Document: 492 U.S. 573 109 S.Ct. 3086 106 L.Ed.2d 472 COUNTY OF ALLEGHENY, et al., Petitionersv.AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION GREATER PITTSBURGH CHAPTER al. CHABAD, Petitioner, v. AMERICAN CITY PITTSBURGH, Nos. 87-2050, 88-90 and 88-96. Argued Feb. 22, 1989. Decided July 3, Syllabus This litigation concerns the constitutionality of two recurring holiday displays located on public property in downtown Pittsburgh. The first, a creche depicting Christian Nativity scene, was placed Grand Staircase Allegheny County Courthouse, which is "main," "most beautiful," public" part courthouse. donated by Holy Name Society, Roman Catholic group, bore sign to that effect. Its manger had at its crest an angel bearing banner proclaiming "Gloria Excelsis Deo," meaning "Glory God Highest." second question 18-foot Chanukah menorah or candelabrum, just outside City-County Building next city's 45-foot decorated Christmas tree. At foot tree mayor's name containing text declaring "salute liberty." owned Chabad, Jewish but stored, erected, removed each year city. Respondents, Greater Pittsburgh Chapter American Civil Liberties Union seven local residents, filed suit seeking permanently enjoin county from displaying city ground violated Establishment Clause First Amendment, made applicable state governments Fourteenth Amendment. District Court denied relief, relying Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 104 1355, 79 604, held inclusion annual display private park did not violate Clause. Appeals reversed, distinguishing holding present case must be understood as impermissible governmental endorsement Christianity Judaism under Lemon Kurtzman, 403 602, 91 2105, 29 745. Held: judgment affirmed reversed part, cases are remanded. 842 F.2d 655 (CA 3 1988), Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion with respect Parts III-A, IV, V, concluding that: 1. Under U.S., 612, S.Ct., 2111, "practice touches upon religion, if it permissible Clause," not, inter alia, "advance [or] inhibit religion principal primary effect." Although, refining definition action unconstitutionally "advances" Court's subsequent decisions have variously spoken terms "endorsement," "favoritism," "preference," "promotion," essential principle remains same: Clause, very least, prohibits government appearing take position questions rel gious belief "making adherence relevant any way person's standing political community." 687, 1367 (O'CONNOR, J., concurring). Pp. 589-594. 2. When viewed overall context, violates angel's words endorse patently message: Glory for birth Jesus Christ. Moreover, contrast Lynch, nothing creche's setting detracts message. Although may acknowledge cultural phenomenon, observe holy day suggesting people praise Jesus. 598-602. 3. KENNEDY's reasons permitting his condemnation deciding otherwise unpersuasive. 602-613. (a) History cannot legitimate practices like demonstrate government's allegiance particular sect creed. 602-605. (b) whether practice would constitute proselytization much same inquiry, except extent test requires "obvious" between favored sect. decisions, however, impose no such burden demonstrating has creed, but, contrary, required strict scrutiny denominational preference. E.g., Larson Valente, 456 228, 246, 102 1673, 1684, 72 33. 605-609. (c) Constitution mandates remain secular, rather than affiliating itself religious beliefs institutions, precisely order avoid discriminating against citizens basis their faiths. Thus, claim prohibiting celebrating discriminates Christians favor nonadherents fail, since contradicts fundamental premise itself. In contrast, confining own celebration holiday's secular aspects does non-Christians over those Christians, simply permits without expressing beliefs. 610-613. BLACKMUN, joined STEVENS, concluded Part III-B concurring dissenting opinions Donnelly set forth proper analytical framework determining objects having significance improperly advances religion. 687-694, 1366-1370 concurring); id., 694-726, 1370-1387 (BRENNAN, dissenting). 594-597. VI prohibited effect endorsing given "particular physical setting." combined saluting liberty impermissibly both faiths, recognizes winter-holiday season, attained status our society. widely accepted view preeminent symbol season emphasizes this point. tree, moreover, virtue size central display, clearly predominant element, placement beside readily recognition only traditional season. absence more alternative negates inference endorsement. Similarly, presence confirms context asso iation represent sponsorship diversity. Given all these considerations, sufficiently likely reasonable observer disapproval individual choices. 613-621. O'CONNOR also menorah, together liberty, whatever origins, today holiday. there certain Chanukah, primarily ritual object. By including conveyed message pluralism freedom during which, setting, could interpreted 632-637. KENNEDY, Chief Justice, WHITE, SCALIA, 655-667. 745- "principal effect" challenged either advancing inhibiting religion—when applied sensitivity traditions law, supports conclusion requirement neutrality inherent formulation require relentless extirpation contact Government policies accommodation, acknowledgment, support heritage, some latitude recognizing role Any approach less sensitive heritage border latent hostility multifaceted roles exclusion so detriment religious. disclose principles limiting ability recognize accommodate religion: It coerce anyone participate exercise; guise avoiding callous indifference, give direct benefits degree fact establishes tends do so. other words, place weight behind obvious effort proselytize behalf On hand, where act accommodation passive symbolic, intangible benefit unlikely realistic risk establishment. To determine exists establishment, tendency toward one, reference types church-state contacts existed unchallenged throughout history been found law. For example, upheld creche, Marsh Chambers, 463 783, 103 3330, 77 1019, State's employing legislative chaplain permissible. 655-663. sought merely "celebrate season," historical background well nature holidays. interest falls within tradition acknowledgment marked beginning. If citizens' contains component, enforced aspect signify indifference faith require; commemorating celebrated nonadherents, refusing plain fact, reality, many celebrate well. There suggestion here power used further contributed money one intended use proselytize. purely symbols holidays supra. Marsh, supra, allows Congress legislatures begin state-sponsored prayer offered government-employed chaplain, displayed limited invalid. facts that, unlike issue were surrounded paraphernalia irrelevant, danger moving down forbidden road establishment 663-667. announced BRENNAN, MARSHALL, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined, I II, STEVENS III-B, VII, VI. judgment, II BRENNAN post, p. 623. MARSHALL 637. 646. REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE 655. Peter Buscemi, Washington, D.C., petitioners No. 87-2050 88-96; George R. Specter, D.R. Pellegrini, M. Janocsko, Robert L. McTiernan, Pittsburgh, Pa., brief. Nathan Lewin petitioner 88-90. Roslyn Litman, respondents. join, joins, 1 first Courthouse. Building, liberty. Third Circuit ruled Amendment because ( 988). We agree unconstitutional reverse Appeals' regarding display. 2 * A. courthouse seat government. houses offices commissioners, controller, treasurer, sheriff, clerk court. criminal trials there. App. 69. Staircase, into arch others, arched windows serving backdrop. Id., 157-158; see Joint Exhibit Volume (JEV) 31. 