpose adequate.14 IV dissenting alarm repression. But, view, equate robust exchange political debate exploitation demeans grand conception high historic struggle freedom. 'misuse great guarantees 645, 934. protects value, regardless government approve represent. fashioned assure unfettered interchange bringing about changes desired people,' 484, 1308 added). 743—744. portrayal hard-core own sake, ensuing gain, matter.15 34 empirical historical, stern 19th century American censorship distribution display 1307—1309, affected ideas. contrary, question era following Thomas Jefferson Theodore Roosevelt 'extraordinarily vigorous period,' just economics politics, belles lettres outlying fields philosophies.'16 harsh hand ideas—good bad, unsound—and 'repression' liberty lurking sex. 35 finds 'it hard state-ordered regimentation minds ever forestalled.' 110, 2661 doleful anticipations assume commerce Amendment, Moreover, make unavailable nonadults, permissible, 'censorship' adults; rigid enforcement techniques dichotomy regulation. 1306.17 One concede 'sexual revolution' recent byproducts striking layers prudery long irrationally kept needed ventilation. follow permissible; civilized allow unregulated access heroin derivative medicinal morphine. 36 sum, reaffirm Amendment; above, showing value'; determined standards.' Department Orange County, vacated remanded 200-Foot Reels Super 8mm. Film, 123, 130 n. 2665, 2670 500. 38 DOUGLAS, dissenting. 39 Today levae open California1 send man prison movie freshly defining today's decision worked concededly failed. ruled '(o)bscene deals manner appealing interest.' 1310. Obscenity, said, importance.' 1308. presence here another there, 194, 793, 'on basis 1682. My brother Stewart difficulty giving content 'faced task trying indefinable.' 197, 1683. 41 follows: '(T)hree 42 942, 31, publisher prison, kind periodicals sold, publications advertised. 'leer sensualist' permeate advertisements. 468, 946. 'Where purveyor's sole emphasis provocative aspects publications, decisive obscenity.' 470, 947. Black '. finally condemned serve anyone else possibly known criminal.' 950. observation underlined four. 43 refinement added 641, 1281, irrational legislature harmful minors.' 44 created changing application. And adopted per curiam treatment so-called seemed pass muster several tests formulated. 515. Some condemn tendency might 'deprave corrupt' reader.'2 Others look advertised "to erotic interests customers."3 'hardcore pornography'; lacking. definition, 'I succeed (defining it) intelligibly,' know it.'4 45 add three-pronged test: '(a) 46 Those ourselves into Constitution.5 Yet vague sustain convictions article prior declared obscene? 47 retreats formulations definitions. effort, like ones, earnest intentioned. deal terms, mentioned Bill Rights. makes exception press' protect nor, occasions, implied, Rights 'obscene' differently types papers, magazines, books. So deciding 'obscene.' large literature. What shocks me sustenance neighbor. causes person boil rage over pamphlet reflect neurosis, shared others. regime adopted, done amendment after people. 48 usually generate tremendous emotional outbursts. business authorized censorship, censor probably administrative agency. Then prosecutions if, publishers defied dangerous ground. present regime—whether old ones used—the becomes trap. brand put behind bars improvised publication. evils ex post facto 49 contention civil proceeding tract pale, sustained. vivid illustration uncertain laws fashioned. said: upshot divergence viewpoint examine decisions particular himself utter bewilderment.' 707, 1315, 225. 51 Bouie City Columbia, 347, 1697, 894, upset remaining property leave, while unlawful act charged entering. defendants received 'fair warning, conduct' 'that stand rendered criminal' statute. 355, 1703. warning' due here, Bouie. latter racial discrimination; rights earnestly urged case—certainly concerned—we go fined did 52 book, play, paper, motion picture finding completed, thereafter publishers, shows, displays film, specific. underlying allows implied think does6 issue stated again.7 brought juncture violate time-honored void-for-vagueness test.8 53 No procedure case. Obscenity—which hodge-podge. jail understand, construe, monstrous thing dedicated trials process. 54 right corollary speak publish, forced listen disclosure offensive. 467, 823, 1068, protested streetcar passengers 'captive' audience. 'captive audience' cases. compelled listen. enter newsstands bookstalls offended see. frequent places; governmental virtue Fourteenth, raises ban. 55 idea permits ban 'offensive' puts ominous gloss press. possible paper journal magazine benighted place. 