Document: 502 U.S. 491 112 S.Ct. 820 117 L.Ed.2d 51 Lawrence C. PRESLEY, etc., Appellant,v.ETOWAH COUNTY COMMISSION et al. Ed Peter MACK and Nathaniel Gosha, III, Appellants, v. RUSSELL Nos. 90-711, 90-712. Argued Nov. 12, 1991. Decided Jan. 27, 1992. Syllabus Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act 1965 requires a covered jurisdiction to obtain either judicial or administrative preclearance before enforcing any new "voting qualification prerequisite voting, standard, practice, procedure with respect voting." In various Alabama counties, voters elect members county commissions whose principal function is supervise control road maintenance, repair, construction. No. Etowah County Commission, without seeking preclearance, passed, inter alia, its "Common Fund Resolution," which altered prior practice allowing each commissioner full authority determine how spend funds allocated his own district. The resolution was passed by four holdover commission shortly after appellant Presley, black man, another member were elected from districts established under consent decree, terms precleared Attorney General. 90-712, Russell Commission adopted "Unit System," abolished individual transferred responsibility for all operations engineer, appointee. Neither commission's nor implementing state legislation submitted preclearance. Subsequent litigation led Justice Department mention Unit System changes, appellants Mack Gosha as County's first commissioners in modern times. They, along filed suit District Court, alleging, among other things, that Counties had violated § failing for, respectively, Common Resolution adoption System. A three-judge court convened pursuant 28 U.S.C. 2284 held neither matter subject Held: change "with voting" 5. Pp. 827-832. (a) Allen State Board Elections, 393 544, 89 817, 22 1, this Court's later decisions reveal consistent requirement changes pertain only voting. Without implying typologies exhaust statute's coverage, it can be said cases fall within one following contexts: (1) manner voting; (2) candidacy requirements qualifications; (3) composition electorate may vote candidates given office; (4) affecting creation abolition an elective office. three categories involve election procedures, while examples fourth category might termed substantive offices are elective. But whether substance, has direct relation voting process. 500-503. (b) Commission's not 5's requirement. It recognized cases; rather, concerns internal body distribution power officials and, thus, no to, impact on, view advanced United States—to effect act diminishing increasing local official's would require preclearance—would work unconstrained expansion coverage beyond statutory language congressional intent including innumerable enactments, such budget measures, alter decisionmaking but have nothing do fails provide workable standard distinguishing between governmental those not. Some necessary, real sense every decision taken government implicates yet contend Congress meant even most jurisdictions federal supervision. 503-506. (c) concomitant transfer engineer constitute There arguable basis saying System's fits rules Court recognized. As category, argument delegation appointed official similar replacement therefore Bunton Patterson, decided Allen, supra, ignores rationale holding: question changed office appointive one. Here, citizens still commission. fact exercise less than they once did routine administration does itself render rule governing Because retains substantial authority, appoint set her budget, need consider otherwise uncovered enactment some circumstances rise level de facto one, rule. 506-508. (d) Although construction placed upon General ordinarily entitled considerable deference, defer States' interpretation at issue 5, since section unambiguous covers voting: See, e.g., Chevron U.S.A. Inc. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 837, 842-844, 104 2778, 2781-2782, 81 694. 831-832. Affirmed. KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, SCALIA, SOUTER, THOMAS, JJ., joined. STEVENS, dissenting opinion, WHITE BLACKMUN, Edward Still, Birmingham, Ala., appellants. Robert A. Long, Jr., amicus curiae, supporting Paul M. Smith, appellees. KENNEDY Court. 1 counties roads. See Ala.Code §§ 11-3-1, 11-3-10 (1975). consolidated appeals now us concern certain on two different commissions, these meaning 1965, 79 Stat. 439, amended, 42 1973c. case significance well commissions; appellants, States ask adopt embracing actions governments levels. We must interpret provisions voting."1 2 * To there been we compare challenged practices existence adopted. Absent relevant intervening use November 1964, our comparison. 