Document: 527 U.S. 706119 S.Ct. 2240144 L.Ed.2d 636United States Supreme Court 119 2240715 A. 2d 172, affirmed. JOHN H. ALDEN, et al., PETITIONERSv.MAINE No. 98-436. Argued March 31, 1999 Decided June 23, On writ of certiorari to the supreme judicial court Maine Kennedy, J., delivered opinion Court, in which Rehnquist, C. and O'Connor, Scalia, Thomas, JJ., joined. Souter, filed a dissenting opinion, Stevens, Ginsburg, Breyer, Justice Kennedy Court. 1 In 1992, petitioners, group probation officers, suit against their employer, State Maine, United District for Maine. The officers alleged had violated overtime provisions Fair Labor Standards Act 1938 (FLSA), 52 Stat. 1060, as amended, 29 U. S. § 201 seq., sought compensation liquidated damages. While was pending, this decided Seminole Tribe Fla. v. Florida, 517 44 (1996), made it clear that Congress lacks power under Article I abrogate States' sovereign immunity from suits commenced or prosecuted federal courts. Upon consideration Tribe, dismissed petitioners' action, Appeals Mills 118 F. 3d 37 (CA1 1997). Petitioners then same action state court. trial on basis immunity, Judicial 715 172 (1998). 2 Court's decision conflicts with Arkansas, Jacoby Arkansas Dept. Ed., 331 Ark. 508, 962 W. 773 (1998), calls into question constitutionality FLSA purporting authorize private actions own courts without regard consent, see §§ 216(b), 203(x). light importance presented conflict between courts, we granted certiorari. 525 ___ intervened petitioner defend statute. 3 We hold powers delegated Constitution do not include subject nonconsenting damages decide well has consented pay FLSA. these premises affirm judgment sustaining dismissal suit. 4 * Eleventh Amendment makes explicit reference "commenced one by Citizens another State, Subjects any Foreign State." Const., Amdt. 11. have, result, sometimes referred "Eleventh immunity." phrase is convenient shorthand but something misnomer, neither derives nor limited terms Amendment. Rather, Constitution's structure, its history, authoritative interpretations make clear, fundamental aspect sovereignty enjoyed before ratification Constitution, they retain today (either literally virtue admission Union upon an equal footing other States) except altered plan Convention certain constitutional Amendments. 5 Although establishes National Government broad, often plenary authority over matters within recognized competence, founding document "specifically recognizes entities." supra, at 71, n. 15; accord, Blatchford Native Village Noatak, 501 775, 779 (1991) ("[T]he entered system intact"). Various textual assume continued existence active participation processes governance. See Printz States, 521 898, 919 (1997) (citing Art. III, 2; IV, 2-4; V). enumerated Legislative, Executive, Branches Government, moreover, underscore vital role reserved design, see, e.g., I, 8; II, 2-3; 2. Any doubt regarding assovereign entities removed Tenth Amendment, which, like Bill Rights, enacted allay lingering concerns about extent national power. confirms promise implicit original document: "The prohibited are respectively, people." 10; also Printz, 919; New York 505 144, 156-159, 177 (1992). 6 established our preserves status two ways. First, reserves them substantial portion Nation's primary sovereignty, together dignity essential attributes inhering status. "form distinct independent portions supremacy, no more subject, respective spheres, general than them, sphere." Federalist 39, p. 245 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961) (J. Madison). 7 Second, even competence design secures generation's rejection "the concept central government would act through States" favor "a Federal Governments exercise concurrent people--who were, Hamilton's words, `the only proper objects government.' " 919-920 (quoting 15, 109); York, 166 ("The Framers explicitly chose confers regulate individuals, States"). founders achieved deliberate departure Articles Confederation: Experience "exploded all hands" "practicality making laws, coercive sanctions, political bodies." Records 1787, 9 (M. Farrand 1911) Madison); 20, 138 Madison & Hamilton); Annals America 249 (1976) Iredell). 8 thus residuary inviolable sovereignty." 245. They relegated mere provinces corporations, dignity, though full authority, sovereignty. B generation designed adopted considered dignity. When ratified, English law Crown could be sued consent Chisholm Georgia, Dall. 419, 437-446 (1793) (Iredell, dissenting) (surveying practice); cf. Nevada Hall, 440 410, 414 (1979) truly been matter absolute right centuries. Only sovereign's qualify character immunity"). reciting prerogatives Crown, Blackstone--whose works constituted preeminent generation--underscored close necessary relationship understood exist suit: 10 "And, first, ascribes king attribute pre-eminence... . Hence is, can brought king, civil matters, because have jurisdiction him. For implies superiority power... ." Blackstone, Commentaries Laws England 234-235 (1765). 11 American people rejected aspects theory, doctrine universal when drafted ratified. Chisholm, 434-435 ("I believe there now question, Union, particular Legislative mode, authorizing compulsory recovery money being either adopted, time passed"); Hans Louisiana, 134 1, 16 (1890) suability thing unknown law. This so laid down acknowledged jurists hardly formally asserted"). 12 debates, furthermore, underscored people. Grave were raised III extended controversies citizens foreign nations. As explained: 13 "Unquestionably early days independence. Many heavily indebted result Revolutionary War. vitally interested whether creation new sovereign, own, automatically lower lords, `higher' sovereign." 418 (footnote omitted). 14 leading advocates assured uncertain strip immunity. One assurance contained 81, written Alexander Hamilton: 15 "It inherent nature amenable individual consent. sense, practice mankind; exemption, every Union. Unless therefore, surrender convention, will remain danger intimated must merely ideal... [T]here color pretend governments would, adoption plan, divested privilege paying debts way, free constraint flows obligations good faith. contracts nation individuals binding conscience pretensions compulsive force. confer Will. To what purpose theyowe? How recoveries enforced? It evident done waging war contracting State; ascribe implication, destruction preexisting governments, involve such consequence, altogether forced unwarrantable." Id., 487-488 (emphasis original). At Virginia ratifying James echoed theme: 17 "Its much objected to, perhaps reason. call court... "... appears me [clause] operation this--to give citizen heard if should condescend party, may take cognizance it." J. Elliot, Debates 533 (2d 1854) (hereinafter Elliot's Debates). Madison's explanation questioned, John Marshall provided immediate support: "With respect disputes state, decried unusual vehemence. hope Gentleman think called bar Is case present? Are many cases Legislature yet sued? rational suppose, shall dragged intent enable states recover claims residing states. contend construction warranted words. But, say they, partiality cannot defendant ... so, avoided. difficulty defendant, does prevent plaintiff." id., 555. 