Document: 460 U.S. 780 103 S.Ct. 1564 75 L.Ed.2d 547 John B. ANDERSON, et al., Petitioners,v.Anthony J. CELEBREZZE, Jr., Secretary of State Ohio. No. 81-1635. Argued Dec. 6, 1982. Decided April 19, 1983. Syllabus An Ohio statute requires an independent candidate for President to file a statement candidacy and nominating petition in March order appear on the general election ballot November. On 24, 1980, petitioner Anderson announced that he was President. Thereafter, May 16, his supporters tendered candidacy, satisfying substantive requirements eligibility, respondent State. Respondent refused accept documents because they had not been filed within time required by statute. voters then action Federal District Court, challenging constitutionality The Court granted summary judgment petitioners ordered place Anderson's name ballot, holding statutory deadline unconstitutional under First Fourteenth Amendments. Appeals reversed, early served State's interest voter education giving longer opportunity see how Presidential candidates withstand close scrutiny political campaign. Held: Ohio's filing places burden voting associational rights supporters. Pp. 786-806. (a) In resolving constitutional challenges laws, court must first consider character magnitude asserted injury protected Amendments plaintiff seeks vindicate. It identify evaluate interests justify imposed its rule. passing judgment, only determine legitimacy strength each these interests, it also extent which those make necessary plaintiff's rights. Only after weighing all factors is position decide whether challenged provision unconstitutional. 1568-1570. (b) burdens candidates, significant state-imposed restriction nationwide electoral process. A falls unequally or new small parties impinges, very nature, choices Amendment, discriminates against whose preferences lie outside existing parties. And context election, restrictions implicate uniquely important national interest, Vice are elected officials who represent Nation, impact votes cast affects other States. 790-795. (c) None three further justifies deadline. As education, unrealistic modern world suggest takes more than seven months inform electorate about qualifications particular simply lacks partisan label. Moreover, self-evident at equal treatment achieved imposing both, since, although participating primary declare same date as independent, both benefits respective materially different, reasons inapplicable election. stability amounts desire protect from competition generated have previously affiliated with party, conflicts Amendment values. does serve any state "in maintaining integrity various routes ballot" Presidency, preference narrow field Storer v. Brown, 415 724, 94 1274, 39 714, distinguished. drawn "intraparty feuding" may actually impair preserving party harmony. 796-806. 664 F.2d 554, reversed. George T. Frampton, Washington, D.C., petitioners. Joel S. Taylor, Columbus, Ohio, respondent. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. 1 office United supporters—by gathering signatures registered voters, documents, submitting fees—were able meet having placed November 1980 50 States Columbia. however, already too late qualify certain states deadlines passed. question presented this case 2 facts dispute. containing approximately 14,500 Celebrezze, These would entitled if before 20, 1980. solely § 3513.257 Revised Code.1 Three days later two one New Jersey, commenced Southern candidates. petitioners' motion ballot. 499 F.Supp. 121 (SD 1980). 3 held grounds. impermissible diluted potential value might be him requiring without mandating comparable nominee violated Equal Protection Clause Amendment. noted did advance administrative rejected justification promoted "political stability." Not diminished importance campaign; adequately vindicated another prohibiting defeated running independent.2 4 promptly appealed unsuccessfully requested expedited review but apparently seek stay Court's order.3 while appeal pending. received 254,472 votes, 5.9 percent cast; nationally, 5,720,060 6.6 total.4 5 inferred affirmances Sweetenham Rhodes, 318 1262 1970), summarily aff'd, 409 942, 93 282, 34 214 (1972), Pratt Begley, 352 328 (ED Ky.1970), 943, implicitly sustained validity deadlines. Then, correctly recognizing limited precedential effect accorded dispositions,5 independently reached conclusion. "ensures making choice their next president careful look chance campaign." 563 (CA6 1981). 6 litigation brought Maine Maryland, Courts Fourth Circuits affirmed judgments ordering See Quinn, 495 730 (Me.1980), affirmance order, 634 616 (CA1 1980); Morris, 500 1095 (Md.1980), 636 55 (CA4 1980).6 conflict among law led us grant certiorari. --- ----, 102 2035, 72 483 (1982). We now reverse. 