Document: 422 U.S. 891 95 S.Ct. 2585. 45 L.Ed.2d 623 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.Luis Antonio ORTIZ. No. 73—2050. Argued Feb. 18, 1975. Decided June 30, Syllabus* The Fourth Amendment, held to forbid Border Patrol officers, in the absence of consent or probable cause, search private vehicles at traffic checkpoints removed from border and its functional equivalents, for this purpose there is no difference between a checkpoint roving patrol. Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 413 266, 93 2535, 37 596, followed. Pp. 892-898. Affirmed. Mark L. Evans, Washington, D.C., States. Charles M. Sevilla, San Diego, Cal., Luis Ortiz. Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 officers stopped respondent's car routine immigration on Interstate Highway 5 Clemente, November 12, 1973. They found three aliens concealed trunk, respondent was convicted counts knowingly transporting who were country illegally. Court Appeals Ninth Circuit reversed conviction an unreported opinion, relying dictum States Bowen, 500 F.2d 960 (CA9 1974), aff'd, 916, 2569, 641, effect that our decision 596 (1973), required cause all vehicle searches area, whether conducted by patrols checkpoints. We granted certiorari. 419 824, 40, 42 47 (1974). 2 Nothing record suggests had any special reason suspect carrying aliens. Nor does Government contend Clemente equivalent border. Brief 16. only question checkpoints, like roving-patrol Almeida-Sanchez, must be based cause. 3 * In we rejected Government's contention Nation's strong interest controlling practical difficulties policing Mexican combined justify dispensing with both warrant near facts did not require us decide same rule would apply which differ several important respects. U.S., 273, S.Ct., 2539; id., 276, 2541 (Powell, J., concurring). 4 A consolidated proceeding motions suppress similar cases produced extensive factual operation southern California. Baca, 368 F.Supp. 398 (SDCal.1973). 62 air miles 66 road north It principal highway Diego Los Angeles, over 10 million pass year. Martinez-Fuerte, 514 308, 312 1975). District Baca described as follows: 'Approximately one mile south large black yellow sign flashing lights stating 'ALL VEHICLES, STOP AHEAD, MILE.' Three-quarters further are two signs suspended 'WATCH FOR BRAKE LIGHTS.' At checkpoint, also location State California weighing station, red highway. These each state 'STOP HERE—U.S. OFFICERS.' Placed number orange cones funneling into lanes where agent full dress uniform, standing behind white 'STOP' checks traffic. Blocking unused official lights. addition, permanent building houses office temporary detention facilities. There floodlights nighttime operation.' F.Supp., 410—411. 6 prefer keep continuously, but bad weather, heavey traffic, personnel shortages it closed about one-third time. When open, screen northbound If anything occupants leads officer may aliens, he will stop ask their citizenship. officer's suspicion persists, if questioning enhances it, 'inspect' portions alien might hide.1 Operations other similar, although some light enough can routinely inspect more them. 7 maintains these characteristics despite Court's holding Almeida-Sanchez. gives essentially reasons distinguishing case. First, discretion deciding cars limited checkpoint. That determined high-level officals, using criteria include degree inconvenience public potential safe operation, well detecting deterring illegal movement By contrast, patrol theoretically free before within 100 Second, circumstances surrounding far less intrusive than those attending stop. Roving often operate night seldom-traveled roads, approach frighten motorists. motorist see being stopped, visible officers' authority, much likely frightened annoyed intrusion. 8 differences relevant constitutional issue, since central concern Amendment protect liberty privacy arbitrary oppressive interference government officials. Camara Municipal City County Francisco, 387 523, 528, 87 1727, 1730, 18 930 (1967); Schmerber California, 384 757, 767, 86 1826, 1833—1834, 16 908 (1966). Amendment's requirement seizures reasonable limit police use unnecessarily frightening offensive methods surveillance investigation. See e.g., Terry Ohio, 392 1, 16—17, 88 1868, 1877—1878, 20 889 (1968); Camara, supra, 531, 1732; Schmerber, 771—772, 1836. While significant determining propriety stop, considerably search, they do appear make itself. greater regularity mitigate invasion entails. procedures significantly reduce likelihood embarrassment. Motorists whose searched, unlike questioned, reassured seeing well. Where few singled out motorists find especially offensive. Note, Searches 77 Yale L.J. 1007, 1012—1013 (1968). 