Document: 517 U.S. 559116 S.Ct. 1589134 L.Ed.2d 809 BMW OF NORTH AMERICA, INC.v.GORECertiorari to the Supreme Court of Alabama. No. 94-896. United States Syllabus* Argued October 11, 1995 Decided May 20, 1996 After respondent Gore purchased a new automobile from an authorized Alabama dealer, he discovered that car had been repainted. He brought this suit for compensatory and punitive damages against petitioner, American distributor BMW's, alleging, inter alia, failure disclose repainting constituted fraud under law. At trial, acknowledged it followed nationwide policy not advising its dealers, hence their customers, predelivery damage cars when cost repair did exceed 3 percent car's suggested retail price. Gore's vehicle fell into category. The jury returned verdict finding liable $4,000, assessing $4 million in damages. trial judge denied BMW's post-trial motion set aside award, holding, among other things, award was "grossly excessive" thus violate Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment. See, e.g., TXO Production Corp. v. Alliance Resources Corp., 509 U. S. 443, 454. agreed, but reduced $2 on ground that, computing amount, improperly multiplied by number similar sales all States, just those Held: is grossly excessive therefore exceeds constitutional limit. Pp. 7-26. (a) Because such violates due process only can fairly be categorized as relation State's legitimate interests punishing unlawful conduct deterring repetition, cf. TXO, S., at 456, federal excessiveness inquiry appropriately begins with identification state designed serve. Principles sovereignty comity forbid State enact policies entire Nation, or impose own choice neighboring States. See Healy Beer Institute, 491 324, 335-336. Accordingly, economic penalties inflicts who transgress laws, whether are legislatively fines judicially imposed damages, must supported interest protecting consumers economy, rather than Nation. analyzed light occurred solely within Alabama, consideration being given consumers. 7-13. (b) Elementary notions fairness enshrined Court's jurisprudence dictate person receive fair notice will subject him punishment also severity penalty may impose. Three guideposts, each which indicates adequate magnitude sanction might impose, lead conclusion excessive. 13-14. (c) None aggravating factors associated first (and perhaps most important) indicium award's excessiveness-the degree reprehensibility defendant's conduct, see Day Woodworth, 13 How. 363, 371-is present here. harm inflicted purely economic; presale no effect performance, safety features, appearance; evinced indifference reckless disregard health others. contention nondisclosure particularly reprehensible because formed part pattern tortious rejected, corporate executive could reasonably have interpreted relevant statutes establishing safe harbors presumptively minor repairs, there evidence either acted bad faith sought establish appropriate line between requiring disclosure purchasers, persisted course after adjudged unlawful. Finally, engaged deliberate false statements, acts affirmative misconduct, concealment improper motive. 14-20. (d) second commonly cited) ratio plaintiff's amount 459-also weighs Gore, his 500 times actual determined jury, suggestion any purchaser threatened additional potential policy. Although possible draw mathematical bright constitutionally acceptable unacceptable would fit every case, see, id., 458, here clearly outside range. 20-23. (e) saved third difference civil criminal sanctions comparable Pacific Mut. Life Ins. Co. Haslip, 499 1, 23-because substantially greater Alabama's applicable $2,000 fine malfeasance, none pertinent interpretive decisions put out-of-state multimillion dollar sanction. Moreover, absence history noncompliance known statutory requirements, basis assuming more modest sufficient. 23-25. (f) Thus, sufficiently egregious justify severe it. Whether remedy requires merely independent determination necessary vindicate consumers' matter court address instance. 25-26. 646 So. 2d 619, reversed remanded. Stevens, J., delivered opinion Court, O'Connor, Kennedy, Souter, Breyer, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion, O'Connor Scalia, dissenting Thomas, Ginsburg, Rehnquist, C. Justice Stevens Court. 1 Amendment prohibits imposing "`grossly excessive'" tortfeasor. 454 (1993) cases cited). wrongdoing involved case decision national automobiles advise amounted less question presented one these 2 * In January 1990, Dr. Ira Jr. (respondent), black sports sedan $40,750.88 dealer Birmingham, driving approximately nine months, without noticing flaws appearance, took "Slick Finish," detailer, make look "`snazzier normally appear.'" 621 (Ala. 1994). Mr. Slick, proprietor, detected repainted.1 Convinced cheated, petitioner North America (BMW), automobiles.2 alleged, repainted suppression material fact.3 complaint prayed $500,000 costs. adopted 1983 concerning were damaged manufacture transportation. If repairing exceeded price, placed company service period time then sold used. however, repairs made. $601.37 about 1.5 Birmingham dealer. 