Document: 505 U.S. 144 112 S.Ct. 2408 120 L.Ed.2d NEW YORK, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES et al. COUNTY OF ALLEGANY, Petitioner, v. UNITED STATES. CORTLAND, Nos. 91-543, 91-558 and 90-563. Argued March 30, 1992. Decided June 19, Syllabus Faced with a looming shortage of disposal sites for low level radioactive waste in 31 States, Congress enacted the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments Act 1985, which, among other things, imposes upon either alone or "regional compacts" obligation to provide generated within their borders, contains three provisions setting forth "incentives" States comply that obligation. The first set incentives—the monetary incentives—works steps: (1) are authorized impose surcharge on received from States; (2) Secretary Energy collects portion this places it an escrow account; (3) achieving series milestones developing receive portions fund. second access incentives—authorizes sited regional compacts gradually increase cost sites, then deny altogether, do not meet federal deadlines. so-called third "incentive"—the take title provision—specifies State compact fails all internally by particular date must, request waste's generator owner, possession become liable damages suffered owner as result State's failure promptly possession. Petitioners, New York two its counties, filed suit against United seeking declaratory judgment that, inter alia, incentives inconsistent Tenth Amendment—which declares "powers delegated Constitution, nor prohibited reserved States"—and Guarantee Clause Article IV, § 4—which directs "guarantee every . Republican Form Government." District Court dismissed complaint, Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. Act's consistent Constitution's allocation power between Federal Governments, but provision is not. Pp. 155-183. (a) In ascertaining whether any challenged oversteps boundary state power, must determine affirmative grants contained I's Commerce Spending Clauses invades province sovereignty Amendment. 155-159. (b) Although regulation interstate market well Congress' authority, cf. Philadelphia Jersey, 437 617, 621-623, 98 2531, 2534-2535, 57 475 could, if wished, pre-empt entirely area, review Court's decisions, see, e.g., Hodel Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Assn., Inc., 452 264, 288, 101 2352, 2366, 69 1, history Constitutional Convention, demonstrates may commandeer States' legislative processes directly compelling them enact enforce regulatory program, exercise authority individuals. 159-166. (c) Nevertheless, there variety methods, short outright coercion, which urge adopt program interests. As relevant here, may, under spending attach conditions receipt funds, so long such four requirements. See, South Dakota Dole, 483 203, 206-208, n. 3, 107 2793, 2795-2797, 97 171. Moreover, where has regulate private activity Clause, part "cooperative federalism," offer choice regulating according standards having law pre-empted regulation. Hodel, supra, U.S., at 289, S.Ct., 2367. 166-169. (d) This declines petitioners' invitation construe obligating dispose wastes separate mandate instructions. That would upset usual constitutional balance powers, whereas problem avoided construing whole comprise sets States. 169-170. (e) thus authorization surcharges unexceptionable enable burden commerce. Secretary's collection percentage no more than tax commerce, petitioners claim be invalid commerce taxing power. Finally, conditioning funds specified milestones, exceeded respects identified 207-208, 2796. Petitioners' objection form expenditures nonfederal unavailing, since never been construed deprive collect money segregated trust fund spend purpose, ability largely control they will pay into account share was expressly provided method encouraging plan. 171-173. (f) constitute conditional along lines approved intrude Amendment sovereignty. These present nonsited waste-producing residents denied sites. They compelled regulate, expend participate continue own way accede direction. 173-174. (g) Because offers "choice" unconstitutionally coercive alternatives—either accepting ownership instructions—the lies outside enumerated powers On one hand, forcing transfer generators requiring generators' "commandeer" service purposes. pursuant direction simple unconstitutional command implement legislation Congress. Thus, all. 174-177. (h) alternative arguments purporting find limited circumstances congressional compulsion constitutionally permissible—that justified interest sufficiently important; Constitution does, some circumstances, permit directives governments; endows arbitrate disputes commerce—are rejected. 177-180. (i) Also rejected respondents' argument cannot ruled infringement because officials lent support, consented, passage. A departure plan intergovernmental ratified "consent" officials, protects benefit individuals, governments, officials' interests coincide allocation. Nor does York's prior support estop asserting unconstitutionality. 180-183. (j) Even assuming provides basis subdivisions sue enjoin enforcement statute, have made out Clause. Neither threat loss possibility producers themselves excluded can reasonably said republican government. 183-186. 