Document: 420 U.S. 469 95 S.Ct. 1029 43 L.Ed.2d 328 COX BROADCASTING CORPORATION et al., Appellants,v.Martin COHN. No. 73—938. Argued Nov. 11, 1974. Decided March 3, 1975. Syllabus Appellant reporter, employed by a television station owned appellant broadcasting company, during news report of rape case, broadcast the deceased victim's name, which he had obtained from indictments, were public records available for inspection. The father, appellee, brought damages action against appellants in reliance on Georgia statute making it misdemeanor to claiming that his right privacy been invaded daughter's name. trial court, rejecting appellants' claims was privileged under First and Fourteenth Amendments, held gave civil remedy those injured its violation granted summary judgment appellee. On appeal, Supreme Court initially that, while court erred construing extend cause invasion privacy, complaint stated common-law Amendments did not, as matter law, require appellants. motion rehearing contended name interest hence could be published with impunity, but denied ground declared state policy not matte concern, sustained legitimate limitation Amendment's freedom expression. Held: 1. This has jurisdiction over appeal 28 U.S.C. § 1257(2). Pp. 476-487. (a) constitutionality 'drawn question' within meaning 1257(2), since, when relied upon declaration policy, drawn question manner directly bearing merits action, decision upholding constitutional validity invokes this Court's appellate jurisdiction. P. 476. (b) is 'final or decree' 1257. It plainly final federal issue whether broadcasts subject further review courts; would liable if elements proved. Moreover, since litigation terminated failure decide free speech now will leave press operating shadow criminal sanctions rule law whose serious doubt, reaching comports past pragmatic approach determining finality. 2. State may consistently impose accurate publication judicial are maintained connection prosecution themselves open Here, circumstances where reporter based televised notes taken proceedings official documents inspection, protection provided bars basis liability penalizes pure expression—-the content publication. 487-497. commission crime, prosecutions resulting therefrom, arising events concern consequently fall press' responsibility operations government. 492-493. interests fade information involved already appears record, especially viewed terms light vigorous press. 493-495. 231 Ga. 60, 200 S.E.2d 127, reversed. Kirk M. McAlpin, Atlanta, Ga., Stephen A. Land, Decatur, Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 before us case whether, caused victim publicly revealed crime. 2 * In August 1971, appellee's 17-year-old daughter survive incident. Six youths soon indicted murder rape. Although there substantial coverage crime subsequent developments, identity disclosed pending trial, perhaps because Ga.Code Ann. 26—9901 (1972),1 makes publish victim. April 1972, some eight months later, six defendants appeared court. Five pleaded guilty attempted rape, charge having dropped. pleas accepted defendant pleading set later date. 3 course day, Wasell,2 covering incident employer, learned an examination indictments made inspection courtroom.3 That disputed.4 Later Wassell facilities WSB—TV, Cox Broadcasting Corp., concerning proceedings. named repeated following day.5 4 May appellee money appellants, relying giving daughter. Appellants admitted claimed they both Amendments. holding violation, liability, determination await jury. 5 Court, initial opinion, thus found unnecessary consider statute. 127 (1973). went rule, however, 'for tort disclosure'—a 'common exist(ing) without help judge on.' Id., at 62, S.E.2d, 130. victim, father have claim own reason explained, follow improper; disclosure actually 'zone privacy,' so, what extent, issues determined trier fact. Also, 'in formulating such fact-finder, reasonable prove wilful negligent disregard fact men find highly offensive.' 64, 131. agree concurred statement Briscoe v. Reader's Digest Assn., Inc., Cal.3d 529, 541, 93 Cal.Rptr. 866, 874, 483 P.2d 34, 42 (1971), 'the rights guaranteed Amendment do total abrogation privacy. goals sought each achieved minimum intrusion other.' 