Document: 396 U.S. 346 90 S.Ct. 532 24 L.Ed.2d 567 Calvin TURNER et al., Appellants,v.W. W. FOUCHE al. No. 23. Argued Oct. 20, 1969. Decided Jan. 19, 1970. [Syllabus from pages 346-347 intentionally omitted] Michael Meltsner, New York City, for appellants. Alfred L. Evans, Jr., Washington, D.C., appellees. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered the opinion of Court. 1 This case, a companion to Carter v. Jury Commission Greene County, 320, 518, 549, involves challenge constitutionality system used in many counties Georgia select juries and school boards. The basic statutory scheme at issue is this. county board education consists five freeholders.1 It selected by grand jury,2 which turn drawn jury list six-member commission.3 commissioners are appointed judge state superior court circuit located.4 2 Some 2,500 3,000 people live Taliaferro Georgia, whom about 60% Negroes.5 grammar high school, all students both schools Negroes, every white pupil having transferred elsewhere.6 Sandra Turner, Negro schoolchild her father who reside that county, brought this class action against members education, commissioners, three named jurors.7 Their complaint alleged consisted entirely people; it had been predominantly jury, were people. charged deprived schoolchildren textbooks, facilities, other advantages; also Turners citizens sought unsuccessfully communicate their dissatisfaction education. 3 According appellants, on perennially overrepresented Negroes underrepresented, chose only as pursuant constitutional provisions governing school-board selection. attacked those accounting exclusion nonfreeholders merely token inclusion juries. appellants (1) an injunction prohibiting enforcement selected; (2) declaration void face applied; (3) further various positions commission vacant; (4) appointment receiver special master selection jurors; (5) $500,000 ancillary damages. 4 A three-judge District Court was convened 28 U.S.C. §§ 2281 2284, conducted extensive evidentiary hearings. evidenced showed whenever commissioner thought voter his area qualified potentially good juror, he offered name consideration fellow commissioners; if agreed, went list. No resident placed unless personally known least one commissioners. looked 'people we felt would be capable interpreting proceedings * render(ing) just verdict *.' instructed them put Following compilation list, 'picked ones very best county' grand-jury then drew names jurors random open court. Only could excuse service whose drew; denied ever excused out turn, or account race. 5 At its first hearing, held January 1968, voiced concern 11 found way 130-member adjourned month enable defendants remedy situation. noted two vacancies opened up that, although interim election, not yet confirmed new members. suggested '(i)f men willingly stand aside might outstanding go Board.' advised counsel explain law discrimination clients, expressed hope 'generous' recomposition panel. 6 hearing February, appeared days after discharged directed recompose Working registration last general election,8 prepared containing 44 77 From led impaneling 23 members, six Negroes. Meanwhile elected man fill vacancies, offices. 7 these developments, declined invalidate either selections, freeholder requirement membership. commencement suit systematically excluded through inclusion, but concluded following unconstitutional. 290 F.Supp. 648.9 8 Subsequently entered final judgment permanently enjoining defendant successors excluding County system. complaining court's failure hold challenged invalid applied, took direct appeal § 1253, probable jurisdiction, 393 1078, 89 863, 21 770.10 9 urge selects unconstitutional face. They point discretion exclude anyone deems 'discreet' commission,11 eliminate they find 'upright' 'intelligent.'12 These provisions, say, provide officials opportunity discriminate exercised before litigation. argued terms so vague leave large exercise discretion, with decisions 'unguided guidelines.' excising Georgia's laws, urged, can revealed record case eliminated. 10 Such arguments similar advanced 549. Our decision fairly controls disposition contentions here. selecting boards inherently unfair, necessarily incapable administration without regard race; federal courts powerless departures declaratory injunctive relief. do refer indeed, impose affirmative duty supplement lists going into acquainting themselves existence represent cross section county's upright intelligent citizens.13 But contend even face, have unconstitutionally applied. prior system, appellees contest finding here.14 newly composed constitutional, ruling. Consideration issues thus presented requires fuller statement events below. 12 As above, sitting ordered draw obtained persons registered vote election 2,152 names. To assist identification consulted 'three (they) work (them) afternoon eliminated 374 poor health old age; 79 under years old;15 93 dead; 514 away most time maintaining permanent place residence there; 48 requested removed consideration; 225 obtain no information; 33 duplicated names; 178 'as conforming qualifications because being unintelligent citizens.' 