Document: 361 U.S. 39 80 S.Ct. 1 4 L.Ed.2d 169 UNITED STEELWORKERS OF AMERICA, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES of America. No. 504. Supreme Court the United States December 7, 1959 Mr. Arthur J. Goldberg, Washington, D.C., for petitioner. Solicitor General Lee Rankin, States. PER CURIAM. The Attorney sought and obtained in District Western Pennsylvania an injunction against continuation industry-wide strike workers basic steel industry pursuant to § 208 Labor Management Relations Act, 1947, 61 Stat. 155, 29 U.S.C. 178, U.S.C.A. 178. We granted certiorari, 878, 143, review judgment Appeals Third Circuit, 271 F.2d 676, affirming Court, 178 F.Supp. 297. In pertinent part, provides that if Court— 2 'finds * (a) threatened or actual lockout— 3 '(i) affects entire a substantial part thereof engaged trade, commerce, transportation, transmission, communication among several with foreign nations, production goods commerce; '(ii) permitted occur continue, will imperil national health safety, it shall have jurisdiction enjoin any such lockout, continuing thereof, make other orders as may be appropriate.' 5 arguments parties here lower courts addressed themselves considerable propriety Court's exercising its equitable question once findings set forth above had been made. These ranged widely into broad issues labor policy, availability remedies Executive, effect on collective bargaining process, consideration conduct dispute their negotiations, conjecture course those negotiations future. do not believe Congress passing statute intended issuance injunctions should depend upon judicial inquiries this nature. was concerned merits parties' positions negotiations. Its purpose seems see vital resumed continued time while further efforts were made settle dispute. To carry out purposes, carefully surrounded proceedings detailed procedural devices limitations. public report board inquiry, exercise political executive responsibility personally by President directing commencement proceedings, statutory provisions looking toward adjustment during injunction's pendency, limited duration injunction, represent congressional determination policy factors involved difficult problem emergency strikes. This is binding courts. 6 imposes duty finding, evidence adduced, whether lockout meets conditions breadth involvement peril safety. accordingly reviewed concurrent two Petitioner contests would meaning term 'national health'; Government insists comprehends country's general well-being, economic health; petitioner urges simply physical citizenry meant. need resolve question, we think below amply supported ground imperils safety.* Here rely strike's specific defense projects; pass Government's contention safety' context given broader construction application. 7 suggests selective reopening some mills suffice fulfill needs. designed provide remedy times emergency; cannot construe require either formulate reorganization affected satisfy needs without complete closed facilities, demonstrate court unfeasibility reorganization. There no room requirement which seeks impose Government. 8 are opinion provision applied violative constitutional limitation prohibiting from powers legislative nature, capable being conferred solely 'the power States.' Keller v. Potomac Elec. Power Co., 261 428, 43 445, 67 L.Ed. 731; Federal Radio Comm. 281 464, 50 389, 74 969. contends constitutionally invalid because does up standard lawful unlawful management. But recognize certain rights unimpeded industries It makes guardian these litigation. Cf. American Bell Tel. 128 315, 370, 9 90, 98, 32 450; Sanitary Chicago States, 266 405, 45 176, 69 352. relief, common form depends fact, judicially Of matters decided judicially, there agencies Gordon Wall. 561, 17 921, 117 697. conclude entrusts only 'case controversy,' can operate, containing element determination. find termination after specified time, machinery established attempt obtain peaceful settlement underlying detracts conclusion. result affirmed. Our mandate issue forthwith. 10 so ordered. 11 Justice FRANKFURTER HARLAN: joining note our intention file due amplification views could prepared within limitations imposed necessity prompt adjudication case. See 177. 12 Separate HARLAN, concurring dated November 1959. 