Document: 393 U.S. 544 89 S.Ct. 817 22 L.Ed.2d 1 Richard ALLEN et al., Appellants,v.STATE BOARD OF ELECTIONS al. J. C. FAIRLEY Appellants, v. Joe T. PATTERSON Charles E. BUNTON Clifton WHITLEY John Bell WILLIAMS Nos. 3, 25, 26, and 36. Argued Oct. 15 16, 1968. Decided March 1969. [Syllabus from pages 544-546 intentionally omitted] Norman Amaker, New York City, for appellants Allen others. R. D. McIllwaine, III, Richmond, Va., appellees State Bd. of Elections Armand Derfner, Jackson, Miss., Elliott Lichtman, Washington, D.C., Fairley all Stephen Pollak, the United States, as amicus curiae, by special leave Court. William A. Allain Will S. Wells, Patterson Mr. Chief Justice WARREN delivered opinion These four cases, three Mississippi one Virginia, involve application Voting Rights Act 19651 to state election laws regulations. The cases were consolidated on appeal argued together in this Because grounds which we decide Virginia case is also disposed opinion.2 2 In South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 86 803, 769 (1966), held provisions involved these be constitutional. merely require us determine whether various enactments are subject requirements Act. 3 We gave detailed treatment history purposes supra. Briefly, implemented Congress' firm intention rid country racial discrimination voting. It provided stringent new remedies against those practices have most frequently denied citizens right vote basis their race. Thus, States covered Act,3 literacy tests similar voting qualifications suspended a period five years last occurrence substantial discrimination. However, Congress apparently feared that mere suspension existing would not completely solve problem, given some had simply enacting slightly different with same discriminatory effect.4 Not underestimating ingenuity bent preventing Negroes voting, therefore enacted § 5, focal point cases. 4 Under if passes any 'voting qualification or prerequisite standard, practice, procedure respect force effect November 1, 1964,' no person can deprived his 'for failure comply with' enactment 'unless until' seeks receives declaratory judgment District Court Columbia 'does purpose will denying abridging account race color.' 79 Stat. 439, 42 U.S.C. 1973c (1964 ed., Supp. I). See Appendix, infra. 5 does necessitate obtain action before it enforce change its laws. provides may submits provision Attorney General and, within 60 days submission, formally object statute regulation. act court approving disapproving legislation. If objects enactment, still legislation upon securing Columbia. Also, required first submit go directly submission gives rapid method rendering law enforceable.5 Once has successfully complied approval requirements, private parties enjoin enforcement only traditional suits attacking constitutionality; there further remedy 5. 6 passed issued central issue fall prohibition prevents 'any voting' unless complies section's procedures. 7 No. Patterson, involves 1966 amendment 2870 Code 1942.6 board supervisors each county adopt an order providing members elected at large qualified electors county. Prior amendment, counties divided into districts; district member supervisors. After Adams Forrest Counties adopted authorized orders, specifying candidate must run large, but requiring resident he represent. 8 potential candidates two counties. They sought Southern was hence could enforced until 5.7 9 Bunton concerns 6271—08 Code.8 11 specified counties, superintendent education shall appointed education. Before option electing appointing superintendent. Appellants position amendment. thus unenforceable requirements. 10 36, Whitley Williams, 3260 Code, changed independent running general elections.9 makes revisions: (1) establishes rule who voted primary thereafter placed ballot election; (2) time filing petition previous 40 (3) number signatures needed qualifying increased substantially; (4) added elector signs personally sign include polling precinct whose nominating petitions listing rejected more amended provisions.10 I three-judge ruled amendments did come purview dismissed complaints.11 brought direct appeals Court.12 postponed consideration jurisdiction hearing merits. 392 902, 88 2052, 20 1361 (1968). 