Document: 532 U.S. 223121 S.Ct. 1475149 L.Ed.2d 420 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.HUNT, GOVERNOR OF NORTH CAROLINA, et al.v.CROMARTIE al.* No. 99-1864. SUPREME COURT THE UNITED STATES Argued November 27, 2000 Decided April 18, 2001 Syllabus After this found North Carolina's legislature violated Constitution by using race as predominant factor drawing its Twelfth Congressional District's 1992 boundaries, Shaw v. Hunt, 517 899, State redrew those boundaries. A three-judge District subsequently granted appellees summary judgment, finding new 1997 boundaries had also been created with racial considerations dominating all others. reversed, there was a genuine issue material fact whether evidence consistent race-based objective constitutional political creating safe Democratic seat. Hunt Cromartie, 526 541. Among things, relied on proposed submitted appellants conclude that, because State's African-American voters overwhelmingly voted Democratic, one could not easily distinguish legislative effort create majority-minority district from safely one; data showing voter registration did indicate how would actually vote; and about actual behavior affect litigation's outcome. Id., at 547-551. On remand, again held, after 3-day trial, used driven criteria It based conclusion three findings-the district's shape, splitting towns counties, heavily voting population-that considered when it judgment inappropriate, drawn collect precincts high racial, rather than political, identification. Held: The Court's Equal Protection Clause clearly erroneous findings. Pp. 5-23. (a) here evidentiary: adequate support for race, politics, drove legislature's districting decision. Those attacking have demanding burden proof show facially neutral law unexplainable grounds race. supra, 546. Because underlying decision falls within sphere competence, Miller Johnson, 515 900, 915, courts must exercise extraordinary caution adjudicating claims such one, id., 916, especially where, here, has articulated legitimate explanation population which affiliation highly coordinated, see 551-552. will review findings only "clear error," asking "on entire evidence" "left definite firm conviction mistake committed." Gypsum Co., 333 364, 395. An extensive warranted no intermediate court review, trial lengthy, key consisted primarily documents expert testimony, credibility evaluations played minor role. 5-7. (b) critical determination "race, politics," predominantly explains rests upon insufficient cannot themselves, matter law, here. See Bush Vera, 952, 968. Its five subsidiary findings, accept adequate. First, registration, behavior, precisely kind inadequate last time case White registered Democrats "cross-over" vote Republican more often do African-Americans, who register between 95% 97% time. Thus, trying secure seat placing reliable end up containing reasons. Second, appellees' expert, Dr. Weber, pointed-that reliably 60% necessary seat, but 63% reliable; certain white-Democratic were excluded while African-American-Democratic included; precinct split Districts 9 12; plans fewer precincts-simply does provide significant additional conclusion. Also, portions Weber's testimony cited undercut his conclusions. Third, Court, accepting contrary appellants' Peterson, (and far record reveals, not) reject much supporting factual information he provided, showed 12's include Democrats. Fourth, statement balance Senator Cooper, redistricting leader, shows along partisan geographic considerations, says little And an e-mail sent Gerry Cohen, staff member responsible drafting plans, offers some conclusion, less persuasive kinds direct cases. Fifth, maps summarizing tend refute 7-22. (c) modicum conclusion-the Cohen e-mail, Cooper's statement, aspects testimony-taken together, predominated boundaries' drawing, correlates closely behavior. Where districts identification affiliation, party least achieved objectives alternative ways comparably traditional principles alternatives brought significantly greater balance. failed make erroneous. 22-23. Reversed. NOTES: * Together 99-1865, Smallwood al. Cromartie al., appeal same court. ON APPEALS FROM DISTRICT FOR EASTERN CAROLINA Breyer, J., delivered Stevens, O'Connor, Souter, Ginsburg, JJ., joined. Thomas, filed dissenting opinion, Rehnquist, Scalia Kennedy, Opinion Justice Breyer Court. 