Document: 495 U.S. 676 110 S.Ct. 2053 109 L.Ed.2d 693 Albert DURO, Petitionerv.Edward REINA, Chief of Police, Salt River Department Public Safety, Pima-Maricopa Indian Community, et al. No. 88-6546. Argued Nov. 29, 1989. Decided May 1990. Syllabus While living on one Tribe's reservation, petitioner Duro, an enrolled member another Tribe, allegedly shot and killed youth within the reservation's boundaries. He was charged with illegal firing a weapon reservation under tribal criminal code, which is confined to misdemeanors. After court denied his petition dismiss prosecution for lack jurisdiction, he filed habeas corpus in Federal District Court. The granted writ, holding that assertion jurisdiction by Tribe over non-member would constitute discrimination based race violation equal protection guarantees Civil Rights Act 1968, since, Oliphant v. Suquamish 435 191, 98 1011, 55 209, non-Indians are exempt from courts' jurisdiction. Court Appeals reversed. It held distinction drawn between members nonmembers throughout United States Wheeler, 313, 1079, 303—which, upholding tribe members, stated tribes do not possess "nonmembers" "indiscriminate" should be given little weight. Finding historical record "equivocal," applicable federal statutes supported view retain minor crimes committed Indians against other without regard membership. also rejected Duro's claim, finding significant contacts prosecuting Tribe—such as residing working construction company—justified exercise Finally, it found failure recognize Duro create jurisdictional void, since relevant statute apply this charge, State had made no attempt, might authority, prosecute him. Held: An may assert nonmember Indian. Pp. 684-698. (a) rationale Oliphant, subsequent cases compels conclusion nonmembers. Tribes power enforce laws all who come their borders, supra. They limited sovereigns, necessarily subject overriding authority States, yet retaining sovereignty needed control own internal relations preserve unique customs social order, Their prescribe rules conduct falls outside part they implicitly lost virtue dependent status, but outsider inconsistent status could only delegation Congress. its relation self-governance recognized areas law. See, e.g., Moe Consolidated Salish & Kootenai Tribes, 425 463, 96 1634, 48 96; Montana 450 544, 101 1245, 67 493. Although broader retained powers have been civil such typically involves situations arising property ownership or consensual relationships more direct intrusion personal liberties. Since, nonmember, cannot vote elections, hold office, sit jury, relationship same non-Indian's Oliphant. 684-688. (b) A review history modern courts opinions Solicitor Interior codes at time enactment indicates embody self-governance. fact Government treats single large class respect programs dispositive question treat them broad classification. 688-692. (c) This case must decided light now citizens States. Congress has special legislate Indians, like entitled unwarranted intrusions liberty. Court's suggest constitutional limits even ability proceedings before tribunal, court, does provide protections matter right. In contrast, accepted precedents justified voluntary character membership concomitant right participation government. enrollment says about consent him Tribe. mere fungible groups homogenous persons among whom any feel home, differ important aspects language, culture, tradition. adopting "contacts" test determine non-Indian residents well than variation argument, already non-Indians, person entering deemed implied 692-696. (d) decision imply endorsement void crime proper body address problem if, fact, present scheme proves insufficient meet practical needs law enforcement. 696-698. 851 F.2d 1136 (CA9 1987), KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, dissenting opinion, MARSHALL, joined, post, p. 698. John Trebon, Flagstaff, Ariz., petitioner. Richard B. Wilks, Phoenix, respondents. Lawrence G. Wallace, Washington, D.C., amicus curiae, supporting respondents, leave Justice KENNEDY 1 We whether defendant member. political organization govern affairs include impose sanctions citizen 2 * events giving rise dispute occurred Reservation. authorized 1859, established Executive Order President Hayes 1879. occupies some 49,200 acres just east Scottsdale, Arizona, below McDowell Mountains. home Petitioner case, Torres-Martinez Band Cahuilla Mission Indians. eligible As serve juries. Community Code Ordinances §§ 3-1, 3-2, 5-40, App. 55-59. 