Document: 522 U.S. 398118 S.Ct. 805139 L.Ed.2d 830 James BROGAN, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. No. 96-1579. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Dec. 2, 1997. Decided Jan. 26, 1998. Syllabus * Petitioner falsely answered "no'' when federal agents asked him whether he had received any cash or gifts from a company whose employees were represented by union in which was an officer. He indicted on bribery charges and for making false statement within jurisdiction agency violation 18 U.S.C. §1001. A jury District found guilty. The Second Circuit affirmed, categorically rejecting his request to adopt so-called "exculpatory no'' doctrine, excludes §1001's scope statements that consist mere denial wrongdoing. Held: There is no exception §1001 criminal liability consisting merely no.'' Although many Appeals decisions have embraced it not supported plain language. By its terms, covers "any'' statement-that is, "of whatever kind,'' v. Gonzales, 520 ----, 117 1032, 1035, 137 132-including use word response question. Petitioner's argument does criminalize simple denials guilt proceeds two mistaken premises: statute criminalizes only those "pervert governmental functions,'' do so. Gilliland, 312 86, 93, 61 518, 522, 85 L.Ed. 598, distinguished. His literal reading violates "spirit'' Fifth Amendment rejected because confer privilege lie. E.g., Apfelbaum, 445 115, 117, 100 948, 950, 63 250. final doctrine necessary eliminate grave risk will be abused overzealous prosecutors seeking "pile on'' offenses evidence should, event, addressed Congress. Pp. ___-___. 96 F.3d 35 (C.A.8 1996), affirmed. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined, SOUTER, joined part. filed concurring part judgment. GINSBURG, judgment, joined. STEVENS, dissenting opinion, BREYER, Stuart A. Holtzman, New York City, petitioner. Seth P. Waxman, Washington, DC, respondent. Justice SCALIA Court. 1 This case presents question there under consists wrongdoing, 2 While acting as officer during 1987 1988, petitioner Brogan accepted payments JRD Management Corporation, real estate union. On October 4, 1993, Department Labor Internal Revenue Service visited at home. identified themselves explained they petitioner's cooperation investigation various individuals. They told if wished cooperate, should attorney contact Attorney's Office, could afford attorney, one appointed him. 3 then would answer some questions, agreed. One "no.'' At point, disclosed search headquarters produced records showing contrary. also lying course crime. did modify answers, interview ended shortly thereafter. 4 accepting unlawful employer 29 §§186(b)(1), (a)(2), (d)(2), tried, along with several co-defendants, before Southern York, affirmed convictions, (1996). We granted certiorari issue 2430, 138 192 (1997). II 5 time replied Government investigators' question, (1988 ed.) provided: 6 "Whoever, matter department knowingly willfully falsifies, conceals up trick, scheme, device material fact, makes false, fictitious fraudulent representations, uses writing document knowing same contain entry, shall fined more than $10,000 imprisoned five years, both.'' 7 1035 (1997) (internal quotation marks citation omitted). assuredly "statement,'' see e.g., Webster's International Dictionary 2461 (2d ed.1950) (def. 2: "That stated; embodiment words facts opinions''), contest utterance made "knowingly willfully.'' In concedes "literal reading'' loses. Brief 5. 8 asks us, however, depart text Congress has enacted, approve adopted Circuits central feature this come statute. See, Moser States, 469, 473-474 (C.A.7 1994); Taylor, 907 F.2d 801, 805 1990); Equihua-Juarez, 851 1222, 1224 (C.A.9 1988); Cogdell, 844 179, 183 (C.A.4 Tabor, 788 714, 717-719 (C.A.11 1986); Fitzgibbon, 619 874, 880-881 (C.A.10 1980); Chevoor, 526 178, 183-184 (C.A.1 1975), cert. denied, 425 935, 1665, 48 176 (1976). considerable variation among concerning, other things, what degree elaborated tale-telling carries beyond denial. See generally Annot., 102 A.L.R. Fed. 742 (1991). present case, agreed constitute "true n[o]' recognized circuits,'' F.3d, 37, but aligned itself (one panels been very first embrace Paternostro 311 298 (C.A.5 1962)) Rodriguez-Rios, 14 1040 1994) (en banc). 