Document: 127 S. Ct. 2652 (2007) FEDERAL ELECTION COMMISSION, Appellant, v. WISCONSIN RIGHT TO LIFE, INC. Senator John McCain, et al., Appellants, Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. Nos. 06-969, 06-970. Supreme Court of United States. Argued April 25, 2007. Decided June *2658 Paul D. Clement, Solicitor General, Washington, DC, for appellant in No. 06-969. Seth P. Waxman, appellants James Bopp, Jr., Terre Haute, IN, appellee. Counsel Record, Department Justice, D.C., appellant. M. Miller Baker, Michael Nadel, McDermott Will & Emery LLP, Richard E. Coleson, Jeffrey Gallant, Raeanna Moore, Coleson Bostrom, Thomasenia Duncan, Acting General Counsel, B. Bader, Associate David Kolker, Assistant Harry J. Summers, Kevin Deeley, Attorneys Federal Election Commission, Gregory G. Garre, Deputy Malcolm L. Stewart, the Lawrence H. Norton, Attorney Roger Witten, Shane T. Stansbury, Wilmer Cutler Pickering Hale and Dorr New York, NY, Pratik A. Shah, Boston, MA, Randolph Moss, Danielle Spinelli, Brent Bickley, Whelan, Donald Simon, Sonosky, Chambers, Sachse, Endreson Perry, LLC, Scott Nelson, Public Citizen Litigation Group, Trevor Potter, Gerald Hebert, Ryan, Charles Curtis, Anstaett, Heller Ehrman Madison, WI, Alan Morrison, Stanford, CA, Bradley Phillips, Grant Davis-Denny, Munger, Tolles Olson Los Angeles, appellants. Chief Justice ROBERTS announced judgment delivered opinion with respect Parts I II, an III IV, which ALITO joins. Section 203 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act 2002 (BCRA), 116 Stat. 91, 2 U.S.C. § 441b(b)(2) (2000 ed., Supp. IV), makes it a federal crime any corporation broadcast, shortly before election, communication that names candidate elected office is *2659 targeted electorate. In McConnell Comm'n, 540 U.S. 93, 124 619, 157 Ed. 2d 491 (2003), this considered whether was facially overbroad under First Amendment because captured within its reach not only campaign speech, or "express advocacy," but also speech about public issues more generally, "issue mentions office. The concluded there no overbreadth concern extent question "functional equivalent" express speech. Id., at 204-205, 206, 619. On other hand, "assume[d]" interests had found "justify regulation might apply genuine issue ads." n. 88, nonetheless determined overbroad. Even assuming "inhibit[ed] some constitutionally protected corporate union speech," those challenging law on face failed carry their "heavy burden" establishing all enforcement should therefore be prohibited. 207, Last Term, we reversed lower court ruling, arising same litigation us now, our decision left "no room" as-applied challenges 203. App. Juris. Statement 52a. We held contrary "[i]n upholding against facial challenge, did purport resolve future challenges." 546 410, 411-412, 126 1016, 163 990 (2006) (per curiam) (WRTL I). now confront such challenge. Resolving requires first determine expressly advocating election defeat office, instead "genuine a[d]." McConnell, supra, have long recognized distinction between advocacy "may often dissolve practical application. Candidates, especially incumbents, are intimately tied involving legislative proposals governmental actions." Buckley Valeo, 424 1, 42, 96 612, 46 659 (1976) curiam). Our development area us, however, draw line, justify "might apply" advocacy. drawing err side protecting political rather than suppressing it. conclude challenge further restricting functional equivalent do advocacy, accordingly hold BCRA unconstitutional as applied advertisements these cases. Prior BCRA, corporations were free use independent expenditures engage so advocate clearly identified candidate. See Comm'n Massachusetts Citizens Inc., 479 238, 249, 107 616, 93 539 (1986) (MCFL); Buckley, 44-45, 612; *2660 §§ 441b(a), (b)(2) ed. IV). significantly cut back corporations' ability 203, cases, labor incorporated entitywhether Steelworkers, American Civil Liberties Union, Motorsto general treasury funds pay "electioneering communication." BCRA's definition communication" clear expansive. It encompasses cable, satellite refers aired 30 days primary 60 jurisdiction running 434(f)(3)(A).[1] Appellee (WRTL), nonprofit, nonstock, ideological by Internal Revenue Service tax exempt 501(c)(4) Code. July 26, 2004, part what calls "grassroots lobbying campaign," Brief 8, WRTL began broadcasting radio advertisement entitled "Wedding." transcript "Wedding" reads follows: "`PASTOR: And who gives woman married man? "`BRIDE'S FATHER: Well, father bride, certainly could. But instead, I'd like share few tips how properly install drywall. Now you put drywall up . "`VOICE-OVER: Sometimes it's just fair delay important decision. "`But Washington happening. A group Senators using filibuster tactic block judicial nominees from simple "yes" "no" vote. So qualified candidates don't get chance serve. "`It's politics work, causing gridlock backing courts state emergency. "`Contact Feingold Kohl tell them oppose filibuster. "`Visit: BeFair.org "`Paid Life (befair.org), responsible content advertising authorized candidate's committee.'" 466 F. 195, 198, 3 (DC 2006). day, similar ad "Loan."[2] invested *2661 producing television "Waiting,"[3] substance format "Loan." planned "Wedding," "Waiting," "Loan" throughout August 2004 financing ads treasury. recognized, 15, prior primary, would illegal communication[s]" Believing possessed right broadcast ads, filed suit Commission (FEC) 28, seeking declaratory injunctive relief three-judge District Court. note following 437h IV); 28 2284. alleged prohibition defined "Loan," well materially seek run future. Just blackout period begin, denied preliminary injunction, concluding "the reasoning leaves room kind `as applied' propounds us." response during period. subsequently dismissed WRTL's complaint. id., 47a-48a ("WRTL's `as-applied' [§ 203] foreclosed Court's McConnell"). appeal, vacated judgment, holding "did challenges" remanded "for consider merits instance." I, U.S., 412, 1016. remand, after allowing four Members Congress intervene defendants, granted summary WRTL, three adjudication dispute barred mootness controversy "`capable repetition, yet evading review.'" F.Supp.2d, 202. Turning merits, noting could proscribe advocacy" officeand *2662 204. Stating limiting inquiry "language corners" equivalent, 205-208. Then, reaching "left open McConnell," compelling interest justified sought run. 208-210. One judge dissented, contending majority's "plain analysis text advertisements" ignored context developed." 210 (opinion Roberts, J.). judge's view, contextual revealed "deep factual rifts parties concerning purpose intended effects ads" neither judgment. 