Document: 531 U.S. 159121 S.Ct. 675148 L.Ed.2d 576 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.SOLID WASTE AGENCY OF NORTHERN COOK COUNTY, PETITIONERv.UNITED STATES ARMY CORPS ENGINEERS, et al. No. 99-1178. SUPREME COURT THE UNITED Argued October 31, 2000 Decided January 9, 2001 Syllabus Petitioner, a consortium suburban Chicago municipalities, selected as solid waste disposal site an abandoned sand and gravel pit with excavation trenches had evolved into permanent seasonal ponds. Because operation called for filling some ponds, petitioner contacted federal respondents, including Army Corps Engineers (Corps), determine if landfill permit was required under §404(a) Clean Water Act (CWA), which authorizes issue permits allowing discharge dredged fill material "navigable waters." The CWA defines waters" "the waters States," 33 U.S.C. § 1362(7), Corps' regulations define such include intrastate waters, use, degradation destruction could affect interstate foreign commerce," CFR 328.3(a)(3). In 1986, attempted clarify its jurisdiction, stating, what has been dubbed "Migratory Bird Rule," extends that, inter alia, provide habitat migratory birds. 51 Fed. Reg. 41217. Asserting jurisdiction over instant pursuant Rule, refused permit. When challenged merits denial, District granted respondents summary judgment on jurisdictional issue. Seventh Circuit held Congress authority Commerce Clause regulate Migratory Rule reasonable interpretation CWA. Held: Title 328.3(a)(3), clarified applied petitioner's exceeds Pp. 5_14. (a) v. Riverside Bayview Homes, Inc., 474 121, this wetlands adjacent navigable waterway, noting term "navigable" "limited import" evidenced intent "regulate at least would not deemed `navigable' [that term's] classical understanding," id., 133. But holding based large measure upon Congress' unequivocal acquiescence to, approval of, interpreting cover waters. See 135_139. expressed no question open water, statute's text will allow extension here. 5_7. (b) original 1974 regulations-which emphasized water body's capability use by public transportation commerce determines whether it navigable-is inconsistent espouses here, yet present persuasive evidence mistook 1974. Respondents contend whatever aim, when amended 1977, approved more expansive definition found 1977 regulations. Specifically, submit failure pass legislation have overturned Environmental Protection Agency's §404(g) "other than" traditional indicates recognized accepted broad includes nonnavigable, isolated, recognizes congressional administrative interpretations statute extreme care. Failed legislative proposals particularly dangerous ground rest prior statute, Central Bank Denver, N. A. First Interstate A., 511 164, 187, because bill can proposed rejected number reasons. Here, failed make necessary showing demonstrates 1986 Rule. Section 404(g) equally unenlightening, does conclusively construction placed "waters" elsewhere supra, 138, n. 11. 7_11. (c) Even were clear, extend deference Chevron Inc. Natural Resources Defense Council, 467 837. Where raise serious constitutional problems, construe avoid problems unless plainly contrary intent. Edward J. DeBartolo Corp. Florida Gulf Coast Building & Constr. Trades 485 568, 575. grant Clause, though broad, unlimited. See, e.g., Morrison, 529 598. Respondents' arguments, falls within power activities substantially commerce, significant questions, there nothing approaching clear statement from intended reach one Permitting claim ponds mudflats falling also result impingement States' primary land use. thus reads written federalism questions rejects request deference. 11_14. 191 F.3d 845, reversed. ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR SEVENTH CIRCUIT Rehnquist, J., delivered Court, O'Connor, Scalia, Kennedy, Thomas, JJ., joined. Stevens, filed dissenting opinion, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, Opinion Chief Justice Rehnquist Court. 1 404(a) (CWA Act), 86 Stat. 884, amended, 1344(a), regulates interpreted confer northern Illinois provides We asked decide provisions fairly extended these and, so, exercise consistent Const., Art. I, §8, cl. 3. answer first negative therefore do second. 2 Solid Waste Agency Northern Cook County (SWANCC), 23 cities villages united effort locate develop baled nonhazardous waste. Gravel Company informed municipalities availability 533-acre parcel, bestriding counties Kane, mining three decades up until about 1960. Long since abandoned, old eventually gave way successional stage forest, remnant evolving scattering varying size (from one-tenth acre several acres) depth inches feet). 