Document: 531 U.S. 98121 S.Ct. 525148 L.Ed.2d 388 GEORGE W. BUSH, et al., PETITIONERSv.ALBERT GORE, Jr., al. No. 00 949 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES [December 12, 2000] ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO FLORIDA Per Curiam. 1 * On December 8, 2000, the Supreme Court of Florida ordered that Circuit Leon County tabulate by hand 9,000 ballots in Miami-Dade County. It also inclusion certified vote totals 215 votes identified Palm Beach and 168 for Vice President Albert Gore, Senator Joseph Lieberman, Democratic Candidates President. The noted petitioner, Governor George Bush asserted net gain Gore was 176 votes, directed to resolve dispute on remand. ___ So. 2d, at (slip op., 4, n. 6). court further held relief would require manual recounts all counties where so-called "undervotes" had not been subject tabulation. begin once. Richard Cheney, Republican Presidency Presidency, filed an emergency application a stay this mandate. 9, we granted application, treated as petition writ certiorari, certiorari. Post, p. ___. 2 proceedings leading present controversy are discussed some detail our opinion v. Canvassing Bd., ante, ____ (per curiam) (Bush I). November day following Presidential election, Division Elections reported Bush, received 2,909,135 respondent, 2,907,351 margin 1,784 Bush. Because Bush's victory less than "one-half percent . cast," automatic machine recount conducted under §102.141(4) election code, results which showed still winning race but diminished margin. then sought Volusia, Beach, Broward, Counties, pursuant Florida's protest provisions. Fla. Stat. §102.166 (2000). A arose concerning deadline local county canvassing boards submit their returns Secretary State (Secretary). declined waive 14 imposed statute. §§102.111, 102.112. Court, however, set 26. We certiorari vacated Court's decision, finding considerable uncertainty grounds it based. I, (slip. 6 7). 11, issued decision remand reinstating date. 2d ___, op. 30 31). 3 26, Commission declared winner 25 electoral votes. 27, contest provisions, complaint contesting certification. §102.168 He §102.168(3)(c), provides "[r]eceipt number illegal or rejection legal sufficient change place doubt result election" shall be contest. denied relief, stating failed meet his burden proof. appealed First District Appeal, matter Court. 4 Accepting jurisdiction, affirmed part reversed part. Harris, 2d. correct reject Gore's challenge Nassau Board's determination 3,300 cast were not, statutory phrase, "legal votes." 5 satisfied proof §102.168(3)(c) with respect County's failure tabulate, count, machines detect ("undervotes"). 2d., 22 23). Noting closeness explained "[o]n record, there can no question within uncounted doubt." Id., 35). vote," determined is "one 'clear indication intent voter. ' " 25). therefore Observing provisions vest broad discretion circuit judge "provide any appropriate such circumstances," §102.168(8) (2000), could order "the Supervisor Boards, well necessary public officials, have tabulation undervotes do so forthwith, said take individual located." 38). both County, earlier recounts, Gore. 33 34). Rejecting conclusion lacked authority include submitted past 26 deadline, intended exclude after date through ongoing recounts. As concluded although partial recount, they [that] outcome election." those results, resolution actual total from recount. 7 presents questions: whether established new standards resolving contests, thereby violating Art. II, §1, cl. 2, United States Constitution failing comply U.S.C. § use standardless violates Equal Protection Due Process Clauses. With equal protection question, find violation Clause. II 8 multitude challenges followed its wake, brought into sharp focus common, if heretofore unnoticed, phenomenon. Nationwide statistics reveal estimated 2% register whatever reason, including deliberately choosing candidate voter error, voting two candidates insufficiently marking ballot. See Ho, More Than 2M Ballots Uncounted, AP Online (Nov. 28, 2000); Kelley, Balloting Problems Not Rare But Only In Very Close Election Do Mistakes And Mismarking Make Difference, Omaha World-Herald 15, 2000). certifying eligible certification meeting properly requirements. 9 This case has shown punch card balloting produce unfortunate punched clean, complete way After current counting, likely legislative bodies nationwide will examine ways improve mechanisms machinery voting. B 10 citizen federal constitutional right electors unless until state legislature chooses statewide means implement power appoint members Electoral College. Const., §1. source statement McPherson Blacker, 146 1, 35 (1892), legislature's select manner appointing plenary; may, chooses, itself, indeed used legislatures several many years Framing Constitution. 