4 Since 1981, permitted 164. Christmas, we note perhaps needlessly, when Nazareth, whom they believe Messiah.1 Western churches Day December 25 fourth century.2 As observed Nation, religious, dimension.3 5 courthouse, creches, visual representation scene Bethlehem shortly after Jesus, described Gospels Luke Matthew.4 includes figures infant Mary, Joseph, farm animals, shepherds, wise men, before wooden manger, proclaims Deo!"5 6 During 1986-1987 November 26 January 9. 15, 59. fence three sides plaque stating: "This Display Donated Society." Sometime week 2, red white poinsettia plants around fence. 96. small evergreen bow, endposts 204; JEV 7.6 These trees stood alongside backdrop slightly shorter was. thus apex Altogether, fence, poinsettias, occupied substantial amount space Staircase. No Santa Claus decorations appeared 188.7 Cf. 671, 1358, 604 (1984). Appendix A end photograph 7 uses Christmas-carole program. See 36. 1986 invited high school choirs musical groups perform weekday lunch hours through 23. dedicated program world peace families prisoners-of-war persons missing Southeast Asia. 160; 30. 8 Near area known "gallery forum" art exhibits. 163. fence-and-floral frame, distinct connected exhibit gallery forum. Tr. Oral Arg. (the forum "not kind integral display"); 32-34. addition, various departments decorations, visible 167. B 9 separate block and, implies, jointly County. portion building offices, mayor's. 17. responsible building's Grant Street entrance rounded arches supported columns. 194, 207. 10 number years, large middle entrance. Following practice, employees 17, 1986, erected lights ornaments. 218-219. few days later, entitled "Salute Liberty." Beneath title, stated: 11 "During salutes Let festive remind us keepers flame legacy freedom." 41. 12 least 1982, expanded include symbolic 8-day begins 25th lunar month Kislev. 138.8 Kislev usually occurs December,9 closest year. began sundown 26. 138-139. 13 According tradition, 164 B.C.E. (before common era (165 B.C.)), Maccabees rededicated Temple Jerusalem recapturing Greeks, or, accurately, Greek-influenced Seleucid Empire, course rebellion. 138.10 celebrates event.11 early unclear; appears ritual—the lighting lamps established long single explanation took hold.12 14 Talmud13 explains lamplighting commemoration event occurred rededication Temple. housed seven-branch menorah,14 kept burning continuously. 139, 144. Temple, enough oil last day. But, according Talmud, miraculously lasted eight length time obtain additional oil). 139.15 publicly proclaim miracle, Talmud prescribes mitzvah (i.e., deed commandment), 140,16 Jews lamp homes front window Chanukah. 147.17 Where practicality safety persecution requires, inside home.18 ordains blessings recited night lamp.19 One benediction translated English "We blessing who sanctified commanded mitzvot told light candles Hanukkah." 306.20 15 law contain rule shape substance (or "hanukkiyyah"), 146, 238,21 became customary evoke memory menorah. tree-and-branch design; candlestick six branches. 259.22 tree-an -branch design branches—one holiday—plus ninth hold shamash (an extra candle eight). 144.23 Also object; need treated special care.24 16 Lighting associated custom among children gelt, money.25 Another gamble gelt using dreidel, top four sides. Each Hebrew letter; letters abbreviate phrase refers miracle. 241-242.26 17 143. Indeed, story always national, dimension: tells national heroism addition divine intervention.27 Also, winter holiday; historians, ancient times solstice.28 Just Americans regard significance, nonreligious expression ethnic identity, "as event, specifically event." Ibid.29 18 varies celebrated. contemporary Israel, nationalist military receive emphasis.30 country, giving taken greater importance temporal proximity Christmas.31 suggested accounts social prominence country.32 Whatever reason, re igious indicate: hierarchy holidays, ranks fairly low significance.33 socially heightened reflects dimension.34 19 22 abstract design. columns set. group,35 290; Brief Petitioner 88-96, 4. sign, 13. 58, 220-221. B, 3116, 212; 40. 20 10, respondents, city, CityCounty Building.36 Respondents Wallace Jaffree, 38, 48-55, 105 2479, 2485-2489, 86 (1985).37 Chabad intervene defend menorah.38 21 May 8, 1987, respondents' request permanent injunction. Relying (1984), court stated "the decoration stairwell foreground highschool entertained noon." Pet. Cert. 4a. Regarding "it insignificant another display." Ibid. purpose" "did create excessive entanglement religion." 5a. appealed, divided panel reversed. (CA3 1988). Distinguishing majority determined Judaism. observed: "Each devoted core functions government." F.2d, 662. "Further, while near neither nor can reasonably deemed subsumed larger non-religious items." Because sufficient violation 745 (1971), consider purpose resulted 23 judge "accompanied evergreens, plastic Clauses reindeer absent." 670. he asserted: "Including broaden stress notion sharing joy." 670-671. 24 Rehearing en banc 6-to-5 vote. 45a. county, petition certiorari. granted petitions. 488 816, 53, 54, 32 (1988). III Nation heir diversity dates settlement North Continent. Sectarian differences denominations origins Republic. then, adherents religions too numerous United States home, whose expressly exclude Precisely Founders added Bill Rights, declare: "Congress shall make respecting free exercise thereof y(4)27" Perhaps Republic protect Christianity, recognized guaranteeing equality infidel, atheist, adherent non-Christian Islam Judaism." 52, 2487.39 settled official constitutional rights matters conscience. 49, 2485. 27 adjudicating specific cases, come understand mean promote affiliate doctrine organization,40 discriminate practices,41 delegate institution,42 involve deeply institution's affairs.43 myriad, subtle ways values eroded," 694, 1370 concurring), susceptible verbal formulation, attempted encapsulate precepts Everson Board Education Ewing, 330 1, 67 504, L.Ed. 711 (1947), gave often-repeated summary: 28 "The 'establishment religion' clause means this: Neither Federal up church. pass laws aid religions, prefer another. force influence person go away church will him profess disbelief punished entertaining professing disbeliefs, attendance non-attendance. tax amount, small, levied activities called, form adopt teach can, openly secretly, affairs organizations vice versa." 15-16, 511-512. refine focusing "tests" analysis, statute purpose; advance effect; foster 612-613, 2111. trilogy tests regularly later cases.44 30 Our refined recent paid particularly close attention "endorsing" concern jurisprudence. Engel Vitale, 370 421, 436, 82 1261, 1270, 601 (1962). 60, 2491, Alabama's moment-of-silence "enacted . ole activities." similarly invalidated Louisiana's "Creationism Act" "endorses religion" purpose. Edwards Aguillard, 482 578, 593, 107 2573, 2582, 96 510 (1987). And educational School Dist. Rapids Ball, 473 373, 389-392, 3216, 3225-3227, 87 267 (1985), "endorsement" Texas Monthly, Inc. Bullock, 489 890, 901, (1989) (plurality opinion) (tax exemption periodicals "effectively endorses belief"). 31 Of course, word self-defining. Rather, derives useful years interpreting noted prohibition "preclude[s] conveying attempting convey preferred." 