Document: 438 U.S. 586 98 S.Ct. 2954 57 L.Ed.2d 973 Sandra LOCKETT, Petitioner,v.State of OHIO. No. 76-6997. Argued Jan. 17, 1978. Decided July 3, Syllabus The Ohio death penalty statute provides that once a defendant is found guilty aggravated murder with at least one seven specified aggravating circumstances, the must be imposed unless considering "the nature and circumstances offense history, character, condition offender," sentencing judge determines following established by preponderance evidence: (1) victim induced or facilitated offense; (2) it unlikely would have been committed but for fact offender was under duress, coercion, strong provocation; (3) primarily product offender's psychosis mental deficiency. Petitioner, whose conviction specifications to escape apprehension for, while committing attempting commit, robbery, sentence were affirmed Supreme Court, makes various challenges validity her conviction, attacks constitutionality on ground, inter alia, does not give full opportunity consider mitigating in capital cases as required Eighth Fourteenth Amendments. Held : judgment reversed insofar upheld case remanded. Pp. 594-609; 613-619; 619-621; 624-628. 49 St.2d 48, 358 N.E.2d 1062, part THE CHIEF JUSTICE delivered opinion Court respect Parts I II, concluding: 1 1. prosecutor's closing references State's evidence "unrefuted" "uncontradicted" (no having introduced rebut after petitioner decided testify) did violate constitutional prohibitions against commenting an accused's failure testify, where petitioner's counsel had already focused jury's attention silence promising defense telling jury she testify. 2959-2960. 2 2. exclusion from venire four prospective jurors who made "unmistakably clear" because their opposition penalty, they could trusted "abide existing law" "follow conscientiously" trial judge's instructions, Boulden v. Holman, 394 478, 484, 89 1138, 1142, 22 433, Sixth Amendment rights principles Witherspoon Illinois, 391 510, 88 1770, 20 776, Taylor Louisiana, 419 522, 95 692, 42 690. 595-597. 3 3. Petitioner's contention Court's interpretation complicity provision which convicted so unexpected deprived fair warning crime charged, without merit. court's construction consistent both prior law statute's legislative history. P. 597. 4 JUSTICE, joined Mr. Justice STEWART, POWELL, STEVENS, concluded, Part III, limited range may considered sentencer incompatible 597-609. 5 (a) Amendments require sentencer, all rarest kind case, precluded factor, any aspect defendant's character record proffers basis less than death. 604-605. 6 (b) need treating each degree due uniqueness individual far more important noncapital cases, particularly view unavailability executed such postconviction mechanisms probation, parole, work furloughs. 605. 7 (c) A prevents giving independent weight aspects proffered mitigation creates risk will spite factors call severe when choice between life death, unacceptable commands 8 (d) permit type individualized consideration Only three can sentence, determined none those present, mandates sentence. 606-608. 9 WHITE concluded should vacated ground permits sentenced this finding he intended result. 10 MARSHALL, being is, cruel unusual punishment prohibited Amendment, concurred vacates also affirms conviction. 619-621. 11 BLACKMUN grounds deficient regard petitioner, nontriggerman charged aiding abetting murder, failing allow extent involvement, mens rea, commission homicide, procedure provided Rule Criminal Procedure court discretion bar "in interests justice" if pleads no contest, goes trial, creat § unconstitutional disparity alternatives. United States Jackson, 390 570, 1209, 138. 613-619. 12 Anthony G. Amsterdam, Stanford, Cal., petitioner. 13 Carl M. Layman, Akron, Ohio, respondent. 14 Chief BURGER (Parts II), together (Part III), STEVENS joined, announced Court. 15 We granted certiorari consider, among other questions, whether violated amendments Lockett pursuant statute1 narrowly limits sentencer's factors. 16 * "committed purpose escaping detection, apprehension, punishment" . committing, fleeing immediately commit robbery." That punishable Ohio. See Rev.Code Ann. §§ 2929.03, 2929.04 (1975). She robbery. depended largely upon testimony coparticipant, Al Parker, gave account participation robbery murder. 