Document: 398 U.S. 333 90 S.Ct. 1792 26 L.Ed.2d 308 Elliott Ashton WELSH, II, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. No. 76. Argued Jan. 20, 1970. Decided June 15, [Syllabus from pages 333-334 intentionally omitted] J. B. Tietz, Los Angeles, Cal., for petitioner. Solicitor Gen. Erwin N. Griswold respondent. Mr. Justice BLACK announced the judgment of Court and delivered an opinion in which DOUGLAS, BRENNAN, MARSHALL join. 1 The petitioner, Welsh was convicted by a United States District Judge refusing to submit induction into Armed Forces violation 50 U.S.C. App. § 462(a), on 1, 1966, sentenced imprisonment three years. One petitioner's defenses prosecution that 6(j) Universal Military Training Service Act exempted him combat noncombat service because he 'by reason religious training belief * conscientiously opposed participation war any form.'1 After finding there no basis conscientious objector claim, Appeals, Hamley dissenting, affirmed conviction. 404 F.2d 1078 (1968). We granted certiorari chiefly review contention Welsh's conviction should be set aside this Court's decision v. Seeger, 380 163, 85 850, 13 733 (1965). 396 816, 53, 24 67 (1969). For reasons stated, without passing upon constitutional arguments have been raised, we vote reverse its fundamental inconsistency with supra. 2 controlling facts case are strikingly similar those Seeger. Both Seeger were brought up homes attended church their childhood, but neither one taught members not engage at time reason. Neither nor continued his childhood ties young manhood, belonged group or adhered teachings organized religion during period involvement Selective System. At registration draft, had yet come accept pacifist principles. Their views developed only subsequent years, when ideas did fully mature both made application local draft boards exemptions military under Act. That section then provided, part:2 3 'Nothing contained title shall construed require person subject combatant armed forces who, belief, is form. Religious connection means individual's relation Supreme Being involving duties superior arising human relation, does include essentially political, sociological, philosophical merely personal moral code.' 4 In filling out exemption applications unable sign statement that, as printed form, stated 'I am, my form.' could after striking words 'training and' putting quotation marks around word 'religious.' 'my and.' On same applications, definitely affirm deny believed 'Supreme Being,' stating they preferred leave question open.3 But held deep scruples against taking part wars where people killed. strongly killing wrong, unethical, immoral, consciences forbade them take such evil practice. objection participating form said 'still, small voice conscience'; rather, so loud insistent men go jail rather than serve Forces. There never about sincerity depth Seeger's convictions objector, true Welsh. regard Appeals noted, '(t)he government concedes (Welsh's) beliefs strength more traditional convictions.' F.2d, 1081. cases System concluded these some sense insufficiently 'religious' qualify terms 6(j). claim denied 'solely it based 'belief Being' required Act,' 167, 854, (1965), while Appeal Board Department hearing officer 'could find registrant's beliefs, opinions 52. subsequently refused offense. 5 confronted, first, problem defined 'religious belief' *,' definition arguably gave preference who conventional God not. Noting 'vast panoply beliefs' prevalent our country, congressional intent being 'keeping long-established policy picking choosing among beliefs,' id., 175, S.Ct., 859, accordingly interpreted 'the meaning embrace all religions *.' Id., 165, 854. (Emphasis added.) But, having decided objectors entitled exemption, faced serious determining within statute. This particularly difficult himself. devotion goodness virtue own sakes, faith purely ethical creed.' U.S., 166, letter board, wrote: 6 'My arises what I believe considerations validity standpoint welfare humanity preservation democratic values struggling maintain. war, practical standpoint, futile self-defeating, important unethical.' 326 846, 848 (2 Cir. 1964). 7 assertions, Government argued stemmed 'essentially 8 resolving whether other registrants qualified '(the) task decide professed registrant sincerely are, scheme things, religious.' 185, 863. reference 'own things' intended indicate central consideration play role function life. principal test objector's follows: 9 'The might words: A sincere meaningful occupies life possessor place parallel filled admittedly qualifying comes statutory definition.' 176, 859. 