Document: 497 U.S. 376 110 S.Ct. 2903 111 L.Ed.2d 309 GEORGIAv.SOUTH CAROLINA. No. 74, Orig. Argued Jan. 8, 1990. Decided June 25, Syllabus This suit involves a dispute between Georgia and South Carolina over the location of their boundary along Savannah River, downstream from city at river's mouth, lateral seaward boundary. In 1787, parties agreed in Treaty Beaufort (hereinafter Treaty) that river was "most northern branch or stream," "reserving all islands [the river] to Georgia. . ." 1922, interpreted mean, inter alia, where there is no island river, midway banks, an island, shore. v. Carolina, 259 572, 42 597, 66 L.Ed. 1069. The Special Master has submitted two reports, making several recommendations. Both States have filed exceptions. Held: 1. Master's determination Barnwell Islands are adopted, Georgia's exception overruled. established sovereignty by prescription acquiescence, as evidenced its grant 1813, taxation, policing, patrolling property. cannot avoid this evidence's effect contending it had reasonable notice Carolina's actions. Inaction alone may constitute acquiescence when continues for sufficiently long period, see Rhode Island Massachusetts, 15 Pet. 233, 274, 10 721, been more than inaction on part. It charged with knowing placed River Georgia, yet, despite fact cultivation readily discernible, virtually record taxation of, other sovereign action over, these lands. A 1955 Court Appeals decision condemnation proceeding Federal Government, which recognized islands, be regarded fixing States. Pp. 388-393. 2. emerging after 1787 do not affect line suggestion vicinity each new runs shore would create regime continually shifting jurisdiction, creating "northern stream" even smallest matter how near shoreline, frustrate purpose Treaty, purports fix "forever hereafter." Construing sudden changes consistent language, also comports simplicity finality Court's 1922 reading respect settled expectations generally attends drawing interstate boundaries, cf. Virginia Tennessee, 148 503, 522-525, 13 728, 735-737, 37 537. 394-398. 3. conclusion Oyster Bed southern side Savannah's mouth Tybee while underwater shoal adopted. Customarily drawn opposing headland. However, due uncommon type here, counterpart high land side. Rather, geographical feature taking place shoal, confining river. To accept proposition should closest headlands—islands so distant they said touch river—would result having waters lie directly coast waters. 398-400. 4. around thread, midline stream encounters must move northward become bank shore, erred invoking right-angle principle—i.e., using until ends reverts middle then lines connect island-to-bank center bank-to-bank shortest distance. sustained. approach use point "triequidistant" resulting pass through otherwise equidistant island—is sensible, less artificial, fair both States, what 1922. 400-402. 5. additions Denwill Plantation Horseshoe Shoal awarded rapidity some aspects dredging processes used Army Corps Engineers improve navigation channel support recommendation were caused primarily avulsion rather natural gradual process erosion accretion. 402-405. 6. Since Second Report clarified any confusion existed regard recommended affects Bird Island, eliminated exception, initially made, P. 405. 7. His down intersects line, Island's most Hilton Head point, proceeds out sea perpendicularly line. gives equitable balance recognition so-called principle, Texas Louisiana, 426 465, 96 2155, 48 775, inland does least possible offense claimed parallel offshore territory itself. States' respective exceptions 405-408. Exceptions overruled; Exception principle sustained; Other recommendations, taken advanced but overruled, BLACKMUN, J., delivered opinion unanimous Parts I, II, III, VIII, Part IV, BRENNAN, WHITE, MARSHALL, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, JJ., joined; V, joined, REHNQUIST, C.J., KENNEDY, joined except portion thereof; VI, VII, IX, joined. dissenting part, post, p. 410. 412. 413. Patricia T. Barmeyer, Atlanta, Ga., plaintiff. Thomas E. McCutchen, Jr., Columbia, S.C., defendant. Justice BLACKMUN Court. 1 litigation instituted August 1977, pursuant Art. § 2, cl. United Constitution 28 U.S.C. 1251(a)(1) (1976 ed.), presentation motion State leave file complaint against Carolina. culmination prolonged lower reaches (that is, Savannah) mouth. disagreement 2 We granted complaint. 434 917, 98 388, 54 273 (1977). Honorable Walter Hoffman, Senior Judge District Eastern Virginia, appointed authority customarily kind. 1057, 1226, 55 758 (1978). course, answer counterclaims. 3 All Members join VIII opinion. IV THE CHIEF JUSTICE KENNEDY. V all, KENNEDY Part. VI WHITE MARSHALL. VII SCALIA IX STEVENS SCALIA. 