Document: 538 U.S. 254 BRANCH ET AL.v.SMITH AL. No. 01-1437. Supreme Court of United States. Argued December 10, 2002. Decided March 31, 2003.* After the 2000 census caused Mississippi to lose one congressional seat, state legislature failed pass a new redistricting plan. Anticipating state-law deadline for qualifying candidates, appellants and cross-appellees (state plaintiffs) filed suit in October 2001, asking State Chancery issue plan 2002 elections. In similar action, appellees cross-appellants (federal asked Federal District enjoin current any state-court plan, order at-large elections pursuant Miss. Code Ann. § 23-15-1039 2 U. S. C. 2a(c)(5) or, alternatively, devise its own The three-judge permitted plaintiffs intervene concluded that it would assert jurisdiction if became clear by January 7, 2002, no be place 1. On eve trial, ruled had adopted such 21, attorney general submitted Court's decision Department Justice (DOJ) preclearance 5 Voting Rights Act 1965. DOJ requested additional information from State, noting 60-day review period commence once was received. provided on February 20, Meanwhile, promulgated fix State's districts should not precleared 25. When date passed, enjoined using ordered used until produced precleared, constitutional court based injunction failure timely but found, alternative, unconstitutional. did appeal. declined make determination about submission because rendered incapable administration. Held: judgment is affirmed. 189 F. Supp. 2d 548, JUSTICE SCALIA delivered opinion with respect Parts I, II, III-A, holding: 1 properly enforcement Pp. 261-266. (a) There are two critical distinctions between these cases Growe v. Emison, 507 First, there suggestion here allow adequate opportunity develop Second, subject Act. controversy over whether centers 5's proviso whenever covered "shall enact or seek administer" voting change, change may enforced Attorney General does object within 60 days. 261-263. 3 (b) DOJ's days general's original render enforceable A seeking must provide sufficient prove nondiscriminatory. regulations — which "wholly reasonable consistent Act," Georgia States, 411 526, 541 incomplete submissions do start clock, clock begins run request here, neither frivolous nor unwarranted, postponed period. 263-264. 4 (c) also after information. "seek[ing] changes meaning when made his initial he However, appeal injunction, ceased longer running, so operation law. Because private party's actions those plaintiffs' insufficient demonstrate still "seek[s] 264-265. (d) Since this affirms ground could time election, vacates alternative holding 265-266. 6 2. fashioned reapportionment under 2c. tension §§ 2c apparent: Pending redistricting, requires loses while 2c, enacted 26 years later, States more than Representative use single-member districts. Contrary federal contention, limited legislative applies action courts prescribed has been forthcoming. 1967, precisely courts' involvement fashioning electoral plans. recently enacted, decisions in, e. g., Baker Carr, 369 186, ushered era were overseeing efforts badly malapportioned conform their one-person, one-vote standards. Given risk judges simply elections, most unlikely directed solely at apportionment. Nor found limited. addition, 2c's language susceptible interpretation. 266-272. 7 SCALIA, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, KENNEDY, GINSBURG, Part III-B 2a(c) where what prescribes (as paragraph (5)) have all redistrict This interpretation allows both given effect. Section governs manner election held "[u]ntil redistricted [state] law apportionment." redistricts necessarily follow "policies preferences" districting. White Weiser, 412 783, 795. invoke 2a(c)'s stopgap provision only an imminent (including mandate) cannot completed without disrupting process. Mississippi's deemed operative 2a(c)(2) (5) be: envisions legislatively judicially come into play as long feasible complete redistricting. 273-276. 