Document: 480 U.S. 421 107 S.Ct. 1207 94 L.Ed.2d 434 IMMIGRATION AND NATURALIZATION SERVICE, Petitionerv.Luz Marina CARDOZA-FONSECA. No. 85-782. Argued Oct. 7, 1986. Decided March 9, 1987. Syllabus Section 243(h) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (Act) requires that Attorney General withhold deportation an alien who demonstrates his "life or freedom would be threatened" thereby on account specified factors. The above-quoted phrase a showing "it is more likely than not subject to persecution" in country which he returned. In contrast, § 208(a) authorizes General, discretion, grant asylum "refugee," who, under 101(a)(42)(A) Act, unable unwilling return home because persecution "a well founded fear" thereof particular At respondent illegal alien's hearing, Judge applied "more not" proof standard her claim, holding she had established clear probability therefore was entitled relief. Board Appeals (BIA) affirmed, but Court reversed, 208(a)'s "well-founded generous it only applicants show either past "good reason" fear future persecution. Accordingly, claim remanded so BIA could evaluate proper legal standard. Held: "clear probability" does govern applications 208(a). Pp. 427-449. (a) plain meaning statutory language indicates congressional intent standards §§ should differ. 243(h)'s "would has no subjective component, but, fact, objective evidence will upon deportation. reference "fear" makes eligibility determination turn some extent mental state, fact must "well founded" transform into one. Moreover, different emphasis two highlighted by that, although Congress simultaneously drafted new amended 243(h), left old intact. 430-432. (b) legislative history apply 243(h). 432-443. (c) argument Naturalization Service (INS) anomalous for have less stringent since affords greater benefits fails satisfies still face discretionary decision while satisfying stricter automatically withholding 443-445. (d) INS's substantial deference accorded BIA's position are equivalent unpersuasive, narrow question identicality pure construction within traditional purview courts, case-by-case interpretation type traditionally administrative agencies. 445-448. 767 F.2d 1448 (CA9 1985), affirmed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion, post, p. ----. SCALIA, judgment, POWELL, dissenting REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, joined, Lawrence G. Wallace, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Dana Marks Keener, Kip Steinberg, San Francisco, Cal., Susan M. Lydon, Bill Ong Hing, Stanford, respondent. Justice STEVENS Court. 1 Since 1980, provided methods through otherwise deportable claims persecuted if deported can seek 8 U.S.C. 1253(h), one listed factors deported. INS v. Stevic, 467 407, 104 2489, 81 321 (1984), we held qualify this entitlement deportation, demonstrate Id., at 429-430, S.Ct., 2501. Refugee Stat. 102, also second broader 1158(a), "because well-founded race, religion, nationality, membership social group, political opinion." 101(a)(42), 1101(a)(42). 2 rejected contention governs 243(h).1 Similarly, today reject Government's standard, persecution, used different, define term "refugee" as describe class aliens right Act's establishment broad refugees eligible asylum, narrower given where they danger, mirrors provisions United Nations Protocol Relating Status Refugees, motivation enactment 1980. addition, 1980 perfectly did intend coextensive with 3 * Respondent 38-year-old Nicaraguan citizen entered States 1979 visitor. After remained longer permitted, failed take advantage Service's offer voluntary departure, commenced proceedings against her. conceded illegally, requested pursuant refugee 4 To support request attempted were returned Nicaragua views; 208(a), return. supporting both related primarily activities respondent's brother been tortured imprisoned Nicaragua. Both testified believed Sandinistas knew them fled together even though active politically herself, interrogated about brother's whereabouts activities. status, own opposition brought government's attention. Based these facts, claimed forced 5 same evaluating application He found form App. Pet. Cert. 27a. On appeal, agreed "failed establish suffer section Act." 21a. 6 Ninth Circuit, challenge argued consideration contended erred applying from claim. Instead, asserted, considered generous. court agreed. Relying text structure generous, proceedings. 