Document: 525 U.S. 83119 S.Ct. 469142 L.Ed.2d 373 MINNESOTA v. CARTER(97-1147)569 N. W. 2d 169 (first judgment) and 180 (second judgment), reversed remanded. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES119 No. 97 1147 MINNESOTA, PETITIONER WAYNE THOMAS CARTER V. MELVIN JOHNS [December 1, 1998] Chief Justice Rehnquist delivered the opinion of Court. 1 Respondents lessee an apartment were sitting in one its rooms, bagging cocaine. While so engaged they observed by a police officer, who looked through drawn window blind. The Supreme Court Minnesota held that officer's viewing was search which violated respondents' Fourth Amendment rights. We hold no such violation occurred. 2 James Thielen, officer Twin Cities' suburb Eagan, Minnesota, went to building investigate tip from confidential informant. informant said he had walked ground-floor seen people putting white powder into bags. same gap closed blind operation for several minutes. He then notified headquarters, began preparing affidavits warrant while returned building. When two men left previously identified Cadillac, stopped car. Inside respondents Carter Johns. As opened door car let Johns out, black zippered pouch handgun, later determined be loaded, on vehicle's floor. arrested, vehicle next day discovered pagers, scale, 47 grams cocaine plastic sandwich 3 After seizing car, Apartment 103 arrested occupant, Kimberly Thompson, is not party this appeal. A pursuant revealed residue kitchen table baggies similar those found Cadillac. Thielen Carter, Johns, Thompson as three placing baggies. learned apartment, lived Chicago come sole purpose packaging never been before only approximately hours. In return use given one-eighth ounce 4 charged with conspiracy commit controlled substance crime first degree aiding abetting degree, Minn. Stat. § 152.021, subd. 1(1), 3(a) (1996); §609.05. They moved suppress all evidence obtained well post-arrest incriminating statements made. argued Thielen's initial observation their drug activities unreasonable result inadmissible fruit poisonous tree. trial court since, unlike defendant Olson, 495 91 (1990), overnight social guests but temporary out-of-state visitors, entitled claim protection against government intrusion apartment. also concluded within meaning Amendment. trial, each convicted both offenses. Appeals respondent did have "standing" object actions because his predominantly guest "inconsistent concerning stay indicates used it business package drugs." State 545 695, 698 (1996). separate appeal, affirmed Johns' conviction, without addressing what termed issue. C9-95-1765 (Minn. Ct. App., June 11, 1996), App. D-1, D-3 (unpublished). 5 divided reversed, holding " 'a legitimate expectation privacy invaded place.' 569 169, 174 (1997) (quoting Rakas Illinois, 439 128, 143 (1978)). noted even though "society does recognize valuable task cocaine, we conclude society right property owners or leaseholders invite persons homes conduct common task, legal illegal activity. We, therefore, [respondents] standing bring [their] motion gathered observations." 2d, at 176; see W.2d 180, 181. Based upon conclusion raise claims, constituted under Amendment, unreasonable. Id., 176 179. granted certiorari, 523 ___ (1998), now reverse. 6 courts analyzed whether rubric doctrine, analysis expressly rejected 20 years ago Rakas. U.S., 139-140. case, automobile passengers could assert seizure where owned neither nor evidence. Ibid. Central our idea determining able show (and someone else's) rights, "definition rights more properly placed purview substantive law than standing." 140. Thus, order must demonstrate personally has place searched, reasonable; i.e., "a source outside either reference concepts real personal understandings are recognized permitted society." 144, n. 12. See Smith Maryland, 442 735, 740-741 (1979). 7 guarantees: "The secure persons, houses, papers, effects, searches seizures, shall violated, Warrants issue, probable cause, supported Oath affirmation, particularly describing things seized." protects "their [and] houses" thus invoked individual. Katz United States, 389 347, 351 (1967) ("[T]he people, places"). But extent may depend are. "capacity depends person claims place." Rakas, supra, 143. Rawlings Kentucky, 448 98, 106 (1980). 