Document: 403 U.S. 443 91 S.Ct. 2022 29 L.Ed.2d 564 Edward H. COOLIDGE, Jr., Petitioner,v.NEW HAMPSHIRE. No. 323. Argued Jan. 12, 1971. Decided June 21, Rehearing Denied Oct. See 92 26. Syllabus Police went to petitioner's home on January 28, 1964, question him about a murder. In the course of their inquiry he showed them three guns; and agreed take lie-detector test February 2. The was inconclusive murder but during its petitioner admitted theft. absence, two other policemen came house questioned wife check story corroborate his admission Unaware visit officers who had been shown guns knowing little weapon, police asked any there might be in were four by which she offered let take. After one policeman first declined offer, they took guns, along with various articles clothing made available them. On 19, arrested for that date warrant search automobile applied chief issued Attorney General (who assumed charge investigation later prosecutor at trial), acting as justice peace. car, time arrest parked driveway, subsequently towed station, where 21 occasions next year it searched. Vacuum sweepings from car well used evidence trial, wife. Following overruling pretrial motions suppress evidence, convicted, State Supreme Court affirmed. Held: 1. seizure did not satisfy requirements Fourth Amendment applicable States Fourteenth because 'neutral detached magistrate.' Johnson v. United States, 333 10, 14, 68 367, 369, L.Ed. 436. Pp. 449—453. basic constitutional rule is 'searches conducted outside judicial process, without prior approval judge or magistrate, are per se unreasonable under subject only few specifically established welldefined exceptions,' and, facts this case, warrantless cannot justified those exceptions. 453—482. (a) driveway incidental place inside house. Even assuming, arguendo, could properly have when petitioner, done so leisure after removal. 455—457. (b) Under circumstances present here—where some known probable role crime, ample opportunity destroy incriminating guarded no access car—there exigent justifying even before taken special exceptions searches Carroll 267 132, 45 280, 69 543, Chambers Maroney, 399 42, 90 1975, 26 419, clearly inapplicable. Cf. Dyke Taylor Implement Mfg. Co., 391 216, 88 1472, 20 538. 458—464. (c) certain may seize 'plain view,' though reason alone discovery inadvertent. That exception inapplicable instant obtain valid warrant, knew advance car's description location, intended entered property, contraband dangerous objects involved. 464—473. 3. No implicated 2 obtained wife, hence needed warrant. police, exerted effort coerce dominate her, obligated refuse her offer making these items instrument agent police. 484—490. 109 N.H. 403, 260 A.2d 547, reversed remanded. Archibald Cox, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Alexander Kalinski, Manchester, N.H., respondent. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion Court.** 1 We called upon case decide issues Amendments arising context state criminal trial commission particularly brutal As every our single duty determine presented accord Constitution law. Pamela Mason, 14-year-old girl, left New Hampshire, evening 13, heavy snowstorm, apparently response man's telephone call babysitter. Eight days later, thaw, body found site major north-south highway several miles away. She murdered. event created great alarm area, immediately began massive investigation. 3 having learned neighbor Coolidge, away girl's disappearance, him. They him, among things, if owned produced three, shotguns rifle. also whether would concerning account activities night disappearance. He do following Sunday, day off. described attitude occasion fully 'cooperative.' His throughout interview. 4 Coolidge early morning come down station trip Concord, administered. evening, plainclothes arrived house, Mrs. waiting mother-in-law husband's return. These visited earlier week, know Collidge displayed inspection visit. plainclothesmen told husband 'serious trouble' probably night. Coolidge's mother leave, proceeded Coolidge. During interview belonging clothes thought wearing Mason's 5 held jail an unrelated night, released day.1 ensuing half weeks, accumulated quantity support theory killed Mason. results meeting between working General, personally all relating murder, serve trial. At meeting, decided enough justify cars. conclusion Manchester formal application, oath, warrants. complaint supporting Pontiac automobile, concerns us here, stated affiant 'has cause suspect believe, does herewith offers satisfactory things Commission said offense, now kept, concealed vehicle, wit: 1951 two-door sedan * *.' warrants then signed himself, Hampshire law force time, justices peace authorized issue N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. § 595:1 (repealed 1969). 6 issued. remain small child, must stay elsewhere, part believed harassed reporters accessible When both cars 'impounded,' provide transportation her. Some towing company, hours into custody station. It appears although dark fallen plainly visible street actually arrested. searched vacuumed seized, again 1965, third April 1965. 