Document: 513 U.S. 30115 S.Ct. 394130 L.Ed.2d 245 Albert HESS and Charles F. Walsh, Petitionersv.PORT AUTHORITY TRANS-HUDSON CORPORATION. No. 93-1197. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Oct. 3, 1994. Decided Nov. 14, Syllabus * Petitioners, two railroad workers, were injured in unrelated incidents while employed by respondent bistate railway, Port Authority Trans-Hudson Corporation (PATH). PATH is a wholly owned subsidiary New York Jersey, an entity created when Congress, pursuant to Constitution's Interstate Compact Clause, consented compact between Authority's parent States. Petitioners filed separate personal injury actions under Federal Employers' Liability Act (FELA). The District dismissed suits Third Circuit precedent, Police Benevolent Assn., Inc. v. 819 F.2d 413 (CA3) (Port PBA), which declared state agency entitled Eleventh Amendment immunity from suit federal court. consolidated cases summarily affirmed. That court's assessment PATH's conflicts with Second Circuit's decision Feeney Corporation, 873 628. Held: not Pp. ____. (a) presumes that Clause does qualify for unless there good reason believe structured arm it States' own immunity, Congress concurred purpose. Lake Country Estates, Tahoe Regional Planning Agency, 440 391, 401, 99 1171, 1177, 59 401. emphasizes certain indicators are present this case, particularly, provisions interstate its implementing legislation establishing control over commissioners, acts, powers, responsibilities, state-court decisions typing as Other indicators, however, point away particularly lack financial responsibility Authority. (b) When different directions, guided primarily Amendment's twin reasons being: dignity their solvency. Neither implicated here. First, no genuine threat or Jersey allowing petitioners pursue FELA claims against discrete among three sovereigns, government. courts alien such entity, they ordained one founders. Nor disrespectful State call upon answer complaints court, agreed power sharing, coordination, unified action typify creations. Second, most Courts Appeals have identified "state treasury" criterion—whether judgment must be satisfied out State's treasury—as important consideration determining whether state-created qualifies immunity. Authority, financially self-sufficient: generates revenues pays debts. Where, here, neither legally nor practically obligated pay entity's debts, core concern implicated. (c) conflict Circuits longer concerns correct legal theory, Circuit, shown post-Port PBA decisions, now accepts prevailing view. A narrow intercircuit split persists only because differ on debts those In resolving issue, court relied provision calling modest contributions, capped at $100,000 annually each State, "adequate meet all expenditures," but drew far more than text warrants. P. 8 F.3d 811 (CA3 1993), reversed remanded. GINSBURG, J., delivered opinion Court, STEVENS, KENNEDY, SOUTER, BREYER, JJ., joined. concurring opinion. O'CONNOR, dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA THOMAS, Lawrence A. Katz, petitioners. Hugh H. Welsh, respondent. Justice GINSBURG Court. 1 These paired arise work-related accidents locomotive engineer train conductor, employees railway authorized compact, sustained injuries. below—the Circuit—rejected both ground sheltered We granted certiorari resolve issue. 510 ----, 114 1292, 127 646 (1994). Concluding (PATH), cloaked enjoys, we reverse Circuit. 2 3 Hess course employment PATH. PATH, operates commuter connecting City northern Jersey. commenced sought recover damages alleged negligence; claimed right compensation law governing injuries (FELA), 35 Stat. 65, amended, 45 U.S.C. § 51 et seq.1 Walsh within 3-year time limit set FELA, see 66, 56, petitioner met 1-year specified statutory consent sue See N.J.Stat.Ann. §§ 32:1-157, 32:1-163 (West 1990); N.Y.Unconsol.Laws 7101, 7107 (McKinney 1979). 4 moved dismiss action, asserting (1) qualification enjoyed Jersey,2 (2) petitioners' failure commence proceedings prescribed precedent concerning supported plea. cert. denied, 484 953, 108 344, 98 370 (1987), held "an thus immunity." F.2d, 418. reaching decision, acknowledged "[g]iven solvency size [Port Authority's] General Reserve Fund, unlikely would go get payment any liabilities issued it." Id., 416.3 But considered "crystal clear" intentions Jersey: "if ever need support, states will provide Ibid. 5 line PBA, enjoys could sued frame allowed. Corp., 813 F.Supp. 1095, 1096-1097 (NJ 1993); 809 1172, 1178-1182 1992). Accordingly, dismissed. 