3 decided purchase their By law, SWANCC file various State begin balefill project. addition, (hereinafter respondents), Corps, CWA, 1344(a). 4 grants "for specified sites." Ibid. defined territorial seas." §1362(7). issued defining "waters States" 5 lakes, rivers, streams (including intermittent streams), mudflats, sandflats, wetlands, sloughs, prairie potholes, wet meadows, playa natural _ ." 328.3(a)(3) (1999). 6 attempt "clarify" stated instrastate waters: 7 "a. Which used birds protected Treaties; 8 "b. cross state lines; 9 "c. endangered species; 10 "d. Used irrigate crops sold commerce." 11 last promulgation Rule."1 12 initially concluded contained "wetlands," areas support "vegetation typically adapted life saturated soil conditions," 328.3(b) However, after Nature Preserves Commission bird species observed site, reconsidered ultimately asserted subpart Rule." approximately 121 known depend aquatic environments portion requirements. Thus, November 16, 1987, formally "determined seasonally ponded, depressions located project while did qualify `waters following criteria: (1) operation; (2) spoil piles developed character; (3) [sic] lines." Engineers, District, Dept. Permit Evaluation Decision Document, Lodging Tab 1, p. 6. 13 During application process, mitigate likely displacement preserve great blue heron rookery site. Its received local approval. 1993, special planned development Board Appeals, Agency, Department Conservation. 14 Despite SWANCC's securing quality certification established proposal "least environmentally damaging, most practicable alternative" waste; set aside sufficient funds remediate leaks posed "unacceptable risk public's drinking supply"; impact area-sensitive "unmitigatable surface cannot redeveloped forested habitat." Id., 87. 15 Petitioner suit Administrative Procedure Act, 701 seq., challenging both denial issue, challenge decision. On appeal Appeals Circuit, renewed attack respondents' Rule" assert argued exceeded statutory presence alternative, lacked regulatory jurisdiction. 16 began analysis question, cumulative doctrine, single activity itself discernible effect still regulated aggregate class substantial 850 (CA7 1999). "destruction birds" court held, each year millions Americans lines spend billion dollars hunt observe birds.2 then turned question. reaches many allows given earlier ruling, followed Act. 851_852. 17 certiorari, 1129 (2000), now reverse. 18 passed purpose "restor[ing] maintain[ing] chemical, physical, biological integrity Nation's 1251(a). so doing, chose "recognize, preserve, protect responsibilities rights prevent, reduce, eliminate pollution, plan restoration, preservation, enhancement) resources, consult Administrator his chapter." §1251(b). Relevant waters," seas," words here conclude supported 19 time we evaluate meaning §404(a). (1985), actually abutted waterway. noted understanding term." our concern protection ecosystems indicated "inseparably bound `waters' States." 134. 20 It nexus between reading Homes. Indeed, "express opinion" "question discharges bodies 131_132, 8. rule hold water. this. 21 promulgated two years enactment, §404(a)'s mean "those ebb flow tide, and/or presently, past, future susceptible purposes 209.120(d)(1). "[i]t determinative factor." §209.260(e)(1). put forward 1974.3 22 next aim 1972, charted new course five later July adopted 323.2(a)(5) (1978), "isolated streams, part tributary system argue aware during amendments point House bill, H. R. 3199, "all presently used, condition improvement means transport 123 Cong. Rec. 10420, 10434 (1977).4 They passage §404(g)(1) apply permission "to administer own individual general program (other than those thereto) 1344(g)(1). submit, indicate Although situations, done care.5 "[F]ailed `a statute.' " 187 (1994) (quoting Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation LTV Corp., 496 633, 650 (1990)). A reasons, just others. relationship actions inactions 95th 92d passing considerably attenuated. "subsequent history less illuminating contemporaneous evidence," Hagen Utah, 510 399, 420 (1994), face difficult task overcoming plain import 24 which, course, appear 1986. cite recognition assertion waters,"6 explained "[i]n