28 33. History now favored voter, each citizens themselves electors. When vests people, prescribed fundamental; one fundamental nature lies weight accorded dignity owed State, course, granting franchise special context Article back id., ("[T]here resume time, neither taken away nor abdicated") (quoting S. Rep. 395, 43d Cong., 1st Sess.). 11 protected more initial allocation franchise. applies exercise. Having once terms, may later arbitrary disparate treatment, value person's over another. See, e.g., Harper Virginia Bd. Elections, 383 663, 665 (1966) ("[O]nce electorate, lines drawn inconsistent Clause Fourteenth Amendment"). must remembered suffrage debasement dilution citizen's just effectively wholly prohibiting free exercise franchise." Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 555 (1964). 12 There difference between sides these basic propositions. Respondents say very purpose vindicating justifies procedures issue. before us, adopted consistent obligation avoid treatment electorate. 13 Much seems revolve around ballot cards designed perforated stylus which, either error deliberate omission, precision count them. cases piece chad hanging, corners. other separation all, indentation. discerned ballots. For purposes challenge, decide scheme disputes define what mandate implementing definition. implemented response decisions satisfy minimum requirement non-arbitrary voters secure right. command legally consider "intent voter." 39). unobjectionable abstract proposition starting principle. problem inheres absence specific ensure application. formulation uniform rules determine based recurring circumstances practicable and, conclude, necessary. 15 law does refrain searching actor circumstances; general ascertain susceptible much refinement. instance, believe witness how interpret marks holes scratches inanimate object, cardboard paper said, might registered during count. factfinder confronts thing, person. search confined treatment. 16 want here led unequal evaluation various respects. 51) (Wells, J., dissenting) ("Should board 'dimpled chad' able successfully dislodge every ballot? Here, disagree"). acknowledged oral argument, accepting rejecting contested vary only single team 17 record examples. monitor inMiami-Dade testified trial he observed three applied different defining vote. Tr. 497, 499 (Dec. 3, testimony revealed least changed evaluative counting process. example, began process 1990 guideline precluded completely attached chads, switched rule considered light seen chad, rule, abandoned pretense per se dimpled chads legal. guarantees 18 An early person, jurisprudence when counties. Gray Sanders, 372 368 (1963). found violation. relied principles selection Moore Ogilvie, 394 814 (1969), invalidated county-based procedure diluted influence larger nominating "[t]he idea group greater strength another hostile man, basis representative government." 819. 19 ratified uneven mandated counties, included total. appeared hold sub silentio Broward completed original even though Yet varying forgiving standard uncovered almost times markedly disproportionate population 20 addition, limited extended distinction real consequences. identifies show contain one, overvotes. Neither category counted machine. trivial concern. At respondents 110,000 overvotes statewide. result, whose read because readable recount; hand, who discernable same opportunity examination requisite indicia intent. Furthermore, candidates, machine, should invalid counts variant exemplifies concerns remedial processes way. 21 That brings analysis yet problem. county, Miami-Dade. thus gives assurance final complete. Indeed, respondent's submission done time certification, permit this. ____, 37, 21) (noting "practical difficulties" control nonetheless). accommodation truncated period respondents' own urging. press diminish desire speed excuse ignoring guarantees. addition difficulties raises concerns. did specify forced pull together ad hoc teams comprised judges Circuits previous training handling interpreting while others permitted observe, prohibited objecting 23 process, features described, protect instance judicial officer. Our consideration circumstances, generally complexities. 24 entities, expertise, develop systems elections. Instead, presented situation assure uniformity minimal procedural safeguards. orders remedy, rudimentary requirements fairness satisfied. Given assessment underway probably being unconstitutional manner, stayed directing hear render expedited decision. provision, calculated sustain confidence problem, addressed, Chief Justice Wells called attention concern dissenting opinion. 