Document: 469 U.S. 325 105 S.Ct. 733 83 L.Ed.2d 720 NEW JERSEYv.T.L.O. No. 83-712. Argued March 28, 1984. Reargued Oct. 2, Decided Jan. 15, 1985. Syllabus A teacher at a New Jersey high school, upon discovering respondent, then 14-year-old freshman, and her companion smoking cigarettes in school lavatory violation of rule, took them to the Principal's office, where they met with Assistant Vice Principal. When response questioning, denied that she had been claimed did not smoke all, Principal demanded see purse. Upon opening purse, he found pack also noticed package cigarette rolling papers are commonly associated use marihuana. He proceeded search purse thoroughly some marihuana, pipe, plastic bags, fairly substantial amount money, an index card containing list students who owed respondent two letters implicated marihuana dealing. Thereafter, State brought delinquency charges against Juvenile Court, which, after denying respondent's motion suppress evidence held Fourth Amendment applied searches by officials but question was reasonable one, adjudged be delinquent. The Appellate Division Superior Court affirmed trial court's finding there no vacated adjudication remanded on other grounds. Supreme reversed ordered suppression holding unreasonable. Held: 1. Amendment's prohibition unreasonable seizures applies conducted public is limited carried out law enforcement officers. Nor exempt from dictates virtue special nature their authority over schoolchildren. In carrying functions pursuant disciplinary policies mandated state statutes, act as representatives State, merely surrogates for parents students, cannot claim parents' immunity strictures. Pp. 333-337. 2. Schoolchildren have legitimate expectations privacy. They may find it necessary carry variety legitimate, noncontraband items, reason conclude necessarily waived all rights privacy such items bringing onto But striking balance between schoolchildren's school's equally need maintain environment which learning can take place requires easing restrictions authorities ordinarily subject. Thus, obtain warrant before searching student under authority. Moreover, subject requirement based probable cause believe has violated or violating law. Rather, legality should depend simply reasonableness, circumstances, search. Determining reasonableness any involves determination whether justified its inception whether, conducted, reasonably related scope circumstances interference first place. Under ordinary official will grounds suspecting turn up either rules school. And permissible when measures adopted objectives excessively intrusive light student's age sex infraction. 337-343. 3. above standard, this case purposes. First, initial reasonable. report warranted suspicion thus despite fact cigarettes, if found, would constitute "mere evidence" no-smoking rule. Second, discovery gave rise well further exploration turned more drug-related activities. 343-347. 94 N.J. 331, 463 A.2d 934, reversed. Allan J. Nodes, Trenton, N.J., petitioner. Lois De Julio, East Orange, respondent. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 We granted certiorari examine appropriateness exclusionary rule remedy authorities. Our consideration proper application schools, however, led us now violate Amendment. Accordingly, we here address only questions standard assessing facts case. 2 * On 7, 1980, Piscataway High School Middlesex County, discovered girls lavatory. One T.L.O., time freshman. Because Theodore Choplick. questioning Mr. Choplick, T.L.O.'s admitted all. 3 Choplick asked T.L.O. come into his private office Opening removed accused having lied him. As reached papers. experience, possession closely Suspecting closer examination might yield drug use, thoroughly. revealed small number empty quantity money one-dollar bills, appeared 4 notified mother police, dealing police. At request daughter police headquarters, confessed selling basis confession seized Domestic Relations County.1 Contending Choplick's Amendment, moved confession, argued, tainted allegedly unlawful suppress. ex rel. 178 N.J.Super. 329, 428 1327 (1980). Although court concluded apply officials, 5 "a properly conduct person crime process being committed, discipline enforce policies." Id., N.J.Super., 341, A.2d, 1333 (emphasis original). 6 Applying one. decision open well-founded forbidding Once open, violations plain view, entitled thorough determine extent 343, 1334. Having suppress, 23, 1981, delinquent January 8, 1982, sentenced year's probation. 7 appeal final judgment divided violation, knowingly voluntarily Fifth confessing. 185 279, 448 493 (1982). appealed ruling, 934 (1983). 8 agreed lower courts officials. rejected Jersey's argument employed prevent juvenile proceedings unlawfully Declining consider applying fruits deterrent value, precedents establish "if violates constitutional rights, admissible criminal proceedings." 