Document: 530 U.S. 466120 S.Ct. 2348147 L.Ed.2d 435 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.CHARLES APPRENDI, Jr., PETITIONERv.NEW JERSEY No. 99-478. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Argued March 28, 2000 Decided June 26, CERTIORARI TO NEW Syllabus Petitioner Apprendi fired several shots into home an African-American family and a statement-which he later retracted-that did not want his neighborhood because their race. He was charged under New Jersey law with, inter alia, second-degree possession firearm for unlawful purpose, which carries prison term 5 10 years. The count refer State's hate crime statute, provides enhanced sentence if trial judge finds, by preponderance evidence, defendant committed with purpose intimidate person group of, After pleaded guilty, prosecutor filed motion enhance sentence. court found evidence shooting racially motivated sentenced 12-year on firearms count. In upholding sentence, appeals rejected Apprendi's claim Due Process Clause requires bias finding proved jury beyond reasonable doubt. State affirmed. Held: Constitution fact increases penalty prescribed statutory maximum, than prior conviction, must submitted Pp. 7-31. (a) answer narrow constitutional question presented-whether permissible, given it exceeds 10-year maximum offense charged-was foreshadowed holding Jones v. 526 227, that, regard federal law, Fifth Amendment's Sixth notice guarantees require conviction indictment, jury, Fourteenth Amendment commands same when state statute involved. 7-9. (b) right due process taken together, entitle criminal determination guilty every element charged, E.g., re Winship, 397 358, 364. historical foundation these principles extends down centuries common law. While judges this country have long exercised discretion sentencing, such bound range sentencing options legislature. See, e.g., Tucker, 404 443, 447. historic inseparability verdict judgment consistent limitation judges' highlight novelty scheme removes from exposes exceeding could receive punished according facts reflected alone. 9-18. (c) McMillan Pennsylvania, 477 79, first case used "sentencing factor" but affect imposed judge. at issue there run afoul Winship's strictures, budge position (1) limits exist States' authority define away necessary constitute offense, id., 85-88, (2) keeps exposing defendants greater additional punishment raise serious concerns, 88. Almendarez-Torres 523 224-in upheld allowing impose based convictions alleged indictment-represents best exceptional departure practice. 19-24. (d) light rule expressed here, Jersey's practice cannot stand. It allows convict its doubt then identical first-degree crimes finding, defendant's victim victim's particular characteristic. argument biased "element" distinct motive nothing more disagreement applied case. Beyond this, succeed own terms. does matter how required labeled, whether authorized jury's verdict, as "enhancement" here. degree culpability legislature associates factually conduct has significant implications both liberty heightened stigma associated selected worthy punishment. That placed enhancer within code's provisions mean essential offense. 25-31. 159 N. J. 7, 731 A. 2d 485, reversed remanded. Stevens, J., delivered Court, Scalia, Souter, Thomas, Ginsburg, JJ., joined. concurring opinion. opinion, joined Parts I II. O'Connor, dissenting Rehnquist, Kennedy Breyer, Opinion Justice Stevens Court. 1 A classifies "second-degree" Stat. Ann. §2C:39-4(a) (West 1995). Such punishable imprisonment "between five years years." §2C:43-6(a)(2). separate described "hate crime" "extended term" "[t]he committing acted individual individuals race, color, gender, handicap, religion, sexual orientation ethnicity." §2C:44-3(e) Supp. 2000). extended offenses 20 §2C:43-7(a)(3). 2 presented factual authorizing increase basis proof 3 * At 2:04 a.m. December 22, 1994, petitioner Charles Apprendi, .22-caliber bullets had recently moved previously all-white Vineland, Jersey. promptly arrested and, 3:05 a.m., admitted shooter. further questioning, 6:04 even though know occupants house personally, "because they black color them neighborhood." 10, 486 (1999). 4 grand returned 23-count indictment charging four first-degree, eight second-degree, six third-degree, fourth-degree offenses. charges shootings different dates, well various weapons. None counts referred none purpose. parties entered plea agreement, pursuant two (3 18) §2C:39-4a 1995), one (22) third-degree antipersonnel bomb, §2C:39-3a; dismissed counts. Under years, §2C:43-6(a)(2); between §2C:43-6(a)(3). As part however, reserved request higher "enhanced" 18 (which 22 shooting) ground §2C:44-3(e). correspondingly, challenge enhancement violates Constitution. 6 hearing, heard sufficient establish guilt 3, 18, 22; confirmed understood sentences those Because agreement provided sole (count 22) would concurrently sentences, potential were critical. If no enhancement, consecutive amount aggregate; if, alone aggregate 30 15-year period parole ineligibility. 7 accepted three pleas, term. thereafter held evidentiary hearing "purpose" 22. adduced psychologist seven character witnesses who testified reputation racial bias. also took stand himself, explaining incident unintended consequence overindulgence alcohol, denying way against African-Americans, statement police been accurately described. judge, officer's testimony credible, concluded supported "that bias." App. Pet. Cert. 143a. Having "by evidence" actions "with intimidate" 138a, 139a, 144a, applied. Rejecting him shorter concurrent 8 appealed, arguing, upon doubt, 358 (1970). Over dissent, Appellate Division Superior 304 Super. 147, 698 1265 (1997). Relying our decision 79 (1986), decided make factor," rather underlying offense-and established power elements crimes. create presumption guilt, determined, appear "tailored permit - tail wags dog substantive offense." Super., 154, 2d, 1269 (quoting McMillan, U.S., 88). Characterizing "motive," traditional considered "essential element" unless so provides. 