210, 211. FEC intervenors separate notices appeal jurisdictional statements. consolidated two appeals set matter briefing argument, postponing consideration hearing merits. 549 ___, 646, 525 (2007). II Article III's "case-or-controversy requirement subsists through stages proceedings. [I]t enough very much alive when filed." Lewis Continental Bank Corp., 494 472, 477, 110 1249, 108 400 (1990). Based principles, argues (though not) cases moot has passed "does assert continuing [its three] advertisements, nor does identify reason believe significant over Senate filibusters will occur foreseeable future." Appellant 21. As concluded, fit comfortably established exception disputes capable review. Angeles Lyons, 461 95, 109, 103 1660, 75 675 (1983); Southern Pacific Terminal Co. ICC, 219 498, 515, 31 279, 55 310 (1911). applies where "(1) challenged action duration too short fully litigated cessation expiration; (2) reasonable expectation complaining party subject again." Spencer Kemna, 523 17, 118 978, 140 43 (1998) (internal quotation marks brackets omitted). Both circumstances present here. found, "entirely unreasonable expect [WRTL] obtained complete review claims time air periods. contends 2-year window elections provides ample litigate rights each groups cannot predict matters way knowing advance want event, despite command expedited "to greatest possible extent," 403(a)(4), 113, periods come gone pendency action. "[A] desired *2663 empty gesture unless afforded sufficient opportunity date communicate views effectively." Nat. Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 774, 98 1407, 707 (1978). second prong "capable repetition" "`reasonable expectation'" "`demonstrated probability'" recur party." Murphy Hunt, 455 478, 482, 102 1181, 71 353 (1982) find sufficiently likely "will again subjected illegality," threat prosecution" law, 774-775, 1407 (citing Weinstein Bradford, 423 147, 149, 347, 350 (1975) curiam)). order prove recurrence controversy, must establish sharing characteristics district deemed legally relevant." 23. asks much. review' doctrine, appropriate typical case attacks." Storer Brown, 415 724, 737, 94 1274, 39 714 (1974). Requiring repetition every "legally relevant" characteristic challengedown last detail effectively overrule statement making unavailable virtually challenges. History repeats itself, level specificity demanded FEC. Here, credibly claimed "`materially similar'" mentioning period, 197, "refrain prosecuting violations" 775, 1407. Under circumstances, particularly another injunction based 2006 see exists recur. decide rightly concedes prohibited Each identifies Feingold, (unopposed) Democratic September 14, been "targeted relevant electorate," 434(f)(3)(C) exceptions term 434(f)(3)(B). question, then, consistent prohibit ads. Appellants contend required demonstrate Reply Sen. McCain al. 06-970, p. 5, 4; 34. After all, reason, already valid. These *2664 may specific Because burdens strict scrutiny. 205, 619; Austin Michigan Chamber Commerce, 652, 658, 1391, 652 (1990); MCFL, 252, 616 (plurality opinion); 786, 1407; 612. scrutiny, Government applying furthers narrowly tailored achieve interest. ("Especially where, here, directed related process governing, `the burden government show existence [a compelling] interest'" (footnote omitted)). scrutiny is, course, informed precedents. This ruled survives regulates equivalent. description, FEC's onerous; need point explain why If, Government's task formidable. then banning serve No precedent reached conclusion. B FEC, intervenors, dissent below constitutional test determining if advocacy: influence effect. See, e.g., 214 Here portion McConnell: "[P]laintiffs argue justifications adequately support quantities encompassed electioneering communications. "This argument fails 30- 60-day preceding equally voters' decisions effect." 205-206, majority, claim adopt standard agree. McConnell's grounded evidentiary record Two key studies constituted central piece evidence marshaled defenders provisions validity." 251 176, 307, 308 2003) Henderson, J.) Those asked "student coders" students thought "purpose" provide information urge bill issue," generate opposition particular candidate." 308-309 omitted; emphasis deleted); 38. *2665 "`that Electioneering Communications accurately captures effect supporting office." Ibid. (emphasis original). When looked analyzing periods, classified terms intent assessment phrased terms, regarded conclude, it, plaintiffs "carried heavy proving" enforced circumstances. adopting fact student coders helped develop doing so, dealt basis deciding claim, compels warrants accepting separating, banned.[4] More importantly, rejected intent-and-effect distinguishing discussions candidates. 43-44, difficulty discussion one hand other, explained "`of effect'" afford "`no security discussion.'" 43, 612 (quoting Thomas Collins, 323 516, 535, 65 315, 89 430 (1945)). approach, pointor even address say subject. For reasons decline turning speaker's affect election. distinguish safe harbor wish exercise rights. "reflec[t] `profound national commitment principle debate uninhibited, robust, wide-open.'" York Times Sullivan, 376 254, 270, 84 710, 11 686 (1964)). speaker remotely bill. Far serving values meant protect, intent-based chill core *2666 opening door trial theory actually indications concerned pending policy issue. choose covered defense criminal prosecution motives pure. An "blankets uncertainty whatever said," "offers discussion." disagree. brief litigation, argued "constitutional turned subjective sincerity message incapable workable application; minimum, invite costly, fact-dependent litigation." O.T.2005, 04-1581, 39.[5] focused lead bizarre result identical speaker, while leading penalties another. Redish, Money Talks: Speech, Economic Power, Values Democracy 91 (2001) ("[U]nder well-accepted motivation entirely irrelevant protection"). "First freedoms breathing space survive." NAACP Button, 371 415, 433, 83 328, 9 405 (1963). none. explains flaws actual segment target audience. Such "`puts wholly mercy varied understanding his hearers.'" typically burdensome, expert-driven inquiry, indeterminate result. electoral effects, unquestionably substantial amount C "The freedom guaranteed Constitution embraces least liberty discuss publicly truthfully without previous restraint fear subsequent punishment." 