3 Commission. On large "residency district" system. entire voted five seats. Four seats corresponded residency county. Candidates required reside appropriate fifth member, chairman, district requirement, though 4 Each functioned residing exercised over shop, equipment, crew collective division districts, divided spending priorities chairman responsible overseeing solid waste preparing managing courthouse building grounds. Under decree issued 1986, see Dillard Crenshaw County, 85-T-1332-N (MD 1986), being restructured, so transition period will six-member commission, For present purposes, suffices say when began consisted who entry districts. Commissioner Williams, white, 6, black, Presley case. His complaint relates elections he Williams took 6 August 25, 1987, "Road Supervision Resolution." provided continue workers assigned respective which, remembered, accounted shops had. also gave holdovers joint improvement roads order pick up where resided. commissioners, foreclosed exercising roads, functions resolution. oversee maintenance operation engineering department. Road 4-2 margin, dissenting. 7 same day second, so-called provides part 8 "all monies earmarked budgeted streets, public ways [shall] maintained common accounts, allocated, designated used county-wide accordance need, Commission." App. Juris. Statement p. 49a. 9 This altering seek Resolution. No appeal ruling, B 10 turn next background commissioners. Like change, Commissioners electorate, candidate corresponding seat she sought. 1972 order, Anthony 961-E 21, 1972), expanded include members. both newly-created Phenix City, largest city County. Following implementation rural crew, equipment. bridge repair their separate funding major projects could authorize expenditures purchase orders approval 11 indictment charges corruption operations, May 1979 delegating construction, personnel, inventory it. engineer's previous duties limited surveying services shops, running small devoted pothole repair. sufficed necessary 23-1-80 (1975) 11-6-3 (1975), requested legislature pass legislation. Legislature July 30, 1979, enacted 79-652, Ala. Acts 1132. pertinent part: 12 "Section 1. All functions, responsibilities highways, bridges ferries hereby vested shall, insofar possible, construct maintain whole unit, regard beat lines." 13 parties refer System." statute authorized 14 Litigation involving 1985 Sumbry 84-T-1386-E March 17, 1985), enlarged seven replaced at-large system district-by-district basis. implementation, 1986. They C 15 1989, single Middle Alabama, alleging racial discrimination Commissions violation orders, Constitution, Title VI Civil 2000d, Act, 1973. series amended complaints, added claims alleged 1987 Resolutions, failed preclear Pursuant 2284, hear appellants' claims. pend 16 With issues us, majority "effect significant relative powers by, substantially constituencies voters." pp. 13a-14a. Applying test, found constituencies. noted probable jurisdiction. affirm decision. II 17 considered South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 86 803, 769 (1966). acknowledged suspension regulations pending extraordinary departure traditional course relations Federal Government, id., 334, constitutional permitted response unremitting attempts frustrate citizens' equal enjoyment right vote. 308-315, 808-811. 18 After Katzenbach upheld against challenge, until heard (1969), called decide particular rejected narrow prescribing register applies relating qualifications shall Id., 564-565, S.Ct., 564-565. observed "[t]he aimed subtle, obvious, denying because race." 565, 565. Our decision, rationale, proven sound, adhere both. 19 giving broad "Congress intended reach law minor way." 566, 566. Relying application cases, argue minimis exception here E.g., Brief Amicus Curiae 21-22. argument, however, assumes answer case: phrased "election law." 20 agree Allen's holding scope expansive sphere operation. That comprehends effected through mechanisms described statute. Those "qualification prerequisite" "standard, 21 principle wide range illustrated Allen. involved cases. eponymous Elections concerned procedures casting write-in ballots. U.S., 570-571, 834. Whitley independent general elections. 551, 824. Fairley Patterson resulted single-district 550, 550. remaining case, years appointed. 550-551, 823-824. factual contexts presented First, like itself, Perkins Matthews, 400 379, 387, 91 431, 436, 27 476 (1971) (location polling places). Second, qualifications. NAACP Hampton Election Comm'n, 470 166, 105 1128, 84 124 (1985) (change filing deadline); Hadnott Amos, 394 358, 1101, 336 (1969) (same); Dougherty Bd. Educ. White, 439 32, 99 368, 58 269 (1978) (rule requiring board education take unpaid leave absence campaigning office). Third, applied 394, 439-440 ward elections); 388, 437 (boundary lines districts); City Richmond States, 422 95 2296, 45 245 (same). Fourth, made clear McCain Lybrand, 465 236, 1037, 271 (1984) (appointed officials); Lockhart 460 125, 103 998, 74 863 (1983) (increase number councilors). 