Document: 481 U.S. 787 107 S.Ct. 2124 95 L.Ed.2d 740 Gerald J. YOUNG, George Cariste, Sol N. Klayminc and Nathan Helfand, Petitionersv.UNITED STATES ex rel. VUITTON ET FILS S.A., et al. Barry Dean KLAYMINC, Petitioner v. UNITED Louis Vuitton Nos. 85-1329, 85-6207. Argued Jan. 13, 1987. Decided May 26, Syllabus In an agreement settling a suit in which they had been named as defendants, two of the petitioners consented to entry permanent injunction prohibiting them from infringing trademark respondent leather goods manufacturer (hereinafter respondent). Subsequently, upon submission affidavit by respondent's attorneys, District Court found probable cause believe that were engaged conduct violative injunction. The court therefore granted request attorneys for appointment special counsel represent Government investigation prosecution criminal contempt action against petitioners. Ultimately, jury convicted either or aiding abetting contempt. Appeals affirmed, rejecting petitioners' contention violated their right be prosecuted impartial prosecutor. stated, inter alia, judge's supervision is generally sufficient prevent danger prosecutor will use threat bargaining chip civil negotiations. Held: judgment reversed. 780 F.2d 179 (CA2 1985), Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Parts I, II, III-A, IV, concluding that: 1 1. courts have authority appoint private prosecute actions. Pp. 793-802. 2 (a) Although Federal Rule Criminal Procedure 42(b) does not authorize its reference such appointments acknowledges long-settled rule possess inherent initiate proceedings disobedience orders, necessarily includes ability attorney only United States Attorney's Office may bring unavailing, since Judiciary must independent means vindicate own without dependence on another Branch decide whether should initiated. 793-763. 3 (b) Courts' prosecutions limited summary punishment in-court contempts, but extends out-of-court contempts well. underlying basis power need address orders regardless interferes with trial. distinction between has drawn define when prosecution, prescribe procedures attend exercise authority. Thus, although response are sufficiently nature warrant imposition many procedural protections, this mean can undertaken Executive Branch, it obscure fact purpose judicial 767-801. 4 (c) order ensure self-protection last resort, ordinarily appropriate prosecuting actions, if denied. 801-802. 5 2. Counsel party beneficiary appointed undertake alleged violations order. A disinterested public prosecutor, solely pursue interest vindication court's case where also represents interested party, however, legal profession's ethical rules require take into account other than Government's. This creates intolerable compromised produces at least appearance impropriety. judge makes initial decision proceed quell concern influenced improper motives, exercises considerable discretion matters critical outside supervision. requirement consistent Court's earlier decisions recognizing prosecutors judges. Most cases informed speculation subject extraneous influence, whereas influence virtual certainty present. 802-809. 6 BRENNAN, joined MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, concluded Part III-B harmlesserror doctrine cannot apply appoints error so fundamental pervasive requires reversal regard facts circumstances particular case. 809-814. 7 SCALIA appointing convictions. defective because federal no constitutional contemners judgments, derivative prosecutions. light allowed prosecutors, broad unreviewable, would impossible conclude any these brought simply referred matter Branch. 825. 8 J., announced respect REHNQUIST, C.J., POWELL, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined, III-B, joined. filed concurring opinion, post, p. ----. SCALIA, judgment, part dissenting part, WHITE, 9 James A. Cohen, New York City, 10 William C. Bryson, Washington, D.C., U.S., amicus curiae, support petitioners, leave Court. 11 Joseph Bainton, respondents. 