Document: 529 U.S. 598120 S.Ct. 1740146 L.Ed.2d 658 SyllabusNOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as being done in connection with this case, at the time opinion issued. The constitutes no part of Court but has been prepared by Reporter Decisions for convenience reader. See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 321, 337. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES STATESv.MORRISON et al. CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR FOURTH CIRCUIT No. 99_5. Argued January 11, 2000 Decided May 15, Petitioner Brzonkala filed suit, alleging, inter alia, that she was raped respondents while three were students Virginia Polytechnic Institute, and attack violated 42 U.S.C. § 13981 which provides federal civil remedy victims gender-motivated violence. Respondents moved to dismiss on grounds complaint failed state claim §13981's unconstitutional. intervened defend section's constitutionality. In dismissing complaint, District held stated against respondents, Congress lacked authority enact §13981 under either §8 Commerce Clause or §5 Fourteenth Amendment, had explicitly identified sources §13981. en banc Fourth Circuit affirmed. Held: Section cannot sustained Amendment. Pp. 7_28. (a) does not provide remedy. A congressional enactment invalidated only upon plain showing exceeded its constitutional bounds. Lopez, 514 549, 568, 577_578. Petitioners assert can Congress' commerce power regulation activity substantially affects interstate commerce. proper framework analyzing such provided principles set out Lopez. First, noneconomic, criminal nature possessing firearm school zone central Court's conclusion lacks regulate possession. Similarly, crimes violence are not, any sense, economic activity. Second, like statute issue contains jurisdictional element establishing cause action pursuance Although Lopez makes clear would lend support argument sufficiently tied come within authority, elected cast over wider, more purely intrastate, body violent crime. Third, although §13981, unlike statute, supported numerous findings regarding serious impact their families, these weakened fact they rely reasoning rejected, namely but-for causal chain from initial occurrence crime every attenuated effect If accepted, allow whose nationwide, aggregated substantial effects employment, production, transit, consumption. Moreover, limit regulating violence, may applied equally well family law other areas since aggregate marriage, divorce, childrearing national economy undoubtedly significant. Constitution requires distinction between what truly local, there better example police power, Founders undeniably left reposed denied government, than suppression vindication victims. therefore conduct based solely conduct's 7_19. (b) 5 permits enforce appropriate legislation guarantee State shall deprive person life, liberty, property, without due process deny equal protection laws, City Boerne Flores, 521 507, 517, also give Petitioners' assertion pervasive bias various justice systems voluminous record. However, Amendment places limitations manner discriminatory conduct. Foremost among them principle prohibits action, private This reached Harris, 106 629, Civil Rights Cases, 109 3, both decided shortly after Amendment's adoption. force doctrine stare decisis behind decisions stems length have books, insight attributable Members time, who all intimate knowledge familiarity events surrounding Neither Guest, 383 745, nor Columbia Carter, 409 418, casts doubt enduring vitality Cases Harris. Assuming gender-based disparate treatment authorities enough save remedy, directed actor individuals committed acts motivated gender bias. visits consequence public official involved investigating prosecuting Brzonkala's assault, thus remedies previously upheld. e.g., South Carolina Katzenbach, 301. different upheld applies uniformly throughout Nation, even though indicate problem addressed exist all, most, States. contrast, Katzenbach those found discrimination. 19_27. 169 F.3d 820, Rehnquist, C. J., delivered Court, O'Connor, Scalia, Kennedy, Thomas, JJ., joined. concurring opinion. Souter, dissenting opinion, Stevens, Ginsburg, Breyer, joined, Souter joined Part I_A. Opinion 1 NOTICE: subject formal revision before publication preliminary print Reports. Readers requested notify Decisions, Supreme States, Washington, D. 20543, typographical errors, order corrections made goes press. Nos. 99_5 99_29 2 STATES, PETITIONERCHRISTY BRZONKALA, PETITIONERv.MORRISON 3 ON WRITS 4 [May 2000] Chief Justice Rehnquist Court. 6 cases we consider constitutionality Appeals Circuit, sitting banc, struck down because concluded Believing controlled our 549 (1995), 629 (1883), affirm. 7 * Christy enrolled Institute (Virginia Tech) fall 1994. September year, met Antonio Morrison James Crawford, Tech members varsity football team. alleges that, 30 minutes meeting assaulted repeatedly her. After attack, allegedly told Brzonkala, "You _ diseases." Complaint ¶22. months following rape, announced dormitory's dining room he "like[d] get girls drunk ." Id., ¶31. omitted portions, quoted verbatim briefs file consist boasting, debased remarks about do women, vulgar fail shock offend. 8 caused her become severely emotionally disturbed depressed. She sought assistance university psychiatrist, prescribed antidepressant medication. Shortly rape stopped attending classes withdrew university. 9 early 1995, Tech's Sexual Assault Policy. During school-conducted hearing admitted having sexual contact despite twice him "no." hearing, Judicial Committee insufficient evidence punish guilty assault sentenced immediate suspension two semesters. 