4 asserted worth refinished. To prove relied testimony former estimated value 10 repaired.4 support claim introduced since 983 refinished new, including 14 disclosing before sale $300 per vehicle.5 Using estimate $4,000 vehicle, argued provide selling 1,000 they worth. 5 defense policy, obligation good original factory finish. It disputed assertion impaired good-faith belief made inappropriate. maintained transactions jurisdictions relevance claim. 6 $4,000. addition, assessed based "gross, oppressive malicious" fraud.6 Ala. Code Section(s) 6-11-20, 6-11-21 (1993). 7 award. consistent laws roughly 25 defining obligations manufacturers, distributors, dealers. stringent required costing price; mandated costly repairs.7 Relying statutes, contended lawful 8 drew court's attention fact never action filed. Just months went lawsuit another found paint fraud. Yates America, Inc., 642 937 1993).8 Before judgment changed taking steps avoid vehicles two When promptly instituted full how minor. 9 response arguments, change demonstrated efficacy noted while held unlawful, received customer complaints relating undisclosed settled some lawsuits.9 irrelevant failed offer supplanted, supplemented, existing causes common-law motion, On appeal, rejected permissible amount. 619 (1994). applied articulated Green Oil Hornsby, 539 218, 223-224 1989), approved 21-22 (1991). 2d, 624-625. Based analysis, concluded "reprehensible"; profitable company; "would substantial impact upon [BMW's] financial position"; litigation expensive; same conduct; reflected "the inherent uncertainty process"; bore "reasonable relationship" likely occur well . actually occurred." Id., 625-627. 11 did, rule favor critical point: computed multiplying jurisdictions. 627. Having tainted, "a reasonable $2,000,000," 629, ordered remittitur amount.10 discussion remitted expressly disclaimed reliance "acts jurisdictions"; instead, explained used "comparative analysis" considered cases, "along jurisdictions, involving where seller misrepresented condition awarded purchaser."11 628. 12 we believed review help illuminate character standard identify awards" Honda Motor Oberg, 512 ___, ___ (1994) (slip op., 4), granted certiorari, 513 (1995). II Punitive properly further repetition. Gertz Robert Welch, 418 323, 350 (1974); Newport Fact Concerts, 453 247, 266-267 (1981); 22. our system, necessarily considerable flexibility determining level allow different classes particular case. Most authorize exemplary afford latitude, deterrence. 456; 21, Only does enter zone arbitrariness Cf. 456. For reason, We focus scope future misconduct. No doubts protect citizens prohibiting deceptive trade practices distributors affect car. But need not, do protection uniform manner. Some rely judicial formulate enforce requirement applying principles contract tort law.12 Other enacted various forms legislation define dealers.13 result patch-work rules representing diverse judgments lawmakers 50 15 That diversity demonstrates people disagree requirement. legislatures conclude requirements unnecessary self-interest developing maintaining goodwill customers motivate them voluntary disclosures refrain comply self-imposed standards. Those adopt take account government regulation, choosing exempting formulating standard, consider goals, providing "safe harbor" dealers lawsuits over repairs.14 16 assume, arguendo, wise preferred rule, car, trivial regardless doubt Congress has ample authority Nation,15 clear single so, even Bonaparte Tax 104 592, 594 (1881) ("No legislate except reference jurisdiction. Each others particular").16 Similarly, power burdens interstate market subordinate commerce, Gibbons Ogden, Wheat. 194-196 (1824), constrained respect 335-336 (1989) (the Constitution "special concern both maintenance union unfettered state-imposed limitations commerce autonomy individual respective spheres" (footnote omitted)); Edgar MITE 457 624, 643 (1982). 17 think follows violators intent changing tortfeasors' States.17 large induce 1983.18 attempting alter infringing choices encroachment, form economy. insist adhere State. power, punish residents.19 Nor order deter 18 accept interpretation reflecting computation "based happened jurisdictions." As noted, neither nor "The touching issue showed 60% states unfair practice." 627, n. 6.20 eschewed 628, Alabama.21 consumers, deterrence limited, apparent-for reasons shall now address-that III 19 impose.22 adhering 1983, us excessive: nondisclosure; disparity suffered award; cases. discuss considerations turn. Degree Reprehensibility 20 Perhaps important reasonableness conduct.23 stated nearly 150 years ago, defendant should reflect enormity offense." 371 (1852). St. Louis, I. M. & R. Williams, 251 63, 66-67 (1919) (punitive "wholly disproportioned offense"); Browning-Ferris Industries Vt., Inc. Kelco Disposal, 492 257, 301 (O'Connor, part) (reviewing "should examine gravity harshness damages").24 This principle reflects accepted view wrongs blameworthy said "nonviolent crimes serious marked violence threat violence." Solem Helm, 463 277, 292-293 (1983). "trickery deceit", 462, negligence. West Virginia Justices special emphasis out proportion offense."25 453, 462. Indeed, intentional malice decisive element "close difficult" 468.26 21 present. nature. refinishing performance appearance least purchase. sure, infliction injury, especially done intentionally through target financially vulnerable, warrant penalty. observation convert cause torts significant addition 22 contends conduct. Certainly, repeatedly prohibited knowing suspecting argument strong medicine cure disrespect 28. Our holdings recidivist punished severely offender recognize repeated misconduct instance malfeasance. Gryger Burke, 334 728, 732 (1948). 