17 became acquainted Parker Nathan Earl Dew friend, Joanne Baxter, New Jersey. then accompanied Lockett, Lockett's brother back hometown. After arrived needed money trip suggested pawn his ring. overheard suggestion, felt ring too beautiful pawn, instead get some robbing grocery store furniture area. warned store's operator "big guy" carried "45" "to him real quick." volunteered gun father's basement aid carrying out robberies, time, two stores closed late proceed plan rob them. 18 Someone, apparently brother, pawnshop. He enter shop pretend Next bullets, shop, ask see gun, load it, use shop. No planned kill pawnshop course Because knew owner, entering pawnshop, though guide others night. 19 next day Dew, gathered Baxter's apartment. asked "still going do it," everyone, including agreed proceed. drove several times parked car. entered left car told start again minutes. proceeded according until pawnbroker grabbed "stickup." went off Parker's finger trigger firing fatal shot into pawnbroker. waited engine running. While driving away what happened. took ut purse. aunt's house called taxicab. Shortly thereafter, riding taxicab, stopped police, time placed front seat. police rented room mother lived family. verifying story parents, released Parker. hid attic household later evening. 21 subsequently apprehended specifications, Prior pleaded charge testify Dew. In return, prosecutor dropped charge, thereby eliminating possibility receive penalty. specifications. received lesser "primarily deficiency," statute. 23 Two weeks before separate offered plead voluntary manslaughter (offenses maximum 25 years' imprisonment fine $10,000, 2903.03, 2911.01, 2929.11 (1975)) cooperate State, rejected offer. Just mandatory understanding outstanding forgery dismissed. Again 24 At opening argument summarized appears version events leading killing. asserted show that, knew, Dew's $100 obtain men gone restaurant lunch thinking pawned, saw walking further seat taxicab voluntarily station learned looking pawnbroker's killers. first witness. His related shooting, admitted criminal breaking entering, larceny, receiving stolen goods, well bond jumping. acknowledged plea eliminated agreement prosecutor. end major portion testimony, renewed offer drop charges her. For third refused option pleading offense. 26 witnesses, invoked Fifth presentation, informed court, presence jury, believed witness requested short recess. recess, wished acc pt mother's advice remain silent, despite counsel's followed advice, except cross-examination witnesses. Thus, introduce case. 27 instructed find guilty, purposely killed 28 "purposely aids, helps, associates himself herself another regarded principal just person performed every act constituting " 29 Regarding intent requirement, instructed: 30 "A engaged common design force violence individuals property presumed acquiescence whatever reasonably necessary accomplish object enterprise. 31 "If conspired manner its accomplishment likely produce plotter equally aider abettor homicide An exist beyond reasonable doubt circumstances." 32 charged. 33 Once verdict returned, impose unless, "considering offense" "history, condition," offense, "was provocation," [Lockett's] deficiency." 2929.03-2929.04(B) 34 accord statute, presentence report psychiatric psychological reports. reports contained detailed information about intelligence, background. described 21-year-old low-average average suffering One psychologists reported "her prognosis rehabilitation" returned society favorable. showed offenses although minor ones juvenile adult. It used heroin treatment drug abuse clinic seemed "on road success" problem concerned. suffered mentally deficient.2 35 hearing issue, Without specifically addressing statutory factors, said "no alternative, [he] like[d] not" II A. 36 outset, we address Her cont ntion repeated remarks constituted comment rights. Griffin California, 380 609, 615, 85 1229, 1233, 106 (1965). conclude, however, comments prohibitions. own clearly silence, first, outlining contemplated statement and, second, stating near close "next witness." When viewed background, seems clear added nothing impression created refusal promised lawyer take stand. B 37 contends excluded violation 776 (1968), 528, 696, 690 agree. 38 On voir dire, there might imposed, make final decision punishment. opposed "they sit, listen evidence, law, [and] determination solely imposed. Four responded affirmatively. addressed question veniremen: 39 "[D]o you feel oath truely [sic ] try follow your cannot oath, knowing exists punishment?" 