Document: 465 U.S. 271 104 S.Ct. 1058 79 L.Ed.2d 299 MINNESOTA STATE BOARD FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGES et al.v.Leon W. KNIGHT al. COLLEGE FACULTY ASSOCIATION v. Leon Nos. 82-898, 82-977. Argued Nov. 1, 1983. Decided Feb. 21, 1984. Syllabus The Minnesota Public Employment Labor Relations Act (PELRA) authorizes state employees to bargain collectively over terms and conditions of employment. statute also grants professional employees, such as college faculty, the right "meet confer" with their employers on matters related employment that are outside scope mandatory bargaining. However, if forming an appropriate bargaining unit have selected exclusive representative for bargaining, employer may nonmandatory subjects only representative. Appellant State Board Community Colleges (Board) operates community system, appellant College Faculty Association (MCCFA) is designated faculty State's colleges. On level, MCCFA established committees discuss policy questions applicable entire system. campus chapters administrations created local campus. Appellees, 20 instructors who not members MCCFA, filed suit in Federal District Court, challenging, inter alia, constitutionality MCCFA's representation processes. Court held provisions PELRA deprived appellees First Fourteenth Amendment speech associational rights by denying them opportunity participate employer's making policy, court granted declaratory injunctive relief. Held: do violate appellees' constitutional rights. Pp. 280-292. (a) Appellees no right, either public, or instructors, force officers acting official policymaking capacity listen views. Nothing this Court's case law interpreting it suggests speak, associate, petition require government policymakers respond communications public issues. Neither status nor fact academic setting involved gives any special a voice employer. Even assuming take meaning setting, they allow teachers institutional policymaking. 280-288. (b) Appellees' been infringed PELRA's restriction participation sessions faculty's has restrained freedom speak education-related issue associate whom please, including Nor attempted suppress ideas. Similarly, impaired, since free form whatever advocacy groups like. 288-290. (c) exclusion from does deny equal protection laws violation Amendment. legitimate interest ensuring its hear one, presenting majority view employment-related questions, permitting selection representatives be made rational means serving interest. 291-292. 571 F.Supp. reversed. Eric R. Miller, St. Paul, Minn., appellants. Edwin Vieira, Jr., Manassas, Va., appellees. Justice O'CONNOR delivered opinion Court. 1 It requires engage exchanges views relating but If exchange question presented whether nonmandatory-subject process violates within disagree We hold not. 2 * A. 3 In 1971, legislature adopted (PELRA), Minn.Stat. §§ 179.61 seq. (1982), establish "orderly constructive relationships between all employees. . ." Id., § 179.61. covered are, broadly speaking, political subdivisions, agencies, instrumentalities. 179.63. amended form, original provides division into units establishes procedure, based support unit, designation agent unit. 179.67, 179.71, 179.741. negotiate" concerning "terms employment," which defines mean "the hours employment, compensation therefor ., personnel policies affecting working employees." 179.63, 179.71. employees' must seek agreement good faith. subd. 16. 4 negotiations. 179.65. This provision rests recognition "that possess knowledge, expertise, dedication helpful necessary operation quality services assist developing policies." 179.73. declares state's "encourage close cooperation employees" providing subject Ibid. There statutory process, however, faith efforts reach agreement. See Minneapolis Federation Teachers Local 59 Special School Dist. No. 258 N.W.2d 802, 804, n. (1977). 5 select employer, serves well. Indeed, neither except through 179.66, 7. restriction, prevent submitting advice recommendations part work assignment. Moreover, nothing restricts employee "matter betterment" long doing so "is designed interfere full, faithful proper performance duties circumvent there one." 179.65, 1. B 6 (State Board) At time trial, system comprised eighteen institutions located throughout state. Each administered president, reports, chancellor Board. 7 Prior Minnesota's colleges were governed variety ways. some campuses, had strong administrative policymaking, expressed organizations senates. other administration consulted very little faculty. Irrespective level involvement governance, retained final authority make policy. 