Document: 480 U.S. 470 107 S.Ct. 1232 94 L.Ed.2d 472 KEYSTONE BITUMINOUS COAL ASSOCIATION, et al., Petitionersv.Nicholas DeBENEDICTIS, Secretary, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, al. No. 85-1092. Argued Nov. 10, 1986. Decided March 9, 1987. Syllabus Section 4 Pennsylvania's Bituminous Mine Subsidence and Land Conservation Act (Act) prohibits coal mining that causes subsidence damage to pre-existing public buildings, dwellings, cemeteries. Implementing regulations issued by Resources (DER) require 50% the beneath § 4-protected structures be kept in place provide surface support, extend 4's protection water courses. 6 authorizes DER revoke a permit if removal structure or area operator has not within six months repaired damage, satisfied any claim arising therefrom, deposited sum repairs will reasonably cost as security. Petitioners, who own control substantial reserves under Act-protected property, filed suit Federal District Court seeking enjoin from enforcing regulations. The complaint alleged, inter alia, recognizes separate "support estate" addition mineral estates land; approximately 90% petitioners mine was severed between 1890 1920; typically acquired waivers damages claims might result removal; 4, implemented rule, violate Fifth Amendment's Takings Clause; violates Article I's Contracts Clause. Because had yet alleged proved specific injury caused enforcement §§ regulations, only question before whether mere enactment constituted taking. granted DER's motion for summary judgment on this facial challenge. Appeals affirmed, holding Coal Co. v. Mahon, 260 393, 43 158, 67 L.Ed. 322, does control; effect taking; impairment private contracts effectuated justified interests protected Act. Held: 1. Petitioners have their burden showing regulations' rule constitute taking property without compensation violation Fourteenth Amendments. case because two factors there considered relevant—the Commonwealth's interest enacting law extent taking—here support Act's constitutionality. Pp. 481-502. (a) Unlike statute Coal, is intended serve genuine, substantial, legitimate health, environment, fiscal integrity minimizing areas. None indicia enacted solely benefit parties identified are present here. Petitioners' argument 6's remedies unnecessary satisfy purposes insurance program reimburses repair costs persuasive, since purpose served deterring operators causing first making them assume financial responsibility. Thus, Commonwealth merely exercised its police power prevent activities tantamount nuisances. character governmental action leans heavily against finding 485-493. (b) record similar one makes it impossible profitably engage business, been undue interference with investment-backed expectations. involves constitutional challenge, such necessary establish However, never claimed operations, even mines, unprofitable passed; nor evidence location affected unprofitable. In fact, relevant testimony indicating requires leave 27 million tons (less than 2%) place. effectively appropriated no other useful mined fails do segment purposes. indicates 75% petitioners' underground can event, reasonable "investment-backed expectations" materially 4-imposed duty. constitutes entirely destroys value unique estate also fails. As practical matter, insofar used exploit another estate. takings just part operators' bundle rights. retain right virtually all estates, places Moreover, what percentage either aggregate respect individual estate, Act, Clause challenge 493-502. 2. impair contractual agreements I, Constitution denying hold owners liability damage. read literally obliterate valid exercises States' protect health welfare. Here, significant preventing cemeteries, courses, determined imposition companies interest. This determination, entitled deference party question. enforce generations-old amply 502-506. 771 F.2d 707 (CA 3 1985), affirmed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, which BRENNAN, WHITE, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, JJ., joined. REHNQUIST, C.J., dissenting opinion, POWELL, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, joined, post, p. ----. Rex Lee, Washington, D.C., petitioners. Andrew S. Gordon, Harrisburg, Pa., respondents. Justice Court. 