Document: 390 U.S. 261 88 S.Ct. 929 19 L.Ed.2d 1090 VOLKSWAGENWERK AKTIENGESELLSCHAFT, Petitioner,v.FEDERAL MARITIME COMMISSION et al. No. 69. Argued Nov. 13, 1967. Decided March 6, 1968. [Syllabus from pages 261-262 intentionally omitted] Walter Herzfeld, New York City, and Richard A. Posner, Washington, D.C., for petitioner. Robert N. Katz, Sol., Federal Maritime Commission, Gary J. Torre, San Francisco, respondents. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The petitioner, a German manufacturer automobiles, is one largest users ports on West Coast United States, delivering through them more than 40,000 vehicles each year, majority transported there by vessels chartered petitioner rather common carrier. This case grows out petitioner's claim that charges imposed upon unloading its automobiles at Pacific are in violation Shipping Act, 1916, as amended. 39 Stat. 728, 46 U.S.C. § 801 seq. dispute has long somewhat complicated history. 2 Association (the Association) an employer organization some 120 principal carriers water, stevedoring contractors, marine terminal operators, representing shipping industry. primary function to negotiate administer collective bargaining contracts with unions members' employees, which International Longshoremen's Warehousemen's Union (ILWU) one. late 1960 ILWU reached milestone agreement which, it was hoped, would end troubled history labor discord waterfront.1 agreed introduction labor-saving devices elimination certain restrictive work practices. In return, create over period 1961 1966 'Mechanization Modernization Fund' $29,000,000 Mech Fund) be used mitigate impact employees technological unemployment.2 specifically reserved alone right determine how raise Fund members, rate $5,000,000 year. 3 A committee investigated various possible formulas collecting contractors operators—i.e., those members who were employers workers represented ILWU. recommended assessment based solely tonnage handled, this recommendation adopted membership.3 Under formula, general cargo assessed 27 1/2¢ per 'revenue ton.'4 revenue ton either weight (2,000 1bs.=one ton) or measurement (40 cu. ft.=one ton). Whether declarations particular item depend, exception, had customarily been manifested (and reported dues purposes) 1959. exception no uniform manifesting custom.5 decided declared purposes, regardless they manifested. 4 Unlike shippers carrier, must arrange pay own their arrival port. For purpose since 1954 contracted Marine Terminals Corporation Los Angeles (Terminals), Association, performance related services ships ports, negotiated price. Prior agreement, Terminals' charge these $10.45 vehicle, about dollar profit. When measurement, came $2.35 vehicle—representing, if passed increase costs 22.5%.6 If (0.9 tons) (8.7 tons),7 have 25¢ vehicle—an 2.4%, comparable average 2.2% all other cargo. Assessment thus resulted 10 times cargo—although less gain agreement.8 both protested seeming inequities set up handle such claims, but without success.9 5 refused any additional resulting Association's levy, Terminals, while continuing unload Volkswagen did not Association. sued federal court California failure assessments; admitted allegations complaint impleaded defendant. then obtained stay action permit invoke jurisdiction order following issues: 6 '1. assessments claimed petitioner) being pursuant understanding required filed approved Commission under Section 15 amended, 814 (1961), before lawful take thereunder, so approved. 7 '2. result subjecting automobile cargoes undue unreasonable prejudice disadvantage 16 815 (1961). 8 '3. constitute unjust practice 17 816 (1961).' 9 began present proceedings filing raising above issues. alleged dominated carriers10 formula shift disproportionate share onto patronize carriers.11 after hearing, upheld initial decision examiner dismissed complaint, two dissents.12 Court Appeals District Columbia Circuit affirmed,13 we granted certiorari consider important questions Act.14 I. contention—supported party-respondent—is implementation levying unenforceable, because among imposing accord Act. That section provides 'every agreement' persons subject Act 11 'fixing regulating transportation rates fares; giving receiving special rates, accommodations, privileges advantages; controlling, regulating, preventing