Document: 511 U.S. 127114 S.Ct. 1419128 L.Ed.2d 89 J.E.B., Petitionerv.ALABAMA ex rel. T.B. No. 92-1239. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Nov. 2, 1993. Decided April 19, 1994. Syllabus by * At petitioner's paternity and child support trial, respondent State used 9 its 10 peremptory challenges to remove male jurors. The court empaneled an all-female jury after rejecting claim that logic reasoning Batson v. Kentucky, 476 79, 106 1712, 90 69—in which this held Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment prohibits strikes based solely on race—extend forbid gender-based challenges. found petitioner be father in question trial ordered him pay support. Alabama Civil Appeals affirmed. Held: discrimination selection basis gender, or assumption individual will biased a particular case because person happens woman man. Respondent's cannot survive heightened equal protection scrutiny affords distinctions gender. rationale—that decision strike virtually all males may reasonably have been perception, supported history, men otherwise totally qualified serve as jurors might more sympathetic receptive arguments man charged action, while women equally child's mother—is unsupported is very stereotypes law condemns. conclusion litigants not potential gender does imply elimination So long proxy for bias, unacceptable still removed, including those who are members group class normally subject "rational basis" review exhibit characteristics disproportionately associated with one Pp. ____. 606 A.2d 156 (D.C.App.1992), reversed remanded. BLACKMUN, J., delivered opinion Court, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, SOUTER, GINSBURG, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion. KENNEDY, judgment. REHNQUIST, C.J., dissenting SCALIA, opinion, THOMAS, John F. Porter, III, Scottsboro, AL, petitioner. Michael R. Dreeben, Washington, DC, amicus curiae, special leave Court. Lois B. Brasfield, Montgomery, respondent. Justice BLACKMUN 1 In 69 (1986), governs exercise prosecutor criminal trial. explained although defendant has "no right 'petit composed whole part persons his own race," ' id., at 85, S.Ct., 1717, quoting Strauder West Virginia, 100 303, 305, 25 L.Ed. 664 (1880), "defendant tried whose selected pursuant nondiscriminatory criteria." Id., U.S., 85-86, 1717. Since Batson, we reaffirmed repeatedly our commitment procedures fair nondiscriminatory. We recognized whether civil, jurors, well litigants, free from state-sponsored rooted in, reflective of, historical prejudice. See Powers Ohio, 499 400, 111 1364, 113 411 (1991); Edmonson Leesville Concrete Co., 500 614, 2077, 114 660 Georgia McCollum, 505 ----, 112 2348, 120 33 (1992). 2 Although premised principles apply discrimination, recent cases defining scope involved alleged racial Today faced forbids intentional just it race. hold like race, unconstitutional juror competence impartiality. 3 On behalf relator T.B., mother minor child, complaint against J.E.B. District Jackson County, Alabama. October 21, 1991, matter was called began. assembled panel 36 12 24 females. After excused three cause, only remaining were male. then jurors; but female As result, female. 4 Before empaneled, objected State's ground they exercised violation Amendment. App. 22. Petitioner argued similarly rejected jury. 23. entered order directing post-judgment motion, ruling extend 33. affirmed, (1992), relying precedent, see, e.g., Murphy State, 596 So.2d 42 (Ala.Crim.App.1991), cert. denied, --- 86, 121 49 Ex parte Murphy, 45 (Ala.1992). denied certiorari, 1911717 (Ala. Oct. 23, 1992). 5 granted 2330, 124 242 (1993), resolve created conflict authority—whether race.1 reaffirm what, now, should axiomatic: Intentional state actors violates Clause, particularly where, here, serves ratify perpetuate invidious, archaic, overbroad about relative abilities women. II 6 Discrimination relatively phenomenon. Gender-based hardly practicable most country's existence, since, until 19th century, completely excluded service.2 well-entrenched exclusion 1880 finding African-American juries violated Amendment, expressed no doubt "may confine [of jurors] males." 310, 664; see also Fay New York, 332 261, 289-290, 67 1613, 1628-1629, 91 2043 (1947). 