Document: 437 U.S. 153 98 S.Ct. 2279 57 L.Ed.2d 117 TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY, Petitioner,v.Hiram G. HILL, Jr., et al. No. 76-1701. Argued April 18, 1978. Decided June 15, Syllabus The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Act) authorizes the Secretary Interior (Secretary) in § 4 to declare a species life "endangered." Section 7 specifies that all "federal departments and agencies shall, . with assistance Secretary, utilize their authorities furtherance purposes [the] by carrying out programs for conservation endangered taking such action necessary insure actions authorized, funded, or carried them do not jeopardize continued existence threatened result destruction modification habitat which is determined be critical." Shortly after Act's passage was petitioned list small fish popularly known as snail darter an under Act. Thereafter made designation. Having apparently lives only portion Little Tennessee River would completely inundated t e impoundment reservoir created consequence completion Tellico Dam, he declared area darter's "critical habitat." Notwithstanding near multimillion-dollar dam, issued regulation, it that, pursuant 7, "all Federal must take ensure this critical area." Respondents brought suit enjoin dam reservoir, claiming those violate causing extinction. District Court trial denied relief dismissed complaint. Though finding probably existence, court noted Congress, though fully aware problem, had Tellico's appropriations, concluded "[a]t some point time federal project becomes so incapable equity should apply statute enacted long inception produce unreasonable result. ." Appeals reversed ordered permanently "until appropriate legislation, exempts from compliance has been deleted its materially redefined." held record revealed prima facie violation Valley Authority failed avoid jeopardizing "actions." thus rejected contention word "actions" used intended Congress encompass terminal phases ongoing projects. At various times before, during, foregoing judicial proceedings, TVA represented congressional Appropriations Committees did prohibit Project described efforts transplant darter. consistently recommended appropriations sometimes stating views at advanced stage, each approved TVA's general budget, contained funds dam's construction. Held: 1. prohibits Dam. Pp. 172-193. (a) language plain makes no exception urged petitioner whereby like well way when passed 172-174. (b) It clear legislative history halt reverse trend toward extinction—whatever cost. pointed omission type qualified previously included legislation reveals conscious design give priority over "primary missions" agencies. moreover, foresaw on occasion require alter projects order fulfill goals. 174-187. (c) None limited "hardship exemptions" provided even remotely Project. P. 188. (d) statements Committee Reports reflected view either completed regardless provisions, nothing measures stated requirements. To find repeal these circumstances, urged, " 'cardinal rule 27 repeals implication are favored.' Morton v. Mancari, 417 535, 549, 94 2474, 2482, 41 290. doctrine disfavoring applies full vigor subsequent measure. When voting measures, legislators entitled assume will devoted lawful any purpose forbidden. A contrary policy express rules both Houses provide may change existing substantive law. An committess' expression does operate modify legislation. 189-193. 2. err ordering Dam have violated enjoined. spoken plainest words, making accorded highest priorities. Since power exercised, up Executive Branch administer law Judiciary enforce when, here, enforcement sought. 193-194. 549 F.2d 1064, affirmed. Atty. Gen. Griffin B. Bell, Washington, D. C., petitioner. Zygmunt J. Plater, Knoxville, Tenn., respondents. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 questions presented case whether requires operation virtually dam—which authorized prior 1973—when, authority vested him eradicate species; constituted implied Act, least particular dam. 2 * originates mountains northern Georgia flows through national forest lands North Carolina into Tennessee, where converges Big Knoxville. lower 33 miles takes river's clear, free-flowing waters great natural beauty. Among other environmental amenities, stretch river said contain abundant trout. Considerable historical importance attaches areas immediately adjacent Tennessee's banks. south edge lies Fort Loudon, established 1756 England's southwestern outpost French Indian War. Nearby also ancient sites several native American villages, archeological stores large extent unexplored.1 These include Cherokee towns Echota Tennase, former being sacred capital Nation early 16th century latter providing linguistic basis State derives name.2 3 In Authority, wholly owned public corporation o United States, began constructing