Document: 542 U.S. 1 ELK GROVE UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT ET AL.v.NEWDOW AL. No. 02-1624. Supreme Court of United States. Argued March 24, 2004. Decided June 14, Petitioner school district requires each elementary class to recite daily the Pledge Allegiance. Respondent Newdow's daughter participates in this exercise. Newdow, an atheist, filed suit alleging that, because contains words "under God," it constitutes religious indoctrination his child violation Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses. He also alleged that he had standing sue on own behalf as "next friend." The Magistrate Judge concluded is constitutional, District agreed dismissed complaint. Ninth Circuit reversed, holding Newdow has a parent challenge practice interferes with right direct daughter's education, district's policy violates Clause. Sandra Banning, child's mother, then motion intervene or dismiss, declaring, inter alia, she exclusive legal custody under state-court order her sole custodian, felt was not interest be party suit. Concluding Banning's did deprive noncustodial parent, Article III object unconstitutional government action affecting child, held California law, retains expose particular views even if they contradict mother's, well seek redress for injury parental interests. Held: Because law deprives next friend, lacks prudential federal court. requirement derives from constitutional limits powers unelected, unrepresentative judiciary. E. g., Allen v. Wright, 468 U. S. 737, 750. Court's jurisprudence encompasses, "the general prohibition litigant's raising another person's rights," e. id., at 751, generally declines domestic relations, traditional subject state In re Burrus, 136 586, 593-594. extent problem raised by relations issues case apparent until Banning declaring family court gave "sole custody" authorized "exercise control" over daughter, argument nevertheless unrestricted inculcate beliefs fails rights cannot viewed isolation. This concerns orders and, most important, their interests upon finding herself center highly public debate. entirely relationship but litigate friend. Their are parallel indeed, potentially conflict. status defined customarily defers state-law interpretations regional court, see Bishop Wood, 426 341, 346-347. Here, relied intermediate appellate cases recognizing whether custodial noncustodial, impart perspective. Nothing either board done, however, impairs instruct views. Instead, requests more ambitious relief forestalling exposure ideas endorsed who wields form veto power, use influences which may exposed when disagree. simply do stand proposition reach outside private parent-child sphere dictate others what say respecting religion. A friend surely could exercise such right, court's deprived status. Pp. 11-18. 328 F. 3d 466, reversed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, KENNEDY, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. REHNQUIST, C. concurring judgment, O'CONNOR, joined, THOMAS, joined Part I. post, p. 18. 33, 45, opinions judgment. SCALIA, took no part consideration decision case. CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT. 2 Terence J. Cassidy argued cause petitioners. With him briefs Michael W. Pott. 3 Solicitor General Olson States respondent Rule 12.6 support were Assistant Attorney Keisler, Deputy Clement, Katsas, Patricia A. Millett, Robert M. Loeb, Lowell V. Sturgill, Sushma Soni. 4 pro se, brief respondent.* 5 JUSTICE STEVENS Court. 6 Each day teachers Elk Grove Unified School (School District) lead classes group recitation Respondent, atheist whose District's First Amendment. divided panel Appeals Newdow. light obvious importance decision, we granted certiorari review Amendment issue preliminarily, question invoke jurisdiction courts. We conclude therefore reverse Appeals' decision. 7 * "The very purpose national flag serve symbol our country," Texas Johnson, 491 397, 405 (1989), its proud traditions "of freedom, equal opportunity, tolerance, good will other peoples share aspirations," 437 (STEVENS, dissenting). As history illustrates, Allegiance evolved common acknowledgment ideals symbolizes. Its patriotic designed foster unity pride those principles. 8 initially conceived than century ago. nationwide commemorating 400th anniversary Christopher Columbus' discovery America, widely circulated magazine youth proposed 1892 pupils following affirmation: "I pledge allegiance my Flag Republic stands: one Nation indivisible, Liberty Justice all."1 1920's, National Conferences replaced phrase "my Flag" America." 9 1942, midst World War II, Congress adopted, President signed, Joint Resolution codifying detailed set "rules customs pertaining display Ch. 435, 56 Stat. 377. Section codification provided full: 10 "That flag, `I America stands, liberty justice all', rendered hand heart; extending hand, palm upward, toward `to flag' position end, drops side. However, civilians always show full respect given merely attention, men removing headdress. Persons uniform shall render military salute." Id., 380. 