Document: 491 U.S. 781 109 S.Ct. 2746 105 L.Ed.2d 661 Benjamin R. WARD, et al., Petitionersv.ROCK AGAINST RACISM. No. 88-226. Argued Feb. 27, 1989. Decided June 22, Rehearing Denied Aug. 30, See 492 937, 110 23. Syllabus Respondent Rock Against Racism (RAR), furnishing its own sound equipment and technicians, has sponsored yearly programs of rock music at the Naumberg Acoustic Bandshell in New York City's Central Park. The city received numerous complaints about excessive noise RAR's concerts from users nearby Sheep Meadow, an area designated by for passive recreation, other park, residents areas adjacent to park. Moreover, when shut off power after RAR ignored repeated requests lower volume one concerts, audience became abusive disruptive. also experienced problems bandshell events put on sponsors, who, due their use inadequate or technicians unskilled mixing area, were unable provide sufficient amplification levels, resulting disappointed unruly audiences. Rejecting various solutions problems, adopted a Use Guideline which specified that would furnish high quality retain independent, technician all performances. After implemented this guideline, amended pre-existing District Court complaint against seek damages declaratory judgment striking down guideline as facially invalid under First Amendment. court upheld finding, inter alia, performers who had used city's system been uniformly pleased; that, although ultimately controlled both mix, practice was give sponsor autonomy mix confer with him before turning down; needs. Applying Court's three-part test judging constitutionality governmental regulation time, place, manner protected speech, found valid. Appeals reversed ground such regulations' method extent must be least intrusive upon freedom expression is reasonably necessary achieve purpose, finding there less restrictive means could control without intruding ability mix. Held: sound-amplification valid Amendment reasonable place speech. Pp. 790-803. (a) content eutral, since it justified reference regulated principal justification—the desire order sedate character Meadow park avoid intrusion into residential nothing do content. justification, interest ensuring quality, does not render based attempt impose subjective standards acceptable performers, expressly disavowed any intent requires defer sponsor's wishes On record below, concern extends only clearly content-neutral goals adequate avoiding associated There no merit argument nonetheless face because places unbridled discretion hands enforcement officials. Even granting doubtful proposition claim falls within narrow class permissible facial challenges allegedly unconstrained grants regulatory authority, nevertheless fails, guideline's terms effect forbid officials purposely select vary performer's message. applied narrowing construction requiring sponsors them mandating reach concert listeners. 791-796. (b) narrowly tailored serve significant interests. That substantial protecting citizens unwelcome noise, even traditional public forum cannot doubted. sufficiency allow enjoy benefits light evidence resulted inability some audiences hear erred prove furthering these legitimate interests, "less-restrictive-alternative analysis" never been—and here, again, specifically rejected as—a part inquiry validity regulation. Clark v. Community Creative Non-Violence, 468 288, 293, 104 3065, 3069, 82 221; Regan Time, Inc., 641, 3262, 487. requirement tailoring satisfied so long promotes achieved effectively absent regulation, chosen are substantially broader than interest. If met, courts should government's determination. Here, limiting served direct effective way board. Absent requirement, have well, evidenced generated past concerts. determined overall, concert-ground listeners it, since, providing competent equipment, eliminated plagued past. Furthermore, absence deleterious they desired, contention ends. 796-802. (c) leaves open ample alternative channels communication, ban particular type given time. Rather, continues permit expressive activity quantity beyond regulating amplification. limitations may reduce degree potential speech consequence, showing remaining avenues communication inadequate. 802-803. 848 F.2d 367 (CA2 1988), reversed. KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, JJ., joined. BLACKMUN, concurred judgment. MARSHALL, filed dissenting opinion, BRENNAN STEVENS, joined, post, p. 803. Leonard J. Koerner, City, petitioners. William M. Kunstler, respondent. Justice KENNEDY Court. 1 In southeast portion Park, 10 blocks upward park's beginning point 59th Street, amphitheater stage structure known Bandshell. faces west across width close proximity bandshell, lying directional path sound, grassy called Meadow. quiet recreations like reclining, walking, reading. Just range apartments residences Park West. 2 This case arises regulate amplified performances satisfactory those live West vicinity. 