Document: 77 L.Ed.2d 743 103 S.Ct. 3133 463 U.S. 418 UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.SELLS ENGINEERING, INC., et al. No. 81-1032. Argued March 2, 1983. Decided June 30, Syllabus After respondents, a company having contracts with the Navy and officials, were indicted by federal grand jury for conspiracy to defraud United States tax fraud, parties reached plea bargain under which individual respondents pleaded guilty count of Government obst ucting an Internal Revenue Service investigation, other counts against dismissed. Thereafter, moved disclosure all materials attorneys in Justice Department's Civil Division, their paralegal secretarial assistants, certain Defense Department experts use preparing conducting possible civil suit False Claims Act. The District Court granted disclosure, concluding that Division are entitled as matter right Federal Rule Criminal Procedure 6(e)(3)(A)(i) (hereinafter (A)(i)), authorizes without court order "an attorney government performance such attorney's duty." also stated was warranted because had shown particularized need disclosure. Appeals vacated remanded, holding (1) could obtain only showing 6(e)(3)(C)(i) (C)(i)), "when so directed preliminarily or connection judicial proceeding," (2) not applied correct standard need. Held: 1. Attorneys assistants staff may automatic (A)(i) suit, but must instead seek (C)(i) access materials. Pp. 427- 442. (a) authorized is limited those who conduct criminal matters pertain. 6(e) intended grant free than prosecutors, perform special role assisting its functions know what transpires before own prosecutorial duties. Allowing nonprosecutors would increase risk inadvertent illegal release others render considerably more concrete threat willingness witnesses come forward testify fully candidly jury; pose significant integrity itself tempting prosecutors manipulate jury's powerful investigative tools improperly elicit evidence case; threaten subvert limitations laws outside context on Government's powers discovery investigation. 427-435. (b) fact that, when subparagraph 6(e)(3)(A)(ii) added Congress 1977 allow nonattorneys attorneys, (A)(ii) "performance [his] duty enforce law" does establish place limitation legislative history shows merely made explicit it believed be already implicit (A)(i)'s language (which has been since inception 1946). Congress' concerns disclosed statutory limits subverted apply within similar agencies. 435-442. 2. A strong any will permitted order. party seeking show material sought needed avoid injustice another proceeding, greater continued secrecy, request structured cover needed. Douglas Oil Co. v. Petrol Stops Northwest, 441 211, 99 1667, 60 156. This governs officials well private parties, flexible accommodates relevant considerations, peculiar movants, weigh given case. Here, Court's explanation finding amounted little statement rationally related fraud brought correctly held this insufficient remanded reconsideration proper legal standard. 442-446. 642 F.2d 1184 (9th Cir.1981), affirmed. N. Letter, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Arlington Ray Robbins, San Diego, Cal., respondents. 1 BRENNAN, Justice. 2 question case conditions Department, staff, necessary materials, compiled assistance knowledge purpose pursuing suit. We hold permissible moves court-ordered makes required Rule. 3 * Respondents Peter A. Sells Fred R. Witte officers respondent Engineering, Inc. That produce airborne electronic devices designed interfere enemy radar systems. In 1974, Special Agent began combined administrative investigation issued summonses corporate records Engineering. When corporation refused comply, obtained district enforcing summonses. Enforcement stayed, however, pending appeal. 4 While enforcement Appeals, convened investigate charges evasion income taxes. subpoenaed, produced, many same subject IRS summonses.1 three two States2 nine fraud.3 dismiss indictment, alleging misuse purposes. Before motion decided, bargain. each one obstructing All dismissed, withdrew misuse. 