Reservoir 1967, shortly appropriated initial development.3 multipurpose regional development designed principally stimulate shoreline development, generate sufficient electric current heat 20,000 homes,4 flatwater recreation flood control, improve economic conditions "an characterized underutilization human resources outmigration young people." Hearings Public Works Power Energy Research Appropriation Bill, 1977, before Subcommittee House Appropriations, 94th Cong., 2d Sess., pt. 5, p. 261 (1976). Of relevance one aspect project, place short distance meet Tennessee. operational, impound water covering 16,500 acres—much represents valuable productive farmland—thereby converting shallow, fast-flowing deep 30 length. never opened, however, despite fact construction essentially ready operation. Although monies every year since progress delayed, ultimately stopped, tangle lawsuits administrative proceedings. After unsuccessfully urging consider alternatives damming local citizens groups Court, conform requirements National Environmental Policy 1969 (NEPA), 83 Stat. 852, 42 U.S.C. 4321 seq. NEPA, enjoined pending filing impact statement. Defense Fund TVA, 339 F.Supp. 806 (ED Tenn.), aff'd, 468 1164 (CA6 1972). injunction remained effect until late 1973, final statement 371 1004 Tenn.1973), 492 466 1974).5 5 few months Court's decision dissolving NEPA injunction, discovery profoundly affect Exploring around Coytee Springs, about seven mouth river, University ichthyologist, Dr. David A. Etnier, found unknown perch, darter, Percina (Imostoma) tanasi.6 This three-inch, tannish-colored fish, whose numbers estimated range 10,000 15,000, soon engage attention environmentalists, Department Interior, courts, new additional 6 Until recently animal hardly cause celebre. particularly darters, there approximately 130 species, 8 10 having identified last five years.7 moving force behind sudden fame came four discovery, (Act), 87 884, 16 1531 (1976 ed.). among things, "endangered"8 identify habitat"9 creatures. listed, following Act—relevant here—becomes effective: "The [of Interior] shall review administered chapter. All consultation chapter listed section 1533 title affected 1536 ed.) (emphasis added). January 1975, respondents case10 others Interior11 species. receiving comments form interested parties, including formally October 8, 1975. 40 Fed.Reg. 47505-47506; see 50 C.F.R. 17.11(i) acting, "the living entity genetically distinct reproductively isolated fishes." 47505. More important case, Dam's completion. Id., 47506.12 went explain significance darter: 9 "[T]he occurs swifter portions shoals clean gravel substrate cool, low-turbidity water. Food almost exclusively snails survival. proposed total Ibid. Subsequent determination, habitat" 13926-13928 (1976) (to certified CFR 17.81). Using determinations predicate, notwithstanding 13928 codified 17.81(b)). notice, course, pointedly directed clearly aimed ng 11 During pendency actions, developments issue were transpiring. Communication occurring between Interior's Fish Wildlife Service settling informally. negotiations avail, took position available alternative attempt relocating population another suitable location. end, conducted search might sustain culminating experimental transplantation number darters nearby Hiwassee River. However, satisfied results efforts, "little evidence they carefully studied determine not" "biological factors [would] negate successful transplant."13 47506 (1975). 12 Meanwhile, become involved fate Appearing 1975—some endangered—TVA representatives Water Development 1976, 1st pp. 466-467 (1975); H.R. 8122, Fiscal Year Senate 4, 3775-3777 advance successive forums thereafter, namely, substantially constructed passed. but contended finished experiment's success. Thereafter, 20, Report, course recommending $29 million Tellico: 13 directs Committee, promptly possible H.R.Rep.No.94-319, 76 (Emphasis added.) 14 then Project.14 December month President signed bill 89 1035, 1047. 15 February 11(g) 900, 1540(g) ed.),15 filed now review, seeking ground directly extinction tanasi. respondents' request preliminary set matter trial. thereafter hearings discussions budget. hearings, Chairman Wagner reiterated agency's 50% became effective 70% 80% complete officially endangered. notified lawsuit's status reported "been very encouraging." & 261-262 (1976); 3096-3099 17 Trial 29 30, May 25, entered memorandum denying requested dismissing closure consequent "result adverse modification, if destruction, habitat,"16 "highly probable" darter" "jeopardize[d]." 419 753, 757 Tenn.). Despite findings, declined embrace plaintiffs' merits: once shown compelled restraining 18 reaching result, stressed entire and, based evidence, "there [were] scrapping project." 