158, 1270. recognizing expose "greater punishment," 156, 88), "one factor standing alone" render unconstitutional, Ibid. 9 divided 485 began while only prove "elements" mere component "within provisions" code "does Id., 20, 492. "Were case," continued, "the Legislature just easily allow judges, juries, determine kidnapping released unharmed." (citing precedent requiring doubt). Neither settled simply defining statute's "purpose "motive" thereby excluding provision conception crime. Even characterize language way-and doubted characterization accurate-proof ordinarily "increase penal consequences actor." "[l]abels," concluded, yield question. noting we last year concerning constitutionality penalty-enhancing findings determined 227 (1999), doubts holding. Turning then, had, 224 (1998), undertook multifactor inquiry valid. majority's view, impermissible burden shifting, "create calling penalty." 24, 494. Rather, always courts bear dictated weight factor." Ibid., 494-495. court, majority recognized unlike inasmuch increased subject. But clear difference "change calculus," especially where, "there rarely intimidating race 24-25, 495. Moreover, concerns "idiosyncratic" statutes drawn carefully avoid "punishing thought itself," served appropriate balance compelling interest vindicating "to free invidious discrimination." 25-26, 11 dissent conclusion, believing instead turned critical characteristics: "a mental necessarily involves integral characterized thereof"; significantly triggered means "must treated material [that] doubt." 30, 498. dissent's increasing (recidivism) (serious bodily injury) quite here; latter turns directly during defines level form acknowledging "analytical tensions" Court's post-Winship jurisprudence, dissenters can little defendant-the race-must fairly regarded inclusion 51, 512. 12 We granted certiorari, 528 1018 now reverse. II 13 begin why certain aspects relevant resolve. First, argued without judge's bias, produced received; actual thus guilty. Brief Respondent 4. question, above legally increased-indeed, doubled-the exercise discretion, converting what otherwise minimum relevance disposition dismissal remaining 14 Second, although basing courts, raised here.1 issue; adequacy procedure is. strength interests legislation bearing procedural code. 15 Third, reject suggestion doubt" existence will support 25, very case, full assume offender, known identity victim, sometimes hotly disputed, outcome depend some cases standard factfinder. 16 Fourth, ambiguity scheme, manipulate prosecutor's by, example, relying cf. Mullaney Wilbur, 421 684 (1975); Sandstrom Montana, 442 510 (1979), placing affirmative defense label "at least elements" crimes, Patterson York, 432 197, 210 (1977). invoke buttress disproving improper motive. find starkly presented. 17 Our construing statute. noted "under Amendment, (other conviction) proven 243, n. 6. involving III 1881 lecture Oliver Wendell Holmes, observed: "The threatens pains you do things, intending give new doing them. persist them, inflict threats continue believed."2 threatened unlawfully possessed weapon victims simple justice, seems obvious safeguards designed protect unwarranted should apply equally acts singled out Merely using "sentence enhancement" describe surely provide principled treating differently. 19 stake protections surpassing importance: proscription deprivation "due law," Amdt. 14, guarantee "[i]n all prosecutions, accused shall enjoy speedy public trial, impartial jury," 6.3 Taken rights indisputably [he] Gaudin, 515 506, (1995); see Sullivan Louisiana, 508 275, 278 (1993); 364 ("[T]he protects except charged"). have, unanimously, explained, 510-511, recognition "[T]o guard spirit oppression tyranny rulers," "as great bulwark [our] civil political liberties," Story, Commentaries 540-541 (4th ed. 1873), truth accusation, preferred shape information, appeal, afterwards unanimous suffrage twelve [the defendant's] equals neighbours ." W. Blackstone, Laws England 343 (1769) (hereinafter Blackstone) (emphasis added). See Duncan 391 145, 151-154 (1968). 21 Equally founded companion `demand persuasion recurrently ancient times, [though] crystallization formula "beyond occurred late 1798. jurisdictions measure prosecution convince trier guilt.' McCormick, Evidence § 321, pp. 681-682 (1954); Wigmore, 2497 (3d 1940)." 361. went explain reliance "reasonable among common-law " `reflect[s] profound about enforced justice administered.' 361-362 Duncan, 155). Any possible distinction felony unknown court4 existed surrounding Nation's founding. general rule, proceedings after being initiated containing "all circumstances offence, stated certainty precision, enabled species offence constitute, prepare defence accordingly given, convicted." Archbold, Pleading Criminal Cases 44 (15th 1862) ability predict face flowed invariable linkage Blackstone 369-370 (after barring defect pardon benefit clergy, pronounce judgment, hath annexed added)). 23 Thus, respect felonious conduct, English eighteenth century explicit sentencing. tended sanction-specific; each meant (unless inappropriate commute it)." Langbein, Trial Jury Eve French Revolution, England, France, Germany 1700-1900, 36-37 (A. Schioppa 1987).5 many others, clear,6 pronounced awarded law." 396 deleted).7 24 true indictments issued Just intent time commission often too mandating "Where annexes felony, circumstances, bring punishment, expressly charge precision. [2 M. Hale, Pleas Crown 170]." Cases, 51. If, "upon committed, fail proving specified convicted only." 188.8 25 history suggests discretion-taking consideration factors relating offender-in imposing nature Williams 337 241, 246 (1949) ("[B]oth since American colonies became nation, practiced policy wide sources types assist determining kind extent fixed law" Williams, periodic broad sentencing-since 19th-century shift providing fixed-term permissible range, Note, Admissibility Character Determining Sentence, U. Chi. L. Rev. 715 (1942)-has regularly accompanied qualification 447 (1972) (agreeing Government solid asserting district limits, generally review" added)); 246, 247 (explaining contrast stage task determine, limits[,] type guilt" resolved).9 26 link operate legal penalties legislative found, alone.10 27 suggest practices change course still remain emerged Framers' fears lost gross denial, erosion." Jones, 247-248.11 adhere basic undergirding requirements trying requirement "has vital role cogent reasons." 363. Prosecution subjects possibility lose stigmatized conviction." other, "provid[e] concrete substance innocence," reduce risk deprivations erroneously. faces loss attaching heightened; follows not-at moment put circumstances-be deprived until point, unquestionably attached. 