8 STEVENS, SOUTER BREYER, agreeing plan's impliedly repealed 1967 pre-empted statutory authorization presumption against implied repeals, like pre-emption, overcome irreconcilable conflict provisions later clearly intended "cove[r] whole earlier one." Posadas National City Bank, 296 497, 503. By prohibiting electing Representatives at-large, unambiguously forbids otherwise authorize. Thus, either Posadas' standards, Any fair reading history leading Act's passage shows parties believed they debating completely replace 2a(c). statute final gasp protracted Four versions bill expressly 2a(c), disagreement provision. pass, less controversial parts, including now attached bill. absence discussion, debate, reference repeal process prevents omission being seen deliberate choice Congress. 285-292. 9 J., announced unanimous I REHNQUIST, SOUTER, JJ., joined, IV, KENNEDY joined. concurring opinion, II post, p. 282. part judgment, 285. O'CONNOR, dissenting part, THOMAS, 292. 10 APPEAL FROM UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR SOUTHERN OF MISSISSIPPI. 11 Robert B. McDuff argued cause 01-1437 01-1596. With him briefs Pamela Karlan. 12 James A. Feldman amicus curiae supporting cross-appellees. brief Solicitor Olson, Assistant Boyd, Deputy Clement, Mark L. Gross, Kevin Russell. 13 Michael Wallace Arthur Jernigan, Jr., Grant M. Fox.† 14 GINSBURG join. 15 cases, we decide court's proposed rather 16 * reducing representation House five Members four. legislature, however, decennial results published 2001. anticipation 1, qualification see 23-15-299 (Lexis 2001), appellant cross-appellee Beatrice Branch others November appellee cross-appellant John Smith Rev. Stat. 1979, 42 1983, Southern Mississippi, claiming districting 23-15-1037 dividing five, four, districts, unconstitutional unenforceable. subsequently developed (which asserted violate Article 4, Constitution, and, event, assertion authority 1965, 79 439, 1973c), (2001) 46 26, 2a(c)(5), 17 convened 28 2284. Initially interfere 5, Clark, 502 (SD Miss.), deferred ruling motion preliminary injunction. staying hand, recognized "`the Constitution leaves primary responsibility apportionment ... districts,'" id., 503 (quoting 25, 34 (1993)), "if authorities can will our necessary, draft implement reapportioning districts," 2d, 503; 503, 505-506 2002). 18 denied petitions writs prohibition mandamus defendant challenging engage It re Mauldin, Civ. 2001-M-01891 (Dec. 13, App. Juris. Statement 110a. Following plaintiffs. along Mauldin arguably changed drawing authorizing create plan), preclearance. 14, sent letter requesting decision, "the regarding procedure insufficient...." 193a. advised "sixty-day begin receive specified." Id., 196a. 19 Court, expressing "serious doubts Order prior candidate deadline," 508, begun 511. absent 512 Miss.). 19, that, "precleared before close business Monday, 2002," then 529, 548. 25th came went DOJ. succeeding precleared. 559. said basis "reflected is, Hinds County plan." 549. "in event determined erred ruling," put forth "alternative holding" prohibited issuing express legislature. Ibid. 20 file notice April informed "it inappropriate concerning [the preclearance] now" 29. 21 intervenors jurisdictional statement. statement conditional cross-appeal. We noted probable appeals consolidated them. 536 903 (2002). 22 At outset observe us 25 (1993). Growe, refused abstain defer proceedings. 30-31. reversing, reminded "`what many occasions: primarily duty through other body, court.'" Chapman Meier, 420 27 (1975)). "[a]bsent evidence branches fail perform duty, affirmatively obstruct permit litigation impede it." S., (emphasis added). present unlike second distinction Act, 1973c. rested necessary obtained. challenged premise examine first. 23 provides jurisdiction, 30 Fed. Reg. 9897 (1965), "any prerequisite voting, standard, practice, procedure," obtain Columbia enforced. changes, ibid.; Dougherty Bd. Ed. White, 439 32, 38-39 (1978), dispute includes mandated court, see, McMillin, 642 So. 1336, 1339 (Miss. 1994). Rather, pertains 1973c effect General, interposed objection sixty submission...." 