Document: 501 U.S. 380 111 S.Ct. 2354 115 L.Ed.2d 348 Ronald CHISOM, et al., Petitioners,v.Charles E. ROEMER, Governor of Louisiana, al. UNITED STATES, Petitioner, v. Charles Nos. 90-757 and 90-1032. Argued April 12, 1991. Decided June 20, Syllabus The Louisiana Supreme Court consists seven members, two whom are elected at-large from one multimember district, with the remainder single-member districts. Petitioners in No. represent a class black registered voters Orleans Parish, which is largest four parishes district contains about half district's voters. Although more than one-half Parish's black, over three-fourths other three white. filed an action District against respondents, state officials, alleging that method electing justices their impermissibly dilutes minority voting strength violation of, inter alia, § 2 Voting Rights Act 1965. As amended 1982, 2(a) prohibits imposition qualification or prerequisite standard, practice, procedure "results denial abridgement right . to vote on account race color," 2(b) states test for determining legality such practice whether, "based totality circumstances," "have less opportunity members electorate participate political process elect representatives choice." (Emphasis added.) United States, petitioner 90-1032, subsequently intervened support petitioners' claims, ultimately ruled petitioners merits. However, Appeals finally remanded case directions dismiss complaint light its earlier en banc decision League Latin American Citizens Council 4434 Clements, 914 F.2d 620 (LULAC), judicial elections not covered under as amended. There, court distinguished between claims involving voters' choice, holding applied respect first category, but because judges "representatives," use term excludes second category. Held: Judicial by Pp. 391-404. (a) originally enacted, was coextensive Fifteenth Amendment, it undisputed elections. 1982 amendment expanded 2's protection adopting results test, thus eliminating requirement proof discriminatory intent necessary prove violation, adding 2(b), provides guidance how apply test. Had Congress also intended exclude elections, would have made explicit statute identified mentioned amendment's unusually extensive legislative history. 391-396. (b) applicable all claims. statutory text this Court's cases foreclose LULAC reading 2. If word "representatives" placed limit coverage requires must allege both one's choice. Thus, rather creating separate distinct rights, identifies inextricably linked elements plaintiff's burden proof. See, e.g., White Regester, 412 755, 93 2332, 37 314. 396-398. (c) describes winners representative, popular including judges. correctly noted need be elected, when they are, seems reasonable realistic characterize districts reside run. history no arguments includes only executive officials chosen "candidates" had dilution prohibition 398-401. (d) Adopting respondents' view lead anomalous result State 5 precluded implementing new having effects Clark Roemer, 500 ----, 2096, --- similarly system already place could challenged 401-402. (e) That one-person, one-vote rule inapplicable Wells Edwards, 409 1095, 904, 34 679, does mean entirely immune rejected constitutional claim and, thus, has relevance correct interpretation statute, enacted provide additional rights adequately protected Constitution itself. Cf. City Rome 446 156, 172-183, 100 1548, 1559-1565, 64 119. 402-403. 917 187 (C.A.5, 1990), reversed remanded. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, WHITE, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, SOUTER, JJ., joined. SCALIA, dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., KENNEDY, opinion. Solicitor General Kenneth W. Starr, Washington, D.C., Pamela S. Karlan, Charlottesville, Va., Chisom, Robert G. Pugh, Shreveport, La., respondents. Justice STEVENS Court. 1 preamble 1965 establishes central purpose "[t]o enforce fifteenth States."1 Amendment provides: "The citizens States shall denied abridged any race, color, previous condition servitude." Const., Amdt. 15, 1. 3 In Act2 make clear certain practices procedures forbidden even though absence protects them challenge. question presented whether test" We hold provided prior embraced within coverage. 