12 Board Elections, bulletin judges. attempt modify 24—252 1950 provides, inter alia, voter (may) place official name own handwriting * *.'13 (§ 24 251) voters physical incapacity assisted preparing ballots. For example, blind aided preparation choice. Those unable mark ballots due other disability statutory made assistance wish write name, do so because illiteracy. When under coverage 1965, offficials thought 24—252, cast write-in voter's incompatible 4(a) suspending test device voting.14 Therefore, judges, instructing judge aid ballot, requests illiteracy.15 13 functionally illiterate registered Fourth Congressional Virginia. Eastern claiming modifying violate Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment 1965. A convened complaint dismissed.16 14 elections, attempted sticking labels, printed candidate, ballot. officials refused count appellants' ballots, authorize marking labels. As outcome been disputed counted, prospective relief. Court, appe lants assert precluded prescribed bulletin. Rather, they altogether requirement choice handwriting. raised applicability jurisdictional statement filed considering however. generally attacked ground inconsistent Where facts undisputed, may, interests judicial economy, Act, even though specific sections below.17 our reaching merits, properly courts. I. 16 instituted citizens; initial question litigants invoke courts relief requested suits. 28 1343 provides: 'The original civil commenced person: To recover damages secure equitable protection right, including vote.' Clearly, authorizes sought, over 17 explicitly grant deny authorization seek failed Act.18 provide 'no (a by, approved under, 5).' Analysis language light major indicates governed Further, after proving approval, party standing injunction enforcement, pending State's pursuant 5.19 18 drafted make guarantees Fifteenth finally reality citizens. supra, 308, 309, 803. realized inadequate accomplish unusual, aspects severe, insuring discriminate laws.20 19 achievement Act's laudable goal severely hampered, however, citizen depend solely litigation discretion General.21 extend subdivisions thereof. limited staff often might uncover quickly regulations varying levels government.22 consistent broad allow individual insure city government previously federal protect class citizens, although specifically authorizing protected institute suit, nevertheless implied action. Case Co. Borak, 377 426, 84 1555, 423 (1964), called consider 14(a) Securities Exchange 1934. 48 895, 78n(a). That section 'unlawful (to violate) such rules Commission prescribe necessary appropriate public interest investors.' '(w)hile reference action, among chief 'the investors,' certainly implies availability where achieve result.' U.S., 432, 1559. 21 analysis applicable here. guarantee unapproved well prove empty promise allowed prohibition.23 II. Another involving presented 14(b) '(n)o than 5) restraining temporary permanent execution *.' 445, 1973l(b) judgments Act; argue actions initiated 23 Section read provisions. 12(f) 12(d) acting when 'there reasonable believe (such person) about engage practice prohibited 5)'.24 injunctive distinguishable mentioned 14(b). aimed prohibiting attack constitutionality itself. Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 1717, 828 (1966). On hand, reason violative Cf. Ward, 352 F.2d 329 (C.A.5th Cir. 1965); Perez Rhiddlehoover, 247 F.Supp. 65 (D.C.E.D.La.1965). distinction possible judgments. requires adjudication litigant reach difficult substantive issue. particular submitted enforcement. difference magnitude issues suggests intend both decided Indeed, intended treat 'coverage' questions differently 'substantive discrimination' questions. 72. 25 Moreover, indicated power grounded power, Art. 'ordain establish' inferior tribunals. noted exceed constitutional bounds imposing limitations 'litigation Federal Government 332, 820 (emphasis added). Of course, litigants, party. This interpreting applying State. 26 There strong reasons adoption interpretation. Requiring places burden plaintiff. enormity burden, vary size plaintiff's resources. Admittedly, easier bring sufficient resources prosecute easily Nation's Capital; regulate hear Government. maintain outside resides, especially local litigant, preclude him bringing suit. 27 hold restriction apply seeking 1343(4). III. final remains. heard convened. Pennsylvania Public Utility Comm'n Co., 382 281, 423, 324 (1965); Zemel Rusk, 381 85 1271, 1274, 179 see 1253. initially claimed statutes violated Amendment. stipulation claims removed prior 5.25 Swift & Wickham, 111, 127, 258, 267, 194 (1965), 2281 conflict consequently violates Supremacy Clause. absence court, proper 29 section. sentence '(a)ny determined judges lie Supreme Court.' I) Appellees refers (i.e., State) litigant. 