24 Appellants (originally believing lacked automatically enforceable, contend, running 2001 consider each contentions turn. Under administrative nondiscriminatory purpose Reno Bossier Parish School Bd., 528 320, 328 (2000). bears burden providing proof, 537-539 (1973), object, CFR 51.52(c) view, review. See 51.27, 51.37. implementing authorize initially "omitted considered evaluation submission." 51.37(a). If responds supplying (or stating unavailable), response 51.37(c). upheld Act." supra, 541; accord, Morris Gressette, 432 491, 504, n. (1977). General's discretion 51.37, thereby postponing objections unwarranted. 541, 13. order, procedures, sought demonstrating denying abridging right vote account race, color, membership minority group, required 5. fact identified same posing hurdle further suggests frivolous. 508-509. unwarranted made, regardless ultimately develops B contend even 22, requested. think not. "[w]henever [covered jurisdiction] shall Clearly "enacted" Mississippi. An "enactment" product legislation, adjudication. Webster's New International Dictionary 841 (2d ed. 1949) (defining "enact" "[t]o act law; esp., (a bill) gives validity law"); Black's Law 910 (7th 1999) "legislate" laws"). web consequence Legislature's then, eligible it. 29 doubt "enjoined State] [state court]," 559, never appealed Uncontrovertibly, thus running. passing legal significance, Appellants' argument appeal, intervenors, invalid face. party satisfy C 31 affirm principal stated prospect occasion address specified set cover eventuality ground's rejected therefore vacate regarded affirmed ground, binding upon officials future administer Court. III 32 Having turn propriety itself adopted. Cross-appellees 01-1596 curiae, argue draw did) districts; seats. whether, governed 2c; 2a(c)(5). 33 cl. "Times, Places Manner Elections Senators Representatives, Legislature thereof...." reserves Congress, power "at [to] alter Regulations, except chusing Senators." Pursuant authority, Congress 1929 scheme governing Representatives. 2a(a), (b). 1941, added subsection addressing done pending redistricting: "Until thereof apportionment, entitled elected following manner: (1) number them large continue elected; (2) increase State; (3) decrease equal decreased (4) exceeded exceeds large." 35 provides, relevant here: 36 "In Ninety-first subsequent thereafter section 2a(a) title, established entitled, established, district elect Representative...." 37 multimember large. certain situations; particular relevance reason census, lost Cross-appellants reconcile interpreting introductory phrase ("Until apportionment") "established law" refer exclusively tells legislatures (single-member districting) happen mandating 38 problem reconciliation role assigns (governing judicial apportionment) contradicted historical context enactment understanding almost 40 since enactment. immediate 1965 assigning involve themselves amended codified 1973 et seq.). Even significant, 186 (1962), Wesberry Sanders, 376 (1964), Reynolds Sims, 377 533 constitutionally world disputes transformed spectating, Colegrove Green, 549 (1946) (opinion Frankfurter, J.), directing, arose forced fashion remedies 39 least six Courts, specifically invoking suggested unable correct entire delegation 1964, Michigan Legislature, Calkins Hare, 228 824, 830 (ED Mich. 1964). entered Texas. Bush Martin, 251 484, 489, 11, 490, Tex. 1966). 3, Arkansas, whose four 1960 taken [after apportionment] congressmen large," reasoning compel require Park Faubus, 238 62, 66 Ark. 1965). August 1966, Missouri, accordance "command 2(a)(c) [sic]," Missouri conducted created." Preisler Secretary 257 953, 981, 982 (WD Mo. 1966), aff'd, 385 450 (1967) (per curiam). Meeks Anderson, 229 271, 273-274 (Kan. 1964), 247 886, 897-898 (MD Tenn. 1965), Courts stayed hands possibility requiring threat imposed far aware) reapportionment. ever thought so. To contrary, every addressed courts, remedying constitutionally, possible. first just weeks previously threatened 29, observed "relieved [it] existing Congressional command 1968 279 952, 969 1967), 394 526 (1969), accordingly reversed position fulfill duty. Virginia writ directing allegedly Redistricting "we legally writ." Simpson Mahan, 212 Va. 416, 417, 185 E. 47, 48 (1971). next year California reached conclusion establish Reinecke, Cal. 3d 595, 602-603, 492 P. 385, 390 (1972), reaffirmed 1982, Assembly Deukmejian, 638, 664, 639 939, 955 (1982). Shayer Kirkpatrick, 922, 926 Mo.), aff'd sub nom. Schatzle 456 966 (1982), "nothing limitation applicability," "appears prohibit elections." And Carstens Lamm, 543 68 (Colo. 1982), substantially identical result, although contemplating "stop-gap measure" "event exists enough acceptable plan," 77, 23. 