Document: 372 U.S. 368 83 S.Ct. 801 9 L.Ed.2d 821 James H. GRAY et al., Appellants,v.James O'Hear SANDERS. No. 112. Argued Jan. 17, 1963. Decided March 18, [Syllabus from pages 368-369 intentionally omitted] B. D. Murphy and E. Freeman Leverett, Atlanta, Ga., for appellants. Morris Abram, appellee. Atty. Gen., Robert F. Kennedy the United States, as amicus curiae, by special leave of Court. Mr. Justice DOUGLAS delivered opinion I. 1 This suit was instituted appellee, who is qualified to vote in primary general elections Fulton County, Georgia, restrain appellants using Georgia's county unit system a basis counting votes Democratic nomination States Senator statewide officers, declaratory relief. Appellants are Chairman Secretary Georgia State Executive Committee, Georgia. Appellee alleges that use counting, tabulating, consolidating, certifying cast offices violates Equal Protection Clause Due Process Fourteenth Amendment Seventeenth Amendment. As constitutionality state statute involved question substantial one, three-judge court properly convened. See 28 U.S.C. § 2281; v. Public Service Comm., 371 285, 397, 317. 2 moved dismiss; they also filed an answer denying unconstitutional alleging it designed 'to achieve reasonable balance between urban rural electoral power.' 3 Under law each given specified number representatives lower House General Assembly.1 at time this employed follows primaries:2 (1) Candidates nominations received highest popular were considered have carried be entitled two representative which Assembly; (2) majority nominated Governor; plurality others. 4 asserted total population 1960 3,943,116; where he resides, 556,326; residents County comprised 14.11% population; but that, under system, six constituted 1.46% 410 votes, or one-tenth County's percentage population. The complaint further alleged Echols least populous had 1,876, .05% State's population, .48% all counties 10 times One represented 938 residents, whereas one 92,721 residents. Thus, resident influence candidates equivalent 99 County. 5 On same day hearing District Court, amended statutes challenged complaint. amendment3 modified allocating units accordance with 'bracket system' instead doubling Assembly. Counties 0 15,000 people allotted units; additional next 5,000 persons; 10,000 another brackets and, thereafter, more increase 30,000 persons. Act, office (not merely Governor earlier Act) required receive first primary. In addition, order primary, candidate has unless there only receives equal event wins. If no both second run-off receiving votes. prevail. But again, if tie 6 allowed amend his so challenge Act. Court held Act some vices prior It stated Amended 'the citizen counts less residence increases.' 203 F.Supp. 158, 170, n. 10. went on say: 7 'There 97 two-unit counties, totalling 194 22 66 altogether 260 within 14 majority; above much 20,000 remaining 40 range 20,481 556,326, control 287 Combination having smallest gives one-third clear units.' Ibid. 8 result Baker Carr, 369 186, 82 691, 663, jurisdiction, justiciable case stated, appellee standing, 'state' action meaning applied Clause, issued injunction,4 not against conducting any party election such does meet requirements court.5 158. other words, did proceed every person weighted voting outlawed. Rather used weighting showed greater disparity than exists conduct national elections.6 Thereafter Committee voted hold 1962 mentioned basis. We noted probable jurisdiction. 370 921, 1564, 502. II. agree its constitutes Judge Sibley, writing Chapman King, Cir., 154 F.2d 460, meticulous detail manner regulates primaries (id. pp. 463—464) concluded: 'We think these provisions show State, through managers requires, collaborates puts power behind rules party. adopts part public machinery. exclusions voters made become enforced State.' Id., p. 464. 11 conclude regulation preliminary phase process makes action. Classic, 313 299, 61 1031, 85 L.Ed 1368; Smith Allwright, 321 649, 64 757, 88 L.Ed. 987. 