Document: 495 U.S. 423 110 S.Ct. 1986 109 L.Ed.2d 420 NORTH DAKOTA, et al., Appellantsv.UNITED STATES. No. 88-926. Argued Oct. 31, 1989. Decided May 21, 1990. Syllabus The United States and North Dakota exercise concurrent jurisdiction over two military bases on which the Department of Defense (DoD) operates clubs package stores. In 1986, in order to reduce price pays for alcoholic beverages sold such bases, Congress passed a statute directing that distilled spirits be "procured from most competitive source, other factors considered." A DoD regulation also requires alcohol purchases made manner as obtain "the advantageous contract, considered factors." Although promises cooperation with state officials, it denies any obligation submit control or make in-state state-prescribed suppliers. Since long before has maintained liquor importation distribution system, under which, inter alia, out-of-state distillers/suppliers may sell only state-licensed wholesalers federal enclaves, while licensed retailers, wholesalers, enclaves. One all persons bringing into State file monthly reports, another distillers selling directly enclave affix label each individual item indicating is consumption within enclave. After number importers informed officials they would not deal with, increase prices to, because burden complying regulations, Government filed suit District Court seeking declaratory injunctive relief against regulations' application destined court granted State's motion summary judgment, reasoning there was no conflict between regulations did prevent obtaining at "lowest cost." Appeals reversed, holding impermissibly less local wholesalers. Held: judgment reversed. 856 F.2d 1107 (CA8 1988), Justice STEVENS, joined by THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, O'CONNOR, concluded are invalid Supremacy Clause. Pp. 430-444. 1 (a) Under § 2 Twenty-first Amendment—which prohibits transportation intoxicating delivery use therein violation law—a power pass Federal an area transaction falls outside jurisdiction, see, e.g., Collins v. Yosemite Park & Curry Co., 304 518, 58 1009, 82 L.Ed. 1502, but "virtually complete control" sale structure system see California Retail Liquor Dealers Assn. Midcal Aluminum, Inc., 445 97, 110, 100 937, 945-946, 63 233. Dakota's labeling reporting fall core regulate Amendment unquestionably serve valid interest prohibiting diversion civilian market, supported strong presumption validity should lightly set aside, Capital Cities Cable, Inc. Crisp, 467 691, 714, 104 2694, 2708, 81 580. 430-433. (b) do violate intergovernmental immunity doctrine. indirectly affect Government's costs, directly, since operate See, Helvering Gerhardt, 405, 422, 969, 976, 1427. Nor discriminate those whom deals, regulatory regime part actually favors Government. All retailers required purchase whereas alone option either so who have complied requirements. Thus, does regard economic burdens result it. See Washington States, 460 536, 544-545, 103 1344, 1349-1350, 75 264. 434-439. 3 (c) here spoken sufficient clarity pre-empt attempt protect its system. language procurement statutes expressly address problem unlawful diversion. covered "from considered," merely raise charged shippers. 439-441. 4 (d) requirements pre-empted regulation. That purport carry greater pre-emptive than statutes. regulation's text laws. Its command consider various determining mostadvantageous factors" cannot understood laws incidental effect raising costs military. admonish authorities construed admitting buy suppliers, require actions. 442-443. 5 (e) present record establish precise will impose Government, evidence substantial. It Congress, this Court, decide whether procuring inexpensive outweighs legitimate preventing unwise unwarranted extension doctrine hold associated regulations—no matter how trivial—are them unconstitutional. 443-444. 6 SCALIA, although agreeing availability buying distributors saves invalidity, thereby relieved having pay higher anyone else, course action constitutional right avoid. binding like everyone empowers purchased wholesaler. letting choose purchasing label-free bottles labeled provides rather lesser prerogatives enjoyed requirement thus immunity. 444-448. 7 BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, KENNEDY, agreed lawful. 