Chambers, debate narrow centered largely preservation." U.S., 136. Beyond desire us response 25 unenlightening. Homes phrase "at gives intimation might be; simply refers them conjecture must incorporate regulations, but plausible, contends, wanted all nonnavigable tributaries streams. exact express it, say, "§404(g)(1) (particularly §502(7), contains relevant `navigable waters') 11.7 26 decline invitation take they see ineluctable step Homes: isolated only seasonal, wholly counties, fall serve As counsel conceded oral argument, ruling assume word independent significance." Tr. Oral Arg. 28. agree separate definitional constitutes basis out statute. said effect" went thing give limited quite another whatever. mind enacting CWA: fact reasonably made. Appalachian Elec. Power Co., 311 377, 407_408 (1940). 27 Respondents-relying arguments addressed above-contend very least, address precise scope regard therefore, should 837 (1984). find even 28 invokes outer limits power, expect indication result. 575 (1988). requirement stems prudential needlessly issues assumption casually authorize agencies interpret push limit authority. ibid. heightened where alters federal-state framework permitting encroachment power. Bass, 404 336, 349 (1971) ("[U]nless conveys clearly, significantly changed balance"). "where otherwise acceptable Congress." DeBartolo, 29 Twice past six reaffirmed proposition 598 (2000); Lopez, 514 549 (1995). "substantially affect" commerce. note "national interest nearly magnitude," Missouri Holland, 252 416, 435 (1920), found, people annually recreational pursuits relating These questions. For example, object aggregate, affects although claimed birds, now, post litem motam, focus municipal landfill, "plainly commercial nature." Brief Federal 43. far cry, indeed, terms extends. 30 raised Hess Port Authority Trans-Hudson Corporation, 513 30, 44 ("[R]egulation [is] function traditionally performed governments"). Rather expressing readjust balance manner, resources 1251(b). read interpretation, reject deference.8 31 (1999), 41217 (1986), 32 Reversed. NOTES: without notice comment procedures outlined 553. Relying decision Hoffman EPA, 999 F.2d 256 1993), report Census Bureau, 1996 3.1 million spent $1.3 (with percent crossing so) 17.7 9.5 traveling observing shorebirds). F.3d, 850. refer portions believe expand Conference Report conferees "intend waters' broadest possible interpretation," S. Conf. Rep. 92_1236, 144 (1972), neither this, nor anything else point, signifies exert navigation. admit somewhat ambiguous. 24. While House, similarly worded amendment originating Senate, 1952, failed. 26710, 26728 (1977). Bob Jones Univ. 461 574, 595, 600_601 (1983), upheld Internal Revenue Service (IRS) Ruling revoked tax-exempt status private schools practicing racial discrimination IRS' statutes "correct"; "hearings issue," making "hardly conceivable Congress-and setting, Member Congress-was abundantly going on"; "no fewer bills introduced overturn IRS interpretation" Absent overwhelming acquiescence, loath replace agency interpretation. Consumer Product Safety Comm'n GTE Sylvania, 447 102, 118, (1980) ("[E]ven useful, subsequent rarely override gleaned language enactment"). cite, Senate referred regulation. 95_370, 75 same reiterated "[t]he committee redefine reference exempt certain types §404(a), including, "discharge maintenance farm stock irrigation ditches, drainage ditches." §67, 91 1600, 1344(f)(C). discharged "into affect, much address, violations carry criminal penalties, 1319(c)(2), lenity rejecting 31_32. need alternative argument. Shabani, 10, (1994). whom Breyer join, dissenting. 34 1969, Cuyahoga River Cleveland, Ohio, coated slick industrial waste, caught fire. responded dramatic event, others like Pollution Control (FWPCA) Amendments 817, 1251 commonly (Clean Act).1 proclaimed ambitious goal ending pollution 1985. §1251(a). Court's fully goal. vision zero remains unfulfilled, pursuit unquestionably retarded environment. Our longer burn. Today, however, takes unfortunate weakens principal safeguard against toxic 35 fair characterize "watershed" legislation. endorsed fundamental changes regulation §13 Rivers Harbors Appropriation 1899 (RHA), 1152, 407 assigned (Corps) mission regulating highways commerce; RHA accordingly "navigable." broadened protecting esthetic, health, recreational, environmental uses. redefined encompass That requires actual potential navigability. 