939 (footnote omitted). 9 With respect it, warrantless does so long "has possesses illegal activity interfere order." 346, 941-942. However, court, justices dissenting, sharply disagreed Court's conclusion According majority, contents bearing accusation (as opposed lavatory) rules, mere desire impeach could justify even search, suspicion, one furnished him specific information were Finally, leaving aside saw inside extensive "rummaging" through effects followed. 347, 942-943. 10 petition certiorari. 464 991, 104 480, 78 678 argued raised operate bar without involvement last Term, conceded purpose devised determining appropriate correctly standard; contended remedial purposes served primarily engaged enforcement. 11 originally decide issue searches, our doubts regarding wisdom deciding isolation broader what limits, any, places activities prompted order reargument question.2 heard satisfied Amendment.3 II 12 faced initially hold does. 13 It beyond dispute "the Federal Constitution, Fourteenth prohibits officers." Elkins v. United States, 364 206, 213, 80 1437, 1442, 1669 (1960); accord, Mapp Ohio, 367 643, 81 1684, 1081 (1961); Wolf Colorado, 338 25, 69 1359, 93 L.Ed. 1782 (1949). Equally indisputable proposition protects encroachment officials: 14 "The citizen itself creatures—Boards Education excepted. These have, course, important, delicate, highly discretionary functions, none perform within limits Bill Rights. That educating young citizenship scrupulous protection Constitutional freedoms individual, strangle free mind source teach youth discount important principles government platitudes." West Virginia Bd. Ed. Barnette, 319 624, 637, 63 1178, 1185, 87 1628 (1943). 15 propositions—that States actions placed action Amendment—might appear sufficient answer suggestion proscribe reargument, history indicates intended regulate officers; accordingly, although concededly agents creates enforceable them.4 16 true evil toward directed resurrection pre-Revolutionary practice using general warrants "writs assistance" authorize contraband officers Crown. See Chadwick, 433 1, 7-8, 97 2476, 2481, 53 538 (1977); Boyd 116 616, 624-629, 524, 528-531, 29 746 (1886). never operations spoken strictures restraints imposed "governmental action"—that is, "upon sovereign authority." Burdeau McDowell, 256 465, 475, 41 574, 576, 65 1048 (1921). applicable civil authorities: building inspectors, Camara Municipal 387 523, 528, 1727, 1730, 18 930 (1967), Occupational Safety Health Act Marshall Barlow's Inc., 436 307, 312-313, 98 1816, 1820, 56 305 (1978), firemen entering privately owned premises battle fire, Michigan Tyler, 499, 506, 1942, 1948, 486 observed supra, "[t]he basic recognized countless decisions safeguard security individuals arbitrary invasions governmental officials." U.S., S.Ct., 1730. individual's interest personal "suffers government's motivation investigate laws breaches statutory regulatory standards," Barlow's, "anomalous say individual property fully protected suspected behavior." 530, 1732. 17 Notwithstanding applicability authorities, few See, e.g., R.C.M. 660 S.W.2d 552 (Tex.App.1983). Teachers administrators, said, loco parentis dealings students: parent, therefore Ibid. Such reasoning tension contemporary reality teachings commands First Tinker Des Moines Independent Community District, 393 503, 89 733, 21 731 (1969), Due Process Clause Goss Lopez, 419 565, 95 729, 42 725 (1975). If actors guarantees freedom expression due process, difficult understand why deemed exercising parental rather than conducting students. More generally, concept delegation" entirely "consonant compulsory education laws." Ingraham Wright, 430 651, 662, 1401, 1407, 51 711 (1977). Today's do exercise conferred parents; rather, furtherance publicly educational policies. 940, describing statutes regulating establishing policies, parents, III 19 To begin inquiry standards governing searches. underlying command always reasonable, depends context takes class "balancing invasion entails." 536-537, 1735. side arrayed security; other, effective methods deal order. 20 Terry 392 24-25, 88 1868, 1881-1882, 889 (1967). closed luggage intrusions interests, provides owner every container conceals view." Ross, 456 798, 822-823, 102 2157, 2171, 72 572 child's bag person,5 less similar adult, undoubtedly severe subjective Of protect otherwise "illegitimate." Hudson Palmer, 468 517, 3194, 82 (1984); Rawlings Kentucky, 98, 100 2556, 633 receive expectation must society "prepared recognize legitimate." 526, 3200. because pervasive supervision children schools subject, child virtually articles "unnecessarily" This factual premises: (1) fundamental incompatibility maintenance sound environment; (2) minimal Both severely flawed. 