Document: 461 U.S. 321 103 S.Ct. 1838 75 L.Ed.2d 879 Oralia MARTINEZ, as Next Friend of Roberto Morales, Petitionerv.Raymon L. BYNUM, etc., et al. No. 81-857. Argued Jan. 10, 1983. Decided May 2, Syllabus Texas Education Code § 21.031(d) permits a school district to deny tuition-free admission its public schools for minor who lives apart from "parent, guardian, or other person having lawful control him" if his presence in the is "for primary purpose attending free schools." Petitioner's brother left parents' home Mexico live with petitioner McAllen, Tex., there. When School District denied her brother's application admission, petitioner, next friend, and custodians school-age children brought an action Federal Court, alleging that unconstitutional on face. The Court granted judgment defendants, holding was justified by State's legitimate interests protecting preserving quality educational system right bona fide residents attend state preferred tuition basis. Appeals affirmed. Held: Section 21.031 residence requirement satisfies constitutional standards. Pp. 325-333. (a) A requirement, appropriately defined uniformly applied, furthers substantial interest assuring services provided are enjoyed only residents. Such respect attendance does not violate Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment nor burden interstate travel. simply requires establish before demanding restricted Moreover, public-school context, fact provision secondary education one most important functions local government adequate justification requirements. Absent such requirements, proper planning operation would suffer significantly. 325-330. (b) At very least, generally be requiring their parents satisfy traditional, basic criteria—i.e., intention remaining there—before it treated them grants benefits residency all traditional definition, but goes further extends those many even they (or families) do intend remain indefinitely. As long child living sole school, he statutory test. Since there no indication this extension definition has any impermissible basis, cannot said violates Constitution. 330-333. 648 F.2d 425 (5th Cir.1981), Edward J. Tuddenham, Hereford, petitioner. Richard Arnett, Austin, respondents. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 This case involves facial challenge constitutionality governing minors wish while guardians. 2 * Morales born 1969 Texas, thus United States citizen birth. His Mexican citizens reside Reynosa, Mexico. He Reynosa 1977 returned McAllen sister, Martinez, Independent District. Although Martinez now Morales's custodian, she not—and desire become—his guardian.1 result, entitled schools. 21.031(b) (c) require authorities admit him "his parent, resided district, Tex.Educ.Code Ann. (Supp.1982), denies under order court" schools."2 Respondent therefore fall 1977. 3 In December friend four adult instituted present Southern against Commissioner Education, Agency, districts, various officials districts. Plaintiffs initially alleged 21.031(d), both face applied violated certain provisions Constitution, including Clause, Due Process Privileges Immunities Clause. also sought preliminary permanent injunctive relief. 4 injunction August 1978. It found "that boards . have been more than liberal finding away residing school." App. 20a. evidence "conclusively" showed within districts someone legal guardians will admitted reason exists situation only." Ibid. (emphasis original). 5 subsequently amended complaint narrow claims. They seek "a declaration face," 3a, prohibiting defendants denying pursuant restitution payments,3 costs, attorney's fees. 7a. After hearing merits, defendants. Arredondo v. Brockette, 482 F.Supp. 212 (1979). court concluded "legitimate own basis." F.Supp., at 222. appeal two plaintiffs, Fifth Circuit (1981). view importance issue,4 we Martinez's petition certiorari. 