12 like whose right impaired (Smith supra; supra, 204—208, 703—705), standing sue.7 13 Moreover, we moot reason fact injunction below, remains force; dismissed would govern future elections. voluntary abandonment practice relieve adjudicating legality, particularly deeply rooted long standing. For 'free return * (their) old ways.' W. T. Grant Co., 345 629, 632, 73 894, 897, 1303. III. merits take different view nature problem 15 case, unlike involve degree limits authority Legislature designing geographical districts chosen either Federal Representatives. Nor include related problems Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110, 'gerrymandering' exclude minority group participation municipal affairs. present question, inherent bicameral form our Government, whether may house without regard however, analogized determining results phases federal system. pointed out college,8 Art. II, 1, Constitution Twelfth President, strength 'is exact proportion *. Recognizing college set up compromise enable formation Union among several sovereign states, still could hardly said assuming rationality absence arbitrariness end result, termed invidious.' F.Supp., 169. 16 Accordingly already noted9 permissible 'if excess most recent allocation.' 170. Moreover proportions formula representation states Congress.' assumption implicit conclusions since equality precise blocs when comes members Representatives never possible, necessary 17 analogies college, districting redistricting, legislatures conventions10 inapposite. inclusion Constitution, specific historical concerns,11 validated collegiate principle despite numerical inequality, implied nothing about analogous election. No accommodation latter ever undertaken, therefore validation inequality ensued. here anything do composition legislature. And intimate constitutional beyond what supra. case. Cf. Nixon Herndon, 273 536, 47 446, 71 759; Condon, 286 73. 52 484, 76 984; voter election; those she employs weights heavily small heavier larger counties. 18 can specify qualifications elections; indeed voters' rest even I, 2. Lassiter Northampton Election Board, 360 45, 79 985, 1072, chooses require pass literacy tests, provided course cloak discriminate class group. need determine limitations placed voters, voter. 19 Fifteenth prohibits abridging Negro's vote. Nineteenth women. male female white Negro vote, none successfully contend discrimination allowable. Terry Adams, 461, 809, 1152. How then twice because lives area county? Once designated, participate vote—whatever their race, whatever sex, occupation, income, wherever home unit. concept 'we people' visualizes preferred basic qualifications. idea casts ballot favor competing candidates, underlies many decisions. 20 consistently recognized constitutionally protected ballots them counted Congressional elections.' 315, 1037, see Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 651, 152, 274; Wiley Sinkler, 179 58, 21 45 84; Swafford Templeton, 185 487, 783, 46 1005. Every voter's once. must correctly reported. Mosley, 238 383, 386, 35 904, 905, 59 1355, one's counted' dignity put box.' diluting effect illegal ballots. Siebold, 100 371, 25 717; Saylor, 322 385, 1101, 1341. rights determines true weight will have. political booth contained extends elections, previously noted, indication homesite occupation affords distinguishing State. sanctioned concerns matters representation, allocation Senators irrespective choice President. Yet chosen, 'by people.' Minors, felons, classes excluded. 51, 990. once specified, way evaded. 347, 130: 'When exercises wholly domain interest, insulated judicial review. insulation over instrument circumventing federally right.' 23 conception Declaration Independence, Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Fifteenth, Seventeenth, Amendments mean thing—one person, 24 While enjoining system12 tabulating vacate judgment remand decree conformity entered. ordered. 26 Judgment vacated remanded. 27 STEWART, whom CLARK joins, concurring. joining I emphasize what—but my Brother HARLAN'S dissent—I should thought apparent read Court's opinion. validity apportionment geographic constituencies legislative assembly nor litigation present. deal ground implementing Carr.' contrary, involves executive officers responsible constituency. Within constituency, room single rule—one voter, 1368. 29 HARLAN, dissenting. 30 When argued last Term assured remove roadblocks Colegrove Green, 328 549, 1198, 90 1432, predecessors review 'electoral' cases, likelihood get deeper into matters. legislatures, predicted, prodded taking satisfactory mere prospect legal proceedings. 