Document: 538 U.S. 721 NEVADA DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES ET AL.v.HIBBS AL. No. 01-1368. Supreme Court of United States. Argued January 15, 2003. Decided May 27, Respondent Hibbs (hereinafter respondent), an employee the Nevada Department Human Resources (Department), sought leave to care for his ailing wife under Family and Medical Leave Act 1993 (FMLA), which entitles eligible take up 12 work weeks unpaid annually onset a "serious health condition" in employee's spouse other reasons, 29 U. S. C. § 2612(a)(1)(C). The granted respondent's request full FMLA leave, but eventually informed him that he had exhausted must report by certain date. failed do so was terminated. Pursuant provisions creating private right action seek both equitable relief money damages "against any employer (including public agency)," 2617(a)(2), "interfere[d] with, restrain[ed], or den[ied] exercise of" rights, 2615(a)(1), respondent sued petitioners, two its officers, Federal District seeking injunctive declaratory for, inter alia, violations court awarded petitioners summary judgment on grounds claim barred Eleventh Amendment Fourteenth rights not been violated. Ninth Circuit reversed. Held: State employees may recover federal event State's failure comply with FMLA's family-care provision. Congress abrogate States' immunity from suit if it makes intention unmistakably clear language statute acts pursuant valid power 5 Amendment. See, e. g., Board Trustees Univ. Ala. v. Garrett, 531 356, 363. satisfies statement rule. See Kimel Florida Bd. Regents, 528 62, 73-78. also acted within authority when purposes family-leave In power, enact so-called prophylactic legislation proscribes facially constitutional conduct order prevent deter unconstitutional conduct, City Boerne Flores, 521 507, 536, attempt substantively redefine legal obligations, Kimel, supra, at 88. test distinguishing appropriate substantive redefinition is exhibit "congruence proportionality between injury be prevented remedied means adopted end." Boerne, 520. aims protect free gender-based discrimination workplace. Statutory classifications distinguish males females are subject heightened scrutiny, see, Craig Boren, 429 190, 197-199; i. e., they "serv[e] important governmental objectives," "the discriminatory employed [must be] substantially related achievement those States Virginia, 518 515, 533. When enacted FMLA, before significant evidence long extensive history sex respect administration benefits States, weighty enough justify enactment legislation. Cf. Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 456. reached opposite conclusion, distinguished ground there issue responded purported tendency state officials make age- disability-based distinctions, characteristics judged review standard, pass equal protection muster rational basis enacting them. 86. Here, because standard demonstrating constitutionality classification more difficult meet than rational-basis test, easier show pattern violations. South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 308-313. impact targeted based mutually reinforcing stereotypes only women responsible family caregiving men lack domestic responsibilities, significant. Moreover, Congress' chosen remedy, provision, "congruent proportional violation," 374. already tried unsuccessfully address this problem through Title VII Civil Rights 1964 Pregnancy Discrimination Act. Where previous legislative attempts have failed, see 313, such problems added measures response, By across-the-board, routine employment benefit all employees, ensure would no longer stigmatized as inordinate drain workplace caused female employers could evade obligations simply hiring men. Unlike statutes applied broadly every aspect employers' operations, narrowly faultline — precisely where sex-based overgeneralization has remains strongest affects one relationship. Also many limitations placed scope. Prepaid Postsecondary Ed. Expense College Savings Bank, 527 627, 647. For example, requires 2612(a)(1); applies who worked least year provided 1,250 hours service last months, 2611(2)(A); does apply high-ranking sensitive positions, including elected officials, their staffs, appointed policymakers, §§ 2611(2)(B)(i) (3), 203(e)(2)(C). Pp. 726-740. 