22 notice difficulty maintaining today, situation dire recently prison prisoners retain cells, goes almost saying prisoner schoolchild stand wholly different separated harsh conviction incarceration." 669, 1411. yet ready prisons equated 23 State's bring seem anchored reality. Students minimum supplies needed studies, keys, necessaries hygiene grooming. addition, persons purses wallets nondisruptive photographs, letters, diaries. perfectly reasons connection extracurricular recreational short, schoolchildren 24 Against set teachers administrators classroom Maintaining easy, recent years, disorder often taken particularly ugly forms: violent become major social problems. generally NIE, Dept. Health, Welfare, Violent Schools—Safe Schools: Safe Study Report Congress (1978). Even spared most problems, preservation close schoolchildren, undertaken adult. "Events calling frequent occurrences sometimes require immediate, action." 580, 739. certain degree flexibility procedures, respected value preserving informality student-teacher relationship. id., 582-583, 740; 680-682, 1417-1418. 25 How, then, strike schoolchild's place? evident setting requirement, particular, unsuited environment: requiring infraction (or law) unduly swift informal procedures schools. Just cases dispensed burden obtaining likely frustrate behind search," 532-533, 1733, today 26 modification level illicit Ordinarily, search—even permissibly warrant—must "probable cause" occurred. Almeida-Sanchez 413 266, 273, 2535, 2540, 37 596 (1973); Sibron York, 40, 62-66, 1889, 1902-1904, 917 (1968). irreducible valid "both bear . neither required." 277, 2541 (POWELL, J., concurring). suspicions that, "reasonable," cause. (1968); Brignoni-Ponce, 422 873, 881, 2574, 2580, 45 607 (1975); Delaware Prouse, 440 648, 654-655, 99 1391, 1396, 59 (1979); Martinez-Fuerte, 543, 96 3074, 49 1116 (1976); cf. 534-539, 1733-1736. Where careful balancing interests suggests best stops short cause, hesitated adopt standard. 27 join majority examined issue6 concluding accommodation strict adherence twofold inquiry: first, "whether inception," 20, 1879; second, actually "was place," ibid. official7 "justified inception" school.8 infraction.9 28 will, trust, efforts nor unrestrained By focusing attention spare necessity schooling themselves niceties permit according common sense. same time, ensure invaded achieve end IV There remains "reasonable grounds" substantially today. Nonetheless, down reflects somewhat crabbed notion reasonableness. review surrounding leads sense purposes.10 30 incident involved separate first—the providing second here, validity suspect possessed attention. 31 pointed rules. "no direct infraction" (smoking prohibited), purse.11 assuming made particular best, good hunch." 942. 32 these conclusions implausible. smoking, strongest possible terms stated Surely said irrelevant those charges. once discovered, both corroborate undermine credibility defense charge smoking. sure, prove lavatory; strictly speaking, inconsistent universally evidence, relevant inquiry, conclusively ultimate issue, "any tendency make existence consequence evidence." Fed.Rule Evid. 401. relevance denial smoked supplied "nexus" item searched investigation. Warden Hayden, 294, 306-307, 1642, 1649-1650, 782 violation. 33 contain cigarettes. puzzling. reported Certainly her; obvious them. "inchoate unparticularized 'hunch,' " 27, 1883; sort "common-sense conclusio[n] about human behavior" "practical people"—including officials—are rely. Cortez, 449 411, 418, 101 690, 695, 66 621 (1981). teacher's true, borrowed someone else sharing another student. absolute certainty: "sufficient probability, certainty, touchstone ." Hill California, 401 797, 804, 91 1106, 1111, 484 (1971). hypothesis unreasonable, hypotheses consistent accusation. acted unreasonably contained cigarettes.12 34 brings located. founded provided belief indicated presence contend exceeded bounds read argument, too, unpersuasive. activities: bags type used store money. extend zippered compartment purse; "people owe me money" inference trafficking enough examining evidence. respect. 35 resulting exclude erroneous. 36 Reversed. POWELL, whom O'CONNOR joins, concurring. 38 I agree decision, opinion. greater emphasis, characteristics elementary secondary unnecessary afford protections adults juveniles nonschool setting. 39 realistic sense, lesser members population generally. spend hours association each during recreation periods. know quite well. necessity, familiarity with, over, unparalleled except perhaps relationship parent child. unrealistic think case, assume school—no adults—have prepared legitimate. 40 However characterize expectations, afforded protections. quoted statement, "shed schoolhouse gate." 736, (1969). "emphasized affirming comprehensive states prescribe control schools." 