Document: 468 U.S. 517 104 S.Ct. 3194 82 L.Ed.2d 393 Ted S. HUDSON, Petitionerv.Russell Thomas PALMER, Jr. Russell Jr., Petitioner v. HUDSON. Nos. 82-1630, 82-6695. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Dec. 7, 1983. Decided July 3, 1984. Syllabus Respondent, an inmate at a Virginia penal institution, filed action in Federal District under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 against petitioner, officer alleging that petitioner had conducted unreasonable "shakedown" search respondent's prison locker and cell brought false charge, disciplinary procedures, destroying state property respondent solely to harass him; that, violation Fourteenth Amendment right not be deprived without due process law, intentionally destroyed certain noncontraband personal during search. The granted summary judgment for Appeals affirmed with regard Court's holding was his process. concluded decision Parratt Taylor, 451 527, 101 1908, 68 420—holding negligent deprivation inmate's by officials does violate Due Process Clause if adequate post-deprivation remedy exists—should extend also intentional deprivations property. However, reversed remanded claim unreasonable. court held prisoner has "limited privacy right" entitling him protection searches or humiliate, remand necessary determine purpose here. Held: 1. A no reasonable expectation Fourth searches. While prisoners enjoy many protections Constitution are fundamentally inconsistent imprisonment itself incompatible objectives incarceration, carries it circumscription loss rights as being accommodate institutional needs facilities, particularly internal security safety. It would impossible accomplish preventing introduction weapons, drugs, other contraband into premises inmates retained their cells. unpredictability attends random cells renders such perhaps most effective weapon administrator fight proliferation contraband. requirement pursuant established plan seriously undermine effectiveness this weapon. Pp. 3198-3202. 2. There is merit contention destruction constituted seizure violative Amendment. Assuming protects property, addition its mere seizure, same reasons lead conclusion Amendment's proscription inapplicable cell, apply controlling force seizures. Prison must free seize from any articles which, view, disserve legitimate interests. P. 528, n. 8. 3. Even challenged search, did since postdeprivation remedies law suffered. supra, employee prisoner's property—as well rationale when effected through unauthorized conduct employee, predeprivation procedures "impracticable" cannot know will occur—also applies Both and, least implicitly, several common-law were available provide compensation loss, there reason question determination. fact might able recover full amount which he receive determinative adequacy remedies. As relief uncertain because entitled sovereign immunity, courts below barred may liable torts. 530-536. 697 F.2d 1220 (CA4 1983), part part. William G. Broaddus, Richmond, Va., Hudson. Deborah C. Wyatt, Charlottesville, Palmer, Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 We certiorari No. 82-1630 decide whether 82-6695, cross-petition, our 420 (1981), exists, should 2 * facts underlying dispute relatively simple. Respondent Palmer Bland Correctional Center Bland, serving sentences forgery, uttering, grand larceny, bank robbery convictions. On September 16, 1981, Hudson, Center, fellow officer, During "shakedown," officers discovered ripped pillowcase trash can near bunk. Charges instituted After hearing, found guilty on charge ordered reimburse State cost material destroyed; addition, reprimand entered record. 3 subsequently pro se claimed Hudson shakedown him, 16 denied each allegation; moved judgment. accepted allegations true but nonetheless, relying alleged even intentional, tort redress deprivation, App. 311 harassment "rise level constitutional deprivation," id., 32. 4 part, further proceedings. 