1 322 (1922), reviewed constitutionality admittedly destroyed "previously existing rights contract." Id., at 413, S.Ct., 159. Writing Holmes explained: 2 "Government hardly could go some values incident diminished paying every change general law. long recognized, enjoyed an implied limitation must yield power. But obviously limits, contract due process clauses gone. One fact consideration determining limits diminution. When reaches certain magnitude, most cases exercise eminent domain sustain act. So depends upon particular facts." Ibid. "particular facts" led Legislature gone beyond powers when prohibiting anthracite manner would cause land were located. 5 Now, 65 years later, we address different set facts," involving Legislature's 1966 conclusion legislation failed safety, conservation, preservation municipalities' tax bases, development Commonwealth. Based detailed findings, legislature (Subsidence Act), Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 52, 1406.1 seq. (Purdon Supp.1986). contend, relying our decision implementing Clause, Constitution. concluded several reasons subsequent make clear neither unconstitutional face. We agree. * lowering strata overlying mine, including surface, extraction coal. devastating effects.1 It often foundations, walls, structural members, houses buildings. frequently sinkholes troughs difficult develop. Its farming well documented—many subsided areas cannot plowed properly prepared. loss groundwater ponds.2 short, presents type environmental concern focus so much federal, state, local regulation recent decades.3 7 Despite name may suggest, "full extraction" methods currently western Pennsylvania4 enables miners extract subsurface coal; considerable amounts need left ground access, ventilation mines. Additionally, required various laws legitimacy challenged here, safety reasons.5 Since 1966, placed additional restrictions amount extracted; these designed diminish vicinity 8 implement comprehensive minimize regulate consequences. 1406.4 Supp.1986), three categories April 17, 1966: buildings noncommercial generally public; dwellings human habitation; cemeteries.6 applied formula means providing support.7 1406.6 equal security.8 II 9 1982, civil United States Western officials association operators, four corporations engaged, directly through affiliates, bituminous Pennsylvania. members corporate own, lease, otherwise defendants action, respondents Secretary DER, Chief Division Subsidence, Regulation. 10 alleges land: estate; estate." Beginning over 100 ago, landowners began severing title while retaining conveying away ownership stipulated period 1920. acquiring predecessors retained enable remove they deposit wastes, drainage ventilation, erect facilities tipples, roads, railroads, surface. waiver 11 portions us, both They impairs Constitution.9 entered into stipulation facts pertaining cross-motions respondents' motion. 12 rejecting claim, distinguished primarily found lacking earlier case. 581 F.Supp. 511, 516 (W.D.Pa.1984). restriction use power, welfare public. answer separate, recognized realty—the estate—had destroyed, consists rights, That valuable "strand" possessed owner controlling Andrus Allard, 444 51, 318, 62 210 (1979). 13 noted contention impaired party. obligations impaired, court appropriate defer legislature's determinations concerning legislation. adjustment contracting tailored those "significant legitimate" F.Supp., 514. At parties' request, certified appeal. 14 agreeing "protect[ing] environment Commonwealth, economic future, well-being." 707, 715 (1985). Appeals' analysis differed somewhat Court's, however. did rely itself many but rather larger invariably includes Judge Adams 15 "To separately assessing diminution plaintiffs' therefore little purpose. more viewed 'strand' plaintiff's 'bundle' stated Andrus, '[t]he destruction entirety.' [100 326]. . wish put forbidden. plaintiffs still possess coal, subject requirement subsidence, entire destroyed." 716. 