Document: 384 U.S. 641 86 S.Ct. 1717 16 L.Ed.2d 828 Nicholas de B. KATZENBACH, Attorney General of the United States, et al., Appellants,v.John P. MORGAN and Christine Morgan. NEW YORK CITY BOARD OF ELECTIONS, etc., Appellants, v. John Nos. 847, 877. Argued April 18, 1966. Decided June 13, [Syllabus from pages 641-642 intentionally omitted] Sol. Gen. Thurgood Marshall J. Lee Rankin, New York City, for appellants. Alfred Avins, Memphis, Tenn., appellees. Rafael Hernandez Colon, Ponce, P.R., Commonwealth Puerto Rico, as amicus curiae. Jean M. Coon, Albany, N.Y., State York, Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 These cases concern constitutionality § 4(e) Voting Rights Act 1965.1 That law, in respects pertinent these cases, provides that no person who has successfully completed sixth primary grade a public school in, or private accredited by, Rico which language instruction was other than English shall be denied right to vote any election because his inability read write English. Appellees, registered voters brought this suit challenge insofar it pro tanto prohibits enforcement laws York2 requiring an ability condition voting. Under many several hundred thousand City residents have migrated there had previously been vote, appellees attack would enable citizens vote.3 Pursuant 14(b) 1965, commenced proceeding District Court Columbia seeking declaration is invalid injunction prohibiting appellants, States Board Elections, either enforcing complying with s 4(e).4 A three-judge district court designated. 28 U.S.C. §§ 2282, 2284 (1964 ed.). Upon cross motions summary judgment, court, one judge dissenting, granted declaratory injunctive relief sought. The held enacting Congress exceeded powers by Constitution therefore usurped reserved Tenth Amendment. 247 F.Supp. 196. Appeals were taken directly Court, 1252, 1253 ed.) we noted probable jurisdiction. 382 1007, 621, 15 524. We reverse. hold that, application challenged proper exercise 5 Fourteenth Amendment5 force Supremacy Clause, Article VI, literacy requirement cannot enforced extent inconsistent 4(e). 2 distribution effected Constitution, establish qualifications voting state officers, established members most numerous branch legislature also determine may Representatives Senators, Art. I, 2; Seventeenth Amendment; Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 651, 663, 4 152, L.Ed. 274. But, course, power grant withhold franchise on conditions are forbidden Amendment, provision Constitution. Such exercises more immune limitations Amendment action. Equal Protection Clause itself forbid some restrict vote.6 3 argues congressional under law can only sustained if judicial determines prohibited provisions sought enforce. More specifically, he urges appropriate legislation enforce unless judiciary decides—even guidance judgment—that itself. disagree. Neither nor history supports such construction.7 As said regard Com. Virginia, 100 339, 345, 25 676. 'It enlarged. authorized prohibitions legislation. Some contemplated make amendments fully effective.' construction require determination precluded violated sustaining enactment, depreciate both resourcefulness responsibility implementing Amendment.8 It confine legislative context insignificant role abrogating those prepared adjudge unconstitutional, merely informing judgment particularizing 'majestic generalities' See Fay People 332 261, 282—284, 67 1613, 1624—1625, 91 2043. Thus our task case not whether applied deny Rican violates Clause. Accordingly, decision Lassiter Northampton County Bd. Election, 360 45, 79 985, 1072, North Carolina all circumstances first sections Fifteenth Amendments, inapposite. Compare Guinn 238 347, 366, 35 926, 931, 59 1340; Camacho Doe, 31 Misc.2d 692, 221 N.Y.S.2d 262 (1958), aff'd 7 N.Y.2d 762, 194 33, 163 N.E.2d 140 (1959); Rogers, 199 155 (D.C.S.D.N.Y.1961). did present question before us here: Without find nullifies York's so applied, could prohibit legislating Amendment? In answering question, limited determining is, required 5, By including draftsmen Congress, specific applicable same broad expressed Necessary Proper 8, cl. 18.9 classic formulation reach Chief McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 421, 579: 6 'Let end legitimate, let within scope constitution, means appropriate, plainly adapted end, prohibited, but consist letter spirit constitutional. U.S., at 345—346, 676, decided 12 years after adoption scope: 8 'Whatever carry out objects view, whatever