Document: 418 U.S. 264 94 S.Ct. 2770 41 L.Ed.2d 745 OLD DOMINION BRANCH NO. 496, NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF LETTER CARRIERS, AFL-CIO, et al., Appellants,v.Henry M. AUSTIN al. No. 72—1180. Argued Nov. 14, 1973. Decided June 25, 1974. Syllabus As part of its ongoing efforts to organize the remainder letter carriers, appellant union, carriers' collective-bargaining representative in Richmond, Virginia, published a 'List Scabs' newsletter, including names appellees, together with pejorative definition 'scab' using words like 'traitor.' Appellees brought libel actions. Though recognizing that case involved publications labor union were relevant union's organizational campaign, trial court overruled appellants' motions dismiss based on ground publication had First Amendment and federal law protection. The interpreted Linn v. Plant Guard Workers, 383 53, 86 657, 15 582 permit application state laws as long challenged statements made 'actual malice,' defined being 'actuated by some sinister or corrupt motive such hatred, personal spite, ill will, desire injure plaintiff . gross indifference recklessness amount wanton wilful disregard rights plaintiff.' jury awarded appellees damages, State Supreme Court affirmed. Held: 1. Although supra, held does not completely pre-empt libels during disputes, decision recognized extent seeks make actionable defamatory disputes without knowledge their falsity reckless truth. Pp. 270—273. 2. Federal favor uninhibited, robust, wide-open debate disputes. 273—279. (a) here is Executive Order 11491, governing relations employment. basic provisions are those National Labor Relations Act, similarly afford wide latitude for freedom speech. partial pre-emption thus equally applicable here. (b) free speech protections afforded organizing extend post-recognition activity same degree pre-recognition activity. P. 279. 3. court's instruction defining malice common-law terms was erroneous reflected misunderstanding Linn, which adopted reckless-or-knowing-falsehood test New York Times Co. Sullivan, 376 254, 84 710, 11 686. 280—282. 4. award arising out news-letter did comport protection Linn. use epithet 'scab,' literally factually true common parlance protected under law. Publication likewise actionable, since 'traitor' cannot be construed representations fact figurative sense manifest strong disagreement views workers opposing unionization also Cf. Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Assn. Bresler, 398 6, 90 1537, 26 6. 282—287. 213 Va. 377, 192 S.E.2d 737, reversed. Mozart G. Ratner, Washington, D.C., appellants. Stephen Kapral Parker E. Cherry, Va., appellees. Mr. Justice MARSHALL delivered opinion Court. 1 This involves three judgments imposing liability $165,000 result newsletter continuing drive. question presented whether these can squared guaranteed 2 * Appellant Old Dominion Branch 496 local affiliated Association Letter Carriers, AFL-CIO. At all times this case, postal authorities exclusive carriers area accordance § 10 11491,1 labor-management Government. Appellees, Henry Austin, L. D. Brown, Roy Ziegengeist, Richmond who neither members Union nor paid any dues fees Union.2 3 it already been selected bargaining majority unit, spring 1970 engaged an effort carriers. periodically monthly Carrier's Corner, list yet joined Union, heading Scabs.' After his name twice appeared Scabs,' appellee Austin complained Postmaster President trying coerce him into joining. said he know what scab was, but going sue if called again. 4 Several weeks later, issue Corner distributed members. Once again contained well 12 others. Just above names, noted '(s)ome co-workers quandary is' 'we submit following.' There followed well-known piece trade literature, generally attributed author Jack London, purported supply definition: 5 'The Scab 6 'After God finished rattlesnake, toad, vampire, He awful substance left scab. 7 'A two-legged animal corkscrew soul, water brain, combination backbone jelly glue. Where others have hearts, carries tumor rotten principles. 8 'When comes down street, men turn backs Angels weep Heaven, Devil shuts gates hell keep out. 9 'No man (or woman) has right so there pool drown carcass in, rope enough hang body with. Judas gentleman compared For betraying Master, character himself. A not. 'Esau sold birthright mess pottage. Savior thirty pieces silver. Benedict Arnold country promise commission British Army. sells birthright, country, wife, children fellowmen unfulfilled from employer. traitor himself; God; country; SCAB God, family class.' App. 8—9. (Emphasis supplied.) filed defamation actions against shortly after published.3 Appellants sought dismissal judge 'publications (were) course campaign employees.' 