Document: 532 U.S. 67121 S.Ct. 1281149 L.Ed.2d 205 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.CRYSTAL M. FERGUSON, et al., PETITIONERSv.CITY OF CHARLESTON al. No. 99-936. SUPREME COURT THE UNITED STATES Argued October 4, 2000 Decided March 21, 2001 Syllabus In fall 1988, staff members at Charleston public hospital operated by Medical University South Carolina (MUSC) became concerned about an apparent increase use cocaine patients who were receiving prenatal treatment. When incidence among maternity remained unchanged despite referrals for counseling and treatment tested positive drug, MUSC offered cooperate with city prosecuting mothers whose children drugs birth. Accordingly, a task force up representatives, police, local officials developed policy which set forth procedures identifying testing pregnant suspected drug use; required chain custody followed when obtaining patients' urine samples; provided education referral positive; contained police criteria arresting prescribed prosecutions offenses and/or child neglect, depending on stage defendant's pregnancy. Other than provisions describing substance abuse women positive, no mention change care such patients, nor did it prescribe special newborns. Petitioners, obstetrical arrested after cocaine, filed this suit challenging policy's validity on, inter alia, theory warrantless nonconsensual tests conducted criminal investigatory purposes unconstitutional searches. Among its actions, District instructed jury find petitioners unless they had consented The found respondents, appealed, arguing evidence was not sufficient support jury's consent finding. affirming without reaching question, Fourth Circuit held searches question reasonable as matter law under Court's cases recognizing "special needs" may, certain exceptional circumstances, justify search designed serve non-law-enforcement ends. Held: A state hospital's performance diagnostic test obtain patient's conduct enforcement unreasonable if patient has procedure. interest using threat sanctions deter from cannot departure general rule official authorized valid warrant. Pp. 8-18. (a) Because hospital, government actors Amendment's strictures. New Jersey v. T. L. O., 469 325, 335-337. Moreover, issue indisputably within meaning. Skinner Railway Labor Executives' Assn., 489 602, 617. Furthermore, both lower courts viewed case one involving MUSC's right warrants probable cause, must assume decision performed informed consent. 8-9. (b) seeks authority turn results over knowledge consent, differs four previous considered whether comparable fit closely guarded category constitutionally permissible suspicionless See Chandler Miller, 520 305, 309; see also Skinner, Von Raab, Acton. Those employed balancing weighing intrusion individual's privacy against supported program. invasion here far more substantial those cases. cases, there misunderstanding purpose potential results, protections dissemination third parties. involved disqualification eligibility particular benefits, unauthorized results. critical difference, however, lies nature need" asserted. each prior divorced State's interest. Here, central indispensable feature inception coerce into Respondents' assertion their ultimate purpose-namely, protecting health mother child-is benificent unavailing. While goal program well have been get off drugs, immediate objective generate reach goal. Given given extensive involvement every policy, simply does needs." fact turned merely provide basis distinguishing It provides affirmative reason enforcing employees, like citizens, duty inadvertently acquire course routine treatment, undertake specific incriminating obligation make sure fully constitutional rights, standards knowing waiver require. Cf. Miranda Arizona, 384 436. 9-18. 186 F.3d 469, reversed remanded. ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR FOURTH CIRCUIT Stevens, J., delivered Court, O'Connor, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. Kennedy, concurring judgment. Scalia, dissenting opinion, Rehnquist, Thomas, joined Part II. Opinion Justice Stevens Court. 1 case, we decide More narrowly, can 2 * treatment.1 response perceived increase, April 1989, began screens samples cocaine. If she then referred county commission However, referrals, appear change. 