Document: 350 U.S. 61 76 S.Ct. 122 100 L.Ed. 48 INDIAN TOWING COMPANY, Inc., et al., Petitioners,v.UNITED STATES of America. No. 8. Re-Argued Oct. 13, 1955. Decided Nov. 21, Mr. Richard B. Montgomery, New Orleans, La., Cicero C. Sessions, on the brief, for petitioners. Lester S. Jayson, Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice FRANKFURTER delivered opinion Court. 1 Petitioners brought suit in United States District Court Southern Mississippi, seeking recovery under Federal Tort Claims Act, 28 U.S.C. § 1346(b), U.S.C.A. damages alleged to have been caused by negligence Coast Guard operation a lighthouse light. They that October 1, 1951, tug Navajo, owned petitioner Indian Towing Company, was towing Barge AS—16, chartered Upper Mississippi Corporation; barge loaded with cargo triple super phosphate, consigned Minnesota Farm Bureau Service Company and insured Firemen's Insurance Company; Navajo went aground Chandeleur Island as result thereof sea water wetted damaged extent $62,659.70; consignee refused accept cargo; petitioners Corporation therefore became responsible loss paid loan receipts. The complaint further stated grounding due solely failure light which turn Guard. specific acts relied were personnel check battery sun relay system operated light; Chief Petty Officer who checked September 7, make proper examination connections 'out weather'; between 7 1951; repair or give warning not operating. also there loose connection could discovered upon inspection. 2 On motion respondent case transferred Eastern Louisiana, Orleans Division. Respondent then moved dismiss ground it has consented be sued 'in manner this is brought' petitioners' only relief Suits Admiralty 41 Stat. 525, 46 741 seq., Public Vessels 43 1112, 781 seq. This granted Appeals Fifth Circuit affirmed per curiam. 211 F.2d 886. Because presented an important aspect still undetermined Government's liability we certiorari, 348 810, 75 60. judgment equally divided Court, 349 902, 575, but petition rehearing granted, earlier vacated, restored docket reargument before full Bench. 926, 769. 3 relevant provisions Act are §§ 2674, 2680(a), 2680(a): 4 s 1346(b). '* * district courts shall exclusive jurisdiction civil actions claims against States, money damages, accruing after January 1945, injury property, personal death negligent wrongful act omission any employee Government while acting within scope his office employment, circumstances where if private person, would liable claimant accordance law place occurred.' 5 2674. 'The same individual like circumstances, interest prior punitive damages.' 2680. chapter section 1346(b) title apply to— 6 '(a) Any claim based Government, exercising care, execution statute regulation, whether such regulation valid, exercise performance perform discretionary function duty part federal agency discretion involved abused.' question one at what characterized 'operational level' governmental activity. Dalehite v. 346 15, 42, 73 956, 971, 97 1427. concedes exception 2680 relieving from 'exercise judgment' (which way paraphrases 'discretionary function' 2680(a)) here, does deny provide some situations its But contends language 2674 (and implications 2680) imposing *' must read excluding activities persons do perform. Thus, no 'uniquely functions.' reads imposed 'under circumstances.' statutory circumstances,' hornbook tort undertakes warn public danger thereby induces reliance 'good Samaritan' task careful manner. 8 Furthermore effect municipal corporation thus push into 'non-governmental'—'governmental' quagmire long plagued corporations. A comparative study cases forty-eight will disclose irreconcilable conflict. More than that, decisions each disharmonious inevitable chaos when try rule inherently unsound. fact matter theory whereby municipalities made amenable endeavor, however awkward contradictory, escape basic historical doctrine sovereign immunity. cuts doctrine; self-defeating covertly embedding casuistries torts.1 9 While disavows blanket exemption all official conduct furthering governmental' activity way, can itself, so-called 'end-objective' particular Let us suppose going car inspect first negligently ran over pedestrian; later, he inspecting light, tripped wire injured someone else; forgot outside night patently defective broke failed, causing ship go phosphate get wet; finally out touched key uninsulated see carrying current, spark