Document: 356 U.S. 129 78 S.Ct. 612 2 L.Ed.2d 659 MITSUGI NISHIKAWA, Petitioner,v.John Foster DULLES, Secretary of State. No. 19. Reargued Oct. 28, 1957. Decided March 31, 1958. Mr. A. L. Wirin, Los Angeles, Cal., for petitioner. Oscar H. Davis, Washington, D.C., respondent. Chief Justice WARREN delivered the opinion Court. 1 In this, third denationalization cases decided today, issues concerning Section 401(c) Nationality Act 1940 are presented. That statute provides: 'A person who is a national United States, whether by birth or naturalization, shall lose his nationality by: 3 '(c) Entering, serving in, armed forces foreign state unless expressly authorized laws if he has acquires such * *.'1 4 We need not in this case consider constitutionality 401(c). This thus differs from Perez v. Brownell, 44, 568, and Trop Dulles, 86, 590, where questions Sections 401(e) 401(g) were determined. The with which we concerned here relate solely to problems burden proof. 5 Petitioner brought action District Court praying judgment declaring him be citizen States. controversy arose petitioner's application States Consulate Japan an American passport. Instead passport, received more than year later Certificate Loss alone testified at trial, Government introducing no testimony. What follows summary 6 was born Artesia, California, 1916. By reason that fact, because citizenship parents, also considered country. educated schools country lived until 1939. August year, having been graduated University California degree engineering, went Japan, intending stay between two five years, visiting studying. He knew father had registered family register Japan. November 1939 father, paying way, died petitioner, lacking funds, work aircraft manufacturing company equivalent $15 month. unable accumulate any savings. Pursuant Military Service Law petitioner required about June take physical examination, on 1, 1941, inducted into Japanese Army. provided imprisonment evasion. Between time examination induction, did protest induction attempt renounce nationality, return secure aid consular officials. told friend worked Embassy could dual national; contended so. further heard rumors brutality secret police made afraid make protest. 7 know when likely drafted. said aware threat war left just prior outbreak Europe years four months before Pearl Harbor. read language too far out subscribe English-language newspaper, therefore newspapers while 8 served as maintenance man mechanic Air Force regiment China, Indo-China, Philippines Manchuria. began, expressed group noncommissioned officers there chance Japan's winning war. night given thorough beating; beaten almost every day month, afterwards 'a couple days month.' won nickname 'America.' 9 After hearing testimony, district judge announced bench 'the court simply does believe testimony witness. all. I do testimony.' express 'went over under it necessary serve hitch army. waited they reached draft, drafted.' Formally, found fact basis alone, include admission effect, 'entry service Armed Forces free voluntary act.' Therefore held have lost rendered Appeals Ninth Circuit affirmed judgment.2 granted certiorari. 352 907, 77 148, 116. 10 Whatever divergence view may what conduct may, consistent Constitution, result loss cf. settled results expatriation engaged voluntarily. Mandoli Acheson, 344 133, 73 135, 97 L.Ed. 146.3 contend otherwise. Likewise, parties agreed claimant proves acquisition some other upon prove act shows clear, convincing unequivocal evidence. Gonzales Landon, 350 920, 76 210, 100 806, rule proof denaturalization cases4 applied 401(j) 1940. now conclude same should govern all subsections 401. 11 disagree must expatriating voluntarily performed bears proving involuntary.5 contends voluntariness element act, proved Government. Government, hand, relies ordinary duress matter affirmative defense party claiming acted involuntarily overcome presumption voluntariness. 12 Because consequences so drastic contention sustained. case, 'instituted purpose depriving one precious right previously conferred facts law construed reasonably possible favor citizen.' Schneiderman 320 118, 122 63 1333, 1335, 87 1796.6 principle applies cases, calls placing persuading trier evidence showing renunciation performed. While finds legislative history 401, particularly 401(c), recognition concept voluntariness,7 discussion problem clear House Committee bill rejected proposal enact conclusive nationals entering military nation their second nationality.8 It altogether consonant place 'Rights destroyed ambiguity.' Perkins Elg, 307 325, 337, 59 884, 891, 83 1320. reference ambiguity treaty, but stated demands evidentiary ambiguities resolved against citizen. 