20. Nevertheless, demurrers, interpreting Court's Workers Local 114, 83 (1966), circumstances malice.' malice' instructions follows: 13 term conduct shows at time printed they actuated plaintiff; communication 93. 14 returned verdict awarding each $10,000 compensatory damages $45,000 punitive damages.4 Virginia 737 (1972). In view substantial claims expression law, courts erred pre-emptive effect we probable jurisdiction set oral argument Gertz Robert Welch, Inc., 323, 2997, 789, 412 917, 93 2731, 37 143 (1973). We reverse. II 16 noted, calls upon us determine may applied penalize undermining tenet policy. do approach problem, however, clean slate. performed difficult task reconciling competing interests area, established framework our analysis here, supra. 17 assistant general manager Pinkerton's Detective Agency suit diversity action court. alleged leaflet company's employees, charged 'lying' employees 'robbing' them pay increases, false defamatory. District dismissed complaint Board over subject matter complaint, finding would arguably unfair practice 8(b) amended, 29 U.S.C. 158(b), San Diego Building Trades Council Garmon, 359 236, 79 773, 775 (1959), therefore compelled grounds. Appeals 18 bare disagreed, NLRA found exercise 'merely peripheral concern' laws, within meaning appropriate substantive limitations imposed insure protected. Further, "overriding interest' protecting (state) residents malicious libels.' U.S., 61, S.Ct., 662. Clark, writing Court, pointed occurring significantly interfere NLRB's role considering arguable contemporaneous violations Act. observed, different concerned coercive misleading nature statements, rather than quality. And provide quite remedies: only compensate victim; NLRB order new representation election substantially affected outcome election. 19 On other hand, danger unrestricted could easily observed: 20 'Labor ordinarily heated affairs; language commonplace might deemed per se jurisdictions. Indeed, campaigns frequently characterized bitter extreme charges, countercharges, unfounded rumors, vituperations, accusations, misrepresentations distortions. Both management often speak bluntly recklessly, embellishing respective positions imprecatory language.' 58, 660. 21 freewheeling written spoken word, found, expressly fostered Congress approved NLRB. Thus, Clark acknowledged 'a congressional intent encourage issues dividing management,' id., 62, 663, 'the given frequent consideration type circulated controversies, allowed parties.' Id., 60, 22 necessary impose restrictions prevent 'unwarranted intrusion discussion envisioned Act.' 65, 664. looked decisions, 'although tolerates intemperate, abusive inaccurate attempts interpret Act giving either party license intentionally circulating insulting material known false.' adopt analogy standards 686 (1964). Accordingly, pre-empted III 23 course, 11491 NLRA. think policies favoring accommodation conflicting necessarily follows.5 24 establish system employment remarkably similar scheme Act.6 several significant adjustments reflect structure responsibilities governmental employer,7 apparent large model.8 one primary purposes 'substantially strengthen bringing more line practices private sector economy.' Presidential Documents 1508 (Oct. 29, 1969) (announcement signing Exec. 11491). while decisions binding precedent Order, Assistant Secretary administration will 'take account experience gained Labor-Management Charleston Naval Shipyard Case Nos. 40—1940 (CA), 40—1950 A/SLMR 1, p. (Nov. 3, 1970). 25 light purpose, see nothing indicates intended restrict way robust Such evidence available, rather, demonstrates tolerance carried Order. example, Regional Administrators program stated, context campaigns: 'It cliche now but, nonetheless, embedded policy electioneering campaigning broad tolerance. encourage, prohibit, exaggeration, dissemination half-truth accusation. sum, leave employee decide.'9 27 agency censorship materials, even delete 'slanderous' 'inflammatory' material, unlawful interference 19(a)(1). Los Angeles Air Route Traffic Control Center, 72—CA—3014(26), 283, (June 30, 1973) (summarized BNA Govt.Empl.Rel.Rep.No. 514, July 1973, 10). 28 recognize contain provision corresponding 8(c) NLRA,10 relied But section primarily 'to attributing anti-union employer basis past statements.' 62—63, n. 5, 663 (emphasis added). apparently thought unnecessary because directs Government, employer, position neutrality concerning employees.11 'Government officials mount 'vote no' campaigns.' Hampton, Relations: Program Evolution, Cath.U.L.Rev. 493, 502 source NLRA, particularly context, guarantee employees' form, join, assist organizations.'12 30 'Basic join organizations, engage concerted activities persuade mutual aid before Norris-LaGuardia 47 Stat. 70 Wagner 49 449 unions 'use lawful propaganda enlarge membership." Drivers 639, 362 274, 279, 80 706, 709, 710 (1960) (citations omitted). 