Document: 502 U.S. 437 112 S.Ct. 789 117 L.Ed.2d 1 State of WYOMING, Plaintiffv.State OKLAHOMA. No. 112, Orig. Argued Nov. 4, 1991. Decided Jan. 22, 1992. Syllabus Wyoming, a major coal-producing State, does not sell coal, but impose severance tax on those who extract it. From 1981 to 1986, Wyoming provided virtually 100% the coal purchased by four Oklahoma electric utilities, including Grand River Dam Authority (GRDA), state agency. However, after Legislature passed an Act requiring coal-fired utilities burn mixture containing at least 10% Oklahoma-mined reduced their purchases in favor and Wyoming's revenues declined. sought leave file complaint under this Court's original jurisdiction, seeking declaration that violates Commerce Clause injunction permanently enjoining Act's enforcement. The motion was granted over Oklahoma's objections lacked standing bring action should otherwise be permitted invoke jurisdiction. subsequently filed dismiss, which raised same issues, also denied. After Special Master appointed, States cross-motions for summary judgment, with once again asserting appropriateness issues. Report recommending Court hold has sue, case is appropriate Clause. It recommended either dismiss suit as it relates GRDA without prejudice assert its claim forum, or, alternatively, find severable extent may constitutionally applied GRDA. Both have exceptions. Held: 1. standing. prior rulings "should subject general principles finality repose, absent changed circumstances or unforeseen issues previously litigated." Arizona v. California, 460 605, 619, 103 1382, 1391, 75 318. never suggested any change circumstances, recited facts, cited cases, constructed arguments each briefs. Moreover, submission satisfies test standing, since State's loss fairly can traced Act. See Maryland Louisiana, 451 725, 736, 101 2114, 2123, 68 576. Cases where been denied claiming declines due federal agency actions, see, e.g., Pennsylvania Kleppe, 533 F.2d 668, do involve direct injury form specific thus are analogous case. And type suffered cognizable action, directly linked coal's extraction sale demonstrably affected Hunt Washington Apple Advertising Comm'n, 432 333, 345, 97 2434, 2442, 53 383. A., T., & S.F.R. Co., 220 277, 287-289, 31 434, 436-437, 55 L.Ed. 465; Louisiana Texas, 176 1, 16-22, 20 251, 256-258, 44 347 distinguished. Pp. 446-450. 2. This exercise challenge "implicates serious important concerns federalism" accord purpose reach supra, 744, S.Ct., 2127. In addition, there no other forum interests will hearing full relief. There pending adjudication could deferred issue, mining companies themselves brought suit. Even if such were proceeding, would represented. 743, suggestion interest de minimis because attributable less than 1% total taxes collected rejected. natural resource great value primarily carried into use, derives significant revenue from interstate movement. practical effect must evaluated only considering consequences itself, what arise many every adopted similar legislation. Healy Beer Inst., Inc., 491 324, 336, 109 2491, 2499, 105 275. 450-454. 3. invalid discriminates against commerce advanced purposes justify discrimination. purports exclude mined based solely origin and, thus, both face effect. small volume measures discrimination relevant determining whether Additionally, justified terms local benefits unavailability nondiscriminatory alternatives adequate preserve interests. Its argument sustaining coal-mining industry lessens reliance single source delivered rail line foreclosed reasoning Baldwin G.A.F. Seelig, 294 511, 497, 79 1032, H.P. Hood Sons, Inc. Du Mond, 336 525, 69 657, 93 865. Also rejected contention restricting purchase cleaner now conserves future several hundred years current rates, argument, first time brief merits, supported record. Nor Federal Power saving clause—which reserves regulation retail rates—exempt scrutiny nothing legislative history evincing congressional intent approve violation seeks justify, decisions uniformly subjected cases implicating merits. See, New England Co. Hampshire, 455 331, 102 1096, 71 188. 454-459. 4. No portion entity touched mandate. proper decide necessary afford complete relief, cf. Dorchy Kansas, 264 286, 291, 323, 325, 686, therefore erred dismissed ground determination severability one law. finding, alternative, parts separate provisions section Act, applies "all entities" providing power. Thus, remains saved provision stricken, stand fall whole. evidence support legislature intended term include "the GRDA" "state-owned" utilities. 