10 clear prompt need confined either source content parochial concepts religion. It 'does distinguish between externally internally derived 186, 864 also 'intensely personal' 'incomprehensible' 'incorrect' 184—185, 863—864. What necessary opposition stem moral, ethical, right wrong convictions. Most great today past embodied idea Reality—a God—who communicates man way consciousness done, therefore shunned. If individual deeply holds nevertheless impose duty conscience refrain time, certainly occupy 'a God' traditionally persons. Because life, much someone derives 11 Applying standard himself, noted 'compulsion 'goodness" shaped total undisputed views, fact 'decried tremendous 'spiritual' price must pay willingness destory life.' 186—187, 864. concluded: 12 'We think prompted deity lives friends, Quakers.' 187, 864—865. Accordingly, found status. 14 before us seeks holding basically two grounds, relied affirming First, stressed far explicit denying religious. example, put 'religious,' struck entirely later characterized formed reading fields history sociology.' 22. 'denied premised word.?' 1082. attempt fails places undue emphasis interpretation beliefs. characterization carry weight, 184, 863, imply declaration nonreligious treated similarly. When states objections information highly relevant very few aware broad scope used 6(j), unreliable guide charged administering exemption. himself presents point. Although originally nonreligious, reflection wrote long thoughtful declared 'certainly word.' He explained: 15 mentioned being, me, wrong. Again, assumed (Bradey (the officer)) using sense, and, order perfectly honest characterize 'religious." 44. 16 ground unlike Seeger's, As previously argument reason, substantial political dimension. Supra, 338-339. case, undeniably perception world politics. 17 can act according am see. And see complex wastes material resources, fosters disregard (what consider paramount concern) needs ends; employ 'defend' 'way life' profoundly change failure recognize social, economic realities world, we, nation, fail responsibility nation.' 30. 18 do 6(j)'s exclusion persons code' read exclude hold strong domestic foreign affairs even whose founded extent public policy. groups obviously fall exclusions rest principle instead rests solely policy, pragmatism, expediency. applying philosophical' 'merely code,' remembered definitional restrict category belief.' Once has taken first step determined standards here follows cannot philosophical.' Nor See 19 'believe(d) life—anyone's life—to morally wrong.' original following: 20 valuable itself; living; will injure kill another being. (and corresponding 'duty' abstain violence toward person) 'superior relation.' contrary: essential every relation. cannot, therefore, comply Government's insistence assume feel immoral totally repugnant.' 10. 21 elaborated communications officials. conclusion 'with convictions,' 1081, clearly Section requires more. exempts consciences, spurred would give peace if allowed themselves become instrument war. 22 reversed. 23 Reversed. BLACKMUN took case. 25 HARLAN, concurring result. Candor me say joined gravest misgivings legitimate exercise construction, today's convinces doing mistake now acknowledge.1 27 sustain theistic belief. Court, treating provision statute limited claims stemming said: 'Congress, expression designation 'God,' clarifying views,' "in given orthodox qualifies exemption.' 165—166, Today prevailing makes elimination statutorily says: 'If time' (emphasis added), 28 opinion, liberties justified name familiar doctrine construing federal statutes manner avoid possible infirmities them. limits permissible doctrine, undertake show crossed apparently exceeded present myself escape facing issue squarely presents: limiting general runs afoul clauses First Amendment. appearing does, concur reversing conviction, adopt BLACK, matter touchstone salvaging standing otherwise nullified. 29 provided case: 30 1948, 62 Stat. 612, U.S.C.App. 456(j). 31 hence Congress words. course certain plastic others. concept theology philosophy, technical term, consequently may be, circumstances, capable bearing contemporary construction notions philosophy evolve. Cf. Storrs, 272 652, 47 221, 71 L.Ed. 460 (1926). language appears, however, enactment; phrase Constitution, like 'religion' 'speech,' freer construe light evolving circumstances. Joseph Burstyn, Inc. Wilson, 343 495, 72 777, 96 1098 (1952), Estes Texas, 381 532, 595—596, 1628, 1666—1667, 543 Garner Louisiana, 368 157, 82 248, 263, 207 (1961). directive, Sherman Act, free shape policies most purpose. e.g., Standard Oil Co. New Jersey States, 221 502, 55 619 (1911). Congress' divined. endeavor thing necessarily envisioned adapt circumstances uncontemplated legislature achieve legislative Rector, etc., Holy Trinity Church 143 457, 511, 36 226 (1892); wholly different define mandate stretch concededly elastic fixed context usage history, available, best guides purpose lengths enacted Rosado Wyman, 397 397, 1207, 442 (1970).2 snubs guidelines apparent textual analysis section, understood Congress, short enacting exempting individuals good oppose 32 natural quite evidently draws distinction nontheistic religions, consistent history. 