13 action under 1947 (61 178) commenced at direction October 20, concern arose between petitioner, agent workers, companies, nationwide scope. began July 15, 1959, fifteen days contracts companies expired. On 9, created Board Inquiry provided §§ 206 207 177, inquire deemed affect 'substantial industry,' concluded that, allowed 'health safety.' 19 submitted report, concluded: '(T)he failed reach agreement prospects early cessation strike. point single consequence whatsoever agreement.' filed Mediation Conciliation Service contents public, accordance 206, ordered commence action, reiterating his former pronouncements continuance constituted threat 14 Pursuant stipulations parties, heard case affidavits. 21 injunction. order stayed pending court's final petitioner's appeal. 27 affirmed decision (one judge dissenting) additional stay enable seek relief here. 28 denied motion modify stay. 30 argument down 2, extended disposition. per curiam Appeals, Douglas dissenting. noted later grounds disposition delay announcement until statement prepared. 15 challenged three grounds: (1) entitled emergency, dependent 208, existed; (2) even existed, discretion, claimed open grant States; (3) otherwise unassailable charge Courts outside scope 'judicial power' exercisable Art. III, Constitution. 16 Section 'shall enjoin' 'threatened lockout' finds commerce (ii) safety *.' found, contested here, satisfied first condition portion industry. urged, however, basis concluding second. finding fact described four instances serious impediment programs existing prospective procurement problems included missible, nuclear submarine naval shipbuilding, space programs. Each had, ample support affidavits According affidavit Thomas S. Gates, Jr., Acting Secretary Defense, delays delivery materials critical creation Atlas, Titan Polaris missile systems become severe each day equal project completion; 'significant composition commercial usage nor available civilian inventories allocation eminent domain (T) hese many cases special sizes shapes, fabricated firms having long experience necessary facilities therefor. *' 18 Hugh L. Dryden, Deputy Administrator Aeronautics Space Administration, stated, detail, projects, including tracking centers, rocket engine test stands, were, hearing already subjected much seven weeks, longer anticipated A. R. Luedecke, Manager Atomic Energy Commission, stated minor projects making, experienced continue 1960 'there appreciable weapons program.' view demonstrated unavailability irrelevant contended conceded, somewhat excess 15% remained unaffected stoppage, about 1% gross product ordinarily allocated production. 20 However, also sufficiency they did present facts giving rise asserted emergencies sufficient particularity justify objection raises essentially trier found sufficient. judiciary canvass competence officers cabinet rank, speak oath, express opinions Findings based directly them surely said 'clearly erroneous.' Fed.Rules Civ.Proc., rule 52(a), Moreover, called twice States: when he convened Inquiry; directed action. His reasoned presumably summarized, us aside consistent them. President's controlling; 'find' requisite jurisdictional itself. discharge disregard reason give weight determinations previously President, who is, all, ultimate repository assuring Nation, whose invocation depends. 22 next insufficient matter law 208. Conceding 208(a) must character required (i), stoppage it. Alternately, urged section total cause peril. embarrassments it, but closing 'handful' hundreds plants affected; therefore enjoined asserted. 23 place, contention. '(t)he too vast complicated segmented' alleviate foreseeable mere few plants. expressly relied Dr. Raymond Saulnier, Chairman Council Economic Advisers Government, before both Saulnier that: 24 'Steel produced through closely interrelated processes often separated technically economically allow items 'needed' omitting 'not needed.' '(I)n requirements alone standpoint size, grade, product, reactivate 25 hot rolling mills, together supporting blast furnaces, Bessemer, electric, hearth, vacuum-melting furnaces. Additional pickling, coating, heat treating, cold finishing, shearing, cutting, testing, like required. reopen products meet totally impracticable. scheduling tonnages involved, plus cost technical difficulty start-ups shutdowns appear insurmountable." them, conflicting Robert Nathan, economist Steelworkers. bound prefer arguments, however weighty, economist, estimable, highest land advisers regarding means securing materials. Nor refutation suggest, might opened all purposes. self-evidently one programming months advance every specialized commodity needed itself effort entail. Other obvious difficulties less formidable. Upon what reopened chosen, assuming number determined? particular complexes regulated? What overhead, intra-company planning determine practicality partially restricting operation giant major producers? 