8 Following enactment PELRA, (MCCFA)1 was colleges, deemed single unit.2 "met negotiated" conferred" 1971. result negotiation successive collective agreements intervening years and, order implement provision, restructuring governance practices 9 committees—also referred "exchange views" committees—to both levels discussed topics evaluation administrators, accreditation, student affairs, curriculum, fiscal planning control App. Juris. Statement A-49. 10 considers state-wide position. recognizes, every instructor agrees question. Not member own represent committees. Accordingly, communicate coverage provision. at A-50, A-52. They frequently done so.3 With possible exception brief period adjustment new structure, during administrators reluctant informally individual impeded communication questions. A-50. ever construed impede communication.4 C 11 twenty MCCFA. December 1974, United States Minnesota, challenging A three-judge convened case. Master appointed conducted trial 1980 submitted recommended findings early 1981. A-54 A-81. issued late 1981, id., A-32 A-54, decision legal claims 1982, A-7 A-32, 12 rejected attack relying chiefly Abood Education, 431 209, 97 1782, 52 261 agreed appellees, applied infringes wish join By granting members, held, unconstitutionally deprives non-MCCFA "a fair representatives." A-23. relief accordance holdings enjoined selecting without practice denied. 13 Board, appeals invoking jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. 1253. summarily affirmed judgment insofar valid. --- ----, 103 1493, 75 927 (1983). thus argument, A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. States, 295 495, 55 837, L.Ed. 1570 (1935), Carter Coal Co., 298 238, 56 855, 80 1160 (1936), delegated legislative private parties. summary affirmance process. 14 March 28, 1983, noted probable 1496, 928. Several weeks later, following election pursuant newly scheme representatives, modified injunction specific voting representatives.5 permitted appellants add appeal challenge 2450, 77 1331 now reverse holding deprive II 15 could claim denied access forum. session obviously fundamental principle doctrine, articulated most recently Perry Education Assn. Educators' Assn., 460 ---- - 948, 954, 74 794 (1983), property forum, tradition open large assembly speech. meetings obtain general participation. did find, A-22, contend otherwise. 16 accordingly wholly unlike those stake City Madison Joint Wisconsin Comm'n, 429 167, 421, 50 376 (1976). upheld applying standard public-forum analysis. supra, ---, S.Ct., 955 (citing example involving "forum generally public" expressive activity). school board "opened [as] forum direct citizen involvement," U.S., 175, 426, "public [was] permitted," 169, 423. violated when suddenly closed one segment even though otherwise remained large.6 case, contrast, involves selective closure hence reliance would misplaced. 17 nonpublic mail organization claimed use speaking potentially willing listeners among group individuals officials capacity. anyone, private, attend message. Postal Service Greenburgh Civic Associations, 453 114, 101 2676, 69 517 (1981) (postal letter box); Greer Spock, 424 828, 96 1211, 47 505 (1976) (military base); Lehman Shaker Heights, 418 298, 94 2714, 41 770 (1974) (advertising space municipal bus); Adderley Florida, 385 39, 87 242, 149 (1966) (county jail). here quite different cases. certain communicating might them. Rather, entitlement audience 18 "Meet occasions employers, solely instrumentalities state, receive simply restricted class persons will Thus, principal particular formal setting.7 cases concern government's provide assistance not, listeners, government. As discussion below makes clear, constitutionally obliged entirely considerations resolution turn. Hence, largely irrelevant assessing novel claim.8 19 extent limited higher education. reasoned "issues education character." A-20. Tradition education, stated, "right expression holds place our Constitution." A-20 A-21. Because "vital freedom," concluded, "when compels creation utilizes ongoing debate virtually issues afford conclusion erroneous. institution 21 Constitution grant heard bodies decisions Bi-Metallic Investment Co. Equalization, 239 441, 36 141, 60 372 (1915), founded Due Process Clause Speaking Holmes explained: 22 "Where rule conduct applies more than few people impracticable should adoption. acts town meeting whole. General statutes power passed affect person individuals, sometimes point ruin, giving chance heard. Their protected way can complex society, power, immediate remote, rule." 445, 142. 23 Commission, sustained recognized soundness Holmes's reasoning due context. stated: "Plainly, confine specified matter non-public transact business." 