Document: 372 U.S. 229 83 S.Ct. 680 9 L.Ed.2d 697 James EDWARDS, Jr., et al., Petitioners,v.SOUTH CAROLINA. No. 86. Argued Dec. 13, 1962. Decided Feb. 25, 1963. Jack Greenberg, for petitioner. Daniel R. McLeod, Columbia, S.C., respondent. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The petitioners, 187 in number, were convicted a magistrate's court South Carolina, commonlaw crime breach peace. Their convictions ultimately affirmed by Carolina Supreme Court, 239 S.C. 339, 123 S.E.id 247. We granted certiorari, 369 870, 82 1141, 8 274, to consider claim that these cannot be squared with Fourteenth Amendment United States Constitution. 2 There was no substantial conflict trial evidence.1 Late morning March 2, 1961, high school and college students Negro race, met at Zion Baptist Church Columbia. From there, about noon, they walked separate groups 15 State House grounds, an area two city blocks open general public. purpose 'to submit protest citizens along Legislative Bodies our feelings dissatisfaction present condition discriminatory actions against Negroes, general, let them know we dissatisfied would like laws which prohibited privileges this removed.' 3 Already on grounds when petitioners arrived 30 or more law enforcement officers, who had advance knowledge coming.2 Each group entered through driveway parking known record as 'horseshoe.' As entered, told officials 'they right, citizen, go any other citizen has, long peaceful.' During next half hour 45 minutes, same small groups, single file abreast orderly way3 each carrying placards bearing such messages 'I am proud Negro' 'Down segregation.' 4 time crowd some 200 300 onlookers collected horseshoe adjacent sidewalks. evidence suggest anything but curious, all threatening remarks, hostile gestures, offensive language part member crowd. City Manager testified he recognized onlookers, whom did not identify, 'possible trouble makers,' his subsequent testimony made clear nobody among actually caused threatened trouble.4 obstruction pedestrian vehicular traffic within grounds.5 No vehicle prevented from entering leaving area. Although nearby street intersection slowed down somewhat, officer dispatched keep moving. number bystanders public sidewalks moved asked do so, there impediment traffic.6 Police protection scene times sufficient meet foreseeable possibility disorder.7 5 In situation under circumstances thus described, police authorities advised arrested if disperse minutes.8 Instead dispersing, engaged what described 'boisterous,' 'loud,' 'flamboyant' conduct, which, later clear, consisted listening 'religious harangue' one their leaders, loudly singing 'The Star Spangled Banner' patriotic religious songs, while stamping feet clapping hands. After minutes passed, marched off jail.9 6 Upon state peace, imposed sentences ranging $10 fine five days jail, $100 jail. affirming judgments, Court said offense peace 'is susceptible exact definition,' 'general definition offense' is follows: 7 'In terms, violation order, disturbance tranquility, act conduct inciting violence * *, it includes enacted preserve good order. It may consist likely produce violence. necessary broken lay foundation prosecution offense. If done unjustifiable unlawful, tending directness break required. Nor actual personal essential element 'By 'peace,' used connection, meant tranquility enjoyed municipality community where order reigns its members, natural right persons political society.' 343—344, S.E.2d, 249. contend complete absence commission offense, denied most basic elements due process law. Thompson v. Louisville, 362 199, 80 624, 654; see Garner Louisiana, 368 157, 248, 207; Taylor 370 154, 1188, 395. Whatever merits contention, need pass upon case. courts have held petitioners' constituted law, accept decision binding us extent. But nevertheless remains duty case make independent examination whole record. Blackburn Alabama, 361 205, n. 5, 279, 242; Pennekamp Florida, 328 331, 335, 66 1029, 1031, 90 L.Ed. 1295; Fiske Kansas, 274 380, 385—386, 47 655, 656—657, 71 1108. And arresting, convicting, punishing disclosed record, infringed constitutionally protected rights free speech, assembly, freedom petition redress grievances. 