45, 26). Upon due point, obvious cannot compliance without substantial additional work. adoption (after argument) adequate determining vote, them, orderly review disputed matters arise. advised portion requires equipment screen out undervotes, function designed. If required, perhaps second screening Use purpose, software developed it, evaluated accuracy required §101.015 27 State's "participat[e] fully process," provided 5. 27); see 2000 WL 1725434, *13 (Fla. statute, turn, lead conclusive 12. upon comports standards. evident seeking reasons discussed, reverse judgment ordering proceed. Seven Justices agree problems demand remedy. post, (Souter, dissenting); (Breyer, dissenting). disagreement Legislature obtain safe-harbor benefits Breyer's proposed remedy remanding constitutionally proper 18-contemplates action hence "appropriate" authorized 29 None conscious vital limits none stand admiration Constitution's design leave legislatures, political sphere. contending parties invoke courts, becomes unsought responsibility issues system confront. 31 reversed, remanded 32 Pursuant Rule 45.2, Clerk issue forthwith. ordered. Rehnquist, C. concurring 34 whom Scalia Thomas join, concurring. join curiam write separately us 36 deal ordinary States. Burroughs States, 290 534, 545 (1934), said: 37 "While presidential officers agents government (In re Green, 134 377, 379), functions under, discharge duties virtue conferred by, vested executive nation. importance character relationship effect welfare safety whole people too strongly stated." 38 Likewise, Anderson Celebrezze, 460 780, 794 795 (1983) (footnote omitted), "[I]n state-imposed restrictions implicate uniquely important national interest. theonly elected officials represent Nation." 39 most cases, comity federalism compel defer courts law. practice reflects understanding definitive pronouncements sovereigns. Cf. Erie R. Co. Tompkins, 304 64 (1938). Of distribution powers among branches questions law, republican character. IV, §4. few exceptional imposes duty confers particular branch government. "[e]ach appoint, Manner thereof direct," (Emphasis added.) Thus, text interpretation takes independent significance. 40 "convey[s] broadest determination" "leaves exclusively method" appointment. 27. significant departure question. 41 informs scheme, acknowledged, took statute account. Section "shall conclusive, govern votes" chosen laws enacted prior day, six days college. 6. 42 "Since §5 contains principle finality made wish advantage 'safe harbor' counsel against construction Code Congress deem law." 43 powers, therefore, postelection state-court actions frustrate attain "safe harbor" §5. 44 Florida, elections Importantly, delegated run oversee (Secretary), §97.012(1) §§102.168(1), 102.168(8). Isolated sections code admit interpretation, coherence altered statutorily apportionment bodies. give little deference executives far concerned, cause court's actions. But, mindful role deferential expressly empowered carry 45 infringed authority, necessarily existed court. Though see, Mullaney Wilbur, 421 684 (1975) course areas undertake independent, deferential, 46 NAACP Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 449 (1958), argued jurisdiction petitioner pursued appellate Alabama's courts. Petitioners state-law mandamus, according court, proper. ground inadequate defeat "unable reconcile holding Court" precedent. 456. purported novel, estimation, "petitioner fairly deemed apprised existence." 457. 47 Six decided Bouie City Columbia, 378 347 (1964), held, contrary precedent, trespass black sit-in demonstrators consent enter private property asked leave. Relying NAACP, South Carolina penal impermissibly broadened scope beyond fair reading provided, U.S., 361 362. What precisely parallel: Hold distorted them II.1 48 inquiry imply disrespect rather legislatures. To attach pronouncement actually departed meaning, abdicate enforce explicit II. 49 Acting grant created detailed, perfectly crafted, appointment direct election. §103.011 Under "[v]otes supporting candidates." Ibid. designated "chief officer," "[o]btain maintain operation, laws." §97.012. administering §102.141. Those responsible providing Commission, comprising Governor, Director Elections. §102.111. Boardman Esteva, 323 259, 268, ("The committed duly charged [The] judgments [of officials] entitled regarded presumptively "). 50 place, receive precincts, event defeated .5% less, conduct mandatory file Department p.m. seventh §102.112(1). certify §102.111(1). 