destroying competition; pooling apportioning earnings, losses, traffic; allotting restricting otherwise number character sailing between ports; limiting way volume freight passenger traffic carried; manner providing exclusive, preferential, cooperative working arrangement. * *'15 12 Until submitted 'it shall unlawful carry whole part, directly indirectly, *.'16 directed disapprove 13 'that finds unjustly discriminatory unfair carriers, shippers, exporters, importers, exporters States foreign competitors, operate detriment commerce contrary public interest, Act) *.'17 14 An immunized challenge antitrust laws.18 held that, although 'cooperative clearly within plain language 15, nonetheless kind section: 'Although literal broad enough encompass arrangement' entered into legislative clear statute intended Congress apply only agreements involving practices affect competition absence exist parties when dealing traveling representatives. 'It contested membership assessing collection 'Mech' fund. Such however, does fall confines as, standing itself, outsiders. What demonstrated may said (Association) pass portion served operators.' F.M.C., 82 83. 18 affirmed. felt itself confined our Consolo v. FMC, 383 607, 86 1018, 131, determining simply whether Commission's ruling supported 'substantial evidence.' With 'due deference expertise Commission,' concluded '(albeit hesitation) substantial evidence record considered support decision.' 125 U.S.App.D.C., 290, 371 F.2d, 755. issue case, relates sufficiency construction statute. put agency charged administering entitled courts, ordinarily will affirmed 'reasonable basis law.' NLRB Hearst Publications, 322 111, 64 851, 860, L.Ed. 1170; Unemployment Compensation Aragon, 329 143, 153—154, 67 245, 250—251, 91 136. But courts final authorities issues statutory construction, FTC Colgate-Palmolive Co., 380 374, 385, 85 1035, 1042, 904, 'are obliged stand aside rubber-stamp affirmance administrative decisions deem inconsistent mandate frustrate congressional policy underlying statute.' Brown, 278, 291, 980, 988, 839. 'The owed expert tribunal cannot allowed slip judicial inertia *.' American Ship Building Co. NLRB, 300, 318, 955, 967, 855. Cf. FMB Isbrandtsen 356 481, 499—500, 78 862—863, 926 (where overturned Act). 20 'affect competition' finding competition,' phrase highly artificial sense—by requiring 'an There question necessarily affected cost structures of, levied by, individual members. Most, though all, operators on. economic realities many choice—a fact apprised time arrangement devised.19 twice profit margin. 21 took extremely narrow view uses expansive language. view, argued should minimize receive exemption. However, exemption results, filing, actually approved; deciding approve implications.20 FMC Aktiebolaget Svenska Amerika Linien, 238, 1005, 1071; see also 93 U.S.App.D.C. 293, 211 F.2d 51.21 22 heretofore limited horizontal applied types coming terms. See, e.g., Agreements Nos. 8225 8225—1, Between Greater Baton Rouge Port Cargill, Inc., F.M.B. 648 (1959), affirmed, Cir., 287 86, Agreement T—4: Terminal Lease Long Beach, California, F.M.C. 521 (1965), applying lease agreements.22 latter four months us, said: 23 'Section describes unambiguous filed; speak se violative Sherman 24 Since wording clear, need refer history; ambiguity resolve.' 531. 25 To limit square structure statute.23 26 offers different view. genesis 'Alexander Report' 1914.24 490, 857, 926. While true attention focused primarily cartelized much maritime industry, concerns inquiry far broadly ranging. report summed testimony committee: 'Nearly steamship line representatives expressed themselves opposed government supervision approval arrangements lines lines, agencies. On hand, appeared witnesses great instances favorable comprehensive system (and) contracts, agreements, arrangements, conditions water vitally interests shippers.' Alexander Report, 418. (Emphasis added.) recommended, things: 28 'That engaged trade understandings, conference hereinafter referred to, file copy written (or complete memorandum oral) (1) companies, firms, indirectly trade, (2) railroads agencies.' 419—420. 