457 ----, 102 2955, 73 1347 (1982). We affirm. II 6 frequently considered challenges On several occasions invalidated requirements condition receipt benefit minimum period jurisdiction, always careful distinguish durational Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 89 1322, 22 600 (1969), example, one-year applicants assistance were required despite otherwise had "met test jurisdictions," id., 627, S.Ct., 1327. BRENNAN, writing stressed "[t]he waiting-period distinct independent prerequisites assistance," 636, 1322,and carefully "impl[ied] validity determining eligibility vote, education, obtain license practice profession, hunt fish, so forth," 638, n. 21, 1333 21. Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 92 995, 31 274 (1972), similarly Tennessee laws prospective voter resident year county three months, explicitly distinguished these 334, 337, 7, 338, 343, 350, 20, 351-352, 999, 1000, 1001, 1003, 1007, 1008. empty distinction. MARSHALL, again emphasized "States power voters relevant political subdivision." Id., 1003. See Memorial Hospital Maricopa County, 415 250, 255, 267, 94 1076, 1080, 1086, 39 306 (1974) (invalidating applicant became eligible medical assistance, recognizing requirements).5 7 specifically approved field education. Connecticut statute us Vlandis Kline, 412 441, 93 2230, 37 63 (1973), because created irrebuttable presumption nonresidency university students whose addresses outside State admission. effect classified some nonresidents purposes. But "fully recognize[d] [its colleges universities] preferential 452-453, 2236-37. interest" "State [to] reasonable criteria in-state status make virtually not, fact, State, come solely purposes, take advantage rates." 453-454, 2237.6 Last Term, Plyler Doe, 2382, 72 786 (1982), reviewed aspect 21.031—the issue case. portion excluded undocumented alien schools, recognized districts' "to apply established residence." 22, 2400, 22. 4, 2407, (POWELL, J., concurring) ("Of course may illegal children, like actually admitting de facto residency, principle equal protection."). 8 Amendment.7 penalize travel,8 move 9 There further, context. explained Milliken Bradley, 418 717, 3112, 41 1069 (1974): 10 "No single tradition deeply rooted over schools; autonomy thought essential maintenance community concern support process. [L]ocal process affords opportunity participate decision-making, structuring programs fit needs, encourages 'experimentation, innovation, healthy competition excellence.' " U.S., 741-742, 3126 (quoting San Antonio Rodriguez, 411 1, 50, 1278, 1305, 36 16 (1973)). 11 course, government. can little doubt significantly.9 imposing maintain III 12 central question must decide here whether requirement.10 meaning vary according "residence" physical remain.11 Supreme Maine century ago, "When voluntarily takes up abode 13 given place, permanently, indefinite time; or, speak accurately, when without remove therefrom, place becomes residence. ." Inhabitants Warren Thomaston, 43 Me. 406, (1857). 14 classic two-part standard wide range contexts time again.12 15 supra, rigorous domicile "reasonable residential student." 454, 2237. That described follows: 'In reviewing claim status, essentially domicile. general, individual true, fixed habitation. which, whenever absent, returning.' Opinion Attorney General Regarding Non-Resident Tuition, Sept. 6, 1972); cf. supra. could same way college students. there13 far generous standard. compels permit paying indefinitely,14 then being school: district.15 Thus For comes work year, Tr. Oral Arg. 37. Or six months health reasons, qualify 31. short, everyone legitimately nonresidents. certainly say IV 17 Constitution restrict hold accordingly 18 Affirmed. 19 concurring. 20 I join Court's opinion. write separately, however, stress statute. Ante, 325 10. upholding statute, pass specific factual contexts. particular, non-resident aliens. If believe different set considerations implicated which might affect significantly analysis statute's constitutionality. 21 dissenting. Shortly after reached eighth birthday, birthplace, Texas. planned married sister learn English. past five years intends until completed schooling. every resides except guardian Accordingly, refused district. 