28 Since peradventure extend, degree, determinations [go] innocence, length sentence." Almendarez-Torres, 251 (Scalia, dissenting). primary lesson (1975), invalidated Maine presumed kill "malice aforethought" murder (and therefore, crime's life imprisonment). proving, rebutting presumption, lesser culpability, heat passion, win reduction manslaughter years). 29 posited heat-of-passion overcome murderous implicate Winship because, either societal same. argument, acknowledged "is concerned innocence abstract, culpability" assessed. 697-698. "consequences" differed substantially, circumvent merely "redefin[ing] characterizing solely punishment." 698.12 IV time, coined involved Mandatory Minimum Sentencing Act, 42 Pa. Cons. §9712 (1982). According provisions, anyone felonies mandatory "visibly firearm" felonies. 81-82. Articulating applying, set criteria bar system, Pennsylvania previous admonitions relieving tailoring strictures. 86-88. 31 not, "expos[e] [defendants] 88, concern. explained: 32 "Section 9712 neither alters nor creates penalty; operates limit court's selecting already available special visible firearm. . gives impression having tailored Petitioners' `really' punished-that effect defined upgraded felonies-would superficial appeal exposed U.S.C. 2113(d) (providing bank robberies accomplished through `use dangerous device'), not." 87-88.13 33 Finally, plain Term, represents "having `found deported,' violation 1326(a)-an carrying 227. admitting deported, reentered country, earlier deportation place `pursuant to' `convictions' aggravated felonies." presentence report indicating Almendarez-Torres' fell bounds §1326(b) provision, original subsequent conviction; accordingly, up objected, contending "had mentioned convictions," prison. 34 objection, attached violate strictures felonies-all substantial own-no contested Although conclusion application invoked specific sufficiency indictment. More important, crystal clear, 248-249, heavily crime." 230; 243 "recidivism traditional, most offender's sentence"); 244 (emphasizing recidivism `does relate -' "); S, 249-250, ("The disagreed over legitimacy restrict recidivism, sides agreed done that"). Both "fact" reality accuracy mitigated implicated range.14 35 arguable incorrectly decided,15 logical reasoning today recidivist contested, contest decision's validity need revisit purposes treat exception recalled outset. Given unique facts, warrant rejection uniform entire jurisprudence. 36 sum, reexamination area, rely, confirms Jones. Other With exception, endorse forth opinions case: "[I]t unconstitutional remove assessment exposed. 252-253 (opinion J.); 253 J.).16 V 37 asks us invalidate prohibited weapon; proceeding, §2C:43-6(a)(1) 1999), possessing characteristic possessed. explained above, supporting it, 38 components: motive; holds authorize evidence; (3) McMillan's encompass charged. persuades emerges incorporate 39 point today. high evinced skepticism "motive." share skepticism. text factfinder possessed, act, account By terms, mandates examination mind-a concept mens rea.17 makes identifying required, weapons possession, use weapon] property another," §2C:39-4(a). second rea hardly defeats imposes force imposition On contrary, structure use" respects demonstrates precisely seeks target. perhaps close might hope come core "element."18 40 foregoing notwithstanding, correctly motive, "[l]abels afford acceptable answer." applies constitutionally novel elusive factors." 86 (noting factor-visible firearm-"might included enumerated offenses"). Despite appears "elemental" form, effect-does verdict?19 41 itself rejecting "traditional" factor, Indeed, here turn first- runs warning much category 698. concern flows pedigree rights, powerful serve. chooses associate particular, liberty, of- fense preceding discussion likewise misplaced. differential received true, extreme small fine imprisonment. Mullaney, 700. said doubling one's sentence-from 20-has nominal effect. terms absolute behind bars, severe attached, significance. When authorizes appropriately 43 "separate agree wholeheartedly "enhancer" Jersey, along numerous independent presence character.20 unavailing. reasons construed Whereas offense" itself, 230, 244, happened "commission vast accepting proceeding proof. 45 guiding invalid capital schemes crime, aggravating death. Walton Arizona, 497 639, 647-649 (1990); 709-714 (Stevens, For controlling: 46 "Neither cited, permits What cited hold once death, left decide penalty, one, ought death entitlement charge." 257, dissenting) deleted). 47 250-251; post, 25-26 (Thomas, concurring).21 48 49 challenged unacceptable tradition indispensable system. Accordingly, reversed, remanded inconsistent 50 ordered. Notes First intentionally Wisconsin Mitchell, 476, 480 (1993). O. Common Law (M. Howe 1963). asserted omission reference relies entirely persons encompasses 145 (1968), include "presentment Grand Jury" recent (1998). address separately "[A]fter past," "judgment" 368-the approximating modern suggested juries devised extralegal ways avoiding alleged, seemed disproportionate seriousness defendant. 245 ("This thwart Parliament flat-out acquittals call verdicts offenses, manifestations `pious perjury' jurors' part. 238-239"). principal chide single citation Blackstone's third volume, fourth, (dissenting opinion), himself directs purposes. antiquity excellence [jury] settling property, large." 379 ("Upon accounts ever been, trust be, looked glory And, advantage others regulating heightened, cases!") ("And stronger cases; since, times difficulty danger, apprehended violence partiality appointed crown, suits king subject, disputes another, settle metes boundaries private property"); 344 ("What general, thereby, cases, greatly shorten present remarks, suits; indictments, informations, appeals"). misdemeanors-those "smaller faults, omissions less consequence," 5-was, substantially dependent judicial discretion. Subject limitations "touch limb," proportionate 17th century, "cruel unusual," commonly discretionary "sentences" fines whippings misdemeanant offenders. Baker, Introduction Legal History 584 1990). Actual rare 18th ibid., idea absurd expense," Courts Procedure 1550-1800, Crime p. (J. Cockburn 1977). To take Archbold (among others) authoritative source period, 3-4, note treatise viewed "an book lawyer working Court." Biographical Dictionary Simpson 1984); Holdsworth, Literature Law, 464-465 Goodhart & H. Hanbury eds. 1952). Bishop, §§933-934(1) (9th 1923) ("With fixes offences ones- procedure, determines -the discre-tion") added); §948 ("[I]f look pronouncing proper influence judicious magistrate heavier lighter, yet exceed allegation verdict. Or sort assess indictment,-a applicable where delinquent habitual act involved") (footnotes omitted). 