29 Nothing suggests Congress, enacting meant do follow Report scrutiny specialized myriad industry.25 30 say power determine, appropriate proceedings, classes provisions de minimis routine require formal filing. explicitly given authority: 31 application motion, rule exempt future class chapter specified activity requirement chapter, Intercoastal 1933, where substantially impair effective regulation discriminatory, detrimental commerce. 32 attach exemptions may, order, revoke exemption.'26 833a (1964 ed., Supp. II). 33 deal here—levying five years, binding Coast, increased charges—was neither nor routine. We hold 34 It emphasize involved allocating levy. concerned here creating No made requirements 15. Those reflecting national free parties' unfettered choice, area concern National Labor Relations Board, nothing understood questioning validity. negotiating ILWU, insisted exclusive assessed, clause effect included agreement. arrangement, affecting relationships customers, us case. Moreover, shows, now challenged, reason suppose expeditious dispute. II. 35 attacked makes 'to person, locality, description disadvantage,'27 s forbids 'unjust unreasonable' 'relating connected receiving, handling, storing, property.'28 ruled sections violated, 36 called again §§ 17, violates specific provision disapproved.29 Accordingly, inappropriate, passing ultimate merits issues, give brief consideration handling record. 37 failed demonstrate 'undue disadvantage' shown unequal treatment competitive automobiles. ruling, 'competitive relationship' doctrine developed cases concerning carriage goods sea.30 particularized economics vessel's finite capacity,31 often found violations even relationship.' Practices, etc., Francisco Bay Area U.S.M.C. 588 (1941) 709 (1944), Storage Practices Longview, 178 (1960), storage charges; and, Foreign Freight Forwarders Brokers Ass'n 337 289, forwarders' fees. proceeding subsequent dispensed relationship respect port 'free time.' Investigation Free Time Diego, 525 (1966); cf. State 320 577, 352, 322. See Household Goods, North Atlantic Mediterranean Conference, Docket 66—49 (June 30, 1967). filed, anew mere foreclose further inquiry.32 38 'unreasonable,' received benefits' return assessment, showing deliberate intent impose burden This, think, reflects too 17. relatively small uniformly benefit entire group can reasonable equal benefits. Evans Cooperage Board Commissioners Orleans, 415.33 large unequally imposed. benefits substantial, greater one-tenth cost.34 reasonableness depend intent. As '(Sections 17) proscribe make conduct, regard offense committed doing act, involved.' Hellenic Lines Ltd.—Violation Sections (First) 673, 675—676 (1964). 40 Illinois Central R. 263 515, 523—526, 44 189, 192—194, 68 417; ICC Chicago Great Western 209 108, 493, 52 705. 41 correlation reasonable. measure unreasonableness blunt instrument. supports tortured 'just reasonable.' cited similar regulatory court. Indeed, past test. Stevedore & Ballast Stockton Elevators, 97 (1964), (1941), 322, substantial. proper is, word, reasonably service rendered. 42 judgment reversed remanded consistent opinion. 43 ordered. Judgment reversed, 45 MARSHALL part HARLAN, concurring. 47 Although I agree conclusions desirable amplify reasons, them, what today. More especially, think justification needed Court's 'assessment falls notwithstanding intimate connection agreement; already determined them. 48 multi-employer group. Its closely covering bargain, 'terms employment.'1 was, according apparently unanimous industry opinion, step forward 49 Multi-employer units recognized unit classifications 'appropriate.' Truck Drivers Local 449, 353 87, 77 643, 676 50 continue established certifying units, leave Board's inevitable bound arise future.' Id., 96, 647. 51 longshoring bargaining, noted 'cogent industries vital factor effectuation promoting peace strengthened bargaining.' 95, 53 authorized shipping, forms background 54 At same time, very existence obvious policy, invariably effects. signatories frequently, act signing, agreeing competitors matters costs, nonlabor provided public, (indirectly) price increases. 55 therefore reconciled sometimes competing policies laws competition, viz., relations, problem little direct guidance,2 repeatedly grappled Allen Bradley 3, 325 797, 65 1533, 89 1939. line-drawing. 56 Court, noting $29,000,000, 'necessarily charges,' ante, 277, holds says 'continuing validity' brought today's decision. Ante, 278. 