2. severable rest Act, severance prevent operation defeat purpose attain local self-sufficiency disposal; still includes encourage road; whose unable gain out-of-state encounter considerable internal pressure disposal, even without prospect taking title; caused secure site borne need accept after final transition period. 186-187. 942 F.2d 114 (CA5 1991), affirmed reversed part. O'CONNOR, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, JJ., joined, Parts III-A III-B WHITE, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, joined. concurring dissenting part, BLACKMUN Peter H. Schiff, Albany, N.Y., petitioners. Lawrence G. Wallace, Washington, D.C., respondent. William B. Collins, Buffalo, respondents. Justice O'CONNOR Court. 1 case implicates our Nation's newest problems public policy perhaps oldest question law. issue involves waste: case, we address constitutionality Pub.L. 99-240, 99 Stat. 1842, 42 U.S.C. 2021b seq. old Constitution: It consists discerning proper division Government We conclude while substantial confer simply compel so. therefore only Government. 2 * live world full waste. material luminous watch dials, smoke alarms, measurement devices, medical fluids, research materials, protective gear construction materials used workers nuclear plants. Low Government, hospitals, institutions, various industries. isolated humans periods time, often hundreds years. Millions cubic feet disposed each year. See App. 110a-111a; Berkovitz, Wars: Did "Nuke" Sovereignty 1985?, 11 Harv.Envtl.L.Rev. 437, 439-440 (1987). 3 Our land commercial opened 1962 Beatty, Nevada. Five following decade: Maxey Flats, Kentucky (1963), West Valley, Hanford, Washington (1965), Sheffield, Illinois (1967), Barnwell, Carolina (1971). Between 1975 1978, closed full, water management closure York. result, 1979 sites—those Nevada, Carolina—have operation. country shipped these disposal. Regulation 39-40 (M. Burns ed. 1988). 4 1979, both Nevada were forced shut down temporarily, leaving shoulder responsibility storing produced country. Governor Carolina, understandably perturbed, ordered 50% reduction quantity accepted Barnwell site. Governors announced plans permanently. 142a, 152a. 5 Nation left waste, responded enacting 96-573, 94 3347. Relying report submitted National Governors' Association, see 105a-141a, declared holding "responsible providing availability capacity low-level borders," found could "most safely efficiently basis." 4(a)(1), 3348. 1980 enter once Congress, beginning 1986 restrict use facilities member 4(a)(2)(B), included penalties failed 6 By had operational facilities; surprisingly, formed around year, given exclude nonmembers, remaining assured outlet With looming, again took up 1985. 7 1985 based proposal Association. broad outline, embodies compromise unsited agreed extend seven years period exchange, end reliance 8 mechanics intricate. directs: "Each shall responsible providing, itself cooperation State," 2021c(a)(1)(A), exception certain §§ 2021c(a)(1)(B), 2021c(b). authorizes "enter [interstate] necessary establishment waste." 2021d(a)(2). For additional beyond contemplated through 1992, existing "shall make available source," exceptions here. 2021e(a)(2). But located permitted exact graduated arriving compact—in 1986-1987, $10 per foot; 1988-1989, $20 1990-1992, $40 foot. 2021e(d)(1). After seven-year expires, region. 2021d(c). 9 types statutory borders. 10 Monetary incentives. One quarter collected transferred held Energy. 2021e(d)(2)(A). makes payments complied July 1986, joining indicating intent develop facility State. 2021e(e)(1)(A), 2021e(d)(2)(B)(i). January 1988, located, stand-alone developed siting taken steps. 2021e(e)(1)(B), 2021e(d)(2)(B)(ii). 1990, complete application license operate facility, certified capable disposing 2021e(e)(1)(C), 2021e(d)(2)(B)(iii). paid those able borders 1993. 2021e(d)(2)(B)(iv). Each met 1993 deadline forfeit incentive received. 2021e(d)(2)(C). Access type denial fail charged twice ordinary remainder thereafter. 2021e(e)(2)(A). 1988 double half quadruple 2021e(e)(2)(B). 1990 access. 2021e(e)(2)(C). applications belonging applications, triple surcharges. 2021e(e)(1)(D), 2021e(e)(2)(D). 12 3. provision. most severe. provides: 13 "If (or, applicable, region) region 1996, generated, obligated indirectly incurred consequence soon notifies shipment." 14 focus challenge. 15 effect, nine compacts, encompassing All six unaffiliated milestones. Brief 10, 19; id., 13, 25. 16 York, generate relatively large did join compact. Instead, requirements financing five potential Allegany County Cortland County. Residents counties oppose location. 29a-30a, 66a-68a. 17 Petitioners—the counties—filed 1990. sought Eleventh Due Process Fifth Amendment, IV Constitution. intervened defendants. complaint. 757 F.Supp. (NDNY 1990). (CA2 1991). Petitioners abandoned claims appellate ladder; stands before us, II A. 18 1788, course explaining citizens why recently drafted courts, Alexander Hamilton observed: "The erection new government, whatever care wisdom distinguish work, originate questions intricacy nicety; manner, expected flow constitution founded total partial incorporation number distinct sovereignties." Federalist No. 82, p. 491 (C. Rossiter 1961). Hamilton's prediction proved quite accurate. While proposition "[t]he created powers," Gregory Ashcroft, 501 ----, 111 2395, 2399, 115 410 (1991); explicit respectively, people"; task line rise many difficult celebrated cases. At least far back Martin Hunter's Lessee, Wheat. 