459-461. 5. Jurisdiction retained event further proceedings required implement judgment. P.461. Recommendations part; exceptions sustained rejected; judgment WHITE, J., opinion Court, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, SOUTER, JJ., joined. SCALIA, dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., THOMAS, Neal Leader, City, Okl., defendant. Mary B. Guthrie, Cheyenne, Wyo., plaintiff. Justice WHITE Court. On April 14, 1988, submitted jurisdiction Art. III, § 2, Constitution. challenged Okla.Stat., Tit. 45, §§ 939 939.1 (Supp.1988) (the Act),1 requires generating plants producing power coal. Clause, Const., I, 8, cl. 3, enforcement June 30, we bill event, 487 1231, 108 2893, 927. next August 29, raising these arguments. We October 31, ordered answer within 30 days. 488 921, 300, 320. thereafter appointed Master, 489 1063, 1334, 805 (1989), parties discovery stipulation uncontested affidavits believed necessary, short statement disputed material fact require hearing. complied, moved argued per se reasserted submitting well constitutional. 2 received 1990. 498 ----, 111 9. Based record before him, findings fact, object, conclusions law generally supporting rejecting More specifically, recommends hold, first, sue our jurisdiction; second, effect, Oklahoma, Oklahoma-owned utility utility. 3 Subsequently, requested enter stipulated decree adopting Master's law.2 If rule constitutionality however, preferred issue briefed argued, set down oral argument. 501 2822, 115 993 (1991). adopt exception, his 4 * salient gathered materials record, follows. 5 1988 shipped 19 States.3 While itself upon privilege severing extracting land boundaries. Wyo.Stat. 39-6-301 39-6-308 (1990 Supp.1991). assessed person company payable when extracted. valuation fair market value. extracted eight 6 Fortieth Legislature, session 1985, concurrent resolution "requesting using consider plans blend ten percent present use coal; effecting result keeping ratepayer dollars promoting economic development." Okla.S.Res. 21, 40th Leg., 1985 Okla.Sess.Laws 1694 (hereinafter Res. 21). recitals resolutions part stated: 7 "WHEREAS, save freight charges out-of-state Wyoming; 8 savings offset possible costs associated plant adjustments; 9 being used exclusively 10 ratepayers paying $300 million annually 11 1982 Ozark Council states $9 paid Wyoming. . 12 "NOW, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED .: 13 "THAT seriously continue meet air quality standards. 14 assure remaining enhancing economy Oklahoma." requirements Gas Electric Company, Public Service Company Western Farmers Cooperative, all privately owned, Oklahoma. None heeded precatory resolution. At second session, case, mandating minimum previous had requested. Fifteen months effective date facing substantially compliance utilities,4 directing GRDA, state-owned public utility, comply 82, 41st 1915.5 15 Charts out show percentages utility's Wyoming-mined annual basis through 1989. 7-8. Those charts reveal during 1984, sources. These decreased slightly, all, 1986 following adoption January 1987, 16 Unrebutted demonstrates that, lost amounts $535,886 $542,352 $87,130 1989.6 estimates equivalence BTU (British Thermal Unit) ratings, accounting hotter-burning propensities coal.7 Other unrebutted submissions confirm excess capacity, cannot made up sales elsewhere, supply already risen demand.8 II 17 excepts recommendation reject respect. Having objection having want inclined juncture. Although reluctant import wholesale law-of-the-case 618-619, 1391-1392, 318 (1983), Id., 1391. Here, way suggests circumstance, Of course, surely accede request late date, convinced, not, clearly wrong accepting hesitate depart rulings. 18 Article United Constitution provides "in shall Party." Congress seen fit designate "shall exclusive controversies between two more States." 