23 thesis, advances arguments. First, asserts supplement, supplant, remedies breach according viewed immunizing liability threshold. Brief Respondent 18-19. Second, maintains anticipated work expose 4-5. 24 recognize, course, courts authoritatively construe statutes. far aware, commenced explicitly addressed statute provides harbor construed instead supplementing duties.27 A text persuades state-court contrary, interpret harbors. California, example, defines "material" motor excess price $500, whichever greater. Cal. Veh. Ann. 9990 (West Supp. 1996). Illinois required, "nondisclosure constitute misrepresentation omission fact." Ill. Comp. Stat., ch. 815, 710/5 (1994).28 way. simply emphasize record contains follow coincided strictest extant treating actions fraudulent some, if all, overlooks actionable omission.29 qualifier invites drawing sort BMW. exist imperfections finish repaired (or indeed, left unrepaired) materially affecting value.30 There purchasers. purpose, guidance. regard, occasion, let alone occasions.31 26 discloses motive, Haslip TXO. 5, 453. accept, jury's suppressed law obligated communicate prospective purchasers statement, believing duty exists. 27 give rise liability, high culpability warrants exhibits circumstances ordinarily egregiously persuaded imposition Ratio 28 cited unreasonable plaintiff. 459; 23. bear long pedigree.32 Scholars identified early English authorizing multiple wrongs. 65 enactments during 1275 1753 provided double, treble, quadruple damages.33 endorsed proposition comparison significant. 29 though "more damages," line," "cross area impropriety." 23-24. following dicta refined analysis confirming proper "`whether relationship occurred.'" 460 (emphasis original), quoting 21. upholding $10 figure victim ensued plan succeeded. 1.34 30 jury.35 dramatically TXO.36 31 Of consistently notion simple formula, compares 458.37 low awards higher awards, if, act resulted small justified injury hard detect monetary noneconomic difficult determine. appropriate, therefore, reiterate rejection categorical approach. Once again, "we return what Haslip: `We indeed cannot, say, [a] general concer[n] enter[s] calculus.'" 458 (quoting 18). range, basis. breathtaking surely "raise suspicious eyebrow." 482 dissenting). Sanctions Comparable Misconduct 32 Comparing excessiveness. correctly observed, reviewing "accord `substantial deference' legislative issue." part). 23, although "much imposed," imprisonment context.38 available elsewhere 33 maximum Legislature violation Deceptive Trade Practices Act $2,000;39 sanctions, maxima ranging $5,000 $10,000.40 Significantly, distinction offenders recidivists; thus, New York $50 offense $250 subsequent offenses. violation-or, violations-of provisions challenged, appear indicating application punishment. 34 cannot considering drastic expected achieve goal. prompted sheds lesser deterrent adequately protected sufficient compliance IV 35 juries found, affected value. Notwithstanding adduced effort conformed quality standards cars, assume knew, known, passed lose attractive rapidly BMW's. courts' justifies recovery tantamount 36 corporation impecunious diminish entitlement demands several business. status active participant economy implicates preventing undue commerce. While use means regulatory 37 prepared marking limits Unlike fully convinced transcends limit.41 38 reversed, remanded proceedings inconsistent opinion. 39 so ordered. 40 djq whom Souter join, concurring. 41 "punitive damages" having knowingly tell buyer $600, portions $40,000 thereby lowering resale 10%. I explains why objectives, arbitrary deprivation life, liberty, property Clause. (A amounts "arbitrary law") (plurality opinion). Members generally thought, "fair procedures followed, product entitled presumption validity." 457. 40-42 (1991) (Kennedy, judgment). And very themselves, fundamentally unfair. 15-24. believe explain validity overcome 42 reason flows importance legal constraints" "discretion exercised," assure "meaningful whenever fixed permit "appellate [that] makes certain rational purpose repetition." 20-21. ("[U]nlimited discretion-or unlimited discretion matter-in fixing invite extreme results jar one's sensibilities"). 43 concern, itself harkening back Magna Carta, arises basic unfairness depriving property, application, processes, coercion. Daniels 474 327, 331 (1986); Dent Virginia, 129 114, 123 (1889). Requiring law, decisionmaker's caprice, punishment; helps treatment similarly situated persons essence itself. Railway Express Agency, York, 336 106, 112 (1949) (Jackson, concurring) ("[T]here effective practical guaranty require officials minority generally"). 