Document: 425 U.S. 748 96 S.Ct. 1817 48 L.Ed.2d 346 VIRGINIA STATE BOARD OF PHARMACY et al., Appellants,v.VIRGINIA CITIZENS CONSUMER COUNCIL, INC., al. No. 74-895. Argued Nov. 11, 1975. Decided May 24, 1976. Syllabus Appellees, as consumers of prescription drugs, brought suit against the Virginia State Board Pharmacy and its individual members, appellants herein, challenging validity under First Fourteenth Amendments a statute declaring it unprofessional conduct for licensed pharmacist to advertise prices drugs. A three-judge District Court declared void enjoined from enforcing it. Held: 1. Any Amendment protection enjoyed by advertisers seeking disseminate drug price information is also enjoyed, thus may be asserted, appellees recipients such information. Pp. 756-757. 2. "Commercial speech" not wholly outside Amendments, therefore invalid. 761-773. (a) That advertiser's interest in commercial advertisement purely economic does disqualify him Amendments. Both consumer society general have strong interests free flow 762-765. (b) The ban on advertising cannot justified basis State's maintaining professionalism pharmacists; require whatever professional standards wishes pharmacists, subsidize them or protect competition other ways, but do so keeping public ignorance lawful terms that competing pharmacists are offering. 766-770. (c) Whatever bounds time, place, manner restrictions speech, they plainly exceeded statute, which singles out speech particular content seeks prevent dissemination completely. 770-771. (d) No claim made prohibited advertisements false, misleading, propose illegal transactions, suppress concededly truthful about entirely activity, fearful information's effect upon disseminators recipients. 771-773. 373 F.Supp. 683, affirmed. Anthony F. Troy, Richmond, Va., appellants. Alan B. Morrison, Washington, D. C., appellees. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 1 plaintiff-appellees this case attack, violative Amendments,1 portion § 54-524.35 Va.Code Ann. (1974), provides guilty if he "(3) publishes, advertises promotes, directly indirectly, any whatsoever, amountprice, fee, premium, discount, rebate credit . drugs dispensed only prescription."2 quoted "void no effect," Jurisdictional Statement, App. 1, defendant-appellants, members Board, 683 (E.D.Va.1974). We noted probable jurisdiction appeal. 420 971, 95 1389, 43 650 (1975). 2 * Since challenged restraint one peculiarly concerns Virginia, we begin with description profession exists law. 3 "practice pharmacy" statutorily "a practice affecting health, safety welfare," "subject regulation control interest." 54-524.2(a) (1974).3 Indeed, subject extensive aimed at preserving gh standards. regulatory body appellant Pharmacy. broadly charged various responsibilities, including "(m)aintenance quality, quantity, integrity, efficacy devices distributed, administered." 54-524.16(a). It concern itself "(m)aintaining integrity of, confidence in, improving delivery quality pharmaceutical services citizens Virginia." 54-524.16(d). empowered "make bylaws, rules regulations necessary exercise powers." 54-524.17. 4 licensing authority. issue license, pharmacy State, evidence applicant "of good moral character," graduate school approved has had suitable period experience (the required exceed 12 months) acceptable Board." 54-524.21. must pass examination prescribed Board. Ibid. One School Medical College where curriculum three years following two college. Prescribed prepharmacy courses, biology chemistry, taken college, study requirements include courses organic biochemistry, comparative anatomy, physiology, pharmacology. Students trained ethics profession, there some clinical school's hospital pharmacies medical center operated College. This rigid, demanding what student expected know drugs."4 5 Once licensed, civil monetary penalty, revocation suspension his finds "is violated number stated (among "negligent engaged "fraud deceit connection pharmacy"), "unprofessional conduct." 54-524.22:1. "Unprofessional conduct" specifically defined 54-524.35, n. 2, Supra, third numbered phrase relates drug, litigation. 