12 STEVENS join. 13 Petitioners guilty jury, pursuant 18 U.S.C. § 401(3), violation infringement trademark. They received sentences ranging six months five years.1 On appeal Second Circuit, urged erred rather attorney, we certiorari, 477 903, 106 3270, 91 561 (1986). We now reverse, exercising our supervisory power, hold 14 * result settlement lawsuit December 1978, Southern York, Vuitton, French manufacturer, Klayminc, his wife Sylvia, son (the Klaymincs), family-owned businesses, Karen Bags, Inc., Jade Handbag Co., Jak Handbag, Inc. Klaymincs manufacturing imitation sale distribution. Vuitton's was valid Fils S.A. Young Enterprises, 644 769 (CA9 1981), then entered July 1982. Under agreement, agreed pay $100,000 damages, from, "manufacturing, producing, distributing, circulating, selling, offering sale, advertising, promoting displaying product bearing simulation, reproduction, counterfeit, copy, colorable imitation" registered App. Pet. Cert. 195-A 196-A. 15 early 1983, companies concerned possible contacted Florida firm proposal undercover "sting" operation. retained, Melvin Weinberg Gunner Askeland, former Bureau Investigation agents, set out pose persons who purchasing counterfeit goods. expressed petitioner discussed possibility Askeland might invest Haitian factory devoted manufacture Gucci signed documents described operation provided estimate cost counterfeited addition, some sample bags Helfand Askeland's inspection. 16 Four days after met March 31, Bainton requested him colleague Robert P. Devlin 18. Bainton's recounted developments pointed he previously preliminary lawsuit. indicated next step meeting among Weinberg, deliver 25 handbags. sought permission videotape meeting, continue engage investigative activity. 17 responded day request. It contumacious injunctive order, activity, proposed affidavit. Id., 27. week appointment, April 6, suggested inform impending investigation. did so, make available tape recordings evidence, Chief Division beyond wishing good luck. Over course month, more 100 audio video tapes made meetings telephone conversations investigators. requested, signed, 26 directing show why parties cited violating 1982 205-A. Petitioners' pretrial motions opposing denied, 592 F.Supp. 734 (SDNY 1984), defendants subsequently pleas. ultimately convicted, following trial, under 401(3),2 trial denied post-trial motions. 602 1052 1985). 19 Circuit argued, rejected contention, (1985), citing Musidor, B.V. Great American Screen, 658 60 (1981), cert. 455 944, 102 1440, 71 656 (1982).3 often source information about occurring presence, F.2d, 183, stated "danger . ." 184. Furthermore, encompasses necessary activity conducted 184-185. affirmed II 20 first contend lacked them, that, result, could permissibly prosecution. disagree. While true provide authorization long settled 21 By terms, speaks procedure providing notice contempt.4 required "state essential constituting charged describe such." given open court, "or, application purpose, arrest." Rule's submit assumes pre-existing practice itself purport serve practice.5 appointed, proceeding nature.6 22 assumption used actions reflects longstanding acknowledgment initiation punish function. As declared Michaelson Chicago, St. P., M., & O.R. 266 42, 45 18, 69 L.Ed. 162 (1924): 23 "That all courts, times decided regarded law. administration justice. States, called existence vested jurisdiction over subject, once became possessed power." 65-66, S.Ct., 19-20.7 24 ensuring complete Branches. "If himself validity issued, act aside, impotent, what Constitution fittingly calls 'the States' mere mockery." Gompers Bucks Stove Range 221 418, 450, 31 492, 501, 55 797 (1911). "there important duty render decree enforce acts disobedience." Ibid. Courts mercy deciding satisfies self-protection, "mere boards arbitration whose judgments decrees advisory." Ibid.8 B interfere process. argue essentially conventional crimes, initiated gave rise not, merely disruption proceedings. Rather, Judiciary, interfered See Bessette W.B. Conkey 194 324, 333, 665, 668, 48 997 (1904) (contempt "has uniformly held protection insults oppressions while ordinary duties, enable due law rights suitors") (emphasis added); Ex parte Robinson, Wall. 505, 510, 205 (1874) (existence "essential preservation proceedings, enforcement writs consequently justice") Anderson Dunn, Wheat. 204, 227, 242 (1821) (courts creation "to impose silence, respect, decorum lawful mandates") added). 