13 process elimination left 608 arranged alphabetical order potential jurors. point, time, classified remaining 304 race: 113 Negro, 191 two-fifths lot list; check group nine lot. He nine, leaving 23-member Negroes.16 determined constitutionally impaneled. 14 After February Court, request, race arriving eligible service. classification 171 rejected Negroes—96% total reason.17 Although recognized underlying process, did reopen matter receipt racial consider extraordinarily percentage 'unintelligent' 'upright,' number said information though county. 15 insist has erred. say since situation must viewed involving distribution voting power among manner apportionment case. 25% membership, constitutes 'electorate' population Negro. State offer compelling justification, argued, support 'fencing out' such substantial proportion 'electors' 16 We necessary appellants' argument. Nor reach premise upon rests—that choice rather than delegates local turns procedure 'election' purposes.18 For think long-established tests composition juries, erred determination properly compiled. 17 undisputed fact 37% 304-member drawn. That figure contrasts sharply representation (60%) In absence countervailing explanation appellees, cannot underrepresentation reflected figures insubstantial warrant corrective responsibility enforcing guarantees. 18 Specifically, should responded disqualified lack 'intelligence' 'uprightness.' On presently constituted, impossible purge roster contribute measure ultimate underrepresentation. retention well produced equal people, instead highly disproportionate actually materialized. 19 second factor called itself Court's attention: respecting unknown assistants. Entirely apart question whether commissioners' inquire eligibility voters comported ensure represents cross-section citizens,19 passed response 9% entire unfamiliarity community informality arrangement deficiency knowledge recompiling assume inquiry discovery 20 sum, demonstrated disparity between percentages residents whole constituted originated, part, where invoked subjective objective criteria. thereby made prima facie discrimination, burden fell overcome it.20 testimony included suffice case.21 So far overwhelming 'intelligent,' determine segment already voters. affairs appears record. deprives holding constituted. 'If there 'vacuum' fill, moving sufficient evidence dispel discrimination.'22 II 22 limitation membership freeholders violates Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment.23 claim, 'to indicate qualification resulted invidious any particular community, based otherwise.' F.Supp., 652. Subsequent ruling decided Kramer Union Free School District, 395 621, 1886, 583, Cipriano City Houma, 701, 1897, 647. require demonstrate 'compelling' interest reply inapposite involved exclusions voting, office-holding. unnecessary resolve dispute, fall when measured traditional test denial protection: rests grounds wholly irrelevant achievement valid objective.24 may right education.25 considered public invidiously discriminatory disqualifications.26 deny some privilege office extends others basis distinctions violate guarantees.27 25 concedes 'the desirability wisdom 'freeholder' requirements political indeed contention foreclose requirements—a ill-founded28—the sole argument advances statute nothing constitution laws specifies minimum quantity value real property own. Thus, says seriously aspires 'would able conveyance single square inch land become 'freeholder." 26 If take word, difficult conceive rational requirement. absent own indication insubstantiality preserving requirement, seems discern serve. urged citizen respects sit participate responsibly educational decisions, parent children schools, lessee effectively pays taxes lessor part rent, taxpayer contributing approximately 85% annual budget derived sources education's levy property. 27 does ownership realty establish attachment values. However reasonable assumption possess attachment, rationally presume quality wanting estates less freehold.29 Whatever objectives seeks secured, instance least, means more finely tailored achieve desired goal.30 Without possibility circumstances present office-holding survive scrutiny, us, amounts anything discrimination. below vacated, cause remanded consistent opinion. 29 ordered. 30 Judgment vacated remanded. Ga.Const., Art. VIII, V, I, Ga.Code Ann. 2—6801 (1948). oral person owns estate. Ibid. See 32—902 (1969). 59—101, 59—106 (1965 Supp. 1968). 59—101 (1965). Prior 1966 judges State, now circuits over jurisdiction. VI, III, II, 2—3802 (Supp. 1968); Stokes Fortson, 234 575. brief informs us Department Public Health estimates Taliaferror 1,500 1,000 citizens. 