13 Finally, even evidence, met case. took clearly appear. seemed point accept sufficient above stated.9 conclusion supportable. Of course, subject dictated common experience ordinarily acts Unless put issue, makes its objective act. But showed conscripted totalitarian whose conscription law, penal sanctions, subject. adequately injected issue sustain evidence.10 sustained record. seek officials—efforts that, appears, would vain—does satisfy requisite standard Nor can judge's disbelief story motives fears fill gap Government's only conscription. 14 On record established essential ingredient expatriation. after being conscripted, ordered active wartime side former enemy permitted divert our attention necessity maintaining strict cases. When basic lost, assumes onerous Regardless alleged expatriation, whenever each 15 reversed cause remanded proceedings opinion. 16 Reversed remanded. 17 BLACK, whom DOUGLAS joins. 18 concur add following conceive controlling constitutional principles 19 Fourteenth Amendment declares 'All persons naturalized jurisdiction thereof, citizens State wherein reside.' Nishikawa jurisdiction; birthright. See Wong Kim Ark, 169 649, 456, 42 890. Constitution neither Congress, nor Executive, Judiciary, three concert, strip away. Although Congress punishing those shirk duties jeopardize relations countries cannot expatriate As CHIEF JUSTICE explain dissenting opinions 62, 79, 578, 586, provisions manner formed, fundamental political underlie existence, continuing relationship citizenry erected maintain it. Cf. Osborn Bank Wheat. 738, 827, 204. my notion snatched away deprivation 'rational nexus' implementation power dangerous frightening proposition. transformed stateless outcast evading taxes, fraud counterfeiting currency, violating voting ad infinitum. 20 course abandon measures regulate affirm abjuration. relinquished question determined judicial trial full conformity Bill Rights. provide rules trials, declare equivocal army, participation election desertion forces, establish intention throw off nationality. Tot 319 463, 1241, 1519. highly persuasive particular citizenship. 21 To extent Mackenzie Hare, 239 299, 36 106, 60 297, Savorgnan 338 491, 70 292, 94 287, contrary inconsistent regarded binding authority. 22 FRANKFURTER, BURTON joins, concurring result. 23 involves native-born parentage declared virtue § 1940, 54 Stat. 1137, 1169, making failure crime. defined raised judgment, decide. 24 asserts duress. His claim based pursuant compulsory country,1 harsh punishment draft evaders ruthlessness government avoid service. rebut elicited cross-examination, failed certain actions service; urged support entry draft-eligible age2 remained inducted. 25 ground will 311—312, 108, 297; Acheson Kiyokuro Okimura, 342 899, 72 293, 96 674; Hisao Murata, 900, 294, 674. Accordingly, expatriated contests declaration grounds duress, sympathetically scrutinized. both extreme gravity denationalized subtle, psychologic factors bear 26 ultimately decisive litigation thing, mode determining quite another. conduct, order citizenship, behavior inherently define appropriate properly very heavy cases: committed 'act expatriation'—i.e., consequence citizenship—by adopting 1796, Baumgartner 322 665, 64 1240, 88 1525. incumbent although these well difficult obtain. Much citizen's mind will, choice action—in short, 'voluntariness.' According suggest individual, peculiarly equipped clarify meaning outward events, was. Selma, Rome & Dalton R. Co. 139 560, 567—568, 638, 640, 35 266. Moreover, mind, outside own mental disclosures, often abroad, facilities conducting investigation. hesitate long imposing generalized, uncritical formula, becomes incapable sensible, rational, fair enforcement. 27 Where individual engages command another subject, gravest doubt cast applicability normal assumption—even prosecution murder (see Leland Oregon, 343 790, 1002, 1302)—that does, will. effect inappropriate charged response, statute, direction. ready provability critical fact—existence applicable criminal commanding provides protection shifting frivolous assertion should, circumstances causing 28 Since courts below guided formulation, allowed stand. However, denied opportunity bring forward able Whether, classes asserted, absence not—and, therefore, not—reach. For reason, join 29 HARLAN, CLARK dissenting. 