31 Vigorous join' must stifled threat overenthusiastic rhetoric innocent mistake fact. concluded 7, prove erroneous, unless falsity. See, e.g., Atlantic Towing Co., 75 N.L.R.B. 1169, 1171—1173 (1948). importance protection, pertinent case: 32 'Likewise, number cases, epithets 'unfair,' 'liar' struggles indefensible remove though defame parties dispute.' 60—61, 33 These considerations Section guarantees rights.13 34 dispose appellees' suggestion no 'labor dispute' facts case. It true, point out, dispute between directed toward achieving recognition. Linn's remedies obviously depend abstract notion constitutes dispute'; where leading implicated. 35 reasons law's organizers try peacefully inhibition restraint. efforts, activity, entitled reason limit campaigns. much broader. itself outside context. reject distinction recognition Unions legitimate interest Whether goal merely preserve majority, achieve 100% membership—a concern security agreements permitted, 2, supra—these 1.14 IV 36 below applicability Instead, both believed required instructed find liability. sense—as 'hatred, injure'—were adequate reflects fundamental holding explicitly (1964), heart requirement recovery permitted 'with not.' 280, 726. adoption reckless-or-knowing falsehood reiterated opinion. See 63, 662, 38 Of shown malice. 'malice' special used Times—as shorthand 'knowledge truth' standard. 279—280, Instructions defendant's 'clearly impermissible.' Beckley Newspapers Corp. Hanks, 389 81, 82, 88 197, 198, 248 (1967). '(I)ll plaintiff, bad motives, elements standard.' Rosenbloom Metromedia, 403 52 18, 91 1811, 1824, 296 (1971) (opinion Brennan, J.). Accord, Garrison Louisiana, 379 64, 73—74, 77—79, 85 209, 215 216, 217—218, 125 (1964); Collins, 380 356, 992, 892 (1965); Rosenblatt Baer, 75, 84, 669, 675, 597 (1966); 9—11, 1539—1540, (1970). clear reversed instructions. 39 This, end inquiry. cases involving obligation, formulate principles capable application, review 284—285, 728—729; Pickering Education, 391 563, 574—575, 1731, 1737—1738, 811 (1968); 11, 1540. 'We 'make independent examination whole record,' Edwards South Carolina, 372 229, 235, 680, 683, 697, assure ourselves judgment constitute forbidden field expression.' 285, 729. 40 While duty most obligation exists claimed laws. derived supremacy inconsistent regulation, Hill Florida ex rel. Watson, 325 538, 65 1373, 89 L.Ed. 1782 (1945); Teamsters Oliver, 358 295—296, 297, 304—305, 312 requires should newsletter's judgment. Rather knowing falsehood, naming scabs true. One accepted definitions 'one refuses union,' Webster's Third International Dictionary (unabridged ed. 1961), undisputed refused Branch. To sure, word insult epithet. gives abusive, fear restraint penalty believes effective means point. observed particular specifically 661—662. 42 nonetheless argue basing claiming London's 'definition scab.' contend read charge having 'rotten principles,' lacking 'character,' 'traitor(s)'; charges untrue; appellants knew untrue. upheld awards charges. 384, S.E.2d, 742. 43 agree. believe laws.15 sine qua non existence falsehood. put bluntly: repulsive enjoys immunity provided falls short deliberate untruth.' 663. Before met, statement 339—340, 3006 3007. But, view, factual disputed claim scabs, is, union. 44 definition's reversing injunction picketing, loose undefined slogans conventional give-and-take economic political controversies—like 'unfair' 'fascist'—is facts.' Cafeteria Employees 302 Angelos, 320 293, 295, 64 126, 127, 58 (1943). loose, demonstrate oppose unionization. Expression opinion, terms, Here, too, 'there thing idea. However pernicious seem, correction conscience judges juries competition ideas.' 45 Appellees' rejected recently There, petitioners respondent, public figure, certain negotiations 'blackmail,' recovered theory committed criminal offense. reversed, 'blackmail' Stewart, reasoned: 46 simply impossible reader reached article understood exactly meant: Bresler's wholly legal negotiating proposals criticized. No speakers meetings newspaper articles reporting charging Bresler contrary, careless perceived rhetorical hyperbole, vigorous considered extremely unreasonable.' 1542 (footnote committing offense treason.16 scab' lusty imaginative contempt felt towards refuse join. exaggerated note very permissible Cambria Clay Products 106 267, 273 (1953), enforced part, F.2d 48 (CA6 1954). become familiar literature; according testimony countless last years more. Permitting literature plainly justifiable reliance say situations taken convey 13, 1541. reasonably inferred, laws.17 appealed Judgment 50 DOUGLAS, concurring result. 