18 conventions addressed issue formal documents clarify point amendment, Hamilton, Madison, Marshall, preserve suits. Rhode Island proclaimed "[i]t declared Convention, extend criminal prosecutions, person state." 336. convention sought, addition, express amendment "to remove doubts respecting same." Ibid. similar fashion, "declare[d] ma[d]e known," 327, understanding "[t]hat state," 329. proceeded ratify "[u]nder impressions, declaring rights aforesaid abridged violated, explanations consistent said confidence amendments proposed receive mature consideration." 19 Despite persuasive assurances expressed address terms, held, just five years after authorized sue Georgia 419 (1793). Each four Justices who concurred issued separate opinion. common theme opinions fell literal text "between State," thereof, Citizens, Subjects." argument provision plaintiff inconsistent ordinary meaning "between," extending "Controversies States," necessity contemplated defendants. Two argued principle popular Dall., 454-458 (Wilson, J.); 470-472 (Jay, although others did go far, contended evidenced those parties, 452 (Blair, 468 (Cushing, J.). 20 Iredell dissented, relying 434-435, 437-446, principles 435-436, 448, 449-450. generally Hans, S., justices swayed observance letter former experience usage Iredell, contrary, intention create unheard remedies, subjecting (which he conclusively showed never before,) invest hear determine cases, parties designated, properly susceptible litigation courts"). 21 "fell country profound shock." Warren, History 96 (rev. 1926); 11; Principality Monaco Mississippi, 292 313, 325 (1934); 69. "Newspapers representing rainbow protested viewed unexpected blow Others spoke concretely prospective raids treasuries." D. Currie, Congress: Period 1789-1801, 196 (1997). 22 particular, responded outrage decision. Massachusetts Legislature, example, denounced "repugnant first government," State's Senators Representatives steps "remove clause article construed imply justify decision, that, compellable answer States." Papers Hamilton 314 (H. Syrett Cooke eds. 1969). Georgia's response intemperate: Its House passed bill providing anyone attempting enforce `guilty felony suffer death, benefit clergy, hanged.' 196. 23 An initial proposal amend introduced day announced; Senate promptly following intervening recess. turned latter great dispatch; little months introduction endorsed both Houses forwarded States. 25, 30, 477, 499 (1794); 402. 24 spent single discussing vote each unanimous. Annals, 30-31, 476-478 (the divided 81 9). All attempts weaken defeated. succession proposals limit cause arisen amendment," `[W]here previously Courts, whereby effect' "; refused exception `cases arising treaties States.' 476. 25 might correct interpretation represented deviation understanding. This, however, seems unsupportable. despite majority failed prevailed adopted. casual reading suggests suspected unpopular surprising. See, 454-455 J.) (condemning prevailing conception sovereignty); ("If found inconvenient regular mode pointed out amendment"); 478-479 ("[T]here reason [Georgia] perceive [sovereign immunity] [republican] equality"); 419-420 (attorney Chisholm) want remonstrance satisfy me, motion, unpopular. Before read, learnt acts whose always dear she too condemned it"). Finally, Members immune III's grant Party," 469 478 J.), and, invoking example collect incurred possibility "exceptions," suggesting rule "extend demands, kind action," 479 These concessions undercut crucial premise principal necessarily overrode widespread 26 history suggest acted change restore design. earlier drafts phrased limits 651-652 Power equity, ..."), ..."). By then, redefine instead overruled Court: 27 "This expressing ultimate whole country, superior legislatures actually reversed prohibit import bringing suit, overruled." 28 reflects historical context congressional objective endorsing ratification. enact language codifying traditional rather specific during debates formed Cf. (quoted 10). Given outraged reaction Congress' repeated refusal otherwise doubtful meant write narrow Amendment: "Can suppose left open whilst idea states, indignantly repelled? Suppose Congress, proposing appended proviso nothing therein laws imagine States? supposition almost absurdity face." 14-15. 30 natural inference understood, clarified suggested support contrary understanding, draft broader brush. 31 swiftness near unanimity "either captured changed collective mind most rapidly." First Century 18, 101 (1985). reasonable interpretation, course, regardless views whole--which earlier--had ("It plain everybody agreed misread Constitution"). 32 dissent rewrite reflect different evidence unpersuasive. handful statutory petitions prevalence absence waiver, otherwise, unnecessary. Conventions dissent's view 8, North Carolina cast true course eliminating federal-question diversity jurisdiction, Debates, 660-661 (amendment limiting claiming lands grants states); 246 (identical Convention), relied dissatisfaction scope matter, directed toward drafted. 33 remaining bear weight seeks place it. voiced Edmund Randolph Wilson, reiterated capacities advocate decisively General Pinkney speak all. Furthermore, his tension 573 think, whatever nations say, plaintiff, taken away words where party"), Wilson radical nationalist vision deviated but, apparent embrace position, remains startling today, post, approval Wilson's statement ought subordinate "). Nor controversial Maryland surrendered Maryland's submit process Vanstophorst Maryland, 401 (1791), aroused controversy, Marcus Wexler, Suits Against States: Diversity Opinion 1790s, 1993 Sup. Ct. 73, 74-75, unnoticed 429-430 dissenting). Oswald respond plaintiff's summons until asserted defense free, "drawn compelled" 76-77 (internal quotation marks And, "champions `every bit vigorous defending partisans side issue' 37, decidedly less numerous. 34 short, scanty equivocal offered Chisholm--that some members disagreed matter. events believed stripped small minority. 35 Not reveal generation. Simply put, ratified expressly itself." Atascadero Hospital Scanlon, 473 234, 239, (1985); Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 660 (1974). C 36 interpreting conclusive "that well-understood Constitution," 69, Constitution. 12, 14-15, 18-19; Monaco, 325; Edelman, 660, 9; 70, nn. 12-13. accordance "presumption anomalous unheard-of proceedings intended up Constitution--anomalous constitution adopted." 