3 Some months later, Nurse Shirley Brown, manager obstetrics department, heard news broadcast reporting Greenville, Carolina, users harmed fetus therefore abuse.2 Brown discussed story counsel, Joseph Good, Jr., contacted Solicitor Charles Condon offer cooperation birth.3 4 After Good's letter, took first steps developing case. He organized initial meetings, decided would participate, issued invitations, he described his plan prosecute while pregnant. formed included representatives MUSC, County Substance Abuse Commission Department Social Services. Their deliberations led adoption 12-page document entitled "POLICY M-7," dealing "Management Drug During Pregnancy." App. Pet. Cert. A-53. 5 three pages Policy M-7 procedure "identify/assist abuse." Id., A-53 A-56. section, "Identification Abusers," should through screen met nine criteria.4 stated samples, presumably could used subsequent proceedings. clinic positive. Most important, added intervention "provided necessary ' leverage' [p]olicy effective." Brief Respondents 8. That was, respondents candidly acknowledge, essential program's success getting keeping them there. 6 two protocols, identification during pregnancy, second labor. Under latter protocol, notified delay promptly arrested. former, test, (and arrested) only time missed appointment counselor.5 1990, modified behest solicitor's office give labor, visit, opportunity avoid arrest consenting 7 last six forms sign, follow detail precise woman charged, her pregnancy 27 weeks less, charged simple possession. 28 more, possession distribution person age 18-in fetus. "while illegal drugs," unlawful neglect child. A-62. interrogate arrestee "to ascertain identity suspect." A-63. II 8 Petitioners 10 received Four implementation policy; receive alternative arrest. others 1990; either failed comply terms time. include Charleston, helped develop enforce MUSC. 9 Petitioners' complaint challenged various theories, including claim advanced principal defenses claim: (1) that, fact, searches; (2) law, reasonable, even absent because justified purposes. rejected defense "were done medical university independent [Instead,] came agreement reached shared police." 1248-1249. submitted factual instructions verdict favor consent.6 respondents. Appeals affirmed, but (1999). Disagreeing majority appellate panel our line non-law&nbhyph;enforcement ends.7 On understanding "that personnel wholly intent aid efforts,"8 id., 477, applied Treasury Employees 656 (1989), Vernonia School Dist. 47J Acton, 515 646 (1995), concluded curtailing complications costs associated maternal outweighed what termed minimal patients. dissent, Judge Blake doctrine apply insufficient sustain verdict. F.3d, 487-488. 11 We granted certiorari, 528 1187 (2000), review court's holding issue. do sufficiency respect necessarily decision-as Appeals-that conclude judgment remanded III 12 actors, strictures Amendment. 335-337 (1985). meaning 617 (1989).9 Neither identify searched cause believe suspicion use. Rather, cause.10 posture comes us, patients.11 13 agents "fit searches." 309 (1997). sustained railway employees train accidents, 602 Customs Service seeking promotion sensitive positions, high school students participating interscholastic sports, (1995). fourth struck down candidates designated offices unreasonable. 305 14 weighed As matter, note parties.12 adverse result disqualify benefit, participate extracurricular activity, involves less serious expectation enjoyed typical undergoing will nonmedical American Association Amici Curiae 11; Public Health 6, 17-19.13 none upon kind expectation.14 15 difference between drug-testing one, asserted justification earlier absence warrant individualized enforcement.15 point emphasized opinions sustaining programs cases,16 dissent case.17 distinguishes circumstances physicians psychologists, ordinary aimed helping herself, come across information rules ethics requirements, here. See, e.g., Council Ethical Judicial Affairs, Association, PolicyFinder, Current Opinions E-5.05 (2000) (requiring where "a threatens inflict bodily harm another him herself probability carry out threat"); Ark. Code Ann. 12-12-602 (1999) intentionally inflicted knife gunshot wounds); Ariz. Rev. Stat. 13-3620 (Supp. 2000) "any . having responsibility children" report peace officer protection agency).18 16 argue essence one. Chandler, accept invocation need." Instead, carried "close review" scheme concluding need "special," term defined U.S., 322. plainly reveals actually served "is ultimately indistinguishable crime control." Indianapolis Edmond, 531 __, __ (slip op., 15). 17 looking programmatic purpose, consider all available determine relevant primary purpose. __-__ 12-14). put below, "it clear record continuing focus prosecution drug-abusing ." 484. Tellingly, codifying incorporates police's operational guidelines. devotes attention custody, range possible charges, logistics notification arrests. Nowhere, discuss different courses infant, aside mother's addiction. 