273 F. 3d 844, affirmed. REHNQUIST, J., delivered opinion Court, O'CONNOR, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion, GINSBURG joined, post, p. 740. STEVENS, judgment, SCALIA, dissenting 741. KENNEDY, SCALIA THOMAS, 744. 1 CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT. 2 Paul G. Taggart, Deputy Attorney General Nevada, argued cause petitioners. With briefs were Frankie Sue Del Papa, General, Traci L. Lovitt. 3 Cornelia T. Pillard Hibbs. her brief Jonathan J. Frankel, Judith Lichtman, Treva Hearne. 4 Assistant Dinh Solicitor Olson, Attorneys Boyd McCallum, Clement, Patricia A. Millett, Mark B. Stern, Kathleen Kane.* CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST Court. 6 (FMLA Act) several spouse, child, parent. 107 Stat. 9, creates agency) competent jurisdiction," should "interfere restrain, deny "FMLA 2615(a)(1). We hold provision 7 Petitioners include (Department) officers. William respondent) Department's Welfare Division. April 1997, wife, recovering car accident neck surgery. authorized use intermittently needed December 1997. did until August 5, after return work. October further granted, November 12, 8 U.S.C. appealed, intervened 28 2403 defend validity application F.3d 844 (2001). 9 certiorari, 536 938 (2002), resolve split among Courts Appeals question whether individual sue violation Compare Kazmier Widmann, 225 519, 526, 529 (CA5 2000), (case below). 10 over century now, we made Constitution provide jurisdiction suits against nonconsenting 363 (2001); 72-73 (2000); Bank Bd., 666, 669-670 (1999); Seminole Tribe Fla. Florida, 517 44, 54 (1996); Hans Louisiana, 134 1, 15 (1890). 11 may, however, 363; Blatchford Native Village Noatak, 501 775, 786 (1991) (citing Dellmuth Muth, 491 223, 228 (1989)). clarity intent here fairly debatable. enables defined "public agency" government political subdivision thereof" "any agency ... State, State," 203(x), 2611(4)(A)(iii). held that, using identical Age Employment 1967 (ADEA), 81 602, amended, 621 et seq., satisfied rule Dellmuth. U.S., This case turns, then, relied powers vested Constitution: Article I commerce enforce Amendment's guarantees.1 sovereign commerce. Tribe, supra. Amendment, principle sovereignty embodies, necessarily limited enforcement Amendment." 456 (1976) (citation omitted). 364; 80. 13 Two relevant here: Section grants "to enforce" guarantees them, laws "appropriate legislation." proscribe unconstitutional. "`Congress' includes remedy guaranteed thereunder prohibiting somewhat broader swath itself forbidden text.'" 365 (quoting 81); (1997); Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 658 (1966). words, conduct. 14 confirmed, falls Congress, define substance guarantees. 519-524. "The ultimate interpretation determination meaning province Judicial Branch." 81. reaching beyond scope 1's actual identified violations, "an obligations." Id., "substantive issue," id., 81, applying set forth Boerne: Valid end," workplace.2 statutory scrutiny. e.g., 197-199 (1976). withstand objectives." 533 (1996) (citations internal quotation marks justification "must rely overbroad generalizations about different talents, capacities, preferences females." Ibid. now inquire part area. 16 limiting women's opportunities chronicled and, relatively recently, sanctioned Court's own opinions. Bradwell Wall. 130 (1873) (Illinois), Goesaert Cleary, 335 464, 466 (1948) (Michigan), upheld practicing law tending bar, respectively. frequently subjected distinctive restrictions, terms, conditions, jobs take. Muller Oregon, 208 412, 419, n. (1908), approved wages, observed 19 time. Such beliefs (1) woman is, remain, center home life," Hoyt 368 57, 62 (1961), (2) "a proper discharge [a woman's] maternal functions having view merely health, well-being race justif[ies] greed well passion man," Muller, 422. Until our decision Reed Reed, 404 71 (1971), "it remained prevailing doctrine government, state, withhold accorded `basis reason'" above "could conceived discrimination." Goesaert, 467). 