6 Upon countered argument impunity authoritative concern. time felt compelled determine 'legitimate expression contained Amendment.' discern 'no general about make disclose rise level protection.' 68, 134. 7 We postponed our hearing merits. 415 912, 94 1406, 39 466 (1974). conclude jurisdiction, reverse II 8 invoke 1257(2) and, jurisdictional absent, through petition certiorari 2103. Two questions must resolved: (1) question,' validity, (2) '(f)inal decree.' 9 clearly raised their denying held: 'A majority does conflict Since protected expression, favor Cf. Garrity New Jersey, 385 493, 495—496, 87 616, 617—618, 17 562 (1967). B 10 1789, Congress respect only after highest rendered Title 1257 retains power cases coming courts. noted '(c)onsiderations English usage well policy' justify interpretation final-judgment preclude 'where anything remains no how dissociated finally adjudicated State.' Radio Station WOW, Inc. Johnson, 326 120, 124, 65 1475, 1478, 89 L.Ed. 2092 (1945). But observed administered mechanical fashion 'a departure requirement finality jurisdiction.' Ibid. 11 These said 'very few,' ibid.; unfolded, recurringly encountered situations present particular lower courts come. There least four categories treated purposes awaiting completion additional anticipated most, all, these categories, other might also date,6 immediate rather than delayed best way avoid mischief economic waste justice,' supra, S.Ct., precipitate interference litigation.7 first two considered below, mooted otherwise affected yet little substance, outcome certain, wholly unrelated question. petitioner seeking bring here prevailed state-court proceedings, nevertheless sufficient justification 12 category proceedings—even entire trials—yet occur one another conclusive preordained. circumstances, all practical concluded, deemed final. Mills Alabama, 384 214, 86 1434, 16 484 (1966), example, demurrer grounds reversed, remanding jury trial. took reasoning defense prevail facts any nonfederal ground. To dismiss 'would inexcusable delay benefits intended grant providing result completely energy systems troubled delays due congested dockets.' 217—218, 1436 (footnote omitted).8 13 Second, Brady Maryland, 373 83, 83 1194, 215 (1963), issue, decided State, regardless future Nebraska directed transfer properties federally licensed radio ordered accounting, order interfere license. reviewable despite accounting 'presupposition . come remotely give ..' U.S., 1480. directing 'dissociated provision even though decreed same order.' 126, 1479. Nothing happen short settlement foreclose Older reached similar facts. Carondelet Canal & Nav. Co. Louisiana, 233 362, 34 627, 58 1001 (1914): Forgay Conrad, How. 201, 404 (1848). latter Chief Taney, understood strict technical sense, given (it) more liberal, we think, construction, consonant intention legislature.' 203.9 14 third decided, come, cannot had, whatever ultimate case. Thus, cases, party interim ultimately prevails merits, mooted; lose governing permit him again review. prior California Stewart, 436, 1602, 694 (1966) (decided Miranda Arizona), epitomizes category. reversed conviction remanded new affirmed, explaining 'final' acquittal preclude, State. 498 n. 71, 1640. 15 A recent North Dakota Board Pharmacy Snyder's Drug Stores, 414 156, 407, 38 379 (1973), rejected application pharmacy specifying ownership requirements applicant meet. unconstitutional consideration application, freed constraints here, constitutionally acceptable modern cases. After reviewing various satisfied courts, entertained remand, administrative deny license state-law grounds, foreclosing ascertained event except invalidated Under ripe review.10 Lastly, rendering reversal preclusive relevant merely controlling nature character of, admissibility evidence in, still refusal immediately seriously erode itself litigation. Construction Laborers Curry, 371 542, 531, 514 temporarily enjoined labor union picketing National Labor Relations exclusive controversy. independent reasons. First, proceed face preemption separable particularly 'when postponing national requiring respondents' heard Board, courts.' 