6 noted anomaly: Had FELA's limitation period, prescription, applied. id., 1183-1185, n. 16. This followed our reaffirmation Hilton South Carolina Public Railways Comm'n, 502 197, 112 560, 116 560 (1991), entire scheme regulation—including terms—applies railroads, even State. Time-bar rejection claim prescription rendered timely, had case been brought becomes comprehensible, explained, once recognized " 'the apply courts.' Hess, F.Supp., 1183-1184 (quoting Hilton, supra, U.S., 205, S.Ct., 562-63; 1185, 7 Consolidating appeal, affirmed Court's judgments. (1993) (table). B whose issue these cases, was 1921, Clause,4 42 174. Through achieve "a better co-ordination terminal, transportation other facilities commerce in, about through port York." 32:1-1 6401 grants 9 "purchase, construct, lease and/or operate terminal facility [the D]istrict; make charges use thereof; purposes own, hold, real property, borrow money secure same bonds mortgages property 32:1-7 accord, 6407 10 domain, District, defined geographic area embraces Harbor, including parts 32:1-3 6403 1979).5 11 "The conceived independent funds derived private investors." Trust Co. N.Y. 431 1, 4, 97 1505, 1509, 52 92 (1977). Tolls, fees, investment income account position. App. Pet. Cert. 60a-61a.6 12 Twelve six selected govern 32:1-5, 32:12-3 6405 1979); 1930 N.Y.Laws, ch. 422, 6. Each may remove, cause, commissioners appoints. 32:12-5 4. Consonant four York's resident voters City, Jersey's portion District. 32:1-5 also serve directors. 32:1-35.61 6612 13 governor veto taken 32:1-17, 32:1-35.61, 32:2-6 32:2-9 6417, 6612, 7151-7154 Acting jointly, legislatures augment powers responsibilities 32:1-8 6408 1979), specify surplus used. 32:1-142 7002 14 Debts obligations founding States, do appropriate bar drawing tax revenue, pledging credit either otherwise imposing charge 32:1-8, 32:1-33 6408, 6459 15 did agree sums cover "salaries, office administrative expenses," 32:1-16 6416 undertaking notably modest.7 By terms, applies "until operations conducted [P]ort [A]uthority adequate expenditures." promise support has low ceiling: Thus, way undertake bulk operating capital expenses. Further, limited expense payments provided contingent advance approval governors, ibid., treasuries tapped until appropriated necessary funds. 32:1-18 6418 apparent, enforceable C 16 matter. 628, 631 (1989), aff'd grounds, 495 299, 110 1868, 109 264 (1990). concluded: 17 "No [of compact] commits satisfy judgments . insulation outweighs methods appointment gubernatorial so concerned." 631. 18 Feeney, bypassed question Assuming, arguendo, tantamount States,8 ruled effectively litigation. 306-309, 1873-1875 (relying 32:1-162 1963); 7106 1979)). Consent arguable too late at____. confront directly sole present, hold II 19 largely shields without consent, leaving parties them, if permits, tribunals. Adoption responded immediately fears "federal force them Revolutionary War leading ruin." Pennhurst School Hospital Halderman, 465 89, 151, 104 900, 935, 79 67 (1984) (STEVENS, dissenting); Petty Tennessee-Missouri Bridge 359 275, 276, 785, 787, 804 (1959); Missouri Fiske, 290 18, 27, 54 21, 78 L.Ed. 145 (1933).9 More pervasively, current jurisprudence integrity retained system: 20 rooted recognition although union, maintain attributes sovereignty, sovereign Hans Louisiana, 134 13, 504, 506, 33 842 (1890). It accords respect owed members federation." Puerto Rico Aqueduct Sewer Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 506 113 684, 689, 121 605 (1993). 21 Bistate entities occupy significantly position system themselves. constituent elements Union. entities, contrast, typically creations sovereigns: government.10 Their mission address 'interests problems coincide nicely national boundaries lines' "—interests 'may badly served ordinary channels National political action.' V. Thursby, Cooperation: Study (1953) Resources Committee, Factors Development 34 (1935)); Grad, Federal-State Compact: Experiment Cooperative Federalism, 63 Colum.L.Rev. 825, 854-855 (1963) (Compact formed deal "broad, region-wide problems" should regarded affirmation concept sovereignty," "independently functioning regional polity union."). 