4 his First (1 Rep.) eight years later March 20, 1986. That report dealt issues moved we defer he ruled complied request. Final (2 April 24, 1989. fixed time filing See 490 1033, 109 1928, 104 401 (1989). Each responded other. Briefs oral argument followed. 5 * Background 6 On 9, 1732, nearly 260 ago, King George II describing himself Great Britain, France, Ireland, issued letters patent constituting Charter Colony These described colony existing "the part there, commonly called Savannah." F. Van Zandt, Boundaries Several (Geological Survey Professional Paper 909) 100 (1976). 7 precise segments boundary, however, proved continuing Much controversy originally concerned rights Shortly emerged Nation, commissioners met Beaufort, produced Convention known 28, Treaty). supra, 99; 257 516, 518, 173, 174, 347 (1922). stated ., reserving rive[r] ."1 ratified course legislature Continental Congress. 33 Journals Congress 467 (1936).2 Past Litigation 8 very existence present suit, demonstrates did resolve riverboundary questions Indeed, first, third, occasion issue concerning come before 9 first case 93 4, 23 782 (1876). bill equity injunction restraining certain federal officials "obstructing interrupting" River. dismissed bill. upon power regulate commerce among Congress' same possessed navigable Thus, could close one channels if, judgment, thereby improved. second 347, decided There, central controversy. held, things, (1) banks water ordinary stage, (2) present, (3) nonnavigable involved, then, absence contrary agreement, takes stream, (4) under unaffected thalweg doctrine because Treaty's provision shall equal navigation. ensuing decree set forth 1069 (1922).3 11 noted discuss problem navigability itself factor determining map chart illuminated reported 12 Neither cases bears specific presently us. 1876 case, illustrates capable producing, reveals Beaufort. 450 Acres Land, More Less Chatham County, 220 F.2d 353 (CA5), cert. denied, 350 826, 76 54, 737 (1955), mentioned. Government Southern acquire easement enter "Barnwell Island," group discussed III hereof, deposit spoil excavated Harbor. served E.B. Pinckney, who ownership officials. Only Pinckney made appearance. He dismiss lack jurisdiction ground granted, Government's dismissed. allowed intervene. Fifth Circuit reversed. observed: "The sovereigns. 14 "There can be, doubt here involved Article I specifically reserved Supreme 516 [42 173] confirmed reservation." F.2d, 356. Although participate sought original-jurisdiction confirm Islands. Leave denied. 812, 43, 728 (1955). took Pinckney's petition certiorari, above, pending Later, another application 352 1030, 77 593, 598 (1957). 16 Reports 17 reports concern, listed them, small unnamed upstream, west, Pennyworth east Pennyworth, referred "Tidegate," Islands, Rabbit Hog Long 3, Southeastern Denwill, (5) Jones (6) (7) (8) 18 himself, "[f]or convenience counsel," "major legal issues" covered way: 19 "1. Did intend include only thereafter river? If affirmative, reconciled? 20 "2. Is correct invoked demarcator 'thread' 'special circumstances' reason preclusive 1787? 21 "3. Has correctly accreted whether 'Island Rule' applicable? 22 "4. acquired acquiescence? notes that, though (in 1787) remained creek separating mainland spoilage dumped avulsive became mainland. "5. area if encroaches mid-point now belongs Georgia? 24 "6. pertinent times, Carolina? 25 "7. err diverting medium filum acquae Court, eastwardly leaving tip Turtle Island?" Rep. 112-113. 26 directed recommendations (a) (other except), (b) (c) "use mainstream river," Ga. ii, (d) ruling formation "on ibid., (e) channel, geographic "mouth" starting delineation exceptions, far concerned, thus second, fourth, seventh Master. Some claims pressed Master, e.g., relating presented review here; treat those abandoned. 27 "two narrow strips well City Savannah," "downstream Shoal," resulted placement Georgia." S.C. So fifth, Before consider specifically, note reaction straightforward. asserts Georgia; treaty provision, Carolina; "reflects fundamental dissatisfaction framers construed 1922." led "to diverge, every opportunity, since order river." Id., 8. disavows characterization decision. 29 turn select. 30 four number named family, order, (referred Island" older Coast maps), (actually fourth family others). As noted, although adjudged leaves us 31 states discernible such into 20th century, when, activity Engineers, affixed 13. opines valuable dispute. consists acres short distance Savannah. "clearly future economic development." Response 1-2. 32 essentially this: practical possession accordance therewith, often aid resolving disputes. See, How. 591, 638-639, 1116 (1846); Louisiana Mississippi, 202 1, 53, 408, 423, 50 913 (1906). Possession dominion essential elements claim acquiescence. 