31 These predictions proved true. November 1962, seats been courts,1 besides cases kind docket.2 reach plenary consideration. 32 Preliminarily, symptomatic swift pace current adjudication failed mention four occasions Unit System unsuccessfully Cook Fortson, decided Turman Duckworth, 329 675, 67 21, 91 596 (1946); South Peters, 339 276, 70 641, 94 834 (1950); Cox 342 936, 72 559, 96 697 (1952); Hartsfield Sloan, 357 916, 78 1363, 1363 (1958). 33 reached stage full consideration but, light history recounted Frankfurter dissenting 266, 278, 737, 743 seq., guileless fail recognize prevailing open serious doubt.3 estimate situation highlighted Justices BLACK 277, 642, espoused very views now law. Presumably Brothers reflected noting dissents cases. etc., dissent. 34 silence deemed justified premise summary disposition satisfactorily accounted grounds involving merits, consider today's decision supportable. context nominating respecting office, construes requiring person's weight. says: 'The vote.' Ante, 381. strikes down such, holding declined make. 36 surely flies face history. For, impressively shown Frankfurter, J., U.S., 301—324, S.Ct., 755—767, 'one vote' universally accepted philosophy England, American Colonies, States. significance seems implies newfound might obtain 'State Representatives.' 376. 37 But, independently reasons discussed moment, distinction finds persuasive refutation Electoral College whereby President principles opposed office. close eyes circumstance born compromise, sides various attempts change system,4 below 'could 38 Indeed itself years ago rejected, comparable situation, notion pronounced. MacDougall 335 281, 69 Illinois petitions new signed 25,000 including minimum 200 50 102 claim '200 requirement' possible block support confined geographically limited areas.' 283, disallowing claim, (id., 283 284, 2): 39 'To assume function exclusively numbers disregard practicalities government. protects interests smaller giving Senate entirely unequal populations. strange indeed, doctrinaire, applying broad concepts due protection laws, deny assure proper diffusion initiative thinly populated concentrated masses, practical opportunities exerting polls available former. Constitution—a government—makes demands States.' Certainly doctrine drawn simply assures shall 'on account color, previous condition servitude.' provides 'elected people,' accorded hard seriously argument 'dilution' consequence legislatively can, more, impairment franchise box stuffing criminal activity, e.g., 1355; 1341, disenfranchisement purely racial grounds, 110. 41 A violation thus cannot found disproportionate weighting. important avoid extracting language 14th delusive exactness *.' Louisville & Nashville R. Co. Barber Asphalt 197 430, 434, 466, 467, 49 819 (Holmes, J.). What case? 42 At core favors large urban-rural problem, familiar scene. dissent 336, 774, expressed rationally welfare best served apportioning legislature agricultural communities centers, lest legitimate former submerged stronger voice latter. opinion, recognition factor irrational though considerations supporting here. 43 Given undeniably powerful governor policy making,5 how lies numerically superior voters. By token, apply selection offices6 predominantly 'city point view' administration 44 existing record, leaves 'irrationality' judged pure arithmetic. theory avoids facing it, disparities largest (Fulton) (Webster, Glascock, Quitman, Echols), running respectively latter,7 invidiously discriminatory. tell us why. understand how, numbers, unilluminated complex subtle factors involved, say, except fiat, themselves invidious. disproportions greatly line count Presidency. per New York (the census) Alaska smallest) 1.8 There 159, 1. slight modification plan bring tolerance permitted scheme. imponderables lay root steadfast pre-Baker Carr refusal enter (the) thicket.' 556, 1201. Having turned back wise chapter history, view, longer escape necessity coming grips thorny studiously strove (see concurring 265, 736, id., 775) subsequent Scholle Hare, 429, 910, (concurring CLARK, J.), 430—435, 910—913 (dissenting J.); W.M.C.A., Inc., Simon, 190, 191—194, 1234, 1235—1236, 430 To being outside stream Maryland Mississippi, systems, hide head sand. test 'rationality' judicially unfamiliar field? My perhaps clue inactivity—absence remedy crazy quilt approach 253-262, 729—734. formulation untrod competence await fully developed record. interlocutory stage. temporary before upon record consisting pleading, answers interrogatories, affidavits, statistical material, described 'liberal notice common knowledge concern.' 