36 previously properly included 80- parcel low-lying marshy navigable, directly hydrologically connected larger area, characterized poor drainage, creek. (1985).2 finding acquiesced applies 410-acre Moreover, once crossed legal watershed separates marshes inland principled reason limiting happen lie near stream. 37 today, draws line, invalidates well except tributaries, each. rests untenable premises: 1972 intend navigation," ante, 7, 3; drew boundary odd line today settles. 38 I shall explain, affords holding, extending so-called "isolated" simple common sense cuts particular favored majority. 39 * significance FWPCA illuminated regulation, majority ignores. 19th century efforts targeted exclusively "promot[ing] Kalen, Conservation: Call National Policy Evolution Jurisdiction Over Wetlands, 69 L. Rev. 873, 877 (1993). pursued through Acts, comprehensive 1899.3 RHA, Refuse prohibited "refuse" water" deposit bank "whereby navigation impeded obstructed" obtaining Secretary Army. 1152. 40 middle 20th century, goals shift away exclusive navigability toward preventing degradation. Rev., 877_879, 30. awakening environment helped along reinterpret impede Republic Steel 362 482, 490_491 (1960) (noting enough waste).4 Seeds nascent control FWPCA, enacted 1948 incrementally expanded years.5 41 reached climax existing universally described supporters truly "major purpose" establish long-range policy elimination pollution." 92_414, 95 (1971), reprinted Legislative History (Committee Print compiled Committee Public Works Library Congress), Ser. 93_1, 1511 Leg. Hist.) (emphasis added). And "[n]o Congressman's remarks complete [its] `comprehensive' nature Milwaukee Illinois, 451 304, 318 (1981) (Rehnquist, J.). sponsor far-reaching ever drafted," Hist. 369 (Rep. Mizell), Senator Randolph, Chairman Works, stated: "It perhaps field environment." 1269. undoubtedly correct establishing "a controlling abating Train City New York, 35, (1975). 42 resembles but, unlike navigability, §404 principally measure. comparison contents vividly illustrates difference provisions. pages detailed appropriations improvements specific facilities, 1121_1149, studies concerning feasibility canal across Isthmus Panama, 1150, surveys advisability harbor numerous locations, 1155_1161. Tellingly, §13, broadly prohibits refuse exception "flowing streets sewers . liquid state." 43 contrast, appropriated sums money research related programs control, 816_833, treatment works, 833_844. Strikingly absent declaration "goals policy" avoiding removing obstructions Instead, objective §101, restore maintain 1251. directed §102 "develop preventing, reducing, eliminating improving sanitary underground 1252. commands "due regard," unobstructed navigation, rather "improvements conserve propagation fish wildlife [and] purposes." goals, was, scope. opted versions §1362(7).6 arrived final formulation specifically deleting originally appeared version Act.7 undoes deletion. 45 §502(7) "be interpretation." 327. dismisses back hand. Ante, statement, claims, "signifies [nothing] navigation." 46 majority's drains conference amendment. "navigation" long established. Daniel Ball, Wall. 557 (1871); Gilman Philadelphia, 713 (1866); Gibbons Ogden, Wheat. (1824). Why "broadest beyond heartland power? "commerce all. 47 Bayview, interests served embrace `significant functions, food chain production, habitat, nesting, spawning, rearing resting sites' wildlife. 134_135. powerful, regardless proximity swamp Nothing text, purposes, supports conclusion contemplated-much commanded-the drawn today. 48 accuses accomplished deleted definition. After all, appropriate attention. Babbitt Sweet Home Chapter, Communities Great Ore., 515 687, 697_698, (1995) (refusing guided common-law "take" construing Endangered Species 1973 looking instead supplied statute). proper makes that-even reading-the inexplicable. Acts enacted, viewed "water suitable moving goods markets," 513; choice employ continued usage. Viewed light definition, unambiguous instructions Report, operates shorthand asserted." II 49 correctly notes, construed being essentially RHA.8 reaction courts,9 (EPA),10 Congress,11 convinced full extent [C]ommerce [C]lause" never form protection." 31320 50 1975, interim Bayview. case, understood include, "nonnavigable whose misuse 123. 