18; 15. looked "history experience, order things," 14, "[a]dhering letter" 13, determining Following approach, upheld assertions various contexts falling outside held barred suing head jurisdiction. unmoved petitioner's applied 38 us defenders sensible just, apply equally present discussion. appealed now, ground State. strong that. attempt strain imagined dreamed of." 39 Later decisions requests conform strict holding Smith Reeves, 178 436 (1900), nations, Indian tribes, 775 (1991), concluding admiralty, addresses "in equity," Ex parte 256 490 (1921). 40 holdings settled doctrinal ratification, structure itself. Idaho Coeur d'Alene Idaho, 261, 267-268 (acknowledging regarded evidencing exemplifying"); 55-56; Pennhurst School Halderman, 465 89, 98-99 (1984); 497. confirmed principle; follows demarcated alone postulates explained Monaco: 41 "Manifestly, rest application exhausts restrictions non-consenting Behind control. There postulate controversies, contemplated, justiciable character. still possessing suits, save `a immunityin convention.' 322-323 487) Or, recently reaffirmed: 42 "Although appear restrict `we stand says, presupposition confirms.' [supra, 779]. That presupposition, observed century ago [supra], parts: entity system; second, ` consent," ' deleted), quoting 487 ..." 54. 43 Accord, Puerto Rico Aqueduct Sewer Authority Metcalf Eddy, Inc., 506 139, 146 (1993) rooted recognition union, maintain including II power, foregoing discussion fact "[t]he resolve question. engage type ahistorical literalism since discredited Chisholm. 68; 69 326, 15) ("[W]e long blind reliance `to 45 pose 322-323, structural "[t]here 487); Blatchford, 781; 68. directly related inheres federalism exercising "compelling evidence" required pursuant 781.A recent establish relinquish turn sources. 46 broad legislation several areas concern. Supremacy Clause, provides: 47 Pursuance thereof , Law Land; Judges bound thereby, Thing Contrary notwithstanding." VI. 48 provisions, enacts overrides 49 text, Clause enshrines Land" Acts accord 924. Appeal raises valid 33, 204 (A. Hamilton) ("But follow larger society powers, invasions authorities smaller societies, become land"); 924-925. 50 delegating land acting foreclose asserting itself A reconciled sustained Louisiana's itself; Employees Public Health Welfare Mo. Department Mo., 411 279, 283 (1973), Missouri nevertheless Act; numerous effect. reject contention substantive force asserts primacy implementation manner 51 conclude include, Necessary Proper incidental means achieving objectives powers. contention, Parden Terminal R. Co. Ala. Docks Dept., 377 184, 190-194 (1964); Pennsylvania Gas Co., 491 13-23 (1989) (plurality opinion), overruled, 63-67, 72; College Savings Bank Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Ed. Expense Bd., ante, ____ analogous context: "When `La[w] carrying Execution' Commerce violates reflected Execution Clause,' thus, Federalist, `merely [an] ac[t] usurpation' `deserve[s] treated such.' 923-924 Hamilton)) (ellipses alterations Printz). 53 cited, came last conclusion logic decisions, forum extends state-court well. 54 reopen precedents, contending derive (in contends defeasible statute) believes claim). 41. obvious all, false dichotomy. protect principles. these, jury prohibition unreasonable searches seizures, common-law lineage mean statute rights, however. are, rather, form land. 55 least part tradition, exists comments implies, seizes Iredell's analysis citing 449 dissenting), underlying enough opinion: 56 "So much, improper intimate my strongly it, admit, circumstances, money. word effect involving insurmountable implication (neither consider, case) deduction high power." 57 assertion protected Whether attribution reasoning conclusions results analytical confusion rhetorical device, simply inaccurate. so. token, contours determined founders' limitations derived 58 source asserted. No limitation existed England, predicated theory altogether. Pollock Maitland, 518 1909), quoted 415, (" `[The King] compelled court, petty lord manor' "); Holdsworth, (3d 1927) ("[N]o feudal court"). King regarded, meaningful font traditions customs substance law, claim And strains credibility on, French action. 59 restricted modify treaties, 11, beyond state-law causes surely poses Tort Claims effected contraction, expansion, amenability 60 isolated statements inapplicable Hilton South Railways Comm'n, 502 197, 204-205 (1991); Will Michigan Police, 58, 63 (1989); 239-240, Thiboutot, 448 9, (1980); 418-421. truism explained, bare exhaustive description here--whether notwithstanding attempted abrogation Congress. 61 hand. footnote digressions Thiboutot irrelevant opinion's rationale. unnecessary decision; 1983 rendered Our require closer attention, 62 injured employee state-owned railroad employer (an arm State) Employers' Liability (FELA), 1404, 51-60. "controlled informed" stare decisis. 201. FELA operated railroads workers, enter business statute's enactment impliedly waived Parden, supra. Some excluded workers coverage workers' statutes assumption adequate protection workers. Hilton, 202. Closing employers dislodged expectations extensive legislative response. gives position petitioners here squarely address, resolve, respondent Commission, contested affirmative defense. Brief Respondent 90-848, O. T. 1991, pp. 7, 21. strategy litigated wake Gas, Tribe. appeared sufficiently clear. 64 based concepts waiver later undermined Parden's reasoning, Welch Texas Highways Transp., 483 468, (1987) (recognizing erred finding suit); Bank, (overruling constructive waiver), questioned proposition waive 65. 65 read issues interests drawn litigation. best recognizing adhering, decisis presumed fact, covered FELA, 66 Hall California California's doing noted amalgam quite concepts, applicable 414. immunity," ibid, notion cases," "[t]his adequately supports 416. sharply distinguished, sovereign: 67 "[B]ut [this explanation] affords Such implicates second sovereign; agreement, implied, sovereigns, voluntary comity." 68 Since agreement another, Nevada's comity. distinguish States; not, consider differences reluctance find implied construed, Government. treats differently Hall: 70 "[I]n Amendment's reminder people, caution exercised unstated Framers." 425 71 contrast, "can constitution, given, given implication." Martin Hunter's Lessee, Wheat. 304, 326 (1816); City Boerne Flores, 507, 516 (1997); Lopez, 514 549, 552 (1995). 72 urged here. distinction based, with, support, here--that abrogated 73 seek additional decisions. Reich Collins, 513 106 (1994), holds plainly certain" postdeprivation remedy taxes collected violation declare, disputed paid remedy, exist. 