9 support major premise investigators functions''; minor government pervert functions; conclusion investigators. Both premises seem us mistaken. As minor: cannot imagine how true denying function. Certainly wrongdoing proper function; since purpose uncover truth, falsehood relating subject perverts It argued, perhaps, disbelieved investigation. But existence crime turn upon credulousness investigator (or persuasiveness liar) exceedingly strange; such defense analogous perjury certainly unheard-of.1 Moreover, we see, "perversion functions'' limitation referring possibility (as opposed certainty) perversion function-a exists whenever are relevant their task. 10 find basis falsehoods functions covered derives comment 598 (1941), involving predecessor That earlier version subjected ""whoever . make cause used bill, receipt, voucher, roll, account, claim, certificate, affidavit, deposition, .''' Id., 92-93, S.Ct., 522. defendant relying interpretive canon ejusdem generis,2 argued read apply matters financial proprietary interest. argument, noted specifically amended cover ""any States,''' thereby indicating "the congressional intent protect authorized departments agencies might result deceptive practices described.'' elevate holding where exist. not, be, our practice restrict unqualified language particular evil trying remedy-even assuming possible identify something itself. Gilliland exemplify practice, defendant's bear. And even relied-upon dictum restricting supposed purpose, contrary acknowledges reality reach often exceeds precise eliminated. inconsistency between proposition intended "to result'' forbids all Ibid. 11 second line invokes inspired Amendment. argues places "cornered suspect'' "cruel trilemma'' admitting guilt, remaining silent, guilt. 11. "trilemma'' wholly guilty suspect's own making, course. An innocent person himself similar quandary commentator put it, lacks "lemma,'' Allen, Simpson Affair, Reform Criminal Process, Magic Bullets, 67 U. Colo. L.Rev. 989, 1016 (1996)). honest contrite regard third prong (the blatant lie) available option. bon mot appeared GOLDBERG's Murphy Waterfront Comm'n N.Y. Harbor, 378 52, 84 1594, 12 678 (1964), explain importance right remain silent subpoenaed testify official inquiry. Without right, said, exposed cruel trilemma self-accusation, contempt.'' 55, 1596. order validate no,'' elements now altered-ratcheted up, were, so liberation original trilemma, cruelty. disposed write into law species compassion inflation. Whether predicament wrongdoer run ground tugs heart strings, neither nor spirit confers " [P]roper invocation against compulsory self-incrimination allows witness swear falsely.'' 250 (1980). Wong, 431 174, 180, 97 1823, 1826-27, 52 231 (1977); Bryson 396 64, 72, 90 355, 360, 24 264 (1969). contends silence "illusory'' option suspect may fear later, know 12-13. former: well established fact person's can him-either substantive impeach takes stand-does exert form pressure exonerates otherwise Knox, 77, 81-82, 363, 366-67, 275 unaware silent: modern age frequently dramatized "Miranda'' warnings, implausible. Indeed, implausible irrelevant) 30 years ago, unless "in custody deprived freedom action significant way,'' Miranda Arizona, 384 436, 445, 86 1602, 1612, 16 694 (1966). 13 repeats supporters become instrument prosecutorial abuse. danger provision means "piling offenses-sometimes punishing severely objectors' principal grievance score, lies hypothetical itself, decreed obstruction legitimate separate offense, serious one. revise unable demonstrate, moreover, history excess, either after widespread judicial acceptance finally, problem "overreaching'' hard solve it. easy enough interrogator press liar initial detailed fabrication qualify exemption. III brief dissent's assertion interpret narrowly written: Some cases cites represent instances purport departing reasonable text, X-Citement Video, Inc., 513 77-78, 115 464, 471-72, 130 372 (1994); Williams 458 279, 286-287, 3088, 3092-93, 73 767 (1982). others, applied thought background principle general application. Staples 511 600, 619, 114 1793, 1804, 128 608 (1994) (construing common-law requirement mens rea); Sorrells 287 435, 446, 53 210, 214, 77 413 (1932) violations entrapment); Palmer, Wheat. 610, 631, 471 (1818) extraterritorially noncitizens). Also last category falls correct "ma[ke] undercover narcotics agent drug peddler.'' Post, __. prohibitions enforcement actions officers law. Robinson, Law Defenses §142(a), p. 121 (1984) ("Every American recognizes authority justification''). 15 thing acknowledge accept defined newly enunciated), applicable, principles assumed legislative intent. quite another espouse broad statutes broadly written, case-by-case exceptions. adopting expansive, user-friendly rule, way when, how, rule invoked. when: reason STEVENS adduces invoking here felony conviction offense seems harsh. Which be. courts ignore harsh penalties set forth Constitution, Art. 1, §9; III, §3; Amdt. 8; 14, §1; go them surely leave sea. how: why dissent chooses mitigate harshness saying rather application warned consequences lying, indeed oath. again To sure, uncertainty eliminated, stage judging, wrenched out context quoted Chancellor Coke, "communis opinio good authoritie law,''3 consistently consensus judgments appeals. (Of appeals themselves, district courts, still entirely sea, until developed.) propose, author practiced, consistent principle, Hubbard 514 695, 713, 1754, 1763-64, 131 779 (1995) (STEVENS, J.) ("We think forecloses simply ratify body exception''); Chapman 500 453, 468, 111 1919, 1929, 524 (1991) dissenting) (disagreeing unanimous conclusions interpreted issue); thus becomes yet invoked ad libitum. 