30 central Nishikawa's Army 'voluntary' contains virtually nothing way army without part. 31 Beyond establishing drafted protest, disregarded, disbelieved explanations why sought authorities otherwise attempted prevent affirmed. Particularly credibility set ourselves factual determinations court, great advantage observing witness 32 Courts divided conscription, anything either side, precludes finding voluntary. Second Third Circuits does. Augello 220 F.2d 344; Lehmann 206 592; Perri 586. Columbia ruled '(d)ress inferred mere conscription.' Maenza, 92 U.S.App.D.C. 85, 90, 202 453, 458; Alata 95 182, 221, 52; see Bruni 98 358, 235 855.1 33 Moved consideration lead 'drastic' denationalization, holds (1) precluded voluntary, something steps induction; (2) once 'injected' am insensitive high value find myself compelled dissent majority's position squared congressional intent proper well-established governing I. 34 permit unjustifiably limits, largely nullify, mandate exempting reach armies shown attributing many Americans impunity. There solid restrictive interpretation. passed, enlistment become usual method raising throughout world, hardly doubted fact. background farfetched assume intended Court, plainly even-handed administration terms section, refer 'entering' 'serving in' odds intention. II. recognizes general consciously presumed Wigmore, Evidence (3d ed.), 860; Fed.Rules Civ.Proc., 8(c), U.S.C.A., alters relieving citizen-claimants duty presumably actually involuntary.2 One prime reasons involuntariness normally lies possession. strikingly kind us, within grasp, rarely accessible amply illustrates eight passed notice report actual taken variety designed involuntary character example, advise officials citizen, enlist assistance Consular employ friends relatives States.3 admits none things. claimed had, apparent logical pertinent evidence? seems me better require allegation rather impose well-nigh impossible task producing refute claim. 37 forth think disturbed. 38 considering ought sight deals nationals, remitting them Unlike majority, incommensurate conduct. large measure justice relegating during heart late World War. included Philippines. suggestion period ever indicating disloyalty loyalty 39 remands give show Surely empty gesture. expected adduce occurrences taking ago shrouded obscurity beyond serious hope detection. 40 lacked is, view, foreclosed 568. 41 Appeals. 1168, 1169. present provision, Immigration 1952, 349(a)(3), 66 267, 268, U.S.C. 1481(a)(3), U.S.C.A. eliminates acquire state. Cir., 135. also, e.g., Dos Reis ex rel. Camara Nicolls, 161 Op.Atty.Gen., 16. 1525; 1796. 806; 674, dispositive issue. holding specific regard Murata Okimura came appeal Court's various 401 unconstitutional. 99 F.Supp. 587, 591. findings attending reasonable inferences drawn therefrom. 855, requiring 592, least, Circuit, supra; 344, regards creating rebut. supra. 221 453. Minker, 179, 197, 281, 291, 185 (concurring opinion): 'When deal tread sensitive ground.' Hearings Naturalization H.R. 6127, superseded 9980, 76th Cong., 1st Sess. 150, 201. advanced Department spokesman, Flournoy, said: 'If countries, discussing, living reaches age, call service, difference not. serve. country, plea practically nullifies whole proviso reading somewhat follows: residing therein age liability thereof words, difference. comes serve.' Id., 150. Spokesmen Labor Departments objected, stating 150—156; 169—170; 200 203. At hearings limited nationals. Senate inserted limitation. 86 Cong.Rec. 12817. First correctly concluded little significance attaches word 'voluntarily' (b) through (g) Hearings, supra, 397—398. 'It us committee amendment unnecessary superfluous.' 860, 864, note 4. page 140. id., 141. Petitioner's dispelled created 402 1482, remains six parents himself (d). Even valid, 'Section enlarge (d),' Kawakita 717, 730, 950, 959, 1249, and, like analogous provision 2, 1907, 1228, creates easy preclude, overcome.' Gay, 264 353, 44 388, 389, 68 728. ambiguous since 349(b) 1481(b), establishes part performs resided aggregate ten immediately thereto. new statutory validity. stipulation record, up servitude seem explicit court's (Finding Fact III) trip 'knowing called Forces.' Hamamoto 904. Compare Hiyokuro 139, 138, 146. cited majority opinion, related standard, burden, proof, face Act, part: subsection (c) (d) section remain longer according exist returned States.' draft. arrival 1249: (d); rebuttable expatriation; (d), irrelevant forestall vain. Whether successful not, certainly reflected unwillingness

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