4 * approximately 135,000 Louisiana. App. 6-7, 13. They brought (respondents) challenge New area. advanced plaintiff class. justices,3 five Districts, multi-member District.4 Each resident he she resided there at least years election. Pet. Cert. 7a. serves 10 years.5 First District, Orleans, St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson.6 Parish population district. Chisom 839 1056, 1057 (CA5 1988). More whereas 8. 6 "the present Justices area strength" Act. Id., 9. Furthermore, claimed courts below current electoral violates Fourteenth Amendments Federal effect election "is dilute, minimize, cancel Parish. Ibid. seek remedy divide into districts, parishes. were adopted, each same population. According petitioners, majority voter registration. 8, 47. 7 granted motion complaint. 659 F.Supp. 183 (ED La.1987). It held insufficient did specific discriminate. 189. With claim, violated unless "to 186-187. concluded 187. 8 Fifth Circuit reversed. cert. sub nom. Roemer 488 955, 109 390, 102 379 (1988). Before beginning analysis, remarked "[i]t particularly significant person ever been either districts." F.2d, 1058. After agreeing recently announced Mallory Eyrich, 275 (CA6 1988), broad definition terms "voting" "vote" 14(c)(1) original expressly included 2.7 recognized Congress' expand enacting amendment. 1061.8 Consistent efforts broaden Act, State's contention used limitation. 1063 (describing position "untenable"). Instead, representative " 'denotes anyone selected among field candidates fill office, judges.' (quoting Martin Allain, 658 1183, 1200 (SD Miss.1987)). buttressed noting "section section 2, virtually companion sections, operate tandem prohibit voting, those originate past, present, future." 1064. gleaned construction fact Attorney "consistently supported expansive, restrictive, Act." Finally, allegations sufficient warrant trial, reinstated 1065.9 9 intervention alleged "standard, procedure" abridgment color Section 48. nonjury however, evidence establish standards set forth Thornburg Gingles, 478 30, 106 2752, 92 25 (1986). 62a. dismissed 63a-64a. appealed. While appeal pending, Circuit, sitting another case, (1990) (hereinafter ). phrase choice" indicated intend authorize panel reached conclusion after considering (1) "precise language" id., 624; (2) character special emphasis cardinal reason all," 622; (3) before 626. 11 precise language focused established if class: 12 'have choice.' 625 42 U.S.C. 1973(b)). 13 Noting general representatives," LULAC, 625, drew distinction tests devices interfere individual participation election, hand, impairment group's hand. assumed continue see ibid., See 625-628. 14 majority's view, "factually false" public "irrelevant judge's role," judiciary function whatever: judge represents one." 625. offices "are 'representative' ones, occupants representatives." 631. subsection 15 familiar 347 453 (MD La.1972), summarily aff'd, 679 (1973), reapportionment concept one-man, apportionment branch government." Wells, F.Supp., 454. express reference Senate Report 'principle derives Reynolds Sims, [377 533, 84 1362, 506 (1964) ],' 629 S.Rep. 97-417, p. 19 (1982)), persuaded that, law context cases, F.2d., 626 (citing cases), authorized without making express, unambiguous statement effect. 16 Following 1a-3a (per curiam expressed evidentiary case. certiorari, 498 775, 112 838 (1991), argument post, ----. II 17 Our today limited character, useful begin identifying matters dispute. No us.10 Unlike Edwards,11 Regester,12 Mobile Bolden,13 presents us solely construction. involves scope 1982. therefore do address concerning proved might appropriate redress proved. 18 amendment,14 continues ---- (1991). Moreover, enough encompass minimize racial minority's ability influence outcome 2.15 matter dispute added applies well III read follows: 20 "SEC. imposed subdivision deny abridge citizen color." 79 Stat. 437. 21 defined elsewhere include "all effective primary, special, election." 445 (emphasis added). further "votes cast party office propositions votes received At time passage 1965, unlike provisions provoke debate viewed largely restatement Amendment. H.R.Rep. 439, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., 23 (1965), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News pp. 2437, 2454 (§ "grants free enactment enforcement qualifications color"); 162, pt. 3, 19-20 (1965). This took similar Bolden, 55, 60-61, 1490, 1495-1497, 47 (1980). we unquestionably Amendment; provision simply elaborated upon vote, so distinctions imposing limitations fall purview. Katzenbach during his testimony House, "[e]very electors permitted covered" 2.16 22 unlawful abridge" "on 197517 expanding discrimination color" non-English speaking groups. replacing "race contravention guarantees 4(f)(2)" 89 402.18 afforded Stewart's plurality supra, absent intentional discrimination, served impetus One year Mobile, Chairman Rodino House Judiciary Committee introduced bill extend bilingual requirements, amend striking out substituting "in manner of."19 "results" proposed incorporated S.1992,20 now focal point litigation. 