7 Many continued exclude service into present despite fact attained suffrage upon ratification Nineteenth 1920.3 did permit often erected other barriers, such registration requirements automatic exemptions, designed deter exercising their service. See, 289, 1628 ("[I]n 15 28 states permitted [on 1942], exemption sex"); Hoyt Florida, 368 57, 82 159, 118 (1961) (upholding affirmative statute exempted mandatory service). 8 prohibition derived English common which, according Blackstone, rightfully under "the doctrine propter defectum sexus, literally, 'defect sex.' " De Gross, 960 F.2d 1433, 1438 (CA9 1992) (en banc), W. Commentaries *362.4 country, supporters tended couch objections terms ostensible need protect ugliness depravity trials. Women thought too fragile virginal withstand polluted courtroom atmosphere. Bailey 215 Ark. 53, 61, 219 S.W.2d 424, 428 (1949) ("Criminal trials involve testimony foulest kind, sometimes require consideration indecent conduct, use filthy loathsome words, references intimate sex relationships, elements would prove humiliating, embarrassing degrading lady"); re Goodell, 39 Wis. 232, 245-246 (1875) (endorsing statutory ineligibility admission bar "[r]everence womanhood suffer public spectacle . so engaged"). Bradwell 16 Wall. 130, 141, 21 442 (1872) (concurring opinion) ("[T]he civil law, nature herself, always wide difference respective spheres destinies woman. Man is, be, woman's protector defender. natural proper timidity delicacy belongs evidently unfits many occupations life. paramount destiny mission fulfil noble benign offices wife mother. This Creator"). Cf. Frontiero Richardson, 677, 684, 93 1764, 1769, 583 (1973) (plurality (This "attitude 'romantic paternalism' put women, pedestal, cage"). Ballard States, 329 187, 181 (1946), first questioned fundamental fairness denying juries. Relying supervisory powers over federal courts, venire where eligible local law. response argument superior unique perspective, defendants virtue panels, explained: "It said drawn various groups within community truly representative if included. factors tend influence action same personality, background, economic status—and sex. Yet enough say when sitting neither act nor class. Men likewise do truth two sexes fungible; made up exclusively different both; subtle interplay among imponderables. To insulate either given make iota difference. flavor, distinct quality lost excluded." 193-194, 264 (footnotes omitted). 11 Fifteen years later, however, unwilling translate appreciation value women's contribution civic life enforceable treatment laws governing 162, reasonable, "despite enlightened emancipation women," exempt statute, allowing volunteered serve. justified differential policy unlike men, occupied position "as center home family life." 62, 162. 1975, finally repudiated struck down, Sixth nearly identical issue Hoyt. Taylor Louisiana, 419 522, 95 692, 690 (1975).5 "Restricting excluding identifiable segments playing major roles squared constitutional concept trial." 530, 697. diverse character must maintained "partly assurance diffused impartiality partly sharing administration justice phase responsibility.' 530-531, 697-698, Thiel Southern Pacific 328 217, 227, 66 984, 989, 1181 (1946) (Frankfurter, dissenting). Duren Missouri, 439 357, 99 664, 58 579 (1979). III 13 relied principles, opinion's approach consistent afforded classifications. Reed Reed, 404 71, 92 251, 30 225 (1971), consistently subjected classifications recognition real danger government policies professedly reasonable considerations "archaic overbroad" generalizations Schlesinger Ballard, 498, 506-507, 572, 576-577, 610 (1975), "outdated misconceptions concerning role females rather than 'marketplace world ideas.' Craig Boren, 429 190, 198-199, 97 451, 457-458, 50 397 (1976). Cleburne Living Center, Inc., 473 432, 441, 105 3249, 3255, 87 313 (1985) (differential "very likely reflect[s] outmoded notions capabilities women"). 14 Despite argues petit permitted, though race not. Respondent suggests "gender country never reached level discrimination" African-Americans, therefore tolerable courtroom. Brief 9. While prejudicial attitudes toward minorities, similarities between experiences minorities some contexts, "overpower differences." Note, Beyond Batson: Eliminating Gender-Based Peremptory Challenges, Harv.L.Rev. 1920, 1921 plurality observed 685, 1769-1770, (1973): "[T]hroughout much century society was, respects, comparable blacks pre-Civil War slave codes. Neither slaves could office, juries, bring suit names, married traditionally legal capacity convey property guardians children. And guaranteed vote 1870, even right—which itself 'preservative basic political rights' adoption half later." (Footnotes omitted.) 