51 protesting results. 102.166 governs protests. Any certificationof board. §102.166(4)(b). Once filed, authorize recount." §102.166(4)(c). sample §102.166(5) "indicates affect election," instructed to: "(a) Correct remaining precincts system; (b) Request verify software; (c) Manually ballots," §102.166(5). ballots, §102.166(7) prescribes 52 Contests controlled §102.168. §102.168(3)(c). §102.168(1), party defendant, §102.168(4). 102.168(8) fashion she deems allegation investigated, examined, checked, prevent alleged wrong, provide circumstances." elections, terminates concluding "final controversies." 53 first 21, 2000) (Harris I), 7-day legislature.2 modification lengthening period, shortened Underlying extension shortchanging was, presumably, clear implication significance: enjoy presumptive validity, making proceeding losing uphill battle. latest opinion, empties virtuallyall consequence contest, doingso departs FloridaLegislature. 54 boards' regarding (even Harris I) reviewed de novo, clearly boards, sets strict deadlines Secretary's late tallies monetary fines tardiness. §102.112 Moreover, arriving automatically regardless virtually eliminating disregard violate it.3 55 contest-period plainly scheme. reasonably thought improperly marked Each precinct instructions §101.46; polling working model uses, §101.5611; booth ballot, §101.46. using punch-card cleanly: 56 AFTER VOTING, CHECK YOUR BALLOT CARD BE SURE VOTING SELECTIONS ARE CLEARLY AND CLEANLY PUNCHED THERE NO CHIPS LEFT HANGING BACK CARD. 57 Instructions Voters, quoted Touchston McDermott, 1781942, *6 & (CA11) (Tjoflat, No reasonable person call "an tabulation," §102.166(5), "rejection votes," §102.168(3)(c),4 electronic electromechanical performs designed, fails explicitly prominently specify. attributes "capable correctly §101.5606(4), nonetheless regularly produces predictably tabulated, close required. absurd. binding interpretations §§97.012, 106.23, rejected peculiar statutes. DE (opinion Elections). interpretations, Krivanek Take Back Tampa Political Committee, 625 840, 844 1993), her embraced one. Board SC00 2346 III). 58 indicated case, expressed prevail. statutes requiring textual shows. parse here, except note principal provision relied, §101.5614(5), pointed dissent entirely irrelevant. SC00-2431, slip Attorney General (who challenge) confirmed argument never contention examined Oral Arg. cf. Hogan, 607 508, 509 Ct. App. 1992) (denial "hanging chads"). step practice, official "responsibility [o]btain laws," §97.012(1), depart III 59 jeopardizes "legislative wish" safe harbor last afternoon 8th four tens thousands spread 67 elusive delusive certainty exact million claims previously tabulated; initially thereafter reread provision. fraud giving "appropriate 60 Surely meant become cut-off inevitable ensuing appeals petitions entire recounting possibly Whereas majority stated [counted] frame," 38, 22), assertion seemingly disposed time. Although occasion year Beckstrom Volusia 707 720 (1998) (resolving sheriff's months election), heard great promptness. simply noted: 61 "In [the remaining], questionable officer appointed discern open public. Fairness dictates object counted. Additionally, short allow review. I respectfully taking outside creating possibility disenfranchising nearly day." 55) 62 dissenters echoed concern: "[T]he departing essential impossible achieve ultimately chaos." (Harding, dissenting, Shaw, J. concurring). 63 factors, bring 8. significantly framework 7, open-ended preventing reasons, given curiam, reverse. NOTES: Similarly, analyze "background principles" Takings guarantee would, afford supreme plaintiff rights. Lucas Coastal Council, 505 1003 (1992). oldest similarly treaty Fairfax's Devisee Hunter's Lessee, Cranch 603 (1813), disagreed Appeals 1782 extinguished interests Denny Fairfax, 1789 ejectment Fairfax supported 1785 constitute future confiscation 1783 peace Great Britain. 623; Hunter Devisee, Munf. 218 (Va. 1809). case; reissued Specifically, inconceivable constitutes "error tabulation" language phase phase. Stevens, 65 Ginsburg Breyer dissenting. 