304, 324, L.Ed. (1816), resolved "of great importance delicacy" determining sovereign granted retained 19 viewed ways. cases inquired I Perez 402 146, 91 1357, 28 686 (1971); McCulloch Maryland, 316, 579 (1819). Garcia San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Au- thority, 469 528, 105 1005, 83 1016 (1985); Lane Oregon, Wall. 71, (1869). like one, involving inquiries mirror images other. If disclaims reservation attribute necessarily conferred 366 643, 649, 81 1278, 1281, 575 (1961); Case Bowles, 327 92, 102, 66 438, 443, 90 552 (1946); Oklahoma ex rel. Phillips Guy F. Atkinson Co., 313 508, 534, 61 1050, 1063, 85 1487 (1941). 20 sense "states truism surrendered." Darby, 312 100, 124, 451, 462, 609 Story put it, "[t]his amendment mere affirmation what, just reasoning, rule interpreting constitution. Being instrument follows irresistibly, what conferred, withheld, belongs authorities." J. Story, Commentaries 752 (1833). understanding: unquestionably retai[n] significant measure extent divested original Authority, 549, 1017 (internal quotation marks omitted). 21 exercises subject limitations example, publishers engaged constrained First likewise restrains limit derived text itself, discussed, essentially tautology. confirms limits instance, reserve us determine, incident protected limitation 22 benefits structure extensively catalogued elsewhere, ---- - 410; Merritt, Autonomy: Federalism Third Century, 88 Colum.L.Rev. 3-10 (1988); McConnell, Federalism: Evaluating Founders' Design, 54 U.Chi.L.Rev. 1484, 1491-1511 (1987), concern same prove federalism secured advantages anyone. devising preferred system understanding applying framework ought fact people." Butler, 297 63, 56 312, 318, 80 477 (1936). 23 flexible over past centuries allow enormous changes nature undertakes activities today unimaginable Framers senses; first, conceived government conduct activities; second, believed rather assume responsibilities. Yet phrased language enough expansion Government's role. Among particularly important regard, 24 First, allocates "[t]o several States." Art. I, 8, cl. Interstate established feature life late 18th century. 42, 267 1961) ("The defect Confederacy members [has] clearly pointed experience"). volume range commonly objects have, however, expanded considerably last 200 years, them. ubiquitous, considered purely come effects national economy, accordingly scope Katzenbach McClung, 379 294, 377, 290 (1964); Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 63 87 122 (1942). 25 Second, "to Debts general Welfare conventional notions changed "fix terms disburse Pennhurst School Hospital Halderman, 451 17, 1531, 1539, 67 694 (1981). Compare, 72-75, 322-323 (spending authorize subsidize farmers), 171 (1987) permits condition highway adoption minimum drinking age). "subject restrictions articulated cases," 207, 2796, severe generally keeping growth budget. 26 guided, respect generally, Necessary Proper Laws carrying Execution foregoing Powers." Const., I., 18. Legal Tender (Juilliard Greenman), 110 421, 449-450, 122, 131, 204 (1884); Wheat., 411-421. 27 "the supreme Law Land Thing Contrary notwithstanding." VI, willingness confines grown, correspondingly diminished policies conflicted. Shaw Delta Air Lines, 463 85, 103 2890, 77 490 (1983). observed Supremacy gives "a decided advantage th[e] delicate balance" strikes 2400. actual therefore, underlying limiting end, cup empty difference views core Either way, authority. B 29 contend lacks Space frequently sold another. resulting Cf. (1978); Fort Gratiot Sanitary Landfill, Inc. Michigan Dept. Natural Resources, 504 2019, 2023, 119 139 (1992). dispute chosen. Rather addressing disposers argue, impermissibly directed field. 30 Most recent concerned governments applicable laws. jurisprudence area traveled unsteady path. Maryland Wirtz, 392 183, 2017, 1020 (1968) (state schools hospitals Fair Labor Standards Act); League Cities Usery, 426 833, 96 2465, 49 245 (1976) (overruling Wirtz ) employers (1985) Act). also 326 572, 310, Fry 421 542, 95 1792, 44 363 (1975); Transportation Union Long Island R. 455 678, 102 1349, 71 547 (1982); EEOC Wyoming, 460 226, 1054, 75 (1983); Baker, 485 505, 108 1355, 592 (1991). presents occasion apply revisit holdings cases, subjected parties. FERC Mississippi, 456 742, 758-759, 2126, 2137, 72 532 (1982). instead concerns implements regulation; is, direct otherwise motivate field way. few principles guide resolution issue. 32 initial matter, "commandee[r] program." upheld Control 1977 precisely mining. steep-slope standards, manner whatsoever. wish submit proposed permanent complies implementing regulations, Ibid. 33 reached conclusion year supra. Public Utility Regulatory Policies statute ways programs combat energy crisis. "this sanctioned explicitly promulgate laws regulations." Id., 761-762, 2139. view command. emphasized: "Titles III [the 1978 (PURPA) ] require consideration standards. And utilities commission, stops field, entertain proposals." 764, 2140 (emphasis original). "[t]here [wa]s nothing PURPA 'directly compelling' program," 765, 2141 (quoting 2366). 513, 1361 (noting might behalf interests"); 556, (same). 