448, 465, n. 10. 8 J., announced delivered opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE JJ., joined. opinion concurring post, p. 444. dissenting part, joined, 448. 9 Nicholas J. Spaeth, Fargo, N.D., appellants. 10 Michael R. Lazerwitz, Washington, D.C., appellee. 11 STEVENS O'CONNOR join. 12 Grand Forks Air Force Base Minot Base. Each sovereign own separate objectives respect authority. (DoD), stores located sought instituting bidding. State, established promote temperance ensure orderly market conditions, wishes integrity requiring shippers reports bottle domestic consumption. clash lowest possible forms basis Clause pre-emption challenges regulations. I 13 sells personnel their families bases. uses revenue these sales support morale, welfare, recreation program families. 32 CFR 261.3 (1989); Directive 1015.1 (Aug. 19, 1981). Before December 1985, governed establishments. From October law home State. Pub.L. 99-190, 8099, 99 Stat. 1219. Effective 30, eliminated directed 99-661, 313, 3853, U.S.C. 2488(a).1 14 accordance statute, developed joint-military bulk Nation's primary offer prices. Purchases pursuant provides: 15 " 'The shall cooperate local, state, degree duties relate provisions chapter. However, resale camp, station, base, installation conditions government factors. These meaning submission control, nor represented admission legal taxes, geographical boundaries suppliers prescribed state.' 261.4 (1989). 16 enactment recent regulated borders. N.D.Cent.Code ch. (1987 Supp.1989). three levels distributors: distillers/suppliers, retailers. Distillers/suppliers N.D.Admin.Code 84-02-01-05(2) (1986). Licensed turn, 5-03-01 (1987). Taxes imposed both distribution. 5-03-07 (1987); 57-39.2 (Supp.1989). monitor liquor, 1978 documenting volume imported. 17 "All sending Schedule Report shipments returns calendar month treasurer. report must postmarked fifteenth day following month." 84-02-01-05(1) 18 labels item, treasurer small sum printed themselves according state-approved format. App. 34. 19 transported through wholesaler bona fide clearly identified exclusively. Such identification form treasurer." 84-02-01-05(7) 20 Within Dakota, bases: both.2 Shortly after effective date permitting out conducted meeting explain Five thereupon ship regulations.3 sixth supplier, Kobrand Importers, increased $0.85 $20.50 per case reflect cost reporting. 21 instituted denied States' cross-motion motion. reasoned 675 F.Supp. 555, 557 divided Eighth Circuit (1988). While recognizing "nothing compels us believe pretext purchases," id., 1113, majority held Ibid. Chief Judge Lay argued dissent permissible incident powers Amendment. Id., 1115-1116. We noted probable 489 1095, 1567, 934 (1989), now reverse. II 22 four cases ratification Amendment.4 1502 (1938); Hostetter Idlewild Bon Voyage Corp., 377 324, 84 1293, 350 (1964); Mississippi Tax Comm'n, 412 363, 93 2183, 37 (1973) (Mississippi Comm'n ); 421 599, 95 1872, 44 404 (1975) Johnson Yellow Cab Transit 321 383, 64 622, 88 814 (1944). cases, we authority fell jurisdiction. Collins, give national park had exclusive Hostetter, conferred license tax-free liquors airport foreign destinations supervision Bureau Customs. supplier base And, II, tax instrumentality exercised 23 At same time, however, 945, 233 (1980); 712, 2707, 580 (1984); Board Equalization Young's Market 299 59, 57 77, 38 (1936). clear during passage territory take appropriate steps intrastate markets. stated our decision striking down Alcoholic Beverage Control Act applied reservation, might been otherwise if "California involved time entry until park, ofpre venting her territory." U.S., 333, S.Ct., 1298. found licensing attack New York "ha[d] intoxicants internal commerce As emphasized, involve 'measures aimed York.' [Commonwealth Puerto Rico Condado Development Corp.] 212 [386], 386 [D.P.R.1961]." 333-334, 1298-1299. 24 I, supra, could normal markup added "a may, absence conflicting regulation, properly police insofar necessary 'unlawful diversion' 'into State.' 377-378, 2191-2192 (citations omitted). 