Document: 435 U.S. 151 98 S.Ct. 988 55 L.Ed.2d 179 Dixy Lee RAY, Governor of Washington, et al., Appellants,v.ATLANTIC RICHFIELD COMPANY and Seatrain Lines, I corporated. No. 76-930. Argued Oct. 31, 1977. Decided March 6, 1978. Syllabus Appellees challenge the constitutionality Washington Tanker Law, which regulates design, size, movement oil tankers in Puget Sound, both enrolled (those engaged domestic or coastwise trade) registered foreign trade). Three operative provisions are involved: (1) a requirement (§ 88.16.180) that at least 50,000 deadweight tons (DWT) carry Washington-licensed pilot while navigating Sound; (2) 88.16.190(2)) from 40,000 to 125,000 DWT satisfy certain design safety standards, else use tug escorts operating (3) ban on operation Sound any tanker exceeding 88.16.190(1)). A three-judge District Court adjudged statute void its entirety, upholding appellees' contentions all Law's were pre-empted by federal law particularly Ports Waterways Safety Act 1972 (PWSA), is designed insure vessel protection navigable waters adjacent shore areas spillage. Title PWSA empowers Secretary Transportation establish, operate, require compliance with "vessel traffic services systems" for ports subject congested control especially hazardous by, among other things, establishing size limitations. Pursuant this Title, Secretary, through his delegate, has promulgated Vessel Traffic System, contains general communication rules, reporting requirements, separation scheme, special ship rules applying Rosario Strait (where under local Coast Guard rule passage more than one 70,000 vessel—in bad weather, DWT—in either direction given time prohibited), requirements. State, though permitted impose higher equipment may do so "for structures only." II, whose goals provide protect marine environment, provides shall issue such regulations as be necessary respect construction, tankers; inspection vessels Secretary's environmental regulations; prohibits carrying specified cargoes absent issuance certificate evidencing regulations. 46 U.S.C. § 364 every seagoing steam navigation laws not sailing register shall, when way, pilots licensed Guard. 215 adds no state government upon obligation procure license addition license, it provision does affect requirements vessels. Held : 1. To extent 88.16.180 requires state-licensed pilots, State precluded §§ 215, imposing own pilotage invalid. The Court's judgment was overly broad, however, invalidating since States free entering leaving their ports. Pp. 158-160. 2. Congress II intended uniform national standards construction would foreclose imposition different stringent scheme aims precisely same ends 88.16.190(2) provision, standing alone, invalid Supremacy Clause. Huron Portland Cement Co. v. Detroit, 362 440, 80 813, 4 852; Kelly 302 1, 58 87, 82 L.Ed. 3, distinguished. 160-168. 3. erred holding alternative conflicting PWSA, yet decided there should requirement. Unless until he issues State's tug-escort scheme. 168-173. 4. exclusion pursuant 88.16.190(1) Clause light actions thereunder, conclusion confirmed legislative history shows single decisionmaker promulgate limitations size. 173-178. 5. violate Commerce This requirement, like type regulation demanding rule, see Cooley Board Wardens, 12 How. 299, 13 996, nor impede flow interstate commerce, charges being large enough interfere production oil. 179-180. 6. Nor Government's attempt achieve international agreement authority conduct affairs. P. 180. Slade Gorton, Atty. Gen., Olympia, Wash., appellants. Richard E. Sherwood, Los Angeles, Cal., appellees. [Amicus Curiae Information pages 153-154 intentionally omitted] Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 86 Stat. 424, 33 1221 seq. (1970 ed., Supp. V), 391a body inland water lying along northwest coast Washington,1 controlled major respects law. also subjects characteristics tankers. 2 case arose ch. 125, 1975 Wash.Laws, 1st Extr. Sess., Wash.Rev.Code 88.16.170 (Supp.1975) (Tanker Law), adopted aim regulating particular Sound. In response constitutional brought appellees herein, held Clause, Art. VI, cl. 2, Constitution, declares "shall supreme Law Land," could coexist totally Atlantic Richfield Evans, C-75-648-M (WD Wash. Sept. 24, 1976). A. 3 Located six refineries having total combined processing capacity 359,500 barrels per day. 1971, appellee (ARCO) began an refinery Cherry Point, situated northern part Since then, crude processed been principally pipeline Canada2 Persian Gulf; will used transport terminus Trans-Alaska Pipeline Valdez, Alaska. Of 105 deliveries Point 1975, 95 means excess (DWT),3 and, prior effective date 15 them DWT. Appellee Inc. (Seatrain), owns charters four exceed operates wholly owned subsidiary corporation shipbuilding facility New York City, where recently constructed constructing tankers, each 225,000 capacity. 