Document: 494 U.S. 872 110 S.Ct. 1595 108 L.Ed.2d 876 EMPLOYMENT DIVISION, DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES OREGON, et al., Petitionersv.Alfred L. SMITH al. No. 88-1213. Argued Nov. 6, 1989. Decided April 17, 1990. Rehearing Denied June 4, See 496 913, 2605. Syllabus Respondents Smith and Black were fired by a private drug rehabilitation organization because they ingested peyote, hallucinogenic drug, for sacramental purposes at ceremony of their Native American Church. Their applications unemployment compensation denied the State Oregon under state law disqualifying employees discharged work-related "misconduct." Holding that denials violated respondents' First Amendment free exercise rights, Court Appeals reversed. The Supreme affirmed, but this vacated judgment remanded determination whether peyote use is proscribed State's controlled substance law, which makes it felony to knowingly or intentionally possess drug. Pending determination, refused decide such protected Constitution. On remand, held violated, was not excepted from, state-law prohibition, concluded prohibition invalid Free Exercise Clause. Held: Clause permits prohibit thus deny benefits persons use. Pp. 876-890. (a) Although would be "prohibiting [of religion]" in violation if sought ban performance (or abstention from) physical acts solely religious motivation, does relieve an individual obligation comply with incidentally forbids requires) act his belief requires forbids) specifically directed practice otherwise constitutional as applied those who engage specified nonreligious reasons. See, e.g., Reynolds v. United States, 98 145, 166-167, 25 L.Ed. 244. only decisions has bars application neutral, generally applicable religiously motivated action are distinguished on ground involved alone, conjunction otherconstitutional protections. Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 304-307, 60 900, 903-905, 84 1213; Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 92 1526, 32 15. 876-882. (b) Respondents' claim exemption from cannot evaluated balancing test set forth line cases following Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 402-403, 83 1790, 1792-1794, 10 965, whereby governmental actions substantially burden must justified "compelling interest." That developed context—unemployment eligibility rules—that lent itself individualized assessment reasons relevant conduct. inapplicable across-the-board criminal particular form A holding contrary create extraordinary right ignore laws supported interest" basis belief. Nor could limited situations conduct prohibited "central" individual's religion, since enmesh judges impermissible inquiry into centrality beliefs practices faith. Cf. Hernandez Commissioner, 490 680, 699, 109 2136, 2148-2149, 104 766. Thus, although constitutionally permissible exempt operation laws, required. 882-890. 307 Or. 68, 763 P.2d 146, SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, STEVENS, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. O'CONNOR, filed concurring judgment, Parts I II BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, joined without post, p. 891. dissenting opinion, BRENNAN joined, 907. David B. Frohnmayer, petitioners. Craig J. Dorsay, Portland, Or., respondents. Justice SCALIA Court. 1 This case us include inspired within reach its general dismissed jobs 2 * prohibits knowing intentional possession "controlled substance" unless been prescribed medical practitioner. Ore.Rev.Stat. § 475.992(4) (1987). defines classified Schedules through V Federal Controlled Substances Act, 21 U.S.C. §§ 811-812, modified Board Pharmacy. 475.005(6) Persons violate provision possessing listed Schedule "guilty Class B felony." 475.992(4)(a). As compiled Pharmacy statutory authority, see, 475.035, contains hallucinogen derived plant Lophophora williamsii Lemaire. Ore.Admin.Rule 855-80-021(3)(s) (1988). 3 Alfred Galen (hereinafter respondents) Church, both members. When respondents petitioner Employment Division petitioner) compensation, determined ineligible had reversed denial rights Amendment. 4 appeal argued consumption crime law. reasoned, however, criminality irrelevant resolution claim—since purpose "misconduct" disqualified enforce preserve financial integrity fund, inadequate justify disqualification imposed practice. Citing our 965 (1963), Thomas Review Bd., Indiana Security Div., 450 707, 101 1425, 67 624 (1981), court entitled payment benefits. Dept. Human Resources, 301 209, 217-219, 721 445, 449-450 (1986). We granted certiorari. 