175 8, 426 8. 24 Policymaking organs never operated constraint requiring interested present testimony before adopted. Legislatures nation, Congress, enact bills hearings received group. Executive agencies likewise widespread application unrestricted testimony. daily decide need choose hear. To recognize directly revolution existing practices. 25 least reasons refusing impossibility judicial definition enforcement. Both federalism separation-of-powers concerns implicated massive intrusion federal entail. pragmatic identified weighty today 1915. Government many likely grind halt constrained requirements whose voices "There limit argument go on." Absent restrictions, consult whomever pleases. 26 However wise practicable various kinds be, hold, source obligation listen. individuals' Smith Arkansas Highway Employees, 1315, 441 463, 464-466, 99 1826, 1827-1828, 360 (1979), suggestion. No advanced requirement. Nor, finally, structure approved source. inherent republican limited. Federalist (Madison). Disagreement disapproval officials' responsiveness, suggested Bi-Metallic, registered principally polls. 27 course, public-employment labor relations recognizes much. union argued abridged because required grievances refused union's members' grievances. argument. 29 "The surely freely openly, he retaliation so. Pickering 391 563, 574-575 [88 1731, 1737-1738, 811] (1968); Shelton Tucker, 364 479 [81 247, 231] (1960). But impose affirmative listen, or, context, association it." 465, 1828 (footnote omitted). 30 acknowledged "[t]he protects freely, advocate ideas, others, his redress grievances." 464, 1827. rights, concluded. "[A]ll [government] challenged ignore union. That do." 466, 1828. 31 converse Smith. listened Here "meets confers" principles identical controlled Smith.9 When greater specially affected large. 32 alter conclusion. sure, strong, universal uniform, numerous arguments American Higher Education—National Association, Participation Academic Governance (1967); Brief Amicus Curiae University Professors 3-10. institutions. 33 several infringement guaranteed " 'in brings safeguards amendments vividly operation.' 479, 487, 81 251, 231 (1960) (quoting Wieman Updegraff, 344 183, 195, 73 215, 220, 216 (1952) (Frankfurter, J., concurring)). Those cases, express others communicative purposes. See, e.g., Keyishian Regents New York, 589, 675, 629 supra; Sweezy Hampshire, 354 234, 1203, 1311 (1957). These entail supra. employed much recommend finds basis Constitution. 34 Although guarantees associate. 35 doubtless true unique amplifies amplification impairs instructors' impaired representative's role sessions, yet approval Amplification sort advisers. person's ignores while listening others.10 ability "retaliate" speech, put it, appoint seeks chosen share dissent inhibits voters' reject candidate office candidate's Branti Finkel, 445 507, 533, 100 1287, 1302, 63 574 (1980) (Justice POWELL, dissenting). 37 impaired. become monetary contribution activities.11 well feel pressure give serve adoption positions pressure, approved. party minority always feel. Such government; create unconstitutional inhibition freedom.12 38 Unable demonstrate denies meritless. affected—the views—finds being reason invoke heightened scrutiny, action "need rationally further purpose" valid Equal Protection Clause. 960. certainly meets standard. Permitting representative, virtue 39 presupposes, same goal reaching imperative "negotiating." Detroit 224, 1793.13 basing consideration reasonable offer fails. III 40 erred Whatever wisdom consultation settings, therefore Reversed. 42 MARSHALL, concurring judgment. 43 I agree majority's sweeping assertion obliged, citizens Ante, 283-285. STEVENS always—or often—requires "an marketplace ideas." post, 300, 314. think decisionmaker prior varies nature environment made. Cf. Healy James, 408 180, 92 2338, 2345, 266 (1972) ("First light characteristics environment' case.") Tinker Des Moines Independent District, 393 503, 506, 89 733, 736, 731 (1969)). narrow validity peculiar set constraints faculties colleges; sensibly resolved attending distinctive needs 44 intellectual debate" entitled protection. E.g., 181-182, 2346. we solicitous students organize themselves voluntary associations, see 180-184, 2345-2347; facilities, Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 267-270, 5, 102 269, 272-274, 70 440 (1981); espouse unpopular ideas controversial fear discharge retaliation, Regents, 601-603, 607-608, 682-683, 685-686, 485-487, 250-251, prepared include collection avenues measure (as students) importance mission community. essential meaningfully determination goals choice achieve is, turn, fulfill dual responsibility advance frontiers knowledge unfettered inquiry debate, 250, (1957), produce citizenry able involve itself polity, 1211-1212; 603, 683. 