160, full-dress exploration intricate questions establishing criteria judging took place, following hearing, observed while standards (which aside) 'may appear doctrinaire extent,' constrained act (but existing)9 urgency situation. 48 Surely, ideology untenable, clearly is, trial Only know doing. White Motor 253, 696. matter profoundly touches barriers less. trial. Ga.Const.1945, III, I: consist apportioned follows: eight three each; thirty each.' Ga.Code Ann. §§ 34—3212, 34—3213 (1936). Ga.Laws Ex.Sess., 1217; Ann., (1962). order, dated April 28, restricted September 12, 1962; relief asked restricted. defined type violated 'A discriminatory share nearest whole proportionate gubernatorial electors presidential provided, invidious allocation, Congress provision allocations adjusted accord changes ten years.' note 5, Chief Holt 250 ago: man give represent him parliament, concur making bind liberty property, transcendent thing, high (I)t great injury deprive (him) it. '* look strange, commons England fond sending sheriff, officer, right, yet plaintiff law, consequently maintain obstruction 'But principal brother says, judge matter, parliamentary thing. O! means tender that. Besides intricate, contrariety opinions. allow make publick careful observe constitution cities boroughs, partial commonly growing mischief, tends prejudice peace nation. ought inlarge incroach jurisdiction; sure charter granted king, custom prescription, incroaching parliament. bound oaths property determinable us. Was petition heard hindered praying remedy? parliament undoubtedly your candidates.' Ashby White, Ld.Raym. 938, 953, 954, 956 (1702). men want left people. S. Doc. 97, Survey Political 79th Cong., 1st Sess. 'George Washington elected Magistrate Nation, votes—the num- ber electors. time, passed North Carolina Rhode Island ratified Constitution. Therefore, estimated 4,000,000 people, selected appointed save instances Virginia.' 4. Hamilton Federalist 68. 'This moral certainty, president, seldom fall lot man, eminent endowed requisite Talents low intrigue little arts popularity alone suffice elevate honors state; talents merit establish esteem confidence union, considerable portion successful distinguished president too strong constant probability seeing station filled characters preeminent ability virtue. inconsiderable recommendation constitution, those, able share, government necessarily good ill administration.' Passage shows belongs bygone day, requires presented convention lieu 8, 3, supra) winning entire county. Hence continue, allocated strictly Thus won 6,000 particular county, 4,000 worth purpose discarded. Advisory Commission Intergovernmental Relations, Report Apportionment Legislatures, December A—21. informed Administrative Office Courts 31, suits courts alone. WMCA, Simon; 507, Wesberry Sanders; 508, Reynolds Sims; 517, Beadle Scholle; 540, Vann Frink; 554, Comm. Fair Representation Tawes; 610, McConnell 688, Price Moss; 689, Oklahoma Farm Bureau 797, Davis Mann. Although Solicitor General, amicus, suggests Peters rested exercise equity power, cited curiam affirmance 93 3. infra, 385. Wechsler, Presidential Elections Constitution: Comment Proposed Amendment, A.B.A.J. 181 (1949). vests 'executive power,' authorizes recommend legislation, reports call extraordinary sessions Assembly, issue writs fill vacancies veto approve bills resolutions, departments Ga.Const. 1945, V, 2—3001 2—3017. Also, statute, payments treasury warrant Governor, 40—204, emergency authorized promulgate enforce regulations prevent, control, quell violence, threatened actual, 40—213. Those Senator, Lieutenant Supreme Appeals, Attorney Comptroller Commissioner Labor, Treasurer. offices, otherwise par. 13, 2—3013. Population Ratio Vote Fulton... 556,326. 40. 13,908 DeKalb... 256,782. 20. 12,839 Chatham.. 188,299. 16. 11,760 Muscogee. 158,623. 14. 11,330 Webster.... 3,247. 1,623 Glascock... 2,672. 1,336 Quitman.... 2,432. 1,216 Echols..... 1,876. Statistical Abstract 10,366 Following injunction, direct held.

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