26 No doubt normally charged independently shaping details decree sitting equity controversies involve simple relatively factors; factors, far number, than us. qualified devise schemes assure competent sit distribution integrated ascertain segmented supply exclusively, primarily, government-needed able readjust adequately reweigh forces competition appraise relevance carrying program Against assumptions competence, record. Even fail. controlling reasons neither burden establishing shown proceeds number' limits injunctive process appears First, face states separate criteria, strike, relationship proceed ' strike.' suggested history provisions. accordingly, foundation drastic adopted, unless abstract quantitatively confirms reveal, Taft-Hartley Act contains dual purpose, hand alleviate, least temporarily, safety; promote effect. accomplished whatever pursuance command 210 180, returned full event failure period. latter 209, 179, 'make adjust differences'; secret ballot employees 209 reference last offer companies; finally 210. hold, alternatively peril, best serve alleviating stultifying Second, evidentiary burdens resulted adoption constructions tend cripple effectiveness Act. extremely doubtful strikes proportion information reasonable show placed available; could, theoretical successfully conducted facilities. 31 Finally, construed narrowly, merely exception policies led restrictions use disputes embodied Norris-LaGuardia 47 70 (1932), 101—115, 101—115. Totally different enactment replete proponents opponents bill deal effectively large-scale work stoppages endanger stop prevent injury, management brought power, differences 209. preamble succinctly purpose: 'Industrial strife interferes normal flow avoided substantially minimized employers, organizations party has right relations engage acts practices jeopardize health, interest (1947), 1(b), 136, 141(b), 141(b). 33 federal employ disputes. rigorously define empowered industrial employers employees, safeguarding procedure intervention private significance deprive behest operator. Mine Workers America, 330 258, 677, 91 884. indicated, formulation 1932 'under prevailing conditions.' 102. purposes gauge demands 'prevailing conditions' differently considerations 'economic appraisal interests subordinated overriding Nation. following observations Brandeis apposite: 34 'Because I come conclusion state declare combatants push struggle justification self-interest, wish understood attaching moral sanction right. All derived society exist; rises community. developed danger judges exist, function permissible contest duties new situation demands. legislature which, limiting individual group aggression defense, substitute justice more primitive method trial combat.' Duplex Printing Press Co. Deering, 1921, 254 443, 488, 41 172, 184, 65 349 (dissent). 35 sections comprehensive community, bargaining. They protections afford. 36 Petitioner's regard resort modes industry, exist threatened. substance urged: Defense Production 1950, 64 798, U.S.C.App. 2061, U.S.C.A.Appendix, would, shortages strike; reveal remove defense. light said, apparent relevant independent possessed encumbered persuade defendants piecemeal alteration avoid jurisdiction. 37 Because resulting impediments 208(a)(ii), perils exhaust 'safety' used statute, consider health. 38 Having terms whether, alone, 'eighty-day' prayed issued, conventional discretionary balancing conveniences preliminary issuing argued 'discretion' though found. district 'discretion.' Alternatively, abused justifiable hindering rather promoting voluntary dispute, unnecessarily coercing thousands small non-injunctive remedies, assertedly drastic, available, equally well averted embark speculative determination, and, did, justifiable. withhold conveniences. 