30 interpreted least ways. First, Second, suit relief, subjected scrutiny. Third, prohibit regulation All viewed being 'under' 'under section' should 31 long congressional convening strictly construed. Phillips 312 246, 61 480, L.Ed. 800 (1941). Conve ing system, result delay matter needing swift adjudication. 128, 258. taken depriving wise crucial adjudications appeals. Thus reluctant range necessitating Ibid. 32 unaware legitimate prompted enact three-judge-court 116—119, Notwithstanding problems administration, desirable circumstances confrontations between interference administration.26 1965 example. supervision always poses system. enjoined procedures procedure. 33 drafting concluded governing authorities differ concerning procedures, inappropriate resolved single judge. clash disruption apparent. less disagreement enforcing Although federal-state confrontation, 34 Other indicate aware extraordinary relationships orderly operation government. 10, prohibits collection poll taxes contains brings 'against payment tax precondition 442, §§ 1973h(a)—(c) 1973b(a) 35 conclude nature general, unique disputes IV. 36 Finding us, turn term 'voting' 'shall effective primary, special, election, including, to, registration, casting having counted included totals votes office propositions received election.' 14(c)(1), 1973l(c)(1) nfra. covers register vote. While accepting enough cast, urge cover relating decisions offices elective. 37 rely legislative support view, citing testimony former Assistant Burke Marshall subcommittee House Committee Judiciary: 38 'Mr. CORMAN. talked concerned vote, areas 1964. Have you bill ought address itself problem registration? 39 MARSHALL. Congressman. another sort, like corrected, what trying deal bill.'27 at-large cause administration reapportionment contend reading plan meet court.28 courts.29 41 reject narrow construction give subtle, obvious, race.30 compatible interpretation recognizing includes 'all effective.' Reynolds Sims, 533, 555, 1362, 1378, 506 (1964). convinced passing instant whole supports view altered minor way. originally drafted, 'qualification procedure.' During Senate hearings bill, Senator Fong expressed concern word 'procedure' effectively employed response, said objection expanding section, 'was all-inclusive kind practice.'31 Indicative broadest scope, expanded version 1973 43 Similarly, hearings, emphasized scope: 44 KATZENBACH. justification (the requirements) this: Our experience i part legislatures desire sense outguess States. (A)s Chairman recall school desegregation, legislature don't know how many shortest time. Every decree, frustrate decree. 45 'If recollect correctly, ordered something immediately took away authority boards. withdrew funds them act.' Hearings 60. 46 remarks opponents proponents during debate passage demonstrate admonition General.32 He stated types changes changing paper machines) excluded without undermining emphasized, 'precious few' 'because awful lot things started evading 15th so.' 95. significant chose exceptions indicating changes, small, 47 mass contrary, General's clear indication scope refusal engraft exceptions, remark cannot determinative weight. voluminous, excerpt conclusive.33 implementation principles argument administrative arise future establish scope; conflict. weight basic constitutes meaning 49 affected dilution absolute Voters minority majority district, whole. type nullify ability elect just 50 important officer certain appointive instead citizen's amendment; change, formerly voters. Such either effect; 51 appear increasing difficulty gain undermine effectiveness candidates. One deserves note. election. 'procedure impact. forego thinks later become candidate. 52 outlines votes. effect. clear, became therefore, enforceable. 53 others crystal scope. compelled resort whether, articulated legislation, question. that, exception Marshall, balance (including statements language) applies saying this, course express merit enactmens; emphasize decision constitutionality. V. 54 now enforced, since object. admit 'formal' General, formality required. say once 'submitted' served copy appellees' briefs 55 argument. formal procedure, think contemplates 'submission' occurs becomes manner. Nor service constituted 'submission.' fair unambiguous recordable manner request VI. 56 asked set aside elections conducted pre-amendment Solicitor urged promptly proceedings. decline take corrective conseq ence, complex impression—issues rational disagreement. clearly deliberate defiance statutes, any, court. decision, bearing mind today end far concerned. remain continuing strictures used 'tests devices' 4. 