Document: 415 U.S. 452 94 S.Ct. 1209 39 L.Ed.2d 505 Richard Guy STEFFEL, Petitioner,v.John R. THOMPSON et al. No. 72—5581. Argued Nov. 13, 1973. Decided March 19, 1974. Syllabus Petitioner, who had twice been warned to stop handbilling on an exterior sidewalk of a shopping center against American involvement in Vietnam and threatened with arrest by police if he failed do so, whose companion continued was charged violating the Georgia criminal trespass law, brought action for injunctive declaratory relief District Court, claiming that application him law would violate his First Fourteenth Amendment rights. The Court dismissed action, finding 'no meaningful contention can be made state has (acted) or will . act bad faith,' therefore 'the rudiments active controversy between parties (are) lacking.' Appeals affirmed, being view Younger v. Harris, 401 U.S., 37, 91 746, 27 669, it clear irreparable injury must measured bad-faith harassment such test applied request threatened, as well pending, court prosecution; followed from reasoning Samuels Mackell, 66, 764, 688, same is prerequisite respect prosecution. Held: 1. This case presents 'actual controversy' under Art. III Constitution Federal Declaratory Judgment Act, alleged threats prosecution circumstances not 'imaginary speculative' unnecessary petitioner expose himself actual make constitutional challenge. Whether remains substantial continuing light effect recent reduction Nation's petitioner's desire engage at resolved remand. Pp. 485 460. 2. precluded when based upon assertedly unconstitutional statute but even showing enforcement other special made. 460—473. (a) When no proceeding pending time federal complaint filed, considerations equity, comity, federalism which both supra, were based, have little vitality: intervention does result duplicative legal proceedings disruption justice system; nor intervention, circumstance, interpreted reflecting negatively courts' ability enforce principles. 460—462. (b) Even correctly viewed inappropriate (a question reached here having abandoned remedy), erred treating requests single issue holding failure demonstrate granting relief. Congress plainly intended judgment available milder alternative injunction constitutionality statutes. 462—473. 3. In determining whether appropriate grant immaterial attack its face applied. Cameron Johnson, 390 611, 88 1335, 20 182, distinguished. 473—475. 459 F.2d 919, reversed remanded. Howard Moore, Jr., Atlanta, Ga., petitioner. Lawrence M. Cohen, Chicago, Ill., respondents. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 disputed plaintiff 669 (1971), 688 held, respectively, that, unless are demonstrated, principles preclude issuance restraining and, all unusual circumstances, statute. important reserved id., 73—74, S.Ct., 768—769, 2 others, filed Northern Georgia, invoking Civil Rights Act 1871, 42 U.S.C. § 1983, jurisdictional implementation, 28 1343. requested pursuant §§ 2201—2202, Ga.Code Ann. 26—1503 (1972)1 violation rights, respondents—the Solicitor Criminal DeKalb County, chief County Police, owner North Shopping Center, manager center—from enforcing so interfere constitutionally protected activities. 3 stipulated relevant facts: On October 8, 1970, while individuals distributing handbills protesting employees asked them leave.2 They declined officers summoned. told they arrested did handbilling. group then left avoid arrest. Two days later returned again began called police, once their arrests. Petitioner His stayed, however, handbilling, subsequently arraigned charge 26—1503.3 although desired return distribute handbills, done because concern he, too, 26—1503; refused warrant sworn out might statute.4 4 After hearing, denied future 334 F.Supp. 1386, 1389 1390 (1971). appealed5 only denial relief.6 Fifth Circuit, one judge concurring result, affirmed Court's refusing relief.7 Becker Thompson, 919 (1972). recognized holdings expressly limited situations where prosecutions commenced, Harris 'made beyond peradventure faith prosecution' furthermore, since Mackell reasoned normally disrupt system manner relief, prosecution.' F.2d, 922. A petition rehearing en banc denied, three judges dissenting. 463 1338 (Cir. 1972).8 5 We granted certiorari, 410 953, 93 1424, 35 686 (1973), now reverse. 