Document: 430 U.S. 259 97 S.Ct. 1047 51 L.Ed.2d 313 TOWN OF LOCKPORT, NEW YORK, et al., Appellants,v.CITIZENS FOR COMMUNITY ACTION AT the LOCAL LEVEL, INC., al. No. 75-1157. Argued Nov. 30, and Dec. 1, 1976. Decided March 7, 1977. Syllabus County government in New York has traditionally taken form of a single-branch legislature, exercising general governmental powers, such powers are also exercised by count's constituent cities, villages, towns. The allocation among these subdivisions can be changed, new county adopted, pursuant to referendum procedures provided Constitution an implementing statute, under which proposed charter submitted voters for approval is adopted only if majority voting city dwellers noncity both approve. After Niagara was defeated (despite fact that those entire favored it) when approved it but disapproved it, appellees, group voters, brought suit Federal District Court challenging constitutionality procedures, three-judge court held concurrent-majority requirements violated Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. Held: challenged provisions, entitled presumption constitutionality, do not violate Clause. separate voter based on perception real long-term impact restructuring local felt quite differently different units sense compete provide similar services. Voters directly differentially affected government, may make provider public services more remote less subject voters' individual influence, differing interests adoption sufficient justify classifications made law. Pp. 268-273. Reversed. See D.C., 386 F.Supp. 1. Victor T. Fuzak, Buffalo, N.Y., appellants. John J. Phelan, Rochelle, appellees Citizens Community Action, etc., Miles A. Lance, North Tonawanda, Graf Comerford. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion Court. 1 law provides will go into effect election majorities who live cities within county, outside cities. A We noted probable jurisdiction this direct appeal from Court's judgment 28 U.S.C. § 1253. 426 918, 96 2622, 49 371. 2 * powers. General county's specified Art. IX Constitution1 implemented 33 Municipal Home Rule Law.2 Under board supervisors submit approval. If approve, adopted.3 3 In November 1972, put referendum. created offices Executive Comptroller, continued existing power establish tax rates, equalize assessments, issue bonds, maintain roads, administer health welfare No explicit provision redistribution or towns made. vote 18,220 14,914. 11,594 10,665.4 thus charter.5 filed 42 1983 United States Western York, seeking declaration constitutional statutory provisions governing unconstitutional, order directing appropriate officials file as duly enacted convened. Before its decision announced, however, another 1974. Again voted charter, aggregate all it.6 subsequently found Law violative Amendment, ordered implementation 1972 Charter. 1.7 On vacated remanded cause 'for reconsideration light (the) 1974.' 423 808, 11, 46 24. subsequent proceedings remand, there 'no substantial difference between two Charters' 1974 Charter had superseded Charter.8 Pursuant previous adjudication, decreed 'is full force instrument defining County.'9 II 4 exercise electoral franchise state hardly novel concern federal judiciary. It clear than 15 years ago Baker v. Carr, 369 186, 82 691, 7 663, justiciable one, ever since seminal case Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 84 1362, 12 506, been established cannot tolerate disparity strength results elected represent districts unequal population, 'the fundamental principle representative country one equal representation numbers people, without regard race, sex, economic status, place residence State.' Id., at 560-561, S.Ct., 1381.10 5 before us Court, though recognizing precise here presented appears first impression,' concluded rule controlled resolution. 'Reasoning analogy,' held, short, dual-majority requirement unconstitutional because violates man, principle.' F.Supp., 7. assessing correctness begin recalling basic rationale decisions developed applied. 6 is, bottom, so simple almost self-evident. Beginning with supra, cases emerged involved challenges legislative apportionment systems gave same number representatives constituents'. U.S., 563, 1382. their legislators, citizens have interest democracy, concept protection therefore requires votes given weight.11 See, e. g. Lucas Colorado Gen. Assembly, 713, 1459, 632; Fortson Dorsey, 379 433, 85 498, 13 401; Burns Richardson, 384 73, 86 1286, 16 376; Swann Adams, 385 440, 87 569, 17 501; Kilgarlin Hill, 120, 820, 771; Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 91 1858, 29 363; Gaffney Cummings, 412 735, 93 2321, 37 298. principles applicable gauging fairness involving choice limited relevance, analyzing propriety distinctive 'single-shot' referendum, expression direct, no need assure views adequately represented through legislature. policy kind choosing instead sending legislators off capitol multitude issues, puts discrete voters. That capable, least, being analyzed determine whether rejection disproportionate identifiable impact, question then State recognize either limiting specially giving special weight. This confronted types cases: dealing elections 'special-interest' bodies jurisdiction, bond referenda. 8 electorate special-purpose unit water storage district, apportioned give greater influence groups most unit's functions. Salyer Land Co. Tulare Water Dist., 410 719, 1224, 35 659. But classification 'interested' 'noninterested' must still reasonably precise, Kramer Union School 395 621, 89 1886, 23 583, demonstrates. assumed constituency school district could 'primarily interested affairs,' 632, 1892, State's asserted basis imprecise exclusion otherwise qualified impermissible.12 9 referenda cases, property owners, weighted owners' heavily nonproperty owners using 'dual box' separate-majority system present case. Cipriano City Houma, 701, 1897, 647; Phoenix Kolodziejski, 399 204, 90 1990, 26 523; Hill Stone, 421 289, 95 1637, 44 172. 