550, 536. convinced entry permanent injunction ruled Hence concluded tribunals. 18 Mercantile Bank Langdeau, 555, 520, 523 banks sued, along others, Travis County, Tex. asserted conspiracy defraud insurance company. preliminary special venue immunized them suit County properly sued county. 'separate matter, anterior enmeshed factual legal comprising plaintiff's action.' 558, 522. serve 'to tried long complex naught until conclusion proceedings.' 19 Miami Herald Publishing Tornillo, 418 241, 2831, 41 730 (1974), latest category.11 candidate office newspaper refusing, allegedly contrary statute, carry reply paper's editorial critical qualifications. act unconstitutional, injunctive relief damages. sustaining challenge appropriate relief, including here. principles elaborated observing: 20 'Whichever intolerable unanswered, important Amendment; uneasy unsettled posture 104.38 harm operation 221—222, 1438, (Douglas, J., concurring). See Organization Better Austin Keefe, 402 415, n., 91 1575, 1577, 29 (1971).' 247 6, 2834.12 21 authorizing damage suits publishing prosecution. They true, erroneously upheld should all. question, remain effect unreviewed proceeding go forward Delaying 'leave unanswered Amendment,' 'an (that) press.' 2834. hand, hold bar ends. Given factors—that merits13 doubt—we consistent followed Gillespie United States Steel 148, 85 308, 199 (1964); 1478; 1438—1439 concurring).14 III 22 stoutly defends State's challenged Its force, powerful arguments can made, however defined, zone surrounding every individual, protect press, attendant publicity.15 Indeed, central thesis root article Warren Brandeis, Right Privacy, Harv.L.Rev. 193, 196 (1890), overstepping prerogatives essentially private alleged abuses.16 23 More compellingly, century experienced strong tide running so-called 1967, '(i)t 'right privacy' recognized common 30 plus District Columbia States.' Time, Hill, 374, 383 7, 534, 539, 456. cited 1964 edition Prosser's Law Torts. 1971 source states '(i)n form another, very few jurisdictions.' W. Prosser, Torts 804 (4th ed.) omitted). Nor irrelevant arrival jurisprudence Georgia, embraced 1905 leading Pavesich England Life Ins. Co., 122 190, 50 S.E. 68. 24 impressive credentials privacy,17 recognize involving appropriation one's photograph, physical tangible into area, false although defamatory. version us—termed disclosure,' 130—is plaintiff unwanted publicity affairs, which, offensive person ordinary sensibilities. Because gravamen injury information, true dissemination embarrassing painful most confront freedoms face-off apparent, urge broad criminally civilly neither nor misleading absolutely accurate, damaging reputation individual 25 defamation actions, personal reputation, prevailing view truth defense;18 message York Times Sullivan, 376 254, 710, 686 Garrison 209, 125 Curtis Butts, 388 130, 1975, 1094 (1967), like required figure. What more, defamed figure knowingly so circulated reckless falsity. Similarly, target knowing falsehood materals published, assertedly private, 'matters interest.' 387—388, 541—542.19 26 carefully left distinguished criticism conduct business, overborne larger interest, secured Constitution, truth,' 73, omitted), 'different purely libels, totally concerned; therefore, nothing say today intimating views impact guarantees discrete area libels.' 72 8, 215. fashion, expressly saved truthful matters affairs proscribed. 539. 27 Those precedents, considerations, counsel caution sphere collision between sides rooted traditions significant concerns society. Rather address broader publications ever subjected put way, define focus narrower interface presents, namely, records—more specifically, so. place, society limited resources observe hand government, relies necessarily convenient operations. Great accordingly placed media fully accurately basic data governmental Without many representatives unable vote intelligently register opinions administration government generally. With particular, function serves guarantee fairness trials bear beneficial effects scrutiny justice. Sheppard Maxwell, 333, 350, 1507, 1515, 600 (1966). Appellee efforts infringed world it, prosecutions, reports repeatedly recognized. written Douglas, said: 31 event. transpires room property. If transcript suppose none punish publisher contempt. And see difference afforneys, jury, himself, reflected who hear transpired impunity. perquisite judiciary enables institutions democratic suppress, edit, censor transpire it.' Craig Harney, 331 367, 67 1249, 1254, 1546 (1947) (emphasis added). 