Document: 426 U.S. 229 96 S.Ct. 2040 48 L.Ed.2d 597 Walter E. WASHINGTON, etc., et al., Petitioners,v.Alfred DAVIS al. No. 74-1492. Argued March 1, 1976. Decided June 7, Syllabus Respondents Harley and Sellers, both Negroes (hereinafter respondents), whose applications to become police officers in the District of Columbia had been rejected, an action against officials (petitioners) others, claimed that Police Department's recruiting procedures, including a written personnel test (Test 21), were racially discriminatory violated Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment, 42 U.S.C. § 1981, D.C.Code 1-320. Test 21 is administered generally prospective Government employees determine whether applicants have acquired particular level verbal skill. contended bore no relationship job performance excluded disproportionately high number Negro applicants. Focusing solely on 21, parties filed cross-motions for summary judgment. The Court, noting absence any claim intentional discrimination, found respondents' evidence supporting their motion warranted conclusions (a) black officers, while substantial, not proportionate city's population mix; (b) higher percentage blacks fail than whites; (c) has validated establish its reliability measuring subsequent performance. While showing sufficed shift burden proof defendants action, court concluded respondents entitled relief, granted petitioners' judgment, view facts 44% Of new recruits black, figure total force equal 20- 29-year-old area; Department affirmatively sought recruit blacks, many whom passed but failed report duty; was useful indicator training school (precluding need show validation terms performance) designed to, did not, discriminate otherwise qualified blacks. appeal judgment (which based contention invidiously discriminated violation Amendment) should granted. Court Appeals reversed, directed favor respondents, having applied constitutional issue statutory standards enunciated Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 424, 91 849, 28 158, which held Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964, as amended, prohibits use ofests operate exclude members minority groups, unless employer demonstrates procedures are substantially related lack intent enactment administration irrelevant; critical fact four times whites test; such disproportionate impact violation, absent by petitioners adequately measured Held: 1. erred resolving Amendment applying applicable cases. Pp. 238-248. Though contains protection component prohibiting from invidious it does follow law or other official act unconstitutional Solely because regardless reflects purpose. 239-245. Constitution prevent seeking through modestly upgrade communicative abilities rather be satisfied with some lower competence, particularly where requires special communicate orally writing; Negroes, could more ascribe failure pass denial who also failed. 245-246. neutral face, warrant conclusion purposely device, before properly inference discrimination unwarranted. P. 246. (d) rigorous standard involves probing judicial review of, less deference seemingly reasonable acts administrators executives appropriate under where, this case, racial purpose claimed. Any extension await legislative prescription. 246-248. 2. Statutory similar those obtaining here. Court's directly requirements program positive between sufficient validate (wholly aside possible actual officer) fully supported record remand further appropriate. 248-252. 168 U.S.App.D.C. 42, 512 F.2d 956, reversed. David Sutton, Washington, D. C., petitioners. Mark L. Evans, federal respondents. Richard B. Sobol, Davis Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 This case validity qualifying positions Metropolitan Department. sustained invalidated Appeals. We agreement hence reverse 2 * began April 10, 1970, when two suit then Commissioner Columbia, Chief District's Department, Commissioners United States Service Commission.1 An amended complaint, December alleged promotion policies declaratory injunction. Sellers permitted intervene, complaint asserting basis race series practices including, limited These asserted violate rights "under due process clause Constitution, 1981 1-320."2 Defendants answered, discovery various proceedings followed.3Respondents partial respect phase declaration "unlawfully thereby . ." No statute regulation raised motion. defendants, here, motions aspects relief neither nor grounds.4 denied motions. 348 F.Supp. 15 (DC1972). 3 According findings accepted enter intensive 17-week program, required satisfy certain physical character standards, graduate equivalent, receive grade at least 40 out 80 "Test 21," "an examination used throughout service," "was developed Commission, Department," "designed ability, vocabulary, reading comprehension." Id., 16. 