Document: 468 U.S. 85 104 S.Ct. 2948 82 L.Ed.2d 70 NATIONAL COLLEGIATE ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION, Petitionerv.BOARD OF REGENTS the UNIVERSITY OKLAHOMA and University of Georgia Athletic Association. No. 83-271. Supreme Court United States Argued March 20, 1984. Decided June 27, Syllabus In 1981, petitioner National Collegiate Association (NCAA) adopted a plan for televising college football games its member institutions 1982-1985 seasons. The recites that it is intended to reduce adverse effect live television upon game attendance. limits total amount televised intercollegiate number any one may televise, no NCAA permitted make sale rights except in accordance with plan. has separate agreements two carrying networks, American Broadcasting Cos. Columbia System, granting each network right telecast "exposures" described Each agreed pay specified "minimum aggregate compensation" participating members, was authorized negotiate directly members televise their games. Respondent Universities, addition being are College Football (CFA), which originally organized promote interests major football-playing colleges within structure, but whose eventually claimed they should have greater voice formulation policy than had NCAA. CFA accordingly negotiated contract Co. would allowed more liberal appearances increased revenues realized by members. response, announced take disciplinary action against complied CFA-NBC contract. Respondents then commenced an Federal District Court, which, after extended trial, held controls exercised over violated § 1 Sherman Act, granted injunctive relief. court found competition relevant market—defined as "live television"—had been restrained three ways: (1) fixed price particular telecasts; (2) exclusive contracts were tantamount group boycott all other potential broadcasters threat sanctions constituted threatened competitors; (3) placed artificial limit on production football. Appeals Act violated, holding NCAA's illegal per se fixing even if not illegal, anticompetitive limitation output offset procompetitive justifications sufficient save when totality circumstances examined. Held: violates Act. Pp. 89-120. (a) While constitutes horizontal limitation, restraints ordinarily be "illegal se," inappropriate apply rule this case where involves industry essential product available at all. market itself—contests between competing institutions. Thus, despite fact ability compete terms involved, fair evaluation competitive character requires consideration, under Rule Reason, restraints. But analysis Reason does change ultimate focus inquiry, whether or challenged enhance competition. 98-104. (b) face restraint operation free market, Court's findings establish operated raise output, both unresponsive consumer preference. Under these hallmarks behavior place heavy burden establishing affirmative defense competitively justifies apparent deviation from operations market. argument can significant since power must rejected. As matter law, absence proof justify naked restriction and, factual matter, evident record possess power. 104-113. (c) support proffered justification cooperative "joint venture" assists marketing broadcast hence procompetitive. contrary undermine such justification. 113-115. (d) Nor, assertion, protect attendance, since, plan, during hours played. Moreover, seeking insulate ticket sales full spectrum because assumption itself insufficiently attractive draw attendance faced games, forwards inconsistent Act's basic policy. "The based unreasonable." Society Professional Engineers v. States, 435 679, 696, 98 1355, 1367, 55 637. 115-117. (e) interest maintaining balance among amateur athletic teams asserts further related neutral standard readily identifiable competitors. arguably tailored serve interest. It regulate money spend program way use revenues, simply imposes source revenue important some others. There evidence produces measure equality throughout alumni donations, tuition rates, revenue-producing activity. well-supported finding many compelling demonstration plan's do legitimate purpose. 117-120. 707 F.2d 1147 (CA 10), affirmed. Frank H. Easterbrook, Chicago, Ill., petitioner. Andy Coats, Oklahoma City, Okl., respondents. Sol. Gen. Rex E. Lee, Washington, D.C., amicus curiae, special leave Court. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion contend unreasonably trade After Act1 546 F.Supp. 1276 (WD Okla.1982). statute modified remedy respects. (CA10 1983). We certiorari, 464 913, 272, 78 253 (1983), now affirm. 2 * 3 Since inception 1905, played role regulation collegiate sports. promulgated playing rules, standards amateurism, academic eligibility, regulations concerning recruitment athletes, rules governing size squads coaching staffs. sports, baseball, swimming, basketball, wrestling, track, sponsored conducted national tournaments. done so sport football, however. With exception undertaken events.2 4 approximately 850 voting regular classified into divisions reflect differences scope programs. Division I includes 276 programs; only 187 play Divisions II III include 500 less extensive subdivided I-A I-AA 5 Some years ago, five conferences together independent (CFA). original purpose schools structure. Universities Georgia, respondents CFA. History Television Plan 6 1938, Pennsylvania home games.3 From 1940 through 1950 season Pennsylvania's televised. App. 303. That beginning relationship 7 On January 11, 1951, three-person "Television Committee," appointed preceding year, report annual convention Dallas. Based preliminary surveys, committee concluded "television unless brought control threatens seriously harm nation's overall physical system." Id., 265. emphasized "the problem truly collective colleges." 270. result, decided retain Opinion Research Center (NORC) study impact declare moratorium A implement decision develop 1951. 277-278. 8 committee's 1951 provided week could area, blackout 10 Saturdays season. team appear twice also NORC conduct systematic effects 279. received virtually unanimous membership; it. council thereafter declared bad standing four scheduled refused so. reconsidered abided 280-281. 9 During succeeding seasons, studies made tended indicate those continued exercise complete 325-359. 1952 1977 followed essentially same procedure developing plans. first circulate questionnaire membership responses basis formulating ensuing submitted vote means mail referendum. Once approved, formed negotiations networks. Throughout period plans retained purposes See F.Supp., 1283.4 Until either 1- 2-year terms. "principles negotiation" future discontinued practice submitting approval. Then entered 4-year (ABC) 1978-1981 ABC telecasts 1965. 1283-1284. Current 11 1981 seasons issue case.5 This like predecessors, reduce, insofar possible, attendance.6 provides "all forms periods shall Plan." 35. awarded telecasting "carrying networks." 36. principal award describes "supplementary series" 1982 1983 seasons,7 well permitting specific "exception telecasts."8 12 System (CBS), 14 "ground rules" set forth therein.9 networks compensation institutions" totaled $131,750,000. essence agreement describe method computing game, developed current involved setting recommended fee representative different types telecasts, most valuable, regional commanding still lower price.10 payments presumably equals minimum agreement. Except payment respect receives viewing audience, markets telecast, characteristic teams. Instead, provide alternate selections wish thereby obtain submit bid involved. 1289-1293.11 13 contains "appearance requirements" limitations" pertain effect. requirement imposed schedule least period. appearance limitations institution eligible six times nationally, divided equally id., 1293. exposures sets absolute maximum broadcast. although elaborate retains features them. televise. No Background Controversy 15 Beginning 1979 began advocate programs therefore investigated possibility negotiating own, obtained offer (NBC). contract, signed August institution, 1286. 16 response publicly clear limited sports well. September 8, Western injunction preventing initiating proceedings otherwise interfering CFA's efforts perform NBC. Notwithstanding entry injunction, unwilling commit themselves new contractual arrangement NBC never consummated. 1286-1287. Decision 17 defined television" alternative programming significantly lesser audience appeal. 1297-1300.12 "classic cartel" 18 "almost supply advertisers, ultimately public. Like cartels, sought achieved is, instances, artificially high. cartel maintains mechanisms punishing who seek stray quotas. established uniform products producers, regard differing quality demand various products." 