17 Certainly, respect service, African-Americans share history total exclusion, came end chapter African-Americans. 18 determine, suffered hands discriminatory during decades Nation's history. It necessary acknowledge "our Nation had unfortunate discrimination," warrants afford today. Under jurisprudence, "an exceedingly persuasive justification" scrutiny. Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 256, 273, 2282, 2293, 60 870 Mississippi University Hogan, 458 718, 724, 102 3331, 3336, 73 1090 (1982); Kirchberg Feenstra, 450 455, 461, 101 1195, 1199, (1981). Thus, substantially furthers legitimate interest achieving impartial trial.6 making assessment, weigh institution asserted eradicate invidious courtroom.7 Instead, consider provide substantial aid litigant's effort secure jury.8 19 Far proffering exceptionally justification challenges, maintains out-of-wedlock complaining witness bore child." 10.9 20 shall accept defense stereotype condemns." 410, 1370, (1991). rationale, regularly strikes, reminiscent advanced justify juries.10 offers alone accurate predictor juror's attitudes; yet urges condone wholesale ballot box.11 seems assume gross deemed impermissible somehow permissible selection, causes harm community, wrongfully participation judicial process. harmed risk prejudice motivated infect entire proceedings. Edmonson, 2087 (discrimination "raises serious questions proceedings conducted there"). perpetuation inevitable loss confidence system state-sanctioned engenders. 22 When reliance stereotypes, reinforce views Because these wreaked injustice life, active "invites cynicism respecting jury's neutrality obligation adhere law." 412, 1371. acute gender-related issues prominent, involving rape, sexual harassment, paternity. Discriminatory create impression acquiesced suppressing full "deck stacked" favor side. 413, 1372 ("The verdict accepted understood [as fair] chosen unlawful means outset"). 23 emphasized themselves procedures.12 Powers, supra. Contrary respondent's suggestion, extends both 723, 3335 (that practice "discriminates reduce standard review"); cf. (arguing deserve victims discrimination). All persons, opportunity jury, summarily stereotypical presumptions reflect patterns discrimination.13 Striking simply "practically brand them, affixed assertion inferiority." 308, (1880). denigrates dignity juror, and, woman, reinvokes participation.14 message sends courtroom, later learn act, certain individuals, reason presumed unqualified decide important disagree.15 IV Our using Parties whom feel less acceptable others panel; bias. any individuals review. 439-442, 3254-3255, (1985); Clark Jeter, 486 456, 108 1910, 1914, 465 (1988). Even appropriate, absent showing pretext.16 If properly, voir dire can inform pejorative unnecessary unwise. Voir provides discovering actual implied bias firmer parties intelligently. Nebraska Press Assn. Stuart, 427 539, 602, 96 2791, 2823, 683 (1976) (Brennan, judgment) (voir "facilitate[s] intelligent [helps] uncover dictate disqualification cause"); Whitt, 718 1494, 1497 (CA10 1983) ("Without adequate foundation [laid dire], counsel sensitive challenges"). 26 experience jurisdictions barred belies courts incapable complying rule barring n. 1, supra (citing extended gender).17 race-based claims, party alleging prima facie before challenge required explain strike. 97, 1723. explanation required, rise "for cause" challenge; rather, merely characteristic proffered pretextual. Hernandez 352, 1859, 395 27 Failing frustrate purpose itself. overlapping categories, pretext discrimination.18 Allowing contravenes well-established effectively V participate democratic system.19 goals system. reaffirms promise equality law—that citizens, regardless ethnicity, chance take directly democracy. 407, 1369 ("Indeed, exception voting, citizens honor privilege duty significant process"). processes dims, integrity jeopardized. 29 view concerns, "core guarantee protection, ensuring discriminate ., meaningless approve assumptions, arise jurors' [gender]." 