tends submission they contain, secure persons enjoyment perfect equality civil rights equal protection against denial invasion, domain power.' Strauder West 303, 311, 664; Virginia Rives, 313, 318, 667. Section grants similar 'appropriate legislation' amendment; recently South Katzenbach, 383 301, 326, 803, 817, 769, '(t)he basic test involving concerning express relation States.' identified formulated Maryland. James Everard's Breweries Day, 265 545, 558—559, 44 628, 631, 68 1174 (Eighteenth Amendment). Maryland standard measure what constitutes Correctly viewed, positive authorizing its discretion needed guarantees 9 proceed consideration standard, regarded enactment 'plainly end' consistent 'the constitution.'10 10 There doubt explicitly declared enacted 'to fourteenth amendment educated American-flag schools predominant classroom English.' referred include their English, emanating viewed community residing nondiscriminatory treatment government—both imposition administration governmental services, schools, housing enforcement. 11 readily seen adapted' furthering aims practical effect denying large segments community. thus 'preservative rights.' Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 370, 1064, 1071, 30 220. This enhanced political will helpful gaining services entire community.11 thereby enables minority better obtain 'perfect laws.' well authority say need warranted federal intrusion upon interests served requirement. made assess weigh various conflicting considerations—the risk pervasiveness discrimination effectiveness eliminating restriction dealing evil, adequacy availability alternative remedies, nature significance affected nullification school. review resolution factors. enough able perceive basis might resolve conflict did. support case. Any contrary conclusion blind realities familiar legislators.12 result different inquiry aimed elimination invidious establishing voter qualifications. told originated desire provide incentive non-English speaking immigrants learn order assure intelligent franchise. Yet questioned, light exemptions provided,13 evidence suggesting prejudice played prominent requirement,14 actually being served. questioned deemed precious fundamental society necessary encouraging goal franchise.15 Finally, concluded franchise, understand Spanish effective whom Spanish-language newspapers radio television programs available inform them issues affairs.16 Since undertook legislate preclude general appraisal requirements voting, see supra, specially informed competence,17 Congress' prerogative competing considerations. Here again, predicate education constituted violation 13 remains remedies adopted constitute 'with constitution.' respect contend fails section works Fifth (schools located jurisdiction) beyond territorial limits complaint 4(e), unconstitutionally diluted anyone's rather extending non-American-flag schools. pause sufficient personal interest invalidated ground, generally Raines, 362 17, 80 519, 524, since argument, falls merits. 14 does extends otherwise law. decide conditioning achieving certain level (regardless instruction) discriminates invidiously limitation permissible. deciding principle calls closest scrutiny distinctions rights, n. 15, inapplicable; distinction presented reform existing barrier Rather, constitutional propriety guided principles 'statute gone farther did,' Roschen Ward, 279 337, 49 336, 73 722, 'strike evils time.' Semler Oregon Dental Examiners, 294 608, 610, 55 570, 571, 1086 'reform take step time, addressing phase problem seems acute mind,' Williamson Optical Co., 348 483, 489, 75 461, 465, 99 563. Guided principles, satisfied appellees' without merit. us, choice limit may, example, reflect greater familiarity quality schools,18 recognition unique historic relationship between Rico,19 awareness Federal Government's acceptance desirability use schools,20 fact fostered policies migration States.21 occasion factors justify embodied voting-qualification go 'no did.' conclude case, must hereby reversed. 17 Reversed. 18 DOUGLAS joins Court's except discussion, pp. 656—658, On HARLAN, STEWART joins, dissenting. 19 Worthy purposes thought many, I do how Stat. 439, 42 1973b(e) ed. Supp. I), sacrifice fundamentals American system—the separation function boundaries authority. token think validity test, considers statute, upheld. conduce analytical clarity discuss second issue first. I. 20 Cardona Case (No. 673). 