16 With agreed higher degree should afforded legislative respecting social affecting wholly State agreements. held "that devastated thus endangered people." 718. certiorari, 475 1080, 106 1456, 89 714 (1986), now affirm. III 17 assert disposition claim10 calls straightforward application Court's Mahon. Although obvious similarities cases, agree far less differences, 18 Company notice Mr. Mrs. Mahon company's operations premises soon reach point Mahons bill equity company removing "the caving in, collapse subsidence" dwelling. acknowledged owned soil" lot, reserved Nonetheless, asserted then recently Kohler 1921, P.L. 1198, 661 1966), prohibited structures, injunction. 19 After initially having preliminary injunction pending hearing merits, Chancellor dissolved it, observing: 20 "[T]he contains averment base implication involved defendant's proposal except prevention injury." Tr. Record O.T. 1922, 549, 23. 21 Supreme reversed, concluding proper 274 Pa. 489, 118 A. 491 (1922). dissented. He actually lives special sole released support. 512-518, A., 499-501. 22 promptly appealed asserting impact severe "a serious shortage domestic fuel threatened." Motion Advance Argument 3. explained until ruled, "no likely mined," strikes threatened throughout fields.11 contended bona fide reality nothing " 'robbery forms law' "not augment favored few." See U.S., 396-398, 159, quoting Loan Assn. Topeka, Wall. 655, 664, 455 (1874). 23 Over Brandeis' dissent, accepted argument. his characteristically decided hand single, terse paragraph: 24 "This single house. No doubt this, purchase sale happens commonwealth. Some modified Rideout Knox, 148 Mass. 368 [19 N.E. 390]. usually ordinary affairs warrant kind interference. A source house nuisance inflicted others places. common Wesson Washburn Iron Co., Allen, 95, 103. shown limited, ordinarily apply Furthermore, personal safety. provided notice. Indeed very foundation defendant gave timely intent On great. purports abolish land—a estate—and declared below hitherto binding plaintiffs. If called deal position alone, think disclose sufficient extensive constitutionally rights." 413-414, 25 Then—uncharacteristically—Justice advisory discussing validity Act."12 portion rested propositions, critical decision. First, interests, "sustained power." 414, Second, made "commercially impracticable" "certain coal" Act.13 26 holdings assumptions distinguishing us today. relevant, become integral parts analysis. "does substantially advance state denies economically viable land." Agins Tiburon, 447 255, 260, 2138, 2141, (1980) (citations omitted); see Penn Central Transportation New York City, 438 104, 124, 98 2646, 2659, 57 631 (1978). Application tests demonstrates unlike here acted arrest perceives threat finding, Public Purpose passed involve balancing owners. specifically important policy provides: 28 act shall deemed people conservation 'open pit' 'strip' mining, aid public, enhance lands taxation, supplies improve enjoyment maintain primary jurisdiction Pennsylvania." 1406.2 29 convinced purposes14 forth legitimate, reason conclude otherwise.15 30 Holmes' "private benefit" "ordinarily coal." contrast, exception. current waive consents. Code 89.145(b) (1983). forced reject justification easily accomplished landowners. accomplish number widely varying reference suggested alternative proceed. 31 argue least 6, pay suffer administers adequately repairing property. rests mistaken premise motivated desire parties. however, occurring place—in words statute—"by areas." responsibility damaged deters all—the main goal—whereas reimburse after occurs.16 32 differs dispositive respects. regard believed ensure landowners' homes. individuals needed "take[n] risk 416, 160. acting area. erred estop exercising abate activity akin nuisance. prime example "circumstances time clothe [public] times matter purely concern." Block Hirsh, 256 135, 155, 41 458, 459, 865 (1921). 33 nature State's factor occurred, required.17 eight earlier, Plymouth Pennsylvania, 232 531, 34 359, 58 713 (1914). There, "it competent pillar along line adjoining property." 