Document: 355 U.S. 426 78 S.Ct. 394 2 L.Ed.2d 382 William J. KERNAN, Administrator of the Estate Arthur E. Milan, Deceased, Petitioner,v.AMERICAN DREDGING COMPANY, as Owner THE Tug ARTHUR N. HERRON, In Matter Petition for Exoneration From or Limitation Liability. No. 34. Argued Nov. 21, 1957. Decided Feb. 3, 1958. Mr. Abraham Freedman, Philadelphia, Pa., petitioner. T. Byrne, Jr., respondent. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 this limitation proceeding brought by respondent under §§ 183—186 Limited Liability Act, R.S. 4281—4289, amended, 46 U.S.C. 181—196, U.S.C.A. District Court Eastern Pennsylvania denied petitioner's claim damages filed on behalf widow and other dependents a seaman who lost his life respondent's tug in fire caused violation navigation rule. 141 F.Supp. 582. The Appeals Third Circuit affirmed. 235 F.2d 618, rehearing denied, 619. We granted certiorari. 352 965, 77 356, 320. Herron, which, night November 18, 1952, while towing scow Schuylkill River caught when an open-flame kerosene lamp deck ignited highly inflammable vapors lying above extensive accumulation petroleum products spread over surface river. Several oil refineries facilities storage, loading unloading products, are located along banks River. trial court found that was not more than three feet water. Maintaining at height less eight violated rule promulgated Commandant United States Coast Guard.1 vapor would have been if had carried required height. 3 held 'whether * (it) be called negligence said to make flotilla unseaworthy,' did impose liability because 'the Guard regulation do solely with intended prevention collisions, no purpose. present case there collision fault navigation. True, origin can traced regulation, but question is causation whether itself, imposes liability.' page 585. 4 petitioner urges first statutory made unseaworthy, creating without regard fault. But remedy unseaworthiness derives from general maritime law, law recognizes cause action wrongful death occasioned negligence. Harrisburg, 119 199, 7 140, 30 L.Ed. 358;2 see Western Fuel Co. v. Garcia, 257 233, 240, 42 89, 90, 66 210. Before Jones Act,3 federal courts admiralty resorted various state acts give death. Hamilton, 207 398, 28 133, 52 264; Transfer 4, Cir., 61 F. 364; supra, 242, 90; Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Kierejewski, 261 479, 43 418, 67 756. Act created right based Federal Employers' Act. Lindgren States, 281 38, 50 207, 74 686, exclusive precluded any within territorial waters,4 unseaworthiness, derived law. assumes today's personal representative deceased may elect, himself between FELA action, recognized Osceola, 189 158, 175, 23 483, 487, 47 760, upon unseaworthiness. view disposition we making case, need consider soundness assumption. 5 also that, since requiring lights water resulted defect insufficiency flotilla's lighting equipment which fact seaman's death, line decisions actions violations either Safety Appliance Acts5 Boiler Inspection Act.6 That interpreted clause § FELA, 45 51, employer 'by reason insufficiency, due its negligence, cars, engines, appliances, machinery, track, roadbed, works, boats, wharves, equipment.' cases hold clause, resulting statute causes injury employee creates San Antonio A.P.R. Wagner, 241 476, 484, 36 626, 629, 60 1110. Here seaman. our decision whether, absence showing Act—which terms incorporates provisions FELA—permits recovery duty. it does. 6 denying lower relied their views tort doctrine. It true common master servant founded wholly rules applicability effective defenses assumption risk contributory This limited public policy, designed maximum freedom infant industrial enterprises, 'to insulate much possible bearing 'human overhead' inevitable part cost—to someone—of doing industrialized business.' Tiller Atlantic Line R. Co., 318 54, 59, 63 444, 447, 87 610. came whatever rights duties among persons generally, special responsibility toward workers, were daily exposed risks business largely helpless provide adequately own safety. Therefore, industry commerce became sufficiently strong bear burden, reflection evolving favor compensation employees losses deaths injuries employment, thus shifting business. For most industries change has embodied Workmen's Compensation Acts. railroad shipping industries, however, framework determining accidents. instead detailed codifying common-law principles, Congress saw fit enact terms, leaving large measure duty fashioning remedies injured manner analogous development clear congressional intent liberal Rogers Missouri Pacific 500, 508—510, 443, 449—450, 493, creation static remedy, one developed enlarged meet changing conditions concepts industry's workers. paying worker caused, whole part, employer's consist breach care, means identical duty, some doctrine applied only where prevent.7 However, repeatedly refused apply such limiting cases. Acts contributes suit, flowing sought prevent. Since appears 33 157, actually principle governs compels result claim. 