32 362—363, 1522; Estes Texas, 381 532, 541—542, 1628, 1632—1633, 543 (1965); Pennekamp Florida, 331, 66 1029, 90 1295 (1946); Bridges California, 314 252, 62 192 (1941). 33 developing recognizes privilege Brandeis article, proposed actions libel slander communication: justice (at jurisdictions) meansure accorded privilege.'20 Restatement Torts, 867, privacy.21 Tentative Draft Second §§ 652A—652E, divides branches;22 wrong life, commentary 652D states: 'There gives public. Thus life record ..'23 separate physically intruding seclusion another. Section 652B, Comment c, provides 'there plaintiff, keep inspection.'24 According draft, ascertaining contents simply reach kinds actions.25 35 generally record. compelling imposes publication—and combination nonspeech regulation prohibition. O'Brien, 391 376—377, 88 1673, 1678—1679, 672 (1968). contains indicia 'fighting' words, 'are essential part exposition ideas, slight social value step benefit derived outweighed morality.' Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 572, 766, 769, 1031 (1942) 36 By placing domain records, presumed thereby being served. Public concerned performed reporting media. importance type citizenry proper business. preserving command less 37 reluctant embark forbid sensibilities supposed man. Such difficult inform citizens business stay law. invite timidity self-censorship likely lead suppression items At least, allow exposing truthfully released records. respond means documentation exposure information. Their political weigh know publish.26 Once sanctioned it. instance others rest broadcast. 258, 2840. handed request recess hearing. improper document liability.27 Reversed. 40 BURGER concurs judgment. POWELL, concurring. I join supporting rationale.1 My understanding decisions defamation, differs expressed today's opinion. Accordingly, think separately my views. am accord proscribes imposition predicated impression role Court's. identifies 'open' 'whether figure.' Ante, 490. view, Gertz Robert Welch, 323, 2997, 789 largely resolves issue. 44 line resolve desire reputational competing commands Amendment. years 84 (1964), action.2 Today's reiterates previously recognized, 74, 215, (1964)—that 489-490. explicitly implicit articulation standard recovery rests truth. necessity recognizing equally permissible defamatory statements substance apparent danger citizen. 45 prohibits imposing defame individual. While 'breathing space' freedoms, affords latitude compensating individuals wrongful reputation.3 '(S)o fault, broadcaster injurious individual.' 347, 3010. related defendant's 'defamatory falsehood' limits normal brought. fair contemplated satisfied. 46 need establish applicability, acknowledging requires treating alike involve differences similarities. 343—344, 3008—3009. Of course, infinitely elastic. instances denominated seek injuries quite different flowing Constitution balance struck. And, recognizes, causes grounded implicate distinct actions. Gertz, complete defense. 47 DOUGLAS, concurring 48 'final,' court.* me fours Jersey Lottery Comm'n States, 491 F.2d 219 (CA3 1974), vacated remanded, 371, 941, 260 (1975). For reasons dissent disposition suppress penalize 'news day.' 49 REHNQUIST, dissenting. decree, term used 1257, want 51 (1945), established few' something 'further remain(ed) court'. 1478. Over years, protest Harlan,1 steadily discovered exceptions requirement, hardly longer described few.' Whatever unexpressed process expansion, see, e.g., Hudson Distributors Eli Lilly, 377 386, 401, 1273, 1283, 394 (1964) (Harlan, dissenting), frequently formal express explanation cursory citations preceding line. Especially today, (1963).2 detailed problem, believe expresses support result. 