1983). acknowledged we considered only supra. agreed Court, however, logic equally officials: "[O]nce assumed cure unintentional act causing injury, inflicted agent unamenable prior review, then principle acts." 1223.2 discuss availability existing state-law remedies; presumably correct statement law.3 5 recognized Bell Wolfish, 441 520, 555-557, 99 1861, 1882-1883, 60 447 (1979), authorized irregular unannounced But individual humiliate. F.2d, 1225.4 single said court, permissible "done program conducting groups reasonably designed deter discover possession contraband" upon belief particular possessed Id., 1224. Because record reflected factual over routine respondent, inappropriate, 6 certiorari. 463 1206, 103 3535, 77 1386 (1983). affirm reverse II A. 7 first address searches.5 have noted, petitioner's favor premature been breached. protect right, individual's performed "pursuant . possesses contends erred limited urges adopt "bright line" rule entitle them protection. 8 repeatedly prisons beyond reach Constitution. No "iron curtain" separates one other. Wolff McDonnell, 418 539, 555, 94 2963, 2974, 41 935 (1974). Indeed, insisted accorded those incarceration. For example, invidious racial discrimination intolerable within outside, except essential "prison discipline." Lee Washington, 390 333, 88 994, 19 1212 (1968) (per curiam). Like others, petition Government grievances, includes access courts. Johnson Avery, 483, 89 747, 21 718 (1969). 9 Prisoners provided "reasonable opportunities" exercise religious freedom guaranteed First Cruz Beto, 405 319, 92 1079, 31 263 (1972) Similarly, they retain speech "not [their] status prisoner[s] penological corrections system." Pell Procunier, 417 817, 822, 2800, 2804, 495 They supra; Haines Kerner, 404 519, 594, 30 652 (1972). And Eighth ensures subject "cruel unusual punishments." Estelle Gamble, 429 97, 97 285, 50 251 (1976). continuing guarantee these substantial testimony way society treats who transgressed evidence character society. 10 while persons imprisoned crime Constitution, clear significant rights. See U.S., 545, S.Ct., 1877. These constraints inmates, some cases complete withdrawal rights, "justified considerations Price Johnston, 334 266, 1049, 1060, L.Ed. 1356 (1948); see 545-546, 1877-1878 cited; supra,, 2974. curtailment necessary, practical matter, myriad "institutional objectives" chief among security, 823, 2804. Of course, restrictions retractions serve, incidentally, reminders system justice, deterrence retribution factors correction. 11 before called specific cell,6 nature inquiry defined. here, contexts, "justifiable" stake. Katz States, 389 347, 507, 576 (1967). applicability turns "the person invoking 'justifiable,' 'reasonable,' 'legitimate privacy' invaded government action." Smith Maryland, 442 735, 740, 2577, 2580, 61 220 cited. decide, Harlan's words, kind "society prepared recognize 'reasonable.' " Katz, 360, 361, 516, (concurring opinion).7 12 Notwithstanding caution approaching claims given context, hold subjective accordingly, confines cell. recognition simply reconciled concept incarceration institutions. 13 Prisons, definition, places involuntary confinement demonstrated proclivity antisocial criminal, often violent, conduct. Inmates necessarily shown lapse ability control conform behavior standards normal impulses self-restraint; inability regulate reflects either respect appreciation others. partial survey statistics violent Nation's illustrates magnitude problem. 1981 half 1982, 120 murdered federal prisons. number personnel period. Over 29 riots similar disturbances reported facilities time frame. 125 suicides Violence, Corrections Compendium (Mar. Additionally, informal Bureau Prisons show 1983, homicides, 359 assaults 227 staff, suicides. 1982 750 570 personnel. 