Document: 346 U.S. 15 73 S.Ct. 956 97 L.Ed. 1427 DALEHITE et al.v.UNITED STATES. No. 308. Argued April 6, 7 and 8, 1953. Decided June [Syllabus from pages 15-16 intentionally omitted] Messrs. John Lord O'Brian Howard C. Westwood, Washington, D.C., for petitioners Dalehite others. Mr. Austin Y. Bryan, Jr., Houston, Tex., Pan-American Refining Corp. Morton Liftin Oscar H. Davis, respondent. Justice REED delivered the opinion of Court. 1 Petitioners seek damages United States death Henry G. in explosions fertilizer with an ammonium nitrate base, at Texas City, Texas, on 16 17, 1947. This is a test case, representing some 300 separate personal property claims aggregate amount two hundred million dollars. Consolidated trial was had District Court Southern facts crucial question federal liability generally. done under arrangement that result would be accepted as to those matters other suits. Judgment rendered following proof these individual plaintiffs sum $75,000. Damages remain determined. The Appeals Fifth Circuit unanimously reversed, however, In re City Disaster, Litigation, 197 F.2d 771, we granted certiorari, v. U.S., 344 873, 166, because case presented important problem statutory interpretation. 2 suits were filed Federal Tort Claims Act, 28 U.S.C. §§ 1346, 2671—2678, 2680, U.S.C.A. 2680. That Act waived sovereign immunity suit certain specified torts employees. It did not assure injured persons all injuries caused by such 3 provides district courts, '(s)ubject provisions (the act),' are have: 4 'exclusive jurisdiction civil actions against States, money damages, accruing after January 1, 1945, injury or loss property, negligent wrongful act omission any employee Government while acting within scope his office employment, circumstances where if private person, liable claimant accordance law place occurred.' § 1346(b). 5 There exception this provision. Section 2680 reads: 6 'The chapter section 1346(b) title shall apply to— '(a) Any claim based upon Government, exercising due care, execution statute regulation, whether regulation valid, exercise performance failure perform discretionary function duty part agency discretion involved abused.' 8 Suing grant jurisdiction, claimed negligence, substantially entire body officials employees program production material—Fertilizer Grade Ammonium Nitrate (FGAN hereafter)—in which original fire occurred exploded. been produced distributed instance, according specifications control States. 9 adaptability material use agriculture recognized long prior Government's interest matter began 1943 when TVA, its delegation undertake experiments 'manufacture' fertilizer, 48 Stat. 61, 831d, 831d first commercial purposes.1 TVA used plaint facilities formerly explosives. year 1943, War Production Board, responsible allocation war materials, Exec. Order 9024, 16, 1942, Fed.Reg. 329, U.S.Code Cong.Service, p. 49, instituted yearly 30,000 tons month FGAN domestic agricultural through plants no longer required ammunition production. Administration carried Army's Bureau Ordnance. followed advice given experts. early furnished manufacture utility FGAN. 10 particular came foreign reasons: Following World II hostilities, States' obligations occupying power,2 danger internal unrest, forced deal feeding populations Germany, Japan Korea. Direct shipment foodstuffs impractical; available short supply, requirements estimated about 800,000 tons. However, ordnance deactivated turned over Assets Administration, 44 CFR, Part 401, disposal. Under-Secretary Royall suggested May 1946, Secretary Patterson agreed, needed export.3 Director Office Mobilization Reconversion, 58 785, 50 U.S.C.App. 1651 seq. (1944 ed.) 1651(c), U.S.C.A.Appendix, seq., power delegated President Exec.Order 9347, 27, 7207, 5—48, 9488, October 3, 1944, 12145, note, ordered into operation. Cabinet approval followed. Department allocated funds appropriations 'Supplies' 'Military Posts' 1946; direct relief occupied areas made Congress year.4 Chief Ordnance responsibility carrying out plan, authorized particularly enter cost-plus fixed fees contracts companies operation plants' facilities. , he turn appointed Field Ammunition Plants (FDAP) administer program. Thereafter entered number firms including du Pont Co. Hercules Powder Co.