Document: 436 U.S. 547 98 S.Ct. 1970 56 L.Ed.2d 525 James ZURCHER, etc., et al., Petitioners,v.The STANFORD DAILY al. Louis P. BERGNA, District Attorney, and Craig Brown, Petitioners, v. The Nos. 76-1484, 76-1600. Argued Jan. 17, 1978. Decided May 31, Rehearing Denied Oct. 2, See 439 885, 99 231, 232. Syllabus Respondents, a student newspaper that had published articles photographs of clash between demonstrators police at hospital, staff members, brought this action under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 against, among others, petitioners, law enforcement district attorney personnel, claiming search pursuant to warrant issued on judge's finding probable cause the (which was not involved in unlawful acts) possessed negatives revealing identities who assaulted officers hospital deprived respondents their constitutional rights. Court granted declaratory relief, holding Fourth Amendment as made applicable States by Fourteenth forbade issuance for materials possession one suspected crime unless there is cause, based facts presented sworn affidavit, believe subpoena duces tecum would be impracticable. Failure honor alone justify warrant; it also have appear possessor objects sought disregard court order remove or destroy them. held where innocent object newspaper, First interests make constitutionally permissible "only rare circumstance clear showing (1) important will destroyed removed from jurisdiction; (2) restraining futile." Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. A State prevented Amendments issuing evidence simply because owner place searched reasonably criminal involvement. critical element re sonable property but reasonable "things" seized are located which entry sought. Pp. 553-560. 2. Court's new rule denying warrants against third parties insisting subpoenas undermine efforts since often used early an investigation before all perpetrators been identified; seemingly blameless party may implicated. delay employing could easily result disappearance evidence. Nor privacy served more difficult obtain than subpoenas. 560-563. 3. Properly administered, preconditions (probable specificity with respect things seized, overall reasonableness), must applied particular exactitude when endangered search, adequate safeguards interference press' ability gather, analyze, disseminate news claim ensue use third-party searches offices. 563-567. 550 F.2d 464, reversed. W. Eric Collins, San Francisco, Cal., petitioners No. 76-1600; Robert K. Booth, Jr., Palo Alto, 76-1484. Jerome B. Falk, respondents. [Amicus Curiae Information 548-549 intentionally omitted] Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 terms Amendment, virtue familiar: 2 "The right people secure persons, houses, papers, effects, unreasonable seizures, shall violated, no Warrants issue, upon supported Oath affirmation, particularly describing searched, persons seized." 3 As heretofore understood, has barrier fruits, instrumentalities, located, whether premises himself complicity being investigated. We now asked reconstrue hold first time occupied person then suspect, believed should issue except most unusual circumstances, such relied recover 4 * Late day Friday, April 9, 1971, Alto Police Department Santa Clara County Sheriff's responded call director Stanford University Hospital requesting removal large group hospital's administrative offices them previous afternoon. After several futile persuade leave peacefully, drastic measures were employed. barricaded doors both ends hall adjacent chose force way west end corridor. they did so, emerged through east and, armed sticks clubs, attacked nine stationed there. One officer knocked floor struck repeatedly head; another suffered broken shoulder. All injured.1 There photographers doors, bystanders reporters side. themselves able identify only two assailants, see least photographing assault doors. 5 On Sunday, 11, special edition Daily (Daily), University, carried devoted protest violent police. byline member indicated he hallway photographed officers. next day, Attorney's Office secured Municipal immediate Daily's negatives, film, pictures events occurrences evening 9. "just, believing that: Negatives films, material relevant identity felonies, wit, Battery Peace Officer, Assault Deadly Weapon, [on Daily]." App. 31-32. affidavit contained allegation indication members any acts hospital. 