14 Within volatile "community," administrators take all steps ensure safety staffs administrative personnel, visitors. obligation measures themselves. ever alert attempts introduce drugs judicially notice, perplexing problems today; prevent, so far possible, flow illicit weapons prison; vigilant detect escape plots, involved, schemes materialize. In monumental tasks, incumbent maintain sanitary environment feasible, difficulties circumstances. 15 administration prison, said, "at best extraordinarily difficult undertaking." 566, 2979; Hewitt Helms, 459 460, 467, 864, 869, 74 675 literally identified above Virtually place conceal Unfettered officials, thus, imperative ferreted out surroundings maintained. Determining "legitimate" "reasonable" entails balancing two interests here interest institutions latter interest, already exigencies circumstances: "shares none attributes home, automobile, office, hotel room." Lanza New York, 370 139, 143-144, 1218, 1220-1221, 384 (1962). strike balance noted "central goals," traditional terms close continual surveillance required order.8 satisfied insist always yield what paramount security. believe "[l]oss choice inherent incidents confinement." 537, 1873. 17 troubled possibility inmates; reasoned policy suspicion prevent maximum extent possible. risk maliciously motivated searches, hardened criminals tolerated civilized disagree court's proposed solution. uncertainty constant knives guns, candidly device [of searches] obvious utility achieving goal security." 18 naive eventually decipher devise "planned searches," thus routinely anticipate shortcomings approach adopted necessity allowing flexibility: "For advocate enunciated general directed ignore realities operation. Random individually collectively, lockers valid institution others boundaries. This type allows flexibility prevents anticipating, thereby thwarting, contraband." Marrero Commonwealth, 222 Va. 754, 757, 284 S.E.2d 809, 811 (1981). 20 share concerns expressed view wholly We, therefore, accept concededly Appeals. acknowledges shakedowns Brief Cross-Petitioner 5. He contends, constitutionally subjected harass. crux "because seizures unreasonable, locker, effects, purpose." 24. argument, assumes answer predicate all, merely challenge reasonableness conclude prohibition cells, need issue. 22 Our enabling invoke mean calculated unrelated needs. Nor attendants ride roughshod inmates' impunity. stands By token, discussion infra, 534-536.9 B 23 complaint violated destruction, contended, process, dismissed portion failure claim. Reasoning provides meaningful remedy. affirmed. presented review Palmer's cross-petition Taylor extend, held, employees acting color law.10 24 sued hobby kit mail-order catalog Circuit favor. reversed, negligently deprives makes remedy.11 25 viewed consistent recognizing 26 "either quick impracticality providing coupled means assess propriety State's after initial taking satisf[ies] requirements procedural process." 1914 (footnote omitted). 27 where occasioned random, rather than procedure, predict occur. 541, 1916. Under circumstances, observed: 28 "It conceive how could hearing takes place. although attributable 'color law,' almost State. impracticable, impossible, deprivation." Ibid.12 Two Terms ago, reaffirmed Logan Zimmerman Brush Co., 455 422, 102 1148, 71 265 (1982), course do satisfy caused action.13 evident, recognized, reasoning discern logical distinction between insofar "practicability" affording concerned. more advance Arguably, acts bent depriving affirmative avoid signalling intent. If follows provided, available. Accordingly, constitute employees, state's until unless refuses suitable remedy.14 presses arguments require brief comment. First, intends deprive "can matter so." (emphasis original). argument fundamental misunderstanding Parratt. possibly Whether himself foresee consequence. position 32 citing deliberate despite Logan, decided about left little doubt, is, satisfies procedure. not. plainly relevance allege asserted occurred 33 Having determined extends Commonwealth loss. determination, speculative arguments. 