6 Inasmuch dispense 54-524.48,5 affirmative effectively forbidden State. Some refuse even quote over telephone. Board's position, however, would constitute an publication.6 clear, nonetheless, all prices, normal sense, forbidden. prohibition extend nonprescription neither confined prescriptions compounds himself. 95% Of now filled dosage forms prepared manufacturer.7 II 7 first challenge constitutionality third-numbered phrase. Shortly after was added 1968,8 enjoin operation instituted retailing company pharmacists. Although invoked, appears been based primarily Due Process Equal Protection Clauses Amendment. In event, upheld. Patterson Drug Co. v. Kingery, 305 821 (W.D.Va.1969). court did find dispensation "affects welfare." Id., 824-825. appeal taken. 8 present, second, attack prohibition, is, pharmacist, who greatly benefit were lifted freely allowed. plaintiffs resident suffers diseases her take daily basis,9 nonprofit organizations.10 Their ithat entitles user receive wish communicate through promotional means, concerning 9 Certainly value. both items, strikingly vary outlet within same locality. stipulated, example, Richmond "the cost 40 Achromycin tablets ranges $2.59 $6.00, difference 140% (Sic )," Newport News-Hampton area tetracycline $1.20 to.$9.00, 650%.11 10 seized identity feature distinguishing present supra. Because unsuccessful earlier re said, "theirs prima facie approach," F.Supp., 686. plaintiffs, hand, asserting their own health "fundamentally deeper than trade consideration." Court's view, expression Valentine Chrestensen, 316 52, 54-55, 62 920, 921, 86 L.Ed. 1262, 1265-66 (1942), "purely advertising" protected tempered, later decisions Court, point could found outweigh countervailing strength borne out, felt, fact States decision struck down prohibitions advertising. Florida Webb's City, Inc., 219 So.2d 681 (Fla.1969); Maryland Sav-A-Lot, 270 Md. 103, 311 A.2d 242 (1973); Pennsylvania Pastor, 441 Pa. 186, 272 487 (1971).12 recognized upheld federal constitutional challenges grounds state restric tions optometrists' services, Head New Mexico 374 424, 83 1759, 983 (1963), eyeglass frames, Williamson Lee Optical Co., 348 483, 75 461, 99 563 (1955), dentists' Semler Dental Examiners, 294 608, 55 570, 79 1086 (1935).13 dangers abuse deception thought when advertised commodity physician patient pharmacist. failed justify adequately, fall. 686-687. III 11 question arises whether, assuming attaches information, solely, all, themselves seek Freedom presupposes willing speaker. But speaker exists, here,14 afforded communication, source both. clear decided cases. Lamont Postmaster General, 381 301, 85 1493, 14 398 (1965), rights political publications sent abroad. More recently, Kleindienst Mandel, 408 753, 762-763, 92 2576, 2581, 33 691 (1972), acknowledged referredo right "receive ideas," freedom " 'necessarily protects receive.' And Procunier Martinez, 416 396, 408-409, 94 1800, 1808-1809, 224, 237-238 censorship prison inmates' mail examination, unnecessary assess inmates themselves, reasoned equally infringed noninmates whom correspondence addressed. There numerous expressions decisions. See, E. g., Red Lion Broadcasting FCC, 395 367, 390, 89 1794, 1806-1807, 23 371, 389 (1969); Stanley Georgia, 394 557, 564, 1243, 1247-1248, 22 542, 549 Griswold Connecticut, 479, 482, 1678, 1680-1681, 510, 513-514 (1965); Marsh Alabama, 326 501, 505, 66 276, 278, 90 265, 267-268 (1946); Thomas Collins, 323 516, 534, 65 315, 324-325, 430, 442-443 (1945); Martin Struthers, 319 141, 143, 63 862, 863, 87 1313, 1316-1317 (1943). If advertise, reciprocal advertising, asserted these appellees.15 IV 13 contend because "commercial speech." can past given indication unprotected. supra, York distribution "handbill, circular matter whatsoever street." concluded that, although forbid banning communication handbill thoroughfares, imposed "no government respects advertising." U.S., 54, S.Ct., L.Ed., 1265. Further support exception perhaps Breard Alexandria, 341 622, 71 1233 (1951), conviction violation ordinance prohibiting door-to-door solicitation magazine subscriptions. reasoned: "The selling brings into transaction feature," distinguished reversed leaflets publicizing religious meeting, involving element commercial." 