8 Louisville N.R. Layton, 243 617, 37 456, 457, 931, five freight cars loaded coal thrown track engine pushed stock car into last drove against standing train. Neither nor struck equipped automatic couplers, Had so they coupled together run stated purpose coupler requirement avoid necessity men going ends cars,' contended showed benefit coupling uncoupling them. rejected argument affirmed judgment plaintiff. 9 Minneapolis St. L.R. Gotschall, 244 66, 598, 995, brakeman walking tops moving train off killed separated opening setting emergency brakes sudden jerk sustained although aims 10 Davis Wolfe, 263 239, 44 64, 68 284, conductor holding grab iron directly sill-step he stood fell loose defective. aid engaged service connected therewith, transportation employees. contention Layton Gotschall settled '* recover failure comply requirements (Safety Appliance) proximate accident, him discharge operation safety appliances specifically furnish protection.' Id., 243, 66. 11 Swinson Chicago, P., M. O.R. 294 529, 55 517, 79 1041, releasing tightly set hand brake end tank car. Release application considerable force wheel. put left foot running board better pressure exerted plank attached split bolts securing pulled through. As balance seriously fall front contended, unsuccessfully, liable used intended, arguing supply irons order appliance grasp hands, brace support secure leverage brake. 12 Coray Southern 335 520, 69 275, 93 208, railroad, riding motordriven behind train, crash stopped suddenly locked braking system. Supreme Utah court's direction verdict ground far concerned, object protect trains, trains. reasoned stopping consequence leak valve precisely what, device, do. reversed said, id., 524, 277: 13 'The language selected fix kind simple direct. Consideration meaning introduction dialectical subtleties serve useful interpretative declares railroads shall responsible employees' 'resulting part' defective here maintained. 51. And crystal clear, provided 'no guilty case' here, 'contributed employee.' 53, 53. reasons imposed extraordinary obligations commanded these employee's must pay damages. These air-brakes defective; alone unexpectedly stopped; motor following about same rate speed operated looking another crashed train; all circumstances inseparably related time space. jury could decedent's foregoing circumstances.' 14 Finally, Urie Thompson, 337 163, 1018, 1282, considered alleged Interstate Commerce Commission provided: 'Locomotives proper sanding apparatus, maintained safe suitable condition service, tested before each trip. Sand pipes securely fastened rails.' 195, 1037. sand traction. A fireman employed almost thirty years sued silicosis allegedly contracted inhalation silicate dust emitted broken faulty adjusted sanders decks cabs many locomotives worked. ICC ensure adequate auxiliary system, silicosis, therefore guard against. resting inapplicable case. 15 decisive then, principles permit dissenting it, involving Our attention directed makes reference 'any enacted *;' ruged phrase, unexplained manner, relationship answers given contention. 16 First, relates entirely defense risk, abolishing 'violation *.' section, face, barren suggestion treated specially. formulating proof judicially evolved carry out providing appropriate incurred Congress, 1908, crystallize enacting specific guide courts. Rather, using generalized language, evolve, system consistent realities employment industry. 17 Second, argued statutes easily assimilated principles. magic word 'safety.' discussed regarded irrelevant defects disable them performing function. instance, parting measure. very mechanism statute. come locomotive wise impaired function sanders—to think irrelevance aspect demonstrates basis concluded nature controlling consideration; FELA.8 18 courts, developing adjusting equitably corporate inherent industry, plainly refined distinctions necessary allocating nearly equal footing financial capacity ability hazards involved. Among refinements arising conduct those position plaintiff type incurred. approach long discarded FELA. Instead, theory falls short high standard fault, injury, ensues. follows acting owes employee, complying obligations. 