7 * After toward end March, even intervening events create unanticipated opportunities, no enter race Thus direct upon aspirants office. Nevertheless, we recognized, "the do lend themselves neat separation; laws affect always least some theoretical, correlative voters." Bullock Carter, 405 134, 143, 92 849, 856, 31 (1972). Our concern tendency access "to limit choose." Therefore, "[i]n approaching restrictions, essential examine realistic light nature Ibid. 8 eligibility implicates basic rights.7 Writing unanimous NAACP Alabama, 357 449, 460, 78 1163, 1170, 1488 (1958), Harlan stated "is beyond debate freedom engage association advancement beliefs ideas inseparable aspect 'liberty' assured Due Process embraces speech." our scheme, Williams 393 23, 30-31, 89 5, 10, 21 24 (1968), explained interwoven strands "liberty" affected restrictions: 9 "In present situation overlapping, kinds rights—the right individuals associate beliefs, qualified regardless persuasion, effectively. Both rights, course, rank most precious freedoms." 10 repeatedly can assert through both. "It expected hopes find comes near reflecting policy contemporary issues." Lubin Panish, 709, 716, 1315, 1320, 702 (1974). vote "heavily burdened" major-party when "clamoring ballot." Ibid.; supra, U.S., 31, S.Ct., 10. exclusion voters' association, campaign effective platform expression views issues day, serves rallying-point like-minded citizens.8 11 Although fundamental, candidates' impose constitutionally-suspect choose recognized that, "as practical matter, there substantial regulation elections fair honest sort rather chaos, accompany democratic processes." 730, 1279, 714 To achieve objectives, enacted comprehensive sometimes complex codes. Each schemes, governs registration selection process itself, inevitably affects—at degree—the individual's others ends. state's regulatory generally sufficient reasonable, nondiscriminatory restrictions.9 12 Constitutional specific provisions therefore cannot resolved "litmus-paper test" will separate valid invalid restrictions. Storer, 1279. Instead, resolve such challenge analytical parallels work ordinary litigation. precise put forward justifications interests; reviewing 10; 142-143, 855; American Party Texas White, 767, 780-781, 1296, 1305-1306, 744 (1974); Illinois Elections Bd. Socialist Workers Party, 440 173, 183, 99 983, 989, 59 230 (1979). results evaluation automatic; "no substitute hard made." 1279.10 II 13 independent-minded voters. campaigns, particularly scope, remain static over time. Various rise fall popularity; domestic international developments bring center stage assessments problems. Such certainly strategies entered race; opportunities candidacies. A. Bickel, Reform Continuity 87-89 (1971). Yet prevents persons wish entering arena established creating coalitions voters—at mid-to-late March.11 At point campaigns nominations begun, major adopt nominees platforms five months. Candidates thus advantage continued flexibility; independents, inflexibility disadvantage competitive 14 If were year, newly-emergent could focal grouping decide, mid-March, dissatisfied 33, 11, "Since principal policies change year since identity likely known until shortly disaffected 'group' rarely ever cohesive identifiable group few election."12 Indeed, several third-party candidacies history launched staked out positions selected conventions during summer.13 But 3513.257, late-emerging parties, command widespread community support, excluded "Ohio system denies 'disaffected' leadership well." 11. 15 totally exclude makes decision run signature-gathering efforts independents When far future itself remote, obstacles facing candidate's organizing compounded. Volunteers difficult recruit retain, media publicity contributions secure, less interested campaign.14 16 clear, then, segment p. 791, supra. cases held, especially limits participation members share viewpoint, preference, economic status.15 "Our . focus degree operate mechanism classes inquiry unfairly unnecessarily 'the availability opportunity.' " Clements Fashing, 457 2836, 2844, 73 508 (1982) (plurality opinion), quoting 1320.16 17 and—of importance—against 2844 opinion). By limiting enhance effectiveness group, threaten reduce diversity marketplace ideas. Historically figures fertile sources programs; many status quo made way into mainstream. 