108. arose tax-refund litigation, deprive taxpayer challenging validity tax "clear remedy. Ibid.; Assessment Real Estate Assn., Inc. McNary, 454 100 (1981). context, due requires provide promised. Hudson Palmer, 517, 539 (1984) (O'Connor, concurring). obligation arises powerof 74 Howlett Rose, 496 356 (1990), refuse §1983 school board assert entitled. Mt. Healthy Bd. Doyle, 429 274, 280 (1977). Howlett, "whether `sovereign immunity' available forum." 358-359. compel entertain 75 impression. derogation "inherent compact," 781, continue practice, precedent, 76 look surrounding focused record instruction 77 believe, silence simple one, ardent opponents, overriding concern war-time debts, known creativity, foresight, vivid imagination instructive. conceived 78 arguments confirm inference. "no vassal higher lord." 414-415. analogy, 418. circumvent sense relinquished events. 79 gave telling. Relying custom practice--and, 555 (Marshall)--they Judiciary, issue. argument, applies greater setting, other, unquestioned. 80 Similarly, while catalyst issue, distinguishing ("When sovereigns method [a petition right] respectful demand; State-Court; exemption adopting has, respect, her sovereignty"). there. 82 Implicit proposal, evident, retained concomitant allow 83 why conventions, furor speed jealous care permitting allowed generation--that used difficult conceive andcede fora. 84 supported provides "contemporaneous weighty meaning." 905 Congresses 906-907 (listing statutes); Testa Katt, 330 386, 389-390 (1947), discovered instance purported "numerousness [authorizing court], contrasted utter lack statutes" "suggests assumed 907-908. 85 Congresses, absent experience. confronted arguably FELA. 187 ("Here, meets created Congress"). recognized, clearly Welch, 476-478. here, aftermath among enactments multiplied generation, "they vintage probative [FLSA] tradition lends text. Their far outweighed centuries avoidance practice." 918. 86 Even statutes, purport enforceable federal, departs longstanding erroneous view, inspired forum. 87 described sweeping Briscoe Kentucky, Pet. 257, 321-322 (1837) ("No liable consent"); Board Liquidation McComb, 92 531, 541 (1876) ("A individual"); re Ayers, 123 443, (1887) (same); Great Northern Life Ins. Read, 322 47, (1944) prevents consent"). 88 occasions, Beers How. 527, 529 (1858) jurisprudence civilized permission"); Railroad Tennessee, 337, 339 (1880) elementary sovereignty"); Cunningham Macon Brunswick 109 446, 451 (1883) accepted unquestioned, class party conferred Constitution"); Louisianaex rel. Guaranty Indemnity Steele, 230, 232 (finding official "clearly principle" decisions); Hess Port Trans-Hudson Corporation, (1994) largely shields leaving permits, tribunals"); ("[T]his empowered review suit"); (Frankfurter, put Therefore, bring court--the States--except 51, (majority opinion); Quern 332, (1979); Green Mansour, 474 64, 89 rulings. abating maintainable; [that State] allowing If consequence [Chisholm]"); Then how Circuit having acquire power?"). 90 Young, 209 (1908), bars relief declaratory injunctive therefore permitted Oil Crain, 211 Young suits: 91 perform functions restraint exempt tribunals, tribunals. error universality conclusion, seen. Necessarily invalid officers. illustrates necessity. precluded forbidden be, easy way enforcement .... 123, fully discussed reviewed." 226-227. Had need pressing, doctrine. 270-271 (principal opinion). 93 raising Part II-A-1, 94 final special 95 treat joint participants governance Nation. 583 (concurring 935; 188. thought "neither becoming invested large residuum summoned defendants complaints persons." 505. preserved "thus accords owed federation." Authority, 146; 268 afforded protect"). suffices Private indignity tribunals parties," 505; default face prospect thrust, fiat will, disfavored debtor, levy treasury buildings property administers public's behalf. 97 ways, offensive depended comity sole control 414-418. press service coerce branches ultimately commandeer entire machinery behest individuals. 276. governmental denigrates 98 unquestioned retains reluctant entitled reciprocal privilege. 99 Underlying considerations substance. States--especially damages--may threaten financial integrity indisputable founding, insolvency unlimited treasuries compensatory damages, attorney's fees, punitive staggering burdens, giving leverage potential severe notorious resources. subtle risks assures unanticipated intervention government." 53. disregarded, public policy administration affairs" "subject controlled mandates interests." contexts--at practical matter--see infra, carries costs autonomy, decisionmaking ability, capacity unwarranted ability govern citizens. Today, allocation scarce resources competing needs lies heart process. creditor legitimate compensation, important worthwhile ends compete access fisc. satisfied full, inevitable sensitive judgments made. representative balance reached deliberation decree mandated invoked citizen. show ousted judiciary set place." Louisiana Jumel, 107 711, 727-728 (1883). 102 `split[ting] atom sovereignty,' `two orders government, direct relationship, privity, mutual sustain governed it.' Saenz Roe, 526 ____, ___, (1999), Term Limits, Thornton, 779, 838 (1995) contemplates represent accountable citizens." 920. processes, strikes accountability liberty republican government. 103 blur responsibilities duties displacing "state `go Gregory Ashcroft, 452, 461 (1991). governance, assigning branches, responsibility directing payment debts. 460 ("Through defines sovereign"). displace responsibility, branch legitimacy fidelity defined very derives. 104 court; wield instrumentalities. 365 (noting anomaly arise court"); 206 "federalism-related uses exclusive permit statute"). 105 resulting executive administer regulatory programs, 188, "adequate appropriate" Testa, 394, prescriptions, insofar prescriptions relat[e] appropriate power," 907. unprecedented step, infer declare further pursue judiciaries exceeds themselves. instrumentalities Yet, Chief "No trace dependence execution assigned ends; expected rely accomplishment ends." McCulloch 316, 424 (1819); Osborn 738, 821 (1824) insinuated, depending cause, instance, Courts State"). peculiarly command, Judiciary. impose judges. serious imposes judges Judiciary §1, classes discretion inferior opened suggests, vested forms "matters precedents "properly courts," `entire Constitution' consent." 329 497); (private "of character"). aware precept admit Erie Tompkins, 304 (1938): 108 "[T]he autonomy independence States--independence departments. Supervision permissible specifically interference either, permitted, invasion extent, denial independence." 78-79. legislation. 110 disregard imposed comport unwilling honor obey faith Land." 111 Sovereign compliance 112 initiative, consenting wide variety rigors "mitigated justice continually expanded Nor, limitations, Dakota Dole, 203 (1987). 