642-643, 932-933, 1248-1249. Moreover, several times stressed communications Not Times Sullivan, 376 254, 266, 84 710, 718-719, 686, 698 (1964); 533, at24, 442; Murdock Pennsylvania, 105, 111, 870, 874, 1292, 1297-1298 (1943); Jamison Texas, 318 413, 417, 669, 672, 869, 873 Breard, never Denied ground simplistic approach, then come criticism regarded doubtful Members Court,16 avoided Pittsburgh Press Human Relations Comm'n, 413 376, 93 2553, 37 669 (1973). newspapers listing employment columns according whether male female employees sought hired. sure, characterized "classic examples speech," 385, 2558-2559, L.Ed.2d, 676-677, newspaper's printing character. restriction permissible discriminatory hirings proposed advertisements, newspaper layout, illegal. 15 Last Term, Bigelow 421 809, 2222, 44 600 (1975), notion unprotected passed scene. circulation publication encourage promote processing abortion misdemeanor. defendant published availability abortions York. question, addition announcing legal York, offered rerral agency rejected contention commercial. Chrestensen's continued questioned holding described "distinctly limited one" merely reasonable distributed." 819, 2231, 610. courts erred assumptions such, entitled protection," observed "relationship marketplace products make valueless ideas." 825-826, 2235, 614. 16 fragment hope continuing arguably might persisted Bigelow. "did more simply transaction. contained factual material 'public interest.' 822, 2232, 612. And, course, related activity which, least respects, interfere. See Roe Wade, 410 113, 705, 35 147 Doe Bolton, 179, 739, 201 observed: "We need decide precise extent permits activities legitimately regulate prohibit." 825, 2234, 613. 17 Here, contrast, squarely before us. Our editorialize subject, cultural, philosophical, litical. He report particularly newsworthy fact, generalized observations matters. "idea" this: "I will sell you X Y price." then, V 18 propositions already settled beyond serious dispute. lose money spent project it, paid form another. Buckley Valeo, 424 35-59, 612, 642-654, 46 659 (1976); 384, 2558, 676; 698. Speech likewise though carried "sold" profit, Smith California, 361 147, 150, 80 215, 217, 205, 209 (1959) (books); Joseph Burstyn, Inc. Wilson, 343 495, 72 777, 780, 1098, 1105-1106 (1952) (motion pictures); (religious literature), involve purchase otherwise pay contribute money. supra; NAACP Button, 371 415, 429, 328, 335-336, 405, 415-416 (1963); 873; Cantwell 310 296, 306-307, 60 900, 904-905, 1213, 1219-1220 (1940). 19 kind lacks protection, therefore, content. Yet whose deprives subject. our prevented being heard general, should regulated, Nor dispositive noneditorial, reports fact. Purely protection. 2232-2233, 612; Thornhill 88, 102, 736, 744, 1093, 1102 20 transaction," 677, removed "exposition Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 572, 766, 769, 1031, 1035 'truth, science, morality, arts diffusion liberal sentiments administration Government,' Roth United States, 354 476, 484, 77 1304, 1308, 1498, 1506 (1957), answer not. 21 Focusing parties advertisement, assume one. hardly disqualifies contestants labor dispute economic, long employee employer express merits order influence outcome. NLRB Gissel Packing 575, 617-618, 1918, 1941-1942, 547, 580-581 Electric & Power 314 469, 477, 344, 348, (1941); AFL Swing, 312 321, 325-326, 61 569-570, 855, 857 1102. requirement avail address unionism immediate dispute.17 practices single factory repercussions whole region affect widespread systems marketing." a103, 1103. fate "single factory" well turn ability product resolution difficulties, see satisfactory distinction between kinds speech. As consumer's keen, keener far, day's most urgent debate. Appellees' respect convincing Those suppression hits hardest poor, sick, aged. disproportionate amount income tends drugs; yet able learn, shopping