758. enjoined, "[s]ome $53 lost nonrecoverable obligations," id., 759, meaning $78 already expended wasted. years commenced Tellico, awareness problem. Assessing factors, concluded: 19 "At Where irreversible irretrievable commitment span decade, proceed deal circumspection." 760. 20 accept position, argued, inexorably lead what absurd requiring "a discovered day scheduled place. We cannot conceive result." 763. 21 Less than decision, budget $9 work Tellico. See S.Rep.No.94-960, 96 H.R.Rep.No.94-1223, Report accompanying bill, stated: 22 "During subcommittee questioned relationship project's November 1975 listing (a 3-inch 1973) informed continuing preserve while working towards 1977 date. repeated prevent nearly decade. matter, recent U. S. upholding Committee. prohibiting stage interest." supra, 96. 23 On 29, Tellico; July 12, 1976. 90 889, 899. 24 Appeals, argued abused discretion issuing face blatant statutory violation." Hill 1069 1977). agreed, 31, reversed, remanding "with instructions permanent halting activities incident destroy darter." 1075. "remain endan ered 25 accepted "significantly reduced extirpated." 1069. fact, conceded much "closure ten-year falls outside legitimate purview rationally construed." 1070. Disagreeing, namely "such insure" habitat. 26 reviewing Not could "positive reinforcement" argument history, interpretation seen "inimical objectives." F.2d, By illustration, detrimental upon always perceived underway." 1071. Given likelihood, sitting chancellor, balance worth against value works measure, appellate willing accept. Emphasizing limits setting, "Current translated workable standard review. Whether 90% irrelevant calculating social scientific costs attributable disappearance unique life. Courts ill-equipped calculate how many dollars invested exceeds Our responsibility 1540(g)(1)(A) merely quo threatened, thereby guaranteeing executive branches opportunity grapple alternatives." 28 As far concerned, difference repeatedly referring approval "advisory opinio[n]" concerning proper application statute. court's view, relevant itself, "[t]he spirit" "clear face." 1072. Turning question remedy, ruled erred injunction. While recognizing loss millions accompany injunctive relief, nonetheless decided explicitly commanded precisely result: "It conceivable welfare weigh more heavily conscience, expressed writeoff excess present salvageable value." 1074. 31 Following issuance members Board Directors appeared Subcommittees testify support apprised aspects status, Appeals' decision. stood "ready gates closed filled," D velopment 1978, 95th 234 (1977), certain ancillary parts use areas, roads, bridges. commented optimistically expressing relocated "doing ha[d] reproduced." 235, 261-262. 32 Both subsequently amount 2, Committee's completion, [the Committee] strongly recommends stopped because misuse Act." H.R.Rep.No.95-379, 104. 34 solution advised cooperate "to relocate permit rapidly possible." 11. Toward special appropriation $2 facilitate relocation delay stop Much same occurred side, Reporting strong stand issue: 35 "This committee viewed preventing If act understanding intent enacting allow benefits realized interest, notwithstanding." S.Rep.No.95-301, 99 (1977). 36 August 1977. 91 797. 37 granted certiorari, 434 954, 478, 54 312 judgment Appeals. II 38 begin premise Petitioner seriously dispute fact.17 event, 4(a)(1) 886, 1533(a)(1) ed.), exclusive "endangered" "threatened" ascertain led precarious existence. 4(d) authorized—indeed commanded—the "issue regulations deems advisable species." 1533(d) we seen, promulgated destroyed creation Doubtless prefer books, suggestion exceeded his regulations. Indeed, Secretary's ever sought hence validity open 39 Starting above premise, two presented: Would operated planned? offend remedy violation? For reasons hereinafter, hold answered affirmative. (A) seem curious survival relatively three-inch countless extant $100 million. paradox minimized sums money apparent conclude, explicit provisions One hard pressed provision terms plainer Its words affirmatively command existence" admits exception. Nonetheless, urges, dissenters, reasonably interpreted applying 1973. forced ignore ordinary language. shown, example, can close without "carrying out" "authorized" "funded" agency. Nor understand "insure disrupted.18 Accepting determinations, must, opposite effect, eradication 43 Concededly, sacrifice anticipated funds.19 But examination language, structure here indicates beyond doubt afforded 44 legislating slate. first major concern preservation come 1966, 80 926, repealed, 903.20 gave names wildlife extinction," 1(c), authorization purchase land conservation, protection, restoration, propagation "selected species" "native wildlife" §§ 2(a)-(c), 926-927. Declaring policy, 1966 protect "insofar practicable consistent the[ir] primary purposes," 1(b), "preserve habitats jurisdiction." sweeping prohibition except lands, 4(c), 928, hunting fishing 4(d)(1), 928. 