Document: 474 U.S. 481 106 S.Ct. 748 88 L.Ed.2d 846 Larry WITTERS, Petitionerv.WASHINGTON DEPARTMENT OF SERVICES FOR THE BLIND. No. 84-1070. Argued Nov. 6, 1985. Decided Jan. 27, 1986. Rehearing Denied March 24, See 475 1091, 1485. Syllabus Petitioner, suffering from a progressive eye condition, applied to the Washington Commission for Blind vocational rehabilitation assistance pursuant statute. At time, he was attending private Christian college seeking become pastor, missionary, or youth director. The denied aid on ground that it prohibited by State Constitution, and this ruling upheld administrative appeal. Petitioner then brought an action in Superior Court, which affirmed same state-law grounds. Supreme Court but based its Establishment Clause of First Amendment, holding provision petitioner would have primary effect advancing religion violation Clause. Held: On record, extension under program finance petitioner's training at not advance manner inconsistent with Pp. 485-490. (a) As far as record shows, provided is paid directly student, who transmits educational institution his her choice. no way skewed towards creates financial incentive students undertake sectarian education. 487-488. (b) Moreover, nothing indicates that, if succeeds, any significant portion expended whole will end up flowing religious P. 448. (c) facts, inappropriate view ultimately resulting state sponsoring subsidizing religion. Nor does mere circumstance has chosen use neutrally available help pay education confer message endorsement 488-489. 102 Wash.2d 624, 689 P.2d 53 (1984), reversed remanded. MARSHALL, J., delivered opinion BURGER, C.J., BRENNAN, WHITE, BLACKMUN, POWELL, REHNQUIST, STEVENS, JJ., joined, Parts I III O'CONNOR, joined. filed concurring opinion, post, p. 490. part judgment. Michael Farris, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Timothy R. Malone, Olympia, Wash., respondent. Justice MARSHALL Court. 1 ruled Amendment precludes extending blind person studying Finding such federal constitutional barrier presented us, we reverse remand. 2 * Witters 1979 services Wash.Rev.Code § 74.16.181 (1981).1 That statute authorized Commission, inter alia, "[p]rovide special and/or professions, business trades" so "assist visually handicapped persons overcome handicaps obtain maximum degree self-support self-care." Ibid. eligible terms statute.2 He time Inland Empire School Bible, Spokane, ethics, speech, church administration order equip himself career App. 7-8. 3 aid. It relied earlier determination embodied policy statement "[t]he constitution forbids public funds assist individual pursuit theology related areas," id., 4, conclusion "religious instruction" subject ban. Id., 1. hearings examiner, held precluded funding "in light Constitution's prohibition against indirectly supporting religion." Pet. Cert. F-6. examiner cited Wash. Const., Art. I, 11, providing "no money property shall be appropriated worship, exercise instruction, support establishment," IX, "[a]ll schools maintained supported wholly forever free control influence." F-4. ruling, turn, internal 4 instituted review decision; court grounds agency. well. v. Blind, (1984). however, declined Constitution. Instead, explicitly reserved judgment issue chose base Federal stated: 5 "The developed 3-part test determining constitutionality establishment clause Amendment. 'First, must secular legislative purpose; second, principal one neither advances nor inhibits . .; finally, foster "an excessive government entanglement ' Lemon Kurtzman, [403 602, 612-613, 91 2105, 2111, 29 745 (1971) ]. To withstand attack clause, challenged satisfy each three criteria." 627-628, P.2d, 55. 6 had difficulty finding "secular purpose" prong satisfied. Applying second prong, "principal effect," enable someone director clearly 629, 56. court, therefore, contravene In saw need reach "entanglement" prong; stated case inadequate inquiry. 7 We granted certiorari, 471 1002, 105 1863, 85 157 (1985), now reverse. II 8 consistently difficult questions interpretation application. acknowledged 403 (1971), "we can only dimly perceive lines demarcation extraordinarily sensitive area law." 612, S.Ct., 2111 quoted Mueller Allen, 463 388, 393, 103 3062, 3066, 77 721 (1983). Nonetheless, Court's opinions least clarified "the broad contours our inquiry," Committee Public Education Religious Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 761, 93 2955, 2959, 37 948 (1973), are sufficient dispose case. 9 guided, below, three-part set out supra, ----. Grand Rapids District Ball, 473 373, 382-383, 3216, 3222, 87 267 (1985). Our analysis relating first simple: all parties concede unmistakably purpose program. designed promote well-being through services, more than minuscule amount awarded likely flow No party suggests State's "actual creating endorse religion, Wallace Jaffree, 472 38, 74, 2479, 2499, 86 quoting Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 690, 104 1355, 1368, 79 604 (1984) (O'CONNOR, concurring), articulated legislature merely "sham." Wallace, 64, 2494 (POWELL, concurring). 10 answer question posed difficult. conclude, barred either.3 well settled violated every previously possession conveyed institution. For example, may paycheck employees, donate institution, without barrier; do even knowing employee intends salary. equally well-settled, other hand, grant school, whether cash inkind, where "that direct subsidy school" State. U.S., 394, 3228. Aid though takes form parents. Ibid.; see, e.g., Wolman Walter, 433 229, 248-251, 97 2593, 2605-07, 714 (1977); supra; Sloan Lemon, 825, 2982, 939 (1973). whether, facts they appear before permissible transfer similar hypothetical salary donation described above, impermissible "direct subsidy." 