Document: 487 U.S. 931 108 S.Ct. 2751 101 L.Ed.2d 788 UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.Ike KOZMINSKI et al. No. 86-2000. Argued Feb. 23, 1988. Decided June 29, Syllabus After two mentally retarded men were found laboring on respondents' farm in poor health, squalid conditions, and relative isolation from the rest of society, respondents charged with violating 18 U.S.C. § 241 by conspiring to prevent exercising their Thirteenth Amendment right be free involuntary servitude, 1584 knowingly holding servitude. At trial Federal District Court, Government's evidence indicated, inter alia, that worked seven days a week, often 17 hours day, at first for $15 per week eventually no pay, that, addition actual or threatened physical abuse threat reinstitutionalize one if he did not do as was told, had used various forms psychological coercion keep farm. The court instructed jury under both statutes, servitude may include situations involving any "means compulsion . ., sufficient kind degree, subject person having same general station life alleged victims believe they reasonable means escape choice except remain service employer." guilty, imposed sentences. However, Court Appeals reversed remanded new trial, concluding court's definition too broad it included coercion. held exists only when master subjects servant (1) force, (2) state-imposed legal coercion, (3) fraud deceit where is minor an immigrant incompetent. Held: For purposes criminal prosecution 1584, term "involuntary servitude" necessarily condition which victim forced work defendant use restraint injury through law process. This encompasses cases holds placing him her fear such Pp. 939-953. (a) Government cannot prove conspiracy violate rights secured without proving involved fact excludes its prohibition "as punishment crime whereof party shall have been duly convicted" indicates Amendment's drafters thought generally includes compelled law. Moreover, facts phrase intended "to cover those compulsory labor akin African slavery," Butler v. Perry, 240 328, 332, 36 258, 259, 60 L.Ed. 672, extends beyond state action, cf. Const., Amdt. 14, 1, imply intent prohibit These assessments are confirmed this Court's decisions construing Amendment, see, e.g., Clyatt United States, 197 207, 25 429, 49 726, never interpreted guarantee freedom specifically other means, 941-944. (b) language legislative history statutory progenitors indicate reach should limited services That understanding prevailed time 1584's enactment and, since Congress clearly borrowed enacting meaning places absent contrary indications. Section undercuts contention broader concept mind enacted statute, does support Appeals' conclusion immigrants, children, mental incompetents entitled special protection. 944-948. (c) construction servitude"—which would type speech intentional conduct victim's point view, either leaves tolerable alternative but serve deprives power choice—could Congress. interpretation appear criminalize range day-to-day activity; delegate prosecutors juries inherently task determining what coercive activities so morally reprehensible punished crimes; individuals risk arbitrary discriminatory conviction; make prohibited depend entirely mind, thereby depriving ordinary people fair notice required them. defects cured ambiguous specific requirement. Justice BRENNAN's position—that prohibits actually succeeds reducing resembling antebellum slaves held—although theoretically narrower than interpretation, suffers flaws. STEVENS' Judiciary defining case-by-case basis unsupported could lead unfair imposition punishment. underlying rule lenity interpreting provisions served 949-952. (d) latter extremely working vulnerabilities, irrelevant. vulnerabilities relevant whether threats thereof plausibly serve. properly find conditions corroborate disputed regarding defendant's using causal effect conduct. 952—953. (e) Since instructions encompassed caused convicted 1584. convictions must therefore reversed. Because record contains permit conviction, however, judgment acquittal unwarranted, case further proceedings consistent opinion. P. 953. 821 F.2d 1186 (CA6 1987), affirmed remanded. O'CONNOR, J., delivered opinion REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, filed concurring judgment, MARSHALL, joined, post, p. ---. STEVENS, BLACKMUN, William Bradford Reynolds, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Carl Ziemba, Detroit, Mich., respondents. O'CONNOR Court. 1 concerns scope statutes enforce Amendment. Title interfere individual's servitude." makes willfully hold another We determine these statutes. 