8 text suggests protections extend "their" houses. some circumstances house else. example, decided sort protects. said: 9 "To host's home merely recognizes every expectations share. Staying another's long-standing custom serves functions society. others' when travel strange city pleasure, visit parents, children, distant relatives out town, between jobs, homes, house-sit friend. 10 "From guest's perspective, seeks shelter precisely provides him privacy, possessions will disturbed anyone host allows inside. most vulnerable asleep cannot monitor own safety security belongings. It reason that, although spend public places, sleep seek another private sleep, hotel room, friend." 98 99. 11 Jones 362 257, 259 (1960), seeking exclude resulting clothing slept there 'maybe night,' time occupant defendant's still valid, statement "anyone legitimately premises occurs challenge legality," id., 267, repudiated 128 (1978). Thus present consent householder not. 12 here obviously guests, essentially transaction matter There suggestion previous relationship any other visit. Nor anything Olson suggest acceptance household.1 dwelling these simply do business. 13 Property commercial purposes treated differently residential property. "An premises, however, different from, indeed less than, individual's home." New York Burger, 482 691, 700 (1987). And "home" present, home. Similarly, worker can over workplace. See, e.g., O'Connor Ortega, 480 709 indication case nearly significant connection Thompson's office. 716-17. 14 If regard typifying another, "legitimately premises" so, somewhere between. purely nature here, relatively short period lack householder, lead us situation closer premises. therefore occurred violate 15 Because need decide "search." judgment accordingly cause remanded proceedings inconsistent opinion. Notes 16 1. Ginsburg's dissent would render operative language post p. 5, almost entirely superfluous. There, explained justification extending visitor: "Staying belongings." 98-99. short-term stranger entitles visitor share lease holder's home, Court's explanation quite unnecessary. Scalia, J., concurring STATES 17 18 whom Thomas joins, concurring. 19 I join believe accurately applies recent law, including (1990). write separately express my view like submissions parties gives shrift long understood text. Specifically, leaps apply fuzzy standard "legitimate privacy" consideration often relevant covered "unreasonable" threshold question latter addressed Constitution traditionally understood, remotely difficult. "[t]he seizures ." Const., Amdt. (emphasis added). acknowledged phrase . provision is, isolation, ambiguous. mean respective houses," extends house. other's protected visiting today's suggests, ante, linguistically possible give latter, expansive interpretation respect "houses" giving nouns parallel "persons, effects" me constitutional your unreasonably searched. This absurd knowledge contemplated. obvious person, house, effects. 21 Founding-era materials examined confirm meaning. (Strangely, unmentioned amici State's reply brief, thrown down gauntlet: "In briefs totaling 100 pages, 26 attorneys general, Solicitor General States America mentioned word about history intent framers amendment." Brief 12, 4.) Like provisions Bill Rights, derived already existing state constitutions. Of four contained Amendment,1 ambiguous terminology. Pa. Art. X (1776) ("That themselves, free seizure"); Vt. ch. I, §XI (1777) "). two, avoided ambiguity using singular instead plural. Mass. pt. XIV (1780) ("Every subject searches, possessions"); H. Const. §XIX (1784) hath possessions"). Convention ratified proposed amendment freeman papers property," B. Schwartz, Roots Rights 913 (1980) (reproducing amendments, 1778) (emphases added), Declaration North Carolina demanded prior ratification protecting freeman's "unreasonable 968 believed Massachusetts, Hampshire, York, texts, "his" rather "their," narrowed Pennsylvania Vermont Constitutions. 22 That clear knew English early American arrest trespass underlay people's common-law maxim, "A man's castle." far back Semayne's Case 1604, leading proposition cited Coke discussion Magna Carta outlawed general warrants based mere surmise, E. Coke, Institutes 177 (1797)), King's Bench proclaimed "the castle privilege himself, protect flies house." Semayne Gresham, Co. Rep. 91a, 93a, 77 Eng. 194, 198 (K.B. 1604). Cooley, discussing Blackstone's bailiff break "every castle," Blackstone, Commentaries Laws England 288 (1768), added explanation: "[I]t castle; if sheriff enter effect 287, (T. Cooley rev. ed. 1872). Johnson Leigh, Taunt. 