480 916, 107 1368, 94 684 5 Before 1987, continued maintain illegality claim. agreed, concluding "if certain kinds violating Amendment, certainly follows may impose lesser denying conduct." Resources Smith, 485 660, 670, 1444, 1450, 99 753 (1988) (Smith ). noted, decided fact Oregon's issue matter dispute between parties. Being "uncertain about legality Oregon," we "appropriate Constitution." Id., 673, S.Ct., 1452. Accordingly, further proceedings. 674, 6 fell statute, "makes no exception use" 72-73, 148 It then considered valid Clause, not. therefore reaffirmed previous ruling having engaged 7 again 489 1077, 103 832 (1989). 8 relief rests supra, Bd. Hobbie Unemployment Comm'n Florida, 136, 1046, 190 (1987), condition availability insurance willingness forgo required religion. observed I, distinction critical, consistent Constitution, there federal "the withhold engaging misconduct, despite motivation." U.S., 672, 1451. Now confirmed proceed consider A. 9 made States incorporation Fourteenth see 303, 903, 1213 (1940), provides "Congress shall make respecting establishment prohibiting thereof. . ." Const., Amdt. (emphasis added.) religion means, first foremost, believe profess whatever doctrine one desires. obviously excludes all "governmental regulation such." 402, 1793. government compel affirmation belief, Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 81 1680, 982 (1961), punish expression doctrines believes false, Ballard, 322 78, 86-88, 64 882, 886-87, 88 1148 (1944), special disabilities views status, McDaniel Paty, 435 618, 1322, 55 593 (1978); Fowler Rhode Island, 345 67, 69, 73 526, 527, 97 828 (1953); cf. Larson Valente, 456 228, 245, 102 1673, 1683-84, 72 33 (1982), lend power other side controversies over authority dogma, Presbyterian Church Mary Elizabeth Blue Hull Memorial 393 440, 445 452, 89 601, 604-608, 658 (1969); Kedroff St. Nicholas Cathedral, 344 94, 95-119, 143, 143-56, 120 (1952); Serbian Eastern Orthodox Diocese Milivojevich, 426 696, 708-725, 96 2372, 2380-2388, 49 151 (1976). But "exercise religion" often involves profession acts: assembling others worship service, participating bread wine, proselytizing, abstaining foods modes transportation. true, think (though ours point), abstentions when reasons, display. doubtless unconstitutional, example, casting "statues used purposes," bowing down before golden calf. 11 present case, seek carry meaning large step further. They contend motivation using places them beyond practice, concededly assert, words, includes requiring any observe requires). textual matter, do words given meaning. more necessary regard collection tax, citizens support organized sinful, than same tax "abridging freedom press" publishing companies pay staying business. reading text, other, say burdening activity printing) object merely incidental effect provision, offended. Compare Citizen Publishing Co. 394 131, 139, 927, 931-32, 22 (1969) (upholding antitrust press), Grosjean Press Co., 297 233, 250-251, 56 444, 449, 80 660 (1936) (striking license newspapers weekly circulation above level); Minneapolis Star & Tribune Minnesota Comm'r Revenue, 460 575, 581, 1365, 1369-70, 75 295 (1983). 12 Our reveal latter correct one. have never excuse him compliance regulate. contrary, record century jurisprudence contradicts proposition. described succinctly Frankfurter Minersville School Dist. Ed. Gobitis, 586, 594-595, 1010, 1012-1013, 1375 (1940): "Conscientious scruples not, course long struggle toleration, relieved obedience aimed promotion restriction beliefs. mere convictions contradict concerns political society citizen discharge responsibilities (footnote omitted)." occasion assert principle 244 (1879), where rejected against polygamy whose commanded "Laws," said, "are actions, while interfere opinions, practices. Can man belief? To permit professed superior land, every become unto himself." 166-167. 13 Subsequent consistently "valid neutral applicability proscribes prescribes) prescribes proscribes)." Lee, 455 252, 263, n. 3, 1051, 1058, 71 127 (1982) (STEVENS, judgment); 595, 1013 (collecting cases). In Prince Massachusetts, 321 158, 438, 645 mother prosecuted child labor her children dispense literature streets, notwithstanding. found infirmity "excluding [these children] doing what do." 171, 444. Braunfeld Brown, 366 599, 1144, 563 (1961) (plurality opinion), upheld Sunday-closing burdened religions compelled refrain work days. Gillette 401 437, 461, 91 828, 842, 28 168 (1971), sustained military Selective Service System conscripting opposed war grounds. 