34 asserts legal papers allegedly taken "may contained things irreplacable [sic], incompensable" involved sentimental items intangible value," 10-11, 10, suit tort, "necessarily" compensate fully. "incompensable," much event, not, Parratt, 544, 1917. 35 applicable "is complete" immunity. 11. suggestion unconvincing. "a torts," Elder Holland, 208 15, 19, 155 369, 372-373 (1967); Short Griffitts, 53, 255 479 (1979). "probable trial immunity bar present case." 14. 36 cast doubt breadth naked assertion phrase 'may liable' meant liability circumstances blanket rule. ." Cross-Petitioner. unpersuaded speculation. language unambiguous torts, read courts, concedes, 13, 13. See, e.g., Holmes Wampler, 546 F.Supp. 500, 504 (ED Va.1982); Irshad Spann, 543 922, 928 Frazier Collins, 544 109, 110 Whorley Karr, 534 88, (WD Va.1981); Daughtry Arlington County, 490 307 (DC 1980).15 sum, evident III 37 38 reversing remanding Amendments reversed. affirming 39 ordered. 40 O'CONNOR, concurring. country quite properly responsibility protecting commission crimes Thus, wrongfully destroyed, prisoner, less person, receives just compensation. human decency, requires less. issue cases, concern damages malicious Rather, appropriate source corresponds it. I agree treatment issues therefore join today. write separately elaborate my understanding why litigation ripe alleges three types harm Amendment: invasion temporary permanent result handled together. if, basis alleged, showed acted unreasonably. "reasonableness" determination generally case-by-case basis, weighing governmental possessory case. Terry Ohio, 392 1, 17-18, 1868, 1877-1878, 889 (1968). rejected determines contested practices categorical fashion. Robinson, 414 218, 235, 476, 476 (1973) (searches incident lawful custodial arrest); 555-560, 1882-1885, (1979) (prison room body cavity rules). stated ante, 526-530, government's compelling safety, together ad hoc judgments make treatment. LaFave, "Case-by-Case Adjudication" Versus "Standardized Procedures": Robinson Dilemma, 1974 S.Ct.Rev. 127, 141-145. arrest abates 143, 1220, (1962); cf. 237-238, 477-478 (POWELL, J., concurring) (individual custody retains interest), contents reasonable. 43 allegation alter analysis cases. To sure, duration ordinarily factor analysis. Place, 462 696, 709-710, 2637, 2645-2646, actual determining seizure. Jacobsen, 466 124-125, 1652, 1662-1663, 80 85 (1984). indefinite retention themselves reasonable, handling concern. nonprivacy protected dispossessions. Since life authorize indefinitely dispossess possessions reason, losses occur official redressable litigation. 44 That dispossession result. Takings Clauses Fifth stand directly opposition intended people legally private abate imprisonment. 45 Clause. Government, takings. promised 537-544, 1914-1917, Concomitantly, made adequately takings occurred. Ruckelshaus Monsanto 467 986, 1016-1020, 2862, 2880-2883, 81 815 challenging claimant avail prove inadequate. 1914-1917. When followed, uncompensated 46 synthesis corresponds, believe, both common sense understanding. arrested incarcerated, effects "searched," "seized," placed custody. Illinois Lafayette, 640, 643-647, 2605, 2608-2610, 65 (1983); Edwards, 415 800, 804-807, 1234, 1237-1239, 771 Such detainee's detention facility. seized inventoried, noticed receipt, stored return release. theft, knowledge, thought improper inventories, defective receipts, missing long actions detinue, trespass chattel, conversion. Cf. Kosak 465 848, 1519, 79 860 (1984) (discussing incurred customs officials' seizures). questions Clauses. never role play. 47 STEVENS' correctly sources Those Amendments, Search Seizure aggrieved grievance procedure various plaintiff availed successfully proved defendant proper. 48 STEVENS, whom BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN join, concurring dissenting 49 case comes us pleadings. true.1 Liberally construing must,2 examining it, guard took quantity including materials letters, harassment.3 Part II-B process.4 II-A opinion, flawed—indeed, internally inconsistent. concludes imperatives states context "[o]f society." Ante, 528. holds malicious, destructive, arbitrary be, 525-526. 