28 U.S.C. 1251(a). "In order constitute 'controversy' 'it appear complaining furnishing judicial redress, right susceptible according accepted common equity systems jurisprudence.' " 735-736, 2123-2124, 576 (1981) (quoting Massachusetts Missouri, 308 15, 60 39, 42, 84 (1939)); see York Illinois, 274 488, 490, 47 661, 1164 (1927). quite sure test. agree conclusion, arrived consideration facts action. observed: "The statute deprive revenues. undisputed percentage purchases, decline came when, response began purchasing absence sold producer 'fairly traced' Simon Eastern Kentucky Welfare Rights Organization, 426 26, 41-42, 96 1917, 1925-1926, 48 450 (1976))." 11.9 21 recognized Courts Appeals actions taken Government agencies injured thereby caused 174 U.S.App.D.C. 441, cert. denied, 429 977, 485, 50 584 (1976); Iowa ex rel. Miller Block, 771 (CA8 1985), 478 1012, 106 3313, 92 725 (1986). He concluded, none them involved revenues—an here. n. 6, supra. view, conclusion about sound. 22 argues engaged affected, consumer, authorities relied 465 (1911), (1900), helpful, they claims parens patriae rather allegations itself. 383 (1977). Hunt, Commission declare violative North Carolina apples closed containers identified grade applicable designation graded. statutory designed promotion protection apple composed growers dealers chosen electoral districts fellow dealers, whom mandatory assessments financed Commission's operations. officials named vigorously contested own behalf represented, arguing "personal stake" litigation because, agency, "not production shipment Carolina." 341, 2440. addressing analogues associational turned injury: 23 "Finally, note adversely outcome litigation. tied grown packaged 'Washington Apples.' results contraction prevents expansion might occur, reduce amount activities. financial nexus constituents coalesces factors noted above 'assure concrete adverseness sharpens presentation court so largely depends illumination difficult constitutional questions.' Baker Carr, [369 186, 204, 82 691, 703, 663 (1962) ]; NAACP Alabama Patterson, 357 449, 459-460 [78 1163, 1170-1171, 1488] (1958)." 2442. 24 That allowed proceed necessarily supports 25 Over objection, repeated here, concluded agree, obviously shared thought granting instance. observed exercised "sparingly," U.S., 739, 2125; Nevada, 412 534, 538, 2763, 2765, 37 132 (1973), discretion even exclusive. As stated long ago: 26 recent years, consistently interpreted 1251(a) us substantial make case-by-case judgments necessity particular disputes 743 [101 2127, 576] (1981); Ohio Wyandotte Chemicals Corp., 401 493, 499 [91 1005, 1010, 256] (1971). eye most functioning overall system." Texas Mexico, 462 554, 570, 2558, 2568, 77 (1983). 27 Specifically, imposed prudential equitable limitations said: "We construe 1251(a)(1), honor obligatory cases. question concerns, seriousness dignity claim; yet beyond involves availability another parties, tendered litigated, relief had." Illinois City Milwaukee, 406 91, 93, 1385, 1387, 712 (1972); California 457 164, 168, 2335, 2337, 72 755 (1982). peradventure sufficient "seriousness dignity." acting sovereign affects ability collect revenues, undertaken capacity. such, precisely federalism fully jurisdiction." Indeed, found "waste" validity "first-use tax" served, gas areas belonging people large, detriment whose consumers passed. Ibid. here substantial, touches patriae. 29 makes much challenge, private aggrieved often do. But For reasons unknown, neither intervene nor own, court.10 exists defer issue. 98, 108, 1390, 1395; General Motors 109, 114, 1396, 1398, 727 (1972). 2127; 425 794, 1845, 376 (1976). brings unconstitutional. States. entertain assurances, notably points requirement, reflected controlling explained above, "[b]efore extraordinary control conduct another, threatened invasion rights magnitude established clear convincing evidence." Jersey, 256 296, 309, 41 492, 496, 65 937 (1921); Connecticut Massachusetts, 282 660, 669, 51 289, 602 (1931); Missouri 200 521, 268, 270, 572 (1906). reason collected. Affidavit Richard J. Marble (attached Exh. B Appendix Motion Summary Judgment). invitation key controversy.11 is, different situation faced West Virginia, 262 553, 43 658, 67 1117 (1923). When Virginia keep borders, presented rose level suitable jurisdiction: one; others may, exported consumption Besides, done product others, earth yields products used." 596, 665. 32 "[T]he [Oklahoma's] how interact legitimate regulatory regimes one, every, legislation." 275 (1989). 