3 provided city. challenge technique comes concert. trial sustained measures, but Second Circuit We granted certiorari resolve important issues presented case. 4 * Racism, respondent case, unincorporated association which, words, "dedicated espousal promotion antiracist views." App. Pet. Cert. 3. Each year 1979 through 1986, program speeches bandshell. furnished performing groups annual events. 5 Over years, respondent's occasions cooperative asked reduced; concert, police felt compelled cut system, action caused become hostile. 127-131, 140-141, 212-214, 345-347. 6 Before 1984 met representatives discuss problem noise. It decided monitor levels edge ground, revoke event if specific limits exceeded. Sound did exceed periods despite warnings lowered. Two citations issued during When eventually off, 7 following year, sought permission hold upcoming declined grant permit, citing crowd previous suggested city-owned facilities sites invitation suit United States city, mayor, parks department officials, seeking injunction directing issuance permit. agreed abide applicable regulations, parties reached agreement issued. 8 then undertook develop comprehensive City Parks Department Guidelines A addressed guidelines controlling major "provide required 'crowds unhappy unruly.' " Brief Petitioners 9. several causes, including either outdoors unfamiliar acoustics surroundings, like. Because compensated poor raising volume, factors tended exacerbate excess noise.1 189, 218-219. 9 considered problem. idea fixed decibel limit using impact single level constant, varies response changes air temperature, foliage, size, factors. Id., 31, 220, 285-286. possibility employing operate events, might difficulty satisfying needs while operating unfamiliar, perhaps inadequate, equipment. 220. Instead, concluded most extensive search hired private company capable meeting varied promulgated March 21, 1986.2 learning expected comply May returned motion certain aspects guidelines. preliminarily enjoined enforcemen rule 1, 1986. 636 F.Supp. 178 (S.D.N.Y.1986). Under protection injunction, alone among 1986 season, permitted technician, just done prior years. again residents. 127, 138. 11 invalid. hearing five days testimony guidelines, decision upholding guideline.3 "motivated obtain top-flight operators" selecting independent contractor "which ran full cultural gamut grand opera salsa reggae," pleased provided. 658 1346, 1352 (S.D.N.Y.1987). 12 Although virtue his position board, "[t]he respect mix: balancing treble bass, highlighting instrument voice, like," "does he can accommodate desires regards." Ibid. control, making turn down. instances, Grand Opera performance, accommodated performers' unique integrating special microphones implementation provides technical 'mix' RAR." 1353. government 13 (C.A.2 1988). recognizing "[c]ontent neutral regulations unreasonably expression," added proviso "the reasonable, is, purpose regulation." 370 (citing O'Brien, 391 367, 377, 88 1673, 1679, 20 672 (1968)). test, For example, directed keep below levels. Alternatively, volume-limiting device installed; "last resort," suggested, plug pulled enforce limit." F.2d, 372, n. 6. view availability seemingly alternatives, failed "was volume." 371. 14 certiorari, 488 816, 53, 102 31 (1988), clarify legal standard ordinance face, we now reverse. II 15 Music oldest forms human expression. From Plato's discourse Republic totalitarian state our times, rulers capacity appeal intellect emotions, censored musical compositions state. Dialogues Plato, Republic, bk. 3, pp. 231, 245-248 (B. Jowett transl., 4th ed. 1953) ("Our poets sing another nobler strain"); Musical Freedom Why Dictators Fear It, N.Y. Times, 23, 1981, section 2, col. 5; Soviet Schizophrenia toward Stravinsky, 26, 1982, 25, 2; Symphonic Voice China Is Heard Again, Oct. 11, 1987, 1. Constitution prohibits attempts order. Music, form us apparently consisted remarks speakers, well music, constitutional concert; and, principle stated, meet demands appear dispute proposition. 16 need here whether municipality owns bandstand facility exercise, circumstances, proprietary right quality. Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. Conrad, 420 546, 570-574, 95 1239, 1252-1254, 43 448 (1975) (REHNQUIST, dissenting). Though demonstrate effort insure question, justifies measure Here open, apparently, performers; decide subject protections Grace, 461 171, 177, 103 1702, 17 7, 75 736 (1983); see Frisby Schultz, 487 474, 481, 108 2495, 2500, 101 (1988); Perry Education Assn. Local Educators' Assn., 460 37, 45, 948, 954, 74 794 (1983). Our cases make clear, however, restrictions "are interest, leave information." 