2 * In 1983, Chelsea, Michigan, dairy society. operators farm—Ike Kozminski, his wife Margarethe, son John—were "injure, oppress, threaten, intimidate" exercise enjoyment federal Kozminskis also holding, aiding abetting of, violation 2.1 tried before States Eastern Michigan. summarized below. 3 victims, Robert Fulmer Louis Molitoris, intelligence quotients 67 respectively. Though chronologically 60's during period question, viewed world responded authority someone 8 10 years. Margarethe Kozminski picked up evening 1967 while walking down road, brought farms. He time, Mrs. simply left note telling former employer gone. Molitoris living streets Ann Arbor, early 1970's Ike Chelsea previously spent several years hospital. 4 Kozminskis' pay. subjected verbal failing herdsmen employed same. directed leave farm, occasions leave, employees back discouraged them leaving again. On occasion, John institutionalization told. 5 failed provide adequate nutrition, housing, clothing, medical care. They talk others contacting relatives. relatives, neighbors, farm-hands, visitors Molitoris. asked help herdsman hired concerned about notified county officials condition. County assisted placed adult foster care home. 6 attempting persuade rely solely force institutionalization. Rather, argued measures—including denial subjection substandard others—to cause "psychological hostages" whom "brainwash[ed]" into serving Tr. 15, 23.2 7 evidence, jurors order convict 241, existence including Kozminskis, purpose injure, threaten intimidate citizen conspirators committed overt act furtherance purpose. acted willfully, actions necessary victims' decision continue following instruction statutes: "Involuntary consists terms. 9 'done choice' 'compulsory'—'not control will.' "Servitude '[a] lacks liberty especially one's course action way life'—'slavery'—'the being master.' involves some incidents slavery. 11 "It persons return employment 12 who physically restrained guards employment. 13 combination thereof, detain 14 15 "In words, based all will you there used, App. Pet. Cert. 109a-110a. 16 So instructed, guilty charge. Each probation addition, fined $20,000 ordered pay $6,190.80 restitution each victims. $10,000. A divided panel Sixth Circuit convictions. 72a. rehearing en banc, trial. (1987). majority concluded bring within broad. "(a) believes she has viable perform because master's (i.e., peonage), obtain maintain minor, incompetent." F.2d, 1192 (footnote omitted). 19 dissenting judges "rewritten rather interpreted" Id., 1213. arise whatever intentionally uses subjugate render " 'incapable making rational choice.' 1212-1213 (quoting Shackney, 333 475, 488 (CA2 1964) (Dimock, concurring)). 20 conflicts definitions adopted Courts Appeals. Writing Second supra, Judge Friendly reasoned 21 "a us causing have, has, avoid continued confinement, situation knows between freedom, even led entail consequences exceedingly bad." 486. 22 Accordingly, "service law, confinement sort." 487. See Harris, 701 1095, 1100 (CA4 1983) (involuntary coerced "threat violence backed sufficiently deeds"); Bibbs, 564 1165, 1168 (CA5 1977) "in harm afraid leave"). Ninth Circuit, contrast, sanction, 23 "[a] occurs individual coerces improper wrongful cause, labor." Mussry, 726 1448, 1453 (1984). 24 Warren, 772 827, 833-834 (CA11 1985) ("Various constitute use, create climate most grotesque example coercion"). granted petition writ certiorari, 484 894, 225, 98 185 (1987), resolve conflict among II 26 crimes defined Congress, long acts constitutional give Congress' expressed intention concerning prohibited. Dowling 473 213, 214, 105 3127, 3131, 3131-3132, 87 152 (1985) (citing Wiltberger, (5 Wheat.) 76, 95, 37 (1820)). clear undisputed. 13, ("Congress article appropriate legislation"); Griffin Breckenridge, 403 88, 105, 91 1790, 1800, 29 338 (1971). matter construction. 27 reached conclusions analysis reading reveals obvious difference Unlike terms conspiracies "by Constitution laws States," thus incorporates contained Price, 383 787, 805, 86 1152, 1162-1163, 267 (1966). indictment case, read jury, "right privilege provided Constitution." 177 (emphasis added). Thus, specified charge sanction privilege" words 241. conceded To contrary, argues broadly construed, intend scope. Brief 22-32. counts given count erroneous. proper statute squarely us, we construe separately ascertain prohibits. A. authorizes 28 "two more conspire exercised same." over ago Guest, 745, 1170, 239 (1966), supra. creates substantive rights, interference established U.S., 754-755, S.Ct., 1176; 803, 1161. incorporate reference large body potentially evolving recognized, prescribing manner provides definite standard guilt. resolved tension propositions made express 806, n. 20, 1163, 20; 1176. Cf. Screws 325 91, 102, 65 1031, 1036, 89 1495 (1945). 