776, Consolidated Edison N.Y. Serv. N. Y., 447 530, 534, 100 2326, 319 (1980). To safeguard liberty, proper objective, focusing amorphous considerations entail minimal discovery, allow quickly chilling burdensome litigation. Virginia Hicks, 119, 123 2191, 156 148 (2003). eschew open-ended rough-and-tumble factors," "invit[es] complex inevitable appeal." Jerome Grubart, Great Lakes Dredge Dock Co., 513 527, *2667 547, 115 1043, 130 1024 (1995). short, give benefit doubt stifling 269-270, 710. light considerations, susceptible interpretation vote test, plainly First, ad: focus issue, take position exhort position, contact officials matter. Second, lacks indicia mention candidacy, party, challenger; they character, qualifications, fitness Despite characteristics, alone betrays nature. Indeed, suggests includes "an citizens representative" saying elect 31; pp. 21-23 (hereinafter Brief). example, House proposed Universal National Act. Center Law Amicus Curiae B-3. There regard opposing Act, urging Representative Representative. Issue conveys educates. ad's impact voters hear chooseuninvited adto factor into voting decisions.[6] try turn difference advantage, citing statements "that most effective commercials products avoid [Buckley] magic words [expressly candidate]," 127, advertisers "would seldom permitted," *2668 193, 19. expert relied observations "subtl[e]," simply exhorting electorate Feingold. 56-57. Rephrased bit, perversely maintains less resembles "heads win, tails lose" approach correct. eliminate protection conclusion available, assumption ads," appellants' can thing periodit ad. Looking beyond several "contextual" factors cite cycle, Political Action Committee (PAC) actively opposed Feingold's reelection goes Evidence sort beside point, beWRTL forfeit speak aspects work opposes involved issues. Next, seize timing They observe near votes nominees, elections. intent, irrelevant. interpreted falls short. That close unremarkable this. Every If applications. unanimously contention I. recessed likewise unpersuasive. return districts recess, precisely constituents; succeed getting constituents he she home. coincide floor Finally, resume because, explains, changed. 16. majority change rules filibusternot individual continue filibustering. Given change, inference electioneering. highlight ads' *2669 "specific repeated cross-reference" website. 15. middle website's homepage, large type, addresses, phone numbers, fax email addresses Kohl. Wisconsinites viewed "Waiting" wished Senatorsas requested would able obtain pertinent immediately upon visiting viewing website stated both Senators' positions filibusters, allowed visitors sign "e-alerts," contained exhortations details lend credence, again, participation justification censoring issue-related Any website, step removed themselves, render unreasonable. adopted invoked play role inquiry. Courts ignore basic background necessary contextsuch "describes either currently future," 207but become excuse discovery broader noted raises concerns. At best, shown acknowledged since Buckley: application." forth above, reasonably "Freedom discussion, fulfill historic function nation, embrace needed enable members society cope exigencies period." Thornhill Alabama, 102, 736, 1093 (1940). Discussion suppressed Where implicated, tie censor.[7] *2670 confronted Ashcroft Free Speech Coalition, 535 234, 122 1389, 152 403 (2002), virtual images child pornography difficult real images. solution kinds images." 254-255, 1389. "protected banned means ban unprotected "turns upside down." 255, explained: suppress lawful unlawful Protected merely latter. reverse." something candidate, fall outside scope holding.[8] *2671 IV never regulating WRTL's, none compelling. conclusion.[9] outset, reject regulated be, so-called [not] advocacy." greater-includes-the-lesser works. expressing local football team ground "core" restricted. ensure supports application statute justifies restrictions tells little advocacy; itself made point. dictate suppressed, lay being *2672 precedent. 776-777, preventing corruption appearance corruption" campaigns. 45, contribution limits. explained, "[t]o contributions given secure quid pro quo current potential holders, integrity system representative democracy undermined." 26-27, suggested limits that, "large pose dangers apparent arrangements contributions." arguably interestwhich assumed advocacyto 204-206, stretched Enough enough. contributions, quid-pro-quo them. equate value expansive circumvent rule helps protect circumvention contributions. Cf. 619 ("[R]ecent certain involvement permissibly hedge [valid] limits" original)). prophylaxis-upon-prophylaxis expression "[T]he desire bright-line hardly constitutes infringement freedom." 263, 616. 1389 ("The speech"); 44, (expenditure limitations "cannot sustained invoking maximizing effectiveness intrusive limitations"). lies addressing "different type arena: corrosive distorting immense aggregations wealth accumulated help form correlation public's corporation's ideas." Austin, 660, 1391. uphold felony 654-655, equivalent." suggest, combating "a different extended Quite contrary. Justices joined 6-to-3 *2673 relied, constitutionality retained distinct 675-678, 1391 (Brennan, J., concurring) (describing regulate referenda expression" "reflect[ing] requirements decisions"); 678, (STEVENS, ("[T]here vast debating campaigns other"). similarly willing "assume reinforced validity Accepting notion call Bellotti identity strip 778, "bait switch" not, well, pursuant asserted interest, broad conception relying inability Instead, advocacya rejected. justifying engaged WRTL.[10] burdening * importance reflected *2674 number diverse organizations Court: Rifle Association, Federation Labor Industrial Organizations, Commerce States America, Focus Family, Coalition Charities, Cato Institute, many others. Yet, opinions, gotten far quoting itself: "Congress shall make abridging speech." Framers' perspective. jurisprudence past 216 years absolutist words, comes lines pure speechbetween banit worth recalling language applying. opponent prohibited, along occasion revisit determination today. defining qualifies banthe decidewe censorship. Amendment's speech" demands that. Columbia affirmed. ordered. ALITO, concurring. join principal (a) 2002, applied, anything (b) here (c) unnecessary go face. turns out implementation impermissibly chills post, 2682-2683 (SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., concurring judgment), presumably reconsider constitutional. SCALIA, whom KENNEDY THOMAS join, Moroccan cartoonist once defended criticism monarch (lèse majesté serious Morocco) "`I'm revolutionary, I'm defending said kingno, no, no! things king doing, like. Is crime?'"