7 subsequent jury vacuum sweepings, including particles gun powder, introduced against attempt show microscopic analysis highly Mason car.2 Also Sunday house—a 22-caliber Mossberg rifle, prosecution claimed weapon. Conflicting ballistics testimony bullets fired Finally, same attempted through high probability contact body. Pretrial referred Court, ruled admissible. 106 186, 208 322. guilty sentenced life imprisonment. affirmed judgment conviction, we granted certiorari consider questions raised 926, 2253, 806. 8 claim authorizing invalid Since agree reason, need further argument allegations oath issuance conclusory violate relevant standards. Giordenello 357 480, 78 1245, 1503; Aguilar Texas, 378 108, 84 1509, 12 723. 9 classic statement policy underlying requirement Jackson, writing 13—14, 436: 10 'The point Amendment, often grasped zealous officers, denies enforcement usual inferences reasonable men draw evidence. Its protection consists requiring drawn neutral magistrate instead being judged officer engaged competitive enterprise ferreting out crime. Any assumption sufficient magistrate's disinterested determination will reduce nullity leave people's homes secure discretion officers. right privacy reasonably yield is, rule, officer, Government agent.' 11 Lefkowitz, 285 452, 464, 52 420, 423, 76 877; supra, 486, S.Ct., 1250; Wong Sun 371 471, 481—482, 83 407, 413—414, 441; Katz 389 347, 356—357, 507, 514, 19 576. 'government agent' State—the General—who actively To sure, formalized here bearing title 'Search Warrant,' whereas piece paper involved, has uphold such artificial basis. Rather, argues unquestionably existing law, fact act Further, claims confronted showing question. proposition answer hardly more appropriate setting than disqualification rather case-by-case evaluation circumstances. Without disrespect whole expressed Jackson prosecutors simply maintain requisite neutrality regard own investigations—the 'competitive enterprise' rightly engage single-minded attention.3 Mancusi DeForte, 392 364, 371, 2120, 2125, 1154. existence renders noncompliance procedure irrelevance, cite Agnello 269 20, 33, 46 416, 70 145, 1925: 13 'Belief, however founded, article sought dwelling furnishes justification And unlawful notwithstanding cause.' 14 Jones 493, 497—498, 1253, 1256, 1514; Silverthorne Lumber Co. 251 385, 392, 40 182, 183, 64 319. ('(T)he rights protected result achieved lawful way.') 15 But upholding relied standards imposed Federal forbidden Fourteenth. This position premised passage Ker California, 374 23, 31, 1623, 1628, 726: 16 'Preliminary examination seizures involved helpful indicate what Mapp (v. Ohio, 367 643, 81 1684, 1081). First, recognized 'principles governing admissibility federal trials restricted derived solely Constitution. exercise supervisory authority over administration courts formulated rules prosecutions.' McNabb 318 332, 341, 63 608, 613, 87 819 (1943); Mapp, however, consequently, implied total obliteration laws arrests favor sounded death knell federalism; rather, echoed sentiment Elkins 364 (206), 221, 80 (1437), 1446, 1669, 'a healthy federalism depends avoidance needless conflict courts' itself urging '(f)ederal-state cooperation solution crime promoted, recognition mutual obligation respect fundamental criteria approaches.' U.S., 658, 1693, 1081.' (Emphasis Ker.) 17 urged statutes permitted himself 'workable arrests, meet 'the practical demands effective enforcement' States,' id., 34, 1630, Ker. 18 indeed workable view evident case: Court: You mean another (search warrants)? Witness: Yes. Captain Couture Shea Loveren J.P.'s. Well, me ask you, Chief, your effect you never go department Peace? 22 hasn't our—policy deparment. 23 'Q. Right. Your experience, fellow capacity 24 'A. practice.' too plain extensive discussion abandoned method issuing 'search warrants' violated premise Amendments—a developed articulated long Court's decisions 1081. Mr.Justice Frankfurter put Wolf Colorado, 338 25, 27—28, 1359, 1361, 93 1782: 25 security one's arbitrary intrusion police—which core Amendment—is free society. therefore implicit concept ordered liberty' enforceable Due Process Clause. knock door, prelude search, commentary recent history condemned find escape constitutionally rest official investigator case. required Constitution, stands firmer ground all. If justified, must, therefore, theory. II 27 proposes distinct theories bring within requirement. considering them, lose sight Amendment's guarantee. Bradley's admonition almost century ago Boyd 116 616, 635, 524, 535, 746, worth repeating here: 28 'It obnoxious thing mildest least repulsive form; illegitimate unconstitutional practices get footing way, namely, silent approaches slight deviations legal modes procedure. can obviated adhering provisions person property should liberally construed. A close literal construction deprives efficacy, leads gradual depreciation right, consisted sound substance. watchful citizen, stealthy encroachments thereon.'4 Thus most area Amendment—subject delineated exceptions.'5 'jealously