507, 736. Epperson Arkansas, 97, 104, 270, 228 balanced officials' recognizing qualitative differences remedies entitled. (1975), right limit challenged suspension. "due" hearing described "rudimentary"; amounted disciplinarian informally discuss[ing] alleged misconduct minutes occurred." 581-582, 739-740. 771 (1977), declined Eighth prohibit corporal punishment authorized Florida emphasized familiar constraints community, provide "[A]t day, invariably return home. while support family friends rarely apart pupils witness protest instances mistreatment." 670, 1412. "openness community significant safeguards" rights. distinguishes operate. Law function adversaries suspects. responsibility activity, locate arrest laws, facilitate charging trial. Rarely adversarial exist pupils.1 Instead, commonality pupils. attitude typical welfare education. 43 primary duty teachers, states, training people. compelling assuring meet responsibility. Without order, educate education, obligation mistreatment children, violence whose years national concern. For me, odds argue full panoply force effect laws.2 44 sum, holding,3 my emphasis different. BLACKMUN, concurring judgment. 46 much write separately, omits crucial step analysis probable-cause. exceptions probable-cause "[w]here served" Ante, 341. test, Warrant Probable-Cause Clause, confronted flexibility." Royer, 460 491, 514, 103 1319, 1333, 75 229 (1983) (BLACKMUN, dissenting). Place, 462 696, 2637, 77 110 (1983): 47 "While speaks [searches], leave [searches] Framers decided [search] supported judicial Texas Brown, 730, 744-745 [103 1535, 1544, 502] concurring); Rabinowitz, 339 56, 70 [70 430, 436, 653] (1950) (Frankfurter, dissenting)." 722, 2652 (opinion judgment). 48 Dunaway 442 200, 213-214, 2248, 2257-2258, 60 824 District 407 297, 315-316, 92 2125, 2135-2136, 752 (1972). Only exceptional needs, normal enforcement, impracticable, substitute Framers. example, "stop frisk" relied "as practical matter" stop frisk subjected officer able immediate steps assure himself stopped armed weapon 20-21, 23-24, 1879-1880, Similarly, roving Border Patrol car briefly occupants part absence alternatives policing border." Long, 1032, 1049, n. 14, 3469, 3481, 1201 (1983); 557, 3082, 537, 1735, 50 implication test exception troubling presents justifying departure struck POWELL notes, "[w]ithout students." 350. task. single watch large and, knows, ages inclined outer boundaries acceptable imitate misbehavior peer dealt quickly. Every adult remembers own schooldays havoc water pistol peashooter wreak until away. "[e]vents 744, Indeed, weapons increasingly among people, frequently required just conducive learning, very safety personnel. obviously secure thought day-to-day experience complexities possesses, ill-equipped quick ask observations teacher, diverted essential task focus be, teaching helping developing troublemaker. 52 "is function" government, Brown Board Education, 347 483, 493, 74 686, 691, 873 (1954), heightened compels attend behavior threatens justifies excepting determined interests. announced, concur BRENNAN, MARSHALL dissenting part. 54 Part Teachers, like conform security. STEVENS points out, post, 373-374, 385-386, principle importance schoolteachers, learn example exposition. incongruous futile embuing understanding system democracy, immunizing Pico, 457 853, 864-865, 2799, 2806-2807, 73 435 (1982) (plurality opinion); 55 not, sanctions full-scale "reasonableness" definite content text adopting unclear, unprecedented, standards, carves broad developed considering Its precedent fair test" proclaims Three underly jurisprudence. per se specifically delineated well-recognized exceptions. Katz 389 357, 576 (1967); Welsh Wisconsin, 466 740, 748-749, 2091, 2096-2097, 732 701, 2641, Steagald 451 204, 211-212, 1647-1648, 68 (1981); Mincey Arizona, 437 385, 2408, 57 290 (1978); 1879, Johnson 333 10, 13-14, 367, 368-369, (1948). searches—whether accordance exceptions—are "reasonable" showing committed searched. Beck 379 89, 91, 85 223, 225, 142 (1964); Wong Sun 371 471, 479, 407, 412, 441 (1963); Brinegar 160, 175-176, 1302, 1310-1311, 1879 Third, categories justifiable absent gives weight infringed. 210, 2255, supra. excavation serious intrusion Unlike Adams Williams, 143, 1921, 612 (1972), encompassed detailed minute pocketbook, scrutinized.1 Wisely, petitioner attempts pocketbook minimally line. faithful settled doctrine, requirements. 58 schoolteachers principals, acting students' belongings warrant. point justifiably requirement. exception, justified, apparently holds, net unguided security" weighed 337. something exhortation maximize fit. undifferentiated insufficient apprehend lawbreakers categorical part, needs override flow "exigency"—that press makes impossible hopelessly infeasible. 