27 contempt, prescribing said Bloom Illinois, 391 194, 88 1477, 1483, 522 (1968), "[b]efore 19th century out, carefully within view hearing formal presentation evidence dispensed with, normal adversary required." instance, presumed innocent, proved reasonable doubt, accorded refuse testify themselves, Gompers, supra, 444, 499; advised charges, opportunity respond permitted assistance call witnesses, Cooke 267 517, 537, 390, 395, 767 (1925); before unbiased judge, re Oliver, 333 257, 68 499, 92 682 (1948); afforded serious Bloom, supra. Congress regulated manner narrowing class punishment, Act Mar. 2, 1831, Stat. 487. 42 distinguishes committed presence summarily punished, punished hearing.9 28 exercised Congress, Michaelson, 19-20, through review, 201-208, 1481-1485, Cheff Schnackenberg, 384 373, 384, 86 1523, 1526, 629 (1966). However, regulation, "the attributes inhere inseparable neither abrogated nor rendered practically inoperative." 66, 20. different manner, both instigation court. 29 come "a crime sense," 201, 1481, considered execution engage. Our insistence character intended rebut characterizations undeserving protections normally See, e.g., Debs, 158 564, 596, 900, 911, 39 1092 (1895) (no "only securing suitors adjudged entitled to"). That proscribed harmful general laws. designed vindicating punishing sanctioning violates specific duties imposed itself, arising directly parties' participation proceedings.10 30 assertion thus merit. preserve system itself. had, have, arises. C restrained principle '[t]he adequate end proposed' cases." Wilson, 421 309, 319, 1802, 1808, 44 186 (1975) (quoting Wheat., 231). suggested, confronted witness refuses testify, consider feasibility prompting testimony utilizing sanctions remedy deemed inadequate. Shillitani 364, 371, n. 9, 1531, 1536, 622 32 restraint counsels caution repeat rationale necessity. If completely dependent redress direct affronts authority, powerless protect declined logic Such ensures resort. 33 practice, reasonably expect accept responsibility Indeed, Manual 9-39.318 (1984) expressly provides: "In great majority dedication executive branch acceptance Attorney formality. Referral enhance prospect trained Department guidelines.11 34 case, refer prosecutors.12 ramifications failure, however. Even referral made, hold, litigation. III 35 Berger 295 78, 88, 629, 633, 79 1314 (1935), declared: "The representative controversy, sovereignty obligation govern impartially compelling all; interest, therefore, shall win justice done. such, peculiar very definite sense servant law, twofold aim guilt escape innocence suffer." 36 distinctive role Ethical Consideration (EC) 7-13 Canon Bar Association (ABA) Model Code Professional Responsibility (1982): differs usual advocate; seek justice, convict." 37 Because unique responsibility, prohibited representing they, family, business associates interest. 208(a).13 applied ABA Responsibility, CFR 45.735-1(b) (1986), contains numerous provisions relating conflicts interest.14 representation clients compromise prosecutor's pursuit Government's rests recognition owe those clients. "Indeed, highest claim most noble advocate causes problem fidelity, unquestioned, continuing fidelity client." Brotherhood Locomotive Firemen Enginemen 411 312, 319 (CA5 1969). 38 Private allegedly violated. litigation "are defendant, original cause." 445, 499. certainly undertakes prosecution.15 pursued benefiting client involved litigation, charge committing felony 208(a). violate provisions, discharge undivided loyalty interest.16 dispassionate assessment propriety charges Judiciary. party's obtaining benefits concerns sometimes congruent, not. tempted tenuously supported promises financial rewards client. Conversely, abandon meritorious conditioned recommendation charges. 