4 sole noted there purposeful acts" only "has highly screening candidates." Ibid. Respondents' evidence, said, three conclusions: "(a) mix city. A whites. performance." deemed here; nevertheless undisputed relief. relied several factors. Since August 1969, black; represented proportion roughly equivalent 50-mile radius efforts concentrated. It systematically enroll duty. rejected assertion culturally slanted "satisfied undisputable prove reasonably so operates (Sic ) blacks' 17. thus necessary "The defeat Test, given direct valid part plays process." ultimately "(t)he wholly lacking officer qualifies color his skin ability" "should abandon achieve excellence."5 18. 5 Having lost issues brought claiming motion, rested purely grounds, tendered them contrary commands Amendment. Appeals, addressing issue, announced would guided 158 (1971), involving interpretation application elucidated govern question one.6 956 (1975). e went declare designing administering far greater impact, standing alone without regard indicated purpose, adequate measure addition being probable success ruled discharge. That made substantial beside point distribution recent hirings itself might makeup surrounding community, broadly conceived, put "comparison (not) material appeal." 46 n. 24, F.2d, 960 24. over dissent, accordingly reversed petition certiorari, 423 820, 33, 37 (1975), officials.7 II 6 Because erroneously legal cases it, we favor. Although certiorari present ground reversal,8 our Rule 40(1)(d)(2) provides "may notice plain error presented";9 occasion invoke Rule. 7 As understood VII,10 proceeding concern themselves employer's possibly instead may focus differential challenged hiring practices. rule. never adjudicating claims identical VII, decline do today. 8 central Equal Protection Fourteenth prevention conduct discriminating race. true individuals groups. Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 74 693, 98 L.Ed. 884 (1954). But embraced proposition act, impact. 9 Almost 100 years ago, Strauder West Virginia, 303, 25 664 (1880), established exclusion grand petit juries criminal Clause, jury statistically reflect composition community make forbidden Clause. "A must proven systematic eligible jurymen proscribed unequal extent discrimination." Akins Texas, 325 398, 403-404, 65 1276, 1279, 89 1692, 1696 (1945). defendant "to require State deliberately deny right participate jurors justice." Alexander Louisiana, 405 625, 628-629, 92 1221, 1224, 31 536 (1972). See Carter Jury Comm'n, 396 320, 335337, 339, 90 5, 526-528, 529, 24 549, 560-561, 562 (1970); Cassell 339 282, 287-290, 70 629, 631-633, 94 839, 847-849 (1950); Patton Mississippi, 332 463, 468-469, 68 184, 187, 76, (1947). 10 rule same contexts. Wright Rockefeller, 376 52, 84 603, 11 (1964), upheld New York congressional apportionment district lines gerrymandered. districts up predominantly races, boundaries irregularly drawn. challengers prevail they Legislature either motivated considerations drew lines"; plaintiffs shown product state contrivance segregate place origin." 56, 58, S.Ct., 605, L.Ed.2d, 515. dissenters "boundaries purposefully drawn lines." 67, 611, 522. desegregation adhered basic principle quality traced white schools violative essential element De jure segregation "a current condition resulting action. Keyes School Dist. 413 189, 205, 93 2686, 2696, 548 (1973). differentiating factor so-called facto Purpose Intent segregate." 208, 561. 199, 211, 213, 2692, 2698, 2699, 558, 564, 566. recently allegations provisions Social Security acceptance appellants' theory render suspect each difference treatment among grant classes, however motivation rational be." Jefferson Hackney, 406 535, 548, 1724, 1732, 32 285, 297 And compare Hunter Erickson, 393 385, 557, 616 (1969), James Valtierra, 402 137, 1331, 678 (1971). 12 say express appear face statute, law's irrelevant Constitution-based discrimination. Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 30 220 (1886). clear dealing selection "unequal supra, U.S., 404, L.Ed., 1696. Smith 311 128, 61 164, 85 (1940); Pierre 306 354, 59 536, 83 757 (1939); Neal Delaware, 103 370, 26 567 (1881). prima facie proved well combined commissioners informed Hill 316 400, 62 1159, 1161, 86 1559, 1562 (1942), non-neutral supra ; Avery Georgia, 345 559, 73 891, 97 1244 (1953); Whitus 385 545, 87 643, 17 599 (1967). With out, "the shifts rebut presumption permissible criteria produced monochromatic result." Alexander, 632, 1226, 542. Turner Fouche, 346, 361, 532, 540, 567, 579 Eubanks 356 584, 587, 78 970, 973, 991, 994 (1958). 