6 * At threshold we consider controversy,' requirement imposed express terms act, 2201.9 7 Unlike appellees 41, 749, cannot characterized speculative,' 42, 749. He claims disobeys warning likely prosecuted. ample demonstration 'chimerical,' Poe Ullman, 367 497, 508, 81 1752, 1758—1759, 989 (1961). these necessary first entitled challenge deters exercise .see, e.g., Epperson Arkansas, 393 97, 89 266, 21 228 (1968). Moreover, those specific provisions provided basis him. Cf. Boyle Landry, 77, 81, 758, 760, 696 (1971); Watson Buck, 313 387, 399—400, 61 962, 85 L.Ed. 1416 (1941). 8 Nonetheless, there existence live acute remand order today.10 Golden Zwickler, 394 103, 956, 22 113 (1969), appellee sought prohibiting distribution anonymous election-campaign literature unconstitutional. appellee's expressed during forthcoming re-election campaign Congressman, learned Congressman retired House Representatives become New York Supreme Justice. found extant controversy, record revealed sole target immediate prospect Congressman's becoming candidate public office. Here, indicates activities directed 'against war United States, foreign policy Southeast Asia.' Since ignore developments reducing part world, determine subsequent events altered longer said this 'a adverse interests, sufficient immediacy reality judgment.' Maryland Casualty Co. Pacific Coal & Oil Co., 312 270, 273, 510, 512, 826 (1941); see Zwickler Koota, 389 241, 244 n. 3, 391, 393, 19 444 (1967). II 9 turn inappropriate. 10 Sensitive federalism, courts should ordinarily refrain enjoining ongoing prosecutions. cognizant proceeding, cases, provide vehicle vindicating entail unseemly give principle solemn responsibility, equally 'to guard, enforce, protect every right secured constitution States. .' Robb Connolly, 111 624, 637, 544, 551, 542 (1884). also flouted intrusive 'will precisely interference long-standing limiting injunctions designed avoid.' 72, 767.11 held 'in cases begun prior suit, equitable propriety taken into consideration district judgment. Id., 73, 768. 11 Neither Samuels, decided permissible absence Younger, said: 12 'We about may begun.' 13 See 55, 757 (Stewart Harlan, JJ., concurring); 57, 756 (Brennan, White, Marshall, concurring). Similarly, stated: 14 'We, course, views suit 15 75—76, 16 These reservations anticipated recognition 'have force proceeding.' Lake Carriers' Assn. MacMullan, 406 498, 509, 92 1749, 1757, 32 257 court's addition, provides concrete opportunity vindicate refusal intervene place hapless Scylla intentionally flouting Charybdis forgoing what believes activity enmeshed proceeding. Dombrowski Pfister, 380 479, 490, 1116, 1123, (1965). 17 thus vitality, properly considered independently injury—a traditional supra—it inappropriate—a need reach today remedy, supra—12 issue. '(W)hen appropriate(,) congressional scheme makes primary guardians authorization afforded less harsh abrasive remedy than injunction, factors significance.' Perez Ledesma, 82, 104, 674, 686, 701 (1971) (separate Brennan, J.). 18 subject matter jurisdiction lower greatly expanded wake War. pervasive sense nationalism led enactment Stat. empowering actions, persons color allegedly depriving rights guaranteed 1343(3).13 Four years later, Judiciary 1875, 470, conferred courts, second nearly century-old history, general federalquestion jurisdictional-amount requirement, 1331.14 With latter enactment, 'ceased restricted tribunals fair dealing citizens different states became powerful reliances given Constitution, laws, treaties States.' F. Frankfurter J. Landis, Business 65 (1928) (emphasis added).15 two statutes, together decision Ex parte Young, 209 123, 441, 52 714 (1908)—holding officials threaten enjoined equity may, enjoin 'established modern framework protection interference.' 107, 'storm raged focusing principally power ex interlocutory H. Hart Wechsler, Courts System 967 (2d ed. 1973); generally Goldstein Cox, 396 471, 90 671, 24 663 (1970); Hutcheson, Case Three Judges, 47 Harv.L.Rev. 795, 804—805 (1934). uproar partially quelled Congress' passage legislation, 36 557, requiring convening three-judge court16 before preliminary could issue, providing direct appeal denying relief.17 2281, 1253. From State's viewpoint relief—even dignity—'rather clumsily' crippled statutes further review, H.R.Rep.No.288, 70th Cong., 1st Sess., (1928); H.R.Rep.No.94, 94, 71st 2d (1929); H.R.Rep.No.627, 72d (1932). Furthermore, plaintiffs dissatisfied method testing placed burden demonstrating prerequisites relief—most importantly, injury. See, Fenner Boykin, 271 240, 243, 46 492, 493, 70 927 (1926). To dispel difficulties, 1934 enacted 2201—2202. That strong medicine utilized unavailable amply evidenced legislative history traced full detail 111—115, 690—692 highlights particularly pertinent our inquiry today, emphasize that: '(I)n 1934, without expanding any way diminishing vitality Young injunctions, empowered new 'The purpose remedy. Of particular significance us, Senate report (S.Rep.No.1005, 73d Sess. (1934)) clearer appropriate. 