40 Each stated twice "take oath." They excused. 41 Witherspoon, persons generally cause disturb held "a recommended chosen excluding veniremen simply voiced general objections expressed conscientious religious scruples infliction." U.S., S.Ct., 1777. noted, our prevented execution attitude toward prevent them making impartial guilt." Id., 522-523, n. 21, conscientiously instructions" judge. 433 (1969). thus properly even assuming, arguendo, attacking 43 Nor supra. Taylor, invalidated selection system operated exclude "grossly disproportionate," 525, 695, number women service ther depriving "fair cross-section" community, id., 530, 697. Nothing suggests right representative includes tried explicitly indicated inability instructions C 44 attack distinguished merits only brief attention. Specifically convicted, 2923.03(A) (1975), belies claim. shows given history statute.3 claim inadequate notice Due Process Clause rejected. III 45 Ohio's grounds. invalid record, age, lack specific relatively crime. To proper perspective, helpful review developments recent applied statutes. write "clean slate." 46 Furman Georgia, 408 238, 92 2726, 346 (1972), State authorized abandoned penalties,4 permitted unguided unrestrained regarding imposition particular case.5 Mandatory penalties proved unsatisfactory, plurality noted Woodson North Carolina, 428 280, 293, 96 2978, 2986, 944 (1976), juries, "with regularity, disregarded oaths convict defendants automatic consequence verdict." 47 This never intimated offended Constitution. Pennsylvania ex rel. Sullivan Ashe, 302 51, 55, 58 59, 60, 82 L.Ed. (1937); Williams York, 337 241, 247, 69 1079, 1083, 93 1337 (1949); Oklahoma, 576, 585, 79 421, 426, 516 (1959). As recently McGautha 402 183, 91 1454, 711 (1971), imposing fundamental standards fairness embodied process, 207-208, 1467, entitled assume "jurors confronted truly awesome responsibility decreeing fellow human [would] consequences decision." 208, 1467. 48 status discretionary changed abruptly, result opinions sup orting Furman. [in Court] constitute[d] Amendments." 239, 2727. Justices altogether voted reverse judgments sustaining penalties. 305-306, 2760 (BRENNAN, J., concurring); 370-371, 2793 (MARSHALL, concurring). Three unwilling hold per se Amendments, opinions, sentencing, legislatively defined standards, "pregnant discrimination," 257, 2735 (Douglas, concurring), "wantonly" "freakishly" 310, 2762 (STEWART, "great infrequency" afforded meaningful distinguishing few [was] many not," 313, 2764 (WHITE, approved impermissible virtue See,Gregg 153, 195-196, 47, 2909, 2936, 859 (1976) (opinion JJ.). Predictably,6 variety supporting engendered confusion order Amendment.7 Some thought command adopting category crimes process cases.8 Other attempted continue practice individually assessing culpability same comply Furman, providing decision.9 50 years issues posed five post-Furman statutes.10 position statutes complied Constitution; complied. Hence, disposition varied votes joint upholding Florida, Texas, holding Carolina Louisiana unconstitutional. 51 reasoned procedures create substantial [death will] inflicted arbitrary capricious manner." Gregg supra, 188, 2932. Justices, eliminated, "directed limited," 189, 2932, rational "meaningful IN WHICH IT IS IMPOSED FROM MANY CASES NOT." invalidating Carolina's "character constitutionally indispensable inflicting death," 304, 2991, ensure reliability, "death appropriate case." 305, 2991; Roberts (Harry) 431 633, 637, 97 1993, 1996, 52 637 (1977); Jurek 262, 271-272, 2950, 2956, 929 (1976). last decade, obliged revise response companion cases. signals t not, always easy decipher. now deserve clearest guidance provide; obligation reconcile previously differing views provide guidance. 53 With mind turn Essentially requirement. relies, large part, Woodson, 303-305, 2990-2991, (Stanislaus) 325, 333-334, 3001, 3006, 974 Jurek, 54 begin recognizing concept generally, required, has long accepted country. 247-248, 1083; 60. Consistent concept, judges traditionally taken wide account. authority aiders abettors responsible, matter principals, enact felony-murder challenge. But definition automatically dictate ibid.; 426. And granted, "possession fullest possible concerning characteristics" "[h]ighly relevant—if essential —[to the] .." 1083 (emphasis added). 