41 described above, Preisler, Shayer, discussing summarily. 1971 dictum "[i]n reinstated requirement" existed Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 159, Of course implausibility (given circumstances enactment) meant apply reapportionment, unbroken unanimity opposition interpretation, text (and 2a(c)) unmistakably demanded But Indeed, readily opposite 43 clause "there entitled" could, sure, interpreted "by refers action. Its common meaning, encompasses well. See, Hope Pelzer, 730, 741 (2002) (referring qualified immunity context); Swidler & Berlin 524 399, 407 (1998) attorney-client privilege Frady, 152, 166 (1982) standard 2255 "long-established 2254(d)(1) ("clearly law, States"); Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 177 (1803) (it province department say is"). 44 think, therefore, assuredly embraces might note giving immediately ("and established" added)) exclude acting default. hard plausible serve. When, situation whom formerly districts) enables prescribe (assuming subsists, infra, 273), fallback. occur called application paragraphs none usual) shown proscribed degree disparity population districts? absolute ("Representatives [single-member] [legislatively] established") exception, (despite Carr) congressionally forbidden redistricted. Only utterly unavoidable interpret result here. 45 sum, legislatures, legislatures. enacting mandate equally legislature's confront remaining question: 2a(c)? As earlier, texts tension. "elected Some confronted repeals implication. Supp., 927; 3d, 663-664, 954. something especially become (because postenactment Court) virtually situations plainly (The exception makes necessary.) Eighty percent dead letter, why adhere flotsam (5)? 47 repeatedly stated, "a expressed intention," Morton Mancari, 417 535, 551 (1974), "repeals implication favored," Universal Interpretive Shuttle Corp. Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Comm'n, 393 193 (1968). statutes "irreconcilable conflict," latter covers "is substitute." (1936). So strong substitute better answer regard continues apply. course, provisionally applicable. That clashes forbid unless acted. whereas categorically instructs redistrict, anything need redistricted" certainly well seem preferable means reconciling sections. default invoked "until . [had] redistrict[ed] State." Jan. 16, 1901, ch. 93, 734 added); Feb. 1891, 116, 736 ("until herein State" added)); 1882, ("shall large, Legislatures provide" added)). These stark contrast 2a(c): thereof." 49 expansive natural) adopted, condition met demand suspended very follows For federal, law." preferences plans legislature," except, "adherence policy detract[s] requirements Constitution." 795 (1973). prescriptions, commands appropriately regarded, purposes 50 inapplicable How await determining forthcoming election? Until, entity competent 2c) able invoked. applied interpreted, function always has, last-resort remedy when, one. Cf. 77-78. 51 remains provision, reads follows: 52 "Should representatives changed, chosen case increased, member organized, members electors large; diminished, 2001). 53 courts. believe designed track (5), be. say, "and apportionment" IV 54 O'CONNOR'S (hereinafter dissent) agrees acted violation, 300-301, contends looked selecting appropriate remedy. explained sense according whereupon applies. If, dissent, forgo analysis ask, abstract, primacy, probably select cast absolute, conditional, terms. dissent hint believes primacy. says "[t]he directs `[u]ntil thereof.'" Post, 301. true absolutely qualification. contemplate redrawing "after instance. 