186, 991; Sweezy Hampshire, 345 234, 250-251, 77 1203, 1211-1212, 1311 (1957) (opinion Warren, C.J.).17 short, values Amendment—"a profound commitment principle public should uninhibited, robust, wide-open," York Times Co. Sullivan, 376 254, 270, 84 710, 720, 686 (1964)—are monopolized 18 Furthermore, restrictions18 interest. For Nation. States.19 enforcement stringent requirements, including deadlines, has own borders.20 Similarly, regulating statewide local elections, outcome former largely determined boundaries. This striking down unduly restricting party's convention, observed pervasive office, greater individual State." Cousins Wigoda, 419 477, 490, 95 541, 549, 42 595 (1975). III 19 identifies candidates: stability. them. Voter Education 20 There fostering informed educated expressions popular identified concerns motivated Framers' provide President.21 persuaded, legitimate issue case. passage Convention 1787 changes relevant reasonableness requirement formally First, took often weeks rudimentary information transmitted part country 1787,22 today trivial details instantaneously communicated verbal visual form. Second, literacy universal 18th-century America,23 vast majority literate day-to-day basis ever-changing popularity somewhat 22 reflect faith ability issues. Dunn Blumstein, 330, 995, 274 considered Tennessee residence county prerequisite vote. unconstitutional, specifically rejecting argument justified education. 23 "Given communications, given clear indication spending occur month seriously maintain 'necessary' reside knowledgeable congressional, state, purely elections." Id., 358, 1011 (footnotes omitted). reasoning applies force receives intense publicity.24 Nor persuaded assertion unless files formal declaration deadline, realize pay attention candidacy. Brief 38. undermined willingness never campaigned 25 means eligible Had enforced well futile allocate money campaigning thereby denied whatever debates contributed understanding claim enhancing citizenry wise decisions flow them viewed skepticism. context, true "that best open channels communication them." Virginia Pharmacy Board Consumer Council, 425 748, 770, 96 1817, 1829, 48 346 (1976).25 Treatment 26 merit treating alike. 33. independent. 27 consequences failing entirely different participants independents. Democratic Republican passed, waits long.26 Thus, include preceding calculus produces platforms, independent's based ends March.27 28 concerns. Seventy-five appears reasonable processing submitted preparing F.Supp., 134. set sufficiently election; furthermore, precede regularly summer. Finally, successful participant acquires automatic support experienced organization; contest obtains convention delegates. 29 Neither nor benefit applicable candidate. allow counted verified permit ballots printed.28 addition, correspond participate structured intraparty receive organizational support; develop means. "equal treatment" written, "[s]ometimes grossest discrimination things though exactly alike." Jenness Fortson, 403 431, 442, 91 1970, 1976, 554 30 discuss stability, advanced again brief explains protecting "damaging feuding." 41. According State, abandon win "can damaging structure." argues, threatened "splinter" "by drawing away activists 'independent' 37; id., 44. workers, resources—generated party.29 guided prior cases, 32 Rhodes squarely external virtual arena. Addressing "may validly promote two-party encourage compromise stability," wrote: 33 "The fact is, merely favor 'two-party system'; favors Republicans Democrats—and tends give complete monopoly. reason why retain permanent monopoly people Competition governmental core freedoms. struggling organize position, just old past." 31-32, 10-11. concluded outweighed 35 hand, Brown upheld California restricted Under law, person year's "California believes Founding Fathers splintered unrestrained factionalism damage fabric government," destruction State" "profound entire citizenry." 736, 1282. Further, approved goals discouraging "independent prompted short-range goals, pique, personal quarrel." 735, 1281. 36 preventing "splintered factionalism." invoke powers assure monolithic control supporters.30 Political draws resources cannot, alone, condemned "unrestrained examined California's system. once disaffiliation conclusive winnowing performed "a aimed pointed "involves independents." 733, 1280. 37 substantially Storer. noted, discriminate neither "sore loser" statute.31 recognize avoiding fragmentation wholly boundaries California.32 nearly strong; singlehandedly stability" context. "maintaining loses primary, nonetheless nominee. scope delegates assures continue August. 38 More generally, precisely feuding," goal designed keep structure, coverage broad narrow. applied competed primaries sought broadly recent past party. long prohibit formerly currently States—regardless structure. Professor Bickel perceptively observed: 40 characteristic third consists tried exert influence failed, outside. qualifying tend groups minor attempting course taken one. dissident foregoing prenomination activity separately losing later." 