40 Regardless resulted prosecutorial impropriety (an issue express opinion), illustrates potential duty. California culminated consent favor various activities. contained liquidated damages provision $750,000 award selected target investigation, offered plea bargain, immunity return testimony. defendant defamation involvement resulting created shaped desire obtain useful defense suit. claims pending These theoretically temptation gather suits, served leverage pleas short, minimum opportunities arise, impropriety.17 41 apparent, motives. determination targets methods used, offenses, utilized enter bargains terms established, individuals immunity. decisions, stringent standard disinterest system, [prosecutors] zealous law," Marshall Jerrico, 446 238, 248, 1610, 1616, 64 182 (1980). find conflict situations intolerable. id., 250-252, 1617-1618 (fact sums collected penalties returned agency defray administrative costs presented too remote efforts). Ordinarily speculate interests likely officer, appreciation role. ethics profession taken account. Given roles, there influence.18 43 modern times, mirror 207, 1485. trend, "[a] scheme injecting personal otherwise, process irrelevant impermissible factors decision."19 played prominent basic notions fairness. Cheff, 380, 1526 (requiring greater months); Yates 356 363, 366-367, 78 766, 768-769, 837 (1958) (reducing sentence miscalculation number offenses committed); Offutt 348 11, 17-18, 75 15, 99 (1954) conviction reversed contemner). especially employed functioning rely today alleging order.20 question confront demonstrate harmless Chapman California, 386 87 824, 705 (1967).21 errors case." Delaware Van Arsdall, 475 673, 681, 1431, 1436, 89 674 error. 46 An undermines confidence integrity proceeding. Rose Clark, 478 570, 577-578, 3101, 3105-3106, 460 (1986); 681-682, 1436-1437; Vasquez Hillery, 474 254, 263-264, 617, 623-624, 598 raises doubts. Prosecution someone conflicting loyalties "calls objectivity bringing judgment." Vasquez, 263, 623. premise society state wield formidable powers rigorously fashion, liberty stake matters. always sensitive actors threaten performance held, racial discrimination infect selection grand supra; petit exposed publicity unfavorable Sheppard Maxwell, 351-352, 1507, 1516, 600 (1966); adjudication performed officer faced Ward Village Monroeville, 409 57, 93 80, (1972); Tumey Ohio, 273 47 437, 749 (1927). standards neutrality applicable quasi-judicial officers. 248-250, 1616-1617.22 difference treatment relevant found, gravity identified. stronger showing exists. Once conclusion, influences undermine fashion. plays preparing presenting defendant's guilt. diminishes faith fairness general. narrow focus harmless-error analysis concern. uses expansive purposes, function seriously abused even if, process, obtained convict defendant. Prosecutors "have terrible array coercive information," "police interrogation, warrants, informers agents activities immunized, authorized wiretapping, investigatory demands, [and] enhanced subpoena Wolfram, Modern Legal Ethics misuse "would unfairly harass citizens, give unfair advantage [the interests], impair willingness legitimate powers." Notwithstanding concern, focuses " 'whether [error] complained contributed conviction.' Chapman, 23, 827 Fahy Connecticut, 375 85, 86-87, 84 229, 230, 171 (1963)). actual prejudice misses point, perception system. "[J]ustice satisfy justice," Offutt, 14, presents precisely opposite. Society's adequately protected analysis, committed.23 49 Appointment effects pervasive. question, scrutiny of, entire discrete decision. Determining effect extremely difficult. myriad occasions discretion, each goes shape record few record. Holloway Arkansas, 435 475, 490-491, 98 1173, 1181-1182, 426 (1978), attorney's three codefendants: 50 applied, occurs scope readily identifiable. Accordingly, reviewing relatively task assessing likelihood materially affected deliberations jury. But joint evil—it bears repeating—is finds compelled refrain doing, negotiations sentencing identify failure certain tasks, difficult intelligently impact And assess options, tactics, virtually impossible. inquiry here require, unlike cases, unguided speculation." (Citations omitted.) 51 Cf. 264, 624 ("Once having know indict assessed same way properly constituted"). 52 us involves citizen's primary proceeding, armed wide-ranging discretion. Public official essential. Harmlesserror equal assuring confidence. best suited review lower gauge whole. establish categorical adherence subtle calculations judgment. inappropriate this. Sells Engineering, 463 432, 103 3133, 3142, 77 743 (1983) (prosecutorial elicit "improper per se "). IV 53 Between life citizen glare accusation stands employ full machinery scrutinizing individual. acquitted, forced immersion wrenching everyday life. For reason, assurance guided attainment assurance, masters. improper. Reversed. 