17 abrogating 1964, 78 255, 42 2000e-2(a), sustained abrogation Fitzpatrick. But gender cease. "[I]t can hardly doubted still face pervasive, although times subtle, job market." Frontiero Richardson, 411 677, 686 (1973). According continue invalid context, specifically benefits. Reliance cannot prompted us differentiate warrant scrutiny; here, Fitzpatrick, persistence justifies passage 18 As record reflects, 1990 Bureau Labor Statistics (BLS) survey stated 37 percent surveyed private-sector covered maternity policies, while paternity policies. Rep. 103-3, pp. 14-15 (1993). corresponding numbers similar BLS 33 percent, While these data increase percentage widening gap during same period. Thus, stereotype-based allocation duties firmly rooted, reliance them establishing policies widespread.3 heard testimony "[p]arental fathers rare. Even [w]here child-care exist, men, sectors, receive notoriously treatment requests leave." Joint Hearing 147 (Washington Council Lawyers) (emphasis added). Many offered extended "maternity" far exceeded typical 4-to 8-week period physical disability due pregnancy childbirth,4 very few parallel benefit: Fifteen four same. M. Lord & King, Reference Guide Work-Family Programs Employees 30 (1991). differential attributable needs women, rather pervasive sex-role stereotype caring members work.5 20 Finally, even discriminatory, ways. It aware discretionary nature leave," grant arrange length rests supervisors," leaves "employees open possibly unequal treatment." H.R. 103-8, pt. 2, 10-11 Testimony supported explaining "[t]he uniform parental medical place created environment [sex] rampant." 1987 Senate Hearings, 170 (testimony Peggy Montes, Mayor's Commission Women's Affairs, Chicago). 21 spite evidence, KENNEDY argues dissent unnecessary appear ahead providing gender-neutral benefits," 750, points Nevada's particular, 755. However, "[s]ince first introduced" "begun consider initiatives." 20; 102-68, 77 (minority views Sen. Durenberger) ("[S]o states level"). 22 Furthermore, dissent's some "had form leave" enactment, glosses shortcomings First, seven childcare only. Indeed, Massachusetts required notice posted "establishment[s] employed."6 These reinforced FMLA. Second, initial childbirth adoption, seriously ill child member.7 Third, statutorily offering instead voluntary programs. Three left amount time primarily hands.8 reasonably conclude programs little combat roles male eliminate. administrative regulations personnel significantly less firm law.9 Against backdrop matter how generous petitioners' been, 755 (dissent), justified remedial legislation.10 23 sum, participation in, fostering of, legislation.11 24 conclusion Garrett Kimel. cases, age-or distinctions. Under law, passes doing class-based level, `is probably true' reasons majority cases." 86 Gregory Ashcroft, 452, 473 (1991)). 367 ("States special accommodations disabled, actions toward individuals rational"). impugn disabled elderly, identify, just existence decisions, "widespread pattern" irrational criteria. 90. found showing ADEA Americans Disabilities (ADA). 89; 368. 25 directed attention discrimination, triggers level Craig, 197-199. Because test—it objectives" "substantially similarly successful 308-313 (1966), Voting 1965: racial presumptively invalid, most violated 26 determined: 27 "Historically, denial curtailment traceable directly presumption mothers first, workers second. ideology turn mothers-to-be." 100. Stereotypes presuming responsibilities continued regard woman's domain, often denied discouraged taking leave. self-fulfilling cycle forced assume role primary caregiver, fostered stereotypical commitment value employees. Those perceptions, turn, reasoned, lead subtle detect case-by-case basis. believe amendment Act, 2000e(k). again confronted "difficult intractable proble[m]," 88, failed. 