300. entirely entities considers perhaps "courts `manner 300, enforce `State thereof,' redistricted, 300 (if takes words face value) room assume mean said. 55 implicitly differentiates effectively undertake prerequisite, presumably rests belief capable "`in thereof,'" read potentially word "manner" substantive requirements. ibid. (If rendering inapplicable.) renders thereof" redundant requirement "redistricted." drawn someone redistrict. Should ambitious county clerk individual legislator sit down up map, statute, 795, statutes, constitution, plans, ibid., "traditional principles," Abrams Johnson, 521 74, 86 (1997); Upham Seamon, 37, 42-43 complies principles, 274-275.* While Abrams, 101, can, 34, crossed Rubicon seems (1962). authorized produce needed "left embark [the] delicate task" 101. 56 claims process." 298. From premise, proceeds mount vigorous (and, principles espouses, highly edifying) "plain meaning" attack holding. Unfortunately, patently false. We, acknowledge `how long' govern: `until 299. how governs, (under continuing wait ordering election. treats though (in facts case) establishment statewide (i. e., election) thing. All thereof," point issues bites time. if, time, occurred, operative. 57 despite dissent's ardent protestations we, question "[h]ow election?" Surely possibly govern," declare, chance act, courts) full available delay disrupt reapportion disagrees wonder timeline claim "[§] contains imminence requirement," absurd. 58 runs afoul anticommandeering jurisprudence, 301-302, doing fails recognize obligation Manner" grounded mere requirement. Here, acknowledged "alleged violation" proper 2, drew violation," crafting remedy, followed "Regulations" permits make, 266. "envisions action," 272, allowed. matter), placing York 505 144 (1992); rather, regulating permits) pre-existing obligations 4. Our commandeering machinery government seats), 299-300. commits sin. 59 Another straw man erected insistence ours "[s]ince decades line development 2a(c)." 307. 2a(c); help explain decided. rudimentary rule construction familiar dissenters prone preachment subject, 298, 304, 307) isolation, corpus juris later-enacted statutes: "The divers relate thing, ought consideration construing them.... thing contained former ...; gathered pari materia, amount declaration govern statute." Freeman, How. 556, 564-565 (1845). 61 (illuminated Carr cases) sheds light 62 Finally, "redistricted unusual. means, requires," satisfies "until" applied. know instance acknowledges "state violates Supremacy Clause nullity. particularly peculiar nonprecleared 1973c). 310-312. view "redistricted" (so requirement). "preclearance exception." ineffective (§ preclearance) disregarded, surely disregarded. ("redistricted law") reality. 63 64 Affirmed. Notes: Together 01-1596,Smith al. al., court. &#x2020; Briefs amici urging reversal Association Advancement Colored People J. Gerald Hebert Rubin; Nationalist Movement Richard Barrett. Krill, Jubelirer affirmance assertion,post, creates Pennhurst Hospital Halderman, 465 89 (1984). Here granted relief specifically, Constitution. "instruc[t] conduct law," 106; Far intruding sovereignty, deference respects 65 BREYER join concurring. plurality IV. Ante, 261-265. violated 67 why, my vacating cases. precedent ruling. Connor Waller, 421 656 (1975) curiam); Board Supervisors Warren Cty., 429 642, 646-647 (1977) Finch, 431 407, (1977); Wise Lipscomb, 437 542 (1978) J.); 292 (O'CONNOR, part). Once preclearance, premature, scheme, question. Where enactments "err[s] deciding challenges" acts. 656. reflects behind Concerned "covered jurisdictions exercise ingenuity subtle forms discrimination, obtaining 5." Hathorn Lovorn, 457 255, 268 approval Columbia. Clark Roemer, 500 646, 652 (1991); Lopez Monterey County, 519 9, (1996). Absent effective matter 656; Supervisors, 645; 412; Wise, 542; Hathorn, 269; 652; 311-312 process, "`giv[e] rapid method enforceable.'" (1973) Allen Elections, 544, (1969)). entertain challenges way anticipate yet Executive. implementation, resolved 69 challenge presented fell ambit rule. previous principle diluted strength. 