221 (1984); Heffron International Society Krishna Consciousness, 452 640, 648, 2559, 2564, 69 298 (1981) (quoting Virginia Pharmacy Bd. Citizens Consumer Council, 425 748, 771, 96 1817, 1830, 48 346 (1976)). consider requirements turn. A. determining neutrality, generally particular, disagreement message conveys. supra, U.S., 295, S.Ct., 3070. consideration. serves purposes unrelated deemed neutral, incidental speakers messages others. Renton Playtime Theatres, 475 41, 47-48, 106 925, 929-930, 89 29 (1986). Government "justified speech." 3069 (emphasis added); Heffron, 2564 Bd., 1830); Boos Barry, 485 312, 320-321, 1157, 1163-1164, 99 333 (1988) (opinion J.). 18 justification more activities, undue "ha[s] content," 320, 1163, satisfies neutral. 19 offered "ensur[ing] events." F.Supp., 1352; 370, urges thus content, being regulated. view, assert artistic over enforcing bureaucratically determined, value-laden conception good sound. completely moment, argues, tolerate merely State claims [its] efforts will lead 'top-quality' results." 19. While arguments interfere much force contexts, inapplicable facts disclaimed express imposing appropriate performers. To contrary, Co rt found, concerning 1352-1353. record, mix.4 Any purely esthetic raise serious concerns, opportunity address questions. As related above, requested RAR. 21 argues further explicit terms, charged it. Lakewood Plain Dealer Publishing Co., 486 750, 769-772, 2138, 2150-2152, 100 771 (4-to-3 decision); 649, 2564; Freedman Maryland, 380 51, 56, 85 734, 737, 649 (1965); Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 97, 60 736, 741, 84 L.Ed. 1093 (1940). According respondent, language prevent wholly varying conveyed 22 threshold matter, far clear bring aspect permitting authority involved licensing schemes "ves[t] official deny activity." Dealer, 755, 2143. seeks entirely different, lesser, magnitude, suggest unfettered permits altogether. contends exercising what concededly choose Since unguided speak altogether, question authority. Cf. 787, 2160 (WHITE, dissenting) (arguing where local law issue require[s] licenses category conduct prohibited—but sweeping activity"). 23 decide, "extraordinary doctrine" expression, id., 772, 2152 dissenting), extended circumstances fails merits. states best events" "insure balanced neighbors mayorally decreed zone [the] Meadow." 375. undoubtedly flexible, implementing exercise considerable discretion, perfect clarity precise guidance restrict activity. Grayned Rockford, 408 104, 110, 92 2294, 2300, 33 222 (1972) ("Condemned expect mathematical certainty language"); Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 79, 448, 449, 93 513 (1949) (rejecting vagueness forbidding "loud raucous" amplification) Reed, By interpreted systems vulnerable challenge.5 24 withstand challenge, ultimate conclusion same, additional enforcement. policy 1352. With retains "mak[e] questions arise, taking corrective action." goal [is] defined concertground," ibid., scene. Administrative interpretation are, course, highly relevant analysis, "[i]n evaluating law, federal . agency proffered." Hoffman Estates Flipside, Estates, 455 489, 494, 5, 1186, 1191, 71 362 (1982); 769-770, 2150-2151, 11; 181, 10, 1709, 10; 2300; Poulos Hampshire, 345 395, 73 760, 97 L.Ed 1105 (1953). inadequacy remedied construction. B 25 "narrowly interest." 3069. Despite protestations longer doubted noise." Council Los Angeles Taxpayers Vincent, 466 789, 806, 2118, 2129, 80 772 (1984) supra ); Grayned, 116, 2303. greatest protect 'the well-being, tranquility, privacy home,' 484, 2502 Carey Brown, 447 455, 471, 2286, 2295, 65 263 (1980)), limited context, act forums streets 86-87, 453-454 J.); 96-97, 458-459 (Frankfurter, concurring); 459 (Jackson, 296, 3070 (recognizing "substantial maintaining attractive intact condition, readily available millions people wish them"). 26 think apparent one. indicates adverse affect enjoys whatever offer, silent meditation. 27 recognized emanating 370. concluded, "it [been] shown 371 added). court's judgment, methods achieving desired end rights. 28 sifting imagined determine solution means" end. analysis 657, 3271, quite "simply imaginable burdensome Albertini, 472 675, 689, 2897, 2906, 86 536 (1985). drew least-intrusive-means established conduct. reliance isplaced, held O'Brien "in last little, any, different restrictions." 298, 3071. Indeed, squarely reasoning identical below: 30 "We unmoved Appeals' challenged unnecessary, hence invalid, speech-restrictive alternatives preserving lands. believe decisions assign judiciary replace [parks department] manager [city's] endow competence judge how lands wise conservation attained." 299, 3072. Lest confusion remain, reaffirm today legitimate, interests doing so.6 "so (1985); 297, sure, mean burden advance goals.7 SeeFrisby 485, ("A complete each proscription's scope appropriately targeted evil"). So simply concludes adequately less-speech-restrictive alternative. "The [time, manner] judge's responsible decisionmaker promoting interests" promoted. 