246, 248, 1029, 1030 (C. P. 1815) ("[I]n many cases third broken Defendant himself cannot; castle, man").2 23 course say Lord Manor holds estate fee simple. People call title bank, rent it, occupy rent-free actually live there. criterion houses established Oystead Shed, 520 (1816), capture boarder reasoned "inviolability dwelling-houses" described Foster, Hale, occupier family domicile ordinary residence there," servant" "who made But, added, sanctuary" stranger, perhaps visitor," "upon pursuit, take[s] refuge another," open doors windows execute process." original). 24 deciding presented today slate clean. background adopted, consistently displayed after adoption make answer clear. Chapman 365 610 (1961), tenant dwelling, leaseholder. Bumper Carolina, 391 543 (1968), grandmother's her resident grandson's area searched "was home," 548, absolute limit tradition permit hosts' whereas plausible person's lodging least "temporary" residence, impossible characterization uses hous[e]" bears remotest 25 believes "[o]ur obligation produce coherent results" requires ignore four-century-old tradition, notoriously unhelpful test adopted "benchmar[k]" decision 31 old. Post, citing 347 (1967). view, thing past decades (which enunciated Harlan's concurrence Katz, 360) unsurprisingly, "actual (subjective) expectation[s] "that prepared 'reasonable,' 361, bear uncanny resemblance considers reasonable. self-indulgent employed (as employ here) determine "search seizure" opposed one), foundation guarantee generalized "right leave particular manifestations value 'reasonable.' Rather, enumerated ("persons, effects") objects extend, leaving further expansion good judgment, Court, representatives legislature.3 correct invited else's engage (even monkey-business, speak) ought room conducted; deliver milk pizza (whom dismisses "classroom hypotheticals," post, 2, opposed, presumably, flesh-and-blood hypotheticals) rooms occupy. am sure policy questions. Constitution, means many, most, important questions federal legislators. go beyond proper role judges democratic restrict power govern themselves full range choices available them. 27 Four others proscribing warrants, unspecific protection. Va. §10 (1776); Del. §6 Md. XXIII C. XI (1776). 28 2. Kennedy cast doubt historical carefully assertion "scholars dispute [the] interpretation" authorities." support this, cites passage Payton 445 573 (1980), deep divergence among scholars" aspect arrest. 592. Unfortunately relevance nothing whatever pertained constable authority [a] warrantless suspicion felony." "deep divergence" red herring. 29 attempts distinguish ground arose context civil process," "of limited application enforcement criminal law." distinction cuts opposite direction Kennedy's case: serving process, fortiori resisting government's agents pursuit crime. itself makes greater: "And books, prove, process concerns King, imply suit party, broken: otherwise addition (at King) frivolous." 92b, rep., 198. 92a, Rep., 197 ("In felony King interest, interest writ non omittas propter aliquam libertatem; liberty doth King"); 91b, 196 ("J. beats R. danger death, J. flies, thereupon hue cry made, retreats T. pursue him, kept defended force lawfully [King's] suit"). 30 Finally, meant matter, since axiom acquired independent significance justifying assurance one's become part tradition." issue "personal fails identify "constitutional tradition" higher chosen provide law) "justif[ied]." 3. asserts "undervalu[e]" places." 7, 3, 351. catchy slogan devastating response maintained location asserted, perhaps, "primeval forests too." Cf. Stone, Should Trees Have Standing? Toward Legal For Natural Objects, 45 S. Cal. L. Rev. 450 (1972). druidical (who people) suffered "to seizures." 4. places unresponsive homes. saying not, clash leitmotif opinion" 3; au contraire (or, Wagnerian, im Gegenteil), harmony opinion, sings opera. 