1448, 1452-1453 1985). Agreeing Seventh interpreted require present " 'specific facts' prove 'good reason' persecution." 1453 (citing Carvajal-Munoz INS, 743 562, 574 (CA7 1984)). We granted certiorari resolve Circuit conflict important question.2 475 1009, 106 1181, 89 298 (1986).3 II 7 procedure granting refugees.4 added 1952, reading follows: "The shall physically land border port entry, irrespective such may discretion determines 1101(a)(42)(A) title." 105, 1158(a). 9 Under section, depends entirely General's defined That provides: 10 'refugee' means (A) any person outside person's nationality or, case having last habitually resided, to, avail himself herself protection of, opinion. . ." 11 Thus, "persecution whether asylum.5 12 addition establishing process, provision,6 See U.S., 421, n. 15, 2496, 15. Prior 1968, however, comply substantive Articles 34 1951 Convention Refugees. 19 U.S.T. 6223, 6259-6276, T.I.A.S. 6577 (1968); see generally supra, 416-417, 2494. Article 33.1 Convention, 189 U.N.T.S. 150, 176 (1954), reprinted 6259, 6276, counterpart our statute, imposed mandatory duty contracting enumerated reasons.7 infra, 411. itself constrain after presumably honored dictates Convention.8 event, removed proceedings.9 13 Stevic significant enacting amend relief While terms hence made integral part procedure, continued play Thus prior consistent required applicant force. Of course, reasoning, based large here expressly provides asylum. 14 Government argues, applicable, there difference between test It asks us hold way lend reading. 15 begin with, conveys very meanings. instead deportation.10 supra. obviously state alien.11 linguistic words 'well-founded fear' 'clear probability' striking frame reference. simply cannot conclude identical." Guevara-Flores 786 1242, 1250 (CA5 1986), cert. pending, 86-388; Carcamo-Flores 805 60, 64 (CA2 1986); F.2d, 1452 (case below). 16 "well-founded" alter obvious focus individual's beliefs, nor One certainly event happening when 50% chance occurrence taking place. As leading authority pointed out: 17 "Let presume known applicant's origin every tenth adult male put death sent remote labor camp. too apparent anyone managed escape being persecuted' eventual return." A. Grahl-Madsen, Refugees International Law 180 (1966). 18 This ordinary lightly discounted. Russello States, 464 16, 21, 296, 299, 78 (1983); Ernst & Hochfelder, 425 185, 198-199, 96 1375, 1383-1384, 47 668 (1976). With regard scheme, ourselves bound 'assume "that purpose expressed used." ' Phinpathya, 183, 189, 584, 589, 401 (1984) (quoting American Tobacco Co. Patterson, 456 63, 68, 102 1534, 1537, 71 748 (1982), quoting Richards 369 1, 82 585, 591, 492 (1962)). statute significantly doing so, chose maintain incorporate '[W]here includes omits another presumed acts intentionally purposely disparate inclusion exclusion.' 23, 300 Wong Kim Bo, 472 720, 722 1972)). contrast standards, indicate intended III 20 message conveyed confirmed examination its history.12 Three aspects particularly compelling: pre-1980 experience 203(a)(7), dealing asylum; abundant conform definition law Nation's 1968; declined enact Senate version bill ineligible unless "his prohibited 243(h)." 21 contained 101(a)(42) applies Act.13 207, 1157, admission foreign countries. 208, 1158, sets out process currently amendments basis States.14 Asylum countries had, previous provision, Congress' respect changes sought create instructive discerning fear." 22 203(a)(7) authorized permit "conditional entry" certain number fleeing Communist-dominated areas Middle East 79 913, 1153(a)(7) (1976 ed.). seeking unquestionably lenient Matter Tan, I. N. Dec. 564, 569-570 (1967), example, "found support" "an deportee do meet Adamska, 201, 202 inability satisfy determinative "substantially broader" 203(a)(7). differences statutes be" N., (emphasis original). sum, repeatedly recognized different.15 23 first glance might wide practice spoke "fear persecution," probative adopted Analysis history, incorporated conform. 