21 presents straightforward problem. Appellant, resident citizen register refused registration she failed meet qualification respecting eligibility franchise.1 She maintained although born literate Spanish. alleges statute satisfaction arbitrary irrational classification least someone who, like herself, 22 analysis begin rule essentially matter concern, Minor Happersett, Wall. 162; Election Bd., subject overriding e.g., Fifteenth, Seventeenth, Nineteenth, Twenty-fourth Amendments,2 and, decided, Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 84 1362, 506; Carrington Rash, 380 89, 85 775, 675. 23 alone concerns here, forbids arbitrarily discriminating among classes persons. Of course always recognized nearly involves sort classification, narrow one: practice struck down clause justified founded rational permissible policy. See, Powell Pennsylvania, 127 678, 992, 32 253; Lindsley Natural Carbonic Gas 220 61, 369; Walters St. Louis, 347 231, 74 505, 98 660. 24 suggested broader applies where 'fundamental liberties threatened,' p. 655, 1726, 838, note 15; dissenting Douglas, J., Cardona, 676—677, 1730—1731, 851—852, show mere policy classifications area. No dual-level ever articulated believe approach overwhelming weight authority, well-established federalism underlie me, applying shown English-language reasonably designed serve legitimate interest. has. 26 1959, dealt substantially resolved unanimously favor legitimacy qualification. challenged. 'wide scope' sort. 51, 1072. Dealing tests generally, held: 27 'The * standards promote ballot. Literacy intelligence obviously synonymous. Illiterate people voters. newspapers, periodicals, books, printed canvass debate campaign issues, should last century Massachusetts insure 'independent intelligent' suffrage. Stone Smith, 159 Mass. 413—414, 34 N.E. 521. agrees. sit wisdom say, however, allowable measured standards.' 51 53, 990. recounted indubitably point toward upholding rationality test. true here simply drawn per se illiteracy. Appellant Spanish, studied government Spanish-speaking Rico. further 'a regular reader daily proportionately coverage politics newspapers,' listens broadcasts full news. politically significant serves interest, 29 Although sure difference totally illiterate foreign tongue, added factor vitiates statute. Accepting appellant's allegations true, nevertheless range material much English-speaking resident, business national, state, local conducted propositions, amendments, offices candidates running listed ballot likewise candidates, certainly campaigning national statewide speeches justifiably want through possibly imprecise translations summaries reported number news media. noteworthy Government requires prerequisite naturalization, 66 239, 1423 ed.), attesting view importance integration into Relevant too complex,3 fairly administered,4 maintains free adult appellant her class encouraged attend.5 Given State's promoting safeguarding ballot, given long experience process integrating non-English-speaking mainstream life, suffrage unconstitutional. uphold prevents result, now turn. II. Morgan Cases (Nos. 847 877). involve discussed above, comes form enjoin declares read, write, understand, interpret language.' 1965. anyone six grades schooling 'American-flag' school, satisfy test.6 framed terms, far actual background, treats it. pivotal instance straight argument above. Amendment7 gives 'enforce' 'appropriate' legislation, area rationality; effect, acting rationally declaring irrational? give wide field devising remedial effectuate Amendment's prohibition action, confused possesses distinct questions nature. When violations occurred, empowered measures redress prevent wrongs. 310, 664. But deal truth infringement something bringing play all. Thus, making crime disqualify jury service race, secures, colored men, when charged criminal offences State, impartial trial, jurors indifferently selected chosen color.' Only then discrimination, enact type consideration. Clyatt 197 207, 429, 726, antipeonage laws, 546, 1994 Enforcement Thirteenth 33 recent illustrate distinction. earlier Term, 1965 directed deprivations account race. detailed investigation practices used deprive Negroes 308—315, 808—812. passing provisions, reviewed 'voluminous history' precedents supporting finding clear commands infringed subterfuges. 