87-88. 41 analysis, "dissident group" coalesces around form conclude 43 "For pursuing restrict constitutionally liberty. 343 [92 1003]. 'Precision touchstone area so closely touching freedoms.' Button, [371 415, 438, 83 328, 340, (1963).] drastic legislative scheme stifles exercise fundamental liberties." Kusper Pontikes, 414 51, 59, 303, 308, 260 (1973). IV 44 began noting Anderson, rather, chose together express espoused. appraisal, "extent nature" importance, unquestionably outweigh minimal 45 Reversed. 46 REHNQUIST, whom WHITE, POWELL, O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 47 Article Constitution provides "[e]ach shall appoint, Manner Legislature thereof direct, Number Electors" select Const., art. II, 1, cl. 2. provision, grants plenary power States, conveys broadest determination" "[i]t recognizes [in President] act representatives legislature, leaves legislature exclusively define method effecting object." McPherson Blacker, 146 27, 3, 7, L.Ed. 869 (1892) (emphasis added). exercising power, provided alternative capture votes. earn ways. Parties obtained 5% gubernatorial automatically Other 120 (in February 4) intent petitions 1% last 28,000 required). Rev.Code 3517.01. 49 offers Should nomination capturing delegate bearing 1,000 party; 75th day Tuesday Monday June 20). 3513.05. Of earned chosen seeking forgo and, still chooses nonparty candidate, file, 5,000 3513.257. Since obviously available Today holds hopeful Certainly, absent injunction injured requirements; comply ballot.1 require rational interfere power. I believe criteria, dissent. 51 conclusion voters," ante, 790, "[i]f Ante, 791. says: "Not deadline." 792. intimates "monopolized parties." 794. While findings finding supporters, conclusions unsupported record 52 claim, offered evidence show, impeded "signature-gathering efforts." That alone enough prevent impact. upset hypothetical unreal possibilities, good are." Pullman Knott, 235 26, 2, 105 (1914). What contain leads contrary shows 791-792, n. 12. found number unusual 565 (1981). kind (1974), where said: "Past experience helpful, unerring, guide: thing regularity quite matter not." 742, 1285. obvious "past experience" "reasonably diligent candidate" choosing take route little difficulty obtaining timely fashion. 1285.2 53 intimation infringes similarly record.3 emerge, Just certainly, Presidency 8, 1979—over nine reveal existence decided become fact, above, trouble 54 nothing indicate "independent-minded voters" prevented rallying behind guaranty "major parties" Like-minded want liberty obtain flexibility acts foresight electorate, presents requirements. us, easily summarized: President, take. He himself Or, chances securing convention. latter fashion Primary. realizing nomination, change. Quite clearly, shots year. 56 "denying franchise citizens," faced Kramer Union School District, 395 621, 626, 1886, 1889, 583 (1969), Cipriano City Houma, 701, 1897, 647 (1969) (Per Curiam), Evans Cornman, 398 419, 90 1752, 370 (1970), Phoenix Kolodziejski, 399 204, 1990, 523 Likewise, "virtually impossible" new-party addressed 25, deciding case, guidance 57 affiliating prospective eight earlier requires. upholding, face challenge, lost "expressive ballot," 1280, statutes furthered interest," described "compelling," system." holding, saying: 58 contending forces employ finally settle differences. reserved struggles; forum continuing feuds. effectuates aim, visible result being losers struggle names won properly qualified. people, hoped, understandable winner govern [The statute] carries similar credentials. protects refusing plans leave works quarrel. barrier fielding bleed off go 60 need has, government. Federalist, (Madison). one-year furthers permissible, compelling outweighing status. [T]he ineffectual aims. otherwise sacrifice citizenry, instantaneous 735-736, 1281-1282 61 similarities between obvious. 62 Refusing up creates tries distinguish it, saying "did supporters." 803. asserts like 'two parties—the monopoly.' 802 (quoting 32, 11). ("In arena." Buckley Valeo, 424 612, 659 (1976) Curiam)). "Ohio's says "amounts competition." 801. impossible," secure decisions. made, additional burdensome. shown otherwise. bolting behavior attempts 'intraparty feuding' August." 804.4 Essentially battles primaries; period disaffiliated 63 notes "Storer California. strong." 804 (footnote characterization incorrect. things, appointment Electoral College. throughout fails come grips fact. lesser ultimately College, supported electors strong electing representatives. short term speak behalf represent, role casting second none importance. Burroughs 290 534, 545, 287, 290, 484 (1934). 