436-437. told extant acceptable Protocol, except various unacceptable geographic distinctions.16 wished modify 203(a)(7).17 Adoption clearly violence 207 previously 203(a)(7).18 24 If thing indeed entire primary purposes bring conformance 1967 6577, acceded 1968.19 Indeed, adopted, 428, virtually identical prescribed 1(2) defines individual 25 "owing reasons group owing fear, country; former habitual residence, it." 26 Compare 6225 6261. Not adopt Protocol's many statements indicating definition. Conference Committee Report, stated accepted "with understanding directly provision construed Protocol." S.Rep. 96-590, (1980); H.R.Rep., 9. thus appropriate consider what relation Protocol. 27 1946 Constitution Organization (IRO). 62 3037. IRO "valid objection" returning "fear, reasonable grounds opinions constituted valid objection. Constitution, Annex Pt. C1(a)(i). then Refugees,20 150 (July 28, 1951). explained "[t]he expression victim .' actually good reason why fears U.N.Rep., 39. test, without modification. consistently understood those it, drafting documents order classified "refugee."21 28 interpreting further guided analysis set forth Office High Commissioner Handbook Procedures Criteria Determining (Geneva, 1979).22 explains "[i]n general, establish, degree, stay become intolerable him definition, there." Ch. B(2)(a) 42; id., 37-41. 29 Commissioner's Nations' origins definition,23 conclusions scholars studied matter.24 There room concluding 10% shot, tortured, persecuted, happening. 431. moderate long situation evidence, need shown probably result enough possibility." 424-425, 2498. 30 dealt issue nonrefoulement, corresponds Convention.25 Significantly though, extend everyone meets "refugee." Rather, "[n]o Contracting State expel ('refouler') manner whatsoever frontiers territories life threatened U.S.T., U.N.T.S., added). burdens: first, i.e., least "wellfounded persecution"; second, imposition requirement States' obligations 31 mechanism gives refugees. such, correspond 33 34. Carvajal-Munoz, 574, "shall far possible facilitate assimilation naturalization Like precatory; implementing all eligible. Also like No required. 32 binding precatory, discretionary, benefit persons "refugees," whereas subcategory their precise distinction plainly revealed Act. 22, 2500, 22. Rejection S. 643. House bill, H.R. 2816, 96th Cong., 1st Sess. (1979), 643, bills differed, refugee, additional obtain 243(h)."26 S.Rep., 26. Although restriction, curtailed affected determine prohibition standard.27 rather eventually refused restrict meeting "Few principles compelling proposition sub silentio earlier discarded favor other language." Nachman Corp. Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation, 446 359, 392-393, 100 1723, 1741-1742, 354 (1980) (Stewart, dissenting); cf. Gulf Oil Copp Paving Co., 419 186, 200, 95 392, 401, 42 378 (1974); 300. IV 35 major arguments reverse proving persecuted. arguments: ignores Act; misconstrues federal courts' role reviewing agency's construction. 36 First, argues favor, 6, eligibility. sorely applicable remain States; chooses it. An deportation.28 Salim, 311 limited remedy only, exercising deny Walai 552 F.Supp. 998 (SDNY 1982); Mat Shirdel, Interim Decision 2958 (BIA Feb. 1984). suspension anything, 37 assertion discretionary/mandatory practical significance. Decisions import distinction. changing provision. 428-429. surely then, involved here. Report 38 carefully expand numbers come force substantially admissions absorb. However, merely comes guarantee resettlement States." 10. 39 vesting quite typical immigration area, see, e.g., Jong Ha Wang, 450 139, 101 1027, 67 123 (1981). anything anomalous, now aliens. assigned delegates task making hard individualized decisions; crafted authorize which, any, denied 40 principal construes standards. deference, Appeals' keeping intent.29 unpersuasive. 41 courts decide. Employing tools construction, concluded identical.30 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 837, 2778, 694 explained: judiciary final issues constructions contrary intent. [Citing cases.] court, employing ascertains intention issue, effect." 843, 2782, (citations omitted). 