5 On day became effective, ARCO suit United Western seeking declaring unconstitutional enjoining enforcement. later intervene plaintiff. Named defendants officials responsible enforcement Law.4 complaint alleged law, thus It imposed undue burden commerce violation I, 8, interfered 28 2281, 2284, court convened determine case. 6 briefed argued before basis detailed stipulation facts. Also brief amicus curiae, contended entirety legislation.5 agreed plaintiffs States, ruling pre-empted, appellants successors enforcing chapter.6 We noted probable jurisdiction appeal, 430 905, 97 1172, 51 580 (1977), meanwhile stayed injunction. 429 1035, 729, 50 747 (1977). 7 cases indicate exercise police power challenged "we start assumption historic powers superseded Federal unless clear manifest purpose Congress." Rice Santa Fe Elevator Corp., 331 218, 230, 67 1146, 1152, 91 1447 (1947); Jones Rath Packing Co., 519, 525, 1305, 1309, 604 Under relevant cases, legitimate inquiries whether explicitly implicitly declared prohibited various aspects oil-tanker operations concerned. As Rice, supra, 1152: 8 "[The congressional] evidenced several ways. pervasive make reasonable inference left room supplement it. Pennsylvania R. Public Service Comm'n, 250 566, 569, 40 36, 37, 63 1142; Cloverleaf Butter Patterson, 315 148, 786, 62 491, 754. Or touch field interest dominant system assumed preclude subject. Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 61 399, 85 581. Likewise, object sought obtained character obligations reveal purpose. Southern Railroad Commission, 236 439, 35 304, 59 661; Charleston & W. C. Varnville 237 597, 715, 1137, Ann.Cas.1916D, 333; Central Winfield, 244 147, 37 546, 1045, L.R.A.1918C, Ann.Cas.1917D, 1139; Napier Line [272 605, 611, 47 207, 209, 71 432], supra." 9 Accord, City Burbank Lockheed Air Terminal, Inc., 411 624, 633, 93 1854, 1859, 36 547 (1973). 10 Even if completely foreclosed legislation area, actually conflicts valid statute. conflict found "where physical impossibility . .," Florida Lime Avocado Growers, Paul, 373 132, 142-143, 83 1210, 1217, 248 (1963), "law stands obstacle accomplishment execution full purposes objectives 67, 404, 581 (1941); 526, 540-541, 1310, 1316-1317. De Canas Bica, 424 351, 363, 96 933, 940, 43 (1976). III 11 With these principles mind, we turn examination three Law. address first (Supp.1975), registered7 take insofar required "enrolled trade" have board, direct 364. agree. Section 64 "every register, Guard."8 "[n]o municipal issued .." goes explain construed "affect established requiring port vessels, duly authorized ." (Emphasis added.) long two statutes read together give Government exclusive regulate they them. See Anderson Pacific S. 225 187, 32 626, 56 1047 (1912); Spraigue Thompson, 118 90, 988, 30 115 (1886). Thus, correctly concluded, now concedes, therefore While below indicated only applied trade, itself null entirety. No excepted scope injunctive relief. just equally Not provide, above, but 101(5) 1221(5) authorizes "require self-propelled trades circumstances otherwise board area involved establishes Accordingly, agree, IV 14 next deal possess following "standard features": "(a) Shaft horsepower ration one-half tons; 16 "(b) Twin screws; 17 "(c) Double bottoms, underneath liquid cargo compartments; 18 "(d) Two radars working order operating, must collision avoidance radar; 19 "(e) Such navigational position location systems prescribed commissioners 20 section proviso, stating "tanker ballast escort tugs aggregate shaft equivalent five percent applicable. design/tug agree hold foregoing tanding regulatory implementation. 21 Titles representing somewhat overlapping waters, resources, focus 1221-1227 ports; II's principal concern construction.9 For present amended Tank 1936, Rev.Stat. 4417a, added, 49 1889. 22 begins life, property, environment harm promulgation "comprehensive minimum alteration, repair, maintenance, operation" bulk, primarily fuel 391a(1). implement twin providing protecting provided Department located10 establish" covered variety related matters. 