14 most recent decision involving regulatory forbidden 258-261, 1055-1057. There, Amish employer, behalf himself employees, Social taxes faith participation programs. There way, observed, distinguish believer's objection objections might taxes. "If, adherent sin, percentage budget can identified devoted war-related activities, individuals similarly paying income tax. system function denominations allowed challenge payments spent manner violates belief." 260, 1056-57. 766 (1989) (rejecting alleged activities difficult). 15 protections, speech press, 903-905 (invalidating licensing charitable solicitations administrator discretion cause he deemed nonreligious); Murdock Pennsylvania, 319 105, 63 870, 87 1292 (1943) flat solicitation dissemination ideas); Follett McCormick, 573, 717, 938 (1944) (same), parents, acknowledged Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 45 571, 69 1070 (1925), direct education children, (1972) compulsory school-attendance parents grounds send school).1 Some expression, exclusively upon grounds, also Wooley Maynard, 430 705, 1428, 51 752 (1977) display plate slogan offended beliefs); West Virginia Education Barnette, 624, 1178, 1628 flag salute statute challenged objectors). And easy envision association likewise reinforced concerns. Roberts Jaycees, 468 609, 622, 3244, 3251-52, 82 462 (1984) ("An speak, worship, petition redress grievances vigorously interference [if] correlative group effort toward ends guaranteed"). 16 hybrid situation, unconnected communicative parental right. urge hold, quite simply, prohibitable accompanied convictions, regulation. that, decline so now. being contention represents attempt regulate beliefs, communication raising one's rule adhered ever plainly controls. "Our farthest proposition stance conscientious opposition relieves objector colliding duty fixed democratic government." 842. 17 argue even though need automatically extended actors, least (1963). Under test, compelling interest. id., 1792-1794; 2148. Applying have, three occasions, invalidated rules conditioned applicant's conditions supra; (1981); except compensation. sometimes purported apply contexts always satisfied, (1982); (1971). years abstained applying (outside field) all. Bowen Roy, 476 693, 106 2147, 90 735 (1986), declined analysis scheme benefit applicants recipients provide numbers. plaintiffs asserted obtain number daughter. statute's regardless effectuate 699-701, 2151-53. Lyng Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Assn., 439, 1319, 534 (1988), Government's logging road construction lands several Tribes, undisputed "could devastating effects traditional practices," 451, 1326. Goldman Weinberger, 475 503, 1310, 478 dress regulations forbade wearing yarmulkes. O'Lone Estate Shabazz, 482 342, 2400, 282 sustained, mentioning prison's refusal inmates requirements attend services. 18 Even inclined breathe some life field, require exemptions recalled, context plurality noted distinctive feature programs criteria invite consideration circumstances behind unemployment: "The [in ] provided person eligible if, 'without good cause,' quit available work. 'good cause' standard created mechanism exemptions." 708, 2156 (opinion Burger, Powell JJ.). Sherbert, 401, 1792, (reading allowing caused "personal reasons"). pointed out stand place exemptions, refuse extend "religious hardship" reason. 2156-57. 19 Whether limited, nothing Although, earlier, analyze challenges 257-260, 1055-1057; 462, 842-43, invalidate conclude today sounder approach, approach accord vast majority precedents, hold challenges. government's ability prohibitions socially harmful conduct, like aspects public policy, "cannot depend measuring objector's spiritual development." Lyng, obey contingent law's coincidence interest "compelling"—permitting him, virtue "to himself," 167—contradicts tradition common sense.2 20 requirement seems benign, familiar fields. met different treatment race, Palmore Sidoti, 466 429, 432, 1879, 1881-82, 421 (1984), content speech, Sable Communications California FCC, 492 115, 126, 2829, 2836, 93 (1989), remotely comparable here. What produces fields—equality unrestricted flow contending speech—are norms; produce here—a laws—is anomaly.3 possible limit impact proposal 474-476, 1338-1339 (BRENNAN, dissenting). appropriate determine "centrality" "importance" ideas field. logic brought bear assertion personal faith? Judging akin unacceptable "business evaluating relative merits differing claims." 