1 In appeal, we "predominant factor" 12th court's our view, We therefore reverse Clause. Const., Amdt. 14, 1. 2 "racial districting" litigation us fourth Our first two holdings addressed former 12, Carolina congressional contained majority voters. Reno, 509 630 (1993) (Shaw I); 899 (1996) II). 3 I, plaintiffs' allegation-that reasons-if true, underlie legal holding held could. wrote violation exist where boundary though "race face," nonetheless can understood "separate into different basis race," "separation lacks sufficient justification." U.S., 649. 4 II, reversed subsequent boundary-drawing question violate Constitution. "unconventional," snakelike way predominately make-up, history, together demonstrated deliberate "majority-black" "could compromised," simply designed "protec[t] incumbents." 902-903, 905-907. concluded use justified. 909-918. B 5 third focused redrawn 1997. 541 (1999). judge dissenting, favor challenging "used . driven," App. Juris. Statement 262a. "uncontroverted facts" unusually shaped district, counties cities, particular placed almost Democratic-registered, precincts, inside locating white outside district. latter circumstance, said court, maximize strength, strength. Ibid. 6 reversed. agreed helped case. 547-549. But neither itself, nor coupled show, unconstitutional plaintiffs claimed. That objective, namely, creation 549-551. 7 pointed affidavit witness defendants, David W. Peterson. Peterson offered voters, majority-African-American 550. provided vote. 550-551. behave, registered, outcome litigation. "not suited disposition" 554. C 8 parties undertook discovery. trial. (over dissent) unconstitutionally tried "(1) [to] cur[e] [previous district's] defects" "(2) plan maintain existing delegation." 11a. added "achieve second goal," "drew (1) avoid incumbents (2) preserve core districts." "plan enacted largely reflects these directives." "as General Assembly driven" without compelling justification doing so. 28a. latter, constitutionally critical, part cities towns, (47%) population, 11a-17a-all matters 544. specific finding-absent previously litigation-that "to identification." 28a-29a (emphasis added). 10 last-mentioned rested turn determinations: 11 "the legislators many heavily-Democratic even immediately border established compact district," 25a; 29a ("more ... bypassed higher population"); 12 "[a]dditionally, Plaintiffs' trumped construction explanations utterly explain composition 26a; 13 (3) Peterson's " 'unreliable' relevant," 27a (citing Weber); 14 (4) Roy alluded need 'racial partisan' balance," ibid.; 15 (5) Senate's coordinator, Cooper reporting "moved Greensboro Black community 12th, now need[ed] take [about] 60,000 out 12th," 369; 27a-28a. 16 intervenors notice appeal. 28 U.S.C. 1253. noted probable jurisdiction. 530 1260 (2000). reverse. II 17 evidentiary. determine particularly ultimate motive political. making determination, aware under I later cases, (who attack district) "demanding one." 928 (1995) (O'Connor, concurring). specified claim improperly criterion, order, example, minimum "legislature subordinated race-neutral considerations." 916 (majority opinion). Race "a motivation minority 959 principal opinion) original), 'predominant factor' motivating decision," 547 (quoting Miller, 916) Plaintiffs 'is "unexplainable race." ' 546 644, quoting Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 429 252, 266 (1977)). clear ordinarily competence. 915. Hence, "must discretion competing interests," ibid., "exercise lines Caution appropriate case, decision, correlated. 551-552 (noting "[e]vidence blacks constitute supermajority amounting plurality neighboring not, suffice prove jurisdiction motivated correlation preference"). 18 error." applying standard, we, like reviewing lower "would decided differently." Anderson Bessemer City, 470 564, 573 (1985). Rather, ask evidence," 395 (1948). 19 reviews, affirms, "lightly overturn" concurrent courts. E.g., Neil Biggers, 409 188, 193, n. (1972). instance review. Moreover, lengthy testimony. Credibility Accordingly, find error, warranted. Bose Corp. Consumers Union Inc., 466 485, 500-501 (1984). leaves "with conviction," 395, mistaken. III 20 determination-the remanded litigation-consists politics (the population) judgment. Given undisputed correlated Carolina, facts themselves cannot, 968 ("If merely correlate they classification justify"). rested, however, product "mer[e] correlat[ion]," instead result predominance line-drawing process. 