24-26, fails acknowledge significance caveat constrained "limits Nothing implies jury. commentators recognize limitation. K. Stith Cabranes, Fear Judging: Guidelines Federal (1998) ("From beginning Republic, entrusted discretion- , permitting maximum" Lynch, Towards Model Penal Code, Second (Federal?), Buff. Crim. 297, 320 spectrum covered conviction")). view "long recognized" affecting go 1-2, cites past quarter century; plainly distinguishable. Rather offer notion maximum-and Thomas' futile-the proceeds mischaracterizing account. was, tied (enabling discern, indictment), discern bring), single, conclusion: outer Put simply, definition "One contributor ratification debates, commenting Art. III, §2, echoed `to jealous circumspection introduction new, arbitrary methods which, variety plausible pretenses, imperceptibly undermine preservative LIBERTY.' [New Hampshire] Farmer, 6, 1788, quoted Complete Bill Rights (N. Cogan 1997)." 248. Contrary suggestion, 8-10, 198 (1977), posed direct aspect Mullaney. York emotional distress murder, accompanying "No inferred 205-206. Maine, malice aforethought, rea, murder; tell intended cause another 198. Responding seen legislatures reallocate burdens labeling defenses statutes," next breath "obviously regard." 210. accuses "overruling McMillan." Post, 11. overrule McMillan. involve verdict-a identified itself. Conscious likelihood decisions reserve day stare decisis considerations preclude reconsideration narrower contention Monge California, 524 721 "demonstrates was" something limited inaccurate misleading. 14. bulk analysis related scope double jeopardy extracts constitutes 729. Far "reasoning essential" holding, 13, response Scalia few earlier, insisted "was discussed petitioner's brief 728. proposition rejected" Almendarez-Torres; reading. Most telling Monge's distance arose failed satisfy therefore enhanced, recidivism-based sentence). 725 ("According California number surround allegations: Defendants ; doubt; rules apply"). warned contrary disincentives diminish important protections." 734. addition Scalia's 248-260, noteworthy extensive virtually ignored pleading issue. succinctly Clifford Reese, 92 214, 232-233 (1876): "[T]he contain inflicted." "[s]peaking principle, Mr. Bishop says pervades system adjudged wherever move department contact it; escape atmosphere surrounds us. Cr. Pro., ed., sect. 81; Archbold's Plead., 15th 54; Stark 236; Am. 6th rev. 364; Steel Smith, Barn. Ald. 99." "meaningless formalism," conceive hypothetical comply achieve result 17-20. could, hypothetically, undertake revise manner suggests, 18-extending to, giving guided specially range-this remote. Among reasons, structural democratic constraints discourage enacting is, legislature's proportional be. ensures obliged choices content laws awareness consequence, unable mask choices" 228-229, (Powell, So exposed, check potentially harsh action likely operate." events, enacted (effectively assuming performed 20), decisions. Patterson, 210; 684, 698-702. ignores recognized, see, Martin Ohio, 228 (1987), aggravation mitigation. 19-20. showing, war veteran, finds veteran status Judge supra, 16-17. Core animating burden-of-proof absent scheme. definitions "criminal intent." Black's 1137 (rev. 4th 1968). dictionary unsurprisingly synonymous intent, 1400, "intent" as, mind," 947. venture central description pointed out, "[a] purposely thereof conscious object engage result." §2C:2-2(b)(1) 1999). of" status-based characteristics places squarely "conscious object" reason. Whatever comment targets 492 (1999)-and highly doubtful "binding" interpretation 483-484 (declining law's "operative effect"), immediately called "ability search motive," 21, 492-a actually targeted. sine qua non confronts final pages offers reading "settled precedent" Mitchell. 31. Setting aside Wisconsin's substance, Jersey's, Mitchell consider not; to-the devoid meaning. describes circumstance, mitigating character, supports hand, functional equivalent fits usual concurring) (reviewing authorities). Including §2C:33-4 2000) ("A commits fourth [of harassment] section, ethnicity"), currently making freestanding violations F. Lawrence, Punishing Hate: Bias Crimes 178-189 (1999) (listing current laws). addition, treats lengthy disquisition benefits determinate schemes, today's Guidelines. 23-30. are, course, express held. Edwards 511, court) "[o]f petitioners' claims argue, say, exceeded cocaine-only conspiracy. trumps [United Manual] §5G1.1."). 51 concurring. 52 feel say words Breyer's dissent. sketches admirably fair efficient society prepared leave State. (Judges, remind ourselves, State-and increasingly bureaucratic that.) founders Republic State, jury-trial controversial Rights. never efficient; free. 53 fairness, Breyer believes times," 1, provide: think unfair prospective felon contemplated jail years-and gets anything thank mercy tenderhearted (just let inordinately early, governor commuted). Will disparities? Of course. get bargained hence exposed) vote fellow citizens. 54 realm perfect equity, contrast, (on more-likely-than-not basis) employee certainly (Justice argues it) sacrifice worth it. thinks better envisioned ultimately demolishes assert, guarantee-what assumed throughout history-the allows. They coherent alternative. 55 erroneous all-too-common assumption mean. says. And jury" intelligible 56 whom joins II, 57 join full. write my broader adopts. 58 seemingly "crime." Constitution, accused" informed accusation" (that crime), "held capital, infamous presentment tried wherein committed." Amdts. cl. Jury"). Clause, Hurtado 110 516, 538 (1884), Herring 422 853, 857, (1975). Further, 59 All "crime"-that "ingredients" accusation (whether form) codification Amendments, allege crime; likewise, proper, (and, §§928-929, 660-662, §934, 664 (1833); *41, 99-* 100 (5th 1846) Archbold).1 60 elements. complicated following spawned enhancement. ante, 11, 19, 28. O'Connor's takes (within unspecified limits) decree enhancements. 