391a(3). issuing regulations, consider kinds grades consult agencies, identify separately those environment. Ibid. 391a(5) regulations.11 permit endorsed thereon "indicating hereunder, showing transport." lieu accept nations certificates "recognized treaty States." 23 directs inspect tank 391a(6).12 Compliance separate standards,13 consequent privilege appropriate endorsements vessels' inspection. Certificates period revocation comply conditions issued.14 relating may, need not, treaty, convention, reciprocity recognition similar documents. 391a(7)(D). 24 statutory pattern Congress, concerned, entrusted duty determining sufficiently safe allowed proceed States. indicates us particular, it, did anticipate permit, equivalent, nevertheless barred ground constitute hazard. 25 question slightest conform "reasonable, nondiscriminatory conservation measures State. Douglas Seacoast Products, 431 265, 277, 1740, 1748, 52 304 citing Smith Maryland, 71, 269 (1855); Manchester Massachusetts, 139 240, 559, 159 (1891); 852 (1960). Similarly, mere fact inspected o prevent city purposes, smoke abatement But none sustaining application federally licensing procedure substantive addressed achieved regulation. example, made plain "no overlap between ordinance involved. Id., 446, S.Ct., 817. "federal [was] affor[d] perils maritime navigation," "[b]y contrast, sole Detroit elimination air pollution health enhance cleanliness community." 445, 26 (1937), situation. There, concluded Motor Boat Act, although applicable question, limited include "the hull machinery respondents' motor-driven seaworthiness passengers, freight, inflammable cargo. 91. followed imply intent exclude matters touched 27 Here, very situation put aside. insuring environment; deems ends, after considering standards. Furthermore, necessary, inspects certifies tank-vessel cargoes. Refusing judgment, seeks certified acceptable characteristics, dictates navigate prevail over contrary judgment. Enforcement frustrate what seems evident congressional intention establish regime controlling original effect "reasonable set concerning H.R.Rep.No.2962, 74th Cong., 2d (1936); far evincing purpose, amendments strongly anticipated pre-empt efforts mandate requirements.15 29 That Nation speak voice tanker-design supported reveals preference arriving building Senate Report recognizes "has traditionally rather action," "international solutions preferable problem world-wide."16 23. apply ships arrived agreement; but, end, well American thought achievement Act's purposes.17 Although acceding request who exempt II,18 abandon effort proper be. wrote into deferral procedure, outset transmit proposed forums consideration 391a(7)(B). facilitate governing trade become January 1974, consonant agreement. 391a(7)(C). Report, demonstrated "committee's strong adopted, multilaterally possible, event." 28. 31 expressed action expressly considered certification satisfied convention; leaves stricter enacted hope internationally accepted result accord. 88.16.190(2), desire achieving uniform, odds [Title II] U.S., 1152. respect, quite correct.19 V course, concerned mean ignore specifications. Registered already indicated, observe Washington's our view, 88.16.190(2). analysis V). damage structures, areas, resources therein might structure damage, operate traffic,20 so. 1221(1) (2). "control traffic" specifying times movement, speed conditions, restricting considers circumstances. 1221(3). addition, 1221(5); 1221(7); waterfront zones limited, controlled, conditional access nece sary 1221(8). 34 out responsibilities 1224. doing so, directed wide interests authority, possible impact, degree hazards involved, including interference commercial traffic, volume, sizes types usual nature cargoes, factors." 1222(e). 1222(b) nothing "prevent political subdivision thereof prescribing chapter." Exercising Guard, Navigation Regulations, CFR Part 164 (adopted 42 Fed.Reg. 5956 (1977)). importance case, System containing Strait, descriptions geographic coordinates lanes, specification precautionary points.21 161, Subpart B (1976), amended, 29480 There delegated district commanders captains 1221(3) anchoring, mooring, movements vessels; temporarily routing schemes; specify conditions. 