17 sum, nothing except communis error facit jus sadly accurate description reality, normative Court's jurisprudence. Courts create limitations legislation, alluring policy arguments doing so, widely blame spread. Because admits affirm judgment Appeals. ordered. 19 20 I join premised potential abuse written (ante, __-__). point GINSBURG's espousing attention risks inherent statute's current breadth. 21 whom SOUTER joins, 22 fits §1001, concur affirmance Brogan's conviction. separately, call extraordinary Congress, perhaps unwittingly, conferred manufacture crimes. note, time, far removed problems initially sought address proscribed designed elicit benefit hinder operations. 23 willfully'' "any representations'' States.'' ed.). encompassing formulation arms apprehend lawbreakers, generate felonies, crimes kind prompt.1 illustrative. Two paid unannounced visit evening already possessed Brogan, officer, employed members served. (The gave advance warning, later testified, wanted retain element surprise. App. 5.) When money company, responded "No.'' further questions. After just said "No,'' him: (1) hand false; (2) Had counsel spot, likely followed advice amend answer, say immediately: "Strike that; plead guilty.'' attended interview, divulged more. Thus, ended, completed-even though, tell, unadorned misled 25 illustration. 714 1986), discovered notary public, violated Florida notarizing deed though signatories personally her died weeks signed). With knowledge hand, without "warn[ing] Tabor statements,'' id., 718, went home deputy sheriff questioned about transaction. regrettably humanly, denied prosecuted 716. IRS turned state eliciting lie Eleventh reversed conviction, doctrine. 719.) 26 these altogether uncommon episodes show,2 encounters targets "under extremely informal circumstances sufficiently alert interviewed lead conviction.'' Ehrlichman, 379 F.Supp. 291, 292 (D.D.C. 1974). questioning occurs noncustodial setting, informed silent. Unlike proceedings perjury, oath, pause concentrate speaker's mind answers. target "No'' speaks. 27 oral Solicitor General forthrightly observed "escalate completely conduct felony.'' Tr. Oral Arg. 36. More occur, "if finds difficult prove crime, she ask questions knows If lies, prompted leverage seek prosecution substitute prove.'' Note, False Statements Federal Agents: Induced Lies Exculpatory No, 57 Chi. 1273, 1278 (1990) (footnote offense-as four accused accepting-the prosecutor endeavor revive instructing fresh guilt.3 Prosecution instance "punishing itself,'' ante, __; instead, generation underlying suspected nonpunishable. 28 doubtful cast large net. First enacted 1863 prohibition filing claims Government, originally limited related filings. Act Mar. 1863, ch. 67, Stat. 696-697. 1918, broadened "for cheating swindling defrauding Oct. 23, 194, §35, 40 1015-1016. statute, held, remained "cheating property money.'' Cohn, 270 339, 346, 46 251, 253, 70 616 (1926). "The restricted 1918 [as construed Cohn] became advent Deal programs 1930's.'' Yermian, 468 63, 80, 104 2936, 2945, 82 (REHNQUIST, dissenting). new regulatory relied heavily self-reporting assure compliance; regulated entities file reports impunity, interests subverted money. 93-95, 522-23, (1941). Secretary Interior, particular, expressed concern "there outlawing, example, presentation documents Interior connection shipment "hot oil,' Public Works Administration transaction business agency.'' U.S., 2945 Secretary's request, 1934 include formed prosecution. 707, 1761, repeatedly passed behest aid laws Interior.' '') (quoting 93-94, 522-23). Since 1934, remains today,4 prohibited representations corporation America stockholder.'' June 18, 587, 996. 31 lower developed concluded, foregoing demonstrates "purpose affirmative, aggressive voluntary persons who take initiative; being victim positive tendency effect perverting normal activities functions.'' 298, 302 1962); accord, Stark, 190, 205 (D.Md.1955). True, amendment, added statutory language, specific precipitated passage.'' Rodgers, 466 475, 480, 1942, 1946, 80 492 (1984). Yet noteworthy amendment concerns suspects' misconduct, interviews initiated agents. Cf. ALI, Model Penal Code §241.3, Comment 151 (1980) ("inclusion misstatements'' "almost [an] accidental consequenc[e] law''). 32 Even precludes declaration defense, core persists: function prevention apprehension criminals. Manifestly, manufacturing crime.'' Sherman 356 369, 372, 78 819, 820, 848 (1958).5 blind concern. Notwithstanding others cited supra, __-__, n. long reluctance indictments once asserted supporting "are forceful necessarily dispositive.'' Memorandum Nunley O.T. 1977, 77-5069, p.7; 7-8 (explaining [t]he affords express indication meant Section 1001 prohibit officials having responsibilities discovery deterrence crime''). 