34 statements innovations. govern directly, including areas intimate understood Coyle Oklahoma, 221 559, 565, 688, 689, 55 853 (1911). about distinction. "Both existed people, instrument, perfect union substituting acting, ample citizens, Confederate acted greatly restricted, Wall., 76 added). point rhetorical flourish, although less precision, occasions. Chief Chase's much-quoted words, preservation maintenance much design provisions, looks indestructible Union, composed Texas White, 700, 725, 227 Metcalf Eddy Mitchell, 269 514, 523, 46 172, 174, 70 384 (1926) ("neither destroy curtail powers"); Tafflin Levitt, 493 455, 458, 792, 795, 887 (1990) ("under system, possess concurrent Government"); 2401 ("the retain scheme, readily interfere"). 35 Indeed, should employ agencies topic lively debate Framers. Under Articles Confederation, lacked people directly. practice, "could legislate individuals; 'legislative' 'governmental' binding 'law' enforceable such." Amar, Of Federalism, Yale L.J. 1425, 1447 36 inadequacy governmental Convention. radical vice Confederation principle LEGISLATION GOVERNMENTS, CORPORATE COLLECTIVE CAPACITIES, contra-distinguished INDIVIDUALS whom consist." 15, saw "we resolve incorporate ingredients forming characteristic league government; persons citizens—the government." 109. "must carry agency citizens. stand intermediate legislations. State, immediately hopes fears individuals." 16, 116. 37 Convention proposals quickly center stage. Plan, introduced Edmund Randolph, employing intermediaries. Records 1787, Farrand 1911). Jersey Paterson, approval legislating, Confederation. 243-244. underwent revisions progressed, remained primary options discussed delegates. expressed Plan coerce legislation. Randolph explained distinction, true adhere [i.e., Plan], introduce insufficiency former fully displayed. There modes, Gen[eral] Gov[ernment] attained: 1st coercion Mr. P[aterson's] plan[, 2nd] real prop[osed] Coercion [is] impracticable, expensive, cruel resort Legislation 255-256 Madison echoed view: practicability making laws, sanctions, political bodies, exploded hands." 9. 38 preliminary draft occupy position relative similar case: "[T]he ought, common carried execution judiciary executive officers respective states, wherein thereof required." 616. idea apparently progressed debated delegates, contemporary accounts mention discussion. delegates' descriptions Plans speak derive individuals 260-280. 39 opted reasons, favor Plan. 313. clear subsequent ratifying conventions. Oliver Ellsworth, Connecticut delegation Philadelphia, distinction his convention: "This attempt capacity. legal singles individual." Elliot, Debates 197 (2d 1863). Charles Pinckney, another delegate emphasized House Representatives necessity indispensable present." 256. Rufus King, Massachusetts' returned home ratification recalling Commonwealth's unhappy experience arguing: "Laws, effective, laid 56. convention, (another Philadelphia) exclaimed: "But believe ever suffer coercion? thing dream; impossible. Then brought dilemma—either standing army requisitions, treasury supplies, support. What, sir, cure evil? Nothing, states do." 233. North Carolina's Samuel Spencer recognized "all capacities, now different. 153. 40 stronger central chose confers seen, consistently respected choice. always pass prohibiting acts, prohibit acts. E.g., 762-766, 2138-2141; 288-289, 2366; 76. directly; governments' 41 say hold influencing choices. Two methods relevance "Congress funds." 206, 2795. Such (among requirements) bear relationship spending, 3; otherwise, course, render academic Where recipient unusual today, attached influence Kaden, Politics, Money, Sovereignty: Judicial Role, 79 847, 874-881 (1979). Dole flaw directing withhold failing age. Similar examples abound. Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 478-480, 100 2758, 2775, 65 902 (1980); Massachusetts 435 444, 461-462, 1153, 1164, 403 Lau Nichols, 414 563, 568-569, 786, 789, (1974); Civil Service Comm'n, 330 127, 142-144, 544, 553-554, 794 (1947). 43 2366. 764-765, 2140. arrangement, termed cooperative replicated numerous schemes. include Clean Water 86 816, amended, 1251 seq., Arkansas 503 1046, 117 239 (1992) (Clean "anticipates partnership animated shared objective"); Occupational Safety Health 1970, 84 1590, 651 Gade Solid Wastes Management --- 2374, (1992); Resource Conservation Recovery 1976, 6901 Ohio, 1627, 1632, 118 255 Alaska Interest Lands 3101 Kenaitze Indian Tribe Alaska, 860 314 (CA9 1988), cert. denied, 905, 109 3187, 695 (1989). permissible conform choices, ultimate decision comply. contrary interests, elect decline grant. prefer devote attention resources deemed choose expense federally mandated supplement preempted. encourages remain responsive electorate's preferences; accountable people. 45 contrast, compels accountability diminished. consider best interest, who view. preempted view, public, consequences turns detrimental unpopular. brunt disapproval, devised insulated electoral ramifications decision. Accountability when, due elected accordance electorate matters Colum.L.Rev., 61-62; La Pierre, Political Process—The Alternative Review Issues, Nw.U.L.Rev. 577, 639-665 (1985). mind, turn 47 parties advance different Act. requirement order "[e]ach 2021c(a)(1)(A). understand independent Respondents, read together incentives, affording According respondents, losing right Energy's progressively Respondents interpret despite statute's word "shall," option eschew. 