[1] (making due allowance *2675 representatives king) crime, (including not-for-profit public-interest corporations) name congressional running. import upheld Terms ago element essential constitutionality, possibility case, (to pursue analogy) king's policies tenure criticized. Today's showing purpose. below, my view (1) comport clarity unchilled demands, compatible (as pronounced McConnell). sets unsavory separating issue-speech election-speech criterion. originated efforts nonstock corporation, lobby filibustering President's nominees. problem November 2, named reelection. 203(a) amended 316(b)(2) Amendments 1974, unions "mak[ing] expenditure connection 441b(a). section communications advocated (in campaign-finance speak, advocacy"). 204, amended, broadened cover communication[s]," include "any "refers office" 434(f)(3) IV).[2] new wishing creates *2676 segregated fund "political committee," commonly known "PAC." 441b(b)(2)(C) Three ago, including "vast majority" 30-day "pure protected. consistently Amendment. held, I), available. today affirms While agree result, disagree opinion's reasons. explanation McConnell. begin seminal curiam), wherein various 1971 (FECA), 86 3, 88 1263. now-familiar framework evaluating regulations. recognition contributing money to, spending behalf of, implicates protections, "operate fundamental activities." "prevention "corruption" repeatedly referred "quid quo" variety, whereby entity exchange official. 27, 47, FECA's muster represented "marginal restriction contributor's communication," 20-21, thus invalidated, limitation (i.e., one's own coordination campaign). 39-51, restrict "`at freedoms,'" 39, require highest independent-expenditure limited spent "`relative candidate.'" 41, 18 608(e)(1) (1970 IV) (repealed 1976)). Before striking down limitation, construed 608(e)(1), vagueness concerns, advocacythat *2677 "in advocate[s] "as `vote for,' `elect,' `support,' `cast your ballot `Smith Congress,' against,' `defeat,' `reject.'" 52, narrowing construction excluded advocacy"for defeat. narrowed narrow (quite apart shortcoming) corruption. 45-46, Notably, "equalizing relative individuals outcome elections" insufficient expenditures. 48 word Some argued, treated differently. reasons: provision FECA, "individuals," "persons," "`persons'" specifically "`corporation[s],'" 23, included corporations, (3) 50-51, cited Miami Herald Publishing Tornillo, 418 241, 2831, 41 730 Moreover, pre-Buckley accorded full protection. 428-429, 431, (1963) (holding activities "modes association Fourteenth Amendments"); Grosjean Press 297 233, 244, 56 444, 80 660 (1936) "freedom press safeguarded clause Amendment"). Gas Elec. Util. Cal., 475 106 903, 1 opinion) decisive protected"; "[c]orporations associations, individuals, contribute `discussion, debate, dissemination ideas' seeks foster"). coup de grâce differently purposes (1978), decided Buckley. struck referendum affected property, business, assets. "at heart protection" "indispensable decisionmaking democracy" true individual." arguments *2678 exert undue vote"; "drown points view" "destroy confidence people democratic process," 789, shareholders "by resources furtherance disagree," 792-793, 1407.[3] strayed post-Buckley case: pre-McConnell ever permitted speaker. modeled 655, used magical forbidden "Elect Bandstra." 714, (App. dissenting). How manage overruling Bellotti? purported recognize class corruption: Among problems "new" `corrosive wealth,' sustain decade earlier," Bellotti. 325, 1391; citation cautioned "[t]he abridgment depend person's financial 49, However, Austin's appear whereas 675-676, concurring); concurring).[4] *2679 departure ancient principles. wrongly decided. flawed rationale examined length elsewhere, dissenting Member 5-to-4 joined, 695-713, O'Connor, 679-695, dissenting); 257-259, J.); 325-330, 273-275, nonexpress presumed remain corporations. 203's advertising, amounts (embraced communications"). 203-209, availability PAC option, supported extension communications," Of "`the [corporate] wealth,'" 1391). "apply equally" [those ads] added). description. "[e]ven assum[ing] inhibit 619), insubstantial, overbroad, foreclose brings me meets prevailing Answering obviously articulate standard. obvious one, (arguing "advertisements regulated"); *2680 14 ("[C]ourts articulated McConnell; funding `functional advocacy' candidate"). Intervenors flesh somewhat further: "[C]ourts ask audience understand ad, campaign, promote attack five-factor looks describes future; described; exhorts listener described issue; (4) promotes, attacks, supports, candidate; (5) upcoming and/or 207 backup communications" offers possibility. covers "promotes (regardless advocates candidate) suggestive plausible meaning exhortation variation (one bearing strong likeness definition): Ante, 2655. inescapable tests. (and perception, court's import, ad) vague ineffective vindicate applies. Consider tests ads: slightest issue-advocacy component. explicitly urged appellate-judge filibusters. caused penalty. Does above answer degree discourse? think not. nothing restate express). ad" uncertainty. possibly) specify weight factorand inherently "promotes, (Does attacking king?) look "susceptible meaning" interpretation" seem tighter. ultimately depend, (or itworse stilla jury judgment?) "reasonable" "plausible" certain, rests innumerable surrounding *2681 aware lends distortion decisionmaker's evaluation unimportance critical discourse, compelled risk assurance impunity prediction says "reasonable "[m]any persons, undertake considerable sometimes risk) vindicating case-by-case abstain  harming themselves whole, deprived uninhibited marketplace (2003) (citation accepted antifilibustering, constrained pursuit "corruption." "can't-make-an-omelet-without-breaking-eggs" Amendment, infinitely protected) category pornography. argued: computer imaging prosecute produce children. Experts ... pictures children imaging. solution... "[T]hat said, fortiori, laws targeting object First-Amendment guarantee. line dissolves practice indictment statute, demands. Recall ambiguous phrase candidate" mean "advocating effort "`pu[t] hearers,'" "`offe[r] discussion,'" "`compe[l] trim.'" deficiencies," statutory *2682 permissible magic-words existed, surely Especially consequence express-advocacy invalidation entire expenditures, narrowed) (It "naiv[e]," pretend persons "devising skirted nevertheless benefited campaign." 612.) Why employ "highly strained" reading 280, J.), readings, faithful text, available resulted underinclusiveness? particular, going trouble "advocacy [the] candidat[e]," does, essentially preface as"? explanation: eschewed constructions capturing vague. somehow test. Though purports "imperative clarity" attempt "not sure" Buckley's "what abstract, divorced language." 2670, 7. Forget abstractions: "`advocating candidate,'" operative protestation "d[id] test," ante, 7, utterly compromised relies case. 2665-2666 612). holding, invoke page 13 disclaim 22. quotes proposition `express endpoint interpretation, law.'" 7 190, 619). am sure cryptic relevant, discussing underlay restriction. assuredly repudiation McConnell.