309, 329—330, 333—334, 808, 819, 821—822. existence steps justifiable initiative. significantly enactment. cure command, particular or, offend command ultimately determine. Were otherwise, qualify decisions Amendments resorting holding Lassiter, supervision over open undertaken reads giving define substantive If indeed why 'discretion' statutes dilute due room reasonable men differ final judgment. Until today resolve. mean suggest incorporated whatsoever. Decisions based abstract logic, empirical foundations. To 'legislative facts' relevant determination, equipped investigate them, determinations entitled respect.8 findings racial ocurring. Similarly, Heart Atlanta Motel, Inc. 379 241, 348, 258, Katzenbach McClung, 294, 377, 290, upheld Title II Civil 1964 Commerce again clearly defined group accommodations effectively impede interstate commerce testimony,' 253, 355, put passed 36 factual data record 4(e)9 way showing capable citizens. Nor unconstitutional varieties, 'public enforcement,' 652, S.Ct., 1724, minorities communities York. hypothesized hitherto insisted bear constitutionally concerns. supra; supra. 37 defendce estimate, facts, bearing vel non called announcement believes entail deprivation protection. kind respectful consideration, coming concurrent knowledgeable matters popular participation, lessens rights. 38 assessing deference expression policy, enactments presumption validity. Propeller Genesee Fitzhugh, How. 443, 457—458, 53 1058. However, canon presumption, Butler Pennsylvania 402, 415, 472. Whichever rendered inoperative whole part, somewhat legislature,10 simple weighing presumptions hardly satisfying resolving touches sensitive regulation Rather while 'brooding omnipresence' competence States. less judicial, intrude action limitations, At passes muster permitted set naught pronouncement unsupported justifying conclusion. 39 disparage Congess' exertion rights; recognize Legislative Branch branches hold, record, overrides me tantamount allowing swallow ordained field. For what, amounts ipse dixit partially reason substitute fields exclusive well. 40 affirm judgments each cases.11 text follows: '(1) language. '(2) demonstrates territory, Columbia, Federal, language, presumptive literacy, demonstrate equivalent ed., I). II, 1, provides, part: 'Notwithstanding foregoing January first, nine twenty-two, become attaining majority, naturalization able, physical disability, 150 Law, McKinney's Consol.Laws, c. '* became nineteen must, addition 'new voter,' meaning article, already voted proof manner provided sixty-eight.' 168 Law '1. board regents tests. '2. new certificate diploma work up approved elementary higher carried predominantly matriculation card issued college university student institution signed official certifying attendance.' Congress. 111 Cong.Rec. 19376—19377. prior successful completion eighth inquiry, distort intent sponsored Senate Senators Javits Kennedy House Gilbert Ryan, explicit purpose disenfranchisement population Throughout repeatedly acknowledged reference situation almost discussion. 11028, 11060—11074, 15666, 16235—16245, 16282—16283, 19192—19201, 19375—19378; Rights, Hearings Subcommittee No. Committee Judiciary H.R. 6400, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., 100—101, 420—421, 508—517 (1965). Solicitor informs brief probability enfranchising He advises aside parochial attended qualified save lack 'No jurisdiction restraining temporary permanent officer employee pursuant hereto.' 445, 1973l(b) initially named sole defendant. Elections joined defendant publicly announced intention comply 4(e); position proceedings power. participated curiae below urging leave intervene defendant, 2403 ed.); Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 24(a). 'Section 5. enforce, article.' unnecessary consider Territorial IV, 3; Judge McGowan below, F.Supp., 204; discharge treaty obligations Treaty Paris 1898, 1754, 1759; Nations Charter, Articles 56, 1033; 18. relates officers 4, 162, 171, 627; Classic, 313 299, 315, 61 1031, 1037, 1368; Tests Voter Requirements Constitutional S. 480, 2750, 2979, 87th 2d 302, 306 311 (1962) (brief General); sustained, guaranteeing republican government, 4; Harper 1079, 169; Mississippi, 128, 717; Louisiana 145, 151, 821, 709; 1072; Pope Williams, 193 632 634, 573, 575—576, 48 817; cf. Burns Richardson, 73, 92, 1286, 1296, 376; 506. historical sponsors supporters primarily interested augmenting judiciary, Frantz, Congressional Power Enforce Against Private Acts, Yale L.J. 1353, 1356—1357; Harris, Quest Equality, 33—56 (1960); tenBroek, Antislavery Origins 187—217 (1951). Senator Howard, introducing proposed