Document: 467 U.S. 310 104 S.Ct. 2433 81 L.Ed.2d 247 State of COLORADO, Plaintiffv.State NEW MEXICO and Paul G. Bardacke, Attorney General New Mexico. No. 80, Orig. Supreme Court the United States Argued Jan. 9, 1984. Decided June 4, Rehearing Denied Aug. 2, Syllabus In this original action, Colorado seeks an equitable apportionment waters Vermejo River, which originates in flows into Historically, all river's have been used exclusively by farm industrial users After a trial at both presented extensive evidence, Special Master recommended that be allowed to divert 4,000 acre-feet water per year. His recommendation rested on grounds Mexico could compensate for some or proposed diversion through reasonable conservation measures, injury, if any, would outweighed benefit from diversion. considering Mexico's exceptions Master's report, held, inter alia, properly did not focus priority uses along river, other factors—such as waste, availability balance harm diversion—could considered calculus. 459 176, 103 ,S.Ct. 539, 74 348. The case was remanded additional specific findings assist assessing whether reasonably made available balancing On basis evidence previously received, then developed factual reaffirmed his recommendation. again filed report. Held: 1. action apportionment, Colorado's proof is judged clear-and-convincing-evidence standard. Requiring present such support its necessary appropriately unique interests involved rights disputes between sovereigns. standard reflects Court's long-held view diverter should bear most, though all, risks erroneous decision. addition, accommodates society's competing increasing stability property putting resources their most efficient uses. Pp. 315-317. 2. has met burden proving permitted. 317-323. (a) demonstrated, clear convincing measures For example, alleged improve administration supplies, it point take conserve water. Society's interest minimizing decisions cases requires hard facts, suppositions opinions, interstate diversions. Moreover, there no undertaken steps minimize amount will required. 317-321. (b) Nor sustained showing any injury benefits committed itself long-term use future can studied predicted. By contrast, attempted identify harms result Asking absolute precision forecasts about unrealistic, but proposing must conceive implement type long-range planning analysis proposes, thereby reducing uncertainties with judgments are made. 321-323. (c) mere fact River does automatically entitle share waters. Equitable appropriated turns benefits, harms, efficiencies uses, thus source essentially irrelevant adjudication these sovereigns' claims. P. 323. Exceptions dismissed. Richard A. Simms, Santa Fe, N.M., defendants. Robert F. Welborn, Denver, Colo., plaintiff. Justice O'CONNOR delivered opinion Court. 1 river fully A Master, appointed Court, initially permitted Last Term, we five issues. 348 (1982). before us findings. We now conclude demonstrated Accordingly, sustain dismiss case. 2 * facts litigation were set forth detail our last see id., 178183, S.Ct., 542544, need recount them here only briefly. small, nonnavigable stream, originating snow belt Rocky Mountains. southeasterly roughly 55 miles feeding Canadian River. Though begins Colorado, major portion located Its historically State. 3 1975, however, corporation, Fuel Iron Steel Corp. (C.F. & I.), Colorado. As consequence, several sought obtained injunction against turn, motion leave file complaint seeking River's granted file, 439 975, 99 557, 58 646 (1978), Appeals Tenth Circuit stayed C.F. I.'s appeal pending resolution issue. 4 441 902, 1988, 60 371 (1979), Honorable Ewing T. Kerr, Senior Judge District Wyoming, who held lengthy evidence. two grounds: first, measures; second, 5 took exceptions, legal factual, law contended erred focusing U.S., 181182, 544545. rejected contention: 6 "We recognize equities supporting protection existing economies usually compelling. . Under circumstances, countervailing one may justify detriment another This case, where demonstrates substantially outweigh might result. determination carried burden, important consideration offset measures. ." Id., 187188, 547548 (footnote omitted). 7 short, presumptively supported established senior concluded Ibid. 8 also issue predicates Specifically, had failed prove currently more than matter, found report unclear determined remand appropriate. 9 To help assess diversion, instructed make concerning: 10 "(1) extent levels reflect current historical shortages failure develop diligently; 11 "(2) supply accounting factors variations stream flow, needs continuous supply, possibilities equalizing enhancing storage conservation, substitute sources relieve demand River; [and] 12 "(3) eliminate waste inefficiency River[.]" 189190, 548549. 13 Then, asked 14 "(4) precise nature interim ultimate Colorado; 15 "(5) likely suffer taking account diversion." 