415, dealt employees invited secured average reciprocity advantage laws." Many analysis.18 Mugler Kansas, 123 623, 273, 205 (1887), example, Kansas distiller built brewery legal amendment manufacture intoxicating liquors. "buildings machinery constituting breweries value" Amendment, id., 657, 294, Harlan 35 "prohibition simply declared, legislation, injurious morals, community, cannot, sense, appropriation prejudicial not—and, consistently existence organized society be—burdened condition compensate pecuniary losses sustain, being permitted, noxious inflict community." 668-669, 300-301. 36 supra; Hadacheck Sebastian, 239 394, 143, 60 348 (1915); Reinman Little Rock, 237 171, 59 900 Powell 127 678, 992, 253 (1888). 37 implicit assertion overruled focused regulation. Just five decision, joined unanimous Miller Schoene, 276 272, 48 246, 72 568 (1928), Virginia cedar trees ordered destroyed. disease spreading nearby apple orchards, represented resource. upholding consider "weigh nicety infected cedars according law; statute." 280, 247. Rather, impending danger justified, compensation. Euclid Ambler Realty 272 365, 47 114, 71 303 (1926); Omnia Commercial States, 261 502, 509, 437, 438, 773 (1923). Other reaffirm role plays Goldblatt Hempstead, 369 590, 82 987, 130 (1962); Consolidated Rock Products Los Angeles, Cal.2d 515, Cal.Rptr. 638, 370 P.2d 342, appeal dism'd, 371 36, 83 145, 112 (1962). : "Although comparison after" regulatory "is conclusive. ." 594, 990.19 38 hesitance find restrains uses nuisances consistent notion "reciprocity advantage" referred Coal.20 Under system government, ways preserving weal restricting While each burdened restrictions, we, turn, greatly others.21 144-150, 2669-2672 (REHNQUIST, dissenting); cf. California Reduction Sanitary Works, 199 306, 100, 50 204 (1905). These "properly treated citizenship." Kimball Laundry 338 1, 5, 69 1434, 1437, 93 1765 (1949). Long ago "all country obligation owner's community," 665, 299; Beer Massachusetts, 97 (7 Otto) 25, 32, 989 (1877), transform principle whenever asserts it.22 Mugler, 298. 39 "determination taking, is, essence, determination large, owner, bear interest," "necessarily weighing interests." 260-261, 2141. discussed above demonstrate, one, instances plainly seeks further rest test cases. 40 Diminution Value Investment-Backed Expectations second distinguishes commercially impracticable. case, deprivation enough heavy alleging For reason, fail. 42 addressing disregard posture comes us. "[b]ecause statute, concrete controversy regarding provisions statutes taking." 513 (emphasis added). next phase presentation about actual effects them. Instead proceeding manner, joint asking certify assessment "will complex voluminous proofs," present, App. 15-17, stressed appellate reverse expenditures adjudicating as-applied wasted. considerations, questions relating challenge.23 distinction government piece payment illustrated Hodel Surface Mining & Reclamation Assn., Inc., 452 264, 101 2352, (1981), rejected preenforcement Control 1977. reliance statutory deprived land. 44 ignored oft-repeated admonition ought factual setting necessary. Socialist Labor Party Gilligan, 406 583, 588 [92 1716, 1719, 317] (1972); Rescue Army Municipal 331 568-575, 584 [67 1409, 1419-1423, 1427, 91 1666] (1947); Alabama Federation McAdory, 325 450, 461 [65 1384, 1389, 1725] (1945). Adherence particularly raising allegations last Term, reaffirmed: '[T]his "been unable develop 'set formula' 'justice fairness' injuries compensated remain disproportionately concentrated few persons." examined "taking" engaging essentially ad hoc, inquiries factors—such regulation, investment backed expectations, action—that significance.' Kaiser Aetna 164, 175 383, 390, 332] (1979) omitted). 45 "These 'ad inquiries' conducted estimates ultimate valuation circumstances. 46 "Because appellees' arose context presented parcels issue and, 'mere enactment' 106] (1980). considering fairly straightforward. regulating 'denies .' supra, 2141]; Transp. 104 [98 631] (1978)." 