57 vacated; reversed. remanded Courts instructions injunctions adequately compliance 58 Judgment vacated remanded; Judgments reversed remanded. 59 ordered. APPENDIX TO OPINION THE COURT. Changes follows: material italicized deleted underscored. Portions unchanged plain roman. 1965: 62 'Whenever political subdivision prohibitions forth (42 1973b(a)) administer 1964, qualification, prerequisite, color, enters procedure: Provided, proceeding legal interposed sixty except neither nor entered bar subsequent Any accordance 2284 title 63 terms 'vote' Su p. Code: 64 'Each (5) districts, regard equality population convenience situation boards supervisors, districts continue changed. elect, next every thereafter, supervisors; board, unanimous hereinafter provided, time, alter boundaries minutes proceedings board. twenty-five per cent (25%) county, asking changed, altered, setting out alterations desired, call date thirty (30), (60) presentation assembled 66 'Provided, containing fifty (50%) according census and/or assessed valuation heretofore participating 67 'Provided further, bordering Gulf Mexico Sound excess eighty thousand (80,000) census, fail affirmatively, considered years. Each based attached map plat defining beat proposed plat, thereon proposal. 68 'And whenever described petition, meeting minutes, day January following; default thereof, commanded writ mandamus. 69 'When aforesaid, motion, thereafter. 70 eligible proposes represent; published newspaper circulation twelve (12) months wherein elected. 71 twenty (20%) present objecting alternate publication alternative method, then publishing notice thereof week weeks ele tion entire electorate district. held. not, respective permitted again transpired. 72 'This construed affect supervisor holding expiration office.' 73 '(b) subsection (a) hereof, herein provided. Upon signed duty elective filled appointment Class Three area eight hundred (825) square miles unit system comprising residing proposition calling designate clerk consecutive twenty-one (21) fixed seven (7) date. addition, posting preceding door courthouse Said held, practicable, therein. favor then, office, years; otherwise, No years, selection expirat 74 'In lying wholly levee situated forty (40,000) decennial hereafter above 75 second Interstate Highway intersect traversed Highways 51, Natchez Trace; Four (25,000) 1960 intersect; created 1916 through Yazoo River flows; land six ninety-five (695) miles, Alabama, Treaty Dancing Rabbit lies campus land-grant institution lands contiguous thereto owned institution; Yazoo-Mississippi Delta Levee District, River, seat (21,000) 1960; twenty-six fifty-nine (26,759) Illinois Central Railroad partially located national forest intersect, twenty-seven fifty-one (27,051) 1963 $16,692,304.00; 76 Sound, therein facility operated National Aeronautics Space Administration, beginning 1972.' 77 contain names put nomination, (40) persons nominated, nomination otherwise known written oath participant nominated qualify established nominations elections. commissioner who, party, following electors: 78 '(a) (1,000) ten (1 ,000) electors. supreme (300) (3,500) 80 '(c) (200) (2,000) 81 '(d) circuit chancery (100) 82 '(e) senatorial floaterial (sic) municipality more, (10%) municipality, (500), (50) electors, whichever lesser. 83 '(f) (1,000), fifteen (15) municipality. signature 'There commission, certificate registrar registrars showing appearing furnish petitioner request. 'Unless Unless listed represents.' 87 1950: 'Insertion ballots.—At lawful check ( ) cross line (—-) inserted. nothing contained 24—251 violation person.' Bulletin Elections: 90 'On August 6, 'Voting 1965; Election 2, part, lack (in addition Code) shall, requests, selected voter. assist voter, request, instructions, divulge indicate, whom 91 'These precincts machines used.' 92 HARLAN, concurring dissenting part. 93 Court's justice granting side half t requests. grants hope for, adopting overly compensate generosity, denies deserve. thereby reduced dead letter very situations full effect.1 94 extremely best begin delineating precise adopts represents better statute. agreement review 'standard, voting,' process counted. goes arguably impact Negro remains unchanged. several grounds. ignores larger structure untrue statute's language; unsupported history. 