19 find difficulty applying latter expressly provides seamen action—and consequently entire workers perfectly allowed discussed, governing clearly should here. 20 remand further proceedings inconsistent opinion. 21 Reversed. 22 Memorandum FRANKFURTER. my practice decade refrain participating substantive writ certiorari, explaining participation today order. 24 After persistent protest granting petitions certiorari review judgments Courts I deemed register conviction unjustifiability noting improvidently granted. See 459, 493. All involved evaluation evidence: evidence what constitutes 'negligence,' i.e., conception adopted, subject qualifications regarding 'causation' withdrawal defenses, remains requisite liability. become take juries aside verdicts, appellate allowable verdicts juries. manifestly ceased after September 6, 1916, 39 Stat. 726, abolished appeals restricted confined scope jurisdiction. 25 am aware cases, least coming Appeals, involve constitutional issue namely, Seventh Amendment. That, suppose, equally every jury, equally, course, claims (in non-FELA rate) except flagrant instances. again again, questions fact—and essentially involve—afford inadmissible conclusive deliberate consideration adjudication concededly ought reviewed demand greater resources thought possessed Court, matter how ably constituted, reasonably afford. Ex parte Republic Peru, 578, 602—603, 793, 836, 1014 (dissenting opinion). 26 different felt abstain merits. involves serious construction nationwide importance. Such important issues final determination reach merits, merits join HARLAN. 27 HARLAN, whom FRANKFURTER, BURTON, WHITTAKER join, dissenting. share existing does lie unfortunate accident depends 41 1007, 688, 35 65, 51—60, thereby reflects explicitly based. 29 exoneration findings attributable particular negligent carrying signal lantern, fumes river, river never danger area. Although traceable CFR 80.16(h), white light minimum water,1 itself rise sole authorizing 102, collisions prevent resulted. holding, seems recognize, accord familiar unless Indeed principle, actionable harm defendant's created, Seavey, Principles Torts, 56 Harv.L.Rev. 72, 90—92 (1942), established ago 1874 leading English Gorris Scott, Ex. 125, followed country exception. Restatement, 286; Prosser, Torts (2d ed. 1955), 34; Lowndes, Civil Created Criminal Legislation, Minn.L.Rev. 361, 372—377 (1932); cf. Eugene Moran, 212 466, 339, 341, 53 600 (under law). 31 neither casts doubt Court's finding tug's lantern disputes collision, nevertheless decides rendered it. follow series 531, 1—16, 913, 22—34, 22—34. properly states, absolute liability—that is, 'without negligence'—for this, concludes extend 32 conclusion cannot share. reading beyond dispute underlying context impressed founded. course faced two distinct problems. show negligence? answer uniformly 'no.' Louis, Iron Mountain S.R. Taylor, 210 281, 616, 1061; 1110; 995; Lunsford, 297 504, 80 740; Lilly Grand Trunk 317 481, 347, 411. suffered character eliminate? Except Louis S.F.R. Conarty, 238 785, 59 1290, stands followed, 931; 284; 1041; Brady Terminal Railroad Ass'n 303 10, 58 426, 82 614. 34 rationale earlier good deal uncertainty finally 1948 1949 railway suffering regulations maintain 1282; O'Donnell Elgin, E.R. 338 384, 70 200, 94 187; Carter Atlanta A.B.R. 430, 226, 236. compensable negligence' carrier, regulatory Acts, effect rise, through medium 'non-negligence' (O'Donnell, 391, 204) action. Referring Carter, supra (338 434, 229): 'Sometimes (of Act) described 'negligence per se' *; term confusing label simply 'Once established, causal relation issue. 'in Act.' (Italics added.) then certainly establish broad 'negligence' applied. divorced fact, invokes lies Its 'incorporates FELA' 'expressly liability—granted FELA.' reads statute, argues, absorbs. 38 So unjustifiably disregards proceed. brief, concentrate rest peculiar hand, other. relationship, recognizing gives private force, see, e.g., 188, 1033, read enforce establish. effort enforcement emphasized manifest foster jobs, partially evidenced statements prefacing originally enacted: 'An promote travelers compelling carriers interstate *' 531; 913; Illinois Central Williams, 242 462, 466 467, 128, 129, 437; pages 190—191, 1034—1035. keeping statement purpose, sections refer civil employers abrogating commonlaw preserving exception fines payable 532, 7, 7. 