scarce dollars best spent.18 When strikinglys do, charging becomes convenience. mean alleviation physical pain enjoyment basic necessities. Generalizing, Even "commercial," interest. facts cases furnish illustrations: stating referral available, supra ; manufacturer artificial furs promotes alternative extinction competitors fur-bearing mammals, Fur Information Fashion Council, Timme Son, 364 (S.D.N.Y.1973); domestic producer imports tend deprive American residents jobs, cf. Chicago Joint Tribune 435 F.2d 470 (C.A.7 1970), cert. denied, 402 973, 91 1662, 29 138 (1971). Obviously, messages contain very great element. few element, added. cast himself commentator store-to-store disparities giving those competitor proof. little requiring so, 24 another consideration suggests line publicly "interesting" "important" opposite ever drawn. Advertising, however tasteless excessive sometimes seem, nonetheless producing product, reason, price. So preserve predominantly enterprise economy, allocation resources large measure private decisions, aggregate, intelligent informed. To end, indispensable. Dun Bradstreet, Grove, 404 898, 904-906, 204, 208-209, 30 175, 177-178 (1971) (Douglas, J., dissenting denial certiorari). FTC Procter Gamble 386 603-604, 1224, 1242-1243, 303, 324-325 (1967) (Harlan, concurring). indispensable proper system, formation opinions how system ought regulated altered. Therefore, instrument enlighten decisionmaking democracy,19 say serve goal.20 25 Arrayed substantial societal justifications ban. These principally high degree part pharmacists.21 Indisputably, professionalism. exercised ways benefit. skill involved compounding although, noted, up small percentage filled. Yet, manufacturer-prepared compounds, room customer badly. Drugs kept too shelf become adulterated. They packaged way results occur. expertise supplement prescribing physician, latter specified directions appear label. specialist potencies consulted prescribe. antagonism taking, allergy suffer. supplied treated allergy. number, "monitor" problems consumptions customers repeatedly.22 continuous relationship exert customer's 26 Price argued, place jeopardy pharmacist's and, health. claimed aggressive result unlimited impossible supply compounding, handling, dispensing Such time consuming expensive; economize eliminating permitted resulting lower painstaking conscientious forced either follow go business. necessarily fall advertises, others must, expense inflate further lead people shop among offer lowest loss stable pharmacist-customer relationships attention certainly monitoring impossible. Finally, argued damage done image image, skilled specialized craftsman, attracts talent reinforces better habits reduce status mere retailer.23 27 proffered undermined standards, extent, guaranteed close retail sale Surely, dereliction actually endangers promptly license. At discount entirely. type sufficient sustain bans due process equal 28 made, casts different light, inspection seen protectiveness rests advantages ignorance. other. affects reactions assumed prevents cutting corners inclined. likely cut event. insulate open substantial, excessive, profit providing inferior service. but, again, feared provide low cost, assertedly many unwitting customers. choose low-cost, low-quality service drive "professional" respond costly end paying another, destroy relationship. advertises. All interests, what. highly paternalistic approach. harmful, perceive enough informed, means channels rather them. truly open, nothing marketing superior contrasting high-volume retailer. choice approaches ours General Assembly's. precisely choice, suppressing misuse makes ways. Cf. Parker Brown, 317 341, 307, far persuading us Amendment, reinforced view is. hold. VI 31 concluding like varieties, protected, course hold way. surely permissible. mention foreclosed case. 32 claim, restriction. often provided without reference significant governmental interest, doing leave ample Compare Grayned City Rockford, 104, 116, 2294, 2303, 222, 232 (1972); O'Brien, 391 377, 88 1673, 1679, 680 (1968); Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 85-87, 69 448, 452-454, 513, 521-522 (1949), 659; Erznoznik Jacksonville, 422 209, 2268, 2272-2273, 45 125, 130-131 (1975); 304-308, 903-905, 1218-1220; Saia 334 558, 562, 68 1148, 1150-1151, 1574, 1578 (1948). false misleading Untruthful otherwise, sake. Gertz Robert Welch, 418 323, 340, 2997, 3007, 41 789, 805-806 (1974); Konigsberg Bar, 366 36, 49, 10, 81 997, 1005-1006, 116 (1961). much provably deceptive misleading. foresee obstacle dealing problem.24 construe toda prohibit insuring stream cleanly freely. 