23 III 24 comparison demonstrates Act. 25 connection procedures: affect elections, alters imposes requirements, leaves undisturbed electorate. bearing substance power, increase diminish whom Rather, body. 26 citizen ballot today votes resolution, so, said, value diminished. Were accept proffered reading coverage. Innumerable enactments having officials. When adopts program modifies existing often So too, operating example modifying subcommittee assignment system, "implicate[s] authority." 17-18 (emphasis original). Appellants fail organization functioning government. felicitous consequence democracy, derives people. Yet faithful effort implement design begin drawing 29 simple shows inadequacy line States. view, time differed year's amount available profound exercised. ill-funded valuable well-funded 30 doubt recognition unacceptable consequences views, position "some circumstances, preclearance," Post-Argument Letter Counsel 13, 1991 (available Clerk file). give required. And acknowledge adjustment instances, likely covered, settled "potential discrimination," precleared. 42, 374. 31 Confronting difficulty, oral suggested draw arbitrary Tr. Oral Arg. 21-23. principled distinction, marked If diminution then accomplished shift should matter. Even if willing unprincipled excluding budgetary result expand intention Congress. 32 acts officials, Governmental action decreasing carry potential represent minorities level. At time, entail decrease too limitless allocation constant adjustments efficient governance illustrate necessity formulate confine legitimate sphere: 33 Changes 34 engineer. Of date, three. argued Patterson. approach, ignore "after [the citizen] prohibited electing officer formerly 569-570, 569-570. short, affected 35 prohibit "from the[ir] approval." 570, Both able sure, delegated answerable concluded 36 positions created eliminated, altered. occurs balance way. making unmaking post erosion accretion follow By mean matters otherwise, 37 wrestling problem face recognizing lines, assumption (the reject case) transfers term disagree test. shifted quite distinct affected. Intraconstituency indirect interconstituency effect, purposes test seek. event, proceeds faulty premise reallocations cannot approach. 38 note budget. change. IV 39 urges despite understanding provision. "the [Voting Rights] . deference." 178-179, 1135-1136, (1985). Sheffield Comm'rs, 435 110, 131, 98 965, 979, 55 148 (1978). limits. Deference acquiescence. statute, expressed question, reasonable. 694 (1984). conditions satisfied General's 40 believe phrase voting," 1973c, ambiguous extends reasonable minds differ classified gap fill. Chevron, 843, 2782. makes contested judgment. suggests contrary. argues implicate meet express V 41 Nothing implies conduct actionable remedial scheme. all-purpose antidiscrimination intrusive apply forms pernicious undermine utility combating specific evils designed address. hold, reaffirm today, legislative history rehearsed cited demonstrate Congress' protection rights. pointed anything statutes reenacting suggest what applicable rather than, say, governance." 43 federalism operate practical mere poetic ideal, allowed predictability efficiency structuring governments. Constant serve elemental purpose. 44 Covered bear itself. absent us. procedural conducted. involves judgment affirmed. 46 ordered. 47 BLACKMUN join, 48 important event occurred long histories white-dominated political processes. recent history, "modern times." Appellant 4a. resolutions case—two Presley's Gosha—none newly-elected traditionally associated 49 I explain, few pages far more illuminating volumes logic hours speculation about hypothetical line-drawing problems. Initially, impose novel burden remain 1973c.1 50 Prior courts uniformly agreed minority voters.2 least eight occasions 1975,3 refused potentially discriminatory4 voters. routinely numerous determining discriminatory purpose effect.5 evidence prevailing imposed special jurisdictions. example, fiscal year processed 17,000 requests, approved percent them undue delay.6 is, therefore, simply hyperbole "neither system." Ante, 507.7 interpreting statute.8 share "considerable deference" entitled9 automatic "acquiescence," ante, 508; strongly task "to 506. reasons General, participating asked broader appropriate, narrower obviously my judgment, well. 52 original interpretations reenactment light interpretations, continuous process development changing 53 central eliminate devices, literacy tests, "good moral character," vouchers, poll taxes, excluded registration southern decades.10 explained (1984): "The 1973 seq. (1976 ed. Supp. V), "unremitting ingenious defiance" command Fifteenth Amendment nearly century parts Nation. 