190, 549 16 Finally, authorized consider relevant factors, gather making requested findings, offer although necessarily different—recommendation. n. 14, 549, 14. 17 remand, submit new opposed attested that, unless record reopened, intend denied motion. he II 18 because initial inquiry turned determining just explained apportionment. evidentiary material offered complaint, find explain judge actions 19 function "instruct factfinder concerning degree confidence society thinks correctness conclusions particular adjudication." re Winship, 397 358, 370, 90 1068, 1075, 25 368 (1970) (Harlan, J., concurring). informing manner, allocates risk judgment litigants indicates relative importance attaches See Addington v. Texas, 418, 423425, 1804, 18071808, 323 (1979). 20 Mexico, 13, 547548, 13. contrast ordinary civil typically "preponderance evidence" standard, thought place abiding conviction truth contentions "highly probable." C. McCormick, Law Evidence § 320, p. 679 (1954). true, course, instantly tilted scales affirmative when weighed opposition. generally McBaine, Burden Proof: Degrees Belief, 32 Calif.L.Rev. 242, 251254 (1944). 21 decision: "The disrupting certain immediate, whereas potential speculative remote." 187, 547; 182, 544, 9. uses: "[T]he rule [will] strictly applied 'would work hardship' junior user 'than bestow benefits' [, though] compelling." 186187, 547 (quoting Nebraska 325 589, 619, 65 1332, 1351, 89 L.Ed. 1815 (1945)). actual inefficiencies highly probable. III 22 With principles mind, turn review parties submitted noted "real substantial injury" "any own expense, [would] reduce users." 188, 547, shifted show, issues deserve respect tacit presumption correctness, responsibility deciding what correct remains us. Mississippi Arkansas, 415 289, 291292, 294, 94 1046, 10471048, 39 333 (1974); Wright, Miller, E. Cooper, Federal Practice Procedure 4054, pp. 196197 (1978). Upon independent record, meet burden. 23 establish eliminating nonuse inefficiency, supplies water, States. "current primarily part put water." Additional Factual Findings 28. available, indicated belief careful alleviate unregulated stockponds, fishponds, detention structures, prevent blockage clogging canals, ensure devote themselves development resources. He further "the heart problem Conservancy District," 20, "reclamation project [that had] never lived up expectations even proved successful project, [that] quite possibly built." 8. arguably "middle range reclamation efficiencies," "that [the District's] inefficient charged Colorado." Furthermore, testimony I. take, "it say attempts implemented 21. 24 concern overstating Water appropriators remained relatively stable past 30 years, historic falls below decreed those users. Unreliable satisfactorily difference, attempt excuse three decades way is, very least, suspect. Nevertheless, whatever merit explanation, cannot agree identifying, efforts preserve supply. actually Thus, ultimately unspecified "[r]eduction and/or regulation effort, however 18. Similarly, asserted rigorous blocked works show how supplies. Even generalizations they diverting call; being wasted inefficiently it. administrative improvements suggests either too general meaningful involve redistribution, preservation, 26 attack inadequate much same reason. Our require "financially physically feasible" "within practicable limits." See, e.g., 192, 550; Wyoming 259 419, 484, 42 552, 564, 66 999 (1922). middle taken considerable including, construction, expense initiative, closed stockwater delivery system—to efficiency use. 20. contrary; indeed, commended taken. ibid. accepted assertion projects But identified means and, contrary suggestion, believe do so. carry improved, far less projects. Mere assertions do. 27 "Colorado required." supra, 186, 547. Nine years passed since first Yet inability sources. settled definite tentative construction design plan, prepared economic Indeed, conducted operational study reservoir contends built conjunction It impracticable ask provide unerring concomitant irresponsible apportion been, minimum, carefully objectively evaluated, mention decided upon. Financially feasible include future, well prudent implementation current, unwilling concrete direction. 28 STEVENS, produced sufficient mitigate sufficiently successfully Term allowed. No lax claim once proves cause shifts exist. B 29 agricultural permanent applications coal mines, timbering, power generation, domestic needs, operations. admitted "[t]his area finding [was] difficult [both] [the] "natural reluctance spend large amounts time money developing plans, operations, cost schemes. 23. diverted would, showed accrue insubstantial, could, opinion, entire impact 2428. Again, ourselves without adequate approve specified long last. All steel corporation wants unidentified future. 