11 resolution, marked first appearance positive confirmed Nation's indivisibility commitment concept liberty. 12 revisited years later amended text add God." Act 1954, ch. 297, 68 249. House Report accompanied legislation observed "[f]rom time earliest institutions have reflected founded fundamental belief H. R. Rep. 1693, 83d Cong., 2d Sess., (1954). resulting know today: God, all." § 4. II 13 Under "every school" must begin "appropriate exercises." Cal. Educ. Code Ann. 52720 (West 1989). statute provides "[t]he giving satisfy" requirement. Ibid. implemented requiring "[e]ach once day."2 Consistent permits students grounds abstain recitation. See West Virginia Bd. Ed. Barnette, 319 624 (1943). 14 2000, Eastern against Congress, States, State California, superintendent.3 App. 24. At filing, enrolled kindergarten participated Pledge. Styled mandamus action, complaint explains ordained 20 ago ministry "espouses philosophy true eternal bonds righteousness virtue stem reason rather mythology." 42, ¶ 53. seeks declaration 1954 Act's addition God" violated Clauses Constitution,4 injunction 42. It alleges 26, 56. 15 referred Judge, findings recommendation concluded, does violate Clause." 79. adopted July 21, 2000. Pet. Cert. 97. reversed issued three separate decisions discussing merits standing. 16 appeals unanimously "as education daughter." 292 597, 602 (CA9 2002) (Newdow I). That sustained only District, where still enrolled, Pledge, "`injury fact'" "`fairly traceable'" enactment. 603-605. On merits, dissent judge, both Clause 612. 17 After initial announced, mother leave intervene, alternatively dismiss 82. She declared although shared "physical "exclusive "including represent [the daughter's] make all decision[s] about education" welfare. 82, ¶¶ 2-3. further stated Christian believes God objection reciting hearing Allegiance, reference God. 83, expressed would harmed litigation permitted proceed, might incorrectly perceive sharing father's 85, 10. accordingly lawsuit. 85. September 25, 2002, Superior entered enjoining including unnamed suing purport answer 313 500, 502 II). 18 second published opinion, reconsidered motion. noted longer claimed grant Banning" child." 502-503. objections custodian defeat 504-505. 19 February 28, 2003, amending denying rehearing en banc. 2003) III). omitted opinion's discussion declined determine entitled declaratory regarding constitutionality Act. 490. Nine judges dissented denial banc review. 471, 482. petition writ consider two questions: (1) policy, (2) so, offends 540 945 (2003). every case, bringing establish prosecute action. "In essence litigant decide dispute issues." Warth Seldin, 422 490, 498 (1975). born partly "`an idea, intuition less rigorous explicit theory, judiciary kind government.'" 750 (1984) (quoting Vander Jagt O'Neill, 699 1166, 1178-1179 (CADC 1983) (Bork, concurring)). 21 command guard jealously rarely power pronouncements strictest adherence matters great significance stake. Even concededly within III, abide "a series rules [we have] avoided passing large questions pressed [us] decision." Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 346 (1936) (Brandeis, concurring). Always balance heavy obligation jurisdiction," Colorado River Water Conservation Dist. 424 800, 820 (1976), "deeply rooted" "not pass constitutionality" unless adjudication necessary, Spector Motor Service, Inc. McLaughlin, 323 101, 105 (1944). Rescue Army Municipal Los Angeles, 331 549, 568-575 (1947). 22 these principles, strands: standing, enforces Constitution's case-or-controversy requirement, Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 555, 559-562 (1992); embodies "judicially self-imposed Allen, S., 751. limitations familiar: plaintiff conduct complains caused suffer "injury fact" favorable judgment redress. Lujan, 560-561. Although exhaustively dimensions doctrine, explained encompasses rights, rule barring generalized grievances appropriately addressed representative branches, plaintiff's fall zone protected invoked." Secretary Md. Joseph Munson Co., 467 947, 955-956 (1984). "Without limitations—closely related Art. essentially judicial self-governance—the courts called abstract wide though governmental competent address intervention unnecessary protect individual rights." Warth, 500. 23 One principal areas realm relations. Long whole husband wife, belongs laws States." 593-594 (1890). Mansell Mansell, 490 581, 587 (1989) ("[D]omestic preeminently law"); Moore Sims, 442 415, 435 (1979) ("Family area concern"). So strong deference recognized "domestic exception" "divests divorce, alimony, decrees." Ankenbrandt Richards, 689, 703 (1992). acknowledged appropriate decline hear involving "elements relationship," 705, strictly issue: 24 "This so presents `difficult bearing problems substantial import transcends result bar.' Such prior effectuation decree, depended determination parties." 705-706 River, 814). 