1300-1301. 19 own 1293-1295. 20 offered policies: protected gate preserve schools. rejected did claim adversely affected 1295-1296. "competitive balance" argument, failed show matters preserving amateurism maintain appropriate balance. 1296. 21 fixing, F.2d, 1152.13 arguments advanced plan.14 First, promoted noting concomitant reduction viewership result net increase 1153-1154. Second, illegitimate promoting athletically balanced consideration amounted "competition will destroy market"—a position assuming arguendo legitimate, "that contribution restrictive means." 1154. Third, view justified need effectively programming, entirely eliminated producers se. 1155-1156. 22 Finally, 1157-1160.15 remanded modification decree. 1162.16 23 doubt practices constitute "restraint trade" sense members' freedom enter contracts. sense, however, every trade, we repeatedly recognized, prohibit unreasonable trade.17 undeniable share characteristics previously unreasonable. association attract mention fans athletes. found, policies controlled By prevents kind broadcasters, created restraint—an competitors another.18 type often law. Because places ceiling quantity consumers. restraining sale, create output; our cases trade.19 operates preclude negotiation institutions, constituting perhaps paradigm trade.20 24 Horizontal condemned law se" approach probability high; applied facially appears always almost tend restrict decrease output." Broadcast Music, Inc. Inc., 441 1, 19-20, 99 1551, 1562, 60 (1979). presumed without inquiry context found. Nevertheless, case. lack judicial experience arrangement,21 nonprofit entity,22 historic preservation encouragement athletics.23 Rather, what critical 25 Judge Bork noted: "[S]ome activities carried out jointly. Perhaps leading example league When professional lacrosse formed, pointless cooperation ground there teams." R. Bork, Antitrust Paradox 278 (1978). What Of course, completely ineffective define marketed. myriad affecting field, players team, extent violence encouraged proscribed, upon, restrain manner compete. seeks brand football—college identification "product" tradition differentiates makes popular might comparable, as, example, minor baseball. order "product," athletes paid, required attend class, like. And integrity cannot preserved mutual agreement; restrictions unilaterally, effectiveness competitor field soon destroyed. plays vital enabling character, enables marketed unavailable. performing role, actions widen choice—not choices athletes—and viewed procompetitive.24 Music squarely holds joint selling efficient sellers' thus U.S., 18-23, S.Ct., 1561-1564. Similarly, indicated Continental T.V., GTE Sylvania 433 36, 51-57, 97 2549, 2558-2561, 53 568 (1977), aspect actually marketwide concede great majority 26 Our inquiry. Both employed "to form judgment about significance restraint." 692, 1365, 637 conclusion 27 "based nature contracts, surrounding giving rise inference presumption prices. branch test, confined conditions." 690, 1364 (footnotes omitted). 28 Per invoked likelihood render unjustified examination conduct.25 actual analysis, remains same—whether enhances competition.26 criterion used judging validity competition.27 29 restrains effects.28 realized. sell rights, shown television, raising rights.29 creates structure viewer unrelated prices prevail market.30 And, practical approval, real choice adhere controls.31 30 consequences apparent. Individual lose compete.32 Price higher be, preference.33 latter point significant, "Congress designed 'consumer welfare prescription.' " Reiter Sonotone Corp., 442 330, 343, 2326, 2333, 931 reducing importance preference consistent fundamental goal antitrust law.34 Restrictions paradigmatic examples prohibit. Standard Oil 221 52-60, 31 502, 512-515, L.Ed. 619 (1911).35 At time, eliminates able covering entire compete.36 occur foreclosed plan.37 Petitioner argues, indicates power—no alter interaction market.38 reject reasons, legal, factual. output. To contrary, "no demonstrate agreement." Engineers, 1365.39 quarrel responsive demand. Thus command preference.40 case.41 detailed analysis.42 correct test determining broadcasts market—whether reasonably substitutable games.43 Petitioner's supracompetitive switch ignores generate uniquely advertisers unable similar audience.44 These amply possesses power.45 Indeed, subsidiary premium reach audiences watching demographic characteristics46 vivid uniqueness product.47 firmly supported International Boxing Club New York, 358 242, 79 245, 270 (1959), championship boxing events fans48 non-championship events. 