1975 provided become effective phases: phase became immediately, encompassed covered RHA; 2, 1976, freshwater lakes; 3, phases (such "intermittent perched contiguous waters") Engineer necessitate quality." 31325_31326 lakes commerce."12 provoked opposition among Members Congress. result, considered wetlands. Cong., 1st Sess., §16(f) embodying defeated Senate. debates demonstrate summarized Bayview: 52 "In preservation. [123 Rec.], 10426_10432 (House debate); 26710_26729 (Senate debate). Proponents contended §404. Opponents narrower exclude vast stretches crucial detrimental effects ecosystems, quality, generally. debate, lengthy. ended adoption narrowed `waters'; retained. Senate's approach: abandoned; passed, Baker, `retain[ed] exercised Act.' 136_137. 53 net extensive endorsement position maintains 54 "[T]he brought attention, measures designed curb unduly hampered waters.' chary attributing act, refusal overrule agency's reasonableness construction, attention supplant it." 137. 55 rejection House's cut clearly assertion. determination case foreclose urgings contrary. today's acknowledge troubling. Compare 136 ("Congress [1975] [of jurisdiction]"), ("We _").13 Having already wrong reverse Dickerson 530 428, 443 (2000) J.) (" `[T]he doctrine stare decisis] carries force always departure precedent "special justification" ' "). 56 More important law revisions. Instead agreeing who sought withdraw classes control. 1601, 1344(f). expressly ditches," temporary sedimentation basins placement exemption exceptions limits. 57 addition enumerated exceptions, section, §404(g), authorized 404(g)(1) provides, part: 58 "The Governor desiring , description proposes compact." 59 404(g)(1)'s use" transporting appears suggest (and accepted) Act's covering sense. points ambiguous precisely how extend. 10. ignores provision's history, §404(g)(1)-and jurisdiction-to extend, case. 60 discussing amendments, states "establish[es] process Administrator." 95_830, 101 (1977), Compiled Environment 95_14, 285 added) CWA). Similarly, explains [C]orps continue section dredge 708 (emphases 61 Of discussed, "phase 1" 2" "primary tributaries" 3" establishes believed-and desired-the 62 dismissing §404(g)(1), quotes context quoted above. true 75, fails explanation go immediately preceding sentence warns "[t]o [FWPCA] pollutants cripple achieve act's objectives."14 heed warning. 63 places weight, "does Act," selective reading. say respect pari materia." More-over, ultimate "suggest[s] strongly Act" III 64 problematic "linguistic" level classify "lands" squarely charged enforcing entitled refuses 11_13. unfaithful Chevron. reading, agency's, violence scheme place. 65 Contrary suggestion, "encroac[h]" "traditional power" 12. "Land planning essence chooses uses land; core, mandate however damage kept prescribed limits." California Coastal Granite Rock 480 572, 587 (1987). land-use code; paradigm Such Hodel Virginia Surface Mining Reclamation Assn., 452 264, 282 (1981). 66 ironic specter explicit foster Faced calls attempts incorporating encouraged programs. ("The intends assure responsibility swamps, marshes, outside added)). taken advantage opportunities offered concerns adverts misplaced. manifestly IV 67 am miserly incorrect, briefly argument prohibit acres property County, Illinois. boundaries jurisprudence. 68 549, 558_559 (1995), identified "three categories power": channels instrumentalities persons things analyzed third category. constitute instance effect. Perez 402 146 "class" activities, instance, "affects" analysis); Hodel, 277; Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 127_128 (1942). general) "used birds." Had engage besides discharging (i.e., regulate), or, conversely, jurisdiction), involved land. There doubt attempting 598, 613 ("[g]ender-motivated crimes"), 561 (possession guns school property), almost undertaken economic V. Albrecht B. Goode, Wetland Regulation Real World, Exh. (Feb. 1994) (demonstrating acreage commercial, industrial, use).15 70 disputes will, adversely populations. Interior, Congress, Impact Programs Wetlands: Lower Mississippi Alluvial Plain Prairie Pothole Region 79_80 (Oct. 1988) "isolated," "are [the] threatened "[t]hey prime nesting grounds North American waterfowl _" "[u]p [U.S.] production waterfowl"). Nor dispute seeks home second-largest breeding colony Blue Herons northeastern App. Pet. Cert. 3a, international treaty laws, 7.16 71 intrinsic value (1920) importance "protectors forests crops" supply"), undisputed literally regularly participate birdwatching hunting generate host value.17 causal connection associated "attenuated," 612; direct concrete. Cf. Gibbs Babbitt, 214 483, 492_493 (CA4 2000) red wolf takings direct-with wolves, tourism _"). 