25 promoting temperance, ensuring revenue, comprehensive legitimate. Carter Virginia, 131, 464, 605 (1944); transports components regime. Because Bases neither taxes paid reflected price. Moreover, enclaves intoxicants; establishes type sells, minimum age buyers, days times open. risk retail disruption substantial real.5 shipped identify products distributed interests.6 Given special protection afforded policies Amendment, aside lightly. 2708. III 26 run afoul distinct ways: it, McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 425-437, 579 (1819), affirmative Congress. Gibbons Ogden, 1, 211, (1824); Hillsborough County Automated Medical Laboratories, 471 707, 712-713, 105 2371, 2374-2375, 85 714 (1985). based grounds invalidity. 27 argues governing "regulate" governmental actions therefore argument unavailing. laws, provisions, contract even ordinance regulating mode turning corner streets," 254 51, 56, 41 16, 65 126 (1920), issue case, activity sense more costly business. one struck many Panhandle Oil Co. ex rel. Knox, 277 218, 222, 48 451, 452, 72 857 (1928) (state contractor); Dobbins Commissioners Erie County, Pet. 435, 1022 (1842) (tax employee); Gillespie Oklahoma, 257 501, 42 171, 66 338 (1922) lease property); Weston City Council Charleston, 449, 481 (1829) bond), theory interfered means legislated powers." Dobbins, Pet., 449. Over 50 years ago, decisively rejected regulates unconstitutional, James Dravo Contracting 302 134, 208, 155 (1937), view been"thor oughly repudiated." South Carolina Baker, 485 505, 520, 108 1355, 1365, 592 (1988); Sierra Summit, 490 844, 848, 2228, 2232, 910 Cotton Petroleum Corp. Mexico, 163, 174, 1698, 1706, 209 28 recently adopted functional approach claims immunity, accommodating full range sovereign's legislative respectful role resolving conflicts National Governments. Fresno, 429 467-468, 97 699, 683 (1977); cf. Garcia San Antonio Metropolitan Auth., 469 528, 1005, 83 1016 Whatever neutral "are incidents organization governments." 1427 520-521, 1365-1366; Penn Dairies, Milk Pennsylvania, 318 261, 271, 617, 621, 87 748 (1943); Graves O'Keefe, 306 466, 487, 59 ,S.Ct. 595, 601, 927 (1939). discriminates deals. 523, 1366-1367; 460, 703. addition, question viewed isolation. Rather, entire analyzed determine discriminatory "with result." 544, 1349, 264 (1983). Claims further resolved principles congressional pre-emption. 621; 161, 221.7 29 Application demonstrates There claim be, directly. 455 720, 102 1373, 71 (1982); Hancock Train, 426 167, 96 2006, 555 (1976); 608-610, 1878-1879; Mayo 319 441, 447, 1137, 1140, 1504 (1943). Both concerns about direct interference Detroit Murray America, 355 489, 504-505, 78 486, 491-92, 424 (1958) (opinion Frankfurter, J.), implicated. respect, distinguished contractors repeatedly upheld challenge. Detroit, 474, (1958); 279-280, 625-626; Alabama King Boozer, 314 8, 62 43, 45, 86 (1941).8 30 can said nondiscrimination rule finds reason principle obstruct activities Wheat., 579.9 deals much potential functions itself, some unrelated object's status contractor is, equally similarly situated constituents 462-464, 704-705. analyzing constitutionality law, look narrow provision addressing appears treat differently specific level analysis broader context, discriminatory. "[t]he unless treats someone else better them." 1349-1350.10 31 complains, disfavor favor extensive statewide furthers interests controlling addition revenue. applies favored legally bound comply 5-03-01.1 option, among 1349. IV conclusion end inquiry interferes activities. confer beyond Constitution alone, 737-738, 1384-1385; 275, 623, when enacted 713, 2707. But asked recognize implied exemption taxation, Rockford Life Ins. Illinois Dept. Revenue, 482 182, 191, 107 2312, 2317, 152 (1987), proceed particular care. 33 rests upon 2488, governs nonappropriated fund instrumentalities. simply installations "shall 2488(a)(1), malt wine sources located. inferred latter well provision, elsewhere Code, Alaska Hawaii 99-591, 9090, 3341-116, intended free follows restrict state. central lesson decisions Paul 371 245, 426, 292 (1963); Georgia Public Service 285, 397, 317 Utilities 534, 446, 470 Leslie Miller, Arkansas, 352 187, 77 257, 231 (1956), invalidated prohibited what required. "collision . acute," bidding limited extent compete. 253, 432. 