33 Because nature claim, involving Accordingly, accept Report. III 34 ultimate 35 "[t]he [t]o regulate among ." long-established while literal reading evinces grant Congress, limits discriminate commerce. Energy Indiana Limbach, 486 269, 273, 1803, 1807, 100 302 (1988) (citing Hughes 441 322, 326, 99 1727, 1731, 250 (1979); 534-535, 663, 865 (1949); Welton 91 275, (1876)). "This 'negative' aspect prohibits protectionism benefit in-state burdening competitors." 273-274, 1807; Bacchus Imports, Ltd. Dias, 468 263, 270-273, 104 3049, 3054-3056, (1984); 532-533, 662. commerce, struck down, unless valid factor unrelated protectionism, Maine Taylor, 477 131, 2440, 110 simple "virtually invalidity" applied. Philadelphia 617, 624, 98 2531, 2535, 57 475 (1978).12 36 correctly Ltd 3054. Section expressly segment exclusion Such preference domestic sources characterized anything protectionist discriminatory, origin. 274, 626-627, 2537. 1987 ranging 3.4% 7.4% needs, corresponding reduction jurisdictional arguments, attempts discount emphasizing sets aside "small portion" market, placing "overall burden" producers doing business discrimination; relevance discriminated 268-269, 3053-3054; 760, 2136; Lewis BT Investment Managers, 447 27, 39-42, 2009, 2017-2018, 64 702 (1980). recently reaffirmed: 38 "Our indicate patent, widespread advantage disadvantage competitors need shown. Varying strength bar size number firms serve except creation new uncertainties complex field." 276-277, 1809. 39 burden falls 'to flowing stake.' 1736 353, 2446). "At facial invokes strictest purported alternatives." 337, 1737. met briefly line. justification, noted, 1032 (1935), (1949), ignores. examined "presumably goal," attempted achieve illegitimate means isolating national economy." 627, 40 embellishes somewhat suggesting needs fuel higher sulfur content primary supply, use. doubt factual argument: low sulfur, clean-burning, sub-bituminous Powder Basin estimated billion tons, rates extraction. Reply Brief 9, Geological Survey Guidebook Coal Geology Basin, Information Circular p. 126 (1980)). contention, finds records 337-338, 20, 1737; 148-149, 2452-2453. "saving clause" 824(b)(1),13 permissible discriminatory impact movement "has determined helpful ways ensuring lower 1) reducing over-dependence transporter, 2) conserving needed low-sulfur future." 65. rate-regulating authority, exempt manifest unambiguous read permit justify. 139, 2447; South-Central Timber Development, Wunnicke, 467 2237, 2242, 81 (1984). 824(b)(1) 188 (1982), "evinc[ing] alter Clause.' 1102 Utilities Comm'n 345 295, 304, 73 706, 712, 1020 (1953)). hint partial —instead —ban permissible, quotas effort "lawful authority" 824(b)(1). Instead, decision recognition "Congress did whatever laws then existed relating exportation hydroelectric energy; plain terms, [§ 824(b) ] simply saves pre-emption Part authority 'lawful.' 1101. Our supra; Arkansas Cooperative Corp. 461 375, 393, 1905, 76 42 say conclude demonstrating occurring light foregoing, manifests fatal defects IV Finally, address acts participant restrict free participant. Reeves, Stake, 429, 2271, 2277, 244 (1980); Alexandria Scrap 806-810, 2488, 2496-2498, 49 market-participant exception available application considered separately, severed, three law, Hooper Bernalillo County Assessor, 472 612, 2862, 2869, 86 (1985), respect reassert "appropriate forum." 32. sustain recommendations Master. Cf. 686 (1924). deem advisable ourselves. 45 looked disagree. true courts held portions 'unless evident enacted removed, removed rest act operative law.' Englebrecht Day, 201 Okla. 585, 591, 208 P.2d 544 (1949) Sterling Refining Walker, 165 312 (1933)). clause creates presumption unconstitutional omitted. Ibid.; Champlin Corporation 286 210, 234-235, 52 559, 563-565, 1062 (1932) (inquiring law). contains provision: 46 void, holding affect impair act." Mar. Ch. 43, 74. "[a]ll entities consumer Oklahoma" commands (Supp.1988). Nothing stricken. uphold province rewrite statute. mean "state-owned utilities," decide. perceives written Legislature. Severability clauses easily provide some classes unconstitutional, permits acceptable classes.14 explicitly GRDA.15 chose course. additional insight question. become fundamentally piece legislation construed apply wishes restrictions. V deny sum, A entered. So ordered. THE CHIEF JUSTICE THOMAS join, dissenting. almost century half entered entertaining "negative Clause" Cooley Board Wardens Port Philadelphia, (12 How.) 299, 996 (1852), I think safe plagued shortage suits nontextual elements gone unenforced lack willing litigants. Today, allegedly have, reason, litigate, sees fit, time, recognize negative consequential revenue. step, wrong. correct, unjustified. Oklahoma's. 54 outset, let me rejections standing—somehow impede today. Ante, 446. To begin with, "law-of-the-case principles" persuasive albeit binding ibid., my knowledge (or re-raised) final contrary, court's obligation whenever becomes convinced matter wisdom arrive. Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 12(h)(3) ("Whenever appears lacks matter, action") (emphasis added). Jenkins McKeithen, 395 411, 421, 89 1843, 1848, 404 (1969). course troubled again, thoroughly resolved correctly. "law case," give erroneous decision, made. before. disposed preliminary summarily, opinion. deciding existed, normal practice permitting referring questions (including question) special master short-circuited. apparently understood way, (without "law-of-the-case" Wyoming) certainly conclusively decided point, he it, discussed very "three legal Court." 10. precluded hard understand why ourselves be. 56 unfairness this. sure, given full-dress favor, spared lengthy said substantive violated choice fashion ordinary view Almost litigants go receives attention. original-jurisdiction master, evaluate sharpen cause distort misguided feeling estoppel. correct "change circumstance," ante, 446, ought cursorily stage reraised, exists. reached stage, proceeded pleadings (which denied) resolving Wyoming). district denies former, feel compunction consistency latter; us. evaluation, depending reached. plaintiff survive injury-in-fact merely alleging string occurrences commencing him injury; presume "general embrace claim," Lujan National Wildlife Federation, 497 3177, 3189, 695 (1990). Whitmore Arkansas, 495 149, 158-159, 1717, 135 cannot, generalizations, obtain avoid moving party "show genuine fact," 56(c), nonmoving "mere allegations" counter properly motion, forth "specific facts" evidence, 56(e). Lujan, 3188-3189. Gladstone, Realtors Village Bellwood, 1601, 1616 66 (1979). adequacy presentations asks evaluate—and 58 axiomatic "a litigant demonstrate 'injury fact' sue. Whitmore, 155, ----. assessing injury, "[w]e contrary affirmatively record," Renne Geary, 2331, 288 (1991) (quotation omitted). Bender Williamsport Area School Dist., 546, 1326, 1333, (1986); accordingly allege demonstrating" injured. FW/PBS, Dallas, 493 215, 231, 607, 107 603 "substantially difficult" bear asserted "highly indirect independent third court"—for variables involved. Allen Wright, 737, 757-759, 3315, 3327-3329, 556 44-45, 1926, 1927-1928, Warth Seldin, 422 504-505, 95 2197, 2208, 343 (1975). incumbent eliminate "specific, facts," showing actually acted maintains occurred. Warth, 508, 2210. 59 mentioned, plaintiff's success meeting rules governing 31; Simon, 25, 1926 26; 527 2219 (Brennan, dissenting). demonstrated "that issue" Adickes S.H. Kress 398 144, 157, 90 1598, 1608, 142 (1970)—which "[i]f reasonable minds differ evidence," Anderson Liberty Lobby, 242, 250-251, 2505, 2511, 202 entitled prevail therefore, 2210, "viewed favorable" "foreclose" inferences Adickes, 1608. remotely burden, unquestionable bought purchases. 11. am assume sake compels inference establish lost, prevented "severances" occurring. utilities; severances. hurt treasury (1) severed (2) latter (and severance) occurred 61 o'erleaps inconvenient obstacle [is] here." 448. imagine concession comes from. listed them. 2-10, 62 believe described connecting "Wyoming capacity"; elsewhere." 445, so. Excess capacity existence facilities capable quantities goods profit prices—in really "replaced" gain another. that. lie fallow although produce goods, cost yield prices. Innumerable capped unexploited oil wells country exemplify phenomenon. sort has, nonetheless limited capability achieved lost. 63 attested experts sort, created 1970s "forecasts high demand growth." Seth Schwartz Higher prices, new, higher-cost (for example, deep-pit mines) prices competitive. entire "excess capacity" competitive, (according expert) opening "new mines," ibid, possibility responded less-than-anticipated efficient manner—buy closing mines entirely leaving operation fraction Under conditions, pay sale, reopening mine, incremental entails.1 speculations invites