44 Legal precise satisfy concern. supra, (comparing care," "due diligence," "best child") (internal quotation marks omitted). kind constraint discretion, behavior. vague open-ended point risk results. my view, vagueness itself, process, scrutiny us. ("[C]oncerns guidance tried calculus"); 475 ("[I]t lack heightens arbitrariness, passion, bias replace dispassionate deliberation verdict") standards, here, constraints 45 permits contain readily distinguishes warranting small, large, awards. "oppression, fraud, wantonness, malice." 6-11-20(a) goes terms broadly, encompass terms, reading, seem imply. An misrepresentation, statement silence, easily "fraud" 6-11-20(b)(1) ("Fraud" includes "intentional concealing party disclose, gross, oppressive, malicious committed intention entity property") added); 6-11-20(b)(2)("Malice" "wrongful excuse [w]ith injure another") 6-11-20(b)(5) ("Oppression" "[s]ubjecting unjust hardship conscious person's rights"). authorizes kinds misrepresentations, tricking elderly life savings, much vast range between. 46 courts, "factors" intended constrain way belies purpose. 218 sets forth seven appellate determine which, principle, up statute. But, them, illustrates, little constraint. 47 "bear 223. guide counts "reasonable" relationship, illustrates. past, present, consists BMW; disregarding objection instances (as right), last mentioned, count harm. find "consider[ing] 628 (1995) added). explored majority depth, ante, 13-25, underlying seems beyond bounds "reasonable." totaling $56,000, empty test meaningful content. construed, significantly factfinders. 48 Oil's factor "degree reprehensibility" Oil, Like test, relate size court, factor, "reprehensible" 3% repair-where knows value-is degree. discussed majority, 14-20, (they assumed) caused $56,000 unusually enough portion unreasonable; "reprehensibility" concept constraining force, i.e., deprive capricious deprivations. 49 "remove profit" illegal activity "be profit, recognizes loss." ability limit fixed, applied, concept's realized, anywhere near profits evidenced record. Given record's description prevalence, fourth "financial position" defendant. Ibid. Since poor wealthy one, understand state's retribution (though deterrence, distant wealth responses incentives). opinion); 469 judgment); 21-22; 300 part, Rather, inflating wealthy, illustrate. inappropriate; factors, "reprehensibility," purports 51 fifth "costs litigation" desire "to encourage plaintiffs bring wrongdoers trial." extent enhancement linked ascertainable approximating costs, defined generously contingent nature plaintiffs' victories. shows, operate costs reasons. aspect standard-the "encourage trial"-is constrain, enhances, discretionary power-especially unsupported (which mention). 52 sixth "criminal conduct." apply 53 (g) seventh "other actions" "against defendant, conduct" mitigation. 224. 54 first, second, sometimes three together, system's 55 Third, referred to, find, enunciated directly, indirectly background, supplied force here) lack. argue theory offset totality caused. (at confined harm-causing 10-13). economists, causing whole, wrongdoer total Shavell, Economic Analysis Accident Law 162 (1987) ("If equals losses inverse probability suit, injurers optimally despite chance escape suit"); Cooter, Damages Deterrence: How Much, L. Rev. 1143, 1146-1148 (1989). My understanding intuitive theories, crude (leaving qualifications), calculate making rough global harm, dividing successful brought, adding generous attorneys fees Smaller discourage firms engaging harmful larger "over-deter" leading defendants spend prevent employee training, Galligan, Augmented Awards: Efficient Evolution Damages, La. 3, 17-20, 28-30 (1990). Larger "double count" compensatory, punitive, recover. 56 us, nothing suggesting allowable "economic" recovery. Browning-Ferris, (noting "does incorporate views Economics School," "`require subscribe theory'") CTS Dynamics 481 69, 92 (1987)). tend rationality given, facts 468 judgment), conceivable (unlike public's control ballot box, FCC Beach Communications, 508 307, 315 (1993)). Therefore, theory, counseled deferential lacking 57 Fourth, community historic practice exemplify background behavior extraordinary historical and, am finds analogue until relatively recent times. Amici attempt show true, pointing calculations, represented equivalent culpable James D. A. Boyle et al. Curiae 4-5 (hereinafter Historians' Brief). Among others, cite Wilkes Wood, Lofft 98 Eng. Rep. 489 (C. P. 1763) ( $1.5 million, warrantless search papers); Huckle Money, Wills. 205, 95 768 (K. B. 300, $450,000, 6-hour imprisonment); Hewlett Cruchley, Taunt. 128 696 1813) 2,000, $680,000, prosection); Merest Harvey, 442, 761 1814) 500, $165,000, poaching). amici apparently base conversions assumption, namely inflation progressed constant rate inflation. 4. fact, consistent, cumulative modern phenomenon. McCusker, Much Is Real Money? Historical Price Index Use Deflator Money Values Economy 101 Proceedings Antiquarian Society 297, 310, 323-332 (1992). Estimates rates valuation, highly approximate, suggest ancient compared issue, figures. Appendix infra, 13-14 (suggesting above something like $150,000, $45,000, $100,000, $25,000 respectively). And, clear, wrongfulness behavior, measured caprice. 