25 Thus, while rare instances arise necessary exists apart issue, see, Palmore Sidoti, 466 429, 432-434 (1984), delicate courts.5 26 briefly above, August 5, time, governed 6, "`sole responsibilities relating health, welfare of'" daughter. 3d, 502. parents should "`consult to'" "`psychological educational needs,'" "`exercise control'" "`mutual agreement.'" 27 controlling document ruled, conference custody. 11, announced "joint custody," "makes final ... disagree." 127-128.6 28 contends despite authority, "an daughter—free interference—the atheistic finds persuasive." 48, 78. difficulty many touching inculcating religion, specifically. And implicates young debate custody, propriety widespread ritual, meaning Constitution. 29 affected persons respects antagonistic. Of course, disharmony uncommon, poses bar federal-court proper questions. What makes different contrast justertii, Singleton Wulff, 428 106, 113-118 (1976) (plurality opinion), conflict.7 30 California's law. Our custom ordinarily defer interpretation located. 346-347 (1976). Appeals, possesses greater familiarity vests cognizable influence upbringing. based ruling "while undoubtedly ultimate concerning upbringing, enjoin religion activities absence showing thereby harmed." Marriage Murga, 103 498, 505, 163 Rptr. 79, 82 (1980). Mentry, 142 260, 268-270, 190 843, 849-850 (1983) (relying Murga invalidate portion restraining father engaging children activity without parent's consent). Animated conception "family privacy" includes minimum presumption autonomy," 267-268, Rptr., 848, create authority remains free 31 Board sought Mentry Murga. wishes forestall endorses, concerned protecting "`the fragile, complex interpersonal between parent,'" 267, permitting divorced "`diversity experiences [that] itself sound stimulant child,'" 265, 847. speak seeking restrain acts third party. 32 view, improper entertain claim prosecution lawsuit adverse effect person source When hard sure affect outcome, prudent course stay out resolve weighty There vast difference communicate child—which recognize—and shield terms order. having been bring court.8 33 34 ordered. 35 SCALIA Notes: Briefs ofamici curiae urging reversal et al. Greg Abbott, Texas, Ted Cruz, General, Barry McBee, Edward D. Burbach Don Willett, Attorneys Peter Harvey, Acting New Jersey, Gerald Pappert, Pennsylvania, respective follows: William Pryor, Jr., Alabama, Gregg Renkes Alaska, Terry Goddard Arizona, Mike Beebe Arkansas, Bill Lockyer Ken Salazar Colorado, Richard Blumenthal Connecticut, Jane Brady Delaware, Charles Crist, Florida, Thurbert Baker Georgia, Mark Bennett Hawaii, Lawrence G. Wasden Idaho, Lisa Madigan Illinois, Steve Carter Indiana, Thomas Miller Iowa, Phill Kline Kansas, B. "Ben" Chandler Kentucky, P. Ieyoub Louisiana, Steven Rowe Maine, Curran, Maryland, Reilly Massachusetts, Cox Michigan, Hatch Minnesota, Mississippi, Jeremiah "Jay" Nixon Missouri, McGrath Montana, Jon Bruning Nebraska, Brian Sandoval Nevada, Heed Hampshire, Madrid Mexico, Eliot Spitzer York, Roy Cooper North Carolina, Wayne Stenehjem Dakota, Jim Petro Ohio, Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Hardy Myers Oregon, Patrick Lynch Rhode Island, Henry McMaster South Paul Summers Tennessee, L. Shurtleff Utah, Sorrell Vermont, Jerry Kilgore Virginia, Christine O. Gregoire Washington, Darrell McGraw, Peg Lautenschlager Wisconsin, Crank Wyoming; American Civil Rights Union John Armor Ferrara; Jewish Marc Stern Norman Redlich; Legion Eric Hirschhorn Philip Onderdonk, Jr.; Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group Representatives Geraldine Gennet, Kerry Kircher, Stern; Catholic League Religious White LiMandri; Center Individual Freedom Renee Giachino; Society Gregory Baylor, Kimberlee Wood Colby, Stuart Lark; Citizens Foundation Miles; Claremont Institute Constitutional Jurisprudence Eastman, Edwin Meese Phillip Griego; Focus Family Benjamin Bull, Jordan Lorence, Kevin Theriot, Tyler, Trueman; Grassfirenet Stepanovich; Basic Life Principles Bernard Reese, Knights Columbus Hasson, Anthony Picarello, Roman Storzer, Carl Anderson, Devin, Destro; Counsel Mathew Staver Rena Lindevaldsen; Education Association Chanin Collins; Commission Law Public Affairs Nathan Lewin, Alyza Dennis Rapps, David Zwiebel, Stone; Lawyers Owens Cannada; Boards Brown, Erin Glenn Busby, Julie Underwood, Naomi Gittins; Pacific Lepiscopo; Research Sharon Browne Russell Brooks; Rutherford Whitehead Aden; Senate Mack Bryan, Morgan Frankel, Grant Vinik, Caballero; Wallbuilders, Inc., Hodge; Senator George Jay Alan Sekulow, Roth, Colby May, James Henderson, Walter Weber, Joel Thornton, Tuskey, Laura Hernandez; Kenneth Starr, Gasaway, Ashley Parrish, Stephen Sullivan; Cornyn Mr. Cornyn, se; Idaho Governor Dirk Kempthorne Bogert Hensley; Congressman Ron Ackerman Gary Kreep. amici affirmance Atheists Sanford; Humanist Elizabeth Hileman; Americans Separation Church Remes, Ayesha Khan, Shapiro; Anti-Defamation Martin Karlinsky, Lederman, Freeman, Lieberman, Frederick Lawrence, Howard Goldstein, Erwin Chemerinsky; Associated