34 thing, say law; quite incidentally Any liquor. observed dissent, "[c]ompliance regarding raw materials, general operations distillery brewery, treatment employees, bottling, shipping necessarily liquor." F.2d, 1116. Highway safety 35 used market. states obtained considered. observed, '[l]owest cost' relative term." F.Supp., 557. fact wage price, raises cut wide swath invalidate 36 source whose lower regardless enforced. parties ability engage bidding, worst certain shippers, statute. V restates, slightly different language,11 statutory itself. Congress—not DoD—that relevant pre-empts delegates laws.12 itself Coastal Granite Rock 480 572, 583, 1419, 1426, 94 577 717-718, 2377. directs factors," Indeed, specifically envisions [and] chapter." obligated beverage nothing 39 When confronted questions relating discipline operations, defer lead Armed Forces battle. allocation Governments commercial issues, heed without deference military's interpretation command. 40 caused stop supplying few adjust cease showing willing enter indication secure approximately five cents treasurer, print prefer. Even initial stage enforcing already notified intend new predictions fulfilled, still customer best evaluate effected compromise excluding beer prohibit entirely prescribe nationwide basis. requirements—no trivial prove be—are ordered. 43 judgment. agree ante, 435 J.); 451-452 Memphis Bank Trust Garner, 459 392, 398, 692, 696, 74 562 principal point contention produces discrimination. not, readily avoid discrimination distributors, do. disagree why 45 If understand correctly, suffices, his view, So citizens offended. For proposition relies (1983), scheme taxing building materials business partners participants not. normally landowner construction materials. constitutionally where landowner, instead contractor, though rate applicable landowners. ground net accorded worse received private-sector counterparts; worst, reimburse paid, event (because tax) off private landowner. 542, 1348. 46 original am sure took reasons practicality. principle, (as recognized ) entitlement then seems me "pay" bearing indirect alone. And practicality, jurisdictional (the turn factor matter, difficult calculate "net" position. today's distinguishable difficulty calculation accurate prediction reality facts us. Unlike placed counterparts were easily compared (one rates), measured might, difficulty, compliance uphold nonfederal purchasers. approach, vary year affixing labels) fluctuates. think uniquely offsetting periodic computation burden. 47 This comparability trouble because, he says, satisfied given (by definition) carrying financial else. carries step (though admit logical further) line troubled first place. (erroneously, my view) you tax, touchstone, STEVENS—that everything OK else—then follow avoided paying instead. extension, however reasonable be. Suffering imposition amount avoidable kind effect) suffering escaping tax. If, therefore, compel force ultimately existence regulation—but (unlike liquors, thereof," Nothing forecloses conclusion. restrictions transactions partners, "delivery use" destination (1973); remaining (1975), incidence supplied state-federal rested thecon clusion abolished traditional taxation. 612-613, 1880. conclude abolish bedrock least arguably consistent Amendment's prohibition law. import 49 say, course, enact adverted so. giving choice distillers, retailer enjoys. being so, nonexclusive reasons, concur 51 KENNEDY join, part. 52 Court's lawful, join upholding requirement. plurality underestimates derogates interference, secured SCALIA odds ). 53 trifling inconvenience An importer distiller manufacture bottle, segregate track throughout remainder manufacturing process. throws wrench firm's production far pennies acknowledged plurality. 428-429. declined continue result. firms nine popular brands liquor: Chivas Regal scotch, Johnnie Walker Tanqueray gin, Canadian Club whiskey, Courvoisier cognac, Jim Beam bourbon, Seagrams Crown Smirnoff vodka, Jose Cuervo tequila. Beefeaters gin doing business, up case. potentially available fill needs companies operating chain importers, undertake onerous duly charge trouble, exempt 54 requirement, furthermore, "necessary" definition term. achieve effort "prevent [its] markets," 431, accomplish precisely goal providing distinguish illegal ones—without interfering operations. enforce interfere activities, including negotiating mutual enforcement military, seeks control. 