58 Fifth, classify quantitative cabin unbounded created Cf., Tex. Civ. Prac. Rem. 41.008 (Supp. 1996) limited double $200,000, cap suits arising enumerated statute); Conn. Gen. Stat. 52-240b cases); Fla. 768.73(1) 1993) treble damages); Ga. Code. 51-12-5.1(g) 1995) ($250,000 actions). 59 upshot purport channel fact. system court's, jury's, objectives. 60 jury-determined expect direct jurors legislators box; judges, discipline hierarchical organization promotes Yet expects act, little, extent, create public compensate victim, policy-related objective confines 61 principles, obvious community-based (defining, behavior) outcomes become square Constitution's assurance, citizen, law's protection? interpreted, real theoretical. unusual circumstances, virtually constraint, detailed examination 62 reason-the disproportionality objectives-reflects often related interests, great whatever difficulties line, once say lies line's side. proportionality objectives shows falls category "gross excessiveness" prior 63 These taken together otherwise "strong reasons, guarantee nonarbitrary governmental provides. 64 APPENDIX TO OPINION BREYER, J. estimates dispute, including, sources below, eighteenth nineteenth century figures arrived 66 1763, (Eng.) 1.73 Pennsylvania currency. Bureau Census, Statistics States: Colonial Times 1970, Series Z-585, p. 1198 (Bicentennial ed. 1975). 1766-1772, (Penn.) $45.99 (U. 1991). 333 (Eng. $79.56 Accounting 12% 1991 (when brief), Indicators, 104th Cong., Sess., (Feb. 1996), $89.11 1995). 67 Calculated way, 72.84 312, 342, 350. 1991) $1.77 78 Fed. Reserve Bulletin A68 1992). $128.93 Again, accounting 1995, $144.40 68 1763 $89,110 $144,440 today, million. year $26,733 $43,320 $450,000. 69 decisions, 25.3 344, exchange rate, $44.78 $50.16 70 2,000 closer $100,320 $25,080, respectively, amici's $680,000 $165,000. 71 Thomas joins, dissenting. 72 Today latest manifestation increasingly insistent "concern `run wild.'" business, activities unjustified incursion province governments. 73 earlier prelude decision, procedure commits "reasonableness," furnishes "due." 470 (Scalia, 25-28 1-2) concurring). regard Amendment's secret repository substantive guarantees "unfairness"-neither "unreasonable" What procedural assures opportunity contest court; reasonable. 471 74 adheres Clause, prevailed punitive-damages 453-462 478-481 dissenting); 18. When, doctrine mistaken insusceptible principled feel bound stare decisis effect-indeed, doing so. Witte 515 Walton Arizona, 497 639, 673 (1990) compels response. federalizing yet Nation's culture (no correction be), Justices' subjective assessment "reasonableness" assessed. 75 today's represents invalidation unreasonably occasion points length. 76 aspects decision-the "substantive process" right concomitant assumption ultimate decide anew resolved lower proceedings-are new. revived notion, moribund century, measure poses dimension answered Neither precedents relied, step declaring unconstitutional "too big."At adoption Amendment, understood represent voice community, deserved. Barry Edmunds, 116 550, 565 (1886); Missouri Humes, 115 512, 521 (1885); 25-27 Today's dressed really disagreement community's sense indignation outrage expressed merely, concurrence candidly acknowledges, degree," 12; outrage, hardly analytical determination. 77 precedential giving priority matter. position handful errant bunched few other, invented unfairly liberties. plurality pronouncing "imposes `beyond go,'" Seaboard Air Line Seegers, 207 73, (1907)); precedents, themselves too shallowly rooted undertaking. invalidated excessiveness, concerned validity, common carrier lacked legality imposed. Southwestern Telegraph Telephone Danaher, 238 482, 489-491 (1915). scrutiny. remaining opinions arguments can, invalidates Seaboard, 78-79; Waters-Pierce Texas (No. 1), 212 86, 111-112 (1909); Standard Ind. Missouri, 224 270, 286, 290 (1912); (1919). More importantly, latter group cases-which again sole foundation forward espoused Court-simply fabricated issue. assigned precedent bald imposes "limits go," 78. Coffey County Harlan, 204 659 (1907), inquired constitutionality procedure, 662-663. Waters-Pierce, offered Collins Johnston, 237 502 (1915), penalties, contrary prescribing "functions peculiarly belonging States," 509-510. authoritative. fall short needed supplant country's longstanding regarding 15-18; 79 One eagerness field, leave legislatures, useful say. "constitutionally proper" be. 80 instructed outset Part opinion-the beginning analysis-that serve." Ante, 7. reading this, faced prospect field decision) beset "interest laid waste formerly comprehensible conflict laws. thought offense, examined "state interests" pursued, unsettling. "interests" fundamental determinant them. 81 appears, however certainly hope), alarm. unfolds, turns directed, "How much?" "Which punished?" "Alabama power," says, residents." 12. narrow act. assuredly increased displays wickedness, not. Criminal sentences computed, said, "information life," Williams 337 241, 250-252 (1949). acknowledge observing sentencing "[cannot] conduct," "consider bears character." 