396 1308, 1309 1975), rev'd, 643-644; 538-539. litigation, objected constitutionality assumption framed components reviewable. injury implementation. 70 motivated commendable enabling approach, forces unnecessary complex advance Executive risks frustrating mechanism instance, led (whether statute) remained place. 28-29. determination, moreover, perception revising Adherence defects direct helps ensure resolution brought us. 71 join, judgment. 72 banned portion reasons support persuade me Accordingly, III-A 73 statute. expresses intent pre-empt, expression. expressly, situations: Acts; (1936).1 74 prohibits adopting narrow contentious provision: 75 "AN ACT 76 "For Doctor Ricardo Vallejo Samala 77 "Be Senate America assembled, That, Immigration Nationality lawfully admitted permanent residence 30, 1959. 78 June 18, 1929, `An Representatives' (46 26), amended, (except Large Congress)." Pub. 90-196, 81 581 enacts elections.2 single Hawaii Mexico, emphasizes conflict" 1941 "covers subject" Posadas, accepted standards identifying pre-empts setting 80 obvious. began 17, Chairman Celler Judiciary Committee introduced H. R. 2508, renewing preceding responsive elections.3 replacing entirety.4 introduced, three analysis. elections: "[T]here entitled; Representative." 90th Cong., 1st Sess., (1967). gerrymandering, times composed contiguous territory, compact form practicable." Third, proportional representation: "[N]o Ninetieth contain persons, excluding Indians taxed, per centum greater average obtained" generated great discussion. Importantly purposes, discussed depth all. point, numerous Conference Reports lengthy floor debates, repealing appear. debate confined gerrymandering requirement, proportionality rule, scope duration temporary exceptions broad 82 bill, limiting differences exceed creating 91st 92d Congresses (1968 1970 elections) allowed Mexico large" percent. Rep. 191, 1-2 passed striking allowing percent, variation during Congresses. 291, conference twice, recommended sets amendments. Report, issued 27, less. Conf. 435, (1965). compromise Senate, measure eventually unlimited duration, Mexico. Importantly, version spite several modifications, last conference, chamber. 83 attach reflected deadlock. proponents attachment remarked take uncontroversial legislation some (1964).5 demonstrates involved operating 84 O'CONNOR convincing exposition flaws SCALIA's textual 298-301 Ironically, she misled undue reliance 1911 1950's 1960's rights central importance protecting access polls. important interest concern. intervening dramatic significantly lessens 85 Moreover, her apparently assumes coexist successive statutes. comment preserved 1968. supports total 1882 cited proviso; "provided that" omitted examples differently worded uses "only" categorical plain English, irreconcilable. give bills 287-289. Those bills, coupled expression anyone preserve anywhere Hawaii, powerful literal states, odd circumstance quite inadvertence. Canons pre-emption often reliable guides search page history. 87 88 text, leads wiser manifest than, attempts, tortured remnant obsolete concur opinion. ComparePosadas, ("There well-settled categories acts conflict, extent constitutes one; substitute, operate similarly act"), Freightliner Myrick, 514 280, 287 (1995) ("[A] overrides indicates occupy field exclusively, English Elec. Co., 496 72, 78-79 (1990), actual law"). "entitled Representative" [their] Large." identical, respects, 1967. 5505, 89th Sess. (1965) Specifically, language, 2508: "That fifteenth censuses "Subsection out inserting following: ...." Senator Bayh amendment excluded offered another exceptions. characterized "What tried report dispute, minimal business." 113 Cong. Rec. 31719 nothing gerrymandering. compactness. census. strictly straightforward Member districted, large.... simple get urgent prevent Union having stand large."Id., 31718. colloquy floor, agreed left effect: "This mandatory Congressmen single-Member court." 