'to invite dispute,' induce condition unrest,' 'create dissatisfaction conditions are,' stir 'people' anger.' Terminiello 337 4, 896, 1131. sitting astounding. leveler literature designed. censor, sharp radical traditions society. vehicle dispensing tranquilizers Its prime keep 'staid' throughout subdue exalt government. cuts vitals out Amendment.9 intimated garbage. campaigns, daily press, TV, radio. By reason Amendment—and solely it—speakers threatened subdued thoughts some. unconstitutional yet way. Coates Cincinnati, 611, 1686, 214, municipal ordinance crime persons assemble street themselves 'in annoying passing by.' struck down, saying: 'If meet together sidewalk corner, annoy officer happen by. unconstitutionally subjects assembly broad authorizes 57 'Conduct annoys vague, sense conform imprecise comprehensive normative specified all.' 614, 1688. 58 How deny Ohio convenience 'annoy' others punish publish difficult square requirements. 59 restraints achieving end. societies religion mathematics segments. dark day America destiny. choose write it. highly emotional, rational, questions. many Song Solomon obscene. we, definitions defined, let want legislatures apply. Perhaps path towards mature, integrated competing acceptance censor. otherwise. Whatever choice, guidelines. none except predilections. 61 whom STEWART MARSHALL join, 446, date, occasion extent oriented juveniles adults. us, 311.2, mailed various movie. impose, requirements penalties precise here. Theatre, I, overbroad, therefore invalid face.* '(T)he transcendent justify allowing 'attacks overly attack demonstrate requisite narrow specificity." Gooding 518, 521, 1103, 1105, (1972), Dombrowski Pfister, 380 479, 486, 85 1116, 1120, (1965). Baggett Bullitt, 377 360, 366, 1316, 1319, 616, 1689, 214 (1971); 619—620, 1690—1691 Raines, 362 17, 22, 80 519, 522—523, 524 (1960); NAACP Button, 371 415, 433, 83 328, 338, (1963). Since represents substantial departure decisions, opportunity 'readily apparent construction suggests itself rehabilitating (statute) prosecution,' 491, 1123, reverse remand 1689. commission offense, 25, 1969, §§ 311.2(a) part: 311.2 Sending distribution; printing, exhibiting, possessing Every knowingly: sends sent, brings brought, distribution, prepares, publishes, prints, exhibits, distributes, offers distribute, possession intent dis- tribute exhibit guilty misdemeanor. 311. Definitions 'As chapter: 'Obscene' means predominant matter, shameful morbid nudity, excretion, goes matters '(b) 'Matter' magazine, newspaper, picture, drawing, photograph, pictorial represention figure, recording, transcription mechanical, chemical electrical reproduction articles, equipment, machines '(c) 'Person' individual, partnership, firm, association, corporation, legal entity. '(d) 'Distribute' transfer of, consideration. '(e) 'Knowingly' knowledge Section 311(e) Code, amended aware character matter.' Cal.Amended Stats.1969, c. 249, p. 598. Despite appellant's contentions record applied construed offense. Pinkus, 256 Cal.App.2d Supp. 941, 948—950, 63 Cal.Rptr. 680, 685—686 (App.Dept., Ct., Los Angeles, 1967); Campise, 242 905, 914, 815, 821 Ct. San Diego, 1966). 894 applied, create 'direct, immediate per- formance postal functions,' infringe congressional Art. 8, cl. 494, 1314, Railway Mail Assn. Corsi, 326 96, 65 1483, 1488, 2072 (1945). 506, 962, Smith 361 147, 150—152, 215, 217—218, 205 (1959). 'obscene material' 'material interest,' 1310, traditionally English language. Derived Latin obscaenus, ob, to, plus caenum, filth, Webster's Third International Dictionary (Unabridged 1969) '1a: disgusting senses b: grossly repugnant generally accepted notions appropriate 2: revolting countering ideal principle.' Oxford (1933 ed.) similar '(o)ffensive senses, taste refinement, disgusting, repulsive, filthy, foul, abominable, loathsome.' discussing accurately 'pornography' 'pornographic material.' 'Pornography' derives Greek (porne, harlot, graphos, writing). word '1: prostitutes prostitution (as writing painting) licentiousness lewdness: behavior cause excitement.' Dictionary, Pornographic forms subgroup note, therefore, material,' 'which sex.' ALI Model 251.4(l) 'Obscene Defined.' (Official Draft, 1962.) absence embark reversing separate tests, (1967). Thirty-one manner. Beyond necessity circumstances, offered support 'policy.' 434 435, (dissenting Burger, J. cast role unreviewable board subjectively judging each piece us. (1973). stated, 1684, (1964): 'For fury generated, proved unsound, try it—at satisfactory evolved. government—be federal, local—should repressing including realm decency, unrestrained license vile. rule areas hae attempted rule.' Oregon Laws 1971, 743, 29, 255—262, Hawaii Tit. 37, 1210—1216, 1972 Session Laws, Act 12, pt. II, pp. 126—129, directed physical conduct, opposed Other equally valid respect. examples, wish understood approving respects establishing hold, intimates, enact statutes. existing statutes, heretofore hereafter, adequate. 200-ft. mm. 'A quotation Voltaire flyleaf redeem otherwise publication 231, (1972). (1966) reject, ambiguous 'social 462, Although presented itself, nonverbal, suppress depictions behavior. O'Brien, 391 367, 377, 1673, 1679, 672 (1968), dealing obscenity, embodied nonspeech 'sufficiently justified furthers interest; unrelated expression; incidental restriction freedoms furtherance LaRue, 409 109, 117—118, 390, 396—397, 342 mere juries reach conclusions abridged. 492 30, 1313 common experience results consequences system. Dunlop 499-500.' 