'Discretionary' exercised commanded Congress, presupposition judge-made law, left discretion. Such statute. expressed scheme precludes ordinary respect role various administrative agencies, National Board. 160(e), 160(e). held Board's sustained, thought appropriate enforced. Bradford Dyeing Ass'n, 310 318, 60 918, 84 1226. 40 nature collateral procedures issuance. compelling thereby manifested indulge own wisdom designed. leave Court. embodies exist. primary eighty days, defeated discretion permit hope period reached, end compels time. If body draw powers. How else directions viewed are, way statute? negative confident prophecy follow induce dealing persuaded invoked, Presidential promising arising whenever 'opinion' create appoint submit him relating receiving 'may' direct petition lockout. undoubtedly act considers relieve emergency. invoke courts' enjoin, involving, does, elements susceptible proof range experience, legislated ill-founded invalidated experience. invoking legislation wanting hindsight. concern. enforcement. certainly warrant Judiciary's intrusion respective responsibilities. 42 Hecht Bowles, 321 321, 587, 88 754, heavily on, dealt quite situation. application Emergency Price Control 1942 violations refused, Bowles significantly 1942, 925(a), grant, Administrator's application, 'a 'permanent temporary restraining order, order." emphasized alternative 'other order' imparting U.S., page 328, 591. Under 'and thus it: supplement supplant Beyond difference not, bring play prescribed evil correct, specifically therefore, strong showing resolved meant appeal recognized statutes governing mandatory take exist.' 329, essence describes Power' Constitution, beyond confer Courts. 'Cases' 'Controversies' determined, least, Constitution traditionally English systems. Both implied, framers Judiciary Article gave outlines familiar operations system manifestations side ocean Union. Judicial traditional Westminster ways expert feel lawyers 'Controversies.' 44 Beginning sixteenth century issued abate nuisances. Bond's Case, Moore 238 (1587); Jacob Hall's Ventris 169, Mod. 76 (1671); King Betterton, 142 (1696); Baines Baker, Atk. 750, Amb. 158 (1752); Mayor London Bolt, Ves. 129 (1799). Eden, Injunctions (3d ed. 1852), Vol. II, 259; Blackstone, Commentaries (12th 1795), IV, 166. old, settled summarized 1836 Lord Chancellor exchequer, acting equity, jurisdiction, proceeding nuisances harbours roads; short, generally nuisances.' Forbes, M. & C. 123, 133. And years 'it now settled, nuisance attorney general.' City Georgetown Alexandria Canal 1838, Pet. 91, 1012. Payne Hook, 425, 430, 260. Since impressively enforced suit re Debs, 564, 900, 1092. crux Debs decision, detrimental interest, intact. heart approvingly cited Ruppert, Inc. Caffey, 251 264, 301, 141, 150, much-criticized extensive employer-employee controversies. Frankfurter Greene, Injunction, pp. et seq., 62—63, 190, p. 253. proliferating mischievous Clayton 52, severest critics 'new invention.' See, Id., 20. instance commonplace history. See., e.g., Tudor Ice 1870, 104 Mass. 239, 244; Village Pine Munch, 1890, Minn. 342, 343, N.W. 197, L.R.A. 763; Health Grand Rapids Vink, 1915, 184 Mich. 688, 151 672. creating kind over criterion action—peril safety—is acted. Injunction court, traditional, request Executive. akin historically exercised, performed contemplated touch criteria determining permanent one, days. Given vest absolutely, change undermine professional tempered. 46 diverted discussion legal duties. derive from, by, parties. enforce obligations Nation whole, obviously done sterile juristic dialectic. DOUGLAS, 48 Great cases, importance feeling Holmes remarked (Northern Securities 193 400—401, 436, 468, 679, dissenting opinion), apt generate bad law. need, stick letter keep controversy shaped intense rightfully authority pass, speaks narrow guarded terms. gives aid inquiry lock appointing case, stated: 49 'The 85 percent nation's shutting off practically supplies steel. Over 500,000 200,000 related industries, families, deprived usual support. Present low resumption full-scale weeks. quickly resumed, effects economy nation.' plain word 'health' include material well-being welfare When moved conclusions union imperiled, words otherwise, stating five safety': 51 '(a) Certain top priority military mill operating, inventory imports. Any irretrievable loss essential plans allies. 