Document: 428 U.S. 280 96 S.Ct. 2978 49 L.Ed.2d 944 James Tyrone WOODSON and Luby Waxton, Petitioners,v.State of NORTH CAROLINA. No. 75-5491. Argued March 31, 1976. Decided July 2, Syllabus Following this Court's decision in Furman v. Georgia, 408 238, 92 2726, 33 346, the North Carolina law that previously had provided cases first-degree murder jury its unbridled discretion could choose whether convicted defendant should be sentenced to death or life imprisonment was changed make penalty mandatory for crime. Petitioners, whose convictions sentences under new statute were upheld by Supreme Court Carolina, have challenged statute's constitutionality. Held : The judgment is reversed insofar as it sentences, case remanded. Pp. 285-305; 305-306; 306. 287 N.C. 578, 215 S.E.2d 607, Mr. Justice STEWART, POWELL, STEVENS concluded Carolina's sentence violates Eighth Fourteenth Amendments. 285-305. 1 (a) Amendment serves assure State's power punish "exercised within limits civilized standards," Trop Dulles, 356 86, 100, 78 590, 597, 2 630 (plurality opinion), central application a determination contemporary standards regarding infliction punishment, Gregg 153, 176-182, 2909, 2926-2929, 859. 288. (b) Though at time adopted, all States specified offenses, reaction jurors legislators harshness those provisions has led replacement automatic statutes with discretionary sentencing. two crucial indicators evolving decency respecting imposition punishment our society determinations legislative enactments conclusively point repudiation sentences. "The belief no longer prevails every offense like legal category calls an identical without regard past habits particular offender," Williams New York, 337 241, 247, 69 1079, 1083, 93 L.Ed. 1337. murder, which resulted from state legislature's adoption State analysis required serance feature old law, constitutionally impermissible departure unique irretrievable death. 289-301. 3 (c) fails provide tolerable response Furman's rejection capital Central limited holding conviction vesting standardless sentencing violated Amendments, yet constitutional deficiency not eliminated mere formal removal juries cases. In view historic record, may reasonably assumed many will continue consider grave consequences reaching verdict. But provides guide determining murderers shall live die. 302-303. 4 (d) respect human dignity underlying Amendment, supra, 597 requires consideration aspects character individual offender circumstances indispensable part process imposing ultimate impermissibly treats persons designated uniquely beings, but members faceless, undifferentiated mass subjected blind penalty. 303-305. 5 BRENNAN concurred reasons stated his dissenting opinion U.S., 227, S.Ct., 2791. P. 305. 6 MARSHALL, being cruel unusual forbidden judgment. 231, 2973 (Marshall, J., dissenting). 7 Anthony G. Amsterdam, Stanford, Cal., petitioners. 8 Sidney S. Eagles, Jr., Raleigh, N. C., respondent. 9 William E. James, Los Angeles, argued California, amicus curiae. 10 Sol. Gen. Robert H. Bork, Washington, D. United States, 11 Judgment Court, STEVENS, announced STEWART. 12 question crime 13 * petitioners result their participation armed robbery convenience food store, course cashier killed customer seriously wounded. Tre four participants robbery: Woodson Waxton others, Leonard Tucker Johnnie Lee Carroll. At petitioners' trial Carroll testified prosecution after having been permitted plead guilty lesser offenses; own defense. 14 evidence established men discussing possible some time. On fatal day drinking heavily. About 9:30 p. m., came trailer where staying. When out trailer, struck him face threatened kill effort sober up come along on robbery. three proceeded Waxton's they met himself nickel-plated derringer, handed rifle. then set automobile rob store. Upon arriving destination went into store while remained car lookouts. Once inside purchased package cigarettes woman cashier. also asked cigarettes, approached he pulled derringer hip pocket fatally shot her point-blank range. took money tray cash register gave Tucker, who carried pushing entering reached door. After outside, heard second shortly thereafter emerged, carrying handful paper money. got drove away. 15 testimony agreed large version It differed diametrically one important respect: claimed never gun, both customer. 16 During allowed same offenses pleaded guilty,1 solicitor refused accept pleas.2 Woodson, contrast, maintained throughout coerced therefore innocent, would pleading any offense. 