10 has been established First freedoms are invasion States. Gitlow New York, 268 652, 625, 69 1138; Whitney California, 357, 641, 1095; Stromberg 283 359, 51 532, 75 1117; De Jonge Oregon, 299 353, 57 255, 81 278; Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 60 900, 84 1213. reflect exercise constitutional pristine classic form. felt aggrieved allegedly 'prohibited State.' They peaceably assembled site Government10 expressed grievances Carolina.' Not until must pain arrest more. Even then, sang songs after leaders harangue.' threat part, watching them. 'ample.' 11 This, therefore, far cry Feiner 340 315, 303, 95 295, policemen faced 'pushing, shoving milling around,' id., 317, 305, least 'threatened act,' 'the pressing closer around petitioner officer,' 318, speaker passes bounds argument persuasion undertakes incitement riot.' Id., 321, 306. barren 'fighting words.' See Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 62 766, 86 1031. 12 review criminal resulting evenhanded application precise narrowly drawn regulatory statute evincing legislative judgment certain specific limited proscribed. If, example, violated regulating traffic, disobeyed reasonably limiting periods during public, different case.11 307—308, 904—905, 1213; 202, 271, 207 (concurring opinion). These so generalized be, words 'not definition.' showed than opinions expressing sufficiently opposed views majority attract necessitate protection. 13 does permit peaceful expression unpopular views. '(A) function speech system government invite dispute. indeed best serve induces unrest, creates conditions are, even stirs people anger. Speech often provocative challenging. strike prejudices preconceptions profound unsettling effects presses acceptance idea. That why censorship punishment, unless shown danger serious substantive evil rises above inconvenience, annoyance, unrest. room Constitution restrictive view. For alternative lead standardization ideas either legislatures, courts, dominant groups.' Terminiello Chicago, 337 1, 4—5, 894, 896, 93 1131. case, defined conviction 'stirred anger, invited dispute, brought A resting those stand.' S.Ct., 896. 14 Chief Hughes wrote maintenance opportunity discussion end responsive will changes obtained lawful means, security Republic, fundamental principle system. face, authoritatively construed, vague indefinite punishment fair use repugnant guaranty liberty contained Amendment. *' 369, 536, 1117. reasons conclude stand. 16 Reversed. 17 CLARK, dissenting. 18 students, accepted 'as extent' violative 'petitioners' grievances.' Petitioners, course, peaceable espouse cause petition, my view manner exercised means passive demonstration relates; rather, Columbia testified, 'a dangerous really building up' Carolina's expressly found created 'an interference imminently community.'1 Since attack courts' findings accepts 'binding' extent difficult me understand understatement facts reversal convictions. 19 priceless character gainsaid, follow absolutes immune action designed society. 304, 903, 1213 (1940); Schneider State, 308 147, 160, 146, 150, 155 (1939). reason context arrests here made. Certainly refusing access merely because disagreed Niemotko Maryland, 268, 325, 328, 267, 280 (1951). found: 'There indication whatever acts officers taken subterfuge excuse suppression appellants' opinions.'2 undisputed specifically permission assemble, imposing only requirement 'peaceful.' Petitioners then gathered General Assembly session, large almost 200, marching slogans segregation' 'You jail bodies souls.' Some singing. 20 activity continued approximately busy noon-hour period, congregated front directly entrance, 'horseshoe,' well ingress egress. efforts hinder assembly; directed problems activities. gathered, potential troublemakers, together become masse don 'horseshoe' closely materially impeded,3 taken. Then Manager, both intermediate utmost faith, decided safety imminent. juncture orders issued up crowd, now 500 persons, Instead, approached leader requested him tell various failing arrested. though might honestly mistaken imminence danger, certainly reasonable request city's top executive effort avoid brawl. response defiance rather cooperation. immediately delivering 'harangue' according 'aroused (them) fever pitch causing boisterousness, stomping.' 21 Shall Be Moved' stamped feet, clapped hands, conducted 'noisy (the dispersal) orders.' 345, S.E.2d 247, 250. Ultimately, arrested, apparently planned beginning, sufficiency challenge. question seems whether enforcing prevent faith believe, shows, disorder imminent, activities constituting contain claimed assembly. To answer cases clearly negative. 22 Beginning, premise entitled assemble voice segregation, enlargement fallacious conclusion necessarily broadcast sound truck streets. Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 448, 513 (1949). This Thornhill 88, 105, 736, 745, 1093 (1940), '(t)he power take adequate steps protect privacy, lives, property residents doubted.' Significantly, holding petitioner's picketing took pains differeniate 'picketing en otherwise occasion imminent aggravated *.' Ibid. Here permitted without hindrance occurred arose law-enforcement considered imminent.4 County motivated solely proper concern preservation welfare face community.'5 affirming, 'reasonable prevention further streets sidewalks.' 249—250. 23 supra, 308, 905, '(w)hen riot, disorder, streets, immediate safety, appears, punish obvious.' 267 (1951), upheld here. person 80, compared lineup demonstrators onlookers. 'endeavoring arouse whites, urging rise arms fight equal rights.' 305. Only person—in having entirely historical background—was exhorting adults. youthful being aroused 'fever pitch' before undoubtedly hostile. Perhaps animated setting actions, reading souls' chanting Moved,' accompanied much greater riot disorder. belief anyone conversant spontaneous combustion Southern communities agree Manager's averted major catastrophe. 24 gravity surely needs furthre explication. emphasized every stage proceeding, complaints charging demonstrations 'tended violence' Court's affirmance authority Feiner, supra. shows backward standard 'clear danger.' say intervene keeping out doctor patient dies. I subscribe doctrine. Brother Frankfurter: 25 'This over decisions Due Process Clause construed abstract doctrinaire way disregarding local conditions. pertinent, note members York finding stopped listeners concerned preventing 'As Hague C.I.O. (307 496, 59 954, 1423), uncontrolled official 'cannot substitute maintain order'. 307 516, page 964, 1423. Where allowable limits hearers. effectively displaced giving immunity. Here, minutes. interfered apprehended that, acting proceed size temper, (demonstrators).' 288—289, 336, 295 day). 26 affirm tried four trials. stipulated appeals treated men present, were, addition, 'some Highway Patrolmen; Law Enforcement I'm positive, believe three Deputy Sheriffs.' 'Q. Did you, Chief, walk Building persons? 'A. not. stayed horseshoe. placed grounds. your report disorderly walking Grounds? Under normal you scene? should. Is assume since received officers? granted, yes.' testified: Were demeaned? dressed orderly? Yes, were.' Who can't were. can group. possible makers. chief placing arrest? No, place arrest. Now, sir, stated makers supervisor Police, object order? That's right. Yet possibly harm people? none creating disturbance, particular doing could been.' column twos? Sometimes single-file. ample going direction opposite sidewalk? wouldn't blocking sidewalk; now, grounds.' At blocked sidewalk move did. obeyed commands that? Yes. So complained wanted it? didn't that.' You time, get protection, thought needed you? So, fault charge Department, wasn't there.' McNayr, take? instructed Dave Carter call disperse, already give fifteen conversation dispersed and, dispersed, direct arrest.' minutes? accordance What occurred? Campbell line march Jail Jail. 'that occupied Executive Branch government, Judicial Branch, period covered warrant matter, wit: 2nd, Legislature session.' Section 1—417 1952 Code Laws (Cum.Supp.1960) provides 'It shall unlawful person: '(1) Except employees business buildings, driveways, alleys spaces bounded Assembly, Gervais, Bull Pendleton Streets regular weekday, Saturdays holidays excepted, between hours 8:30 a.m. 5:30 p.m., whenever buildings business; '(2) park except marked designated Budget Control Board, cooperation block impede driveways.' charged violating statute, contains mind ordering arrest, sustained occurred. Unreported Richland July 10, appeal Magistrate's Carolina. writ certiorari. Supra, 1. relation, lane how distributed, regard roadways? Well, varied numerous completely probably many thirty forty observe walkway? there? extremely wanting through, through. Many area, sidewalk.' Was blocked? man Gervais Main handle pedestrians. was, horseshoe.' hear singing, nature student group? Describe can. With harangues, just witnessed frankly everyone began answering back shouts. became boisterous. stomped feet. loud voices point where, again, judgment, up.' questioned cross length appearance orderliness times? last. Would describe last? stated, also, getting instructions, very boisterous.'

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