13 Necessarily, often inferred totality relevant facts, fact, if true, bears heavily one another. infrequently example, seriously venires all practical purposes demonstrate unconstitutionality circumstances very difficult explain nonracial grounds. Nevertheless, law, serving ends within power government pursue, invalid simply affect Disproportionate irrelevant, touchstone Constitution. Standing alone, trigger rule, McLaughlin Florida, 379 283, 222 classifications subjected strictest scrutiny justifiable weightiest considerations. 14 There indications In Palmer Thompson, 403 217, 1940, 29 438 city Jackson, Miss., following decree effect, desegregated public facilities save five swimming pools operated which, decree, closed ordinance pursuant determination council closure preserve peace order integrated economically operated. Accepting finding avoid violence economic loss, argument abandonment service inconsistent outstanding served impeached demonstrating motivations prompted council's holding overtly covertly operating segregated extending Negroes. warned grounding decision motivation, lending support operative effect paramount factor. legitimate deficits open impeachment councilmen actually Whatever dicta contain, involve, much invalidate, ordinary consequences. Council City Emporia, 407 451, 2196, 33 51 (1972), indicates proper circumstances, involved division district. consistent desegregate dual system existed area. predicate invalidation divided enforcement until 1969 Emporia always part." 459, 2202, 60. find independent violation." Citing agreed interfering set aside. 16 Nor changed prevailing apparent principal litigation what partially system. later cases, indicate worked fundamental change law.11 Both after however, Courts contexts, employment, practice suffices violating justification going beyond most classifications.12 impressively another side issue; but, respect, expressed unnecessary making disagreement. 18 initial matter, difficulty understanding how establishing qualification employment denies "any person laws" qualify ethnic Had along others laws compared enough scores recruits, unlikely challenge sustained. employees, concededly seeks ascertain take skill; untenable prevents ability writing. Respondents, successfully different disqualified 21. score would, individually recruits. 19 us device infringement rationally said serve constitutionally empowered pursue. Even agreeing called inquiry, think correctly affirmative changing classes general, negated ability." F.Supp., 20 Under Congress provided disqualifying disprortionate numbers challenged, proved, insufficient response necessary, addition, "validated" ways, perhaps ascertaining minimum skill, potential position determining tests question.13 However proceeds, disposed adopt Amendments invalid, compelling justification, benefits burdens far-reaching raise serious questions about, whole range tax, welfare, service, regulatory, licensing statutes burdensome poor average affluent white.14 22 Given consequences likely follow. However, view, areas already reason field 23 indicated, III hold affirmed granting parties. submission complied requirements; disputed regulations governing satisfied.15 assumed control identified determinative sufficiently proceeded uphold "directly applicant possesses skills requisite demands curriculum master academy." success, demonstrated all, crucial requirement policeman's job. agree error. advisability course informing about upcoming job, acquainting him demands, attempting impart modicum seems conceded. us, Judge, skill useful, essential, satisfactory progress regimen. Based him, Judge training-course former, officer. training-program placed views case.16 Albemarle Paper Co. Moody, 422 405, 95 2362, 45 280 (1975); sensible construction job-relatedness requirement. 27 accompanying study, record;17 convinced erroneous. parties, somewhat since still insist sufficient, now urge inquiry into scores, correlate trainee's mastership taught officer's task. inappropriate. perceive good reopen oral although administered, undergone modification litigation. If deficiencies addressed accordance mandated Title. So ordered. STEWART joins Parts I opinion. STEVENS, concurring. disposition add these comments discussed Part 34 common thread running summarized II. include convictions jury, reapportionment political obviously influenced considerations, purporting prohibit operation laundries frame buildings. language describe proving involve differing evidentiary pays trial court's factual indeed, characterizes will vary 35 Frequently probative objective happened describing subjective mind actor. For normally actor presumed intended natural deeds. governmental frequently compromise, collective decisionmaking, mixed motivation. unrealistic, hand, victim uncover decisionmaker or, conversely, invalidate improper motive affected deliberation participant decisional process. conscripting clerics atheist voted it. 36 My observation suggest line nearly bright, quite critical, reader assume. agree, course, arise every time shown. On disproportion dramatic Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 81 125, 110 (1886), really matter phrased effect. Therefore, accept statement general opinion, am yet prepared formulated language.