45 determining given runs afoul Constitution, seems me consider asserted justification constraint. suggests, 313-314, 322-323, suspicious instructs others. Administrators accountable slighted legislators.* solicitude communities desire keep channels communities, 293, blind us that, general, universities crucial roles society allowed operate interference. California Bakke, 438 265, 312, 98 2733, 2759, 57 750 (1978) (opinion J.); 262-263, 1217-1218 result). insight prompt defer administrators—persons presume knowledgable best interests heart—in circumstances regulate affairs academy. 46 difficult tasks shape these First-Amendment justify abridgment can, left another day, proofs kind impairment would, my view, rise difficulty. observes, remains substantial opportunity, wide topics. ante, 276-277, nn. 3-4. say effective media administration; plain enjoy "equal time" competing attention. legitimately expected afforded meaningful failed show opportunity. For foregoing reasons, concur opinion. 48 BRENNAN, dissenting. 49 STEVENS' dissent, write separately explain why, irrespective grounds, outset two here. hand, barred refusal important administrators.1 time, compelled associations espouse. real vice impermissibly forces non-union 51 first rooted common understanding learning. acknowledge unequivocally Amendment," 683, (1967), protecting schools profound promoting society. 180-181, 2345-2346, (1972); (1960); Recognizing classroom peculiarly 'marketplace ideas,' hesitated strike down effectively inhibit see, ibid; prohibit teaching matter. Epperson Arkansas, 97, 107, 266, 272, 228 (1968). explore closely linked governance. truly protect "free play spirit" learning, then as, example, curriculum reform, degree requirements, budgetary planning. teach jeopardized just gravely out restrictions struck Epperson. therefore, prohibition plainly enshrined second right—the associations—is found conviction forced find objectionable moral, ideological, personal grounds. 234-236, 1799-1800, (1977); Wooley Maynard, 430 705, 714-715, 1428, 1435, 5l 752 West Virginia Barnette, 319 624, 642, 1178, 1187, 1628 (1943). Elrod Burns, 427 347, 362-364, 2673, 2684-2685, 547 J.). especially worthy respect denial threatens cherished spirit "to inquire, study evaluate," Sweezy, preserve. Keyishian, Shelton, 53 An examination record reveals freedoms compromised statute. observed, constitute "important forum." A-22. critical because, found, primary mechanism significant faculty-administration communication," A-49; [the] meet confer committee considered position sessions," "exclusive formulating questions," centrality "essential faculty." A-51. broad catalogue commonly addressed proposals, standards, matters, forth—it easy why excluded regard threat function full community.2 54 centrally fundamentally "impaired" refuses restricting ibid. want remain community, abandon ideological objections associating Especially where thought, conformity far too high price exact one's Of central provided nearly equivalent expressing views, violated, faced Hobson's exercising discussions preserving narrowly tailored regardless affiliation, committees, encroachment upon interests. drawn fully hearing manageable number avoid often recognized, permissible collective-bargaining context compelling enforceable agreement, served reserve Abood, 223-226, 1793-1794. Commn., 178, 428, (BRENNAN, judgment). sessions—which embrace array sensitive information, element agreement—the admitting substantially diminished. furnish incomplete imperfect account wide-ranging rationale, convey affirm 58 STEVENS, BRENNAN joins Part III, POWELL II, provides: "Congress shall abridging press Laws enacted legislatures prohibition. Gitlow 268 652, 625, 1138 (1925). unions preferential deliberations prohibiting comparable law. executives legislators unsolicited choose—in peril—to constituents guarantee ideas—where divergent points compete attention powerful account. places restraint competition, regulating governed. speaker realistic officials. All prohibited, reference manner communication, willingness rather identity speaker. invalid permit favored monopoly 61 179.61-179.76 (1980), itself, agencies. While engages responsibilities areas beyond contractual regulation agencies' vulnerable attack. 62 appeal, dispute represents accomplished 179.66(7) statute, forbids anyone representatives. defined 179.63(16), "means fringe benefits retirement contributions benefits, term educational district. section 179.66 regarding negotiations." 