263 2, 1058 concurring). last Term, "[i]t judicial ken question faith, validity litigants' interpretations creeds." Repeatedly many contexts, warned courts presume plausibility 716, 1431; Eliza beth 450, 606-07; Jones Wolf, 443 602-606, 3020, 3024-3027, 61 775 (1979); 85-87, 885-87, (1944).4 If all, then, across board, thought commanded. Moreover, really means says (and watering here subvert rigor fields applied), will meet test. Any adopting courting anarchy, danger increases proportion society's diversity coerce suppress none them. Precisely "we cosmopolitan nation up people almost conceivable preference," 606, 1147, precisely value protect divergence, afford luxury deeming presumptively invalid, objector, highest order. favor open prospect civic obligations kind ranging taxes, health safety manslaughter neglect Funkhouser State, 695 (Okla.Crim.App.1988), vaccination Cude 237 Ark. 377 S.W.2d 816 (1964), Olsen Drug Enforcement Administration, 279 U.S.App.D.C. 1, 878 F.2d 1458 traffic Cox New Hampshire, 312 569, 762, 85 1049 (1941); social welfare legislation minimum wage Tony Susan Alamo Foundation Secretary Labor, 471 290, 105 1953, 278 (1985), animal cruelty Lukumi Babalu Aye Inc. City Hialeah, 723 F.Supp. 1467 (SD Fla.1989), Massey, 229 N.C. 734, S.E.2d 179, dism'd, 336 942, 813, 1099 (1949), environmental protection Little, 638 337 (Mont.1986), providing equality opportunity races, Bob University 461 574, 603-604, 2017, 2034-2035, 76 157 Amendment's liberty this.5 23 Values enshrinement Bill Rights thereby banished process. Just negative accorded press likely enact affirmatively foster printed word, expected solicitous well. surprising Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-3402(B)(1)-(3) (1989); Colo.Rev.Stat. 12-22-317(3) (1985); N.M.Stat.Ann. 30-31-6(D) (Supp.1989). nondiscriminatory religious-practice permitted, desirable, required, occasions creation discerned courts. fairly said leaving accommodation process disadvantage widely in; unavoidable consequence preferred each conscience weigh importance 24 Because ingestion constitutional, may, dismissal results accordingly 26 ordered. whom BLACKMUN join II, judgment.* 27 agree result reaches opinion. my view, today's dramatically departs well-settled jurisprudence, appears unnecessary resolve presented, incompatible Nation's fundamental commitment liberty. At outset, note Court's implicit review—whether protects person's prohibition—is properly presented case. recounts, constituted "misconduct," peyote. held, I), depends criminalized underlying 670-672, 1450-51. remand substances, peyote." omitted). 29 Constitution prosecution 73, P.2d, 148, premature. eventually Such reopen nevertheless claimants comes today, ruled substances contain light finding "necessary predicate evaluation claim," 1451, addressed 30 extracts history precedents single categorical offended." Ante, (citations Indeed, holds usual apply. 884. sweeping result, give strained disregard 31 commands religion]." applies categorically 903. recognizes, "free " often, invariably, acts. 877; English Dictionary Historical Principles 401-402 (J. Murray ed. 1897) (defining "exercise" "[t]he rites ceremonies, etc.; permission celebrate observances (of religion)" preaching, prophesying). "[B]elief neatly confined logic-tight compartments." 220, (1972). sincere itself, interprets prohibit, justification, mandated applicable. 878. conduct—conduct happens someone—manifestly barred freely exercising members persons. difficult applicable, implicate responds "one step" removed specific Ibid. target few naive directly such. concerned significantly vitality, ought construed cover extreme hypothetical situation targets slightly context, '[s]uch precedent relegates serious barest level scrutiny Equal Protection already provides.' 141-142, 1049, (1987) (quoting 727, 2166-67, (1986) (O'CONNOR, part part)). 34 burdened, course, mean absolute established recognized act, unlike believe, absolute. Cantwell, 304, 903-04; 161-167, (1879). Instead, respected express mandate substantial narrowly tailored achieve 2148, Hobbie, 141, 1049; 257-258 718, 1432, 626-629, 1327-1329, (1978) opinion); 215, 1533; (1971); 403, 1793-94, (1963); 732, 2169 part); 639, 1186, (1943). effectuates command independent liberty, occupies position, encroachments indirect, clear interests "of order," 1533. "Only especially important pursued exacting sacrifice freedoms price equal share benefits, privileges enjoyed citizens." 