313 (upholding Act). response. setting minimum irrespective gender, attacks formerly state-sanctioned caregiving, thereby reducing incentives engage basing promotion decisions stereotypes. 31 characterizes entitlement program" establishes floor weeks' Post, 754. view, benefits, exercising discrimination. position squared recognition "is confined parrots precise wording Amendment," prohibit text." exercises literacy ban preclearance requirements changes voting procedures. 641 (1966); Oregon Mitchell, 400 112 (1970); 32 light mirroring VII, mandated equality achieved object. allow all. "[t]wo-thirds nonprofessional caregivers older, chronically ill, persons working women," 24; 7, practices reinforce caregivers, policy exclude Ragsdale Wolverine World Wide, Inc., 535 91 (2002) (discussing "important [FMLA's] scheme"), 532 (the "[s]weeping coverage" Religious Freedom Restoration 1993); ("the indiscriminate [ADEA's] requirements"); 361 ADA prohibits "in [any] privileges employment" (internal omitted)). 34 find measure. Prepaid, 647 ("[W]here `a congressional pervasively effort action, kind tend proportionate ends legitimate 5'" 532-533)). 2612(a)(1), 2611(2)(A). positions ineligible leave; particular importance expressly excludes coverage policymakers. give advance foreseeable 2612(e), require certification provider need 2613. choosing floor, chose middle ground, serve `the families' upset interests employers.'" Ragsdale, 94 2601(b)).12 restricted one: recoverable strictly measured monetary losses, 2617(a)(1)(A)(i)-(iii), accrual backpay Act's 2-year (extended three years willful violations), 2617(c)(1) (2). 35 2612(a)(1)(C) congruent object, "be understood responsive to, designed prevent, behavior." 532. 36 therefore Affirmed. Notes: * Briefs ofamici curiae urging reversal Alabama al. Bill Pryor, Alabama, Nathan Forrester, Charles Campbell, respective follows: Bruce Botelho Alaska, Jane Brady Delaware, Earl I. Anzai Hawaii, Steve Carter Indiana, Don Stenberg Nebraska, Betty D. Montgomery Ohio, W. Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Condon Carolina, Summers Tennessee, John Cornyn Texas, Shurtleff Utah, Jerry Kilgore Virginia; Coalition Local Sovereignty Kenneth Clark; Pacific Legal Foundation Deborah La Fetra. amici affirmance New York Eliot Spitzer, York, Caitlin Halligan, Michelle Aronowitz, Denise Hartman, Robert H. Easton, David Axinn, Solicitors Hilary Klein, Richard Blumenthal Connecticut, James Ryan Illinois, Michael Hatch Minnesota, Madrid Mexico, Christine O. Gregoire Washington; American Federation Industrial Organizations P. Hiatt, Coppess, Laurence Gold, Gottesman; Lawyers' Committee Law Sidney Rosdeitcher, Barbara R. Arnwine, Thomas Henderson, Foreman, Vincent Eng, Dennis Courtland Hayes, Angela Ciccolo; National Center Walter Dellinger, Pamela Harris, Marcia Greenberger, Appelbaum, Dina Lassow; Senator Christopher Dodd E. Haddad Phillips; Alice Kessler-Harris Isabelle Katz Pinzler, Conrad K. Harper, Russell, Jr. 2601(b)(1) ("It purpose balance demands families, promote stability economic security national preserving integrity") 2601(b)(5) ("to goal opportunity [the Equal Protection C]lause") 2601(b)(4) accomplish purposes] manner consistent Clause ..., minimizes potential sex"). (1993) Commerce Clause, process embodied 14th Amendment"); (same) text clear. "due society, responsibility caretaking lives men." 2601(a)(5). response finding, [Act's other] discriminationon ensuring generally available basis[,] men...." (5) material described sector, 50-state demonstrated proportion construction sector differs employees." Parental 1986: Subcommittee Labor-Management Relations Standards House Education Labor, 99th Cong., 2d Sess., (1986) Hearing) (statement Meryl Frank, Director