18 throughout development application prosecutors extensively day-to-day administration policy. Police reports reports. 78-80, 145-146, 1058-1060. Law performing screens.19 1052-1053. 26-27, 945. administration, access Brown's files routinely attended team's regularly copies team documents discussing women's progress. 122-124, 609-610. pains coordinate timing arrests staff, and, particular, Brown. 1057-1058. 19 purposes20 goal.21 intended means end, direct ensure means. distinction critical. always serves some broader social objective, respondents' view, virtually immunized needs defining solely ultimate, rather immediate, purpose.22 Such approach inconsistent program, needs."23 20 applying determination require.24 436 (1966). 21 repeatedly insisted, motive benign punitive. motive, Amendment protections, pervasive stark unique characterizes admissible prosecutions. correct problem, "the gravity alone dispositive questions concerning officers employ pursue purpose." __-___ 9-10). prohibition nonconsensual, warrantless, applies 308; 498 619. 22 reversed, further proceedings consistent opinion. 23 so ordered. NOTES: several witnesses testified trial, problem "crack babies" widely late 1980's national epidemic, prompting considerable concern community populace. viable historically regarded person; 1995, ingestion trimester constitutes neglect. Whitner 328 S. 1, 492 E. 2d 777 cert. denied, 523 1145 (1998). letter dated August 23, Good wrote: " Please advise us your anticipating future action anything Center assist you matter." A-67.4 follows: "1. No "2. Late 24 gestation "3. Incomplete "4. Abruptio placentae "5. Intrauterine fetal death "6. Preterm labor obvious cause' "7. IUGR [intrauterine growth retardation] "8. Previously known alcohol "9. Unexplained congenital anomalies." A-54. Despite conditional description category, stages, immediately reported patient. read: "THERE WERE NO SEARCH WARRANTS ISSUED BY MAGISTRATE OR ANY OTHER PROPER JUDICIAL OFFICER PERMIT THESE URINE SCREENS BE TAKEN. THERE NOT BEING WARRANT ISSUED, THEY ARE UNREASONABLE AND IN VIOLATION CONSTITUTION STATES, UNLESS DEFENDANTS HAVE SHOWN GREATER WEIGHT PREPONDERANCE EVIDENCE THAT PLAINTIFFS CONSENTED THOSE SEARCHES." 1314-1315. judge's instructions, plaintiffs searches, taking disclosure police. argued, Scalia does, "deceivingly" post, (dissenting opinion). appeared Blackmun's 351 concurrence, Blackmun agreed limited exceptions probable-cause requirement, reasonableness determined careful governmental private interests," "in needs, beyond normal enforcement, requirement impracticable Ibid. subsequently adopted terminology O'Connor Ortega, 480 709, 720 (1987) (plurality opinion), Griffin Wisconsin, 483 868, 873 (1987), unsupported justification. 646, 652-653 477 (CA4 1999). text finding, context petitioners' now abandoned Title VI claim, reads "The departments Its facilitate protect unborn child." A-38. read light comment ". SEARCHES DONE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY INDEPENDENT PURPOSES. IF HAD BEEN, THEN WOULD IMPLICATE AMENDMENT. OBVIOUSLY AS I POINT OUT PAGE NORMALLY BLOOD TESTS TYPE THING CAN TAKEN HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS WITHOUT HAVING WORRY ABOUT ONLY REASON AMENDMENT IS IMPLICATED HERE POLICE CAME WAS AN AGREEMENT REACHED POSITIVE SHARED WITH POLICE. SCREEN POLICE, IT'S CONJUNCTION IMPLICATES AMENDMENT." 1247-1249. attempts disaggregate sample 2. treated taken though see, (1997); (1995); (1989); contend needs. footnote brief, entirely suspicionless. n. 13. They not, indicating apt caused factor, malnutrition, illness, indigency. significantly, legal argument reasoning rest premise randomly. otherwise resolve issue, think prudent allow court issues instance, express view issues. Glover ___ (2001); National Collegiate Athletic Assn. Smith, 525 459, 470 312, 318; 658; 621, 5, 622, 6; 663, 666-667, 672, There acquired 20-7-510 (physicians nurses welfare agency "when person's professional capacity person" receives abused neglected). existence laws might lead expect consented, surely anticipate previously recognized consequences needed care. Whalen Roe, 429 589, 599-600 (1977). Poland, Dombrowski, Ager, & Sokol, Punishing users: enhancing flight care, 31 Alcohol Dependence 199-203 (1993). Chief recently noted: needs' doctrine, uphold reasons unrelated exception based wrongdoing." 7) opinion); nn. 16-17, infra. "carried authorities acting own authority" conjunction agencies." 