23 majority upholds classification embodied ground applies class non-residents. majority's approach reflects misinterpretation misunderstanding concept residence, misapplication decisions concerning my view, classification, deprives motive adequately asserted interests. Because respectfully dissent. 24 outset clear upheld us. Petitioner statutes Under law, where lives. 21.031(b). true care "custodian," responsible parent whom related. Tex.Fam.Code 51.02(4).1 creates exception, "presence 21.031(d). Those control," ibid., receive 25 address contained Instead, statute: leave completion By inferring "intend indefinitely" able characterize "traditional standard." 332, 13. Having characterized fashion, reasons numerous contexts, fortiori permissible since "resident" motivated availability 332-333. 26 terms primarily draws distinction between upon not. No adopted narrowing interpretation relies.2 Certainly manner interpretation.3 courts below never addressed presently interpreted majority. contrary settled newly late date, lower court. dismiss writ certiorari improvidently granted, see Monrosa Carbon Black Export, Inc., 359 180, 183, 79 710, 712, 723 (1959), remand proceedings. Toll Moreno, 441 458, 99 2044, 60 354 (1979) (per curiam). 27 nevertheless proceeds interpreted. elaborated below, errs question. 28 employs "traditional" uniform indeed "non-residents" need subjected minimal judicial scrutiny normally accorded stated conclusion rests number false assumptions misconceptions. mistakenly equates reinterpreted imposes difficult meet access provide impose restriction uniformly. A. 29 reasoning that, "intent component imposition presumptively valid. 1843-1844.4 is, anything, prior cases suggest general matter, reserve resources residents, close domiciliaries. 30 difference concepts recognized. See, e.g., Mitchell States, Wall L.Ed. 584 (1875); Penfield Chesapeake, O. & S.W.R. Co., 134 351, 566, 33 940 (1890); Florida, 398, 59 830, 83 817 (1939). well-settled connection. "[M]ere lodging boarding temporary occupation" enough Dwyer Matson, 163 299, 303 (CA10 1947). Reese Green, Elusive Word, "Residence," Vanderbilt L.Rev. 561, 563 (1953). law "[r]esidence nature. However, greater mere lodging. term implies abode, albeit temporary, rather transient lodging." Whitney 472 S.W.2d 524, 525 (Tex.Cr.App.1971) (citation omitted). Brown Boulden, Tex. 431, 432 (1857); Travelers Indem. Co. Mattox, 345 290, 292 (Tex.Civ.App.1961); Prince Inman, 280 779 (Tex.Civ.App.1955). "Intent shown state.5 Snyder Pitts, 241 136, 139, 150 407, 413 (1951), "[f]rom residences, arrive element 'intent home' necessary establishment second domicile." hand, domicile, currently closely connected, connected past. Williams North Carolina, 226, 229, 65 1092, 1094-95, 1577 (1945); Columbia Murphy, 314 62 303, 86 329 (1941); Williamson Osenton, 232 619, 34 442, 58 758 (1914). Traditionally, acquire new "the absence elsewhere," 624, 'the permanently indefinitely in' abode." Ibid, citing Dicey, Conflict Laws, 2d ed. 111. typically reserved purposes clearly recognition individual, presumptively, connected.6 assuming domiciliaries State. To begin with, education,7 just often used determine subject income tax, property exempt attachment, jury duty.8 assumption. referred approval context higher incumbent demonstrate transplanted another scheme desires use it.' quoting Oyama California, 332 633, 664-665, 68 269, 284, 249 (1948) (Murphy, concurring). B 32 Even constitutionally persons, fail acquiring what does. operates persons point future. Yet preclude domiciliary prevailing conception geographical area, center domestic, social civil life, indicia regarded irrespective intent somewhere else distant future.9 "A man personally elect home, design always, end short another. clergyman Methodist Church surely flock, although means, period, gain another." Report Committee Elections re Cessna Meyers, H.R.Rep. 11, 42d Cong., Sess., (1872). 