[5] *2683 What, done? "focuses branch matter, takes urges legislator matter," challenger, official's office," "say[s] official wrong "wrong 56-57 omitted).[6] Or course although clear, incompatible constitutional, premised finding proscribed "sham 185, rendered substantially "call[s] percentage statute's applications," Tr. Oral Arg. 4,[7] *2684 providing "heartland" prohibit, 18, 36, 9. sustained. Like reality evade instinct "[w]hat separates sand drawn windy day." 126, 16, omitted); 30; 35. indulge altogether confine traditional concrete calm day decades ago. bright, bans indistinguishable hitherto foregoing shows mistaken belief applications contradicts valid pre-election proscribed. weakness rationale, longstanding acceptance adventurous extend constituting adventure flop, wrong.[8] Which stare decisis. "Stare decisis inexorable command" "`a mechanical formula adherence latest decision.'" Payne Tennessee, 501 808, 828, 111 2597, 720 (1991) Helvering Hallock, 309 106, 604 (1940)). policy,'" Payne, "considered practice" rigidly nonconstitutional cases." Glidden Zdanok, 370 543, 82 1459, 8 671 *2685 (1962). hesitated offensive (a "fixed star constellation," West Bd. Barnette, 624, 642, 63 1178, 87 1628 (1943)) promptly error apparent. erroneous Minersville School Dist. Gobitis, 586, 1010, 1375 (1940), corrected Barnette. Overruling earlier unprecedented.[9] relevance impracticability regime created Stare "governing decisio[n]" "unworkable" legal regime. 827, 2597. unworkable acceptable validate proscription protective promise administrable vindication illusory. though produced settled body law. accurate unsettled Not until 1947, enactment Taft-Hartley amendments Corrupt Practices 1925, campaign-related unions. CIO, 335 107, 113-115, 68 1349, 92 1849 (1948). following, *2686 declined pronounce Pipefitters States, 407 385, 400, 2247, 33 (1972); Automobile Workers, 352 567, 591-592, 77 529, 563 (1957); 110, 124, 1349. finally down. 659. decisions, lone disapproved modest medicine restoring unsettle Neither suggest involve property contract rights, reliance involved. "embedded" "national culture." Dickerson 530 428, 443-444, 120 147 (2000) (declining Miranda Arizona, 384 436, 1602, 16 694 (1966), embedded culture). cultural impact, undermine grassroots "budget-strapped nonprofit entities rely commentary 340, Perhaps "ai[d] combat corruption." 194, designed facilitate legislation, wise legislation. former Minority Leader Gephardt, proponent reform, He "`[w]hat direct conflict: healthy democracy,'" "`[y]ou can't both.'" Gibbs, Wake-Up Call, Time, Feb. 1997, 22, 25. (He referring, presumably, incumbents' notions campaigns.) wrong, coexist, pretty equation institution primarily for. perhaps assure today's proves responsibility enforcement. wondrous irony genesis consequences BCRA. institutions muzzle nearly manner "corrosive effects" "immense wealth," impotent prevent passage legislation forbids criticize incumbents). concentrate power hands country's wealthiest 527 organizations, unregulated (In mere 24 contributed astounding total $142 million 527s. Weissman R. Hassan, Groups, 79, 92-96 (M. Malbin ed.2006).) *2687 wealthy dominate small, grass-roots organization muzzled. Accordingly, otherwise concur SOUTER, STEVENS, GINSBURG, BREYER dissenting. significance respectfully dissent, things: demand huge contributors, whose cynical electorate; ensuing century leverage concentrations treasuries; declaring recent tradition, effectively, unjustifiably, overruled today.[1] indispensable ingredient candidacy advertising. half combined presidential (excluding fundraising) went media space. Costliest Campaign, Post, Dec. 30, A7.[2]*2688 2005-2006 $2 billion shattered record, contest. Inside Media, MediaWeek, Nov. 20, 2006, 18. portent still greater spending. By end March 2007, almost year months raised $150 million. Balz, Fundraising Totals Challenge Early Assumptions, Apr. A1 figures living reputation expensive history"). total, fundraisers collected $250,000 per quarter Mullins, Clinton Leads Race, Wall Street Journal, A8, eventual expected raise $500 apiece (about $680,000 cycle), Kirkpatrick Pilhofer, Lags Income Excels Spending, Report Shows, Times, 20. indispensability sums enormous first, assign deep pockets. A6 ("For Internet fundraising, big donors quarter, roughly percent donations coming $1,000 more"). Candidates occasionally boast contributors have, headlines speaking dollars reflect reality. A8 (headlined "Clinton Race"). major satisfaction pitching candidates, preference account frequency giving "substantial parties," 148, driven stark pragmatism, candidates," Development Amici O.T.2003, 02-1674, CED What high-dollar pragmatists variety special access elect, disproportionate power. 130-131, erstwhile officer "`[b]usiness leaders experience good shape derives parties.'" level, underwrite influence. Voters know Hence, finance publicity: pervasive cynicism. poll Americans cast differ Member's beliefs best country. Mellman Wirthlin 267; 266, ("In research uncommon 70 way. do, indicates unusually agreement issue"). believes tempts constituents. 267, Almost want, base *2689 perceptions country Devoting self-interested campaigning threatens capacity represent govern themselves. elements summed integrity, society. flowing unprecedented enormity, gathering force generations. century, purchase cynicism threaten stability government, derived responsiveness focus. danger traditionally seemed apex constrain "unique economic characteristics" "facilitat[e] amassing treasuries," Corporations earliest subjects concern; engines Nation's extraordinary prosperity muscle gain "advantage marketplace" activity electioneering, 258, (MCFL), "Congress' judgment" extends Work Comm., 459 552, 74 364 (1982); 661, wake industrial expansion War developed momentum civic reform led Pendleton 1883, ch. 22 403, stopped raising compulsory assessments employees. unnaturally, filled vacuum, Mutch, Campaigns, Congress, xvi-xvii (1988) Mutch), demonstrated concentrated capital do. resulting disturbed plain small institutions," Root, Use (delivered Sept. 1894), Addresses Citizenship 141, 143-144 (R. Bacon eds. 1916) (cited 571, (1957)), 1904 Presidential eventually "crystallized popular sentiment" politics, 572, 529. next President Theodore Roosevelt [as] inherent" called "vigorous measures eradicate" perceived corruption, enemy dangerous insidious."[3] Cong. Rec. 17 (1904). *2690 year, "[a]ll committee law." 40 (1905). His seconded sponsor "sad [was] discredited corruptible corrupted." 