1312 1313: 'Many terms precise. (Footnote omitted.) consistently lack (T)he standards'; language 'conveys sufficiently definite warning measured understanding practices. Petrillo, 332 7—8, 67 1538, 1542, 1877. words, according already discussed, adequate mark boundaries distinct judges fairly administer marginal side line falls sufficient page 1542. Harriss, 347 612, 624, 15, 808, 98 989; Boyce Motor Lines, 337, 340, 329, 330, 367; Ragen, 314 513, 523—524, 374, 378, 383; Wurzbach, 280 396, 167, 74 508; Hygrade Provision Sherman, 266 497, 141, 402; Fox. 236 273, 383, 573; Nash 229 373, 1232. addition, assumption concerning relative burdens probable pure speculation. contention, belatedly raised appeal, unqualified expert, specialization offenses, extensive statewide survey occasions year trial. Allowing error. Augenblick, 393 348, 356, 528, 533, 537 (1969). (1964), argued 'local' run risk preventing sellers variations place 194—195, 1681 Goldberg, implies places, criteria, nevertheless acceptable. potential seems nation-wide accordance tastes, point emphasized. 1320. argues necessary unconscionable flow interstate commerce.' domestic intrude 3, distributed interstate. argument appear substance event. validly traditional general welfare population despite effect across lines. Head Mexcio Board, 374 424, 1759, 983 (1963); Huron Portland Cement Detroit, 440, 852 H. Hood Sons Du Mond, 657, 865 Southern Pacific Arizona, 325 761, 1515, 1915 (1945); Baldwin G.A.F. Seelig, Inc., 294 511, 79 1032 (1935); Sligh Kirkwood, 237 52, 501, 835 (1915). jurisdictional statement contends subjected 'double jeopardy' Angeles dismissed, brochures, apparently alleging exposures setting. once proceeding, 'collaterally estopped' proceeding. properly issue, better procedural process claim, below. failed address portion brief merits appellee waived improperly pleaded collateral pretrial dismissal based, part, affirmative best left consideration remand. not, event, 512—514, 965—966, (1966). apt Warren, 'plainly engaged craving effect. Federal Governments decide.' 496, 1315 V. Parrington, Main Currents Thought ix et seq. (1930). century, Parrington come dreams—the dreams middle-class sovereignty From crude vast romanticisms emerged eventually spirit criticism, seeking worth America, discover philosophies take gone down fierce battles Civil War.' 474. Morison, Commager W. Leuchtenburg, Growth Republic 197—233 (6th ed. 1969); Paths 123—166, 203—290 (A. Schlesinger M. White 1963) (articles Fleming, Lerner, Morton Lucia White, E. Rostow, Samuelson, Kazin, Hofstadter); Wish, Society Modern 337—386 '(W)e strong abiding youth, objectionable them, (390 (1968)).' 1306, defines matter' 'matter, excretion; Calif.Penal 311(a). 1318, 945, 31. 1683, (Stewart, concurring). conclusion two-year study, Commission Pornography interfere materials: 'Society's attempts legislate successful. Present consensual extremely unsatisfactory practical 'prurient' offensive' light 'redeeming subjective aesthetic, psychological moral meaningful officials, inconsistently erroneously distinction prohibited indefensible. Errors uncertainty interference communication materials.' Report (1970). banned communications incident decrees restraining monopolies trade, Sugar Institute 297 553, 597, 859, respecting spurious fraudulent securities. Hall Geiger-Jones Co., 539, 549, 217, 220, 480; Caldwell Sioux Falls Stock Yards 559, 224, 226, 493; Merrick Halsey 584, 227, 498. whenever brigaded—as shouts 'Fire' crowded theater—speech outlawed. Black, unanimous Giboney Empire Storage 490, 684, 834, labor unions restrained picketing firm secondary boycott rarely suggested extends immunity integral reject now.' 688. 500; Orito, 139, 2674, 513; 312; Byrne Karalexis, 396 976, 469, 447; 650, 1286, 195; Jacobs 388 431, 436, 2098, 2101, 1294; 482, 953, 31; 980, 1; Bantam Books, 372 58, 72, 631, 640, 584; 78, 410, 403; 205; Kingsley Pictures Regents, 360 697, 1362, 1369, 1512; 508, 1321, 1498; Brown, 1325, 1330, 1469; Films, Education, 346 587, 588, 286, 329; Gelling Texas, 960, 1002, 1359. advocated procedure: recommends enactment, jurisdictions retain provisions young persons, legislation authorizing prosecutors obtain declaratory judgments fall prohibitions permit proceed civilly, process, suspected violations prohibition. procedures utilized, respect occurring declaration obtained. believes doubt regarding status materials; alternatives available, ordinarily invoked believed, good faith, protection, threat sanctions deter capricious history: white slave traffic T. Stead article, Maiden Tribute.' absolutely nothing profiteers vice, indecent subject. supplies criminality, profane consciously disregard injury, entirely defendant express liable bad future consequences. Thus musical comedies enjoy almost unbridled license, play forbidden marriage. blasphemy Shelley's Queen Mab decorous promulgation pantheistic ground loosen bonds endanger state. roundabout modern method heterodoxy crime.' Z. Chafee, Free Speech 151 (1942). Cal. provides 'Every distribute misdemeanor.'

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