249-252, 249-251.49 demonstrated "rest[s] generic qualities differentiating" viewers. Times-Picayune Publishing 345 594, 613, 73 872, 883, 1277 (1953). inexorably follows market—and convinced are—then solid broadcasts. "When interest, substitutes monopoly power." E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., 351 377, 394, 76 994, 1006, 100 1264 (1956).50 692-696, 1365-1367. turn justifications. IV 32 Relying argues ventures immunity laws,51 indicates, "mak[e] possible reaping unattainable efficiencies." Arizona Maricopa County Medical Society, 457 332, 365, 102 2466, 2484, 48 (1982) (POWELL, J., dissenting) (footnote televised, exposure, team. not, act agent school conference selection individual agreements, left eliminate broadcasts, occur, albeit subject limitations. Unlike Music's blanket license large compositions, here sold basis, non-competitive 33 find produced efficiencies enhanced competitiveness rights; just plan.52 predicate petitioner's efficiency refuted If efficiencies, position. light findings, said necessary all." 23, 1564.53 availability package volume music sold. case, remained his restraint. Here limited, enhanced.54 record. 34 Neither enable penetrate sale. broadcasting unique ready substitute, nonexistent competitors.55 borne reduces V 35 history concern protecting concern, noted, television; fan affect television.56 36 Although 1950's thesis suffer unlimited permitted,57 theory today's market.58 evolved design ensuring time events.59 37 reason rejecting defense. desire distinct product, rather fear prove sufficiently bottom market.60 protects limiting output—just monopolist increases consumers, "[T]he 1368. VI 38 agree part second. 39 rests recognition certain degree preserved.61 reasonable assume regulatory justifiable fostering public athletics. fit mold defining conditions contest, eligibility participants, enterprise responsibilities benefits venture. 40 equalized equalize league.62 nationwide single tournament complete. intent strength III, colorable management generated schools.63 asserted regulating 41 program, nor programs, derived tickets, concessions advertising.64 variety much better "clearly sufficient" so.65 speculation score. employs closely analogous sport, maintained resort plan.66 42 served unambiguous hypothesis legitimates maintenance equal maximize product.67 consumption materially removed purpose.68 VII 43 revered question needs ample latitude student-athlete education adds richness diversity athletics goals die; hardly role. Today hold supports curtailing blunting respond preference, restricted Nation's life. Accordingly, 44 Affirmed. 45 WHITE, whom REHNQUIST joins, dissenting. 46 unincorporated, nonprofit, educational 800 private universities organizations. Formed 1905 outcry abuses athletics, NCAA, convention, establishes participation conducts championships, exerts economic aspects engages more-or-less commercial activities. Note, Tackling Intercollegiate Athletics: An Analysis, 87 Yale L.J. 655, 656-657 activities, isolation, bear resemblance leagues associations, errs treating purely venture participate solely, primarily, pursuit profits. dissent. 47 "While fanciful suggest concerned profitability ventures, other, non-commercial central programs." J. Weistart C. Lowell, Law Sports 5.12 Constitution Interpretations Art. II, 2(a) (1982-1983), reprinted 216. Deviations goal, persistent inevitable "win costs," past led, continue lead, wide range excesses harmful students alike. G. Hanford, Report Council Education, Inquiry Need Feasibility Study Athletics 74-76 (1974) (Hanford); Marco, Place Higher Education: Responsibility Faculty, Educ. 422, 426 (1968). underlying therefore, minimize deviations integral athlete student body doing, line demarcation sports." 