160.35 prohibiting time." During periods limitation reduced approximately App. 65. II. akin arising peculiarities call measures, such, measure clearly within reach 1221(3)(iii) (iv) conditions" restrict "particular capabilities merely implemen Title; assuming prevents "higher standards," infra, 174, "which inquiry all. appear taken course. He has, advance notice rulemaking, 41 18770 amend Regulations confined waters.22 says "are guidance industry Captains Port." 18771 forthcoming occurs, way Clause.23 38 substantial difference exempted requirement.24 Given validity privileged, waive characteristics.25 reason, conclude because PWSA. VI 39 cannot arrive remaining here. excludes thereunder. begin premise limitations," 1221(3)(iii), officers behalf. 1222(b), permitting only," impliedly forbids implication House explains wording bill "not absolutely preempts field" "a positive statement retaining making contemplated." 15. Relying history, argue preclusive restricted statute, belies argument, reaches "safety standards" equipment. seem fall squarely category limits couched terms determines hazardous." pertinent point becomes acted insist done Strait: time, "size limitation" record us, appears authorities indeed dealt determined limit purports much one. Because enforced. orce indistinguishable reserves regime. true represents that, matter generally, event, pursuit goals. hand, reality based depth peculiarities, event represent judgments, way.26 44 Our consistent I. exercising agencies "to assure consistency 1222(c), "consider fully affected These themes—consistency thoroughness consideration—reflect substance Committee Reports. good number witnesses testified subcommittee stated points envisioned uniformity throughout areas." 8.27 view Commandant Admiral Bender, pointed operated system, research development carried then utilized around country "with differences APPLIED TO THE PARTICULAR PORTS ibid. added agency developed 45 notes enforcement, stresses careful factors states "is balance considerations hazard, peculiar waterway, factors, economic forth." 34. "anticipated regarding establishment [would] universally, exercised due factors" forth above regard "such combinations horsepower, drafts rivers, width channels, circumstances." 33. statements indicating desired someone overview ramifications act balancing competing interests. final product deliberation across ports, decisionmaker, Against background, think pre-emptive impact understandable expression intent. even without reluctant sustain absolute larger previously recognized failure affirmatively takes approved policy statute," enact Bethlehem Steel Labor Relations Board, 330 767, 774, 1026, 1030, 1234 272 432 (1926). character. carefully authority," 1222(e), necessary. accordance directives vessel-traffic-control narrow supertankers. contained Law.28 VII 48 reject additional challenges satisfying standards.29 contend violates indirect necessitates rule. rejected claim, concluding viewed simply forcing specifications provision. n. 25, supra. So viewed, apparent enacting type. Similar demands 996 (1852). impedes efficient cost 120,000 less cent barrel amount declined provision's 68. claim interferes Again, argument contention overall coerce owners outfitting Were constituted design. insignificant consequences. We, therefore, decline declare reasons urged affirmed reversed part, remanded further proceedings opinion. ordered. MAR HALL, whom BRENNAN REHNQUIST join, concurring dissenting part. 53 here provisions: employ Rev. Code (Supp.1975); features utilize 88.16.190(2); limitation, barring 88.16.190(1). 54 valid, delegate promulgates decides, consideration, join Parts III, V, current posture speculate, does, tankers—including chartered appellees—have employed attempting relative expense compliance, moreover, makes extremely unlikely, foreseeable future, redesigned meet law's requirements.1 Indeed, concludes "may provision." Ante, 179; ante, 173 conclusion, relies Transportation's waters,2 once decided, appropriate. force "merely Title." 171. notes, "[t]he [is] limitations." 174. 57 reached embodied well-established principles, displaced " 'only of' law; whenever "reconcile 'the schemes another [the scheme] ousted.' Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner Smith, Ware, 414 117, 127, 94 383, 390, 348 (1973), quoting Silver Stock Exchange, 341, 357, 361, 1246, 1257-1259, 389 (1963); accord, 357-358, 5, 937, Viewed support finding Guard's unwritten "local rule," evidence cited show authorities. 