17 found charges,3 and, statute, affirmed. 607 (1975). We granted certiorari, 423 1082, 1090, 47 94 (1976), penalties comports Amendments Constitution. II 18 argue violation reject argument today 168-187, 2922-2932, III 19 346 (1972), imprisonment.4 Waddell, 282 431, 194 (1973), held unconstitutional provision option returning verdict further severable so survived law.5 20 General Assembly 1974 followed court's lead enacted essentially unchanged except made mandatory. now reads follows: 21 "Murder first degree defined; punishment. A perpetrated means poison, lying wait, imprisonment, starving, torture, other kind willful, deliberate premeditated killing, committed perpetration attempt perpetrate arson, rape, robbery, kidnapping, burglary felony, deemed punished All kinds degree, term less than years nor more prison." N.C.Gen.Stat. § 14-17 (Cum.Supp.1975). 22 petitioners, June 3, 1974, tried, convicted, 23 unlike Florida, Texas, thus responded making murder.6 ruling constitutionality imposed addresses returned pursuant broad homicidal offenses7 constitutes meaning Amendments.8 issue, explored Furman, involves procedure employed select irreversible death.9 24 stands standards." 598, (1958) opinion). See Id., 101, 598; Weems 217 349, 373, 378, 30 544, 551, 553, 54 793 (1910); Louisiana ex rel. Francis Resweber, 329 459, 468-469, 67 374, 378-379, 91 422 (1947) (Frankfurter, concurring);10 Robinson 370 660, 666, 82 1417, 1420, 758 (1962); 242, 2728 (Douglas, concurring); 269-270, 2741-2742 (Brennan, 329, 2772 382-383, 2800-2801 (Burger, C. dissenting); 409, 2814 (Blackmun, 428-429, 2823-2824 (Powell, As discussed indicia societal values identified prior opinions include history traditional usage,11 enactments,12 determinations.13 25 order frame assessing relevancy these factors we begin sketching States. adopted 1791, uniformly common-law practice exclusive certain offenses.14 Although range American Colonies quite comparison 200 punishable England,15 Revolution considerable number crimes, typically including minimum, treason, piracy, burglary, sodomy.16 common homicides involuntary, provoked, justified, excused constituted automatically death.17 Almost outset reacted unfavorably sentences.18 initially expression public dissatisfaction limiting classes offenses.19 26 This reform, however, left unresolved problem posed infrequent refusal convict rather subject them 1794, Pennsylvania attempted alleviate undue severity confining "murder degree" encompassing "wilful, premeditated" killings. Pa.Laws c. 1766.20 Other jurisdictions, Virginia Ohio, soon similar measures, generation spread most States.21 27 Despite acceptance division degrees, reform proved unsatisfactory identifying appropriately failure due amorphous nature controlling concepts willfulness, deliberateness, premeditation,22 fundamental weakness became apparent. Juries continued find inappropriate significant return verdicts crime23 28 inadequacy distinguishing between solely basis criteria narrowing definition grant Tennessee 1838, Alabama 1841, 1846, abandon favor statutes.24 flexibility remedied permitting respond mitigating withholding By turn century, Federal Government offenses. next decades additional replaced statutes. Thus, end World War I, eight Hawaii, District Columbia either schemes abolished altogether. 1963, remaining jurisdictions sentencing.25 29 reveals rejected unduly harsh unworkably rigid. least since Revolution, have, regularity, disregarded oaths defendants consequence seen, initial movement reduce separate degrees prompted well reformers objected Nineteenth century journalists, statesmen, jurists repeatedly observed often deterred convicting palpably statutes.26 Thereafter, continuing reluctance authorization Congress federal crimes 1897,27 1949,28 1962.29 noted ante, 179-181, 2928-2929, measures people's chosen representatives weigh heavily ascertaining decency. consistent charted legislatures middle demonstrates aversion shared large.30 31 Still incompatibility results Witherspoon Illinois, 391 510, 88 1770, 776 (1968), "one functions can perform" exercising "between punishment" "to maintain link community penal system." 519, n. 15, 1775. Various studies indicate even do impose "with great frequency." Kalven & Zeisel, Jury 436 (1966).31 actions suggest standardsf viewed substantial portion murderers. 