309 [86 808, 769] case-by-case unsatisfactory method uncover remedy systematic areas: lawsuits onerous time-consuming prepare, obstructionist tactics determined perpetuate yielded delay, successful merely methods discrimination. H.R.Rep. 89th Cong., 1st Sess., 9-11 (1965). advantage inertia perpetrators evil victims," 328 818], "stringent remedies" "banish blight all, 308 808]." 243-244, 1042-1043 (footnote omitted). 54 During text literal confined subdivisions registered directly total 323 during administration.11 respond means prevented newly proportionate companion cases,12 responses, nevertheless included heavily definition encompassing make effective,' " 565-566, 831-832, supervisors, elective, candidates, practices. 569-571, 833-834. Thus, ballot. 569, 833 ("The dilution absolute prohibition Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 555 [84 1362, 1378, 506] (1964)"). implied defined exhaustive Act.13 contrary, "aimed race," 831, expressed, uncertain terms, broadest possible scope." 567, 832. Aware "only prospective effect." 572, 835. 56 responsive voters,14 justified forth particularly recalcitrant white majorities expected devise stratagems closely scrutinized. 57 'uncommon exercise' sustained validity presumption had" resorted stratagem contriving kinds sole perpetuating adverse decrees" engage "similar maneuvers future evade remedies contained itself." supra [383 U.S.,] 335 821, 822] provision must, course, interpreted prophylactic historical experience reflects. McDaniel Sanchez, 452 130, 151 [101 2224, 2237, 68 724] (1981)." 245-246, 1043-1044. understood "a 'vital element' Act," flexible enough ensure "new subterfuges promptly discovered enjoined." 248, 1045 (citation omitted).15 construed "simple procedures," address reality Negro Georgia 411 526, 531, 93 1702, 1706, 472 (1973). 59 subsequent reaffirmed articulated Allen.16 expansively context declare months earlier barrier contexts, places, (1971), alteration municipal boundaries, reapportionment redistricting plans, 532-533, 1706-1707, introduction numbered posts staggered 132, 134-135, 1002, 1003, 1004, (1983). 60 1970, Pub.L. 91-285, 314,17 1975, 94-73, 400,18 1982, 97-205, 96 131,19 reflected Indeed, comments quoted expressly endorsed takes into account resistance progress registration. 61 "One Congressman supported observed, 'When hoped ample time. subtle effective thought possible. arsenal racist weapons perfected. Boundary gerrymandered, switched basis, consolidated, blacks chance winning, appointment substituted process, withheld information office, physical economic intimidation employed. 62 'Section prevent devices.' 389, n. 8, 437, 8.20 63 Since debate issuance Justice,21 won maintaining majority's forestall. matter, figurehead transferring official, group controlled majority. type burgeoning prevalent early active 1976. 3. reallocation blatant form, indistinguishable from, just as, gerrymandering boundary switching 64 county's obvious produced elected. wrong divorce analyze separately.22 characterization discrimination" "blatant obvious," 20a, enjoined unless subjected 21a, 23a, equally diminished commissioner, districting decree.23 65 very least, hold victory candidate, opportunity representation body, 66 Similar considerations Education employee school operated fee, hitting hardest afford it, implicated extent location alterations vote, (1969). surrounding Rule's "sufficiently suggestive preclearance." area announced candidacy. Ibid. Dougherty, similarly 67 propose adequately certainly correct disposition opening Pandora's box seems fear.24 record indicates nondiscriminatory, anticorruption purpose.25 proposed "workable rule" deciding would, proper believe, supra.26 69 characteristic enhancing segment community represented. reallocates representative group, majority, constituents disadvantaged districts.27 satisfies free happens 70 rejects "they officials." 509. fears creates problems moves afield "voting." Whether advocated concerning unquestionably correct. 71 reverse provides: "Whenever subdivision prohibitions 1973b(a) title based determinations sentence 1973b(b) enact administer force whenever second 1968, third 1972, institute Columbia declaratory qualification, prerequisite, abridging race color, contravention guarantees 1973b(f)(2) title, enters person denied failure comply procedure: Provided, enforced proceeding chief legal interposed objection sixty days submission, good cause shown, facilitate expedited affirmatively indicated made. affirmative indication made, object, entered bar enjoin enforcement procedure. sixty-day receipt reserve reexamine submission additional comes attention remainder section. Any judges lie Supreme Court." "substantial discrimination." 