6 conducted later four took presence some staff. photographic laboratories, filing cabinets, desks, wastepaper baskets searched. Locked drawers rooms opened. apparently opportunity read notes correspondence during search; but, contrary claims staff, denied exceeded limits warrant.2 They advised areas searching confidential materials. revealed already office. 7 month various its here, civil United Northern California seeking injunctive relief chief police, his deputies, judge warrant. complaint alleged office color state rights First, Fourth, Constitution. 8 request injunction respondents' motion summary judgment, relief. 353 F.Supp. 124 (1972). question existence committed found premises. It held, however, believe, Moreover, failure further (1 Id., 135. Since these valid satisfied declared illegal. affirmed per curiam, adopting 464 (CA9 1977).3 writs certiorari requested petitioners. 434 816, 52, 54 71 (1977).4 reverse. II 9 here how construed "third party" recurring situation authorities other identified do implicated occurred occurring. Because impracticability can shown furnishing demonstrating disobey ignore move property, apparent situations satisfy severe burden practical purposes effect recovered subpoena, At least, we assume intend toothless anticipated available many cases without issue. 10 understatement say direct authority federal sweeping revision Amendment.5 Under existing law, party, found. Nothing face suggests normally Warrant Clause speaks "probable cause" "particularly In does seek seize "persons" those basis language imposing requirements arrest—probable crime. 11 Court, "when State's reason incriminating becomes sufficiently great, invasion justified issue." Fisher States, 425 391, 400, 96 1569, 1576, 48 39 (1976). Camara 387 523, 534-535, 87 1727, 1734, 18 930 (1967), applying standard "by decision tested mandate reasonableness," necessary "to focus governmental interest allegedly justifies official intrusion" investigations recoverable items 'probable cause' uncovered dwelling." Search directed persons; authorize "place[s]" seizure "things," matter need even name whom seized. Kahn, 415 143, 155 n. 15, 94 977, 984, 225 (1974). 12 enforcing recovering same culpable premise appears entitlement depends culpability arrest him. contrary. Prior supra, City Seattle, 541, 1737, 943 central purpose seen protection individual convict him Entries purposes, occupant conduct whatsoever, peripheral concern less intense "right intrusion into personal privacy." Frank Maryland, 359 360, 365, 79 804, 808, 877 (1959); U.S., 530, S.Ct., 1731. Such proceed warrant, long substantial. view, protective See, disagreeing extent, required well involved. Neither case, suggested inspected Indeed, stringent acceptable possessor. 13 nothing See. Colonnade Catering Corp. 397 72, 90 774, 25 60 (1970), Biswell, 406 311, 92 1593, 32 (1972), dispensed requirement involving limited types inspections searches. 14 specific sought.6 Carroll 267 132, 45 280, 69 L.Ed. 543 (1925), cl imed liquor unconstitutional car stopped carrying illegal subject arrest. said: 15 "If theory sound, conclusion be. validity turn wholly seizure. But unsound. dependent seizing belief contents automobile offend law." 158-159, 287. 16 ultimate "the justification seizure," is, "belief intoxicating transported searched." 162, 288. Husty 282 694, 700-701, 51 240, 241-242, 75 629 (1931). 17 Federal Rule Crim. Proc. 41, reflects "[t]he Amendment's policy seizures," U ited Ventresca, 380 102, 105 1, 85 741, 744, 684 (1965), authorizes contraband, fruits instrumentalities crime, "any . constitutes commission offense ." Upon proper showing, "identifying naming Probable indicating entitled "place" "property" deals unrelated arrests. anything absent resort subpoena.7 Sixth Circuit expressed correct view 41 when, decisions present litigation, ruled "[o]nce established exists magistrate concealment crime." Manufacturers Nat. Bank Detroit, 536 699, 703 (1976), cert. sub nom. Wingate 429 1039, 97 735, 50 749 (1977). Accord, Tunnel Citgo Services, 149 N.J.Super. 427, 433, 374 A.2d 32, 35 19 net "[s]earches technical sense, independent of, rather ancillary to, arraignment." ALI, Model Code Pre-Arraignment Procedure, Commentary 491 (Proposed Off. Draft 1975). provides application "shall describe particularity individuals places affidavits setting forth circumstances tending show places, individuals, §§ 220.1(3). suggestion misconduct. 