43 is, arises each agency facts. ambiguity concrete adjudication. filling 'any gap left, implicitly explicitly, Congress,' delegated responsibility administering program. Chevron, 2781-2782, Morton Ruiz, 415 199, 231, 1055, 1072, 270 (1974). But much narrower, province judiciary. attempt detailed description how applied.31 incorrect identical.32 44 Our symmetry lead inexorably conclusion country. find canons compelling, longstanding principle construing lingering ambiguities alien. Errico, 385 214, 225, 87 473, 480, 318 (1966); Costello 376 120, 128, 84 580, 559 (1964); Fong Haw Tan Phelan, 333 10, 68 374, 376, 92 L.Ed. 433 (1948). 45 Deportation always harsh measure; replete danger "give sufficient flexibility respond situations involving religious dissidents detainees throughout world." increases rejecting strict Whether matter judgment 46 Affirmed. concurring. 48 I join Court's judgment. accept "narrow" "the [standards asylum] Ante, 448. accordance holding, eschews give substance leaves "process adjudication" charge laws. 1221. write separately briefly emphasize my directed sources derive refined later emphasis, believe, needed where, here, strikingly history. 49 observes, ante, 430-431, demands analysis—an feelings coupled inquiry nature articulated fear. describing how, attempting country's laws conformity notes wherein appears, 427, tracks Such rich international scholarly commentaries. 437-440, nn. 20, 24. ignore guidance, above directions formulation 50 Finally, view, well-reasoned Courts Appeals, almost uniformly misreading provide admirable example "case-by-case development refers among 426, 2, exception, ibid., addressed same. arisen standard.* arise agencies seriously grapple problems developing whose intimations contours shaped facts specific cases. efforts stand stark to—but, sad say, alone make up for—the years seemingly purposeful blindness begins entrusted care. 51 52 agree equivalent. concur reasons. despite reached conclusion, undertakes exhaustive investigation attempts justify relying doctrine reveals 'clearly intention' [the enactment's] language," "question strong presumption expresses chooses." 1213, 12. true recent times approval doctrine, mind ill-advised deviation venerable clear, effect—at absence patent absurdity. See, Wiltberger, (5 Wheat.) 76, 95-96, (1820) (opinion Marshall, C.J.); Hartwell, 73 (6 Wall.) 385, 830 (1868); Bate Refrigerating Sulzberger, 157 34, 508, 515, 601 (1895) Harlan, J.); Caminetti 242 470, 485, 192, 194, 61 442 (1917); Packard Motor Car NLRB, 330 492, 789, 793, 91 1040 (1947) Jackson, Sullivan, 332 689, 693, 331, 334, 297 (1948) Black, Unexcelled Chemical 345 59, 64, 583, 97 821 (1953) Douglas, J.). Judges interpret reconstruct legislators' intentions. Where free replace unenacted 53 Even lights, explication excessive. sufficed, seems me, "clearly intent" think not, apparently lengthy effort ascertain And objectionable gratuitous. am concerned suggest similarly analyses (or, worse yet, required) cases clear. conduct betrayal assurance "not applied," 438-440 (appearing endorse fear"). 54 troubled, discussion deference. rightly concludes inconsistent 431-432, 449 12, justification 842-843, ("If end matter; agency, effect unambiguously Congress" (footnote omitted)). unjustifiable, use superfluous occasion express controversial, believe erroneous, views Chevron. "unambiguously Congress," substitute administrator agency," 844, 2782. Chevron—which extremely frequently cited Appeals—as Japan Whaling Assn. Cetacean Soc., 478 221, 233-234, 2860, 2867-2868, 166 (1986); Fulton, 657, 666-667, 1422, 1427-1428, 661 Hillsborough County, Florida Automated Medical Laboratories, 471 707, 714, 105 2371, 2375-2376, 85 714 (1985); Manufacturers 470 116, 125, 126, 1102, 1107, 1108, 90 (1985). flatly well-established interpretation. implies whenever, "[e]mploying construction," able reach statute. 446. approach desperation, authorizing defer construe issue. evisceration 55 whenever decide," 446, [in which] [a standard] facts," adduced proposition, contradicted purports interpreting, deferred Environmental Protection Agency's abstract "stationary source." 56 badly misinterprets More fundamentally, neither share understand eagerness refashion questions completely unnecessary fully briefed parties. 57 58 whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE WHITE join, dissenting. 59 Many people homeland. forms people: 1158(a); 66 212, amended, 107, 1253(h). proofs submit rejects conclusion. Because reasonable, dissent. 