—to 'operate installations * described herein graining (fertilizer grade),' but subjecting 'the work Contractor general supervision, direction, Contracting Officer.' A detailed set drawn up sent each plant included 'FDAP Specifications Products' similar paper. Army personnel plant. These application specifications, liaison supply officials, satisfaction schedules, pursuant Standard Operating Procedure. beyond this, operations controlled administering corporation supplied experience required.5 11 FGAN's basic ingredient nitrate, component Its stemmed high free nitrogen content. Company manufactured compound form basis Cairns' Explosive Patent, 2,211,738, August 13, 1940. process contemplates product identical licensed plants, shipped it solution reactivated centers concentration. Thereafter, addition clay, mixture petrolatum, rosin paraffin (PRP hereafter) added insure caking water absorption. then grained specification, dried packaged 6-ply paper bags, marked 'Fertilizer Nitrate.' 12 At inception program, appeared unable produce sufficient quantities meet needs planned allocation. So shipments territories lots privately produced, released Combined Food Board purchased approved Civilian established 9638, 4, 12591, 1318. producers could replenish their sale purchasing government-produced FGAN, they so desired. 13 transported three activated allotted Lion Oil Co., previously sold sell-back agreement. agreement provided pass payment. contract having designate recipient than itself replacement contracted Walsen resale. operated broker French Supply Council secured preferential Administration. Pursuant thereto transmitted shipping orders who them execution. consigned government bills lading. insured own name, arranged credit New York banks assigned thereof Lion, cover here involved, payable presentation documents. also directed 'consign storage eventual exportation Terminal Texas.' 14 By 15, 1947, weeks warehouse Council, 1,850 thus resold loaded Government-owned steamship Grandcamp, 1,000 privately-owned High Flyer independent stevedores hired French.6 Grandcamp substantial cargo explosives, 2,000 sulphur time. 8:15 a.m. next day smoke sighted hold efforts halt unavailing.7 Both ships exploded much city leveled many people killed. Since acts negligence shown, resulted necessarily predicated participation transportation disaster course, one fail impressed blunt fact explode. charged brought catastrophe using explosives industry knowledge gave notice combinations ammounium might without definitive investigation properties, permitted congested area warning possibility explosion conditions. theory. His judgment series findings causal which, our purposes, can roughly divided kinds—those held careless drafting adopting export plan whole, found specific various phases manufacturing emphasized official dereliction failing police shipboard loading. en banc since only six judges explicitly rejected bulk findings, consider come us unimpaired. Cf. National Labor Relations Pittsburgh Steamship 340 498, 503, 71 453, 456, 95 479; Gypsum 333 364, 395, 68 525, 541, 92 746. Even assuming correctness arguendo, though, do establish Act.8 reason cannot give cause Act. I. passed Seventy-ninth 1946 Title IV Legislative Reorganization 60 842, nearly thirty years congressional consideration. offspring feeling should assume obligation pay misfeasance work. And bill device notoriously clumsy.9 Some simplified recovery procedure mass imperative. Congress' solution, affording instead easy simple access courts scope.10 17 meaning governmental regulatory suits, 1680(a) shows most clearly history Bill Seventy-seventh Congress. Seventy-ninth, hearings Instead, integrated language Congress, considered exception, IV. 18 Earlier tort contained reservations abdication immunity. Prior 1942 exceptions couched terms spheres activity, postal service, activities Securities Exchange Commission, collection taxes.11 drafted two-fold elimination function. introduced both House Senate fact, 2680(a) adopted.12 clarifying amendment protection errors administration functions.13 An Assistant Attorney General, appearing before Committee especially purpose,14 explained avoiding 'any may construed authorize damage growing legally activity,' merely same conduct tortious.' 