5(g) 1940 Draft exampted traced belief,' 54 889, allusion Being. Kauten, 133 703 (C.A.2d 1943), Second Circuit, speaking through Augustus Hand, broadly categorically believer elementary self-interest martyrdom transgressing tenets.' 708. view further decisions ex rel. Phillips Downer, 135 521 1943); Reel Badt, 141 845 1944). expansive rejected divided Ninth Circuit Berman 156 377, 380—381 (1946): 33 'It written specific distinguishing social high moralistic authority higher beyond worldly one. 34 '(I)n Macintosh, 283 605, 51 570, 578, 75 1302, (Chief) Hughes dissent essence relation." unmistakable inescapable thrust conceived terms, rendered less straightforward court's elaboration difference inspired upbringing adherence faith. 35 'There live it. evidence appellant. However, how pure admirable devotedly adheres it, morals term State Amana Society, 132 Iowa 304, 109 N.W. 894, 898 *: 'Surely designed obviate results (man's inhumanity man), removing temptations, inducements ambition avarice, nurture virtues unselfishness, patience, love, service, ought denounced pertaining devotee regards tenet (sic) faith." Appeals.) Ibid. wake intercircuit dialogue, crystallized espoused supra, 1948. anoint Circuit's seem similarity Chief dissenting Macintosh quoted Senate report. half new almost majority;3 Committee report adverted Berman, thus foreclosing speculation alternatives. stated: 37 'This reenacts substantially provisions subsection act. Exemption extends anyone relationship Being, non-combatant service. (See F.(2d) denied, 329 795 (67 480, 91 680).)' S.Rep. 1268, 80th Cong., 2d Sess., 14.4 B 38 Against remarkable feat judicial surgery remove, requirement today, interpreting performed lobotomy completely transformed religiously acquired deriving 39 realm appropriate search vocabulary lexicon probably consulted Congress. Resort Webster's5 reveals meanings are: '1. adoration god expressed forms worship, obedience divine commands *; 2. state 3. systems worship; theism; 4. profession practice beliefs; observances collectively; pl. rites; 5. Devotion fidelity; *conscientiousness; 6. An apprehension, awareness, existence supreme widely, supernatural powers influences one's own, humanity's, nature's destiny; also, accompanied arousing reverence, gratitude, obey serve, 40 Of five pertinent definitions four notion cohesive, pursuing common spiritual together. While, points out, exhaust infinite sophisticated possibilities defining 'religion,' restricted, instance, sense. plot semantic penumbra render entitled, conclude asserted satisfies requirements. recognized shadow connotation used. included explicitly contrasted 'personal exception is, least, boundary, 'asymptote,' 'religion.'6 41 dichotomy embracing alone speaks 'devotion fidelity' principles individualized adopting, associate formal, worship shared recognizable cohesive group. Indeed, predecessor 1917 conditioned status membership affiliation 'well-recognized sect organization (then) existing creed forb(ade) participate 4, 78. eliminated not, view, mean effect, secular religion.7 42 Unless Alice-in-Wonderland meaning, fair choice convey discerning reader obliterates: usually formal structure dogma identity, nontheistic, cults represent schools thought usual most, loose informal associations share intellectual views. II 43 plain enactment circumvented distortion avert inevitable collision, exalting over substance justify veering off path plainly marked Such betrays extreme skepticism constitutionality, reflects groping preserve cost. 44 subscribe emasculated latent question, purported fidelity salutary avoiding unnecessary resolution issues, adhere. Ashwander Tennessee Valley Authority, 297 288, 348, 56 466, 483, 80 688 (1936) (Brandeis, J., concurring). course, desirable salvage enactments whenever intend legislate consequences unconstitutional, permissible, judgment, lateral robs legislation collision Constitution. Yates 354 298, 77 1064, 1356 (1957). Aptheker Secretary State, 378 500, 515, 84 1659, 1668—1669, 992 (1964): 45 '(a)lthough often strain save attack, point perverting *' judicially rewriting Scales 367 (203) 211, 81 (1469) 1477 (6 782). To way, abstract valid ask enact permissibly bear rendering defects.' 