33 Nunley, vacated remanded instructions dismiss indictment, General's suggestion. 434 962, 98 499, 54 448 (1977). urged instituted prior approval Assistant Attorney General, permission "normally refused'' like Nunley's, "essentially constitute[d] guilt.'' 8. 34 maintained bringing prosecutions amounting filed, Attorneys' Manual firmly declared: "Where no,' regardless question.'' & para;9-42.160 (Oct. 1988). abandoned banc), manual read: "It Department's appropriate charge suspect, investigation, denies government.'' (Feb. 12, 1996).6 These pronouncements indicate, least, dubious propriety bare exculpatory informally agents.7 today's decision holds sustained Justice's guide continues caution restraint each exercise authority. IV 36 instruct automatically sanction Circuit, affirms, reservations. court left open violate 1001, must statement.'' Wiener, 35, suggests responsibility sufficient [knowledge].'' "a trier acquit surprise lack reflection product requisite intent,'' ibid., instructed permissible draw inference. Finally, currently force, "materia[l]'' Accountability 1996, Pub.L. 104-292, §2, 110 3459. 37 controls place, meet basic issue, i.e., sweeping generality prospect investigator-aware committed suspicious acts, case-will surprising asking receiving alone provide instruction. 38 area, enactment 1996 (passed (1995)) demonstrates. Similarly, decision, advert formulation. 39 consideration ago. Legislation recodify laws, reported Senate Judiciary Committee 1981 never "defense officer'' "during consisted denial, unaccompanied statement, declarant participated commission offense.''' S.Rep. 97-307, 407 (1981). common proposal "available solely involvement protected accompanied (e.g., alibi).'' Ibid.8 bill defense; frontally, well, unsworn careful deliberation statements. criminalized "where volunteered alarm unsolicited accusation offense) impress seriousness interrogation obligation speak truthfully.'' 408. 41 stringent revision, following 1971 congressionally chartered reform commission, excise altogether. §§241.3, 241.4, 241.5 (1980); National Commission Laws, Final Report §§1352, 1354 (1971). recodification House 1980 approach. recorded knowledge, H.R.Rep. 96-1396, pp. 181-183 penalized provisions, entailed misprision felony, implication another, emergency, 182. §1001; excluded "information given information proceeding legal duty give information.'' §1352(3). 42 array recommendations refine block generator while preserving measure's important role protecting workings Government. divine Legislature's ratification advanced courts. extensive airing received, better inform Congress' lawmaking 43 BREYER dissenting. 44 agree nearly GINSBURG concurrence-a concurrence raises totally ignores-I reasons. 45 my well-settled interpretation unusual conclude broader coverage 605, 1796-97, 1803-04, 68-69, 467-68, (departing "most natural grammatical "anomalies construction,'' presumptions respect scienter avoiding constitutional questions); 81, 467 (stating "quite obviously reading'') (SCALIA, dissenting); 286, (1982) (holding prohibiting bank inapplicable depositing "bad check'' Government's surprisingly range unremarkable law''); 448, 215, intention enacting [a Prohibition Act] processes detection instigation act lure punish them''); although "words persons,' [in maritime robbery statute] comprehend every human state, objects legislature them'') (MARSHALL, C.J.). literally, peddler, am confident intend result. explained, equally clear felony.1 clear, believe show greater virtually uniform understanding bench bar persisted decades with, notes, Justice.2 Central Bank Denver, N.A. Interstate N. A., 164, 192-198, 1439, 1455-59, 119 McNally 483 350, 362-364, 376, 107 2875, 2882-84, (1987) dissenting).3 Or, Sir Edward Coke phrased "it law.''4 E. Institutes 186a (15th ed. 1794). 47 Accordingly, respectfully dissent. [M]eaning depends purpose. Law's words, however technical sound, magic formulas; light purposes, avoid essentially arbitrary applications harmful results.'' Behrens Pelletier, 516 299, 324, 116 834, 847, 133 773 (1996) (BREYER, merits emphasis confession (1977), contains discussion endorsed O.T.1977, 4-8. disposition troublesome McNally, nevertheless apt: "Perhaps most distressing aspect today casual-almost summary-rejection accumulated wisdom distinguished judges thoughtfully considered correctly present. quality work stands alone, tide well-considered opinions issued convinced understood persuaded, rejection longstanding, statute.'' 376-377, 2890 majority's maxim adds little weight argument. Lord Ellenborough stated Isherwood Oldknow, Maule Selwyn 382, 396-397 (K.B.1815): sometimes jus; is; speculative theoretical floating minds persons, ground-work substratum practice.'' Reindeer, F. Cas. 758, 762, 16, 145 (C.C.D.R.I. 1848).

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