'intended constitutionality legislation, legality regulations, propriety administrative tested medium tort. holds true action nature, expenditure Funds, project like.'15 Referring 'discretionary function' exemption, Judiciary advised cases embraced new) subsection have exempted prior) judicial construction. probable extend realm validity legislation action, H.R. 6463 makes specific.'16 19 legislative indicates desired waive person occasioned tortious agents business,17 contemplated subject arising nature function.18 draws distinction. Uppermost collective mind ordinary common-law torts.19 Of these, example reiterated course repeated proposals submitting liability, 'negligence vehicles.'20 On hand Committee's reports explain boundaries waived, defined paragraph appears time again Report adopted limitation proposed 77th Congress.21 almost General's explanation. characterizes exemption 'a highly intended preclude flood irrigation project, agent ground contention tortious. provide remedy account even though negligently performed involving abuse discretion.' 20 II. Turning interpretation reasoning applicability starts jurisprudential principle lies unless legislature has it.22 'respecting relating claims, manner extent like circumstances'. 2674, 2674. another progressive relaxation enactments rigor rule. Through statutes change law, organized expresses social purposes motivate legislation. modifications entitled construction will accomplish aim,23 is, carry purpose allowing regard policy. interpreting generality grant, include words exception.24 They less obtain 'right sue (and they) must take (that right) restrictions imposed.' Housing Burr, 309 242, 251, 488, 493, 84 724. 21 So, decisions interpreted Acr require clear relinquishment actions.25 Where clear, allowed despite arguable procedural objections.26 22 One need read entirety conclude exercised care protect however caused, affected functions. Negligence Alien Property establishing quarantine, assault, libel, fiscal operations, etc., barred. analysis 2680(a), concerned, emphasizes except authorization sue.27 noted section, see 18, 959, supra, there phrases describing excepted deals omissions employees, regulations valid not. bars tests regulations. second applicable case. excepts functions 'whether Not agencies covered discretion.28 just-quoted clause connotes covers 'negligent employee', 'within office' 'where liable'. 1346(b), abused act. reports, note 19, show this. say 'abuse authority—whether alleged involved.' speak excepting 'remedy discretion.'29 23 know draftsmen intend relieve automobile collision employee, 28, 964, agency. We more disjunctively phrase section. 'discretion' protected judge—a decide limits positive rules review. executive administrator one's best concept historical ancestry American law.30 24 met arguments: 25 'To accept foregoing close narrow (of Appeals), unrealistic, undertaking operation, explosive, nevertheless throughout discretionary, born discretion. assert opportunity discretion, reasonable care. 26 'This always applied theory levels, freedom interference branch. Such down subordinates others.' 27 argument, Judge Rives, choosing between alternative courses steps took. argument simply choice. far removed decision aid Germans Japanese. mistakes oversight failed concern themselves man safety commit wrong.' 29 unnecessary define, apart precisely ends. enough hold, do, duty' includes initiation programs activities. determinations executives administrators plans, schedules operations.31 room policy follows directions actionable. If so, needed, subordinate performs fails step, nonaction being superior, exercising, perhaps abusing, discretion.32 30 III. cabinet-level institute seriously disputed. Nor think doubt further experimentation determine explosion, conditions likely encountered shipping, combustibility determined charge Obviously, commodity minor accidents, Reported instances heating bag investigated experiments, deemed necessary, on. dealing form, industry, Ordnance, well aware taken. indication necessary experience, indicated, 960, 961, minute detail. think, just duties 31 turn, therefore, manufacture. Each with, under, how plants. 