carefully drawn,'6 seek exemption exigencies situation imperative.'7 '(T)he burden seeking it.'8 times unrest, caused racial fear internal subversion, values represents appear unrealistic 'extravagant' some. authors concepts. altogether unlike won—by means England,9 revolution continent—a personal intrusions power. changed, reducing everyman's scope pleases urban industrial world, changes served more, less, important.10 A. 30 State's 'incident' arrest. assume valid, condition incident' met. Whiteley Warden, Wyoming Penitentiary, 401 560, 567 n. 11, 1031, 1037, 306. since events assess argua different distance away.11 31 Preston 376 881, 777, makes legally remove it, virtually identical Black's unanimous '(o)nce accused custody, (of car) place, incident arrest.' Id., 883. 47, 1979, 419. Search-incident doctrine, short, applicability case.12 B 32 second forward make whenever so, decision last Term contemporaneous Carroll, there. granting application extend far beyond original rationale. 33 hold 'contraband goods illegally transported vehicle warrant,'13 provided seizing shall believing stops seizes liquor therein transported.'14 Such explicitly Congress, pointed elsewhere,15 conditions '(a)n indispensable instrumentality large-scale violation National Prohibition Act, treated somewhat offender became contraband.' cases,16 each involving occupied stopped open liquor, followed reaffirmed Carroll.17 Chambers, again. 34 rationale cases 35 necessary difference store, structure proper readily ship, motor boat, wagon, goods, practicable quickly moved locality jurisdiction sought.' 153, 285. supplied.) 36 51, 1981, 'exigent circumstances' 'an highway,' cause, 'movable, occupants alerted, contents obtained.' fleeting 37 aware extremely cooperative investigation, indication meant flee. already incriminating. There suggestion that, question, illegal purpose, regularly thus 'fleeting.' neither stolen nor dangerous. 38 sent guard back door while main party approached front. resistance kind part, voluntarily front doors. way conceivably gained property. away, informed adult occupant bady spend elsewhere use either Two drove relative town, stayed until around midnight, premises policemen.18 39 word 'automobile' talisman whose presence fades disappears. surely nothing invoke meaning purpose States—no alerted bent flight, hazardous chase, weapons, confederates move inconvenience detail immobilized autobile. possible stretch imagination 'it warrant,' 285, 'automobile exception,' despite label, irrelevant.19 arrested, illegal, concerned. help State, stop station.20 controlled supra. lacked defendant's arrest, condemn Here proceeding Dyke, illegal.21 C 41 'instrumentality crime,' seized view. Supposing lawful, Cooper 386 58, 788, 730, cause. Of course, distinction crime' 'mere evidence' Warden Hayden, 387 294, 1642, 782, automobile.22 But, reasons follow, view' unnecessary Cooper, search.23 42 important keep mind vast majority cases, view, moment seizure. problem doctrine identify significance normal concomitant illegal. 43 An example given specified objects, across character. Go-Bart Importing 282 344, 358, 51 158, 75 374; 465, Steele 498, 414, 757; Stanley Georgia, 394 557, 571, 89 1243, 1251, 542 (Stewart, J., concurring result). Where initial brings supported, requirement, legitimate. inadvertently 'hot pursuit' fleeing suspect. supra; cf. Hester 265 57, 44 445, 898. object comes appropriately limited warrant.24 Chimel 395 762—763, 2039—2040. searching accused, nonetheless object. Harris 390 234, 992, 1067; Frazier Cupp, 731, 1420, 684; 43, 1635. Lewis 385 206, 424, 312. What common accused. serves supplement justification—whether object, hot pursuit, legitimate unconnected directed accused—and permits extension apparent them; 'plan general exploratory something emerges. 571—572, 1251 protections scrutiny eliminate based evil, careful necessity. See, e.g., McDonald 335 451, 191, 153; 782; 576; 761—762, 2039. second, objective deemed possible. Here, specific evil 'general warrant' abhorred colonists, se, general, rummaging person's belongings. 624—630, 528—532; Marron 275 192, 195—196, 48 74, 75—76, 72 231; Stanford 379 476, 85 506, 431. accomplishes 'particular description' seized. occur progress. extraneous officer's presence. And, intrusion, consistent objective, convert one. minor peril protections, gain enforcement. Where, once otherwise progress, inconvenience, sometimes dangerous—to themselves—to require ignore describing it. 47 limits corollary familiar principle discussed above, amount absent circumstances.' Incontrovertible senses establish fullest measure contraband, repeatedly enforced enter 286 1, 466, 951; 436; 1256—1257, Chapman 365 610, 776, 828; Trupiano 334 699, 1229, 1663.25 limitation inadvertent.26 just stated, plain-view turn initially (and limited) 'general' one, procuring cover inadvertent great. anticipated, location intend different. imposes whatever, none cognizable system regards 'per unreasonable' absence 49 bottomed fails mention particular express 'Warrants (the) seized.' may, legitimated pursuit objects—not themselves—which seize, fly face seizure.27 50 light said, warrant; automobile's exact advance; themselves.28 unconstitutional, remanded Court. D dissenting today, WHITE marshals arguments interpretation Beyond unstartling line deal situations closest side, theme runs say recurring controversies seems treat views separate section, piecemeal. 