70, 2497 judgment) (emphasis added). Accord, 27, 28, 906, 907 (separate (reaffirming "government disbelief" "preference dissemination ideas"); 2582 ("preference" constitutes religion); Abington Schempp, 374 203, 305, 83 1560, 1615, 844 (1963) (Goldberg, concurring) ("The fullest realization true favoritism sects nonreligion"). term closely linked 691, 1368 "may theory even militant opposite," Epperson Arkansas, 393 97, 104, 89 266, 270, 228 (1968). 59-60, 2491 (using concepts endorsement, promotion, interchangeably). Whether key same. 1366 33 occasion past apply significance. Stone Graham, 449 39, 101 192, 66 199 (1980), copy Ten Commandments walls classrooms Closer considered Pawtucket, R.I., shopping district. 5-to-4 decision difficult case, Pawtucket holding, promoting religion.45 34 rationale none clear: strands, provides guidance cases. First, states "no advancement "endorsements" approved past, 683, 1364—but offers discernible measure endorsements. Second, observes "indirect, remote, incidental," ibid.—without saying how why. 35 she wrote concurrence differs significant respects opinion. main difference sound evaluating symbols. 36 foremost, squarely rejects tolerate "invalid," 690, 1368, "sends outsiders, full members community, accompanying insiders, community," 688, 1367. 37 articulates method object depends communicates: "what viewers 692, 1369. That necessity, turns contested appears: "[A] typical museum though neutralizing content painting, content." depended setting," ibid., observes: "Every judged unique circumstances [endorses] religion," 1370.46 38 mode analysis seen whole. contained: house live distributing candy; pulling Santa's sleigh; 40-foot strung lights; statues carolers old-fashioned dress; candy-striped poles; "talking" wishing well; "SEASONS GREETINGS"; miniature "village" several church; "cut-out" figures, clown, dancing elephant, robot, teddy bear. 525 F.Supp. 1150, 1155 (RI 1981). "a symbol" strong elements, "displayed along symbols," "changes what display" "negates endorsement" represented creche." 39 dissenters agreed controlling "whether ha[d] run afoul 698, n. 1372, general proposition answer question. 705-706, 1376-1377. They reached different answer: elements negate caused creche. placing imprimatur approval exemplified 701, 1374. minority groups, reject views worthy support." 40 despite divergence bottom line, five Justices dissent principles: symbolism beliefs, context. sound, adopted clear conduct ascertain perceived disapproval, choices." Rapids, 390, 3226. Accordingly, task respective settings," disapproving beliefs.47 IV 41 turn county's doubt, capable communicating 685, 1365 (majority opinion); 1369 1374 dissenting); 727 (BLACKMUN, lawsuit picture unmistakably clear. Highest!" says creche—Glory indisputably religious—indeed sectarian—just said Gospel service. 42 setting. Here, composed series objects, group focal tell. be, obviously center stands alone: element Staircase.48 43 floral surrounding somehow equivalent good frames, serves draw one's frame. contributes to, from, allowed Society cross Easter, Easter lilies. say flowers contention greens fares better. 44 Nor Christmas-carol diminish meaning. carol most hour 28. singing—the vast time—cannot negated choir carols performed site nature,49 augment quality secularize it. 45 Furthermore, sits "main" beautiful part" 157. viewer think occupies location government.50 "display sends unmistakable promotes 46 bears disclosing ownership organization alter conclusion. demonstrates organization, own. But limit communications. promotion communications organizations. See, e.g., (government distribution messages Clause). concept conveys sense someone else's here: lending communication organization's 47 Finally, argues validate argument proves much. allow Eucharist Eve. While doubts about auspices, 8-9, not. obs rve Jesus.51 48 sum, teaches manner form, doctrine. transgressed line. chosen rest therefore, enjoined. V 49 KENNEDY join find consistent He necessarily follows 1019 (1983), sustained prayer. Post, 665. asserts poses risk" "represent[ing] proselytize," repudiated inquiry "proselytization" approach. contends, "reflects unjustified 50 KENNEDY'S far reaching implications response depth. 51 relied authorized produced Rights. 46, legitimates "practices potential "accepted dating back Founding." 670, 669. Otherwise, asserts, motto ("In Trust") Pledge Allegiance (with "under God," 1954, Pub.L. 396, 68 Stat. 249) invalidity. 52 previous dicta pledge, characterizing them communicate belief. 693, 716-717, 1382 return subject "ceremonial deism," distinction references pledge. However affect nonsectarian government,52 53 itself, "unique history" prayer, 791, 3336, justify prayers 794-795, 3337-3338. involved "removed Christ." 793, 14, 3337, 14. plainly stand sweeping apparently ascribe it, namely, 200 old equivalents today. reasoning, compel constitutional. "cannot comprehend" invalid 665, surely able distinguish symbol, references, Marsh. reading gut understands sad say, examples acts endorsed specifically. Borden, Jews, Turks, Infidels (1984).53 Some date Founding Republic,54 discrimination jurisprudence else (and preference nonreligion, see, (1989)), certainly creed (including religions). clearest command denomination officially preferred another." 244, 1683, (1982). breaches Nation's history, command. Laycock, 923.55 54 misreading predicated failure bedrock regardless faith, forced instances constitutionally intolerable. 664-665, concedes defining "preference" sect, 668-669, repudiate "jurisprudence minutiae," 674, examines contexts employs 55 label, tagged areas adjudication. Fourth warrant probable cause search seizure, "we hesitated balance privacy interests assess requirements context," Skinner Railway Labor Executives' Assn., 619, 1402, 1414, 639 added), " 'depends seizure itself,' quoting Montoya de Hernandez, 531, 537, 3304, 3308, 381 (1985); Treasury Employees Von Raab, 656, 666, 1384, 1390, L.Ed.2 685 (repeating applicability context" issue). unfortunate, nonetheless inevitable, broad language clauses Rights adjudicatory realize application concrete 56 transformed exception rule. substitute 659-660, 661, 664, suffers "defect," call requiring factual analysis. "for [Establishment] forbids permit erection Latin roof hall obtrusive year-round 661. suggests every major faiths Lent never religions)? so, then 40-day contained exhorting "to offer devotions Creator, Son Christ, Redeemer world"? 57 point rhetorical obvious. define test, decide patterns fall spectrum (from atop passing Providence address). wished "uncharitable" 675, methodology counting subtracting displayed, displays, factoring equation display's possesses inherently proselytizing quality. pointing inevitably fact-specific signals faith. intensive Court, should wary accusing "using little intuition tape measure," lest convicted identical charge. 58 real "unmistakable" clarity "would support, sect—except sect.56 59 "strict scrutiny" preference," keeping 'the unwavering vigilance requires' Bowen Kendrick, 487 589, 623, 108 2562, 2566, 520 (1988) 648, 2594 (dissenting ("[T]he eroded" necessitates "careful judicial "[g]overnment purport events significance"). done, abandon seems attempt lower considerably level choose, adhere managed maintain far, vigilance.57 C 60 repeatedly accuses harboring "latent hostility" "callous indifference" 657, truth, accusations offensive absurd. misperceived pluralism, Constitution, misperception antithetical embodied 61 shot weapon triggered following proposition: because, otherwise, 663-664. proposition, flawed foundation. citizen citizen's operations. 