'Plan' Ammunitions June, beginning production.33 light enterprise TVA. was, pointed out, latter agency's engineering techniques, specifically description specifications.34 Plan 32 Besides condemnation cited four manufacture.35 looked Plan. Applicable follow. Bagging temperature fixed.36 type bagging37 labeling thereof38 established. PRP coating, too, specifications.39 direction developed level plan-making authority apex Executive Department. establishment Plan, Director's Office, 20, expert judgment. 33 seen, coating. order stake mere taste; wet cakes difficult spread fields fertilizer. considerations dictated ones, feasibility itself, balanced present effect coating custom industries. 34 And, bagging temperatures obtained found, exception. Maximum specifications. judgment, requiring consideration vast spectrum factors, touched directly clear. For several times record discussed among January, Explosives Association Railroads wrote concerning box-car letter reduction temperatures. consulted commanding officers matter. Those replied loading effected 200 . Both, recommended reduced inadvisable. possible keep kettles period install cooling equipment. But methods greatly increased costs and/or kind empowered cite 'negligence'; contemporary characteristics FGAN.40 35 As well, serious specification labels importance rests latest point geography anything related fire, physically hands non-governmental agents. So. speculation operative causing immediate arose longshoremen ship staff committed, emphasize seriousness mistake. 36 This, falls prepared Transportation Officer Office. ICC classification Labeling 'oxidizing material' required—indeed probably forbidden—and requirement bags pounds. To extent, then, choice matter, list fashion labeling, quite shown ICC's attacked claimants virtue 2680(a). 37 short, 'negligence' does liability. culpable responsibly planning rather operational practicability 38 'There danger, possible, probable', MacPherson Buick Motor 217 N.Y. 382, 389, 111 N.E. 1050, 1053, L.R.A. 1916F, 696. Here, nothing startling adduced. evidence compels view former showed handled safely here. now ignition complex interacting factors mass, heat, pressure composition. 39 Coast Guard supervise fighting started, majority Appeals. 777, 780, 781. examination factual findings. prefer, again, rest 40 Court's holding prevent regulating different citations above. classically adopt by-laws preservation public health, ordinances prescribing policemen firemen generally regarded because, legislative.' Weightman Corporation Black 39, 52. traditionally refused judgments based. Zywicki Jos. R. Foard 206 F. 975; Gutowski Mayor Baltimore, 127 Md. 502, 96 A. 630; State Maryland General Stevedoring 213 51. 41 too create new causes none existed before. 42 '* assumed created 'all circumstances,' few create. find parallel before, by, visit novel unprecedented liabilities.' Feres 135, 142, 153, 157, 152. 43 normal rule carelessness actionable rights. Our what said See 1346 stated, limited there, analogous liability; doctrinally sanctified communities bodies fire. stronger Feres. state denied incident service militia. cities, maintaining fire-fighting organizations, resulting lapses securely entrenched. relates analogy Steitz Beacon, 295 51, 64 N.E.2d 704, 163 A.L.R. 342. impose nonfeasance quarantine for, let say, outbreak foot-and-mouth disease. V. Though support yet disposed slight residue absolute fault. reflected finding constituted nuisance, petitioner agree Appeals, 776, 781, 786, situations, known invoked omission' employee. Absolute arises irrespective tortfeasor conducts himself; imposed automatically sustained engage dangerous activity. degree performing activity irrelevant doctrine. requires arise either ownership 'inherently commodity' engaging 'extra hazardous' Hull, Cir., 195 64, 67. 