179.63(18). 64 portion negotiating contracts. "view" limits negotiations union: 65 negotiate subdivision employee's assignment." (emphasis supplied). 66 exempting all-encompassing French professor about Voltaire Daudet suggest football team coach, endowment fund divest South African investments, admissions modify program, drive Dimes.1 67 breadth prohibited remarkable. encompass: respective 179.63(15). imposes system; encompass range says her Appellants narrowing construction terms, attempt instance construe something what says. "subjects course proposals planning, development generally, presidents, accreditation college, matters." Jurisdictional 68 disabled opinions ample opportunities else can. once four months. 179.66(3), acknowledges policy.2 expected, adverse impact conversation permission.3 practice, observers speak.4 veto dissident administration.5 understand union, acted accord understanding.6 result, less occurs nonunion violating PELRA.7 conversations still occur useless practical matter, administrator responds saying forum.8 Thus substituted union-controlled formerly took administration.9 process.10 weight significance consciously derogated favor systematic, expression." questions." A-49 concluded resolve blocks process." A-22 aside unless clearly erroneous, Inwood Laboratories Ives Laboratories, 456 844, 2182, 72 606 (1982); Pullman-Standard Swint, 273, 1781, event 71 language actual curtails bodies. secures And intended secure exercise futility—it forward nullity banding together meaningful. NAACP Claiborne Hardware 458 886, 907-908, 3409, 3422-3423, 1215 Citizens Against Rent Control Berkeley, 290, 295-299, 434, 436-438, 492 Bates Little Rock, 361 516, 522-523, 412, 416, 480 Alabama, 357 449, 460-461, 78 1163, 1170-1171, 1488 (1958).11 "uninhibited, robust, wide-open" envisioned Amendment, York Times Sullivan, 254, 270, 84 710, 720, 686 (1964), abridgement broader vital purpose.12 Just Legislature allegiance condition employment", Illinois Employees Union, Council Lewis, 473 F.2d 561, 570 (7th Cir.1972), equally clear subscribe tenets union.13 (1977), cannot contribute partisan activities them, forbidden effect thereby infringe 233-237, 1798-1800.14 indicate prohibits "any view" administration, "blocks expression" facing employ them.15 sweep deterred sure statute.16 precisely worded invalidated manner.17 adequately 289-290. parallels (1972). university facilities. impair off-campus: 76 "We concede, Mr. Harlan unanimous Alabama ex rel. Patterson, [449], 461 [78 1163 1171, 1488], 'has taken restrict [petitioners] freely. .' Constitution's interference requirement Patterson disclose membership lists impermissible, indirect, Likewise, group's exist ameliorate significantly disabilities imposed President's action. disregard realities." 2347. facilities reality influence "If deliberation muted voices.18 contrary 2347.19 analysis notion "[a]ppellees views." 283. say; problem statutorily listening. distinguishes arguing seeking "potentially listeners." 289, 10. distinction all; prevents charge passage process.20 former administration's unwillingness Any appraisal effects lead traditional enjoyed. "[T]he 'to [would be] customary [ ] students.' 267-268, 272-273, Healy, 2346). short, ensures administration. rely "obligation" them; speak. appellants, privilege, considered, how merit contain.21 IV interest.22 representative.23 settled elected simultaneously rival unions. 224-226, 1793-1794, (1977).24 explicitly exclusivity extended mandated extension 232-237, 1798-1800. Here, contract out, desires. 284. conferring Abood.25 82 simple, fundamental, sustain creates preference Police Department Chicago Mosley, 92, 2286, 212 (1972), ordinance speakers. area "within 150 feet secondary building one-half hour after 92-93, 2288; method peaceful picketing. Unions, else, unanimously unconstitutional. After pointing picketing school's management dispute, picketing, continued: 83 "Necessarily, then, Clause, mention acceptable, wishing worth discussing debating 'equality field Once opened up groups, assembling intend say." 96, 2290 omitted).26 consistently adhered "afford heard."27 apply proceedings access. 280-283. fact, places. permits speakers exclusions viewpoint-neutral. (1976); Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. Conrad, 420 546, 555-559, 95 1239, 1244-1246, 448 (1975). Surely avoided simple expedient using speaker's criterion defining publicly sponsored relies, states discourage viewpoint another." 957. 