97-98, 1723-1724. judgment remanded further inconsistent 31 ordered. 32 concurring. I agree account person's Ante, justifications far 'exceedingly persuasive' sustain classification. Univ. ,S.Ct. ante, join Court's case. But today's blow costless. write separately discuss costs, express my belief holding limited government's strikes. 34 intrusion mini-hearings now routine appeals proliferated well. Demographics indicate greater impact constitutionalizing procedures, increases number selection—once sideshow —will become main event. 35 For reason, erodes challenge. "a ancient origin" "part heritage." 639, 2092, (1991) (O'CONNOR, principal helps produce Swain Alabama, 380 202, 218-219, 85 824, 834-835, 759 (1965); Babcock, Dire: Preserving "Its Wonderful Power," Stan.L.Rev. 545, 549-558 (1975). "Peremptory enabling each side believes partial side, eliminat[ing] extremes partiality sides, thereby assuring unbiased jury." Holland Illinois, 493 474, 484, 110 803, 809, 107 905 (1990) (internal quotation marks citations peremptory's importance confirmed persistence: established time Blackstone continues endure States. 481, 808. Moreover, "[t]he essential without stated, inquiry being court's control." Swain, 220, 836. Indeed, lawyer's judgments sympathies experienced hunches educated guesses, responses 'bare looks gestures.' Ibid. That instinctive assessment predisposition meet high standards cause mean instinct erroneous. V. Starr & M. McCormick, Jury Selection 522 (1993) (nonverbal cues better verbal revealing disposition). lawyers correctly intuit least sympathetic, understanding lawyer unable intuition, cherish But, add, layer layer, additional restraints peremptory, force articulate what know inarticulable. 37 doing discretionary cause. increase possibility allowed onto gender-neutral correct unsympathetic. Similarly, open court, deterred peremptories, out fear seat knows striking unfit. believe remains litigator's tool process selecting increasing limitation gives me pause. 38 Nor litigant diminished manner. matters. A plethora studies clear rape cases, example, somewhat convict Hastie, S. Penrod, N. Pennington, Inside 140-141 (1983) (collecting summarizing empirical studies). there definitive regarding, custody, spousal abuse, sexist intuition resulting relevant her 'Jurors expected come box behind human taught them.' Beck 447 625, 642, 2382, 2392, 65 392 (1980). Individuals ignore men—or Today's severely limits ability import correlation irrelevant makes fact. previously regard "That tolerate prosecutors' racially challenge, effect, relevance, statement stands for, fact." Brown North Carolina, 479 940, 941-942, 423, 424-425, 373 (1986) denial certiorari). that, eliminate 102, 1726 (Marshall, concurring), governed relevance formerly reserved Though gain statement, lose. extending added burden process, taken step closer eliminating assumptions attitudes. 40 These concerns conviction actors. supra, mistake concluding private challenges; compounded allow us forget occurs action. Private litigants. "The erects platform; responsible it." 632, 2089 41 Clearly, "From arrest, possible sentencing punishment, antagonistic relationship accused see. [T]he precludes attributing defendants' actions State. ." 2363 'one rights secured accused.' 219, 835 (emphasis added); Goldwasser, Limiting Criminal Defendant's Use Challenges: Symmetry Trial, 808, 826-833 (1989). accused's misordering priorities," "we exalted sit defendant, faces imprisonment death." 2360 (THOMAS, judgment). Accordingly, limit defendants. presents dilemma, here next case? Will we, name fighting battered wife—on wounding abusive husband—is actor? preclude ensure peers contains possible? will, hope 43 44 am agreement why precedents lead conclusion. initial drafts written prohibit "persons color previous condition servitude," submitted ratified contained comprehensive terms: "No deny jurisdiction laws." Oregon Mitchell, 400 112, 172-173, 260, 272 (1970) (Harlan, part); B.K. Kendrick, Journal Joint Committee Reconstruction, 39th Congress, 1865-1867, pp. 90-91, 97-100 (1914). evident adopted interpreted followed accord purpose. invalidated Virginia prohibiting serving doing, Clause: "What declaring black white." 307. whites, noted "to males, freeholders, ages, having educational qualifications." 310. Yick Wo Hopkins, 356, 373-374, 1064, 1072-1073, 220 (1886). 