Pantheist Groups Worsham Dov Szego; Human Jerold Gorski; Buddhist Temples Pierce; Freethought Keith Alan; Council Secular Humanism Tabash; From Religion Foundation, Reitano Tiernan; Historians Scholars K. Green Gey; Theologians Irons; Rob Sherman Advocacy Grossman; Seattle Borek; Fathers Rev. Dr. Betty Bailey Douglas Laycock; Eisgruber Sager; Barbara McGraw Ms. se. Freethinkers Dean Johansson; Atheist Pamela Sumners Larry Darby; Common Good Fournier Thurston Greene Greene, Grodin Neal Katyal Epstein; Mister Thorne Ronald Losch. Baer, Allegiance: Centennial History, 1892-1992, (1992) (internal quotation marks omitted). "one indivisible" special secede intensely debated unresolved War. Randall, Problems Lincoln 12-24 (rev. ed. 1964). Rehnquist, Crisis: Disputed Election 1876, 182 (2004) Policy AR 6115, Brief Supporting Petitioners 2a named defendants Sacramento City superintendent chance attend district. 48. currently student thereNewdow 485 challenged ruling. relevant "Congress establishment prohibiting thereof." Const., Amdt. 1. apply incorporation into Fourteenth SeeCantwell 310 296, 303 (1940). rest, CHIEF suggests, seepost, 19-22 (opinion judgment), exception abstention doctrine. Rather, analysis informed variety contexts because, 689 (1992), contemplated, "depend[s] parties," 706. deemed "raise[d] important arising eradicating discrimination race." 432. contrast, disputed entwined inextricably threshold inquiry. respect, 21-22, misses point: not. written January 9, 2004: parties joint continue minor's mutually agree. required consult minor psychological needs minor. If mutual agreement reached areas, control specifically prohibited inconsistent physical custody." Reply 12a. Despite term custody"—which statute, Fam. 3003 1994)—we meaningful distinction present purposes order, understand amounts tie-breaking vote. "There sufficient reasons th[e] limitation implicated—the avoidance before wish assert, assurance effective advocate champion them."Duke Power Co. Carolina Environmental Study Group, 438 59, 80 (1978). tells us mindful "children themselves constitutionally protectible interests." Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 243 (1972) (Douglas, "[i]t future student, parents," 245. cite several additional bases standing: "at times himself attended—and attend—class daughter," 49, 80; "has considered teaching District],"id., 65, 120; attended attend" meetings "routinely recited," 52, 85; uses tax dollars implement 62-65. arguments suffice respond concerns. taxpayer reside pay taxes District; pays "indirectly" through payments Banning. n. 70. allegation amount "direct dollars-and-cents injury" strict taxpayer-standing doctrine requires. Doremus Hawthorne, 342 434 (1952). 36 whom O'CONNOR joins, THOMAS joins I, 37 today erects novel principle avoid reaching claim. I willing 38 correctly notes "our `judicially jurisdiction,' [Allen 751 (1984)]." Ante, 11-12. To clear, (hereinafter respondent) satisfies requisites But curiously incorporates criticism justification principle. concludes new principle, 39 have, past, judicially clear jurisdiction. See, 499 (1975); ("Standing embraces jurisdiction, . ."). here principle: "[I]t standing." 17. loosely diversity-of-citizenship pursuant 1332, criticisms construction coupled rights. 40 First, relies heavily discussed Ankenbrandt, sued former spouse female companion children, sexual abuse children. lower diversity Younger Harris, 401 (1971). concluding applies "divorce, decrees," 704. inappropriate ha[d] determined matter any event underlying torts alleged," 41 cites Then quote Ankenbrandt's doctrine: "We `elements relationship,' issue." 13. perfunctorily states: "Thus, courts." conclusion follow abstention; did, applicable Palmore. 42 limiting defining 703. involve ask decree. Instead involves conducting ceremony, Therefore, forms basis respondent. 43 "[a]bstention invoked, `virtually unflagging them.'" 705 817 (1976)). means supports issue," ante, 13, issue. [constitutional violation] alleged." now views, affairs nothing Abstention 44 429 example exceptional "substantial issue" appropriate. Palmore, found effects racial prejudice mother's interracial marriage justify granting father. Contrary assertion, violation, clearly question," "transcen[d] exis[t] 13; everything relationship—"[w]e divesting natural infant child," 430 (emphasis added). today, appears stayed dispute" how offensive been. 45 Finally, seems part, third-party original satisfied requirements, stating 2002). moved reexamined respondent's parents' court-ordered arrangement altered 500 examined assert fact asking whether, "noncustodial maintain educate parent."1 504. again retained 504-505 (citing Petersen, 79 (1980); 843 (1983)). 46 contrary "requests Murga" act sphere. mischaracterizes de novo 47 correct characterization rests recognizes, 16, "settled firm deferring law." Bowen 487 879, 908 (1988). reflect better schooled able interpret Brockett Spokane Arcades, 472 491, (1985) citation settled think reading supra, supra. 