2. 61 enhancements creatures, not. (usually indictment). regarding tells whatever case-here, line essentially addressing accusations, stretching earliest reported founding 20th establishes understanding adopts 62 "crime" includes (in mitigates punishment). fact-of sort, including conviction-the together larceny petit larceny. Similarly, legislature, creating grades setting fact-such value stolen goods-that element. No multi-factor parsing statutes, attempted necessary. One kind, entitled facts. Each 63 roughly end Civil War described, applying sorts recidivism. varied created particularly 1840's on, readily element.2 64 Massachusetts, leading antebellum early 1804, Commonwealth Mass. 245, fuller come. Smith indicted larceny, goods. Massachusetts abolished replacing whose (triple damages) relied abolition justify indictment's omissions. goods 246-* 247. 65 implicit Hope Commonwealth, 134 (1845). retained single-offense addressed levels $100. structured similarly 230 more, Castillo -- (slip op., 2), clauses, ranges punishments.3 opened referring larceny," suggesting, perspective post-McMillan whereas court. Value value: 66 "Our remembered, prescribe stolen; reason, conformity practice, indictment." Mass., 137. 67 Two Hope, elaborated burglary, stating "certain severity, circumstances," "creat[ed] Larned 240, 242 (1847). 241 ("[T]here gradation species" sets "various degrees punishment"). 68 Conversely, McDonald, 365 (1850), person, saw error failure steal. defendant, challenging apparently "[a]s stolen, occasion 367. Burke, 94 182, 183 (1866) (applying completed person; jury). 69 Similar employed Lacy Wis. (1862), interpreting similar Castillo. paragraph, outlawed arson dwelling night. Arson killed someone prison; lawfully years.4 trouble concluding "creates offenses," Wis., 15, lawful middle reasoned gradations punishment: "That circumstance fire severity imposed." 16. "aggravating circumstances" offense[s]." 17. dwelling, 14-year but, Larned, lowest grade properly 70 Numerous approach Ritchey Blackf. 168, 169 (Ind. 1844) (1804), destroyed, value); Spencer Ohio 401, 406, 408 (1844) (holding ingredient burglary steal, value; contrasting "[v]alue laid, proved, means, petit, awards"); Fisher, Cas. 1086 (CC 1849) (McLean, J.) carrier mail steals letter mail, contains article value. contained value, aggravates incurs penalty"); Brightwell Ga. 482, 483 (1871) ("When prescribes phases good reason specify prisoner with. record show sentenced"). Cf. Farr, Rich. (S. 1859) (where barred purchasing corn slave, slave lacked permit, absence element, 71 Also demonstrating well-established misdemeanor, fact, 106; 50; 13-14. There enhancement-as nonelement enhancing relation like 106. 72 Further comes statutes. 256-257, 261 opinion). stretches back Republic. Welsh, Va. (1817); Serg. Rawle (Pa. 1826); 695-* 696. purposes, it: Lacy, constituting 73 Plumbly 413 (1841), Tuttle 505 (1854). latter, conviction: 74 "When respectively, punished; proved. averred." 506. 75 rested Notice Clause. Haynes, 107 194, (reversing confession attorney Tuttle). 76 view. holdings language, Kilbourn Conn. 560, 563 (1833) ("No subjected cumulative offence"); Plumbly, 414 (conviction Hines 614, 616 (1859) explaining, jury- offence] importance accused, becomes Phillips, (1831) ("[U]pon hard labor life. convicted"). 77 helps Freeman, Vt. (1855), Vermont complaint liquor secure element; instead, minor qualify attach apply. 527; Goeller 119 Md. 61, 66-67, 85 954, 956 (1912) (discussing Freeman). freely "no articulated "it former claimed account." 526. Unsurprisingly, Freeman "apparently" "special statute." Wharton, §3417, 307, r (7th 1874) Wharton). decade successive identity-that defendant-he permitted resolve 570, 572-573 (1863). (Freeman anticipated suggesting identity. Vt., 528.) Haynes usually chief whenever 696; also, Graham West Virginia, 616, 620-621 (defendant names).5 B 78 An 1872 authorities era demonstrate. condensed following: sought (2d 1872) Procedure). §81, inflicted"); §540, 330 averment thing enters Crimes, consist "acts affixes §80, or, differently, consists whole wrong based," §84, 53. edition, wrongful aggregation proceeds." 1895). grounded generalization §§81-84, 51-53, Constitutions guaranteeing "not apparent understandings only, cases," followed "in exception," illustrate, observed 80 whereby, assault weapon, like, corresponding assault, differing reader peculiar inflicted, §82, 52. 81 illustrative way. §83, 52-53. conviction-he fact: "[If] [a offence], averred indictment; §961, 564-565 1872). 82 support, accusation: prevails, allegation, machinery trial- [A]n lacks reason." §87, 55. §88, (notice ensure "persons convicted, inflicted"). 83 contemporaneously explicitly captured Hobbs Tex. 353, 354 (1875) (favorably quoting §81); Maguire (1878) (approvingly citing rule); Larney Cleveland, St. 599, 600 (rule "are Bishop"); Hayward, Mo. 299, 307 (1884) (extensively §81 Bishop's "admirable treatise"); Riggs 104 Ind. 261, 262, E. 886, 887 (1885) ("We mention series inflicted" (internal quotation marks omitted)); Perley, Me. 427, 431, 74, (1894) doctrine viz: (1876) (Clifford, judgment) paraphrasing §81). C 84 half treatise, understanding; treatise. (including confronted ones struggled difficult Hobbs, section entry effected incidental burglary. instructed requisite force, 3. Texas force; (2 years) "impossible did. Tex., 355.6 Searcy 440, 444 (similar); Garcia 389, 393 (not reverse bowie-knife dagger, doubled alleged). McDonald (discussed 5-6), converse robbery, authority, Maine's alleged) "[T]here offense; taken." Me., 432, A., 75. "where distinctly proved." 433, 76. 87 Reasoning Perley evident well. 141, 143 (1879) night "constituent offense"; "charge constituent offense"); Woodruff, 536, (Kan. 1895) embezzlement "contemplates ascertainment exact sum imposed" amount, fine; "[o]n jury"). 88 again pre-Bishop Many, far all, Bishop. 1878, Maryland's indistinguishable before: 89 seem settled, party proceeded first, severer, Maguire, 496 Bishop). 90 954 (1912), reaffirmed voided, conviction. extensively "more fully, perhaps, writer," authorities, decisions" (quoted 14). Md., 66, 955. Larney, St., 600-601, (The 560 (1833). 600.) Adams, 785 (1888), punished, imposed, alleged." 442, 786. "charged repetitious character." Evans 150 651, 653, 820 (1898) Shiflett 114 876, 877, S. 606, 607 (1913) (similar). 