54 concurring. I join BRENNAN's opinion. go further, practice—federal state—of concept, my view, public, client, unfettered. 1969); see Note, Contempt Actions Rules Procedure, Ford.L.Rev. 1141, 1146-1166 56 57 agree issued invalid, failing relied disregard (except courts' function) "[t]he States," Const., Art. III, §§ 1, Since grant advanced authorizing appointments, void. proper convictions likewise 58 With exception inferior officers, present cases,1 permits States." accordingly kind judges virtue Article commissions. Muskrat 219 346, 354-356, 250, 252-253, 246 (1911); Ferreira, How. 40, (1852). 59 decide, accordance prevail controversy. neutral adjudicator include violators them—which quite incompatible adjudication. well established crimes. Cox, 342 167 (CA5) (en banc), 381 935, 85 1767, 700 (1965), authorities therein; (Brown, concurring); 185 (Wisdom, Thompson, 251 407, 413-417, 289, 291-293, (1920). implementation laws, is—at extent publicly exercised2—executive President. cl. Heckler Chaney, 470 821, 832, 105 1649, 1656, 714 (1985); Buckley Valeo, 424 138, 96 612, 691, 659 (1976). well-settled principles uncontested. asserts, compliance orders. Unless argument goes, efficaciousness Executive, arrangement presumably absurd contemplate. Ante, 796. 61 Far being absurd, element Government. There instances leaves theoretical one nought inactions another. dispersion central forming enough purposes forth preamble Constitution, yet "secure blessings liberty" tyranically. example, laws enacts. violators, never thought congressional turn, perform enforcing declines funds purpose; decline entertain Yet suggests necessity authorizes raise money operations appropriation, jail malefactors Why, wonder, alone immune interdependence? 62 Founding Fathers, certainty, instructive compare "[c]ourts [contempt] initiated," ante, 796, views famous passages Federalist: 63 "[T]he judiciary, functions, dangerous political constitution; capacity annoy injure them. judiciary sword purse, direction strength wealth society, active resolution whatever. truly Force Will judgment; depend aid arm efficacy judgments." Federalist No. pp. 522-523 (J. ed. 1961) (A. Hamilton) purely analytic proposition thesis faulty, proves much. able investigate arrest whom adjudicated contempt? Surely Executive's refusal much ever supposed incarcerate. 65 appeals "longstanding function." 795. Except, line beginning 1895 1092, holding repudiated, less officers contempts. status appeared Hudson, Cranch 32, 259 (1812), circuit common-law cases. conferred argued National existence. 33-34. ruled establish, most, pass legislation adjudge At discussion, noted: 66 "Certain implied institution. crimes powers. To fine contempt—imprison contumacy—inforce observance &c. Court, others: far doubt immediately derived statute; common 34. 67 Hudson courts. Its discussion recognized "necessary others," is, permit function, included interference business. mention prosecutory Nine years later, (1821), reiterated component power. closely related questions still point: House Representatives Sergeant Arms person disrupted tried custody until completion noted constitution except members," 225, "if asserted necessity, ground broad, indefinite; executive, every co-ordinate, subordinate, government, resort justification, whole assume tyrannical licentiousness." 228. 70 Nevertheless, upheld House's action, "leads total annihilation guard indignity interruption rudeness, caprice, conspiracy, meditate it." self-defense pronounced dictum today's universally acknowledged vested, creation, decorum, mandates, and, corollary proposition, themselves approach pollution." 227. Read context seems me meant "mandates" subpoenas. event, statement outer limits moreover, suggest play adjudicator, 1789 already inherently possessed. 17, 83. 72 recognize, Anderson—that Legislative, Judicial Branches processes, implicit form appears nonlegislative, nonexecutive, nonjudicial, respectively—does logical empowered orderly disobey (such subpoenas). punish, functioning, judgments. correlative latter context, laws—which rational suggest. imagine basis, self-love, limiting extension alone. illogically pernicious enough. sweep decrees, binding apply, notion judges' making violation, sitting prosecutions, summons vividly imagined Anderson, 73 holdings conferring emanate (1895), outcome reasoning disapproved. enjoined union organizers engaging disruptive interstate rail traffic, comply sentenced months. thereby deprived stating: 74 carries been, time immemorial, technical rule. compel obedience inquire thereof. tribunal, operate deprive half efficiency." 