31720 (remarks Sen. Bayh). THOMAS joins, part. 90 agree lacks II-C ante, 282 (KENNEDY, concurring). disagree 91 plurality's somewhat reluctant easy together. natural force 92 STEVENS recognize, exist "provisions 273 (plurality opinion); 285 (STEVENS, judgment). "`when co-existence, effective.'" Radzanower Touche Ross 426 148, 155 (1976) (1974)). 1975. Gordon Stock Exchange, Inc., 422 659. outside antitrust context, appear 1917. Lewis 244 134. difficult Burroughs, 289 164 (1933) ("[I]f reasonably remain force"); ("Repeal [later law] work, minimum necessary. guiding schemes" (alteration internal quotation marks omitted)). 93 confirm coexisted. Compare ("[T]he Districts ..., added)), ("... fixed therein" 735 districts" ("[S]uch hereby Aug. 8, 1911, laws thereof"). 94 attempts distinguish slightly different 291. assuming, version, materially indistinguishable version. "), ("[u]ntil therof"). Smiley Holm, 355, 374 (1932) (noting "unless created"). 95 coexisting hold "capable co-existence" matter. 551. "clearly substitute" (requiring redistricts, 96 conflict. provisions, ("[U]nless created, allotted large"). 97 expired reenact Instead, took 1941. concerned complementary states part: tracks STEVENS' latest 288. thin reed rest repeal. instead one-word addition finding 98 argues "`cove[r] subject'" 503). restored balance 1882. exists, conclude conflicting separate sphere influence, applying "State parallels longstanding coexistence "`clearly intended'" "`as substitute'" untenable. 285, 1; Regional Rail Reorganization Cases, 419 102, 134 (1974) ("`Presumably serious statute.... Before qualified, insist showing end'"). 99 strongest "all 290. Yet 287-288, 291-292. thinks cuts strongly favor unsuccessful. deliberately chose case, co-existed historically, explicitly find 100 restore pre-1941 status, statements 290, peacefully coexisted 19th century. detail II-B, 101 short, "continues apply." 273. 102 Although force, inexplicably adopts basis. Instead invents holds ." [] 274, 275. faithful Like "tortured legislation." Scalia, Rule Rules, Chi. 1175, 1185 (1989) ("[W]hen solid anchor social norm derive pronouncement appears uncomfortably legislation"). 103 definitions says: understand, specialized term art. 2794 1957) "[d]uring before"); Collegiate 1297 (10th 1993) "up as" "[b]efore"). comprehend. 980 "redistrict" "to divide anew districts"); 1283 organize esp. ones; reapportion"). employs dictionary 264, notably refrains definition 104 credible means: [ ] characterizes "stopgap provisio[n]," asks ask "how long" (Emphasis added.) reading, terms apply, bear reading. Holloway (1999) (SCALIA, dissenting) ("No rationalization reality normal exclusive) usage. assigns"). 105 dispositive is: Has thereof"? apportionment," determines violation comport mandates 106 forget one, alleged Sections independently themselves. finds right.1 violation. depending 107 acknowledge, 277, justifies looks itself. really maintains, applicable, escape directive pointing value apply," 273, look antecedent defines appropriate. 108 interplay calls anti-commandeering jurisprudence. 144, (1992) ("We understood acts, directly acts"); Printz 898, 912 (1997) (Scalia, J.) ("[S]tate direction"). jurisprudence "Regulat[e]" times, places, authorizes "regulate Commerce among States." Whether robust (the font here) source definitively canon avoidance counsels 271-272 Stevens invites facial 2c.2 109 treated command. routinely iterations districts." 1842, 491; July 1862, 170, 572; 1872, 28; cf. 293-294 (documenting 2c). K. Martis, Historical Atlas 1789-1983, pp. Martis) 28th 1842 70th 1929).3 1843 representation. 110 Unless willing openly flouted 275 opinion) "statutory comman[d]"). predecessors tell type (all prohibited). comports pre-1842 specific district. Martis 4-5 (listing Maryland, Massachusetts, Jersey, York, Pennsylvania 1793 27th 1842). effect, legislation. restriction Printz. choose 111 deems invalid. redistricts: implicated finishes complete, becomes effective, 112 basis, understand overlooking nontextual prudential reasons. Matter Interpretation 18-23 (discussing Church Holy Trinity 143 (1892), "Congress foolish wise ones, rewrite former"). distort silentio Why else "tension" "[t]here repeal] position," exegesis surrounding 2c? 268-271 (majority opinion). 