57 my Brother DOUGLAS argues premise could distinguished 'raised beyond point PMA expected absorb prices charges.' Post, 313. He contends approval, stifle negotiation.3 Consequently, he accommodation 'labor' 'competition' exempting labor-related leaving prohibitions 58 suggested seems me demonstrably wrong. first place, notes, drafted broadly, filing-and-approval process includes review arising creates attack. Hence, substantive (dealing matter) place advance or, instead, during operation, thought chose former alternative. Furthermore, find difficult why preferable, standpoint facilitating 'wait-and-see' approach. 59 real difficulty distinguish whose evaluated implementation, define (whether challenges implementation) improperly belong. suggestion 'fall Board.' 60 circumspect analysis needed, believe. later validity immunity precise instructions 'concern.' warrant assuming, advance, always neatly domain; single contract might well both. 61 position 'only representatives.'4 conclusion principle opposite reached. difficulty, excessively broad: significant 'affects collateral thereto. 62 permitted bargain group, subjects, successful principles exact extent 'labor exemption' immunity' statutes before;5 inappropriate suggest affirmative immunity. two-edged one: immune exempt, raises 'shipping' problems logically distinct industry's problems; circumscribed equipped resolve. 63 course, consequent committing union side guarantee fund raised somehow, guaranteed much. whenever agrees provide arises allocate (in consequence) customers. Often, 'allocation' follows terms wages, example, bears benefiting his employees. levy proportional roughly simultaneous with, savings modernization, things followed: stem modernization program 'pay itself' went along, customers unaffected. PMA, presumably not) apportion manner. plan chosen, unable debit against employer's class. ultimately dues, choices employer. 66 nevertheless 'no error deemed 'fact' 'law' irreconcilable reality. companies MTC compete business Volkswagens. allocation increases company $2.35. (25%) company's product. mechanization produce (much compensatory) saving Volkswagens, could, run, 'absorb' cost: dividends future.6 MTC's choice form higher lower mechanization. alternative driven bearing curse, compelled least Volkswagen. statements numerous officials participating 'agreements' (statements constituting evidence' supposed relied, 756), best quibbles meaning words. taken consequences paper signed. destroy Volkswagen's trade; 'pass on' done so. customer every unless charge. How conclude imposition, themselves, heavy tax product 'affect' understand. fairness mean imply conflict policy. mechanize, modernize, displaced workers, obviously concern, negotiations governed law bargaining. Resolution 'Mech gave rise subsidiary question. answer, interest plans adopted, amount promised. method properly reach obligation necessitating into, reject preferable routes necessary amount. Review propriety taxing scheme thing reviewing money, once collected, put. notes examined, contemplates examination starting collect fulfilled; route objective.7 69 approach rested, indeed intimates, erroneous reconsideration remand 70 appears, quite unlike body before. dealt carrying, goods, provided. Rather, 'tax' (insofar way') public. bore 71 declares sound sea 'particularized economics' capacity ships, elsewhere, including unspecified reasons. 72 surface, appear argument around: sense preference advantage' say, watermelons 'competing' space; becomes anything 'preference' products available unlimited quantities. 73 My states consistently adhered insistence preferred disadvantaged, except 'there dependent nature therefor.' p. 314, n. 30. Yet, ever 'the (products)' difference 74 solution matter, me, situation devise workable fair vis-a -vis rates,. feasible, Second noted,8 assess industrial equipment comparison bananas. notion bananas elusive implemented. rendered procuring insurance arranging cartage, value supplying them; charging amounts equivalent preferential.9 75 pre-specified total impression, go back 16, proscribes advantage whatsoever.'10 Certainly, 'modernization tax' lowered, amount, others obligated it, described 'description traffic' correspondingly lightened. 