728, 2167 part). 35 attempts narrow claiming "[w]e regulate." 878-879. later notes, must, Yoder interpreted forbid 903-905; 214-234, 1532-1542. expressly interpretation now adopts: 36 "[O]ur idea grounded outside true individuals, based, subject undoubted promote health, safety, welfare, Government delegated powers. broad police areas control, applicability. 37 ". face application, nonetheless offend neutrality unduly burdens religion." 219-220, 1535-36 added; citations 38 endeavors escape labeling "hybrid" decisions, ante, 892, relied 303-307, 219-229, 1535-1540, regarded mainstream jurisprudence. cited rule, 879-880, claims after carefully weighing competing interests. 168-170, 443-444, (state regulating children's justifies laws); 608-609, 1148-1149, opinion) uniform day rest Sunday closing law); Gillette, 842-43 affairs conscription 258-259, 1055-1056 comprehensive mandatory requirement). freeexer cise hardly calls place. surely unusual judge vitality looking win-loss happen come us. 39 Respondents, immune simply rejection argument, harmless dictum. Rather, invoke grant denies [compelling interest] to" prohibitions. 885. 40 essence practices, indirectly effect, abandonment own conformity civil community. explained Thomas: 41 "Where receipt putting pressure modify behavior exists." 717-718, 1432. 42 Frazee Illinois Security, 829, 832, 1514, 1516-1517, 914 1049. severest possible, "results choice either abandoning facing prosecution." Braunfeld, 605, 1147. argument 43 cases. 1055-1057 (applying uphold liability); requirement); 215-234, 1533-1538 strike school attendance law). Roy : 44 award rather exaction penalties version appellees precondition attaches therefore, generate meaningful imposition them." 731-732, 2168-2169 46 1049-1050; 404, 1794. reaffirm today: legitimately is, anything, burdensome placing legitimate benefit. 47 Legislatures, "left duties subversive order." Reynolds, 164; 1535-1536; 1145-1146. Yet close relationship "[i]n exercised attaining end, infringe freedom." Once shown asked demonstrate unbending "is essential accomplish overriding interest," 257-258, 1055, restrictive achieving Thomas, 607, 1148; 406, 1795; 214-215, 1532-1533; 728-732, 2167-2169 me, approach—the role merits—is significant compelling. empirical usually serve order, case-by-case question, sensitive facts McDaniel, 628, 8, 1328, (noting "delicate in" Yoder). Given range criminal, assume, carries sanctions 48 "rejected" "declined apply" 883-884. Recent instead affirmed doctrine. Hernandez, 2148-2149; 1049-1050 Chief Burger's suggestion 707-708, 2156-2157, assessed less rigorous "reasonable means" standard). signal retreat adherence "require behave ways development. understood internal comport 2152; 1325. sense written terms individual, exact 412, 1798 (Douglas, sub judice, falls former category, Similarly, 884, distinguishable arose narrow, specialized traditionally articulating 507, 1313, ("Our review far deferential similar designed civilian society"); 349, 2404, ("[P]rison judged 'reasonableness' ordinarily infringements rights") (citation did these should continue paradigm 50 gives convincing reason depart settled talismanic prohibitions, intrude just effectively suggests "constitutional anomaly," 886, unequivocally race discrimination nor[m]," "anomaly." necessarily Rogers Lodge, 458 613, 3272, 3276, 1012 (race-neutral 'bears heavily another' protection) omitted); Castaneda Partida, 482, 492-495, 1272, 1278-1281, 498 (grand jury selection). event values distinct language clear, activity. McConnell, Accommodation Religion, 1985 S.Ct.Rev. ("[T]he text 'singles out' protections"); P. Kauper, Religion (1964). triggers concern—and heightened issue. recognize affect balancing, categorical, approach. O'Brien, 391 367, 377, 1679, 672 (1968); Renton Playtime Theatres, Inc., 41, 46-47, 925, 928-929, (1986); Anderson Celebrezze, 780, 792-794, 1564, 1571-1573, 547 (1983) (generally impinge concerns). parade horribles, 888-889, fails discarding demonstrates opposite: capable sensible balances Finally, disfavoring minority "unavoidable consequence" left 890. enacted shared viewed hostility. amply harsh majoritarian unpopular emerging groups Jehovah's Witnesses Amish. Jackson Barnette (overruling (1940)) apt: very withdraw subjects vicissitudes controversy, majorities officials establish legal principles One's life, property, assembly, submitted vote; outcome elections." 638, 1185. 