11 Certain aspects Washington's central Any flows institutions result genuinely independent choices recipients.4 "made generally regard sectarian-nonsectarian, public-nonpublic nature benefited," 782-783, n. 2970, ingenious plans channeling periodically Court," 785, 2972. education, see 785-786, 2971-72. tend provide greater broader benefits recipients apply their full limited, large whole, institutions. contrary, opportunity expend practical matter rather prospects so. recipients' made among huge variety possible careers, small handful sectarian. case, fact goes individuals means decision individual, 12 Further, importantly, function hardly "to desired nonpublic, institutions." 783, 2970; cf. Meek Pittenger, 421 349, 363-364, 95 1753, 1762, 44 217 (1975). program, handicapped, seem suited serve vehicle subsidy. evidence been indicating ever sought activity combination these factors, think, makes link between school wishes attend highly attenuated one. 13 out, appropriate Bible 688, 1367 Thus, while amici respondent correct pointing unrestricted potential uses, properly attributable State, "clearly Clause," Rapids, 395, 3229, because subsidize functions observation apposite present here, think works Clause.5 14 therefore reject claim presented, remand, course consider applicability "far stricter" dictates Wash.2d, 626, also choose reopen factual arguments discussed nn. 5, supra. decline invitation leapfrog consideration those issues Free Exercise requires extend regardless what Constitution commands further development reveals, express matter. Rescue Army Municipal 331 549, 568, 67 1409, 1419, L.Ed. 1666 (1947). 15 reversed, remanded proceedings opinion. 16 ordered. 17 concurring. 18 remain convinced decisions violations provides misconstrue disserve interest. Even cases dissent, agree erred Hence, join most POWELL's respect relevance (1983), 19 whom CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST join, 20 omission mislead courts litigants suggesting somehow inapplicable one.1 write separately emphasize strongly supports today. 21 states, effect" (1971). 783-785, 39, 2970-71 clear: programs neutral offering class defined reference violate Kurtzman test,2 results beneficiaries. Mueller, 398-399, 3068-69. sustained tax deduction certain expenses, great majority beneficiaries were parents children schools. 401, 3070. noted traditionally taxing authority, 396, 3067, rested principally two factors. First, 397, 3068; 38. Second, benefit resulted "numerous school-age children." 399, 3069. 22 here when studies lead employment. depend student university college, turn seeks career. follows religion.3 23 reached different found aiding particular 628-629, 53, 56 effect, analyzed Legislature passed bill tuition pursue studies. 24 Such conflicts both common sense established precedent.4 Nowhere did analyze Minnesota's case; rather, looked consequences viewed whole. supra 397-400, true evaluation reimbursement 780-789, 2969-2973, 830-832, 2985-86, Board 392 236, 243-244, 248, 1923, 1929, 1060 (1968); Everson Education, 330 1, 16-17, 504, 511-12, 711 This perspective Viewed proper light, easily satisfies test. 25 agree, reasons purpose, challenge raised record. understanding today lessens authority 26 27 concur secular. separate persuasively argues, clear "state test, beneficiaries." Ante, 490-491 concurring) (footnote omitted). reasonable observer draw us inference itself endorsing practice belief. 1983 repealed chapters 74.16 74.17 Code, enacting place new chapter 74.18. statutory revision abolished created Department Services Blind. Wash.Laws, ch. 194, 3. refer purposes Commission." Rev.Code, 74.18, establishes requirement "(1) vision limited constitutes substantial handicap employment (2) reasonably expected employability." 74.18.130 (1983) (effective June 30, 1983). standard. determination, asserted withheld beginning 1979. Respondent offers extensive argument workings Focusing "nature operation program," Brief asserts leads "symbolic union" governmental functions, "requir[ing] step process" "intertwining decisionmaking authorities." 20. contends violates third prongs "hands off" aid, GI Bill, not. 11. argument, courts, appears rest us. Because affirm upon Russell Southard, How. 139, 159, 927 (1851); New Haven Inclusion Cases, 399 392, 450, 66, 90 2054, 2088, 691 (1970), occasion here. appropriate, good judicial administration, claims proceedings. procedural law extent should introduction (1985) (Where meaningful distinction 'the concept loan transparent fiction' "), 264, 2614, (1977) (opinion J.); Wolman, 250, 2606. address time. prudential matter, below. reason doubt could fruitfully conducted complete explanation omitting substantive discussion. Indeed, save single citation phrase import whatever, ante, 485, mentioned. Cf. 832, 2986, (1973): singled citizens economic benefit. Whether simple subsidy, send schools, reward having done so, bottom intended consequence preserve religion-oriented Contrary suggestion, 488, training. Over 90% flowed Compare 3070, 405, 3072 (MARSHALL, dissenting). Nevertheless, thus channeled making "primary Lemon. Under approach, never sort purposes, characteristics taken approach. Walz Tax Comm'n, 397 664, 697 (1970); 16, 511,

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