45 Conservation 275, 903, broadening involvement Under empowered "threatened worldwide 3(a), 275; addition, importation recognized prohibited. 275. indirect approach adopted ban transportation sale taken federal, state, foreign 7(a)-(b), 279.21 46 most comprehensive nation"22 time, persuaded expansive needed newly preserving realized. later still rate per year, 306 (statement Stephen R. Seater, Defenders Wildlife), pace "accelerating." H.R.Rep.No.93-412, (1973). Moreover, told something normal process selection: 47 "[M]an technology [sic] ever-increasing disrupt ecosystem. resulted dramatic rise severity threats faced world's wildlife. truth realizes half recorded extinctions mammals past 2,000 50-year period." 202 Assistant Interior). 48 That lightly commentator: 49 dominant theme pervading Congressional discussion [Endangered 1973] overriding need devote whatever effort further diminution resources. testimony debate biological problem Senators Congressmen uniformly deplored irreplaceable aesthetics, science, ecology, heritage disappear." Coggins, Conserving Resources: Overview 51 N.D.L.Rev. 315, 321 proceedings are, replete expressions risk lie species.23 Typifying sentiments Merchant Marine Fisheries 37, essential features 1973; explaining "As homogenize plants animals evolved, increase pressure products supply (usually unwillingly) threaten their—and our own—genetic heritage. 52 genetic is, quite literally, incalculable. 53 "From narrow best interests mankind minimize losses variations. reason simple: potential They keys puzzles solve, answers yet learned ask. 55 "To homely, apt, example: chemicals regulation ovulations humans common plant. Once discovered, analyzed, duplicate synthetically, existed—or driven knew potentialities—we tried synthesize 56 "Who knows, say, cures cancer scourges, future, locked structures undiscovered, less analyzed? Sheer self-interest impels us cautious. institutionalization caution heart .." 4-5 58 examples cited demonstrate, concerned uses unforeseeable creatures chain planet. 59 shaping presented, started causes S.Rep.No.93-307, (1973) U.S.Code Cong Admin.News 2989, 2990. twin threats, greatest habitats; 236 Associate Deputy Forest System, Dept. Agriculture); 241 Director Mich. Natural Resources); Wildlife); Lachenmeier, 1973: Preservation Pandemonium?, Environ. Law (1974). Witnesses recommended, land-managing damaging positive steps Resources). Virtually introduced during session responded incorporating similar, identical, Act.24 designed, administration witness, "for [to] [a] agency species," 1592 1983 Environment Commerce, 93d 68 Interior) added); furthermore, bills "direc[t] protection animals." 205 60 finally passed, nation. means ecosystems depend conserved," program 1531(b) goals, expressly 2(c) seek conserve 1531(c) Lest ambiguity directive, specifically defined "conserve" methods procedures bring longer necessary." 1532(2). Aside indicated seriousness dealings taking, possession, transportation, sale, prohibited, 1538 extremely 1539(b). given extensive develop species.25 1533(d). Citizen encouraged allowing persons petition 1533(c)(2), n. 11, civil suits States district courts 1540(c) (g). 61 relied provides good gauge intent. genesis obligation Likewise, qualification similar earlier statutes.26 Exemplary 4758, 2(b) direct ends Explaining idea spokesman "would signal Government priority, 213 go unnoticed advocating representative th Sierra Club, attacked phrase "consistent purpose" cautioning "could construed declaration necessarily prevail conflict occur." 335 chairman Club's Committee); 251 Audubon Society). 62 What significant sequence version omitted reservations above. initially (S. 1983), required "carry .."27 1983, 7(a). contrast, originally House, mirror image 7—indeed phrases responsibilities bill.28 expected agencies, states: 63 subsection heads carry 64 Resolution variations bills, task Conference 119 Cong.Rec. 30174-30175, 31183 Conf.Rep. 93-740 (1973), Cong. basically 1983; conferees stringent, mandatory 37. specific reference choice manager Representative Dingell, require, casually inadvertently included: 65 "[Section 7] amplifie[s] [federal agencies] within act. article illustrates occur absent bill. appears whooping cranes country, perhaps Air Force bombing along gulf coast Texas. law, threat disappears [O]nce enacted, Defense] steps. 66 "Another example [has] continental grizzly bears endangered, surely threatened. Agriculture whatever, situation permitted worsen, depend, government committed out. [T]he plead it. can, must. clear." 42913 67 background29 measure claim which, path. totality abundantly reach today accord Congress. extinction, policies literally persons, instructed "take" harass, harm,[30] pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, collect" forms. 