2906; 32 undeniable board hypothesized reflect achieved. failing determination utilize technician. second "that 1352, supports choice methods. inexperienced insufficient No doubt characterized than-adequate But fact beside point, depends relation bears overall correct, furthers individual regulation's effectiveness judged considering 688-689, 2906-2907; 296-297, 3070-3071. Considering proffered justifications together, therefore, directly guideline. 34 because, placing sweeps broadly volume. "targets exact source 'evil' remedy." 2503. 35 scheme concerns force. pursuant policy, "give[s] [and] "technician able properly implement instructions mix," "[n]o trial; noted, contrary." 89. findings, disturbed Appeals, conclude material allows interfering "substantially necessary" ends, 808, 2130, tailoring. C 36 final easily met. cases, Frisby, 482-484, 2501-2502; 3070; 53-54, 931-932. Taxpay- ers 803 812 2128 2133 30; Kovacs, 88-89, § Ct., 455-456 III 37 communication. Accordingly, 38 Reversed. 39 BLACKMUN concurs result. 40 whom STEVENS join, dissenting. 41 barrage plague urban life. Unfortunately, majority plays shared impatience loud obscure damage Until today, key safeguard free obligation adopt restriction goals. abandoning tailored, replaces scrutiny mandatory deference. majority's willingness hand ends dissemination. (Guidelines) constitute impermissible restraint, I dissent. 42 sets forth assessing Guidelines. 481-482, 2500-2501, 44, 953, indisputably apply irrespective music. 375; Pacific Gas & Electric Co. Public Utilities Comm'n Cal., 20, 903, 914, (1985).1 They places, 2303, (1972), giving exclusive My distortion requirement. not, asserts, "clearly" less-restrictive-alternative test. Ante, 797. Term, statute "if targets eliminates Fr sby few opinions taken out position,2 practice, mandate examination serving asserted greater efficacy outweighs increased See, e.g., Martin Struthers, 319 141, 147-148, 63 862, 866-867, 87 1313 (1943); Schneider State, 308 147, 162, 146, 151, 155 (1939). Schneider, invalidated handbill distribution streets, notwithstanding minimizing litter, traffic congestion, preventing fraud. punishing actually litter perpetrate frauds intrusive, albeit effective, 164, 152; Martin, 148, 867 (invalidating door-to-door handbills fraudulent solicitation yet still fraud).3 44 burdens noticeably today's decision. show restriction. 799. enough, advances slightest, differential results enter calculus. abandoned ordinary phrase.4 decision, bans littering fraud, loudspeakers radios Logically extended, far-reaching 45 True, "[g]overnment goals." "engage gratuitous inhibition expression" invalidated. Ely, Flag Desecration: Case Study Roles Categorization Balancing Analysis, Harv.L.Rev. 1482, 1485 (1975). robbed analytic tools inquiry. examined "how achieved," ante, 800, admonishes so, stating "defer[red] determination." instructs refrain examining restricted engage inquiries, am loss understand ascertain necessary. 46 Had possibly survive scrutiny. Government's sounds justify total distribution. intrusively evil—the persons litter. concedes Tr. Oral. Arg. 5-6.5 47 holding restrictions, deprives meaning.6 Today, enshrines sacrifices deeply troubling reason. imprimatur quintessential incompatible fundamental values. Near Minnesota ex rel. Olson, 283 697, 51 625, 1357 (1931) "[m]usic 790, repression. 16th- 17th-century England, monopoly printing presses. L. Levy, Emergence Free Press controls situations, enables censor 553, 1243, familiar restraints, "by simple stroke pen," Emerson, Doctrine Prior Restraint, Law Contemp.Prob. 657 (1955). knob. 49 implication restraint "enjoy altogether," 794, startling. involves "different lesser" magnitude—the denies performer silences distorts result same—the censors words Chief little "allo[w] speaker hall views denying amplifying system." FEC National Conservative Political Action Committee, 470 480, 493, 1459, 1466, 556, 8, 1246, suppression create restraint"). 50 presumptively 558, 1248; Bantam Books, Inc. Sullivan, 372 58, 70, 83 631, 639, 584 (1963). accompanied procedural safeguards "to obviate dangers censorship 740, (1965). establish criteria embodied drawn, definite standards," ensure exercised Niemotko 340 268, 271, 325, 327, 267 (1951); 758, 2144, Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 394 150-151, 935, 938-939, 162 (1969). "an almost immediate judicial determination" unprotected 639; 560, 1250. contain neither safeguards. First, standards" guiding mixes zone." 794. defines "best sound" "appropriate quality." director-manager testified refers tone 229, 230. Yet separated whole. G ove Dictionary Musicians 51-55 (S. Sadie 1980) (tonality relationship between pitches harmony); F. Everest, Successful System Operation 173 (1985) ("The console creative tool"). judgments too loud, noiselike, discordant mask disapproval itself,7 sound-mixing necessitates detailed standards. 