62 state, remembered, atheistic antireligious state. atheism exactly backwards enforcing Constitution's prescription orthodoxy. 678. directly proscription affiliation institutions orthodoxy "an Orwellian rewriting history," himself slipped newspeak equates prescribed 63 sure, pluralistic society would-be theocrats, wish audacious lack preferences. gets antidiscrimination discriminators prevail. 64 fail. Celebrating opposed holiday, entails professing, proclaiming, believing born Bethlehem, Messiah. (for issuing proclamation saying: rejoice glory Christ's birth!"), really Messiah, Chri tian Christians. truly non-Christians. gratification desire, contradict 'logic liberty' protect. B. Bailyn, Ideological Origins Revolution 265 (1967). 65 celebrations unconstitutional, parishioners caroling Sunday Advent club university sing meeting. Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 269, 70 440 (1981).58 reason of, Equally obvious, proclamations occur example Mass illustrates. once belief, disseminated property, enjoined follow Christianity. incontrovertible today, premised determination instead, requires.59 closer recognize, symbol: commemorate miracle Talmud. menorah's exclusively dimensions.60 challenge necessary result "overall setting" represents Chanukah—two one. 69 mere inquiry. simultaneous infirm alone.61 Conversely, beyond reach holiday,62 Simply put, simultaneously disallowing contemporaneous tradition.63 71 purposes interpretations latter plausible line Lynch.64 symbol. carried connotations, typify Christmas. Illinois St. Charles, 794 265, 271 (CA7), cert. denied, 479 961, 458, 93 (1986); Tribe, Constitutional Law 1295 (2d ed. 1988) (Tribe).65 Numerous subscribing alone validated Lynch. emphasize component communicated menorah.66 73 beneath archway Building; positioned side. configuration, sensible interpret versa. shadow observing circumstances, combination communicates, coupled tradition. 74 alternatives nature. imagine predominantly An dreidel look out might mocking actions symbols, carries meaning, infer chos n 295, 1610 (Establishment serve ends suffice); Tribe 1285.67 where, here, choice made, present.68 75 diminishes possibility dual draws theme light, festivals, links freedom, wishes, religiously otherwise. disclaim overwhelming 41, 193, "explanatory plaque" confirm association 707, 1377 already reveals: 76 "sufficiently likely" residents perceive "disapproval Whil adjudication account perspective Jewish, standard "reasonable observer," Witters Washington Dept. Services Blind, 474 481, 493, 748, 754, 88 846 (1986) judgment); 1296 (challenged "from 'reasonable non-adherent' "). measured standard, excluded belief; us, to" season.69 foreclose "purpose" "entanglement" prong issues addressed remand.70 VII 78 confirms, repudiates, longstanding engage effect, remanded proceedings. 80 ordered. judgment. 81 Judicial review delicate task. avoided drawing lines entirely sweep lives Instead courts case-specific examinations standards III-A Ante, 590-594. Unfortunately, development articulable guidelines agreement Members results again rejected Pawtucket's seasonal reviewed privately heart 1358. included house, sleigh, poles, carolers, cut-out representing characters bear, hundreds colored lights, [and] rea[d] 'SEASONS GREETINGS.' components Setting dismantling cost $20 year, nominal expenses incurred stating careful line-drawing: "[N]o fixed, per se framed." 678, 1361. willing confined essentially asking purpose, creates 679, 1362 (citing (1971)). reversing court's decision, stressed erred "focusing almost 680, 1362. "In doing, sponsoring whole." "context Holiday reasoned, insufficient evidence suggest advocate depict Holiday." 681, 1363. 84 "[D]isplay Congressional Executive 'Christ's Mass,' exhibition literally paintings governmentally museums." 1364. authorities concerning prior P wtucket's purchase 684, 85 read opinion, my concurrence, "[e]very referring "inclusion creche" 680-682, 686, 1362-1363, 1366, total part. discussion acknowledgments life view, printing Trust" coins "solemnizing occasions, confidence future encouraging appreciation society." (concurring opinion). "history ubiquity," time, subjected scrutiny." 1370. clarification reinforce "prohibits making 1366. disapproves "Endorsement Disapproval opposite commercial district religions. 1368. Nor, objectively government, corresponding community. broader o buildings runs "mak[ing] relevant, reality perception, Chicago, 827 120, 128 (CA7 1987) ("Because City Hall control, activity implicitly stamp approval. nativity lobby, impression tacitly Christianity"). correctly concludes Courthouse "is fundamentals unworkable practice." 669 (opinion part). criticism persuasive. theoretical matter, captures her community "that 2497, (1985) 389, 3225, (1985). Beschle, Conservative Liberal: Religion Clauses, Liberal Neutrality, Approach O'Connor, Notre Dame L.Rev. 151 (1987); Note, Developments State, 100 Harv.L.Rev. 1606, 1647 (1987) (Developments Law). diverse all. neutral showing towards based personal choices, sending outsiders 90 "coercive" overt efforts proselytization, 659-662, fails show adequately coercion touchstone Committee Public & Religious Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 786, 2955, 2972, 948 (1973) ("[W]hile proof provide Free Exercise [is] Clause"); 430, 1266, coercion, indirect redundancy. 223, 1572, apparent—a lause attended"). "Nonpreferential" Aid Religion: False Claim About Original Intent, Wm. Mary 875, 922 ("If clause, adds exercise"). recognizes, "direct coercion" fail forms "[s]ymbolic faith" continue asks right grounds, involving commentators scholarly literature merit 174; Comment, Reconstituted: O'Connor's Proposed Modifications Test Violations, B.Y.U.L.Rev. 465; Marshall, Know It": Supreme Establishment, S.Cal.L.Rev. 495 1647. convinced application. notable Courts challenges concluded, 1988); 127-128 1987); ACLU Birmingham, 791 1561, 1566-1567 (CA6), 939, 371 (1986). Friedman Commissioners Bernalillo County, 781 777, 780-782 (CA10 1985) (en banc) (county seal Spanish "With Conquer," Christianity), 476 1169, 2890, 978 yield unanimous margins. modified involves hard choices margin. admits acknowledging alone. Would months holiday? Christmastime courtroom subpoenaed witnesses opportunity "turn backs" walk away? 664. test? obligation lines, often problem test. 92 submits inconsistent precedents "applied artificial exceptions practice," invalidate shortchanges why endorsemen Practices opening sessions "God save honorable Court" occasions" "expressing future," ceremonial deism survive longevity Historical acceptance protected racial gender immunize Walz Tax Comm'n New York City, 397 1409, 1416, 697 (1970): acquires vested use, span covers entire existence indeed predates it." ubiquity" "artificial exception" evaluates Court," nature, leads me practices, roots, 1652-1654. Thanksgiving now generally patriotic short, sectarian largely lost time. 1294-1296 line-drawing highly specific, mandate does, warrants continued refinement. 94 Contrary assertions, 663, 667-668. Instead, precious country protected, impeded, avoids favoring others. Clearly, lifting government-imposed burdens 83-84, 2503-2504 judgment). underlying assessing 83, 2503. "build[ing] nonestablishment recogniz[ing] accommodations furthering exercise," "provides levelled test." Rostain, Permissible Accommodations Reconsidering Get Statute, Yale L.J. 1147, 1159-1160 "acknowledgment" "accommodation" interchangeably, 662-664, obscures remove creches churches. 