329, 819, Horry 449 F.Supp. 990 (D.C.1978) (statute providing Governor 5); Hardy Wallace, 603 174 (N.D.Ala.1985) racing Council Sumter (D.C.1983) (law eliminated Assembly affairs council Robinson Education, 652 484 Ala.1987) (transfer preclearance). Solicitor advised objected authority: "(1) Mobile, 2, 1976, commissioners; Charleston, Carolina, June 14, 1977, taxing council; Edgefield February increased Colleton September 4, tax (5) Brunswick Blynn Georgia, 16, commission; (6) Hillsborough Florida, 29, 1984, municipalities (objection withdrawn intend transfer); (7) Waycross, 1988, mayor; (8) San Patricio, Texas, 7, 1990, voter clerk assessor." 6. "any depends, "resulted impairment [it was] effect," "whether 181, 1137, (1985); 250, 1046, (1984); 374, (issue "is innocuous approved, discrimination"); 534, 1707, (1973); 383-385, 434-435, (1971); 555, 19, 558-559, 826 828, 16-17. 27. percentage undergone little submissions decided, received 251 submissions. 549, Figures 1978 1800 annually, 41, past, Members types predicted boundaries. Harlan mistaken annexations gone voting": "Given conceived almost situation another. 398, 442 (opinion concurring part). Similarly, Powell, taking "personnel held, "if truly incidental sufficient trigger difficult imagine sorts section." 54, 380 (dissenting opinion) expresses 507, realized Powell ago. 390-391, 437-438 ("Our conclusion places come draws further support followed statute"); (1978); 39, 372. 1135-1136. "Tests devices" ability read, write, understand, educational achievement knowledge subject, possess character, prove voucher class." 1973b(c). 330, "[t]ests devices tool perpetrating evil." Comm'rs., 148, 10, 987, (STEVENS, dissenting); Rights, Act: Ten Years After, ("In act, hardly all"). (§ supervisors), became instead elective), (changes difficulty gain 5), Southern Mississippi. agrees opinions, 502, fit today's models, 503, 506-507. approach marks past. (1985), "never addressed exactly parallel case," 176, 1134, encompass date. 182-183, 1137-1138. end formal barriers brought immediate registration"); 94-196, ("Prior rate lagged behind whites 49.9 points. disparity decreased 23.6 points"). "[I]n modern-day rights show past sophisticated. ." 37a (Thompson, 38, 372 consistently adhered principles Allen"); 1134 precedents recognize effectuate purpose, scope"). "After extensive deliberations 1970 bills extend repeatedly discussed, extended years, modification 5." 1707 omitted); 38-39, "Again House Senate Judiciary Committees, recommending extension 'broad 5' Matthews." "[T]he 1982 reveals commitment continued firm. Committee 'virtual unanimity [had] studied record,' S.Rep. 97-417, (1982), extended. And, extensions specifically provision." "since moved direct, over[t] impediments sophisticated dilute strength," Code Cong. & Admin. News 177, 187, shift: "Following dramatic registration, array schemes employed cancel Elective appointive; boundaries gerrymandered; runoffs instituted victories plurality system; single-member combined ingenuity endless. Their offset gains anticipated response. halt efforts." 183. 1971, provisions. 94-295, 774; Fed.Reg. 18186 (Sept. 1971); CFR pt. (1972); 536-541, 1708-1711, (1973) (approving regulations). exempt ground fund was, insignificant authority. 19a. clearly "minor" 568, 832, ("It chose exceptions thus indicating small, scrutiny"); 436. place, Perkins, limits uninhabited territory, Pleasant Grove 479 462, 467, 107 794, 797, 866 (1987), might, blush, appear "insignificant." mistakenly blurred distinction turns discrimination, should, fact, precleared, effect. seemingly innocent facts analyzed context. formula allows analysis." Hearings Extension Subcommittee Constitutional Judiciary, 97th 2122 (1981) (testimony Drew Days, Professor, Yale Law School former Assistant Division, Justice); 97-227, (1981); 21. provided, unlawful strength caused CA 1986); 496. six members, eventually 5a. specified 1986 (decree 'shall rights, privileges, immunities heretofore large' "). August, Resolution, non-road 6a. day, allocating fund, 6a-7a. However, grandfather clause unspent 1986-1987 1987-1988 done out 'four shops.' 29a. exclusive effectively complete funds. strangely silent half Presley. analysis lead sure recognizes "might one." 831. Despite overriding interest formulating sphere," 506, await According judge "was proved inefficient conducive abuses [and] criminal commissioners." 25a (Hobbs, concurring). addition comment McCulloch quoted, 519-520, study follows: 'The domination adaptiveness, passage 'For legislatures party committees Mississippi laws diluting enfranchised These measures form concentrated facilitating consolidation predominantly redrawing divide concentrations strength.' 437. previously 823-824 preclearance), affairs.

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