20 Against background, untenable conclude And if considered free involvement nevertheless statutes, understand why prevent onto others. structure our expounding it, satisfactorily demonstrated itself balance public need, occasion revise strike tecum, latter intrusive alternative otherwise. 21 This "reasonableness" overr ding test compliance assert searches, however whenever executed, never properly identifying hold, courts not, reasonableness, prohibit III 22 event, reasons adopted arriving remarkable withstand analysis. said, suspect remains same; seeming innocence foreclose search. But, concede, knows contraband Similarly, ethical stance determining factor, seems us sought-after secreted fact so informed served, doubtful permitted withhold, there, forbid insist serve tecum. 23 Second, unpersuaded substantially seriously undermining efforts. fundamental implementing effective tool, suppressed surmise solid supporting change. understands substantial adverse effects nonsuspect once preserve ultimately lawfully respond. difficulty assumption employed investigation, perhaps likely certainly known. all; related sympathetic cannot retain implicate friends, notify damaged aware location. real culprits access offering litigate validity, evidence, whatever good faith party. 24 Forbidding instead custodian involves hazards much serious believed; record barren assumptions support conclusions.8 very justifying major Amen ment carried. convinced gain worth candle.9 normal course events, subpoenas, involve judiciary require proof cause. Where, world, suffice, expected rational prosecutor. hand, choice local prosecutor chooses unlikely needlessly selected course. His belief, arrived experience difficult, impossible, sustain warranted avoid destruction evidence.10 IV 26 true generally, additional factors derived nearly se forbidding permitting general submission threaten press news. said reasons: physically disruptive extent timely publication impeded. sources information dry up, lose opportunities cover fears participants files readily authorities. Third, deterred recording preserving recollections future processing dissemination chilled prospects disclose internal editorial deliberations. Fifth, self-censorship conceal potential 27 struggle "is largely history conflict Crown press," Texas, 379 476, 482, 506, 510, 431 reasonableness magistrates "unrestricted power instrument stifling liberty expression." Marcus Warrant, 367 717, 729, 81 1708, 1715, 1127 (1961). Where protected "scrupulous exactitude." 485, 511. "A type different kind material." Roaden Kentucky, 413 496, 501, 93 2796, 2800, 37 757 (1973). Hence, invalidated authorizing private home books, records, relating Communist Party, ground sufficient contexts, authorized searchers rummage judgments about books papers functional equivalent principal targets Amendment. presumptively administered little possible discretion whim field. 28 obscene materials, judgment arresting insufficient incident procedure afford judicial "focus searchingly obscenity." 732, 1716; Quantity Books Kansas, 378 205, 210, 84 1723, 1725, 809 (1964); Lee Art Theatre, Inc. Virginia, 392 636, 637, 88 2103, 2104, 1313 (1968); 502, 2800; Heller New York, 483, 489, 2789, 2793, 745 29 nor requiring consideration values warrants, regime ordered Aware desiring curb unjustified intrusions, Framers enormously step subjecting neutral magistrates. involved, showings impractical, connected press, Further, prior apply newspaper. warrant—probable reasonableness—should harms assertedly threatened 30 example, guard type, scope, intrusiveness actually interfere Nor, applied, policed, observed, intrude deter decisions. case sort. convinced, Branzburg Hayes, 408 665, 2646, 33 626 disappear suppress Whatever incremental regard difference judgment. 31 amici pointed few instances entire 1971 reality hardly abuse; abuse occurs, enough deal it. Furthermore, important, critical, valuable asset society, intimidated—nor Respondents afforded seeks turned over whereas defective respect, solve problem. restraint expression invalid want notice hearing, Princess Anne, 393 175, 89 347, 325 (1968), seizures merely e tirely removing arguably circulation effected after adversary hearing obscenity. supra. necessarily immune trial. Not every seizure, most, impose restraint. surely taken carries realistic threat whatsoever communication ideas. avoided out responsibilities ample tools disposal confine within limits. note finally probable-cause requirement, quash. Fifth shield-law objections might asserted opposition irrelevant legality Of course, advise legislative executive establish nonconstitutional protections abuses procedure, decline reinterpret premises, rule, demand connection warrants. V 34 accordingly reject given meaning violation else persuaded follows So ordered. 