9 Moreover persuaded limits meaningful extent select search. indicates 3% either 411. Throughout system, fewer passed through 1974 29, involved reported rate 10% 15%. 412—415. apparent figures exercise substantial voluntarily restraint arouse suspicion, insists should judicial oversight kind. Viewed realistically, position authorize random, ever have his particular car. This automobiles consistent Amendment. even automobile, privacy.2 To arbitrariness, always regarded minimum lawful 269—270, 2537 2538; Chambers Maroney, 399 42, 51, 90 1975, 1981, 26 (1970). case safeguards therefore follow hold without cause.3 11 lists reply brief factors relied persons vehicle, appearance behavior driver passengers, inability speak English, responses give questions, nature indications heavily loaded. All properly taken account vehicle. note today Brignoni-Ponce, 884—885, 2582, entitled draw inferences knowledge area prior experience smugglers. case, however, advanced believing contained makes invalid. II 12 contends applies searches, erred voiding because occurred after date stated searches. Examination raise below. On contrary, represented court Bowen 'determinative issues case.' decline consider raised first time petition 13 14 REHNQUIST, concurring. 15 I joined dissent my Brother White recognize present extension unsound announced nonetheless join Court, majority still adheres agree analysis significance proffered distinctions fixed-checkpoint wish stress, confined extend stops inquiring Such involve modest intrusion, annoying, regularized fixed situs, effectively serve national entry. regard such unreasonable under accompanied 'reasonable suspicion' violations, cf. 873, 2574, 607, understand today's cast doubt upon constitutionality. 17 Chief BURGER, whom BLACKMUN joins, concurring judgment. Like WHITE can, most, concur As now has been interpreted seems Immigration Naturalization Service powerless tide aliens—and dangerous drugs—that daily freely crosses 2,000-mile boundary.1 Perhaps decisions seen perspective another example society seemingly impotent deal massive lawlessness. sense history view prisoners own traditional appropriate individual rights, unable—or unwilling—to concept reasonableness explicit order develop rational accommodation rights literal safety country. 19 Given that, absent legislative action, nothing force guards could adequately border.2 establish hundreds enlarged forces so literally every pedestrian doubtless impede flow commerce travel Mexico. Moreover, uncertain stringent penalties employment rigid requirements proof legal entry employment, help solve problems, remedies tried. hope when next problem weight reality prohibits 'unreasonable seizures' frequent admonition take balance needs society. See, Elkins 364 206, 80 1437, 1669 (1960); Biswell, 406 311, 92 1593, 32 (1972). 21 APPENDIX TO OPINION OF C.J., CONCURRING IN THE JUDGMENT 22 Excerpt Judge Turrentine's 398, 402—408 (SDCal.1973) ILLEGAL ALIEN PROBLEM 23 action best nation legally immigrate given controls reflect part Congressional intent American labor market influx foreign labor. Karnuth 279 231, 49 274, 73 L.Ed. 677 (1929); § 201(a) Nationality Act 1952, Stat. 163, amended October 3, 1965, 79 911, U.S.C. 1151(a). 24 Under policy admission, 385,685 new immigrants entered during fiscal year 1972. Since July 1968, law established annual quota 120,000 independent countries Western Hemisphere. Included Republic Mexico 1972 totalled 64,040. Annual Report, Service, pp. 2, 28. 25 Currently residence numbers which, while susceptible exact measurement, estimated vicinity 800,000 million. Department Justice, Special Study Group Illegal Immigrants Mexico, Program Effective And Humane Action Immigrants, (1973) (hereinafter cited Cramton Rpt.). Of approximately 85 percent citizens Rpt. 6. industrious, proud hard-working people enter earning wages, accumulating savings, returning sending savings home 27 1970, apprehended growing excess per 28 increasingly nationals seeking illegally reflects unemployment underemployment Mexico—fueled highest birth rates world. statistics improve dramatically fully Mexico's population years age and, therefore, soon attempting market. 