55 dealing strength sentencing. example, Black, writing 1083—a case—observed 56 "whole country traveled period commonplace convictions—even today deemed trivial." Ten later, echoed "[i]n discharging duty authorized, involved crime." (Emphasis added.) 59 245-246, 2729-2730 297-298, 2756 339, 2777 402-403, 2810 (BURGER, C. dissenting); 413, 2815 (BLACKMUN, 197-203, 1462-1465. Most agree 19th century movement sentences marked enlightened introduction flexibility process." 402, dissenting). 60 Although legislatures free decide how much reposed reviewing historical repudiation mandator 289-298, 2984-2988, 61 humanity underlying requires death." 2991. 62 declaration rested predicate qualitatively different" are satisfied qualitative difference calls greater reliability "relevant facets offense." attempt indicate, "relevant" facets" require. 63 faced questions conclude case,11 considering, death.12 recognize rests commands, public policy enacted considerations acceptance individualization surely Given profoundly different penalties, avoid conclusion flexible techniques furloughs, name few—and remedies available modify initial confinement nonavailability corrective modifying underscores requirement sentence.13 64 There perfect deciding governmental fac ors 65 Its infirmities best understood comparing Gregg, Proffitt, Jurek. 66 Georgia circumstances," 206, 2941, "open far-ranging argument" hearings, 203, 2939.14 Florida Proffitt list six Members assumed, approving listed exclusive.15 Texas explicit reference 272, 2956. Rather, answer second "whether probability acts constitute continuing threat society." Tex.Code Crim.Proc., Art. 37.071(b) (Supp.1975-1976); 269, 2955. survived Appeals broadly interpreted facial narrowness—so "whatever circumstances" able show. 272-273, 2955 JJ.), citing quoting, 522 S.W.2d 934, 939-940 (Tex.Crim.App.1975). None sustained independently factor. 67 us significantly different. miti ating 68 "(1) it. "(2) committed, provocation. 70 "(3) deficiency, insufficient establish insanity." 2929.04(B) 71 distinction Bayless, 73, 86-87, 357 1035, 1045-1046 "liberally construed favor accused." Bell, 270, 281, 556, 563 (1976); St.2d, 86, N.E.2d, 1046, age determining established, 564. See, 281-282, 564-565; 87 2, 1046 see, therefore, induce facilitate duress absence direct proof relevant purposes sheds light Similarly, comparatively role permitted, such, affect decision. 72 meet requirements, preclude 73 Accordingly, sustains remanded proceedings.16 74 So ordered. 75 BRENNAN APPENDIX TO OPINION OF COURT 76 pertinent provisions follows: 77 2929.03 Imposing 78 (A) If indictment count charging contains specification circumstance divisio section Revised Code, then, shall offender. (B) division separately state accused specification. duties regard, include instruction support specification, mention 80 (C) section, determined: 81 By panel waiver jury; judge, jury. 83 (D) pre-sentence investigation examination made, submitted 2947.06 Code. Copies furnished counsel. hear statement, any, offender, arguments, prosecution, chooses subject consents affirmation. 84 (E) Upon reports, arguments finds, unanimously finds Code Otherwise, Criteria 86 Imposition precluded, 2941.14 doubt: assassination president line succession presidency, governor lieutenant state, president-elect vice States, governor-elect candidate foregoing offices. division, nominated election filed petition petitions ballot primary election, campaigns write-in o election. hire. 90 (4) prisoner detention facility 2921.01 (5) gist purposeful killing another, bar, conduct involving (6) enforcement officer whom either officer. (7) kidnapping, rape, arson, burglary. 94 Regardless doubt, when, prepondence [preponderance] insanity. BLACKMUN, concurring judgment. 99 join judgment, opinion. I, too, reason espouses, additional relied plurality. 