45 rely word 'wrongful' showing something covered. override brand nonfeasance, fault; addition, jurisdictional overtones Rather, discussion narrower inspiration: 'trespasses' strictly negligent. Hearings Subcommittee S. 2690, 76th Cong., 3d Sess., 43—44. Had injected suitable models e.g., Suits Admiralty 46 742—743, 742, 743, maintenance cure. Street, Liability State; Crown Proceedings 47 Mich.L.Rev. 341, 350. Affirmed. DOUGLAS CLARK took Appendix. 49 aspects foreshadowed foreseeability risk words: discloses blunders, mistakes, commission, Defendant, agents, servants, deciding begin inherently Fertilizer.' conclusion that, 'learned facts, pursue learn *. What learn, Defendant put notice, not, inquiry pursued, led Fertilizer decided hazardous material, hazard. learned manufactured, circumstances, everyone handling way public. Yet Defendant's whose left went forward manufacture, handling, distribution, etc. Fertilizer. 'After begun, events incidents knew, diligence reasonably prudent very dangerous, standpoint explosion. With knowledge, ceased Fertilizer, taken *' 51 'Defendant Flyer, Formula evolved direction. substance substances susceptible types finally explosive More thing, I *.' 52 placed sacked easily ignited contact spontaneous combustion become torn ragged particles became mixed explosion.' 53 packed degrees temperature, get cool, continued shipped. Steamships Flyer. Same sacks reduction, any, across nation onto Steamships.' 54 labelled hazard Rules Regulations Interstate Commerce Commission. 55 knowing character notify advise carriers same, Officers end could, fires concluded: 56 'Clearly ought never manufactured. From down, nuisance.' 57 JACKSON, joined BLACK FRANKFURTER, dissenting. All day, aboard S.S. docked Texas. Shortly morning, resumed, seen coming discovered broken ship's master hatch battened steam hold. Local apparatus soon arrived, combined extinguish unavailing. Less hour 880 and, detonated stored Fire dock berthed adjoining pier Further contain p.m., tugs unsuccessfully attempted tow sea. o'clock morning exploded, demolishing Wilson B. Keene, lying alongside. 560 perished holocaust, 3,000 injured. thriving port ran millions 59 man-made disaster; sense 'act God.' aid. forces motion completely controllable it. causative victims; incapable contributing it, shelter flight Over alleging disaster. After consolidating tried. parties effect, agreed common issue abide outcome litigation. reversed court's favor petitioners.1 Supporting reversal, urges (1) (2) liable, saved statute's acts.2 61 judge leave door enters. told craft, 'Some philosophy served tightening enlarging circle rights remedies, root situations analogies equivocal precedents silent.'3 avowing conception legal obviously variance approach 62 person. Traditionally, sanction enforce society appropriate prosecuted adjusted initiative, neither burdening overworked criminal processes nor confined law's effective inducements watchfulness prudence avoid calamity midst unshielded populace. 63 Until recently, influence exerted field tighten liberalize remedies.4 intent potentially articles interstate commerce.5 But, court defendant, proper zeal lawyers win commendable conceal minimize militate trend. exert unctuous persuasiveness clothe interest. Hence, unanticipated consequences throw weight side lax standards defends. fear adoption inaugurate unfortunate trend toward making, vending transporting products. considering every-day commodities commerce products proven event lie somewhere range dangerous. points 'long explosives.' grade patent, ordnance, supervision local Plants. Advice sought experienced Ponts Atlas powder concerns. slightest belief innocuous product. 65 Because reliance reservation avoids pronouncement owing sound undertones disagree. criteria modern life. synthetic living, ever-increasing population dependent food drink, cures complexions, apparel gadgets. natural ones composition qualities often secret. exact greater days manufacturers integrity caution well-being. Purchasers try drugs kill Consumers youngster's cowboy wife's sweater apt burst fatal flames. Carriers, land sea, experiment goods transit. research presence tried public, expected possess technical inherent latent dangers. foreseen foresight enterprise. 