76 formulate definition burdens 'unfairly' allocated. Obviously, debates indicate, 'perfect' costs. Any room uniform, practical, features imperfect rule. treated alike prevented inquiring circumstances so, fairest devised. interpretation erroneous. minute precisely corresponded benefits.' Petitioner appreciably modernization. will, lessening disputes services; disruptions avoided efforts institute stability course them) Fund. categorical groups invite appropriately proportioned feasible. fact, 'equal' more. figured products; figure percentage existing high absorbed debited customer. Of 'reasonably' benefits, perfectly exactly related, 415, 418, ceased nearer point. 79 Finding disagreement myself join premises stated 80 FORTAS, concurring judgment. 81 Part herein. understand purports believe certainly II sections. DOUGLAS, dissenting part. 83 misconstrued 1916;1 fear cause serious disruption tariff exacted unreasonable, Act2 remedy. laws, remedy, indicate. funding prior use sledge hammer fix watch. read attribute heavy-handed management sensitive problems. 84 Mechanization (Mech Fund), relations developments country punctuated lengthy major strikes continuous minor disruptions.3 faced instability—economic managerial. Employment generally irregular insecure.4 condition lies behind stoppages coasts. Because defense, Government maintained trying promote growth stability. example concern.5 activities were, until entry World War I, devoted protecting disciplining seamen workers. war years saw actively encouraging 1920 expansion followed retrogression, wages reaching low levels. prevailed disruptive violent strike 1934. 87 deepseated grievances regarding poor conditions.6 better. 1934 Workers, remained unstable rampant. coasts, intra-union inter-union disagreements, coupled employer-union hostility, difficult. Quickie dotted another 1936. (which achieved recognition strike) constant 1948, still erupted. period, aptly something like 'class warfare.'7 commentator it: (then AFL gained 1934, exploitation abuse longshoremen employers. bitterness characterized carried relationship. break union, retaliated just militantly. stormiest strikes, 300 days coastwide 1,300 local 'job action' 250 arbitration awards.'8 During stormy 1930's, greatly expanding role relations. NIRA NLRA revied unionism addition industries. Acts offered means unions; strength. And stronger unions, became widespread. explosive solved enactments, series First Merchant 1936, 1985, investigate minimum wage scales subsidies. Despite 1936 improve significantly; 1938 amended (MLB) duty assisting peaceful settlement mediation. amendment, MLB hours, rules, conditions. new change Board. assist mediation promotion disputes.9 90 instructed submit 1940 recommendations establishing permanent ensuring stable uneasy, wide labor—including representation10 disputes. discontinued 1941; extended life mid-1942 studies Congress. 1955 turned relations.11 meantime, expired. several bills introduced control machinery established; remains laws.12 1948 rocked Coast. Following strike, lasted 100 days, 'period relative claim.'13 led leadership, hostile attitude tension along Both sides reduction strife diverted account chronic difficulties stoppages. despite hostility management, solutions readily forthcoming. Business bad companies—foreign cut heavily market, decline longshoremen. sorely feared, jobs. improved techniques facilities, regain strong position.14 lack modern equipment, hampered rules multiple handling,15 sling-load weight,16 gangsize restrictions.17 92 tremendous appreciated. heard 1960—1961 settlement. intimately acquainted parties, '(t)his spring full-blown brow Zeus, brain Bridges.'18 '(t)he hammered ending October 1960, culminated discussion ILWU.'19 Earnest 1957. wanted obtain devices. desired assurances changes methods unsafe accelerate productivity After preliminary negotiations, August 1959 study establishment $1,500,000 workers.20 94 Negotiations beginning May 'Memorandum Modernization,' trust financed PMA. consist due plus $27,500,000 accumulated five-and-one-half-year protect clerks reduced employment caused enter force expire July 1, 1966.21 rein sought eliminate eliminated, size gang loading operations specified. loads remain unchanged operation negotiated; otherwise, weight, acted 'within safe practical limits speed individual.' 