18.2-216 34 Also, transactions Hunter, 459 (C.A.4), 409 934, 235, 189 (1972). special electronic broadcast media Capitol Mitchell, 333 582 (D.C.1971), aff'd Sub nom. Acting Attorney 405 1000, 1289, 472 What completely Reserving questions,25 conclude negative. 36 judgment Affirmed. 38 STEVENS took 39 Chief BURGER, concurring. notes roughly units sold form. market preparation profitable manufacturer; advertise. prepackaged performs largely packaging function former times. today, deals power notes, ante, 773 25, quite factors uld govern faced law regulating traditional learned professions medicine lawyers especially since essential primary administering justice, historically 'officers courts.' Goldfarb 773, 792, 2004, 2016, 588 Cohen Hurley, 117, 123-124, 954, 958-959, 156, 161-162 physicians. E.g., Oregon Society, 326, 336, 690, 697, 978, 986 (1952); 1086, 1089-1090 (1935). Attorneys physicians Primarily component, Sale labeled others. STEWART aptly observes "differences ideological communication" allow scope unacceptable latter. I think important note carries risks standard products. Semler, 1090, upholding certain types dentists: 42 legislature traders commodities, vital publicealth, treating bodily ills place. community concerned maintenance insure competency practitioners, prey susceptible imposition alluring promises relief. safeguards deception, demoralize forcing unseemly rivalry enlarge opportunities scrupulous." doubt evaluating claims superiority "misleading" justifiable. am sure inherently wisely leaves issues day. STEWART, "(f)reedom discussion, fulfill historic nation, embrace needed appropriate enable cope exigencies period." decision, identified category constitutionally unprotected: "which utterance inflict injury." 1035. month Chaplinsky, referee 1265, Constitution imposes For "casual, almost offhand" statement Chrestensen exclude communication. Cammarano 358 498, 514, 524, 462, 472-473 concurring).1 Today ends anomolous situation created holds "wholly Amendment." Ante, 761. cardinal principle "government restrict message, ideas, matter, content,"2 calls legitimacy every write separately explain why today's preclude regulation. 47 occasions addressed problem posed statements libel demonstrate core absolute cause injury. 805, "there value fact." previously errors inevitable debate, liability erroneous assertions "dampe(n) vigor limi(t) variety debate" inducing "self-censorship." 279, 725, 706. "breathing space" expression, places limitations discretion permit recovery libelous communications. 347-349, 3010-3012, 809-811. principles suggest broader action injury produced harm caused defamation. contrast press, attempt assemble true sketchy conflicting sources pressure deadlines, advertiser generally knows position verify accuracy representations disseminates access truth substantially eliminates danger chill accurate nondeceptive expression. sanction "some falsehood matters." 806. 49 communicative universally inelastic. relations, "an employer's views firmly established union (National Labor Board)." 617, 1941, 580. 348. context, restricted predictions "be carefully phrased objective fact."3 618, 1942, response "line so-called proscribed threats vague stand analysis," relied intimate knowledge employer-employee "avoid coercive avoiding conscious overstatements reason believe mislead employees." 620, 1943, 581. Barrels Vinegar, 265 438, 443, 529, 531, 1094, 1097 ("It difficult statements, designs, deceive"). relations setting advertising,4 context underscores importance speaker's specific unique relevant establishes scheme impact utterances" invariably inconsistent Amendment.5 581-582. 