46 illustrated necessity passed reach beyond beginning 1971, Member principle here. intermediate test applied instances, 221, 469, (REHNQUIST, dissenting), reveal strong presumption invalid. (1982). 47 There precedents, therefore, (1979); does. tradition theory possesses protected lawless government. neutral phrasing "any person," reveals concern (though disabilities mechanism question). "At heart Constitution's lies simple command Government treat components [or] class." Metro Broadcasting, Inc. FCC, 497 547, 2997, 3028, 445 dissenting) purposes injured banning Cf., 409-410, 1369-1370, Palmore Sidoti, 466 429, 431-432, 104 1879, 1881-1882, 80 421 (1984); 339, 346-347, 676 injury personal individual's 1370. Amendment's difficulty wrong case, involves 48 analysis prompts observation conceive intended effect decision. encourage deliberations. Once seated, give rein own. kind compact power transferred judge turn deciding instructions consideration. wise authority inquire reasons underlying ought disregard instructions. allows breaches renounces oath. regard, recognize sits citizen. Nothing pernicious presume backgrounds go room voice 618, 3037 pool structural preventing enfranchising it. 193, 264, (1946); (1946). "Jury matter. system." 985. Constitution guarantees (1990); Strauder, 305. 51 reasons, concur violate Clause. 52 Chief dissenting. 53 dissent add words Accepting decided, sufficient differences 54 acknowledged accords levels groups. Classifications inherently suspect, triggering "strict scrutiny," judged heightened, searching Racial comprise numerical society, warranting situations whereas population divided almost Furthermore, lingers proved challenging goal achieve fronts equality. D. Kirp, Yudof, Franks, Gender 137 (1986). 55 removal announced sea-change balancing dictates securing trials, concluded superior. careful "undermine generally justice." 98-99, 1724. best core commands Not surprisingly, post-Batson dealt identified venirepersons, described fashioning aimed purposeful cognizable group.* O'CONNOR once recognized, "[o]utside uniquely area race." 942, (opinion 56 balance tilt sex, issue. Unlike think shown "substantially further" through venerable 212-220, 831-835, (1965) (tracing old credentials" challenges); 118-120, 1734-1735 (Burger, dissenting); post, ____ (SCALIA, differ, biologically diminishing extent, experience. "stereotyping" outlook brought room. sort derogatory directed be. 57 O'CONNOR's concurrence recognizes several costs challenges—lengthier complexity addressing "diminished attitudes." are, view, needlessly imposed result reaches. THE CHIEF JUSTICE THOMAS join, 59 inspiring demonstration how thoroughly up-to-date right-thinking Justices matters pertaining (or it, genders), sternly disapprove chauvinist predecessors. price paid display—a modest price, surely —is quite hand. hasty reader surprised learn, lawsuit sure, petitioner, man, (he last sole pool), validity us. Nonetheless, treats discussion historic (which going courthouse lot). this, say, irrelevant, since allegedly discriminates men. contest sex1 call "heightened citation (preferably 723-724, 3335-3336, (1982)) needed. spends establishing unwise perhaps irrational. stresses lack statistical evidence widely types statistically predictive behave. ____, place opposition earlier "fair cross-section" cases. 532, 12, 698, (1975) ("Controlled perspectives values deliberation result"). times trends change, unisex unquestionably fashion. Personally, inclined demand statistics, credit perceptions litigators money line. fervent proposition il n'y pas de entre les hommes et femmes (it opposite hateful "stereotyping") turns recounting utterly irrelevant. remarkably good find peremptories unconstitutional. 11; concurring). 61 Of course demanded ordinarily demands: injury. Leaving aside moment reality himself complain prosecutor's favorable towards suits. (as thinks) fungible, arguable "impermissible" stricken defendant. harm, actor 2352 (1992); 626-627, ---- - (1991), actually inflicted jurors.2 today presumably supplies applying expansive third-party standing 415, 1373, remedy done illustrates restitution Paul Peter robbed bad idea. implication reasoning, scientific presented 99.92% accuracy. Insofar concerned, harmless error ever one; retrial nothing divert prosecutorial resources, malefactor free. 62 focusing unrealistically exercises ignoring totality practice. (and object depending case) hard protection. 