60 assume rigorous mathematical cases, requiring objectively quantifiable risk homeland 50%. never position. useful examine detail before rejection approach. all, tribunal greatest so. appears Acosta, 2986 (Mar. 1985).1 analysis, judge determining underlying historical burden persuasion rests applicant, truth preponderance evidence. (citing, inter alia, 1A C. Gordon H. Rosenfield, Procedure 5.10b, 5-121 (rev. ed. 1986)). Once decided demonstrated, decides 1101(a)(42)(A). point concerns section's "well-founded."2 adhered developed Dunar, 310 (1973): 63 '[T]he rules apprehension purely subjective. Some sort ordinarily done claimant's testimony sometimes available; crucial testimony, true, realistic likelihood persecuted.' 18-19 319) Acosta Board). went caution: "By [as 'realistic likelihood'] mean 'a persecution' degree certainty, 'probability' opposed 'possibility,' Rather matter, best described (1) possesses belief characteristic persecutor seeks overcome others punishment sort; (2) already aware, easily characteristic; (3) capability punishing alien; (4) inclination punish alien." 65 compared "realistic likelihood" comments insightful: "One persecution,' occur, 'more not' occur. produce clear-cut instances fine distinctions meaningfully made. quantitative, variety statistics discern theoretical qualitative: experiences external events kind enable context, meaningful occur and, application, converge." 25. contend 51% resting probabilities. four-part occurring. heart empirical adjudicating applications, rarely "likely" basis, normally Part examines "such threatened." "if refugee." disposes case. 427-432. 69 presented case, ambiguous does. contends fallen error equating showings differs contemplates partially inquiry. From premise, moves little explanation inquiries sections necessarily different. 70 reaching short shrift "well-founded," critical contemplate implicit resolves face. character answered entity familiar types determines" determinations BIA. examined ever can. import: rarely, ever, both. just expert judgment—formed committed question—to defer. realities concentrates semantic niceties. posits hypothetical government execute 10th male. executions irrelevant; addresses mathematically demanding actual treatment applications. Nor address validity presenting encountered infrequently, ever. 72 Common sense human Governments persecute numbers. highly unlikely hearing posited hypothetical. Taking available chosen qualitative evaluation likelihoods." read avoid mass numerical 2986, 18-25.3 Nowhere four-element unreasonable. view evidentiary presentations chosen—"well-founded" fear—are ambiguous. They specifying threshold. suppose Acosta. alone, 74 bolsters three parts A closer materials Nothing relies positive arguing material 75 cites preserve existing placed 913 (1965). conditional entry Communist East, "preserve" word entry. 76 regulations governing States.4 These accord namely CFR 108.3(a) 236.3(a)(2) (asylum) 242.17(c) (withholding deportation). suggests better argument. natural speak "preserving" governed 77 referring states "improve and§ clarif[ies] procedures States. changed." 96-256, U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 149. recognizes, 435, 17, statement informal 203(a)(7).5 expanded regularizes formalizes policies practices followed years." H.R.Rep. 96-608, (1979) hardly felt "formalize" referring. 17. choice carry forward His 208 reasonable. B Second, 437-440. For several reasons, marginally relevant. President thought 417, 2494, history). reluctant violating during adoption. force, 'the status incumbent State.' 439, (ii) 1979)). 80 discussed shed light None nonrefoulement 1967—a essentially Act—is higher tend arguably drafters 457-459. irrelevant commentators C places great weight Committee. "is conjectures "indicates clear-probability standard." Neither premise justified. included ensure reflected portion Senate's refugee. general refugee—the U.N. H.R.Conf.Rep. 96-781, (1980). saw homeland, "firmly resettled" ibid. 83 short, minor wording passed reflect standards.6 place Committee's bill. uphold case.7 careful decisions lower Respondent's rested solely experienced difficulties authorities "no record asylum." found: 86 "None whatever be, belongs group. She proven members family, brother, [sic] detained, interrogated, arrested imprisoned, convicted sentenced regime presently power Nicaragua." Ibid. probative, family—her parents, sisters, wife, children—were feared. 