32 ruled statutes, several occasions dating back 1899 commented upon society's Winston 172 303, 212, 43 456 (1899), "hardship punishing coming concur conviction, induced legislatures, modern times, allow instead death." 310, 214.32 Fifty Winston, underscored marked transformation attitudes toward sentences: offender. whole country traveled far period commonplace sult . ." 1337 (1949). More recently, McGautha 402 183, 1454, 711 (1971), detailed evolution country, what termed "rebellion against rule murderers." 198, 1462. 198-202, 1462-1465. Perhaps factor about social Members accuracy McGautha's assessment Nation's 245-246, 2729-2730 297-298, 2756-2757 339, 2777 402-403, 2810-2811 whom Blackmun, Powell, Rehnquist, JJ., joined, 413, 2815 example, emphasized legislation requiring "regressive antique mold" mark "point criminology (passed beyond) long ago." Ibid. Chief Justice, speaking Justices length: 34 "I thought nothing clearer history, year ago, abhorrence 'the murderers.' concurring Marshall shows, (408 U.S.,) (339, at) 2777, 19th away enlightened introduction process. recognized culpability always measured ime committed. change greeted humanizing development. (1899); cf. Calton Utah, 130 83, 435, 870 (1889). Andres 333 740, 753, 68 880, 886, 1055 (1948) concurring)." 402, 2810. 35 seems beyond dispute that, 1972, renounced there remains following evince sudden reversal persistent unswerving beginning 1838 until Furman,33 evident post-Furman reflect attempts retain form Constitution, renewed sentencing.34 fact ndatory others legislated appears attributable diverse readings multi-opinioned case.35 36 brief examination background current reaffirm utility indicator Before 1949, person rape murder. That year, study commission created legislature recommended recommend cases: 37 "We propose recommendation mercy carry sentence. Only states believe retention definitely harmful. Quite frequently, refuse because, circumstances, defendant, although guilty, suffer are hardly harmony evidence. Our proposal already effect arson. There much beneficial such think broadened crimes." Report Special Commission For Improvement Administration Popular (Jan.1949). 38 1949 session proposed modifications subsequent numerous bills introduced limit abolish 1969 proposals N.C., 441, S.E.2d, (opinion court); 456-457, 32-33 (Bobbitt, part). 39 noted, Supra, 285-286, when analyzed severed proviso authorizing "the remainder full force effect." 444-445, 28. Waddell operation discretion. relates sought remove "All (so that) successful based attack statute." draws progress maturing society." 598 above discussion makes clear, developments treatment inexorably departs markedly cannot applied consistently Amendments' requirement "be exercised 598.36 B 40 309-310, 2762-2763 (Stewart, 313, 2764 (White, 253-257, 2733-2736 concurring). 398-399, 2808-2809 inadequacies withdrawing considers experience cases, becomes simply papered over unguided unchecked 41 Part III-A, general agreement persistently charged commission, 299-300, reported "(q)uite frequently" rendering because enormity imposed. Moreover, matter fact, operating only minority cases.37 reasonable assume inevitable exercise determine And way judiciary check arbitrary capricious through review sentences.38 Instead rationalizing process, scheme exacerbate resting jury's willingness act lawlessly. While expected increase death, does fulfill basic replacing wanton objective guide, regularize, rationally reviewable C 42 third shortcoming particularized relevant record each before acknowledge fairly denied different sanctions degree. 286-291, 2750-2753 concurring);Id., 306, 2760 accords significance facets excludes fixing possibility compassionate stemming frailties humankind. "(f)or justice generally acts taken account together propensities offender." Sullivan Ashe, 302 51, 55, 58 59, 61, (1937). Consideration arrive just appropriate progressive 247-249, 1083-1084; prevailing individualizing reflects policy imperative, humanity see inflicting 44 conclusion rests squarely predicate qualitatively however long. Death, finality, differs 100-year prison two. Because qualitative difference, corresponding difference need reliability specific case.39 45 stated, conclude must aside.40 remanded proceedings inconsistent opinion. 46 ordered. BRENNAN, 48 my 2971, 859, I sets aside senten violative 50 2973, am 51 WHITE, THE CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST join, dissenting. 