64 suggests controlling discriminatory prohibited so. later, wishing date. incidentally winning candidate; nomination. whole, chore getting candidates; unsuccessful rivals doubtless aware. Nonparty submit petitions, ballot; 65 final attempt argues serving "both narrow;" 805. claims party." Ante,. Its "does 'to one.' 87-88 (1971)). criticisms 66 misses "narrowly tailored" standard pass muster. said court's job ensure freezes quo, fluidity life." 439, 1974, freeze "tied particularized purpose, [are] sense invidious arbitrary." Rosario Rockefeller, 410 752, 762, 1245, 1252, Marston Lewis, 679, 1211, 627 (1973) Curiam); Burns 686, 1209, 633 Mandel Bradley, 432 97 2238, 199 (1977) avoid rules forth "applicable primaries" "this involves 802, 29. fallacy apparent: Brown: warm-up integral process, initial two-stage officers. functions winnow reject candidates." 1281 67 meets test above. "stability system," 1282, "free [a nonparty] serious contender, truly satisfactory level support." 746, 1286. early, switching discovers favorite laws. 68 maintains gives better dispute finds case." 796. Admitting 1787, establishing College providing authority heightened awareness tells times changed 200 years problem ensuring great. 797. 69 agree suggestion reflects lack "faith" wants much possible gather seem lead improper wanting decision. Besides, explain allowed task; aware atypical. reliance quote 1011, occurs "largely election" campaigns. whatsoever "[t]his election." 798. 70 republic sovereign, essential, identities shape follow nation." 14-15, 632. vested executive nation. vital relationship welfare safety whole strongly stated." 290. aptly 71 "To sure, impediments existed removed extensive communications network, news virtually simultaneously announcement. However, rapid Equally crucial meaningful electorate's fill post. reasonably eye advances selection." F.2d, 564.5 assisting citizens apportioning Presidency. supply needed operating limited; commodities, volunteers. doing Spring, begin intensify, allows voting, adequate divide support. terms seems say "undermined Ohio." warning '[s]ometimes alike.' 801 408 1976). Underlying idea candidates" treated differently fielded observation productive comparing apples oranges wondering difference 74 all, major, minor, otherwise, approach fairly have, hope existence, representing philosophies. philosophy (1975); LaFollette, 450 107, 101 1010, 82 procedure followers See, e.g., 1575, 27. wash. Any numbers, free selecting views. representative; organized real absence Comparing useful, result. pursue preliminary procedures nominee, incidentally.6 benefited, counterbalanced risk all. Many get it. 76 protection completely story. "newly-emergent created dramatic saw impending rejection throw wanted bolt try. candidate—an decides seeing turn ashes, try route. line; presume wait refight forming "independent" affirm Appeals. Section provides, pertinent part: "Each desiring nominated except joint offices governor lieutenant governor, four p.m. seventy-fifth immediately voted section 3513.261 [3513.26.1] Code. ." Ann. (Supp.1982). Code sets 3501.01(E), fell 229 3513.257(A) primaries, signed 15,000 primaries. withdrawal avoided application statute, 3513.04 (Supp.1982), disqualifies ran 121, 135, 140 556 appeal, writ certiorari expedite consideration petition. 448 914, 918, 34, 41, 1177, 1181 (1980). Even over, moot. 737, Election Statistics 152 (1980); America Votes 14, Handbook Contemporary 19-20 Gilligan Begley slender reed" rest 560. extends necessarily actions." disposition affirms below, read sustain judgment. 182-183, (1979); 176, 2240, (1977); Fusari Steinberg, 379, 391-392, 533, 540-541, 521 (1975) (BURGER, C.J., concurring). involved Juris. Statement O.T.1970, 70-48, (independent House Representatives); 70-15, Governor Representatives). arose refusal injunctive relief placing appellants relied appellants' failure steps indeed tender suit. 30. Pratt, dismissed complaint declaratory relief, concluding equitable ground half primary. 329 Ky.1970). acknowledged, remand Plaintiff, Senator Maryland code numerical signature requirement. standing alone. improperly strike restriction, failed undertake examination merits. remanded factual findings. 177-178, 2241. remand, plaintiff. Bradley Mandel, 449 986-989 (Md.1978). prevailed grounds Hooper, 498 898, 905 (NM 1980), state-law Mills, 497 283 Ky.1980), rev'd grounds, 600 base directly analysis. rely, analysis resting applying "fundamental rights" strand implicated interests. (1968); (1972); ("the kept votes"); (Harlan, J., concurring result) ("by denying selected, eliminated incentive conducting activities, depriving substance, form, rights"); 991 ("an disseminating attaining Overbroad jeopardize expression.") generally-applicable evenhanded reliability itself. undoubted showing wasteful confusing encumber frivolous (1971); cf. 738-746, 1283-1286; supra (remand assess candidates). distortion device "party raiding," blocks manipulate (1973); 59-61, 308-309, unrelated (incumbent Peace legislature; specified deemed resign elective office). 