Document: 423 U.S. 212 96 S.Ct. 498 46 L.Ed.2d 450 Pearl BARRETT, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. No. 74-5566. Argued Nov. 4, 1975. Decided Jan. 13, 1976. Syllabus The provision of the Gun Control Act 1968, 18 U.S.C. § 922(h), making it unlawful for a convicted felon, inter alia, "to receive any firearm or ammunition which has been shipped transported in interstate foreign commerce," held to apply felon's intrastate purchase from retail dealer that previously, but independently receipt, had commerce manufacturer distributor and then dealer. Pp. 215-225. 504 F.2d 629, affirmed. Thomas A. Schaffer, Cincinnati, Ohio, petitioner. Robert B. Reich, Dept. Justice, Washington, D.C., respondent, pro hac vice, by special leave Court. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion 1 Petitioner Barrett jury United States District Court Eastern Kentucky violation 922(h),1 part Pub.L. 90-618, 82 Stat. 1213, amending Omnibus Crime Safe Streets 90-351, 197, enacted earlier same year. issue before us is whether 922(h) application purchaser's acquisition 2 * In January 1967, petitioner was state court housebreaking. He received two-year sentence. On April 1, 1972, he purchased .32-caliber Smith & Wesson revolver over counter Western Auto Store Booneville, Ky., where resided.2 vendor, who local dentist as well owner store, acquainted with petitioner, federally licensed firearms weapon manufactured Massachusetts, North Carolina, March little less than month prior petitioner's purchase. sale firearm's first transaction. It only handgun dealer's stock. Tr. 36-47. 3 Within an hour after arrested county sheriff driving while intoxicated. firearm, fully loaded, on floorboard car driver's side. 4 charged 922(h). pleaded not guilty. At trial no evidence presented show personally participated way previous movement firearm. merely effect out stock, gun, having warehoused other States, reached through channels. close prosecution's case, moved directed verdict acquittal ground applicable his receipt firearm.3 motion denied. instructed statute's requirement satisfied if at some time its past traveled commerce.4 A guilty returned. sentence three years, subject immediate parole eligibility provisions 4208(a)(2). 5 appeal, Appeals affirmed divided vote question us. 629 (CA6 1974). Because importance because Sixth Circuit's decision appeared have overtones conflict Eighth Circuit v. Ruffin, 490 557 (1974), we granted certiorari limited issue. 420 923, 95 1117, 43 392 (1975). II 6 concedes Congress, under Commerce Clause Constitution, power regulate trafficking firearms. Brief 7. states, however, concerns scope Congress' exercise this statute. argues that, enactment Congress interested "the business gun traffic," 11; meant deal businesses, individuals per se" (emphasis original), id., 14, is, mail-order houses, out-of-state sources, like; intended to, does not, reach isolated such Barrett's transaction, sold within merchant resident whom acquainted, transaction "has apparent connection despite weapon's manufacture original distribution Kentucky. Id., 6. 7 We feel, language structure part, manifest purpose are all adverse position. 8 Section pointedly simply provides four categories persons, including commerce." quoted without ambiguity. unrestrictedly been" commerce. contains limitation itself movement. therefore reason differ Appeals' majority's conclusion "means exactly what says." F.2d, 632. 9 be noted, furthermore, proscribed act, firearm," present tense, reference perfect denoting act completed. Thus, there warping stretching when statute applied already completed journey come rest showcase felon. knew significance meaning employed. used tense elsewhere section, namely, 922(h)(1) (a person convicted"), 922(h)(4) adjudicated" committed"), contrast use ("who is") §§ 922(h)(1), (2), (3). pattern consistent unintended misuse apparent. 10 Had confine direct would so provided, just did sections Act. See 922(a)(3) (declaring nonlicensee State resides obtained "by outside State"); 922(j) (prohibiting stolen "moving . commerce"); 922(k) "in commerce" serial number removed). Statutes similarly utilize restrictive reached. See, e. g., 659, 1084, 1201, 1231, 1951, 1952, 2313, 2315, 2421, 15 77e. As said, ambiguity words justification indulging uneasy statutory construction. Wiltberger, Wheat. 