66 assigns primary selecting 2. arise about meaning laws, settled accept opinions highest answers. rare occasions, Federal intervention occasion. emerged substantial. direct, Number Electors." (emphasis added). create cloth, come creatures born of, constrained constitutions. Lest doubt, 100 ago "[w]hat forbidden State" "is constitutions exist." vein, [State's] constitution State." Ibid.; Smiley Holm, 285 355, 367 (1932).1 V Constitution, nothing frees constraints it. Legislature's employ unitary indicates play historically played disputes. with, contemplated 68 hardly needs Congress, impose affirmative governmental "violate." Rather, "by methods" day. 5, like assumes involvement judiciary laws. grants substitute views 69 Nor petitioners asserting precise voter," §101.5614(5) (Supp. 2001), rises level violation.2 weighted unequally, 568 substantive determines cast. reason think guidance factfinders, specifically voter" than, "beyond doubt" employed everyday courtrooms across country.3 70 Admittedly, differing substandards employing similar raise serious alleviated eliminated fact impartial magistrate adjudicate objections arising matter, literal. remember work allowed joints." Bain Peanut Tex. Pinson, 282 499, 501 (1931) (Holmes, J.). otherwise, despite enormous differences accuracy4 afoul protection. So, too, vast delegate authorities certain design. 71 Even assuming aspects Clause, subscribe majority's disposition case. holds, popular one's stature. acknowledges, holds valid Recognizing principles, termination tabulated. reasoning, established. 72 interest finality, disenfranchisement unknown ballot-counting machines. forth Title Code. Ante, 11. already noted, merely follow conflicting slates Supra, They prohibit concedes bona fide determined. 1960, Hawaii chose January 1961, deadlines. Josephson Ross, Repairing College, Legis. 145, 166, 154 (1996).5 prevents majority, violation, depriving notes, "[a] guarantees." 10. 73 Finally, 1725434 (Fla., Nov. 2000), make law.6 Its rooted long-established precedent relevant whole. do7 uncounted. doing, sufficiency articulated legislature, coupled ultimate judge, evaluations assume carried impartial, colorable 74 underlie petitioners' assault unstated lack impartiality capacity critical Otherwise, position merit. endorsement lend credence cynical appraisal throughout land. men women administer true backbone Time heal wound inflicted today's One certain. know identity year's loser clear. Nation's guardian 75 dissent. "Wherever term 'legislature' view." 367. words "Manner" "Legislature" parallels usage §4, V. Term Limits, Inc. Thornton, 514 779, 805 (1995). act lawmaking whereas calls body binary reliance Leser Garnett, 258 130 (1922), Hawke Smith (No. 1), 253 221 (1920), misplaced. apply "impossible elector's choice" standard: Ariz. Rev. Ann. §16 645(A) (standard write-in votes); Conn. Gen. §9 150a(j) (1999) absentee presumptions); Ind. §3 (1992); Me. Ann., Tit. A, §1(13) (1993); Md. Code, 33, §11 302(d) (2000 Supp.) ballots); Mass. Laws §70E (1991) (applying primaries); Mich. Comp. §168.799a(3) Mo. §115.453(3) (Cum. Supp. 1998) (looking voter's requirements); Elec. §65.009(c) (1986); Utah §20A 104(5)(b) votes), 105(6)(a) mechanical Vt. 17, §2587(a) (1982); Va. §24.2 644(A) (2000); Wash. §29.62.180(1) 2001) Wyo. §22 104 (1999). [or voter's] choice": Ala. 44(c) (1992), §17 (1995); 610 (1996) ballot); Cal. §15154(c) (West Colo. §1 309(1) ballots), 508(2) Del. §4972(4) (1999); Idaho §34 1203 (1981); Ill. Stat., ch. 10, §5/7 (1993) primaries), §5/17 elections); Iowa §49.98 §§696(2)(B), (4) Minn. §204C.22(1) Mont. §13 202 (1997) (not "elector's choice determined"); Nev. §293.367(d) N. Y. Law 112(6) (McKinney 1998); §§163 169(b), 163 170 D. Cent. §16.1 01(1) 1999); Ohio §3505.28 (1994); Okla. §7 127(6) (1997); Ore. §254.505(1) (1991); 1120 (1977); Codified §12 Tenn. §2 133(b) 5(g) Victor Nebraska, 511 (1994) prohibits so"). percentage nonvotes 3.92%; contrast, rate modern optical-scan 1.43%. Siegel LePore, 15981, 1781946, *31, *32, *43 (charts C F) (CA11, Dec. 6, Put 10,000 cast, 250 systems. 3,718,305 systems, 2,353,811 1960. 13, Both met newly Legis., 154. When, resolved unanswered word "shall" §102.111 "may" ignore untimely returns, "change Like authoritative statute's since enacted. Rivers Roadway Express, Inc., 298, 312 313 (1994). "It emphatically province department is." Marbury Madison., 137, 177 (1803). Souter, 76 joins Stevens regard Part C, 77 curiam), stopped attempt undervote ante issuing review, post 1). possible tension worked itself 15. erroneous 78 clear, am agreement Breyer. straightforward really are. 79 issues: somehow 5; governing contests changes Constitution; markings (the ballots) guaranteed Amendment. difficult describe resolve. 80 serious. conditions treating recognizing Conclusiveness casting conform (for reason); sanction loss harbor." made, anywhere, Congress. 