10 dean judicial committee's sentence. July informed intended initiate court challenge his conviction University officials second necessary school's error policy, widely circulated students. conducted Abusive Conduct Policy, prior dissemination Following again an identical 2-semester suspension. however, description Morrison's offense was, explanation, changed "sexual assault" "using abusive language." 11 appealed through university's administrative system. On August 21, senior vice president provost aside punishment. " `excessive when compared where finding violation Policy,' 132 950, 955 (CA4 1997). did inform decision. learning newspaper returning 1995 semester, dropped 12 December sued Morrison, Western Virginia. Her alleged Crawford's handling Title IX Education Amendments 1972, 86 Stat. 373_375, 20 1681_1688. Crawford petitioner 99_5, 13 dismissed claims failure relief granted. Univ., 935 F. Supp. 772 (WD Va. 1996). It then section 779 14 divided panel reversed reinstating hostile environment claim.1 949 full vacated panel's reheard case banc. issued affirming allegations crude derogatory statements women indicated animus.2 Nevertheless, vote affirmed 820 1999). Because grounds, granted certiorari. 527 1068 (1999). 15 Violence Against Women Act 1994, §40302, 108 1941_1942. states "[a]ll persons right free gender." 13981(b). To right, subsection (c) declares: 16 "A (including color ordinance, regulation, custom, usage State) commits deprives another declared liable party injured, recovery compensatory punitive damages, injunctive declaratory relief, deem appropriate." 17 defines "crim[e] gender" "a basis gender, due, least part, animus victim's §13981(d)(1). term "crime violence" includes 18 "(A) act series constitute felony property if presents risk physical injury another, meaning Federal offenses described 18, whether actually resulted charges, prosecution, special maritime, territorial, prison jurisdiction States; 19 "(B) subparagraph (A) relationship takes individual whom taken." §13981(d)(2). Further clarifying broad scope (e)(2) "[n]othing establish elements section." And (e)(3) litigant choice forums: courts "shall concurrent jurisdiction" complaints brought section. 21 foregoing language covers wide swath conduct, placed some Subsection (e)(1) entitles random unrelated demonstrated, preponderance evidence, (e)(4) further construed "to confer seeking establishment alimony, equitable distribution marital child custody decree." 22 Every enacted must one powers enumerated Constitution. "The legislature defined limited; limits mistaken forgotten, constitution written." Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 176 (1803) (Marshall, J.). relied enacting said "federal rights action" established "[p]ursuant affirmative Constitution, Article I Constitution." 13981(a). We address each provisions turn. II 23 Due respect coordinate branch Government demands invalidate U.S., 577_578 (Kennedy, concurring); 635. With presumption mind, turn question falls I, §8, third clause Article, gives "[t]o foreign Nations, several Indian Tribes." 24 As discussed interpretation Nation developed. 552_557; id., 568_574 584, 593_599 (Thomas, concurring). need repeat detailed review Clause's history here; suffices say years NLRB Jones Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 (1937), considerably greater latitude transactions previous permitted. 555_556; 573_574 25 emphasized, modern, expansive Clause, regulatory effective 557. 26 "[E]ven [our] modern-era precedents expanded confirm outer limits. Steel, warned `must considered light dual system government extended so embrace indirect remote them, view complex society, effectually obliterate local create completely centralized government.' 556_557 (quoting supra, 37).3 27 observed modern jurisprudence "identified categories power." 558 (citing Hodel Surface Mining Reclamation Assn., Inc., 452 264, 276_277 (1981); Perez 402 146, 150 (1971)). "First, use channels commerce." Heart Atlanta Motel, Inc. 379 241, 256 (1964); Darby, 312 100, 114 (1941)). "Second, empowered protect instrumentalities commerce, things threat intrastate activities." Shreveport Rate 234 342 (1914); Southern R. Co. 222 (1911); Perez, 150). "Finally, activities relation i.e., affect 558_559 37). 28 contend first regulation. They seek sustain Given focus wherever occurs (rather markets, commerce), agree inquiry. 29 Since most recently canvassed clarified governing category conducting required analysis Gun-Free School Zones 1990, 922(q)(1)(A), knowingly possess zone, Clause. 551. Several significant considerations contributed §922(q) terms nothing `commerce' sort enterprise, however broadly might define terms." 561. Reviewing law, noted "we variety Acts affected 559. cited few examples, including Wickard Filburn, 317 111 (1942); Hodel, supra; McClung, 294 pattern clear. 559_560. "Where sustained." 560. 31 Both petitioners Souter's dissent downplay role regulated plays analysis. But fair reading shows decision case. See, 551 ("The [does not] regulat[e] commercial activity"), 560 ("Even Wickard, perhaps far reaching activity, way possession gun not"), 561 ("Section 922(q) essential larger 566 ("Admittedly, determination noncommercial result legal uncertainty. But, long limited interpreted judicially enforceable limits, always engender `legal uncertainty' "), 567 sense might, repetition elsewhere, commerce"); see concurring) (stating alter "practical conception regulation" "regulate sphere assumption single market uni- fied purpose build stable economy"), 577 ("Were take regulat- ion entire traditional concern, activities, boundaries spheres blur"), 580 ("[U]nlike earlier here neither actors character, purposes design evident nexus. simple posses- sion 1,000 feet offense. interdependent world ours ultimate origin consequence, yet reach far" (citation omitted)). Lopez's re- demonstrates activity's endeavor. 