5. 21 considering each finding, given weight familiar litigation, heard witness, care. Nonetheless, reasons shall spell detail summarize follows: 22 primary behavior; us. infra, 9-10. pointed, statements 10-15, 17-19. provided. 15-17. event, charts politics" 19-21; Appendixes, infra. 23 district." ("[M]ore population"). however-insofar differs remaining four-rests solely Party including equivalent, lower, registration. 13a-14a, 17a. Indeed, cites length figures included "several compositions 40 100 percent African-American," excluding adjacent 35 population" contain 54% 76% 13a-14a. 24 As before, problem focuses evidence, compare ibid. (District trial) 249a-250a opinion), accurately predict preference polls. 174a; 550-551 (describing analysis "more thorough" "party always correspond"). candidate Record, Deposition 37-42 (discussing data); 304 (stating cast 70% their votes candidates); 139 (Dr. African-Americans Democrats); 118 (testimony Weber behavior). interested may, regard racial. 25 Insofar data, us, tells nothing new; help answer posed 551. 26 [p]laintiffs' 26a. six citations examined reference. 27 At pages transcript, 91. Yet, adds, more-than-60% 12. Hence (we read infer), likely politics. Tr. 163; 314-315. indicates, although right exceeds figure very little. Nor districts, unchallenged appellees, "safe" 148. Democratic. 80a (Democratic over representative elections averaged 63%). By measures, (Districts 10) 61% Republican. And, conceded, might urged (trying six/six Democrat/Republican delegation split) seats, safe, possible. 149. field inherently uncertain, tiny calculated percentage differences too small carry evidentiary weight. 29 parts transcript testified table prepared listing 204-205, 262. contains 39% 56% (depending county) more-than-40% every 204-205. Why, essentially asks, if mind, place produced mixture? 30 own provides question. agreed, listed 40% virtually none 140. Yet sought 40%-reliably obvious 31 Neither specify white-reliably-Democratic located near enough practical them, sacrificing important goals. suggested plan, 106-107, pitted against (Sue Myrick, Mel Watt, Democrat 12). result-"a competitive them losing seat"-was desirable. 153. legislature, reasons, believed opposite. drew protect incumbents-a goal recognized 32 For insight true motive. 33 next Mecklenburg County (precinct 77) 221. apparently thought precinct, segment 12-unless, course, simultaneously conceded 9's incumbent wanted whole 77 left her burdened number 156-157. "test[ed]" (rather political) motive, say, adjusting determining nonracial, consequences adjustments. 132. 34 peninsula invaded 9, neatly dividing two, 496-a conclusive nonracial reason factor." 251. stronger underlies it. 36 final citation assertion so 288. recognize exist. But, unless hypothetical better satisfied goals well principles, alone improper all, affirmative obligation heavily, majority, minority. imposes opposed traditional, motivations. cited, politically adopt 37 addition, Some further said, developed conclusions impression computer-based program 137-138; 302 (reflecting declaration Court). He "anything dynamics going [l]egislature involving" 135, sometimes expressing disdain process cautioned respect, 150-151; 915-916. 38 Other testified, both security, enact 1998, effect during constitutionality plan. existence significantly. Although somewhat still divides communities lines, providing transferring group 5th 6th Districts, avoid. 352, 355. Furthermore, unlike 1998 joined major manner regarded reflecting real commonality urban interests, inner city schools, health care problems, public housing problems." 430 (statement Sen. Winner); 421 Martin). Consequently, tell predominant. rely Kelley Everglades Drainage Dist., 319 415, 420-422 (1943) (per curiam). 