1305-1306; 188-189, 992 (BLACKMUN, concurring); Mississippi University Women Hogan, 3331, 3336, 1090 written: "Never evident 1968 unforeseen occurrences portion fundamentally expectations. reasons, cutoff sometime, capricious (within parties) upheaval Johnson's 1968, mention event assassination Robert F. Kennedy 1968." 88 requisite contrast, inclusion 3505.10 Their Five 143-144. negate candidates—Gus Hall Communist Richard Congress Deirdre Griswold World Ed Clark Libertarian Barry Commoner Citizen's Party—represented ideologically-committed proceed "minor party" corresponded But, unlike Anderson's, unlikely satisfy leanings crystallized Cf. Developments Law Elections, Harv.L.Rev. 1111, 1143 130 ("From standpoint differ ties obligations organizations, total allegiance renunciation affiliation"). distinguishes preclude supporting ineligible App. Civil Liberties Amicus Curiae 10a-12a; 87. 986-987 (findings 3-judge Court). 144, disparity high fees "cannot reference discrete defined segments typical inequities Clause." undetermined 149, 858. "obvious likelihood limitation heavily affluent community, favorites unable large costs 856. L. Tribe, 774-775 (1978). Tribe explains, remains "adequately perspective excluded." 774 courts "have carefully appraised fairness openness 774. Law—Elections, 12, 1218, 5. represented legislatures, ignored decisionmaking warrant judicial scrutiny. 1136 87; Carolene Products Co., 304 4, 778, 783 1234 (1938); Ely, Democracy Distrust: Theory Judicial Review 73-88 V.O. Key, Politics, Parties, Pressure Groups 278-303 (3d ed. 1952). observed, "Again again, flank, followed middle. time, middle moved, occupy reconnoitered [A]s outlet frustration, creative conscience, ideological speeding abyss mindlessness, technique strengthening group's bargaining future, invented enough." 79-80. expressly regulate electors. U.S.Const., Art. 1; 35, (1892). emphasized, "we notion vote, provisions." 29, 9. case: Eisenstat amass elect Anderson. removes sixth largest slate reach reduces pool compete electors." 126. two-thirds Columbia, August September. July. barred States; succeeded orders placement five. pp. 784 786, debated extensively alternatives large. impossible guarantee executive. disfavored, ignorance populace job." 563-564. 43-44, 16-17 ("The [Electoral] nation continental dimensions thought large.") Beveridge, Life Marshall 250-287 (1916). K. Lockridge, Literacy Colonial England 1-43, 72-87 Soltow & E. Stevens, Rise Common States: Socioeconomic Analysis 1870, 28-57 Oregon Mitchell, 400 112, 260, 272 (1970) (upholding Act forbidding disqualifying residency requirements). Appeals' promotes assuring apprised options." 564-565. assumes politics, contains cure Unknown numbers key every identification electorate. true, permits "write-in" printed suggested write-in procedure, 18600 seq., fee filing-fee realities 'access' via [A candidate] relegated forced remember affirmative step writing 719 1321 Statistics, 152. significance decision, conducted summer possessed personally. "By contrast," reasoned, apart nominee." 567. err ignoring rationale "equality" conceded unprocessed 15, transmits boards verify July 15. certify August, conventions. stipulated facts, perform tasks. 133-134, 142. Stability confused 9, rule signing "policy confining single act—either petition." 743, 1285; 785-786, 1308. drafting doubt handiwork typically dominant characterized when, definition, yet admittedly "it R.C. mere happenstance, discernible design." 135. Tyner, Vice-Presidential complied provision. 738, 1283. Frommhagen, wished Representatives. suggests, relevance 799 26. Until relevant. 736 1282 out, speculate meeting discretion setting "We note states' uniformity, compressing states. greatly increase presently devote scarce time." realistically speaking, Spring judicially notice numerous thrown hats ring. proof point, cites Martin Van Buren 1848, James Weaver 1892, Theodore Roosevelt 1912, LaFollette 1924. 792, 13. response arise today. most, men actual split responsible going avoid. comfort 31. same. approach, pulls counted, events. contrary, ducked putting legislature's federal government television networks Recently, CBS, Inc. FCC, 453 367, 2813, 706 (1981), Communications December, 1979, nevertheless exposes weakness correct, correct. ignores learn listening what say. Reality chosen, know great deal knowledge correct vary according chosen. proves prove evaluating representative require, furtherance

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