31 commissioned economists effects, direct indirect, persons hearing, prior reduction doubt, involves prediction forecast. surely "evidence." toward addressing query posed Term. similar effort. objects speculation inevitable best expenditures operation assurance agree, asking unrealistic. precision. required proposes. Long-range will, believe, If economy efficiently using reason why better. 33 nine neither nor upon therefore surprise conduct studies predictions error inadequacy information available. C 34 final consideration, pointed out approximately three-fourths system concluded, therefore, requests produces." 29. notion entitles 181, 8, Both doctrine appropriation, 179, 543, appropriative, riparian, depend use, land ownership. 543 4. follows, continued think contrary, error. IV 35 continue flexible extends State's bears proving, existence factors. complainant adequately due unstudied struggled, requirement inherent limitations beneficial However, enough Until generate circumstances changed appropriate, compel 36 Report Findings, 37 so ordered. 38 dissenting. entry decree Mountains allow point; flow intermountain transfer supplement presently Purgatoire Accretions point, remainder four principal Those upstream 40 gauge second third measured 1916. average annual 1921 12,800 acre-feet; highest eliminated, 10,900 1970's, included especially dry considered, 8,262 acre-feet. matter figure used, perfectly remain satisfy river. 180, (1982) (hereinafter I). critical dispute concerns fourth—the District. 41 "two alternative 544. Neither today, questioned sufficiency grounds. findings; today decides conclusions. I respectfully disagree treatment questions evaluation facts. 43 explains Inasmuch applied, explanation somewhat academic. troublesome question apply reviews pages detailed whom entrusted 44 exercise jurisdiction appropriate de novo record. after merely accord special deference. deference Rule Civil 52(a) directs appellate judges district litigation. my view, justice served according determinations. lengthy, technical, complex. accompanying exhibits assimilate comprehend cold living trial, course opportunity assessments demeanor witnesses. 45 majority repeatedly states "find E.g., ante, 324. Based examination majority's search cursory indeed. face, case; instead process doing makes observations regarding evidence.1 46 gave regard due—rather paying lip-service "tacit correctness" 317—I reach conclusion 47 Chief emphasized concurring "these come equal footing." 191, 549. entitled simply undiminished claims existed controversy began. party position changes invoked. 48 Once recognized, "remaining largely matters fact. voluminous, technical conflicting. considered. limits admit extended discussion. content give main references comment evidential rest. minor state evidence." 471, 559, 49 "New measures," I, 50 From outset litigation, claimed Vermejo's wasteful inefficient. argues "fact" stressed throughout "a stock over 2,000 annually." Brief 41, 4345. fact—which undisputed—should "hard" majority, provides irrefutable significant lawsuit began.2 51 sidesteps accepting argument inure solely continues cling employ facilitate notwithstanding explicitly 185186, 546547, quoted following language seminal decision area: 52 other, each her stream. subscribe applied. within essential order needless prevented largest secured. comports all-pervading spirit appropriation takes heed natural necessities arose. lays duty right manner calculated common supply." 564. 53 "important factor timing." Reply appears arose, "began discussing possibility building distribution save lost" open cooperative formed investigate "possible solutions." (citing N.M.Ex. E3). Although apparently recognized began, Tr. 2765, District's mile network canals until CF generated 1975 obtaining conditional know eliminated lawsuit; know, still commenced. 54 District—which whose impaired diversion—the found: "At Whether lack administration, diligence, ability cause, little doubt serious financial problems own. (Tr. 164169). Several already discussed loss evaporation seven reservoirs. 863, 12961299). 32% headgates overall 24.6%. 2576). efficiencies. 14101411). low systems justification here. areas viable suggestions inefficiency. 56 asserts "District 'middle efficiencies,' " 318 20). 319 ("New [range] ."). efficiencies; observed bring favor given issue, understandable. One expert witness stated: "I many neighborhood percent. lower 14101411. When recalled tolerated arid area, responded: mentioned better 1411. Other range, 27202722, methodology questionable, 27302746, testified "extremely inefficient" "less I'm familiar." 2576. latter credited holding 24.6%, implicitly rejecting position. light testimony, here." 57 plainly They management marked quality control routinely monitors 515524,3 provided 59 administer petition Engineer, Engineer 2424. assures beneficial, waste. There Vermejo. Incredibly, answer monitoring farmer "saw wasting quickly resolved 24162417." 22. 10631064. testified: "Even streams adjudicated, appoint measure diversions enforce priorities able among themselves, avoiding onerous tax pay installation meters demanded strict administration. 