701-702, 2641-2642; 393-394, 2413-2414; 369. extraordinary kind we—or ought we—engage nonetheless required.2 dispensing undervalue society's violators forcing personnel engaging predictably deter conduct. unintended result privacy; necessary. stake exceed context—that involved—is engage indeed confined schoolday proximity staff. problems drugs plague BLACKMUN "maintain learning" "are conduct," "protect personnel." 352-353. principal adequately wait B 61 emphatically disagree cast jettisons standard—the finds Amendment—on Rohrschach-like test." Use evaluating represents sizable innovation analysis. policy portends dangerous weakening citizens. historic mistaken appropriate, adequate reach preordained conclusory reaches Therefore, flawed execution, respectfully dissent. 62 An unbroken line prerequisite Carroll 267 132, 149, 280, 283, 543 (1925), "[o]n seizure causes, valid." past cause—which exists [the officials'] knowledge trustworthy [are] man caution belief" offense occurred place, 162, 288—is regardless or, Carroll, Henry 361 168, 172, 134 (1959) (Carroll "merely relaxed requirements practicality," "did dispense cause"); Chambers Maroney, 399 42, 51, 90 1975, (1970) ("In enforcing seizures, insisted permitted Constitution").3 holdings Clauses ("The people persons, houses, effects, shall .") coverage. (". Warrants word "unreasonable" clause. "For narrowly defined intrusions, requisite 'balancing' performed centuries embodied 'reasonable' cause." 214, 2257. 64 reasonable." "underlying command" directly interpreted category amorphous provisions Clause—a cause—provide yardstick measured. authorizes conceptual free-for-all ensues assess stop, determines validity. recognizes "ordinarily" "bears on" 340-341. Yet fails cite begun (1968), support, itself, instance, "limited clothing." 30, 1884. border 880, 2579, usually "consume[d] minute"; explicitly noted detention consent 882, 2580. Hensley, 221, 224, 675, 678, 604 (1985) (momentary stop); 706-707, 2644-2645 (brief canine "sniff"); Pennsylvania Mimms, 434 106, 330, 331 (1977) (per curiam) traffic violation); 560, 3084, (1976) (characterizing "minimal"); (1972) (stop frisk). 'seizures' arrests replaced Dunaway, 2255. "administrative search" comfort governed administrative modified account noting "because [housing code] inspections aimed crime, involve relatively urban citizen's privacy." Subsequent similarly intrude areas owners harbor significantly decreased privacy, see, Donovan Dewey, 452 594, 598-599, 2534, 2537-2538, 262 (1981), circumscribing injury caused 67 Considerations deepest significance citizens counsel cause—that "facts [that] prudent believing committed." 102, 171; 100-101, 169-170 (discussing standard). designed utility measured addition grant zone breached met. Moved whatever momentary aroused fears, officials—perhaps citizens—may tempted sacrifice liberty assuage perceived evil.4 rests recognition let alone—the valued civilized men." Olmstead 277 438, 478, 564, 572, 944 (1928) (Brandeis, unless cross threshold need, designated term assertions replace convenient protective citizens' liberty; defaced overwhelms unwarranted seizure." 570, 3088 (BRENNAN, accept majority's premise "[t]o searches." applies, coupled observation inquiry. believed appropriately replaces object cursory shortsighted "test" employs predictable vastly overstates costs entails though plausibly articulates stake, inexplicably accord balance. begins articulate observing order" correct. weigh balance, standards—including cause—may effective. justification departing side.5 tote likelihood hamper achievement goal—vital "teachers administrators," ante, 339-of seminal statement concerning (1925). 288. (1949), amplified considerations everyday life men, legal technicians, act." 175, 1310. 71 Two Terms ago, Illinois Gates, 2317, 76 527 (1983), expounded length view Among adjectives describe "practical," "fluid," "flexible," "easily applied," "nontechnical." 232, 236, 239, 2329, 2331, 2332. seen "commonsense" depended evaluation "totality circumstances." 238, Ignoring Gates great pains emphasize, holds new "will common-sense." 343. pre-Gates defied doubt "nontechnical," applied" eminently serviceable respond quickly decisively emergencies. operation reinforces conclusion. Discussing Professor LaFave appellate "strongly suggest wrongdoing prompting principals sufficiently traditional W. LaFave, Search Seizure § 10.11, pp. 459-460 (1978).6 interpreting largely informants, supra; Spinelli 410, 584, 637 (1969); Aguilar Texas, 378 108, 84 1509, 723 Draper 358 79 327 (1959). three factors involving informants decisions. circumstances" informant's tip renders easy apply. interact daily get supply information; problem remain anonymous unavailable verification questioning—is unlikely arise. observe doubtful tips receive. compared relative ease "reasonableness freshly coined spawn increased litigation uncertainty administrators. know, articulating norms enable norms. conscientiously