5 experts, Act, 31 U.S.C. § 231 seq.4 opposed renewing allegations requested 6(e)(3)( )(i). non-attorney disclosure.5 6(e)(3)(C)(i), re Grand Jury Investigation 78-184 (Sells, Inc.), (CA9 1981).6 certiorari, 456 960, 102 2034, 72 483 (1982). now affirm. II 6 always occupied high instrument justice our system law—so much enshrined Constitution. Pittsburgh Plate Glass States, 360 395, 399, 79 1237, 1240, 1323 (1959); Costello 350 359, 361-362, 76 406, 407-408, 100 L.Ed. 397 (1956). It serves "dual function determining if there probable cause believe crime committed protecting citizens unfounded prosecutions." Branzburg Hayes, 408 665, 686-687, 92 2646, 2659, 33 626 (1972) (footnote omitted). extended extraordinary great responsibility directing efforts: 7 "Traditionally accorded wide latitude inquire into violations law. No judge presides monitor proceedings. deliberates secret determine alone course inquiry. compel production testimony considers appropriate, operation generally unrestrained technical procedural evidentiary rules governing trials. 'It inquest, body inquisition, scope whose inquiries narrowly questions propriety forecasts result doubts whether particular found properly accusation crime.' " Calandra, 414 338, 343, 94 613, 617, 38 561 (1974), quoting Blair 250 273, 282, 39 468, 471, 63 979 (1919). 8 These broad permit carry out both parts dual function. Without thorough effective unable either ferret crimes deserving prosecution, screen warranting prosecution. Branzburg, U.S., at 688, S.Ct., 2660; 617. See Dionisio, 410 1, 12-13, 93 764, 770-771, 35 67 (1973); Johnson, 319 503, 510-512, 1233, 1236-1237, 87 1546 (1943); Hale Henkel, 201 43, 59-66, 26 370, 372-375, 50 652 (1906). 9 concern underlies "long-established policy maintains secrecy proceedings courts." Procter & Gamble, 356 677, 681, 78 983, 986, 1077 (1958) 10 "We consistently have recognized functioning depends upon particular, we noted several distinct interests served safeguarding confidentiality First, preindictment public, prospective hesitant voluntarily, knowing whom they aware testimony. Moreover, appeared less likely frankly, open retribution inducements. There about flee, try influence jurors vote indictment. Finally, preserving proceedings, assure persons accused exonerated up public ridicule." 218-219, 1672-1673, 156 (1979) (footnotes citation 11 then, "as important protection innocent pursuit guilty." 513, 1238. Both stood ready defend unwarranted intrusion. absence clear indication statute Rule, reluctant conclude breach authorized. Illinois Abbott Associates, Inc., --- ----, 1356, 1364, 75 281 (1983). B 12 Rules codifies traditional rule secrecy. Paragraph 6(e)(2) provides jurors, personnel attached forbidden disclose occurring jury. Witnesses prohibition unless happen fit enumerated classes. 6(e)(3) sets forth four exceptions nondisclosure rule.7 13 Subparagraph 6(e)(3)(A) contains authorizations course, 6(e)(3)(A)(i), duty" (referred hereinafter "(A)(i) disclosure"). "Attorney government" defined 54(c) terms potentially include virtually every Justice.8 Second, 6(e)(3)(A)(ii), likewise provided "government . [who] assist ("(A)(ii) 6(e)(3)(B) further regulates forbidding personnel" his law, requiring names court. 14 6(e)(3)(C) courts Under "preliminarily proceeding" (a "(C)(i) order").9 6(e)(3)(C)(ii), defendant. n. 7, supra. 15 main issue access. If necessary, address dependent standards should govern issuance III 16 contends qualify (A)(i), regardless nature litigation intend conclusion mandated general purposes policies reasons why use, 6(e). 17 class "attorneys allows defines phrase expansively, "authorized Attorney General"; 28 515(a) General direct employed "any kind criminal, including ." 518(b). short, far 54 concerned, immaterial assigned unit called usual duties involve cases. If, example, (for whatever reason) detail nothing prevent from doing so; he secure transfer Division.10 18 follow, rummage through country, simply office. Disclosure "in heart primary duty, meaning includes preparation no part 19 Given historic might wonder all. draftsmen original answer: 20 "Government deliberations votes inasmuch present room during presentation evidence. continues practice." Advisory Committee's Notes 6(e), U.S.C.App., p. 1411. 