1015.3-R, 4(F)(3) (May 1982).1 55 declared purpose implementing discourage ruling constitutionality. To sure, twice retain "insofar prevent" 377, 2192, 1298-1299, (1964). statements indications believed rendered utterly powerless dormant Commerce never held, avowed insulated review ground, ever clashed operation, "presumption validity." Cf. 433. previous, statements—that prevented diversion—recognized 2192 (recognizing "in regulation"). pre-emption, flows Clause, Clause.2 56 characterizes invalidating 435. recognizes, itself." Ante, 438. contrary plurality's prior dealing enjoy substantially programs. 735, 11, 1383 (1982) ("It remains true, activities"). 221, (1937) (permitting "interfere way performance functions"). violates standards. obstructs chosen partners. * recognizes consistently nondiscriminatory policies, procurement, designates resting 435-436, 7. characterization opinions suggests rigid demarcation doctrines cases. Whether analysis. evaluated justly example, employed immune Arkansas license, virtual determination 'responsibility' frustrate expressed policy selecting responsible bidder." 190, 258. rationale applicable: 'It instruments extends desist satisfy officer examination competent fee permission go on. touch servants remotely conduct; lays obey orders. .' (quoting 57, (1920)). 60 assertion decided grounds, 436, 7, inconsistent opinion's 61 (1958), unconstitutional common carriers receive approval offering reduced States. sustaining rates. 543-545, 452-453. explained rates conduct negotiations divisions of, potentially, then-48 545-546, 453-454. Contrary contention, "place[d] Government" significant grounds. relied 427, elucidates immunity: "It very essence supremacy remove obstacles [federal] sphere, modify every vested subordinate governments, influence." Furthermore, —that doctrine—is solely sustained Comm'n. 472, 477, (upholding lessees property).3 companion (1963), procurement.4 292, 401, revoke certificates moving company undertaking mass shipment household goods discount rates, violated officers 'lowest over-all "through negotiation." Similarly, wholesale milk enforced sellers mandated "full competition" selection bidder" defeats procure supplies States." 252, supra. threatens scuttle express services possible. 2488(a). enacting standard, deliberate permit, generally encourage, "competitive source" replaced earlier statute's history shows determined save money generate funding morale welfare activities.5 67 importers—companies top chain. plausible find worth refused orders firm lose advantages highly subjected surcharges forced high prices—or combination these. difficulties presented exponentially additional adopt equivalent rules, consideration dispositive California, 453-456. (1983) (rejecting theargu ment Tennessee bank discriminated obligations de minimis comparable sustain significantly borrowing costs). 68 intrudes unlike unacceptable (1956). Just Arkansas' hire, requirement—by acting deterrent contracting Government—would making unfettered effectively Congress' sources—distillers importers—are driven 'does orders.' 258 applying 16). spirits, obstructed and, doctrine, fall.6 B 69 proscribes invalid. plainly supply "liquor Dakota." makes "their sector" 543, "The [someone] considering working faced bear work party." 541, 4, 1348, 4. brand kinds customers Dakota: labels. Then separately handful rest company's process, specially sent Bases. product reducing economies scale.7 mandates finding Government.8 attempts reach opposite arguing need entirety whole, endeavor affected seemingly preferred subscribed approach. contrary, cites proposition, holds structure, rate, landowners contractors" nondiscriminatory. 545, 1350. deciding, cautioned "[a] situation head payroll business." 546, 1350, 11. 70 larger ones. different—one contractors—the fees charge. result, borne counterparts, likely less. 541-542, 1348-1349. drawn placing requirementdi rectly places disadvantage competing altogether. SCALIA's that, compensates comparison. comparable, resell farther State—not 73 comparison actual counterpart—a wholesaler—cannot confidence. presumes economically wholly speculative impositions profit reaping wholesaler's mark-up, lucrative whomever whatever reap margin sales. reliably moment, expect year; depending affecting half equation.9 obvious, assurance evenhandedly licenses others. imposed, albeit stages commerce, non-federal "different situation," hard compare imposed. assertion, ante 438, constitutional. imposes obligation, triggered transaction, confidence place good position as, than, sector, impermissible.10 agrees appellants Amendment11 believe, share addressed answered negative. (1975),12 explained: '[T]he confers regulate—whether licensing, otherwise—the exercises jurisdiction.' 