2(a), 1276, 1309 short, "exist[s] primarily process distinguished realizing return entertainment commodity." Women 558 487, 494 (DC 1983), aff'd, 236 U.S.App.D.C. 311, 735 577 (1984). pursuing organization good—a viable system athletics—that likely perfectly Hennessey 564 1136, 1153 (CA5 1977). "Without regulation, remain lead them engage deny confidently enforce trust same." Nonprofit Entities, 94 Harv.L.Rev. 802, 817-818 (1981). prior advent conclusion. mitigating failure ends education, ensures valuable very existence unbridled sphere. 49 others it, numerous "are summarily traditional business setting." supra, 5.12.b. enforced student-athletes, see, e.g., 356 (Ariz.1983), coaches hire basketball supra; prohibited formerly compensated competition, Jones 392 295 (Mass.1975), scholarships award, recipients scholarships; pervasively regulated process, schedules, squad size, played, 1147, 1983); 1309. One most, all, prevent economically successful taking advantage success expanding improving offer, increasing revenues. Yet represents desirable attempt keep university becoming professionalized profit making objectives overshadow objectives." Kupec Atlantic Coast Conference, 399 1377, 1380 (MDNC 1975). Significantly, neither questions Reason. ante, 100-102, 117; 1153. 50 1316, majority, 117, believe plan—differs fundamentally seemingly anti-competitive organization's broader selfregulation. actions, furthers several complementary ends. Specifically, 51 . turn, dependent proceeds therefrom; spread practicable; properly image institutions; advance compatible 52 244, 323, 640, 651, 672. More generally, my view, reflects integrating education. Nor 1288-1289, 1315-1316, warrant implication pursue stated policies. Before addressing infirmities opinion, state understanding holds. so, restate essentials refer course courts. issue, (ABC), Turner (Turner) bidding. Every fall, CBS present evening select telecast. Unless exceptions, designated broadcast, arrange pursuant scheme, another appearances, somewhat 1983, 242 89 153 exceptions 173 appeared additional 84 exceptions. Committee 78th Annual Convention 61-65 (1984).1 54 Act; scheme boycott, monopolization forbidden 2, event trade. excluded arrangements Appeals, while disagreeing holdings, upheld focusing price-fixing output-limiting differed injunction. vested schools, that, "[w]hile lawfully how far commonly instant case." 1162. expressly stated, Friday night high ibid., disparity reduced "[a] drawn pass-over ensure adequate funding earn substantial revenues," 1159, outlawing "membership-wide contract[s] opt-out provisions, rules." nevertheless force opinion. Anticipating grant stayed Appeals. 463 1311, 77 1294 (1983). affirming redeeming virtues escape condemnation violation inherent affirms Appeals' deems aspects. explain, reaching traps rhetoric ideology imposed. emphasize purports require pool themselves, NCAA; avoid head-to-head audiences. demonstrate, wisely correctly condemn regulations. affirm rights.2 disagree 56 "In market," observed, "each seller entity chose," "for whatever get." 1318. institutions' because, part, sold, per-game deal. particularly scrutiny wishing willing purchase knowing apply. Knowing worth others, undoubtedly bargaining bears relation average value anticipate televising. schools' contribute disproportionately package, see 1293, distributed given situation prominent receive fees powers less. 1315. 57 said, hold, redistributive alone minimizing tendency professionalism dominant Sharing legitimately exacted exchange including many-faceted competitive, For attribute system. Even shared few inevitably give insuperable end defeat amateurs up scholastic requirements. 58 relies instead restricts noncompetitive Ante, 104-106. See, 1318-1319. notwithstanding, am unconvinced 59 me proper prepared say "many televised" controls, 1294, clearly erroneous. measured solely one. eliminating locally regionally. 1307. viewership, or, least, position, seems coverage expense local expands surely irrational "profit maximizer" conclude showing anticompetitive. important, proved resulted rights. paying agrees production. production, fee." 1294. Undoubtedly, true. competitions equated wheat widgets. Reductions monopolists exact product. restricting product—exclusive rights—that independently. 61 incidence purchasing count larger translates advertising accordingly, purchased networks; series deliver paid well, deemed attributed viewership. 62 emphasis misdirected erroneous distribution participants wholly partially buy. already indicated, 128, "redistribution" justifiable, necessary, long fix supercompetitive prices, little concern. little, anything, notion extract marketplace. 