attempting obey could, consult materials prepare booklet expounding rough outlines concept. distributed guidance lawfully conducted. adrift permissible. sad reluctant others arbitrarily unjustifiably students.7 desirability replacing facing recede paints brush undefined approach considerably reserve. develop govern seizures. brief too flexibility. administrator gun doctrine threat genuine. "costs" discounted additional minor, jurisprudence displaces reaching predetermined impressions standards—the "practical" "flexible" sought, situations compelling. Whatever toted unprecedented ill-defined uncertain encourage excessive fact-based litigation. student, admirably opinion, 337-339, ambiguous jeopardy. assessment sides above, language compels—that After escorting opened bathroom. point, complete. noticed, below Believing "associated," 328, card, indicating sold sought introduce latter material proceeding, suppressed. Choplick—the completed cigarettes—was valid. continue rummage solely staple commerce inferring possessing home home, possibly possessions excluded affirmed. several Terms, produced succession opinions tests" resolve various intrudes merit protection. 527, 3200, (1984) ("Determining 'legitimate' interests"). 340; 564-566, 3085-3087. today's constitutionality given Should tests," excluded. Leon, 897, 3405, 677 (1984). All nods direction neutral utilitarian calculus engages unanalyzed will. Perhaps doctrinally destructive nihilism umbrella genuine rationale conceal differences. Compare p. (WHITE, delivering Court), 348 joined O'CONNOR, concurring), 351 real purports reject—the unique role behalf. so, methodology little influence future result, shifting consulting vision good. Full-scale unaccompanied pretend automatically answers occasionally contend, coherent framework recitation results heed message, STEVENS, BRENNAN joins I, T.L.O's girls' restroom. pose discipline, proceedings. decide. 86 arguing inapplicable contending accepted frontal assaults has, smoking" announce standard" far unnecessarily inappropriately question. 1214, 3583, 881 (STEVENS, order). importantly, fear concerns motivated activism trivial regulations guidelines behavior. decides today—whether Amendment—was writ question: "Whether school."1 submit former "[it] wish present Court."2 Since twice expressly merits ruling applies. plainly noted, proceeding; adult.3 later presented concerned proceeding obtained administrator. context, reasoned clear illegally municipal inspector, Seattle, 541 [87 1737, 943] [1967]; [v. Court,] 523 930] firefighter, 506 [98 486] [1978]; official."4 "that proceedings."5 defendant alleges victim administrator, simple corollary "all Constitution authority, inadmissible court." 655, 1691, (1961). effect, 656, 1692, matter tolerably reducing incentive so.6 "overall educative effect"7 adds symbolic Brandeis teacher. wrote: "Our Government potent, omnipresent ill, teaches whole example. Crime contagious. becomes lawbreaker, breeds contempt law; invites unto himself; anarchy." 485, 575, (dissenting opinion). Those revere flag ideals stands power symbols. ignore utility. Schools inculcate values meaningful responsibilities self-governing citizenry.8 Nation's convicted liberty, help feel unfairly.9 arising "our attaches consequences rights,"10 "liberty justice all."11 correct affirmance suppressing dramatically character grants prosecutors relief orders distressing regularity,12 prone rely advanced parties exclusion.13 characteristic disregard restraint, avoided ordering directing parties, reason, undermines central mission way, dissented views expressed dissent, since us, explain misapplied woman's repository one's inevitably Arkansas Sanders, 753, 762, 2586, 2592, 235 (1979). guided Amendment: evaluate "it 'first constitutionally citizen,' 'no [or seize] seizure] entails.' (1968) (quoting 534-537, 1733-1735, (1967)).14 weapons" "immediate taking unexpectedly fatally him." 1881, 1882. viewed institutional perspective, schools," 341 (majority opinion), acute. Violent, unlawful, seriously disruptive fundamentally institutions citizenship.15 occurs amidst group impressionable explosive atmosphere prompt response. suitably adapted end. 'justified inception' school." 341-342. reveal regulation precatory guideline "at treats fungible. curlers sunglasses dress code16 heroin addiction gang activity. optimum minor regulations.17 contrary, involved, indication process,18 effectively lessened amicus curiae relies heavily empirical crisis undermining American schools.19 better attuned concern uncover process. sole [warrantless] search."20 varies gravity common-law precedent. Criminal traditionally distinction essentially offenses peace, graduated depending violation.21 novel idea." 750, 2098, (1984).22 Welsh, arrived scene accident driver automobile guilty driving intoxicated—a maximum fine $200. left accident, followed arrested Absent exigent Payton 445 573, 1371, 639 "noncriminal, offense" unconstitutional, "application exigent-circumstances entry sanctioned 2099. logic distinguishing argument. asks approve, identify "some consequences." McDonald 335 451, 460, 191, 195, 153 (1948) (Jackson, concurring, Frankfurter, J.).23 While behavior, authorization "displays shocking lack proportion." 