3 lived most life native California, reservation. Between March June 1984, resided Reservation woman friend. worked PiCopa Construction Company, owned 4 On 15, 14-year-old boy victim Gila separate complaint charging murder aiding abetting 18 U.S.C. 2, 1111, 1153.1 agents arrested indictment later dismissed prejudice motion Attorney. 5 then placed custody officers, taken stand trial court's regulated statute, penalties six months' imprisonment $500 fine. 25 § 1302(7) (1982 ed.). code therefore misdemeanors.2 petitioner's writ naming chief judge police 6 violate 1301 seq. Under 209 (1978), non-Indians. reasoned that, limitation, where race. respondents failed articulate valid reason difference treatment either rational-basis strict-scrutiny standards, noting greater government lesser fear system bars peers. 7 divided panel Ninth Circuit 821 1358 (1987). Both dissent were revised. (1988). examined our 303 16 days after involving prosecuted we "nonmembers." concluded Wheeler "indiscriminate," give "little weight these casual references." F.2d, 1140-1141. "equivocal" 8 country. See 1151-1153. references "Indians" those construing applied particular membership, "if intended divest done so." tribes, held, "without membership." 1143. 9 argument 1968. racial classification subjecting asserted non-Indian. Instead, employment company. need effective enforcement provided rational basis Id., 1145. 10 final result, said "jurisdictional void." To purposes thwart misdemeanor because, saw it, due exception "by Indian." 1152. state authorities, effort petitioner, so. 1145-1146. 11 Judge Sneed dissented, arguing limit construed ajurisdic tional stressed recognition here place Indian, unlike citizen, jeopardy alien tribunal. 1146-1151. These views reiterated three judges denial rehearing en banc. 860 1463 dissenters contention subjected impermissible tribunal potential bias. 12 first second sets panel, Eighth inherent tribe. Greywater Joshua, 846 486 Due timing opinions, both benefit other's analysis it. certiorari resolve conflict, 490 1034, 1930, 104 402 (1989), reverse. II 13 Our decisions analytic framework resolution dispute. extend commit reaffirmed longstanding members. us intersection two precedents, asserts officials claim affirmative congressional authorization treaty provision, contend legislated remove tribes. answer includes 14 think cases, discussion bears directly case. consistent describing terms tribe's Indeed, "cannot try courts." U.S., 326, S.Ct., 1087-88. Literal application statement facts bring end. Yet amici, including argue forcefully law, party 15 true presented occasion facts. But double demanded examination nature power. Navajo sovereignty, Government. followed offense conviction did involve prosecutions sovereign, Double Jeopardy Clause. directed tribes' necessary "sovereignty character." 323, 1086. basic attribute full territorial sovereign's territory, aliens. can longer described sovereigns sense. Rather, reveals, relations, order. "does fall status. implicit divestiture tribe." 1087. further distinction: 17 "[T]he freedom independently external relations. self-government, laws, different type. . [T]hey status." Ibid. sovereign rested premise Had manifestation outsiders, Congress, constraints Constitution. 19 Exemption taxation example, determined reference general class. certain taxes transactions because interfere governance self-determination. Confederated (1976); McClanahan Arizona Tax Comm'n, 411 164, 93 1257, 36 129 (1973). nonmembers, Indians: 20 "Nor imposition Washington's tax purchasers contravene principle simple constituents governing For footing resident There evidence say significantly share disbursements." Washington Colville Reservation, 447 134, 161, 100 2069, 2085, 65 (1980). 21 Similarly, 493 (1981), Crow regulate hunting fishing land trust nonmembers' activities fee. Again relied upon set forth Oliphant: 22 "Though matters, principles support proposition 565, 1258 (footnote omitted). 