Yale Bush Infant Care Project). alsoid., 29-30. See,e.g., (six medically recommended period); 101-28, (1989) (referring eight recovery normal childbirth). collective-bargaining agreements six months Gerald McEntee, President County Municipal Employees, AFL-CIO, testified vast contracts, though look upon great pride, really cover essentially 1987: Hearings Children, Family, Drugs Alcoholism Resources, 100th 1st 385 (1987) Hearings). addition, specified catchall leave-without-pay used authorize purposes. Post Office Service, 2-5 (Rep. Gary Ackerman recounted suffering absence ostensibly "child leave"). Evidence pertaining parenting types stereotype: trump KENNEDY's dissent) ignores common foundation found, historically produced women. 748-749. Consideration not, contends, expand inquiry "general employment." 749 To contrary, situations conflict, implicate Mass. Gen. Laws, ch. 149, 105D (West 1997) (providing "female employee[s]" adoption); Colo. Code Regs. 708-1, Rule 80.8 (pregnancy only); Iowa 216.6(2) (2000) (former 601A.6(2)) (same); Kan. Admin. 21-32-6(d) (2003) ("a reasonable period" N. Ann. 354-A:7(VI)(b) (Michie Supp. 2000) La. 23:1008(A)(2) 1993) (repealed (4-month Tenn. 4-21-408(a) (1998) asserts schemes Colorado, Iowa, Hampshire concern "pregnancy only." 752. Louisiana exceeds weeks. 4, gender-discriminatory counter 731. (2002); Del. Ann., Tit. 29, 5116 21-32-6 (2003); Ky. Rev. 337.015 2001); 105(D) 1997); Mo. 105.271 2000); N.Y. Lab. 201-c 2002); (1998); Dept. Bureau, Maternity/Family Law, (June Virginia policy) 2000). Oklahoma system voluntarily donate colleagues' emergencies. Okla. Stat., 74, 840-2.22 (historical note) 2002) Wis. DWD (1997) ILHR 225); Law,supra, (Virginia). Contrary belief, "abrogat[e] whenever social program enshrined code provides discretion,"post, 753, confer "as later deem appropriate," misunderstands program," 754; create sake. infra, 737-738. Rather, adjust eliminate on, perpetuation stereotypes, dismantle persisting barriers hiring, retention, pursuing goal, discussed above, 733-734 page, concluded brought Given extent specificity understand accusation simple recitation general women."Post, 746. holding findings enacted, "rel[ied] benefits." Supra, 730 730-732. established thus leaving choose. 2651(b) ("Nothing shall construed supersede local greater Act"). faults giving choice, arguing terms bar granting menPost, 756. effectively counters argument next breath, recognizing "run afoul VII." crafting new certainly account existing laws. here. 2651(a) modify affect ..."). 38 whom BREYER join, concurring. 39 356 627 (1999), undoubtedly legislation, constitutional; conclusions follow fortiori my understanding 376 (BREYER, dissenting); 92 (STEVENS, 648 650-651 join without conceding cited expressed 100 (SOUTER, dissenting). 40 judgment. 41 never convinced amend am uncertain truly "`needed secure Amendment,'" write separately explain why 458 judgment) 651 (1966)). plain poses barrier adjudication respondents citizens Nevada. defense asserted what second source judge-made text. Pennsylvania Union Gas Co., concurring). clearly expresses intent, common-law regulate "among States." Const., Art. I, 8. unquestionably "broad support regulating conditions judgment).* Accordingly, merit. Stevens, "Two Questions About Justice," 2003 Ill. 821 (discussingFitzpatrick). 43 dissenting. 44 dissent, add observation: prerequisite "prophylactic" "enforce" taken. There guilt association, enabling abridged another 49 explained much ago Cases, 109 3, (1883), invalidated portion 1875, purportedly following reason: 45 "It equally cases arising justest respecting personal citizens, whose authorities ever ready arise prohibition amendment." 46 sometimes displayed awareness self-evident limitation. That presumably sweeping 1965 Rome 446 156 (1980), Fifteenth Amendment* "with demonstrable intentional voting," 177. 