52 87, ("The Fathers unaware varied sects, violence disagreement among them, lack creed men agree. fashioned charter envisaged widest toleration conflicting views"). reflects preserving fullest extent pluralistic society. For deem "luxury," 888, denigrate Rights." III 53 misreads precedent; 54 severe Peyote sacrament vital O. Stewart, Religion: History 327-336 (describing modern status peyotism); E. Anderson, Peyote: Divine Cactus 41-65 (1980) ceremonies); Teachings Earth: Philosophy 96-104 (D. Tedlock eds. 1975) (same); People Woody, Cal.2d 721-722, Cal.Rptr. 73-74, 817-818 church, respondent's sincerely held." 667, 1449. court, choose carrying ritual embodying avoidance prosecution. sufficient trigger scrutiny. enforcing control citizens. 1793-94 (religiously regulated "pose[s] threat peace order"); 1535 ("[A]ctivities welfare"). recently abuse greatest problems affecting population" confronting today." Treasury Employees Von Raab, 656, 668, 1384, 1395, 685 (incorporated part, (1987)), substance, Congress high potential abuse, currently accepted use, supervision. 812(b)(1). R. Julien, Primer Action 149 (3d 1981). 699-700, system, 1055-1056, conscription, 460, 841, compelling, seriously critical exempting "will fulfillment 259, 1056; 2166 accommodate pursuing means"); 221, 1536; 605-607, 1146-1148. close, "essential accomplish," 257, preventing harm substance. person, inherently dangerous. exist user, purposes, 179 (denying municipal ordinance handling poisonous reptiles), dism'd nom. Bunn North Carolina, (1949). view societal trafficking effectiveness stated Jacobson 197 11, 358, 643 (1905) small pox 57 granting selective impair circumstances, 719, 1432-33. Unlike strongly indicates accommodating forgoing one, two, additional mental child, inability self-supporting citizenship, way materially detract society," 234, 1542; 238-240, 1544-1545 (WHITE, concurring), controlling illegal drugs. 58 incompatibility belied CFR 1307.31 (citing statutes proscription). governments Oregon, central tenets 886-887, '[i]t faith,' quoting constitutionality cannot, turn mean, factual findings claimant conflicts with, by, questions sincerity admittedly fine, doctrine, 85-88, making. 303-305, S.Ct.1953, 1962-1963, (1985). 59 adhere 1056. concur MARSHALL join, dissenting. painstakingly general, allow particular, served means.1 Until inviolate majority, perfunctorily dismisses anomaly." 886. detailed O'CONNOR's 891, able arrive mischaracterizing precedents. discards leading (1972), "hybrid." 882. somehow (as benefits), opposed, presumably, practices). 884-885. cites which, due various exceptional strict inapposite, hint repudiated altogether. 882-884. short, wholesale overturning concerning Clauses One hopes aware consequences, product overreaction country's crisis generated. 62 distorted leads "luxury" well-ordered afford, repression Founders dearly bought persecution element liberty—and intolerance "unavoidable," drafted order avoid intolerance. parts opinion.2 she points out, 'will interest.' 905, 1056, (1982). disagree, answer question. articulate precise involved. fighting "war drugs" weighed claim, refusing religious, ceremonial 2167, part) ("This 'is interest,' 1055); (1981) ("focus inquiry" "properly narrowed"); 1536 ("Where stake," accept "sweeping claim" compelling; "in generality cases, searchingly examine seeks impediment objectives recognizing claimed exemption"). Failure reduce plane tends distort favor. Clark, Guidelines Harv.L.Rev. 327, 330-331 traced back another government: defense, revenue. measure rarified inevitably appear significant"); Pound, Survey Interests, ("When valuing demands respect demands, careful compare [or else] advance it"). 65 sufficiently outweigh abstract symbolic. plausibly fulfill interest, fact, prohibition. actually evinced concrete users prosecute respondents, enforcement efforts peyote.3 amounts symbolic preservation unenforced "symbolism, symbolism worthy abolition unlawful drugs," 687, 1402, (SCALIA, dissenting), suffice abrogate individuals. 66 prior rely speculation harms, demanded evidentiary exception. 1432 exemption, "evidence record"); 224-229, 1537-38 dangers speculative, unsupported record); 407, 1795, (1963) ("[T]here proof warrant fears [State] advance[s]"). justification entirely speculative. proclaims protecting offers, evidence harmed anyone.4 cast doubt assumption harmful. Whittingham, Ariz.App. 27, 30, 504 950, 953 (1973) failed prove quantities sacraments participants intrusion power"); 722-723, 74, 818 (1964) ("[A]s Attorney General admits, scientists experts 'that works permanent deleterious injury Indian' "). 