524, 736, 537 (1893). duration purported judicially terminated above-cited 1955. decision, times since, exercised dominion, sovereignty, occupied deed easement. aggressively territory; current status. event, proof adduced falls required change solemnly accepted 1787. further maintains asserting make showing neighboring State. New Jersey Delaware, 291 361, 376, 377, 407, 412, 413, 78 847 (1934). Inaction, itself, great importance; legally significant silence face circumstances warrant response. Here, said, little evidence either actual constructive sufficient imply Except received scant attention anyone members family. And, apart rice planting, illegal whiskey production therais ing hogs fed mash. moonshining carried successfully shows paid authorities public generally. battery Confederate forces during War Between never resident schools, roads, improvements. 34 acknowledges grants 1795 1813. accompanying plats, identify property "islands." These, says invalid build grants. sure, 1868 deeds intrafamily conveyances Barnwells and, provided recorded 1930. There marriage settlement 1832 mortgage 1871 these, too, transactions. Anyway, descriptions insufficient true 1896 whereby brothers conveyed interests sisters. sheriff's 1940 convey title, inadequate description property, jurisdiction. 1942 Forfeited Land Commission Pinckney. 35 taxes tax records contain information identifying 1930 correlation acreage deeds. contradicted "by considerable evidence" understood 34. 1760. 1825, 1830, 1831, Many maps show Rabbit) 36 possession, limited official Acts, paucity published documents referring fall short, claims, establishing open continuous prescription. especially continued recognize officially situation held acquiesced. turn, position whatsoever, indirectly, litigation. party argues asserted act control 1950's, acquiesced latter's obvious exercise 1795. 38 With us, recognizing advances facts favorable position, decide favor agree Carolinians process, local person whose name appeared chain title. Martin Wilks, 755, 761-762, 2180, 2184-2185, 835 Appeals, usually resolved. Durfee Duke, 375 106, 115-116, 84 242, 247-248, 186 (1963). judgment therefore, sovereignty. Nor incidental effects transform binds needs additional fortification, but, did, twice, again 1957, asked question opposed applications, denied attempted get proceed, aspect Court.4 39 need repeat detail extensive conveyancing relied reaching conclusion. suffices say entire late 18th early 19th centuries low marshy ground. separated wide deep streams shallow "sometimes dry." Record, S.C.Exh. B-8. Handly's Lessee Anthony, Wheat. 374, 381, 113 (1820). almost-uniform seizure subsequent sale unpaid taxes, policing prosecutorial activities authorities, wildlife officers, factors, 40 seeks actions therefore them. But period. 721 (1841); Vermont Hampshire, 289 616, 53 708, 716, 1392 (1933). And mere contains substantial events put cultivated, found, prior 1880. requires dikes, presence dikes 1855. Ga.Exh. 156, App. B chargeable knowledge Yet discovered lands except, possibly, three isolated instances century. describe evidence, residents aware islands. "It conclusively England, notorious adverse notice; holding only, title held. deem equally settled." Landes Brant, 348, 375, 449 (1851). 41 prevail issue, overrule thereto. Emerging After 43 west signed 1787.5 terms n. provides: 44 fork confluence rivers Tugoloo Keowee, forever hereafter form separation limit 45 considered 347. altered bring within merits, resolved contested relevant here. 46 favor, "where, thread river—the stream—regardless 521, S.Ct., 175. rejected alternative mark river: express reservation placing northerly Tugaloo up 'northern Carolina,' makes clear them Carolina." 520-521, 174. Because clause definition north side, thought unlikely intended benchmark present. logical take stream." 47 Second, followed half "branch ran midpoint body appropriate draw Two principles First, means self-evident refers "stream" island—however however shore—creates it, construction adopted Apparently rule, major departure main unmanageable pockets wherever defined larger sense. created formed reference, drawn. 49 expressly determine treatment given signed, controlling issue. agrees, better light Georgia" applied going similarly signed. establishment hereafter" after-emerging includes accordingly, reference Savannah" flowing currently think argument. solution, newly "reserv[ed] creates drawn, Even cause shift northward, depriving constitutes riverbed previously parties, drafting meant shifted radically contrary, hereafter," goal frustrated jump avoids animated boundaries. Cf. 51 recognize, normal rules accretion time, will necessarily particular point. thing shifts path gradually, extent accretion; rule parties' interest maintaining riparian rights. Nebraska Iowa, 143 359, 396, (1892). quite infer formed, alter degree dramatically proportion physical brought about 52 Finally, points statement "formed nature" Chattooga like Tugaloo, U.S., 597. contends, implies man-made exist indication, knew No simply was. foregoing, Mouth 1870's 1880's, easterly lies Cockspur southeast Island. westerly neighbor, conceded accepts immediately upstream 38-39. 