76, 95-96, L.Ed. 37 (1820); Yates 354 298, 305, 77 1064, 1069, 1356 (1957); Huddleston 415 814, 831, 94 1262, 1271, 39 782 (1974). Sullivan, 332 689, 696, 68 331, 335, 92 297 (1948). There occasion here resort rule lenity, see Rewis 401 808, 812, 91 1056, 1059, 28 493 (1971); Bass, 404 336, 347, 515, 522, 30 488 (1971), calls resolution favor lenity. criminal statute, sure, strictly construed, "not construed defeat obvious intention legislature." American Fur Co. Pet. 358, 367, (1829); U.S., S.Ct., 1271. 11 very demonstrates intend restrict sales sought broadly keep away persons classified potentially irresponsible dangerous. These comprehensively barred acquiring means. 922(d) prohibits licensee knowingly selling otherwise disposing (whether 833, 1273) persons. If were suggests, complement 922(d), gap coverage created, then, although prohibited either designated person, vendee receiving unless interstate. 12 Similarly, 922(g) shipping transporting or, 2(b), causing Petitioner's proposed narrow construction reduce section near redundancy 922(g), since almost every shipment likely solicited caused recipient. That also create another anomaly: seeks buy currently orders interstate, violates suggested construction, violate shelf. 13 note, too, clearly For example, licensing provisions, 922(a)(1) 923(a), exclusively intrastate, activity. Under noted above, may sell even intrastate. 1273. Sections 922(c) (a)(6), relating, respectively, physical presence place giving false information, transactions. So, do 922(b)(2) (5). 14 Construing preceded thus entire To receipts result cover aspect transactions except receipt. This, obviously, most crucial all. surely prohibitions went pains prevent indirectly, complex C. legislative history supportive our 1968 amended and, purposes, substantially identical version Title IV 1968. Each statutes enlarged extended Federal Firearms Act, 52 1250 (1938). operative phrase 2(f) expanded firearms.5 new added many prophylactic hereinabove referred governing Zimring, Law: J. Legal Studies 133 But 1938 designed crook gangster, racketeer fugitive justice being able contact kind." S.Rep.No. 1189, 75th Cong., 1st Sess., 33 (1937). Nothing found committee reports hearings legislation indicates 16 reflects similar concern keeping hands felons. Its stated principal make possible those legally entitled possess them age, background, incompetency." 1501, 90th 2d 22 (1968). 114 Cong.Rec. 13219 (1968) (remarks Sen. Tydings); 824-825, 1268-1269. Congressman Celler, House Manager, expressed concern: "This bill maximize possibility persons." 21784 (1968); 828, 1270. light purpose, could broad unambiguous confined, receipts. suggestion remove usual III 17 Two statements cases, naturally relied upon deserve mention. observation made years ago Act's 2(f), predecessor 922(h): "Both courts below offense created confined transportation extend articles which, time, Government agrees correct." Tot 319 463, 466, 63 1241, 1244, 87 1519 (1943). 19 presumption contained possession (one crime violence justice) shall presumptive received, case be, Act," violative due process. 20 observation, course, recital further statement agreed lower correct. Having understandably Tot, validity presumption. fact long took position serve help posture here, seemingly contrary, arguing current control based reaches Barrett.6 21 second more recent appears supra.7 Bass comment, dictum, prosecution U.S.C.App. 1202(a), VII, IV, amended. 1202(a) concerned member "who receives, possesses, transports affecting firearm." contended require proof held, ambiguous therefore, must read nexus. holding, between VII observed subsections two Titles addressed their people, each groups other. Then followed dictum question. state: "While decided finally day, learning indicating changed approach 'receipt' offense." 343, n. 10, 520. 23 passing proceeded consider 1202(a). far intimate respect possessing nexus, situation covered event, Court, opinion, reserved "some day." day now hand, And hand benefit full briefing awareness plain aims purpose. 24 Furthermore, willing decide assumption 25 decided, Court's casual mind Act.8 one mention debates, 21807 (1968), reports, 1097, 272, U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News p. 2112 (additional views Sens. Dirksen, Hruska, Thurmond, Burdick). reflect eliminated movement, increasing burden Government. They focus showing necessary carry proof. few references objections elimination presumption, type witness believed satisfy 2(f). Hearings S. Amendment 90 1853, 1854 Subcommittee Investigate Juvenile Delinquency Senate Committee Judiciary, (1967); H.R. 5037, 5038, 5384, 5385, 5386 561-562, 564, 677-678. persuades adopt Tot's interpretation. conclude otherwise, fly face of, ignore, congressional intent price recital. Girouard 328 61, 69-70, 66 826, 829-830, 1084 (1946). hold, 350, 523, requires previously commerce, relating "which inconsistent indeed, downgrading stronger upgrading weaker. covers judgment Appeals, accordingly, 26 ordered. 