46 sharply focus Cardozo's Moore Ice Cream Rose, 289 373, 379, 53 620, 622, 1265 (1933): "A construed, fairly possible, grave doubts score.' avoidance difficulty pressed disingenuous evasion. Here intention revealed too distinctly permit ignore mere power. answered.' 48 perpetuated recasting unconstitutional legislation, done here, analytically sound approach decision. Its justification resort intent, employed, kind namely presumed grant power courts nearly accords wishes eliminate altogether extend intend, constitutional. Compare, Yu Cong. Eng Trinidad, 271 619, 70 1059 (1926); Reese, 92 214, 563 (1876), Skinner Oklahoma, 316 535, 1110, 86 1655 (1942); Nat. Life Ins. 277 508, 591, 968 (1928). turn question. III 49 defers emanate could, consistently requirements objectors. 'neutral' offend Free Exercise Clause, forth Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 418, 83 1790, 1801, 965 (1963). Jacobson Massachusetts, 197 11, 29, 358, 362, 643 (1905) (dictum); cf. McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 1101, 393 (1961); Davis Beason, 333, 299, 637 (1890); Hamilton Regents University, 293 245, 264—265, 197, 204—205, 79 (1934); Reynolds 98 145, 244 (1879); Kurland, U.Chi.L.Rev. chosen exempt, draw line hand other. Any distinctions compatible Establishment Clause separate Walz Tax Comm'n, 664, 694, 1409, 1424, 697 (1970); Epperson Arkansas, 97, 89 266, 228 (1968); School Abington Township Schempp, 203, 305, 1560, 1615, 844 (1963) (Goldberg, concurring); Engel Vitale, 370 421, 1261, 601 (1962); Torcaso Watkins, 488, 1680, 1683, 982 Fowler Rhode Island, 345 67, 73 526, 97 828 (1953). implementation neutrality requires, supra 'an equal protection mode analysis. survey meticulously governmental categories eliminate, were, gerrymanders. particular critical encircles class (all that) perimeter (are included).' 696, 1425. 'radius' conscientiousness opposes general, statute, excludes 'scope' motivated religions,8 guided inner bespeaks reflection. disadvantages adherents infirmity cured, moreover, impermissible eliminates simply nonreligious. offends classification condemned. supra; Schempp concurring) application, encompass purports exclude, source.9 denominator intensity held.10 Common experience teaches weak others tenets considerations. 52 enlists Law Cases, 245 366, 159, 349 (1918), precedent upholding constitutionality provision. involved raise armies conscription incidentally emphasized effect ministers constituted establishment interference considered afterthought since involve claimed objectors.11 conclusory assertion, unreasoned unaccompanied citation, surely foreclose issue. Other authorities assembled Government, advancing demonstrate unconstitutionality drawn Everson Education, 330 504, 1135, 1144, 1122, 711, 551, 563, 536 (1947); Sunday Closing 582, 599, 617, (1961), Education Allen, 392 236, 88 1923, 1060 (1968), sustained premise neutral constitute establishment, notwithstanding assisted giving benefits accorded groups.12 Zorach Clauson, 306, 679, 954 stand proposition (Zorach), (Sherbert), programs accommodate groups, unsound.13 generally conform Amendment's reflected mainstream American must, neutral. IV Where defective underinclusion exist remedial alternatives: court declare nullity benefit, coverage aggrieved exclusion. Iowa-Des Moines National Bank Bennett, 284 239, 133, 76 265 (1931).14 disposition action declaratory notice was, identical respects petitioner except source. Since created benefit reversed Amendment unless remediless. Cr. Smith Cahoon, 553, 1264 (1931).15 result, tantamount extending mandated Constitution presented equity enforcement awaits final determination scope.' 565, 586.16 While operation, extension, analogous graft amputation, boundaries properly pronouncement severability. 57 Indicative breadth severability clause, 65 83, provides '(i)f thereof invalid, remainder affected thereby.' absence discretion repaired abandoned, Jackson, 390 585, n. 27, 1209, 1218, 138 'discloses make divisible, creates presumption eliminating invalid parts, Legislature satisfied remained Champlin Rfg. Corporation Commission, 286 210, 235, 559, 1062 (1932). (1928).17 58 exercising conferred clause measure commitment residual degree potential disruption occur extension abrogation. dissenting); Dorchy Kansas, 264 286, 323, 68 686 (1924). 59 longstanding tradition country recognition diverse 'open' society, value reconciling individuality exigencies possible. Girouard 328 61, 66 826, 1084 (1946). dates back colonial times statutes. 