1960 census, 3,370, 2,096 1,273 Dept. Commerce, Bureau Census, Census Population, Vol. Characteristics pt. 12, 12—83. arisen litigation attacking former dual 1965 Taliferro building whites. year, 87 pupils transfers desegregated superintendent, knowing closed, transfer pupils, expense, adjoining counties. declared illegal, receivership State's superintendent him prepare plan allow wanted so. Turner Goolsby, 255 724. attend private institution addition, suggest continue neighboring Efforts combine districts avoid all-Negro proved unsuccessful. struck parties claim relief granted. portion below, motion appellee dismiss books tax our Whitus 385 545, 643, 599. advantages failed want proof. damages, single-judge inquiry. concerning rulings appeal. reject appellees' suggestion jurisdiction entertain theory required enjoin acts officials. 'functioning statewide policy performing function,' Moody Flowers, 387 97, 102, 1544, 1548, 643; cf. Spielman Motor Sales Co. Dodge, 295 89, 92—95, 55 678, 679 680, L.Ed. 1322; see Dusch Davis, 112, 114, 1554, 1555, 656; Sailors Board Education, 105, 107, 1549, 1551, 650. review here simply chooses denominate 'local' 'county' entrusted provisions. Rorick Commissioners, 307 208, 212, 59 808, 810, 83 L.Ed.1242; Cleveland United States, 323 329, 332, 65 280, 281, 274. Under replace elects enactment legislature approval referendum majority 2, 2—6802 taken advantage provision effect option. propose distinction attacks statutes results administration, comes within latter category. overlooks line, delineated past falls petition ground unconstitutionality statute, court, seeking result use Louisiana 380 145, 150 n. 9, 85 817, 820, 709; Query 316 486, 489, 62 1122, 1123, 86 1616; Ex parte Bransford, 310 354, 361, 60 947, 951, 84 1249; Stratton St. Louis S.W.R. 282 10, 15, 51 8, 75 135; Hobbs, 280 168, 172, 50 83, 74 353. Similarly, contention, attack improperly laws. Swift & Wickham, 382 111, 115, 258, 261, 194; Idlewild Bon Voyage Liquor Corp. Epstein, 370 713, 715, 82 1294, 1296, 794 (per curiam); California Water Service Redding, 252, 255, 58 865, 867, 1323 Poresky, 30, 32, 54 3, 4, 78 152 curiam). Further, entertained complex, administered. warranting supra; Currie, Three-Judge Constitutional Litigation, 32 U.Chi.L.Rev. 1, 37—50, related unlawful Flast Cohen, 392 90—91, 88 1942, 1947, 947; Zemel Rusk, 381 5—6, 1271, 1274—1275, 179; States Pub. Serv. Commission, 371 285, 287—288, 397, 398 399, 317; Paul 245, 249—250, 426, 430, 292; Florida Lime Avocado Growers, Inc. Jacobsen, 362 73, 75—85, 80 568, 570—575, 568; Louisville N.R. Garrett, 231 298, 303 304, 34 48, 50, 229. Avery 345 559, 73 891, 97 1244, 599, aid reversed conviction prospective petit printed differently colored tickets according race—white yellow box handed sheriff, clerk arranging typing serve easier 'for mind discriminate,' looking color tickets, 'opportunity available resort (discrimination) stages process.' 562, S.Ct., 893. refinement condemned Avery. traverse reference digest, segregated sections sheets Negroes—and digest. '(u)nder present,' 'was resorted commissioners.' U.S., 552, comment 'upright intelligent' 647; 892. expressly commented authorize review. cases down white-and-yellow however varied design, obvious danger abuse. Williams 349 375, 382, 814, 819, 99 1161. dealt physical, mechanical, aspect jury-selection conceivable purpose disposed solely evident contain defect. function afford desire Indeed, candidly conceded: 'There There misadministered.' grants franchise 18, 2—702 (1948), 21, 59—201 (1965), 21. testified regularly excuses traverse-jury panel draws courtroom. Whether request writing, telephone, stricken age (51%); 71 (90%); 263 asked relieved (6%). 106, (Supp.1968). Jones 389 24, 25, 5, Coleman Alabama, 22, 23, 562—563, 892—893, 1244; Patton Mississippi, 332 463, 468—469, 68 184, 187, 92 76; Hill Texas, 400, 405—406, 1159, 1161 1162, 1559; Norris 294 587, 594—596, 598, 579, 582, 1074. Sims 404, 407, 523, 525, 634; 551, 647, 599; Eubanks Louisiana, 356 584, 970, 973, 991; Hernandez 347 475, 481—482, 667, 671—672, 98 866; supra, 561, 892; 583; Brown Allen, 344 443, 481, 419, 469. Pierre 306 361—362, 536, 540, 757; 594—595, 598—599, 583—584. reserve provided separate inferior disqualify 'impartial' inadequacy, defined. Gaston N.C. 297, 1720, 1726, 309. appellant standing raise merit. freeholder, Joseph Heath not. Heath's intervene granted express adding party plaintiff merits issue. argues devoid operated allegation uncontested, hardly depended ignore law. McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 425—426, 81 1101, 1104—1105, 393; Kotch River Port Pilot 330 556, 67 910, 912, 91 1093. Cf. Snowden Hughes, 321 7, 64 497. Anderson Martin, 375 402, 454, 455, 456, 430; 7—8, 400—401. Carrington Rash, 91, 775, 777, 675; Lassiter Northampton Elections, 360 45, 50—51, 985, 989, 1072; Pope Williams, 193 632, 573, 575, 817. Language Strauder West Virginia, 100 303, 310, 664. passage relied dictum. Later invoking same Gibson 162 565, 580, 904, 906, 40 1075; Neal Delaware, 103 370, 386, 567. Vought Wisconsin, 217 590, 694, 895, apposite; dismissed meritorious arising indictment returned freeholders. Leary 6, 32—36, 1532, 1546—1548, 57; Tot 319 468, 63 1241, 1245, 1519. 95—96, 799—780.

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