341, 7. relying 868 argues ordinarily employed, precisely enable who, course, objective." Post, Viewed isolation, proposition invokes it. tolerated suspension part behind little, any, entanglement enforcement. 620-621; 665-666; 658. Griffin, reserved "routine obtained pursuant administrative rise inference pretext, impugn program." 5. itself, noted "[a]lthough probation impartial magistrate, neither normally conducts citizen." 876. Finally, agree properly probationers lesser large. 874-875. "[t]he FRA toxicological tests, 'to prevent accidents casualties railroad operations impairment drugs.' 620-621 (quoting 49 CFR 219.1(a) (1987)). Similarly, "clear Service's Test employee employee's consent." 665-666. same vein, 658, relied disclosed class know; internal disciplinary function" finding reasonable. "Today's speaks 'closely guarded' 'special need.' But term, Raab relies, quite sense today. describe apart regular [489 U.S.], 620; 669. inquiry delineated especially great 'importan[ce],' [520 318, considers 'the supervision probationers,' 'operation office,' supra, 620, 'important.' precedents, proper need,' familiar interest." 325 (Rehnquist, dissenting). Our emphasis contrary hyperbole these requirements "clearly bad." 3. meeting laboratory staffs, went concept system staff. italicize words lest misunderstood. 1-2 (Kennedy, judgment). upheld collection Kennedy's-the reference legitimate According immunize presence involvement. 8-10. To say therapeutic disappear miss point. What matters new met. core, predicated were, admitted, success. York Burger, 482 691 inspections vehicle dismantling businesses. industry commercial premises "particularly attenuated" extent regulated. 700. important purposes, "plain purposes" reject contention statute "designed gather convictions penal 715. discovery violations incidental search. contrast, specifically laws. handful seizure reasonableness. Michigan Dept. State Sitz, 496 444, 455 (1990); Martinez-Fuerte, 428 543 (1976). First, roadblock seizures, intrusive body home." 7-8) dissenting); 561 ("[W]e deal sanctity dwellings, afforded most stringent protection"). Second, explicitly distinguished checkpoints 450. Thus, approach, broad benefits bring (or, way, harms prevent). difficult save lives. near consensus sort discouraging harm, advance, health. Amicus 6-22; 17-21; NARAL Foundation 18-19. themselves. Pl. Exh. 14, Hulsey, 11-17-89, Coke Committee, ("The medically indicated abuse, conventional manners, mandatory screening methods etc. raised pediatricians function officials. activity appropriate ethically just, active pursuit individuals presenting proper"). mischaracterizes "material voluntarily entrusts someone else whatever contain." 4. But, elsewhere, leave determine. 11, supra. "leaves dark 'trusted' sources." With due respect, disagree. address doctors independently complied requirements. above, collect initiation, design, decline dissent's invitation foray dicta situations us. 25 My conclusion differ somewhat leading separate 26 dispute level uses "ultimate goal[s]" "immediate purpose," use, which, reasons, analysis. Ante, 14-16. views 16. makes, lacks foundation All For example, majority's distinction, identified employees. Government's regulating [railroad] safety." 620. compelled isolate gathering would-be interdiction officers. necessities eligible positions [United Customs] positions." 666. student-athletes "need" furthering today's goal: "[d]eterring Nation's schoolchildren," particularly student-athletes, risk physical user whom playing sport high." 661-662. unsurprising concentrated goal, proximate By very definition, almost evidence. circumstance search, nothing serves. Put although procuring successful until today procurement justifies 29 seems incorrect respects just discussed, sustained. demonstrates explains, inception. None precedents sanctioned inclusion design arrests, threatened real, implement objectives. prosecutions, integral achieve legitimate, civil traditional waived explicit assumption brought contact systemic applications. Every individual explaining office. Everyone told failure undergo prosecution. holds, acted, respects, institutional arm character greater connection rationale. 