559_ 560.4 32 consideration important contained "no express discrete possessions additionally explicit 562. Such 33 `nor legislative contain[s] zone.' Ibid. Brief O.T. 93_1260, pp. 5_6). While "Congress normally make burdens commerce," 562 304; 156), existence "enable us evaluate judgment affect[s] [is] visible naked eye." 563. 34 Finally, rested link attenuated. 563_567. argued guns lead crime, "can expected functioning ways. costs substantial, and, mechanism insurance, spread population. reduces willingness travel country perceived unsafe." 563_564 omitted). presence schools poses educational process, threatens produce less efficient productive workforce, negatively productivity 35 rejected "costs crime" "national productivity" arguments permit regardless how tenuously relate 564. reasoning: 36 could related citizens: custody), example. Under the[se] theories , difficult perceive limitation enforcement education historically sovereign. Thus, accept Government's arguments, hard pressed posit regulate." 37 underlying reference points, resolution present Gender-motivated phrase, adopt categorical rule aggregating noneconomic decide cases, Nation's nature. 559_560, therein. 38 Like crime.5 39 contrast lack faced families. H. Conf. Rep. 103_711, p. 385 (1994); S. 103_ 138, 40 (1993); 101_545, (1990). sufficient, itself, legislation. `[S]imply conclude particular necessarily so.' 557, n. 311 (Rehnquist, judgment)). Rather, `[w]hether operations ultimately rather question, settled finally Court.' 273 (Black, concurring)). heavily method already unworkable maintain Constitution's enumeration powers. 41 "by deterring potential traveling interstate, engaging employment business, transacting commerce; diminishing productivity, increasing medical costs, decreasing supply demand products." 385. Accord, 103_138, 54. petitioners' concern expressed seems founded. advance seeks follow (the prime object States' power) Indeed, able murder type subset certain lesser impacts class part. 43 reasoning, moreover, may, suggested econ- 44 omy recognized specter expressly precluded used context.6 13981(e)(4). written matter grace.7 575_579 Marbury, Cranch, 176_178. 45 accordingly reject local. 568 30). recognizing preserve consistent adopted. punishment instrumentalities, channels, goods province Cohens Virginia, Wheat. 426, 428 (1821) J.) "has general States," "clear congress felonies generally"). think National victims.8 withhold[s] plenary power"); 584_585 ("[W]e readings exercise power"), 596_597, (noting Congresses nationwide punishments Clause). III 46 alternative should remedial above, invoked source 47 settled. `enforce,' `appropriate legislation' `life, liberty law,' `equal laws.' 517 (1997). positive grant power," Morgan, 384 641, 651 (1966), "prohibit itself unconstitutional [to] intrud[e] into `legislative autonomy reserved States.' 518 Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 455 (1976)); Kimel Florida Bd. Regents, 528 ___, ___ (2000) (slip op., 16). "[a]s is, unlimited." Oregon Mitchell, 400 112, 128 (1970); Kimel, _______ 16_17). fact, discuss detail below, inherent §5's text context 48 founded Specifically, received many participants perpetuating array erroneous stereotypes assumptions. often investigation prosecution inappropriate behavior credibility unacceptably lenient convicted 385_386; 38, 41_55; 102_197, 33_35, 41, 43_47. denies laws acted appropriately perpetrators deter future instances discrimination courts. 49 established, state-sponsored violates unless `serves "important governmental objectives means employed" "substantially achievement objectives." ' 515, 533 (1996) Mississippi Univ. Hogan, 458 718, 724 (1982), quoting Wengler Druggists Mut. Ins. 446 142, (1980)). Craig Boren, 429 190, 198_199 (1976). place These prevent obliterating Framers' carefully crafted balance Government. 520_524 (reviewing discussing contemporary belief "does concentrate States") T. Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 294, (2d ed. 1871)). time-honored very terms, action. "[T]he firmly embedded inhibited fairly That erects shield merely wrongful." Shelley Kraemer, 334 1, 13, (1948). 50 adopted, interpreting provisions, (1883). §2 1871. "private persons" "conspiring State." 639. "directed exclusively persons, State, administration officers." 640. doing, reemphasized statement Rives, 100 313, 318 (1880), `these fourteenth amendment exclusively, individuals.' 639 (misquotation Harris). 51 similar Cases. consolidated accommodation 1875, beyond power. ("Individual invasion subject-matter [Fourteenth] [A]mendment"). also, Romer Evans, 620, 628 ("[I]t prohibit accommodations"); Lugar Edmondson Oil 457 922, 936 (1982) ("Careful adherence `state action' requirement preserves area freedom limiting Blum Yaretsky, 991, 1002 (1982); Moose Lodge 107 Irvis, 407 163, 172 (1972); Adickes Kress 398 144, 147 Cruikshank, 92 542, 554 (1876) depriving law; adds citizen another. simply furnishes additional guaranty encroachment fundamental belong member society"). 52 time. Member appointed President Lincoln, Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur-and appointees obviously adoption 53 recent overruled longstanding authority. 745 proposition laid longer good law. construction indictment 241 saying course deal issues statutory construction, 749. Three separate Brennan, wrongly decided, actions individuals. 774 (opinion part). Clark sentences "punis[h] conspiracies-with action-that interfere rights." 762 (concurring opinion). Harlan, commented Justices: 54 Justices nonetheless cursorily pronouncing themselves far-reaching questions deliberately me, least, extraordinary." 762, 55 Though saw fit opine matters occasion revisit determined "the [charging conspiring blacks access facilities] contain[ed] allegation involvement." 756. implicit "active connivance agents State" eliminated threshold level attain Equal Protection Clause." All acknowledged. opinion) clearly avoids Congress, legislation, conspiracies rights, utilize facilities"). 