56 complains, Bed, opposite departs east, "abrupt jog [to southeast] reach 38. consequence, says, supra. 57 fortifies flowed blocked training wall hydraulic fill force south Bed. stresses indeed, ceded 1820. 58 seems centers inconsistency River's located somewhat upstream. Cockspur. submission forming Usually, "headlands" marking Knight Assn., 142 161, 207, 258, 273, 974 (1891) (Field, concurring). "headland-to-headland" defining limits bays rivers. A. Shalowitz, Shore Sea 141, 367 (1964). always simple, however. Sometimes difficult delineate. S. Jones, Boundary-Making: Handbook 130 (1945). reasonably headland north, driven argue Daufuskie lying northeastward almost six miles Tybee. 59 conclude realistic rejecting 60 difficulty instead, true, affected flow fill. many years. Furthermore, impossible 61 Given unreasonable. 62 "Right-Angle" Principle 63 "is stage," stage." 523, seemingly simple routine resolution, results problem, qualify Where movement place? touches right angles shore? Does proceed accordingly bypassed followed, angle well? 64 acquae, easily established, nearest shores. Hampshire Maine, 363, 371, 2113, 2118, 701 (1976) (WHITE, dissenting). But, ease ascertainment disappears encountered. Such particularly 65 clearly determined, perhaps contemplated, Treaty. What authority—and found none—was (as proper) ended ceased revert connecting urges unique device apparently unsupported decisional authority, Boggs, International Boundaries: Study Boundary Functions Problems 183 (1966), wrong. Instead, argues, island's presence, marked be. 50-51. 67 Its submission, artificial lines, sustained, approach, angle, utilized encountered stretch consideration. 68 Elba plantation river; extends eastward beyond island. slightly there. D 69 Prior performance work broad expanse which, Corps' estimation, excessively wide. undertook restricting width. effected 1891-1895, sedimentation place, deposits dredge material behind wall. southeastern marsh adjacent grew connected 70 Similar Shoal, connects 71 this. Referring Rep., asserts: "Approximately mile riverfront emphasizes form, diversion wing-dam structures built, 1924 old bed above water. wall, long, permeable, permitted filling occurred. observes nowhere avulsive, asserts, pointing references procedures, "it avulsive." 9. worked benefit Savannah, "Georgia's port beneficiary dredging." Brief Rebuttal 72 relocation original location. C toward rose it. 73 exception. works filling. result, isthmus "in way, comparable Denwill." 13-14. area, 1890 1894. Wing dams "even large-scale began, becoming dry elevation solely works." 14-15. 74 General developed expressed accepted. When changed accretion, follows varying stream. forms avulsion, Arkansas 246 158, 301, 304, 638 (1918). Sometimes, distinguish two. 75 Here interference adjoining Engineers. extend one's own landfilling purposefully causing Seacoast Real Estate Co. American Timber Co., 92 N.J.Eq. 219, 221, 489, (1920). conclude, without difficulty, areas. ordinarily calls mind something or, least, duration, whereas essence period flow. partly wholly obstructions. County St. Clair Lovingston, Wall. 46, (1874). gradually sediment Others hydraulic-pipeline employed paramount nature. close, balance, supports Shoal. Addition elongated across Island." 16. merged Apps. sliver latter State's reasons run 17. 79 Report, motion, carefully passing entirety modifying F "responded agreeing." 19. serves eliminate Lateral Seaward 80 done begins resolution approved hereof. accepted, we, "headland" long-existing 81 complicating coast, meet exactly north. While southwest-northeast, roughly degrees north-south degrees. overlap off shoreline increases. wedge-shaped primary focus 82 83 dispute, expect receive, i.e., perpendicular coast. outside overlap. split "more equally." 22. relates "only proposed boundary." Reply submits maritime boundary," fails, upheld. 85 observed neither 1732 nor 1969 reached tentative agreement projecting effective. entered stipulation, Solicitor ultimate concluded necessary party. proceeded apply international law, citing Wisconsin Michigan, 295 455, 786, 1541 (1935), 775 86 reviewed contentions. cited 1958 Geneva Territorial Contiguous Zone, 29, [1964] U.S.T. 1607, T.I.A.S. 5639, paragraph thereof, id., 1610, recites entitled territorial median baselines." Baseline Committee, operating 1970's, drew determined approximately end baseline Nevertheless, felt controlled law. "[T]herefore, follow merely extension states, highly persuasive." halfway baseline. 