produced fire sank nearby phosphate. Under theory, these actionable, not. rational ground, carry conviction minds grip technical obscurities, why should difference result? different time done furtherance officer's Guard's operating Island. Moreover, permit lighthouses inconceivable—the basis differentiation gone charged actionable. Yet change character places lighthouse, attributing bizarre motives Congress hold predicating completely fortuitous circumstance—the presence identical activity.2 10 area circumscribed certain 2680, inescapably performed Government. In Crop Corporation, wholly Government-owned enterprise, sought held cropinsurance policy insurance company situation, stated: 'Government partly private, depending pedigree type conducts it.' Corp. Merrill, 332 380, 383—384, 68 3, 92 10. other hand, hard think level,' our present concern, governmental,' sense kind another been, conceivably be, privately performed. 11 There nothing shows intended draw distinctions so finespun capricious almost incapable being mind adequate formulation. product nearly thirty years congressional consideration drawn numerous substantive limitations administrative safeguards. (For limitations, 2680(a)—(m).3 For safeguards, 2401(b) (statute limitations); 2402 (denial trial jury); 2672 (administrative adjudgment $1,000 less); 2673 (reports Congress); (no judgment); 2675 (disposition prerequisite filed); 2677 (compromise); 2679 (exclusiveness remedy).) support argument. Loose general statements legislative history points seem directed mainly toward persuasive. broad just purpose designed compensate victims unto those person leave treatment caprice burden laws. Of course, dealing subjecting potentially great sums money, promote profligacy careless construction. Neither self-constituted guardian Treasury import immunity back limit it. 12 need undertake service. once exercised operate engendered guidance afforded obligated use care kept good working order; and, did become extinguished, discover functioning. If failed damage petitioners, Act. 13 considered Feres 340 135, 71 153, 95 152, 1427, controlling. applicable. 'the injuries servicemen arise course incident Without exception, relationship military governed exclusively law.' page 146, 159. And Brooks 337 49, 69 918, 93 1200. differences labored. governing factors sufficiently emerge case.4 14 reversed remanded proceedings. 15 Reversed remanded. 16 REED, whom BURTON, CLARK, MINTON join, dissenting. 17 reverses maintaining near mouth Mississippi. electrical apparatus connected notice vessels Although navigators warned 'unwatched light,'1 assumed point litigation occurred proximate cause loss. authorized 81, 81. It forbidden others except authority Guard.2 18 depends meaning adoption heretofore thoroughly explained.3 Before enactment, absolute. suits conditions. property 19 'caused 20 condition, circumstances'.4 21 passed applicability members armed services through personnel.5 We said: 22 'One obvious shortcoming plaintiffs 'private individual' even remotely analogous they asserting States. know American ever permitted soldier recover negligence, either superior officers serving. Nor power conscript mobilize army authorities vests echelons command. usual civilian doctor patient relationship, malpractice. landlord undoubtedly tenant maintained heating plant. here created 'all few might create. find parallel before, new by, Its waive recognized causes action visit novel unprecedented liabilities.' Id., 141, 142, 157. 23 view create theretofore beyond applicable torts. So, determining lights permissible, consider similar allowed occurred, bodies otherwise subject suit. 24 followed reasoning Feres. That involved, among issues, fighting fire. had found fire-fighting duties court. These 2680(a) Resting decision said 25 'did normal carelessness firemen actionable rights. Our analysis determined case. See 1346 1346, stated, limited circumstances'. Here, there, liability; fact, anything doctrinally sanctified torts communities fire.' pages 43—44, 972. 26 two interpretive amend As catastrophe gave rise subsequently compensation losses resulted, court, Throughout reports, discussion enactment act, effort modify law, respect, interpreted Dalehite.6 restricted accepted rulings relating issues accord understanding One cannot say follow interpretation subsequent unless amended statute. conflict.7 However, continue hold, stare decisis rule, inaction Congress, well-known common knowledge, 'an aid construction useful times resolving ambiguities'. Helvering Reynolds, 313 428, 432, 973, 85 1438. nonaction decide controversy previous rulings. reasons led conclusions creating liabilities retain their persuasiveness. 