61 "Now occasionally complaints, 'Somebody priority, filling lakes senior,' things nature, sent people there, talked talk other. And assistance resolving themselves." 24162417. 62 engineer later insisted: "[W]e ignore don't unadjudicated unauthorized irrigation purpose," 2418, "not staff go monitor nonuse." 2426. limited staff, random spot checks, nonuse, check undefined "critical circumstances" yet encountered." 63 installed gauges line, maintenance 2432-2433. approximate volume entering 2433, agree" projections effect users, ibid., disagree" figures depletions, 24332434. "administration" under Decree, department administered "[o]nly sense occasional fieldtrips determine acreage irrigated. rates adjudicated decree." 2434. "Who that?" counsel asked. 64 some. working cooperation there. themselves. Occasionally complaining "So resolve live it, day-to-day public interest. "It's costly costs undertake kind gives incentive locally." 24342435. 67 relying complaints numerous manifest. Of complain appropriator farthest downstream—any reaches twice pointing accusatory finger Naturally access users' land, few likely. conceded problems, "have pretty good idea going particularly." 68 specifically suggested manifest deficiencies remedied "monitoring, regulating controlling effort accurately decrease inefficiency." 18.4 "by practices, precludes use." 41. 69 states: keeping conserved. That position, encourage obscure practices avoid 42. inflexible interpretation guiding principle one. 183184, 545546. 70 "Our clearly protect 'reasonably applied.' Especially Western scarce, '[t]here "treasure" Only diligence faith keep privilege alive.' Washington Oregon, 297 517, 527, 540, 80 837 (1936). protected. ibid.; [325 U.S.,] 618[, 1350]. concededly deemed forfeited diminished exercised diligence. 527528, 544545; Kansas, 320 383, 394, 88 116 (1943)." Id. 71 manifestly lax, indeed virtually nonexistent, diminishes invites renders unknown. "Protection unreasonably practices." 195, 551 (O'CONNOR, 72 causing alleviated administration: 73 "One fishponds structures. (Colo.Ex. Nos. 83, 40). While sort restrictions apply. numbers ponds structures limited; reuse developed; monitored controlled. indication 2,024 stockponds exist Colfax County. (Defendants' Remand, 53). Reduction "There least reports Bureau Reclamation runoff dams silt debris. 38, 40, 43; 2200). Proper aware perhaps together clean clogging. 75 "Another contributing headgate spills, 18301834, 19131914). Perhaps repair revision needed, resort complicated necessary. mean suggest burdensome unreasonable Mexico; based caused waste." 1819. 76 77 entirety, every fully. proper 2021.5 78 Alternatively, identifiable projected alleviation system. 79 powered hydroelectric plant generating sawmill related timber operations; washing mines transportation Pueblo, mines; recreational purposes; possible synthetic fuel development; supplementation including city conservancy (irrigation) shortages. 738749, 79596, 623639, 654, 656)." acknowledged certainty materialize, "if half implemented," justified. added: 82 occur, insufficient seems over-appropriated, exceeding Any Trinidad examples having demands. 535538, 623630, 795796). alleviating water; proposal stop goes plans benefits." 2324. 83 period full 84 proposes temporarily acres owned Plans down valley high expectation. 744746)." 85 adduced estimating 6075%."6 86 "would 'loss' insignificance." 27. received Chico reservoirs "great store enhance supply," 127 recognizes, 318, it.8 summarized stating "shortages resulting (if all) experienced beginning allotted acreage, obligations, 87 task draw blueprints effects Cf. 486, 564 ("Our gathered attention rightly bestowed moment, solved financially practicable"). My persuades me dissent. vague reference Ante, 322. unclear, relies substance all. Instead, told "attempted result" "concrete Term." regard, "no speculative" nevertheless "A effort," were, seemingly penalized "has totally savings. saving realized District, during transit reservoirs, increase larger itself. accept produce significantly net or—more significantly—that filed, stated 1416. believes improved complete reality western input. understands intense feelings individual lifestyle (See 2192, 2206, 221516); farming ranching often supplemented income jobs. 2207). individuals, otherwise, expect convenience energy augment Careful program aid demands." 1920. expressly well. enhanced diligent Many relief do." ways thinking 238239, experts 243, 247, 876, 2579. admissible question, Fed.Rules Evid. 702, 704, supports question. validity proposals intentions. comport ideal, display increases likelihood degree." ("As earlier, allowing carryover wet periods shortage. Therefore, affected offsetting shortage"). irrigated 4,379 irrigate 7,979 acres. farmers farms downstream enable acreage. 67.

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