87 contended start extended, intersected boundary's being delimited southeasterly direction running substantially providing entrance turned "equidistant principle" observed, "may preferred method delimitation, stature law." guide case." Ibid. 88 beginning "X" outer December 27, 1988.6 proper utilization principles. 18. "be suitably joint expense states." 89 adopt X summary: 90 91 taken, (subject 7, infra ). 94 adopted.7 95 promptly prepare conclusions. discharged, 493 1053, 860, 107 945 (1990), assumes able decree. unable agree, submit formulation supportive comment deemed necessary. draft costs allowed. 97 retains entertain proceedings advisable effectuate forthcoming parties. ordered. 99 whom MARSHALL joins, Part, sustains "right-angle" delimit belonging shores just recommends island-South reverts, shore-to-shore 101 eminently me. faithful follows: "(1) stage; stage. 175, Thus banks. approach. 102 adopts, deviate "tri-equidistant" shore—thus onward circumscribes ceases mainlands Using longer exclusively 103 complains best noting passes "deflects" meets endorse mention "deflection." everywhere convinced unfairly deprive concedes precedent fails give deference view "fair" misreads respect, dissent. 105 106 opinion, sustain am persuaded full coastlines (1976).* difference becomes crosses 3-mile 12-mile seas. 108 dissent purport law regarding applying specifics acknowledging approves my view, holding. concerns came Agreeing finds contends unless 112 " 'The thence till Georgia.' Ante, (emphasis added). regardless emerged. vested riverbeds. arose time. Louis Rutz, 138 226, 247, 337, 344, 941 (1891). 114 render superfluous islands" clause. northernmost lay dividing belong nothing our 'where stream' flows shore" "between other." 521-522, Consistent earlier holding, interpreting address arose, language treaty. 115 keeping intended. define according borders. 466 96, 100, 1645, 1648, (1984); moves produce defines contemplated uneven result. 116 addition, interpretation status (i.e., River), saw need, ibid. (distinguishing islands). weight previous upsetting expectations. 117 advocated reasonable. because, discern boundaries much eroded, emergence. instances, explains brief: 118 "Either state stands lose likewise, potential acquiring erosion. For example, subsequently erosion, advantage owned (footnote omitted). 119 reasons, 120 consequences view. territory, 88, (noting "then definitely error"). prevents me joining question. 121 My 122 Third, belonged lost Articles read: "Article first. head spring source highest latitude second. bar, direct Hutchinson's town upper bed, principal back Atlantic ocean: hereby declared henceforth free citizens exempt duties, tolls, hindrance, interruption molestation enforced other, rest southward foregoing acknowledged exclusive Reprinted Exceptions. bank, jointly. 1798 reflected theme. provided: limits, jurisdictions, do, ought to, Tugalo 23. H.R. Doc. 357, Constitutions, Colonial Charters, Organic Laws, 59th Cong., 2d Sess., vol. 794 (1909). 1983, amended, statutes, provide: deduced Cession Agreement America 1802, Resolution Assembly dated 1826, adjudications compromises affecting Alabama Florida, "From sea, thereof Rivers Keowee Tugalo, Chattooga, North thirty-fifth latitude, Ga.Code Ann. 50-2-1 (1986). last-named conforming 1787." 50-2-2. Similarly, 1895, statute reads: divided ocean Toogaloo Seneca Rivers; Tallulah 35th broken S.C.Code 1-1-10 provisions "1st. "2nd. "3rd. nature completely rivers." worth, qualitative offered cluster. together, taxed manner. diked cultivated rice. pursued prescription, emergence immaterial. date 1988, President Proclamation thenceforth extended nautical miles. 5928, Fed.Reg. 777 (filed 6, 1989). theretofore sea. problems confronting coastal further, consideration exceed him. 27-28. One might suggest, perhaps, assumed "straight baselines" constructing 12-14. authorized Continguous [1964], 1606, 1608, 5639. provides option. instance coastline. California, 381 139, 167-169, 1401, 1416-1418, 296 (1965); (Louisiana Case), 394 11, 68-73, 773, 804-807, (1969); (Alabama Mississippi 470 93, 99, 1074, 1078, (1985). assumption, refrain adopting discussion. assumption litigation, propriety day. northeast southwest 47x 20x angle. 406. Lines fronts, 137x 110x, respectively, overlapping illustrations next page. Head-to-Tybee closing 14x azimuth 104x, fronts: average fronts. Assuming above-reported measures fronts correct, 1231/2x:

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