23 context. Tribal courts, disputes Santa Clara Pueblo Martinez, 436 49, 65-66, 1670, 1680-1685, 56 106 (1978); Williams Lee, 358 217, 223, 79 269, 272, 251 (1959); F. Cohen, Handbook Law 253 ed.) (hereafter Cohen) ("The development country markedly dealing jurisdiction"). zoning vital maintenance integrity Brendale Bands Yakima Nation, 492 408, 2994, 343 (1989). distinct prosecution, "consensual through commercial dealing, contracts, leases, arrangements." supra, 1258. subjects adjudicatory tribe, far 24 are, sure, "a good deal 'private organizations,' " aptly "unique aggregations possessing attributes territory." Mazurie, 419 557, 95 710, 717, 42 706 (1975). area enforcement, however, beyond become one. Neither nor vote, jury authority. Cf. 194, n. 4, 1013, 4. limitations. III Respondents amici requires here. disagree. somewhat less illuminating tends reach. Early concerning lacking "[u]ntil middle century, few maintained semblance formal system. Offenses usually handled religious pressure judicial processes; emphasis restitution rather punishment." 197, 1015. Cases challenging few, perhaps "most parties acquiesce jurisdiction" asserted. National American Judges Association, Courts Future (1978). effect acquiescence made, return agreement exclude offender lands, see infra, 696-697. 26 rely definitions "Indian" use term "Indian." 1152-1153. 30, 1834, ch. Stat. 733, speak generally, family Indians." Rogers, How. 567, 573, L.Ed. 1105 (1846). emphasize offenses, regulation 1883 continue operate today reservations offenders CFR 11.2(a) 27 advance. Congressional administrative provisions cited above reflect Government's programs. Those Colville, noted fallacy reliance definition proof intent affect equally: 28 'Indian' Reorganization 1934, 988, 479, demonstrate taxation." 2085. 29 here, respondents' sustain 30 note showed declined disturb traditional "undisputed" 324-325, 1086-1087. novel disputed issue us, tendency past policy undifferentiated prior creation shows attention individual themselves another's Scholars find treaties sources conclusions. Compare Comment, Jurisdiction Over Nonmember Reservations, 1980 Ariz.S.L.J. 727, 740 (treaties nonmembers), Note, Who Indian?: Reina 's Examination Sovereignty Criminal 1988 B.Y.U.L.Rev. 170-171 retention nonmembers). 31 brief provides clearer guidance. auspices 576, 984, codified 461-479. 60 years preceding witnessed calculated favoring elimination institutions, sale assimilation individuals into dominant culture. Many leaders others fought integrity, 1930's move toward toleration generally Cohen 127-153; S. Tyler, History Policy 70-150 (1973); A. Debo, 201-300 (1970). 32 allowed expression authorizing new governments, constitutions, courts. supplanted offenses operated Bureau Affairs. Significantly, order required approved Secretary Interior. 476. unquestioned 33 Evidence clear, balance supports extends only. One flatly declares "[i]nherent rights self invoked justify punishment non members." Op. Dept. Relating Affairs 1917-1974 (Op.Sol.) 699 (Nov. 17, 1936). refers earlier speaks generally. I.D. 14, Op.Sol. 445 (Oct. 25, 1934). Another disapproved ordinance covering ground constitution embraced suggested alternative remedies, amendment Secretary. 736 (Mar. 1937). options belief while indicate absence. Two strong indication understood mentions adoption receipt delegated means acquiring 849 (Aug. 26, 1938). states interloping removal acceptance 872 (Feb. 1939). 34 specific and, think, conclusion. Taken together described. persuaded function. IV 35 Whatever record, became during era allotment termination around turn 1924. 142-143 (tracing citizenship). That alter class, burdens benefits. Antelope, 430 641, 97 1395, 51 701 (1977); Morton Mancari, 417 535, 94 2474, 41 290 (1974). absence legislation, Nation's "great solicitude protected liberty." 210, 1021. so serious liberty surrendered submission hesitate adopt out group citizens, bodies them. additional maintain allegiance comes sphere marks bounds 37 tribunals makes focus citizenship appropriate. many familiar features process, influenced customs, languages, usages serve. often "subordinate branches governments," legal methods depend "unspoken practices norms." 334-335. Bill governments. Talton Mayes, 163 376, 986, 196 (1896). 1968 statutory fair procedure, equivalent counterparts. is, appointed counsel unable afford lawyer. 1302(6). 38 limitations Reid Covert, 354 1, 77 1222, 1148 (1957). promulgate enforced sanction (1975), date included punish non-members court. decline produce result 39 objections. Retained government, rests consent. finds predate statutes. (1846), not, Cherokee himself exemption provision. could, adoption, "become privileges make amenable usages." (4 How.) 573; Nofire 164 657, 212, 588 (1897). 