Document: 435 U.S. 313 98 S.Ct. 1079 55 L.Ed.2d 303 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.Anthony Robert WHEELER. No. 76-1629. Argued Jan. 11, 1978. Decided March 22, Syllabus Respondent, a member of the Navajo Tribe, pleaded guilty in Tribal Court to charge contributing delinquency minor and was sentenced. Subsequently, he indicted by federal grand jury for statutory rape arising out same incident. He moved dismiss indictment on ground that since tribal offense lesser included rape, proceeding barred subsequent prosecution. The District granted motion, Appeals affirmed, holding courts district are not "arms separate sovereigns," Double Jeopardy Clause Fifth Amendment respondent's trial. Held : does bar Pp. 316-332. (a) controlling question is source an Indian tribe's power punish offenders, i. e., whether it part inherent sovereignty or aspect Federal Government has been delegated tribes Congress. 316-322. (b) still possess those aspects withdrawn treaty statute, implication as necessary result their dependent status. 322-323. (c) Here, evident from treaties between Tribe United States various statutes establishing criminal jurisdiction over crimes involving Indians, never given up its sovereign nor implicitly lost virtue Indians' status; thus, exercise presently continued retained sovereignty. 323-326. (d) Moreover, such attributable any delegation authority. 326-328. (e) When tribe criminally punishes violating law, acts independent sovereign, arm Government, Talton v. Mayes, 163 376, 16 986, 41 L.Ed. 196, prosecutions brought sovereigns, they "for offence" thus one when other occurred. 328-330. (f) To limit "dual sovereignty" concept successive state prosecutions, respondent urges, would result, case this, "undesirable consequences" having prosecution relatively much graver one, depriving right enforce own laws; while Congress could solve this problem altogether, abridgment tribes' powers might be equally undesirable. See Abbate States, 359 187, 79 666, 3 729. 330-332. 545 F.2d 1255, reversed remanded. Stephen L. Urbanczyk, Washington, D. C., petitioner. Thomas W. O'Toole, Phoenix, Ariz., respondent. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion Court. 1 presented bars court under Major Crimes Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1153, previously convicted 2 * On October 16, 1974, respondent, arrested police officer at Bureau Affairs High School Many Farms, Reservation.1 taken jail Chinle, charged with disorderly conduct violation Title 17, 351, Code (1969). 18, two days after his arrest, further minor, 321, sentenced 15 fine $30 first 60 (to served concurrently term) $120 second.2 Over year later, November 19, 1975, charging returned Arizona.3 indictment, claiming rape,4 proceedings had place Brown Ohio, 432 161, 97 2221, 53 187. Court, rejecting prosecutor's argument "there identity sovereignties Courts States," dismissed indictment.5 Ninth Circuit affirmed judgment dismissal, concluding "Indian arms 1258. We certiorari resolve intercircuit conflict. 434 816,6 53, 54 71. II 4 In Bartkus Illinois, 121, 676, 684, 729, reaffirmed well-established principle person acts, one.7 basis doctrine laws sovereigns do not, language Amendment, "subject [the defendant] offence twice put jeopardy": 5 "An offence, legal signification, means transgression law. . Every citizen also State territory. may said owe allegiance liable punishment infraction either. act both. That either both (if see fit) offender, cannot doubted. Yet truly averred offender punished offence; but only committed offences, each f which justly punishable." Moore 14 How. 13, 19-20, 306. 