613, 1880, quoting 375, 2191. 76 "We Art. cl. 17, apply: 'Nothing [Twenty-first] leads [the] extraordinary conclusion' ". [I]t 'patently bizarre' 'extraordinary suggest respects 'now squarely presented, reject it.' 613-614, 1880-1881 Revenue B. Distilling 341, 345-346, 1247, 1249-1250, 362 (1964), 332, 1298). Appellants argue supplier. 609, 1878. Appellants' reliance distinction, misplaced. invariably activity. reason: They invalid, regulates. assume protects taxation effects deals—appellants misconstrue 79 override overrode 447-448. decision, leave 1880 (concluding enclaves). 80 questions. First, permits prohibitions not? Second, imported island State? perhaps question. plenary,13 attempting importation.14 concedes 447-448, assumption purposes him concede circumstances "transportation importation" laws" true collecting remitting drawing others Healy Beer Institute, 491 2491, 275 13, supra.15 need, resolution exact second raised here. enclaves,16 "State" ceded concerning boundaries, grace Force. plurality, 429, 2, details terms public fills data. tract land acquired post (retaining process within). 54-01-08 since.17 defines extending except, "qualified cession condemnation made." 54-01-06 1970, provided branches armed retrocede property administered unnecessary. 2683. permit Governor consent retrocession offered. 54-01-09.3 suggestion, "concurrent jurisdiction" always plenary cited question, 380-381, 2193-2194, says division 142, 213 ("If lands [not enclaves], cession, lawfully prescribed, acquisition, jurisdiction"); Surplus Trading Cook, 281 647, 651-652, 455, 456-457, 1091 (1930). Therefore, accept open remand proceedings, reversal, action. valid. several kept 3341-116. stipulated offered information. 16. subject powers. 379-380, 2193, 141-142, 212-213, (1937); 650-651, 456, Heublein, Beam, Joseph Seagram Sons, Somerset Hiram 26. Section Territory, possession thereof, hereby prohibited." member Conference Administrators executed affidavit describing types misconduct prevent: "a. Diversion dependent employee quantities large enough dependent's store sector. "b. Loss inventoried taken facility. "c. [sic ] explanation diverted state's stream commerce. occurred documented Board's February 20, 1987, letter Mr. Chapman Cox, Assistant Secretary Pentagon D.C. copy attached hereto Attachment 1. describes on-base individually consume fiscal 1986. amounts 1,020 person day, Sundays holidays." 36. Rice Rehner, 463 724, 3291, 3298, 961 ("The unquestionable traffic occurs borders"). put side "cases where, absent 452. negotiated policy, 453. came ha[d] insure reliability Government." Services Procurement promulgated thereunder. collision "clear acute." Property Administrative Act, spoke too negotiation. discussing proper convene three-judge court, state: "Direct scope alleged law." 287, 398 (citing Kesler Safety Utah, 369 153, 807, 641 (1962)). statement constituted expression 2281 (1970 ed.), whenever enjoined "upon unconstitutionality statute"; required, implicated, clear. "broader" "be 398. Swift Wickham, 382 111, 258, 194 (1965), overruled variant jurisprudence discussed implicated measure requirement." 120, 263. BRENNAN strike subjects forces Post, 458. Yet, component supplier's expenses, presumably 9. Whereas stopped went 458, introduced source. BRENNAN's test contains standard "burdensomeness" measured. Would invalid? What $20.50, $5 case? prefer rely "burden"—that specified absence, exceeds comparably State—and decline embark invalidation trial, undisclosed touched danger hindrance property, resulting erosion fundamental greatest move 504, 491, J.). comment 699 (1977): property. owner nonexempt ordinarily lessee, leased 464-465 [97 705-706]." 427-428. 1982 enlarge permitted speak part: authorized deem sale, consumption, beer, wine, members near primarily occupied Forces. ." 