1532(14), 1538(a)(1)(B) Agencies 3(2) "use necessary" 1531(c), 1532(2) added) undergirding afford saving qualifying speculate, act, altered stance events anticipated. discern hint deliberations relating compel different here.31 saw potentially enormous danger suggest struck 69 Furthermore, would, occasion, goals Act.32 Congressman Dingell's practice bombing, instance, obviously pinpoints activity—intimately related defense—which department obliged deference strictures 7. Report: 70 "Under [§ 7], Park practices protecting dwindling stock Yellowstone Park. bears, undeniably protected supplying carcasses elk park, curtailing clearcutting Forests surrounding Park, recovered sufficiently withstand pressures." 71 applicability saying burden unrecoverable greatly outweigh darter.33 neither nor Art. III Constitution make fine utilitarian calculations. contrary, buttressed shows "incalculable." Quite obviously, difficult sum certain—even congressionally "incalculable" value, assuming weighing process, emphatically not. 72 passing instances exceptions statute's broad sweep necessary. Thus, 10, 1539 creates exemptions," none exemptions maxim expressio unius est exclusio alterius, presume cases" exempt. Cf. Railroad Passenger Corp. Assn. Passengers, 414 453, 458, 690, 693, 646 (1974).34 73 Congress' constitute insofar points Committees' Reports; Part I, generally attitude unwilling advice duly believed simply applicable situation. unable conclude respect amended repealed. 74 There states irrespective minor components lump-sum amounts budget.35 circumstances violence 290 (1974), quoting Posadas City Bank, 296 497, 503, 349, 352, L.Ed. 351 (1936). held, uncertain terms, intention legislature manifest." Pennsylvania Co., 324 439, 456-457, 716, 725-726, 1051 (1945) ("Only repugnancy old [law] giving ."); Borden 308 188, 198-199, 182, 84 181 (1939) ("[I]ntention 'must manifest.' '[A] [between laws]' "); Wood Pet. 342, 363, 987 (1842) ("[T]here "). practical "cardinal rule" "[i]n absence affirmative showing repeal, permissible justification statutes irreconcilable." U.S., 550, S.Ct., 2482. 75 "applies measure." Nuclear Responsibility Seaborg, 149 U.S.App.D.C. 380, 382, 463 783, 785 (1971) Froehlke, 473 346, 355 (CA8 understatement accurate say evengreater claimed rests solely recognize enactments "Acts Congress," programs. assumption Without assurance, pregnant prospects altering repealing expenditure. Members exhaustively background appropriation, flout need. Rule XXI(2), provides: "No amendment thereto, expenditure unless continuation progress. thereto changing order." 77 Standing Rules Senate, 16.4. petitioner's meant pro tanto procedure prohibited 78 Perhaps mindful "swimming upstream" well-established precedent, argues repealers circumstance where, "understanding" proposition. Expressions committees dealing requests equated case. First, jurisdiction subject conduct preceded Acts, especially venture Commerce somewhat surprised learn careful undone simple—and brief—insertion inconsistent Reports. 79 Second, indication whole although agreed views. Only SEC Sloan, 436 103, 1702, 148 (1978), acquiescence 34-year-old Securities Exchange Commission, Commission's practice. REHNQUIST, speaking observed "extremely hesitant thousands pages documents." 121, 1713. fortiori, views—and acceptance them—were better known, administering apart irreconcilable," iMancari, 551, 2483; entirely regard effective." starting analysis leading funding years, confidently successful; impression 1978 supports collision avoided. 1976 leaves us. little accomplished project; understandably true "view" Considering context, evident 'represent personal legislators,' "however explicit, [they] serve passage." Regional Rail Reorganization Cases, 102, 132, 95 335, 353, 320 81 (B) 82 irreconcilable any, appropriate. correct, judge chancellor mechanically obligated grant Hecht Co. Bowles, 321, 329, 587, 591, 88 754 (1944), "[a] orders suggests absolute duty circumstances." "[s]ince equitable remedies discretionary, balancing equities hardships guide chancellor's discretion." Dobbs, Remedies refused findings 'no insuring future' [have been] 'unjust' 'in interest.' 326, 590. principles far. system all, tripartite one, branch functions delegated Constitution. "[i]t province is," Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 177, (1803), equally—and emphatically—the formulate mandate projects, establish relative Nation. exercising powers, priorities area, laws Here "reasonably," shape "that accords modicum sense weal." Post, 196. function? expert knowledge people strike side favor affording priorities, adopting "institutionalized caution." 