Document: 487 U.S. 450 108 S.Ct. 2481 101 L.Ed.2d 399 Paula KADRMAS, et al., Appellantsv.DICKINSON PUBLIC SCHOOLS al. No. 86-7113. Argued March 30, 1988. Decided June 24, Syllabus Under North Dakota statutes, thinly populated school districts are authorized to "reorganize" themselves into larger so that education can be provided more efficiently. Reorganization proposals must include provisions for transporting students and from their homes. Appellee Dickinson Public Schools, which is relatively populous, has chosen not participate in such a reorganization. In 1973 Dickinson's School Board instituted door-to-door bus service began charging fee transportation. 1979, the State enacted statute authorizing nonreorganized like charge schoolbus service, exceed district's estimated cost of providing service. Appellants schoolchild (Sarita Kadrmas) her mother. 1985, when Kadrmas family refused agree busing Sarita privately, appellants filed state-court action seeking enjoin appellees collecting any The was dismissed on merits, Supreme Court affirmed, holding 1979 does violate state law or Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. court rejected appellants' contention unconstitutionally discriminates basis wealth. It also distinction drawn by between reorganized violates Clause. Held: 1. There no merit appellees' that, because Mrs. signed contracts made partial payments thereon, after Court's decision, since been "enjoying benefits" estopped pursuing this appeal. board's authority offer benefit subsidized transportation given challenged statute, but other law. permitted under burden rather than appellants, they raising an equal protection challenge imposes them. Fahey v. Mallonee, 332 245, 67 1552, 91 L.Ed. 2030, distinguished. Nor there suggestion Article III "case controversy" lacking execution rendered case "moot." A decision favor may relieve them paying balance owing contracts, would future assessments statute. Because only nine years old at time trial, younger children family, ongoing concrete nature controversy readily apparent. Pp. 456-457. 2. 457-465. (a) Applying form strict "heightened" scrutiny supported precedent. Statutes having different effects wealthy poor not, account alone, subject scrutiny. "fundamental right" triggers government interferes with individual's access it. "heightened scrutiny" standard review—which less demanding "strict rational relation test—has generally applied cases involved discriminatory classifications based sex illegitimacy. Plyler Doe, 457 202, 102 2382, 72 786, where heightened used invalidate State's denial illegal aliens free public it available residents, extended beyond its unique circumstances, control here. Moreover, decisions invalidating laws barred indigent litigants using judicial process circumstances had alternative inapposite test, allow local boards option patrons user constitutionally permissible. Constitution require all, choosing entail constitutional obligation free. Encouraging provide legitimate purpose, refrain undermining objective rule requiring general revenues subsidize optional will minority families. 457-462. (b) create violation. Social economic legislation carries presumption constitutionality overcome clear showing arbitrariness irrationality. explanation offered State—which relates encouraging district reorganization effective systems adequate justify draws among districts. have failed carry heavy demonstrating both arbitrary irrational. 462-465. 402 N.W.2d 897, affirmed. O'CONNOR, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. MARSHALL, dissenting opinion, BRENNAN, joined, post, p. ---. STEVENS, BLACKMUN, Duane Houdek, Bismarck, N.D., appellants. George T. Dynes, Dickinson, appellees. Nicholas Spaeth, Fargo, Dakota, as amicus curiae supporting appellees, special leave Court. Justice O'CONNOR 1 urge us hold forbids some boards, others, assess pupils homes schools. well-established principles, we reject claim affirm 2 * sparsely State, many people living isolated farms ranches. One result children, late mid-20th century, were educated "the one-room where, cases, [we]re twenty one teacher attempting crowded conditions disadvantages give instructions all primary grades." Herman Medicine Lodge Dist. 8, 71 323, 328 (N.D.1955). experimented various ameliorative devices times history. Beginning 1907, example, adopted series policies "in certain required merely [local public] compensation school." 900 (N.D.1987) (opinion below). 3 Since 1947, legislature encouraged consolidate See Herman, supra, 328; N.D.Cent.Code, ch. 15-27.3 (Supp.1987). proposals, obviously contemplate increase distance travel school, back forth § 15-27.3-10. details these vary district, once plan changed approval voters. §§ 15-27.3-10 15-27.3-19. 