56 argument, add joining Brennan's reasoned explanation Clark's gave whatever view. adjudication proceeds. hesitation dicta added 57 418 (1973). Carter addressing "State" Rev. §1979, 1983-a employed. footnote recites same litany respecting Guest on. entirely dicta, event rise above source. believe correct: 58 "But submitted thereto rendering prohibition [s]tate subject, given object, corrective adapted counteract redress operation prohibited proceedings 18. 59 alternatively argue situation authorities, whereas indication There abundant show 1871 1875 §13981: books bespeaking equality treatment, newly freed slaves. Representative Garfield House Senator Sumner Senate representative: 60 chief unequal, just face, yet, systematic maladministration neglect refusal portion people them." Cong. Globe, 42d Cong., 1st Sess., App. 153 (1871) (statement Garfield). 61 Legislature passed giving precisely your `supplementary bill.' remains dead letter statute-books, courts, comprised largely wishes obtain amnesty for, refuse it." 2d 430 (1872) Sen. Sumner). 62 653 Osborn); Coburn); 78 Perry); Rec. (1874) Butler); 945 (1875) Lynch). 63 valid, For "corrective Or, phrased prophylactic `congruence proportionality prevented remedied adopted end." Prepaid Postsecondary Ed. Expense College Savings Bank, 627, (1999); 526. aimed proscribing proscribe; actor, 64 example, assault. therefore, 641 New York imposing literacy tests prerequisite voting disenfranchised thousands Puerto Rican immigrants educated Spanish home territory. upheld, administered State's election using provision imposed requirements found, discriminating voting. Ex parte 339 criminally punished intentionally discriminated jury selection; again, culpable official. 65 Nation. By evil existed, 66 reasons, extend IV 67 victim brutal effort true, civilized respondent Morrison. Commonwealth 68 Affirmed. 69 concurring. 70 majority correctly join full. write separately my notion "substantial effects" test inconsistent original understanding cases. continuing apply rootless malleable standard, circumscribed, encouraged persist virtually Until replaces existing standard understanding, continue appropriating guise 71 Breyer join, dissenting. 72 says leaves precedent undisturbed Remedy exceeds Congress's find irreconcilable respectfully dissent.1 73 Our remain nominally undisturbed, stand propositions. legislate regard aggregate, 111, 124_128 277 (1981). instance, ibid., institutional capacity gathering taking testimony ours. passing indicates conclusion, facts business assessment, soundness rationality concluding exists fact. ibid. Any chooses make, dispositive rationality, identifying factual relied. Applying propositions conclusion. 74 One obvious difference mountain data assembled commerce.2 Passage 1994 preceded four hearings,3 included physicians professors; survivors domestic violence; representatives business.6 record reports task forces States,7 benefit specific eight Reports committees leading enactment.8 Compare 278_279 "extended hearings," "vast amounts documentary evidence," "years thorough consideration"). 75 findings: 76 "Three American sometime during life." 103_395 (1993) Dept. Justice, Report Crime 1988)). 77 "Violence injuries ages Surgeon General Antonia Novello, From General, Public Health Services, 267 JAMA 3132 (1992)). "[A]s percent homeless children fleeing violence." (1990) E. Schneider, Legal Reform Efforts Battered Women: Past, Present, Future (July 1990)). 79 "Since 1974, rate outstripped men age groups others." Bureau Statistics, Criminal Victimization (1974) (Table 5)). 80 "[B]attering `is largest Van Hightower McManus, Limits Guarantees: Lessons Implement Domestic Policies, Pub. Admin. 269 (May/June 1989). 81 "An estimated million battered year husbands partners." 103_395, Council Scientific Affairs, Medical Relevance Practitioners, 3184, 3185 (1992). 82 "Over [from] Stark Flitcraft, Therapy Repression: Case Woman, Medicine (Summer/Fall 1982). 83 "Between 2,000 4,000 die [domestic] abuse." supra). 84 "[A]rrest rates low assaults." Dutton, Profiling Wife Assaulters: Preliminary Evidence Trimodal Analysis, Victims 5_30 (1988)). 85 "Partial estimates billion-not million, billion-dollars year." 4). "[E]stimates suggest spend $5 $10 billion health care, justice, social Biden, Violence: Crime, Not Quarrel, Trial (June 1993)). 87 similarly extensive, supporting conclusions: 88 "[The incidence of] rose times fast total past years." Investigation Uniform 89 "According study, close half now high graduate." Warshaw, Never Called Rape 117 90 "[One hundred twenty&nbhyph;five thousand] college expect this-or any-year." Dr. Mary Koss Judiciary Committee, Aug. 29, 1990). 91 "[T]hree-quarters never go movies alone dark fear nearly transit reason." (1991) M. Gordon Riger, Female Fear (1989)). "[Forty-one] judges surveyed believed juries victims." Colorado Task Force Gender Bias Courts, Courts (1990)). 93 "Less [rape] collected damages." report Jury Verdict Research, Inc.). 94 `[A]n chances arrested, prosecuted, offense.' 33, Feild L. Bienen, Jurors Rape: Study Psychology Law 95 "Almost one-quarter rapists quarter jails average sentence months." Majority Staff Judiciary, Response Detours Road 103d (Comm. Print 96 "[A]lmost lose jobs forced quit crime's severity." Ellis, Atkeson, Calhoun, An Assessment Long-Term Reaction Rape, J. Abnormal Psych., 264 97 Based partially summarized, 98 "crimes adverse involved, _[,] products (1994). 99 thereby predicate Is irrational amassed? True, methodology studies challenged, figures arrived disputed. sufficiency rational seriously questioned. Cf. Turner Broadcasting System, FCC, 520 180, 199 (1997) weighing conflicting process"). compiled sufficient upholding 1964 challenges. (1964), referred consequences racial motels restaurants compelling anecdotal segregation cost millions dollars. Rights-Public Accommodations, Hearings 1732 Commerce, 88th V, 1383_1387 (1963). black spent white income range accommodations, accounted much difference. 