68 show uses circumstance, Government, classifications drugs derived, apparently find dangerous preclude use.5 lawful uses. Admin., 1458, 1463, (medical research marijuana). circumscribed irresponsible recreational drugs.6 Church's restrictions on, supervision of, members' obviate Olsen, 10, F.2d, (" 'The Administrator Administration (DEA)] finds isolated occasions,' 'an ceremonies' DEA Final Order)); 7, 1464 ("[F]or sacrilegious"); Cal.2d, 721, 817 ("[T]o 1981) ("[P]eyote seldom abused Church"); Slotkin, Way, Earth 96, refuses presence curiosity seekers rites, opposes sale non-sacramental purposes"); Bergman, Navajo Use: Its Apparent Safety, 128 Am.J. Psychiatry (1971) (Bergman).7 70 seeking congruent, great degree, laws. 224, 228-229, 1540 (since formal schooling 8th grade, "ideal" vocational education, "less generally"); 238, 1544 Not church's peyote; advocates self-reliance, familial responsibility, abstinence alcohol. Brief Association Affairs Amici Curiae 33-34 (the "ethical code" four parts: brotherly love, care family, alcohol church membership card)); U.S.App.D.C., "for special, stylized ceremony, state's prohibition"); 818, ("[M]ost anthropological authorities Peyotism positive, negative, force lives adherents ."). considerable effective combating tragic alcoholism population. Two peyotism, Dr. Omer C. Stewart Robert testified affidavit respondent Appeal Board. Tr., Exh. 7; 165-166 (research Bergman "that seemed ego-strengthening direction emphasis interpersonal relationships assured significance well group"; 'come crises help real seeing themselves world gone, strong enough change new challenges' 698)); Pascarosa Futterman, Ethnopsychedelic Therapy Alcoholics: Observations Ritual Psychedelic Drugs, 215 (1976) (religious helpful overcoming alcoholism); Albaugh Treatment Alcoholism Indians, 131 1247, 1249 (1974) philosophy, teachings, format [Native Church] alcoholic"); seq. frequent observations, tribes periods history, correlation peyotist alcohol). Far promoting lawless drugs, code exemplifies presumably intended foster. invoking abolishing trafficking. practically Order total amount seized analyzed 1980 1987 19.4 pounds; contrast, marijuana during period million pounds). Also, still strictly regulations, 821-823 (registration distribution substances); (distribution registration requirements), Texas, grows quantities. Texas Health Safety Code Ann. 481.111 (1990 pamphlet); Admin.Code, Tit. 37, pt. ch. 13, Regulations, 13.35-13.41 720, (peyote "found Rio Grande Valley northern Mexico"). popular drug; rituals violent narcotics plagues country. argues erode uniform, fair, grants flood follow. placed dilemma, says, patchwork hinder efforts, risking Establishment arbitrarily limiting exemptions. Lupu, Where Begin: Problem Burdens 933, 947 ("Behind spectral march; voice whispers judge, you confronted endless chain deviants stripe"). arguments past 835, 1518, cumulative claims); 1795. apprehension purely Almost half maintained years, overwhelmed exemptions.8 Allowing oblige groups. compatible claims. religions, restrict Ethiopian Zion Coptic teaches smoked 'continually day' claims, involve heroin, traffic, attendant greed violence, compromising efforts.9 arising Though treat equally, another, fulfilled reaching showing probably sects make," 236, 1543; tantamount Fla., 144-145, must) Clause"); 220-221, ("Court [law] run afoul prevent how promoted exercise"); 22, 1542, 22. 74 O'CONNOR delving whether, 906-907, blind eye 219, "education inseparable basic [, as] baptism, confessional, sabbath others," "gravely endanger destroy beliefs"). issue, embodies deity, eating communion. Without 5-6 ("To members, consecrated powers heal body, mind spirit. teacher; living harmony balance forces Creation. integral embody communicating Great Spirit"). 327-330 (description ritual); T. Hillerman, Darkness 153 ritual). they, Amish, "forced migrate tolerant region." 218, 1534-1535. potentially policy—reached reaction intolerance—of Americans. Religious Freedom Stat. 469, 1996 (1982 ed.) ("[I]t policy Indians inherent express, ., including access sites, sacred objects, ceremonials rites").10 "have sacred, power, heal, cultural tribe, and, survival." H.R.Rep. 95-1308, (1978), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1978, pp. 1262, 1263. 77 enforceable restricting freedom, scrupulously Americans, however unorthodox be. Otherwise, offer Americans unfulfilled hollow promise. 78 Since Absent 874, indistinguishable Frazee, Sherbert. 