51 states, expressed dispute. instance Virginia's massive damages1 publicly expressing, heat drive, highly too surprising 'scabs.' I agree stand. Unlike one, constitutionally 'where actionable.' policy, manifested favors open disagree however reach regulation States prohibited interfering federally regulated arming disputants controversies arsenal 69, 666, (Fortas, J., dissenting). referring affairs implication otherwise reassess underlying attempt reformulate 53 Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 102, 60 736, 744, 1993, that, '(i)n information regarded Constitution.'2 Since constitutional when subjects speaker judgments, my ability penalizing 'say naughty things disputes'3 precisely nil. Framers policymaking devised binds all. stated 356—357, 3015, prohibit passing law4 limitation formulation example restriction. 54 If limited Government restraining discussion, regulations crucial. always through Fourteenth5 leaves impotent enforcing restrictions. conclusion regarded, must, privilege United citizenship Fourteenth ephemeral 'implicit concept ordered liberty.'6 dissent 358—359, 3016: 55 '(T)he rested press Due Process Clause alone. speaks due process 'privileges immunities' citizenship. conceive higher abridgement freedoms press.' 56 "within Constitution" bound honor guarantee, fate clear. 'Discussion Amendment, penalized actions.' 68, 666 (Black, extensive illustrate complete bar suits cold comfort enter arena vituperation strife exceeds 'normal' levels hyperbole community accustomed. determination suit, standard recovery, likely influenced attitudes colorful individuals promotion real appreciation damage inflicted 57 consistent speech, concur reversal. POWELL, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST dissenting. 59 Today extends rule encompass every majority's expansive construction phrase Because appears allow employers individual little risk accountable doing so, dissent. establishes essentially (NLRA). acknowledges two schemes identical finds persuasive differentiate purpose determining impact With 61 then concludes instant controlled (1966). covered false. .' Thus media originally enunciated subsequently extended figures Curtis Butts, 388 130, 87 1975, 1094 relies support pre-empts premised knowing-or-reckless perceive sweeping extension Times. distinguishable rationale, truth inapplicable hand. 62 classic confrontation locked combat campaign. Agency, Inc. Workers. urging allegedly accusing increases. sued libel, constituting suit. 63 disagreed reasoning. .,' protect injury reputation. Even practice, Board's character, powerless take step redress reputation defamed individual. circumstance, remain falsehoods pre-emption. knowing-or-reckless-falsity allowing plaintiffs recover less demanding level Sullivan. another dimension, distinguishes That scope rule—in words, range partially displaced determined presence justify preemption delineate boundaries concept. occasion for, seen, prototypical management. Given setting, potential conflict side unauthorized weapon battle loyalty unorganized possibly undermined uninhibited removed setting supporting obtain 66 area. maximum 435 save active solidly entrenched, approximately 96% signed up. among elected carriers; acting individually, motivated principle conviction perhaps, alleges, dues. event, worked years, respectively, sort trouble fellow employees. fact, anyone until became displeased admitted began ridicule vilification. 67 characterizes ante, treats situation intendment accurate sufficiently implicated warrant whenever declines invitation member. Certainly, organizations effort, organized otherwise, defection short, scurrilous do. own conduct, created 'dispute,' which, provides consequences wrondoing 68 unwise Here powerful forces management, clash attention regulatory authorities, hence prospect whatever subvert fair peaceful resolution Yet nevertheless holds entered seems me needless denigration 'overriding compensating Moreover, remedy wrong done them. Far representing fight self-government, defenseless individuals.* 'dispute' themselves helpless inequality first gave social movement. today's decision, employee's exposure harm presumably corporate fairly regressive 69 alternative recovering indeed kind, publication. According allegation 'scabs,' movement, true.' Ante, 283. identified 'scabs' explicated vituperative appearing immediately names. substitute appellee's appears. So construed, plain import lacked traitors families, friends. contending instead mere accepts argument, erroneously. fails distinguish references anonymous group, class, occupation, description named lawyers shysters doctors quacks, matter—indeed, libelous se—to publish lawyer Jones shyster Dr. Smith quack. voice generally; impugned character. 71 hold reverse remand accord 789. Fed.Reg. 17605 (1969), CFR 861 (1966—1970 Compilation), 254 (1974). promulgated October 1969, January 1970. remains respect today. Postal longer Reorganization 1970, 719, convered cabinet-level Post Office Department Service, 'independent establishment executive branch,' 201. reorganization, Service largely placed NLRB, 1971. §§ 1201—1209. arose brief period controlling. 