113 consented, subsequent amendments. 328-329 (collecting cases). name entrusted duty "take Care faithfully executed," 3, differs individual: alternative extralegal measures, fear isabsent delegation persons 114 Fourteenth Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445 (1976). imposing granting "fundamentally struck Constitution." 59. 507 (1997), paramount, unauthorized Fitzpatrick, 456. 115 lesser entities. municipal corporation 280; Lincoln County Luning, 133 (1890). 505-506; 270 real served sacrificed mechanics captions pleading"). rule, relief. Compare 651 officer unconstitutional wrongful conduct fairly attributable himself, personally. Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 237-238 (1974); Ford Motor Treasury Ind., 323 459, 462 (1945). 116 supremacy 105. Established rules ample ongoing violations vindicate animate Clause. 210 uphold IV 117 "regards `one highest Cushing Cohen, 420 919, 923 (Me. 1981) Drake Smith, 390 541, 543 1978)), adheres legislature requisite shed protective mantle 2d, 923. standard. discriminated manipulated systematic fashion discriminate chosen maintaining others, conclude, V level federalism, resilient ours mirrors vast legislates affecting prefectures corporations. esteem system, beginning ensure disparage disagrees, discover, accomplish system. appeal Charter wrote Theirs unique insight freedom enhanced one. attach label colleagues' insistence yield politics moment. begins rests becomes ultimate, preferred mechanism people's will. refutation concept. choosing ordain insisted rejecting instances remote share belief regulating pleases proxy 120 depends prescribe comply. good-faith disagreement requirements FLSA, conceded questioned. Solicitor interest compensating employees past compelling subjected employees. authorization, 216(c), apparently insufficient sending attorney prosecute difference behalf ofthe deem sufficient second. Affirmed. 121 whom Breyer join, dissenting. 122 reach conception, "background (understood suit), 72, codification dealing solely citizen-state dissenters, enhancement odds essence federalism. Today's naturally seq. (1994 Supp. III), objection. complementing confronts renders beside point, discerning simpler straightforward Tribe: "fundamental aspect" "confirm[ed]" Ante, 2, 3. Tribe's contorted background presumably unnecessary; work economy Tribewould welcomed. Indeed, current correct, Whatever originally embarrassment occasioned debt easily avoided (1793), inherent, 124 sequence positions prompts suspicion error, skepticism scrutiny efforts holding. constitutionalized statehood, historically fare better subsidiary lines scheme supposedly devoid precursors ignores bind disparages relationships Republic founding. 125 mistaken, respectfully judgment. 126 principally understands survived 1788 status, 1791. "sovereign immunity" term insupportable. legal systems selectively received indefeasible mention 132-142, 160-162, (Souter, posed, shield committed unquestionably length repeat here.1 127 offer today's corollary substituting occasion fair references referring prerogative inherited statehood universally discoverable emphatically relies "inherent" right, 6, characterization require, reading. 128 understand Hamiltonian formulation object substantially popular, dominant, periods Revolution Confederation. else saying tampering Congress.2 rationale turns history: widely period preceding (or 1791)? 129 certainly no. unalterable. looks framing, era, same. obsolete royal republic; defeasible, statute; few thought, keeping body logically Natural thinking position. 130 Colonies enjoy alone; "antecedent Declaration Independence, none colonies pretended states," Story, 207, 149 (5th 1891). Several colonial charters, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Island, specified corporate thereunder sued. Sources Documents Constitutions (W. Swindler 1975) (Massachusetts); 131 (Connecticut); 363 (Rhode Island); 434 (Georgia). Other charters Gibbons, Immunity: Reinterpretation, Colum. L. Rev. 1889, 1897 (1983). lawyer Blackstone indeed did,he pre-eminence," *241 Blackstone), him, sources Bracton3 Parliament imperial. *241-*242. him." *242.4 demand him chancery, chancellor grace compulsion." *243. worth pausing note went compatible writers "natural law": 132 "And entirely consonant `A subject,' says Puffendorf, `so continues hath oblige prince due, refuses it; wise ever lawful contract. leave contract, proceeds laws.' end observe persuade omitted).5 Next Locke's according overreaching heady prince' `well recompensed peace security chief magistrate, danger.' Locke, Second Treatise Civil 205 (1690 Gough 1947)). Pufendorf revealed readers legal-philosophical immemorial theoretical But juxtaposed law6 conceptions confuse them. "consonant" sovereign,7 foundations America, location raise exigence. Starting mid-1760's, ideas began shift Americans lacking voice Parliament, taxed. B. Bailyn, Ideological Origins 204-219 (1968); G. Wood, Creation Republic, 1776-1787, 347-348 (1969). story development complex uneven; 1776, locus definition, denied remained Parliament. 135 unsettled, themselves independence.8 Connecticut pre-existing constitutions, altering specifying suability. Rev., 1898, 42-43. inheritors Crown's remedies parallel England.9 There, contemporary litigants monstrans de droit Chancery Exchequer. *256-257. provided: 136 "Where auditors disallow abate commonwealth, himself aggrieved chancery case, redress, proceed thereon; commonwealth equity." Hening, Statutes Large: Being Collection 536, 540 (1821); Pfander, Immunity Right Petition: Toward Pursue Nw. 899, 939-940, 142 137 "petition" reminiscent "shall thereon," paralleled formula approval, "soit fait al partie," technically adjudicated. *256; 940, 143-144. similarly auditor general's resolution account Directing Mode Recovery Debts Settlement Accounts 1781, 192 (1782 ed., reprinted 1984); 941, 145. conferring settle accounts Comptroller General, Apr. 1782, ch. 959, Commonwealth (1810), 1785 adjudications had, 26-27; 147. recorded Commonwealth, pleaded Respublica Sparhawk, 357, (Pa. 1788), grounds lacked jurisdiction.10 influence Jacobs, 169, (1972), "[s]uits manner, direct." Pa. IX, (1790), Constitutions, 293; 928, 101.11 139 Around Constitutional immunity; tendency constitutions announce inalienable men (1776), 278 ("That sole, governing internal police same"), rights. possess perceived barring order, England. 140 debate, mentioned. comes surprise, relations employees.12 emerge too, emerged displayed 141 arguable absolutist debate already mentioned, associated law: court] ideal. will." 548-549 1961). 