63 err failing look opposed measuring fully consider price, teams, passes muster strenuously product—high-quality football—and stadiums viewers [television]. producing [television] (and live) attractions." Brief 15. recognizes "[i]f 'interbrand' substitutes, compete." 115, n. 55. 54-57, 2559-2561, (1977). rejects justification, "there competitors." 115 proposition singularly unpersuasive. 64 thing "NCAA product," 1299, "intercollegiate audience." 111 1158-1159; 1298-1300. quite another, enhancement unnecessary entertainment. Should "deteriorate perceptible cost 'using' rise, broad possibilities entertainment," "properly belongs 'entertainment' [a] narrower marke[t]" Grauer, Recognition League Single Entity Section Act: Implications Consumer Welfare Model, Mich.L.Rev. 34, 156 North Soccer League, 459 1074, 1077, 103 499, 500, 74 639 (REHNQUIST, dissenting denial certiorari); Atwell, B. Grimes, D. Lopiano, Money Game 32-33 (1980); 67; Michener, America 208-209 (1976); L.J., 661, 31. 65 suggested plausible ways 22-25. "not effective 1307, directed explicit premise penetration 1154-1156, 1160. struck down, fact, strongly suggests before "such suppress competition" merely regulat[e] promot[e] competition." Chicago Board Trade 246 231, 238, 683 (1918). 66 began—the noneconomic self-regulation. Barrett, dissented courts "erred subjugating (and, incidentally, insist event) commercialism [an] 'every itself' bargaining." 1168. enjoy laws, cf. Goldfarb Virginia State Bar, 421 773, 95 2004, 572 (1975), remember "is aimed combinations having organizations normally Klor's, Broadway-Hale Stores, 359 207, 213, 7, 705, 710, 741 (1959). 67 entities "relevant Act" affects profession business. 788, 17, 2013, 17. Cf. Community Communications Boulder, 455 40, 56, 835, 843, 810 (1982). ignored analyzing associations "may practice, context, treated differently." flatly termed "noneconomic" (1978), precludes reliance factors assessing reasonableness 1154; Tr. Oral Arg. 24-25. mistaken, note words repeat error. 68 usually turns conditions" "economic conceptions." 16, 1364, 16. Ordinarily, mandated promotes suppresses 691, 1365. emphasized, restraint; decide favoring industry." Broadly read, statements values promotion "public interest" ban bidding practitioners engaged standard, profit-motivated pursued differ "overriding [the] day-to-day activities" engineers, lawyers, doctors, businessmen, Gulland, Byrne, Steinbach, Contracts: Beyond Economic Justifications Analysis Agreements Among Colleges, Ford.L.Rev. 717, 728 (1984), defend self-regulatory impact, promote. 69 factored balance, eminently reasonable. Most fundamentally, fosters spreading financial incentives toward professionalism. observes, suited amateurism. 119. vigorously restrictions, vast abuse measures, rewards with, attainment of, objectives. "[t]he excellent insure confine principles supplement, inhibit, achievement." 1167 (Barrett, dissenting). collateral many: compensating encourage choose perceived element choice, 676, 106; helps viability weaker teams; "promot[es] varied nationwide." 722 contributions, believe, minimal reverse vacate pending amend outstanding accommodate remaining authority pertinent part: "Every combination otherwise, conspiracy, commerce foreign nations, illegal. ." Stat. 209, amended, U.S.C. 1. Presumably, sells conducts. According briefing book: "As known, [then] Philadelphia: tuned game." 244. book elaborates: 1952, initiated controlling remarkably years. They following primary purposes: "1. attendance; "2. possible; "3. Ibid. relief violations previous shed (parenthetical supplementary article consist third fourth Those Saturday evenings conflict afternoons. 86-92. "exception" team's out, visiting 400 miles campus, area 62-72. Also, stations permission 73-74. contracted (TBS), cablecast initial TBS $17,696,000. 1291-1292. $600,000 fall $426,779 1980. 250. "Division $27,842,185 1980 revenue, 89.8 percent total. II's $625,195 (2.0 percent), $385,195 (1.3 percent) $2,147,425 (6.9 percent)." 251. explained rights: "First, intention once date monopsony threaten network. committing rules. again, buyer selected choice. Free destroyed plan." 1292-1293. monopolized 2. 1319-1323. we. holding, violating considered valid. 