85 individual appraisal wisdom unwisdom consciously selected put aside interpreting enactment discerned constitutionality determined, comes end. sit veto. lines ascribed Sir Thomas Robert Bolt here: 86 Roper, I know what's legal, right. And I'll stick legal. I'm God. currents eddies right wrong, you plain-sailing, can't navigate, voyager. thickets oh forester. do? Cut road get Devil? down, Devil turned round you—where hide, flat? country's planted thick coast—Man's laws, God's—and cut down d'you really think upright winds blow then? Yes, I'd benefit my own safety's sake." Bolt, Man Seasons, 147 (Three Plays, Heinemann ed. 1967). agree constitutional separation powers too fundamental pre-empt judicially decreeing "common vests political branches. Affirmed. POWELL, whom BLACKMUN joins, dissenting. holds court, habitat, completed. casts shadow serving vital needs society defense, whenever "plain Congress" completed1 discovered. believe "absurd result"—in Court—of authorize rectify judgments Legislative Branch, however egregiously disserve interest. du y adopt weal. 92 facts fully, fairly repeat said. read compelling rejection conclusion today's brings end—absent itself. 93 (TVA) eastern resource control flooding, supply, promote industrial recreational system, economically depressed "characterized people."2 Construction voted since. completed, darter3 impounded December. later, joined petitioning 75% placed "proposed ed.): "All nevertheless continue accordance instant 97 March Project's lawsuit. attempting River, closely resembles explicitly, success guaranteed.4 Eastern project."5 755 construction, unreasonable: Arlington Coalition Transportation Volpe, 458 1323, 1331-32 (4th Cir.), cert. den. 409 1000, 312, (1972). 100 Observing argument, logical extreme, impoundment, result.6 Accordingly, prayer action. 101 alleged doing so, presumably approving year. released report noting "not stage," interest."7 President. 102 Sixth Circuit create sort case: "Where on-going substantial expended, incentives things pragmatic momentum schedule incisive." Judicial resolution conflict, reasoned, represent usurpation power. quoted reading impoundment. intent, holding instead "[c]onscientious extreme." remanded 103 again unequivocally completion: 104 "[The Senate] notwithstanding."8 105 [House] Act."9 106 again, 107 Today below, adopts gives retroactive disregards With due respect, extreme literalist10 manifest purpose. ignores canons 108 Blue Chip Stamps Manor Drug Stores, 421 723, 756, 1917, 1935, 539 (1975) (POWELL, J., concurring). textbook fuzzy according "eye beholder."11 [as be] [a critical] Respondents—as Circuit—read sweepingly 109 embraces Ante, 184-188. reasoning, covers installation, hydroelectric reservoirs, harbor defense installation—however Nation's health safety. usefulness.12 precondition, respondents, destroying usefulness country spider amoeba.13 110 "[F]requently statute, enough question, consideration enactment, follow legislator act." Church Holy Trinity 143 457, 459, 511, 512, 226 (1892).14 virtue reading. avoids result" 111 "plain." part phrase: "actions funded out." planning executing activities, seems referred take, rather deciding authorize, fund, short, prospective i. e., reasonable decisionmaking available, lawsuit, cost concedes "completed" "virtually operation," ante, 156, 157-158. 1, supra. "carried remaining Federation Coleman, 529 359, (CA5), sub nom. Boteler Federation, 429 979, 489, 587 112 supported presumption construing effect. Fidelity Guaranty ex rel. Struthers Wells 209 306, 314, 537, 539, 804 (1908), "presumption retrospectively, ought receive susceptible other." enacts regime regulation. cases seq., requirement applied E. g., Pizitz, Inc. 467 208 (CA5 1972); Ragland Mueller, 460 1196 Greene County Planning FPC, 455 412, 424 (CA2), denied, 849, 56, Fourth explained holdings. 113 "Doubtless intend date 102. progress, abandoning definitely accrue therefrom 'possible' 'complete' considered 'retroactive' Congress." 1331, Fugate Transportation, 114 Similarly certainly abandon reached, retrospective strongest. weight presumption. B 115 recognizes legislature. Trucking Assns., 310 534, 542, 1059, 1063, 1345 (1940).15 reviews length quotations curiously conflicting conclusions. 116 finds "totality [justifying termination abandonment project] 184. Yet, paragraph, acknowledges problem." nowhere reaches "abundantly" self-evident discussed. establishes governmental account execution programs,16 undoing species.17 who it, terminate long-completed installations edifices,18 testimony, consequences wasteful, inimical deemed important, likely arouse outrage. floor debates participating 118 above, confirmed expressions. properly, post-enactment weight. See, e. Acts themselves determining superseded. Langston, 389, 393, 1185, 1186, 164 (1886). precedents inapposite. "bootstrap" Congressmen. explanation comment financial Acts. Testimony precise committees, three consecutive addressed affirmed original assume—as suggests—that approve unaware contents supporting corroborative reflects Fleming Mohawk Wrecking Lumber 331 111, 116, 1129, 1132, 1129 (1947); Brooks Dewar, 313 354, 1399 (1941). amend grave Few, body wish defend waste million, 6, denies confer.19 sentiment leave standing empty conversation piece incredulous tourists. 