174-175. record, said reflect determination inappropriate unnecessary. First, indication promulgating entire Sound.3 Second, resulted evinces express existence weighed whether, extent, imposed.4 Law.5 Thus unrebutted built upon, entirely with, framework created restrictions. Perhaps tenuousness suggests 175. theorizes "represents DWT." (emphasis added). clear, reaction problems general, instead tailored respond unique conditions—in unusual susceptibility spills associated Sound.6 pre-emption II.7 60 reasons, vary port, access—like harbor river regulation—is certainly appropriate, perhaps absence determinative action. See, e. g., 319, (1852); Packet Catlettsburg, 562-563, 1169 (1882). irrational ineffective promoting protection,8 shown imposes commerce.9 Consequently, excessive relation putative benefits." Pike Bruce Church, 397 137, 142, 90 844, 847, 174 (1970). find arguments persuasive. STEVENS, POWELL joins, high seas, reinforced "dictates judgment." 165. opinion, Legislature safely possesses features" Code.1 holds, follows, believe, restrictions criteria. holds inconsistently allows costly others. terms, features.2 Quite contrary, proviso 88.16.190(2)—the prescribes requirements; prohibit penalty 65 If vindicated, magnitude penalize noncompliance consequence. $277,500 year. significance comparison capital investment complying Rather, initial multiplication States.3 Moreover, multiplied, restriction impairs construction.4 66 am persuaded inseparable appendage invalidity necessarily infects other. respectfully dissent opinion.5 estuary consisting 2,500 square miles inlets, bays, channels northwestern Washington. More 200 islands located numerous marshes, tidal flats, wetlands, beaches 2,000 shoreline. Sound's shorelines recreational, scientific, educational opportunities, uses, citizens connected Ocean Juan de Fuca, constantly navigated recreational resource great value informed during oral Attorney General Canada longer service. Tr. Oral Arg. term "deadweight tons" defined cargo-carrying vessel, oils, stores, potable (2,240 pounds ton). Four groups—Coalition Oil Pollution, National Wildlife Federation, Sierra Club, Environmental Defense Fund, Inc.—and prosecuting attorney King County, intervened defendants. modified views contends them, asserting sovereign immunity Eleventh Amendment. They Ex parte Young, 209 123, 441, 714 (1908), Amendment bar against official obtaining injunction unconstitutional, overrule decision application. repeated here, Enrolled "engaged coastwide fishing," whereas countries. 272-273, 1745, Included definition "[a]ll regardless tonnage manner propulsion, freight passengers hire bulk is—(A) combustible, (B) oil, kind form, (C) designated polluting 391a(2) compares "providing safer surface highways controls automobiles," likened automobiles transit highways." S.Rep. 92-724, pp. 9-10 (1972) (Senate Report), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1972, 2766, 2769. Transportation. references "Secretary" Department. 30-40 31.05-1 endorsement approval carriage specified. serve operate." C.F.R. 1.46(n)(4) trade. 157 initially 1973 supplemented new going beyond convention. 54177 extended foreign-flag rulemaking proceeding looks toward still 24868 391a(7)(A) provides: "Such improve maneuvering stopping ability reduce possibility collision, grounding, accident, normal ballasting deballasting, handling, activities." adequately trained personnel charge certify "tankermen" holder is, qualified handle aboard safety. 391a(9) observed attention. course particul r comprehensive code" "it deemed class alone can provide. designs prescribe operation, properly diverse designs, sort, Oregon another, California on." 14-15, 94. unto unenforceable. Elsewhere stated: "The committee concurs multilateral maintenance unilateral standards." eliminating "ineffective, possibly self-defeating," 85% registry. 22. competitive disadvantage ships. Transportation, nations, about authorization unconvinced speaks "minimum prescribed. sustained claims pre-emption, rely solely reference furnished litmus-paper test resolving pre-emption. "militate[d] displacement [the] regulations." 1220. claimed drafted administered organizations "designed promote orderly competition South [avocado] growers." 151, 1222. Here level, privileged waters. From 1950 enacted, program delegation President Magnuson 191. President's country's security endangered. H.R.Rep.No.92-563, p. (1971) (House Report). broaden states: enactment H.R.8140 important dual bolster capability serious confront today. remedy long-standing program." Local published manual explanatory materials. 