50 determination here of" indicates phrasing differences 771-772, 24. Ideological oral, literary, pictorial, theatrical, integrally exposition shape concepts universe man. convey social decisionmaking, Constitution, contains includes inaccurate disregard "truth" employed give force underlying idea expressed speaker.6 "Under thing idea," eas suppressed 339-340, 805. 51 Commercial differs markedly promotion goods services.7 "information potential value" conveyed, 2233, 600, direct contribution interchange ideas. 762-765, 770.8 relate tangible tested empirically corrected reflect jeopardizing thought. elimination serves facet warrants accuratand reliable decisionmaking. 52 REHNQUIST, dissenting. 53 logical consequences case, elevates intercourse seller hawking wares buyer strike bargain plane reserved reaching indeed. Under active liquor, cigarettes, use desirable discourage. Now, enterprise. coming conclusion, overruled legislative allowed behalf group disadvantaged question. effort reach obviously considers troublesome one, reasons. extends standing raise previous endeavors vigorous champions pale. 54 appellees' urge decides easy does. "right 'receivinformation.' 757. stipulated anyone receiving person phone. 752, 6. forbids "only publish(ing), advertis(ing) promot(ing)" While effective less true, where, here, have, words, "keen, far," "in debate." p. 763. Appellees felt strongly litigate lawsuit residual call inquire. 56 addition, Pharmacists publish group, appellees, collecting publishing area. Indeed briefs protest Thus, contrary assertion information" party publish. 756-757, reasonably available them.* assert party, informion. troubled join litigation feel 57 Thus not, phrases "(o)ur pharmacist" "will communicate. appellee override object. deciding adopts rule alone, possibly lawyers, doctors, professions. 58 speaks goes observe "society information." 764. disagree presumptively Legislature, sits balance making laws attack. "predominantly economy" well-informed resources. 765. again said observation policy, ited requires Legislature hew teachings Adam profession. Nebbia 291 502, 78 940 (1934); Olsen Nebraska, 313 236, 1305 (1941). 59 Black, writing Ferguson Skrupa, 372 726, 730, 1028, 93, 97 (1963): doctrine authorizes unconstitutional acted unwisely discarded. returned original proposition substitute beliefs bodies elected laws." Similarly held: treat deal human eye merchandising methods obtaining customers." 490, 466, 573. addresses valid apparently discounts feels embody "highly approach." 770. concludes opened, keep offering." concedes legislatures induce final footnote tosses bone traditionalists suggesting automatically applicable sole limitation proscription pharmacists' lawyers' doctors' kind. distinguish public's title searches examinations standardized fees charged. apparent regulatable opticians Williamson, 64 existing industrial allowing comments disputes "it outcome." 762. cited proposition, (1969), falls short supporting statement. union, 'threat reprisal promise benefit.' guarded language scarcely ringing endorsement second-class today hard publicize law, nor deceptive, Legislature. Courts Appeals National hesitated set aside representation elections undoubtedly implicitly coercive. instance, Realist, 328 840 1964), election employer, nonthreatening manner, raised specter plant closings unionism. Oak Mfg. 141 N.L.R.B. 1323, 1328-1330 "categorically" "cannot obtain wage increase you," seniority "assure" union's program worse" system. Freeman 148 577 (1964), letters urged unionization cease buying company's delays higher prices. invalidating election. Presumably holdings re-evaluation light toward expanded decision. 