* reached rests narrower describes. rely good-faith officers. my faith administration, invalid. 38 reasons why insufficient. First, serves requiring meet uniform literacy. Reading manifestly function, passing arbitrarily level, disparity graduates justify separate test. Second, service. represent small fraction persons taken experience minimal value assessing neutrality itself. more, overcome widely Federal "purposes" term adjudication. 39 study leads me portion defendants' cannot ignore even though makes clear, Ante, 238 n.10, case. holdings 1-320 Code, Employment Opportunity Commission application. argued applicable. way shed light issues, individuality complexity promulgated inappropriate transplant entirety scheme history. Moreover, subject qualifications profession judges expertise others. therefore apply strictly contexts arising statute. 41 specific contains, believe, components. department predicting predict perform prior holdings, contemplate precise problem. correlation withstand attack "clearly erroneous" Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 52(a). Whether indeed assumption quoted therein surely appellate review. nothing reasoning, join except expresses merits cited 244-245, 12. 43 BRENNAN, MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 44 holds 21) unlawfully standards. Initially, questions, presented says "rested grounds," 236, it," 238. suggestion, met imposed 3304. 249 15. understand job-related 3304, necessarily VII. provision, own analysis, VII; "complaint 3304." 234 Cf. 10. "plain error" asserts, 238-239, unfortunate recognize address appears reach correct arguments, affirm satisfies standards.1 All parties' arguments decisions context, wrong 3304 identical.2 Infra, 263. 47 test,3 offered relatedness. 15, 16; 45-47, 959-961. rulings, carried burden. agrees courses. result upon record, instructions testing issued (CSC), case." assured today's foreclosed Albermarle Finally, asserts relatedness requirement." 251. CSC conclusion. More importantly, brief takes guidelines. longstanding (EEOC) previously endorsed Furthermore, Albemarle. "much sensible" significantly weakening safeguards employment. 49 October 12, 1972, supplement Personnel Manual containing compliance concerning practices.4 provision "have demonstrable important objectives management." "Success training" example objective. statistical Futransky 251 17, applicants' recruits' final examinations during course. 50 hornbook accord administrative authority responsible regulation. g., Udall Tallman, 380 16, 792, 801, 616, 625 (1965). worthy note, therefore, interprets manner despite Commissioners' "current views." "Under professional criterion-related entrance job-relevant (regardless itself). 52 documentary submitted predictive Recruit Final Averages. little substance post-training determined, Averages job-relevant." Brief 14-15 (emphasis added). 53 maintains criterion relieving providing limitations. 54 "Proof achievement tests, itself, examination. nature depend mastery imparts employee knowledge, skills, job." 24-25. 55 Applying standards5 concludes none appropriateness using officer." 30.6 56 CSC's can averages (1) (2) training. correlated completion Infra. turn performance, devoid regard. demonstration comprehension curriculum; record. designated "good" learned course.7 Without significance 85, "success training." 57 Today's odds EEOC explicit authorization 2000e-12(a). dispute EEOC's jurisdiction, above, relevant. 1972 gave substantive accorded private sector, Morton Mancari, 417 546-547, 2474, 2480-2481, 290, 298-299 (1974), maintain sectors. Chandler Roudebush, 425 840, 864, 1949, 1961, 416, 433 (1976). 2, Supra. 