229. persisted 1906 prohibiting expenses party," Tillman 1907: "it bank, organized authority Vice-Presidential electors voted State legislature Senator." 34 864-865.[4] aim subversion active, alert citizen conduct government." 575, Thirty later, questions surfaced expanded Deal. 1936 "unprecedented" sums, S.Rep. 151, 75th Cong., 1st Sess., (1937), Mine Finance Sourcebook 17. reaction build: "[w]artime strikes gave rise fears concentration gains trade unionism. grew great action..., powerful pursuing untoward process." 578, responded Disputes 1943, 144, 9, 57 167-168, permanent Management Relations better Taft-Hartley, 304, 61 159-160. time, worry foreshadows "contribution[s]" "loophole banks, enabled *2691 restrictive garbing assistance `expenditure' contribution." 80th 38-39 (1947); Rep. 2739, 79th (1947) act defeated `making contribution' donating directly herein extensively. avail permit behalf?"). "contribution expenditure" with" 159.[5] D open, spend members, Segregated entities, committees PACs, 409, (1972), "union financed sense voluntary employees." balance restricted methods explicit (FECA). 10 ("[T]he `contribution expenditure' establishment, administration, solicitation utilized organization"). underlying [of was] treasuries diverted purposes, aggregated member stockholder." 117 43381 (1971) (statement Hansen). maintained sound Constitution.'" Pipefitters, 2247 Hansen)).[6] *2692 E 1986, reexamined elections, 441b, drew conclusions implicated comparable FECA vagueness, product "must constitute prohibition." "only "[E]xpress terms," turn, "magic words," "`vote Ibid., 52. obvious: pulled teeth understood exacting undermines limitation's loophole-closing facilitating improper officeholder. naively underestimate ingenuity resourcefulness desiring buy devising Nor narrowed, enforceable limit MCFL. MCFL here; "has se, unfair deployment purposes," 259, "legitima[te]" "engage[d] business activities" "condui[t]" entities). 263-264, 616.[7] *2693 F expectable, corporate-union soon reduced futility. "[P]olitical moving target," Issacharoff Karlan, Hydraulics Reform, Tex. L.Rev. 1705, 1707 (1999), "ingenuity resourcefulness" financiers massive regulatory gap words" proved entered politics. reader let politician thinks, containing telling recipient anyone. 1996 $135 devoted trigger Experience showed, foresaw "issue" broadcasts outright patent fiction, example ran Montana race Republican Rick Hill Democrat Bill Yellowtail 1996: "`"Who Yellowtail? preaches family took swing wife. Yellowtail's response? slapped her. `her nose broken.' talks himself convicted felon. children, payments Call Yellowtail. Tell him values."'" 193-194, 78, 619.[8]*2694 advocacy" statement, deny straight defeating unusual 1996, enquiry practices Governmental Affairs appeared meaningless elections." 105-167, 3994 (1998). "`"What day."'" 619[9] director organization's PAC). AFL-CIO bulk of'" "`first-term, freshmen Republicans defeatable,'" 3997, 3998, "$.15 member, month assessment" election," 3999, 4000. surprisingly, "ostensibly independent" "were coordinated with, controlled by, campaigns." 131, surprising heard testimony "`[w]ithout taming'" "`campaign thoroughly naught.'" 4480 Professor Daniel Ortiz). predicted "if non-action followed, encouraging growth union, expenditures." 4481.[10] validated *2695 prediction: 1998 doubled $270 $340 million, figure climbed 2000 cycle. report Annenberg Policy dominated depended greatly .... candidate-centered always approached [of] spots increased... televised Advertising 1999-2000 Cycle (2001). paid According Senator, "`Members favorably disposed finance'" "`issue ads'" "`later legislation.'" 556 (Kollar-Kotelly, declaration Dale Bumpers). redefined "expenditure" treasuries. 201 "(I) office; "(II) "(aa) general, special, runoff "(bb) convention caucus nominate "(III) Vice President, electorate." 434(f)(3)(A)(i). "easily objectiv[e]," "none concerns drove analysis" discourse face, violate suggestion mandated [with words] [without them], speakers possess inviolable latter contrary, "our us; boundary forever fixed 192-193, presence absence meaningfully prohibitable, *2696 "from ad," "esche[w] election." "[l]ittle difference... viewers Jane Doe' condemned Doe's `call Doe her think.'" 126-127, unions, exemplified tradition "repeatedly aimed ideas.'" incidentally genuinely geographical coverage, reference "Far substantial, absolute election-related strongly conclusion." underscored reasonableness emphasizing limited, speech: "Because money, `simply wrong' `complete ban' regulation." Beaumont, 146, 162, 2200, 179 (2003)). Thus "corporations [in run-up period] avoiding doubtful paying [PAC] fund." add source funding, pelt shower praise, speaks newspaper "broadcast, 434(f)(3)(A)(i) declines conduit exception).[11] sum, 1907 1943 1986 confined instances words. determined, fake devoid *2697 equivalents 2003, enactment. century-long facing undeniable facts testifies value. series reactions documented threats voter, posed treasuries, redolence "grassroots" Congress's corrupting bribery discrete quo; wealth, favor sap defy institutions. From early 20th realistic commit moneys appellee funded corporations.[12] $315,000 donations, 40, six $50,000 2005, three, largest (for $140,000), came donors, 118-121. runs PAC, active During $60,000 him. sharp nationwide increase receipts, fundraising treasury, 41-43, $17,000 $150,000 2000, 41-42. Throughout senatorial secret win Its issued releases "Top Priorities" "Re-elect George W. Bush" "Send Packing!" 78-80, 82-84. these, Chair quoted saying, "`We Russ thwart Bush's nominees.'" 82-83. Spring PAC's quarterly magazine article headlined "Radically Pro-Abortion Must Go!", reported "Feingold nominees" uppermost minds Wisconsin's pro-life community 101-103. *2698 question. bills proportion contributions; fact, earmarked 41. criticized unnamed "group Senators" "using `yes' `no' vote," actions "politics emergency."[13] exhorted listeners "[c]ontact filibuster," e-mail address, told BeFair.org, WRTL. visit erase viewer "group" displayed document "16 times" accused "putting system, creating gridlock, costing taxpayers money." 86. airing relation keyed summer, raged 29, 32. cover, prominent known,[14] opponents, vocally talking him.[15] voter attention propriety Senator's challengers saw grounds facts, There, remedy "[s]o-called candidates." paradigmatic regulation, existed *2699 ad; "condemned [Senator Feingold's] issue" "tell [him] think."