67 undoubted difficulties draw bright hand "protected other, face hide labels. unfortunately substituted wavering exist "truthful" "false misleading" difficulty wavers, Procrustean account congeries could, consistently properly insists lays consistent "primarily democracy." understood political, social, issues, shampoo. arguable country regard shampoo just local, state, national office, bring shampoos strictly commentaries commentary draw, commercialism strip 686 (1964). spectrum anreject dedicated champion Black protections apply 'merchant' door 'selling pots.' 650, 936, 1233, 1252 (1951) (dissenting). "our" hypothetical presumably energetically truthfully. Quite run representative local newspaper: 70 "Pain getting down? Insist your prescribe Demerol. You aspirin, get lot relief." "Can't shake flu? Get Tetracycline doctor today." "Don't spend sleepless night. Ask Seconal delay." 73 Unless show untruthful efforts put widest possible circulation. allowance considered while care treatment, attending promoted hair creams, deodorants, toothpaste. real create encouraging, sanctioning, illicit individuals prescribed, generating them, dealt opinion. advertised, television during family viewing time. Nothing acquisitive instincts inhabit business greater lesser gives persons everything generate demand commodities generated. 74 Congress sharply sufficiently demonstrably harmful warrant outright sale. Current liquor cigarettes prominent category, longer prohibited. presents fairly typical balancing welfare determinations embodied enactment. Communications Assn. Douds, 339 382, 399, 674, 684, 925, 944 (1950): 76 "(L)egitimate attempts public, remote effects noxious ideologies, excesses direct, conduct, bad interfere manifestations, restrain rights." Here seem me marginal best. desire. affected lawsuit. On ill, imaginary, seems extremely strong. mandates "open policy" Clause 811, 2227, 605-606 Schneider 308 160, 146, 155, 164 (1939). Section full: "Any shall (1) crime grave turpitude, fraud certificate registration; (2) broadcasts radio, distributes uses tendency deceive defraud welfare; (3) amount, price, containing narcotics prescription." parties, also, profession." Stipulation Facts P 11. 8, PP 6-16, 10-12. Exception "legally qualified" practitioners medicine, dentistry, osteopathy, chiropody, veterinary medicine. 54-524.53. 15. 18, 13. Theretofore administrative outstanding. 1967 advised General's office unauthorized. year. 821, 823 3, 9. organizations Citizens Consumer AFL-CIO. Each membership (approximately 150,000 69,000, respectively) users Association Retired Persons Teachers Association, claiming "depend well-being," Brief filed Amici curiae 22(b) (c), 14. phenomenon widely varying scope. conducted survey showed differentials city 1200% amounts drug. undertaken Consumers Union ranged 79¢ $7.45, $1.25 $11.50. 22(d) (e), 1974 participated D.C., pharmacy-to-pharmacy variances identical 245%. Curiae 10. prevalence discrepancies "throughout States" documented recent report. Staff Report Federal Trade Commission, Prescription Disclosures 119 impose 34. rest grounds. provisions Constitution. Accord: Terry California Pharmacy, (N.D.Cal.1975), docketed, 75-336. Contra: Urowsky Regents, N.Y.2d 364, 379 N.Y.S.2d 815, 342 N.E.2d 583 Supermarkets Corp. Sills, N.J.Super. 225 728 (1966). Note: An End Sight Chrestensen? De Paul L.Rev. 1258 Comment, Brooklyn 617 (1971); Wash. 299 (1967). raised. refused consider presented courts, notice here. 432 12, 1764-1765, 990. 387 2559-2560, 678 oral argument Tr. Oral Arg. "In absence 54-524.35(3), regarding drugs." 26, dissent contends disseminate, objecting way, prior above, situations received "would available," Post, 782; emphasis placed need, assertedly, advantage digging themselves. aware abridged listeners message asking independent listener communicated. Certainly, gone abroad thereafter disseminated organized lecture tour foreign Marxist same. addressees inmate visited recipients' disseminated, distinguishes stronger weaker 820 6, 2231-32, 610-611, citing Douglas' (concurring opinion), ruling "was casual, offhand. survived reflection"; similar four Justices Lehman Shaker Heights, 298, 2714, 2723, 770, 784 separate dissents 393, 398, 401, 2562, 2565, 2566-2567, 681, 685-686. comment, certiorari disputants, restrictions. 