Senate, described direct affirmative delegation Congress,' added: casts seeing it, future, good faith, infringes property. look indispensable imposes duty. amendment, correct formal enactment.' Cong. Globe, 39th 2766, 2768 (1866). statement 5's debate. Flack, Adoption 138 (1908). fact, drafts employed 'necessary proper' terminology describe 187—190 substitution formula never diminishing Cong.Globe, 42d App. 83 (Representative Bingham, principal draftsman proposals). Contrary suggestion dissent, infra, 668, 1736, 845, direction 'statutes Court.' emphasize adopting restrict, abrogate, guarantees. racially segregated systems be—as 5—a enforce' own laws. Cf. Eighteenth prescription intoxicating malt liquor medicinal even though manufacture sale liquors beverage purposes. settled Shreveport (Houston, E. & W.T.R. Co. 234 342, 833, 58 1341), Darby, 312 100, 118, 451, 459, 609, regulate 'extends activities intrastate affect attainment *.' Accord, Motel 358, 258. 11061—11062, 11065—11066, 16240; Hearings, 507—508. exemption complained eligible 1922. 2, consists part statements Convention considering requirement, following sponsor measure: 'More forms mental qualities While stand unimpaired, safe. They exposed single danger, constantly changing citizenship wholesale, valuable infusion Southern Eastern European races *. danger begun. check it.' III 3012 (Rev. Record 1916). id., 3015—3017, 3021—3055. reinforced understanding cultural milieu time proposal spanning period 1915 1921—not enlightened eras history. Chafee, Free Speech 102, 237, 269—282 (1954 aware evidence. 507—513; 3, 508—513. Other found ways assuring short total Hawaii, Hawaiian suffices, candidates' names languages, Hawaii Rev.Laws 11—38 (1963 Supp.); assistance exempt N.Y. met number, all, Fla.Stat.Ann. 97.061, 101.061 (1960) (form assistance); Mexico Stat.Ann. 3—2 11, 3—3—13 (personal language), 3—3—7, 3—3—12, 3—2—41 (1953) (ballots instructions Spanish). resort methods True, precludes, class, States' purported tailor carefully threatened, see, 96, 780, 675; 670, 1083, Thomas Collins, 323 516, 529—530, 65 322—323, 89 430; Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 95—96, 60 736, 740—741, 1093; Carolene Products 304 144, 152—153, 778, 783—784, 82 1234; Meyer Nebraska, 390, 43 625, 1042; apply powers. 11060—11061, 16235. includes affidavits describing two major weekly, three full-time stations campaigned areas. 11061 (Senator Long Young), 11064 Holland), drawing affidavit Representative Willis expressing thirty years' 'formed definite French-speaking grasp 11060—11061. Magruder, Status U.Pitt.L.Rev. (1953). 11066, 11073, Osuna, History Education (1949). 16235; 362. Jones 1917, 953, conferring portions statutory reproduced opinion, ante, 644—645, 1720, 2. abridgment 'on color, previous servitude'; deals Senate; Nineteenth women; outlaws poll tax participation elections. McGovney, Suffrage Medley 63 (1949) examination prose compositions about ten lines each, personnel Department Education, reading uniform throughout state. authorities graded superintendents teachers careful central uniformity grading possible.' 1943 submitted representative, below: STATE REGENTS LITERACY TEST (To filled candidate ink) Write your name here............................................... First Middle initial Last address here............................................ date here................................................ Month Day Year Read answers times you National makes Nation. composed houses. upper house Senators. 96 house, State. Each elected term years. lower known Representatives. determined 435 meets Capital Washington. above paragraph How houses Congress? What do? called? house? office Senator? state? Reprsentatives elected? city meet? allegation discriminatory enforcement, method examination, unequal virtually impossible. McGovney noted, op. cit. 62, 'New Union administers secures precludes humanly D.C., 155, 159—160. Consolidated Laws Ann., 16, 4605. Handbook Adult 455—465 (Knowles 1960). exception sixth-grade 'provides literacy,' applicant 'an education' foreign-language states Karst, Facts Litigation, 1960 Supreme Review (Kurland Alfange, Relevance 114 U.Pa.L.Rev. 637 (1966). committee hearings reports referring section, introduced floor during Act. 11027, 16234. Thayer, Origin Scope Doctrine Harv.L.Rev. 129, 154—155 (1893). arguments sustain 646—647, 1721, superfluous none considered deem my contentions adequate

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