30 against Applying set out Price our precise looking prior decisions. 31 declares "[n]either slavery nor convicted, exist place jurisdiction." "self-executing ancillary legislation, far applicable existing circumstances," Civil Rights Cases, 109 3, 18, 28, 835 (1883), establishes protected 1162-1163. primary abolish institution existed War, purpose; extend practical operation tend produce like undesirable results." 672 (1916). Robertson Baldwin, 165 275, 282, 326, 329, 41 715 (1897); Slaughter-House 83 (16 Wall.) 36, 69, 394 (1873). 32 While spirit easily comprehended, exact harder define. exception guidance. felt exclude least "akin see 332-333, well compare readily can deduce 33 turn previous Looking behind statements holdings, every available sanction. (1905), example, recognized peonage—a off debt master—is 215, 218, 430, 431. Similarly, 235 133, 35 86, 59 162 (1914), "[c]ompulsion constant imprisonment laws" violated "rights Amendment." 146, 150, 89, 90. struck surety system misdemeanor offense contract would, turn, convict's fine State. critical feature breach crime. invalidated subjecting debtors after receiving advance payment. Pollock Williams, 322 4, 64 792, 88 1095 (1944); Taylor Georgia, 315 25, 62 415, 615 (1942); Bailey Alabama, 219 219, 145, 55 191 (1911). issue failure money obtained prima facie defraud. "the State avail itself supply [to labor] authorize force." Bailey, 244, 152. 34 Our precedents reveal By Governments compelling citizens, certain civic duties. Hurtado 410 578, 589, 11, 93 1157, 1164, 508 (1973) (jury service); Selective Draft Law 245 366, 390, 38 159, 165, 349 (1918) (military supra (roadwork). (1897), observed apply "exceptional" common parents guardians custody children wards," id., preventing sailors contracted vessels deserting ships. 288, 331. Putting aside exceptional circumstances, none present define enforced draw historical survey potential Viewing narrow window applying B "[w]hoever sells term." occasion consider statute. pivotal phrase, servitude," pursuant logical, inevitable. absence indications, congressional enactment. 475 (Friendly, J.). 39 part 1948 revision Criminal Code. identifying See, supra; employing language, apparently focusing comparable conditions. 40 confirms claim mind. No significant accompanies 1584; version consolidation, earlier Slave Trade amended 1909, formerly 423 (1940 ed.), 1874 Padrone 446 ed.). There indications Holtzoff, Preface U.S.C.A. (1969) ("In general, few exceptions, Code attempt change law"); Revision Titles Code: Hearings H.R. 1600 2055 Subcommittee House Committee Judiciary, 80th Cong., 1st Sess., 13-14 (1947) (statement advisory committee member Justin Miller). But 482 (viewing changes consolidation positive law). Whether track exactly, assuredly radical review inform original authorized "hold, sell, otherwise dispose negro, mulatto, colour, [into States] slave, labour." Act Apr. 1818, ch. 6, Stat. 450, 452. measures passed 19th century ending slave trade. 1909 amendment removed racial restriction, extending "any person" slave. revision, unchanged portion describing held. 42 Cong.Rec. 1114 (1908). attempts comment Senator Heyburn protect vulnerable immoral purposes. 1115. inconclusive, however. Other Senators expressly disagreed view elimination restriction changed word "slavery." 1114-1115. reenactment codification penal laws, himself stated instance practice law." 2226. conclude nothing suggests applied slaves, i.e., precursor reflects similarly "padrones" took young boys away families Italy, cities put street musicians beggars. [this] enslaving, buying, selling, Italian children." 4443 (1874) (Rep. Cessna). 43 "whoever wilfully inveigled forcibly kidnapped country, service, whoever sold, whatever, sold bought, deemed felony." 1874, 464. 251. 44 too, aimed sure, "inveigled" indicated country means. drew careful distinction subsequently held, identified "confinement" believed examine facing padrone system. literally stranded large, hostile foreign country. education assistance toward self-sufficiency. Without assistance, family, sources support, escaping padrones' service; masters harm. padrones advantage unable leave. 