52 '(b) planned activities Administration delayed continued. Specifically, MERCURY, manned satellite program, priority, buildings operation. important security nation. 53 '(c) Nuclear Submarines shipbuilding submarines, construction, modernization, conversion, inability secure boilers, compressors, component parts requiring Products indispensable manufacture irreparably injure 54 '(d) Exported bases overseas NATO allies similar groups. seriously impair programs, imperiling 55 '(e) A adversely affecting millions business enterprises, almost indirectly most lack resources stock large inventories. addition, idling Manufacturing account employment approximately 6,000,000 annual wages salaries totalling $34,000,000,000. valued $125,000,000,000. imperiled continue.' 56 again health' country. sustaining apparently same view. me assumption unwarranted. health,' heating homes, milk, protection hospitals, like. coal identified people, paramount debates measure. indeed Senate illustration S.Rep.No.105, 80th Cong., 1st Sess., 14. wanted go outlaw 'in utilities key Nation-wide industries' protect 'public welfare.' 93 Cong.Rec. A1035. Reference was, indeed, 'like steel' barred interest.' Ibid. far. reached situations where safety.'1 House went interest.'2 prevailed, version adopted Conference.3 Some thrown wide standards—if taken sense—by colloquy floor House:4 57 'Mr. KENNEDY. country position combat people. Therefore, step am opposing everything bill, things wrong. how going people listed 203. power. 58 'I agree you providing striking sure protected. seizure perhaps equalize fairest possible manner. 59 OWENS. Will gentleman admit third there? 'interest.' Could better 'welfare' instead 'interest,' occurs Constitution? just 'interest' practical. proposal embraces things, two, my opinion, apply mean anything. interfere automobile Does stronger line idea? 62 indefinite. cover except 63 read necessity. mindful behind legislation. 584, 906, 1092, stands ominous precedent easy Freewheeling Attorneys help stilling protests labor. revulsion practice deep, ultimately 70, 101, 101.5 deal, course, 208(b) sets pro tanto earlier refashion. hesitate restore all-inclusive concept impaired. used—' safety'—are narrower. knew spoke all-inclusively. declaration 1(b) 'neither 136. interest' titles far-reaching regulatory Yet, came intervene lockouts, restricted terms, confining impending That reading squared Senator Taft's explanation 'an 'imperil anticipated, occur.'6 Yet includes welfare, involved—whether automobiles agreements unions. notice broadest great impact health.' Machinery processing food needed; hospitals surgical instruments; refrigeration steel; on. Whether particularized founding 66 sustained rested phase statement, 'Certain imports.' findings, quoted, generalized. One record type quantity name produced, names fill need. know half ending mid-1959 shipments accounted mills. 1,000 men, 5,000 10,000 men produce amount departments send back work? 'substantial' Hence satisfied.7 fraction struck goes know, portion.8 Without knowledge incapable fashioning safeguard 'safety,' still adequate needs? Which these? Would practical well? entered 'jurisdiction 100% strikers 5% 10% 'safety.' hundred lightly assume rubber stamp President. weight, along Brethren accept insofar concerned. entrusted III shape fashion decree. manner, commander ordering willy-nilly, Administrative Assistant. automaton stamping papers presents, higher level IBM machine. Those grew never tolerate mechanical conception. 68 An sound historic feature molding decrees fit cases. Brown Education, 294, 300, 75 753, 756. Equity packaged machine age produces. uniform case.9 inactivity sharp break accept, clear unambiguous. clouded refused 754. 'A compliance hardly absolute circumstances.' Porter Warner Holding 328 395, 398, 1086, 1089, 90 1332. distinguish laying stress language 'or granted, distinguished orders' presently involved. declined abuse deny 331, 592. granted.' command, since jurisdiction' orders, appropriate. Plainly nothing sustain department Nation's sent country, objectives served objectives? serving them? place backs labor, bulk sense word? cudgels—so scope, indiscriminate dubbed 'scarecrow' device curbing pressure (1930), 107—108. crop evils regimes respects generated vagueness, uncertainty, supervision police leveling present. applies force confined precise aimed. Like old discredit blanket all-inclusive, bringing Being has, Brandeis, vices 'to endow property active, militant dominant men.' Truax Corrigan, 257 312, 354, 368, 124, 137, (dissenting opinion). bludgeon dictated fair exploits tremendous advantage: 71 'Our nine metal year. three-month costs sales, Uncle Sam picks tab out-of-pocket losses eventual tax adjustments. 