29 Further prompting seek fact disparity wage Mexicali Tijuana, cities bordering Southern 400,000, average $3.40 day. lower workers interior worker assuming work, earns day hours 30 capita income poorest 40 population, strata most leave homeland $150 31 manpower generated World War resulted many Mexicans imported becoming familiar opportunities practices Diaz Kay-Dix Ranch, Cal.App.3d 588, Cal.Rptr. 443 available traditionally agriculture. true parts Southwest, recent pattern changed obtaining service manufacturing sectors economy. virtually regions segments Social Welfare Board, Issue: Aliens (Hereinafter California). 33 change demonstrated estimate 250,000 employed Angeles agricultural known limited. Hearings Before Subcomm. House Comm. Judiciary, 92d Cong., 1st Sess., pt. 208 (1971) Aliens). 34 Other estimates impact suggest 1971, 595,000 Californians unemployed (7.4 State's force), 200,000 300,000 $100 wages. 150. 35 unskilled low skilled tend compete Mexican-Americans, blacks, Indians, minority groups who, due declining percentage jobs requiring skills, finding difficult obtain gainful employment. 12. 36 residing uneducated form very group trying provide fair share America's prosperity. perpetuate poor economic conditions frustrating unionization, occupations farm work. 38 pose health hazard community work nursemaids, food handlers, cooks, housekeepers, waiters, dishwashers, grocery workers. medical officials example, discovered Angeles' barrio infected high incidence typhoid, dysentery, tuberculosis, tapeworms, veneral disease hepatitis. A. Times, Sept. 16, 1973, pt II, 1. 39 states abuse assistance programs. instances entire families admitted welfare rolls. 35, 43. Another aspect created send portion earnings relatives friends outflow dollars exacerbates payments $1 billion Aliens, 683. 41 net silent suffering frequently victims extortion, violence sharp practices, displacement market, irritation neighboring countries. LAW ENFORCEMENT life, economically deprived, Congress decreed relatively permanently excluded, then analyze what enforcement problems exist. regard, following findings made: 43 primarily Southwestern Region 44 along Mexican-American existed original responsibility securing integrity assigned Army, Departments Treasury Labor, 20,000 men Brownsville, Texas, 1920. National Geographic Magazine, 'Along Our Side Border.' (July 1920). burden stemming INS.1 46 extends almost 2,000 Gulf Pacific Coast. Along 152 entries authorized ports 1972, 91 made Over (Calexico, Ysidro Tecate) 25. 48 visitors permission issued 'border passes' I—186 cards (issued residents Mexico), holder period exceed 72 hours. C.F.R. 212.6. passes (I—186) simplify needed entry, issuing process recognizes inter-relationship contiguous communities sides 192. 50 1973 208,000 currently circulation. 173. 51 Within INS, Patrol, 1924, primary function preventing apprehension smuggle entrants. 52 1,700 agents, well-trained 53 'deportable alien' person deportable judge, admits deportability agents. 54 (which great apprehensions) nationally grown 38,861 1963 498,123 1973; 128,889 agents working Chula Vista sector includes 70 County, 23,125 located El Centro Imperial 75 55 power apprehend regulation Attorney General designated them powers duties (8 103.1(i)); statute 101(a)(17) Immigartion 163; 1101(a)(17), empowered, warrant, interrogate believed right remain Au Yi Lau I.N.S., 144 U.S.App.D.C. 147, 445 217 (1971), cert. denied, 404 864, 64, 108. 56 Sec. 287(a)(3) 1952 provides authority distance board conveyance vehicle; distance' used section means external boundary 287.1(b). 57 conduct inspection admission readmission to, privilege passing through, empowered believe brought 235(a) Act, 1225(a). 58 deployment intended maximize effectiveness personnel, line defense called 'line watch.' watch consists placed immediately physical shown detected concerned responding sensor alarms (electronic detection equipment) strategic positions. respond citizen complaints concerning suspected presence 59 175,511 throughout watch, 69,147 5,908 sector. 60 inspections regular points infallible crossings numerous recurring. maintenance continuous vast stretches physically impossible, 145 creates geographic barriers effective man-made devices fences electronic ineffective. 61 Increased activity appreciably 1969 'Operation Intercept' stationed border, yet, operating inland different periods additional boundary. Once negotiate way port or, common, walk across place transportation conveyances, increasing transported professional having walked Julian, 63 After crossing District, attempt proceed north. 