24 Under longer required violation. Now plaintiffs can prevail demonstrating resulted based race. paragraph formerly constituted entire designated application inquiry circumstances."21 full reads 4(f)(2), (b). 26 "(b) A if, circumstances, shown processes leading nomination equally open extent circumstance may considered: Provided, nothing numbers equal proportion population." 96 134. 27 purposes apparent text. adopts providing section. applied. 28 Respondents contend, agreed, choice choice"22 congressional reject convinced intent, some Members amendment.23 confirmed review justifications offered respondents statute; main contentions turn. IV 29 types voters—it process" interpreted limitation, eliminated latter protection, affecting former. 629. words, times polls open, disparate impact ballots different merely affects not. foreclosed our cases. 30 Any inevitably impairs written, inability unless, said process. create rights. Subsection covers every qualification, vote. singular form referring injury who "opportunity" others 1973 distort plain meaning sentence substitute "or" "and." Such radical surgery elect.24 31 patterned WHITE opinions 314 (1973) Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 91 1858, 363 (1971). n. 22, supra. opinions, linked. described connection plaintiffs' produce residents legislators U.S., 766, S.Ct., 2339 And earlier, entailing showing "had 149, 1872 added).25 32 mandated arising For Even wisdom Solomon proposal preserve interference while eschewing judges, authority unitary created Congress. V 33 Both principal reliance instead "legislators" 1973. When borrowed replaced "representatives."26 substitution indicates, very least, cover argue, think, better officers, prosecutors, sheriffs, attorneys general, treasurers, considered then reasoning should judges.27 suggest statute's "representatives." Brief But confuses ordinary words. "representative" refers someone prevailed "candidate" seeking office. candidate nominated, elected. parts precisely people aspirants 1971(b) ("any President"), 1971(e) ("candidates office"), 1973i(c) 1973i(e)(2) 1973l(c) 1973ff-2 ("In President Vice President, named candidate"), 1974 1974e President"). 35 was, course, observing "judges 622, ideally irrelevant role often called disregard, defy, sentiment. Framers understanding role, consequence, Article appointed, sheltered receiving life tenure salary protection. Indeed, these views generally shared early Republic.28 course. decided compel vie just do. 36 fundamental tension ideal real world politics cannot resolved crediting total indifference will simultaneously requiring run office.29 several Bar Association characterized reason: "Each justice situated parish residence election."30 could, changing way, enable indifferent reasons why otherwise 5, close undermines submit changes Columbia preclearance. uses defining prohibited practices: "any voting." 1973c. unlikely result. VI 38 judicially manageable deciding fashioned standard principle.31 aff'g 454, follows conclusion, follow premise. 39 Equal Protection Clause (1980), claim. protect 119 litigation issue here.32 serious problems lie ahead applying "totality circumstances" task, difficult be, justify limitation broadly worded VII 40 remedial "rid[ding] country South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 315, 86 803, 811, 769 (1966). Allen Board Elections, 393 544, 567, 817, 832, (1969), broadest possible scope" combatting discrimination. order relieve proving like contained requirement. alone. believe Congress, effort withdrew, comment, important category Today ambit 41 judgment proceedings consistent ordered. 43 THE CHIEF JUSTICE KENNEDY join, dissenting. 