21 potent never working strongly suggests available appear jury.11 But allowed rooms, multifarious Justice, require it.12 As Ad isory Committee suggested, reasoning applies room. 22 requires remain free, constitutional limits, operate "independently prosecuting judge." Stirone 361 212, 218, 80 270, 252 (1960) Nevertheless, modern prosecutor's office resources commands. prosecutor ordinarily brings attention gathers consideration. Although decide evidence, largely requires.13 advises lay applicable turn needs properly. law admissible support conviction, can expected advise indict. He examine indictments, basis issuance, proceed prosecution.14 23 None these breaching favor —either allowing them room, granting uncontrolled An lacks supporting jury, crucial occurs jury.15 24 Of substantial help storehouse different lawyer's saving time expense. argument behalf lawyer agency, indeed, practice. rejected savings justify E.g., 682-683, 986; Smith 423 1303, 1304, 96 3, 46 (1975) (Douglas, J., chambers); see Abbott, ---, 1361. most cases, ordinary routine avenues case, some reason, infra, Part IV. 25 Not unjustified considerations access, threatens do affirmative mischief. problem threefold. bodies raises underlie contexts. number information (thereby increasing others),16 renders candidly. witness knows fears routinely governmental action, willing speak fear get himself trouble forum. Cf. Pillsbury Conboy, 23, 608, 74 430 27 takes active activities poses itself. knew colleagues generated tempted root additional useful e en start continue inquiry where prosecution seemed likely. Any improper per se. 683-684, 986-987. mean impugn professional characters lawyers general; nor express view 36, infra. Our based belief widespread occur, often very difficult detect prove. discussed III-B, shows, over misappropriation shared enacted version Such potential absent mandate Third, agencies settings jury,17 few forums relatively unregulated power divulge Other agencies, specific detailed statutes, rules, regulations conferring authority Some pursuance Others (including Division18) relegated Procedure. imposed exist sound reasons—ranging fundamental fairness burdensomeness intrusiveness. litigators investigators enjoyed unlimited material, though, reason resort usual, To circumvent methods requirements built methods, virtual ex parte form discovery, opponents excluded make "it rarely justifiable [Government] exclusive fact." Dennis 384 855, 873, 86 1840, 1851, 973 (1966) remarkable result.19 29 juries difficulty importance task, ought reasonably accomplishment task.20 judicially supervised rather automatic. 30 argues reading compelled textual comparison 6(e)(3)(A)(ii). points former restricts "the duty," while latter refers specifically (emphasis added). inclusion matters, otherwise argues, admittedly plausible one. go bare text hand something sensitive adopt reasoning. compelling, plain, overcome arguments contrary drawn policy, supra, III-A, history. subparagraphs contemporaneous origin. 1946; provision 1977. argument, base, containing did add criminal-use history, although perfect clarity, leads conclusion. appears included new (A)(ii), making existing language. 32 1946 1977, contained non-attorneys21 attorneys. substantially presently (A)(i): "Disclosure duties." became practice, personnel—not FBI, IRS, accountants, handwriting skills. Hence, despite seemingly common districts non-attorneys practice sparked controversy litigation.22 Accordingly, 1976 transmitted proposed amendments Procedure, 425 1159, proposal sentence immediately following Government: 34 "For [Rule ], 'attorneys government' 54(c); 1161. accompanying Rules, U.S.C.App. (1976 ed., Supp. V), 1024, explained amendment "designed facilitate need, expertise complex litigation." Ibid. noted, proposal, "subject qualification used investigation." Id., 1025 Yet clearly imposing limitation; double reference [government attorneys'] appears, took use—a construction equally assistants. 