36 BRENNAN part cases. POWELL, concurring. 38 I join write emphasize what take error STEWART's dissenting opinion. opinion, exception, entity Press substitute procedure. Even aside difficulties deciding case-by-case substitute,1 agree reading. If government possession, reflect belief. points out, press. Ante, 564. painfully history, response 565. usual procedures contemplated indeed person. 40 apartment makes clear, ante, 1981, 1982, light carefully considering description sought, position occupant. While establishment separate cognizance Amendment—such highlighted STEWART—when weighs factors. thus dangers minimal.2 Ibid. event considerations province either Constitution exempting certain classes entities reach.3 STEWART, MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 43 Believing infringed Amendments' guarantee respectfully dissent.1 44 me self-evident freedom obvious injury caused visitation physical disruption operation Policemen occupying newsroom thoroughly extended period time2 inevitably interrupt operations, impair temporarily processes newsgathering, writing, editing, publishing. By contrast, locate produce imposed unannounced office: possibility disclosure received sources, themselves. Protection ensure fulfill designated function informing public,3 obtained assurance source revealed. 725-736, 2671-2677, (dissenting opinion).4 recognized " 'without news, eviscerated.' Pell Procunier, 417 817, 833, 2809, 495. 46 Today protection, says "convinced becau searches." 566. facile common experience. requires blind leap gives journalist condition give that, despite journalist's disclosed. exposed eyes execute rummaging files, wastebaskets newsroom.5 indisputable newsman promise confidentiality information, public's thereby impaired.6 47 allows ransack reading each document until named warrant,7 while permit documents requested. unlike therefore lead needless exposure completely investigation. knowledge raid bound deterrent availability sources. result, inimical diminishing flow potentially public. rely mere intuition reach conclusion. includes professional journalists editors, attesting precisely experience.8 Despite rejection uncontroverted clearly establishes significantly gather report 49 compelling testify necessity "pursuing prosecuting crimes reported informants deterring future." 695, 2664. societal frustrated reporter absolute privilege privileged disclosure; equally Thus, concerned principle, Branzburg, 'the man's evidence,' id., 688, 2660, significant impaired generally means recall actual litigation. showed assaults Daily. emergency protect life exercise journalistic function. activity. respond commanding production photographs, obtained. Surely, then, just obtaining Attorney. submitted demonstrate definition, interest. agree, performed careful "balanc[ing] vital interests." 710, 2671 (POWELL, J., concurring).9 52 assess advance liberty.10 affords ordinarily ex parte policeman challenge irretrievably invaded. 53 allow quash, think possession. principle emphasized case: "[I]f called bearing remote tenuous relationship testimony implicates relationships legitimate enforcement, quash appropriate entered." concurring). 707-708, 2669-2670 (opinion Court). 55 If, true—that exist. needs infringing Perhaps abstract receive than, say, doctor bank. uphold explicitly practice medicine business banking abridgment government. 57 For affirm Appeals. 58 STEVENS, 59 novel problem outgrowth profound change 1967, Warden Hayden, 294, 1642, 782, decided. documentary holds contain justification. rests misconstruction purposely broad language. contains Clauses, protecting "persons, regulating warrants: "no When words written, primary oppressive authors ever years earlier, 1765, Lord Camden famous papers.1 unreasonable, framed 61 Nonetheless, expressly time. Black noted, "attempt precision meant "; deliberately "imprecise flexible."2 confronted unprecedented situation, observed embodied demands match degree intrusion."3 Today, time, consider vastly expanded "degree 62 pre-Hayden era contraband,4 weapons, plunder, "mere evidence."5 prohibiting narrowly limit category objects, character affected 63 Just witnesses participate trial far outnumber defendants, possess help offender, explain aspect transaction, custody weapons plunder. ountless law-abiding citizens doctors, lawyers, merchants, customers, bystanders—may relate ongoing consequences extremely serious. enables examined gave object.6 described inspection containing matter.7 dramatic sudden entirely reputation searched.8 64 greatest importance, offensive ordinary citizen intended vindicate. Possession proceeds rise inferences: activity, probability privacy; accomplish acting force, necessary. satisfying effectively method succeed. 