95 important, regulatory scheme assumes apart rest fact, designed march lock-step 4—the understood another. provisions, 'devices'2 low turnout 'tests' 'devices' exclude suffrage past. moreover, reveals implement policies structured assure dramatic step found soon regains 'device' 4, escapes commands 96 striking characteristics 5's ancillary 4's commands. escape consistently provision, faithfully obeyed 4.3 97 recognized apparent permits tail wag dog. revolutionary innovation American beyond accomplished fourth profoundly permitting people access booths all. But proceeded premise gained free box, governments suitably responsive voice, intervention justified. moving moved techniques prevented restructure governments. reads vastly sphere contemplated despite fact interlock. longer examining tend done. systems representation disfavor voter—an localities past freely, bodies atlarge basis. And yet, holds reviewed me deciding preferred influence officers; other, groups fewer officers. intelligently compare alternatives, readily inferred undertake task. 98 surprising reg onal application. statute, construes it, deals find handful stricter serious parts North South.4 99 difficulties increase closely. alone, formula advanced. critical stand alone. Immediately description proceeds describe aggrieved enforces obtaining consent authorities: (Emphasis supplied.) serves delimit comply. law, County Supervisors smaller anything all, Congress. entirely obvious implications portion brief candidly admits flatly advanced adopted. Government's verb 'comply' oversight. accept suggestion, seems framework understand it. B. 100 confront factors canvassed, justify understanding 'of Act.' Ante, 569. Turning purposes, concept power. ante, 565—566. us. interpreting, contours defined kinds Congress, powers, consciously base powers Amendment, grounded. preamble states '(t)o fifteenth Constitution purposes.' Hawaii suggested citation well, explained 'would quite preference to,' 'I 1564 squarely amendment.' Judiciary, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., t. 193. Katzenbach's restated repeatedly,5 mention absent statute.6 101 Clause, cited claim proceed regulating constituencies legislators intended, did, leading Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 125, 110 (1960). redistricting done excluding maintains totally relevant constituency, uses gerrymander suffrage. 102 unnecessary, Lightfoot marks limit recognize way cases' expansive Sims magic key 'basic purposes' obliged here fails convince. already suggested, assigns role good modest it.7 103 left, relying With deference, garnered undermines case, insofar entitled refer unequivocal 564, concedes diametrically opposed adopts. lengthy rely, actually little su port position. unlike principal assistant, never confronted here, left guess views. guesses made, surely note examples illustrate immediate conducted.8 imagine believed remarkable sweep hypotheticals betrayed fact.9 104 conducted. mean, unanimously concluding apply. affirmed, 105 Mississippi's imposes nominate alters made.10 Since 'primary' petitioning functional equivalent perceive why ambit 106 raises somewhat looks voters, making enacts qualification' drastic kind. old regime none qualified. presupposes balance, comes disable spent 107 Finally, obviously processed polls. Consequently, reverse lower court's 3. 108 straining expand limits, surprisingly refuses cases11 purposes. recognizes, 572, time—Mississippi 1970.12 yet affords four-year expire 1971.13 An respecting control hundreds throughout began serving federally approved. play 109 sems conditional along lines affirmed. Columbia, pre-existing determines MARSHALL, DOUGLAS joins, dissenting. 111 join Parts V opinion. largely Part II my Brother HARLAN's opinion, Accordingly, dissent VI 112 BLACK, 113 Assuming validity does, agree careful disposition am separate 355—362, 835, Constitution. amend constitutions persuading color. reminiscent Reconstruction soldiers controlled reports military commanders did. pass Union treated harshness meted conquered provinces. doctrine Nation repented 'conquered province' concept, bitter Civil War. doubt Colonies agreed dreamed hat hand begging permission Still willing Colony onerous while Colonies, supposedly sister retain sovereignty. Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, (1803), enacted, permit executive officers up agencies Washington them. Proposals vetoing Constitutional Convention; proposal 'from (to) recommend additions Justice, promote usef l learning inculcate sound morality Griswold Connecticut, 479, 515, n. 1678, 1698, 510 (1965). 114 pause reflect themselves Union, emphatically proves creating laws, degrading extent initiate governmental agency. unconstitutional field get ones. 437, seq. Mississip i. Both Fed.Reg. 9897 (August 1965). H.R.Rep.No. 10—11; S.Rep.No. 162, pt. 8; U.S.Code Administrative News, 2437. At oral Pollak Department 251 submissions withheld contrary instances inadvertently ncorporated device. Transcript Argument 63. relief; stipulated applied. 1966. Pending Johnson, 260 630 (D.C.S.D.Miss.1966). Later, represent 1967 failing amendment's 282 164, 165 (D.C.S.D.Miss.1967); 281 918 296 754 (D.C.S.D.Miss.1967). 1253 Emphasis added. 438, defines 'test device' registration read, write, understand, interpret 1973b(c) 268 218 (D.C.E.D.Va.1967). unconstitutional; Boynton 454, 457, 182, 184, 206 (1960); cf. Maryland, 378 226, 237 242, 1814, 1823, 822 (1963); Silber 370 717, 718, 1287, 1288, 798 (1962). 444, 1973j(f) I), exercise asserting rights exhausted law.' added.) necessarily 'a force, doubt, references subsections General. E.g., 12(e). 'private' rights. Raines, 362 17, 27, 519, 526, 524 event, exclusion actions. distinguish rom Apache 256 903 (D.C.D.C.1966). latter effect) litigated, approval. conferred 'remedy' 'rights,' rather means unnecessary creates 'rights' plaintiffs 'remedies.' However viewed, inquiry 'may action' file order.' 443, 1973j(d), (e) inadequacy Sough 1968, Rights, Political Participation 164—165 Memorandum Amicus Curiae 8, 7. (f) 218, 220 appeal. See, e.g., 168, 217 (suits restrain orders Secretary Agriculture); 2282 statute); 305(g) negative ICC). H.R. 6400 Subcommittee ser. (hereinafter Hearings). unde (79 1973j(d) I)) regulation, complying argument, exempted mean allegedly coverage—even precisely avoid 'Congress knew 4(b) resorted stratagem contriving sole perpetuating face adverse decrees. suppose try maneuvers evade itself.' 335, 822, pp. 191—192 Hearings): 'Senator FONG. turning "No imposed applied abridge color—' definition afraid able 'procedure.' 'For says open hours restricted, Could you? 'Attorney purpose. written, possibility hassle 'procedure'? Or would, probably, short restricted statute? so, Senator, committee that. 1964 matter, use 'standards, practices, procedures.' Perhaps broader perhaps clear. You No; practice. 3(a) much detail spelled words device.' Yes. more. Senator.' Cong.Rec. 10727 (remarks Tydings); 10725 Talmadge); 8303 Hart). Committees Judiciary nine total witnesses. More consumed discussing floor House, all.' 308—309, 808, concur present. close one, whatever decide. suspect plaintiff usual 2281. convened, avoinding appears normal narrowly possible. suggests, natural confers parties. 4(c) reads: phrase educational knowledge subject, possess moral character, qual fications voucher class.' expressly supplemental brief. clear: noted, art narrower effect,' construction. Hearings, 35, 141; 102. When, imposition taxes, invoked additional area. 10(b). strengthen looking definitional 832. 14(c)(1) 'include enumerated processed. cautions enumeration stages exclusive, concern. Surely ignoring textual context phrases embracing electoral amount derive franchise, age, residence, property requirements; frequency registrars' open; vice versa. 60—62, 95; 191—192, 237. emphasizes colloquies participated 566-567, 31, 'procedures,' encompass radially register. elaborated change. processed, colloquy section—which sort discussing. extract highlighted 567—568, prevent 4—a strongly deem correct one. true carving switch 568. hardly anyone else occasion discussed connection awareness groups. 93—94. supporters o earlier signatures. subsequently compete victor coming Congressman expired. recognize. 1970 five-year period. text, continued today, impose 'test' modify, senator, representative, supervisor, peace, constable ending 1971. 3238 (1942). superintendents terms, expiring affirm incumbents

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