601, 51. rather, permit. 95 differ somewhat BLACKMUN's conclude Pittsburgh's ante, 616-617, regarded aspects, depicts dimensions. hall, acknowledges formulates posed "has 616 disregards significantly, correct dimensions, "secular aspects" conclude, do, become holiday" accompanied bunnies egg hunts; nevertheless important people. relegated harbinger 727, 1387 dissenting), devoid qu stion choose 97 "double "[i]t distinctly implausible alone." 616, 64. statement, adhered citizenry. Regardless plausibility putative faith's ever send authorizing been. Judaism, characterize "secular" strain argue dimension, 587, 34, general. 98 lighted 'During freedom.' 582. indicates distinctive freedom. tree—a season—with salute adding roughly general, "Although significance" neutralized opinion), display—as 99 nonreligion. disbelief." 52-54, 2487-2488; acknowledged pub ic alike, would, appreciate tolerance nonbelief citizens. My depend 618, tribute "less religious" 7, 1363, ("Justice objectives achieved [465 U.S.,] 699, 1373. True irrelevant. Clause"). new rule, arises "more alternative" available blunt instrument presented case. contextual creating announcing it: available, four-sided top, "might Chanukah." may, depending implicate excellent focus preferred. County's I, concur previously explained relationship government-sponsored 1370-1387, (1984) "retains [or other] meaning," 708, 1377, incompatible separation demanded Constitution. therefore arts agree, housing office shows both. thought supplied second. highest!," highlight brings 616-617. And, concludes, reveals celebration. 618. Rather "Christmas "cultural diversity." 617, 619. rests premises: symbol; symbolized menorah; condoning associations property. None sound. step explains: menorah." 616-617 (citations footnotes omitted). accepts "whatever [it] dimensions." 633. dismiss "Christmas" unconvincing. controversy, alone, objects. taking symbols." 65. 110 is, indeed, shaky superficial idea, seriously. conceding "menorah send" concludes: "By season." 635. "pluralism" "freedom belief" belief.* symbolize represented; represented, pluralism. stresses tree's possessing 111 asserting surroundings, ignore precept enthusiastically embrace: 597 J.) (relevant 'particular settings,' beliefs") (quoting 3226, (1985)); 624 (" '[E]very ") concurring)); 636 ("Establishment case"); ibid. (emphasizing context"). analyzing character ontextual doing badly astray. 112 Positioned was, bound fore. Situated menorah—which, acknowledges, of" 633 J.)—the dimension overlooked observers Even hardly characterized forthrightly Consider poster featuring star David, statue Buddha, mosque, Krishna. doubt company, unabashedly 113 believes changes alters After abrupt dismissal flora diluted 599, quick secularizing surprising. characteristic, appears, told, taller—21/2 taller, fact—than archways, whereas side [i]n tree." 617. 114 sight eye catching conventionally sized singular predominate lacking homogenized associates expect concededly character, tend dominate shunts footnote 621, lit ceremony complete blessings. comprehend separately festivities precludes considering sent With introduction, 115 presume interpretation "correct" shared visitors Building. know stripped connotations laid bare Both presented, both, think, satisfy BLACKMUN'S "be observer.' 620. shudder observer" shares perspective, spacing, accent expressed exam Art 116 today's partly surprise anomaly societal roots range venture most, all, beginnings enjoy histories studded f gures, events, strictly seem makes meaningful sense. ritually deep That, said. observance 117 outset 613. "by 'context' [menorah] appeared, seeks explain import [menorah]. ." 705, 1376 coequal secularization aided abetted recalls render then: "To suggest, 'traditional' profound insulting insist Christ 'history' unavoidable 'heritage.' 711-712, 1379. rightly observes, "obscures 118 cannot, accept transform emblem innocuous "symbol 614 J.). 119 "diversity," "message beliefs," 634, appear concerned, Whereas problematic showcased problems vaporize soon included. acceptable favored. have, neutrality, 511, (1947); 2487-2488, 120 discern appropriate "pluralism." Liberty" patriotic; undoubtedly attitude Nation. 121 uncritical ignores offend. Many hostile other, refuse ecumenical services designed extol. lump attitudes inc usiveness, offense, benign beneficent pluralism: instead interference precluded 122 works distortion calendar. [may] accoun[t] country." 586. Rosh Hashanah Yom Kippur. create, emphasis relatively minor 620 J.), belief," 635 Christianized version calendar revolves period Year's benefit, second-class manner, once-a-year "liberty" belief." 123 124 Governmental distinguishes reexamine impact novel situation. 125 Relations 1780s fell quite categories. European countries, Church England Great Britain, established. typically revenues, conferring privileges members, sometimes violent nonadherents. although Colonies assessed taxes newly subsidized repealed altogether, others replaced establishments providing nondiscriminatory religion.1 126 James Madison, Representative Virginia, rose floor June 1789, proposed amendments following: 127 civil abridged worship, established, equal conscience pretext, infringed." Annals Cong. 434 (1789) debate reformulations italicized language.2 Member touching 731 amended establishing 766 alteration, passage Ratified 1791, thereof," Const., Amdt. 129 initial draft prevailed England; multiple establishments, States, permitted. churches, widespread opposition divisions caused.3 opposition, drafts broadened scope "any "religion," "[v]irtue, founded reverence God, expectation rewards punishments," secondarily "[a] system others." S. Johnson, Dictionary Language (7th 1785); accord, T. Sheridan, Complete (6th 1796). Frazee Employment Security, 829, 834, 1514, 1518, 914 (construing "religion" "sincerely apart "membership organized denomination"). Plainly, ratified proscribes federal legislation church.4 130 Similarly disallowed. earlier barred "establishing" "touching" final interdicts "respecting partial (1971); 1269, (1962), 2487, "respecting." Like "touching," "respecting" concerning, to. respect—that "reverence," "good will," "regard" to.5 Taking richer banning especially pay homage 131 Treatment 491 397, 2533, 342 (1989). Thus prominent compass supporting church, tithing, 1791. 1411, (1970); "coercion," 660-661 (KENNEDY, part), 625 judgment), cf. Lemon, speech Constitution.6 60-61, 2491-2492; 132 construed presumption property.7 offend nonmembers being advertised advertisement disrespectful. devout reverential settings, home; count nance commercialization birthday. 726-727, dissenting).8 suit, firmly put sponsored Building.9 "[p]assersby disagree them, backs," 664 sincere felt individuals achieve goal. bodies foment disagreement.10 133 Application scarcely "require 657 part),11 prohibit message, evaluated nonsecular.12 carving Moses Commandments, adornment wall, equivocal carvings Confucius Mohammed honor hall." 661 (1980) (per curiam ). Placement Caesar Augustus, William Blackstone, Napoleon Bonaparte, John Marshall leaders, great proselytizers lawgivers. absurd fitting courtroom,13 Italian Renaissance masters museum. 712-713, 717, 1379-1380, Far "border[ing] consideration gives due society.14 134 wholly unpersuasive attempts, 664-667, belittle dissented constitutional, unambiguous exposition sacred promoted substantially discussed BRENNAN's O'CONNOR's 135 Standing headquarters, lighted, greetings tenuously moment. Juxtaposition 616. unquestionably symbol,15 manifests 2491-2492 690-691, concurring)). conceivably 634 617-618 overcome double outlaw. affirm entirety. 