40 With usages, left enjoyed governmental 56, 7, 1676, (noting inapplicable cause action violations provisions). reject extension governed fundamental Merrion Jicarilla Apache 455 130, 172-173, 102 894, 919-920, 71 (1982) (STEVENS, dissenting). suggests appropriate "is sufficient self-identification cultural values, reasonable system, implements values customs." Brief Amicus Curiae 27. home. contrary, wide variations art, physical characteristics marked intertribal alliances animosities. Smithsonian Institution, North (1983); H. Driver, America (1961); L. Spier, Yuman (1933). Petitioner's sought concerns readily reside reservations, close ties marriage long employment. population up 35% population. Commerce, Census, Supplementary Report, Areas Alaska Native Villages: Census Population 16-19. approach enters community logical consequence V 43 will offenders. unless affirm able impunity.3 stake relatively crimes, disturbances peace misdemeanors matter. interest residents, whose numbers greater. argued practical, if legal, Respondent O.T.1977, 76-5729. Oliphant; neither 44 felonies alleged outset, Major Crimes Act, 1153. undisputed deem undesirable lands. 422, 3003. New Mexico Mescalero 462 324, 333, 103 2378, 2385-86, 76 611 Worcester Georgia, Pet. 515, 561, 483 (1832); 252. authorities restrain public necessary, eject Where officers detain transport authorities. 45 Respondents' major objection last point circumstances there lawful power, resources, inclination crime. specifically disclaims crimes. Ariz. Const., Art. 20, ¶ And crime, otherwise Country 1152, altogether 1152 "shall 46 theory below. may, assist maintaining punishing mechanism assume Pub.L. 280, neighboring governments enter reciprocal agreements each academic commentators cover 1150- 1151 0084108;0084;1988085276;RP;;350;1150 47 If ultimate affairs. cannot, accept arguments precedent, history, citizens. judgment hereby Reversed. 49 BRENNAN MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 50 holds concedes never expressly relinquished maintains when Because I parsimonious respectfully dissent. 'inherent extinguished.' 322, 1086, (1978) (quoting 122 (1945) (emphasis original)). When incorporated territory Government, previously exercised. explained: "The character. exists sufferance complete defeasance. until acts, existing powers. sum, still withdrawn implication 1086 (citations 52 By becoming "domestic nations," divested id., therefore, diplomatic foreign nations. 559-560, Nation 17-18, (1831). addition, alienate freely occupy Oneida County Oneida, 414 661, 667-668, 772, 777-778, 73 (1974); Johnson McIntosh, Wheat. 543, 604, 681 (1823). sovereign. 451, 3018, (1989) (BLACKMUN, 53 "surrender [their] independence—[the] associating stronger [power], taking protection." Worcester, (6 Pet.) 560-561. "the laws." 1088. agree "[a] aliens." Ante, 685. disagree 1022-23, "recognized sense." national interest. follow 54 withdrawing instead appears read anyone ante, 686.1 principle. Congress' actions considered "commonly shared presumption Branch, lower non-Indians." 206, 1019. Then declared conflicted protecting "unwarranted intrusions" 208-212, 1020-1023. "By submitting [gave] except manner acceptable Congress." 1021 added). consideration enactments reveals opposite 1790, addressed country, inhabitants punishable according take offenses. Trade Intercourse 138, 33. 1817, withdrew (and enclaves law) explicit however: "[N]othing act shall offence another, boundary." 383, 92, codified, amended, 1854, again amended proscribe tried 270, 30. 1885, departure practice leaving task response Ex parte Dog, 556, 571, 396, 405-06, 1030 (1883), murdered passed 385, 341, 1153, enumerated murder, manslaughter, arson, background conclude nonIndians early Thus, enactments, inferred tacitly 199-206, 1016-1020. applying reasoning, obtains From very start, consistently exempted Indian-against-Indian reach power; although 1790 implicit, 1817 Act. Moreover, provision 1854 exempting punished amounts express acknowledgment inference series excluding 324-326, 1086-1088. 57 acknowledges concludes irrelevant differentiate Kagama, 118 375, 1109, 1113, 228 (1886); (1846) (the generally,—of Indians"). "not power." 690. odds served presumption" ceded regardless membership.2 58 refusing draw repeated actions, creates Indian.3 favor 696, misses point. existence gap independent justification determining intent. unlikelihood entire inform understanding assumptions legislated. 