88_914, pt. 2, 9_10, Table (1963) (Additional Views 7152 Hon. William McCulloch, John V. Lindsay, Cahill, Garner Shriver, MacGregor, Charles McC. Mathias, Bromwell). 101 knowledge, calculate dollar values 1964, harms citing annual $3 1993, 41.9 Equally important, though, 1990's shown operate 1960's reducing mobility employees production consumption shipped discrimination, "[g]ender-based bars likely targets-women-from partic[ipation] economy." 102 analogy enough, look back bit further. application Agricultural Adjustment planting homegrown wheat. followed possibility wheat grown personal drawn rising prices, relieve grower purchase market. 127_129. Supply deaths annually hands abusers, 36, reduction work 100,000 quit, 56, 25_26. substantially.10 103 muster 1942 period enjoyed complemented Necessary Proper Art. I. cl. aggregated, noted, secure turmoil passage aftermath reaffirmed cumulative features test, Atlanta, 258; 301_305, declined focused "commerce" statutes "moral wrong[s]," 257. 104 pass today proof, degree nominal that. new emerged distinctness, conclusions assigned once-stable assign them. devaluations accomplished repudiation aggregation supplanting scrutiny criterion review. 105 Thus elusive heart majority's "weakened" disfavored "method reasoning." Ante, 14. enquiry, instance subsequent looking sort, dependent uniquely competence. characterization self-fulfilling prophecies aside), cites. Perhaps explains why content rest textual justification moving toward deference selective discounts. purports sensible listing implies exclusion others unmentioned. Gibbons Ogden, 195 (1824); ante, 10; Federalist 45, 313 (J. Cooke 1961) Madison).11 stresses enumerates implying enumerated. follows, majority, "commerce," subjects arguably excluded, characteristics effects. exclusions sight traditionally conferred constitutions 566. 16. premise withheld sound; presumptively non sequitur. grants follows affecting outside depending character along Congress.12 My disagreement confined logic, proven practice unsupportable theory. Obviously, declare "noncommercial" primary variant approach sole textually permissible defining neat suspect final authorizing "all Laws proper" 118 (1941) extends attainment legitimate end, commerce"). Accordingly, periods history, plenary, unsusceptible exclusions, latter 20th century test. conceptions categorically limited, old rivals, today's revival competition summons up familiar brief reprise helpful posing key going legitimacy breathe life limitation. Marshall's seminal 193_194, start breadth exceeded," 120. particular, worth noting, holding exceeding ostensibly domestic, farming consistently understood subjects, others, "which Gibbons, Wheat., 195. prevailed acknowledged stage jurisprudence. 197; Nashville, St. Alabama, 96, 99_100 (1888); Lottery Case, 188 353 (1903); Minnesota 230 352, (1913); California, 297 175, 185 (1936); 115 (1941); 255; Indiana, 324. qualifications, 1937 summed Harlan: `Of course, mere deemed preclude examination legislators chosen scheme end.' Maryland Wirtz, 392 183, 190 (1968) 303_304). 110 Harlan spoke hindsight, seen rejecting view, attempt distinguish relatively proscribed comes pedigree near-tragedy outlined 603 (dissenting activation Interstate 1887, created enclaves declaring "mining," "production," "manufacturing," union membership definition "direct" "indirect" consequences. Knight 156 (1895) (narrowly construing Sherman Antitrust "manufacture"); re Heff, 197 488, 505_506 (1905) sale liquor); Employers' Liability 207 463, 495_496 (1908) (invalidating tort liability common carriers operating indirect); Adair 208 161 (holding labor fell "commerce"); Hammer Dagenhart, 247 251 (1918) prohibiting shipment manufactured A. Schechter Poultry Corp. 295 495, 545_548 (1935) "indirectly" commerce); Railroad Retirement Alton 330, 368_369 pension railroad workers conditions indirectly linked Coal 298 238, 303_304 (1936) unfair practices mining "commerce"). formalistically contrived confines large measure provoked crisis 1937, reasonably doubted ever toy return days disastrous experiment end. 112 step recapturing mistakes. Its odds repudiated analysis, enquiry purpose, intimated concurrence, J.), cousin intent-based employed Hammer, 271_272 257 115. 113 Why tempted lesson painfully learned 1937? answer emerges contrasting predecessor superseded. growing farm vocabulary,13 constitutionally substantially. Just certainly "mining" When try fathom directions understand grasp; difference, rather, turned reason trying categorical, formalistic distinction, abandoned decided. laissez-faire economics, point keep interference minimum. 605_606 (Souter, dissenting). still 20th-century economy, distinctions thought useful instruments achieving object. knew thing Deal attempting impossible. Without animating theory, contriving formalisms war ask economic/noneconomic today, rejection fails connections integrated world. minds theory formalism seem again. value service conception, serving federalism. instrument assertions favor preserving supposedly discernible, refrain legislating fit. current emphasis then, logic realism economy. strength warrant otherwise discount bearing B finds relevant addresses heightened significance directly instrumentalities. 9. Again, recycling, grounding previously, once. disapproved 123_124, standing 276_277. Fair Labor Standards 183 (1968), recognition "[t]here implied governments, state, other." (internal quotation marks Government, acting delegated override countervailing interests, `governmental' `proprietary' character." Wirtz later League Cities Usery, 426 833 (1976), Garcia San Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 (1985), concept "traditional function" (as immunity Hodel) incoherent, multifarious placing functions side line, other. 