48 plausibly 2021c(a)(1)(A) reject interpretation reasons. outcome would, least, "upset powers." 2401. "[I]t incumbent courts finding overrides balance," ibid. omitted), amenability equally plausible prevents possessing certainty. "where acceptable raise serious problems, avoid unless plainly Congress." Edward DeBartolo Corp. Florida Gulf Coast Building Construction Trades Council, 568, 575, 1392, 1397, 645 (1988). pushes away isolation, Construed whole, comprises turn. 50 works account. Third, 51 steps discriminate Wyoming 502 800, Cooley Board Wardens Port How. 299, 996 (1851), lifted, expression "unambiguous intent" 802; Prudential Ins. Co. Benjamin, 328 408, 427-431, 1142, 1153-1156, 1342 (1946). Whether transport absence approval, 52 step, surcharge, Sanchez, 340 44-45, 108, 110, (1950); Steward Machine Davis, 301 548, 581-583, 883, 888-889, 1279 (1937). 53 step Clause: placed conditions—the achievement milestones—on funds. identified. expenditure welfare, Helvering 619, 640-641, 904, 908, 1307 (1937); required assuring safe 2021e(d)(2)(E). imposed unambiguous, 1540; informs exactly when obtain related expenditure, 461, 1164; embody efforts pressing violate prohibition. Lead-Deadwood Dist., 256, 269-270, 695, 702-703, 635 nevertheless removes emphasize instruction "deposit special deposited property argue redisbursed kept treasury, holds trustee, share, "in calls Reply Petitioner 6. grant "pay Welfare" never, thought accounting. deal comes spent purpose. (Highway Trust Fund); 401(a) (Federal Old-Age Survivors Insurance 401(b) Disability 1395t Supplementary Medical Fund). manner. regarding account's income disbursements ignores specifically federal; indeed, location inherent element conditioned attainment Clauses. supported regulation, Northeast Bancorp, Governors, Fed. Reserve System, 472 159, 174-175, 2545, 2554, 58 presented incentives: attaining self-sufficiency, produce authorizing regions affected refusal fall sovereign. issues deem worthy; remains times participation worthwhile. abandon direction; generation fit. 59 represents C 60 character. "incentive" direction, becoming promptly. provision, crossed distinguishing encouragement coercion. initially suggestion effect until challenge thereto unripe. takes agree action provision's consequences, party suggests ceased producing 1996. ripe review. Pacific Gas Elec. Resources Development 461 190, 201, 1713, 1721, Regional Rail Reorganization Cases, 419 144-145, 335, 359, 320 (1974). 62 instructions freestanding requirement. governments. transfer, alone, congressionally subsidy producers. damages. Standing indistinguishable liabilities residents. purposes, reason governments—regulating direction—would, empower instruction. two. Unlike represent exercising power; threat, instruction, techniques commandeers lie 64 latitude enables contracting building compact, permitting build host wide designs limits. underscores critical lacks: administer program. No matter path chooses, follow appears unique. cited lying infringing objections proposes separating concedes purports domain 68 argues prohibition overcome justify submission. kernel truth: stated evaluate strength light degree functioning sovereign; impede government's 242, 17; 684, 9, 1354; 853, 2475. departed approach. 512-513, 1361; 556-557, 1020. strong bring orbit Member suggested how powerful involved, give regulate. cause legislate, conscript agents. Various proposition, none it. Some discuss courts. Testa Katt, 386, 810, 967 (1947); Palmore 411 389, 402, 93 1670, 1678, 342 (1973); Mondou N.H. H.R. 223 57, 169, 178, (1912); Claflin Houseman, 130, 136-137 (1876). involve Clause's Land," More point, statutes do, sense, judges them, sort "direction" comparable legislatures legislate. Additional Puerto Rico Branstad, 219, 228, 2802, 2808, 187 (1987); Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel 443 658, 3055, 3079, 823 (1979); City Milwaukee, 406 91, 106-108, 92 1385, 1394-1395, 712 (1972); Cooper Aaron, 358 18-19, 78 1401, 1410, (1958); Brown Ed., 349 300, 753, 756, 1083 (1955); Ex parte Young, 209 123, 155-156, 441, 452, 714 (1908). Again, "judicial Power" Equity, arising [and] .; Controversies Citizens State." III, analogous paramount positions officials; presupposes 227-228, 2808 Dennison, 66, 717 (1861)). sum, relied law, propositions means imply amici, envisions role arbiter disputes. observes particular, conflicts Many involved category encompass scarce space Colorado Mexico, 459 176, 539, 74 348 Arizona California, 373 546, 1468, 542 (1963). disputes, surely quotations contemporaneous documents, demonstrate legislature resolving trade Rocky Mountain Compact Amici Curiae 16. 73 doubt endowed further instances intend mechanism mandating superintending reciprocal trade" 268 1961), empowering trade-related orders explained, sovereigns, communities, contradistinguished solecism theory, practice subversive ends civil polity." 20, 138. respondents process formulated. correctly observe representing enactment. Deputy Commissioner Office testified Legislation: Hearings 862, 1083, 1267 Subcommittee Environment Comm. Interior Insular Affairs, 99th Cong., Sess. 97-98, 190-199 (testimony Guinn). Senator Moynihan spoke floor Senate. 