48 take upbringing view diminish interest, "wishes endorsing State's placing imprimatur "veto power" override ceremony. 49 "do [respondent] religion." Surely, current tell to. Just surely, name wishes. different: just anyone vindicate solely 50 asserts ceremony infringes While intimately associated (the father-daughter thereunder), standing; instead properly described.2 provide 51 succeeded confining almost narrowly enough be, like proverbial excursion ticket—good only—our ad hoc improvisations. reads: 52 53 overall effort "codify emphasize existing America," 2047, 77th (1942); 1477, (1942), enacted 22, 1942. Pub. 623, 7, 380, 1972. include 1954. amendment's sponsor, Representative Rabaut, said country's Soviet Union's embrace atheism. 100 Cong. Rec. 1700 Members thought amendment. Following passed made extensive historic role political development reaffirmed Nov. 107-293, §§ 1-2, 116 2057-2060. millions people regularly access to, concern with, legislative history, mean things: guided destiny example, God's authority. How much gives probably varies, since observance focused primarily Nation, secondarily description Nation. 54 seems, historical matter, sum up attitude leaders, manifest observances. Examples invocations official acknowledgments religion's abound. 55 Washington's inauguration April 30, 1789, "stepped iron rail, receive oath office. diminutive secretary Senate, Samuel Otis, squeezed Chancellor Livingston crimson cushion Bible it. Washington put Bible, opened Psalm 121:1: raise eyes hills. Whence help come.' proceeded oath: `Do you solemnly swear faithfully execute office best your ability preserve, defend Constitution States?' responded, swear,' repeated oath, adding, `So me God.' bent forward kissed him." Riccards, Republic, You Can Keep It: Presidency, 1700-1800, pp. 73-74 (1987). 57 Later same year, after encouragement Congress,3 Thanksgiving proclamation, began: 58 "Whereas duty Nations acknowledge providence Almighty obey will, grateful benefits, humbly implore protection favor—and whereas Houses Committee requested recommend People thanksgiving prayer acknowledging hearts signal favors especially affording them opportunity peaceably safety happiness.'" Papers 131: Presidential Series (W. Abbot & Twohig eds. 1993). 59 Almost succeeding Presidents similar proclamations. 60 Presidents, critical likewise invoked Abraham Lincoln, masterful Gettysburg Address 1863, used God": 61 "It dedicated task remaining us—that honored dead increased devotion last measure devotion—that died vain—that nation, birth freedom—and people, perish earth." Documents History (H. Commager 8th 1968). 62 Lincoln's equally well-known inaugural address, 4, 1865, references famous words: 63 "With malice none, charity all, firmness let strive finish work in, bind nation's wounds, care borne battle widow orphan, achieve cherish lasting peace among ourselves nations." 443. 64 Woodrow Wilson appeared 1917, request war Germany. finished 65 "But precious peace, fight things carried nearest hearts,—for democracy, submit voice Governments, liberties small nations, universal dominion concert nations world free. can dedicate lives fortunes, come privileged spend blood principles happiness treasured. helping her, other." 132. 66 Franklin Delano Roosevelt, taking Presidency depths Great Depression, dedication nation blessing May us! guide days come!" 242. 67 Dwight Eisenhower, President, "Order Day" soldiers, sailors, airmen Allied Expeditionary Force D-Day—the Forces successfully landed Normandy beaches France—with "Good Luck! beseech noble undertaking," http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/dl/DDay/SoldiersSailorsAirmen.pdf (all Internet materials visited 2004, available Clerk file). motto Trust" coins during Treasury Salmon Chase, acting 1864, prescribed appear cent coin. placed denominations, 1938 bear motto. Paper currency followed slower pace; Federal Reserve inscribed decade 1960's. Meanwhile, 1956, Trust." 795, 70 732. 69 Marshal's opening proclamation "`God save honorable Court.'" language goes back least far 1827. Smith, Early Indiana Trials Sketches: Reminiscences (1858) (quoted Warren, 469 1926)). All events strongly suggest culture allows recognition character. insertion Pledge: "From Giving idea anthem Star-Spangled Banner, 1931. 301 Historical Revision Notes. verse ends 71 "Then conquer must, just, 72 "And motto: `In trust.' 73 star-spangled banner triumph wave 74 "O'er land home brave!" http://www.bcpl.net/~etowner/anthem.html. 75 pointed schools "conduc[t] exercises" beginning schoolday, "giving satisfy requirements section." complies instructing [P]ledge [A]llegiance [F]lag day." 149-150. Students (or other) 624, 642 (1943) (holding compel Pledge). 76 Notwithstanding voluntary nature vote, "impermissibly coerces act." 2003). result, Lee Weisman, 505 577 arose graduation high Providence, Island. began invocation ended benediction, local rabbi. attendance voluntary, objected prayers nonetheless feel coerced prayer. throughout exercise," 598, formal 589. 