95 Thus, satisfied desire modernize outmoded security jobs left open employers' contributions year raised. discussed preceding negotiations; suggestions parties. commitment obligating individually collectively payment fund, establish payment. 96 Work Improvement Committee money. bases contributions—man-hours employer, tonnage, combination two, moving containers, improvements longshore productivity. basis; reasons summarized below follows: 'rough-and-ready' divide cost, admittedly lacking refinement infeasibility avoiding inequity man-hour whereby inverse proportion received. indicator simplicity cardinal consideration. 98 objectionable weighty objections inhering formulae. reviewed prevent continuation hardship develop.'22 99 recommending dues. joint maintenance dispatch halls arbitrators' salaries.23 appears proposed asked incorporated resisted approach, wishing keep options fearing incorporation tend commit fixed subsequently membership. abide Association; promise comply quid pro quo union's write determination assessment.24 Thus parcel heart merely implemented marked far-reaching effects 101 financing integral process. recommend appointed worked agreement;25 ratified time. 102 not, submit, possible, separate negotiations. negotiators sitting table arrive know depends Commission? months—or years—will get approval? happen meanwhile? Will imposition bring partially paralyze, bargaining? 103 expense. Increased normally prices. Auto Workers recently General Motors annual wage, consequence economy proper? imagine regime controls required. present; judicially created field. meet added consumer. happens industries, fixing type aimed. gives license oversee today decides approval. 104 HARLAN (of allocated) (Ante, 290.) argue care source gets money questionable26 irrelevant, ignores dedicated key all. wait settle differences interest. Speedy resolution 105 Solicitor atomize treat schedule 'side agreement.' so-called remembered applicable, requires 'immediately Commission.' proviso objects. notice hearing 'disapprove, cancel modify' Which participate presents problem.27 Thereafter, become target conjectural. large. operative underpinning—the fund—was thoroughly litigated. Meanwhile contest wound slowly tribunals continued fester. 106 overlooks 'labor-related agreements' parts laws. Presumably, legal uncertainty vulnerability attack stall lead association cooperate carrying trebledamage action. sure, pact frame fit standards governing statutes. speedily. Frustration comes possibility illegal date possibly freezing stultification troublesome sent 107 respect, legitimate speedy Neither able indicates 15.28 instead takes purposely drawn rationale charges. 108 mean, suggests, 'obligation Fund,' contained examined remand, 'propriety objective.' misses mark. former. runs risk frustrating mention pact. satisfactory devised, never established, perhaps continuance rules. 109 abuse, challenged laws.29 afford protection discrimination erred concur findings 17.30 incidental after-the-fact paralyzing realistically compared enforcement All enlightened forward-looking Kossoris, Working Rules Longshoring, Monthly Rev. (1961); Killingsworth, Longshore Rules, Ind. Lab.Rel.Rev. 295 (1962); (American Mail Line), 144 N.L.R.B. 1432, 1442 (1963). signed November 1961, respects date. continued, collected paid out. minority levied—a combining handled manhours employed, ratio 40/60. initially entirely manhour basis. About 12% way. Bulk ton. December 9¢ bulk (showing measurement). shown. coastwise weight. Some implemented, decreased. decrease These figures represent weighted model Passenger models 0.8 7.8 tons measurement; estimated 22%. Transporter 1.1 11.4 31%. reached, mechanized likelihood improvement. Hence stood situation, freedom slowdowns. downward adjustments scrap metal lumber. By virtue bylaws, Directors votes. devised claims carriers; member contractor operator. shipper dry charter ports. 75% most rest two-thirds imported importer vessels. shippers. situations petitioner's, borne Volkswagenwerk Aktiengesellschaft Corp., 77. 282, 747. 388 909, 2109, 1345. 'Every carrier person immediately copy, oral, memorandum, modification cancellation thereof, party conform preventing, sailings term 'agreement' conferences, arrangements.' 