1160-1161. argued suffered injury laws prevent, relying Brunswick Corp. Pueblo Bowl-O-Mat, 429 477, 1150-1152; 1303-1304. review 5, aside accord usual weight district approved appeals. Rogers Lodge, 458 623, 3272, 3278, 1012 event, ask us erred 6, 18-19. Barrett "Rather, adjunct endeavors key integrated endeavors." 1163. He regarded "in 1165. added: 1167. 342-343, 2472, (1982); 687-688, 1363, (1978); 243, 356-357, 2479-2480; 694-696, 1366-1367; Topco Associates, 405 596, 608-611, 92 1126, 1133-1135, 515 (1972). Sealy, 388 350, 352-354, 1847, 1849-1851, 1238 (1967) (marketing distributors combination). generally Blecher Daniels, "Single Entity" Defense Whittier L.Rev. 217 608-609, 1133-1134; Linseed 262 371, 388-390, 607, 611, 1035 (1923); Column Lumber 257 410-412, 114, 120-121, 284 (1921). 344-348, 2473-2475; Catalano, Target Sales, 446 643, 646-647, 1925, 1927, 580 (1980) (per curiam); Kiefer-Stewart Joseph Seagram Sons, 340 211, 71 259, 260, 219 (1951); Socony-Vacuum 310 150, 212-214, 811, 839-840, 1129 (1940); Trenton Potteries 273 392, 396-398, 379, 700 (1927). inexperience counsels extending 9-10, 1556-1557; 607-608, 1133; White Motor 372 253, 263, 83 702, 738 (1963); application industry. 349-351, 2475-2476; 689-690, 1364. sweeping language applies entities, 786-787, 2012-2013, liability conduct, Mechanical Hydrolevel 456 556, 576, 1935, 1947, 72 330 questionable best. unclear why above for-profit entity. rely reversal. 24. guardian tradition, motives accorded respectful validity, settled good validate practice. Griffith, 334 100, 105-106, 941, 944-945, 1236 (1948); Associated Press 326 15, 1416, 1423, 2013 (1945); 243; Sanitary Manufacturing 226 49, 9, L.Ed 107 (1912); Trans-Missouri Freight Assn., 166 290, 342, 540, 559, 1007 (1897). 356, 379-383 (Ariz.1983); 295, 304 (Mass.1975); Placement Service, 1975-1 Cases ¶ 60,117 (NJ), aff'd mem., 506 1050 (CA3 1974). Brenner World Council, 675 445, 454-455 (CA2 1982); Neeld Hockey 594 1297, (CA9 1979); Smith Pro Football, 193 19, 26-27, 593 1173, 1180-1181 Hatley Quarter Horse 552 646, 652-654 1977); Mackey 543 606, (CA8 1976), cert. dism'd, 434 801, 28, (1977); Bridge Contract 428 1370 1970), denied, 401 940, 91 220 (1971); Gunter Harz Tennis 511 1103, 1116 (Neb.), 665 222 1981); Cooney Shows 495 424, 430 (SDNY 1980); Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Comm'n 154, 165-166 (CD Cal.1979), entered, 484 1274 (1980), rev'd grounds, 634 1197 1975); Closius, Not Behest Nonlabor Groups: Revised Prognosis Maturing Industry, Boston 341, 344-345 (1983); Kurlantzick, Thoughts Law: Conn.L.Rev. 183, 189-194 1151-1154 494-495 Warner Amex Cable Communications, Cos., 499 537, 545-546 (SD Ohio Regents 561 P.2d 506-507 (Okla.1977); 665-666, 673-675 Jefferson Parish Hosp. Dist. Hyde, 466 15-16, 25, 1560, 80 (1984); 350-351, 2476; 50, 2557, bright separating analysis. considerable conduct. spoken "per tying arrangements, recognized Hospital 11-12, 1558. comprehensive charter liberty unfettered unrestrained forces yield best allocation resources, lowest highest greatest material progress, providing environment conducive democratic political social open question, unequivocally laid down prohibits 'Every Several States.' Northern Pacific 4-5, 514, 517-518, 545 (1958). connection, Congress felt exemption §§ 1291-1295. legislative demonstrates Congress' fashion run afoul awareness 116 319 (ED Pa.1953), permit 75 city day station city, S.Rep. 1087, 87th Cong., 1st Sess. (1961); H.R.Rep. 1178, Sess., 2-3 (1961), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1961, p. 3042; Cong.Rec. 20059-20060 (1961) (remarks Rep. Celler); 20061-20062 McCulloch); Telecasting Contests: Hearings H.R.8757 Subcommittee House Judiciary, 1-2 (statement Chairman 10-28 Pete Rozelle); 69-70 (letter Assistant Attorney General Loevinger). "It true level. to, allow so-called arise infrequently frequently controls. surprising result. fee. stations. Therefore, concludes level below situation." "Turning utterly commandeered sum certain. minimum, appearing ABC, TBS. mechanism relative fielding get. vary drawing Games Advertisers rates audience. telecaster due advertisers. expected Clearly, grossly distort market." Since, approval wishes potent tool disposal Silver York Stock Exchange, 373 347-349, 1246, 1251-1252, 389 17-18, 1423. Fashion Originators' Guild America, FTC, 312 457, 465, 703, 706, 949 (1941); 47-49, 14-15; Montague Lowry, 38, 307, 608 (1904). tends regardless skill, experience, training, willingness employ innovative difficult procedures." 