53 Much notable attempts hundred years develop coherent disagreement importance argued precondition essential failed so. Others equal reasonableness, introduce fruits affords safeguard '(t)he procure reasonable.'29 54 Both sides controversy recognize property—his office—and carried elsewhere. accepted, matter principle, suspect's unreasonable, unless falls defined set circumstances.'30 kinds intrusions, applied, searches, electronic surveillance, administrative clear.31 55 With premises, qualifies circumstance.' difficult 'person papers, effects,' approval. subsidiary permissible. fashion. 56 arisen carry challenged improperly cause,32 execution warrant.33 argue necessary, arrest,34 permissible limits.35 Perhaps lines attack plethora litigable issues, man considered courts. chosen number validity search. E.g., been: 'Assuming entry purposes authorization magistrate?' 57 very broad, sharply contrasting answers assayed past. mere difficulties obtaining 331 67 1098, 1399, Rabinowitz, occurred, spacious be. 58 approach Rabinowitz criticism easy arrange Constitution's 'effects' dead letter. Trupiano, hand, absurd permit 'person' force, permission lying sight. arguable substantial 'reasonable' terms, less intrusive reasonable. 59 circumstances,' entering person. requires person, sense premises. different, believe committed felony. ever serious midnight plausibly sweeping perceive style well. 60 clear, then, notion order fore arrest' strictly terms exigency arises dangers harm arresting destruction reach arrestee. Neither far-ranging Rabinowitz. White Chimel, supported 776 780, 2047—2049. From follow full-scale lesser intrusion. 772—775, 2045 2047. 61 planned circumstance' failure suppressed. WHITE's opinion, nighttime onto emergency, prevent 62 takes basically similar face, Every indicates adherence care delineating exception. Read thus, quite evidently bar. Yet viewpoint abstract, fact, behaved 'reasonably' circumstances—in short requirement—Carroll stand more. stopping interference lives occupants. fortiori unoccupied—were reasonable, substantial, whatever. Using reasoning sort, step adopt exactly 'treat automobiles person.' accept see basis distinguishing houses effects. bed, vital unoccupied owner's private hard why suitcase, trunk, shopping bag, portable container garage, yard. objection, adopted dissent proves much. likewise logic read Indeed, correct generally wise re-examine assumption. re-examination 'would confront grave forceful within, felony, sought, Amendment.' 499—500, 1257. 65 None cited disposes 'grave question.' elaborated certainly negative implication Davis Mississippi, 721, 728, 1394, 1398, 676; 413—415. Appeals District Columbia Circuit, sitting en banc, unanimously reached conclusion.36 well-delineated exceptions,'37 frail continuing vitality fate supposed valued decades, determined scores country. somehow 'weighed' efficiency. be, machinery government, operating 'well-intentioned mistakenly over-zealous, executive officers'38 true guide action, pious phrase, enthroned rule.' 80, 441 (Frankfurter, dissenting). confinement function dealt encompass occurs, spacious. intimately linked search-incident exception, Part above shown. limit undo much enough. 66 Our corresponds Trupiano. determining factors knowledge intention 707—708, 1233—1234 27, However, 'reinstate' implications. begin with, arrestee immediate control there, suggest anticipate 24, arguably inconsistent characterizes coexistence 'punitive,' 'extravagant,' 'inconsistent,' 'without reason,' 'unexplained,' 'inexplicable.' Post, 517, 519, 521. 'ready opportunity, another, clarity certainty lower officials confusing.' Presumably ways believes achieve adoption proposal alike dispose enough, but, tried cast limbo seriously alternative certainty, coherence credibility, modifying Cooper. Surely, apart strong merits, vehement cavalier treatment decisions. nonsense pretend today reduces complete harmony. differing directions differ emphasis. trick perfectly consistent. suggest, WHITE, post, 521, 520 cease 'to strive consistency analysis,' 'abandoned attempt' reasoned distinctions area. past development always proceed smooth incorporation new analytical framework. 