88 passage time, confronted conflicting correct noted formulations standard: Rejaie 691 139 (CA3 Sava, 678 1982), rev'd grounds, (1984); (1973). 456-459 (discussing ). Reviewing submitted Judge, focused especially "has openly admitted taken actions government. admits active. assisted singled government." 22a.8 petition review Circuit. Without examining factual decision, petition, reversed consideration. sole action wrong repeated According "present 1984)) stated: "[T]he feel exempt Marbury Madison [5 (1 Cranch) 137, (1803) ] constrained circuit opinions. [T]he Cardoza-Fonseca [her copetitioner]. declared 1454 (citation explained, acknowledged explicitly tested burdensome these—the standard—is court's quoted supra page. ignored framed decision. findings rested. BIA, misunderstood properly supported assumed reflects. V 93 misreads identified rested, Appeals. "on mistaken qualifies history." 2500. 1242 1985) below); 1984); Youkhanna 749 360, 362 (CA6 Sankar 757 532, 533 Third decide identical. post-Stevic compelled pre-Stevic (1982). Sankar, 533. rendered moot Reform Control Pub.L. 99-603, 3359. nothing affects Title 1986 creates legalization status. 201(a) establishes exceptions, resided continuously unlawful January 1982, adjusted lawfully temporary residence. obtains adjustment permanent resident waiting period months. 245A(a). residence route usually residents. program public welfare five 245A(H). timely II. appear invoking unsuccessful pending Nonetheless possibility render moot. self-executing, yet identical, therefore, knowing time Cf. Chadha, 462 919, 937, 103 2764, 2777, 317 (1983). sooner program; conditions, months 209.1-209.2 (1986). 18-month period. factors, persuaded controversy exercise dismiss writ improvidently granted. arise, arisen, hosts arrived importance merits now. amendments, promulgated parole authority. 14, infra. now-repealed 433. note finding General." 423, 18, 2497, 18; 441-444. distinct mentioned, discretion. granted, benefits. context Afghanistan asylum: "Section 'country specific' accordingly, protected prevent exclusion Pakistan hospitable 237(a) him. When lawful 209 1159, residing year, limitations regulations." 311, 315 Lam, 1981). "No 6278, (1968). 1968 anyone, similar constraint 440-441. deport 1253(h)(1) literally 'would' deported; 'might' 'could' 422, 2497. agrees "fear," condition, emotion characterized anticipation awareness danger." Webster's New Dictionary 831 (16th 1971)). settle us. Therefore, look intention" language, chooses. James, 597, 606, 3116, 3121, 483 Consumer Product Safety Comm'n GTE Sylvania, 447 108, 2051, 2056, 766 causing flows adds strict, Practice 209, regulation 1974, pt. 108 (1976), administered District Directors "regulations denial 'shall preclude alien, subsequent expulsion Refugees.' 108.2 (1976)." 420, 13, 13. 1979, confer jurisdiction over requests time. Janus Janek, 866, 876 1968). Director level, processed, recognized. Ugricic, 384 (1972), "he 385-386. 141 (hereafter S.Rep.) (substantive changed); H.R.Rep.) limitations); Hearings Subcommittee Operations Foreign Affairs Sess., (remarks David Martin). perpetuate regulations, Until "burden adhere squared defining "refugee"—one (the regulations). incorporate, continue involvement. following proceedings—not 203(a)(7): improving clarifying discussing change 441-442. Congress, mirrored POWELL's unfounded. Post, 462-463. quotes indicate, referred "means entry"—an regulations. procedures, seven pages text, labeled "Asylum," fear," meaning. POWELL incorporating "[i]t 'preserving' relief," relief—that corresponding regulations—it difficult preserved "same relief" is: "same" which? answer, (1980), 160; 9; 4. Displaced Persons 1948, 1009 2(a), (d), retained Relief 1953, 400 Escapee 1957, 643 15(c)(1). 1965, enacted again afforded "assure consolidated convention afford agreements." Economic Social Ad Hoc Statelessness Related Problems (Feb. 1950) (U.N.Doc. E/1618, E/AC.32/5 U.N.Rep.)). Manual Eligibility Officers, "Fear regarded objection plausible convictions afraid discrimination, home. Reasonable coherent Organization, 175, ch. IV, C19, (undated, circulated 1950). party incorporates Convention's relevant part. 6225, suggest, binds disclaims explaining territory finds himself." 