36 met mixed reception Congress. first acted postpone date study proposal.23 House, after hearings, voted disapprove amendment. Members responsible subcommittee sympathy pr posal, concerned sufficiently protect adequately personnel. They agree substitute draft.24 37 Senate Judiciary hospitable proposal. consultation House members,25 undertook redraft accommodate House.26 form, passed Houses opposition.27 Congressional criticism focused problems: non-grand-jury closely related, however; objection employees pursue investigations unrelated derogation investigation.28 Little paid prospect purposes—presumably purport alter way. participant aspect directly Acting Deputy Richard Thornburgh, testifying Hearings. Thornburgh acknowledged bad idea agency purposes, contended neither drafted current use. Materials, said, "every legitimate member [the] team" assistant probably investigation."29 continued: "Now, you begin move beyond parameters point I with. cleanest example think [i.e., ] fails enough legally prove reasonable doubt ensued [sic]. 40 "It consequences ensue. 41 "If Government[,] recover penalties respect place."30 42 rest consistent order.31 Congress's expressions distinguish principle between Department; rather, key distinction automatic, required.32 Report, thus: "The redrafted designe 43 able, time-consuming requirement prior interposition, disclosures deem relating enforcement. On hand, seeks allay lead non-criminal providing prohibition, penalty contempt paragraph (C) authorize is, intent preclude jury-developed contrary, improper, assuming utilized believes intends court's refusal enable proceeding restrictive today prevailing decisions." S.Rep. 95-354, (1977) omitted), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 531. 44 reflects mind: "Federal prosecutors" concerning least pursuant "duties enforcement"; "grand purposes" order.33 45 conclude, assuring uses supervision, subverted—concerns representative suggested even old permissible; gave hypothetical illustration addition "criminal-use" prompted abundance caution, owing ones danger unauthorized IV Since case,34 consider 47 proceeding." Neither commentary describes substantive orders. construed permitted. 1361; Oil, 217-224, 1671-1675; Dennis, 869-870, 1848-1849; Glass, 398-401, 1240-41; 681-683, 985-986. described Oil: 48 "Parties transcripts 49 Gamble appropriate cases outweighs interest burden demonstrating balance rests justifying become relevant, asserting lesser justification. sum, carefully competing light circumstances announced Court. And ordered, protective 222-223, 1674-75 (citations forerunners involved furtherance weal." Brief 43. Earlier Term, 281. At antitrust state files "to extent law." 15f(b). assumed among statute, 10, 1361, 10. nevertheless general, legislate question. ---- - nn. 14-16, 1361-1362, 14-16. 51 bolstered III-B. (now remained textually unchanged. provision, pointing interpretations.35 "relevant government," 13, rubber stamp assertion desires Thus, precisely deny (A) (B)—unlimited 52 "disclosure typically implicates few, any, secrecy." 45. contention overstated, 431-434, validity. Nothing pretend differences parties. highly one, adaptable situations others. foreclose dispensation For leakage public. Similarly, informed until closed. 1674-1675. "under standard, interest, 15, 1362, 15. weighing take account alternative regulation 53 asserted Division. App. Pet. Cert. 22-23. F.2d, 1190-1192.36 V judgment 55 Affirmed. 56 Chief BURGER, POWELL, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 57 holds possession. my view, addition, decision erroneous assessment policies, precious guidance area importance. validly conducted investigatory entirely inq iry claims involving matters. therefore dissent. 58 (hereinafter, "(A)(i)") straightforward clear. provides: 59 "(A) juror, to— "(i) 61 Notwithstanding clarity Ninth Circuit majority seen honor plain 62 nearly understand, Appeals' opinion routine, (A)(i). reaching conclusion, sharp line third floor litigation, Congress, sense. "attorney duty. term General."1 By attorney, wherever assistant" General. §§ 510, 515-517. thus surprising find recognizes order," ante, 427-428 end matter. 