295-296, 2370. face uphill battle attack hill especially steep claimed, stage, impracticable continue Indeed, pointed longer profit. available answers interrogatories. described 1966-1982 mines operate, bit total 1.46 billion tons. 284. Thus 2% place.24 But, indicated, nowhere near extractable aside necessarily distinct sets, information how 4. know, passed. Nor 49 Instead, sought narrowly define segments that, defined, use. carving order conclusion. mined. contend taken property—the compare remains unit "whose furnish denominator fraction." Michelman, Property, Utility, Fairness: Comments Ethical Foundations "Just Compensation" Law, 80 Harv.L.Rev. 1165, 1192 (1967).25 51 'Taking' jurisprudence divide parcel discrete attempt determine abrogated. deciding effected focuses whole —here city block designated 'landmark site.' 130-131, 2662. 52 Similarly, (1979), "where possesses full entirety." 65-66, 326-327. verbal formulizations solve definitional issues arise defining mass guidance compel arguments. Place 53 54 Andrus. zoning ordinances profitable building occupy specified lot located characterized vacant readily pillars theory always setback ordinance requiring distance footage represents Cf. Gorieb Fox, 603, 675, 1228 (1927) (upholding ordinance) (Sutherland, J.). There basis treating 55 statement best understood referring Company's undertake light strong assertions "unable operate large collieries Scranton, employing thousand men." 2.26 56 "At blush, language seems suggest defendants' rendered unmineable—that 'certain' accessible, reads sentence context, becomes 'right [could] profit.' 414 [43 159] assumed based understanding business unprofitable." F.2d, 716, n. 6. financial-backed plain come close satisfying proving denied duty small 4.27 Support Estate apparently conveyed apart estate.28 comparable consequence clear, forecloses legalistic distinctions Central, "air rights" terminal 130, Likewise, sell element turn allowed Appeals, familiar are, minerals. stated: "The earth undergird layers intact subsidence. co-exist depending chosen. operator, although recognize 'separate' interest, Montgomery, Development Right Subjacent 'Third Pennsylvania,' Temple L.Q. (1951)." 715-716. 61 terms, protects enhances associated. destroy process. accept invitation view "takings" purposes, sustaining great land, which, course, deals immediate bodies water, supra. devoid purchased circumstances, surely fail.29 IV 63 allowing Here too, adequate justify 64 Prior ratification check section "No enter Treaty, Alliance, Confederation; grant Letters Marque Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills Credit; Thing gold silver Coin Tender Payment Debts; pass Bill Attainder, ex post facto Law impairing Obligation Contracts, Title Nobility." Const., Art. 10. 66 section, settled prohibition literally. W.B. Worthen Thomas, 292 426, 433, 816, 818, 78 1344 (1934). found, historical adopted,30 construing indicate repudiate adjust debtor-creditor relationships obligors satisfy. e.g., ibid.; Home Building Blaisdell, 290 398, 231, 413 Even refused give literal reading. landmark upheld Minnesota's moratorium home foreclosures, part, addressed "legitimate end" protecting basic society," group. 445, 242. Stewart "[I]t commonplace Contract States. 'It interdiction vested promotion weal, good though previously thereby affected. ramifications known sovereign Government lives, comfort people, paramount individuals.' Manigault Springs, 473, [26 127, (1905) ]. succinctly Hudson Water McCarter, 209 349, 357 [28 529, 828 (1908) ]: 'One whose restriction, carry infirmity matter.' Allied Structural Steel Spannaus, 234, 241-242, 2716, 2720-2721, 727 68 begin identifying precise impairment. obtained removes owners' damages. operates relationship," 244, 2722, proceed justifications impairment.31 14,000 cemeteries courses conducted. contracted previous generations ago,32 conduct way shambles discussed, harm, transcends agreement 70 Of not, itself, obligations. "adjustment 'the responsibilities [is based] conditions [is] justifying [the legislation's] adoption.' Energy Reserves Group, Inc. Power Light 459 400, 412, 103 697, 704, 74 569 (1983) (quoting Trust Jersey, 431 22, 1505, 1517, 92 (1977)). repeatedly unless party, courts 'properly necessity reasonableness measure.' 