459, 195.24 offers weak deference decency announcing "when infraction." 342 added). explanation two-part Significantly, pretermits discussion "rider" perception overly generous administrator's "scope" physically opposite offenses. effort once, allow upheld nearly flexible adults' latter. case—to male female bathroom—raises grave effective.25 embraces equivalent own, deprecates reflecting reasonableness." mystery, unconstitutional; manipulation promoted 106 "We 107 "In grounds, 'the age, history, record, prevalence seriousness directed, exigency delay, probative reliability search.' "26 108 focuses 109 difference relating imply importance. tardy, occasional poses disrupting avoid conduct, violence, impairment explains assistant concealing order."27 decision: 111 "A Mere policy, allowed areas. handbag 112 principal's desire, gather validate search."28 113 Like differently disrupt discipline. was, absolutely assumption—not "hunch." 114 overreacted nothing infraction—a prohibiting bathroom freshmen's sophomores' building.29 claims prior unexpected discovery. concerned, tended eyewitness channel locations. forcible unjustified inception. 115 sampling demonstrates how intruding violation;30 remainder disruption integrity academic stake.31 Few matters T.L.O.32 adopts open-ended meaningless context. latitude classrooms, unlimited. schoolroom opportunity government. Through passes official, policemen guards. there, life. cherished circumstance. curious moral youth. trouble "matters Nation. village tyrants Hampdens, acts color Constitution." 638, 117 received 3-day suspension nonsmoking area 7-day motion, Jersey, Chancery Division, ground (T.L.O.) Ed., C.2865-79 (Super.Ct.N.J., Ch.Div., Mar. 31, 1980). Division. federal struggled accommodate safe Some resolved giving in-school D.R.C. 646 P.2d 252 (Alaska App.1982); re G., Cal.App.3d 1193, Cal.Rptr. (1970); Donaldson, 269 Cal.App.2d 509, 220 (Tex.App.1983); Mercer 450 715 (Tex.Civ.App.1970). least held, hand, Mora, 307 So.2d 317 (La.), vacated, 423 809, remand, 330 900 (La.1976); suggested M. Ball-Chatham Unit Dist. 5, 429 F.Supp. 288, 292 (SD Ill.1977); Picha Wielgos, 410 1219-1221 (ND Ill.1976); Young, 234 Ga. 488, 498, 216 S.E.2d 586, 594 intrusive, M.M. Anker, F.2d 588, 589 (CA2 1979). addressed middle position: exacting large, Tarter Raybuck, 742 977 (CA6 1984); Bilbrey 738 1462 (CA9 Horton Goose Creek Dist., 690 470 (CA5 1982); Bellnier Lund, 438 (NDNY 1977); W., 777, 775 Baccino, 282 869 (Del.Super.1971); D.T.W., 425 1383 (Fla.App.1983); J.A., Ill.App.3d 567, Ill.Dec. 755, 406 N.E.2d 958 (1980); People Ward, Mich.App. 46, 233 N.W.2d 180 Doe N.M. 540 827 (App.1975); D., N.Y.2d N.Y.S.2d 403, 315 (1974); McKinnon, Wash.2d 75, 558 781 L.L., Wis.2d 585, 280 343 (App.1979). considered matter, split Georgia not. Lamb, 137 Ga.App. 437, 224 (1976). Other jurisdictions trials implicitly discrete inquiries: Neither logically antecedent negative dispose implies resolution Cf. (holding cruel unusual punishments convictions hence officials). question, lockers, desks, storage supplies. express (if any) Zamora Pomeroy, 670 (CA10 1981) ("Inasmuch assumed joint locker successfully maintained inspect it"), Overton, 522, 249 366, 301 479 (1969) (school locker), Engerud, 348, 943 ("We locker. four away stores 'effects' Amendment"). cited alone conjunction behest agencies, Ill.1976) police). individualized element contexts, quantum seizure[,] imposes suspicion." 560-561, Exceptions "other available "to 'subject discretion field.' 1396-1397, (1979) (citation infra, 343-347, unsupported suspicion. reference endorsement STEVENS' "trivial" 337-382. unwilling dependent judge's restrained assaulting another, abusing alcohol, committing crimes, prescribed "repeatedly safeguards, 737, promulgation specified presumably environment. substantive guarantee, should, defer refrain distinguish insist demanding statutes. purport invalidate interprets statements goal court. 382-384. accurate characterization unrelated produce impermissible reasonable-suspicion search—a forth 345. JUSTICE rested triviality appears reflection contends look Had asserts, "contraband," forbade confiscation there. hairsplitting argumentation hardly seems natural reaction them—picking up—could remove officers, laws. illustrated layman's types crimes occur schools: distribution drugs, theft, fellow contrary. host distinctions duties adults. 591, (1975) dissenting.) [a] school," justified. 