52 considered criminal "if open court, recommend, prison, court instruct jury." determined Georgia invalidated giving thenceforward crimes. Thereafter amended eliminate express dispensing add kidnaping felonies section 53 "A kis 55 facts leading appear STEVENS. issues very similar, if identical, Roberts Louisiana, 325, 3001, 974. case, arguments proof guilt nevertheless seldom arbitrarily void Georgia. apparent disagree grounds plurality Sua sponte offers invalidating statute. affirm Court. 56 BLACKMUN, 57 dissent forth 405-414, 2811-2817, (1972) joined case. 375, 4, 465, 2796, 2816 2841. REHNQUIST, 59 difficulties attend plurality's explanation reaches tend obscure inhere unarticulated premises necessarily explanation. advert latter briefly, devote major actually considers. 60 original proposition, clear prohibition punishments embodied applicable (1962), Bill Rights. 225, 1476, (1971) Black, J.). If (1910), dealing contained Philippine (1958), indicating contrary, surely weighed statements Wilkerson 99 130, 345 (1879); re Kemmler, 136 436, 930, 519 (1890); 464, 376, (1947), itself, itself Cruel Unusual Punishments Clause. Thus assumption demonstrate "evolving decency" show "society" somewhat shaky departure. conceded, opinion's nonetheless founders. 61 relies turned system "simply over" reviewed unconstitutional. "constitutional shortcoming" said "its Ante, 303. 62 singly, together, withstand careful analysis. Contrary assertions, import Clause procedural requirements support Their invalidation system, upholding Texas systems "freakish" condemned Furman. 63 mistaken assertion "(t)he rigid." 292-293. purported developments: series decisions during class death; 20th centuries, largely deciding sanction. development relevance bearing development, properly analyzed, virtually argument. 64 materials widespread too narrow involved sodomy, 289, unanimous trend exclude offenders liability might bear slightest suggestion material relied turning all, away, spectrum therefore, arguably representing widespread, enough sort aggravated homicide stand convicted. 65 string analytical bow likewise evidences penalties. equal judgments jurors. 66 undoubted dissatisfaction, sector society, One segment totally opposed apparently willing substitution halfway house road total abolition. Another equally unhappy entirely reason. recognizes, it, people obviously Not it. 293. Change accepted unusual, crime, fewer acquitted. McGautha, 199, 1463. So action concerned, "turning away" penalty, supporting proposition "cruel unusual." Given unanimity nonunanimous Johnson 406 U.S 356, 363-364, 1620, 1625-1626, 152 single juror prevent conviction. Occasional refusals convict, easily represented intransigence small 12. presence given though majority decreed imposed, certainly offenders; few serve juries, whole, done so. ofdiscretionary creates inference severe. Legislatures enacting reason roughly old. subjective responses nullification legitimized, absence facts, likely anticipated acquitted Some escaping altogether guilty. unwilling paradox presented maverick acquittal standard professes obeisance. Nor preference unusual. concedes, must, laws providing Capital Punishment Statutes Enacted Subsequent Congressional Research Service Pamphlet 17-22 (June 19, 1974). These seeks explain wrongheaded reading wash. presumed preferred reposing judges, indisputably all. enact utterly notion regarded decency." glib little weight scale finds me instance desire save themselves conscientious ascertain content 70 flaw "papered states, 302, "there significa statutes." "as cases." factual satisfied necessary elements substantive out. 71 hang assert brought in; causing bring included greater Such jurors, course, violating oath, majority's hypothesis; hypothesis bottomed occurrence. 72 purposes argument, impossible sound upholds. 73 entitled life, whatever, notions right wrong. Florida judge requed legislatively aggravating factors, base choice estimate weighing. Substantial exists here, too, canalized Why types permissible, occur not, readily freakish described Stewart, White arose perception Many Few To bad permit concluding Require discretion, is, demonstrates,inexplicable. 74 closely approximates themandatory down today. answer statutory questions. questions unanimously answered affirmative, Must extremely difficult how infirmities caused concludes sidestep inconsistency justifying recognize, Jurek 262, 272273, Ct. 2950, 2956-2957, 929, read fashion. event, unlimited conform novel doctrine "(a) why imposed," 271, 2956, resulting produce wascondemned 75 seemsto believe, appellate afford instances arbitrariness system. comparing another meaningful protection whatever situations highly unique, relief occasional reviewing legislature. 