'clarity certainty' facile wholesale recently cases. remark Harlan Fifth Fourth: 'There those, I suppose, 'liberal construction' like Miranda Arizona, 384 436, 86 1602, 694,) 746 (1886), side-by-side balancing Schmerber 757, 1826, 908,) subtle constructional antinomies utilized convenient bootstraps another. tension springs uncertain mandate provision gives Court.' California Byers, 402 449—450, 1535, 1548, (concurring judgment). convinced correct, reflects—that arrest—can easily understood alike. work protect citizen overburdening preserves protects guarantees Amendment. III 71 Because prospect efficient counsels consideration contends rifle 2, interrogated violative understand contention, review episode. administered Concord afternoon 2d confessed stealing $375 employer. group returned interrogation movements disappearance continued, statements checked best could. send speak motivated desire whatever say, corroboration theft record supports weapon bullet retrieved caliber, unsure pistol. body, practice owners run tests met 2d, unaware previous 73 victim's replied not. guns. According suppression hearing, replied, 'Yes, bedroom.' One 'We you.' bedroom closet. Her continued: 74 wanted gentleman 'No;' turned them.' 'If Did hide.'? can't recall before. don't recall. 77 indicated concerned hide, wanted? 79 feel hide? No.' pairs trousers worn evening. brought hunting jacket. gave receipt clothing, issue, 82 branch handed 'instrument' officials, complying 'demand' Consequently, argued, victim terms. facts, 'waive' seizures. Had wholly initiative, doubt admissible Burdeau McDowell, 256 574, 1048. conduct actions attendant exclusionary rules. test, suggests, regarded acted Goldberg, 330 F.2d (CA3), cert. denied, 377 953, 497 (1964); People Tarantino, Cal.2d 590, 290 P.2d 505 (1955); Byars 273 248, 520; Gambino 310, 137, 293. exist forces pushing spouse cooperate Among simple powerful convention openness honesty, secretive behavior intensify suspicion, uncertainty likely spouse. existence, incentives full disclosure active fashioned prevent, repair,' target misconduct. compel guaranty effectively way—by removing incentive disregard it.' 217, 1437, 1444, 1669. discourage citizens aiding utmost ability apprehension criminals. If, type occurred. effects dispossessing Nor make. announce Once normally logical coercive. competence ask. inspection, incumbent avert eyes. crux telephoned release Instead, them,' assessing amounted seizure, motive clearing husband, hide. seen produce realized occasion. behaved, shows, perfect courtesy. slightest or, matter, direct techniques these. hold, effect, adverse consequences spontaneous, good-faith clear suspicion.39 proceedings opinion. ordered. Judgment HARLAN, concurring. opinions filed due overhauling. prosecutorial authorities intolerable uncertainty, extends everyday process re-evaluation 1081 (1961), 726 (1963). former 'exclusionary rule' States. latter forced ins outs decisions, 94 combination primarily responsible bringing distortious incongruities field Basically aspects, docket show. mold aspect enforcement, depriving country observe procedures settings. Oaks, Studying Exclusionary Rule Search Seizure, U.Chi.L.Rev. 665 (1970), suggesting 'deterrent value' adequately demonstrated disproved, pointing comparative statistics old ones obtained. Second, room cope diverse problems, generated tendency relax govern For illustration field, resulting infelicitous 'incorporation' Williams Florida, 78, 1893, 446 (1970). Until up mistakes Ker, solid progress straight will, my occur. 95 difficulty voting sustain think anything offend 'at 1782 (1949); Irvine 347 128, 381, 98 561 (1954); Rochin 342 165, 205, 96 183 (1952). standards, concur, difficulty, Parts I, II—D, Court.* am tipped STEWART's contrary would, fear, toward relegating consequence opposite 752, 2034, 685 (1969), Terms ago. 97 Recent scholarship suggested emphasizing reasonableness 'stood fourth amendment head' historical standpoint. T. Taylor, Studies Constitutional Interpretation 23—24 (1969). perhaps 1257—1258, 514 (1958), Brothers assumptions root ante, 477—479; 510—512, leaves open. Ante, 481. squarely presenting briefed argued. intimate subject, ripe decision, hope unwilling lend trend Chief BURGER, part. 99 join BLACK's prepared exclusion 100 illustrates graphically monstrous price pay seem imprisoned ourselves. Bivens Six Unknown Named Agents Bureau Narcotics, 388, 1999, 619. 101 merits reverse conviction. reaches out, strains, distorts signs stabilizing, directs seven acts charged. 102 Stone, Minnesota functioning indulges 'bifurcating elements infinitesimal split.' 103 BLACK, dissenting. 104 court, convicted Holding 'unreasonable' inadmissible judicially reverses Believing construed contains dissent. 105 school lived younger brother Hampshire. occasionally worked baby sitter posting notice bulletin board local laundromat. 4:15 p.m. Pamela's babysitter later. About 4:30 job waitress nearby restaurant, received phone call. brother, answered overhear conversation, reported caller man. call, dinner herself, family saw alive. frozen discovered snowdrift beside interstate home. throat slashed shot head. Medical died manhunt ensued. witnesses 9:30 assistance near found. Petitioner suspicion neighbors matched seeing talked fifteen girl killed, arranged 1964. telling neighboring town committed. questioning, larceny employer overnight connection offense. day, 107 While talk firearms rifles Upon University Rhode Island Criminal Investigation Laboratory concluded firearms, .22-caliber murdered brain. 108 frequent visitor laundromat posted babysitting knife inflicted wounds, unsuccessfully contacted persons fabricate alibi 13. attorney automobile. 