361 (Harlan, concurring): "As states, 'the places.' question, affords people. Generally, 'place.' Kennedy, 32 33 34 reasoning consistent hence 35 special center lives Security guarded world diminished enhanced surveillance sophisticated communication systems. established, protection, dependent spatial definition, essence right. (1978), limits it. 36 dissent, interpret principle company owner owner's true, involved automobiles, necessities latitude extended conceived, utilitarian exception accommodate needs enforcement. premise fundamental one. personal, invokes exclusionary rule, she requisite place. respected dwellings unless precedent overruled facts underlying end, repudiated. 37 authorities basis scholars interpretation. 573, 592 Case, 194 (K. 1603), says fortress" privileged homeowner, "his family," goods." 195, Read narrowly, might confined law. Even if, Semaynes's incursion dispositive us. attributed Pitt dares cross threshold, Miller 357 301, 307 (1958), tradition. 38 settled, routine absent exigent circumstances, obtain entering homeowner. 576. So, too, Steagald 451 204 (1981), consent, obtaining directing entry. 39 These strengthen homeowner speak, another. 218 219 (noting homeowner's "claim sanctuary party"). accordance precedents "recogniz[e] conferred nature, bestow vicarious reasonable searched." 219. 40 case. reach unaided observations search. fact search, unlawful disclosed entered respondents, interests presumably action 42 U.S.C. 1983 trespass. Our establish, right, results exclusion them, establish meaningful 41 settled rule concurring). involves kind individual traditional recognized. expect all, custom, exercise discretion include guests' benefit. exist sufficient create absence others. respect, shared, extent, guest. us, however. fleeting insubstantial appears record, convenient processing station, involving mechanical act chopping packing distribution. communications transaction. before, overturned convictions, fairly characterized "guests." 175 (1997); 2d. 1996) Carter's "he guest" apartment). 43 twenty minute drop off bag apprehended policeman wrongfully nineteenth home; goods staying seized absence, compels rejection assert. So tie owner, privacy. 44 remain faithful reversing persuaded depart interests. persuasive argument fashion per se automatic invoke homeowners intrusion. With observations, Breyer, 46 judgment. agree Ginsburg Amendment's Petitioner, raises second Officer "from curtilage residence" Pet. Cert. i. 48 following factual assumptions, evidentiary record here: (1) On evening May 15, 1994, anonymous approached telling just nearby drugs; (2) garden partly below level; (3) families frequently grassy apartment's walking playing; (4) members store bicycles; (5) effort verify tipster's information, position one-half feet front window; (6) stood minutes looking set Venetian blinds; (7) saw, namely, bags, verified account heard; (8) information help warrant. E G 9, 14, 26, 30, 32, 40, 67 71, 49 Ms. "did ," K9 94 0985 Dist. Ct., Dec. 16, 1994), (unpublished), "curtilage" finding court's determination; indeed, assumed curtilage. 177, (1987) (stating "it presence legitimate"). 50 then, kitchen. precautions dwellers took maintain failed passerby Given well-established forbids, search." Florida Riley, 488 445, (1989) (finding greenhouse helicopters airspace permissible, enclosed sides, relied bushes blocking ground-level remaining 90% roof); California Ciraolo, 476 207, 209 (1986) backyard plane permissible despite 6-foot outer fence 10-foot inner around backyard); cf. 51 reached unusual activity, "climbed bushes, crouched face inches window," saw small gap" blinds drawn. W.2 d, 178. crouching climbing "plac[ing] face" difference contain conclusions. needed to, climb crouch. 13, (Officer testimony); (photograph building). primary consists testimony, else known? importance nuance assertions denies. Walters National Assn. Radiation Survivors, 473 305, 342 (1985) (Brennan, dissenting) (citing Brown Chote, 411 452, 457 (1973)). 52 Neither turn "gaps" blinds. Whether holes pulled "wrong way" difference. One basement fronts publicly traveled street, space, ordinarily understands care lest member direct gaze downward. 53 Putting specific aside, benefit informant's observing allegedly activity vantage point. Indeed, reasons why window. received taking intended credibility. done ways, say, reputation searching method point likely saved innocent dweller physically intrusive, warrant-based, constitutionally 54 reasons, agreeing Ginsburg, concur dissenting 55 56 Stevens Souter join, dissenting. 