27 other, construed accomplish purpose, extravagant generosity instances Congress. certainly necessary every word receive broadest possible interpretation. incidents suable agencies, intention plain. branch 'if person'. person' discussed history. talked came conclusion contrary reached today. 128, supra. because surgeons practice landlords mean was. Liability governments unknown as, example, excluded ruling. Lighthouse keeping uniquely fighting. least uncertainty ambiguity meant making lead enlarged concept torts, wisdom dictate cautious approach along lines Dalehite. 29 says occurred. Louisiana. Louisiana sustained employees city maintenance traffic lights.8 Street close analogy navigation lights. reason doubt lights, likewise free liability. warns morass involve calls 'quagmire' avoids complete surrender without regard respective 30 over-all impression majority makes 'any level." seems enough cover activities.' Logically may fighting, although holding overruled.9 Perhaps arises pursuing criminals. 31 Court's literal brings about application condemned Portal-to-Portal 1947, 251 Anderson Mt. Clemens Pottery Co., 328 680, 66 1187, 90 1515, 84, 1(a), Fair Labor Standards Amendments 1949, 63 910, 201 Bay Ridge Operating Co. Aaron, 334 446, 1186, 1502, U.S.Code Cong.Serv.1949, p. 1617. Compare Trucking Assns., 310 534, 60 1059, 84 1345. affirmed. illustration conscientious court reconcile Haley City Boston, 191 Mass. 291, 77 N.E. 888, L.R.A.,N.S., 1005. example confusion prevailing jurisdiction, compare Columbia Woodbury, 136 450, 990, 34 472 (municipal keep sidewalk repair) Harris Columbia, 256 650, 610, 65 1146 sprinkling streets). state liability, State quagmire. more recent York cases: Foley York, 294 N.Y. 275, 62 N.E.2d (State replace burned-out bulb accident); Bernardine 361, 604, 161 A.L.R. 364 (city runaway police horse). When confused corporations applied unsatisfactory results occur. instant case, 886, Lawter, Cir., 219 559 (United during helicopter rescue operation). argument elaborately attempted construe provided libel personam merchant vessel 'where proceeding admiralty 'such proceed heard according principles rules obtaining parties.' Transportation 272 675, 47 289, 472, collision unmarked wreck sunken vessel. inter alia, set relates and/or agents purely function; gives America elsewhere.' appeal Supreme rejected arguments lacked significantly withheld relating, postal service, tax collection, quarantine establishment, fiscal operations, combatant war, TVA. disposed finding 'there 44, Workman City, 179 552, 212, 45 314. Guard, Light List, Atlantic Gulf Coasts corrected 1951 (C.G. 158), pp. 5, 498. 83, 83: 'No body, instrumentality, services, establish, erect, maintain maritime regulations. Whoever violates regulations issued Secretary herewith guilty misdemeanor fined $100 offense. Each day violation continues offense.' advises June 30, 1953, government aids numbered 38,169; 3,301. Aids Navigation Operated Maintained (June 1953) 4. advised: manual examples typical category (U.S. 127, 1945) 1201): '(1) Standard buoy lighting equipment employed Engineers mark dredging areas. '(2) Buoys, ranges sound signals channels dredged used corporation's, contractor's, vessels. '(3) established Army Navy own approaches loading piers, etc. 'See also, Manual (CG 222, Jan. 1953), 4—1, 4—3. 'Coast require owning, occupying, bridges navigable waters expense required safety marine prescribed Commandant. 33 C.F.R. (1949 ed.) 68.01—1. addition, non-delegable owner 409 (33 409); 64.01—1.' 152; exceptions pertinent here. E.g., surgeon sewing up towel abdomen soldier; quartering barracks known unsafe 707; H.R.Rep. 2024, 83d Cong., 2d Sess.; S.Rep. 2363, 1305, 84th 1st 1623, 684, Sess. Elgin, J. & E.R. 298 492, 500, 56 841, 843, 80 1300; South Buffalo R. 333 771, 775, 868, 870, 1077; Toolson Yankees, 356, 74 78, 98 64, Hallock, 309 106, 444, 604; Commissioner Internal Revenue Church's Estate, 335 632, 322, 337, 288. Edwards Shreveport, La.App., So.2d 373; cf. Howard 159 La. 443, 105 So. 443. footnote opinion, cited.

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