4 serves populous area, Until 1973, system outlying areas, "pickup points" often considerable distances students' After plebiscite users, fee. During period relevant case, about 13% rode bus; parents charged $97 per year child $150 two children. N.W.2d, 898. Such fees covered approximately 11% remainder tax revenues. Ibid. 5 issue case. This expressly indicates districts, school; fees, however, N.D.Cent.Code 15-34.2-06.1 (1981 Supp.1987). current version provision, convenience referred "1979 statute," states full: 6 "Charge optional. board anyone riding buses district. For started prior July 1, 1981, total collected amount difference payment average cost, whichever lesser amount. during preceding year. Any previously establish charges costs first provided." 7 schoolchild, Kadrmas, mother, Paula. includes Kadrmas' husband preschool lives 16 miles Sarita's school. Mr. works sporadically oil fields, family's annual income trial near officially defined poverty level. agreed each pay Having fallen behind bills, sign contract obligating 1985 Accordingly, longer stopped Sarita, arranged transport privately. incurred exceeded $1,000, 10 arrangement continued until spring 1987, 1986 paid part later another 1987 year, half period. 8 September along others who withdrawn appellees—the Schools officials—from appeal taken Dakota. rejecting state-law challenge, here, considered characterized "purely legislation," "must upheld unless patently fails bear relationship purpose." 902. then concluded "that [by statute] rationally related governmental allocating limited resources discriminate wealth federal rights." Id., 903. distinction, found, promoting "by alleviating parental concerns regarding student district." Three justices dissented grounds. We noted probable jurisdiction, 484 813, 63, 98 27 (1987), now affirm. II A. 9 Before addressing consider should procedural each. April 6, put it, "has continuously enjoying benefits service." Motion Dismiss Relying 2030 (1947), contend "estopped" claims "[i]t well established retain act while attacking same act." 1-3. shareholders' derivative suit savings loan association created Act Congress sought Act. saying: "It difficult imagine appropriate situation apply doctrine utilizes gain advantages corporate existence questioning validity vital conditions." U.S., 256, S.Ct., 1557 (emphasis added). before today analogous. creatures doubt plaintiffs forbidden simply deriving Cf. United States San Francisco, 310 16, 28-30, 60 749, 755-757, 84 1050 (1940); Arnett Kennedy, 416 134, 152-153, 94 1633, 40 15 (1974) (plurality opinion). "benefit" derived moreover, inapparent. Board's provision 15-34.2-01 (1981). itself authorize tax-supported subsidies make particularly attractive areas. 11 Appellees assert Brief 32. Although do elaborate distinguish estoppel argument just considered, suggesting absence controversy." If so, mistaken. unconstitutional extent authorizes seek prevent being collected. might still executed certainly B 12 Unless provokes against "suspect class," ordinarily survive attack long classification purpose. See, e.g., Antonio Independent Rodriguez, 411 16-17, 93 1278, 1287-1288, 36 (1973); 216-217, 2394-2395, 786 (1982); Lyng Automobile Workers, 485 360, 370, 1184, ----, 99 380 (1988). deprives those cannot afford "minimum education." i. attend she denied bus. therefore mean argue places greater obstacle path wealthier Alternatively, suggest affirmatively requires least class Kadrmas. either interpretation position, evidently urged Doing extend requirements limits recognized our step decline take. 13 statutes alone subjected Harris McRae, 448 297, 322-323, 100 2671, 2690-2691, 65 784 (1980); Ortwein Schwab, 410 656, 660, 1172, 1174-75, 35 572 (1973). accepted proposition right," equality franchise, trigger Papasan Allain, 478 265, 284, 106 2932, 2943-44, 92 209 (1986); 223, 2397-98; 33-36, 1287-88, 1296-1297. 14 primarily Dakota's review, Clark Jeter, 486 456, 461, 1910, 465 (1988); Mississippi University Women Hogan, 458 718, 723-724, n. 9, 3331, 3336, 73 1090 Mills Habluetzel, 456 91, 101, 1549, 1555-56, 770 Craig Boren, 429 190, 197, 97 451, 456-57, 50 397 (1976). Plyler, did fit pattern, Texas residents. level scrutiny, show advanced substantial interest. 217-218, 224, 230, 2395, 2398, 2401-02. "unique circumstances," id., 239, 2406 (Powell, concurring), provoked confluence theories rationales," 243, 2408-2409 (Burger, dissenting). think governed Plyler. Unlike penalized conduct parents. 220, 2396; 238, concurring). On contrary, families took advantage see reason suppose "promot[e] creation perpetuation subclass illiterates within boundaries, surely adding problems unemployment, welfare, crime." 