57 undermines herself. lessor invites endeavor, conversation, leisure activities, licit illicit, should seizures. 58 propose restoration stated 267 formulation 142 "automatic rule" Salvucci, 83, 95 First, disposition responds unique essential bastion Karo, 468 705, 714 (1984) ("[P]rivate residences normally expects governmental authorized deviated basic principle."); 589 ("The variety settings. none zone clearly defined bounded unambiguous physical dimensions home."). Second, itself, adhere casual seen, visit, happened 142. Further, chooses guest, classroom hypotheticals milkman deliverer. 59 My concern centers choice associations selects. decisions indicate prerogative 149 (legitimate turns large ability searched). implies include. Coombs, Shared Privacy Relationships, 75 Calif. 1593, 1618 ("One empower choose intimates."); Alschuler, Interpersonal Ill. U. (1983) ("[O]ne main attaching shelter, comfort others."). reflect complementary prerogatives. 60 homedweller risk, approach indicates, opens others, uncertain duration stay, purpose, "acceptance household" earn Ante, 6.1 remains textbook "[s]earches inside presumptively circumstances." 715. practice secure. Human frailty tempt pry warrant, find rest night. Simien, Interrelationship Scope Standing Object Unreasonable Searches, Ark. 487, 539 (1988) ("[I]f everything gain lose know potential defendants standing."). tolerates temptation searches. Ashdown, "Legitimate Expectation Privacy," Vand. 1289, 1321 (1981) (criticizing "present[ing] framework something carries occupant"); (White, ("After decision, little vehicles occupied person."). impelling risk Silverman 505, 511 (1961) ("At very core [of Amendment] stands man retreat intrusion."). genuinely "secure seizures," 4, invitations increase unwarranted peering prying places. 61 Through invitation, gains logic shorter term well. LaFave, Search Seizure: Treatise §11.3(b), 137 (3d ("[I]t fair lends considerable shorter-term Visiting friend, relative, associate, day, "serves 98. anticipate [the guest] inside." sum, twofold requirement "emerg[ing] decisions" satisfied: Both "have exhibited actual privacy"; "expectation [is] [our] concurring).2 62 acknowledged, illegality host-guest conduct, partners crime, alter analysis. Tr. Oral Arg. 23. whose shielded stayed him. 93 94. involvement grave crimes (first-degree murder, armed robbery, assault). Other similarly sustained pleas criminality defendants' activities. Payton, 583 603 (murder robbery); 348 359 (telephoning across lines wagers); Silverman, 508 512 (gambling offenses). way. unconstitutional reserved only, regulating behavior toward guilty. 63 key ruled Government petitioner's electronically recorded transmitting wagering telephone booth. 353. mindful places," 351, electronic monitoring "violated caller] justifiably booth," visited inform current expositions benchmarks established. Harlan Poe Ullman, 367 497, 544 (1961): 64 "Each new Constitutional considered purposes, rationally perceived historically developed. Though sharply restrained yet 'mechanical yardstick,' answer.' apparently novel grounds follow closely well-accepted principles criteria. take 'its relation [cut] channel come.' Irvine California, 147 (1954) (Frankfurter, dissenting)). veers path marked Katz. booth side 353, endeavor.3 65 * 66 stated, retain judicial allows. At oral argument, counsel petitioner informed charged, tried, respondents. 11. 68 maintains lacked "an reasonable," "established connection" reported, stipulated showed permission, remained hours, and, during time, concert collaborative venture. (1997). scarcely resemble stop 19th packet, securely homeland reasonableness controls, visitor's status invitee, licensee, partner, 176, think noteworthy five Members shield, least, "almost guests," (Kennedy, 69 Scalia's lively deplores adherence suggesting elevated place, Scalia undervalues understanding avoid strong sense deja vu reading elaboration. vividly recalls Black (Black, ("While realize words lacks scope, broad discussions philosophical discourses crucial look."); ("[B]y arbitrarily substituting Constitution's laws violative offend broadest concept privacy."); ibid. ("I distort 'keep up date' 'to times.' relies deems "clear text," argue live, 6. Again, Stewart emphasized majority stare decisis require follow,

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