79 dissent. Both lines adverted non-free-exercise declares communicate information abridged." 307, 905. said: "We government. something different, engages property employed connection activities. thing preacher. privilege delivering sermon. Those deprive colporteurs take survived Reformation." 112, 874. stands upbringing children. And, parenthood combined nature revealed record, 'reasonable relation competency State' sustain Amendment." 1542. "its affairs," because, Douglas 'the government.' Post, 900 judgment), 1798, voted quote envisioned individual" running (in compensation) fashion hard practicality why tailor conform management lands, administration programs, supra. "[t]here applicability," compelling-interest 'constitutional nor[m],' 'anomaly.' 901 judgment). comparison supports, undermines, conclusion draw today. based too scrutinize (1961). race-neutral disproportionately disadvantaging racial Washington Davis, 229, 2040, 597 (police employment examination); unconcerned interfering (antitrust laws). religion-neutral While arguing agrees "our issue," 906-907 activity, unimportant claimant's Earlier this, saying proper compelling." 899. "Constitutionally burden" seem name. dispensing utterly unworkable. require, degree impede throwing rice weddings getting married church. difficulty subjected practice" exception, reasonably considered. avoided BLACKMUN's "although 'central' 919 (dissenting opinion). proceeds "severe impact" centrality. He substituted "How X adherent?" taken away?" material difference. contends "parade horribles" "demonstrates strik[ing] interests." 902 cite struck "sensible balances" exemption. event, mistakes parade: suggest might), constantly business determining (to terminology 919) "constitutiona[l] significan[ce]" "burden plaintiffs" 899) suffices confer horribles horrible contemplate regularly judgment. 2149, asks observation so, burden"); "must interest"); 2169, exemption"); limitation inroad 1533, ("[O]nly overbalance religion"); (question "whether infringement appellant's right"). reluctantly Division, Ore. certiorari grave doubts, wisdom propriety deciding enforce, defending courts, could, remains administering program. surprising, least, prides restraint reduction matters stretch jurisdiction reach, setting, reported Soto, Ore.App. 794, 537 142 (1975), cert. denied, 424 955, 1431, 361 dearth courts; thus, factfinding principal foundation listing nondrug bona fide ceremonies registration. manufactures distributes annually law"); 6-7, 1463-1464 (explaining DEA's rationale exception). populations, judicially crafted (case below). too, (presumably compelling) Boos Barry, 312, 329, 1157, 1168, 333 (finding picketing near foreign embassy serving interest; existence analogous, drawn, showed "a alternative readily available"). respect, closely analogous wine Roman Catholic During Prohibition, exempted National Prohibition Title 308. However been, Catholics' self-limiting. extremely bitter, unpleasant experience, tend discourage casual '[P]eyote vomiting bitter taste' "); 161 ordeal nausea manifestations occur regularly. Repeated likely, researcher devoutly taking ceremony"); ("[M]any inducing indigestion nausea"). Over raised regarding prevailed. Iowa, 808 652 (CA8 1986) (marijuana Church); Rush, 738 497 (CA1 1984) 470 1004, 1355, 378 Middleton, 690 820 (CA11 1982) 1497, 929 Hudson, 431 (CA5 1970) heroin Moslems), 400 1011, 577, Leary 383 851 1967) Hindu), rev'd 395 1532, Commonwealth Nissenbaum, 404 Mass. 536 N.E.2d 592 Blake, Haw.App. 411, (1985) Hindu Tantrism); Whyte A.2d 1018 (D.C.App.1984) Rastafarian); Rocheleau, Vt. 61, 451 1144 Tantric Buddhist); Brashear, N.M. (1979) nondenominational Christian); Randall, 540 156 (Mo.App.1976) (marijuana, LSD, hashish Aquarian Brotherhood Church). Annotation, Defense Prosecution Narcotic Offense, A.L.R.3d 939 (1971 Supp.1989). "no principled way" "tax Agencies Task Force, Report Act 1-8 (Aug. 1979) (history persecution); Barsh, Illusion Indigenous Ore.L.Rev. 363, 369-374 attitude harkens repressive policies ago: "In morally degrading, unhealthy. 'Indians fond gatherings description,' 1913 study complained, advocating dances 'sings' stem contagious diseases. 1921, Commissioner Charles Burke reminded staff 'any dance reckless giving away prolonged celebration disorderly excessive promotes superstitious cruelty, licentiousness, idleness, shiftless indifference family welfare.' later, age kind, 'to educate opinion' 370-371 (footnotes

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