6 It noted Abbate, supra, 195, S.Ct., 671, imposition double jeopardy circumstances support concept. Prosecution effectively latter laws.8 While, said, conflict eliminated making exclusive where exists, "marked change distribution administer justice" desirable. Ibid. 7 apply, however, every instance cases nominally different prosecuting entities. Grafton 206 333, 27 749, 51 1084, held soldier who acquitted murder court-martial retried territorial Philippines.9 And Puerto Rico Shell Co., 302 253, 264-266, 58 167, 172-173, 82 235, reiterated impermissible because "creations emanating sovereignty." Similarly, Waller Florida, 397 387, 90 1184, 25 435, we city political subdivision bring unlawful growing episode, despite fact law treated sovereignties. 8 contends, held, should apply themselves derive Government. This relies undisputed plenary authority legislate all matters, including form government. Winton Amos, 255 373, 391-392, 342, 349, 65 684; re Heff, 197 488, 498-499, 506, 516, 49 848; Lone Wolf Hitchcock, 187 553, 23 216, 47 299; 384, 989, 196. Because all-encompassing power, argues merely government"10 words brief, "owe existence vitality solely department government." 9 think Appeals, relying control tribes, have misconceived distinction applicable not. true Territories subject ultimate Congress,11 cities created them.12 But relied upon decisions Grafton, Co.,13 Waller. What differentiated extent exercised rather respective were undertaken. 10 rest basic structure our system, National communities. Governments "[derive] sources," organic established it. Lanza, 260 377, 382, 43 141, 142, 67 314. Each independently determine what shall against offenses, doing so "is exercising sovereignty, other." well overriding requirements Constitution, Supremacy gives within sphere enact superseding conflicting degree governmental detract State's origin power.14 11 By contrast, "Rather, traditionally regarded subordinate instrumentalities assist carrying functions." Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 575, 84 1362, 1388, 12 506.15 A nothing more than "an agency State." Williams Eggleston, 170 304, 310, 617, 623, 42 1047. Any define exists State; "derive[s] [its] creation." Mount Pleasant Beckwith, 100 514, 524, 699. As U.S., 393, 1188, "the judicial try pet tioner municipal springs general jurisdiction." government entirely creation Congress, "and tribunals exert States." 354, 755; Cincinnati Soap Co. 301 308, 317, 57 764, 768, 81 1122; Kagama, 118 375, 380, 1109, 1111, 30 228; American Ins. Canter, Pet. 511, 542, 242.16 enacts enforces govern inhabitants, acting community like State, Domenech City Bank, 294 199, 204-205, 366, 369, 857. 13 Thus, Territory Nation, "[t]here system government, operating limits." Benner Porter, 242, 119. whom owes meaningful sense, alone.17 permit single impose multiple expedient subdivisions crimes. III members. Although physically territory control, nonetheless remain "a people, regulating internal social relations." 381-382, 1113; Cherokee Nation Georgia, 1, 25.18 Their self-government includes prescribe members sanctions. Antelope, 430 641, 643 n. 2, 1395, 1397, 701; 988; Ex parte Crow Dog, 109 556, 571-572, 396, 405, 1030; 1152 (1976 ed.), infra, 21. discussed above Part II, offenders: Is Congress? are, general, "inherent limited extinguished." F. Cohen, Handbook Law 122 (1945) (emphasis original). Before coming Europeans, self-governing McClanahan Arizona Tax Comm'n, 411 164, 172, 93 1257, 1262, 36 129. Like bodies, then infractions laws. course, no longer "possessed full attributes 381, 1112. incorporation acceptance protection, necessarily divested them some exercised.19 specific provision yielded powers; removed others. 17 recognize recently that: unique aggregations possessing [They] good deal 'private, voluntary organizations.' " Mazurie, 419 544, 557, 95 710, 717, 706; Turner 248 354-355, 39 109, 63 291; 16-17. retain character. sufferance complete defeasance. until existing powers. sum, Oliphant Suquamish 191, 1011, 209. B offenders today therefore executed States20 provided Navajos commit non-Indians, deprived charge, try, violations contrary, "[i]mplicit these terms understanding affairs Indians remained exclusively whatever existed." Lee, 358 217, 221-222, 269, 271, 251; Warren Trading Post 380 685, 85 1242, 165. 