81 goes terms "contests," related dealing antecedent "protesting" counts, §102.166, involved Board. displaced contests: commits chosen? claim uncertain enough displace II; Brief 48, 22, argue, understand contention, unreasonable transcend accepted bounds point nonjudicial producing untethered 82 evaluating re-wrote relies contest: favor produced displacing enactment quoted. below, possible, better majority; dissents briefs alternatives. view 83 1. doing looked damaged defective disregarded "if board." objective looking indicating vote" mean recorded intended. __ 25) reading. Respondent (defining "votes executed accordance advance places"). so, view; unconcerned mere disagreements interpretive merits. 84 next interpreted "rejection" attacked Again, term. at___ 27). certainly common sense, reading, possible. refer malfunction, "reject[ed]" wrongdoing lest easy end up 48) is, hospitable 85 3. phrase Florida. numerous contained "legal" swing statute.1 While (as did) probability, possibility, justify text, says probability. Whatever good sense argue merits warrant saying transcends supplanting "legislature" 86 sum, engaged permissible instituted proceeded discretionary generously "fashion persuasively customary counsels determinations 87 third meritorious Curiam recognizes. dealt adequately interrupted, dispute. short, sensible address 88 raised (or, alternatively, claim, Logan Zimmerman Brush Co., 455 422 (1982)), charge unjustifiably jurisdictions otherwise identical facts. forbid variety levels effectiveness recording voters' intentions; justified cost, potential innovation, on. evidence suggests disparity obtains (and continue applied) types brands exhibiting physical characteristics (such "hanging" "dimpled" chads). Tr., 238 242 (testimony Chairman Judge Charles Burton describing imperfectly precertification recount); 497 500 (similarly County); Hearing (soliciting protocols declining precise, standard). conceive legitimate served treatments expressions appear arbitrary. 89 deciding this, account days. establish prompted treatments, passing (or successive recounting) order. 90 Unlike electors, 18. justices potentially affected 170,000 supra, 66), smaller. figure apparently represents (those machine) candidate). 62. out, showing uncounted, uncontradicted representation 60,000. manually tall order, effort ready best get job done. justification denying try now. 91 ruled, 1,000 apart. pegged 170,000. , 66) Harding, represented approximately 60,000, 62, Ginsburg, 92 joins, Souter 93 acknowledges "may interpretation." instead respecting high means, maintains veered judging. My colleagues offered Their coincides seven justices. __, 34) (on remand) (confirming, advanced Gore). my commission legislated. "their mortal oath office," Sumner Mata, 539, 549 (1981), upset reasoned 94 occasionally affirms statutory, constitutional, disagrees. reviewing administrative agencies' implement, agencies unambiguously Congress." Chevron A. Natural Resources Defense 467 837, 843 (1984). face declaration "All Powers herein States." pay agency's state's uncommonly, let disagree. Notably, habeas context, adheres "there 'no intrinsic why man him competent, conscientious, learned [federal law] neighbor courthouse.' Stone Powell, 428 465, 494, (1976) Bator, Finality Criminal Habeas Corpus Prisoners, Harv. L. 441, (1963)); O'Dell Netherland, 521 151, 156 ("[T]he Teague doctrine validates reasonable, good-faith existing precedents decisions.") (citing Butler McKellar, 494 407, 414 (1990)); O'Connor, Trends Relationship Between Courts Perspective Judge, Wm. Mary 801, 813 (1981) ("There 'hospitable forum' litigating questions."). 95 hinge Unavoidably, sometimes ever full measure owe Contract Motors Corp. Romein, 503 181 "ultimately bound ourselves contract made," "accord[s] respectful court." 187 (citation omitted). Central Union Telephone Edwardsville, 269 190 (1925), upheld Illinois waiver resulted forfeiture Refusing supplant definition waiver, "should bind unfair obstruct it." 195.1 96 deferring appropriately recognize acts 'outside[r]' lacking exposure comes sitting jurisdiction." Lehman Brothers Schein, 416 386, 391 (1974). recognition doubts rights stake. Arizonans Official English Arizona, 520 43, ("Warnings premature adjudication bear heightened invalidate tribunal risks friction-generating endeavors construe novel Act court."). Notwithstanding underlying claims, devise inform restraint "helps build cooperative federalism." Brothers, 391. 97 Just Term, Fiore White, 528 (1999), Pennsylvania's procedure. prisoner claiming prove element offense Instead depended, Pennsylvania "help predicate raised." 29; (asking recent convicted "was always Fiore's trial"). Justice's willingness reluctance instruction "cautious approach" Arizonans, 77, commitment "build[ing] federalism," 391, demanded restraint. 