44 all-purpose weapon well-intentioned wield please battle statute. I thought adopted regular interpreting statute: first, find textual context; second, using canons construction, ask indication permissible applies. especially good appears plain—we meaning. West Virginia University Hospitals, Inc. Casey, 499 ---------, 1138, 1147-1148, 113 68 (1991); Demarest Manspeaker, 599, 604, 608 Ron Pair Enterprises, Inc., 489 235, 241, 1026, 1030, 103 290 (1989); Pennsylvania Dept. Public Welfare Davenport, 495 Today, quite accord usual practice. begins what says, expectation particular phenomena ("we [to judges] history," ante, added)); interprets words fulfill expectation. Finding affirming excluded gives representatives" extraordinary 45 method, backwards, however much attracted produces resist it. job passed signed. Member them, Holmes, Theory Legal Interpretation, Harv.L.Rev. 417 (1899), determined. my reveals extends only, representatives. 46 suggests, amendments response proscribed only. agree legislation, directed towards clearly so: "No 48 amendments, radically transformed currently proscribes effect, intentional. criterion powerful, albeit sometimes blunt, attack most subtle forms confront here foundation itinerary journey wrong direction, following statement: "It protection." Ante, 404. There things this. notion credited achieved anything major importance saying it, language, "without comment" colorfully puts dog barked great significance transpired. 396, 23. Apart questionable assuming dogs bark something happening, T. Livius, History 411-413 (1892) (D. Spillan translation), forcefully explicitly Conan Doyle approach past. Harrison PPG Industries, 578, 592, 1889, 1897, 525 (1980) ascertaining cannot, Sherlock pursue theory bark"). history, certainly Statutes sleeping lie. Sedima, S.P.R.L. Imrex Co., 473 479, 495-496, 13, 105 3275, 3284-3285, 87 346 (1985); Williams 458 279, 294-295, 3088, 3096-3097, 73 767 (1982) (MARSHALL, dissenting). 49 error starting-point, assumption excluding revised "withdr[aw] [the] [of Act]." absolutely withdrawing Since pre-1982 content entirety subsisted Constitution, enforced through Nothing lost coverage; add-on. not, therefore, 395-396, cut back Act; far extended court's expectations proper basis expect "withdrawing" supplemental said. 50 What said, establishing following: 51 "A [protected] 1973(b) 52 Though nowhere speaks "vote dilution," (1986), understood proscribe result, phrases highlighted above—"to choice."1 interpretation, phrase—"to process"—is left other, non-dilution violations. If, example, county registration hours day week, blacks register whites, process," violated—even number potential small hypothesis able own candidate, Blumstein, Proving Race Discrimination, 69 Va.L.Rev. 633, 706-707 (1983). 53 rejects Thornburg's asserts out, conditions met. explains, 54 "As elect." 397. 55 wrong. minorities part jurisdiction conceivable "elect Since, analysis elect" prevents actual unable impunity. feels compelled reach implausible "singular right" participate" clause joined conjunction unclear me rules English usage require here, Amendment—which "Congress abridging peaceably assemble, petition Government grievances." assemble assembly grievances. So deprived "opportunity unequal. event case—and sad repudiate [410] 56 Thornburg, mischief doubt deprive remain subject claims.2 57 amici labored mightily see, Lawyers Civil Amicus Curiae 10-11, is. scavenge discover suits preconception judges; determine solid structure intended. 58 little Webster's Second International Dictionary 2114 (1950). feeble contrary means 399. On hypothesis, fan-elected baseball All-Star teams "representatives"—hardly common, permissible, usage. Surely connotes people, also, minimum, acts behalf people. Judges sense—but sense. captions pleadings still display, prosecutor People"; Law—which him People. ordinarily conceive Amendment's "one person, vote." (1973). senses conceived mold, rather, giving meaning, speaker (1899). remains apply. 59 canon which, counter meaning—but reinforcing Term, concerning, curiously enough, federal Gregory Ashcroft, 2412, (1991) "appointee[s] policymaking level" construe since cause intrude government, intrusion, "plain statement" acknowledge Will Michigan Police, 491 58, 65, 2304, 2308, Atascadero Hospital Scanlon, 234, 242, 3142, 3147, 171 Pennhurst School Halderman, 465 89, 99, 104 900, 907, 67 (1984). principle double give true, high-level affected, exists; invoking powers (rather Commerce Clause), obvious. Perhaps factors suffice distinguish tacitly unamended 178-180, 1562-1563, arguably developed has. am dispense cf. Union Gas 1, 41-42, 2273, 2302-2303, (1989) (opinion J.)