814. original 1916 729, 733. succeeded 1933 Bureau Department Commerce, Exec. Order 6166, (1933); 1985; 1950 1273; 840. predecessors Commission. 'Any approved, disapproved, unlawful, modifications, cancellations Commission; disapproval modification, cancellation; fares, charges, classifications, regulations explanatory thereof (including covered 813a title involve spread applicable noncontract shippers) amendments thereto, accordance law, compliance publication 817(b) adopt.' disapprove, modify previously modifications cancellations. conferences serving trades naturally competitive, conference, retains independent action, fails admission readmission qualified withdraw penalty withdrawal. inadequate policing obligations refusal adopt maintain procedures promptly fairly considering shippers' requests complaints.' section, title, excepted 1—11 Title supplementary thereto.' Commissioner Patterson vigorously implied 101—104. considerable Patterson's 7, 755, 7. rule, finding, indicating facts differently itself. 290—291, 755—756. One 763, 'contrary interest.' supra. 'We interest' embodied laws.' Pools Investigation, 264, 280. Carnation Westbound 213, 932, 781, 709, 851. '(T)he legalizing authority entrusted scrutinize sure conduct legalized invade anti-trust serve purposes 299, 57. statement Chairman Harllee requesting forwarders perform other. H.R.Rep. 2248, 89th Cong., 2d Sess., 4—5, U.S.Code Congressional Administrative News, 4194 (1966). seven categories, comprises 'regulat(e) competition.' six categories virtually meaningless construction. House Fisheries, Steamship Affiliations, H.R.Doc. 805, 63d 415—424 (1914). Senate Reports 659, 64th 1st 27—32 (1916); S.Rep. 689, 7—12 (1916). forth 1459, (1966): regulates slight overall design contemplated act. Exacting proven unnecessarily costly Government. conferred legislation relieve burden. addition, preclude necessity piecemeal steps filings. Inquiry, U.S.S.B. 121 (1927), 'routine' intraconference transactions Oranje Line Anchor Line, 199, construed By-Products Barber S.S. Lines, (1939), holding advertising Proceeding 841a, exempted CFR 530.5(d)(4) (5), agreements. conjunction indirectly— 'First. whatsoever, whatsoever 815. establish, observe, enforce relating property. Whenever prescribe, enforced practice.' 816. Boston Wool Trade Assn. M. M.T. (1921); Eagle-Ottawa Leather Goodrich Transit (1926); Philadelphia Ocean Traffic Export 538 (1936); Huber Mfg. V. Stoomvaart Maatschappij 'Nederland,' 343 (1953); Indies Fruit Flota Mercante, (1962). S. Bross, 189—190 (1956); C. Cufley, Freights Chartering 400—407 Interstate Commerce 3(1) 902, 3(1), Rheem Chicago, R.I. P.R. 273 I.C.C. 185; Northern 301 21. 'This indispensable element preference, frequently 'ordinarily,' 'generally,' relation appear.' Joseph Goddard Realty York, St. L.R. 229 497, 501. wharfage wharf, wharf it. looked charge: (Commission Orleans) help defray operating facilities measured commission performing Examiner was.' F.M.B., 418—419. 8, 142, 158(d). Clayton 731, human commodity article commerce.' 733, 814, 'shall (antitrust provisions) 'good' ones. Nor been. making relevant damage 82. E.g., Mine America Pennington, 381 657, 1585, 626; Amalgamated Meat Cutters Butcher Workmen Jewel Tea 676, 1596, 640; Kennedy Island 319 366, 372—374. said, violating U.S., 664, 1590. equally confer preparatory sign arithmetically larger computed accounting critical. vehicle $2.36, somewhere. 'assessment' pieces impossible 'concern' other, review. 299. Ibid.; see, 525. provides, Commission' Act: arrangement.' (§ 15). finds, 'unjustly 'unlawful.' 'before read, part: 16). 17). 1940, President 646, 76th 3d Sess. (1940). valuable B. Schneider, Industrial Industry, Institute Relations, University (Berkeley, 1958). Longshoremen done. bad, pay. hiring operated jointly management. Employers halls, longshoreman employed steadily employer; rather, dispatched job. 1914. demanded increases, six-hour day, closed shop, halls. accede demands, ensuing tied almost three Roosevelt intervene, board proceeding. months, award eventually gains union. Hiring jointly, granted, day established. committees equally; arbitration. 295, 296 supra, 4, 1. 1941 bill two-year extension copies studied industry.' Two-Year Extension 354, 77th (1941). representation NLRB. 1002 that: listed therein title. Questions Provided, repeal navigation seamen.' 