35 Thus, incorrect states ten later possibly 10.10 C expect future escape 21.031, open Admission limited Brownsville Dist. Gamboa, 498 448, 450 (Civ.App.1973).11 "if, Virginian legally entered Tyler age intending viewed provides temporarily." exception unlike others, particular requirement. recognizes, ante, 328, pick choose among classes inhabitants particularly preclusive premise underlies striking down create individuals either Evans Cornman, 398 419, 90 1752, 370 (1970), jobs hold. Carrington Rash, 380 89, 85 775, 675 (1965).12 reaffirmed last Term struck children. defended alienage rejected assertion "comply standards historically tests observed "as [it is] seeks admission," merely "defin[es] disfavored group non-resident." 38 continue analyzing appropriate level depends societal adversely affected invidiousness basis drawn." 99, 1330, (1973) (MARSHALL, dissenting). become increasingly taken our focuses "upon character question, relative discriminated governmental receive, classification." Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 520-521, 1153, 1179-80, 491 (1970) Mississippi University Women Hogan, 458 3331, 1090 (1982); supra; Zobel 55, 2309, 672 withstand warranted ipso constitutional. foregoing demonstrated, neither school-aged Quite contrary, should scrutiny. 40 child's regard fundamental. 110-117, 1336-40 fundamental reflected unique society, relationship values." 111, 1336-37 Term's decision 2397, recent recognize special 2404 (BLACKMUN, ("[W]hen immediately inevitably distinctions type fundamentally inconsistent [many purposes] Clause."). Therefore, impedes education,13 scrutiny.14 narrowly tailored achieve interest. attempt justify reference safety well-being boundaries. instead contends preserve financial 329-330, 9.15 means limiting "closely connected" scheme, "residents" sense word Other connection reason, matter how ephemeral, plans year. Whatever sufficiently crude withholds related haphazard extent Cf. 2398. 42 similar designed enduring State.16 concededly enrolls "school [who intend] months" n.22. "For 333. excludes enters seven least complete preventing undesirable fluctuations student population 329, 9. based rely vague, unsubstantiated fear barrier migration, throughout relocate numbers wholly unpredictable. whatsoever migration unpredictable caused administrative problems, conjecture problems arise singles out 268-269, 1087-88; 634-635, 1331.17 44 available, inter-district enacted problem mind. Schlesinger Ballard, 419 498, 520, 95 572, 583-84, 610 (1975) (BRENNAN, dissenting); McGinnis Royster, 410 263, 270, 1055, 1059, 282 (the challenged "some legitimate, articulated purpose") added). acknowledged, "§ response litigation regarding rights Jackson Waco Dist., 629 201, 205 (Tex.App.1982) Indeed, needed redress authority quite reside. Ibid., 23.26. shaped forces than" Trimble Gordon, 430 762, 97 1459, 1468, 52 (1977), broad Rather, populations into countries. concluding, inter-State cause serious each district.18 45 Finally, whatever magnitude associated motive-requirement minimizing fluctuations. Just nothing enter once likely stable members population. All comparative unimportance, tie during years. expressly less twelve full disparate treatment fluctuating populations. 46 reject ordinarily denial small 51.02(4) Family defines "custodian" resides." (1975). "Guardian" who, order, private agency placed court." 51.02(3). provides, part: "(b) Every first day September shall permitted "(c) board trustees beginning scholastic "(d) separate court, "special purpose" codified 1977, feature common 1905. De Leon Harlingen Consolidated District, 552 922, 924-925 (Tex.Civ.App.1977); Tex.Atty.Gen.Op. H-63, 2-3 (July 12, 1973); O-586, 3-4 (May 25, 1939); 1906-1908 Tex.Atty.Gen.Ops. 245, 248 (1905). Before 1905, ruled school. Yale West Middle Conn. 489, 491, 295, 296 ex rel. Board Thayer, 74 Wis. 48, 58-59, N.W. 1014, 1017 (1889); Wheeler Burrow, Ind. 14, (1862); Bragdon, N.H. 507, 510, 516 (1851). attended fall, 1978 semester Rural Legal Aid, paid tuition. Bond posted cover subsequent payments. vast entitlement Many substantially Ind.Code 20-8.1-6.1-1(c) (Supp.1982); Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., Tit. 859(3)(B)(2) Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., ch. 76, (West 1982); Mich.Comp.Laws 380.1148 (Supp.1981); Or.Rev.Stat. 332.595(5) McCarthy Philadelphia Civil Service Comm'n, 424 645, 96 1154, 47 366 (1976) curiam), continuing-residence Again, 646-647, 1155. Two Vlandis, rates Minnesota. Starns Malkerson, 401 985, 91 1231, 527 (1971), summarily aff'g 326 234 (Minn.1970) (three-judge court). regulations declared: unless thereto. Minnesota student; probability beyond 235-236. Washington. Sturgis Washington, 414 1057, 563, 464, 368 (WD Wash.1973) "The 'resident student' mean Washington 39, 1. "Domicile" person's remain, expects return leaves elsewhere." (1974), consistent education—despite aspect. 