51 Measured conditions prevail society, neither nor slight residuum minimal value. From standpoint trivial mark difference slavery humanity. another occasion, THE CHIEF JUSTICE wrote: 52 lose lawfully confined, civil jails, prisons, mental privacy; like animals zoo filmed photographed public media reporters, however 'educational' others." Houchins KQED, Inc., 438 5, 2, 98 2588, 2591, 57 553 (1978) (plurality opinion) (citation 53 Personal snapshots family members, souvenir, deck cards, kit, diary training manual apprentice new trade, Bible—a variety inexpensive enable contact past eye better future. Are unrestrained perusal, confiscation, mutilation hands hostile guard? Is perception "society" inmate—no remote threat be? 54 inspected time, protection.5 entirely apart whatever 55 "The 'right secure persons, houses, papers, seizures, shall violated. .' text kinds expectations, involving 'searches,' 'seizures.' 'search' occurs consider infringed. 'seizure' interference property." 113, 1656, (footnotes omitted).6 56 "seizure" meaning completely property; asserting "dominion control" it; hence "did seizure," 120, 1660.7 hardly alters analysis—the citizen. citizen's standpoint, once taken.8 very Term, squarely field test cocaine cognizable interests: "[T]he affect respondents' [Fourth] Amendment, powder converted one." 1662. suggests institutions" precludes having 527-528 8.9 3206 (O'CONNOR, concurring). wrong reasons. 58 law. regulations. Hence, possess fact, odds "property" 533-534. 539-540 compelled $23.50 mail-ordered received 536, 1913.10 qualify amounts entitlement.11 Thus indicates entitlement settled creates forbids arbitrarily.12 case, own 59 Second, substantive legitimacy Its proscriptions measured society's "evolving decency," Rhodes Chapman, 452 337, 346-347, 2392, 2398-2399 69 (1981); 102-103, 290, implication virtue cannot, squared letter wife, picture baby, judgment, comport standard decency. shed light letters materials. entitles send mail, institution's censor withhold delivery accompanied safeguards.13 corollary courts.14 affirmatively interference. me clearly infringed Hudson's Once "seizure," becomes "unreasonable." Questions resolved intrusion enforcement justifying conduct.15 62 well-settled discretion absolute.16 objectives.17 justification posed examined save spite; regulations contraband, event indicated prohibits treating agrees guards intolerable, "close cells," justifies When, say serve "legitimate interests." unreasonable.18 63 based prisoners. empirical data; four Justices joined authored. surely consensus lower significance. every judge decade cell.19 unanimity commentators.20 "intentional fail serves invade considers 64 rests assessment 527-528. deference critical approach, worth inquiring toward score demonstrates remarkable lack awareness penologists correctional am unaware responsible contended destroy prisoners; certainly support sort power. contrary, appears near-universal Prisons' CFR §§ 553.12, 553.13 management, specifically clothing, materials, hobby-craft commissary items, radios watches, correspondence, reading photos.21 Department Corrections' similarly alone.22 aware different practice;23 promulgated invariably prisoners' property.24 Depriving contrary goals. Sociologists individuality devalue prone violence others.25 At undermines rehabilitative function institution: "Without dignity fourth amendment coverage, opportunity reform, small diminished. anomalous programs services effort build self-respect simultaneously subjecting unjustified degrading seizures." Gianelli & Gilligan, Searches Seizures: "Locking" Out Facilities, Va.L.Rev. 1045, 1069 66 justify conclusion, recites concerning notes 18-month period approximately facilities. 