45 age vulnerability particular degree child told go home late night dark strange area results staying, although competent plainly be. possible threatening incompetent deportation induces though normal implausible compel labor. broadening incompetents, eliminated among, protection classes 46 chose provision enacted. C 47 adopt choice. Under almost reluctant work. 48 activity. oral argument punish parent daughter family business withdrawal affection. Oral Arg. 12. It suggested political leader charisma induce religious obtains personal indoctrination. Opposition 4; International Society Krishna Consciousness California, Inc., Amicus Curiae 25. As hypotheticals suggest, crimes. conviction. interpret upon objective indication prohibit, fail conform difficulties requirement harbor light content amounts little assurance sought "an unknowable something." 1037. 50 short, agree Friendly's observation 51 "[t]he ardent believer civil legislation might think advanced permitting awful machinery play whenever employee asserts quit subdued seriously affects future welfare still choice, however painful." Schackney, F.2d., 52 encompass undefined urged Government. 53 BRENNAN "that War." Post, 962. formulation useful accompanied recognition incident pre-Civil War 'slavelike' eradicate." 961. Instead, finding factor "slavelike condition," oppressive amount 54 Such advocated Government, ambiguity conditions" merely question instead very nature Although sure maintained "slavelike." intolerable they, value best STEVENS concludes adjudication. 965. Neither conclusion. Reference Sherman argument, courts develop standards determined deciding violates Act—the reason—was evinced Act. Standard Oil Co. 221 60, 502, 515-516, 619 thing recognize uncertainty called Congress; quite tolerate arbitrariness unfairness imposing basis. 56 Sound principles reject amorphous proposed Justices STEVENS. adhere time-honored interpretive guideline ambit favor lenity. McNally 483 350, 107 2875, 97 292 (1987); 229, 3139, (1985); Liparota 471 419, 427, 2084, 2089, 85 434 Rewis 401 808, 812, 1056, 1059, 493 lenity—to promote minimize selective enforcement, balance prosecutors, courts—are certainly application case. III 57 Absent injury, irrelevant 58 disagree extent immigrant, enable stricter announce today, unwarranted. affirmed, 61 ordered. MARSHALL joins, judgment. 63 I sweeps fails specificity, different required. cannot, square add limitation text history, think, defines specificity comports better evident ground parties 15841 encompasses, minimum, via much need belabored, whip human core elements progeny eliminate. points out, limiting methods. "[The Thirteenth] denounces status condition, irrespective created." 216, (1905). If factual methods created, then dispute coerce labor—indeed precisely nonphysical private capable coercing cites vagueness concerns. ante, 949; 5, infra. address below, here concerns, serious, textual grounds distinguishing Nor know empirical assuming means.2 seem psychological, economic, social just effective particularly vulnerable, disabled Surely burn person's rape kill spouse greater impact mere beating, yet turns direct laborer emotional, social, economic suffer result home, business, loved ones. And drug addiction weakness resulting lack food, sleep, eliminate resist blow. Hypnosis, blackmail, fraud, deceit, illustrative methods—but unnecessary canvas entire spectrum machinations humans other. suffices observe imagine many servant. 66 Indeed, typical techniques now slavelike disorienting frequent complete authoritarian domination; inducing health denying conditions; a.m. 8:30 p.m. off, tired seek work; payment labor; active efforts isolate contact outsiders them.3 considering (and person), hardly picture inflicted involuntary. chronicled variety nonlegal trickery; friends, transportation shelter, jobs; creating worker's income charging exorbitant rates clothing; unfamiliar environment, barraging orders, controlling detail lives; weakening drugs, alcohol, 827 1985); 1448 (CA9 1984); Ingalls, 73 F.Supp. 76 (SD Cal.1947). One presumes reappear depressing regularity ineffective.4 My strongly bolstered history. created Ante, 945. background subtle force. designed outlaw known "padrone system" whereby Italy beggars, bootblacks, musicians. Once relatives to, submit demands asserting them, form sufficient—without coercion—to Ancarola, F. 676, 682-684 (CC SDNY 1880). Given eliminate, statute's demonstrates "aimed coercion," 947, understood coercion.5 official title "An birth forcible constraint 464, 251 added); (1874), describes "intended children," ibid. (Rep.Cessna) added).6 68 below construed minors, disabled. 1186, 1190-1192 1987). creation specially textually inconsistent distinctions 950, regard 69 Based similar forth Part I, criminalizes service. easy articulate "involuntary." minimalist sense always threat: choose work, take beating; jail. choices illegitimate choices, nature, closer questions. Happily, philosophical will, regarded deem "involuntary" 70 "no alternative" capacity calculation." 