47 Today's demonstrate each 50 treats States" sort collective entity guilty innocent body. "[T]he discrimination," concludes, Ante, 735. will do. Prophylaxis sense extending thing; prophylaxis violator something else. Rome, 177 ("Congress rationally electoral jurisdictions risk purposeful impact" added)). 48 litigant claims secured Constitution, ordinarily asks him. Broadrick 413 601, 613 When, hand, challenged going Congress's enumerated powers, precedents face. 727-728; 744 (KENNEDY, Morrison, 598 507 Lopez, 514 549 (1995). If survives challenge, stands reason asked, proceed analyze (constitutional face) validly litigant. context entail examining engaged sufficient power. seems, therefore, defeating i.e., constitutionally jurisdictions. Salerno, 481 739, 745 (1987). (Even demonstration, made.) comes as-applied think entitled assert mere facts bad actors, enough; demand shown acting practically Amdt. 14, ("The enforce, article"), article legislation") THOMAS explicit invoke courts. 726-727, 1. specific impose design, minimums time, then permitting answered asking subjecting treasuries liability insistence litigants ante, 728; 520 (1997). teaching 2612(a)(1)(C), respectful allows unconsenting content Clause; shape remedies warranted guarantee. 519-520. requirement force protects fiscal integrity intrusion vesting likely permit Government one; couples authorization damages, blurs line accountability citizens. basic concerns underlie (2000), counsel caution shows somehow unable unlawful warrants opening suits. inability adduce alleged coupled inescapable fact scheme program, demonstrates requisite link mandated. addressing "pattern States," gives superficial "identify precision issue." 365, suggests workplace," 728, embarks speaking opportunities," 729. All agree acknowledges, 2000e-2(a). 729; 445 us, aim VII. seeks relative. question, seems acknowledge, whether, notwithstanding widespread 730. shown, devising remedy. substantiate charge specific, immunity, careful insist adherence analytic precedents. Persisting overall effects ignored; noting substitute identifies real rules prevent. Respondents fail showing. devoid discussion evidence. Lizzi Alexander, 255 128, 135 (CA4 2001) ("In making [its] finding purpose, do, care"); Chittister Community Econ. Dev., 226 228-229 (CA3 ("Notably absent concerning existence, prevalence, sick amounted Clause"). recognize, considered concerned employers. 730-731, n.3. statistical information compiled (BLS), factual cites, entities relevant, itself, immunity. ("Congress' appropriately exercised transgressions"). connect behavior inferences drawn sources. Project, Child Development Social Policy, variation sectors. Hearing)). Washington Lawyers "`[w]here leave.'" 731 147) Court). Both statements hearings proposed 1986 preceded years. bill, differed passed. proposal member. 4300, 102(3), 103(a) (1986), Gladstone, Congressional Research Service Issue Brief, Legislation, 4-5, (Oct. 26, 1995); Tr. Oral Arg. introduced section invoked 925," 1987). relies Frank) study "evaluate[d] changing composition families infants"); ("[F]or natural adoptive legislatively protected"). isolated inference sector's actors 1986, probative conferring benefit. admitted much: "We recognize weakness Hibbs' studies deal They document intended prevent." 859 (CA9 2001). suggesting length, 731, suffers flaw. 2612(a)(1)(A), (B), too attenuated Appeals' contrary assertion "if discriminate along lines regarding other." F.3d, 859. serious one. conjecture. maintains respond workplace." 732, 5. sets contours high abstraction. "ha[ve] ibid.; remote "even ways." 732. allegation guarantee statute, employers, "`discretionary treatment.'" (1993)). derives examined executive branch agencies," 10, explicitly employees: "`[I]n purposes, supervisors, 10-11. A situations, guidelines, discriminated circumstance alone state-sponsored perhaps disparate impact, prohibited 372-373 Davis, 426 229, 239 (1976)). federal-state equivalence places emphasis deficient rationale fundamental however; Thirty Columbia, Puerto Rico preceding adoption. reports Houses noted fact. 32-33; 20-21 (1993); Brief Amici Curiae 18-22. picked tremendous momentum books." 