10 case, revenue apparent identity passage issue, limitation 'property taxpayers' was, plainly, invidiously discriminatory. other obligation bonds. There, Kramer, validity depended upon were sufficiently total partial withholding them. support classifications, argued stake bonds taxes former substantially fund obligation. rejected argument franchise, noting share burden rental commercial businesses passed higher prices. Although concededly identical, they prevent distinguishing them artificially narrowing weighting favor taxpayers.13 11 These resolve issues Taken together, said focus attention inquiries: genuine relevant created; and, so, any resulting enhancement minority nonetheless amounts invidious discrimination violation III rests primarily premise identical distinction, therefore, drawn working detriment class discrimination. major demonstrably correct regardless where reside would affirmed our prior cases. supra. premise, simply accepted. To contrary, rest identification residents rather homogeneous unit. realities distribution consistent wide discretion forming allocating tasks subdivisions, qua units. 580, 1391; Abate Mundt, 182, 1904, 399; Mahan Howell, 315, 979, 320. General-purpose entrusted four units: counties, towns, villages. divided 62 counties; each 57 counties Villages, once formed, part located. Legislature conferred home activities occasion overlap.14 often perform functions residents; similarly villages some town town's inhabitants. Historically areas social recently transferred regulatory create taxing improvement Temporary Commission Constitutional Convention, Local Government 20 (1967). 14 Acting fairly loose political power, relative energy organization various area carries out government. Since greatest autonomy scheme, changes serving strengthen structure immediate deliverers 19.15 clearly contemplate amended frequently operate transfer 'functions duties' even 'abolish offices, departments, agencies government.'16 does explicitly duties County, executive-legislative significantly enhance organizational service delivery capacity, purpose 'greater efficiency responsibility government.' Charter, 1972. creation Commissioner Finance reflects purpose. Such anticipated changes, transfers functions, effectively shift pre-existing balance governments toward predominance.17 terms efficient services, might good, viewed carrying cost incurred governments. ultimate whether, differences 2048 659; posed context annexation proceedings, annexing annexed formed constituencies readily perceived. impending union alone merge community constitutionally require aggregated approve annexation. Cf. Hunter Pittsburgh, 207 161, 40, 52 L.Ed. 151. Similarly proposal several join consolidated surely district. Yet potentially opposing interests, structural annex consolidate restructure York. influence. 18 interests.18 Granting every entitled,19 we unable conclude 19 For reasons stated reversed. ordered. 21 CHIEF JUSTICE concurs judgment. Article IX, 1(h)(1), (McKinney 1969) pertinent part: Bill rights 'Effective self-government intergovernmental cooperation purposes people state. furtherance thereof, shall following rights, privileges immunities addition granted constitution: '(h)(1) Counties, wholly included city, empowered . adopt, amend repeal alternative forms .. Any amendment thereof contained abolish provided, become effective unless cast thereon any, considered Where function duty village abolition office, department, agency unit.' Section 33(7) provides: 33. Power charters '7. '(a) providing '(b) proposing transferring town, village, conform consideration accordance chapter generally action laws supervisors. described subdivision, supervisors, operative until election, receiving (a) (b) unit, take receive submission electors next occurring sixty days after variations charter. variation include, to, classess thereof.' When residing majority. nn. 2, litigation. Village located, governments, vote. 55,393 cast; 28,885 26,508 opposed it. population approximately 236,000. 36,808 election. margin 11,305 9,222; 8,222 8,059 against whole, 19,364 17,444 itself earlier enforce County. Civ.No. 1972-656 (WDNY, Apr. 13, 1973). dismissed complaint ground question, taken. appellants interposed res judicata defense properly plaintiffs parties privity Niagara, 5. enjoined pending challenge certification enforcement now argue should deferred court. Even assuming Younger Harris, 401 37, 746, 27 669, fully civil context, original well state-court suit, comity federalism abandon acquired later remand unreported. relief originally sought moot mandate better practice formally seek ultimately granted, prejudiced procedure consider us. application settled rule, has, course, respect what deviations numerical exactitude permissible. g., 320; 298; White Regester, 755, 2332, 314. applied 'one person, vote' level. Avery Midland 390 474, 88 1114, 45; Hadley Junior College 397 50, 791, 25 45. Carrington Rash, 380 89, 775, 675, holding although citizen resident Texas acceptable means constituencies, exclude servicemen conclusive necessarily transient status precluded bona fide residents. scheme characterized mathematical Clause, class. Gordon 1889, 273. Erickson, 393 385, 557, 616. N.Y.Mun.Home 1969 Supp. 1976-1977); (1967); Moore, Early History Town State, N.Y.Town vii 1965). previously historic functional interdependence allowed considerable deviation 1632, ground. 399. Appellee Action Level appellee County's failure controvert allegation specific persons compared group' establishes charter's adoption. As factual matter, assertion contradicted intervention Lockport protect issue. turns, perceptions particular legitimately view distinction There indication work over voter, voter. outnumber voters; reverse true. advised failed obtain (including County) eight cities; three appear sustained product entrenched willful Instead historically frequent revision. requiring 1935. N.Y.Const., III, (1935). 1938, county. (1938). 1958, again change group, group. 1963, contains 1958 amendment. Thayer, Origin Scope American Doctrine Law, Harv.L.Rev. 129 (1893).

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