—but says today's possibility never crossed mind. 60 applicable, assuredly whatever points opposite indicating Far seem pointless. initial matter, evident paid attention language. tracked 2339, 1872, (1971), copied. Significantly, repeatedly §§ 1971(b), (e); 1973i(c), 1973l(c); 1973ff-2; 1974; 1974e, else (except noun lower designees General). normal broader (it includes, school boards city councils senators representatives) narrower "candidates." 61 seemingly refusal selection distinctive really inconsequential, used. nominated yet candidates" contradiction terms. 399-400. flaw repeated formulation itself amply demonstrates. Davis Bandemer, 109, 131, 2797, 2809, 85 (1986); Rogers Lodge, 613, 624, 3272, 3279, 1012 (1982); 639, 18, 641, 649, 3287, 3288, 3292 (STEVENS, dissenting); 75, 1504; Jewish Organizations Williamsburgh, Carey, 430 144, 158, 97 996, 1006, 229 (1977); Moore Ogilvie, 394 814, 819, 1493, 1496, (1969); 569, 833, (1969). Thornburg. 40, 44, 50, 54, 80, 2760, 2762, 2766, 2768, 2781; 86, 103, 2785, 2793 (O'CONNOR, concurring judgment); 107, 2795 J.). Complaint decoded today. Houston Lawyers' Assn. Texas, 2393, 90-813, 90-974, 22a. being impermissible natural absurd think went way replace convey naturally suggests (viz., elections) 62 consideration confirms meant given causes reproduce established, eminently logical perhaps practically indispensable availability Whatever requirements (in sense act electorate), office-holders, conducted accordance equal-protection happens—more coincidentally, think—that vote" applicable. Fortson Dorsey, 433, 436, 498, 500, 401 (1965); Burns Richardson, 384 73, 88, 1286, 1294, 376 (1966); 149-150, 1872-1873; 765-767, 2339-2340; 131-132, 2809-2810, "dilution." One's diluted practical everyone else's. Of course mere satisfies purposes, looks equality blocs votes. (White itself, dealt demonstrates point. 1498.) premise baseline computing bloc ought have. suggested, met, is, structures nonetheless 'minimize population.' 1294. Note, Fair Effective Strength Act: Impact Gingles Minority Vote Dilution Litigation, Wayne L.Rev. 303, 323-324 (1987). 63 Well (through extremely inapt "representatives") available time, extending change law, identify "dilution," barking astounded unmentioned elimination requirement) silence understandable. frankly determined "dilution" occurred, once disfavor minorities, 10,000 throughout "electability" nonminority How decide, system, elective have? assert utterly impossible impose dilution" restrictions regime principle. define will, bounds. inherent essential element pre-existing, crafted 2; adopt definition; standardless task; ("representative") specifically designed avoid problems. stoic difficulty purity, expressing resolve stand up onerous duty inescapably thrust it: "Even 'totality circumstances' Congress." 403. "candidates," reality, leads us—quite unnecessarily indeed stubborn persistence—into morass unguided unguidable democratic attributes let invent (for precedent where consulting) constitutes equal. 65 "anomalous" 402. misconceives roles 5. jurisdictions preclear methods implemented; assuring advance illegality, well. nondilution preclearance form, constitutionally prohibited, government prevent that. scheme makes bring provision. 66 All convince 2(b)—that Congress's choice—and then, presumption, prevails. however—those resting provision—no restriction exclusively dilution, affirm Circuit. outset, method. transforms irrational, inconsistent Green Bock Laundry, 490 504, 510-511, 1981, 1985-1986, 557 Citizen Department Justice, 470, 2574 (KENNEDY, judgment), fit conception psychoanalyzes laws, employ tinkerer's toolbox, harm. Not poison future depriving assurance terms, context, predictable highest responsibility laws sure work people's will. ignored respectfully dissent. 70 join SCALIA's dissent full. write add validity. addresses Constitution. Pub.L. 89-110, 437, seq. (1964 ed., Supp. I). amended, reads: "Sec. La. Art. 3; La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13:101 (West 1983). 22(A); 3. 4; "Section 14(c)(1), defines 'voting' 'vote' sets encompassed regulatory sphere states, including, to, registration, listing pursuant subchapter casting ballot, ballot counted properly totals "Clearly, 'candidates office' election; truly 1059-1060. difficult, impossible, attempt affording [S]ection necessarily embraces scope. wholly sought attain amending 1061. remand, (here petitioners) moved preliminary injunction, enjoining October 1988 seats District. motion, found satisfied injunctive relief. 