155. amending 33, assistance potential collisions, rammings, groundings developing rules: displacement, availability multiple screws bow thrusters, controllability, cargo, actual predicted adverse weather 18771. delegates provisions. submit letters carriers liquefied petroleum gas occasion vessel. us; accepting say settled required. placed agenda, seemingly definitive action, referred text. fact, trial escort, afloat had 66. assertion exert pressure hence method ARCO's estimated 277,500 negligible amount, fraction Office Technology Assessment double bottom screws, features, add roughly $8.8 million 150,000 tanker. contention, doubtful operators "stan[d] (1941). inconsistent currently implemented. feet, 65, according International Conference Marine Pollution accommodate 80. hearings House, Representative Keith noting Delaware "[w]e want resort individual adversely interest." Hearings H.R.867, H.R.3635, Subcommittee Geodetic Survey, Merchant Fisheries, 92d (1971). responded "believe[s] approach giant resolved basis." representative Club suggested advisability limiting 2074 Commerce, 78 suggestion, Senator Inouye questioned increase Nation's witness acknowledged "some controversy company people most smaller fewer bigger ships." 81. facts, 84, "Experts differ faith dispute poses increased risk spillage compared Sound." appellants' cite, i. e., Water Control Amendments 816, 1251 V); Coastal Zone Management 1280, 1451 (1976 ed.); Deepwater Port 88 2126, 1501 contemplate cooperative state-federal efforts, intent, contrast concerns compelling decisionmaking. curiae urge 1985, 1101 ed. thereunder Maritime Administration implementation develop adequate well-balanced merchant fleet. subsidized, suggestions subsidies offered some grounds, legal questions, complete warrant resolution remand According Neither plans modify "because retrofit economically feasible market conditions." 67. majority convincingly demonstrates, 173, likely induce incorporate "In to, destruction loss bridge, Uni ed land immediately waters; harms resulting destruction, loss, department may— * "(3) hazardous, visibility, congestion, by— "(iii) written regulation, how came existence. facts: time. contain necessity apparently never process. 21228 (1973) (notice rulemaking); 25430 (1974 (summary comments received rulemaking). part: for, of, hereunder consider— "(6) existing systems, services, "(7) practices customs 1222(e) facts established. entered, gone purpose: "Because danger spills, legislature finds transportation refined products creates hazard natural jobs incomes dependent resources. relatively salt irregular greater likelihood long-term spill. space many obstacles density pleasure boat traffic." (Supp.1975). compounded fog, currents, wind vehicle traffic. 69. Among "areas [with] tanker," Legislature, undoubtedly Strait. mile narrowest point, Exh. G, portions shipping route feet. (A 190,000-DWT draft 120,000-DWT 80.) "[t]here argument" 1936. lacking factual basis. subsidized program, almost two-thirds DWT, 60; remainder, smallest feet—too pass osario dock (Atlantic Richfield's dockside feet; sufficient 47-48, 80). proposition enrollment engage 276, 280-281, 1747, 1749-1750 (1977); Gibbons Ogden, Wheat. 212-214, (1824), assert licensed, registered, registration, enrollment, laws, 221, 251, 263. registration carries privileges licensing, ignores relied appellees: Notwithstanding conferred "States licensees reasonable, power." 1747; see, (1960); (1855). measure, evenhandedly residents nonresidents quoted Court, 176 27, good-faith undercut presumption rational manner. Brotherhood Locomotive Firemen Enginemen Chicago, 393 129, 138-139, 89 323, 327-328, 289 (1968). Exclusion reduction refineries. increases Alaska, $.02 $.04 barrel, id., 64; re ord data Gulf-Cherry route. Finally, concrete significant disruption operations, decrease own, Rev.Code reads follows: "(2) An tanker, forty hundred twenty-five thousand enumerated subsection standard features: commissioners: "PROVIDED, That, ton apply: PROVIDED further, equivalencies utilities commission chapter 34.04 RCW: [this Act]." characterize "general rule." States' remote. Alaska payment "risk charge" Stat.Ann. 30.20.010 (Sept. 1977), comparable legislation. Brief al. Amici Curiae, small enforce determinations "obstacle" attainment Congress' objective adopt condition "impos[ing] burdens contemplated 358 938, 43. short lived, despite today's contemplating concedes 172. lessens threat imminence

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