594-595, 910. time, Debs decision, Dunbar, Injunction, L.Q.Rev. 347 (1897); Gregory, Harv.L.Rev. 487 (1898); Lewis, Strikes Equity, Am. L.Reg. Protest Against Administering Law Am.L.Reg. 879 (1894); continued criticized handed down. Green 165, 193-216, 196, 632, 648-660, 649, 672 (Black, dissenting). repudiated afford Debs' holding. specifically self-contained '[t]o efficiency.' 208, 1485, quoting 595, contrary, "place[d] little credence independence hangs try [was] persuaded additional expense possibly submitting juries handicap effective courts." 208-209, 1485-1486. 76 argues control 'a sense,' engage." 799—800. added draw principle, free interference, do anything decisions. points true, nonetheless highly First, eliminates autonomous litigants second, clear totality lest swallow up crafted guarantees liberty. 209, 1486. varying jury-trial separation-of-powers guarantees, inconceivable flagrant permitting promulgate behavior, adjudicate took place. deprivation judging separated legislative Montesquieu, Spirit Laws 181, quoted 523 1961). Moreover, practical impairment produced requiring substantial acquit decisive prosecute; abuse impunity, litigate regularly ignores. Finally, undercut 799, 9. reverse structural indeed sure mechanism protecting liberty—was adoption Bill Rights. people elected checks. "tyrannical licentiousness" both. either. say, course, derive contended prosecute: statute enacted criminalizing books 1789, 821. 401. 80 Judge's contemners—makes required. allows 81 THE CHIEF JUSTICE O'CONNOR join, part. 82 appointment. reaches contrary conclusion. matter, lawyers precedents reversal. 83 prohibit "may differing interests." 5-14, Association, (1982) situation correctly exist. arise." 806 occupies carry fairly impartially. Where significant. warrants lawyer justify conclusion inappropriate, invalidation occurred, appropriate. (1967). recently "[I]f strong presumption occurred analysis." 579, 3106, Here, dimension. "[no] reason believe" acted unethically. 179, "ample" findings strongly imply harmless. evaluate claim, Hasting, 461 1974, 1981, (1983), share subtle. remand Appeals—in today—to determine dissenting. instance district well-established prosecute. prefer understand embrace prior authorize, parties. amendment rulemaking error, discern receive fair affirm Appeals. follows: years; Young, 21/2 months; 162-164. states: "A imprisonment, none other, (3) Disobedience resistance writ, rule, decree, command." plaintiffs beneficiaries provides part: "(b) Disposition Upon Notice Hearing. subdivision notice. place hearing, allowing preparation defense, such. orally or, Wright, Byrne, Haakh, Westbrook, Wheat, Civil Courts, F.R.D. 167, 172 (1955) ("Before Fed.R.Crim.P., actions"). Respondents bestow point Advisory Committee Notes, cite approval McCann Stock Exchange, 211 1935), 299 603, 233, 444 (1936). McCann, Judge Learned Hand using unclear criminal, 214, "some simple test determined." decides dispute plain criminally behalf Committee's Notes 42(b), U.S.C.App., 644, state: second obviate frequent confusion follows suggestion [ 1935) ]" passage Hand's exhortation plainly nature. detailed serves purpose. Mine Workers, 330 258, 677, 884 (1947), "was insure realization contemnors contemplated," 298, 698, McCann." 