52 'pragmatic' problem presented doing, heavily (1964). As acknowledges, ante, 478 1291, restricts appeals district distinction, accords adopts Gillespie's 'judgment 'decisions' courts.3 underlying different, counsels restrictive 53 Gillespie, imposed minimizing inconvenience costs piecemeal review'. proposition undoubtedly sound considering system. Were efficiency stake inclination resolution although, discussed reservations standards formulated effective achieving single goal. us, introduces accommodated fashioning exception literal requirement. number congressional provisions reflecting uncontrolled functions untoward consequences system.4 novel Frankfurter's explained follows: 54 'This considerations applicable good administration. avoids Only situations, intermediate rulings consequences, prerequisite derives added force invoked upset Here realm potential governments. intervene had' 237(a) Judicial Code, 344(a), U.S.C.A. 344(a). technicalities easily scorned. factor smooth working system.' (Emphasis added.) 55 Republic Natural Gas Oklahoma, 334 67, 68 972, 976, 92 1212 (1948), Frankfurter, speaking view: 56 exercise powers pertinent barrier court's peculiarly local Close observance regard strangling technicality. History bears ample testimony securing harmonious State-federal relations.' comity federalism members well, notably Harlan. See, 397—398, 1280—1281 (dissenting); (1963) (dissenting). dissent, argued foreclosed 'this passing dissipated helping undesirable federal-state conflicts.' One cast doubt Langdeau Harlan focusing significance 57 'Harmonious state-federal relations' Frankfurter penned WOW emphasized re-emphasized dealing ongoing Younger Harris, 401 37, 746, 669 (1971); Samuels Mackell, 66, 764, 688 (1971). important, provide 'added force' 1257's importing efficient apart expansive reading enunciates virtually formless kind carved out. contrast, understandable principle forum trying joined depends sooner premise procedure ruling interlocutory 59 Still exceptions, bound supra; situation Arizona); totality certainly indicates willing impart language great deal flexibility, arguably intent enacting used, relatively workable practice. 60 paraphrased, instead quoted: 61 'Given finality.' 486. difficulties test. willingness look clear exactly take. emphasizes end, 485-486, refers 'arguably wrongly.' 13. 'only extent substantial.' means, then inquiry extensive plenary consideration; meant, just costly concluding If, really intends doctrine far probability terminate litigation, reversing traditional sequence decisionmaking. Heretofore, thought assumed presented. henceforth obliged 63 Yet difficulty formulation transposing 'failure doubt.' Assuming 'serious doubt' note probable enough claim? read out Perhaps Congress, preferring Amendment, incorporated likewise 'incorporated,' indeed 'incorporated' equal embodied literally 64 Another applying second prong test, engaged permitting undisturbed suggests 'shadow' stand deep wide. No hindrance sort unquestioningly places par core protecting uninhibited discourse.5 greatest test enunciated abandons too save necessary, avoided lesser dimension.6 primarily designed, relations, safeguard adjudication. 'Considerations propriety, long-established practice, demand refrain unless performance function, entitle raise Blair 250 273, 279, 468, 470, 979 (1919). 'The 'anticipate advance deciding Liverpool, N.Y. Phila. Steamship Emigration Commissioners, 113 33, 39, 352, 355, 899; Abrams Van Schaick, 293 188, 135, 79 278; Wilshire Oil 295 100, 673, 1329. 'It habit necessary case.' Burton 283, 295, 243, 482.' Ashwander Tennessee Valley Authority, 297 288, 346 466, 80 (1936) (Brandeis, adjudication unlike concede defenses. Nonetheless, rules Far eschewing one, construes rush meet prospective litigant approaches doors. 69 determinations votes stage briefing oral argument, acquaintance below. therefore greater statutes substantive law.7 We, retain authority studied briefs recall last three Terms theory saying never decree,' guess tendency preference dismissing disturbing straightforward formulated, compound task determining, stage, 70 aspect generating illustrated recently filed Firestone, 74—944. twice Florida December 1972; Time's issues. 1974, dealt litigated remand. Before Time seeks 1972. 