19, 33. notes, criminalize. 949. problems stressing "tolerable alternatives" attractive painless options"; alternatives bad injury. can, troublesome applications test, job recommendations leaves, admonishes adherents unless church rot hell, husband relegates housework leaves. chosen field, suffering eternal damnation, losing worse taking instances servitude? difficulty test indeed traumatic highly individualized threats. assessment confronting approach renders hopelessly subjective (if relies tolerable) delegates open-ended intolerable).7 deprived calculation" influenced love, charisma, persuasive fervor great specificity. 71 solution, lies ignoring perhaps less universal "slavelike" eradicate. service" small insight central evil unambiguously eliminate.8 "servitude" denotes relation domination War. 1910 1949, Webster's "[c]ondition slave; slavery; serfdom; bondage; master. French English Colonies 17th 18th centuries, transported colonial laborers who, custom, rendered temporary loss liberty." New Dictionary Language. 1913 1944 Funk Wagnalls kind" cited practice. Wagnalls, Language.9 understanding. "The larger slavery, popularly forbid shades slavery." "[T]he 151, (1911); Hodges 203 17, 8-9, (1906). 72 irresolvable (for coercion) War.10 dispositive, aspects life, hallmarks Focusing accords policies concern relieve themselves harsh changing employers likely implicated money, people.11 focus benchmark judge "intolerability" "rational" thought: justifiably intolerable, incapable thinking rationally, live True, marginal difficult existed, spectrum,12 not, "improper conduct" tests, expect wide variation jurors. enforcement minimized, employs applicability laws. avoided. regime indoctrination psychologically shown (given requirement) motivated desire spread sincerely beliefs slave-like 74 restrictive comply inherent neither legal, compels enforcement; criminal. justifying is, moreover, heart seems scope.13 75 sum, reaches rendering concur BLACKMUN 77 write, expert testimony erroneously admitted holding. colleagues' opinions formulate all-encompassing demonstrate one. me probably developed common-law tradition adjudication, "restraint trade" equally vague 78 rejecting unconstitutionally vague, Holmes wrote: 79 "But apart trade taken full man's fate depends estimating rightly, estimates it, degree. wrong, incur short imprisonment, here; penalty death. 'An death murder, manslaughter, misadventure according danger attending it' experience circumstances actor. 'The fiction implied malice was, man answer foresaw.' Commonwealth Pierce, 138 Massachusetts, 178 [ (1884) ]. Chance, 174 245, 252 [54 N.E. 551 (1899) criterion duty circumspect conduct.' [1 E. East, Pleas Crown 262 (1803) ]." Nash 229 373, 377, 780, 781, 1232 (1913). 80 Guy Appeals: 81 lacking definitional precision 'involuntary servitude.' genius section deficiency judicial clear. proceeds cure substituting raises questions answers. discussing section, Dimock, concurred prophetically 82 'To classification equal facility tempting prospect. raise borderline inevitable appraisal 488.' 84 "This minds circuits differ. write dissent, primarily rewritten 1584." reaction O'CONNOR's concurrence. unduly hypothetical indeed, interesting puzzles, doubt relationship real faced defendants, jurors.1 identifies three components offense.2 First, "knowingly willfully." burden defendants intent" commit offense.3 Infra, 975. Second, correctly stated, 971. Third, deliberately "servitude." explained, "4 Ibid. 972. action. 954-959. applies "physical restraint," Chatwin 326 455, 460, 233, 235, 90 198 (1946), distinguish kinds compulsion. unlike impose additional mirrors reason level complexity. my condition." something narrowly written. "involuntary," allow "totality circumstances" decide custodial statement voluntary involuntary, Mincey Arizona, 437 385, 401, 2408, 2418, 290 (1978). accept voluntarily. favorable Glasser 80, 457, 469, 680 (1942), am persuaded gave unlawful instructions, whole, adequately informed fairly convicted. Nevertheless, outset, APPENDIX RELEVANT JURY INSTRUCTIONS (App. 108a-114a.) "[Court:] Counts Indictment, government Count III: "1. aided abetted term. 92 "2. done willfully. "If proved above doubt, your verdict defendant. 94 "If, count, count. 95 "As before, element essential charged; imposes calling witnesses producing evidence. 96 "A aids abets commission punishable principal. aid abet accused associate venture, participate wishes about; say, seeks omission venture succeed. "You, course, persons, participated commission. 99 personally charged. bears showing offense. 