131 Cong.Rec. 38423 note bargain willing participant reaped benefit. pose troubling question: How consented enactment? answer fundamental served structure. protect abstract entities, governing To contrary, divides protection itself: "Rather, secures liberties diffusion power." Coleman Thompson, 722, 759, 2546, 2570, 640 (1991) (BLACKMUN, dissenting). "Just separation independence coordinate Branches serves accumulation excessive Branch, healthy reduce risk tyranny abuse front." 2400 51, 323. exceeds officials. An analogy clarifies point. violated Branch territory another, encroached-upon approves encroachment. Buckley Valeo, 424 118-137, 612, 682-691, 659 (1976), infringed President's appointment President himself manifested consent signing 842, 12, 2469 12. INS Chadha, 462 919, 944-959, 2764, 2780-2788, (1983), veto President, Presidents' containing 944-945, 2781. unit thereby narrowed, Executive enlargement facts lead departures personal recognize want near homes. be, likely individual official being voters faced alternatives choosing latter, shifting eventual alternatives—choosing location—the avoidance responsibility. purport hardly advanced. joined Any estoppel implications membership Dyer Sims, 341 22, 35-36, 557, 564, 713 (1951) (Jackson, concurring), legislation, elevate (or antecedent discussions representatives States) status agreement Holmes Jennison, Pet. 540, (1840) (plurality opinion). collaborated others challenging litigation. V 4. irreconcilable hence Amendment's applicability provisions. approach trepidation, infrequent litigation throughout history. asked nonjusticiable "political question" doctrine. Rome 446 156, 182, 1548, 1564, (1980) (challenge preclearance Voting Rights Baker Carr, 369 186, 218-229, 82 691, 710-716, 663 (1962) apportionment districts); Tel. 118, 140-151, 224, 227-231, 377 (1912) initiative referendum constitution). origin Luther Borden, 581 (1849), decide, wake Dorr's Rebellion, rival legitimate Rhode Island. "it rests Congress," judiciary, decide 42. Over century, metamorphosed sweeping assertion "[v]iolation guaranty courts." Colegrove Green, 1198, 1201, 1432 (1946) accepted. group elevated nonjusticiability, addressed merits justiciable. Kies Lowrey, 199 233, 239, 27, 29, 167 (1905); Forsyth Hammond, 166 506, 519, 665, 670, 1095 (1897); re Duncan, 449, 573, 219 (1891); Minor Happersett, 162, 175-176, 627 (1875). Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 563-564, 1138, 1148, 256 (1896) (Harlan, dissenting) (racial segregation "inconsistent guarantee government"). recently, questions. Reynolds 533, 582, 1362, 506 (1964) ("some raised nonjusticiable"). Contemporary commentators claims, circumstances. L. Tribe, American 398 1988); Ely, Democracy Distrust: Theory n., 122-123 W. Wiecek, 287-289, 300 70-78; Bonfield, Section 4: Study Desuetude, Minn.L.Rev. 560-565 (1962). today. justiciable, neither forms grown commonplace. each, issuing unavoidable agendas; electorate. twin threats Act—that miss generating lose outlets—do realistic altering Thus indulging assumption case. VI Having determined standard severability established: Unless evident Legislature independently not, dropped operative law." Airlines, Brock, 480 1476, 1480, 661 statement severable, "[i]n clause, silence that—silence—and presumption severability." 686, 1481. Common scheme obvious operating achieve invalidation ordinarily overall frustrated. observed, presumed legislating sake imposing penalties, aid main statute. fail, body force, force enactment." Reagan Farmers' Loan 154 362, 396, 1047, 1014 (1894). Jackson, 390 570, 585-586, 1209, 1218, 138 (1968). apparent severed doing violence objective coax road. title. defeated leave force. VII truths basic air easily overlooked. Much traditionally invalidated measures deviating form. appear "formalistic" partisans issue, typically product era's perceived necessity. intentions: sovereigns branches resist temptation concentrate expedient solution crisis day. problem, licensed extra-constitutional gravity run, worse. 89 offices administrative occupied nowhere detailed organizational chart. "leaves residuary inviolable sovereignty," 39, Whatever outer clear: chosen Affirmed STEVENS join, affirms facets (1985 Act), storage rebated compliance deadlines in-state 2021e(d)(2)(A) 2021e(d)(2)(B)(iv), "access incentives," management. 2021e(e)(2). severs component "take title" requires noncomplying liability deems federalism. mischaracterized essential inquiry, misanalyzed inquiry undertake, undervalued seriousness III-B, respectfully dissent reversing Appeals. My disagreement analysis begins descriptive came enacted. goes toward bare facts, omissions cast context wrong light. version events, ante, 2-3, think sole proponent problem. Not (1980 3347, amendatory resulted leaders state-based remedies pre-emption intervention, sanction compromises reached. signal events precipitated movement temporary closing transportation-related incidents, shutting transportation packaging October 1979. time approximately three-quarters percent amount plant Association Task Force Disposal, Waste: Program Action (Nov. 1980) (hereinafter Action). threatened 1982 "some meaningful progress occurs toward" development solutions 4, Only "sited" confronted undesirable continuing dumping grounds entire eliminating reducing imminence overstated. December convened eight-member Status Compacts Disposal Hearing Senate Committee Judiciary, 98th Sess., May 1980, Planning Council unanimous recommendation Carter: nondefense boundaries necessary, responsibility." 