23 'Much hostility referred use seeking regulatory carrying sanctions; feeling produced Three-Judge 1910, Johnson 1342, Tax Injunction 1937, 1341. officials, except adjudication class litigation altogether. report's implication Pierce Society Sisters, 268 45 571, 69 1070 (1925), Village Euclid Ambler Realty 272 365, 114, 71 303 (1926), involving penalties, quotation Terrace involved anticipatory statute, plain procedure used statutes.' 112, 115, 690—692.18 It formed backdrop (1967), attacked grounds overbreadth plaintiff. There, error considering, question, Although noted jurisprudence canvassed Douglas City Jeannette, 319 157, 63 877, 87 1324 (1943), duty decide appropriateness merits irrespective conclusion injunction.' 254, 399. Only year ago, reaffirmed Koota Roe Wade, 113, 705, 147 (1973). Doe Bolton, 179, 739, 201 plaintiffs, whom Texas abortion statutes; instead, judgments unconstitutionality, anticipating authorities. 25 enter hand, other. 252—255, 397—399, (1967); Drombrowski (1965).' supra,, 166, 733 added). 201, 752. 26 'different considerations' entering origins preceding historical summary. First, administration laws. As observed 124—126, 696—697 J.): 'Of favorable nevertheless valuable though disappear. declared toto—that is, incapable applications; unconstitutionally vague overbroad—that extent purport. either case, declaration unconstitutionality reflects fully enforced. If total follows stands ready reverse conviction partial overturn applications narrowly construed applications. Accordingly, necessarily bar broad would. Thus, highest State regulating expression narrowing clarifying construction declares overbroad, open prosecutor, after decision, bring reasonably defendant's conduct yield valid conviction. reviewed still able cut down deterrent persuasive curt's lead prosecutors, legislators reconsider respective responsibilities toward Enforcement policies judicial changed, legislature repeal start anew. Finally, some res judicata effect, point free difficulty governing rules remain developed proper workings system. What clear, final judgment,' 2201, much form injunction. Though persuasive, ultimately coercive; noncompliance inappropriate, contempt.'19 (Footnote omitted.) Second, engrafting satisfied defy intent 29 'Were obtain local ordinance allege prove justifying existing prosecution, pro tanto repealed.' Wulp Corcoran, 454 826, 832 (CA1 1972) (Coffin, 30 116, 692—693 31 ruled equivalent judgments, Aetna Life Ins. Haworth, 300 227, 57 461, 464, 617 (1937); Nashville, C. St. L.R. Wallace, 288 249, 264, 53 345, 348—349, 77 730 (1933) occasions disregarded preclusion inevitably militated altogether adjudications. Great Lakes Dredge Dock Huffman, 293, 1070, 1407 (1943) (federal interfering tax laws);20 instant compel it. Requiring totally step aside head. premised 1983 1343(3)—as here—we required exhaustion administrative remedies, recognizing paramount role assigned McNeese Board Education, 373 668, 83 1433, 622 (1963); Monroe Pape, 365 167, 473, 492 But remedies commenced. 33 Respondents, relying S.Ct 182 (1968), argue facial validity improper where, here, merely applied, interest unencumbered laws outweighs minimal protecting individual. reject argument. 34 appellants Mississippi anti-picketing overlybroad regulation violations agreed overly nothing supported appellants' assertion prosecuted faith. '(t)he mere possibility erroneous amount justify orderly proceedings.' guilt innocence trial; guilty escape expectation securing convictions.' 621, Our already correct misapplication laws; authority proposition seek Indeed, Stat's potential lesser dimension invalid toto—and application—or overbroad vague—and person convicted until construction, see, States Thirty-seven Photographs, 402 363, 369, 1400, 1404 1405, 822 Gooding Wilson, 405 518, 520, 1103, 1105, 408 (1972)—will more significant specifying number impermissible While greater face, exists eliminating broadranging would-be actors, (1965), find controlling. solitary individual suffers deprivation deserving redress others.21 hold regardless appropriate, demonstrates genuine threat applied.22 reversed, remanded consistent opinion. 