98 Rarely outright cited Justice, instances. embedded historical contexts comparable here. misconstrued deprive British lands secured treaties, occurred amidst vociferous States' attacks Marshall G. Gunther K. Sullivan, Constitutional (13th ed. 1997). refused obey subject's successor refusal pathmarking Martin Wheat. (1816). Cooper Aaron, 358 Southern resistance civil movement, irregularly deny contempt disclose membership lists. "our nonfederal support." 455. Bouie, stemming lunch counter "sit-in" height criminalizing covered "unforeseeable" violated retroactively petitioners. 350, 354. 99 casual citation collection impelled train skeptical eye portrayal hard pressed, think, fit mold. convincingly explains, (dissenting opinion), involves kind recalcitrance warrants extraordinary overriding surely bracketed Jim Crow South. authorizes superintendence licenses usual ("To II."). Framers understood government, enactments. III; Federalist (A. Hamilton). "Republican Form Government," invite disrupt regime. today reach that. By revision organ another, contradicts organize sees fit. Gregory Ashcroft, 452, ("Through structure defines sovereign."); Highland Farms Dairy, Agnew, 300 608, 612 (1937) ("How distributed organs commonly, always, itself.").2 scrutiny undertaken 101 setting obscured resolution: courts' core federalism, agree. "The split atom sovereignty. genius capacities, federal, incursion other." Saenz Roe, 526 489, 504, 838 (1995) (Kennedy, concurring)). solicitude expense sovereign. ("Each President) added); (Stevens, dissenting).3 Were dual sovereignty, affirm 102 claim. Ideally, perfection judging live imperfect world, flawed be, yield preceded McDonald Comm'rs Chicago, 802, 807 (1969) reform 'one time' ") Williamson Lee Optical Oklahoma, 348 483, 489 (1955)). 103 deadline," entry hours begun superintend fundamentally, go forward suggestion treatment," turns practical realities closer Equally important, "deadline" bringing 5's lacks significance pass, deliver Houses "ha[d] given." dates. (specifying votes"); fourth Wednesday December" year, request secretary send return immediately). dates Congress' detailed determining, sixth January," validity §15. 105 "orderly arise." doubted faith diligence attorneys controversy, performed duties. argument. impractical prophecy tested. Such untested 106 1003, 1032, (1992) (South defend regulatory objectively [by courts] beneficial uses land presently found"); Bishop Wood, 426 341, 344 345 (deciding North cognizable reference Court). Gurley Rhoden, 200 (1975), gasoline retailer claimed deduct excise tax computing amount sales tax, incidence fell customers acted collector tax. Mississippi petitioner. "a arbiter statutes," "[w]hen operating incidence, [w]e natural conclusive." 208. "manner" construing structural constraint, entity constraint. amend. XII; 15; Davis Hildebrant, 241 565, 569 (1916) (treating nonjusticiable referendum override congressional districting plan §4); Luther Borden, How. (1849). "[B]ecause recognized parts balance, 39, solicitous prerogatives sovereign province. times, places, (subject revision), allows President, 2." 841 842 Breyer, 107 108 wrong stay. vacate resume. 109 implications country momentous. presented, exception, insubstantial. 110 111 order: first, second, recounted some, counties; third, uniform, guide evidence, identify reasoning seem 112 fairness. concludes governed "clear subsidiary indented, perforated, count). points undercounted "dimpled," stricter standard. remand, reluctant adopt fear exceeding However, lower iron embodied that, counseled disposition, need whether, extent content 113 Nonetheless, halt entirely. instead, date, single-uniform substandard. 114 stopping particular, approve needed separate undervotes. reaches finds facts address. Whether 18, scheduled meet, determine. obviously decide. curiam). 115 halting ensuring standard, crafts proportion harm. harms attempting protect. redress disqualified optical-scanning According news reports, variations pronounced. Fessenden, No-Vote Rates Higher Punch Card Count, Times, A29 (reporting 0.3% comparison 1.53% Votomatic ballots). arrive polls chance counties' makes fair. helps inequity, deficiency easily remedied. 116 remainder concurrence, questions. unusual (Ginsburg, proper, contravenes untenable. 117 conceding "comity law," concurrence combination lay aside. (Opinion concurrence's foundation rests appeal plain text: §1's "Legislature." cites interprets leads unlimited devoid limitations, (specifically referring upholding electors). Nor, analogous §4 strained put concurrence. opinion). 118 "inform[ing]" (Rehnquist, concurring), convincing. contends [§5] against" 6), "must post-election §5." Nowhere suggest permissive "counsel transformed ensure." nowhere intimate, threatens logic presumption trumps overrides express. 