126 20135 (1980). adopted months later. 6-7; H.R.Rep. 99-314, pt. 2, assert preeminence requested oversee state-developed solutions. Accordingly, urged "each borders" pursue problem." went further, recommending establish sites" "[s]uch site." 7. urging add comply, anticipated eventually ensure long-range planning "recommend[ed] defer sanctions enactment already confronting diminishing unequivocal warning states' Governors. two-year effectively, exist, necessary. confine removing obstacles reasonable chance solve themselves." 8-9. mooted "federal" solution, 1980. S. 2189, 96th 2d S.Rep. 96-548 (detailing calling study, oversight, waste). opposed Senators, recommendations Management. 20136 (statement Sen. Thurmond). "state-based" day, enacted, "policy borders." waste," 4(a)(2)(A), consent. 4(a)(2)(B). described attempts sparked round squabbling formed, counterparts insisted promises honored. Federation Industrial Organizations Amicus 12-14. effort keep forefront process, organized dozen meetings consensus. Brown, Handbook: User's Guide iv 1986) (describing desire Act"). merely academic. grew increasingly justifiably frustrated seeming inaction meeting projected actions called approached, "drop-dead" date, begin excluding entry out-of-region 35203 Since plants very danger actually solely regions. arose exchange imposition assurances alternate facilities. Representative Derrick "gives establishes firm timetable [to] agreement." 35207. Markey added became amendments drafting amendments, concessions sides arrive bill accept." 35205. "represent[ed] diligent negotiating undertaken by" "embodied" "fundamentals settlement." 35204 Rep. Udall). federalism, bargained sanction. 104 resummarize essentials 151-154. seem accurately amicus brief Acts reflected hard-fought agreements refereed key, properly characterize ultimately affects constitutionality. contravenes posits coercion." Ante, 175. Without attempting place bargaining isolates analytically proceeds dissect syllogistic fashion. candidly make: "that governments." "Such transfer," continues, "standing producers." make, naturally wonders builds opening premise. carefully built straw man, impressively knock him down. "As seen," teaches, instruction." 176. 106 Curiously absent discussion Part suggests, backdrop Clauses, unanimously assented acceded. 35252 38425. Members reveal, 193-194, wished implemented insure adherence goals.1 chief executives approach, am unmoved vehemence recalcitrant concessions. my fairly indicate embodied meaning "[n]o shall, Consent Agreement States—including York—worked petition Acts. attempted demonstrate, products collective action, impositions requisites key respects, signifying assent achieved codified 4(a)(2), 3348, entered negotiations northeastern withdrawing "go alone." approached lawsuit, "New supports Udall current impasse Congressional LLRW interim participating commissions refine recommended HR reach consensus groups." Guinn) Based "other [not] indefinitely adequate York," N.Y.Laws, ch. 673, comported proviso facility. 2021e(e)(1)(A). identify plan, contract region's Counties, opposition reconsider locate Environmental Restoration Management, Energy, Report Response 99-240: Annual Progress 32-35 (lodged Clerk Court). undertaking honor continued import concession exporting 7-year extension gaining complying deadlines, evidenced acceptance federal-state arrangement—including unlike compose formalized statutes, signify "agreement" purposes 540 (1840), Taney 'agreement,' express stipulation; writing. verbal assented, 'agreement.' terms, 'treaty,' 'compact,' show intention framers broadest comprehensive terms; execute intention, 'agreement' extended signification; agreement, written verbal, formal informal, positive implied, mutual parties." 572. elaborate estopped unconstitutionality seeks deriving establishing act. (1951), concurring: "West induced sister her Compact. She herself Estoppel invoked assumed contractual equals permission alter bind covenant, repudiating ." (Emphasis added.) constitutionality, convinced seen term proves odious opines. practical unwilling obligations Otherwise, economically socially-beneficial cease operations. inevitably impinged forced, health acting referee bullying utterly crafting overburdened ratify punitive noncompliance. though onerous, lives arrangement contract. 113 say, incursion "cannot 'consent' officials," flatly wrong. Tennessee Missouri waived immunity suit. objection, attached." Petty Tennessee-Missouri Bridge 359 275, 281-282, 785, 790, 804 (1959) holding, aspect sovereignty—the immune suit—in formation waiver. reasoning behind selective distinctions aspects survive close future Hard choices sometimes measures, irremediable, misunderstands complex complain. announces decisions (1976); 160, sends welcome cut swath precedents, unpersuasive. difficulties respect: insupportable illogical alleged incursions sovereignty; derives analysis; appropriate tests base rule; omits pertinent test unsupported rested explain purported affect facilely thrown out, defensible theory. Certainly hard-pressed spirited exchanges Justices Cities, drawn seems "commands" specific applies diminution affairs restricts 116 logically sound, "anti-commandeering" persuasively springing (1981), 2138-2139, draw "commandeer[ing]" solitary dictum Hodel. 