526. end 438,830 prisons.26 homicide rate per year yields annual 18.26 100,000 inmates. Miami 51.98 100,000; York 23.50 Dallas 31.53 Columbia 30.70 100,000.27 rate, out, significantly major cities. suggest measuring use persuasive.28 67 size population belies hypothesis fit incorrigible stereotype. Many, become recidivists. thousands former now leading constructive law-abiding lives.29 nihilistic tone opinion—seemingly assuming "to legitimates self-restraint," 526, conception sterile warehouses, enlightened modern system.30 final analysis, totally undermined allowed justified contains accord declare measure individuality—not photo, letter, anything standard-issue clothing destruction. Yet declares chattels, outgrown ago. adopting rule, "hands off" abandoned forever wrote (1974): 70 "[T]hough diminished environment, stripped crime. iron curtain drawn country." 555-556, 2974-2975. Today's application "papers effects." astonishing repeal unprecedented;31 consistently followed command "there mutual accomodation provisions application." 556, 2974.32 72 sense. "general application," effects" evaluated reasonableness. refusal inquire whenever conclusive presumption reasonable—can text, reality, ideal; unfortunately abusive sometimes 73 More fundamentally, eagerness believes wise administration, overlooks written Bill Rights. purpose, principles sacrificed expediency; enshrined legislative majorities.33 law; represents value greatly threatens liberty condemned principle.34 special prisoners.35 truly outcasts Disenfranchised, scorned feared, deservedly so, shut away "discrete insular minority."36 seizure; Judiciary duty justified. supported nothing idiosyncratic administration—a shared sacrifice expendiency. ago slave rejected. restraints punishment criminal conviction citizen ethical tradition accords intrinsic individual. 75 'Liberty' 'custody' mutually exclusive concepts." ex rel. Miller Twomey, 701, 712 (CA7 1973) omitted), cert. sub nom. Gutierrez Public Safety Illinois, 1146, 900, 76 telling aspect individuality, photo child protection, breaks jurisprudence. respectfully dissent opinion. proceed conversion 369 (1967), tort. observed mechanism vendettas punishing fact. 1223. maintains Appeals' finding independent alone. believed emanated alone, both. explicitly speaks "primary Amendments," 1224, nowhere intention draw assume, imply exists alone exceeds majority degree Chamorro, 687 (CA1 1982); Hinckley, 217 U.S.App.D.C. 262, 672 115 (1982); Lilly, 1240 (CA5 1978); Stumes, 549 831 (CA8 1977); Bonner Coughlin, 1311 1975) (vacating judgment), rehearing, 545 565 (1976) (en banc) (affirming grounds), denied, 435 932, 1507, 529 (1978). Second Ninth Circuits, Christman Skinner, 723 (CA2 1972); Hitchcock, 1107 (CA9 1972), 410 916, 93 973, 279 (1973). (1962), plurality termed novel argument" [one] observation, dictum. Members dissented characterized "gratuitous exposition grave issues. 150, 1224 (BRENNAN, dissenting, Warren, C.J., Douglas, J.). upholding pretrial detainees plausibility confined facility person." 556-557, 1883. Lanza, unnecessary assumed, arguendo, detainee "diminished privacy." 557, Harlan suggested concerned "exhibited (subjective) privacy" opinion). emphasized second requirements. WHITE writing White, 401 745, 91 1122, 453 (1971): problem expectations defendants situations relied companions. problem, announced 'justifiable' 751-752. stressed importance requirements: must, transcend expectations. [W]e judges, recite risks desirability saddling supra 768, 786, 1134, 1143 (dissenting "subjective expectation" understandable; defined intent self-evident. 740-741, 2580-2581, note, 9, 534-536. October 12, 14, infra. effect afforded Reply Cross-Respondent Four Wolf-Lillie Sonquist, 699 864 1983); Engblom Carey, 677 957 Rutledge Arizona Board Regents, 660 1345 1981), aff'd Kush Rutledge, 460 719, 1483, 413 Three Circuits Brewer Blackwell, 692 387 Weiss Lehman, 676 1320 Madyun Thompson, 657 868 1981). Nebraska deprivation. Neb.Rev.Stat. 81-8,209 et seq. though 543-544, 1916-1917. reaching expressly then-Judge Stevens' Seventh (1975), modified en banc, (1976), (1978), fails 541-542, statute pursue employment distinguished noting "Parratt dealing 'random [and was] procedure.' 