30 my limitations decision. beginning ought acknowledge legitimacy life grave fetus, later child, ingestion. Infants born wide variety neurological abnormalities. Chiriboga, Brust, Bateman, Hauser, Dose-Response Effect Fetal Cocaine Exposure Newborn Neurologic Function, 103 Pediatrics 79 (finding compared unexposed infants, cocaine-exposed infants experienced higher rates intrauterine retardation, smaller head circumference, global hypertonia, coarse tremor, extensor leg posture). Prenatal exposure developmental problems persist long Arendt, Angelopoulos, Salvator, Singer, Motor Development Cocaine-exposed Children Age Two Years, 86 (concluding years age, exposed utero exhibited significantly fine gross motor exposed); Chasnoff Drugs: Outcome Six 846 Annals Academy Sciences 314, 319-320 (J. Harvey B. Kosofsky eds. 1998) year olds exhibit instances depression, anxiety, social, thought, problems, delinquent aggressive behaviors counterparts). doubt ingesting tragic injury impose punishment expectant little regard risks causing lifelong damage suffering. State, measures rehabilitation training addiction weakness, acts powers civic obligations. furthermore, call require teachers authorities, likely result. highlights real difficulty. reputable sources confirm, K. Farkas, Training Care Human Services Personnel Perinatal Abuse, Reviews, Pregnancy Childhood, 13, 27-28 (R. Watson ed. 1995); Services, Mental Administration, Pregnant, Substance-Using Women 48 (1993), profession adopt acceptable prompt effective take discover follows, invalidate testing. One ironies then, review, gives chance, replaced rigorous system. must, us; handcuffs, assistance designing implementing 32 An essential, usual voluntariness analysis altered consequences, (e.g., dismissal employment sports team), refusal. account voluntary full word. 615; 660-661; 650-651. given, bear whole 33 hand, connotation yet decided. Indeed, finds unreal step assuming all. erected strange world deciding 34 discussion endeavored permissibility artificial context. role played affected assessment concurrence judgment, interpreted resolved limits imposed Had prerogative agreement, remand. 35 remarks, concur 36 Thomas join II, dissenting. 37 unappealing aspect nurses, ministers mercy, supposed objects ministration-although here, correctly pointed out, ministering meant protect. desirability occurred present Constitution questions, leaves vast resolution debate democratic process-which produce citizens elected forbid permit narrower one: whether, conduct, violates seizures. not. 38 petitioners, really object testing, drug-test obviously At "derivative product past search," "work[s] wrong" "presents remedies." Calandra, 414 338, 354 (1974). act conceivably case: sample. suppose traces sorts, protects citizens' "persons, houses, papers, effects"; unrealistic "effects" (i.e., property) passed California Greenwood, 486 (1988) (garbage left curb property protected Amendment). argue, suppose, prohibited generalized "emanating" "penumbras" (a us); arguable lawfully (I add factors legitimizing sample, likewise legitimize it.) 39 rudimentary extracted forcibly. conceivable bases saying contentions coerced uninformed (3) police.1 (When below said reserving 476 1999), referring three-and perhaps two.) 40 established suffice, special-needs doctrine. analogizing (1966), "standards waiver" apply, ante, 17, flatly contradicted jurisprudence, shows (but deceivingly) material represented, giving derived unconstitutional. Hoffa 385 293 [was] [the informant's] disclose informant vitiated petitioner gave" agent's wrongdoing, 300. argument, [does protect] wrongdoer's misplaced belief confides wrongdoing reveal it." 302. defendant evidence, invade. trust sneaky ungentlemanly thing, (as are) government. 50 U.S.C. 403-7 (1994 ed., Supp. IV) (prohibiting "Intelligence Community['s]" journalists agents). That, immaterial "however strongly colleague, expectations turns colleague agent communicating authorities." White, 401 745, 749 (1971) (emphasis added). note, distinguish catch act, wrongdoing. 425 435, 440-443 (1976); cf. Illinois Perkins, 292, 298 (1990) (relying suppression inmate confession posing fellow prisoner). 41 Until today, never held-or suggested- contain.2 Without much point, opens hole size shape indeterminate. Today's remarkable enough confidential relationship violated least law. surprising learn, recognizes spousal evidentiary privilege cooperating husband wife. since exist physician-patient Carolina. Peagler Atlantic Coast R. Co., 232 274, 101 821 (1958). Since declines "trusted" sources.3 Presumably lines drawn case-by-case branch (which relationships invaded police) control, confiding uncontrolled Court-uncontrolled common-law precedent guide adhere says violation consensually, hence search.4 42 remains invalidating necessitous to-wit, coercion, coercion government-and nongovernmental sufficed, permitted ballistic bullet wound. And many wounds,5 abuse,6 (like (2000)) abuse.7 43 clear, therefore, thus irrelevant, operates validate seizures unlawful. ensuing discussion, shall (contrary precedent) (either coerced. common sense) constituted unconsented effects. assumptions, become relevant; applied, 44 inapplicable rests "undert[ook] [drug] patients" "for patients." original). words, purported rationale pretext; need. (1989). contradicts "was A-38.8 binding clearly erroneous, Fed. Rule Civ. Proc. 52(a). Not supportable; overturned. 