39 taken whole, minimal underlay relevant." citing 222-224, 232). Specifically, compared corresponded principle expect 41 rejection unreliable "ignor[es] core" 223, fails account populations, 223-224. matter-ignoring "core"-apparently view context heart "core" itself argue makeup critical. why discern relevant Nothing suggests "political/racial" 42 matter-that precincts-relates aspect Appellants presented four propositions: first, reflect 173a-174a; second, whites, 159a-160a; third, 189a, 191a-192a, 182a-185a; fourth, just good 161a-167a; 181a-182a. criticism most affects reliability element special analysis. undermine related communities. presentation statistical poor indicator refuting data. 43 time, available comparing Appendixes A, B, C, challenges accuracy maps, assume insofar confirms what concede. exceptions discussed below, 19-21, general, more-reliably less-reliably fact, turn, supports answers questions D 44 pieces "direct" discriminatory intent. 45 testifying committee 1997, satisfies "need balance." 27a. words balance" referred 10-to-2 Caucasian/African-American 12-member delegation. admitted mind. 46 full reads 47 "Those you dealt Redistricting realize solve encounter everyone Plan. However, think overall fair, geographic, throughout Carolina. come agreement sides give bit, we've reached live with." 460. 48 agree it-to refer current delegation's read, phrase considerations; role comparatively speaking. 958 ("Strict scrutiny apply performed consciousness race"); (legislatures "will demographics"); 646 (same). 49 piece February 10, Leslie Winner. wrote: "I moved 12th. await your direction this." 369. 50 reference race-i.e., "Black community"-is obvious. discuss point Greensboro's District; failing so; members legislature; paid attention respect 1st District, extensive, detailed discussion percentages. (State district); 907 set 906 (recounting "principal reason" version E 51 appended brief describes relation Consequently consider claims, "swapped" several precincts-without harming basic "safely Democratic" objective. Cf. 10-11. 52 suggest, identifying swap, white, Forsyth County. Brief Appellees 30. None Appendix infra (showing Demo-cratic strength reflected victories precinct); 484 re-flected registration). One Brown/Douglas Recreation Precinct, African-American. remainder form buffer home Fifth Representative Richard Burr border, removal deprive large portion hometown, him vulnerable challenge elsewhere 209a; 623. thesis. 53 say swapped Davidson (Thomasville Lexington 3) Guilford (Greensboro 17). 30, 25. Whatever virtues diminished size geographically producing narrow isthmus linking north south demographically smallest deviating 1,300 below legislatively endorsed ideal mean 552,386 population. Traditional consequently militated swap. Linwood Lee Jones 122 keep deviations 1,000); 199 effect). 54 suggest County, (Charlotte 81 LCI-South) 21). suggestion difficult evaluate, map specifically identifies name. tell, swap marginally (decreasing 300 persons) shape questionable, leaving Charlotte jutting 9. convinced proposal materially advances claim. 55 (11 14) High Point (1, 13, 15, 19) improved significantly, 35%. Additionally, altered worse. D, infra; 622 Cohen). exclude seems draw follow main thoroughfares 205a; 575. 56 Even judgments few wrong, handful total 154 involving hundred half million, strengthen IV 57 concede offering includes degree, (coupled considerations). dissent contends, post, defend decisions "stereotype" bears proving "dominant controlling," 913, "demanding" nature proof, 929 concurring), sensitivity, "extraordinary caution," treading prerogatives, successfully shown accounts result. "definite erred contrary. believe opportunity "precinct swapping" arguments change 58 put generally (or approximate equivalent) principles. disposition, address reversal. 59 60 whom Chief Justice, Scalia, Kennedy join, dissenting. 61 design finding-that predominate-was committed respectfully dissent. 62 Legislature finding. 541, 549 (1999); Lawyer Department 521 567, 580 (1997); 905 (1996); 910 (1995). (1985) ("[I]ntentional discrimination ..."). should overturn Lawyer, 580; Shaw, 910; 917. permitted "simply [we are] [we] Anderson, 573. "Where permissible views factfinder's choice erroneous." 574. upset 'left committed.' (1948)). 63 cite cases correct standard ante, 7, couch "clearly erroneous" terms, incantations empty gestures, contradicted engage "extensive review." 