423-424, 1377-1378 137-138, 1744-1745, explains coexisted years. perfect example even-handed. every singled preposterous. situation sides systematically group, evinced group-based animus served segregated lists. 223-224, 837-838, (1965). pattern displays systemic sex-based side's desire get favorably disposed characterization "reminiscent juries," patently false. categorically competent; party's 1378 dishonor former, latter—which 106-year interlude unconstitutional, 63 largely obscured anti-male-chauvinist oratory, extent discernible invalidates identifying unequal (by separating whole), applies scrutiny" mode equal-protection concludes fail interest. says "securing jury," 8.3 refuses (men) defendants, 'the condemns.' (quoting 1370). analysis, entirely allowable argument, implies rationally interest, let pass places risk, denominated "stereotypes." Perhaps, however so), stereotyping entitled strict constitutes condemns"—so (e.g., wide-eyed blondes football players dumb) OK. Or refers "impermissible stereotypes," 11, adjective limiting descriptive—so expect peremptory/stereotyping jurisprudence future frowns 64 line theoretically boundless include religious belief, Larson Valente, 456 228, 244-246, 1673, 1683-1684, 72 (1982)), damage done. done, foremost, system, loses (in defend stereotyping" claims) "reasons" given. 'is, says, arbitrary capricious right; freedom, fails purpose.' Lewis 146 370, 378, 136, 139, 1011 (1892), Lamb (1874). Lewis, 376, 138; Marchant, Wheat. 480, 482, 700 (1827) (Story, J.); *353. felt keenly recently "should apparently indifferent, he distrusted reason." Lamb, 426. it: really substitute peremptory. expand consequence decision) fill gap. biases along perceive, asking them. fruitless harbors subliminal unwed fathers. secondarily, bear expanded quest "reasoned peremptories" demands. extension certainly beyond, 124, 1737 extensive collateral litigation, especially (who litigates full-time cost-free) pursue. demographic race- issue, claim. Another consequence, mentioned, lengthening already burdens courts. irrationality strike-by-strike consequences logical goal; adversarial stratagems tested abstraction whole; if, tested, scrutiny—then selects police officer testify convincing context appealing predominantly stress witnesses mostly jury—for victimized women—becomes, 68 order, me, conspicuous obeisance sexes, imperils considered dawn requires permits vandalizing people's traditions. dissent. syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. Federal Courts 913 1417 1990), 1437-1443 (1992) banc) (extending trials); Nichols, 937 1257, 1262-1264 (CA7 1991) (declining gender), 117 151 Hamilton, 850 1038, 1042-1043 (CA4 1988) (same), dism'd, 489 1094, 109 1564, 103 931 (1989), 1069, 1109, 1017 Broussard, 987 215, 218-220 (CA5 1993) (same). constitutionality Laidler 627 1263 (Fla.App.1993) gender); Burch, Wash.App. 828, 830 P.2d 357 (same, Constitutions); Di Donato Santini, 232 Cal.App.3d 721, 283 Cal.Rptr. 751 (Cal. 1991); Tyler 330 Md. 623 648 (relying Constitution); People 228 Ill.App.3d 917, 171 Ill.Dec. 593 N.E.2d 882 aff'd vacated part, 155 Ill.2d 344, 185 528, 614 1213 (1993); Gonzales, N.M. 590, 808 (App.) 416, 806 Levinson, 71 Haw. 492, 795 845, 849 (same); Irizarry, 165 App.Div.2d 715, 560 N.Y.S.2d 279 Commonwealth Hutchinson, 568, 481 188, 190 Culver, 233 Neb. 444 N.W.2d 662 (1989) (refusing Clay, 779 673, (Mo.App.1989) Adams, 533 1060, 1063 (La.App.1988) 540 338 (La.1989); Oliviera, 534 867, (R.I.1987) (Ala.Crim.App.1991) writ (Ala.), brief exception. Between 1870 1871, Wyoming Territory. They longer new chief disfavored appointed 1871. Abrahamson, Juror, Ga.L.Rev. 257, 263-264 1947, Rudolph, Voluntary Compulsory?, J.Am.Jud.Soc. 206 (1961). late 1961, Mississippi, South 163, "cognizable group" jury-service 1966 White Crook, 251 F.Supp. 401 (MD Ala.) (three-judge court). England deviation general capital widow sought postponement disposition husband's estate birth ventre inspiciendo matrons examine determine she pregnant. used, examination took presence Colonial period, fell disuse medical profession began perform function. Service Women, U.Fla.L.Rev. 224-225 (1959). distinguished explaining "did defendant's cross section community," 534, 699. stated "in effect" overruled Payne Tennessee, 501 2597, 2611, 115 720 conclude related objective, again suspect. 