76 established,of McKane Durston, 153 684, 913, 867 (1894). issue challenging courts. 77 definition, once conducted question, raised appeal Amendment. Here serious permissible sees role description upheld, down. doubtless true concerns expressed easy task considering glossolalial manner expressed. indicated rough "proportionality." sustain, present time, sustain situations, situations. 79 admirable oneas policy, imperfections, completely dictates disagreement opinion, Brother proportionality contemplates latter. still guarantee equality sentencing, nullification. Under free whatever. know, present, decided mercy, opted mercy. "proportionality" type review, perhaps achieve lacunae verdicts, lacunae. 80 Identical defects seem inherent neither authority urged prosecutor lacking. Without findings praise cure identify somewhatforced. 81 Appellate affords correction fortunate beneficiaries random admittedly purportedly corrections spectrum, other. Constitution require review. wish undertake effort, undoubtedly so, notrequired plurality'sinsistence "standards" "guide die" contrary written Harlan subscribed five ago. latter-day recognition, "objective Its abandonment stare decisis mistake superficial contrived genuine wisdom McGautha. addressed the"standardless discretion" contention language: 83 "In view, derives generality. Those grips hard attempting draft channeling confirmed lesson taught recounted above. characteristics perpetrators call language understood authority, tasks ability. 84 "Thus British Home Office, recent abolition responsibility selecting England Wales receive benefit Royal Prerogative Mercy, observed: 85 " 'The difficulty defining ought illustrated reference considerations Secretary clemency. No simple formula take innumerable culpability, claim satisfy opinion.' 1-2 Punishment, Minutes Evidence (1949)." 204-205, at1466. 86 light experience, limitations knowledge, say committing untrammeled pronounce offensive anything confronted truly awesome decreeing fellow variety suggested defense counsel. catalog elusive area inhibit expand scope consideration, list ever really complete. infinite meaningless 'boiler-plate' statement obvious need." 207-208, at1467 (citation omitted). 87 worth noting repudiates also, adhered jurisdiction question. 196 8,91 1461. IV insistence, III-C, "particularized defendant" buttressed principal distinction contradicts parts III-A 89 describes itconceives purports "an homicide, prisoner serving sentence." 7. Yet consideration" reservation PartIII-A disingenuous best. 90 None half-heartedly cited III-C comes light-year establishing individualized requisite (1937), Equal Protection breaking penitentiary dependent length break. protection, comparative gravity ofcriminal injurious matters (the State's) determination. inflict deserved merely vindicate deter purposes. His tendencies significantly restraint discipline him." 60. words Butler, Black (1949), plurality, lend principle consideration. surprising, respectable support, unlikely Butler Mr.Justice embraced reliesupon indisputable "death different" III-C. respects "different" criminals establish requiresindividualized deathis irreversible; executed life. aspect specially fairness trial, factfinding none here. Petitioners validity unquestioned conceded connection individualizedconsideration 95 deathpenalty indeed ends living confined institution. enter unusual" inquiry proceed further. insistence thesentencing, depend here concededly traditionally ended judicial construing (1958); 17, (1947); (1879). What Due Process conceives desirable guarantees McGautha,and unsupported 97 agree withthe Since member suggests fell short mandated fullest "majestic generalities," Fay 332 261, 282, 1613, 1624, 2043 conscripted interpreted used systemfor charges accessory He years' charge, second, run concurrently. refusing offer finding abused noted: planned directed fired shots Mrs. wounded Stancil overwhelming. extenuating incentive plea tendered close evidence." 595-596, 618 addition assault deadly weapon intent kill, charge arising wounding April "s 14-17. Murder death: Provided, jury. thirty (1969). characterized invalid "Upon offense, proper instruction judge." 