85 avenue advances expense "consciously" controlling wrote: 86 "Regardless body regulated—an time—the business confined category individuals. side debatable antithesis guarantees. sits citizens, discriminate content Dept. 2290, (1972)." 175-176, (footnotes omitted).28 "monopoly government" condemned create, reality, government, expressed. resultant insulation exposure ban discrimination addressed. merits, thing say, does, decline unhelpful; 88 instructive contrast board's allowing representing connection duties, treatment justified thought facilitate observe sector. previously 'designation carries great responsibilities. administering settling disputes processing continuing ones.' reasonably insuring labor-peace schools. 'serves District's becoming battlefield inter-union squabbles.' 958 citations 90 recognizing accorded "acting teachers," expressly unlimited purposes." 13, 959, 13. showing disadvantaged messages. 959. 91 decides participant debates formulation embraced which—as squarely holds—is justifications relied absent when, here, right—let alone right—to act behalf persons.29 "exclusivity used muzzle who, like citizen, governmental 230, 1797. exactly "muzzle" Abood. favors unabridged society—including employee. until tolerated broadening authorized spokesman matters. opinion, orthodoxy impermissible. relies conformity—the "interest 291. fostering war others" merely trivial; illegitimate." Carey Brown, 447 455, 468, 2294, 263 (1980). 93 outset, concerned legislature. employers—to adhere invalidity discretion exercised whom, place, which, accept conduct. preclude discretion—to save merits—is tolerate. am convinced intolerable, respectfully dissent. affiliated (MEA) National (NEA), Since 1980, "community instructional unit" regularly supplement "official" other, unofficial communications. each on-campus meeting, available individually groups. addition, met written system's presidents solicit students, college-wide "town meetings" commons areas, hosting luncheons breakfasts, appearing meetings, inviting maintenance "open-door" A-57, A-61 A-64, A-83 A-84, A-99 A-103. formulated purview repeated suggestions Stevens' talking 302-307, 310-311, 322, misunderstand flatly contradicted findings. called session. suggestion initial constituting None selectively quoted recites restraint, passages understood bar type exchange, 305 6, 307 9. fact: "All [the Board] abridge rights." nonmembers plaintiffs direct, potential indicated [three findings]." nonmembership felt reduced chilled A-51 demonstrated," ". member's inhibition." sessions. prescribed jurisdiction. nominate candidates, run election, vote vacancy voter's ballot counted, though, voter cast votes candidates slots filled. Only ran statewide office, slates institution. elected. Upon motion relief, ruled A-192. ordered elections cumulative voters concentrate multiple candidate, enhancing possibility separate apart applied. disposition constitutionality, address remedy. somehow Post, 28. radical departure elementary doctrine. offers indication substitute current test. [a] Presumably, President viewpoint. length infra, 283-285, shocking implications unsupported anything held. supposing raise objection instructions activity, standing administrators. Mosely, version Mosely sought relevance have, deprivation life, liberty, beside point. 308-314. scope, (1979). cited considers, let supports, particular, listeners. pointed 280-283, utterly claim. Under 2. Nonmembers may, pay fair-share fee cover costs lawsuit, although constraints. 217-237, 1790-1800, (1977) (mandatory grievance activities). quotes undercut holding. 308. finding expression," A-20, deliberate committed perfectly true, unobjectionable, A-49, obvious consequence bargaining." last statement draws PELRA: "This Given appears midst probably intended, read, mixed depending truth "meaningful" principles. unimpaired. unrelated compulsory dues dissenting Contrary 316, 321-322, discuss, adopt, "exclusivity" activities. note 11, 142, (1915) (contending owners Denver, adversely Equalization ruling, "are rule"). universities, "power" posited becomes "remote," warrants establishment decisionmakers, alternative check choices respect, MARSHALL's "faculty community," 293; disagree, sporadic informal sufficient respected. obscure conveyed life positions, individual's carefully reads follows: "Nothing contained sections 179.76 limit, grievance, complaint betterment, one. 179.65(1). policies. encourage mutual 179.73(1). "Q. Assume facts, your experience assume Exchange View Committee room tried Would views? procedure call witnesses. Chairperson Administration totally But, witnesses So, takes Chairperson—faculty chairperson Q. block witness appearing? correct." A-92. A-48. A-185 A-186. hand nobody appear witness, right? That's A-104. similar effect, A-95. What's engaging processes Association? Well, supposed A-79. formally demand opportunity? Yes. Association's privilege negotiate, correct? My conferring? Meet sense word, yes. So MCCFA? correct. campuses not—or sense, yes." A-58. A-76 A-77, A-87, A-162 A-163. January '71, wanted? Has [pursuant PELRA] April '73? technically, administrator's practically— situations disappeared someone what's negotiation, basic problem." A-44 A-45. 