1019-20 (" 'Indian law' draws principally executed Branch legislation instruments, actual text form backdrop intricate web judicially interpreted isolation common notions day drafted them") omitted); 573 ("It hardly supposed to" whites "adopted" fitting exception). Since created B 59 Stated differently, assumed matter, 1924 692 ("Whatever States"). reasons 'great liberty,' ante 1021), several problems argument. First, merely "[b]y touchstone extent 154, 2081-82, (1980) ("[I]t remembered on, subordinate to, clear 61 too much. once well. contends, government." 694. prerequisite (1959), explain why uniquely salient Nor ever process nonresidents, aliens laws. Verdugo-Urquidez, 494 259, 1056, 108 222 (1990); 279-281, 1068-1069 (BRENNAN, commission "consent" allow 62 underlying namely, plenary presumably pass affirmatively granting non-Indian—unconstrained participate government.4 unclear tribes—power Congress—is constraint. 63 More understandable concern suffer "influenced serve." 693. ICRA, seq., extended court.5 63, 1679-80, ICRA remedy challenge legality detention 1303. 1302(8), discriminatory courts.6 clause, ibid., ensures fundamentally proceeding. 64 pursued contradictory policies passage 461, promoting independence self-government various ignores originally stands conflict current policy. "Indian country," defined 1151, John, 437 634, 648-649, 2541, 2548-2549, 489 complex patchwork federal, state, felonies, rape, assault, robbery, commonly known which, 1986, states: "(a) Any commits following kidnaping, maiming, felony chapter 109A, incest, assault dangerous weapon, resulting bodily injury, burglary, section 661 title committing exclusive "(b) referred subsection force accordance offense." remains open 1153 325, 22, 1087, applies country: "Except sole Columbia, country." assimilate statute. 13. Section contains exemptions: "This local where, stipulations, secured respectively." despite York ex rel. Ray Martin, 326 496, 66 307, 90 261 (1946); McBratney, 621, 869 (1882). Certain affected pursuant Aug. 1953, 505, (codified, 1162, 1360 90-284, Tit. IV, 82 78 (codified 1321-1328).). source themselves. mentioned above. scholarly Clinton, Lands: Journey Through Jurisdictional Maze, Ariz.L.Rev. 505 (1976). Title 77, 1301-1303, imposes 1986 year's $5,000 similar, though identical, contained Rights, information Profiles (1984). remain Affording level visiting passing contends "[l]iteral application" end, "tribes 'cannot courts.' 685 1087-88). Clause violated successive conducted sovereigns. answering question, consider unequivocally sovereignty. quoted above, nothing inaccurate description 107-108 (citing (1978)). him, today, 686, dictum. transmuting dictum relies language (1980), stating 'stand reservation.' 687 2085). misplaced State's activity interferes self-government. Thus purchased cigarettes reservation; ibid. time, interests 153, 2081. citation 'general tribe,' Montana, 1258), inapposite. lands 564, 1257-58. recognized, have, engage "threatens economic stability, health welfare 566, 1259 explanation concerns, 688, "tendency class." Nevertheless rejects implications policy, reasoning "[t]he indeed proposed Western Territories bill relocated western General Council commerce peace, H.R.Rep. 474, 23d Cong., 1st Sess., (1834). passed, clearly disputes. 202, 1017-18 (relying bill). 1883, issued adopted Attorney General, accused murdering Presaging months, fell exception. Atty. Gen. 566 (1883). concluded: "If demand Foster's surrender concerned, founded fairly having seems discharge him." 570. Given proximity incident Dog incident, implausible situation (1832). enacted allows named 401(a) (ICRA), 79, 1321(a), modified 280 require assumption occurring reservations. involved erroneously equates resulted today. "void" caused discretionary already-established Such "practical" cry "legal" ibid, suggestion limitation rights, 693-694, unpersuasive has, 5, importantly, process. 1302(8). much, account jurisdiction; itself knowing intelligent waiver rights. provides, part, not: "(2) people secure persons, houses, papers, effects unreasonable search seizure .; "(3) twice put jeopardy; "(4) compel witness himself; "(6) deny proceeding speedy trial, informed accusation, confronted witnesses compulsory obtaining favor, expense assistance defense; "(7) excessive bail, fines, inflict cruel unusual punishments ., "(8) deprive law; "(9) attainder post facto "(10) right, request, persons." 1302. argues violates merit. refrain denying "to simply begs ICRA. show treated differently

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