136 SCALIA 137 holds (1971). precedents, holding. reasons, point, result, 138 usual fashion applies am framework, advocating, let adopting, guide area. Persuasive emerged. 636-640, 2605-2607, (SCALIA, Aguilar Felton, 402, 426-430, 3232, 3245-3247, 290 108-113, 2516-2519, (REHNQUIST, Roemer Maryland Bd. Works, 426 736, 768-769, 2337, 2355, 179 (1976) (WHITE, utility answers questions, calling 'helpful signpos[t]' 'guidelin[e]' ", assist deliberations comprehensive Mueller Allen, 388, 394, 3062, 3066, 721 (1983) Hunt McNair, 734, 741, 2868, 2873, 923 (1973)); 773, 31, 2965, Tilton Richardson, 672, 677-678, 2091, 2095, 790 (1971)); 1362, ("[W]e emphasized unwillingness criterion area"). Substantial revision order; unnecessary undertake 139 factor implicated directs inquire "one inhibits ulation categorical terms. modern jurisprudence, Black "which 511. "must theory, doctrine, practice" aid, foster, opposite." 103-104, 269-270, 'imprimatur approval' 399, 3069 274, 276, (1981)), "favor[ing] organization," Gillette 401 437, 450, 828, 836, 168 140 statements formalism exist. Taken logical extreme, quoted above heritage. Burger (1970), "[t]he hazards phrases "declined construe literalness undermine ultimate objective illuminated history." 670-671, 1412. 141 aids accommodating plays 1361; 669, 1411. install jealous guardians absolute "wall separation," disapproval. century, administrative expands touch redirects financial programs own, fiction assistance fairness goal neutrality. 142 reflect understanding. Zorach Clauson, 343 306, 954 (1952), City's preferences students option staying leaving attend classes Douglas Court: 143 "When encourages instruction best traditions. accommodates service spiritual needs. groups. preferring believe." 313-314, 683-684. 144 Nothing compelled establish release-time policy Zorach, served education young, accommodation. Likewise, supplying textbooks parochial schools, Central 392 236, 1923, 1060 (1968), grants church-sponsored universities colleges, supra; exempting taxes, Tilton, 2096 (grants "surely aid" institutions), McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 445, 1101, 1115, (1961); ex rel. McCollum 71, Champaign 333 211-212, 461, 465, 649 (1948). Goldberg (1963): 145 "It said, untutored devotion lead invocation partake noninterference noninvolvement commands, brooding pervasive passive, active, Such me, 146 worship legal, derive historically teachings. cognizance 1615 Harlan, 147 sector diligent "establishes [state] so." principles, distinct, unrelated, taxation supply sustain state-established compulsion observance, exhortation religiosity amounts proselytizing. 148 coercive Forbidden involvements compelling coercing participation activity, (1962); 452, 1118 (discussing supra ), oaths benefits, Torcaso v Watkins, 367 488, 1680, 982 (1961), delegating Larkin Grendel's Den, Inc., 459 116, 505, 297 pleases oppression Clauses. Barring attempts goes attainment 441, 1113, 730 (James Congress, 'apprehended [Religion Clauses] enforce legal observation men contrary conscience' "); Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303, 900, 903, 1213 (1940) "forestal[l] worship"). 149 597-598, 47, sole violation. 1266 (dictum) (rejecting, citation authority, violation); 1572; 2972. "coercion" meant classic Framers knew. oath. Symbolic extreme case.1 hall. suspect, Comm'rs 777 (Latin seal); Georgia Rabun Chamber Commerce, 698 1098 (CA11 1983) (cross park); Lowe Eugene, 254 Or. 518, P.2d 360 (1969) (same). Speech ban Walz: 150 deducible Short proscribed room play joints productive benevolent exist interference." evident instance Absent infringement minimal. actually 152 refer advance[d] sense." conferred education, chaplains, "recognition [Christmas] tangible ensconced Nebraska's "legislative presents provision transportation, beneficial higher exemptions organizations." 3335 Noncoercive realm flexible existing unless 153 us. acknowledge, citizens, beginning.2 disputed chooses, joy installing parades, vacations employees. All levels that. "Government recognized—indeed subsidized—holidays significance." 676, 1360. 154 invalidation underpinnings signal intent insulate things component; 314, 684; 1650 155 way. activity. Passersby backs, speech. 156 religion.3 dispositive acquired component. 579, 585, 29. Without ambiguity, instructs [religious symbol] [holiday] Holiday" rise concern. salary expense, invalid.4 157 distinguishable candy canes, reindeer, Burger's purported distinctions. describing facts, mention factors. concentrates subduing dissenters' 'to creche' "equated reindeer." 12, 1365, 12. Crucial number, prominence, type items simple talking wells, same, 158 likewise inconsequential. place, rely park, failed ride fire engine mayor inaugurating turning city-owned 1156 "people mistake Park property," "frivolous" 1176, 35. 159 converts (1981); Fowler Rhode Island, 345 67, 526, 828 (1953); Niemotko 340 268, 325, (1951), required, conducted chamber State Nebraska, authority. 160 government-owned land lawful not.5 anything, resolved action, ought easier sustain. 161 still law—and until was—the below stand. approve reasoning unconstitutional. 162 invalidates disagrees above, chooses discard understanding "suggest[ing] doctrine," precedence entirety Court.6 stare decisis holdings explications governing rules overrule refusal confusing. 163 commit arising decided observer' 'fairly understand' 'sen[d] community,' recent, unwelcome, tangled 595, scattering "imprimatur," genesis Corporation Presiding Bishop Latter-day Saints Amos, 483 327, 346, 2862, 273 Estate Thornton Caldor, 703, 711, 2914, 2918, 557 Wal- lace 2495 criticized scholars field, Smith, Symbols, Perceptions, Doctrinal Illusions: Neutrality "No Endorsem nt" Test, Mich.L.Rev. 266 Tushnet, Religion, Conn.Law Rev. 711-712 Only full, majority's fast becoming accretion 895-896, below, submit practice. adoption bit troubling bizarre produces claims, informed 655-663; 673-674, 1359; 790-791, 3335; unrelated commonplace J. Barnett, Christmas: Study National Culture 2-11 (1954). relevance Founding. 165 Chambers illustrates proposition. "carving reshaping prayer," 796, 3338 "historical ca[n] violations guarantees," 790, 3335. 1791 understandings.7 centuries 808, 2979 digest compendium. implementing protections consistency, 166 objections force. feel "outsiders" Few withstand faithful formula. 167 suffice concerns. Republic, Presidents issued Proclamations President "recommend[ed] assign[ed]" glorious Being beneficient author be," unite humbly offering supplications Lord Ruler Nations, beseech Him knowledge virtue. Compilation Messages Papers Presidents, 1789-1897, (1899). Most Washington's successors followed suit,8 waned years. Franklin D. Roosevelt went "suggest nationwide Scriptures Christmas" bear earnest witness gratitude Almighty God." Presidential Proclamation 2629, 1160. imagination excluded, yet beginning.9 Branch opens elsewhere. 677, Legislature gone further, U.S.C. § 61d, aside Capitol House Senate. stained glass kneeling prayer; etched verse 16th Psalm: "Preserve O Thee trust." rostrum Bible placed; Flag. Aikman, People: Story (1978). accommodations, forbid them. 169 Code suspect directed "set suitable Prayer, meditation individuals." 