546_547. carve inviolable spectrum Gibbons's "absolut[e] government," 197.14 116 objection reviving rests portent incoherence, compounded defect fundamental. defect, essence, Founders' politics, review, mediate interests inevitably increased growth economy.15 Whereas leaf book economists somehow draw line balance, Wilson, Marshall differently. Madison emphasized (a number ratifying conventions too indeterminate liberties),16 himself sensed (such took care hedge explaining importance politics protecting interests. "will partake spirit [of States], disinclined invade prerogatives governments." 46, 319. Wilson likewise "it favorite Convention" sovereignty achieved structure Elliot's Debates 438_439.17 Framers Bill Rights, turn, determinant formulated Tenth comparable guarantees proposed liberties.18 political component federalism restraint valid exercise: wisdom discretion identity people, influence constituents elections, are, this, instances, war, restraints relied, abuse. solely, representative 197. 119 Politics moderator theme formulation adding "[h]e emphatic embracing penetrating warning proceed processes." 120 Hence, "conflicts interest wisely flexible responsible process. conflicts rarely determination. wisdom, workability, fairness, plan do." 129 (footnote interest," supposed sovereign implicated Clause: remits politics. put last defied accordance generally accepted concepts. confirming Madison's Wilson's views recitation Garcia, 550_552, disposed "principled relying priori definitions sovereignty," 548. 121 chose inhered principally workings objects properly protected procedural safeguards 552. 122 "judicially limitations" reliance powerful owing centuries framing relative markedly changed. Nationwide integration norm, augmented vast revenues, Seventeenth eliminating selection senators direct election. 123 burgeoning revenue amended circuit breaker developments. Nor attempts nullify natural ending secret 1913, approved comment issue. Franklin Bartlett, 62, George Mason Dickinson Convention, concluded, "It framers to-day, blow integrity sovereignties; you once collective organism share annihilate federative importance." 7774 (1894). Massachusetts Hoar defended great security States." Doc. 232, 59th (1906). Elihu Root taken legislatures, tide sets swell volume 2243 (1911). come," continued, "when driven arbitrary unconsidered concentration, internal affairs warnings kill proposal; ratified, ratification, predictions, legitimately heed.19 124 Governments, Fourteenth, change represented Seventeenth, rips fabric inviting repairs. indeed lessened enthusiasm represent sovereignties, convert judiciary alternate C 125 invoke especially odd now-repudiated Usery. inconsistency immune exercised Act, Economic Stabilization 1970, Fry 421 542 (1975), dealing components system, forestall." 853. Today's adequately own agencies essential.20 126 Association Attorneys unanimously, Hearing 102d 37_38 (1991), urged Remedy, representing inadequate," Crimes Motivated Gender, Subcommittee 34_36 (1993). forum state-court inadequate stop gender-biased Violence, 101st Biden) forum).21 offers exactly generic causes poor tools forces. difficulty fitting common-law categories). 1993 it, respond attitude resulting goals symbolic practical 38. 127 needed continues unchanged, challenged court, came defense. Thirty-six Rico amicus respondents' side. irony enjoy want not. Coal's him, "won states' plea themselves." Jackson, Struggle Supremacy 160 (1941). convinces me ebb error, leads prove doubt. Coal, Schechter, Usery embraces arm's-length. stood rules, points discounted. overruled; quite revived. thinking betokens conceptual straitjackets something unsteady obscenity Redrup York, 386 767 (1967) (per curiam), Miller 413 (1973), workable ad hoc. 22, 3; Dallas, 390 676, 706_708 (Harlan, predecessors hoc legislative, event, regime long. end realizes entertains hopes Holmes's "[t]he call facts." O. Holmes, Common 167 (Howe 1963). ignored respective treasuries modifications people. adequate account govern ago. Stevens joins, Ginsburg I_A, 130 No federalist principles. state/federal division protects liberty-both restricting impose distance facilitating participation closer home. best implement 131 holds "noneconomic" "noneconomic, conduct" significantly "aggregate" "effect[s]" instances. 17_18. precedent, militate approach. illustrates touchstone-a comprehensible interpretive rules meaningful limit, delegates Congress. Consider problems. "economic/noneconomic" easy apply. Does street corner mugger engage "economic" mugs money? 146 (1971) (aggregating "loan sharking" instances); 559 (1995) (loan sharking consists "intrastate extortionate credit transactions"); Would desire domination underlies statute? Accounting Office, Health, Education, Human Services Division, Prevalence Implications Employment Among Welfare Recipients 7_8 (Nov. 1998); Advocates, Amicus Curiae 10_12. 133 becomes harder exceptions. hence regulate, establishments. (1964) (upholding forbidding motels); (same restaurants); (recognizing forbid, noneconomically accommodations); 134 9_10 (same). "an undercut regulated." 561; cf. Controlled Substances 801 seq. (regulating drugs produced consumption). former exception, rewrite restaurants, hotels, universities, accommodation? broader "Safe Transport" "Workplace Safety" act? 135 More critical economic, interstate-commerce-affecting cause? chemical emanations environmental identical, severe harm factories fireplaces release them? refers . "necessary cls. nature, cause. 136 effects, cause, relevant. 