100 my view, improperly aided abetted permitting homicide. aiding-and-abetting "purposefulness" reckless endangerment, allows harsh application armed killed, accidentally.1 inflict situations skirt proscription, incorporated gross disproportionality, easily define convincing bright-line rule Coker 584, 2861, 282 (1977), workable disproportionality approach.2 101 manageable proceduralist tack, require, rea. approach interfere States' categories legal guilt, merely weigh adduced hearing, rea homicidal act. adduce available, little anticipate fired, played force. Though heretofore capital-sentencing procedures, 405, 2811, (1972) (dissenting opinion), adhered 1976 227, 2971, 859, 904; 242, 261, 2960, 2970, 913; 279, 929; 307, 2993, 944; 363, 3020, 974, Coker, mere felony resulting fatality participant weapon, 1, significant occasion setting limit method assess actions connected deliberate taking life. 102 mark Of statutes, specify authority, remaining factor.3 103 reversal Jackson issue. reach raised revision prompted today, contemplate well, cure, 104 138 Federal Kidnaping Act needlessly burdened exercise guilty. Act, U.S.C. 1201(a) (1964 ed.), "if recommend," peculiarly insuring waived bench insisted 105 prohibiting insists thereafter Brady 397 742, 1463, 747 (1970), pre-Jackson rather go withdraw involuntariness coercion encouraged fear trial. Here, course, falls side Jackson-Brady dichotomy. Under Crim.Proc. 11(C)(3), wholly lacks states [of circumstances], contest specifications] accepted, dismiss imprisonment] accordingly, justice." Such dismissal absolutely precludes similar 11(C)(4) Instead, Weind, 224, 364 228 remanded, 911, 3137, 1156 (1978), "must rely [statutory] sentence." 107 true, 229, change enduring semimandatory, purely discretionary, provision. prospects alternatives great survive well. 108 109 adhere Amendment. 314-374, 2764-2796, 231-241, 2973-2977, come since decisions persuaded me conclusion. e. g., Gardner 430 349, 365, 1197, 1208, 393 (1977) 600-601, 2869-2870, judgment); Alford 436 935, 2835, 778 (1978) dissenting denial certiorari). serves reinforce view. 110 presented here, fail understand Brethren—even believe inconsistent Constitution—can disagree vacated. Negro woman actually intend commit. theory vicarious liability. totally violates principle proportionality Amendment's prohibition. Weems 217 544, 793 (1910); willful malicious murderer accomplice unintentionally occurs. 67, 1075 opinion). 111 Permitting moreover, necessarily leads "lightning bolt," "freakish," "wanton" executions myself Georgia's Whether results (thus rise liability) turns fortuitous distinguish intention moral defendants. chose liability belie notion discern "evolving decency," Trop Dulles, 356 101, 590, 598, 630 (1958) (plurality "legislative judgment," 175, 2926 112 points out, scheme effective involvement crime, rehabilitation. Achieving balance guidelines assure relative equality treatment, preassigned, task system. Where itself hangs balance, precision upon. blunderbuss, virtually certain crimes, fails unique individuality comes courts. (per curiam ); 113 announcing 188-198, 2932-2936 271-276, 2956-2958, 259-260, 2969-2970, 913 belief sufficient decisionmaker adequate appellate "rationality," "consistency," "proportionality" 2939; 259, 2969; 276, 2958. these facts, sustain cast plurality's premise systems wrongful unfair irrevocable 114 assumption ever violating "cruel punishments" 115 WHITE, 116 concur 586, 2954, 973, Bell 2977, 1010 judgments. cannot, respectfully dissent. 117 completed about-face (1972). unfettered discriminatorily,1 wantonly freakishly,2 infrequently3 unusual. began retreat 1974 first-degree murders death.4 Today held, through plurality, conceivably appropriateness offender.5 118 respect, reasons set forth Roberts, 337, 3007, deliberate, unjustified Moreover, greatly effect compel restoration affairs decided, erratically attenuated most atrocious "its pointless needless extinction marginal contributions discernible social purposes." 312, requiring authorities refuse invites return pre-Furman days reserved very consideration. decline extend respect. 119 strains hard unsuccessfully eviscerating handiwork deliberations. 120 nevertheless reversing petitioners, ignored possessed victim. 121 constitutes excessive relation disproportionate measurable contribution acceptable goals hence purposeless pain suffering; grossly proportion severity test ground." 592, 2862, 982 J.). extremely rare victim, tests present here. 122 According factual submissions 363 1954 facts eight personally murder.6 tended victim.7 Furthermore, occurred 1955. contrast, rape 1954.8 123 approximately half foreclosed ultimate American people defendants, revealed content frequency prepared infliction widely seriousness 124 value deterrent lacking attenuated. Whatever efficacy intentional murders—and debate rages on—its function deterring becoming ventures doubtful. legitimate serve regularity dissipated society's apparent unwillingness occasional erratic basis. J. 125 unavoidable bring contribute acceptable, indeed perceptible 126 question, engage serious poses violence, regardless possess results, unintentionally, venture frequently irrelevant deep roots Gypsum Co., 422, 2864, 854, acted destroy 127 Both petitioners stage proceeding conduct. 