267, 206; Cir., 845, 847 (1930). phrased reflects, assume, ethics morals, concern matters nourishment suppose, assumption emanating intensity. 60 roots embedded compelling hazard repairs administrative framework impairing goals, though entail, offending building it.18 Thus prepared opinion's test, patch work making cures defect administered business.19 Like 61 WHITE, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE STEWART join, dissenting. Whether accurately providing join disclaim code readings sociology. Our obligation enforce own; HARLAN demonstrated, expressly 63 end Even asserting believers forbidden Amendment, remains pains relieve duty. constitutional, excuse induction. contrary express exempt Welsh, warrant saving redrafting him. 64 aliens others, citizen, hardly demonstrating unconstitutional. By token, Constitutional prohibits believers, anyway, why invalidity create immunity Welsh? Surely just remedy along reward seeking 6(j); withheld problems '(O)ne heard attack impliedly situations unconstitutional.' Raines, 362 17, 21, 519, 522, 524 (1960). Nothing drafting Saving itself draft-exemption thinking invalidation conviction; violated objectors, judgments, perhaps both. however admirable, use many unqualified extended limit fighting services do. basis, primary furthering Frankfurter, Harlan, 468, 1158, 'can prevail appear. 349.' Second, forced conduct forbid violate least respect. True, once unwillingness alone, requiring believers. Regents, 263—264, 623 624, 574—575, 1302 (1931). obliged work; monopoly wisdom insight task. Legislative date days. explained 633, importance arms debates "indicative actual operation Constitution." However regularly steered granting grounds. provide impair reflecting command Sabbatarians (1963), flat tax book sellers evangelists, Follett McCormick, 321 573, 717, 938 (1944). religionists well; camouflaged additional 'moral' assumption, force devout follow law respecting likely implementing Clause. 'To support Armies' Laws proper carrying Execution' Art. I, 8. exercised which, forbids laws prohibiting therefore—surely 'necessary proper'—in raising account violations took, Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 1717, (1966), accepted Equal Protection Fourteenth respect accommodating armies. involves surrender ultimate arbiter disputes enough 'to perceive resolve conflict did,' 653, 1725, arguable since, compel operations recently Sisson, F.Supp. 902 (D.C. 1969). frustrate condition object 69 hostility, neutrality, goal 'Neutrality,' self-defining. 'favoritism' 'neutrality' 'inhibition' fight special so, gives recognition? ignored contains classification. protects speech, proposition, speech stop immunizing official regulation. deeper cut: well speech. '(I)t safeguards embraces concepts,—freedom freedom absolute but, nature second be.' Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303—304, 900, 903, 1213 (1940). socially harmful acts rule banned despite motivated, area practitioners Ballard, 322 78, 882, 1148 (1944); labor burdens instances prohibitory performance man's Braunfeld Brown, Gallagher Crown Kosher Super Market, majority closing placed unacceptable Sabbatarians' observances. suggested, working day week. intimated no-establishment infirm studies designated periods released school routine; hinted school's refusal institute released-time program treatment State's unemployment compensation law. deal specially said—and agreed him—the benefits. unquestionably independent significance; auxiliary bans involvements rationally calls shielding compulsory duty, reluctant down reach offers whatsoever. below. 612. infra 336. amendment 1967, deleted 104, 456(j) (1964 ed., Supp. IV). April 1964, board 1965, requested answer stricken left open. 29. discussion determine stare decisis, Moragne Marine Lines, 375, 1772, 339 Boys Markets Retail Clerk's Union, 1583, 199 Helvering Hallock, 309 106, 444, 604 substitution 'form' existed forth. Katz 389 347, S.C. 507, 576 (1967). Weems 'Legislation, enacted, evils, theretofore taken. (A) principle, vital, wider mischief birth.' 217 349, 544, 793 (1910) added). always simple discern covered limitation inherent words, illustrates mind enacted. 'God' burden, 'deliberately broadened' Hughes' definition. synonymous Deity. various synonyms Declaration Independence refers 'Nature's God,' 'Creator,' world,' 'divine Providence.' References Deity preambles constitutions include, interchangeably 'Almighty Being.' A. Stokes & L. Pfeffer, 561 (1964). 