705 23, 1518). fully above, survives scrutiny standards evaluating impairments contracts.33 deter practices out guidelines impose By funds accomplishes deterrence restoration condition. refuse second-guess dealing problem. conclude, therefore, Affirmed. 73 whom SCALIA join, dissenting. More operators. approved today strikingly manner. finds why different. told, Ante, 485. concludes "makes business," "undue [petitioners'] expectations." Neither conclusions persuades me different, I believe works interests. dissent. 75 apparent recognition obstacles reaches, attempts undermine authority labeling "uncharacteristically advisory." 484. dismiss precedential opinion. sure, suggesting See, 159 ("If rights"). drawn question: [Kohler] discussed." Ibid.1 clearly obtaining unenforceable worked reasons, respect. 76 contrary disturbing discounted "regulatory takings" jurisprudence. 2660, (1978); D. Hagman J. Juergensmeyer, Urban Planning 319 (2d ed. 1986) ("Pennsylvania monumental vital contemporary law"). have, relied "if goes too MacDonald, Sommer Frates Yolo County, 477 340, 348, 2561, 2566, 285 (1986); Ruckelshaus Monsanto 467 986, 1003, 2862, 81 815 (1984); PruneYard Shopping Center Robins, 74, 83, 2035, 2041, 741 (1980); 990, Eureka 168, 1097, 1104, (1958). willing standing alone interpretation renders half discussion "advisory," repeated establishes cornerstone Compensation 77 accordingly approach greater Admittedly, hoc inquiries, circumstances 2659; 1104. Examination convinces differences verge trivial. determines welfare." my view, misreading misunderstanding precedents. 79 opines "enacted parties," ante, 486, "served review shows statements incorrect. "as remedial cure evils abuses." 495, 491, 492 (1922) Act). "evils abuses," preamble "wrecked dangerous streets highways, collapsed churches, schools, factories, streets, broken gas, sewer systems, life. 496, 493.2 concerns "such create emergency, warranting 497, 493. Though aspects limited ignore "single house" Mahons, "[n]o this." "affects cities where reserved." 160 ("We conviction exigency existed exists domain"). stability cities, insufficient "to achieving shorter cut change." release requirement: Amendment presupposes wanted use, provides compensation." legislature: "[T]o [surface area] lands. declaration states "has seriously impeded [and] erodes municipalities." 1406.3(2), (3), (4). future well-being residents. severely understated similarity distinguish Coal.3 B resolve occurred; prerequisite government's Hawaii Housing Authority Midkiff, 229, 239-243, 245, 2321, 2328-2331, 2331-2332, 186 Berman Parker, 26, 32-33, 98, 102, 99 (1954). occur unquestioned using injure forbidden Hemp stead, (1887). 144-146, 2669-2670 dissenting). "nuisance exception" occurred. contrary, 485-486, 15, law, independent precedents ease moves regulated "akin nuisance" suggests exception wider guarantee," coterminous itself," Transportation, 2669 dissenting), narrow misuse illegal use." Curtin Benson, 222 78, 86, 31, 102 (1911). allow essential attribute ownership." 84 compelled underlying Amendment. Though, recognizes, 491-492, actions secure advantage," 160, loading share burdens says he surrenders something exacted equivalent returned him." Monongahela Navigation 312, 325, 622, 625, 463 (1893). 123-125, 2658-2659; Armstrong States,364 40, 49, 1563, 1569, 1554 (1960). broad operation multifaceted welfare, societal landowners, nearly takes extra measure "health, 85 applying "nuisance" rationale narrowing principles. exempted statute. central reflect development, maintenance base. hesitate insulated dictates 86 significantly, complete extinction sustained despite reduction value, proposition completely extinguish prohibit liquors distiller's "of building. down nevertheless able felled trees." 126, 2660. beneficial use" reduce 593, 990. none "destroy 32. 87 deposits defined seams ground, 476-477, 7, extinguished want acquire it.' rel. Keator Clearview 328, 331, 820 (1917). forbid property.4 88 uphold avoids expectations ability businesses. follows mainly definition "relevant property," allows ascribe pernicious owner. identifiable task parcel. 149, 13, 2672, below, performs task. 498, observes operated stage litigation proof; "claimed passed." 