12, 19. concession quite incompatible, later "neither unlawful," "therefore Alabama." 13. Why (but disreputable) inside actor was? occurred" statement: "Nor citation proposition-other barely analogous 10-11-and know none. 82 issues pronounced remotely resolution elsewhere. treat petitioner's event malicious," calculation increase initial component recognizes, Court-whether not-"expressly omitted); 13.42 informing inquiry, sweeping largely unsupported) statements purest dicta. 83 identifies "[t]hree guideposts" reprehensibility, 14-25. significance "guideposts" nowhere explored, governing hitherto exclusively Apparently clear) overridden "necessary misconduct," 25-a loophole uphold "adequat[e] protect[ion]" ibid. By effectively concoct rationalizations-whether loophole-to reactions juries, accords institution deserves. 84 easy willing truth, mark road nowhere; all. learn "`nonviolent violence,'" (1983)), "`trickery deceit'" negligence," 15. told "`general calculus,'" 458)-though 1" anything "`raise eyebrow,'" dissenting), confronted "breathtaking" ratio, it). accorded "`substantial deference,'" part)). conclude: "To thine self true." criss-crossing platitudes yield answers says guideposts; not-explaining away "reiterat[ing] approach." words, utter platitudes, ever happen produce answer, unnamed considerations. constructed framework genuinely inform courts-that confer artificial air doctrinal essentially ad hoc "fair." partly TXO." seemingly rejects findings jury-that (1996). intentional; 85 problem logic justification ignoring (i.e., deserves punished), wrong willful recoverable). framed obscure logical consequence approach recognition well. elevation "fairness" unconstitutional; definition excessive, attaches undeserving correct, (because evidence) injury. true determinations liability. logic, dispute evidentiary sufficiency moment, stupefying proposition. 86 foregoing respectfully dissent. 87 Chief 88 convinced, unnecessarily unwisely ventures territory traditionally States' domain, face reform measures recently currently arenas. endeavored instructions; recently, highest installed controls (see 8, 6). undisturbed, resist intrusion dominantly 89 strip issue: impermissible "extraterritoriality" infects us; presented. ultimately 12-13, clarification order. 90 experience unprecedented bought flawless brand-new. encounter, showed, orders occasions shipped $300, Tr. 585-586; vehicles, undamaged 623 Sales nationwide, admissible "as `pattern practice' acts." "no error," reiterated, "in admission pervasive behind NA's it." comports expositions. (characterizing "well-settled" admissibility "evidence [defendant's] alleged parts country" "wealth"); Petitioner (recognizing acts, out-of-state, "for [c]ourt isolated incident"). 91 next declared "jury multiplier Such setting penalty, showing wrongful." 627 original) 93 encountered again. Now, plainly assess multiplication events shown Independent Harrington, 658 892, 902-903 1994) (under erred relying insurance company's 94 authority, emphasisno statute, instruction-ever countenanced diminution (approximately 1,000) nationwide. prompt came lawyer summation. App. 31, 812-813. Notably, counsel object suggestion, interrupted unrelated objections four closing statement. 810-811, 854-855, 858, 870-871. request charge instructing calculating Record 513-529 (listing charges requested counsel). Following verdict, challenged orders, alternately, apparent exercise. Curiously, postverdict argument, urged admissible, "full right" multiplier-based disgorgement. 932. 96 brief, idiosyncratic. multiplication, tardily featured unlikely recur call error 97 erroneously) arrive sum "'the functioning awarded.'" 630 (Houston, specially) Big B, Cottingham, 634 999, 1006 1993)). curiam emphasized arriving [the did] original). "properly (citation sum, standing warranted damagesa contested Court-and award." 629. reports "thoroughly painstakingly" reviewed ibid., pathmarking 621. gave weight ("reprehensible") presentation undamaged, 10%,43 litigation. 625-626. previously held, "impos[e] definite factfinders awarding damages." 22; displayed labor pains visibly,44 nonetheless legitimacy. Rowan Runnels, 134, 139 (1847) ("[T]his always conclusive construction constitution laws."). 99 correctly. Under objectives-"punishment deter-rence"-guide Benson, 631 902, 904 quick infirmity corrective counsel's slip other's oversight-counsel summation, unobjected 3-and intending decisions. B 100 unconstitutional. leads domain,45 correct "misapplication law." Ct. Rule ("A petition writ certiorari rarely erroneous factual misapplication law.").46 equipped mission. Tellingly, repeats brings task "mathematical formula," 22, "categorical approach," "bright 26. "raised eyebrow" guide.47 contrast habeas corpus 2254, business alone. aided district appeals. policing area. readiness superintend puzzling reluctance countenance review, appeals, verdicts proceedings. Wright, Miller, Kane, Federal Practice Procedure 2820 (2d reexamination prominent courts48 arenas, Appendix, 9, serves underscore enterprise undue. 