91 cases-that attaches. Wood People, Y. 511 (1873). discharged repeatedly offence," 513, 515, discharge "[b]oth enter offence- subjecting 513; ibid. (fact ingredient" offense). Johnson 512, 514 (1874) denounced offence; [alleged and] trial"); People Sickles, 156 541, 544-545, 288, 289 (reaffirming specifically convict, penalty"). Contemporaneously Appeals Johnson, offered explanations Delany, Cal. 394 (1874), (normally misdemeanor) consisting larceny: 93 [in indictment], 95 portion 395. 96 larceny- [T]he fact; connection exclusive convictions." 396.7 97 Coleman, 609, 610-611, P. 283, 284-285 (1904). 98 Rauch 490 (1876), 1826 69, knowledge records." Pa., "imprisonment sale liquors. principle personal security administration rightfulness record." 495 ("But clearly draws This, defend against"). 99 Meanwhile, decisions, striking down, Harrington, 130 (1880), larger complaint. fully features it." 36.8 Without belaboring further, understanding-that punishment-continued century. Knoll Singer, Searching "Tail Dog": Finding "Elements" Wake Seattle 1057, 1069-1081 (surveying McMillan); Ratner, 902, 153 P.2d 790, 791-793 (1944). revolution Today's decision, sharp break past, return quo ante-the meaning Amendments. 101 enough, points merit mention. 102 irrelevant allowed (often extremely ranges). 14-15; 23-25 (O'Connor, elements, why: 103 distinguish doctrine, allowed, pronounces suffer influenced shown mitigation, allegations indictment- spoken swell prisoner, interposed circumstances]. punishing him." §85, 54. §§600-601, 370-371, §948, 572 (8th 1892) words, establishing things.9 371-372 misdemeanors, praising "discretion regulated law"); 429, 75-76 discussing mentioning, robbery F., 538, answering latter. 105 related, errors Almendarez-Torres-an succumbed-was attempt traditionally (or typically) 243-244; 241. real matters punishment-for prosecution's entitlement-it (To am aware punishment.) considers perspective, discussions frequently 235, prejudicing informing concern, aware, 498; Y., 547, E., 290.10 106 cover situation crimes). minimum. 0 7. (Of scenario maximum.) expected narrowed empowered, invoking minimum, wish. "entitl[es] government," (5 below 5). triggering inflicted," Procedure, undoubtedly "enters punishment" aggravate 330, "ac[t] Searcy, 15-16, affects choice Garcia, 6-7, 16, 17, range-both top bottom. Those bother changes mattered overall 4, maximums minimums applicability, Harrington 20-21). (1990). 30-31. approve eligible sense, exists context, area lead punishment-we restricted capital-punishment Arizona jurisdiction provide-as, previously, did-that automatically barrier Whether distinction, outside day.11 108 109 unconstitutional. O'Connor mischaracterizes argument. 5-6 Amendments codify wholesale. Story notes, codified rights. strange faults me primarily 1840's, explains, 11-13, she concedes, dissenting), foreign understandably, contend her position. able tell, seriously arise (at cases) 1840's. below, on-for century-essentially sufficient. provided: "Every commit stealing money, chattels [or property], hundred dollars, prison, county jail, years; year, dollars." Stat., ch. 126, §17 (1836). willfully maliciously burn, whereby building, owned burning whereof burnt degree; fourteen burnt, ten 165, §1 (1858). Ch. 164, §2. Some read 460 1832), South Carolina Burgett, Ark. 323, 324 (1860) (so questioning correctness). somewhat unclear offense-if correct negate (reading silent purpose). unclear, step rule. Parris, 140, 808, 809 (1911); 220 434-436, 350, 351-352 (1951). gulf manifest might, analyze Hobbs. chapter "Of Burglary" burglary." sections specifying kinds these. G. Paschal, Digest Texas, Part Tit. 462-463 1875). Following 224, 231-234, 242-246 4-5), "guilty" Austin, 113 542, 31, (1893) (prior "material fac[t]" "aggravated Bandy Hehn, Wyo. 167, 172-174, 979, 980 (1902) ("[I]n information penalty. punished" (1854))); 129 Iowa 709, 711-712, 187, 188-189 (1906) Scheminisky, Idaho 504, 506-507, 174 611, 611-612 (1918) deny borderline distinction. 482 (1871), Bishop's, period" (both prison). 483. "arson time," judge's] discretion" decision. fact). definite presumably daytime arson. Brightwell, ("a period") placement circumstance. Wright 436, 437-438, 148 E 333, 335-336 (1966) (suggesting refuse version defendant). *52, *105-*106 defense). stipulate decides stipulate, bifurcate considering reached §964, 566-567 bifurcation); Saunders, 580, 587-588, 853 1093, 1095-1096 (1993) (detailing approach, 1874, stipulation recently, bifurcation). unnecessary so, how) Guidelines, Mistretta 488 361 (1989). irrelevant, "have laws." Chief Justice, Kennedy, join, dissenting. 111 Last principle: "[U]nder rightly criticized origins, contours, purported principle; inconsistency cast systems alike. 254, 264-272 Today, remembered watershed 112 bears government "legislature's dispositive." (1986); (1998); 210, 211, obviously regard," reasonable-doubt formally charged," 86, caution deciding despite such. declined bright-line judgments approached individually, sifting punishments evade 721, 728-729 86. bold stroke casts cautious embraces universal limiting Congress follow thereunder. states: "Other Ante, 24. marshals extraordinary remarkable identify instance, 200 Rights, applied, requirement, announces "emerges 26. categories: second, statements dismissed. nondiscretionary penalty" almost quickly recites rejects conflicting exercising 14-15 (1949)). instant wonders 12-13 (1768), pertains "remed[ies] redress injuries"). 115 Apparently, quotations 1862 13-14 188 1862)). closer reveals excerpts pertain demonstrate unremarkable opposed (indictment); (proof). precise excerpts, dispelled looking illustrate. ("Every omitted circumstances; forth"); 180 omitted, laid"). clarification needed, *170 Hale) ("An parliament parliament"). Member questions classified nevertheless speak all. 116 Thomas dictates require, advocates. understand why, focus "codified" pre-existing contends 2-4. assertion correct-a embraced-he gather assertion. purports concurrence notable discuss cite predating contemporary with) divines consulting rendered ranging 1890's. reveal resolved constitutions, relevant, preexisting crucial disconnect evidence. 