1982 decision. 1982). recognizes brief, partial Brief Amicus Curiae ("Section unequivocal exigencies impracticable, Carston [sic] supra) resolves problem. workable sensible regime faithfully fulfills Congress's 1967"); ("While disfavored, require"). 114 rely pre-1967 interpretations impose 269-270 (citing cases). already 2a(c).4 115 Congress' 2(c) target manner, anything, clarified exist. 116 resolve happens U.S.C. describes "are constitutionally." 270. strikes "draw possible." confirms rules unconstitutional, ensures notion toothless. unclear examines Bank One Chicago, N. Midwest Trust 516 (1996) judgment) ("In conveys, whatever `intended.' says, content ourselves psychoanalyzing who it"). 117 implies "ushered standards." 268. Stevens, 287, 289-290. watershed opinions unamended Vermont Agency Natural Resources ex rel. 529 765, 780-784 (2000) J.). 118 "directing" Baker. "[a]n precedents sustains nature." 201-202 (1946)). 375, example, question, act." afford import." 119 Wood Broom, (1932), strikingly front today: reduced seat. fact, grounds mirror post-Baker review: created nearly practicable inhabitants, hence comply 1911." Hume 142 Ky. 1932). Likewise, Baker, Moran Bowley, 347 Ill. 179 (1932); Carroll Becker, 329 501, W. (1932). progeny expanded review, Therefore, magically meaning. 120 base "[e]ighty percent" "dead letter." assuming parts currently 2a(c)(1) specifies "[i]f today probability exactly 121 strict zero-deviation 1983 Karcher Daggett, 462 725. "as 7-8. points out, Wesberry, permitting deviate much 15%. 287-288. 10%. 289. 97th words, 1983). 2a(c)(2), 2a(c)(3), 2a(c)(4) constitutional. 122 today, lines approach best accords "modifications cure defect." constitutional, correctly easily severable 123 enter 1973, 1973c, traditional winner-take-all Cross-Appellants 01-1596, 27-28; Tr. Oral Arg. 47-48, design awards seats cumulative (1993); Rogers Lodge, 458 613, 616-617 (1982); Holder Hall, 874, 897-898, 908-912 (1994) (Thomas, judgment); Dillard Chilton Ed., 699 870 Ala. 1988); Issacharoff, Karlan, Pildes, Democracy 1091-1151 (rev. 2002); Pildes Donoghue, Cumulative 1995 Legal 241, 251-257. 124 sort "imminence" mooring. serves does, 125 intentionally avoids: not, applies, "redistricted," 126 "new `effective law,' received clearance (1977)) (citation omitted). Accord, (an "not cleared 5"); 501-502 implementation validly determine conforms Act"); 269 ("Our procedures] unenforceable"). [a] 127 Preclearance step "effective implemented. complete. receives clearance, Government change. 128 cleared: "Voting `will cleared.'" 1994) 656). nonpartisan 1339. Consequently, old partisan ("Consequently, Tuesday, 1994, primaries"). Governor signed reason: 1338. 129 delegation. easily. presume stead. divorced semblance fidelity reach "correct" unintrusive result. respectfully "manner contrary Themanner redistricts. conflation substantial (1984) (delineating enters injunction). coercive command, making See,e.g., 174-177 (striking "take title" choices "no all"). merely limits adopt Neither Alabama (43d, 44th, 63d, 64th Congresses), Arkansas 48th (31st-38th, Colorado (58th-63d Connecticut (58th-62d Florida 63d (28th, Iowa (29th Congress), Kansas 48th, 53d-57th, 59th, 60th Idaho (63d-65th Illinois (37th-42d, 53d, 63d-70th Indiana (43d Louisiana Maine (48th (63d Minnesota (35th-37th, 29th, 33d 29th Montana Hampshire (62d North Carolina Dakota Ohio Oklahoma 48th-50th, 63d-67th South (51st-62d Tennessee Texas 63d-65th Utah (53d-60th, West (63d, Wisconsin (30th Congress) See,e. 825 1964) ("The state"); 488 1966) constitutional"); 1965) ("It Second Extraordinary Session Acts 1961, divides deprives plaintiff situated vote" omitted)); "plaintiffs contest Missouri's 272 voters Kansas, Statutes, declared unconstitutional" 888 ("This presents Tennessee's nine States").

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