342. summary issue. 332-333, typically contains nature. Especially shy sensitive adolescents, extremely embarrassing contents, include notes friends, fragments love poems, caricatures hygiene. Administrative inspection schemes serve credible deterrent, unannounced, frequent, essential. easily Biswell, 311, 316, 1593, 1596, (1972); 603, (1978) contexts). fact, diminished South Dakota Opperman, 364, 367-368, 3092, 3096-3097, 1000 (1976), Ortiz, 891, 896, 2585, 2588, 623 ("A automobile, arbitrariness, regarded lawful search") omitted); 1981. Stewart Coolidge Hampshire, 403 443, 455, 2022, 2032, 564 (1971): times unrest, racial conflict internal subversion, 'extravagant' some. authors concepts." speak "government's side" terminology misleading. charged protecting citizen, apprehending Consequently, citizen. opposing conceptions means varied responsibilities. 1978, "flexibility" comparison ("reasonableness circumstances") ("facts place") guise. surely unjustifiable; naive expect extra dose anything "burden If, permits absent—instances, formulations, existed found—the genuinely objectionable square Pet. Cert. i. Supplemental Brief Petitioner 6. 337, nn. 342, 937, 939, 939. 341-342, Stone Powell, 492, 3037, 3051, 1067 Janis, 433, 453, 3021, 3031, 1046 Calandra, 414 338, 347-348, 613, 619-620, 561 Alderman 394 165, 174-175, 961, 966-967, 176 3051. JJ.); 876, 2812, 2815 judgment); Plyler Doe, 202, 2382, 2397, 786 (1982); Ambach Norwick, 68, 76, 1589, 1594, 511-513, 739-740, (1954); Gault, 26-27, 1428, 1443, written analogous case: attending dogs burst in, lesson taught day impression hoped convey. lesson: '[t]he papers, seizures' lessons underpinning freedoms." Renfrow, 1022, 1027-1028, 3015, 3018-3019, 395 (1981) certiorari). U.S.C. 172 (pledge allegiance flag). prosecutions October supports proposition. Rodriguez, 308, 165 curiam); Massachusetts Sheppard, 981, 3424, 737 Segura 796, 3380, 599 Karo, 705, 3296, 530 Oliver 170, 214 Jacobsen, 109, 1652, Upton, 727, 2085, 721 Meyers, 380, 1852, 381 Andreas, 765, 3319, 1003 Lafayette, 640, 2605, Villamonte-Marquez, 579, 2573, 502 Knotts, 276, 1081, Batchelder, 1112, 3513, 1267 Cardwell Taylor, 461 571, 2015, curiam), Thompson Louisiana, 17, 409, 246 Clifford, 287, 641, 477 E.g. 719-721, 3305-3307; 805-813, 3385-3390 BURGER, C.J., J.); 459 1028, 595 MARSHALL, JJ.) Brigoni-Ponce, 881-882, 2580-2581, 3087, 353 judgment) requirement"); 350 J.) ("Without students"). Parent-Student Handbook [N.J.] H.S. (1979), Record Doc. S-1, 7. survey books reveals approach, regulating: (i) secret societies; (ii) school; (iii) parking lots hours; (iv) campus; (v) hallways; (vi) hallways pass; (vii) profanity; (viii) attendance interscholastic athletes game, match; (ix) cafeteria cleanup; (x) eating lunch off-campus; (xi) unauthorized absence. 7-18; Student Windsor [Conn.] Fairfax County [Va.] Public Schools, Responsibilities Rights Chantilly 535-536, 1734, (1967) ("There unanimous agreement field way seek universal compliance codes routine periodic structures. [I]f adopted, goals code crushing blow"). 583-584, 740-741, truth many classrooms across country temples civility, fabric polluted, imperiled." Amicus Curiae 23. National Association ("If harm it"). 29, 1884, 2580-2581. Throughout dichotomy classifying misdemeanors felonies, malum prohibitum se, turpitude do, petty violent, repetitive 15-16; ¶ E Rules Columbia, Ch. IV, §§ 431.1-.10 "[a] assignment (3) days classes hazards smoking." 15. 740-741 added), variance context: "[A]s precede removal ., recurring upon. continuing danger ongoing immediately rudimentary follow soon practicable. "numbers" operation. Jackson circumstances: "Even urgent forced warrant, emergency Whether waiting certainly progress method it. [The defendant's] operation, shabby swindle suppressing, endangered limb peace 459-460, 195. policeman sees elevator city ordinance full-blown event custodial arrest, Robinson, 218, 467, 477, 427 Gustafson Florida, 260, 265-266, 491-492, (1973), planned citation offender depart, 6, supporting detained arrest. thing strip schoolhouse. 631 92-93 (CA7 1980) ("It scholar nude 13-year-old magnitude"), cert. denied, M.J. 996 (Fla.App.1981). deeply ever outside imminent, harm. 941-942 81, 781, 784 (1977)) 942 added: "Moreover, No official. had, hunch. hunches unearth whole. sustain search." portion reasoning—a holding—to 345-346. S-1. Tr. Hearing 13-14. 1984) (search marihuana); Dist 288 Ill.1977) (drugs money); App.1982) (stolen (1973) (marihuana); (amphetamine pills); (methedrine (Del.Super.1971) (drugs); (Fla.App.1983) (1980) (drug (Tex.Civ.App.1970) ("speed"). (App.1979) knife razor blade); (Tex.App.1983) (student bloodshot eyes wandering halls room midterm examinations). 586 (three furtive gestures displayed consciousness guilt), 1039, pipe regulations).

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