22 accorded congressional "is supple device dealing interests confined region. [I]t means safeguarding interest. ." West Virginia ex rel. Dyer Sims, 341 22, 71 557, 95 713 (1951). exemplifies for, utility of, entities: 23 "From view geography, commerce, engineering, organic whole. Politically, law-making futile respective spheres. scarcity land mounting concentrated side Hudson River foreign made side, substantial extent, breaking-up yards east- west-bound traffic. addition, sides dotted municipalities, who interest general problem confusion local regulations. guardianship commerce. What fact one, many. Plainly situation adequately dealt except coordinated efforts York, facts presented governments, heeded facts." Frankfurter Landis, Constitution Adjustments, Yale L.J. 685, 697 (1925) (footnote omitted). 24 Suit affront relation enterprise, hardly instrument distant, disconnected sovereign; rather, compacting compromised As part plan Constitution, creations.11 Again, tribunal cannot cooperative, trigovernmental arrangement. apparent where very suit—the Walsh—arise law. 25 Because owe existence sovereigns acting cooperatively, "one States," ____, 2, accountability diffuse; tight tie people single has: 26 "An nature, shifts state's authority another states, several jointly create run compact. Such special gubernatorially appointed representatives steps removed popular control, government." M. Ridgeway, Compacts: Question Federalism 300 (1971). 27 sum, representative democracy, exercise direct policy; subject unilateral compose system. 28 amalgamate agencies States" purposes. 401 (1979), prior decided qualified immunity.12 29 rejected plea Agency (TRPA), California Nevada parties, acquired TRPA's TRPA argued then surely shield "so [two] Congress." 1177. "expansive reading," said, warranted, specifies "the State" protected: 30 "By protection afforded Eleventh] available 'one States.' true, course, some exercising permitted invoke order protect treasury liability essentially practical consequences itself. consistently refused construe afford subdivisions counties though 'slice power.' 1177 (footnotes 31 approach: presume "[u]nless new enable enjoy constitutional themselves, purpose." 32 found "no justification reading additional meaning into language Amendment." Indeed, relevant considerations weighed called "political subdivision," required majority county city appointees. Obligations TRPA, directed, "shall binding State." prime function, noted, regulation use, function traditionally performed governments. agency's performance gave rise Moreover, rules "not level." 1178. complex. Indicators absence thereof not, Country, way. While District,13 indicator governance offset controls. All alone, block measures; together, legislatures, enlarge add responsibilities. type agency; instead various terms: "joint common agency";14 "body corporate politic";15 "municipal instrumentality purpose developing effectuating pledge compact."16 courts, repeatedly typed rather municipal unit district. See, e.g., Whalen Wagner, N.Y.2d 575, 581-583, 176 N.Y.S.2d 616, 617-621, 152 N.E.2d 54, 56-57 (1958) (legislation authorizing specific projects pertain "property, affairs government" matters jurisdiction concern"). functions readily classified unquestionably local. municipalities alike bridges, tunnels, ferries, marine terminals, airports, bus industrial parks, railroads.17 consideration, therefore, inquiry. 36 Pointing Conceived fiscally financed predominantly funds, 1508-1509, (1977), revenues, decades received Commissioner Shamberg's Estate, 144 998, 1002 (CA2 1944), ("In annual appropriations (not excess state) expenses [r]evenues sufficient discontinued 1934 Holland Tunnel Inland Terminal become sufficient."), 323 792, 65 433, 89 (1945). 37 earlier observed, bear debts; responsible assumed that, need," pay. 416. nothing laws supports assumption. concisely stated: 38 explicitly barred borrowing name own. Even appropriation moneys up per year requires actual before incurred. phrase 'salaries, expenses' clearly limits optional obligation category evidences intent insulate states' vast expenses, judgments." 631.18 III 39 being remain guide. already pointed participated creating. __. Seeing ask, instructed, here "good believe" designed 40 urges find classify based wield appoint can remove governors actions, determine undertakes. ultimate every resides destroy reshape creates. "[P]olitical exist solely whim behest State," 313, 1877 (Brennan, judgment), yet cities Mt. Healthy Dist. Bd. Ed. Doyle, 429 274, 280, 568, 572-573, 50 471 (1977); Lincoln County Luning, 133 529, 530, 363, 766 alone entity. ____ 11. Gauging multiple creator-controllers, "perilous inquiry," uncertain unreliable exercise." Note, 1243, 1284 (1992); 1302, (describing "degree controls entity" criterion "[i]ntelligible" "judicially manageable"). 