[16] anyone Doe, (let named) follows longer paradigm. overruled. steps unacknowledged decided? lays severely communications, flatly says, Since could, isolation, read Senators, anyone, all. hypothetical spoken ended instruction thinks. Yet paradigm conduct, "striking example" "clearly opinion, inverts "genuine" "pure" 206-207, escape implication adjectives unmistakable: (that advocacy), "pure." inexplicably wrings opposite words: candidate," stands head, regulated. *2700 seems defend inversion alternative unadministrable equivalence regulable) acknowledges, [the election] THE CHIEF JUSTICE precedent, 2665.[17] inadvertently borrowed "intended... effect[s]," academic viewers' 2664.[18] *2701 correct contingent "motives pure," "subjective[ly] sincer[e]," 2666 omitted), too, inclined language. motivations principals) sponsoring resting ads'"electioneering purpose," objectively examples readily show). consequently inform underscore objective character authors "actua[l] inten[tions]," 2666, behind ads; nor, knowledge, sponsors summoned researchers motivations. confirmed discern issue." Krasno Seltz, Buying Time: Television Congressional Elections (2000). endorsing precise methodology 2665, 4); purpose, JUSTICE's approach. speech-chilling underlie unwillingness acknowledge necessarily plays meaning. Wisconsinite watching listening reelection? "beside point," history overt "goes [its] intent." 2668. Did appearing season, debated Senate? This, *2702 contain material defeat? "one themselves." 2669. person not? record; litigant) operations internal hidden mind. refusal produces Court, "four Although ostensibly stops categorically foreclosing context, 2669, taken McConnell,[19] hard imagine 2667, reinstates toothless criterion regulable enact place. Third, rejects corporation. receive doubt," whenever "separating banned," 2665. misconception hand: "`simply expression," "with advocacy."[20]McConnell, 203-204, 2200). Thus, successful challenger show, least, *2703 administrative formation operation. 163, 2200. uphill fight, affirmations structure impose excessive burdens, ibid. 201-202, 552), weak point: openly past, noncorporate maintaining unconstitutionally futile, prevail motion. alternative, untrue "banned" say, availed additional options. undisputed lawfully runup bankrolled treasury) omitted singled out. apparently ad[s]," 2667 JUSTICE), "lobby[ing] nominees," 2675 omitting "ban" specious. searches Brothers' opinions vain persuasive substituting "Contact Kohl" lawful) send message. believed lost referring "Senators." belied MCFL's corporations: rule, chosen funnel hundreds thousands refuse advantage insist acting conduits war chests graft onto sensibly ignored, gainsaid, treating Reports. Anyone doubts if, unconstitutional. "is final provided herein." *2704 434(f)(3)(A)(ii) occur, promotes attacks sounds familiar original communication": 2667. institute prevailed formally theoretical treatment survives. price demise high one. (and, think, country) loses departing usual combination alternatives 2003 today: "call naming broadcasted Nothing changed way, rationale. Planned Parenthood Southeastern Pa. Casey, 505 833, 854-855, 112 2791, 674 (1992). "unworkable practice." Allied-Signal, Director, Div. Taxation, 504 768, 783, 2251, 119 533 (1992) mostly conditions, indication apply.[21] proven "[i]nadequate" mooted, 65-66, prevents advertiser obtaining qualify unable timely facts. Frankfurter's *2705 570, imperiled corporate, later money: witness Part supra. boundaries 1391), ongoing decisional recognizing funds. today, enter arena easy circumvention, possibilities unclear. much, companies save expense directly, funneling seriously jeopardizes remain. come. landscape altered, drive reexamination analysis: thinking NOTES [1] Subparagraph (A) provides: "(i) `electioneering communication' which within 434(f)(3)(A) Subsection (B) defines (C) [2] script differs lead-in. begins: "`LOAN OFFICER: Welcome Mr. Mrs. Shulman. We've reviewed loan application, credit report, appraisal house, inspections, well. "`COUPLE: Yes, yes we're listening. "`OFFICER: reminds fishing father. Wolf River Waupaca happening .'" 4. remainder [3] depict "`middle-aged man productive professional life limbo.'" 5. morning paper, polishes shoes, scans Rolodex, activities. reads: lot work. Their careers filibusteringblocking gridlock. [4] methodology, data, among judges. Compare 307-312 (stating value), 585, 583-588 Kollar-Kotelly, (finding generally credible, stating "I troubled regarding advertisements' [some of] recoded" study supervisors). resolving disagreements respect. [5] happened extensive relevant. defendants deposed executive director, consultant, fundraisers. documents operations, plans, finances. severe [6] reasons, SOUTER's assertion "anyone Feingold." 2699. likening "Jane Doe" 2699 so; position. SOUTER confident independently knew misplaced. 85 respondents survey Representatives district. Inter-university Consortium Social Research, Study, 2000: Pre- Post-Election Survey 243 (N. Burns eds.2002) online http:// www.icpsr.umich.edu/ cocoon/ICPSR/STUDY/03131.xml visited Clerk file). [7] SCALIA thinks 2680-2681 judgment). evident, imperative area; affords emphasize free-ranging test; highlighted intervenors; election; debatable resolved keep mind triggered brightline SCALIA's confusing accepts three-prong "clear." 2683. vaguer asserts conflicts 2681-2683. candidate"using proceeded strike newly this, concludes "[i]f it." 2682. sure. intermediate rejecting reject) [8] purpose" forecloses unspecified attack, City Council Taxpayers Vincent, 803, 104 2118, 772 (1984) law] litigants"). token, asapplied language, moreover, Rather, purpose." 2665-2666. addition, survive legitimate. "[B]road binding authority." Kastigar 406 441, 454-455, 1653, 32 212 (1972). [9] stresses decision, merit response. overstates "PAC alternative" outlet speak. 2703. PACs well-documented onerous nonprofits. 253-255, opinion). "provid[e] equivalentsand did, option rejected, 777-778, complain communication, 2696-2697, 2704, glib. sake medium permissibility websites effectiveness. 569-573, 646 dissent's changing 2702-2703. akin Cohen wear jacket draft," cf. California, 1780, 29 284 (1971), 44 Liquormart advertise avoids prices, Liquormart, Rhode Island, 517 484, 1495, 134 711 (1996). afoul autonomy message." Hurley Irish-American Gay, Lesbian Bisexual Group 515 557, 573, 2338, 132 487 [10] stems "`[t]he 659, (1990) (alteration amici status organization. "[s]peech `corrupt' `distort' marketplace," "[n]onprofit distinguished for-profit treasuries." Family Research 264, pass solely 11. Whitlock, Satirist Continues Prove Himself Royal Pain, C1, C8. event "held federal] 248, addressed pre-BCRA version "[r]egardless th[e] [for amass wealth] adequate 441b commercial enterprises, justification" brought Bellotti's footnote leaving someday beget 2691-2692, 6 788, 1407). possibly ALITO's concurrence hints [principal opinion] 2674 wait-and-see finds would-be chilled spoken? tree forest, fallen? normal assess ex ante impermissible recently as, released morning, "can easily manipulated ways," wherefore abuse occurs." Morse Frederick, ___ 2618, L.Ed.2d 2007 WL 1804317 (concurring accord accords classroom. answers questions: matter? election? office? indeed, college consistency. contrast, hinges opinion. coverage think,'" protects "striking" sham notorious "Yellowtail wife "[t]ell values." indefensible. unpersuasive enough, works seven having widely divergent overrules so. 2699-2700 (SOUTER, faux obfuscation. KENNEDY's infirmity. 