1991: 102d Marge Roukema). experience designing cost effective neutral. 12-14; 249 194-195, 533-534 acknowledged implemented envisioned 50; 38. At least, solving acknowledges prior intervention, suffered imperfections. 733-734. correct, observation proves, most, operated feasible. devise optimal perpetuating assumed pioneering creation schemes, surprising early efforts imperfect. altogether different, lengthy allegedly short meeting standard. defect fact, precedent. out applicable 733. Yet acknowledge solely 733, 2000)). Our violate Geduldig Aiello, 417 484, 496-497, (1974); (counsel practice). fourth disguised excess believed necessary disability. 6. "that pregnancy, child-birth, conditions." 23:1008(A)(2)(b) 1997). Properly administered, scheme, despite maximum, transform into "4-month observes "provided adoption." Four which, Of remaining five basis; practice contends infirmity. 733-734, Personnel Training)). either (as leave) way permitted offends Constitution. Instead, suggest inferred appropriate. chastises programs." 733-734; 734 ("[F]our policies"). argue enable nor, noted, 749-750. reasoning, discretion. Stripped exhibits infirmity, "exten[sive] specifi[c] conduct," 735, 11, boils down Massachusetts, Kansas, (male female) nn. (1998)). explained, 748-749, Nor, 738. behavior. Considered entirety, fails incidents "fall based." S., 370; 89-91; 530-531. Juxtaposed volition. 5-14. opposed reviewed 83-84; 366-367, alter conclusion. scrutiny entrenched inhibit progress 736. consideration divest burden "Congress reaffirm requirement. 729 ("We ..."); 735 ("[T]he legislation"). submission, it. insufficiency unfortunate 369. paucity tries responding perceived course own. imposes, across board, per year. represent decide guidelines follow, choose deemed damages. Well basis, option requesting Nev. 284.578(1) (1984), permitted, approval year, 284.578(2). days accumulated paid 284.558(1). "catastrophic accrued fund aid additional relative illness. 284.362(1) sure, track devised respects. possible reporting 284.578(2)(3) (1984). discretion, administered gender-equal displacement autonomous design regime. Were proof suffice note purport administer. allowed say, conceded argument, might run constitute 49. "deters fall sweep unconstitutional." 518; 737 (in "may text'" 81)). "enforce is." 519. dual identify separate permissible instances guise authority. upholding instructive. 301 tests method enforcing voting. measure documented marked 373 312, 313); 525 reflecting subsisting tests" 333-334)). "limited meaningful 373. congruent, "aimed areas flagrant," 315, proportional, "banish blight voting, infected parts country nearly century," 308. "strong preventive measures" safeguard subsequent occasions, always deprivation resulting country's 526-527 (1980); jurisprudence illustrated opinions late Justice Harlan's Morgan. There, Harlan contrasted vote invalidate earlier decision, uphold stronger suspension tests, imposition laws, appointment examiners. 659, 667; 315-323. "`voluminous history' judicial supporting commands infringed various subterfuges.... evil, steps taken legislature Enforcement justifiable initiative." 667 309, 329-330). contrast, case, lacked "there infringement command, offend[ed] command 667. measur[e] redress wrongs," impermissible 668. employment. conferred ("There congruence end. Lacking connection, become operation effect"). truth "ac[t] end judicially-recognized [but] pursued object outside Five imposing new, non-remedial states." Beck, Heart Federalism: Pretext Review Means-End Relationships, 407, 440 (2003). bears unconsented recourse. 8, cl. standards prescribes binding damages; bring Ex parte Young, 209 123 (1908). What subjected, consent, collect moneys treasury. Their abrogated documentation complete carry establish propositions. contrary.

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