117 long-settled unlikely, certainty. Hale *182 ("Touching indictment"); *183 *184 alledged, it"). principles, 118 19th came confront courts' invention, existing Few indicate principles. identifies 242-244 (1847)-was assuredly Rex Marshall, Moody 168 Eng. Rep. 1224 (1827). collection state-court marginal assistance advocates, control resolution cannot, alone, overruling decades' asserts "our area." 23. begins review speaks volumes announced 17-18 dissenting)). "lesson" extend innocence. 18. explains proof-beyond-a-reasonable-doubt receives. ignore, later, 197 120 murder. disturbance distinguished reduced separating 198-200. Patterson's 121 "We decline adopt imperative, operative countrywide, disprove accused. Traditionally, observed; subtle balancing society's branch." 122 going mitigation 206, adopted advocated Thomas) Patterson. Unless willing defer disturbance, "increase[d] [his] manslaughter. Nonetheless, York's comported 205-211, 216; 204-205 Leland Oregon, 790 (1952), Oregon's insanity). 123 refutes expansive exactly interpretation: 124 "Mullaney's argued, blameworthiness broadly read." 214-215 added) (footnote 125 presuming 215. violation. 216. Ever consistently curse Mullaney]"); 240 ("[Mullaney] absolutely wrong"); (same). 126 decision-McMillan Pennsylvania. puzzling, There, years' visibly convicted. 81. petitioners (as incorporated Amendment) firearms. claims. 84-91, 93. 127 conflicts formulations endorses `[I]t doubt.' concurring)). restated wrote: alter congressionally exposed." exposed-which, definition, alterations penalties-must incumbent admit normal decisis. 128 neither. Instead, attempts lay "may concern." 20. emphasizing "rejected links `severity punishment' `the fact' 214). Patterson-"that 85. penalties, "several factors" persuaded however defined. unfounded. McMillan-namely, appeal" cry saying upheld. context examining combination, gave Pennsylvania's [statute fell] side line." 91. confidence belies ruling short, articulate tension acknowledgment 84, normally dispositive, derived 89-90. Apart pre-Jones Nevertheless, lend position, feeble shattered precedents addresses Almendarez-Torres. rule: "Petitioner argues, essence, trigger `elements' requirement. believe interpreted requirement." refuted debated debate repeated 248-249; 268-270 (Kennedy, constituted repudiation 268 My bolstered relegated footnote Monge, reiterated 729 Almendarez-Torres). least, "exceptional departure" "historic practice." 21. 131 refute 639 Walton, petitioner, conducts 643 Ariz. §13-703(B) (1989)). nonexistence factors. §13-703(B)). `impose statute] sufficiently leniency.' 644 §13-703(E)). factor. 132 arguing contention: `Any prerequisite soundly Court.' 647 Clemons Mississippi, 494 738, 745 (1990)). challenges Florida's added jury.' 648 Hildwin Florida, 638, 640-641 (1989) (per curiam)). 133 `increases [the] crime' 6). terminology employs fault "exposes alone." original). today, agrees point. can, inconceivable results baffling, least. key demonstrably untrue. exists. imprisonment, decided, author stake. 709 ("[U]nder Arizona's highest proved"). event, perfectly serve `prerequisite death] sentence,' Clemons, 745), death,' Hildwin, 640-641). intend pressed issues 135 comprehend. 26-27. excepting generally, apparent. Eighth restriction compensated leeway 136 incorrect. claim, rely ignore controlling (e.g., Patterson), unprincipled inexplicable distinctions Walton). meaning- ful justification deviating 137 unsupported enough Significantly, adequately Clauses Upon examination, rests meaningless formalism accords, best, protection effectuate. 138 necessity begin, clarify contours 267 interpretations rests. 139 reading, matter, maximum. doubt") sentenced. 19. cure results, drafting manner: prescribe, 140 proffered announce §13-1105(C) `[O]nce imposed.' original) statutorily sense. difference, here-apart magnitude stake-is 20-year punished. understand, explain, formalistic 141 fact. decrease 142 advocates decreases ("[A] `crime' punishment)"). relies, pure difference. *13 plausibly willful malicious destroyed" house" appeared affected *15-*16. example redrafted demonstrate, responsible eye beholder. Again, readings amounts chastising Legislature] failing approved phrasing expressing [unlawful possession] punished." differences doubt," impossible Fifth, Sixth, "structural constraints" enactment sentence-enhancement (majority calibrate perfectly, criterion. "[n]o values costs struck real." 267. 144 suspects reaching. effect, verdict?"). determinate-sentencing Guidelines). concedes outlined invalidation 27, principle. overrule, Walton. importantly, approval of-and of-discretionary possibly adoption Government, severe. 146 acknowledges, set. 14-15. accords "From monetary fine, maximum." discretionary-sentencing bases commentator 147 "During age themselves, eliciting libertarians. situations depended retributionist conviction), bore rehabilitation need, lower, conclusions." Buffalo 149 recommended recommendation learned pre-sentence investigation 242-245. Williams' "wide [them] 246. Specifically, cross-examination open clause device freezing evidential mold procedure." 251. precedent, penalties. findings, less, suffice constrains prescribing imposed) fathoming calculus fit guidance"). respect, Solicitor General deems become select legislature." Amicus Curiae acknowledges 14-15, sound factfinding differently 151 unsatisfying. His explanation quotation, turn, writer, contended `is him.' 1872)). demonstrates, conducted judges. 152 Consideration acceptance judge-made effectuates promise preserving, fundamental peers, experience "competition respective roles," "measures [that taken] juries' power," inestimable safeguard corrupt overzealous compliant, biased, eccentric common-sense tutored sympathetic reaction critically France Turkey, imprison, dispatch, exile man obnoxious government, declaration, pleasure." Commentaries, 343. Clearly, guarantee, mischief greater, wields tightly constrained. demand decide, accurate invalidating reform decades. 154 Prior wave reform, indeterminate-sentencing executive branch officials board officials) Dept. Shane-DuBow, Brown, Olsen, Reform States: History, Content, Effect 6-7 (Aug. 1985) Shane-DuBow); Report Twentieth Century Fund Task Force Sentencing, Fair Certain Punishment 11-13 (1976) Report); Dershowitz, Historical Conceptual Overview, 423 Annals Acad. Pol. Soc. Sci. 117, 128-129 (1976). Studies situated widely disparate sentences. Shane-Dubow 7; indeterminate soften formerly mandatory-sentencing systems, studies revealed opposite Campbell, (1978) ("Paradoxically humanitarian impulse sparking resulted average criminal's incarceration term"); data indeterminate, judicially tend longer"). 