110 issued, residence placed dirt fine girl. Based similarity clothes, experts testified car. 111 challenges conviction holds agree. 112 prohibits says consequences. nowhere provides remedy violation. states: people persons, houses, papers effects, seizures, violated, Warrants Oath affirmation, searched, text construction. Apparently embodied (1886). holding ordinarily compelled books proof accepted principles command witness himself. Bradley preferred formulate rely contained language compulsory production Miller, whom Waite joined, concurred refused novel reading 1914, member remained, Weeks 232 383, 652, barred confession break merely strange nearly 125 discover words. truth source adopted, now, contain barring 113 striking contrast states express, unambiguous 'shall himself.' directly commands defendant give Absent congressional action pursuant excluded, Fourth. ably joined Waite, thrust 661, 1694, (1961). 114 breaking Mapp's possessions, excluded does. introduction compels 115 prosecutions. obliged Amendment.1 Evidence excluded. changing inadmissible. treats judge-made designed enforce majority's notions conduct. announces name 'guidelines' automatically purport exclude Indeed prefers 'changing times' sees administrator regulating contacts citizens. better regulation, applies court-created 117 concede precedent announcement yet procedures. By invoking rulemaking power words somewhere 'spirit' expanded recognition. 118 Framers Bill Rights prove guilt 'little trial' 723 Spinelli 393 410, 584, 637 Spinelli. Likewise, eavesdroppers competent English American 'rulemaking' undertook lay surveillance. Berger York, 388 41, 70, 1873, 1889, 1040 (1967) (Black, dissenting); 518, 576 extending areas found, tenet Amendment—that ambiguous 'privacy' unjustifiably comprehensive substitute guarantee 'unreasonable seizures.' Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 1678, 510 (1965). 119 founded written draftsmen themselves measured corresponding immense powers delegated natural meaning, legislation. 120 defective void. warrants, 'no concedes contest 121 compliance general's rendered invalid. magistrate. office. ineligible affirmation. proceeds sit weigh practically innocence magnified authority. 122 participation 'harmless error' error imagine clearer possibility prejudice discretion. refusal abuse contributed action. error, harmless doubt. Harrington 250, 1726, 284 (1969); 18, 824, 705 (1967). 123 Therefore, Moreover, rejected majority. 124 such. Prior discovered. Their identification made. good element Preservation motivation Considered information hands conclude constitutional, reasons. arriving fitted observed elevation form reason. 126 stating goes apply reaching Chimel. employs non sequitur. follows, majority, doorway pre-Chimel purports apply, five-hour four-room apartment, 1399 (1947), passed in. locks entered, lock 127 governed Each facts. exploration, 128 419 entitled 543 (1925), belief 129 rationale, mobility automobiles, thereby, immobile. Chambers: 'For purposes, hand carrying probable-cause factor still 52, 1981. delayed 130 altered accompanied assumptions: first, should, could, continue arrest; else alter assumption, unreasonably refusing second.2 131 well-established rightfully words, 'initial intrusion' 'plainly arrested,' 448, seize. 464. scene stood today. 465—466 24. 132 conceding such, 'inadvertent.' confidently 'What accused.' holdings fail flatly contradict look invalidity assertion. 133 (1963), marihuana transaction, apartment block upheld justifiably 'inadvertent.'3 134 231 (1927), business records retail whiskey enterprise. 'inadvertent.'4 135 confuses historically conferred become writ assistance. Evidently, named unanticipated 'inadvertent.'5 concern independent depend concededly exceed place—the search; indeed, arrest.6 136 Only rarely truly unexpected expectation discovering abolishes rejects substitutes rule—if not, how fixed rules; 137 peers, conscious awesome gravity heard conscience upset verdict. 138 BLACKMUN joins BLACK portion thereof rule. 139 THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, 140 affirm judgment. lawfully thereafter 730 II—C II—D II-B, concur III. 141 public 'persons, overwhelming weight felony.1 evidences uniformly maintained many cases.' 652 (1914). Accord, 142 places, otherwise: specifying permitting entries 143 documents. validate confused confusing. derives enjoy derivative located warrantless, time? Before deprived possession confirm testify about, material) evidence? 144 contexts. Suppose secreted park. Although hidden abandoned, Lee, 274 559, 1202 (1927) (boat waters);2 898 (1924) (liquor field); parking lot. 145 consent 684 settle involves 146 Third, adjacent approved broad scope. Term, U.s. 1663 (1948), departed approach. still. Time circumstance neither. disturb invalidated 339 56, 430, 653 (1950), practicability securing narrowed defendant, reestablish accompanying 147 executing covered 231(1927), odd plain-sight ending done, hot-pursuit felon, 782 (1967); forbid doubts survive Zap 328 624, 1277, 1477 (1946), vacated grounds, 800, 857, 1259 investigators cancelled evidencing 569, 1250, (1969) agrees, lumps entry. 