52 "undoubtedly flexible" discretion." Nevertheless, "[b]y purposefully performers." 794-795. support limitation discretion. finds deferring conferring "with (SDNY 1987). promise consult, "neutral criteria" future abuses applications reasons health, safety, welfare citizens. presumption faith adhere very doctrine disallows." Lakewood, 770, 2151.8 53 Second, drawn fundamentally flawed. value mechanism them. absent. consults minutes performance decides present song piece During itself, makes hundreds affecting Oral 13. played immediately time middle song. result, ever determines admission th t sanctions violations general litigation costly consuming underscores contempt review 5. prompt nor fettering quintessential, unconstitutional, restraint. 54 Today's significance world balance eviscerates Amendment, heard consists two components, produced instruments picked up fed central combined signal audience. balance, stage, add effects addition reaching course continually manipulating role reaches pertinent part, provide: "SOUND AMPLIFICATION "To Recreation leased designed system. DEPARTMENT OF PARKS AND RECREATION IS TO BE THE SOLE ONLY PROVIDER SOUND AMPLIFICATION, INCLUDING THOUGH NOT LIMITED AMPLIFIERS, SPEAKERS, MONITORS, MICROPHONES, PROCESSORS. "Clarity combination technician's familiarity proficiency employ professional [who] fully versed bounce patterns, daily currents, skipping Bandshell's activities Bethesda Terrace, Environmental Protection recommendations." 375-376. Guidelines, provisions us. noted interrelated degree, sometimes compensate increasing 218, 290-291. mixing, avoids dissent's suggestion constitutes consistent cases. 808-809. said (1975), restraints "had common: gave actual expression." 1243. contrast, true theoretically possesses performer, hardly distinguishes other; always possess raw suppress force, indeed necessity "pull plug" authorizes not. Term "a precisely 'narrowly tailored' employed available." 27. "not tailored; 329, 1168 Wygant Jackson Ed., 476 267, 280, 6, 1842, 1850, 90 260 (1986) (plurality opinion)). Boos, ignores crucial difference this. content-based displaying signs critical foreign governments; political "must subjected exacting scrutiny." 321, 64. tailored" strict context. same least-restrictive-alternative place. reason, citation Richmond J.A. Croson 469, 706, 854 (1989), point. 4. Croson, case; dissent argue strict-scrutiny regulations. summary affirmance Watseka Illinois 796 1547 (C.A.7 1986), aff'd, 479 1048, 107 919, 972 (1987), contrary. Seventh approach, 1553-1554, supported grounds stated 1555-1558. occasion: "A disposition affirms read essential sustain judgment." Anderson Celebrezze, 780, 785, 1564, 1568, 547 analogize imaginative misguided. 806-807. instead focuses evils eliminate amplification—and banning significantly restricting evils. essence handbilling, great cause eliminate, crime, 145-146, 864-865, (1943). handbilling justifying (1986), unnecessary unwise. dealt "businesses purvey sexually materials," 49, 929, 2. first applies afield decision's original focus. Given threat posed 335-337, 1171-1172, (BRENNAN, concurring judgment); Renton, 55, 933 judgment), fear broad application encourage widespread censorship. (1985), person's military base, unlike traditionally dedicated 687, 2905 (commanding officer's exclude civilians base "be analyzed forum"). Nor isolated WHITE's (1984), commanded votes three Justices, construed definitive explication relies heavily engaged similar rejects; warranted ("[P]reventing overnight sleeping threatened damage"; "minimiz[ing] possible injury reducing duration, frequency demonstrations curtail allowable demonstrators engage"). marked Members recently stringent affirmative-action 507-508, 729-730, (1989). Significantly, Service city—monitoring perimeter event, communicating necessary, power. Amicus Curiae 21. Service's "experienc[e] thousands years," monitoring ineffective impracticable hard accept. note outside magically validate (" '[O]ne liberty abridged plea place,' quoting 163, (1939)). "New old ears. Beethoven seemed Mozart; Liszt noisier Beethoven; Schoenberg predecessors." N. Slonimsky, Lexicon Invective: Critical Assaults Composers Beethoven's Time One critic wrote Prokofiev: "Those genius evident superabundance looked vain new Mr. Prokofiev's work. Classical Symphony, composer conducted, cessation orgy sounds." (internal quotations omitted). Of defers difficult console. (city possibilities confrontation sits next operates equipment). Conversely, heeding mixing.

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