64 Today acknowledging embraces turns next clause strains recognition. 65 "for aides. firms, came efficient segregate specialized separate Divisions Department. naturally deal primarily Once therefore, they, "assistants General," performing normal duties, action here. 66 concludes otherwise, apparently contemplated cases!2 remotely curious result. fact, follows it, "(A)(ii)"), reveals opposite. torneys, "deemed Non-attorneys contrast, imposes —as distinguished full range "plausible," concedes, 435; compelling. interpretation, places considerable reliance whereas substance (6)(e) 1946. amending assisting. Court, "mak[es] [Congress] language." Ante, 436. 68 suffers major flaws. assumptions understanding. Those inaccurate, demonstrate. 69 essentially position likelihood violate obvious chose personnel, other. 70 overlooks reality revised 6(e)—including circumstances, hardly seems ignorant differ (A)(ii). 71 gives license ignore Rule's disagree. drafting deviating leaves rule. See, e.g., Bread Political Action Comm. FEC, 455 577, 580-581, 1235, 1237-1238, 432 (1982); Consumer Product Safety Comm'n GTE Sylvania, 447 102, 108, 2051, 2056, 766 (1980). Even partial best ambiguous wholly elements tha ignored means just says, i.e., attorneys" responsibilities. predecessor adopted initially promulgated, provided, part: 73 juror (Emphasis interpreting almost total comment Notes: Notes, limit actually 11. Plainly, superiors 238 713 (CA4 1956), cert. denied sub nom. Valley Bell Dairy 352 981, 382, 365 (1957). nowhere Note Further historical examination reveals, moreover, understood drafters throughout manner ever adopted. setting reveal late 1930's early 1940's, regarded property government. Lewin, Conduct Proceedings Antitrust Cases, L. Contemp.Probs. 112, 121, 125 (1940). mere tool, see, National Window Cleaners, 287 F. 219 (N.D.Ohio 1922). good faith reported occasions units Proceedings, F.Supp. 283 (E.D.Pa.1933) (minutes led indictment violation subsequent revoke beer permit); Bendix Aviation Corp., 953 (S.D.N.Y.1945) (grand action).3 proposed, w second draft seventh (also known "First Preliminary Draft"), (then numbered 7(e)) closer final form. still however. Orfield, Jury, F.R.D. 346-357 (1959) Orfield). numerous objections narrowness Assistant Wendell Berge remarked: 81 me rule, read literally, effect preventing Attorney, discussing developments General, officials. cannot exception situation." Comments, Recommendations Suggestions Concerning Proposed 355 (1943). 82 Judge Paul J. McCormick Southern California raised objection: 83 "As transcript freely various contemplates restriction Attorney's transcript, excepted permission court." 84 Robert M. Hitchcock expressed then "with superior representatives Justice," id. 60. Similar views (remarks Joseph T. Votava); 354 (summary suggestions judges Michigan); (letter Deeb). 85 (Second Draft) reflected comments; amended authorizing unopposed. S.H. Sibley Fifth deleting entire revising change follows: due maintained except ordered judge. permitting thought unwise, check desire official undertakes Embarrassing leaks easily occur applying persons." (1944). realized precision Rules; criticisms Sibley's comments version, breadth proposing. crabbed advanced surely left was, changes ule. so, duties.4 88 Lester members Committee, later observed: 89 "[I]n defendant minutes incomparably greatest. obtains it. says action." Orfield 451 90 background C 91 application confirms Throughout 1940's 1950's, regularly referred proved desirable, and, accordance suits. frequent area. Co., 122 (D.N.J.1956), rev'd grounds, (1958); Hollabaugh,Development Case, ABA Section Law 14, 18-22 (April 1954). suits sort here revealed inappropriate warranted. Ben Grunstein Sons 137 197 (D.N.J.1955). Motors 486 (D.Del.1954) (civil damages Elkins Act). occasion, actions exceeded bounds Agency definition 54(c), times obtaining order, April 1956 Term 239 263 (CA7 1956); occasion sole Report General's Study Laws 344-345 (1955); Chadwell, Administration Enforcement, Mich.L.Rev. 