9, 9; Stanton Stanton, 7, 13, 1377, 688 (1975); Harris Forklift Systems, 510 367, 373, 126 295 (GINSBURG, concurring) ("[I]t 'classifications suspect' ") (citations valuable tools "are constitutionally rights; state-created 2358, case: born wedlock. contends justifies illegitimate children What possibly 2083, challenge] assist trier fact"). change causes. carried fair, impartial, cites study quasi-empirical justifying Penrod 140 (1983). authors conclude: "Neither student citizen typical material revealed preferences. picture differs [only] appear conviction-prone jurors". majority suggest plays Hans Vidmar, Judging 76 way perceive react trials; few defense-oriented, show prosecutor"). 1956, commentators warned Busch, Law Tactics Trials § 143, p. 207 ("In age specialized education, availed unsound base ."). manual instruct prosecutors Dallas, Texas, provided following advice: "I don't can't trust do, crimes 'women's intuition' help you win your facts." Alschuler, Jury: Dire, Review Verdicts, U.Chi.L.Rev. 153, 210 circulated speculated: "If clearly applicable wants avoid 'intuition' 'sympathy,' amount demonstrated blackboard figures want juror. "[But women] desired plaintiff impeached end, (particularly handsome appealing) [that] plaintiff's derelictions overlooked. forgive sin sex; definitely Belli, Modern §§ 51.67 51.68, 446-447 (2d ed. 1982). measure selection. abundantly past rest conjured generalization. Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 645, 1225, 1232, 514 (holding Social Security Act classification authorizing benefits widows widowers "not support"); 201, 459, (invalidating Oklahoma drinking ages supporting trivial sense"). generalization least, overbroad, "outmoded (1985), contexts. (1973); (1976); decisions acknowledges shred look surface people stigmatize discrimination. Given doctrinal SCALIA's mystery. SCALIA points protects citing 3335-3336. He appears cognizant rational, ____; "exceedingly justification." 3336. admits procedures. McCollum. overrule attempt distinguish intimates advance apparent His thus tacit short overruling decade interpreting doctrinally compelled. minority remain uses gender; noting "[w]omen minority," represented challenges). genders beside point. harms undermines popular refrain expressing intuitive frequently erroneous biases. (like occupation, example), group's predispositions prevent them participating pursuing professions, contributing Place Palladium, Women's Rights Service, U.Cinn.L.Rev. 1139, 1173 (1993). "discrimination dishonor" Post, times, reject again. country. (discriminatory "have co-existed years"); (there "106-year [Strauder, supra], [Batson, supra]"). dispute tolerated continue so. traditions," jure segregation military affect time, employed nurses Without pretext, gender- race-based. Alabama's method burdensome. "struck-jury" employed, alternately remain, constitute Ala.Rule Civ.Proc. (1990). articulable contends, explanations worthy note managed maintain struck-jury counties predominately African-American. counties, difficult race-neutral explanations. No aids true Regardless, choice jury-selection methods strictures adopt whatever chooses Constitution. temptation lower four cited ago stated: American connection proceedings, necessarily contemplates cross-section community. mean, course, contain representatives economic, social, religious, racial, geographical community; complete representation impossible. prospective officials systematic Recognition stratum society. door discriminations abhorrent ideals 986, (blacks); (Latinos); 404-405, 1367-1368, 476-477, 805-806, Griffith 314, 316, 708, 709, 649 (1987) Allen Hardy, 478 255, 259, 2878, 2880, 199 (blacks Hispanics). Throughout refer does) word "gender" acquired useful connotation cultural attitudinal opposed physical characteristics) distinctive sexes. feminine masculine femininity masculinity appears, effeminate prosecution's peremptories). involves, plain simple. McCollum erred not, correcting continuing things right. If, accordance perception contrary creed, differently produce—and seen intentionally weighted favor: prosecution. desirable outcome. seem premise correct. Wise observers appearance reality. affects bit, impartiality, point fact, value.

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