690 1524, 1531 La.1988). Appeals, vacated injunction ordered proceed scheduled. 853 1186, 1192 reasoned enjoined, resulting uncertainty deleterious administration outweigh harm suffer forward. 1190-1192. disposition 4, Tr. Oral Arg. 27. La.1972) (whether Amendment). differential prima facie invidious municipal Amendments). 16; 42. Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110 (1960), Local redefining boundaries Tuskegee, Alabama, Frankfurter wrote: urged sanction achievement long cloaked garb realignment subdivisions." 345, 129. worked unconstitutional deprivations mechanism employed legislature redefinition boundaries. made, Alabama Legislature redrawn Tuskegee limits incidental inconvenience petitioners; accurate say franchise consequent end incidentally changed city's metes bounds, inescapable human essay geometry geography despoil colored citizens, theretofore enjoyed rights." 347, 130. Hearings H.R. 6400 Other Proposals To Enforce 15th Subcommittee Judiciary, 94-73, 400. 1975 "(f)(1) finds pervasive national environments dominant English. "(2) member group." 401. 3112, 97th Sess. (1981) objectives S.1992, Sections 6, 8; 4(a) permit meet new, broadened termination provisions; section; (4) language-assistance until 1992; (5) pertaining assistance blind, disabled, illiterate. "S. 1992 amends [that] thereby restores legal standards, controlling precedents, involved Bolden. adds delineates codifying pre-Bolden Regester. "This proportional representation." (1982), 177-179 (footnotes omitted). adoption maintenance Plaintiffs or, alternatively, show circumstances question, access 'results' restore pre-Mobile governed challenging systems illegal (footnote 83-84, 2783-2784, (1986) judgment) ("Amended codify 'intent' propounded (1980))." WHITE's predates explained "embod[y] laid down White." 27, 205. White, "plaintiffs' [the group's] 2339. regard likened bark. A. Doyle, Silver Blaze, Complete Holmes 335 (1927). 602, 1902, (REHNQUIST, dissenting) sweeping relatively unorthodox detectives take watchdog night"). NLRB, - 1539, 1543-1544, 675 argues literal "and" infringements always lack candidate," 409. argument, rests erroneous group 377 565, 1383, ("Full requires, voice legislature"). Senator Dole's compromise, assuage fears Senators House's version, invitation representation quotas. Dole compromise embody belief "that allowed stand, regardless exists intent" "delineat[e] clarif[y] mandate 2d (1982). (a), engage level. ---, 2395, 2404, ("It appointee exercise discretion issues importance. bench, policymakers brings her texts "a well-considered best community." concurrence notes, Cardozo wrote eloquently "policymaking nature function." (WHITE, part, judgment). Winters, Selection Judges—An Historical Introduction, Texas 1081, 1082-1083 "Financing campaign, soliciting votes, attempting charisma name identification unseemly "it business popularity." Stevens, Office Office, Chicago Rec. 276, 280, 281 (1974). Law Institute, Projet Notes Studies 1039 (1954) (1921 submitted Constitutional Convention). editors project 1921 revising constitution, offers many proposals, thirty years, merit consideration. interest selection, retirement removal ." 1035. "one-person, one-vote" Gray Sanders, 372 368, 379, 381, 83 801, 808, 809, 821 (1963): "Once geographical unit designated, vote—whatever sex, occupation, income, wherever home unit. Declaration Independence, Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Fifteenth, Seventeenth, Nineteenth thing—one "each person's counts much, insofar practicable, person's." Hadley Junior College 397 90 791, 794, (1970). note, rely rule. 88-89, 2785-2787 (holding invalid, notwithstanding compliance rule). dissent, 413-416, valid, led Caminetti 242 485, 192, 194, L.Ed. 442 (1917); 440, 2558, 2574, noted, allegation redistricting impaired citizens' Act," 35, 2758. 46, 2764, ("The structure"). recovery case: "Minority contend districting operates preferred candidates." 48, 2765 disagreeing remedy, acknowledged underlay pointing "minority assessed prefers. approach, essence unacceptably impair prefer." 2786 deleted). denies follows, because, "rests 24. assumption. assume influence," "judges." Doyle's embrace Lewis Carroll's.

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