66 Forward-looking slowly steadily, adapting conditions.6 determines occurred.7 Iowa Nebraska, thence Speculation unnecessary, jurisdictions recognizes proposition manufacturer defects avoided care.8 point, doctrines whence derive governing principles cases. believe whatever source look supports exaction higher possibly 67 better whoever puts circulation suspected inflammable ascertain turning loose. If, useful one, strict follow step distribution dangers information minimum. obvious heavy, indeed. magnitude potential enormity multitude victims. size excuse but, face, eloquently pleads prudently sudden sweeping fallen. least raise doubts 'discretionary' immunize statement issue, 69 erroneous.9 patent lengthy printed volumes apparently 'error uno, error omnibus.' impeach stand fall started akin combustion, anticipate precautions occurrence. 70 attack purely determination seems utterly unconvincing. Reputable experts testified combustion. someone smoking forth sharp conflict testimony. permissible inferences fire's origin. absence job abnormal phenomenon. City. Petitioner's segment informed scientific carbonaceous witness hazards terminated intermediate stage, recommendation laboratory face suggestion unverified considerable unexplained nitrate. skill counsel distinguish exceed testimony rely. endeavored opinions petitioner's experts, own, Government. 72 situation, simplest likelihood packing large masses during sea shipment, aggravation attendant cargo-carrying train ship, rail yard dock, producer treat practice conclusive guide car. Otherwise, thrown safety. survive 'clearly erroneous' appellate Without passing warn judgment.10 construe bagging, warn, standing alone, consistent seriatim resolution every expediency latter. certainly imposes bring Act's turn.11 74 insists predicated—the discontinuing hazards, paperbagging warning—involved conscious weighing therefore argues, swallow waiver immunity, distinguished truck driver speed travel 75 predicate 'Cabinet level' high-altitude thinking. govern, making delivering wrong. deliberations calculated doing done, chance happen happen. Therefore, deterred make timid restrained. levels fertilizers, hot labeled, height wholesome. immune carelessly line balancing cost, production, silence. 76 seeks resort selections inconclusive history. refer margin excerpts spite them, case.12 77 relies municipal opposed ministerial, acts. Whatever substantiality dichotomy, hopeless confusion; 'ministerial' interchangeably 'proprietary' 'governmental,' others uncritically borrowed terminology mandamus.13 although municipality up-keep.14 78 language, reliable history, common-sense regarding municipalities, distinction preserved urged When exerts binds many, could. designed affect, deleteriously, affairs individuals, solely mandate threat example, false arrest liable,15 multiplied.16 official's inflict great wrong answerable. protects treasury purse official. 79 housekeeping landowner, manufacturer, shipper, warehouseman, shipowner operator, indistinguishable persons. area, good stretch text acts, Many involve nice considerations, citizens peril statute. 80 contractor, shipper. Reading workable faithful intent, circumstances. Surely debated meant embrace traffic accidents. ancient discredited doctrine King wrong' uprooted; amended read, little wrongs.' Patent process, organic insulater. infra. Hague Conventions 1899 (II), 1803, 1907 (IV), 2277, Respecting Laws Customs Land, Article 43. capable producing 70,000 month. Military Appropriation 384, 390, 395 (1945), (1946). mentioned Appropriations 6837, 79th 2d Sess. 85. H.J.Res. 125, 31, appropriating moneys assistance kinds. commercially. Seventy-five thousand previous months. noticed. Meanwhile captain off hatches closed. Steam holds. admit ships, oxidizing properties Whether called say. weigh anew erroneous.' characterized below 'profuse, prolific, sweeping.' agree. Fed.Rules Civ.Proc., Rule 52(a), U.S.C.A., terms, system 'of fact' 'concise.' will-recognized difficulty distinguishing absolve hard studied effort definiteness. Statements conclusory eschewed statements preliminary relied. Kelley Everglades Drainage District, 319 415, 1141, 87 1485, cited. useless purposes. review taking 'fact' value. binding appeal. E.g., Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Supermarket Equipment 147, 153—154, concurring 155—156, 127, 130 131, 132, 162. 