161: 'commandee[r] program.' " interfered dictate classic dicta. coal mine operators constitutional, "[i]t long-established precedent prohibits displacing police activity." 292, 2368. FERC, quotes passage 'this regulations.' 161 2138-2139). reciting, extracts subtly alters meaning. reads: "While EPA 431 99, 1635, (1977), structures decisionmakers refrain actions." (citing (1975) added).2 phrase highlighted "command" argued opinion, go saying on-point bearing exercised I. Silence anything. scarcely ostensibly validated constricted greater Fry, clear, precedents undertake actions. determinative move act way," "or 'coerc[e] affecting 'freedom "integral functions." ' 766, 2141. unconvinced actions, crucial threshold pre-emptible regulations involvement —and procedural minima tasks." 771, 2143 field—as 173-174—the assess intrusions "do threaten 'separate existence,' [19 101] (1869); 580 [31 853] (1911), impair 'to function effectively system.' 547, [95 1795, 7]; 852 [96 2474]," 765-766, 2144. score problems. certainly existence selectively falls persuasive. submit, connection, carve doctrinal especially unpersuasive Garcia. applicability—the Act—applied entities Just Term, wrote "[w]e state-federal (declining system)." 464, 2413, primarily intrusive 121 seek guidance Garcia, inquiry: "[W]e 'States result. substantive restraint justification limitation, tailored compensate possible failings 'sacred autonomy.' 554, 1019 236, 1060). addresses argument, 180-183, tacitly shown refuses rebut unassailable look culminated acknowledges "congressional participated Acts." Cert. rejects process-based resorting generalities platitudes rights. Ultimately, suppose, traced checks balances extremely distant me situation this. face proportions acceded wishes decisionmaking Washington. gubernatorial representative levels, timetables me, civics lecture decidedly hollow ring rhetoric, needed problem.3 123 Though disagree unconstitutional, preclude adopting quality rebate reveals, 171-172, payment monies withheld disbursed depending passed. ibid.; 208-209, (1978). 124 Similarly, appointed (under presently drafted, 2021e(d)(2)(C)), 174. amend 1996 indicates, pre-emptive self-regulation ratification, decisively latter. background suffice induce solving intervention strip authorities input locating refuse act, ensured 125 open create rights color functions designated programs. 1983 suits Wilder 496 498, 2510, (1990); Wright Roanoke Redevelopment Housing 479 418, 781 cautious spelling distinctly, Suter Artist M, 1360, (not ostensible too vague amorphous). addition compensating injured exposure potentially inducement mandate. irony formalistically rigid obeisance "federalism," fewer example managing grave import. country's autonomy invalidating designed upsets forces erect formalistic hurdles objective. justifications dissent. 127 notion incorrect unsound. Amendment1 I.2 values rule. realms. regulates state-operated railroads, school systems, prisons, elections, functions. war, soldiers supply quotas troops. disposition wastes. 128 controversies pollution-control crafted 'interstate law,' 106, 1394, (1972), waters. 1052-1053, contexts, hesitated "impose[d] duty conserve augment stream." 185, (1982) Colorado, 259 419, 552, 999 (1922)). upstate stream polluting waters downstream 129 relief provision.3 passed, nuisance harmed neighbors, offending remedial action. Milwaukee. 130 McClure objectives point; underscore Louisiana indicated—that staffs principals a[n] teeth points." 38415 majority's distinguishable Economic Stabilization wage salary alike. perfectly captures weakness pervasive intrusion salaries wages employees below minimum—than era adopted, majority bolster tantamount "commandeering" decades kind historical invocations anything window-dressing. announce flavor distinctly wooden quality. know reading account, relations fundamentally War. conflict tremendous law-making helped Republic roles itself. Deal era, Frankfurter Landis, Business Supreme 56-59 (1927); Hyman, Perfect Union: Impact War Reconstruction Corwin, Passing Dual Va.L.Rev. Power, 1863-1875, Am.J.Legal Hist. 333 (1969); Scheiber, "Industrial Policy" Development, 1790-1987, Calif.L.Rev. 415 Ackerman, Politics/Constitutional Law, 453 blind history, mentioned expansive legislature's 18th-century. Given scanty textual position, sensible branch devise kind. mandates Extradition post-Civil Amendments, Katzenbach, 383 301, 319-320, 334-335, 803, 814, 769 (1966), hear 392-394, 813-814, commands Arts. VIII, IX. indirect ineffective, empowered constituted Nothing Articles. enhanced, diminished, (1941), explained: surrendered. suggest allay granted, powers. Elliot's Debates, id. 450, 600; 140, 149; Annals 432, 761, 767-768; 1907-1908. "From depriving adapted end." 462; 155-157. 2021e(d)(2)(C) "invalidated" insofar compacting agreements, embraced effect. "granted [Act] [entities] [the] Act." Appalachian 100-319, 471. incorporated voluntary cooperation, "invalidation" "direc[t]" influenced provision:

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