445, 28-29. rape. 14-21 involve sentence, defined terms 25, Infra. Amendment's proscription (1962). Several expressly declined views 257, 2735 307, 2761 310-311, contend failed phases claims Gregg, Proffitt, Jurek. presents Frankfurter contended did apply believed, "expresses demand 468, 378 (concurring 99, opinion) (dictum). 291, 2753 377, (1910) (noting Cadena temporal "no legislation"); 436-437, 2827-2828 2928-2929. 1775, (1968); 201-202, 1464-1465, (1971); 388, 2803 439-441, 2828-2830 dissenting) ("Any discern, lie punishment"). Bedau, Death Penalty America, 5-6, 27-28 (rev. ed. 1967) (hereafter Bedau). 1-2; R. Bye, (1919) Bye). Bedau 6; Bye 2-3 (most capital; Rhode Island, "mildest colonies"); Hartung, Trends Use 284 Annals Am. Academy Pol. Soc. Sci. 8, (1952) ("The English colonies ten eighteen offenses"). 23-24. 27; Knowlton, Problems Discretion Cases, 101 U.Pa.L.Rev. 1099, 1102 (1953); Mackey, Inutility Mandatory Punishment: An Historical Note, B.U.L.Rev. (1974); 198-199, 1462-1463; 214, (1899). 5. colonial period, 1682 Great Law Penn Penn's 1718, greatly expanded 16, 9-10. early reduced Davis, Movement Abolish 1787-1861, Am.Hist.Rev. 23, 27, (1957). 24. Ibid.; 26-27, 13. late 1950's, formulation, retained law. Institute, Model Penal Code 201.6, Comment (Tent. Draft 9, 1959). 1462-1463. 18; Tenn.Laws 1837-1838, 29; Ala.Laws 1841; La.Laws Act 139. W. Bowers, Executions America (1974). Prior Maryland optional Md.Laws 1809, 138. Massachusetts, "Capitall Lawes" 1636, nonmandatory 7-9 (Table date sentencing); Brief Amicus Curiae O.T. 1970, 70-203, App. (listing introducing cases), 1970 cases). 1972 scattered among codes various esoteric trainwrecking perjury execution innocent person, treason government. 46-47 (1964 compilation). prevalent dealt governments. prosecuted laws. 10. T. Sellin, Penalty, Project Institute (1959) (discussing Michigan subsequently repealed Dakota statute). person. Data covering 1930 1961 indicate, period. 46. actual administration preceding concerned life-term prisoner. existed 1964. 46-47. 550 prisoners across California assaults prisoners. NAACP Legal Defense Educational Fund, Inc., et al., Amici 19. occasion examine Supra 18. H.R.Rep. 108, 54th Cong., 1st Sess., (1896) modification "a growing sentiment," quoting 545, 53d 2d (1894)); S.Rep. 846, 3d Sess. (1895). unpublished Hearings 138 Subcommittee Judiciary Senate Committee 19-20 (May 1961) (testimony Sen. Keating). compiled former Attorney trials 1, 1953, February 1960. rate "substantially below average prosecuting 20. lower attributed justify McCafferty, Major Am.Crim.L.Q. pp. 14-15 (1963) 1947, 30, 1958). submitted Massachusetts Connecticut "for years" resorted second-degree avoid States' 1951. 1973 report surveying available literature analyzing concluded: "Although data collection techniques weak, uniformity conclusions substantiating authors 'jury nullification' (i. e. penalty) impressive. Authors sides debate conclusions. writing wrote 1892 1950's 1960's." McCloskey, Review Literature Contrasting Discretionary Systems Sentencing Governor's Study (Pa., 1973). abandoned but, exception, adopting 30; 29, 9. Vermont, 1911, "veritable wave twenty murders" 1912. 30. Vermont reinstituted 1957. reveal 20% Of 386-387, 11, 2802-2803 435-436, 2827 Petitioner Aikens 1971, 68-5027, F (collecting percentage 20%). Statistics Department 1972. Enforcement Assistance Administration, 1971-1972, Table 7a (National Prisoner Bulletin Dec. (The figure local facilities pendency appeals.) Later, passage "was impelled ethical humanitarian practical reluctant inevitably called infliction." 886 replace "(d)issatisfaction antiquity laws." 747-748, 884. Supra. polls "despite increasing approval reflected last decade, idea want both." Vidmar Ellsworth, Public Opinion Stan.L.Rev. 1245, 1267 poll revealed "substantial majority" 1253. REHNQUIST's notes, "preferred all," Post, weight. artificial establishes punishment; "utterly (those States) 'evolving decency.' says State, thinking faced barbarous former. Dissenting 974, mistaken" possibly ascribable "some jurors." 309, 313 (REHNQUIST, 361, 361 acquittals citizens moral reservations concerning regularly excluded conceivable "represented minority" 312 ignore reflecting values, uniform historical Blackmun ago 296-298, 32, cogent persuasive speculations today's opinions. 204-206, 2939-2940. proceeds faulty premise if, hold invariably proportionate murderer regardless 322-324. procedures unnecessary reach petitioner disproportionate involvement independently violate 187, 2931-2932.

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