38_39 (1937) (focusing effects); (1942) consumption); 258 (" `[I]f feels pinch, squeeze' Women's Sportswear Mfrs. 336 460, 464 (1949))). Nothing language, ignore highly characteristic (how "local" is), weight different, relevant, feature is). 137 Most unlikely help seek, namely, "areas intrusion. 15. interpreted, underinclusive. pickpocket Regardless, reaffirms, should, well-established frequently satisfy commerce-related prerequisite-for item federally crossed line. 8_9, 5; 558; `[T]he immoral injurious uses sustained, open question' Caminetti 242 470, 491 (1917))); Bass, 404 336, 347_350 (saving ambiguous felon-in-possession requiring line); Scarborough 431 563, 575 (1977) (interpreting require "in commerce" "at time," questioning constitutionality); cf., 2261(a)(1) (making cross lines commit spouse partner); §1951(a) (federal robbery, extortion, thereof, "article commodity affected, obstructed delayed); §2315 unlawful knowing receipt stolen items "crossed boundary"); §922(g)(1) (prohibiting felons shipping, transporting, receiving, firearms 138 everyday parts boundaries, possible redraft ties movement or, matter, affairs. Child Support Recovery 1992, 228. everything, substantive randomly protect. How gained, reenact form Forbidding Perpetrated Accommodations Those Who Have Moved in, Use Items Commerce"? Complex creating fine achieve results little called being. (pre-Lopez) 120; 116_117 37. 139 aware difficulties, concerned sees contrary consideration. determine lawfulness asking almost anything. Virtually consumption." Hence crime," "marriage, childrearing" well, "Constitution's authority." 15; 548 (need lest "be 251, 276 (similar observation). 140 consideration, serious, reflect jurisprudential reflects reality. live knit together scientific, technological, commercial, change. changes, together, mean kind genuinely conditions, State-at aggregate. 251. impossible develop exclude kinds ordinary "aggregation" without, genuine 141 world, "defect" bounds rational, primarily striking balance. 528, 552 (1985); 19_24 dissenting); 2) (Stevens, dissenting) (Framers designed structural ensure legislates, normal undue infringement"); Kramer, Putting Back Political Safeguards Federalism, Colum. 215 parties interests). institutionally so. district legislate, developed procedures place. Unfunded Mandates 104_4, (codified scattered sections U.S.C.). concerns details sophisticated schemes judiciary, easily gather categories. 7543(b) (Clean Air Act); 1251 Water 505 167_168 (1992) (collecting examples "cooperative federalism"). surprisingly, bulk overwhelmingly 142 note stake. notice intent "are[a] regulation." response, attorneys overwhelming (38) telling "[o]ur experience strengthens one, attention, leadership, funds." 34_36; 143 (unanimous General); 77_84 (Conference opposing legislation). 144 pointed out, "mountain data" documenting 2_8, 27_28 considering alternatives, documented deficiencies systems. tailored custody. Consequently, conflict, efforts cooperate solve mutually problem. §§300w_10, 3796gg, 3796hh, 10409, 13931 (providing moneys encourage initiatives combat violence). 145 attention because, recognizes, 14, surpasses led accurate here. keeping check. ("Any basic limitation, compensate failings dictate `sacred autonomy' EEOC Wyoming, 460 226, 236 (1983))); Gregory Ashcroft, 501 452, 460_461 (insisting "plain statement" legislates States"); Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 88, 103_105, 114_117 (1976); Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 548_554 (1980) Commentators thoroughness procedures-e.g., "hard look"-might sometimes determinative Federalism Uses Law: Printz Principle?, Harv. 2180, 2231_2245 (1998); Gardbaum, Rethinking Texas 795, 812_828, 830_832 (1996); Lessig, Translating Federalism: Ct. 125, 194_214 (1995); Treaty Establishing European Community Bermann, Taking Subsidiarity Seriously: 331, 378_403 (1994) (arguing somewhat analogous subsidiarity Community); 833_837 (applying federalism). Of insistence intrude embody definitional intrusion, problems, embodied 2_7. "rational basis" sufficient. 1_2 opinion); 603_615 615_631 (Breyer, recognize unstable demonstrate unworkability superiority approach-in evolve towards 148 forth 149 Nonetheless, authorize persons. 21_23. actors, which, officials, (or any) injured violence-a depth. 3_4, 7, sources). Harris 151 claim. specifically treated 640 (emphasis added); (observing "not profess wrong States" "rules society other, referring authorities"). 152 responds "state actor" proportionality' 26; 526 voting, requirements, punishing selection, (1966); actor." 26. actors? violate "[l]egislation [that] unconstitutional." 518; 651; 308. purport "determine violation." 519. intrudes parties. improve systems, restricts main, forbidden "disproportionate"? violation-the creation substitute remedies-where "congruence"? 154 inadequacy 27. violations. hampering unconstitutionally 41_42, 44_47 39, 44_49 (1991); nowhere reveals exist" elsewhere. problem? document proposing solution. §5, 536, suggests inappropriate. 155 Despite doubts leave occasion. us. uphold Notes 1. Together 99_29, al., certiorari court. 157 dismissal F.3d, 961_962. 158 2. alleging IX, remanded instructions hold abeyance pending Davis Monroe County Ed., 827, encompass claims, 159 3. abandoning "federalism time." Post, 15_17, 29. "our government." dissent's remarkable disregards caution allowing "effectually local." 4. reconcile apparently aside. post, 10_16. persuasively contradict Wickard's principle, apparent character. 580. 5. 