1972 had. was, confronted 2101(c), days 71 suggest either Firestone. example illustrative poses prudent faced adverse dispositive unwilling presume flout words employing loose obtain ones prevent loss. He formless, unworkable expect choose solely assuring contentions lost timely filing. inevitable additions docket interruptions adjudicatory process. persuade Brethren decree nonetheless take heart 'state decisis historically considerably usual weight.' Gonzalez Employees Credit Union, 419 90, 95, 289, 293, 249 shall unlawful print publish, broadcast, televise, disseminate medium printed televised, disseminated newspaper, magazine, periodical originating female raped whom assault commit made. Any corporation violating section shall, conviction, punished misdemeanor.' Three statutes. Fla.Stat.Ann. 794.03, 794.04 (1965 Supp.1974—1975); S.C.Code 16—81 (1962); Wis.Stat.Ann. 942.02 (1958). Wisconsin predecessor Evjue, 253 Wis. 146, N.W.2d 305 (1948). South Carolina Nappier Jefferson Standard Insurance 322 502, 505 (CA4 1963), Hunter Washington Post, 102 Daily L.Rptr. 1561 Superior pleadings identifying her age, address. staff WSB—TV nine years. His investigate newsworthy stories reports. assigned young accused Cynthia Cohn morning 10, day began, story previously. minutes. App. 16—17. reported prepared several sources. personally attending taking Fulton Jail, knowledge defendants. observations primary almost based. Secondly, approached clerk sitting front bench, requested copy indictments. allowed examine document. shown type. attempt anyone else withhold apparently request.' 17—18. 'THE GRAND JURORS selected, chosen sworn behalf accuse (the defendants) offense of:— 'RAPE accused, 18th August, carnal Leslie Cohn, female, forcibly 22—23. 'MURDER Rape, felony, human being, death causing suffocate 24—25. portion reads 'Six murder-rape teenaged girl. Sandy Springs High School boys charged seventeen year old drinking 18th. tragic high school girl shocked community. Today court.' 19—20. Eminent later. 'For embraces payment compensation. covers aspects integral problem.' 163, 412, Grays Harbor Logging Coats-Fordney 243 251, 256, 297, 702 (1917); 1480, arose 1291 judgments appealed appeals. final, indicated requirements: 'And close supported forceful arguments, impossible devise formula marginal called 'twi-light zone' 'practical construction.' Cohen Beneficial Industrial Loan Corp. (337 546, 1221, 1226, 1528). Brown Shoe 370 294, 306, 82 1502, 1503, 510; Bronson Railroad Black 524, 359; 203, 404. Dickinson Petroleum Conversion 338 507, 511, 322, 324, 299, pointed other." 152—153, 311. Other include: 550—551, 536—537, (1963); Pope Atlantic C.L.R. 345 379, 382, 73 749, 750, 97 (1953); Richfield 329 69, 73—74, 158—159, (1946). finality: designation practice controlling. Department Banking, Pink, 317 264, 268, 233, 235, 254. decided' (Clark Williard, 292 112, 118, 615, 618, 78 1160), litigation.' Market Street Ry. Commission, 324 548, 551, 770, 773, 1171; W.O.W. 123—124, 1477, 2092. resolved Willard, supra) but, resort practice.' 72, 158. Maryland punishment only, entitled guilt well. 1, 1195. 337 1528 (1949), diversity plaintiffs stockholder post security bringing action. inapplicable, Appeals granting certiorari, termination 'it late effectively conferred applicable, lost, probably irreparably.' 1225. Meanwhile genre, decided. retailer invalidate trade inconsistent antitrust laws legislation certain conditions. manufacturer cross-petitioned enforcement plaintiff-retailer. struck down cross-petition. Ohio affirmed decision. Relying Curry review, 389 4, 1276. import Tornillo underlined citation Alabama. There, Brennan, unwarranted restrictions error. post, 507-508, correct involves determinating context incorrect, forecloses protests obviate Pharmacy, clear. wrongly, determinative author member disavow distinguish indicating pressing seems embrace concerned, avoidance involved. finding Flournoy Wiener, 321 253, 263, 553, 708 (1944); Prudential Cheek, 259 530, 547, 516, 523, 1044 (1922); cf. Palmore 411 389, 397 1670, 1676, 342 (1973); Mishkin York, 512, 958, 965, T. Emerson, System Freedom Expression 544 (1970); Konvitz, Privacy Law: Philosophical Prelude, Contemp.Prob. 272 (1966); Bloustein, Aspect Human Dignity: An Answer Dean N.Y.U.L.Rev. 