120 acts expeditiously, anticipated, lasting consequences. thought otherwise unnecessary intended. 121 diss nting. 122 light Brother POWELL's dissenting opinion, am convinced difficulty doubtfulness correct answer legal convinces me refusing, exercise traditional completing 11(g)(1) 1540(g)(1) "any person commence behalf person, instrumentality ., chapter." grants "jurisdiction, controversy citizenship provision." 123 construe lent greater just quoted. Emergency Price Control 1942 124 "[u]pon Administrator engaged [acts violative Act] temporary order, bond." 125 considerations, saying: 126 "Only 'An appeal conferred sound guides equity.' essence Chancellor mould decree necessities Flexibility rigidity distinguished qualities mercy practicality instrument nice adjustment reconciliation interest private competing claims. departure tradition implied. [I]f desired abrupt suggested, desire plain." 329-330, 592. 127 sharply retreating principle announced automatic found. choose adhere Co.'s teaching: 128 "[A] circumstances. drastic traditions practice, unequivocal made." 591. 129 possessed refuse Locomotive Engineers Missouri, K. T. 363 528, 1326, 1330, 1379 (1960). harms flow demonstrated faith recognizes, 193, traditionally played central role decisions deny Moore, Practice ¶ 65.18[3] (1972); Yakus 414, 440-441, 660, 674-675, 834 (1944). official action, injury embarrassment" "be prejudicial Greathouse Dern, 289 360, 614, 617, 1250 (1933). confronted purpose, stronger refusing needs," 592, seldom exact counterpart another. Eccles People's 333 426, 641, 784 (1948); Penn Mutual Life Ins. Austin, 168 685, 223, 626 (1898). concern. outweighed equally factors. elaborated dissent satisfy refusal abuse discretion. therefore otherwise. description Judge litigation involving 806, 808 Tenn.1972). rare Brief Band Indians Amicus Curiae Mooney, Myths Cherokee, Bureau Ethnology Ann. Rep. (1900); H. Timberlake, Memoirs, 1756-1765 (Watauga Press 1927); Brewer C. Brewer, So Wild: Folk History (East Tenn. Historical Soc. 1975). 1002, 1014. itself generators; interreservoir canal connecting plant augment latter's capacity. months; spent project. Most gone land, construct concrete build four-lane steel bridge state highway reservoir. F.Supp., 808. scientifically Etnier Proceedings Biological Society Vol. 88, 44, 469-488 (Jan. 22, 1976). merit content Etnier's paper ch cked panel Smithsonian Institution publication. App. 111. alone 131, upward live system. 130. New constantly classified—at 131. trained ichthyologists often differentiate "endangered mean throughout Class Insecta pest overwhelming man." 1532(4) 'The subspecies, world needing protection. 1.4 600,000 world. Various 10% them—some 200,000—may Threatened. counts mention populations, number.' Keith Shreiner, Program Manager Service, letter Wagner, Chairman, Fisheries, dated Apr. Wood, Protecting Statute: (1978). define habitat," administratively term: 'Critical habitat' air, (exclusive man-made settlements recovery species) constituent elements thereof, appreciably decrease likelihood segment population. include, to: physical topography, biota, climate, activity, quality chemical water, air. Critical expansion." 874 (1978) 402.02). association scientists, group, individuals users "interested person[s]" 1533(c)(2) ed.); 553(e) Searches watercourses populations darters. 36, 410-412. "more 1,000 collections east presence River." 47505 estimated, extended upper main tributaries Chattanooga—all impoundments. 240-241 (1977) witness TVA); Oversight, Resource Protection Works, 291 (1977); 139. scientists successfully survive reproduce environment. General Accounting Office, Authority's Project—Costs, Alternatives, Benefits (Oct. 14, long-term future transplant, noted: "That inhabit access past, transplant." funded—without authorization—from yearly grants. 831c(j) 831z allows person" to, inter alia, "enjoin eleventh Constitution), provision" "or thereof ecology showed substrate, large-to-medium, flowing river. high oxygen tends exist bottom depths. Reservoirs, unlike rivers, tend low "Reservoirs silt factor, combined content, highly probable eggs smother adult environment unsuitable spawning. factor source food, snails, environment." 