119 event, having conclusion. II." J, distortion? Apparently, elements. First, Second, "undercounted" deadline. Third, Secretary. 120 characterize "distortion," second-guess conflict Compare (2001) (foreseeing period) (setting arguably conducted); compare §102.112(1) (stating returns) §102.111(1) returns). longer reversal 121 "distortion" overlook inability part, making. hours, moving improvidently entered completed. 122 "impermissibl[e] distort[ing]" understands opinion's "virtually discretion." amended 1999 "grounds §§102.168(3), (3)(c) vote." "properly voters." punchcard 14. reason. (a addresses board" (adding choice"). language, roughly Darby McCollough, 411 1917) somewhat Nation, infra, (2000) 19). differs determinative matter. "impermissible distort[ion]" 123 applying definition, decided, results" "in Since hundred separated numbered thousands, anyone unreasonable-however intent." "strip" discretion. retain traditional period. stated, [during period] qualify *13. board's aside depends doubt. limit eliminate least, believe. 124 appropriate." disagree these, other, misguided usurpation legislature. ways. Representative Second Congressional Dist., 231 602, 621, 653 79, ("Whatever technology furnish disregarding bedrock voters"); Brown Carr, 401, 460, E.2d 404 405 (1947) ("[W]hether decry resort technical reaching voter"). 125 repeat, "impermissible" 126 Despite reminder States," preeminent concern, questions, alone tracks. ask vindicate human Education, 483 (1954). fairness, namely, finality. "equal protection" rely focuses, need, power. competing look side fraud, dishonesty, like. left discovered mattered. conditioned issuance standard; reversing 127 importance. political, resist temptation unnecessarily tangential disputes, 128 appropriate. road map foresees (providing "State [election day], methods," subsequently challenge). 129 contrary, Twelfth Amendment Count Act, 1876 Hayes-Tilden specifies tried (through "judicial" means), primarily 1887, 373, history commit courts: 131 are, determine, had, .... Houses, tribunal." H. 1638, 49th Sess., (1886) (report Caldwell, Select Committee Vice-President). 132 Member introduced added: 133 legality consequent existence absolute necessity preservation Government. relations constituent body, relationships represented." Cong. Rec. (1886). "Under else decide? Who nearer union devolved vote?" 31. 135 If, submits slate "have 1876, states §5, "conclusive" effect. "which lawful tribunal" House "supported agree, approved disagree, seal thereof, counted." 136 comprehensive reached Madison, believed allowing choose question." July 25, 1787 (reprinted Elliot's Debates 363 (2d 1876)). 137 1886 minimize wise However awkward expresses people's accurately unelected about. 138 aware danger judges, unarmed standards, hotly Carolina, Louisiana sent Washington. Without Tilden, Democrat, 184 win Presidency. Hayes, opponent, 185. composed five Senators, Representatives, Justices. Initially evenly divided Republicans Democrats, David Davis, Independent, possess decisive minute Senate, filled P. Bradley. 139 along partisan lines, awarded Hayes. 140 Bradley immediately became attacks. accused bribes, captured railroad interests, eleventh-hour night house surrounded carriages" partisans officials. Woodward, Reunion Reaction 159 160 (1966). Many later, Professor Bickel honest impartial. 'the question' fact, behind authorities," "issue principle." Least Dangerous Branch 185 (1962). Bradley's turned contemporaneous context. trivial, overwhelmed hung decisive." 141 purposes, relevance participation Justices, Bradley, legitimacy. fairly, guided embroiled Members conflict, undermining knew 142 help explain unfortunate, terminated caution described quintessential marked, things, "strangeness issue," "intractability principled resolution," "sheer momentousness, tends unbalance judgment," inner vulnerability, self-doubt institution electorally irresponsible earth draw from." Bickel, 184. mark 143 acting principle, liberty. strong present. tend obviate need. And, above highly politicized appearance runs risk public's itself. treasure. built slowly years, Civil War tragedy segregation. vitally ingredient successful liberty indeed, returning (responding efforts Cherokee Indians) "John decision; it!" Loth, John Growth American Republic 365 (1948). self-inflicted harm Nation. 144 agonizingly long conclusion, attended "check power," self-restraint." Butler, 297 (1936) (Stone, Brandeis thing doing." 71. today, undone. repair damage can, permitting 145

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