19 recognized Trade Intercourse Act July 1790, 5, Stat. 138, offenses "any inhabitant States"; did mention Indians. 1817 ex ended country Indian, persons," another, boundary" excluded. Mar. 3, 1817, ch. 92, 383. 1834, 25, 733, enacted direct progenitor General now makes enclave generally country."21 statute carried forward intra-Indian exception jurisdiction" "we can [not] justice propriety extend to" them. H.R.Rep. 474, 23d Cong., 1st Sess., (1834). 1854 expressly added another providing "who local tribe." 27, 1854, 270.22 far tribe, repeatedly declined disturb it.23 20 prosecute clearly fall areas implicit divestiture occurred relations nonmembers tribe. freely alienate non-Indians land occupy. Oneida County Oneida, 661, 667-668, 94 772, 777, 73; Johnson M'Intosh, Wheat. 543, 574, 681. They enter into commercial foreign nations. Worcester 515, 559, 483; Pet., 17-18; Fletcher Peck, Cranch 87, 147, 162 (Johnson, J., concurring). And, courts. 21 These limitations status inconsistent freedom external relations. self-government, laws, type. involve among "[T]he settled nations is, weaker surrender independence—its self associating stronger, taking protection." 560-561. C 22 Tribe's supported absence grant power. If logically appear somewhere. relevant confers particular, Tribe.24 remains control. before Council present courts,25 Offenses reservation. CFR (1977); cf. 1311.26 Pursuant regulations, approved Secretary Interior becoming effective. 11.1(e) (1977). Reorganization 1934, 48 987, 476, Apr. 1950, 6, 64 46, 636, authorized adopt constitution self-government. Civil Rights 1968, 77, 1302, made most provisions Bill imprisonment six months, $500, 24 none offenders. Indeed, Wheeler-Howard Navajo-Hopi Rehabilitation already "existing law." Powers Tribes, I.D. (1934). certain ways regulated manner mean members, Navajos' primeval away them, explicitly implicitly, way authority.27 follows exercises Government.28 D 26 conclusion reflected decided 80 years ago, There murdering claimed defective Grand Jury Amendment. stated: "The depends nation springing Constitution hence controlled although paramount repeated adjudications long answered former negative. 28 29 "True many fully recognized, possessed functions, rights supreme legislative States. regulate render Id., 382-384. relevance Mayes clear. there Government.29 Since offence," IV 31 contends that, prosecutions. accept restrictive view concept, which, noted, require disregard very Clause. sort identified occur if sovereigns. excess months' $500 fine. 1302(7). hand, major offenses. 1153 ed.).30 crime possible, defendant will often face potential mild substantial severity. faced possibility sentence prison, received 75 small case, prospect avoiding severe surely motivate commission seek stand trial court. Were important interests reservations31 frustrated.32 32 would, solved chose deprive altogether. fundamental thought undesirable pre-emption avoided Abbate. "distinct communities" mores 557; Kansas Wall. 737, 756,33 enforced formal less means. significant interest maintaining orderly preserving customs traditions, apart order procedures influenced custom differ greatly own. 571, 396.34 33 mechanisms protecting interests.35 substantially just trench interests. inBartkus persuasive reasons reject arbitrarily ignore applies 34 Accordingly, reversed, remanded consistent opinion. 35 ordered. BRENNAN took consideration decision case. record make clear details incident led arrest. After bringing evidentiary hearing motion suppress statements officers. revealed intoxicated time arrest; clothing disheveled bloodstain face; involved girl; trying help girl, attacked several boys. reveal how out. "[o]n about 16th day October, Arizona, Reservation, Country, ANTHONY ROBERT WHEELER, male, carnally know female wife, attained age sixteen years, fifteen age. Code, Sections 2032." At part: "Any commits property following namely, carnal knowledge female, country, penalties persons committing amended respects here. 1976, 585. 