37 ordered. 38 Reversed STEWART, THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, concurring. 40 joining I add word emphasis. 41 understood authorizing invocation thinks unconstitutional, genuinely feels 'chilled' freedom law's existence, honestly entertains subjective belief stated 52, 754, 669: 43 judiciary declare analysis derived responsibility resolving disputes ..' 44 80—81, 759—760, 696. succeeded objectively imminent arrest, corroborated companion, created agents State. has, therefore, demonstrated ..'* Cases 'genuine threat' will, think, exceedingly rare. WHITE, offer following few words REHNQUIST's concurrence discusses impact plaintiff, earlier defendant prosecuted, action. 48 noted, first, issues neither impliedly embraced today. my own tentative questions somewhat contrary Brother's. 49 writing least, anticipate entered immune accorded very conduct. There also, additional precedent bearing court. 50 stage agree court, rendered favor immune. itself 'declaration shall decree,' 2201; eminent judicata. E. Borchard, Judgments 10—11 1941); reason advisory opinions. Toucey Insurance 314 118, 62 139, 86 100 (1941), 2283 forbade relitigation federally issues, section amended overrule consequence '(i)t rule gone, effectuate court.' Wright, 180 1970). always rely solely plea courts. '(f)urther party determined 2202, seem prosecutors refuse observe judgments. 51 think challenging sufficiently far along ordinary economy dismiss litigated there. REHNQUIST, concur reading suggests enable definition occurred, rather palliate arising (1908), apparently aware passed choose forgo offending instead Use presented seems expectation. 54 deal area content let rest But, abundantly illustrate, constant litigation, through decisions path accurately described sinuous. Attempting accommodate established principles—in regard relationship independent systems—this acted advance limit Act. Compare (1937), Because possibly read resourceful counsel commencing restrictive curve adjudication, feel say. 55 begin with, restate obvious: deals pending. quite leaves another day perhaps support possible resolutions substantially undercut preserved remarks. 56 recognize pursuit arguably illegal activity.1 Act's suggest wishing shield behind carry contemplated Thus believe avoid, filing complaint, firmly supra. continues risk dismissal lawsuit. For resolution constitute Samuels. today's raised judgment.2 description "a remedy," ante, 467, 'less laws' 469, me critical distinctions be. obscure successful came regarded, lawsuit, giant obtaining availability eye often recognized. 58 rationale turned relative ease challenged preexisting declaring would, factor favoring 'further relief' "flagrantly patently violative prohibitions clause, sentence paragraph .," 53, 755, basis. Their direction vary depending closeness degree confidence possesses correctness conclusions point. Those depend harmonious operation separate systems, guiding previously issued not. whereas similar provision All Writs 1651. 59 simply statement binding supplemented sanctions. authorities guided compelled follow contempt penalties. pursues fact arrested, raise whatever value have.3 event, present charged, preserve process involve previsely concerns discussed recited case.4 60 Third, attempts circumvent per se evidence case. notes, quoting Brother Brennan's 125, 697, 701: (federal) anew.' (Emphasis added.) language clearly recognizes prosecutorial commonly indicative allegations, highly departure restraint Younger. remains, intended, simple more, dramatic tactical maneuver extended delays. Not try time, unnecessary, results, sanction them. Rather stand sensible defendant, prsecution itself, confronted benefit activation process. finds future, believing persuasive. Should enough forbearance, least bolster allegations trial locality. convincing decide, better repealed. avenues voluntarily completely concepts above. Other forms routinely available. 64 reaching say, does, petitioner, successfully establishes remand, maintain provides: '(a) commits damages property consent damage thereto $100 less, knowingly maliciously interferes possession consent. '(b) authority: '(1) Enters land premises person, vehicle, railroad car, aircraft, watercraft unlawful purpose; '(2) receiving, entry, notice rightful occupant entry forbidden; '(3) Remains within receiving depart. '(c) punished misdemeanor.' hearing testified occasion, June center. shown presumably 26—1503. 