128 resumed acquiesce enterprise 129 130 appeal, "it expected participants victim's endangered means performing [are] bound naturally probably arising furtherance conspiracy 62, 1072 others. nowhere during connection 1010, three-judge panel. Again, findings resulted engaged. 131 inference victims. vast factfinder willingness infer life, defining equivalent possessing done. 854. Indeed, punish ALI Model Penal (1962) recklessness: undertaken knowledge follow.9 Since killings conscious producing aside.10 132 REHNQUIST, part. 133 JUSTICE's am unable reversal. 134 sense judicial altruistic futility, undoubtedly Member bow authority" earlier "original wrong." Burns Richardson, 384 98, 1286, 1300, 376 (1966) (Harlan, result). 99, 1300 judgment). assuredly adopted previous 308, 465, 2841, cloven principled doctrine understandably terms Brother seem concede, pillar post, sort predictability legislatures, courts, courts necessity completely sacrificed. 135 states: "We 'clean slate,' ante, scarcely maintained today's logical coherent espoused elaborated series Terms ago. responsibly lead theWoodson strives manfully appear exegesis effort. told, effect, attorney wishes hear. think effort trace quite novel succeeds. 136 admits, 606 14, 'authorized law.' 164, 2920 JJ.) (citation omitted). Today's say: "Although [v. (1976)] assumed exclusive." Ante, 606, 15, 250 8, 260, 2965. footnote referred discussed uphold entirely nonstatutory circumstances. limiting language employed emphasize page stated: "The directed determine imposed." 251, 2966. opinion, circumstances: "[A]lthough susceptible mechanical application, vague overbroad leave unfettered." 137 opinion's strained. read interpret "so show," quote types mentioned context term "mitigating broad encompass fit indisputably clean slate, faithful written before. distinct derives prevailing practical matter, deal trials conducted, suspect wished. dissent, theme over tends undercut views. fact, however bizarre, wishes, sympathetically disposed conceive new eliminate arbitrariness freakishness sentences, codify institutionalize encouraging presumably anything sun circumstance," unleash evil plurality—that "papered unchecked discretion," 302, 2990—was truth discretion, over" spreading record. 139 sought carry opinions. do, statements institutional (1966), trust insensitive concern "[t]he provide" 602. posture colleagues way assist discharge obligation. frank say uncertain represents seminal exposition apply punishment, false direction within past years. 140 majority yet endorse using device importing stringent procedural restraints. Harlan spoke words: 141 "It be, Law Institute National Commission Reform Laws bifurcated criteria superior retained all. Constitution, marks guarantee worlds, ideas students infant science criminology, measure up predilections members Spencer 385 554, 648, (1967). Constitution fairly conducted guaranteed scrupulously respected." 221, 1474. 142 correct tried, offer, therefore 143 reject contentions wish deal, dismissed comment. First, complains process. pointed 252, 2966, "has required." reached contrary conclusion, today. Second, prove doubt. all, infirmity shifting burden persuasion 144 Petitioner presents based exercised judges, one, single extent, argues, discouraged higher supported. murderer. plausible instance. choose sufficiently satisfy prefers. 145 precluding contest. limitation availability mercy unfairly penalizes contention, certainly acceptance. acquittal. difficult imagine deterred exercising deterred, respondent county Brief Respondent 36. hardly amounts violation. McGautha, 212-213, 1469-1470, explained decision, Simmons 377, 967, 1247 forego privilege self-incrimination protect Fourth Here assertion mercy, dimensions, enjoyed forbidden 146 finally proposition urged unnecessary reach. participated did, "disproportionate" violative know perhaps one's personal fitting latter concedes, "have 625, 2983. Centuries common-law establishing doctrine, relationship adopt thoughtful moralists penologists Biblical "an eye eye, tooth tooth," minimum prohibition punishments sets injunction impose. 