88, 473 (1982 ed.). "Diversion. Packaged outlets operated benefit Members Uniformed purchasers sell, exchange, divert packaged unauthorized personnel, federal, Status agreements." discerned (1819) bestowed consideration. conviction power, otherwise, retard, impede, burden, execution government. think, unavoidable consequence constitution declared") (invalidating notes issued States). Without Marshall reasoned, defeat involves destroy," citizens, voice legislature guard abuse. 428. 1366, (1988), 703, (1977), 434-435. extrapolates ignores line. Baker Fresno laid cite, rule: "[A] deals." 473, 478. 453, California's dealings underscores delineate characterized Carriers customer; just treatment. 537, 445, 1139, Regulations, wider possibilities taxes. discussion. contrast, 'the meet requirements,' discussed. 484, 600, (1939), "could assumed function [a entity] undertaken perform." benefits employees [of Government] relieving contributing government, enjoy, advantage enabling salaries employers, private, undue imposing other." 483-484, 599-600 (footnote '[i]t unreasonable [for deals] function.' Bd. 849, (1989) favorably Augustus Hand's re Leavy, 25, (CA2 1936)). involving nondiscriminatory" '[t]he States; render [federal official's] task cumbersome.' Equalization, 850, 6, 2233 Wurzel, Taxation During Bankruptcy Liquidation, Harv.L.Rev. 1141, 1166-1169 (1942)). mean harmless, evident. presenting "whether burdened maintain Services." Paul, 250, 430. commissaries, follows: "These commissaries 'arms deemed essential functions,' 'partake immunities' 'may statutes.' 436 (citation grounded Maryland 293, 402. recharacterized (1943), permissibly Dairies stood unremarkable 'when supplies] fixed municipal authority' manifested 'hands off' respecting States," 254-255, 432-433. Revealingly, musters no-longer-apposite 437. Senate Committee "included mandating efficient manner, location beverages, except [because] committee believes beverage[s] favorable competition useful services. Additionally, Department, tens millions dollars, [o]n lack competition." S.Rep. 99-331, 283 (1986), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 6476. deletion House prevailed excepting overall unduly affected. H.R.Rep. 99-718, pp. 183-184 (1986); H.R.Conf.Rep. 99-1001, 39, 464 activity," 437, (and suppliers). recognition aspect parade horribles: Every braved Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 67, 399, 404, 581 (1941) (explaining "stands obstacle accomplishment Congress"); Santa Fe Elevator 331 230, 1146, 1152, 91 1447 (1947) objective statute). judiciary capable discerning frustrated interstate 2232 bankruptcy purchaser judicial else' ") 27); 706 "appellants rent Forest employers houses sector"). citizen way." 1350-1351. concluded, "political check" "state group counted votes keep excessively, unfair 463, 705, 11: "A income possessory houses, them, escalated destroy performed unable hire causing prohibitively salaries. arise, residents voters State." "has thought legislatures." politically ibid.; residents). Legislature provide political check affects correct retailer, continues turns apples-and-oranges Is markup? Or expensive, compliance? wholesalers—at estimated $200,000 $250,000 next year—it occupy claimed directly—i.e., inside 440. scheme, chooses By terms, "[a]ll Dakota. vis-a-vis importing country. 1978, none suppliers' refusals attributed plausibly collect boundaries. two. (1973), Bacchus Imports, Ltd. Dias, 468 263, 3049, 200 (1984) Hawaiian commerce); Oklahoma advertisements cable television broadcasts households jurisdiction); (1980) (deciding lacked sanction horizontal fixing borders); Craig Boren, 397 (1976) (striking down, Equal Protection setting drinking ages men women); (1964) (holding Customs state). Connecticut affirm bordering gave Kentucky's scotch Export-Import Clause). altogether, arguable completely dry office cocktail party building. urges, draw govern (1938), concessionaires hotels, camps, acquired, indicate 1962 partial Haines, Crimes Committed Disorderly Jurisdictional Conduct, Crim.Just.J. 402 (1981), ceding 1943. Interdepartmental Study Jurisdiction Areas Part 190 consented suffices (giving legislation consents). Fort Leavenworth Lowe, 114 525, 995, (1885).

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