'In Sixty-eighth 2,200 introduced, 250 law. Seventieth 2,268 asking $100,000,000. 336 enacted, $2,830,000, 144, $562,000, Seventy-fourth Seventy-fifth Congresses, 2,300 seeking Seventy-sixth approximately 315 total $826,000. 1,829 referred Committee, 593 $1,000,253.30. Seventy-eighth 1,644 introduced; 549 $1,355,767.12.' H.R.Rep.No.1287, 1st 2. Certain tentative noted. 1855, consented therein regulation. consent enlarged 1887 sounding Courts concurrent $10,000. 1910, infringement. railroads First War, damage, injury, owners been. 1920 1925, admiralty maritime vessels, amount. 85 'witnessed steady encroachment originally unbroken domain delicts remained satisfactory wrongs employes, 'common law' tort, automobile.' Judiciary, H.R.5373 H.R.6463, 24. 9285, 70th offered floor House, Cong.Rec. 3131. 7236 Sess.; 5373, 6463, 2207, broad 4567, 72d 1833, 73d '(a)ny President, department establishment.' 5373 6403, pp. 4. 6. Ibid., 25, 33. Statement Francis M. Shea Rep., 29. Claims, bill, 17; 7236, 5, 16; 27; 37, 66. H.R.Rep.No. 2428, 3; 2245, 10; 1287, 5; S.Rep.No. 1400, 31. 2800, 71st 13; 33, 38, 45, 65—66; 1196, 7; 5. 86 12021—12022. thought centered granting run-of-the-mine functions, indicated message Franklin D. Roosevelt recommending passage favored $7,500 limit spoke chiefly numerous around Congress—and simplification recovery. 88 313—314. 66; 7, 9. 2192, 2193, 3118; 12024. 8. 5—6; H.Com. reads follows: 'Section 402 specifies bill. exempts nonperformance abused, valid. flood-control tortious, authorizing invalid. agency, Trade Commission officer involved. allegedly Treasury blacklisting freezing powers excepted. desirable nonregulatory agencies. Thus, 402(5) (10), exempting Trading Enemy Treasury, exclude functions.' 139, 156, 152; Shaw, 495, 659, 888; Eckford, Wall. 484, 920. Blackstone, Book I, c. (Sovereignty). Yellow Cab 543, 555, 399, 407, 523; Keifer Reconstruction Finance Corporation, 306 381, 516, 83 784. Dickson, Pet. 141, 165, 689; Walling Jacksonville Paper 317 564, 571, 332, 336, 460; Phillips Walling, 324 490, 807, 808, 89 1095. 152, members Armed Forces active duty. existence uniform compensation belonging armed services depart allow Recovery nonservice disabilities Brooks 337 918, 93 1200. Spelar, 338 217, 10, 94 complainant accident air base Newfoundland. reached 2680(k) 'Any country.' sovereignty base. Aetna Casualty Surety 366, 207, 171, Insurance Company, subrogee injured, Anti-Assignment Statute. 523. sued contribution, impleaded third party defendant. unique Anglo-American jurisprudence explicit English contains comparable, 11, saving 'prerogative Crown,' Halsbury's Statutes England (2d 56. provision entirely 443—590, assumes term wide activities, (and) authority' customary department,' parliamentary enactments. 459—460. State, 353, indicate principal authority. Barnes, Canadian Bar.J. 387, 1950, Zealand L.J. 50, 52—53. Australia years. 'open grave far, all, Acts interfere Enever King, (1906) Com.L.R. 969, 988; Davidson Walker, (1901) N.S.W.St.R. 196, 208—213, Hawley Steele, Ch.D. 521 (quoted therein): "In words, vested military matters, fairly required, appropriated. bad selection." 211. "Employee government' naval behalf capacity'. 2671, 2671. Indeed, dismissed complaints charging confession avoidance plea fell Boyce F.Supp. 866; Coates 181 816; Denny 171 365; Olson 150; Toledo 838; Thomas 81 881. Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 170, 60; Spalding Vilas, 161 483, 631, 637, 780; Alzua Johnson, 231 106, 142; Louisiana McAdoo, 234 627, 633, 938, 940, 1506; Perkins Lukens Steel 310 113, 869, 878, 1108. are, premised E. Barrett York, 220 423, 116 99, L.R.A.1918C, 400; Golstein 281 396, 97, 129 905. Similarly wary penalize bodies. interesting East Suffolk Rivers Catchment Kent, (1941) A.C. 74, draining inundated lands plaintiffs. Romer stated enabling act, drain; 'I selecting method Board) owes whatsoever.' 98. Shappard Glossop (1921) K.B. 132: '(the statute) leaves Corporation's) lamps kept lit portion elect light.' Whiting Middlesex County (1948) generally, conformity policies plans Plaintiff 866, suffered governmentally-conducted blasting operations. affirmative defense, conducted Engineers who, 'discretion broadest character' draft deepening Mississippi River channel. applied. import waterway projects. 