40221(a) creates "interstate abuse spouses partners codified 2261(a)(1), states: travels across enters injure, harass, intimidate person's partner, who, travel, bodily (b)." sanction regulates commerce-i.e., transportation routes move." Lankford, 196 571_572 (CA5 1999) cases) 162 6. area. 567, Cardozo's 495 (1935): "There causation Motion rim communicated perceptibly, minutely, recording center. elastic medium transmits tremors territory; size.' F.2d 617, 624 (CA2 1935) (L. Hand, 163 7. (1824), 19_26, undermines people's secured Arizona (Ginsburg, 458_459 (cataloging benefits design); Atascadero Hospital Scanlon, 473 234, (1985) `constitutionally mandated power' `our liberties' ") 572 (Powell, dissenting)). Departing parliamentary past, branches legislature's self-restraint. written"). `permanent indispensable system' `the supreme exposition Constitution.' Johnson, 515 900, 922_923 Cooper Aaron, 358 (1958)). applying remained expositor text. Nixon, 683 (1974), "[I]n performance duties initially interpret others_ Many unequivocally `[i]t emphatically duty department is.' 703 Contrary suggestion, 19_21, exempt cardinal His on, true insofar contends accountability power's clear, remove boundary. 194_195 ("It words comprehend internal, carried man States_ Comprehensive word `among' restricted one. phrase probably selected interior traffic apt purpose; extended, made, intention description. presupposes enumerated; something, sentence, State"). 164 8. disputes reserves noting proposals 19_22, belied careful reserved, realistically granting unlimited license regulate. 156_157 And, separation Branch extent supra. `[t]he powers,' reserving generalized deeply ingrained history. 457; 584_599 (discussing debates Clause); (1968). 165 Finding 166 generally, gender"-presumably narrower acts. "motivated elucidated lower redressable unclear. appear, motivation. adopting cramped text, canons interpretation. (1937). Having threatening manifestation; "reform Williamson Lee Optical Okla., 348 483, 489 (1955). Terrorism Home, Children, Family, Drugs Alcoholism Resources, Sess. (S. 101_897); (1990); 102_369); Women, (1992); 103_596); Violent 103_726); Fighting Fear, 103_878); Family Matter, 168 103_596, 1_4 (testimony Northeastern Professor Clare Dalton); 102_369, 103_105 Chicago Cass Sunstein); 103_878, 7_11 Assn. president-elect Robert McAfee). 13_17 Lisa); id. 40_42 Jennifer Tescher). 170 24_36, 71_87 Iowa Illinois); 235_245 Federation Business Professional Women); 15_17 Hardeman, Manager, Counseling Dept., Polaroid Corp.). 171 California Advisory Achieving Men 1996) (edited version 1990 report); Connecticut (Sept. 1991); Commission (Mar. 1990); Georgia, reprinted Ga. U. 539 Illinois Equality Force, Iowa, Final (Feb. 1993); Kentucky Fairness (Jan. 1992); Louisiana Special Joint Comm., (May 1989); System (1989); Michigan Issues (Dec. (1989), Wm. Mitchell 825 Nevada (1988); Jersey First Year 1984); 1986); Rhode Island 1987); Utah Vermont Bar Justice: Washington Wisconsin 1991). 101_545 Increase America, 102_197 Week Life 103_138 103_711 173 dramatically smaller figures. 314, 325, (1981) corn $5.16 "surely insignificant amount 174 10. carries implication exercising limit. appearing federalization extension problems responsibility Appropriations, 104th 13_14 Kennedy); 4603 100_107 Kennedy Souter). Conference originally opposed bill include requirement, withdrawn reasons apparent. 70_71 175 11. necessity rights. Bills Hamilton claimed, "have professedly executed servants. Here, strictness, surrender nothing, retain thing, reservations." 84, 578. went Pennsylvania convention, asserting positively dangerous suggested, conversely, surrendered. Elliot, Conventions Adoption 436_437 1863) (hereinafter Debates). Federalists prevail point; voted amendments speedily Rights. 569 infringement, exception Second offer protections sovereignty. 12. contrary, overlap supreme. Lake Shore Ohio, 285, 297_298 (1899) ("When confided displace regulations touching surrendered Government"); engaged marking boundary restriction taxing 177 13. 4, agricultural consumption, Filburn's "may regarded insisted still, exerts 125. beside point. commercial? Cf., Organization Scheidler, 510 249, ("An enterprise surely detrimental profit-seeking motives"). federalism, derived crux disagreement. infra, 18_19. 178 1787 did, forbid exercises §9, 6, barred preference ports strikingly, slave trade interference, confirmed chattel status slaves fled IV, §2, reservations power; exceptions rule. Apart islands stream unsuccessful. Roger Sherman's excluding "matters police" Gouverneur Morris's response ought infringed cases" two. Records Convention 1787, 25_26 (M. Farrand 1911) Farrand). V proviso police." 551_552. Rufus King device declares off-limits. 493 ("As Constitutions; Constitution"). proposal, too, naught. short, suppose sensible; identifiable falling 179 expand tandem discovery. prospect ago, "are postal known pace progress country, adapt developments circumstances." Pensacola Telegraph Union (1878). Farmers Loan Trust Minnesota, 280 204, 211_212 (1930) ("Primitive passed; transacted scale"). 180 mentioned amendments. 322_323 (Massachusetts), 325 (South Carolina), 325_327 (New Hampshire), 327 (Virginia), 327_331 York), 331_332 (North 334_337 (Rhode Island). 181 17. Statements pervade ratification debates. 166_170 (Massachusetts, Samuel Stillman); 251_253 Alexander Hamilton); 95_98 Carolina, Iredell). 182 solicitude regulation," termed "spirit Amendment," 585 (O'Connor, original). Susceptibility Holmes bluntly "some invisible radiation Missouri Holland, 252 416, 434 (1920), years, disregard admonition "[w]e deciding reserved." 19. tries deflect blocks (in derogation (1803)), 16_17. arbiter realm Marshall, Laughlin, we, vastly envisioned. sides disagreement, compass patrolling 16, reconciled favors. 125; 118_119. circumscribe near tragedy incoherence history's lessons guides nationally except dealt choice. 184 20. position incapable leaders so; necessary, survives scrutiny. 21. strike misplaced. Individuals, defendants haled Code, sovereignties behavior. Had chosen, instead individuals, plain.

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