581, retaliation actions "without complex advert field circumstances character enjoys needs citation, figures illustrative. estimated, 1973 per capita expenditures age $97.27 $103.17, respectively, twice $41.18 $45.14 groups. Cooper Piro, Age Differences Care Spending, Fiscal Year 1973, Social Security Bull., 5, Mueller Gibson, Health 1974, figures, rate illness 1971, 16.9% Americans unable carry major chronic condition, figure ages 2.9%. Statistical Policy Division, Office Management Budget, Indicators 36. eloquently diminished capacity aged comparison desirable. Diminished over; averages half 176. "significant elderly medicine." 27, leading exponent A. Meiklejohn, Free Its Relation Self-Government emphasized role guaranteeing democratic self-government. 269-270, 720-721, 700-701 therein. Pharmaceuticals insignificant illustration. 1970 estimated $9.14 billion. 17, 12. sundries $9.695 billion, increasing $700 million Worthington, Expenditures 1929-1974, task predicting production consumption hazardous speculative recently undertaken, staff Commission report, outlaw savings magnitude, amounting millions year." Report, 181. advanced brief testimony summary judgment, occasion see, (1971), overconsumption prudently omitted. By definition, physician's prescription. assume, does, overprescribe, ignore requirement. Monitoring, pursued, fully effective. complicated mobility patient; patronizing pharmacist; prescriber; over-the-counter foods drinks. 30-47, 16-19. Neither Code Ethics Pharmaceutical maintain records. 42, 18. promulgated 43, Descriptions expertise, consumer, alleged jeopardization forth length summaries witnesses objections substance contest. 4, 27-48, 52-53; Appellants 4-5, n.2. held undifferentiable forms. commonsense varieties. conclusion valueless, complete legitimate unimpaired. easily verifiable disseminator than, let say, news reporting commentary, ordinarily else. durable kinds. Sine qua non profits, likelihood chilled forgone Attributes these, objectivity hardiness tolerate fear silencing 175 form, additional warnings, disclaimers, deceptive. Miami Herald Publishing Tornillo, 241, 2831, 730 Banzhaf 132 U.S.App.D.C. 14, 1082 (1968), denied Tobacco Institute, 396 842, 50, (1969). (1924) designs inapplicable restraints. 403 713, 2140, 822 Donaldson Read Magazine, 178, 189-191, 591, 597-598, 628, 640-642 (1948); Standard Education 302 112, 82 (1937); Drew FTC, 235 735, 739-740 (C.A.2 1956), 352 969, 360, (1957). stress professions, distinctions, historical functional, factors. Physicians products; render Services infinite nature, consequent enhanced possibility confusion undertake soundness sweeping repeatedly questioned. 819-821, 2231-2232, 610-612; 314-315, 2722-2723, 783-784 (Brennan, dissenting); 684 2566, 685-686 (Stewart, Police Dept. Mosley, 92, 95, 2286, 2289-2290, 212, 216. Hudgens NLRB, 507, 520, 1029, 1036-1037, 196, 207; 442 2272-73, 130-31; Pell Procunier, 417 817, 828, 2800, 2807, 504-505; 115, 2302-2303, 231-232. organizer misrepresentations appeals racial prejudice unfair invalidation certification Sewell 66; Gypsum 130 901; Gummed Products 112 1092. clearly violate guarantees applied candidates office. Vanasco Schwartz, 401 (E.D.N.Y.) (three-judge court), summarily Schwartz Postel, 423 1041, 763, 630. Other designed antiseptic conditions campaigning 24-hour preceding election, intolerable arena. Peerless Plywood 107 427, Mills 384 214, 1434, 484. area, employers associational dependence employers. 194-42, 580-581; 354. NLRB's determining coerce employees. armamentarium responding tactics issuance cease-and-desist orders securing restraining orders. U.S.C. §§ 160(c), (j). 310, 906, 1221: "To persuade pleader, know, times, resorts exaggeration, vilification men been, are, church nation ordained history, spite probability abuses, liberties enlightened Developments Law Deceptive Harv.L.Rev. 1005, 1030-1031 conveyed may, stimulate debate questions. impact, person's subsidy proposals, care, tax legislation. contends, 757-758, 15, indistinguishable Kleindienst, Lamont, own. entailed traveling prison; Obviously measures limit phone trip corner drug-store

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