496. therefor. extinguishes asked 90 work "do purposes." 498. insignificant cavil "relatively 499, 27. refusal "regulatory," physical intrusion. 488-489, 18. label Our decisions short invasion [a loss] [government] exclusive possession it." Causby, 328 256, 261, 1062, 1065, 1206 (1946). direct vary evaluated perspective holder's gain. General Motors Corp., 323 373, 378, 357, 311 (1945); Boston Chamber Commerce Boston, 217 189, 195, 460, 725 (1910). observation "[a] 'taking' government," alter regulations—unlike invasions—do bundle" 66, 327, crucial avian artifacts "one "because characteristic unclear breadth evaluate "several factors" enumerated Co.: claimant, interfered action." 2659. employ analytical tools physically Physical leaves holder indistinguishable taking.5 confiscated artifacts. follow "deprive[d] matter." Corp. 359. separable "bundle" sparse. 'For Keater 820. From perspective—that owners—this proceeded then, inhibit strand bundle, instead overall profitably, "three fee simple other. Captline County Allegheny, Pa.Commw. 85, 91, A.2d 1298, 1301 (1983), cert. denied, 466 904, 1679, 154 (1984). refusing dismisses feature "legalistic distinctio[n] 500. "Its value," informs surface." 501. 716 (1985) ("To purpose"). 95 Contrary today, units Ruckleshaus Monsanto, data" "cognizable trade-secret Missouri law," 2873, state-defined right.6 Reliance necessitated '[p]roperty created dimensions rules understandings stem law.' Webb's Fabulous Pharmacies, Beckwith, 449 161, 446, 358 (1980), Board Regents Roth, 408 564, 577, 2701, 2709, 548 (1972). reality, rejects evaluates broader, undefined, presumably 96 significance accurately describe usual affairs, understand mean worthless, buyers interest.7 value. severable right, "consists 715. Purchase shifts strictly liable regardless owns Operation provision worthless Like accompanied compensation.8 sum, Specifically, returning respectfully dissent contrary.9 Interior, Lee Abel, Underground Mining: Analysis Considerations, Geological Survey Circular 2-12, 876 (1983); P. Mavrolas M. Schechtman, 6-8 (1981); Blazey Strain, Deep Subsidence—State Response, Eastern Mineral Foundation 1.01, pp. 1-5 Bureau Mines, Moebs, Four Room-and-Pillar Sections Southwestern R18645 (1982); H.R.Rep. 95-218, 126 (1977). "Wherever [subsidence effects] extend, pipelines, cables, streams, impoundments, wells, aquifers. Buildings cracked tilted; roads lowered cracked; aquifers drained excavations. Oil gas wells severed, contents migrate aquifers, residential basements. Sewage lines, lines telephone electric cables." 1.01[2]. 1977, Congress Stat. U.S.C. 1201 seq., mining. 1266. room method, longwall method. 90-91. adjacent 3101 1966). "Protection cave-in, collapse, "In guard lessor, lessee, manager, superintendent person charge supervision caving-in, following 27, proximity mine: "(1) Any customarily hospitals, municipal utilities service operations. "(2) dwelling "(3) cemetery burial ground; consents resulting compensated." response 1977 promulgated Interior 1979, Fed.Reg. 14902, adopted new extending classes features. Particularly: (a)(1) non-commercial [after 1966], courthouses, offices; "(4) perennial streams impoundments storage volume acre feet; "(5) supply system; "(6) disposa[l]" Pa.Code 89.145(a) 89.146(b) zone applies: rectangular shape projecting angle draw seam, beginning feet side structure. slope 5.0% greater, downslope extended distance, multiplying depth overburden slope." 89.146(b)(2). absolute floor ceiling. waived measures 89.146(b)(5). Alternatively, stringent imposed, prohibited, appears leaving 89.146(b)(4). eventually occurs timing factors, geology strata, topography method removal. believes almost life protected. 4; 300. Stipulations Counsel 42, 90. 718-719 (1985); 513, 519-520 (1984), pursued "[N]or Amdt. 5. Chicago B. Q. R. Chicago, 166 226, 581, 979 (1897). urgency evidenced month oral argument; year commenced. "But discussed. Attorney State, City representatives take submitted contentions seems, farther once, suits brought vain." "What To same appropriating destroying it. warranted assuming does." 414-415, 159-160. assumption unreasonable subsidence—not results structures. eventually. 