816, crops changing Missouri. North 824. plaintiff cellar cess pool dam raised water. Lauterback 479, recover release waters Bonneville Dam. 150, damage. Fish Wildlife Service 'wilfully opened gates' dam, plaintiff's livestock. storing propagating fish wildlife' 'When calls judgment'. 152—153. Sickman 184 616, crop depradations wild birds induced feed nearby game preserve. 838, damaged partially rotten tree falling perchance parked planted grown experimental station Puerto Rico. open instruction observation. preserve 'peculiarly Station', removal page 841. 'contains tabulation together pertinent connection rates production; processes; inspection acceptance; storage. facilities, recommendations problems administration, succeeding parts.' Tennessee Valley Authority.' 2680(l), 2680(l). Appendix, 973, opinion. 'Water discharging kettle commenced reaches F.' relevance maintained spontaneously ignite confinement. proffered extensive evidence, ships. 'Packaging.—Ammonium 100 1bs. per bag. Moisture burlap below, used. (Specifications altered manufacturer's requirement).' Then Marking: (Ammonium Nitrate) 32.5% Nitrogen. Notice contents lading, important, Bags, Fertilizing Compounds (manufactured fertilizer) NOIBN, dry bags. composed Paraffin, parts rosin, thoroughly melted. repels moisture clay granule.' Captain Hirsch, requesting 'that your stipulate maximum eliminate' deterioration heat. reply, 'has discussions lower felt properly item incorporated specifications.' Hirsch 'this facility condition destination.' reply labeled distortion indifference aspect acceptability suitability.' unchanged Disaster 771. Cardozo, Growth Law, 102. (Emphasis own.) See, Employers' abolished defense assumption changed contributory complete bar factor mitigated damages; Jones 688 employers seamen, substantive F.E.L.A.; Employees Compensation 1916, 751 employees; Longshoremen's Harbor Workers' 901 sets workmen's fault employers. last-named award, interests claimant. O'Leary Brown-Pacific-Maxon, Inc., 504, 470, 483. Lines 342 337, 367. Lummus, Supreme Judicial Massachusetts, articulated development Carter Yardley Ltd., Mass. 92, 693, 164 559. decisive earlier landmark Cardozo represent examples tribunals day. Coleman Gray, 192 265 (absence gasoline vapor pressing iron); Roettig Westinghouse Electric Mfg. 588 (explosion unit electric stove); Escola Coca-Cola Bottling Fresno, Cal.2d 150 P.2d 436 (defect bottle); Gall Union Ice 108 Cal.App.2d 303, 239 label drum sulfuric acid burst); Lindroth Walgreen 407 Ill. 121, 847 (defective vaporizer melted, burned plaintiff); Ebers Chemical Mich. 261, N.W.2d 176 (damage chemical peach-tree borers); Willey Fyrogas Mo.Sup., 251 S.W.2d 635 (defeat automatic cutoff valves gas heater); Di Vello Gardner Machine Ohio Com.Pl., 102 289 (disintegrating grinding wheel); Saena Zenith Optical W.Va., S.E.2d 205 (exploding coffee maker). cases, classes 1346. McAfee Travis Gas Corp., 137 Tex. 314, 153 442; Drug Caldwell, Tex.Civ.App., 237 S.W. 968, writ dismissed; Tegler Farmers 124 Neb. 246 N.W. 721. recently 1949, Duffy, discussing diversity court, squarely question, Anderson Linton, 178 304. older dealers substances, contractual privity. Ellis Republic 133 110 20; privity Civ.Proc. judge: '(g) (Defendant) stopped learning facts. shipment. (sic) proximate Plaintiffs complain. (o) railroad shipped, informing inflammatory, character, complain.' 2680: abused. n. 21, oft-repeated Reports plainly individuals. chooses fix amorphous, all-inclusive word, delimit vaguest intimation misconduct file clerks drivers. Patterson, Ministerial Discretionary Official Acts, 848. Keeley Portland, Me. 260, 262, 180, 183; Cumberland Turney, 177 297, 311, A.2d 561, 567; Gallagher Tipton, Mo.App. 557, 113 674. Gregoire Biddle, 579. 780 (Postmaster General); Wilkes Dinsman, How. 89, 618 (officer Marine Corps); Otis Watkins, 339, 752 (Deputy Collector Customs); Yaselli Goff, 1239, affirmed 275 155, (Special General). overwhelming states effect. Am.Jur. 257.

Category: 7