140—141. advised oral argument Sandra Lee Becker, stayed Tr. Oral Arg. 31. indicated arrests warrants personnel facially proper. 134. initially styled Named minor suing father; her Atlanta Mobilization Committee. Becker's appealed Petitioner's However, appellate brief, 921 (CA5 1972). originally convened. 2281; Goosby Osser, 409 854, (1973); Idlewild Bon Voyage Liquor Corp. Epstein, 370 713, 715, 82 1294, 1296, 794 (1962). attack—as here—is Department Employment 385 355, 414 (1966); Query 316 486, 1122, 1616 (1942); Bransford, 310 354, 361, 947, 951, 84 1249 (1940); Currie, Constitutional Litigation, U.Chi.L.Rev. 1, 37—50 (1964); Younger-Samuels principles, discretion usually necessary, Jones 479 1176, 1180 Abele Markle, 1121, 1125 (CA2 1971); Note, Court: Scope Procedure Under Section 299, 309 (1963). appeal, 6, remained, err exercising over appeal. 711—712, Mitchell Donovan, 398 427, 1763, 378 Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 152—155, 554, 559—561, 644 Stratton Louis S.W.R. 282 10, 16, 75 135 (1930). entertained eG., Thomas Heffernan, 473 478 1973), aff'g 1203 (D.C.Conn.1971) (three-judge court); 1972); Crossen Breckenridge, 446 833 (CB6 Lewis Kugler, 1343 (CA3 Anderson Vaughn, 327 101 court). Circuit scope entertaining supra (Wisdom, 2201 'In jurisdiction, taxes, pleading, relations interested declaration, sought. Any decree reviewable such.' 2202 'Further granted, reasonable stages filed. 713; SEC Medical Comm. Human Rights, 404 403, 577, 560 (1972); Munsingwear, Inc., 340 36, 95 (1950). serve judgment, 9, judicate 767—768. note restrain imminent, yet past conduct, Beal Missouri 45, 418, 577 Spielman Motor Sales Dodge, 295 89, 678, 79 1322 (1935); impending, (1965); Hygrade Provision Inc. Sherman, 266 141, (1925); 263 197, 214, 216, 15, 18, 68 255 (1923), (1943); Implications Availability Equitable Relief No Prosecution Pending, 72 Col.L.Rev. 874 'Sensitiveness 'states' rights', fear rivalry sentiment, swept great impulse national born Nationalism triumphant; vindication. exertions trusted agencies.' (1928). last John Adams administration, federal-question Midnight Judges (1801). repealed Mar. 1802, 132. histories 1871 1875 detailed 245—247, 393—395, three-judge-court procedure, expedited modeled Expediting 823, 28—29; 44—45, certain antitrust certified Attorney General importance convened 1906 584, 592, applying suits restrain, annul, set orders Interstate Commerce Commission. 810 1913 apply commission orders. 160, 1013. 1925 extend direct-appeal permanent thereby ending anomalous situation judge, 936, 938. codified 1948, applicable actions 675, (1970). 967—968 50, pp. 188—189 Professor principal proponent author written introduced hearings Act: 'It happens unwilling penal ordinances, relegate option, take chances else (forgo), claimed Into dilemma civilized operating person. informs prospective victim suspect mushroom toadstool, eat Assuming vital ordinance, why issued, compelling violationof condition constitutionality.' Hearings H.R. 5623 Subcommittee Committee Judiciary, 75—76 x-xi 1941). affect Dr. Hallford employers unemployment compensation imposing precise 41(1) (1940 ed.), 1341, ousts 'enjoin, suspend assessment, levy collection plain, speedy efficient State,' unique effects withheld taxpayer refund payment tax. contrast, statutory counterpart 1341 prosecutions.' 128, 699, Abstention, 'entirely relief,' 509 1756, (1972), uncertain might, susceptible question. 249 252, 396—398, 399; Baggett Bullitt, 377 360, 375—378, 1316, 1324—1326, (1964). Some attempted handbill center, respondent Hudgens, commenced Superior Fulton concerning center's related require vindication 1757; Wisconsin Constantineau, 400 433, 507, 515 abstention Hudgens obviating claim grounds. Askew Hargrave, 476, 478, 856, 857—858, 196 Reetz Bozanich, 397 788, Ante, 475. Whether, 'recent developments,' one, accompanying version bill especially useful avoiding necessity, present, one's peril interpretation abandon incurring damages. So purport determination meaning validity. Persons peril, danger frequently avoided sue duties.' S.Rep.No.1005, 2—3 cease 768, 'might chain 'result Ibid. discussed, infra, plaintiff's notes 'not difficulty." 470. here. stare decisis jurisdiction. holding, says: 'Sensitive (401 (1971),) (1884).' 460—461.

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