1973 you advised Helling him? assiduous placing him Is told administrator? It's Contract." A-148. "A. relative am, Contract. Do intends enforce Contract? awkward having believe am—no noxious Contract—bound don't around things position." A-151 A-152. said people, come talk you, you're going get brought yourself, words, response this, From remedy looking for, they'll [sic ]? answer, yes, understand." Plaintiff discuss? answer no. it's appropriately wouldn't know discuss. Have items discussed. Administrator member. refer made." A-101. A-62 A-63, A-152 A-153. isn't correct completely replacement [sic] other. You earlier doesn't, can't compare now." A-59. Committees dealings so, Every not—there six three mentioned, Matters Curriculum Fiscal/Personnel. Therefore, fall Personnel—I forget guess Student Services. Okay. Matter, clarify really casual, yes up." A-72 A-73. activity courts, Transportation Union Michigan Bar, 401 576, 585-586, 1076, 1082, 339 (1971); re Primus, 436 1893, 1901, 417 (1978); Mine Workers Bar 389 217, 353, Railroad Trainmen 377 1113, Anderson Celebrezze, 1564, 1568-1569, (1983); Brown Socialist '74 Campaign Comm., 420-421, 250 Buckley Valeo, 65-66, 612, 656-657, 659 (per curiam ); Cousins Wigoda, 419 477, 487-488, 541, 547, 595 (1974); Kusper Pontikes, 414 51, 56-58, 303, 307-308, 260 (1973); Williams Rhodes, 23, 38-41, 14-15, (1968) Douglas, 41, (Harlan, Campaign, 419, 432, 1904, 64-65, 656, curiam); 489, 548, (1975); Party Texas White, 415 767, 780, 1296, 1305, 744 Button, 371 415, 439, 328, 341, 405 (1963); 488, 252, 524, 417, [majority union]'s representative—regardless actually exercised—inherently chilling members. reaches integral professor. risks joining against [union], self-evident seriously risk [union]'s sole bears A-24. Stanley Georgia, 394 557, 565, 1243, 1248, 542 (1969); Bd. Educ. 355-360, 2680-2683, (plurality opinion). assumes "outside" "formal" 277-278, 4. context—it view." evidence 7, deterring invalidate PELRA. Ferber, 747, 768-769, 1348, 1360-1361, 1113 Central Hudson Gas & Elec. Serv. 2343, 2351, 341 (1980); Ulster County Allen, 442 140, 155, 2213, 2223, 777 (1979); Arizona, 433 350, 380, 2691, 2707, 810 Young Mini Theatres, 50, 59-60, 2440, 2446-2447, 310 Gooding Wilson, 518, 521, 1103, 1105, 609, 687, Dombrowski Pfister, 380 494, 1116, 1125, (1965); 432-433, 337-338, (1963). "informally" unconstitutional, theoretical best; alone. text, "[t]his tries dismiss "as fact," 12, fact. Court—it difference realities overlooks illusory best. One "practical realities" enlargement legislation perceived value. accident oral attorney official. significant, highly amplifying enhance abilities competitors same, hardly statute's evidently thinks has. "Traditionally, systems participate. consisted senates eligible election." A-10. proposition "shocking," concludes destroy she wishes consult. 281, 6. mistaken. implies individualized notice hearing, majority, involved. present, consider, issue. analogy closer Democratic consulting Republican constituents. balk offend rationale President, administrator, worthwhile decision. grievances, disfavored interest, survive demanding scrutiny articulate below, "majority factual predicate address, 317-323, "legitimacy" "interest" argue efficiently. finding: Now, anyway college? did." A-60. Railway Hansen, 351 225, 714, 1112 (1956). (1979) curiam), heavily, 285-288, sheds legitimacy total absence explains instead somewhat extravagant references practices," "would halt" upheld. 284-285. Yet fails identify federal, closest analogues above. Grayned Rockford, 104, 2298, 222 Consolidated Edison 530, 537-538, 2326, 2333, Erznoznik Jacksonville, 422 205, 209-212, 2268, 2272-2274, 125 forum—a meeting—was public. 281. tautological—the "forum" "open" concerned, "restricted policy," 282—the "opened" teachers; specifically above indicate, "forums" forums another. Finally, "tradition" openness distinguishing Madison, 280, above, traditionally pp. 314, bargainable explaining area, explained extend area: "Equally relinquish actively associating, Union's spending service fees meritorious 1799 (citations

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