45 started suggestion Expectant substance-abuse (opinion Court)-an benefit (testimony single damage). And, "[i]nfants abnormalities," judgment), attention, Opposition A76-A77, additional predicting postnatal origin-before way involved-the "ultimate," Court), improving infant Several initiated, nurse discovered counsel wrote solicitor ask "what, anything, matter," 499 (South requires reported, 20-7-510), suggested ways tainting securing calls "ultimate" coercing 2-4, 14. Why once adopted, original, somehow disappeared, entirety "pretext" grounds arrest? face it, incredible. exclusively arrest-related adduced police-cooperation itself how infants. inducing Does (or hope) invalidation decreed, cease? 46 sum, ability "distinguis[h] requirements," 12-13, this: addition law-enforcement-related destroys applicability "special-needs" impossible, developed, objective. tip detective petitioner, felon parole, possessed firearm. Accompanied petitioner's home. weapon probationer's trial 870-872. Affirming denial motion suppress, assuring compliance release Notably, observed citizen. assuredly interest, mind probationer setting, dispense requirement." 876-877. 47 Like officer, "ordinarily conduc[t] citizen," "supposed [mother child]." provision difference. suggests after-the-fact, outcome. 12-16. beginning; indeed, gun detective. approved parole untrained chain-of-custody procedures, possibility present, unaccompanied happened weapon. significant baffling. seek observing enjoy public. irrelevant render inapplicable. event, Griffin's home taken, performed, hospital-especially testimonial physician's confidentiality yield McCormick England, 627, 633, 640-642, 494 431, 434, 438-439 (Ct. 1997); conditions indicate (child abuse). 597-598 (1977) (privacy hospitals provide, names prescriptions frequently drugs). makes essentially basic error puts differently: decided," says, "do objectives." true. truth "legitimate, objectives" sought (Surely reincarceration assure parole). true, achieved sought, involvement, "immediate" drug-impaired concedes "prosecuting follows testing." place reasons. Surely mean police-suggested (such preserving sample) testing; facts show so. me reasonably thought approving, initially threatening bringing 51 outset, Court-at cases-to weigh crisis 1980's. refrain observing, outcome wise interests clear. cocaine-testing refer addicts centers, prepare possibly children. providing (in reported) wanted sanction strong incentive addicted drug-addiction themselves shown 253 ever arrested, prosecuted. 1125-1126. authorizing damages participated proves again good deed unpunished. 52 concerned: validated respectfully dissent. asserts improper "disaggregate police," Amendment." 8, 9. involuntarily. Where search), infected by) search; where, separately were. "guileful forcible intrusions area." 301. cited proposition, meant: Gouled 255 (1921), Government pretext visit away papers. "Guile" (rather force) go scope Whereas invalidated, Lewis 206 equally guileful stayed bounds home, carrying package provided. contends trusted sources, "do[es] 24. hard understand addressing fails enshrouded darkness-unless bad. (If betrayal mere direction legislature be.) infinitesimal problem. doctor's-or spouse's-voluntary compulsion statute? am "mischaracteriz[ing]" "assum[ing] [leaves] determine." responsive. "question consent" open Consent alone-or plus testing-does suffice. raise mistaken. searches," "Petitioners freely samples"; "each signed form samples-including tests"; "[t]here jurisprudence imposes searching inform party enforcement." Respondent 38-39. brief takes charge jury-which chooses unexaminable "given," 6-that disclosing 39. disposition implies remand, 9, 11: patients," added)-informed, is, happy, illogical assurance intends holding, urge remand same. Cal. Penal 11160 (West 2001); N. Y. 265.25 (McKinney 2000); 16-3-1072 2000). Colo. 12-36-135 (2000). "would respondents," whereas "more prudent[ly] allow[s] Appeals] express[es] issues." Ante 11. police; I. necessary, 8-9, 16-18, 24; concludes unconsented), remaining. believes "must 'these [T]he it's implicates Amendment.' 7, quoting exclusive text, contains exclusivity requirement.

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