77 principles." 6. 78 believe converts recital "religious exercise" sort described Lee. loyalty represents. sense prayer, nor endorsement simple 2: Reciting listening it, exercise, one; participants promise fidelity faith, church.4 doubt sincere atheism rejection mere disagrees give manner Congress. disagree, "with objectors participate. Only somehow tends succeed, all" fails. broadly interpreted phrase, none gone anywhere near recital, pledging descriptive possibly anything extend prohibitions beyond previously limit, restrict democratic choices bodies. observances schools, chose comply teacher-led students. levels popular — national, state, collaborating produce schoolchildren so. "heckler's veto" willingly students, unwarranted extension Clause, unfortunate commendable observance. 81 join concurrence full. Like him, Courts 879 (1988), JUSTICE, examine questions, petitioner recitations offend presented illuminates presents, write separately explain policy. 83 before, "cannot easily reduced single test. categories cases, call approaches." Kiryas Village Grumet, 512 687, 720 (1994) (concurring opinion). confronts government-sponsored speech displays, test "captures essential namely, community conveying message `that favored preferred.'" County Allegheny Liberties Union, Greater Pittsburgh Chapter, 492 573, 627 judgment) Wallace Jaffree, 38, (O'CONNOR, judgment)). context, repeatedly applied test, Capitol Square Review Pinette, 515 753, 772-773 (1995) (display cross plaza capitol); Allegheny, 625 creche county court-house menorah city buildings); Wallace, (statute authorizing meditative moment silence classrooms); Donnelly, 465 668, 688 concurring) (inclusion Nativity scene government's Christmas display), here. 84 Endorsement, explained, "sends nonadherents outsiders, members community, accompanying adherents insiders, community." occurred, reviewing keep mind crucial 85 "to identify situations community," assumes viewpoint reasonable observer. 772 Given dizzying heterogeneity adopting subjective approach reduce absurdity. Nearly overturned sufficed endorsement. 780 ("There someone who, quantum knowledge, reasonably religion"). Second, "reasonable observer" embody ideal social rational evaluate isolation origins context. observer aware question, place cultural landscape. 781. 86 government, some instances, refer commemorate life. supra; Lynch, Marsh Chambers, 463 783 (1983). rationales varied, consistent; belief, understood employing idiom secular purposes. history. life inevitable consequence origins. refused ignore changes composition explaining modern scope Clauses, 52-54 (even originally meant intolerance sects, encompass conscience), deny left mark traditions. unsurprising refugees freedom find divinity symbols, songs, mottoes, oaths.* Eradicating sever ties sustains today. 623 (declining draw lines "sweep away citizens"). 87 Facially valuable well. Twenty ago, wrote "serve, ways possible culture, legitimate solemnizing occasions, expressing confidence future, encouraging worthy appreciation society." 692-693 For centuries, occasions divine assistance. solemnize occasion provenance. fully practices, signifying specific nonreligion. 88 minimis violations harms slight obliged them. values serve, can, discrete category offending "ceremonial deism" ("In Trust"), songs Marshal opens sessions ("God Court"). 630 judgment). These trespasses turn blind eye. character, context prevent being all. 89 instance ceremonial deism. close does, evaluation four factors. Ubiquity 90 value deism turns understanding nonreligious exist significant fairly ubiquitous. 693. By uncommon perceived endorsements presumed familiar examining deism, "history ubiquity" importance. 630-631: "Under `history ubiquity' creates `artificial exception' contrary, evaluates conveys 91 Fifty added, span inconsiderable relative become, alongside singing routine patriotism; countless daily, reflects whole. employed nearly inseparable mind. No surprised learn leading 92 doubted "no acquires vested long use, covers entire existence indeed predates Yet unbroken something lightly cast aside." Walz Tax Comm'n 397 664, 678 (1970). pervasively engendering controversy. evaluated town included creche, "apparently divisiveness filing lawsuit" years. 692-693. Similarly, recited now, was, reported am impermissible Community Consol. 