1133, 1134-1135 (1955). period, valid Petroleum Industry Investigation, 152 646 (E.D.Va.1957); supra; Herman Schwabe, Shoe Machinery 194 763 (D.Mass.1958); iUnited Wallace Tiernan 336 793, 824, 1042 (1949) (in documents previously subpoenaed returned owners dismissed). leading (1958). There, soap industry. Counsel affidavit purposes: first, laws, second, "what taken both." 230, 233 (D.N.J.1953) returned, soon filed defendants transcript. defendants' motion, Government. (D.N.J.1956). reversed, ruling requisite 682, 986. validity played central analysis, addressed issue. proper: 95 "[The Court] influenced using procedures device, flouting condemn short cut goals barred reach. true reflection know, trials looked fresh faded along What beginning cast character events transactions disclosed. failed case." 986-987 prepare crystal approved attorneys' long discovery.5 180 195 (D.N.J.1959) (after remand). 97 1961, Office Legal examined litigation. surprisingly, Office's conclusions echoed years earlier. summarizing conclusions, memorandum "[when] with, suggest advisability instituting, Justice[,] Memorandum Nicholas deB. Katzenbach, Ass't Att'y Gen'l, Counsel, Byron White, (Dec. 21, 1961) report elaborated conclusion: 98 decisions quite least, trial. Supreme refused, wholesale testimony, stating subverting process, 'could case.' [A other] sanction prosecutions. "I government, quash subpoenas enjoin (and, party) feel process being abused." 10-13 discussion 1960's 1970's, adhered investigation.6 occasions, upheld Elec. 209 197, 198-202 (E.D.Pa.1962); Washington American Pipe Constr. 59, (W.D.Wash., D.Or., D.Hawaii, N.D.Cal., S.D.Cal.1966); July 1973 374 1334, 1337 (N.D.Ill.1973); Wohl 369 386 (D.N.M.1974). Note, Administrative Access Colum.L.Rev. 162, 166-169 (1975). reconsidered backdrop investigating actions. D 101 suggestion tenable. slightly modified provision7 placed subparagraph, provision. Representative Mann explaining House: "[Subparagraph 'an duty.' language, 123 Cong.Rec. 25194 also, pp. 5-8 (1977). asserts understanding position, quotes length Amendments Procedure: Hearings Subcomm. Judiciary, 95th Cong., 1st Sess. focus hearings statements relied materials.8 104 Court—reveal grants emphasized difference (Supp. IV), 611. set note quoted 309 440 (CA3 1962): 105 application. provided." 443 106 quote—and appears—clearly draws 107 Charles Wiggins, dissenting defer disagreed, Senate's ultimately prevailed), regarding practices: 108 "In considering [the surveyed perception disclosures. strictly uniform, agreement agents divisions order." H.R.Rep. 95-195, (additional Rep. Wiggins). 109 above, "not practice" debate, Holtzman strict safeguards." 11111. Her courts. Wiggins. prevailed, yet again differing personnel: 110 "There uncovers State local laws. becomes Government, act information, However, successfully 25196 47-54 (statement Becker). 111 reflect awareness responsibilities, agency's me, duties—including matters—and leave marked contrast treatment History conclusively buttresses compelling themselves prosecution.9 112 relies heavily perceived approach. unnecessary. adopting choices. event, erred gravely implications 113 "affirmative mischief" ways. 431-434. argued contexts." 432. Presumably, "concerns" (1979): 114 "First, test mony. 219, 1673. 115 raising specter lost ignores practice—which followed case—calls disclosing completed, Attorneys' Manual 9-11.367 (Feb. 16, 1982). lose relevance; flee witnesses. 116 Furthermore, bound ethical standards. public," 3149, notes "Congress's use," premise analysis assumption uphold embodies delineated exceptions; I, am unwilling accept Dissemination if, examination, warrant receipt point, outweighed 117 blanket possibility tool discovery. improper.10 abuse precluding reviewing assessing vast approach across-the-board ban impose sanctions abused indicated remedy compensating defendants. prohibit egregious individuals contempt. abuse.11 118 apply. 433-434. contention, Division's provisions method undermined single mind. Plainly untrue. actions, litigants. undoubtedly litigants mind, lack better alternative.12 institute develop investigations. place, precludes 119 Besides greatly overstating prohibiting examining shrift dismisses "nothing expense." 