41 rendering dispositive home impetus Amendment: prevention paid treasury. Fletcher, Historical Interpretation Amendment, Stan.L.Rev. 1033, 1129 (1983) (identifying award states" traditional eleventh amendment protection").19 vulnerability purse salient factor determinations. Baxter Vigo Cty. 728, 732-733 (CA7 1994) (most significant raise funds); Hutsell Sayre, 996, 999 (CA6 1993) ("The monetary treasury."), 1071, 389 (1994); 991 942-943 (CA1 ("First, fundamentally, entity's] inability tap Commonwealth Commonwealth's leaves unable purse. On basis, entity] ill-deserving protection."); Bolden Southeastern Pa. Transp. 953 807, 818 1991) (in banc) ("[T]he 'most important' 'whether treasury.' ") Fitchik Transit Rail Operations, 655, 659 banc), 493 850, 148, 107 (1989)), 504 2281, 119 206 Barket, Levy Fine, St. Louis Thermal Energy 948 1084, 1087 (CA8 ("Because Illinois liable Bi-State, policy extending Bi-State."); doubt existed availability emphasized exposure critical factor."), (1990); Jacintoport Corp. Greater Baton Rouge 762 435, (CA5 1985) ("One goals treasuries. therefore disappears entail state."), 474 1057, 106 797, 88 774 (1986). concede, "vast concluded and, practice, generally weight." Brief al. Amici Curiae 18-19. anticipated independence—its long history paying way, 7, 403—contrasts transit place heavy fiscal tolls Alaska Cargo Transport, R. 378 (CA9 example, thinly capitalized depends state-provided "financial safety net broad dimension." 381. And Morris Washington Metropolitan Area 781 218 (CADC 1986), revenue shortfall cooperating start, enterprise constantly dependent participating governments sizable deficits. 225-227. "[W]here matter, survive, expend itself treasuries, sense rationale require attach agency." 227.20 There requirement structured, is, self-sustaining. Cf. Royal Caribbean Ports 973 8, 10-11 1992) (Breyer, C.J.) (rejecting plea, despite executives, planning, administration, depend financing covered it). 43 maintains funding independence assessed differently. Operating profitably, dedicates least public themselves might finance. notes program purchases buses leases transfers 32:2-23.27 32:2-23.42 7201-7217 Supp.1994); 1993 Annual Financial Report 66. contends, reducing fund projects, produces effect equivalent impact follows, suggests, distinguishing resources unrealistic artificial. 44 reasoning misses mark. charitable organization rescue work which, absence, expect shoulder. none conclude, times flood famine American Red Cross, extent works public, acquires immunity.21 proper focus profits surplus, losses If expenditures exceed receipts, resulting indebtedness enterprise? "No"—both IV Circuits, bears emphasis, theory. Both accord view, identify 'state treasury' consideration" (acknowledging, opposing, widely view). division diverge answering question: Are States? ibid. 46 Two after rejecting pleas authorities, indicate compass split. 807 (1992), suit, 1983, "most question," according confirmed, "whether treasury." 816 (internal quotation marks Earlier, 655 1989) share Bolden, important" 659. 47 Accounting later contributions 'adequate expenditures.' 815 article XV, 7). indicated, coverage 48 49 self-sufficient; Requiring workers assert right, touch concerns—the —that underpin Amendment. accordingly reversed, remanded further consistent ordered. concurring. GINSBURG's thorough demonstrates why open presents entirely faithful precedent. I join her reservation, motivated my vote. 53 Most product judge-made unsupported Constitution. provides follows: Judicial shall construed extend equity, prosecuted Citizens Subjects Foreign 55 Brennan explained his dissent Atascadero Scanlon, 473 234, 259-302, 105 3142, 3156-78, 87 171 (1985), language, read light historical evidence, properly understood mean grant diversity Article III, individuals Welch Texas Dept. Highways Transportation, 483 468, 509-516, 2941, 2964-68, (1987) dissenting). Yet since (1890), interpreted injecting notions whole corpus jurisdiction. given us "two Amendments," textual other—not truly doctrine all—based prudential comity federalism. Pennsylvania Union Gas Co., 491 23-29, 2273, 2286-89, (1989) concurring). 