2401; 15-43-11.2 (1981) ("A [school] waive if pupil his parent guardian shall unable fees. No pupil's rights privileges, including receipt grades diplomas, abridged nonpayment fees"). resemble rationale cover contend, finally, whatever label placed analogous held withhold especially important services cite Griffin Illinois, 351 12, 76 585, 891 (1956) (right appellate review criminal conviction conditioned purchase transcript); Smith Bennett, 365 708, 81 895, 39 (1961) (application writ habeas corpus accompanied filing fee); Boddie Connecticut, 401 371, 780, 28 113 (1971) (action dissolution marriage could pursued upon process); Lindsey Normet, 405 56, 862, 31 (1972) (appeal civil judgments landlord-tenant disputes posting bond twice rent expected accrue Little Streater, 452 2202, 68 627 (fee blood test quasi-criminal paternity brought putative father receiving assistance). 22-23. Leaving aside distinctions found today, process. Decisions rules contrast "utter exclusiveness remedy," Kras, 409 434, 445, 631, 638, 34 626 (1973), maintain legal practical monopoly means Thus, unlike complaining parties cited find private That expensive, sure, genuine hardships endured facts, imply violated. upholding voluntary bankruptcy actions, observed: "[B]ankruptcy method debtor adjustment creditors. . However unrealistic remedy particular situation, debtor, theory, actuality, adjust debts negotiated agreement creditors." Similarly, indigents adverse welfare decisions. Noting involve classification," "applicable justification." 1175. plain closely resembles Kras invalidated rely. Those support Clause.* 17 test—under bears objective—we quite why denies purpose encouragement undermined manifestly rule. C 18 even without application permits say, justification whatsoever. 19-22. principles governing established. " 'The Amendment prohibit special, geographical political subdivision state.' Fort Light Co. Paving Dist., 274 387, 391, [47 595, 597, 1112] (1927). Rather, offended statute's 'rests grounds wholly irrelevant achievement objective.' McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 425 [81 1101, 1105, 393] (1961); Kotch River Port Pilot Comm'rs, 330 552, 556 [67 910, 912, 1093] (1947)." Holt Civic Club Tuscaloosa, 439 60, 71, 383, 390, 58 292 (1978). "carries rationality irrationality." Hodel Indiana, 314, 331-332, 2376, 2387, 69 "[W]e overturn varying treatment groups persons unrelated combination purposes conclude legislature's actions irrational." Vance Bradley, 440 93, 97, 939, 943, 59 171 (1979). performing analysis, bound explanations courts. challenging legislative judgment convince facts apparently reasonably conceived true decisionmaker." 111, 949. 19 present "heavy burden" 332, 2387. below following districts: 20 "The obvious [statutes treating schools differently] encourage concomitant base expansion enhanced system. provides incentive approve 21 elaborate, incompatible, explanation: 22 "[T]he authorization nothing reasoning few use small portion exchange received. 23 passage permitting already committed individual type submitted approved voters separate To permit retroactively impairment existing relationships fee." 16. 24 informs proposed District itself, several "became concerned appeared Legislature enact prohibiting Amicus Curiae 6-7 (citations history omitted). confining express 9. 25 rebut said, agrees, presently furnish far away does. 903 (citing (Supp.1987)); Tr. Oral Arg. requirement, imposed directly plans statutorily With specified exceptions (not provisions), affected 15-27.3-19 appears ever mechanism adopt Dickinson's, informed legally taken. definitely this: latter, impose own authority, direct difference, reflects agreements process, scarcely thought 26 Even assume, do, evident conceivably believed policy serve fulfilling reasonable expectations residing arrangements plans. imposing take offered. sum, suspect fundamental right. correctly Amendment, Affirmed. whom BRENNAN joins, dissenting. 29 I wrote "retreat historic commitment educational opportunity [an] unsupportable acquiescence earliest chance reach full potential." 1316 (dissenting). Today, continues retreat promise refusal nearest school-bus Amendment's believe sanction discrimination respect "perhaps most function governments," Brown Education, 347 483, 493, 74 686, 691, 873 (1954), dissent. 30 suggests concern regard basic education. notes involves transportation, services. ante, 2488. stresses fact education; notwithstanding ensured attended day. 458, 460—461.1 then, presents troublesome questions; indeed, facile analysis perplexity reached approach forgets "sophisticated simple-minded modes discrimination." Lane Wilson, 307 268, 275, 872, 876, 83 1281 (1939). pursuit Children receive transportation; "a schoolhouse door prerequisite therein." 