431. cavalier vital money system. burdens pay keep operating. Rather, expense decrease ability meritorious actions—thus striking severe blow interest.13 120 importantly, casual dismissal "mere money" displays profound insensitivity Ever enactment Act 1789, ch. 20, 35, Stat. 92, responsibilities vested Attorneys. alone, clerk aide. establishment 1870, handful assistants; civil. H. Cummings C. McFarland, 78-92, 142-160, 218-229 (1937). practical matter, involvement others, distinctions handling unheard of. Over years, grown dramatically, separation Divisions, type today, CFR 0.40(a) (Antitrust Division); 0.55(c), (d), (f)-(i), (n), (s) jurisdiction Division). now, pa t, complete assign both, Rev.Stat. (1875 ed.); 515(a).14 121 world's largest firm, work together toward ultimate objective created—to promote sovereign activity play nation advancing deterring Many object, equal promoting welfare. areas, legislation provisions, forms integrated scheme. injunctive Sherman Gamble. Most significantly scheme Bornstein, 303, 305-307 523, 526-527 513 (1976). enacting instructed diligent inquiring violation" 3492 ed.) expected—and expect—attorneys schemes. anomalous discover refer Indeed, failure merit disciplinary starts sufficient filing complaint. suspicion violations; surprise. oblivious existence behavior file complaints. complaint filed, utilize weight. able afford real initiate perhaps troubling stilted opinion's silence meaningful lower normally actual authorization. With exceptions, today's 124 frames presented permits "preparation prosecution." 428 states "[t]he automatic," 435 added), pertain," 427 From statements, participated prosecution—and materials—to litigating Logically, deliberately chooses issues, ground squarely 429 ante 11, 434 19, 441-442 33. assume pursued lawyers, colleagues, complaint—if done so—and commence discovers enabling him portions claims. Here again, plainly 441-442, provide resolution. 126 job advisory opinions afield. announces overturns established force reevaluation restructuring obligation vitally issues fairly embraced decision. feels 127 upsets longstanding affording future. undefined, use; inevitable countless investigated prosecuted, assigns face, wasteful lawyers. elementary policy. learning this, summons reconsideration. further, dismissed want 371. 7206(2). alternative. 519-522; Tr. Oral Arg. 5-9. unnecessary pass misuse, elaboration considered 24. stay circuit interim stay, two-judge panel stay. Appeals. During mandate. moot prevented occurred. contention: live Each day remains veil lifted higher restore relief disclosure." 1184, 1187-1188 1981). (3), force, "(e) Recording "(2) Secrecy.—A interpreter, stenographer, operator recording typist transcribes recorded person (3)(A)(ii) subdivision shall rules. secre y punished "(3) Exceptions. prohibited duty; "(ii) deemed "(B) promptly court, impaneled disclosed, made. "(C) made— proceeding; defendant, grounds orders manner, time, direct." fifth created August adds 6(e)(3)(C)(iii), jury." thereby compromised, 6's 'Attorney [and] 12, Baggot, 3164, ----. Moore, Moore's Practice ¶ 6.04[7] (2d ed. 1982); Wright, arbitrarily foreclosed changing staffing replacing service. anyone eligible 6(d) enter so. dissent, post, 452-455, supervisor) Subcommittee 46-47 "House Hearings"); id., (testimony "team" access); 439-440. sources cited (e) passages desirable team. appeals 515(a), 543(a), credentials General" 54(c). Prueitt, 540 995, 999-1003 1976); Persico, 522 41, (CA2 1975); Wrigley, 520 362 (CA8 1975). draw supervise execution subpoenas, commands forces wants know. 6003 (United granti g immunity). 351, 621, (1974); 60, 65, 373, 375, (1906); Fed.Rule Crim.Proc. 7(c)(1) (prosecutor sign indictment); Association, Prosecution Standards 14.2-E, 14.4, (1977); 3-3.5, 3-3.6 1980); Policy Model 4-9, involves phase dispute, decline 445. 