engage plausible (though pause themselves—who just severances profits—have litigate). Were trial likely "at [our] function weigh Anderson, 249, 2510. addition diverted (presumably) sales. exists, established, manner Rule provides, "injury fact" still suit, cross-motion "Beyond requirements, judiciary adhered standing." Valley Forge Christian College Americans Separation Church 454 464, 474, 752, 759, 70 700 One requirement "establish complains (his aggrievement, adverse him) 'zone interests' protected statut[e] [or guarantee] forms complaint." Air Courier Conference America American Postal Workers Union, 913, 918, 1125 "zone-of-interests" formulation appeared Administrative Procedure 702, Association Data Processing Organizations, Camp, 397 150, 153, 827, 829, 184 (1970), similarly governs general, Forge, 475, particular, Boston Stock Exchange Tax 318, 320-321, 599, 602, 514 indicated strictly proceeding "constitutional provision" instead "generous review APA." Clarke Securities Industry Assn., 479 388, 400, 16, 750, 757, 757 (1987). zone-of-interests "denies marginally related inconsistent implicit [constitutional provision]." 394, 399, 754, 757. usual starting point analysis text Conference, 918-919; since, text, inference, id., 919-920. negative-Commerce-Clause jurisprudence grew notion implicitly which, Jackson's words, "every farmer craftsman encouraged certainty access Nation [and] look competition area protect exploitation." DuMond, 539, 665, (1949). Virtually begins incantation create trade [and Clause] force interference Westinghouse Tully, 466 402-403, 1856, 1865, 80 388 Exchange, 328, 606; Trucking Assns., Scheiner, 483 266, 280, 2829, 2838, 226 Just last Term "confer[s] 'right' restrictive regulation," "was commerce." Dennis Higgins, 865, 877, 878, 969 companies, pass participated market. "asserting [its] discriminat[ion]," 320-21, presents category interest, market/free foundation area; indeed, sense positively antagonistic objective, taxes, perfectly ones, profit. object standing; collection weighed jurisprudence. far shorter postal union ----: Whereas latter's securing employment workers, distinct statute's goal services citizenry, coincided good (tax collection) invoked vindicate (free trade) antithetical. seeming quotes, (1977), [Washington Advertising] be" litigation, "[i]n Commission." fails preceded square association members, (who position here): "If voluntary membership organization—a typical association—its representative clear. presented, whether, status traditional organization, precludes constituency. not." 342-344, 2440-2442. Only finding speculate, passage "may collections "could [be] reduce[d]." hardly musings grounds disregarding obvious particularly purport applying dicta moreover, since-repudiated understanding requirement. Compare sentence quoted (taking "to .,' quoting 369 (1962)), Allen, 750-752, 3324-3325 (asserting performs separation-of-powers function, role). collecting zone taxing interest. zone-of-interest test, opposed turns speculativeness degree attenuation alleged source. remain—but facto causality diminution commercial sister-State lawsuit. Suits regular phenomenon, automatic Further expansions irrational distinctions) lurk around corner: litigable unconstitutionally obstructed saying salesman commissions paid, wages earned. 74 abandoning abandons giving expression, field principle remedy encompass conceivable harm wrongdoing." Associated Contractors Carpenters, 459 519, 536, 897, 908, 723 "zone interests" role judge-made circumscribing damages tort contract litigation—doctrines foreseeability proximate cause, Palsgraf Long Island R. 248 N.Y. 339, 162 N.E. (1928); directness Contractors, 540-541, 909-910; limitation third-party beneficiaries contracts, Restatement (Second) Contracts 302(1) contemporaneous ownership shareholders' derivative 23.1. abolish require, today, causality, exposure liability immeasurable scope endless. today's to, expect sharp increase state-against-state suits; rejection logically, crucial one: reluctance, reconsider initial denial essential respectfully dissent. SCALIA 78 (which, not), Party, supreme Jurisdiction." turn, Supreme Given provisions, expect—assuming "case" "controversy" given, usurp given." Cohens (6 Wheat.) 