66. indication, third codify McCann's prosecutors. (1911) ("[T]he integral absolutely law"); ("The courts"); Fox, History (1927) ("Contempt phrase English [since] twelfth century"); R. Goldfarb, Power (1963) wends historically back England crown"); Kent, Commentaries *300, b (commenting "immemorially contempts"). encompassed matter. Brown Lederer, 140 136, 138 (CA7), 322 734, 1047, 1568 (1944); Western Fruit Growers, Gotfried, 136 98, 100-101 1943). SCALIA's concurrence regarding lost force (1968). Post, 823-824. assumed guidance precedents, acknowledge institute incorrect, nothing first. Bloom' rejection arguments relates 1485 ("[W]hen contemplated, demand squared desirability court"); ibid. ("We summarily"). ignoring pronouncements Nor "as jury." 824. based fear contemnor herself reach supra: 'judicial 501. satisfied contemner her behavior acquitted. measures, instituted experience licentiousness,' 822 228, (1821)), "judge[s] mak[e] prosecut[e] si[t] prosecutions," 822, "permi[t] place." resting "an laws." limited, obligations contrast, hypothesizes admit limit; potentially population. Acknowledging wielded eradicate boundaries. FBI Undercover Activities, Authorization, H.R. 3232: Oversight Hearings Before Subcommittee Constitutional Rights 98th Cong., 1st Sess., 264-374 (setting General's guidelines investigations). send letter prosecutor: "Dear Mr. Pedowitz: "At Brieant, am your attention Lasker Brieant's absence above-entitled together mine submitted events predicted pass. Should anyone office obviously willing chain custody. "Very yours, "J. Bainton" 64. sent contempt; action. Section 208(a) "Except subsection hereof, whoever, employee Government, Reserve bank director, employee, Columbia, including participates personally substantially approval, disapproval, recommendation, rendering advice, application, ruling determination, contract, charge, accusation, arrest, which, knowledge, he, spouse, minor child, partner, organization serving trustee, partner negotiating concerning prospective employment, interest— "Shall fined $10,000, imprisoned years, both." Disciplinary (DR) 5-105 (lawyer employment judgment); EC 5-1 (professional benefit "compromising loyalties"); 5-2 proffered probability "affect adversely advice services client"); 5-14 (independent professional asked "who interests, conflicting, inconsistent, diverse, otherwise discordant"); 5-15 (if multiple clients, "should resolve doubts representation"); 9-6 avoid "not impropriety"). 10-2.664 (cautioning "creates create interest"). aside prosecutes reckon proscriptions lawyers. 5-1, 5-18 ("A retained corporation similar entity owes allegiance stockholder, representative, connected entity. advising entity, keep paramount desires organization"). misconduct outweighed familiar conduct. familiarity put assisting pursuing reimbursement 60, (1981). Solicitor General represented Administrative construed statutes appropriating fees Brief Amicus Curiae 25-26, payments approved past hourly rate compensated. referring minimize necessary. distinct misconduct. occasion overzealous become overly conviction. problem, personal, structural. Sixth disapproving Polo Fashions, Buyers Int'l, 760 pending, 85-455, overzealousness "does roots When manifests deal case-by-case aberration. approving pledged conviction." 249-250, 1616-1617, supra (appointment disapproved authority); 1969) characterized violation). "[W]hen states participate prosecution." 1155 (1986) (footnote omitted). 1154, (listing cases). distinguish "serious" involving exceeding months, imposing requirement. determining rested, petty 197-198, 1479-1480. Aside trend toward trials, distinguished types protections. reaching issues. mindful "reversals approached 'with caution' balancing involved." 506-507, 1979, (citations omitted) Payner, 447 727, 2439, 2445, 468 (1980)). infringed important, hesitated Ballard 329 187, 261, 181 (1946) (using exclusion women dismissing indictment). observe "we say considerations biasing persons, zealousness process." 12, 1617, 12. "none [state] participating prejudice. unethical great." Comment, Outmoded Concept Prosecution, Am.U.L.Rev. 754, 778 (1976) State Burns, S.W.2d 736, 742 (Mo.1959) (in "shall attempt weigh measure prejudice"). Heldt, 215 U.S.App.D.C. 206, 668 1238 distinguishable assistant though failed move disqualification 244-245, 1276-1277. bright-line equivalent 208—he she one. Heldt analogous 208. position today—they "Congress vest Officers, think proper, Law." (Emphasis added.) brief provision. 17-19, 14. abandoned argument, Tr. Oral Arg. 26-28, "by law" sort—a here—it done so. closest thing notes, 794-795, pre-existence. event confer enactment Congress. 3772 (1982 Supp. III). "judicial power" Constitution's vesting President, forbids persons. existed custom 758 unaware, meet learned delinquents offences, cognizable 35, 92; Am.U.L.Rev., 762-764.

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