980 (CA7 1992); Smith Denny, 280 Supp. 651 (ED citizens neither timid unimaginative challenging practices forbidden "establishments" Altman Bedford Central Dist., 245 (CA2 2001) (challenging, things, story Hindu deity Ganesha fourth-grade classroom); Alvarado San Jose, 94 1223 1996) (challenge sculpture Aztec Quetzalcoatl Mexican contributions culture); Peloza Capistrano 517 1994) (high biology teacher's teach evolution); Fleischfresser Directors 200, 680 supplemental program works fantasy witches, goblins, Halloween); 760 447, 449 1985) conviction vandalism B-52 bomber, theory property-protection established "`national nuclearism bomb salvation'"); Mead 354, 753 1528 Learning Tree, Gordon Parks, English literature class); Crowley Smithsonian Inst., 636 738 1980) museum evolution). vigor creativity challenges, telling little ire directed Absence worship 93 "[O]ne greatest dangers way [lies] Government's stamp approval services." Engel Vitale, 370 421, (1962). extraordinary circumstances actual defended upheld challenge, supported extremely unambiguous (upholding Nebraska Legislature's 128-year-old offered chaplain). Any statement speaker listener penitent mind, intended spiritual communion aid, strays Santa Fe Independent Doe, 530 290, 309 (2000) ("[T]he solemnity when, actuality, [state-sponsored] prayer"). imbued qualities But, observer, cognizant ubiquity, question. worship. canon, count expression faith. taken literally, descriptive; purports seen serious submission Cf. Engel, (describing solemn avowal faith supplication blessings Almighty"). note heading "Patriotic Exercises," implements refers employs teachers, chaplains instructors, students' exercise; serves indication treat 577, 594 (reasoning benediction construed rabbi it). 95 legislators voted done attempt attach overtly message. 2-3 intentions cannot, own, permissible objectives meant, "individuality dignity human being." Second critically subsequent shows character transformed Abington Township Schempp, 374 203 (1963), initiate "for supporting religion" "retai[n] la[w] furthering overwhelmingly ends." 263-264 McGowan 366 420 (1961)). Whatever sectarian authors continued repetition exclusively shaped conform freight carry lost. 716 (Brennan, dissenting) (suggesting "lost rote content"). 96 97 clearest denomination officially preferred another." Larson Valente, 456 228, 244 (1982). need observers denigrating nonreligious, "where sectarian, specifying details women benevolent, omnipotent Creator Ruler known differ." 641 (SCALIA, explicitly system another. 98 Jesus" Vishnu," acknowledges way: generic "God." religions Buddhism, Being. Amici Curiae 15-16. imagine adequately citizen added robust represents tolerable favoring sect system. Minimal content 99 factor circumscribed struck down displays pervasive. 581-582 (prayers thanks blessings). scrutiny avoiding mention (invalidating Alabama providing meditation prayer). brevity reasons. confirm endorse way. easier "opt out" reject entirely. third, limit express preference "God" qualifies minimal religion; focuses Pledge's words. Moreover, presence absolutely demonstrated existed saying remainder 101 framed inquiry application representation convey origins, adhere literal outsiders. factors "coercion" featured 290 (2000); 102 coercion minimum, coerce participate otherwise `establishes [state] so.'" 678). persuades onlooker inconsequential, symbolic qualify say, cardinal belief; leaders force proclaim creed, religious, philosophic, political. eloquent itself, contained objects. (Jackson, J.). compulsion Jackson concerned, guarantee betray did; democracy insulates inflammatory. 104 well-intentioned one, distaste however sincere, yardstick Certain founding ironic wield developed honor never "noncustodial" points recent enjoys Also described, next-friend "[was] friend."Ante, stated: "`To naming in—mine particular, child—my harmed," actually suit, don't there's preclude that.'" B4. distinct daughter's, either. proposed, urged `a favours God.'"Lynch 675, concludes, onWest (1943), Post, 46-47 Barnette involved compelled 629. opt out, there "Failure [was] `insubordination' dealt expulsion. Readmission denied compliance. Meanwhile expelled `unlawfully absent' [could] delinquent. His guardians [were] liable prosecution, convicted fine exceeding $50 jail thirty days." (footnotes (Barnette) (Lee). Compulsion, permissible, whatever virtues vices Lee, "formal exercise[s]," 589, Note, mottoes: Arizona Enriches"); ("Nothing Providence"); Connecticut ("He Who Transplanted Still Sustains"); Florida Trust"); Ohio ("With Things Are Possible"); Dakota ("Under Rule"). mottoes seals, flags Georgia's newly redesigned oaths office, citizenship, civil service end (optional) "[S]o U.S.C. 453; 3331; 502; CFR 337.1 (2004). Many contain overt implicit divine, them: ("Protect thy might, King"); Beautiful shed grace thee"); bless 106 is: "no." testament condition jurisprudence, opposite persuasive precedent, expansive definition decides "difficult question" "[w]hether th[e Establishment] constrain Amendment." Zelman Simmons-Harris, 536 639, (2002) (THOMAS, difficulties run deeper Lee.1 107 agree process rethinking federalism provision, which, reason, resists incorporation. explain, implicated sensible cover 108 benedictions not, consistent secondary graduations. emphasized "heightened conscience subtle coercive pressure schools." 592. brushed aside graduation, 586 (asserting "attendance participation in" "are fair real obligatory"), compelled, sense, component 593 ("What conventions, dissenter milieu signified it"). surmised "peer pressure" or, least, respectful benediction," ibid. perception forced pray allow," 109 Adherence require strike respects, one-time event, graduating (if already) adults, usually present. removed parents, day. 110 troubling kinds "coercion." graduations, subtle: (that is, "in sense," 586) school. 