264, 404, 257 (1821) (Marshall, C.J.). observes, ante 450-451, declining hear ,S.Ct. (1973) (per curiam ) (controversy individual States); 497-499, 1009-1010, (1971) (action citizens States). States, jurisdiction.1 (1983); (1982) ); 2125, 796-798, 1846-1847, (1976) ). discretion. "It philosophy 'our sparingly.' 1388, (1972) Utah 394 89, 95, 761, 765, (1969)). sound approach occasions, 498, 1009; 761-763, 2136-2137 (REHNQUIST, dissenting), repeat Chief Fuller aptly ago, "is delicate grave character contemplated absolute." 256, (1900). merit typically focused considerations: alternate forums addressed. 1387; 18-19, 43-44, (1939). cut strongly exercising follows: decreases buyers, supposedly turn collects Plainly, dispute companies' true, notes, 451, qua dignity" claim. 764-766, 2138-2139 critical examine sovereigns clashed. 797-798, 1847 ("In denying file, unmindful incidence [the Mexico] utilities"). minimal requirements—would discretionary (hardly bashful litigants) convenient, forum. readily 797, original). implications novel theory tax-collection alone justifies are, sweeping troubling. An taxpayers frequently fisc. (That always income taxes; takes B, income-tax revenue.) revenue—even loss, 452-453, 11, (albeit loosely) Perhaps concerned "discretion" managing docket. But, extended tax-collector status, discretion, refuse theory. caprice. 83 73. full, provides: "Coal-fired plants—Burning "All located (10%) calculated basis." "Cost increases impairment certain contracts prohibited. exceed energy existing long-term vendors 85.32 Title statutes." referenced statute, 74, (1981), articles inferior offered outside state, differential five (5%) materials, supplies equal quality." proposed decree, agreed privately-owned enjoined, enjoined 163.8 tons mined. 14.6% in-state. 8% mined, making largest behind 19.7% Kansas 8.3%. investigations prosecutions place. violations prosecuted misdemeanor, Mining Commission. Response Interrogatory 6. included following: jobs sectors; $31 taxable generated failed refused utilize hereby directs immediately Act]." Marble, Director, Minerals Division, Department Revenue Taxation contradict estimates. expert, economist familiar coal-related emphasizes experienced severe rate David M. Weinstein 2-3 G best, counter-affidavit estimate bit too high, pointing slight indicative purchased. rating reflects heat-generating efficiency burned. Basin—the 1980—has average Accordingly weight generate later escapes pollutes affidavit, principal consulting firm conducting 186.4 versus actual 127.1 tons. (App. Dismiss A-2). Director Environmental Quality, oversees programs mines, informs whereas 146.5 Randolph Wood A-5). reflect attendant "$9 Wyoming." 21. sold—but longer Act—to stands regain overturn succeed, "directly 'substantial real' 2124, Florida, 306 398, 407-408, 563, 568-569, 817 (1939); 1924, (plaintiff "stand personal interest"). group suffer prohibition consumers. Northeast Authority, Case C-88-127 (Dist. Ct. Craig Cy., Okla., Sept. 1988) (Journal Entry Judgment attached minimis. True, amounted fractional exceeds $500,000 year. approaches viewing drain base year year, paraphrases famous Senator Everett Dirkson: there, pretty soon real money involved." 5, Respectfully Quoted: Dictionary Quotations Requested Congressional Research 155 (S. Platt ed. 1989) ("A you're talking money"). strict decisions. "When effects regulates evenhandedly, benefits." Brown-Forman Distillers Liquor Auth., 476 573, 579, 2080, 2084, 552 Pike Bruce Church, 137, 142, 844, 847, (1970). "clear line" separating close apply, Distillers, subchapter transmission paragraph commission lawful transmitted across line." INS Chadha, 919, 932, 2764, 2774, 317 provided: 'If thereof invalid, remainder persons thereby' deleted). Mo.Ann.Stat 34.080 (Vernon 1969), competitive price. analyst averred affidavit [his] opinion" up. enough point. 56(e) requires, "facts" unsubstantiated party's behavior, 3188-3189, (1990), hires expert same. STEVENS explanations nonexclusive "inapplicable" where, 1027, 1027-1028, 561, 561-562, 470 (opinion complaint). Similarly, commentators 'the requir[es] resort cases' "an oxymoron." P. Bator, D. Meltzer, Mishkin Shapiro, Hart Wechsler's System 344 (3d 2125 (internal quotation omitted)). Discretion, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 543, 561 (1985) (calling "unanswerable" criticism jurisdiction). precedents probably inevitable relaxed

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