148 situations, invasion possessory interest implicated. circumstances, 'inadvertent,' because, protections' overridden 'major inherent avoiding 'needless inconvenience' 467, 468. eyes considerations. Officers sought. Immediate 149 interpose disputed 'anticipated,' it,' 470. 150 Let suppose staying range photographs victim, bedroom. Assume photograph finding anticipated. photographs. 'minor' photographs: officers' appraisal expected reliable other. actual danger depart suffer invalidating anticipated included 151 punitive extravagant deliberately omitting photograph. Quite true. oversight careless mistake explain omission misjudge realize picture, validly determines all, 152 More important, inadvertence ends accomplish nothing. places terminate found; look. So, too, circumscribed Excluding operate wider, unauthorized searches. stray excluded; adding excluding candle. intrude pretext sight, 767, 2042, unfounded. portions Given restrictions risk effecting thereto destroyed return entire possess safer chance seeking. lack when, vantage inadvertent—that might, assist see. measurable attach undue unintended misapprehension failing which, afraid, have. 153 presumably, direction revived 154 note stolen, Apparently, materials draws reminiscent confusing unworkable firmly aside. 155 Chimel; contrary, Chimel-type disturbed, 'anticipate search.' 482. 'comes concealed, arrestee, arrestee.' 466 today's example, home, credit card pocket picture wall implicate picture. explain. unable distinction, 156 third-party consent. reliably suspect, apprehended, friend. friend freely consents accompanies process. precisely aware, lacks confer forcibly interfered accordingly expect overrules distinguishes Frazier; discusses weapons implicitly approves Frazier. 157 infer chemical bootleg revenue 158 Aware inconsistencies, admits harmony.' 483. concludes attained ultimately 'that 484. ought spun limits, analysis. ready increases confusion clinging unexplained inexplicable. 159 us, home—perhaps obvious hoped Thus, assuming 59, 446, remains invalidate 160 accepting record, observation well, looking driveway—a bars bar lot, secluded spot, 161 employed. satisfied was. authorizes retain length protection, reasonable.' 61—62, 791. 162 foregoing views, grounds Nonetheless, relying 163 authorize indefinite detention seized; contemplated expedition completing owners. retained occasions: months detain inapplicable, disagree strongly 164 recounted earlier, prevailing legislative improvident litigate 165 fashion, 'practically beginning Government,' Congress obtained, wagon (1925). vehicles movable consistently recognized, Brinegar 160, 1302, 1879 168, 1110 (dissenting opinion); 582, 609, 1269, 1453 (1946) Scher 305 251, 174, (1938); Husty 694, 240, 629 (1931); 166 motion arrives, owner others, spot 167 limiting us. argues, vessels longer moving unattended movement instance friends equally real, 168 informant loads locations. spot. Later, watched, others started drive foot two; contraband. sustained denial saying prohibit possessed, 700, 241. petitioners argue, elapsed enabled soon removed. speculate chances successfully delay withdrawal was, 701, 242. 169 cites highway. obviously irrelevant Equally immaterial feet stopped. occurred Husty's arrival motion. distinguish negligible force. 170 flatly, Carroll-Chambers$ 538 (1968). reckless driving, 777 (1964). expressly rested noting '(s)ince cause,' 222, 1476. Dyke. 171 tenuous best. metaphysical roots commonsense standard Distinguishing Carroll-Chambers enmeshes litigation breeding refinements relation reality. credibility overrule modicum guidance themselves. 172 II—B, II—C, ** II-A, II-C DOUGLAS, BRENNAN, MARSHALL. money III-A text, infra. lacking probative value, Tribe, Trial Mathematics: Precision Ritual Legal Process, Harv.L.Rev. 1329, 1342 (1971). hearing General's said: 'I impartial Magistrate did. think, sincerity, wear shoes.' Gouled 255 298, 303—304, 261, 263, 647 (1921): add emphasis framers court declared political liberty welfare observance guaranteed (the Fifth). is: 'full enjoyment security, property'; essence liberty; imperative guaranties individual citizen,—the jury, habeas corpus receive liberal construction, encroachment 'gradual depreciation' secured imperceptible well-intentioned, overzealous officers.' 357, 374. 499, 1257, 1514. 456, 193, 153. Jeffers, 48, 93, 95, 59. Entick Carrington, How.St.Tr. 1029, Eng.Rep. 807 (1765), Wilkes Wood, 1153, 489 (1763). 456 ment existed 685, substantially prospectively. 646, 1148, 388. untenable. leading 653, 'for proposition, inter alia, 'incident 'possession' 'control' arrested.' 760, 2038. house; driveway. touched removed scene. doubtful '(a) "only confined vicinity *'" Vale Louisiana, 30, 1969, 1971, 409, quoting Shipley 818, 819, 2053, 2054, 732, Stoner 483, 889, 891, 856 Shipley.) 30—31, 5—6; James 382 36, 151, 30. (as opposed below) suggests formulation beyond' 503, mistaken. contemporaneously evidence—i.e., 'arrestee's 'within control'—construing phrase destructible evidence.' 