259-260, nn. 15, 1082-83, 15. implicates "suspect" strict invidiously discriminatory about applied. rational it. assumes, "service" protected refuse counsel indigent nonresident defendant criminal trial deprivation liberty occurs. Argersinger Hamlin, 407 2006, 530 (1972). previously recognized, "[p]ublic 'right' Constitution." (1982) (citing 35, 1297, construed entering countries, F.2d, 428; applications involve travel, let alone accepted findings adverse impact invalidating 428-429. found: "28. Declaring int[er]-district transfers, fluctuate. "29. Fluctuating impossible predict enrollment figures—even semester-by-semester causing over-or-under-estimates teachers, supplies, materials, etc. "30. increased overcrowded classrooms facilities; over-large teacher-pupil ratios; expansion bilingual programs; purchase books, equipment, supplies customary items support; increase budget districts." 215. degree specificity illustrate prompt adopt 21.031. plaintiffs 325. argument nonresidence. Brief 46-49; 446, 2233, (1973). easily rebut "presumption" nonresidence were, resident. infra, 15; find merit constitutes nontraditional family-living arrangement. 23-24; Moore City East Cleveland, 431 494, 506, 1932, 1939, 531 (1977) (plurality opinion). Unlike housing ordinance parents, §§ (c); Mills Bartlett, 377 637 (Tex.1964); 412-417, 139-141 (1951); 525-526 (Tex.Cr.App.1971); Harrison Chesshir, 316 909, 915 (Tex.Civ.App.1958), rev'd grounds, 159 359, 320 814 (1959) curiam); 779, 782 Contrary suggestion dissent, post, 337-341, ones, speaks Our supported "intention remain" Conn.Gen.Stat. 10-253(d) Colo.Rev.Stat. 22-1-102(2)(g) (1973); Op. 76-94, 1975-1976 Biennial Atty.Gen. S.D. 660, 662 (1976); 2825, 1969-1970 Annual Official Opinions S.C. (1970); 59-146, 1915-1971 Ariz.Atty.Gen. Reports 218, 220 (1959); VanCurran, Ed.Dept.Rep. 523, 524 (N.Y.Comm'r Educ.1979). 13, infra. Kiehne Atwood, N.M. 657, 662, 604 P.2d 123, 128 (1979); Bullfrog Marina, Inc. Lentz, Utah 261, 269-270, 501 266, 272 (1972); Estate Schoof Schoof, 193 Kan. 611, 614, 396 331-332 (1964); Hughes Ill. Pub. Aid Ill.2d 374, 380, 118 N.E.2d (1954); Spratt Spratt, 210 La. 370, 371, So.2d 154, 154 (1946); Appeal Lawrence 71 49, 51, N.W.2d 57, Jenkins Shore Dye House, 277 Mass. 440, 444, 178 N.E. 644, 646 (1931); Thomas Warner, Md. 831 (1896); Pfoutz Comford, Pa. 420, 422 (1860). Of imply leave. Given mobility people families country, changing commonplace. accommodates possibility remain. cases, behalf relevant. Deterly Wells, 53 847, 848 (Tex.Civ.App.1932) (minor presumed lack capacity form requisite domicile). convenience intention. Respondents conceded 'establishing home.' 25. read exclude moves making standing raise claim. record shows McAllen: "Morales completes education." 212, 214 (SD Tex.1979). fails criterion recognizes ties custodian—for custodian consent act matters, 51-54—a "other of" child. custodian. 21.031; 343-344. apparently implicit language Compare 330-331, 1844, 11. An individual's entry accomplished. note cites General's statement "permits majority, understand obtaining agree McAllen." , record, silent intentions time. 1987 graduated pure speculation Morales. Plaintiffs' Exhibit 8-346 (Application Rebecca Aguilar, 1978) (Child, fifteen old, brother. "Rebecca parent's divorce. Parents moved areas. done well schools."