143 carefully, thrust sovereignty."13 echo sovereign";14 phenomenon claimed ("the mankind"), peculiar feature conception. novelty uniqueness employment terminology explain remarking, stands contrast formulations indicating natural-law-versus-common-law origin, stance noticing because, marked prominence 54, (1890), (1944), 21-22. 144 debated produced, underpinnings. He maintained court," Adoption 1836) Debates), Party" interpreted principle, wish citizen, court." Ibid.15 along argument: 145 "I gentleman Virginians state- federal-court anticipated espouse counsel contented agnosticism significance mankind," nonsuability court: party." 573. trump ("whatever say"). 147 farthest extreme hostility destroyed" "because suiter acknowledge names use manner." 490. [was] easy: Ibid.16 commenting State: attended Impartiality Constitution; pervades whole. controversy tribunal footing." 491. located all: "Upon resides governments? honorable truly, Now, cannot, people; parted dispensed welfare." 443.17 major Chisholm: applicability 148 From canvass spectrum certain. espousing indefeasible, enforceability produced emphatic eminences indicated adherence D definitively resolved, indeterminacy led ways range declarations exempted subjection court.18 Convention's included series framed amendments, stating "That 329.19 alter uncertain, precise intent, York's 1787 shows consensus (let doctrine). was, unclear affairs seemed advisable stabilize. 150 finally 16, 1790, representatives urge passage list incorporated language, identical form: 151 state; same, especially expressed, indirectly, judiciary, interfere liquidating discharging securities 152 reflecting 153 Unlike hinted clarification fundamentally content III. omitted 660-661, 246-247. omission enacted, wished so.20 suggestion resolutions events, conventions' felt demonstrates uncertainty surrounded moment stage divergent E 154 characteristic broadly expect somewhere Yet Rights added endue equivalent mentioned writings. espoused constitutionally immutable 155 questions assumpsit lie (questions presented).21 Randolph, Framer22 Attorney 422, acknowledged, 423, barrier things. origin immediately assemblages process," ibid. 156 took vociferously. Building 18-19, noting pregnant sovereignty: 157 "To SOVEREIGN, totally unknown. propriety. perhaps, comported delicacy those, ordained announced `SOVEREIGN' serenely conscious ostentatious declaration." 454. 158 directness23 Framers' delicacy, Framer-turned-Justice (even case): 159 "As Judge know, knowledge, scale `People States,' purposes NOT 457. 160 inherently attached identify said, Norman Conquest. After Blackstone's developed disapproving imaginable: 161 him] despotism lately unwearied assiduity care. Of author introducer, supporter. followed known; doctrines Atlantic, implicitly examined consequences[.] human prescribed superior. examine. Suffice operations, forms, judgment, sound genuine jurisprudence; pure equality founded CONSENT obedience theyrequire. traced source, man." 458. 162 With rousing revolutionary ideology rhetoric, Republic. justifiable tenet 163 Jay vehement tone he, incident European feudalism, 471, 164 "[n]o obtain here; Revolution, devolved subjects (unless African slaves called) themselves; fellow citizens, tenants 471-472. 165 princes argued, other. "But incompatible, hundred thousand, perceive, alike; consequences alike." 473. out, Executive implement reservation practical, theoretical: improved, science advanced degree perfection, peaceable justice, 478. collectively, Nation override Cushing's dealt shortly objection thereby reduced corporations: corporations bodies politic. powers?" 468. Observing concluded Where abridged, indispensable whole." possible tell certainty introductory remark suggestive. wrote, "turns measure elucidated whatever; 466. sympathy untouchable authority. 167 Blair, Cushing, brief Blair asked hypothetically verdict preclusive "should renew herself Courts." 452. commented petition: 168 169 native Virginia, where, seen, 10-11, "an Courts" right. 170 Member lie; far-reaching, cautious. core waiver. (dissenting added, identified dictum, "strongly against" "which money," ibid.,24 immunityas withindependence: 171 prescribes crown. Every compleatly surrendered. surrendered: reserved. them: surrenderred before." 435. mean, view. 173 sum, (Jay Wilson), (however conceived) courts; (Cushing) essentially silent (Blair) cautious affirming pragmatic continuing right; (Iredell) rightly belonged 24, 21, dearth implausible argue dominant) framing Amendment.25 174 discomfort insupportable stands. discount opinions, enterprise fails. 175 "overruled" animadversion point. indication 1791 (indeed, all) comon-law, advantage. testimony eminent minds virtually everyone saw (from Congress's authority). 176 trio Chisholm's legitimacy: "failed adopted," surprising," ibid.; "two despite" 12. three "fundamental" "inherent," convincing. refer normal practice. aside, somehow untouched cannot.26 remarkable anticipation unpopularity benchmark error. event, proffered this: prerevolutionary misguided, 454-455; stated axiomatically 468; losing come republicanism, 478-479; admitted probably Virginia.27 items boil knew (as him) been, dispute. reality detract from, confirms, recognize immutably 179 third objection, 28, purely legal, vis-a-vis claims. troubled "If so," 469, consequence. 180 retrospectively reestablished (though eluding perception Court), hence "acted design," 12.28 "established" effort repudiate echoes brio "contrary (1934)). conceptual aberration play circumstances foundation relies, "there exist," (1985).29 181 surprising, realize post-Chisholm escape cut off), champions "every issue." Hist. 83; Documentary 251-252, 252-253, 262-264, 268-269 (newspaper articles supporting Chisholm); History, supra 17, 616 (statement Committee Delaware Chisholm). Amendment; "restored." F 182 predicate elsewhere imported facts Constitution? avail nothing, mistaken today. 183 embodying majority's Holmes Kawananakoa Polyblank, 349 (1907).30 jurist, "Natural Law," Holmes, Collected Legal 312 (1920) seem na ;ve accepts familiar accepted"). cogent restatement includes (omitted formulation) explaining version refutes today: fails brought. expressly: "A logical depends." Kawananakoa, 353. 184 His cited line purports follow: Hobbes, Bodin, Sir Eliot, Baldus Ubaldis. work, 185 assembly man, laws. repeal may, pleaseth, repealing trouble new; consequently before. will: release; bound." Leviathan 26, 130. 186 Jean Bodin nearly three-quarters Les six livres la republique, Bk. (1577); Six Books Tooley transl. 1967) commands law"). Eliot crux theory: majesty fulness noe necessitie, limitted publicke De Jure Maiestatis: Political Grosart 1882), observing necessity, Commentary Digna vox Justinian's Code 1.14.4, Lectura super Codice folio 51b (Chapter Legibus constitutionibus) (Venice 1496) ("nemo suo statuto ligatur necessitative"). "jurists law" reproved intrinsic value views, faulted seeing position: applied, applicability. multiple sovereignties, dominant. 