56 expansive merely misguided matter law; engine injustice. scholarly criticism.1 rightly so, throughout doctrine's history, clashed just principle remedy wrong. Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 163, 60 (1803). Sovereign inevitably places lesser value administering justice individual giving government license act arbitrarily. 57 Arising peculiarities life feudal England, Pollock Maitland, History English Law 515-518 (2d ed. 1909), suited divinely monarchy democracy.2 Chief John Jay much centuries ago. Chisholm Georgia, Dall. 419, 471-472, (1793). Despite genesis judicial ironically usually Legislature seen fit curtail reach. Scalia, Immunity Nonstatutory Review Administrative Action: Some Conclusions Public-Lands Cases, 68 Mich.L.Rev. 867, 867-868 (1970). 58 confronted character extended contained, give controlling weight Founders' "establish Justice."3 Today's whom SCALIA, THOMAS join, dissenting. it, makes points. presumptively surrendered entitlement "[a]s Constitution." Ante, concert cede Government, consenting creators. such, lacks meaningful pose "dignity." factors arm-of-the-state status, substitute overriding criterion, ambit proceed unimpeded. reckoning, facts. Neither, 61 disagree propositions conclusion draws them. clothes courts. 62 invitations, occasion shielded (1990) (assuming applies, finding waiver); supra (finding State); (1959) (same Feeney). builds what looks like se rule never concert. To sure, possibility undefined situations, 'good reason' confer structure evidence 'Congress purpose.' quoting crux analysis rests belief ceded sovereignty context convention. ante, ("As creations"). brooks few, any, exceptions. conclusion, attaches undue significance compacts. Admittedly, performs scheme. Cuyler Adams, 449 101 703, 66 641 (1981), observed approve obtain judgment: Is agreement likely interfere activity area, disadvantage left untouched regulation?" 440, 708, Steel Multistate Tax 434 452, 485, 799, 819, 682 (1978) (White, clause transforms nature full-fledged participant underlying agreement; "check infringement rights J. Story, Commentaries 1403, p. (T. Cooley 1873). consenting, certifies offended. Once consents cooperative activity, attach. all, inheres permissible power. "If congress consent[s], [are] restored original inherent sovereignty; imposed constitution, given, [leaves] before. Rhode Island Massachusetts, 657, 724, 1233 (1838); L. Tribe, Constitutional 6-33, 523 1988). 64 ratifying provision, logically follow particular receives Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 455-456, 96 2666, 2671, 614 (1976), Fourteenth this, 'an unequivocal expression overturn constitutionally guaranteed 240, 3146, 99, 907, (1984). Assuming arguendo abrogate realm, precedents caution reluctant infer abrogation clear signals result was, fact, intended. At least, applicability expressly indicates otherwise. ignores favor exactly opposite presumption. inapplicable reason" affirmatively concurs words, baseline expectation inhere. If, manifests contrary intent, dictate context. notion possesses power, extension dictum little basis precedents. indeed able lot immunity; Congress. shores observing initial wonders how insight actually elsewhere disclaims reliance event, sometimes, often, application analysis, attenuated altogether lacking together may, deserving apart. vary intrastate entities. wisely recognizes six-factor test forth ostensibly balancing scheme, meager guidance lower directions. Without indication ascribe criteria, struggled, variously adding factors, M/V Manhattan Prince, 897 1990) (considering seven factors), distilling Benning Board Regents Regency Universities, 928 775, 777 deeming dispositive, compare Brown East Central Health Dist., 752 615, 617-618 (CA11 determinative), Tuveson Florida Governor's Council Indian Affairs, 734 730, 732 1984) (suggesting courts' characterization criterion). Clothing Governmental Entities Immunity: Disarray Arm-of-the-State Doctrine, 1243 (1992) (summarizing diffuse responses). confusion, effort overarching admirable. determinative literal terms takes condition erroneously condition. doing, seriously reduces scope underprotecting principally directed. immunity."); 238, 3145 'lies fundamental Art. III' Constitution") (citation 69 assertion driving belied bars "any equity Cory White, 457 85, 91, 102 2325, 2329, 72 694 (1982), "by terms" extends beyond seeking damages. "It novel proposition enjoin simply sought." 