100 102 103 104 106 freely spoken result. employer. respect courage firmness. You character parties, inferiority inequality influence performance defendants' knowledge matters. victim. proof, show named Indictment escape. may, opportunities remaining returning bearing voluntariness 110 initially agreed voluntarily desires withdraw, 111 sense, performs transform 112 "Of legitimate retain employee, offering benefits, seeking convince 113 "Payment wages conferring benefits services. account determination defendant, occurred, paid mean 114 you, factors receive factor. any, remain. 115 Kozminskis. 116 evaluate affected decision, 117 regardless 118 Arthur 119 "I caution again minimum wage regulations assault battery way. neglect, misappropriation contract. Your attention discrete outlined instructions. 120 "You Element requires proof 'for term,' time. respect, instruct appreciable length term, how be, come 'held term' 121 "Element Two 122 act, omission, 'knowingly' intentionally, mistake accident innocent reason. 123 insure mistake, accident, 124 'willfully' forbids; disobey disregard 125 intentionally. Specific intent, implies, act. establish forbids, requires, purposely intending 126 "Such surrounding 127 "Intent ordinarily directly, fathoming scrutinizing operations But, infer circumstances. 128 inference intends natural probable omitted. 129 said, 130 charges 'on about' date. certainty date establishes, reasonably near alleged. 131 "That end relating Indictment." provides, pertinent part, commits aids, abets, counsels, commands, procures commission, principal." produced witness testified treatment undergo conversion" dependency. 15a. Rule Evidence 702. ruling, it. challenge incorporation incorporated incorrect. 1188, "free [the victims] assumed "la[w] States" specifying 941, accordingly engage assumption strike unreasonable. rate, raised differ imprudent briefing. contexts, kidnaping restraint" confine will. (1946) confessions noted "coercion physical. [T]he efficiency rack thumbscrew matched, subject, sophisticated modes 'persuasion.' Blackburn 361 199, 206, 274, 279, 242 (1960). "When suspect speaks overborne, immaterial ordeal." Watts Indiana, 49, 53, 1347, 1350, 1801 (1949) (plurality Frankfurter, detailed introduced ripped phone wall barn caught "discourage" falsely speak want interested them; neighbors wards State; refused care, gored bull tip other's thumb cut (both became ill Kozminskis). neglects mention 1188. today adopts expansive obscure "physical" nn. 12, infra, tell which, described last paragraphs "physical." evade inconsistency covered "situatio[n] coercion." 947. Yet involved, obviously nature: "These self-sufficiency." heartening recognizes environs maturity, education, labeling strained (other fit interpretation) accomplishes coercion" provide. conclusive, explaining necessity reenacting ban importing despite abolition blacks, "without disposition irresponsible environment lives, themselves." 1115 solved labor," 1984) added), knowing prosecutor Because, doctrines notice, vagueness, lenity, focuses enforceable own pass abolishing badges Jones Alfred H. Mayer Co., 392 409, 437-444, 2186, 2202-2206, 1189 (1968). Oxford 522 (1933) ("The serf, property person; freedom. Often, usually, added notion excessive labor"); American Language 1207 (1869) ("the master; hence, slavish dependence"). contemporaneous passage mainly total 78-79 Significantly, 5-6, "held 1122 (1908) (Sen. Lodge), kindred (1873) Sumner). 682-683 1880) (determining relying profit morals). presumably contrasted normally 'the wards.' 944, quoting (1897). undoubted aim completely throughout States. [I]n defense hours, employers. When obligation on, redress incentive overlordship unwholesome 17-18, 799, (1944). side line falls offense." Petrillo, 332 7, 1538, 1542, 1877 (rejecting "persons excess number needed"). Ambiguity matters obviated Steward Machine Davis, 301 548, 590, 883, 892, 1279 (1937). introduces profound adopting array commonly deserve divides unique formal label deems egregious mode conclusory. Worse, reintroduces exacerbated form. Like discusses 944. affection," 949, cases. prosecuted, responsible indictment, sort Of increasingly disagree. rule, produces convinced face apprise public do. seemingly unambiguous admits grey area. asserts: 948. ask young, permissible vulnerability? presented best—if only—resolved noted, process incorporation, affect ultimate disposition—that event—I considered appears appendix closely resembles dictionaries considers drawing conditio[n] 961, ("[I]n 'servitude' '[c]ondition liberty'").

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