962 'Of desirability—indeed necessity—of (of privacy), can, believed, doubt. direction obvious bounds propriety decency. Gossip resource idle vicious, become trade, pursued industry effrontery. satisfy prurient taste details sexual relations spread columns daily papers. occupy indolent, column filled gossip, procured domestic circle. intensity complexity advancing civilization, retreat world, man, refining influence culture, sensitive publicity, solitude individual; enterprise invention have, invasions mental pain distress, inflicted mere bodily injury. wrought confined suffering subjects journalistic enterprise. this, branches commerce, supply creates demand. Each crop unseemly harvested, becomes seed direct proportion circulation, results lowering morality. Even gossip harmless, widely persistently circulated, potent evil. belittles perverts. inverting relative things, dwarfing thoughts aspirations people. When attains dignity print, crowds space real community, wonder ignorant thoughtless mistake importance. Easy comprehension, appealing weak side misfortunes frailties neighbors, surprised usurps place brains capable things. Triviality destroys once robustness delicacy feeling. enthusiasm flourish, generous impulse blighting influence.' 404, 456 (1967) (opinion Harlan, J.); id., 412—415, 554—556 (Fortas, dissenting). (Second) 582 (Tent.Draft 20, Apr. 25, 1974); 116 ed. 1971). libel, Several jurisdictions country provided, showing motives justifiable 796—797. 'false light' Term, Cantrell Forest City 245, 250—251, 465, 469, occasion apply relaxed false-light announced Hill applies 789.' Harv.L.Rev., 216—217. 867 (1939). 652A—652E 13, 27, 1967). are: unreasonable (§ 652B), other's likeness 652C), life' 652D), 'publicity unreasonably public' 652E). 652A. categorization suggested 117 ed., 1971); Calif.L.Rev. (1960). 652D, 114. 652B 104. 810—811. emphasizing public, Hubbard Journal N.M. 473, 368 147 (1962) (information regarding boy younger sister juvenile-court inspection); Edmiston 257 F.Supp. (SDNY 1966) (fair opinion); Bell Courier-Journal Louisville S.W.2d (Ky.1966); Lamont Commissioner Motor Vehicles, 269 880 (SDNY), aff'd, 386 449 (CA2 1967), cert. denied, 915, 1811, 654 (1968); Frith Associated Press, 176 671 (EDSC 1959); Meetze 230 S.C. 330, 606 (1956); Thompson 193 953 1952); Garner Triangle Publications, 546 1951); Berg Minneapolis Star Tribune 957 (Minn.1948). mean imply arise allowing access investigation, Georgia's disclosure. outset, agreement supports afforded absolute people events. 383, abandonment '(matter) 'general interest" malice individuals, 346, 3010, Rosenbloom Metromedia, 403 29, 79, 1837, 296 (1971) (Marshall, calls conceptual Hill. 469; 348, 3011; 490 19. Our limitations center around ideas corrected competitive 339—340, 3006—3007. Beginning assumption, undertaken identify care afford values. narrow write emphasize proposition, Fourteenth, use discussing 734, (Black, 471, (1974) dissenting); 3014, dissienting); 398, concurring); 548 80, 218, 'public affairs' broadly construed—indeed, 'any prompt 357 3016 now-familiar balancing accommodating interests, raises specter inevitably induce media, inhibiting rough-and-tumble discourse protects. 538, 395, 1279, 420, 1578, American Assn. Mobile S.S. 217 409, 411, 399 (1974); textual distinction former referring decisions,' decrees,' Evarts Act, Act Mar. 1891, Stat. 826, created decision' House referred Cong.Rec. 3402 Senate Judiciary Committee changed wording explanation. 10218. attached bill manned full-time judges; version, duties judges circuit. 827. Sept. 24, 'judgment' 'decree' defining original circuit 22. 1341 (limitation enjoin taxing systems); 1739 (requiring full faith credit courts); 2253—2254 (prescribing habeas corpus prisoners); 2281 (three-judge requirement); 2283 (restricting proceedings). 2834, uncertainty Florida's reply' unresolved impending 1974 elections. Mills, practically universal major purpose First) discussion affairs.' 1437. discussed, 505-506. constitutional, whereas statutory. Sisson, 267, 307, 2117, 2139, 608 (1970): 'Clarity desired important. Otherwise parties expend energy, dispute settlement,

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