169h. pray, straightforward "turn[ing] prayer." statute, Flag describes 172. obligated recite phrase, West Virginia Barnette, 319 624, 1178, 1628 (1943), borders sophistry 'reasonable' atheist 'full membe[r] community' fellow recited, patriotism love believed false. motto, trust," 186, prominently engraved wall Speaker's dias Representatives reproduced coin minted dollar printed Government, §§ 5112(d)(1), 5114(b), 170 feelings exclusion, escape invalidation. argued "[these] serve, possible culture, solemnizing future, messages; appeals patriotism, moments silence, approaches effective, ones concurrence. "encouraging society" "worthy appreciation," assuredly secular. accepting secular-solemnization face value, incredible average norm. Either scores twisted stretched inconsistency condemning similar antecedent.10 acceptable. 171 disregarding precedent ajority's threatens trivialize mischaracterizing endorsement-in-context 597, embraces minutiae. reviewing Santas, 598. centers "separate" "had tell," 598, 48. wishes construct care frames devices sanitizing portions notes evergreens signs. 600, 50. municipal greenery care. 172 placed. proved resplendent. finds "unmistakable [the county] message." 600. 173 description uncharitable, illustrate inevitable difficulties application.11 workable courts, ever, measure. Deciding unguided examination marginalia irreconcilable imperative applying appalling trademark experts testifying another, offended—but feet jumbo cane." (Easterbrook, 174 principally discussing interpr t 617; (concluding observers). upholding nature." 618; (noting symbol"). least-religious-means difficulties.12 internal innumerable unworkable, unfamiliar "look place." Third, purports overruling more-secular-alternative comes dissent. 1373 "argues 7. "True false," irrelevant." 175 reaches illustration unwisdom disavows observer, easily lends salient cases: relative numbers adherents. Those enjoying largest consigned least-favored offending admit easy answers, 176 Obsessive, implacable resistance carefully scripted secularized censor, decrees orthodox What orthodox, secular; minimum. conceive function 177 contradi tion approach, assumes inappropriate means. Before studying colleagues. More important, unknown saw observers' presence. ill-equipped sit theology board, wisdom separationist consistency latter. 178 admittedly conceded however eager proselytizer seek ends. urge taunt present. offended nonbelievers, hallway sidewalk, ignored insulted, distasteful cherish voted installation official. jurisdiction taste discretion. enforcement written historic communities judgments aspects. origins. Encyclopedia "Jesus," "Christmas," 460 eastern Feast Nativity, retaining baptism Myers, Celebrations: Book Holidays (1972) (Myers). "[T]he culture elements." 709, 1378, exceeds theological (1954) (Barnett) ("[B]y folk-secular ones"). 2:1-21; Matthew 2:1-11. Luke, shepherds announce baby lying "suddenly multitude heavenly host praising saying, highest, earth peace, men." 2:13-14 (King Version). distance, vantage staircase indicating direction offices. 7-8. endposts, directional sign. wreaths, ribbon. Bloch, Biblical Background Days 49-78 (1978) (Bloch, Days); Customs Ceremonies 267-278 Ceremonies); "Hanukkah," 193-194; Encyclopaedia Judaica, 1280-1288 (1972); O. Rankin, Festival Hanukkah (1930) (Rankin); Chill, Minhagim 241-254 (1979) (Chill); Trepp, Observance 137-151 (Trepp); Strassfeld, 161-177 (Strassfeld). Columbia 1190 (4th 1975); Williams, Believe How Worship 348 (3d 1969); Myers 302; Strassfeld 202; Spier, Compr hensive Calendar (1981). P. (Johnson); Seltzer, People, Thought: Experience (Seltzer). spelled Chanukkah Hanukkah, drawn "dedication." Judaica 1280. 161-163; Rankin 133. (specifically Babylonian Talmud) collection rabbinic commentary compiled sixth 140. "Talmud," 256-259; Seltzer 265. "Menorah" "candelabrum." "Menorah," 1356. Seder Mo'ed, Shabbath 21b (Soncino Press 1938); 163; Trepp "Mitzvah," 1972) usage, deed. Already meritorious positive commandment"). plural mitzvot. 269. success Seleucids, days. 141. way, candles, mitzvah, 146; 1283; 21b. 274. translation "Praised you, universe, His commandments, commanding kindle lights." 145; "Hanukkah Lamp," 1288-1316. Exodus 25:31-40; 1356-1370. 274-275. Torah scroll—which Books buried longer usable. 237-238. 167; 277. 277-278; 147. potato pancakes fried foods reminder 242-243; 168. 144, 150; 193; 176. Southern Hemisphere summer. Nonetheless, developed Northern beginning winter. rabbis chose mark 77. 229, 237. asserted aspects." 655, 662 assertion uncontroverted record expert witness: "There non-theistic. [T]hey base [of Chanukah] something questioning, "certainly exists." record, aspects," Chill 241 (Chanukah Jews). 164-165; 1288. America, influenced gelt—money—is gift intrinsic holiday." festival cycle past." prospered equivalent." Elazar, Community Polity: Organizational Dynamics Jewry (1976). elaborated child glamour seductive Christmas." C. Liebman, Ambivalent Jew (1973). Sklare Greenblum, Identity Suburban Frontier (1967): currently emphasized—the exchange gifts homes—offer ready parallels 'Jewish' alienating helps situate participant culture. becomes "only festival"). Additionally, menorahs—like itself—have dimension. menorahs "are extensively people." 310. Lubavitch, Hasidic teachings leader, Lubavitch Rebbe. 253-254. movement branch Hasidism, 249-250. population 45,000 Jews; these, synagogue Center. 247-251. preliminary injuncti Characterizing "de minimis Amendment," motion injunctive relief. 10. 32. agreeing contends disposition address Chabad's contention. (charting 18th 19th centuries); 919-920 (Laycock) intolerance late 18th-century Catholics, Moslems, atheists today). public-school premises, (1948), religious-school schools. (1963); school's curriculum desire posting classroom (1980). conditions literature, (1989), employee work Sabbath, 709-710, 9, 2917-2918, (reasoning off week). (1982) (invalidating imposed registration reporting solicit 50% funds members). 409, 3236, Wolman Walter, 433 254, 2593, 2609, 714 (1977); Meek Pittenger, 421 349, 370, 1753, 1765, 217 (1975); 619-622, 2114-2116, 2570, (1988); 583, 2577; 485, 750-751, 410, 3236; 382-383, 3221-3222; 2917; 55-56, 2489-2490, 123, 510; 40, Regan, 444 646, 653, 840, 846, (1980); Sloan 825, 2982, 939 (1973); 772-773, 2965-2966, Levitt Liberty, 472, 481-482, 2814, 2819-2820, 736 applications 'entanglement" issues. opinion's treatment (1983). history: payment chaplains 788, 3334. employed comparatively: "while open stilted overreaction holdings." harmonized rigorous explaining (like commences session Court) "serve[s], wa[y] thi "those beliefs." Ibid.; shown "coercive." Reply Petitioners 1-6; 11. "proof coerci n" Clause." 2972; 222-223, 1571-1572; 1266. reconsider principle. 3; McConnell, Coercion: Lost Element 933 declines proceeds independent coercion. Santas elsewhere nearby forum, exhibitions building. (religious sung program). weeks associate occasionally flags anniversary Israel's independence, 176), express press releases (flier identifying choral sponsored); 30; (linking created link creche: signs respect, raise "public issue, (1981), McCreary Stone, 739 716 (CA2 1984), aff'd equally sub nom. Trustees Scarsdale McCreary, 471 1859, (private park). justified 348, 2875 deprives satisfaction seeing precludes. worth noting validity Prayer 672-673. Legislative conduct. constitutionality. Among stories scholar recounts apt Proclamations, 671: H. Hammond, governor South Carolina, 'Thanksgiving, Humiliation, Prayer' 1844, exhorted 'our assemble places world.' Charleston protested, charging Hammond 'such tenor your proclamation, amounted utter Carolina.' responded 'I matter lived land! temporary chief magistrate publicly, called reprimanded amends world, possible, pass' (The Occident, 1845)." Borden 142, Borden). fit deist mold KENNEDY. succinctly captured precise evil Governor Hammond's: non-Christians, amounting directed. better formulated 1776, instance, "Declaration Rights" legislature officials declare 1A. Stokes, 865-866 (1950). Efforts 1797 discriminations unsuccessful. 