58 agency's regulations, agency charged great deference. Trafficante Life Ins. 409 210, 364, 367, 415, 419 (1972); 625; Reactor Electricians, 367 396, 408, 1529, 1535, 924, 932 (1961). pertinent enhanced altered disapproved extensively 1972.8 Chemehuevi Tribe Indians FPC, 420 395, 410, 1066, 1075, 279, 290 Cammarano States, 358 498, 510, 79 524, 531, 462, 470 (1959); Allen Grand Central Aircraft 547, 745, 752, 933, 943 (1954); Massachusetts Mut. 288 269, 273, 337, 77 739, 742 (1933). principles followed explicitly fewer eight 431-436, 2378-2381, 304-3079 Griggs, 433-434, 854-855, 165-166. "empirical data elements work behavior comprise jobs candidates evaluated." CFR 1607.4(c) approved Albemarle, remarked message Guidelines 431, 2378, 304. forth delineate 60 behaviors adequacy identify described; and, additionally, rating techniques, appraisal form(s) rater(s) included evidence. Such measures proficiency, time, supervisory ratings, regularity attendance tenure. major revealed careful analyses." 1607.5(b)(3) 432, 2379, 304, 30. standard, submit bound do, deficient ways above. "fully described." discussion curriculum, completely elucidating tested examinations. description "job-specific 433, 305. expressly permit unlike instructions. Among specified closest "training time." go amount difficulty. supra. Third, met. analysis examinations, type 'major critical" importance. 63 Accordingly, distinctly opposed result. 64 plainly conflicts "(i)f Related prohibited." 853, 164 Once shown, carries "bear(s) Demonstrable successful used." observed further: "Nothing precludes procedures; useful. What giving devices mechanisms controlling demonstrably commanded abstract." 436, 856, 167. 66 read "by professionally acceptable methods" " 'predictive evaluated.' 304 added), quoting Further, attempt supervisors' ratings accurately reflected unable Actually considered (employer's) interest job-specific impact." 305 original). To me, significant McDonnell Douglas Corp. Green, 411 802, 1817, 1824, 668, Petitioners discern performance.10 Thus, indirect 67 substitute settled, resolved opinion.11 decide "Professionally apparently includes information trainees' curriculum. 24-29; Executive Committee Division American Psychological Assn. Amicus Curiae 37-43. authority, professional, administrative, judicial, sufficiency proof. stated result, squared reconcilable reduced emphasis clearly intent. section-by-section amendments states follows: 69 "In area intention courts continue applicability VII." Cong.Rec. 7166 pre-1972 standardized uniformly above related.12 ignores Congress' hostility toward job-qualification "use aimed jobs." H.R.Rep. 92-238, p. S.Rep. 92-415, pp. concede devised departments. 71 court, opposite today.13 Sound policy that, minimum, Where employers try danger people end "job related" endorsing dubious proposition. extended 72 accepting 4-103 appointments Code relating classified civil Office Reorganization Plan 1967, abolished January 1975, replaced Mayor Columbia. provides: "All jurisdiction shall Territory enforce contracts, sue, give full benefit security property enjoyed citizens, like punishment, pains, penalties, taxes, licenses, exactions kind, other." Section (1973) recruitment fill preference residents residence, religion, race, color, national One 3304(a), "s Competitive service; President prescribe rules provide, conditions warrant, "(1) open, competitive appointment relate matters fairly relative capacity fitness sought; "(2) noncompetitive competent compete existence vacancy." Those hearing designating class ruling abeyance insofar reveals. urged constitutional, statutory, regulatory provisions, 1883 relatedness" When granted, promotions pending. direction authorized 54(b). subsequently decided adversely original plaintiffs. 352 187 (DC 1972). "Although allege inapplicable Government, furnish additional instruction disposing grounds distinction 958 Commissioners, writ 21(4). refer "federal parties." Apparently disputing misapplied See, Silber 370 717, 82 1287, 798 (1962); Carpenters 330 412, 775, 784, 987 (1947); Sibbach Wilson & 312 422, 427, 479, 486 (1941); Mahler Eby, 264 32, 45, 288, 557 (1924); Weems 217 349, 362, 544, 793, 796 (1910). dominated filed; adopted Title, thereafter proceed amendments, grounds; At counsel asked "this just comes overtones," responded: "My trouble honestly procedural get them." Tr. Oral Arg. 66. suggests adjudication, text contrary; shortly Palmer, Members majority joined Lemon Kurtzman, 602, 2105, 745 dealt financing announced, before, aid church-related close Cases include: Chance Board Examiners, 458 1167, 1176-1177 (CA2 1972); Castro Beecher, 459 725, 732-733 (CA1 Bridgeport Guardians 482 1333, 1337 1973); Harper Baltimore, 359 1187, 1200 (D.Md.), aff'd Sub nom. Kloster, 1134 (CA4 Hampton, 62, 976, 981 cf. Tyler Vickery, 517 1089, 1096-1097 (CA5 1975), cert. pending, 75-1026. cases: Wade Mississippi Cooperative Extension Serv., 372 126, 143 (ND Miss. 1974); Arnold Ballard, 390 723, 736, 737 (N.D. Ohio 