27 Affirmed. STEVENS consideration case. 29 WHITE, concurring. meeting contention (1943), necessarily confines course shipment, reads reciting adopting courts' holdings Ante, 221-222. I join respect. Also, find correct assumed, STEWART concludes, post, 228-230 3, 31 1938, 1251, follows: 32 "It fug(i)tive ammuni tion Act." opening describing transported" immediately presumed alone defendant-possessor possessed proscribe mere defendant involvement provide personal participation inferred alone. Proof independent defendant, sufficient assistance. 34 surprising themselves nonetheless understood directly involved supra, argued, Striking down gloss defining violation. Thus left intact, establish prove felon actually shipment. 35 When enacted, omitted removed basis reading aid defendant. disputed. Instead argument reenacting initial maintain restricted though dropped provided nothing stead. 36 aware order shipment."* From enacting adopted interpretation glossed describes continuing invalidated Congressional overcome concededly force analysis scheme part. 216-219. Indeed understanding supports determination "covers 225. STEWART, REHNQUIST joins, dissenting. 38 former convict, revolver, car. circumstances offensive believe law order. particularly need handguns. While understand these concerns, cannot rush judgment, matter federal stands convicted. bought over-the-counter sale. hour, intoxicated Massachusetts Booneville retailer Carolina distributor. submitted kind activity involving facts, violating makes offender like 40 This clause 1250, 1251.1 interpreted prohibit transaction: 41 1244. 42 Although principally constitutionality established last 2(f),2 essential holding.3 class specified unconstitutional lack rational proved facts presumed. 467-468, 1244-1245. determining set needed exist constitute go unnoticed form reveals. Subcommittees both Judiciary Committees 1967 conducted bills amend hearings, Commissioner Internal Revenue explained Tot: 44 "The Supreme declared (the 2(f)) 1943 1519. Consequently, shipment." (1967). 45 unconstitutional. transportation." 561 (1967).4 speaking support retained construed. 1854, 16, 43-44; 5386, 555. precisely us, evident law. Francis Southern Pacific Co., 333 445, 449-450, 611, 613, 798 (1948); Apex Hosiery Leader, 310 469, 488-489, 60 982, 989, 84 1311 (1940); Estate Church, 335 632, 682, 690, 69 322, 352-358, 93 288 (1949) (Frankfurter, J., dissenting).5 47 Just ago, expressly indicate "that 343 521. adhere settled reverse Appeals. "s 922. Unlawful acts. "(h) "(1) indictment for, punishable imprisonment term exceeding year; "(2) justice; "(3) user addicted marihuana depressant stimulant drug (as defined 201(v) Food, Drug, Cosmetic Act) narcotic 4731(a) Code 1954); "(4) adjudicated mental defective committed institution; asked complete Treasury Form 4473, enforcement 45-47. Accordingly, 922(a)(6). defense quash June 20, 1969, Governor Kentucky, executive nature pardon, "all rights citizenship denied him consequence said conviction." served wipe felony conviction 1967. unanimously rejected reasons court's respective majority dissenting opinions. 632-634 here. "Now, ladies gentlemen, something value political subdivision, call state, state. Interstate occurs crosses boundary line. Now, you permissible inference physically located engaged point another, inference. You required logical, reasonable facts." 99-100. provided: fugutive (sic ) ." 1251. stance litigation years. positions before. Automobile Club Michigan Revenue, 353 180, 183, 707, 709, 746 (1957). "Even respondent's view, 'in commerce'; apparently possessions all, sending 342-343, quiescent invoked baptize impermissible. times reconsidered constructions passively abided Congress. inaction frequently betokens unawareness, preoccupation, paralysis." Zuber Allen, 396 168, 185-186, 21, 314, 324, 345 (1969). supra. today attributing Government, it. pp. mistaken, rejecting premised felons, stated: "(I)t whatever reason, seek pronounce general prohibition certain residents various states protect dealt future 472, 1247 added). Hearings, 575 (statement Revenue), 629-630, 677-678 (statements witnesses). cases ante, 223 224, stand quite different proposition shown interpreting presumed: 323-324, (1969);

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