7. ways, ignores engages factfinding enterprise.1 significance absence action. consideration. If legitimate, mentioned prior benefit appellate Oregon Medical Soc., 343 326, 330, 332 (1952) (engaging error Sherman Act review). stated implication argument courts, reviewers conclusions, level rigorous supported law. Fed. Rule Civ. Proc. 52(a) ("Findings oral documentary aside articulate applied obviously another layer 573). 64 appears discount lengthy." Ante, deciding assumption my doubts,2 counsel deference "just hours" long, 500 (1984); lasted days witnesses. quite apart sifted through hundreds deposition analysis, forgotten panel reviewed iterations since 1992. calibrate according trier fact's familiarity gained working knowledge myriad period longer days. 65 downplays highlighting requiring determinations. matter, overlooks express assessment leader's credibility. 99-1864, pp. 27a, 28a, 8. interpretation written drafter influenced evaluation witness. 261-268. emphasis technical misses mark. determinations, never justify review," contrary, explained "[t]he rationale limited superiority judge's position determinations credibility." (specifically referring evidence). Instead, extends "expertise" factfinder "is rule, exception," 575, depart rule now. 66 Finally, perhaps best emptied meaningful content strongest testament dealing complex pattern) foray minutiae record. doubt ability sift volumes persuasively. wisdom, efficiency, increased accuracy, legitimacy searching 574-575 ("Duplication efforts contribute negligibly huge cost diversion judicial resources"). precedents error. 67 Reviewing impermissible.3 measures compactness, scattered dictated concerns. p. certainly hold irrelevant gerrymandering occurred. determined triable fact. acknowledged "that unusual rise inference motivation," "doubt[ed] bizarre equally 547, 3. explained, "[s]ome 'so irregular [they] rationally anything segregat[e] voters' (internal quotation marks omitted). 68 interpreted low black populations included.4 25a. assertion, examine reaching refocused performance. response concerns, measure precinct. 26a Trial Tr., 90-92, 105-107, 156-157). lost covering 69 credited motives.5 instance, 11, "safer" exceeded optimum percent. sense better" policy districting. impermissible.6 70 discredited (explaining "ignor[ed] core," "ha[d] appropriately done," "unreliable"). Again, judge, insistence ignore unpersuasive.7 ignored, me testimony-that analyze segments thus incomplete, 119-120-reasonably 71 foremost agenda: senators charge redistricting, computer capability able Shaw's trigger ending short majority.8 combination indirect ample purposes reported bluntest terms: [District], [District]." Certainly entitled targeting shifting purely tries belittle import noting being targeted. 18-19. 72 assigned task whether, why, predominated. it, inquiry offends malicious benign. defense stereotype regardless tended operating cf. 19, am permissibly accorded great Surely, racially motivated. 73 does, boundaries," 22. weigh instance. decide light inferences circumstantial permissible, compelled Despite 485 (1984), inquiry, malice Bose, de novo "constitutional fac[t]." (Rehnquist, dissenting). 567 (1997), 900 (1995), (1996). discounting state likelihood presumption [of correctness findings] tends increase judges lived controversy weeks months hours." 500. unclear, bearing fact-that defer long-had understanding scope "actual malice" novo, 514, calibrated assume, did, protecting individuals virtue election gerrymandered No questionable proposition. action, addressing impose "significantly impermissible action slightly absent considerations. reasonably motivations selecting net "significant." factor, mistaken finds admission validity sufficiently suspect, required logic. false discounts "express[ed] respect," openly believes seen 1990's judges, legislatures. 150-151. stating experience feeling contempt toward tone, demeanor, bias acknowledges factfinder, criticizes Precinct 77's Apparently 12-13. addresses fashion. move moving presumably incumbent. 157. result, keeping intact, widening corridor eastern western thereby increasing functional contiguity. criticism, work, red herring. talked Of drawn, criticism-that lies edges, core-is force. leader Legislature, senator geographical, balance, isolation, appear Unlike advantage listening watching testify. motives, apparent. reasonable senator's regarding "happenstance" lack e-mail.

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