102 stated, dissent disturbance 103 DISSENTING GINSBURG, Legislative Activity Regarding 105 hopper variety curtail legislature altogether, unless N. H. 507:16 appendix surveyed are: (1) caps awards; (2) payment sums agencies plaintiffs; (3) mandatory bifurcated trials separate determinations. Caps Awards 106 Colorado-Colo. 13-21-102(1)(a) main damages). 107 Connecticut-Conn. (caps zat twice products cases). 108 Delaware-H. 237, 138th Ass. (introduced 17, (would $250,000). 109 Florida-Fla. 768.73(1)(a) 1992) (in general, 110 Georgia-Ga. 51-12-5.1 $250,000 actions; stemming predicate 111 Illinois-H. 89th 1995-1996 Reg. Sess. (enacted Mar. Indiana-H. 1741, 109th Apr. 26, $50,000). 113 Kansas-Kan. 60-3701(e) annual gross income, $5 million). 114 Maryland-S. 187, Leg. Jan. 27, Minnesota-S. 489, 79th Feb. 16, Nevada-Nev. 42.005(1) equal $100,000 more, $300,000 $100,000). 117 Jersey-S. 1496, 206th Leg., five $350,000, 118 Dakota-N. Cent. 32-03.2-11(4) 119 Oklahoma-Okla Tit. 9.1(B)-(D) guilty disregard; greatest $500,000, actualdamages, benefit accruing injury-causing maliciously). 120 Texas-S. 25, 74th plus $750,000 121 Virginia-Va. 8.01-38.1 (1992) $350,000). 122 II. Allocation Agencies Arizona-H. 2279, 42d 1st allocate victims' assistance fund, specified circumstances). 124 768.73(2)(a)-(b) (allocates 35% General Revenue Fund Public Medical Assistance Trust Fund); Gordon State, 585 1033, 1035-1038 (Fla. 1991), aff'd, 608 800 (upholding provision challenge). 125 51-12-5.1(e)(2) 75% proportionate fees, treasury); Mack Trucks, Conkle, 263 539, 540-543, 436 E. 635, 637-639 (Ga. 126 Illinois-Ill. 735, 5/2-1207 (permits apportion plaintiff, attorney, Department Rehabilitation Services). 127 (subject exceptions, allocates compensation fund violent crime victims). Iowa-Iowa 668A.1(2)(b) described reparations trust fund); Shepherd Components, Brice Petrides-Donohue Assoc., 473 W. 612, (Iowa 60-3402(e) 50% medical malpractice treasury). 130 Missouri-Mo. 537.675 expenses Tort Victims' Compensation Fund). 131 Montana-H. 71, 54th 2, 48% university school deaf blind). 132 291, 1994-1995 18, 1994); 148, Jersey Health Care 133 Mexico-H. 1017, Low-Income Attorney Services 134 Oregon-S. 68th July 19, (amending Ore. 18.540 30.925, repealing 41.315) Injuries Account). 135 Utah-Utah 78-18-1(3) $20,000 136 III. Mandatory Bifurcation Liability Determinations 137 California-Cal. 3295(d) (requires bifurcation, phases requested). 138 require, party, proceeding 51-12-5.1(d) claimed, 140 Assembly, (mandates, request, 141 60-3701(a)-(b) (trier determines 142 510.263(1) (mandates proceedings, 143 Montana-Mont. 27-1-221(7) (upon proceeding). 144 42.005(3) (if awarded, 145 Jersey-N. 2A:58C-5(b) 1987) 146 32.03.2-11(2) trier amount). 147 Ohio-Ohio 2315.21(C)(2) 148 Oklahoma-Okla. 1995-1996) 45th strike requests plaintiff presents prima facie days sustain damages; defendant; awarded). 149 Virginia-H. 1070, top, hood, trunk, quarter panels preparation center Brunswick, Georgia. parties presumed exposure acid rain transit manufacturing plant Germany center. named German manufacturer dealership defendants. codified 1907 still effect. Hackmeyer Hackmeyer, 268 329, 333, 245, 249 1958). provides: "Suppression constitutes arise confidential relations case." 6-5-102 (1993); 4299 (1907). testified reduction owner sued action. trial. cut-off. appeal jurisdiction Georgia 40-1-5(b)-(e) Yates, offering each, bulk exhibit containing 5,856 bills 5,800 repaired. Prior repair. According in-house postjudgment hearing indicate 1993), purchase G. Mosley Contractors, Phillips, 487 876, 879 1986); Hollis Wyrosdick, 704 1987); Campbell Burns, 1341, 1343 Ashbee Brock, 510 214 Jawad Granade, 1986). All presume correct. error-free ($4,000 14, Alabama). Rivers 880, 449 (nondisclosure enacted); Wedmore Jordan Motors, 589 1180 (Ind. (same). Four Ariz. 28-1304.03 (1989); 20-305.1(d)(5a) (1995); 56-32-20 1995); Va. 46.2-1571(D) mandate 8-19-5(22)(c) 9990-9991 1996); Okla. 47, 1112.1 Indiana 9-23-4-4, 9-23-4-5 Minnesota Minn. 325F.664 Y. Bus. 396-p(5)(a), (McKinney Vermont threshold $10,000 thereafter. Vt. Ann., 4087(d) Eleven Ark. 23-112-705 (1992); Idaho 49-1624 (1994); Ky. 190.0491(5) (Baldwin 1988); Ann 32:1260 Miss. Vehicle Comm'n, Regulation 357-C:5(III)(d) Ohio 4517.61 Laws 31-5.1-18(d), Wis. 218.01(2d)(a) Wyo. 31-16-115 Two $3,000 more. Iowa 321.69 Admin. 37-09-01-01 mandates $500 car). Florida $100 knowledge. 320.27(9)(n) Oregon manufacturers "post-manufacturing" repairs. unclear 650.155 Many, exclude components-typically items glass, tires, wheels bumpers-when replaced identical manufacturer's equipment. E.g., (1991); Also, plausibly administrative raising prices residents. are, familiar Food, Drug, Cosmetic Act, added Nutrition Labeling Education 2353, 343; Truth Lending amended, 1604; Securities Exchange 1934, 894, 78l-78m; Cigarette Advertising 283, 1333; Alcoholic Beverage 1988, 4519, 215. Bigelow 421 809, 824 (1975) acquire supervision internal affairs welfare travel State"); Head, 234 149, 161 (1914) impossible throwing down barriers restricted orbits preservation Government depends. obviously called authorities directly dealing abound"); Huntington Attrill, 657, 669 (1892) ("Laws enacts extra-territorial States"). exercised Sullivan, 376 254, 265 (1964) ("The but, form, exercised"); San Diego Building Trades Council Garmon, 359 236, 247 (1959) ("regulation exerted preventive relief"). 