72 industry's insurance acute financial pinch certainty stockpiles shrink level. takes bite union's assault pocketbooks producers.'10 73 consideration. For chancellor sits equity. ago unconstitutional making arbitration mandatory. Wolff Packing Industrial 262 522, 630, 1103; Dorchy State Kansas, 264 286, 323, 686. compulsory violated Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment. guess institutions field today experiment chance. experiment, survive, little it.11 Collective mediation norm, force. By rendered permits narrowly uphold relation produces guards covered rest—who majority strike—should treated treated. regime remedies. steelworkers producing truth fulfilling dreams sponsored legislate broadly. Though unlikely, deserves, caused broad, impractical work. devoid position.12 Furthermore, indication ever considered possibility. unwilling requires 99% output devoted entirely unconnected projects. Court—not Appeals. feasibility suggests, province conflicts 77 reverse remand findings13 'safety.'14 questions pertaining uses words. reflected Nos. 15(a), (b), (c), (d), follows: Legislative History (Gov.Print.Off. 1948), I, 274, 276. History, supra, Note 1, 214—215. H.R.Rep. 510, 64. 3513. abusive controversies, Allen, Organized Labor, Am.L.Rev. 828; Chafee, Inquiring Mind, 198; Dunbar, L.Q.Rev. 347; Frey, Injunction: Exposition Conscience Menace; Lane, Civil War West Virginia; Pepper, Disputes, A.B.A.Rep. 174; Royce, Anti-Trust Laws, N.Y.U.L.Q.Rev. 19; Stimson, Modern Use Injunctions, Pol.Sci.Q. 189. abolish Norris, Marq.L.Rev. 157; Witte, Anti-Injunction Minn.L.Rev. 638. 6860. Smith vein: 'Furthermore title II extreme threaten paralysis. injury 140,000,000 transportation General, initiative, shut-down walk-out, function.' 4281. provides: 'Upon lock-out lock-out— lock-out, shows, accounting contrived always preserved flexibility expansiveness ones invented, modified, Union Pacific Chicago, R.I. P.R. 163 601, 1173, 1187, 265. extent aid, manner Morgan, 307 183, 194, 795, 801, 83 1211; Exchange Realty Improvement 434, 435, 455, 1044, 1053, 1293. limit variety circumstances Pomeroy's Jurisprudence (5th ed.) 109. may, term, situation, unnecessary hardship McClintock (2d 30; Pomeroy, 115, 116. principle times, polution stream, defendant construct settling basins plaintiff modified experiments end. Arizona Copper Gillespie, 230 46, 1004, 1384. defendants' smelters emitted noxious fumes withheld installing purifying devices. Georgia Tennessee 237 474, 631, 1054. Alexander Hillman, 296 222, 204, 192. recent fashioned presented Nebraska Wyoming, 325 589, 665—672, 1332, 1—4. division waters enforcement strict uneconomic inequitable results. multitude weighed appraised seem largely imagination prejudice, realties modern plant Reskin, Prove Karl Marx Was Wrong, N.Y. Times Magazine, Oct. 25, 12, S.Rep. 105, 13—14, disputes: 'Under exigencies war utilize amounted instrumentality system, tended emphasize unduly solving free operated indefinitely decisions solved forces.' Dishman, Public Interest Am.Pol.Sci.Rev. 1100 (1951). Advisers; conclusional only. sifting short sending illustrated Steelworkers Cir., 202 132, 134: 'At Dunkirk company then primarily 'heat exchanger, vessel prefabricated pipe industry'; plant's Commission prime contractors furnish articles completion Commission's atomic bombs exchanger shells heavy water operate reactors fissionable materials, gas converter assemblies elsewhere potential sources equipped Resort consequently, correspondingly weapon factor involve, example, replacement equipment railroad trains. Commerce states: personal necessities, instruments, equipment, preparation preservation food. Steel transmission sanitation services, mining industries.' oral conceded aspect apart record, supply.

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