90, 2328-29. (1793), amend equally effort, itself, Recognizing regardless relief requested. ---- - 688; Cory, 90-91, 2328-29; Alabama Pugh, 438 781, 782, 3057, 1114 (1978). 70 suggest confers funded taxpayer dollars. vulnerable retroactive damage awards ability agenda, internal machinery, future—all essential perquisites sovereignty—would grievously impaired. quarrel many cited bills footed precludes (liability university treasury); re San Juan Dupont Plaza Hotel Fire Litigation, 888 940, 943-944 (70-75% dollars). converse true. turn blind eye performing governmental assumes always respected flexibility setting maintaining charged furthering objectives. Highland Farms Dairy, Agnew, 608, 612, 549, 551, 81 835 (1937) ("How distributed organs commonly, always, itself"). An emphasis treasury, protects managerial prerogatives retaining crucial check abuse. So citizens sufficiently aggravated, vote errant government, remains highly beneficial breathing space vindication sovereignty. mind, undertakes politically accountable extension, electorate. inquiry, then, elected exercises oversight lines substantial—for appoints removes personnel retains undertakings—then deemed elastic encompass factor. rare foots bill wrongs fails healthy degree goes assuring authority. Colum.L.Rev., 1246-1252 structural innovations governments). 73 dismisses altogether, noting counties, units criticism, supposed line-drawing problem, off concurring), trigger control-centered formulation. inquiry real, immediate oversight, potentiality taking seize reins. Virtually private, flourishes protections hinge sort abstraction. formulation necessarily delegates law, requisite state-level lacking, 74 Turning instant indicia hence, select commissioners. N.Y.Unconsol.Law Governors 32:1-17 6417 quorum requirements meeting event state, thereof." full Commission. reports changes projects. electorate, ample shopping list suffice say sum parts. respectfully dissent. syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. additionally invoked Boiler Inspection Act, 103, 913, seq., provides: referred Comprehensive 42-44 shows Fund balance $271 million end 1985. I, 10, cl. shall, lay Duty Tonnage, keep Troops, Ships Peace, enter Agreement Power, engage War, invaded, imminent Danger admit delay." 32:2-23.28(j) (defining larger supply operators); 7202(10) Supp.1994) (same). 1993, $2.8 billion assets $534 Fund. 49, (hereinafter Report). coverage, reads full: "Unless expenditures, appropriate, equal amounts, annually, salaries, recommended approved obligates hereunder hundred thousand dollars year." Our assumption agency. Howell 801 1940); Trippe 119, 123, 198 585, 586 (1964); Miller N.J.Misc. 601, 606, A.2d 262, 266 (Sup.Ct.1939). Marshall recounted: "[A]t adoption [C]onstitution, greatly indebted; apprehension Courts" prompted swift passage Cohens Virginia, Wheat. 264, 406, 257 (1821). C. Warren, 96-102 (1922). creation implicate concerns, required. Tennessee, 148 503, 517-520, 733-35, 537 (1893). 314-316, 1877-1879, judgment) (observing dominion state/federal shared attribute entity); 297-300 (1971) (emphasizing entities). 279, 281-282, 788-89, 789-90, (1959), 308-309, 1874-1875, involved agencies; upheld asserted waived. Farias Bexar Trustees Mental Retardation Servs., 925 866, 875 (CA5) (entity autonomous, board "qualified region"), 193, 153 (1991). 32:1-4 6404 facilities, World Trade Center, complex housing numerous tenants, 33-35, Teleport, satellite communications center, 30, operated municipalities. Concerning said: "That understanding 'a entered serious enough deplete resources, recoup amount needed expenses.' statement implies appropriation, appears error." 632 416). questions emphasizing covers equity." Post, suggestion drain frightfully paradigm case. Jarndyce (Charles Dickens, Bleak House (1853)). compatible approach. establish "per concert." (O'CONNOR, heighten "myster[y] evolution" spread consumes contributes wealth. Borchard, Government Tort, (1924); Muskopf Corning Cal.2d 211, 213-216, Cal.Rptr. 90-92, P.2d 457, 458-460, (1961) (Traynor, J.). Davis, Must Go, Admin.L.Rev. 383 criticism abated recent years, focused adherence unjustifiably interpretation Marshall, Fighting Words Harv.L.Rev. 1342 (1989); Jackson, Immunity, (1988); Amar, Of Sovereignty 1425 (1987). Stevens, Irrelevant?, Nw.U.L.Rev. 1121, 1124-1125 "We People Order form perfect Union, ordain America." Const. Preamble.

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