342, 300, (1890), spoke relations 'Creator' 'Maker'; 313, 683, 424, 1263, (1962), 'Almighty.' relies parry assigns significance citation manifestation reenact grounded ethics. conclusive reenacted adding last clause. reasoning ignores added face Hand's Kauten. strengthened 1948 weight Kauten conflict. 179, 860. Monograph Conscientious Objection (1950) source, surplusage. International Dictionary, Unabridged (2d ed. 1934). slides exception, concluding 'those policy' individuals, held, 'moral, principle,' 'policy, expediency,' ante, 342-343, blends religion, chose keep separate. decisive criterion nominal pursue church. indifferent Were occasion allude training' enactment, contrast Yet 'beliefs ethical,' acquired, holder requisite ambulatory suffice insisted sociology' establishes amounts 'Newspeak' refuses listen language. 'religions' 'do teach 495 1684, 982, e.g. 'Buddhism, Taoism, Ethical Culture, Secular Humanism others.' Washington Society Columbia, 101 U.S.App.D.C. 371, 249 127 (1957); Encyclopaedia Social Sciences, 293; Archer, Faiths Men Live 120—138, 254 313 revised Purinton 1958); 3, 560. eligibility 'able available work' claimant ineligible failed, cause suitable offered employment office employer This, applied Seventh Day Adventists background decline Saturday employment. My conclusion, still adhere, dictates group, constitutionally exceptions scruples. suggestion observation satisfy sufficiently creating conscience, Whether, Sherbert, matter. Without deciding constitutes purposes suffices note means, conceivable Part something objection. pragmatic grounds contend pragmatism creed. Thus, White 'And pass anything repugnant resulted unsoundness more.' 389—390, 165. Brother misinterprets, Frankfurter's Cases. 369, 1812. directly divorced conduct. evinces arms, Under 'any purpose' apart honoring implicit dissent, It, branches government, constricted ultimately universal problem, cited 356, not-withstanding response sensitivity conscript fullest extent, conscience. goes saying perforce guarantee visible practices own. insist engulf vestigial. 'released-time' utilize classroom facilities instruction, People Ill. McCollum 461, 649 (1948), substance. students early receiving instruction offer opportunity hours nature. Moreover, cast improving 'conscience' artistic cultural pursuits, 'voluntarism,' easy literary societies, playgrounds, 'for mental improvement men.' Douglas, sterilization habitual thieves perpetrated larcenies engaged embezzlement, alternative courses cover excluded wrongfully declined speculate prefer judgment. Brandeis petitioners taxing heavily competitors, observed that: invoked treatment; attained competitors' taxes increased reduced.' 247, 136. Based impracticality taxpayer stage 'assume burden increase paid,' recover overpayment. readily 'underinclusion' prohibited teaching evolutionist theory 'did seek excise curricula universities origin man.' 109, 273. Arkansas framed prohibition, authorized positive action, problem. challenged institutions. See, These cases, differently, instant alleged 'overinclusion.' prayer failed situation relief injunction prayers. Moreover doubtful ritual prayers voluntarism cases. prevented McCollum, permitted teachers, employed private weekly buildings regular teaching, thirty minutes substitute education law,' 205, 462, mandamus discontinue program. No arose saved privilege wished extracurricular in, atheistic morals. Illinois encroachment ibid., voiding entire complication arisen enjoys remedy. Morey Doud, 1344, 1485 continues position. Alternatively renders cured civil await litigation appropriately considered. Consequently deem confront though, matter, ordering exemptions. flexibility repair statute—even already discretion, absent indication course. Nat Co., 534—535, 594, 598—599, authorize expanding remarks deemed chosen. quoting Hill Wallace, 259 44, 71, 453, 459, 822 (1922), 'furnishes assurance sections partly hesitation doubt adopted, advised (b)ut amend act,' observed, 'Even ever enlarge deduction (excision) (enlargement)' former conclusions admonition Reese 'is (this Court's) duty' '(t)o (a) (such as) law, (rather than) old one.' (1876). Cong Marchetti 39, 60, 697, 708, 889 evincing confer frustration third-party beneficiary invalid. thwarted, complemented, introducing difficulties gambling further. During World War affiliates sect(s)' impracticable compile list 'recognized' sects boards. Report Provost Marshal General Operations December 1918, p. 56. manner. Selective-Service 1917, 59. Finally, presidential regulation dated March ordered open qualification. operating demonstrates viability test. Not manageable appear easier arcane inquiry

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