2032 jurisdiction, defendant's wife years. challenged here unreported. later Eighth offense, Walking Crow, 560 386. Elk, 561 133 (CA8); Kills Plenty, 466 240, 243 (CA8). problems concurrent earlier, Houston Moore, address issue Fox 410, 213, Marigold, 560, 257, 306, mid-19th century. Those upheld criminal; consecutive raised objection rejected occurred, constitute jeopardy. actual 314, Volstead 85, 305, conviction liquor Washington. itself petitioners prison three months convictions, five years' charge. 670. referred Screws 325 91, 1031, 89 1495, facts give rise §§ 242 371 ed.) (which maximum imprisonment) murder, capital offense. "Were comparatively prevent grave shocking untoward deprivation historic obligation maintain peace confines." 137, 684. prohibition Philippines 1902, 692. previous unnecessary decide applied force statute. Kepner 195 100, 124-125, 797, 802, 114. Colliflower Garland, 342 379 (CA9). Binns 194 486, 491, 816, 817, 1087; De Lima Bidwell, 182 196-197, 743, 752, 45 1041; Mormon Church 136 42, 792, 481; Murphy Ramsey, 114 15, 44-45, 747, 763, 47. Trenton New Jersey, 262 182, 534, 536, 937; Hunter Pittsburgh, 207 178-179, 40, 52 151; 619, 1047; 529, 699; E. McQuillin, Municipal Corporations 4.03 (3d ed. 1966). autonomy similar states ." 262, 171. Cf. 379-382, 141-143, Eighteenth Amendment's area, 185-186, 536; 178, 46; Street R. 196 539, 548, 327, 329, 591; Barnes Columbia, 91 540, 440. relationship accurately compared State. Dorr 147-148, 808, 812, 128, quoting T. Cooley, Principles Constitutional 164-165 (1880); Bank Yankton, 101 129, 133, 1046. Gonzales Williams, 192 177, 179, 317; 242. unless membership, Intermarriage Cases, 203 76, 29, 96; Roff Burney, 168 218, 222-223, 60, 62, 442; domestic Fisher 424 96 943, 106; Quiver, 241 602, 699, 196; rules inheritance property. Jones Meehan, 175 12, 44 49; rel. Mackey Coxe, 299. 326. signed Canyon de Chelly 1849, ratified 1850. 974. second 1868. 667. provides: "Except otherwise sole except country. "This section where, stipulation, secured respectively." Despite statute's broad language, jurisdiction. McBratney, 104 621, 869. instant brought, 1885. 1885, 9, 385. contain need 'carefully intrusion land,' 701, deprives enumerated Act. 203-204, 1018, 14. S.Rep. 268, 41st 3d (1870): "Their themselves, rude fashion, even inflicting death penalty, questioned; carefully abstained attempting affairs, punishing country." "not them—a reservation granted." Winans, 198 371, 662, 664, 1089. 1958, law-and-order 1959, resolution Council. Titles Code; Oliver Udall, 113 U.S.App.D.C. 212, 306 819. Such Offenses, "CFR Courts," exist approximately reservations "in traditional agencies enforcement broken down [and] adequate substitute provided." 11.1(b) or, derives Department Interior, responsibility management matters relations," matter congressional grant. 398 (1958); 14, 56 Final Report Policy Review Commission 99-100, 126 emphasizing criminals, imply regained interesting us, express thereon. Mescalero Apache Jones, 145, 1267, 114, business enterprise operated off tr "federal instrumentality" free taxation. extends non-Indian court, ed.); 21, regardless involved, assaulting officer, 111 ed.). Stone 506 Keeble 412 205, 209-212, 1993, 1996, 844, describing enactment protected, 30, protect well. 'Navaho' word themselves. dine, 'The People.' term constant reminder Navahos society individual strong sense belonging others speak and, token, difference isolation humanity." C. Kluckhohn & Leighton, Navaho (Rev. 1974). Traditional tends informal consensual adjudicative, emphasizes restitution punishment. 160-166 Hagan, Police Judges 11-17 (1966); Van Valkenburgh, Common Law, Museum Northern Notes (1936); id., (1937); 37 (1938). materials M. Price, 133-150, 712-716 (1973). kinds, 26, handled estimated 70,000 1973. 163-164

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