346, 4, 619, 4; 11-12, 770, 707-708, 2660, 2669-2670, (1972); 709-710, 2670-2671 (POWELL, concurring); Curcio 118, 1145, 1225 (1957); Silverthorne Lumber 251 385, 182, (1920); Hale, 75-77, 379-380. Title 232(F) V) (such here), trial anywhere 45(e). 232(F), affect 45(d), regulating subp enas depositions. settled press 34; impermissible noting "no reach." 683, 987. 457-458, recognition se illegal. address, permitted, whether, ends (whether ones, cf. supra ) discuss Whittaker, concurring, suggesting 684-685, 987-988. Whittaker joined opinion, interpret reads Mara, 45-46, 774, 788, (1973) (MARSHALL, dissenting). Although, convenience, "non-attorneys" describe "other specially retained 515 543. J.R. Simplot 77-1 USTC 9416 1976), withdrawn moot, 77-2 9511 (1977), reprinted 249; Hawthorne, Director Service, 406 1098 (ED Pa.1976); William Pflaumer Sons, 464 Pa.1971). 822 4-5 13-15 Wiggins); 11109 Mann); 11110 11111 Holtzman); 25195-25196 Mann). 1-2, 527. respects 1979 (the 1983). bearing designated recommending disapproval, stated: feared statutes circumscribe procedure them." 96-195, 67. dissent Thornburgh's Post, 461 8. inexplicable, speaking fraud—in words, precise situation indications, be, existed notes, 456-457, "standard somewhat inconsistent itself, instances resulted 122, (NJ 1956)—a proposition decision, reliable Hearings, be. Admittedly, consideration exercise supervision Attorney. Becker); Pa.1976) (Becker, J.). solution prevail, compromise supervisory regard 531, 532. Bar Association's amend adding exists According ABA, "make intention [to] ensur[e] used, anyone, laws." 5, 1982) original). 124. Judicial Conference tentatively ABA's suggestion, deferred Letter transmittal E. Foley October 1982, attachment. concedes event desires. 8, 92-93. respondents' 1192. aside persuaded expressly declined formally view. significance, findings entered 8-9, specified [and, Guam Northern Mariana Islands]." below, 3163 3164 rationale unclear. times, basing at, 435-443. implies prohibits "prosecution team," presumably purpose, 430-431, 431 16. jurisdiction. Crain, 139 Misc. 799, N.Y.S. 249 (Gen.Sess.1931) police commissioner corruption); 160 533, 291 (Cty.Ct.1936) (state States); Morse, Survey System, II, Ore.L.Rev. 295, 336-337 200 (1931) (same). Texas 847, 851 (E.D.Ill.1939) (upholding indictments). somehow above referring commented drafts spoke "Department officials," agencies," "representatives Justice." Much wish characterizes team." blandly Douglas' weight Whittaker's concurring 988. "would adop rule" 685, describing attributes 19. Examination expressing personal Douglas. bears note, none five Justices saw join opinion. Nor Dep't Practical Handbook 58-60 1968); Friedman, Parallel Investigations: Interagency Sharing Information Freedom Problems, Investigations 816, 819 (1981). replaced duties" statement, response asked accurately advantage [sic] aid investigations." (prepared Gen'l Thornburgh) Naturally, Mr. answering asked—about —and emphasis "civil fraud" Yet, assumption, province division includ ng LaSalle Bank, 437 298, 308-310, 2357, 2363-2364, 221 (1978), Securities Exchange Commission, Dirks SEC, 3255, (1983), portion went IRS. answer, hypothetically SEC constantly compartmentalization dealing with." whole context, scarcely especially true, survey Wiggins) (quoted 463-464). 1982 440-441 32. rely interpretation drafters' supplied readily available. recognized, today. amended, urged, bit ironic, solely proposition, elf action—and completely odds 3457-458, meet abuse. bright-line eliminate temptation problems detecting proving Apart burns down house rid mouse, vague indefinite expresses. accepts unsupported juries, intact; approach, faced task initiated team effectively. filed. complaint, satisfy "there it." Fed.Rules Civ.Proc. typical seldom underlying facts, frequently undertake ascertain appropriate. voluntary cooperation t frauds enact demands, Pub.L. 87-664, 547, 548 (1962), codified 1312. demands. stake. testified schedules disrupted deposed event; forced undergo appearing die, memories fade, lost, run. gain situations—if learned produced records. Where run, relief. officer may, conduct.

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