867. 513 explicitly Adams, urged God's grace "through world" Spirit"). evidently creeds Trinity divinity Jesus) sentiments Story, Commentaries 1874, 663 (1858) (at Amendment's adoption, universal sentiment America encouragement state"). 2487. adjectives "permanent," "year-round," "continual," Presumably, intend limits principle, short duration, Hammond's when, 620, 2597, ordered "specific behavior" administration statutory clear, thinks lax represent[s] [public crche displays] present." 678 inconsistency, communicates Messiah worshipped such, prosyletizing represents, original "proselytizers" faith: tell assertion, "dispositive [a] claim," "Let's world," tries, 665-666, hiding decides Once fiction, transparently lacks principled basis, incorrect says, elimination music characterizes lift identifiable original); Accommodation 1985 3-4 (defining "specifically facilitating regulations). Defined thus, lawsuit. 51, mandated prompted Goldman Weinberger, 475 503, 1310, d.2d 478 (1986), mind: Air Force exempt yarmulkes no-headdress promulgate regulation motivated headcoverings) category "permissible Clause" Prohibiting location, repeating, (except religion), conventional clever mistaken 582-587, "national board." object—even pursuant Surely, keep ignorance symbol's knowing knew filed. bias backgrounds Members, condition intolerable familiar facts. indicated extensive Appendix, 582-585. secondary sources 709-712, 721-724, 1378-1380, 1384-1386 "in answered facts," 693-694, prove Houston Eckels, 589 222 (SD Tex.1984), appeal dism'd, 755 (CA5), 980, 383, 336 (war memorial crosses Star David soldiers Jewish). recalling "If Christmas—by, decorating images garlands, figures—they move boundaries 710-711, 1379 dissenting) original). examples, exclaiming "Merry Christmas," "Happy excluded. 644. engages excluded—and 62, litigation, 387,000, approximately Jews. Bureau Census, Statistical Abstract (108th Ed.1988); 247. (depending display). pre-existing Jewish—yet Christmas-Chanukah mean, implausible, displ y Barnett 141-142 (describing Claus, "so intimately identified life" immigrants customs culture). Gilbert, Season Good Will Inter-religious Tension, Reconstructionist (1958) (considering celebration"). (a dimensions) conceivable ask text, assertions suffices availability unavailability "relegated 1387, broadens Chanukah—a belonging demean whole aspects), aspects). retains nonbelief. demonstrated conclusion, untenable substituted alternative, wherever school, considerations. 583-584, 2577 context). forecloses recitation 281. findings advocates mission, enable findings. signifies, mind. nonreligious. giant firecracker, July, representative muster view. If, logically entail bunny springtime valid Clause; again, comport views. possibility, consonant outlined 635, perceives 636. season" implicit autumn, stemming favorably dispose infra, 645. in, Swomley, Secular 24-41 (Swomley). Levy, (Levy). historian situation follows: England. Four practices. Three abolished Revolution. remaining states—Massachusetts, Hampshire, changed 'multiple' establishments. provided nonpreferential Protestant states. Catholics states, ganized constituted amendment forbade adopt." Pritchett, 1977). narration process, Levy 75-89. also, 92-97, 2509-2510, Swomley 43-49; Drakeman, Republic: Madison 233-235 (R. Alley ed.1985). "Other disapproved purposes. Sullivan, elected Massachusetts, taxation: 'This glaring piece tyranny suppositions: understanding, privilege than, preeminence communion, growth requirements, disposing consent.' struggle Massachusetts disobedience; Crown faraway Societies fight tax. denomi ations won taxed meetings, resist tax, received funds. senate, refused 1831 vote, 1833, 32,234 disestablishment 3,273 1834 effective legislation." 432, 1267, (1962) ("Another rested awareness persecutions hand hand"). 2485-2489. "Respect," defined Oxford 733-734 (1989); Webster's Ninth Collegiate 1004 speech, 668-678, "uncharitable," unfounded. Inter neglects articles cites disfavoring fewer book lauding Symbo s, Endorsement" admits, 660, precedent. enactment operate nonobserving not." Engel, identifies brightly "endorsement." vein, worded against, outright, abridgment Roaden Kentucky, 496, 2796, 2801, 757 retreat 'high impregnable' wall" schools' treasuries. 855, (STEVENS, 18, 512, (1947)). reiterated amicus Governing Council Churches U.S.A., secularizes degrades Christianity," Amici Curiae ii. 431, 1267. Indeed testified 79-80, 93-96. i-ii; 1-2; 44. unintended divisiveness, net disallow Laypersons intricacies whol 512-513, 1315-1316, 2116, (1971) authors government"); ("Neither denominationally voluntary limitations backward differing unanimously believers nonbelievers 511-512; 31-33, 519-520 (Rutledge, 52-55, 2487-2489. Ferber, 458 747, 778, 3348, 3365, 1113 friezes courtroom. (published cooperation States). ago today: schools indicate Nothing, wrong. man inseparable [Early Americans] tried control destroy either. quiet well-justified fears nearly shackled men's tongues speak thoughts wanted pray sacrilegious stay business writing sanctioning leave themselves guidance." 433-435, 1268-1269 (footnotes counsel injunction hearing 144-145, rabbi comparable miracles," "heard declared States," 148. intervenor "[w]hen home definitely symbolizing whereas, anything wants symbolize," 240, "probably would" publicize 263. attaches overriding 613-616. Contra, 632-634 638, 641-643 part); exhaustive reference, academic treatises, degrees 579-587, "out precedent." 650, 6. quotes sentences immediately quote. 430-431, 1266-1267. 'accommodation' "does Christianity." assumption extends coextensive non-interference 673, 1413, (1970). 890-912, danger. ignoring pressure maintain. continual alleged. distinguished nonsectarian, 603. utterly "mean[s] nonreligion." 605. "official nonreligion," "demonstrate creed." "[T]o Chambers. 681-682, 1363-1364. Pawtucket. entity. depth error going "[o]ur opinions. 602. discussion, 604-605, nn. 53-54, units constraints Acts non-Christians" perpetrated municipalities irrelevant Congresses informative. Thomas Jefferson declined Writings 429 (A. Lipscomb 1904). inaugurations traditionally opened blessing. occasion, 20, 1989, thousands bowed heads invocation: "Our Father Thou hast blessed nation Lord. God. foundation "As reminded Farewell Address, morality pillars forget Thy help selection leadership "All Father, Son, Spirit. Amen." Cong.Rec. 303 (Rev. Billy Graham). logically, nonsecular presumably, anywhere lyrics "Good rejoice," "Joy world! Savior reigns," "This, King," "Christ, highest heav'n adored," "Come behold Him, Born King angels" "left out" carols. W. Ehret G. Evans, International Carols 30, 318 (1963). moment programs, however. Allegiance, invocations proscribe, explain. drawing. 606; 629-630 unusual municipality insists threatened. absolutist involvement permissible, bright price exacted taken. practical arise frequency guidance. demands exquisite distinctions fine detail wide anomalous speaks regard. 636-637

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