435-436, 1157-1158 (quoting 1916). "was situation" 436, 1158. give rise foreshadowed Ingraham Wright, 430 651, 1401, 711 (1977), "quite consistent" Ingraham, observed, behalf officials. 542, noteworthy enacted Tort Claims Act, Va.Code 8.01-195.1 (Supp.1983), waives certification Attorney General compliance Civil Rights Institutionalized Persons 1997e. Although apparently avenues open potential Hughes Rowe, 449 173, 176, 163 (1980) curiam); California Motor Transport Co. Trucking Unlimited, 508, 515-516, 609, 614, 642 (1972); Walker Equipment, Inc. Food Machinery Chemical Corp., 382 172, 174-175, 86 348-349, 247 (1965); Cooper Pate, 378 546, 84 1733, 1030 (1964) Boag MacDougall, 454 364, 700, 551 (1982) "On 9-16-81 around 5:50 p.m., shook down lot i.e.: harassment. Officer Constitutional shakedown. planned carried next really mess stuff up. plenty witnesses facts." 7-8. understand violates accompany them, 1917 (BLACKMUN, concurring); 552-553, 1921-1922 result); create unjustifiably 543, 1917; Block Rutherford, 576, 591-592, 3227, 3235, 438; 1157-1158, (1982). Though willing assume purposes correct, endorsement 523. applying minimum pose realistic housed. mail cleared censorship employed prisoner. Karo, 705, 712, 3296, 3302, 530; 707, 2644, 716, 2649 Texas Brown, 730, 747-748, 1535, 1546-1548, 502 (1983) (STEVENS, judgment). 574-575, 1892-1893, (MARSHALL, dissenting). majority, physical "indefinite retention," 538 opinion), actionable Taking sure she harassed temporarily correspondence snapshots, "incarceration effects," ibid., "all reasonable," ibid. net her position, i.e., longer incarceration—depriving raises issue, ultimately returned. existence adverts, 8, 540, irrelevant question, violations supplemental exist. Monroe Pape, 365 167, 183, 473, 482, 492 (1961). Burnett Grattan, 42, 50, 2924, 2927, (1984); Patsy Florida 457 496, 2557, 172 Fair Assessment Real Estate Assn., McNary, 100, 104, 177, 180, 271 Allen McCurry, 90, 99, 411, 417, 308 (1980); Paul Davis, 424 693, 710, 96 1155, 1165, (1976); Wilwording Swenson, 249, 251, 407, 409, (1971) McNeese Education, 373 668, 671-674, 83 1433, 1435-1437, 622 (1963). 4, point, unanimous, 546-548, 1918-1919 result), 1003-1004, 2873-2874, 430-431, 1154-1155; Webb's Fabulous Pharmacies, Beckwith, 155, 161, 446, 450, 358 Greenholtz Penal Inmates, 2100, 2103, 668 (1979); Leis Flynt, 439 438, 441-443, 698, 700-701, 717 Bishop Wood, 426 341, 344, nn. 6, 2074, 2077, 684 Arnett Kennedy, 416 134, 165-166, 1633, 1649-1650, (1974) part); 185, 1659 (WHITE, 207-208, 1670-1671 dissenting); Regents Roth, 408 564, 577, 2701, 2709, 548 469-472, 870-871, 11-12, 2105-2106; 556-558, 2974-2976, Procunier Martinez, 396, 1800, 224 relating observance, Bible crucifix, Free Exercise 322, 1081, Bounds Smith, 1491, (1977). 125, 1657, Michigan Long, 1032, 1051, 3469, 3481, 1201 703, 2642; 559, 1884. 562, 1886; 405-406, 1807-1808; 321-322, 1081-1082 521, 596 352, 2402, 368-369, 2410-2411 judgment); 102-105, 290-291, Saxbe Washington Post 843, 866-870, 2811, 2823-2825, 514 545-547, 1877-1878; Jones North Carolina Prisoners' Labor Union, 433 119, 129, 2532, 2537-2539, 629 (1977); 2974-2975; (1974); 412-414, 1811-1812. precedent acknowledges, statements dicta 524-525, 6. O'CONNOR seems treat authoritative precedent, reserved 38, 1883, 38. (1974), approved "no [an arrestee] immediate crime," 805, 1238, 808, 1239, 9. Conversely, last confronted today, voluntarily written, coercion used obtain came penitentiary practice, promote discipline institution. accused, rights." Stroud 21-22, 52-53, (1919). premise decides case: "[I]f concern." 