901 (N.D.1987). Indeed, effect discriminated necessarily fell heavily members community.2 Bullock Carter, 144, 849, 856, (voting flat "falls unequal weight voters, candidates, according status"); 17, 11, 590, Black, J.) (state transcript "nondiscriminatory face," "grossly operation"). question whether great urgency. 32 As stated occasions, proper depends "formal label" reviewed identifying carefully analyzing real interests stake. Cleburne Living Center, Inc., 473 432, 478, 105 3249, 3274, 87 313 (1985) (MARSHALL, dissenting); Selective Service System Minnesota Interest Research Group, 468 841, 104 3348, 3367, 82 632 (1984) particular, focus character question, relative importance individuals receive, asserted classification." Dandridge Williams, 471, 521, 90 1153, 1180, 491 (1970) 98-99, 1329-30 Viewed perspective, inherent satisfy dictates 33 status. determined automatically suspect. Maher Roe, 432 464, 470-471, 2980-81, 53 (1977). classifications, measure significance. McDonald Election Comm'rs Chicago, 394 802, 807, 89 1404, 1407, 739 (1969) ("[A] careful examination warranted lines ."); Harper Virginia Bd. Elections, 383 663, 668, 86 1079, 1082, 169 (1966) ("Lines property traditionally disfavored"). repeatedly face applied, poor. (1981); supra; supra. proved likely interfered processes. source decisions, my view, deep distrust specially disadvantaged institutions processes society improve status better lives. intent abolish caste legislation. 213, 2392, (1982). When predictable tendency entrap permanent underclass, frustrated. 234, 2403 (BLACKMUN, barriers tools opportunities enable rise, exacting applied. here burdens person's interest extraordinary denied. famous statement contained 691: "[E]ducation perhaps governments. Compulsory attendance expenditures demonstrate recognition democratic society. performance responsibilities, armed forces. very foundation good citizenship. Today principal instrument awakening cultural values, preparing him professional training, helping normally environment. days, doubtful succeed life he Brown, frequently called attention role "education necessary prepare citizens effectively intelligently open ." Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 221, 1526, 1536, (1972); 112-115, 1337-38; prepares become self-reliant participants economy. 221-222, 2396-97; 1536. erects obstacles naturally tends consign By denying exactly need most, militates ability advance herself himself, increases likelihood discrete underclass. reconcile framework embodied 37 supports propositions. right engaged discussion alienage, rest basis. infirmity stemmed differential group "merely 'benefit' indistinguishable forms social legislation." 2396. further commented "poses affront goals Clause: abolition presenting unreasonable advancement merit." 2397. Finally, distinct underclass impoverished contribute 222-224, 2397-98. fully applicable acted 38 entirely fiscal considerations. allowed nonwaivable recoup money collects applying families, represents minuscule proportion notes, 454, represent fraction Exempting significant adjustments operation funding states, all. 465. insubstantial; begin contrary "demonstrates again 'callous indifference realities poor.' 3367 dissenting), quoting Flagg Bros., Inc. Brooks, 436 149, 166, 1729, 1739, 56 185 (1978) These always vantage point, duties refuses, effort see. poor, route allowing education, discourages hope. countenances result. BLACKMUN 41 sovereign applies segments doing so. term 'rational,' course, requirement impartial lawmaker logically transcends harm class." 452, 3260-3261, (STEVENS, concurring) (footnote MARSHALL accurately explicates class. And unequivocally identified actual geographic discrimination, second-guess conclusion presume describes reasons. explained: 42 (1987). 43 makes propositions perfectly clear. First, component State; otherwise alleviation motivate number Second, fair decide reorganize,* place paths parts removed State. G.D. Searle & Cohn, 455 404, 1137, 1147, 250 (1982) dissenting) ("[T]he disfavored differently"). 44 "elements legitimacy neutrality characterize sovereign's duty govern impartially." Cleburne, 3261 respectfully position Bearden Georgia, 461 103 2064, 221 (1983). disagree. Bearden, erred revoking probation [offender] fine, determining [he] sufficient bona fide efforts punishment exist." 662, 2067. Whether due 664-667, 2068-2070, criminal-sentencing us. address deny minimally explicitly left deprivation 2943, 25, 36-37, 1292, 1298-99, remains today. dispute litigation. line. addition, debt, $13,000. majority recognizes, 1947. 453.

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