155 response, shifted aimed offenders treatment. Code §1170 reforms Act 1984, 3551 et seq. Commission, promulgated govern Manual (Nov. 1998). successful not-and commentators-the halt tracks pen nationwide name questionable pedigree. ironic prosecutors rest efforts context. impact practical one-its unsettling schemes. constitutional, strongly handed unleash flood petitions seeking Statistics compiled Commission half-million 1989. Memorandum Library, dated 8, (total 1989) (available Clerk file). tip iceberg. 1998, prosecutions represented 0.4% total courts. National Center Courts, Perspective: Project (federal filings, 1998), http://www.ncsc.dni.us/divisions/ research/csp/csp98-fscf.html (showing 57,691 compared 14,623,330 courts). colossal. 157 damaging immediate future limbo. Should operated long, proceed accord governing guidelines? answer, shaky ground. unfortunate foreordain disruption world throws wind process, considerable confusion. 158 evaluate §2C:44-3 2000), analyzing examined cases. 242-243; 86-90. 86-87; permissible. §§2C:39-4(a), 2C:43-6(a)(2) falls 226, 242-243 (approving 18-year enhancement). transform 89. "simply punishment"-a offense-"and precedent. 476 (1993), 480. (distinguishing conduct" "for discriminatory view" 484-485 obtained" 485. McMillan; 160 resembles one. difference-that exposed-does persuade "sought element." Supra, moment. 207-208 abandoning defense] undertaking [its] powers sanction importance. grounds 161 affirm 162 Rehnquist joins, 163 requirement: "any [other recidivism] promote ideal-that turns. meet ideal. function help compromises, themselves functioning implementation model reflects. impractical recognizes embody 164 legislature) offender. inevitable. imagine, arson, assault). harms risks harm offender caused created, characteristics. Policy Statements, A, 1.5 (1987) Guidelines) (pointing [a] elemen[t] offens[e] Hence, imaginary lack proportionality, i.e., major 165 manner-related behavior. Empirical collected legislatively (say, engaged depending, drugs distributed drug crimes), money theft, fraud), injury vulnerability offense-related offender-related Supplementary Initial Statements 35-39 (table listing representing factors) Department Rhodes Conly, Analysis (May 1981). exercised, speaking, 166 sentence-affecting realize theoretical reflect notwithstanding) ideal "fairness," (concurring administrative compromise. submission many) 167 robber without) gun, kept hidden brandished), frightened warned), injured seriously), pushed) guard, teller customer, noon), bad arguably bad) effort obtain purposes), company robbers, fourth) day, sober alcohol), forth." 1.2. conceivable wrinkle unworkable compromise deterrent effect." ask many, factors-say, innocence-could awkward conceivably unfair) "I sell drugs, sold 500 grams." postverdict problem, (but costs. typically probation officers' reports, information's trial-type rules. 249-251 (describing "practice individualizing punishments" inadmissible gleaned reports); Kadish, Norm Discretion Police Processes, Harv. 904, 915-917 (1962). 170 behavioral endless. ask, knife switchblade, concealed, closed, large small, car theft confrontation rare), unintended) intentional)." Preliminary Observations Commissioner Robinson's Dissent 1987). method reflects practical, theoretical, considerations. relevant. freedom tailor experience, relevance, sense fairness. Report, 16-17 goal uniformity empirical showed past). 171 harmful behavior accused), (where, factors, guilty). theory answer. Legislatures, guidance tradition, history, social need. traditionally, determination. (1986). 172 survey uniformity, administrability "fairness" demands. problem sentencing-related workable Constitution; differently? 173 focused typical forms antisocial "crimes," definition-leaving 12-15, freeze permanent dissatisfaction (reflecting tendency differently) led growing rationality consistency statutes" Legislatures ways. commissions armed delegated Congress, statutes) host 994(a); (those lie "heartland" retaining depart atypical pt. 4(b). 175 (by commission) writing guideline. explicitly, "shall" increase, "may" (Pennsylvania "visible 5-year 176 legislation. enact involved) "why requirement"? 177 background fact" recidivism) jury." embodying contrary. 239-247; 84-91. raises objection pre-Guidelines procedures How differ way? robber's enacts finding? 178 delegation guidelines (reserving question). guide discretion? delegatee (the rulemaking power, delegator power? 179 responses. prevent transforming (jury-determined) (judge-determined) removing require. ("constitutional limits" states "defin[ing] offense"). cure, disease. "transformational" legislation, grants unchecked range. "transform" another. prosecutor, (each penalty), asking embezzler murdered employer. retain, last-mentioned occurred. 181 egregious shows problem's complexity. lies ranges, choose conduct. solution lies, prohibiting sensitivity (for standard), invocation issue, unusual unfairness. (upholding "gives [sentencing factor] 182 majority, emphasizes "maximum." determines, legislated capped (a sets). concede statement, relevance. From cap "maximum" commission's judge's) "minimum" commission, subvert indicates, fairness fortiori repeat, (based, bad), born; range) criteria, 184 "perfect equity," concurring), willing, consequently, embodied nonetheless price. thing, leaving untouched, encourages interested minimums. more. 185 7-17 dissenting); 84-91 (indicating flexible basis). belief. 841(b) (1994 III) for, "controlled substance" distribute vary dramatically depending amount); §§2C:43-6, 2C:43-7, 2C:44-1a-f, 2C:44-3 1995 1999-2000) (setting "aggravating" "mitigating" factors); Rule 420(b) (1996) "[c]ircumstances mitigation" record, report, [and] reports received"). 186 uncertainty confinement 27- amicus briefs systems. concede, overstated; (despite Almendarez-Torres) prohibition unexpected. rationale underlies principle-jury facts-that, restricted, workability sys- tem (if judges) uniform, commissions). 187 impede respond here-motive-is finance feed starving mattered, motive-racial hatred-is reasonable. mandated Though desirable, discusses discussed, ordinary Consequently, constitutional. respectfully

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