353, 354 (District Columbia "created District"). Garcia San Antonio Metropolitan Transit 528 (1985), Holmes's impeccable yields eo nomine claim. 188 trap recourse rationally civilians, contingent, illogical, admits turn; Alden's forward. 189 era. counted yet, looking clause-based reception principle," Immunity, "inheres "contours [being] law," 25. Again, "[w]e design." 39. necessitates isolation rested alone. dissent, demonstrably mistaken. 190 repudiated wisdom sovereignties "great solecism imperium imperio," 223.31 Once sovereignty" split, (Kennedy, concurring), component succinctly Marshall: "In other." 410 (1819).32 191 flaw FLSA.33 promulgated depends. decided, creates sorts entertained there, case. jurisdiction; once VI, cl. `valid excuse,' 356, 369 (1990) Douglas N. 279 377, 387-88 (1929)), courts' federal-law excuse, mistake.34 193 symptomatic weakness buttress protect," (1997)), demands fisc, 41-42. Apparently beguiled Gilded Era describing `neither convenient,' (1887)), "immunity dignity," 4, assumes "dignity" quality translated participatory abstraction ("[C]ongressional thoroughly sets ofsovereignty: 194 "First, Under monarchical establishment, subjects... transcendent nature; being, awful ease carry examine." *241. 195 hard anything inimical precisely above own. justification government's dignity.35 Lee, 196, 208 (1882). puzzling "federal So citizens' legislation, violate felt; trumps expected, intended. 197 Least "other needs" "judgment creditor" money, 42. dunning bill- collector, stints enforcing abundance substituted politesse law.36 198 supply might. Clause-based innovation presumption unconstitutionality. (arguing power). outset, approach cohesive affords. labors mightily distinguish, 26-27,37 Act, 51-60, statement, courts.' 63-64 (1989)).38 unkempt, problem arguing unbroken, demanding preservation conditions relevant way. 199 time, "Congress' Clause" "certain elements deemed `separate existence.' Garcia, 547-548 Lane Oregon, Wall. (1869)). belief, preordained preclude subjects. (From wage hour regulation subjects, 52.) rare, unknown, confront situation tended 200 League Cities Usery, 426 833 (1976)), test undue incursion `States result." 554. Because commerce longer circumscribed, prior anything, expansive surprised 31-34 "historical record" law). intentions count implications hover instrument veto world anticipated. 202 astonished generally. proliferation Federal, amaze Framers, administrative reams regulations rubbing eyes. surprise at, Communications Reserve threat reason: "[W]hen constituent act, life foreseen completely gifted begetters. organism; cost successors sweat blood prove nation. ago." Holland, 252 416, 433 (Holmes, `We forget,' Mr. McCulloch, [4 Wheat., at] 407, `that expounding.' repeatedly clauses instrument, Fathers dreamed." Olmstead 277 438, 472 (1928) (Brandeis, occasions regret versions regrettable suddenly concededly minimum wage, 1938, employers. Wirtz, 392 183, 185-186 (1968). 1966, amended concerned hospitals, institutions, schools. 186-187, 6. "such federalism." (opinion Douglas, 1974, again "extend[ing] maximum employed subdivisions." Cities, 836. way: extension infringement 852; measure, overturned dismissing authoritative, 854-855. 207 word. nine later, municipally owned mass-transit 534, 536. 557, taking lay guarantee. Ibid.39 repudiated, challenged fared theory. significant impediment rendering unenforceable blocking total charge vitiated insisting, 11-12, Texas, 621, 644-645 (1892). 14. true, Secretary file seeking unless plans expansion Goverment's litigating forces whenever allusion whimsy. Facing reality, found, capability redress situations forthcoming voluntarily." Rep. 93-690, hopes suspect likely assure multifarious 4.7 million Union.40 difficulties drive incentive afford traditionally tort Government: enforcement, old itself, benchmark. ancient, wages performed. Denying par closing courthouse door victims unaccompanied Washington. irony profession deeply abandons inveterate, hearts Framers: Lord Holt 1702, Ashby White, Mod. 45, 53-54, Eng. 808, 815 (K.B.): 212 person, hindered benefit, action; books so." (citation omitted).41 213 invaded." *23. constitutions.42 Marbury, remedy?," Marbury Cranch 137, (1803), rhetorical, clear: 214 consists receives injury. protection. Britain petition, comply 163. 215 qualms frankly "made of" petitioners; "hindered benefit"; "necessary Ashby, 55, Rep., 815. sovereign. pressed unlike complement Marshall) democratically less.43 Justice's contemporaries reacted spoken responding "[The Framers] essence, form." 423. 216 swung back forth disruption defensible accept expectation stability ahead. naive. resemblance Lochner era's industrial striking. imputing economic self-reliance grew insistently fictional years, late essay experiment laissez-faire, unrealistic indefensible, fleeting. NOTES 217 inexplicably protests seizures nonetheless indefeasible. argument. Sixth Fourth Amendments, nowhere My 218 am assuming forward newly comprehended guarantee Framers. argue, know advantage wholesale Ninth 219 Bracton earliest King, practical: "Si autem ab petatur, cum breve non currat contra ipsum, erit supplicationi, quod factum suum corrigat emendet." [justice] runs [only] opportunity act." Bracton, Consuetudinibus Angliae (G. Woodbine Thorne 1968) (London 1569 5b, 8). ran privilege; 1927). `He manor; happens accident.' 1899)). Finch petitioned Finch, Law, Discourse Thereof, Four 255 (1678 1992) ("Here unto Chancery, K[ing] Common driven petition" (omitted)); *242. 220 explain, infra page 8-9, differed natural-law version, dispute, insist, existed, protest 25; couched surprising "law king," unwritten [has] beenadded thereto," 19, "these customs, kings," sat Thus, part, king's law." 184. this, remarked *243; 9. 221 passage, Pufendorf, Naturae Gentium Libri Octo 915 (1688 1934); modern translation, 1344-1345 (transl. Oldfather 1934) Pufendorf). Elsewhere chapter, impossibility King's promises "Therefore, enjoys liberty, fault pact making, serve notice obligated fault; secure [party pact] release [namely, nature, incapable producing right." 1342-1343. 222 disparage," 50. object, wrong, illuminating draws, origins Roman ambiguities term, expression figures sued, 1103-1104; chs. 17-18 (1651), Western World 99-104 (1952) Leviathan) (describing authority); 95-99 1947) community nature). medieval lawyers belong jus gentium, law; positive, Ulpian's Digest, I.3.31, jurists, "Princeps legibus solutus est"; emperor statutes." Digest Justinian (T. Mommsen P. Krueger eds., Watson 1985); Tierney, Prince Bound Laws: Accursius Modern Comparative Studies Society 378 (1963); K. Pennington, 1200-1600: Sovereignty Tradition 77-79 (1993). Through continental initially Emperor, eventually Pope, city-state, 90, model body. Thus Hobbes begin saying, laws." interpreters maxim Princeps est divine prince's statutes. 