12(c) provides: '(N)othing agreement (between organization) shall require member organization, money organization ..' continues prohibition agreements, 1209(c). permits 8(a)(3), 140, 158(a)(3), except insofar violate 14(b), 164(b). Retail Clerks 1625 Schermerhorn, 375 96, 219, 179 (1963). actually 'insulting words' statute, Va.Code Ann. 8—630 (1957), 'All usual acceptation insults tend violence breach peace However, '(a)n Code, treated slander se' exception Carwile Newspapers, 196 82 588, 591 (1954). 381, 740 least whose listed abeyance pending appeal. growing greater awarded. reasonable President's responsibility efficient operation American Federation 77 L.R.R.M. 2977 (DC), aff'd sub nom. Wolkomir Council, 2634 (CADC 1971), cert. denied, 405 920, 92 954, 791 (1972); Manhattan-Bronx Gronouski, 121 U.S.App.D.C. 321, 350 451 (1965), 382 978, 548, 469 cf. Civil Commission 413 555, 2880, 2885, 796 express statutory authorization 7301, '(t)he prescribe branch.' business control authorization, difficulty concluding valid create Supremacy Clause. Pink, 315 203, 230—232, 552, 565—567, (1942); Youngstown Sheet & Tube Sawyer, 343 579, 635—637, 72 863, 870—871, 96 1153 (1952) (Jackson, concurring); Farkas Texas Instruments, 629, 632 (CA5), 977, 480, 471 (1967); Farmer Philadelphia Electric 329 (CA3 1964). grants right, freely reprisal, organization,' refrain activity,' 'each right,' Sections 19(a) 19(b) define unions, prohibitions 8(a) chosen unit elections secret ballot, 9(c)(1) Primary Relations, performs sector. Under 6(a) empowered determinations units, supervise elections, decide complaints alleging practices. Upon violation 6(b) empowers agencies cease desist affirmative action. heard function. Most notable departures strikes picketing 19(b)(4) 11(b). 493 Naumoff, Ground Rules Recognition Lab.L.J. 100 (1970); Hart, Labor's Frontiers Directive, Va.L.Rev. 898, 904—905 (1962) (discussing 10988, predecessor present Order). 8, 103. Compare Stewart-Warner Corp., 102 1153, 1158 quoted America, 661, expressing views, thereof, contains reprisal force benefit.' parts preamble recites well-being benefited providing opportunity participate implementation personnel affecting conditions employment.' 1(a) head apprised interference, restraint, coercion, discrimination practiced discourage membership organization.' 501—502. contexts, sources ballot 9(c) (1) Wide exchange opinions, promote informed choice needed work effectively. grant sector, collective protection.' activities. absence mention reflection picketing. lack indicate intention regulate location form somewhat curtail content 'coerce' joining 19(b)(1) expect parallel 8(b)(1)(A). (1960), 8(b)(1)(A) power authority proceed tactics violence, intimidation, threats thereof.' 290, 715. Brennan emphasized methods persuasion, quoting Senator Taft's remarks Taft-Hartley Act: union-organizing drive conducted propaganda, it. say, 'You them; you up signs; want them, cannot, exercising work." 287—288, 714. 'interfere with' incorporating wording making 'restrain' employee. 639 with,' draft 'limited application' 'reprehensible practices' loss employment, persuasion. 286, 713. method contention properly addressed instance, ultimately correct, still show knowingly consider arguments advanced record treason. disturbed moved complain prior threaten asserted testified coworkers hostile talking about, tense nervous caused headaches. took about charge. Nor jury's indication certainly suggest verdict. instruct foundation 'insults' 'ill will' sufficient invited base 'scab.' need excessive. important 'in propensity excessive defamation, availability pose stability smaller employers.' '(i)f excessive, remittitur trial.' 66, 664 total figure larger Bork, Neutral Principles Some Problems, Ind.L.J. (1971). Decisions Thornhill, emasculative reading Amendment. Black said: 'There protects although doubt Amendment's passage.' H. Black, Constitutional Faith (1969). areas formulated. sent inhabitants Quebec 1774, Continental spoke 'five great rights,' stating part: mention, regards press. consists, besides advancement truth, science, morality, arts general, diffusion liberal sentiments Journals 1774—1789 108 (Ford 1904) 67, 665, 90, 678, (concurring). explaining history led conclusion, Framers: 'They behind sad useless tragedies people tongues plucked ears cut off hands chopped off, worse dared write opinions. They wanted ordain central government tell publish.' Faith, (1968). Stromberg California, 283 359, 368—369, 532, 535—536, 1117, compiled 3016 (Douglas, Palko Connecticut, 319, 149, 288. paper posted bulletin board. reply defend reputations.

Category: 2