65 Mere guilty wrongdoing informal era, routinely presumed obligation obey cooperate These dimension. citizen's possessions Due Process Notice deprivation are, therefore, mandated rule.9 An exception strict That flatly prohibits 66 stolen goods 18th century automatically dimensions post-Hayden era.10 Hayden itself, reconsidered conferred police.11 conceivable fear given, criminal, criminal's spoils, like, fear,12 complies Clause. oath demonstrates satisfied. absence reasonableness,13 ensuing violates 67 set suggesting desired desired. comply 68 dissent. extensive damage resulting occupation demonstrators. find resolve dispute. approved award attorney's fees Civil Rights Fees Awards Act 1976, 1988 (1976 ed.). propriety disposition merits reversing predicated. Petitioners 76-1484 command 76-1600 deputy participated subsequently dismissed impracticable: Owens Way, 141 Ga. 796, 82 S.E. 132 (1914); Newberry Carpenter, 107 Mich. 567, N.W. 530 (1895); People Carver, 172 Misc. 820, N.Y.S.2d 268 (County Ct.1939); Commodity Mfg. Co. Moore, 198 N.Y.S. (Sup.Ct.1923). None cases, stands proposition urged drew Bacon tates, 449 933 1971), dealt witness unpersuasive close attention "It follow, or, Each probabilities somewhat circumstances—a point seldom explicit appellate "This means, thing, offender. 'filed prosecution,' charge offender." LaFave, Seizure: Course True Law Has Run Smooth," U.Ill.Law Forum (1966) (footnotes omitted). 255, 260-261. "Furthermore, anyone, whatever." T. Taylor, Two Studies Constitutional Interpretation 48-49 (1969). "Search detached officer, cause—that grounds believe—that criminally conducted." Amsterdam, Perspectives Minn.L.Rev. 349, 358 (1974) "Two conclusions evidence: seizable comparison, arises attempted 'reasonable believe'—sometimes stated believe'—that felony arrested. Although probity, identical. "In arrest, concerns guilt arrestee, go location." Comment, U.Chi.L.Rev. 664, 687 (1961) Cal. Penal Ann. 1524 (West 1970), "may place, whose [they] be." advert provision. apart removal, constitute regularity enforcement. Unlike invaded recipient self-incrimination summons testimony. Maness Meyers, 419 449, 95 584, 574 (1975). restricted suspects. broadly covering incriminated asserted. Hoffman 341 479, 814, 1118 (1951). overcoming assertion privilege, prompted desire self-incrimination, prosecutors rarely meet stages suspect. spent litigating matters impede investigations. totally reasoning assure violated unavailability exclusionary improper control nonsuspects. 124, 131-132 Alderman 394 165, 961, 176 (1969), suppression aggrieved solely introduction predicate defendants infringements others "justify encroachment accused having acquitted convicted exposes truth." 967. similar reasons, probably investigatory stage occur defendant standing exclude feel restraints. placing cart horse otherwise conforming perception deterrence provided rules standin discourage Cf. 309, 1651, 782 (1967). Finally, overlooked Supreme challenged anyone used. Kaplan Superior Cal.3d 150, Cal.Rptr. 649, P.2d (1971). ignored realities preclude techniques. true, always open diligent California. announced destroying aid prosecution protesters. 118, 152-153. reflected deep feelings Vietnam few, any, adopt hostile illustrates hostility. Use proposed dissent, utility publicly announced, impracticality opposed oral argument, counsel conceivably crime: "QUESTION: Let you picture commiss banks regularly robbery murder bank pulling trigger pointing gun trigger. assassination President Kennedy. "What that? Would served? "MR. FALK: The—literally read, affirmative answer. hard example out. addressed context. Well, am sure right. getting scope your theory. Our— What Powell thought have? distinction that— Attacking President. difference." Tr. Oral Arg. 39-40. warrant's issuance, 135 (ND 1972), creating standards alone. magnitude nature significance requirements. executing cooperation disruption. concurring 709-710, 2671, (1972) J.), implied op nion noted newsman, competing detecting concurrence doubt applicability Rather advocating creation procedural recognition may, text above, laws. "simply involvement." 