147 claims merit, affirm appendix he, holdup. keep running something eat. 58-62, 1070-1072 69-70, 1076 (Stern, 291-292, 25, 2984-2985, 2753; 200 11, (1971). 403, 2810, begun House Representatives passed bill abandoning unbridled instructing "tending mitigate defense." Sub. Bill 511, 109th General Assembly 2929.03(C)(3), March 22, 1972; Lehman & Norris, Legislative History Comments Cleve.St.L.Rev. 10, (1974). Senate Judiciary Committee's bill. Committee retain result, developed current f und exist. Confronted appeared questionable weighing sponsors mount Senate's amendments, 18-22, enacted. 300, 2989 JJ.); Rockwell Superior Cal.3d 420, 446-448, Cal.Rptr. 650, 665-667, 556 P.2d 1101, 1116-1118 (Clark, concurring) (account California Spence, 367 A.2d 983, 985-986 (Del.Supr.1976) (Delaware Legislature elimination statute); Liebman Shepard, Guiding Capital Sentencing Discretion Beyond "Boiler Plate": Mental Disorder Mitigating Factor, Geo.L.J. 757, 765 (1978). Note, Constitutionality Death Penalty Statutes, Harv.L.Rev. 1690, 1690-1710 supra; express deter kinds justify as, prisoner—or escapee—under 5, (1977). traditional exclude, irrelevant, bearing comparable problems. intimate Congress fix mandatory, crimes. "any otherwise addition Ga.Code 27.2534.1(b) (Supp.1975). dispense intangible statute." 222, 2947. "provides '[a]ggravating [eight factors]' introducing factors." 2966 8. STEVENS. 2970. impermissibly bear nonpersuasion existence 2903.01(B) (1975) "[n]o robbery," 2903.01(C) doing 2929.04(A)(7), commiss evidence. Sections (F) [the principal] "prosecuted punished offender." finishing stroke "purpose." 2901.22(A), "[a] or, nature, intends thereby, nature." justices 68, "purposely" employed. aware weapon killing." indicating fire triggerman, testified discharged accidentally proprietor App. 50-51, 53. embraced WHITE. purposes. What commits proximately causing pointing loaded verbally threatens force, admittedly knowingly high accidentally? participant, capture wanton sport, deliberately uses grave physical bodily harm, kill, results? May "conscious 2985, transforms defendants' actions? Applying actual run aground intricate definitional problems attending attribute sits getaway car, knows brandished inside store, willing fired escape? unarmed stands lookout, brandished, bothered discuss triggerman limitations gun? lookout but, fires sounding alarm, approves takes off? elaborate "constitutionalized" requisite myriad drawing normally analysis, interfering substantive law. rule, workable, incomplete ascertaining purposes, subtle mixture action, inaction, degrees Finally, data concluding, 2983, "extremely rare[ly]" representation uncritically, 1976, 347 "personally assault"—not kill. 1b. contemporary concedes Ala. Tit. 13, 13-11-7(4) (1975); Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-454(F)(3) (Supp.1977); Ark.Stat.Ann. 41-1304(5) Cal. 190.3(i) (West Supp.1978); Fla.Stat. 921.141(6)(d) (Supp.1978); Ind. 35-50-2-9(c)(4) Ky.Rev.Stat. 532.025(2)(b)(5) (Supp. 977); La. 905.5(g) Mo.Rev.Stat. 565.012.3(4) Mont.Rev. Codes 95-2206.9(6) Neb.Rev.Stat. 29-2523(2)(e) Nev.Rev.Stat. 200.035(4) N.C.Gen.Stat. 15A-2000(f)(4) (Supp.1977), 1977 N.C.Sess. Laws, ch. 406; S.C. 16-3-20(C)(b)(4) Tenn. 39-2404(j)(5) Utah 76-3-207(1)(f) Wash.Rev. 9A.32.045(2)(d) Wyo.Stat. 6-54.2(c), (d), (j)(iv) Wyo.Sess. 122. nine allowing Del. Ann., 4209(c) Ga. 27-2534.1(b) Idaho 19-2515(c) Ill.Rev.Stat., 38, 9-1(c) Miss. 97-3-21 So.2d 1242, 1254 (Miss.1976); N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 630:5(II) Okl.Stat., 701.10 37.071(b)(2) (Vernon Supp.1978), 2956-2957, Va. 19.2-264.4(B) (Supp.1977). 240, 2727 306, step along path performance endorsement representing apart context, 602-603 highly inappropriate Congress, study currently legislation achieved sentencer. S. 1437, 95th Cong., 2d Sess. (approved 30, 1978). detail person. period. whatsoever suppose, statistics alter conclusions drawn included study. arranged him. realize conceivable "triggermen" lacked rare. Department Justice, Enforcement Assistance Administration, Prisoner Statistics Bulletin SD-NPS-CP-3, Punishment 1974, pp. 16-17 (Nov. 1975). Section 2.02(2)(c) provides: recklessly material element consciously disregards unjustifiable actor's known him, disregard involves deviation standard law-abiding observe situation." 2.02(2)(a) when: "(i) thereof, ."

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