330-333, rejection rested, non-PAC mistaken. asserts, 2703, "why `Contact Kohl' alternative." Surely pressure invitation him, bringing he, stood athwart (Unlike context.) Seminole Tribe Fla. Florida, 1114, 252 (1996) (overruling Pennsylvania Union 109 2273, 105 (1989)); Adarand Constructors, Peña, 200, 2097, 158 (1995) Metro Broadcasting, FCC, 497 2997, 445 (1990)); Dixon, 509 688, 113 2849, 125 (1993) Grady Corbin, 495 508, 2084, 548 South Carolina Gathers, 490 805, 2207, 876 (1989), Booth Maryland, 482 496, 2529, 440 (1987)); Daniels Williams, 474 327, 662, 662 Parratt Taylor, 451 101 1908, 420 (1981)); Garcia San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 528, 1005, 1016 (1985) League Cities Usery, 426 2465, 49 245 (1976)); Scott, 437 82, 2187, (1978) Jenkins, 358, 95 1006, 250 (1975)); Cities, Maryland Wirtz, 392 183, 2017, 20 1020 (1968)); Edelman Jordan, 651, 1347, (1974) Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 1322, 600 (1969); Dept. Health Rehabilitative Servs. Zarate, 918, 2462, 803 Sterrett Mothers Childrens Rights Organization, 409 809, 68, (1972)); 413 2607, 37 419 (1973) Book Named "John Cleland's Memoirs Woman Pleasure" Mass., 383 413, 975, (1966)); Perez Campbell, 402 637, 1704, 233 Kesler Safety Utah, 369 153, 807, 641 (1962)). Substantially 2661-2664, justiciable. Between committees, groups, national, state, parties, exceeded $4 billion. K. Patterson, Spending Election, Financing 71, tbl. 3-1 (D. Magleby, Corrado, Patterson $1 75, 3-4, three-quarters 2003-2004 Institute Politics, Overview (2005), http://www.followthe money.org/press/Reports/XXXXXXXXX.pdf (all materials file), gubernatorial $200 6. flush cash supreme $30 Sample Politics Judicial (2007), http://www.justiceatstake.org/files/New Politicsof JudicialElections2006.pdf. single Illinois, breathtaking $9.3 winner "`obscene.'" Justice-elect wondered, "`How faith system?'" Moyer Brandenburg, Big Special Interests Warping Elections, Legal Oct. 50 Lloyd Karmeier Illinois Court). polling lose trust founded. With troubling, five "some influence" judges' 90 "somewhat concerned" "[c]ampaign judges accountable politicians Constitution." Zogby International, Attitudes Views Business Leaders Contributions Judges 4-5 (May 2007), www. ced.org/docs/report/report_2007judicial_survey.pdf. People feelings officials. Wirthlin, Party Soft Money, Battle 266-269 (A. Mann, Potter eds.2003) Wirthlin); infra, 2688-2689. inspired accusations opponent, Judge Alton Parker, camp Politics: Law, Ortiz, 10-11 (2005) Sourcebook). unsuccessfully introduced William Chandler, Hampshire railroad 1900. Mutch 4-6 (discussing unlikely alliance radical Republican, Benjamin Tillman, succeeded enacting carries name). specified 159, exceed Art. 4 Classic, 313 299, 317, 1031, 1368 (1941). No.2093, 78th 8-9 (1945) Classic). nonpartisan voting. stockholders families, families [or] registration get-out-the-vote families"). "`If organization... well-being stockholders, stockholders.... guidance.'" 43380 Hansen)). 664, (First lest "circumvent" through" nonprofits). "strayed from" principles 2678 referendum, casting said: overriding expenditures] creation debts. occurrence doubted. presents problem, implies quite (citations Eight reaffirmed "specifically pointed unlike (1982). offering "distinguishable foreclosure 12, "stra[y]" controlling foreshadowed Austin. Texas Nick Lampson incumbent Steve Stockman, October "`[Narrator] What's America's families? [Middle-aged man] "My pension income retire." [Narrator] stand? Congressman Stockman easier raid employee plan. safeguards pension, difference. out.'" (D.C. deleted; Quoting 536, 537 Metaksa, Opening Remarks Assn. Consultants Fifth Session "Issue Advocacy," Jan. 2). Wisconsin, Governor's Blue-Ribbon reported: "Especially beginning season dramatically Wisconsin. campaign-oriented process. electing bases points: "Although educating issues, mentioned "They occurred races progress contest challenger. over, ended. sessions occurring deliberated legislature. filing time. Advertisements tended electronic media, mass mailings, centrally located telephone banks. explosive campaign-based disclosure sources, poses grave two-tiered process: tightly controlled; guise `issue election-focused, accountability." Wisconsin: http://www.lafollette.wisc. edu/campaign_reform/final. htm. [11] exemptions spending, "on subject" personnel, "nonpartisan campaigns" personnel. 441b(b)(2); 6, [12] disputed, favorable intervenor-defendants, motion Police Suders, 542 129, 134, 2342, 159 204 (2004). [13] quotations identical. 2660-2661, nn. 2-3 (principal [14] Hearing Subcommittee Constitution, Property Judiciary, 108th 5-7 Feingold). [15] Gilbert, Seeking Seat Attack Him Issue, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 70-76 vying resonates voters"). [16] import; peak audience's naturally heavily (who reelection) not). [17] "already rejected" 2664. "reject[ion]" (1945), leader "`laud unionism'" forbade "imply invitation" union. 315. predicament, reasoned, lack expression: Whether "designed miss mark effect," "safely assume invitation." universe "three choices: stand freely; quit, refusing speak; trim, penalty." considering bind; thus, wonders "even address[ing] Buckley" extension, Thomas) "had subject." options Thomas. sentences regulable, [shortly refuge delineated harbors modifying (by name) altering sources (from PACs). jettisons purpose; overlook Whereas "should rights," accomplishes [18] speculates "[t]wo studies," 2664, shred theory. standard, study. authority, asserting pivotal McConnell? Other brief, cites Henderson's neglects author question: "According Brennan Center, Time reports `in validity.'" 307-308 (italics original) deposition Craig Holman, co-author (Brennan 2001)). [19] bit agenda: "`issue'" scrutiny.'" 2669 207). reason" revealing, salience calendar wall fathom. [20] adopts 2684 ("Section speech"). [21] second-guess differentiating administrable. and, heartland validly regulate. "[t]oday's apparent" overruled, 2684, unworkable.

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