—admission denied). adopts people. (1974); (1969). Tennessee's voting elections, though elections privileges. Pope 621, 573, 48 (1904) (upholding Maryland elections). valid voting. Sosna Iowa, 393, 553, 532 Iowa divorce preceding filing petition). erroneously relies 406 (1857), indefinitely," "has [part of] standard" establishing 331. lived worked towns previous town pauper laws. indicated acquired "without therefrom," 418, extended periods did hold, fixed, relatively suggested opposite "[t]o dwell length time," 417 Yarmouth Gardiner, 207, 211 (1870), "so 'residence,' conclusively inferred actual accompanied circumstances usually surround home." reliance decisions, 331, equally misplaced. These incorporate courts. all, 331 (1964), refer common-law "domicile" involving probate will, necessarily priority. Similarly, 380-381, (1954), "made continuous year." Comment k, Restatement (Second) Laws (1971). avoid conflicts jurisdictions, governs matters distribution death, appointment administrator occur deceased. voting, define greatest destiny community. Hershkoff Registrars Voters, 570, 656, 663 (Mass.1974). Domicile exercising personal jurisdiction absent jurisdiction. Meyer, 311 457, 61 339, 278 (1940). notes, 327-328, university. 2237, Cline Knight, 111 Colo. 8, 137 680 (1943); 295 Ashley 275 274, 114 (1916); Mt. Hope Hendrickson, 197 191, (1924); Township Mancelona Custer, 236 Mich. 677, (1926); McNish Dimick, Neb. 104 186 (1905); Lisbon Landaff, 324, (1909); People 54 Misc. N.Y.S. 122 (Sup.Ct.1907); Hobbs, Okla. 293, 56 P. 1052 (1899); I.O.O.F. W.Va. 110 S.E. 440 (1922); 1014 (1889). Residence Town Winchester Burlington, 185, 188, A.2d 373 (1941) (pauper statutes); 207 (1870) Ortman Miller, Mich.App. 451, 190 242 (1971) (Michigan Motor Vehicles Accident Fund); Juvenile Wadena 188 Minn. 125, 246 544 (1933) (poor relief); Collins Yancey, 55 N.J.Super. 514, 522, 151 68, (Unsatisfied Claim Judgment Fund Law); Baldwin Tiffany, 250 N.Y. 166 177 (1929) (treatment mental hospital); Adams County Burleigh 69 N.D. 780, 787, 291 281, 285 (1940) laws); Jamaica Townsend, Vt. 267 (1847) laws). Hawes Club Ecuestre El Commandante, 598 698, 701-702 (CA1 1979); Pedigo Grimes, 113 148, 700 (1887); Brittenham Robinson, Ind.App. 502, 616 (1897); Paulson Forest Community 238 344, 349 (Iowa 1976); 664 (Mass.1974); Robbins Chamberlain, 297 108, 617 (1947); Lloyd Babb, N.C. 416, 251 S.E.2d 843, 861 Townshend, (1847). 11-12, (1971); Goodrich, 35-36 (1927); R. Leflar, American Conflicts Law (3d 1977). there, conclusive Assuming satisfied "it immaterial led go makes motives good bad specifically, location health, accept job, taxation, secure divorce, bring suit federal facilitate life sin crime." (f), Young Pollak Ala. 439, So. 279 (1888). traditionally change 625, 443, (1914); Jones League, (18 How.) 81, 263 (1855); Schultz Chicago Bank Trust 384 51 140 Cooper Cooper, 217 1974); McConnell Kelley, 138 372 (1885); Nichols Nichols, 538 727 (Mo.App.1976). improperly claimed amendment add subsection (d). One child, birth infancy citizens. came maternal aunt aunt's part household sixteen brief interruption. She appointed guardian. "[t]here sufficient permanency plaintiff's defendant's requirement" 450. held serviceman remains service. presume profession inhabitants, "more precise fides claiming made vote," others seeking vote 95, 779. absolutely attaining irrelevant. Careful burdens Edwards 160, 164, 171, 119 (Jackson, 2316, concurring); 2319 (O'CONNOR, travel includes benefits. face, right. welfare illegitimate purported "discourag[ing] indigents larger benefits," 631, 1329. stated: "[F]undamentally, try fence generally. Implicit notion hope securing somehow deserving consideration account. perceive why mother herself considers, factors, assistance. Surely facilities." 631-632, 1329-30 1084, (1974). Doe Bolton, 179, 200, 739, 751, 201 "[A] preservation hardly allocating resources. [A] 'not reduce expenditures barring [some arbitrarily chosen schools.' 1330. whether, point, homes attractive implausible. assume rule, significant difficulty practical impediment willing places considerable study undertaken shortly enactment Hensley, Impact Students From Upon Selected Districts Counties Adjacent Border (1976). Superintendents twenty nearest border interviewed. Nearly 75% agreed increases immigrant attributable economic factors factors. 77. Over 80% unexpected. 74. inquiry conducted

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