299, 13, 13. 40 Paralleling provision referring abolishes respect grounded contributed of' employee. quoted included substitutes connon-law comparative bars completely phrase refers Moore Chesapeake Ohio 291 205, 210, 54 402, 404, 755, 188 189, 1033—1034. use juxtaposition confirms treatment express indications strict underlay holdings relies. intimate summed up (241 630), language: 'If (the violated, sense want care immaterial. (T)he FELA) pari materia, (FELA) appliances,' etc., legislative treat act original.) (337 1034), concluded: 'In substantively form amendments (FELA). (They) separate independent They rather supplemental having facilitating noted above, 229, observed 'Congress liability' short, evident past interpretation rested intent, fairly emerge decisions. Despite explanations liability, now asserts consideration.' Indeed, even appear pertinent consideration, similar create seamen, afford additional discerned abundantly face setting, unforeseeable occurrences explosion case.2 confirmed tenor section issued: waters mentioned preceding section) steam vessels passing ferryboats craft types tow deem *.'3 48 Moreover, indicates mate passengers, seamen's generally vessel owner affected statute.4 cross incorporated comparable Sefety unlike situation statutes, look vain supplement available regulation. circumstances, arises me empty one. 49 premise leave workers' underlies holding. shown decision, themselves doctrines deeply ingrained predicated free develop theories content leads goes say ensues Thus foreseeability core treats area virtual insurers Whatever one's adequacy dealing occupational fields, legislated negligence.' Wilkerson McCarthy, 336 69, 413, 421, 497 (concurring Douglas, J.). And, modified always taken embody concepts. 174, 185, 1027—1030), principal relies, said: 51 (§ define determined courts.' 'We recognize imported terms.'5 agree roam devising new bases replace employers. affirm. 80.16(h). 'Scows otherwise paragraph (a) scow, scows massed tiers, abreast, outside outer bow, tier carry, addition, stern. water, placed unbroken around horizon, visible dark atmosphere distance miles.' empowered 'as contained June 1897, codify inland conform practicable revised international preventing sea adopted International Marine Conference October 1889. Cong.Rec. 1394; H.R.Doc. 42, 55th Cong., 1st Sess., p. 1. Harrisburg disapproved Chief Chase Circuit, Sea Gull, Fed.Cas. 910, 12,578a, Reliance continental did. By entertain Halsbury's Laws England 1936), 979. 'Any suffer may, election, modifying extending apply; conferring regulating applicable. (I.e., 51—60.) Jurisdiction district defendant resides office located.' 688. Where occurs marine league shores, Death High Seas 537, 761—768, Presumably claims, accrued prior survive, bring survival right. Holland Steag, Inc., D.C., 143 203; Cox Roth, 348 75 99 260; Just Chambers, 312 383, 668, 687, 85 903. Claims maintenance cure survive Sperbeck A. L. Burbank 190 449. discussion wrongful-death nonseaman warranty seaworthiness, Skovgaard Tungus, 252 14. 1—16. reflied 286, Comment Clause (c), h: 'A ordinance construed protection interest. If so, actor enactment other.' dissenters argue prefaced statement: persuaded depend title whose alleged. Were rely indicia point 157. (Emphasis forbade questionable proscribing feet, well feet. consisted presence attributed opinion, assume, necessarily concluded, factual accident. respondent, Subchapter D CFR, entitled: 'Navigation Requirements Certain Inland Waters.' Section 80.16 bears caption: Lights barges, canal nondescript certain Coast.' Other regulate signals 80.12), fog 80.13), near bends curves 80.5). 80.16(h) states Chapter Title 33, title: Rules Harbors, Rivers, Waters Generally.' sound (33 191, 191), 192, 192), ascertainment 201, 201). 157 codification highest degree prevailing sea. note supra. that: 'Every pilot, engineer, mate, barge boat, neglects refuses observe pursuance text supra) penalty hundred dollars, passenger person baggage neglect refusal: Provided, nothing herein relieve vessel, owner, corporation refusal.' drafted, 158 substantially now, contain 'Provided' clause. 9. House debates concerning raised might passengers exclusively officers vessels, financially irresponsible. 1395. To doubts, amended addition Representative Payne amendment's remain unaffected section. 1465. words, 1897 extent advance broaden afforded personally regulations. applicable facts modify abrogate 54.

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