390-394; 206-208; Canning, Thought Ubaldis 74-79 223 resided dominant 17th century. 347 224 "universal ratified," 5, examples overstated. comment principle. suable bodies, tendentious doubt" `any passed.' 434-435). demonstrate, wrong. elsewhere, 44, 107, (1996) 225 overlooked exceptions (provisions "only confir[m]" States). canvassing deny undoubted examine civilian, 226 Pleas Philadelphia County, sheriff excused return attaching Virginia's goods, Nathan 77, (1781), Council ordered goods returned involved 227 repudiation opening desire exceed scheme, interpretation. 228 31-32. stalwart supporter groundwork 18-19. surviving records creation. participants' addressed. 229 applying contract 145-149 Here intend main consistently deriving model. focus "would 34, who, aimed claims, questions. 230 Pufendorf's translation): "Now pacts nevertheless, namely, exact demurs, such, 1344-1345. 231 "startling today," startling, national. forgotten reasons Confederation effective speaks exist, 316 (1819), decided. 233 Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, "cannot weight" yoke light, showing indefeasibly statehood. 234 older conceptions, distanced mainstream, October Washington "as able, candid, honest member Convention," George Washington: Series 379 Abbot Twohig 235 unfettered Independence 301. "sufficiently confutes states... enlightened band patriots Declaration; it,--as impress independent." 236 grand individual, concurring accepting constitution." St. Tucker, Notes Reference App. 352 (1803). footnote, Tucker Hampshire, Carolina, respect." 21-23. extant published Hampshire amendment. (nine Massachusetts); 177-178 Doc. 398, 69th Cong., 1st Sess., 1018-1020 (1927) 325-326 (12 Hampshire); 1025-1026 (same). 237 conceivable audience sort unlikely, so-called "rights" 328 equal, natural, unalienable freely peaceably religion"; "one greatest people"; assemble together"), whereas "does otherwise. 238 [the amendments] drafted." evidence, themselves, Citizen-State going wonders 239 Nathaniel Pendleton presided. Ultimately, 1789-1800, 128-129, 1994). sovreign, compelled, Time accustomed Equity whatever." Plea Jurisdiction, Oct. 1791, 143. demurred plea Demurrer, 144. unreported demurrer. 150. 151. Third, bar, "controversies" "where formerly maintained" "under Sovereigns others," "[i]n possession crown affected adverse Process, tho' sum ibid., 240 Framer signer. 241 themselves: "[A]ccording writers, governs Whether, Georgia; done, instructors, whether, hands; dependent, questions, answers; though, satisfactory answers given." 457, 242 dictum "is intending transfer exemption." 436. former; existing markedly adopts extra law-making authorizes takes tack gets 243 worse voluntarily around 74-78. February Term, (probably merits) Van Staphorst Hist., 74, avoid establishment precedent 75. tried lost, treasury, 78. 244 thinks adversion ("[D]espite failure opposed counsel) announced. Goebel, Oliver Wendell Devise: Antecedents Beginnings 1801, 728 (1971) ("There hints conference arrived independently knowing brethren decided"). "opinions orally 1790s," 164, n., reported Dallas prepared oral announcement xxiv-xxv, publication. circumlocution "another me," Randolph's home odd acknowledgment incorrect. 16-17, perfectly knowledge interesting 1798, indeed, alteration declaration construction." Cobbet, 467, 1798). Justice: [i.e., 1789] passed, otherwise." 475 (M'Kean, 247 1792, realm. strongest motivation affirmatively Crown. account, occurred questioned; possibility, absurd 248 concede 69-70 [I]t unlikely States"), plausibly possessed authors extremely labor misapprehension adduces leaves "historical" temptation shown occasionally appointment, goes (1858), Taney permission," 529. pronouncement, outcome Nichols (1869), Davis "[e]very fundamental, [and] 126. dicta, bearing Bradley demerits, concept, possibly hint approvingly `found roots "jurisprudence nations." 529). occasional seduction obscure basic approach. (1882), practices ancestors," 205, "has efficient securing suitors proceedings, themselves," "absurdity" running 206, candidly "it solid liability rests," detail heritage 227-234 Gray, 250 Parliament's indivisible eroded decade 1774, engaged objects," proto-federalist King. Address Inhabitants Britain, McRee, Correspondence (1857, 1949); 224-225, 64. 251 of, `no sphere.' Madison)). sphere, concerned. sheer circularity talk "anomaly," 43, short creation: purportedly grounded lever apply. 253 Perhaps "fundamental," frets "power individuals." 40. forget separation prevails enforces officials, do, turning upholding "commandeering" 254 ironic loci classici imperial (and by) Emperor's (or, readings, claim) Vox, 1.4.14 ("Digna maiestate regnantis legis alligatum se principem profiteri") worthy ruler profess laws"); 1200-1600, 78, puts hands assign legislature, "foreign 43. perilously legitimizing defiance acknowledging all." 27. stressed [Eleventh] structure," 257 Poindexter Greenhow, (1885), Coupon Cases, fit comfortably Funding 1871, bonds coupons receivable maturity taxes, dues, 278. 1882, requiring collectors gold, silver, currency taxes. 275. maturity, taxes; local ignored office desk Poindexter's sell unpaid detinue collector desk, Contracts Greenhow defended, inter alia, "substantially assented." 285. akin than, (1908). unconstitutional, deed wrong trespass falsely name," 290. contracts, impair, contracted 293. things defence charges her. officer, agent, representative, complained commands." duly magnitude upheld. 258 suggestion, impermissibly 4. lawfully misunderstood government,' (1997)). dictate residual Confederation, leader "league," 1961), mediating "national produce "COERCION magistracy," quote medium 259 data 4,732,608 number Employment Data: 1997, http:/www.census.gov/pub/govs/apes/ 97stus.txt. 260 statute, well-established Mod., 816 ("Now too? sure forcible Parliament"). Coke's Reports: doth lieth 100. Institutes statement: vexation, particularly named grieved statute." E. Coke, (1797) (reprinted 5B Historical Writngs Jurisprudence (1986)). 261 Fundamental Rules 198; Md. Const. XVII 372, 373; Mass. XI, (1780), 92, 94; Ky. XII, (1792), 142, 150; Tenn. (1796), 141, 148. 262 Unfortunately, professed "unwilling[ness] 46, managed disappear centuries, trend greater, lesser, accountability. Anyone inclined theories recurrent debt, quarter 19th century, 120-122 helped produce, periodic egregiously lawless, state-issued valued purchased possibility. Maine's us, order. Far defaulting eyes-open creditors, withholding due. beneficiaries ruling coverage, amount 839 1993). acknowledges claim, 12-13, told pays Why me. questioned." ambiguous qualifier "now" allows forward-looking compliance, moot.

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