1975); Chicago, 543, 553 Ill. Fowler Schwarzwalder, 351 721, 724 (D.Minn. 1972), rev'd 498 (CA8 1974). Norwalk CORE Redevelopment Agency, 395 920 1968) (urban renewal); Kennedy Park Homes Lackawanna, 436 108, 114 1970), denied, 1010, 1256, 546 (1971) (zoning); Southern Alameda Spanish Speaking Organization Union City, 424 291 (CA9 1970) (dictum) H. Village Arlington Heights, (CA7), 1030, 560, 404 (1975) Gautreaux Romney, 448 731, 738 (CA7 1971) (public housing); Crow Brown, 382, 391 Ga. 1971), aff'd, 457 788 1972) Hawkins Town Shaw, 437 1286 rehearing en banc, 461 1171 (1972) (municipal services). doubt single method appropriately validating Professional Association Standards Educational Tests Manuals (1966), methods validation: "empirical" "criterion" (demonstrated identifying correlating identified); "construct" structured degree identifiable characteristics determined performance); "content" content closely approximates tasks performed applicant). fashioning Employee Selection Procedures, pt. 1607 judicially issue. E.g., 280, U.S.App.D.C., 70, 984; Vulcan Society 490 387, 394 1973). Goodman, Facto Segregation: Constitutional Empirical Analysis, Calif.L.Rev. 275, 300 disproportionate-impact "tests voting, draft deferment, government-conferred opportunities .; (s)ales bail schedules, utility rates, bridge tolls, license fees, state-imposed charges." wage usury modifications unequal-impact Silverman, Protection, Economic Legislation, Racial Discrimination, Vand.L.Rev. 1183 Demsetz, Minorities Market Place, N.C.L.Rev. 271 memorandum argued: Supreme job-relationship sector passage 1883. '. sought.' 3304(a)(1). contend past eighty-eight virtue guaranteed fair competition They argue satisfied. tacitly Current "Examining, Testing, Standards, Practices" provide part: "S2-2 Use a. Policy. Commission's staff develops uses assess knowledges, abstract. Appraisal real, reasonable, effective behavior. procedure must, requirements, management, as: Effective performance; "(b) Capability; "(c) Success training; "(d) Reduced turnover; "(e) Job satisfaction." Fed.Reg. 21557 430-435, 2378-2380, 304-307. 21's program. Division, Bureau Policies Commission. App., 99-109. Findings "support(ing) T(est) selecting trainees learn School." 103. Opinion experts examining and/or conducting research, Affidavit Dr. Donald J. Schwartz (personnel research psychologist, Commission), App. 178, 183 ("It MPD Blacks ."); affidavit Diane 185, 186 training"). "willing assume appellees 48, 962. Specifically, listed intend feel constrained comment propriety footnote 244-245. "disapproved" presently scheduled plenary consideration 1976 Term, Housing Development regarded few months ago briefing argument, ought effectively merely inclusion laundry list decisions. construing Code. 250-251 CSC, referring "following (V. (1971),) years." reliance 2000e-2(h). 433-436, 854-856, 165-167. 300.101 Et seq. contain "regulations" finds supportive conclusion, sections 3301 3302 title E.O. 10577, 1954-58 Comp., 218." 21552 authorities, §§ 7151, 7154 Exec.Order 11478, (1966-1970 Comp.) 803. guidelines bearing instructions, 'criterion-related' validity," see 60, 984 legitimately needs Government." P S3-2(a)(2), 21558 validity, studies degree, S3-3(a), ignored basis, argues remanded enable demonstration, resolution recognized proof, unsatisfied, prevail. relies, "is School," predicts 85. finding, Everyone learns examinations; difficulty, he assistance passes. Still mandates regulations. House Senate committees considering devices, "complex pervasive phenomenon." (1971); U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 2137. obtain "expert assistance" Supra, 5; 8. Indeed, Justices too 449, 2389, (Blackmun, J., concurring judgment); 2387, 317 (Burger, C. dissenting part). predicted 305, 435, 2380, 306. deciding 2000e-2(h) simple insignificant endeavor." 59, 964 59. declined acceptable, question. Jacksonville Terminal 451 418, 456-457 906, 1607, 815 Hicks Crown Zellerbach Corp., 319 314, 319-321 (E.D.La.1970) (issuing preliminary injunction), 321 1241, permanent injunction). 334 930 (D.Mass.1971), 725 Western Addition Community Org. Alioto, 539-540 (N.D.Cal.1971), 340 1351, 1354-1356 360 733 injunction); 203 (S.D.N.Y.1971), 1167 Baker Columbus Mun. Sep. Dist., 329 706, 721-722 (N.D.Miss.1971), 462 1112 Arrington Bay Transp. Auth., 1355 (D.Mass.1969). 555-556 (N.D.Ill.1974) (police department); Officers 371 1328, (N.D.Cal.1973) East Cleveland, 363 1131, 1148-1149 (N.D.Ohio 1973) department), 520 492 (CA6 1202-1203 (D.Md.) (fire modified Pennsylvania O'Neill, 1084, 1090-1091 (E.D.Pa.1972) vacated part, 473 1029 (CA3

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