560. understanding "read" "into Amendment." 568. Instead, enforce provisions radio station Los Angeles lasted eight hours. Note, Seizure Media: Statutory, Analysis, Stan.L.Rev. 957, 957-959 Mills Alabama, 384 214, 219, 86 1434, 1437, 484; York Times Sullivan, 376 254, 269, 720, 686; Grosjean American Co., 297 233, 250, 444, 80 660. Recognizing importance relationship, enacted so-called "shield laws" reporters. Newsman's Privilege : Case Shield Law, UCLA L.Rev. 160, 167 policemen concededly disputed. prospect losing engage "self-censorship," publicizing information. 279, 725; Smith California, 361 147, 154, 215, 205. Or save reference stories. Either indirect lessen "if observed" "rummage files." document, specifically be—including, presumably, file office—and examine one. fail provide According uncontradicted affidavits, known confidentiality, become unavailable. sometimes made, occasionally newsworthy newsman's examples produced impact own functions. argued subpoena. Regardless probative value irrelevant, Whiteley Warden, 401 560, 565 8, 91 1031, 1035, 306; Spinelli 410, 3, 587, 637; Aguilar 108, 109 1509, 1511, 723; Johnson 333 10, 13-14, 367, 368-369, 436. E. g., Thirty-seven Photographs, 402 363, S.Ct 1400, 822; 325; Freedman 51, 734, 649. 757; 809; 1127. "Papers owner's chattels: dearest property; enduring bear inspection; though eye laws England trespass, yet away, secret aggra ation considerable damages respect. written power? safely answer, none; too pronounce legal, subversive comforts society." Entick Carrington, How.St.Tr. 1029, 1066 (1765). "Obviously, wrote knew entirely, stopped, slowed down, studied caution. accounts imprecise flexible term, 'unreasonable,' key word permeating whole Also noticeable language, 'unreasonably.' attempt words, cause'; 'Oath affirmation' taken; contain." Berger 388 75, 1873, 1891, 1040 (Black, dissenting). 69, 1888 (STEWART, result). 1967 95% Attorney narcotics possessors. 48, Until decided, interpreting drawn 'distinction evidentiary validly including committed, escape arrested effected, crime.' 295-296, 1644, quoting Harris 331 145, 1098, 1103, 1399. standards, represents abdication previously accepted supervising performance magistrate's warrant-issuing 111. "There three fourth amendment suggest accord amendment's rationale, occupy preferred position. personal, papers. rationale cogently articulated number occasions. Private 'little extension [the owner's] person,' 'a abrasive infringement privacy,' 'impelled moral symbolic recognize defend personality.' procurement regardless accomplished, uniquely intrusive. addition themselves, second according evil sweeping, exploratory invariably partakes generality, 'even specific, paper rude [of search] quest leads examination papers.' inherently militates toward deserving fullest protection. highly terms, policies protections. 'intimate' relation fifth values, touches generalized McKenna, Papers: Role Hierarchical Ind.L.J. 55, 68-69 (1977-1978) Whether rubbish narcotics, suffer loss proprietary privacy. threatens overt manifestation suspicion Connected reputation, standing, credit humiliation mental suffering. stake actions defamation malicious prosecution. one's heinous greatly exceed ill-grounded minor offense." C mment, Court: Shadows 701 Only great reluctance refrigerators washing machines hearing; doing compensated, tangible precious rights; '[w]here postponement enquiry denial due process.' Mitchell Grant 416 600, 611, 1895, 1902, 406; Phillips Commissioner, 283 589, 596-597, 608, 1289. Michigan Tyler, 499, 514, 1942, 1953, 486 J.). repudiated mere-evidence scholars prosecutor's fresh requirement. char cter limitation, total prohibition, authority." 4, 66. ironic today rigid interpretation prepared ago flexibility create government's citizens' homes businesses. 538, 1733-1734, 1735, 930. must, nexus—automatically contraband—between item behavior. Thus 'mere apprehension conviction. doing, required." 307, 1650. danger hide notice." Fuentes Shevin, 407 67, 93-94 30, 1983, 2001, 556. Marshall Barlow's Inc., 336-339, nn. 9-11, 1816, 1832-1834, 305 (STEVENS,

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