1979). Nonetheless, guidance widely giving content establishes. McMullen 658 1312, 1319 1981); Frentescu, 244 Rodriguez-Palma, 465 1980). Board's (1973), interacts faced accession modified Board, elaborating treaties superseding Acts 313-314, inherently inconsistent. tension satisfied "be reconciled arise." 321. says absent presumption, amendment (distinguishing "prediction" post-1980 intent). 181 (1966) real enough, 'fear' 'well-founded' "); Goodwin-Gill, 22-24 (1983) (balance inappropriate; "reasonable chance," "substantial thinking," "serious possibility"); Cox, "Well-Founded Fear Being Persecuted": Sources Application Criterion Status, Brooklyn J. Int'l (1984). 33.1. 207(b)(1) provided: uniform culmination decade proposals reform Anker Posner, Forty Year Crisis: Legislative History Diego L.Rev. 20-64 occasions period, objected arguing: "[I]t providing General.' Failure add 'in General' administer subjective." Western Hemisphere Immigration, 981 Judiciary, 93d (1973) (statement Hon. Francis Kellogg, Special Assistant Secretary State). 25; Helton, Political Act: Unfulfilled Promise, Mich.J.L. Ref. 243, 249-252 attention unrealistic realize 243(h)(2)(A) (alien participated ."); 243(h)(2)(B) crime" "constitutes community States"). heavy reliance entirety: "When reviews administers, questions. always, spoken Congress. If, impose necessary silent answer permissible 'The congressionally created policy fill Congress.' fill, delegation elucidate regulation. controlling arbitrary, capricious, manifestly Sometimes explicit. agency. "We considerable executive department's scheme administer, interpretations 'has reconciling policies, full depended knowledge respecting matters subjected '. represents accommodation care disturb sanctioned.' Shimer, 367 382, 383 [81 1554, 1560, 1561, 908] (1961)." "Accord, Capital Cities Cable, Crisp, [467 691, 699-700, 2694, 2700-2701, 580 ]. "In well-settled misconceived determined, legislation, regarding applicability bubble concept program, 'inappropriate' designed improve air quality, Administrator's legislation follows, EPA's make." 842-845, 2781-2783 footnotes heightened inconsistency positions years. conflicts "entitled considerably deference" view. Watt Alaska, 451 259, 273, 1673, 1681, (1981); Electric Gilbert, 429 143, 411-412, 343 relationship fear-based ways. During enacted, 1972, 433-434. 1973 irreconcilably 1981 instructing officials Dept. Justice, Operating Instructions Regulations TM 101, 208.4, 766.9 (Nov. 11, 1981) (explaining "can he/she persecution"). 1984, espouses—complete identity 1985, reevaluate issued comprehensive explain latest similarities "comparable" "essentially comparable," "meaningful," equivalent, interchangeable. contrary, component "particular certainty." "real chance" 'is occur." written "requires pattern erratic agreed, agree, litigation How "meaningful" abstract, impossible terms. 564 (1967); 201 trouble separate compliance decisions. Sanchez Escobar, 2996 (Oct. reason—that misinterpreted 465-468. raised parties' briefs, "set forth" "fairly included" certiorari. Rule 20.1. asked: "Whether 1253(h)." (I). challenging "to 1454. decline Parcel Service, Mitchell, 56, 1559, 1562-1563, 732 Irvine California, 347 129, 381, 98 561 (1954). 1986) ("What have, facing perhaps including loss even, life"); 1249 86-388 ("An circumstances native country"); below) ("In well-founded"); 1984) ("The opinion") "erratic." 446-447, 30. leads Jan. 31, 1967, inserted exactly changed. bases characterization something "fear." unfair characterize "erratic" four elements: (i) "persecution"; "well-founded"; (iii) opinion"; (iv) 11. elements 22). requirements grants none considerations current practice. exegesis "plain meaning" misinterpretation Those exhortation "facilitate naturalization," Art. [1968] persecuted," 1(A)(2), All parties ultimate source language. help infra page, suggestion 464-465. treating 463. 448, 31. strange. asked "[w]hether deportation." includes," 21.1(a), problem sit Normally affirms intolerably high Yet, applied. result. elements. "possesses overcome" [she] characteristic."

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