348, 2475. practice: "A occurred 1981. weekend Southern California. USC indeed, ranked top country wire service polls. chose along basis. well-known Citadel Appalachian State, ABC's affiliated USC-Oklahoma contest 200 Yet, incredibly, exactly games." 1291. observed: "Perhaps pernicious witness testified confirmed absolutely benefit Many kept viewers, nonetheless televised." 1319. pass exemption, limitations: "Mr. GARY. yesterday opportunity channels. "Would bill permitted? CELLER. gentleman saw yesterday. person transferred club game. ..... avid fan. follow interested people want know going seeing assure he fears score." 20060 (1961). block booking motion picture place, films theater theater. small runs, put circuit." Paramount Pictures, 131, 915, 927, 1260 (1948). respondents' economists illustrated point: "[I]t's substantially currently. Indiana. "I Ball University, until recently division one-A one-AA Indiana hotly contested intrastate sense. prime probably Terre Haute, Indiana, [would be] Muncie vice versa, Haute happens Muncie." 506-507. 607-608. Market charged 46, 1566, 46; Steel Fortner Enterprises, 610, 620, 861, 867, duPont 391, 1004, (1956). categorically unlawful manifestations certainly mean universally lawful. buying se, hesitate enjoining domestic say, Ford Motors automobiles nationally agent. judge firms automobile them, enough distribute independently, imagine pro-competitive probable strong principle 'reasonable' sometimes twinkling eye." P. Areeda, "Rule Reason" Analysis: Issues 37-38 (Federal Judicial Center, 1981) manifest eliminated. 648-649, 1928 692-695, 1365-1367; Famous Lasky 282 30, 43-44, 42, 45, 145 (1930). McKesson Robbins, 305, 309-310, 937, 939-940, 1209 (1956); 221, 843. Solicitor observes: "There precisely programming—no broadly narrowly defined—the subverted distorted pricing. Consequently, countervailing dollars. 'reasonableness' alleged depends parties assessed, 'reasonableness.' ascertained short evident, lengthy necessary." Amicus Curiae 19-20 citation Grinnell 384 563, 571, 86 1698, 1704, 778 (1966); 394-395, 1006-1007; 612, 31, 882, 1297-1300. Hochberg Horowitz, CATV; Beauty Bane Major Contemp.Prob. 112, 118-120 (1973). 37-38, 1571-1572, (O'CONNOR, concurring judgment); Enterprises 394 495, 504-506 1252, 1259-1260 (1969). condition ratings definition. 250-251, appeal "from standpoint consumer—whose especially serve," 1559-1560, substitute. difference 24-25, 1564-1565; 7-8, 519; Times-Picayune, 611-613, 881-883. much. 36-37; 6. Citizen 134-136, 928-929, 148 (1969); 353, 1850; Timken Roller Bearing 341 593, 597-598, 971, 974, 1199 1422-1423. 1306-1308. Compare 1307-1308 ("The choose. dealing tens thousands relatively brief musical works, three-hour eleven year"), 22-23, 1564 omitted) ("[T]o ASCAP really agency offering goods sellers, license, compositions raw material. ASCAP, composers inherently effectively"). Ensuring evaluating ventures. Brodley, Joint Ventures Policy, 1523, 1550-1552, 1555-1560 Charities 1593 "interbrand" 2559-2561. Part forecloses "blackout." refuse immediate area. assisting "blacking out" areas period, expressed urging contests interfere 3-4 20060-20061 20662; Hearings, supra 66-68 William Reed). provision enacted 1295-1296, flaw shows access nine coming 'ground rules' nine-to-twelve hour country. devised attendance." Ironically, merit, If, 111-112, fungible, banning held. supra. unlikely, prowess Northwestern recent strikingly unsuccessful indeed attempted emergence "power elite" 1310-1311. income regime. endured plan: plaintiffs persuade gone beyond television. surprisingly, none proposals adopted. Instead uniformly administration 'legitimized' exercises makeup membership. subjected 275 135 Convention. account 150 direct television." 1317. realize funnel 1310. 1296, 1309-1310. 1284-1285, 1299. 55, exposure smaller appealing get enjoined, enhancing 1951-1953 Department review. took "under study," 284-285, litigation, apparently taken unlawful. litigation triggered conferences, problems own. moreover, exempt kinds purport invalidate.

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