72 Finally, blur "distinction national local." 617_618. Holmes cogently Holland textbook example problem. ("It rely [to birds]. reliance vain action benefits (e.g., landfill) disproportionately local, costs birds) widely dispersed often borne citizens living States. economists involving "externalities," necessary. Revesz, Rehabilitating Competition: Rethinking "Race-to-the-Bottom" Rationale Regulation, Y. U. 1210, 1222 (1992) externalities powerful intervention level"); cf. 281_282 (deferring nationwide standards "essential" "destructive competition" undermine standards). Identifying migrate satisfies "jurisdictional element" 612. 73 necessarily Sporhase Nebraska ex rel. Douglas, 458 941, 953 (1982) (holding "article commerce"). rely, resources. well-established responsibility. magnitude." 435. transitory nature, "can action." 74 Whether voice. Government require permission, easily answered. If, does, empowers "activities causing air hazards State," 282, Perez, 154; Wickard, 127_128.18 merit affirm respectfully dissent. Adler, Landman, Cameron, Act: Years Later 5_10 25a, 8, O. T. 1984, 84_701. "hydrological" nearby 25a. characteristics due, groundwater "poor drainage" resulting Lamson underlay property." Respondent 7. Nevertheless, occasional runoff meaningful connection. 134; ecological played central role Both many, possibly most, Dr. Gene Likens Amici Curiae 6_22. 11; 11, functions throughout America, suggests that-ecologically speaking-the isolated. Appropriations 1896, 234; Harbor 1894, 363; 1890, 426; 1886, 329. 1970, Operations lead advocated provision. 91_917, pp. 14_18 (1970). President Nixon issuing Executive Order 11574, 19627 (1970) (revoked Exec. 12553, 7237 (1986)), created Program. Power, Fox Chicken Coop: Regulatory Program Va. 503, 512 (1977) Power). soon started, literally, invalid. Ibid.; Kalur Resor, 335 F. Supp. (DC 1971). "interstate §10(e), 1161. Subsequently, harmonized that-like statute-the Pub. 89_753, §211, 80 None early approach problem, contain themselves elements employed 318, (Congress something "quite different" Act); W. Rodgers, Law: Air §4.1, 10_11 (1986) (describing FWPCA). 1253. Representatives 11896, 2d §502(8) 1069. 1362(7). acknowledged 1899." 37123 refusing defer 11_12, strangely attributes initial reluctance expanding ("Respondents 1974"). But, stranger still, seems willing accept abundant Council Callaway, 392 685, 686 1975); 373 665 (MD Fla. 1974). letter head EPA disagreement parsimonious view 1972: Hearings 94th (1976) (letter dated June 19, 1974, Russell E. Train, Lt. Gen. Gribble, Jr., Engineers). generally administers provided. 1251(d); Op. Atty. 197 (1979) administrator [EPA] authority" waters"). agreement EPA's broader 93_1396, 23_27 (1974). 37127 "migratory bird" rule, merely rules. "rule," thumb identifying preamble repromulgation (1986). preamble, alter way. indicated, "clarif[y]" case's reservation "certain 124, 2. reserved Unlike lands "that inundated frequency duration support, normal circumstances prevalence vegetation conditions. Wetlands bogs, similar areas." (2000). believe, heart closer (but within) margin, wetlands," marginally "waters," marginal category potentially reserved. presented attach Report's "redefine erroneous relies fullest extent." flawed correct, Quite From perspective constituted quo alter. Considering favorable references "continu[ing]" position, completely excises conceive noneconomic reasons weaken legitimacy claims. "[w]here courts excise, trivial, instances class." 154 (internal quotation marks omitted). Other using "Great Egret, Green-backed Heron, Black-crowned Night Canada Goose, Wood Duck, Mallard, Greater Yellowlegs, Belted Kingfisher, Waterthrush, Louisiana Swamp Sparrow, Red-winged Blackbird." 4, Office Technology Assessment 1980, 5.3 hunted spending $638 million. Assessment, Their Use (OTA_O_206, Mar. 1984). 100 $14.8 1980 watch photograph birdwatchers, 14.3 took trips observe, feed, waterfowl, water-associated herons residing Fish Wildlife Commerce, Bureau Census, Survey Fishing, Hunting, Wildlife-Associated Recreation 45, 90 (issued Nov. 1997). Thomas "aggregation principle." 600 (concurring opinion).

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