763, 2040. below. point, grounds. 60, 790. 777. 156, 286. Di Re, 332 581, 586, 225, 210. 629; 1879. 151. There, large liquor. follows: driver 'turned garage curtilage. pursuing followed. getting approached, announced character, hauling 'just party.' Asked tax paid, Canadian whiskey; also, trunk rear opened 253, 175. held: 'Considering disclosed, So controverted argument. 'Passage closely observing right. garage. Examination objection guilt. oppressive. 4, 5, 145; Wisniewski 825, 826 (CA 1931).' 254—255, 176. Agnello, page cited, frequently 'mobile,' 'movable.' 527. jail, company plainclothesmen, 'mobile.' keys slip sort mobility. containers want movable, trunks, suitcases, boxes, briefcases, bags. How distinguished purpose—sitting property? wheels locomotive universal availability society driving purpose. 685. II-A suitcase box. Carroll. nn. 16, 17, Payne, 429 1970). couples camping individually allotted campsite Yosemite Park. off-duty adjoining smoking substance 'furtive' drugs glove compartment nearby. summoned park ranger, campsite. preparing bed couple belonged visiting Seconal capsules, behind. Brinegar, answered: 'While enunciated slightly 'vehicle 764, 2040, Volkswagen reasoning. appellant bedding Park Ranger) one.' F.2d, 171—172. III-B vehemence Maroney precise clear. legitimately 543. operated sub silentio highway, passed, available. analogy misleading. justified. abundantly significant stopping, seizing, unoccupied, immaterial, since, 653. mandated statute, legality questioned. side stuck snow. witnesses, help, stuck. '(t)here arrestee's comparable justification, routinely occurs—or, desk drawers closed itself. well-recognized exceptions, warrant.' Dbid. here. infiltrated manufacturing layout equipment distillery. staged raid looked shed, criminals standing rejecting Government's recognizing discernible presence.' 704, 1232. excuse agents proximity include advance. irrelevant. 951, unmistakable smell stored undisturbed. restrictive allowable extent demonstrates, operation III-C casts conclusion. marked 'Whiskey' building truck. basis, gin—not unloaded—and bottling equipment, armed robber. '(s)peed essential, thorough insured Hayden escape.' 299, 1646. painstaking robber weapons. 299—300, 1646—1647. 1202, Coast Guard patrol boat seas searchlight revealed allowed seen. it: 'A trespass any, render 563, 748. 231, raided speakeasy bartender bills closet ledger kept business, emphasized avoid occurs. 158; 440 Marron, Steele, maneuvering want. 726, laments 'abolishes (but supra), forcefully asserts 'new 'accomplish nothing.' claims, legitimation 26, sample, import agreement ignored able after. allowing inci- dent 'law (had) expedient arranging suspects elsewhere.' 'As seen, still) desirability formed raid. Antoniole shed foreseeable motivating foreseeability necessity distillery illicit equipment. time. farmyard, advanced collapse. fortuitous raid.' 1233. contrary. Ker's 'time essence,' unnecessary. living room, emerged kitchen. kitchen, in, brick table. marihuana, 'was (331 1399)' kitchen 'searched' (by going in) 'search' Kers, 42—43, 1634—1635. distinguishable grounds: George Ker,' 1634—1635; fortuitous; destroyed; Kers Not 66, S.C., 435. 5—8, II—B (automobiles); supra (electronic surveillance); Terry 1868, 889; Sibron 40, 1912, 917 (street searches); Camara Municipal 523, 1727, 930; Seattle, 541, 1737, 943 (administrative searches). 1503. 441. Dorman U.S.App.D.C. 313, 435 514. 304, 263. Cases, 1513, 1519 (1966); Note, Seizures Private Parties: Exclusion Stan.L.Rev. 608 retroactivity Mackey 667, 675, 1160, 1171, 404 subpoena. (1886); 210, (1952) concurring); 773, 1837, 908 (1966) (1964), Preston, Preston. vagrancy. charge. Preston's totally vagrancy him; related Brother points taking week pending detained undermine supplier. eight-month period selling 'mug' previously reliable. room. correctly notes, (1967), reinstate 471 472. instance, 757 warehouse Act naming 'cases whiskey' scarcely barrels bottles 'inadvertently' business. wearing. (1) shotgun pistol toilet floor; (2) ammunition cap robber, beneath mattress bedroom; (3) jacket worn, washing machine basement. characterization discoveries shined deck whiskey. regarding challenge, termed knowingly exposes protection. 427, 312 748, (1927); (1924). common-law J. Stephen, History Law England 193 (1883); M. Hale, Historia Plactorum Coronae 72—104 (new ed. 1800). felony September 1921, defendants unlawfully transporting effected Several stopped, men, amply forewarned find—one distillation sustained, (did) 705, Marshals, Secret Service, narcotics 15, 1935, Stat. 378, amended, U.S.C. 3053; 1934, 1008, 3052; Sept. 29, 890, 3056 (1964 ed., Supp. V); July 1956, Tit. 104(a), 570, 7607(2). 1951, deleted pre-existing statutory restriction likelihood 1239; S.Rep.No.2464, 81st Cong., Sess., (1950); H.R.Rep.No.3228, 776—780, 2047—2049, opinion). 1514 forcible posed intimated accrual Sabbath 585, 1755, 828 (1968); Miller 301, 305—308, 1190, 1193—1195, 1332 (1958); 432, (1950) (dictum); 436 (1948) (dictum). pose Lee chemically analyze aboard

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