11-12, 27-28; Oral Arg. 50-54. altering stems not) discontinue 11. "If gain resulting incentive unitary, yielded millions dollars profits." Bordenkircher Hayes, 434 357, 363 (1978) ("To allows sort"). contrary. Habitual enhance convictions, convictions foreign 13A-5-9 Penal 667.5(f), 668 720, 5/33B-1 70.04, 70.06, 70.08, 70.10 1987 12.42 (1994 1995-1996). past conviction prospects rehabilitation. 241 precisely infra. occurred, mean describing kind. (1993), 16-19, Miller Florida, 423 (Ex Post Facto violated retroactive revised guidelines longer sentence crime); Bouie City Columbia, 378 347 (retroactive process); 350-355 (citing Lankford Idaho, (due death sentence). strict safeguards afforded "judgments notice" Shaffer Heitner, 433 186, 217 (1977) (Stevens, implicated penalties. flagrancy primary Owen, Overview: Functions, Problems Reform, Vill. 387 "is deeply frequently jurisprudence." 284 Burkett Lanata, 337, 339 (1860) "commensurate offence"); Blanchard Morris, 35, (1853) ("[W]e damages] circumstances; proofs threats, violence, imprisonment, accompanied mental fear, torture, agony mind"); Louisville Northern Brown, 732, 749, 795, 799 (1908) ("We aware sustained injuries permanent"). dissenters recognized "TXO's wrongful, calculated, ." Jeter M Dodge, 1383 (La. 1994), Louisiana appeals functions harbor. Finding threshold, 1384. During pendency litigation, 8-19-5(22) section displace pre-existing Hines Riverside Chevrolet-Olds, 655 909, 917, refused, "recognize, damage, slight, incurred process." 921. Instead, determine." 918. reaching overruled seemed one. 920 (overruling Century 21-Reeves Realty, McConnell Cadillac, 626 1273 Cobb Southeast Toyota Distributors, 569 395 1990)). ("[I]f section, revoke rescind completion sale"); (providing "[r]epaired customer-ordered exceeding (4%) disclosed 20-305.1(e) (requiring revocation rescission repairs); (defining greater). Restatement (Second) Torts 538 (1977); Keeton, Dobbs, Prosser Keeton (5th 1984). "new" cosmetic flaws. Wilburn Larry Savage Chevrolet, 477 384 1985). note suggests de minimis disclosure. Five altered Grant McDonogh, 447, 448 (1852) ("[E]xemplary allowed sustained"); Saunders Mullen, 729, 529 (1885) ("When large"); Flannery Baltimore Co., 111, received, interfere"); Houston Central Nichols, Am. Cas. 361, 365 (Tex. 1882) ("Exemplary allowed, McCarthy Niskern, 90, 91-92 (1875) "enormously justly regarded compensation" injustice"). supra 368, officers arresting pay Edw., I., 35. Another directs forcible entry detainer, recover Hen. VI, 6. Present-day wide assortment offenses, violations antitrust Clayton 731, 15, Racketeer Influenced Corrupt Organizations 1964, breaches trademark Trademark 1946, 439, 1117, patent 813, 284. "While stresses shocking shock dissipates considers loss respondents, eliminated royalties payments, succeeded illicit scheme. `potential harm' respondents $8.3 $1 `jar sensibilities.'" Even suffers proposed summarized Ginsburg's Post, 9-11. Conceivably selection Scalia's TXO: challenge disposed "this worse 472 text, Silkwood Kerr-McGee 464 (1984), commented character, noting "$10 [punitive award] standards" largest Commission imposed." (Blackmun, 254 (1964), observed libel "one thousand statute," "fear invoked markedly inhibiting fear prosecution statute." 277. 8-19-11(b) 23-112-309(b) (up suspension dealer's license; license); 320.27(12) $1,000); 40-1-5(g), 10-1-397(a) administratively; superior court); 9-23-6-4 ($50 357-C:15, 651:2 (1995 (corporate $20,000); 396-p(6) offense; offenses). Ginsburg expresses policing" questions years, decades limit, best premature. event, abdication responsibility protections said: "[W]e testimony, late 1992, began redirecting 964. June 1992. later, 1026. Scholars, 6-28 (economic unreasonable); Landes Posner, Structure 160-163 model propriety ("In case."); 278 (In "lawsuit question, law."); 238, 255 (1984) ("Punitive traditional law."). invitation, rightly judgment, hypothetical, real, entered raise punitives below. reply brief stated: "Gore confuses plaintiffs. treats premature `multiple damages' argument. assertion, asking hold, `constitutional occurs subjected cases.'" Reply Appellant Nos. 1920324, 1920325 Sup. Ct.), citations already connection presumably consideration. attacked "there 624 1989)). mitigation accordingly Georgia, resulted. 626. Breyer's offers solid. alone, process. 3. "invit[e] us." Pursuing Breyer concludes matching "legitimate objectives," excessive." exercise engaging, tells this: big judged big? Not order, divine Too is, end, bridle. Distinctive Printing Packaging Cox, 232 Neb. 846, 857, 443 566, 574 (per curiam) ("[P]unitive, vindictive, contravene Const. art. VII, jurisdiction."); Santana Registrars Voters Worcester, 398 Mass. 862, (1986) permitted, Fisher Properties, Arden-Mayfair, Wash. 826, 852, 726 (en banc) Johnson, 1940357 (Nov. 1995), regime assessments Henceforth, bifurcated. Initially, any; also, warranted. yes resumed instructions damages.After final paid court. expenses, attorney instruct clerk divide remainder equally Fund. satisfied,

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