203, 223 (1963). 111 Analysis identified somewhat complicated. decided (in sense) allegiance. Formally, then, dissenters refuse pledge, refusal onlookers.2 theoretical opting indicated: "Research psychology assumption adolescents often susceptible peers towards conformity ." Lee's reasoning, Barnette's illusory, officials allow peer predictable course. Further, assume sitting mistaken assent dissenting "coerced" pray. most, appearing here, results unwilling allegiance.3 112 distinguish asserting "that `under God' [does not] conver[t] `religious exercise' Lee." salute flag. "compulsion declare belief." 631. "require[d] affirmation mind." 633. form, entails S.C. belief" difficult entail exists. Whether classify affirming akin problems. 113 sure, admit distinction. squarely "declare Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 489 (1961); 495 ("We repeat reaffirm Government profess disbelief religion'"); Employment Div., Dept. Resources Ore. 494 872, 877 (1990) ("The belief"); Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 269-270, (1981) (rejecting speech). said, questionably, "prohibits (1989). News Club Milford School, 533 98, 126-127 (2001) 114 unconstitutional. believe, wrongly decided. notion discuss below, reason. accomplished "by threat penalty." 640 dissenting); 640-645. Peer pressure, unpleasant coercion. Lee-style settle allegiance, legally Cf., 421 becomes 115 accept protects Zelman, 679, matter. provision interfering establishments. unlike incorporate infringe free-exercise constitutional. textual prohibits establishing Hamburger, sources). Perhaps importantly, interfere establishments, notwithstanding Congress' Necessary Proper Amar, 36-39 (1998). 117 suggests reaches further. plainly individuals congressional interference expressly disable "abridging [particular] freedom[s]." (Emphasis added.) prevailing e.g., Story, Commentaries 1873 (5th 1891); Rights, 32-42; 246-257. understanding: founding, six religions, McConnell, Origins Understanding Religion, Harv. 1409, 1437 (1990). Nor point escaped notice 677-680 concurring); 118 Quite simply, establishments right. features independently understand. favor disabling enforceable Government, Incorporation goes, sense. alluded possibility before. 679 ("States touch impede interest" added)). 119 assuming precludes created likely beneficiaries. putative leads peculiar outcome: prohibit precisely (Stewart, (noting absorbed irony evidently go become restriction autonomy"). Nevertheless, potential candidate 120 welcome observation suffices now: strange sounds, incorporated exactly pertain burden persuasion claims pertains "establishment B 121 "establishments necessarily coercion: 122 hallmark orthodoxy financial penalty. Typically, church required; clergy lawfully perform sacraments; dissenters, tolerated, faced array disabilities. Levy, (1986). Colony England established, ministers rites England; observe Sabbath, tithed Anglican ministers, taxed costs building repairing churches. 3-4." 640-641 123 "establishment" broader definition, taxation, element (by State) 641. 124 conceivable "establish" imbuing Larkin Grendel's Den, 459 (1982), "delegat[ing] civic chosen according criterion," 698 (1994); 590-591. organization carries begins look establishment," coercively. Zorach Clauson, 343 306, (1952) (Black, (explaining "insure[s] powerful combination sects punish convert faith" 125 creating maintaining above implicate addressing Stewart point, emphasizing "we deal church, want joining doing so." 445 (dissenting opinion).4 126 commend "bar[s] preferences faiths." Rosenberger Rector Visitors Univ. Va., 819, 856 this. inherent "preferences" Madison's Memorial Remonstrance Against Assessments (reprinted Everson Ewing, 330 1, 63-72 (1947) (appendix Rutledge, J.)), extolled no-preference argument, taxation title implies.5 And, "more extreme notions separation [might] attribut[able] Madison, `arguments reflecting concepts contract society,' [R. Cord, State: Fact Current Fiction (1982)], nonestablishment Constitution." Rosenberger, State, became views). C 127 Through maintained establishment, follows comports observation. See,e.g., 861 hopeless disarray"); Lamb's Chapel Moriches 508 384, 398-401 (1993) selectively tests, "Lemon test," Lemon Kurtzman, 403 (1971), outcomes. Chapel, jurisprudential confusion led silly. 573 distinguished 18-foot Chanukah 45-foot tree other. asLee "`[l]aw past formalism.'" 311 595 (1992)). Surely (where failure immediately one's peers) student-initiated student-led football game. SeeSanta calling utility incorporating See,e. 253-254 "obtuse reasoning" "[n]o classroom instruction brought classrooms schools"); coercion-based absent evidence "teachers using persuade instruction" Again, perhaps analyzed framework

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