64 gets settled big city away becomes him, attempts contain entrant district. 7. With objective mind, (pursuant statutory discussed above) established, least 1927, strategically facilities, commonly referred highways be, remain, Handbook 9—1 (1972) Handbook). 65 intercept conveyances nonresident (I 186), attention paid operated smugglers transporters destined violation 1324. selection interdiction interception succeeded gaining unlawful manner beyond immediate crossers, 212.60. selecting site are: 67 just confluence roads permit checking volume officers. avoids repeated commuter urban occur sites network leading populated areas 68 2. Terrain topography restrict passage around mountains, desert, Camp Pendleton Marine Base. 69 3. Safety factors: unobstructed oncoming slowing stopping; parking space off highway; source illuminate control bypass capability examination. 4. Due restrictions crosser (unless documentation) general rule, point zone visitors. 71 Strategic meet foregoing enumerated selected 'permanent checkpoints.' equipped handle 24-hour basis except shortage, excessive causing hazard. 9—3. 'temporary checkpoints' maintained frequent. placement governed usually terrain allows element surprise. set up irregular intervals intermittently confuse violator. temporary, 'point' uniform decelerating visually determine (i.e., 'breaks pattern' usual traffic). so, (if heavy, actually directed highway) inquiries agent. approaching exchange salutations, merely wave 74 If, occupants, believes secreted (because break 'pattern' indicating possibility smuggling) giving cursory visual outside (i.e. camper, etc.). reached locale foot, 99 type another. Approximately apprehensions 76 55,300 operations. 21,232, total 3,825.2 During 4,975 above terms (Form I—186). operations coordinated district activities east Arizona. actual 'permanent' 'temporary,' basic accouterments. Typically, one-half notification ahead. notice indicated AHEAD' illumination, handbook 9—9. Next, 200 yards cautioning slow down careful; attached. For fifty directly evenly spaced side parked showing emblem and/or designation OFFICERS. 'point,' Beyond 'THANK YOU.' 78 year, related above, deter entering violating card have, obstacle major routes region. deterrence amply resort Some smuggling developed sophisticated modus operandi: 81 Contact smuggler latter's leaving 82 possibly aid 'guide,' passes. Then Patrol's activities. 83 get 'drop house,' acts staging awaiting inclement event close temporarily. Or, 'decoy' loaded anticipated occupy inspection. 'scout cars' probe maintained, advise proceed. 84 'load' themselves secrete inside varied show originality. Unfortunately, sometimes themselves. reported, unusual die asphyxiation automobile trunk tank 5. cost provided $225 $250 trip area. exclusively 'cash carry' businesses among here quite small, tends act deterrent price discontinued length encouragement immigration. noted occasions resumed unexpectedly apprehended. evidence presented clearly alternative method avilable geometric increase half none prosecuted, unless counterfeit altered documents aided endeavors. 89 land borders, yet WHITE, disagreed authoritative results largely foreordained. purports me, REHNQUIST notwithstanding, opinions investigative stops, suspicion. event, thus dismantled apparantus Nation attempted millions notably unsuccessful heavy flow; costs, including added burdens courts, substantial. Judiciary strain accommodate system demonstrate minimal long business firms others employ problem, ordinary able solve, poses questions chiefly Executive Branch rather courts. judgment cases. syllabus consitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. places typically hood, beneath chassis. truck, like, inspects enclosed But confined. back seat cushion reports seated upright seats springs removed. Id., 286, 2546 (White, dissenting). vary circumstances, 'an office.' 48, 1979, (1970); 279, 2542 Not 'inspection,' n. necessarily constitutes 'search' purposes occasion define 'search.' issue approving information whole, tried one. 275, 2540 concurring); (1967). need treated purposes, lawfully Cf. 607. motor vehicles. possible, considerations condition use. 878, 4, 2578 2579. News 22, 1974, p. 27; Dec. 9, 77. future, abate. 402—403 (SD Cal.1973). Turrentine thorough review response. Appended excerpt describing testimony hearings revealed complement 21,000 alone. notation 'INS' herein reference Service. Apparently included figures, representation therein (R.T. 396).

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