965. Hearings H.R. 5734, 84th (1955 1956). Hanna Mining 2, Engineers Beneficial Ass'n, 382 181, 327, 254 (pre-emption state enactments); McCulloch Sociedad Nacional, 372 10, 671, 547 (jurisdiction foreign-flag ships); Interlake 370 173, 1237, 418 (pre-emption); Cooks Stewards Panama 362 365, 779, 797 (application Norris-LaGuardia Act); Benz Compania Naviera Hidalgo, 138, 699, Management Juneau Spruce 342 237, 235, 275 (right 303(a)(4) L.M.R.A.); Pittsburgh 656, 1283, 1602 (unfair practice); Southern 316 31, 886, 1246 (representation; bargain); Waterman 309 206, 704 practice). 2. 1961: technologically backward. engineer mass production horrified sacks coffee docks ship days. corporate links chain sufficient efficiency methods, effective, start Brazil Hills Brothers Folgers Francisco.' Fairley, ILWU-PMA Agreement, Lab.L.J. 665 big technology docks, lift trucks, propelled wartime demands developed, increasingly (such gluing items together strapping containerizing them). 666. efficient containerization Matson Navigation 1964 nearly 10%, citing reductions improvement 'containerization' plan. container cargo, containers boxes freight. They loaded factory distribution lifted aboard unloaded units. 850 load specially designed 6,500 using equipment. conventional loose 11,000 man-hours (about labor) unload. attraction faster, savings. Matson's ship. Shippers estimate $3,000 $5,000 depreciation, seamen's pier stays Wall Street Journal, 20, 1964, col. thorough eight-volume Labor, Manpower Utilization, Job Security Industry Shils, Unrest Nation's 337, 356—358 author vessels, engine Deck Steward Department, semi-automated vessels); O. Hagel L. Goldblatt, Men Machines, Joint Publication I.L.W.U. P.M.A. (San 1963). Multiple refers touch 'skin dock' someone teamster truck dock. Sling-load maximum usually 2,100 pounds pallet (although heavier safely). Larger pallets 'skimmed down' Ibid. Each stipulating men gangs. Frequently, 'four-on four-off' eight ship, rested. 3. 7; P. Hartman, Rules: Brief Theoretical Analysis Empirical Results, U. Ill.Bull., (1967). 14, formula. 1971; year—$6,900,000. worked. contract, Week, 1966, 108; Negotiations, 1067. Kossoris points abolition employers: 'Tonnage percent; same. cents basic liberalization fringe $5 million dropped $6.26 $6.16. Making allowance factors involved, M&M placed conservatively excess $150 million. Subtracting $27.5 1/2 last $120 net realistic.' 1068—1069. 747, 758 told finance presentation terms, provided, administration contracts. rates. essence, object industry-wide Paul Sure, testified: fund) definite collection. discussions negotiation presented dollars half. equitable ended inasmuch sum, whereas interested assurance sum allow ourselves actual PMA.' disinterested party; deeply 'There collections met. Obviously have, trusteeship, custody assure you alert custody, working, believed knew spend 'After experience couldn't defeat having negotiations.' Hearing 'Mr. Sure testified ILWU's printed reference Sure's indicate based; least, quoted doubt ceased. event, prime topic matter 'Well, cover. responsibility reporting directors, membership, convenient calling field people payment.' 24, Rule 5(1), 502.72 (petitions intervention proceedings). 10(c), 502.143 (notice hearings). contrary. 9, circumstance originated automatically Mines Allen-Bradley IBEW, violated Volkswagens 21, 26—27, modeled, Nav. Cunard 284 474, 480—481, 247, 248—249, 408, undermined rates: Practices—Port (1966) (port time); 289 (C.A.2d Cir. 1964), cert. denied, 910, 893, (billing forwarders); Swift Gulf South Havana 215 (1961) (route restrictions); (1960) (storage charges). test preference. *' cases, diluted therefore. instant how- ever, depending involved. conceded '(w)e 'regardless manifested' subjects 'prejudice admit classification automobiles.' circumstances. ICC. defer expertise. 131. expressly ($2.35 approximately $0.25); manifested, (3) probably slowdowns), unlikely unloading. benefited holds, standard, focuses received, represents contesting essentially PMA's pounds) volumetric cubic feet/ton). weighs 1,800 pounds, measures 8.7 basis, $0.25 weight-ton measurement. exaction grossly light expect antici- pate. focus obscure disparity falling compare receives resolved. instance.

Category: 7