8, findings dangers 1406.3 "We disposed displace resolution contingent law." Runyon McCrary, 427 181, 2586, 2599, 415 (1976). license judge effectiveness legislation," 3, "least restrictive alternative" scheme remedy harm benefits. overinclusive underinclusive 388-389, 118, (1926). hand, instructs examine operative purpose, true nature. inquiry "extent limited." conducted, details call Brandeis argued 417, contest proposition, took prohibition. factor. see, (1946), arises adjusting benefits promote good." permanent occupation Loretto Teleprompter Manhattan CATV 458 419, 435-438, 3164, 3175-3177, 868 (1982), adversely affect real Connolly Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation, 211, 1018, 125, Eastlake Forest Enterprises, 426 668, 674, 2358, 2362, 132 (1976); 592-593, 988-989, 608, 677, (1927); Welch Swasey, 214 567, 923 (1909). (the occurred interests"); 163, 451, ("No offered deprivation"). status others, "taken" anything nuisance-like activity. Sax, Takings, Private Property Rights, Yale L.J. 155-161 (1971); 1235-1237 (1967). guarantee itself." certainly "scope 'public use' 'coterminous scope sovereign's powers.' 1014, 2879, (1984) 240, 2329, (1984)). Epstein, 108-112 calculate suffered generic excess received. Not gets dollar return taxes she pays; yet, difference paid Courts diminishes stopping abating Nassr 394 767, N.E.2d 987 (hazardous waste operation); Kuban McGimsey, Nev. 105, 605 623 (brothel); MacLeod Takoma Park, 257 Md. 477, 263 (1970) (unsafe building); Eno Burlington, 125 Vt. 499 (1965) (fire hazard); Pompano Horse Club, Bryan, Fla. 111 So. 801 (gambling facility); People Thrasher Smith, 275 Ill. 114 (1916) ("bawdyhouse"). hard imagine maxim "sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas" (use your another.) Empire Insurance Chafetz, 278 (CA5 1960). Professor Epstein commented: of. typical resolved claimant." 199. regulations: "1. Violate Rule Decision[,] "2. Constitute Per Se "3. States." 12. inquiry, pointing passing "as-applied district court." 710, wide variation record, 1% place; 3% percentages 4%, 7.8%, 9.4%. Police Power, (1964); Rose, Reconstructed: Why Issue Still Muddle, S.Cal.L.Rev. 561, 566-567 constructed artificial exceeded Brief Plaintiff Error 7-9. relatively appropriated, fraction subjected 18, Charnetski Miners Mills 270 113 683 (1921); Penman Jones, 1043 (1917); 1298 "Third Estate" (1951). Another unanswered level carries liability. 519. say "It evil—the practice relieve contracts—and adopting 'as [their] repudiation debts denial them,' 439 [54 413] (1934)." 2728, (1978) (BRENNAN, mentioned know restricted 501-502. is. 29. "severity impairment," affects affected." 411, dearths withstands Most acquisition retention quantities original covenantor presented; rather, supported precedent run Kormuth 379 108 907 (1954); Scranton Phillips, (1880). had, perpetual covenants permissible. Tidal Flanagan, 444, 197, 382 (1924); Laidley, 103, 80, (1895) (distinguishing judicial action). raise 718, 8. review, "consideration 494, Before persisted 7-8, 16, 19-21, 28-33; Defendants 73. abuses" coverage "any public," theaters, hotels, railroad stations. 492. Protected included bridges, passageway, dedicated habitually utility homes, workplaces, notes particulars better 486. true, Hawaii's Reform "like other, successful goals. 'whether objectives [constitutional requirement] [State] rationally [Act] objective.' 242, 2330, Southern Life Bd. Equalization, 451 648, 671-672, 2070, 2084-2085, 514 (1981). Conversely, efficiently achieves desired unavailable. (1914), far. examination reveals due. complained width deficient procedural 2662, (1978), analysis: whole." "discrete segment" parcel." moreover, air eliminated City's Landmark Preservation for, noted, maintained, appellants occupying airspace Terminal." 136, 2665. Supremacy dictate submitter [of information] 'pre-empt' advocated ., Taking lost vitality." 1012, 2878. third support." Smith Glen Alden 347 290, 304, 227, 234-235 (1943). irrelevant "what Act." estates. 1250-1253.

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