756 unchallenged here. dissent, POWELL "far 'plain,' "it 'actions' 205. bare assertion, proffered interpretation. recalls Lewis Carroll's class language: 'When word,' Humpty Dumpty said, scornful tone, 'it mean—neither less.' Through Looking Glass, Complete Carroll 196 (1939). unexplicated, dissent's flawed counts. superfluous remain "funded." logically comply stage. limit 4332(2)(A), (C). failure obligations; 166. figure, study figure considerably less. GAO Study, 13, 5-14; Cook, Gove, Snail Darter Parks Magazine Foundation Letter 1-2 (Apr. 1978). concludes explore considerations however; properly Prior limited. Lacey 1900, 187, partially 667e 701 (1976), Black Bass 1926, 851 interstate commerce national, constrained, regulating 317-318 Migratory Bird Treaty 1918, 755, amended, 703 extensive, migratory birds. Other concentrated establishing refuges Land 1965, 897, 460l-4 Institute, Evolution inherent limitations discussed, (hereinafter Hearings). 280 Roe); 281 Whitehurst); 301 Friends Earth); 306-307 Wildlife). statement, deserves notice: "[I] watched lifetime vast array mollusks southern streams totally disappear damming, channelization, pollution. asked me, 'what Alabama.' know, insight exactly why evolved trouble bein party gained knowledge." 207. member mollusk family rivers snail, Encyclopedia Britannica 326 (15th 1974), ironically principal food 162, 165-166, 16. 470, 471, 1511, 2669, 3696, 3795; 3(d) 1461 4755; 5(d) 2735; 4758. 1592; 1983. collected 87-185; Sess. 3-49 scope inclusion deserving Threatened "likely foreseeable [their] range." 1532(15) 3310, 4758; 2169, imposed note, sent "wherever practicable" 2(b). 25663 "purposes policy" 1983—which Senate—retained limitation note 25664 30157-30162. unambiguous face, ordinarily look meaning. Ex parte Collett, 337 55, 61, 944, 947, 1207 (1949), therein. undertaken "absurd" reached post, 196, intends "harming" term "harm" actually injures kills wildlife, annoy significantly behavioral patterns, breeding, feeding sheltering; degradation effects 'harm.' 17.3 cites favorable consists Senator Tunney 25691-25692 Army Corps Engineers' Kentucky. Responding opined involved, building so." 25689 interprets remarks agency, respective decide extirpate meant, contrast Kentucky Administration analogous "prohibit[ing] Supra, 179. discussed "as 7(a) mentioned. 182. Tunney's Senator's responsible "final decision," 25690 proceed, Interior. recourse higher administration, Act; likewise done characterizes "retroactive" contention. affects since, definition, extirpated destroyed; apply. places reliance (1892), 204, history. "rare exceptional prevail." Crooks Harrelson, 282 60, 49, 50, 156 (1930). explication assertion literal relies 205-206. decisions, purposes. imposes procedural inquiry environment; inapplicable meaningful versus hand, compels activities. file environmentally "significant." 1164, 1177 177-179. appropriated; identification Member scrutinized detail Attorney Bell oral remains "[c]lose gate," "some roads bridges." "dam finished. landscaping [I]t completed." Tr. Oral Arg. 18. extraordinary one. Even icthyologists familiar distinguishing 107, year; years. told, 130-131. grounds. 1069-1070 untenable opinion's project," "[it is] completion." "Act manner effectuate purpose," ibid., From this, together 760-761, Taylor correctly $110 Project, entail tax dollars. Frank, Words Music: Remarks Statutory Interpretation, Colum.L.Rev. 1259, 1263 Hand, Speech Justice, Harv.L.Rev. 620 (1916). admirable. neglected. unfortunate litigation—wasteful taxpayers end counterproductive purpose—may invited careless draftsmanship meritorious 7: "QUESTION: Do think—it your projects? don't there'll exists? "MR. PLATER: continuation— Take Grand Coulee dam— Right. Your Honor, there— "—it wouldn't that's view. asking imagination— see, Honor. —beyond accepting assumption. turn Coulee. Does it? Interior— question. would." 57-58. interpretation, disasters breathtaking indeed, hundreds candidates list: Accord, 543, (1940); Armstrong Nu-Enamel Corp., 305 333, 191, 200, 195 (1938); Sorrells 287 435, 446-448, 210, 214, 215, 413 (1932) (collecting cases); Ryan, 284 167, 175, 65, 68, 224 (1931). suggests, 187 33, precept somehow undermined Crooks, "literal avoided purpose." 68. point. Sorrells, 448, 215. real myself arises perceptions character professes remarkable produced Because infra, 207-210, Landis, Note "Statutory Interpretation," 886 demonstrating thinking situations, quotes pertinent upon, 183-184, Dingell Texas, endanger cranes, discontinued. extinction." predicates instructs harm, capture 184-185. quotes, 184-185, definition mean—among things—any "annoy[s wild life] Two observations pertinent. regulation—which accepts Act—is limitless. "essential patterns" feeding, sheltering disrupted imperil unimportant, intention. rational obvious thinking: options exist; sponsor Tunney, precatory withdraw project: "[A]s place, Roads, Engineers, so. consultation. Roads built. rate." Rec. 25689-25690 Club 534 1289, 1303-1304 rulemaking intended: "Neither Commerce] halted. degree justify 7." 4869 withdrawn, court. 870, 872, 875 acknowledges, funds." 174.

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