538-539 infringement true—as must—neither harmless interest. Palmer. addressed unanimous. Lyon Farrier, 727 766, 769 1984), pending, 83-6722; Mills, 704 1553, 1560-1561 (CA11 1243, 3517, 825 4-5 (CA1), 1043, 462, 613 275-279, 115, 128-132 1240, 1245-1246 Ready, 574 1009, 1013-1014 (CA10 1977) 1311, 1315-1317 1975), grounds, banc), (1978); Daughtery Harris, 292 (CA10), 872, 112, reached own, 522, decisions cites predated McDonnell. Prior judicial Note, Prisoners: Developing Law, U.Pa.L.Rev. 985 Beyond Ken Courts: Critique Judicial Refusal Review Complaints Convicts, Yale L.J. 506 related Hodges Stanley, 34, 1983) DiGuiseppe Ward, 698 602, 605 Vallez, 653 403, 406 (CA9), 904, 412, 223 Sostre Preiser, 519 763 1975); Dawson, 516 796, 805-806 423 855, (1975); Hansen May, 728, 730 1974); Savage, 482 1371, 1372-1373 1973), 1446, 491 ABA Standards Criminal 23-6.10 Commentary (2d ed. 1980); 1045 Singer, Privacy, Autonomy, Dignity Prison: Preliminary Inquiry Concerning Aspects Degredation Buffalo L.Rev. 669 Limitations Body Colum.L.Rev. 1033, 1043-1055 Comment, Electronic Surveillance Delancie Superior Court: Liberty Death?, Santa Clara 1109 553.10, 553.11 state: "Staff leave housing work area nearly practicable original order." 552.13(b). Dept. Justice, Jails 13.01 ("Written specify possession. retain, assured facility's policies applied uniformly safely"). 53.1-26 ("Any item prohibited possessing Code rules Director shall, confiscated sold destroyed"); Corrections, Division Adult Services, Guideline 411 (Sept. regulation 1314, provided: important systematic damage, abuse Deliberately damaging, confiscating, abusing permitted offending employee." American Association, Institutions 2-4192 1981); National Advisory Commission Goals, 2.7 literature Schwartz, Deprivation Privacy "Functional Prerequisite": Case Prison, J.Crim.L., C P.S. 229 Statistics, (Apr. 1984). Investigation, Uniform Crime Reports, 51, 65, 70, sheds recognizes constantly changing friends well-being, acknowledge millions citizens portrayal stereotypical wide range individuals actually served system. ignores, conscientious objectors refuse register draft, corporate executives convicted violating securities, antitrust, tax laws, union leaders, White House aides, Governors, legislators, famous writers sports heroes, committed serious offenses life. help think influenced unstated fear flood frivolous lawsuits. burden sufficient modification Tower Glover, 914, 922-923, 2820, 2826, 758 512, 2566, "Frivolous treated exactly occasions shifts doctrine. developed speedily disposing unfounded claims; inadequate [defendants] vexatious litigation, something [Fourth Amendment]." Hoover Ronwin, 558, 601, 1989, 2012, 590 dissenting) suits now, disastrous results. Moreover, costs awarded brought, 27, 1999, 27. modest assessments accounts deterring groundless appear entire limit located Apparently "person" 563, 1886 part). cited, 17, withdraw subjects vicissitudes political controversy, majorities establish One's life, liberty, speech, press, worship assembly, submitted vote; depend outcome elections." West Education Barnette, 319 624, 638, 1178, 1185, 87 1628 (1943). makers undertook favorable pursuit happiness. significance man's spiritual nature, feelings intellect. knew pain, pleasure satisfactions things. sought Americans beliefs, thoughts, emotions sensations. conferred, let alone—the comprehensive valued men. unjustifiable individual, employed, deemed Amendment." Olmstead 277 478, 572, 944 (1928) (Brandeis, 358-361, 2405-2406, (1981) 2411 Bailey, 444 394, 423-424, 100 641-642, 575 Bernal Fainter, 216, 222, 2312, 2317, 175 Toll Moreno, 458 23, 2977, 2989, 563 O'Bannon Town Nursing 773, 2467, 2483, Massachusetts Retirement Murgia, 427 307, 313, 2562, 520 Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 102, 22, 1895, 1905, Graham Richardson, 403 365, 372, 1848, 1852, (1971); Oregon Mitchell, 400 295, 260, 350, 272 (1970) (Stewart, Carolene Products 304 144, 152-153, 778, 783-784, 1234 (1938).

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