Document: 413 U.S. 149 93 S.Ct. 2448 37 L.Ed.2d 522 Roland V. COLGROVE, Petitioner,v.James F. BATTIN, United States District Judge for the of Montana. No. 71—1442. Argued Jan. 17, 1973. Decided June 21, Syllabus Local federal court rule providing that a jury trial civil cases shall consist six persons comports with Seventh Amendment requirement and coextensive statutory 28 U.S.C. § 2072 right by be preserved in suits at common law, is not inconsistent Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 48 deals only parties' stipulations regarding size. Pp. 151—164. 456 F.2d 1379, affirmed. Lloyd J. Skedd, Helena, Mont., petitioner. Gale Crowley respondent. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 Rule 13(d)(1) Revised Rules Procedure Court Montana provides persons.1 When respondent set this diversity case before compliance Rule, petitioner sought mandamus from Appeals Ninth Circuit to direct impanel 12-member jury. Petitioner contended local (1) violated Amendment;2 (2) provision, 2072, rules 'shall preserve as law declared . .';3 (3) was rendered invalid 83 because 'inconsistent with' juries less than 12 when stipulated parties.4 The found no merit these contentions, sustained validity 13(d)(1), denied writ, 1379 (1972). We granted certiorari, 409 841, 44, 34 80 affirm. 2 * In Williams v. Florida, 399 78, 90 1893, 26 446 (1970), constitutionality Florida statute six-member certain criminal cases. constitutional challenge rejected relied on guarantees secured accused Art. III, 2, cl. 3, Constitution Sixth Amendment.5 expressly reserved, however, question whether 'additional references 'common law' occur might support different interpretation' respect Id., 92 n. 30, S.Ct., 1901. conclude they do not. 3 pertinent words are: 'In Suits ..'6 On its face, language directed characteristics, such size, but rather defines kind which preserved, namely, 'suits law.' And while it true '(w)e have almost evidence concerning intention framers seventh amendment itself,'7 historical setting adopted highlighted controversy generated, concern preservation characteristics fear itself would abolished unless protected express words. Almost century half ago, recognized '(o)ne strongest objections originally taken against constitution States, want an provision securing cases.' Parsons Bedford, Pet. 433, 445, 7 L.Ed. 732 (1830). But omission protective clause effort made include one. contrary, proposal guarantee failed varied widely provided, proponents too difficult task fashioning appropriate cover state practices.8 strong pressures Bill Rights encountered same difficulty. Thus, agreed that, practice draw since practices so widely, any compromising necessarily general. As result, although achieved primary goal adherents incorporate explicit protection cases, limited general law.'9 can conclude, therefore, referring law,' Framers were concerned preserving where existed various incidents jury.10 short, what said equally applicable here: history reveals part 'to equate common-law jury.' U.S., 99, 1905. 4 Consistently objective Amendment, our decisions defined covered 'the substance jury, distinguished mere matters form or procedure ..' Baltimore & Carolina Line, Inc. Redman, 295 654, 657, 55 890, 891, 79 1636 (1935).11 does 'bind courts exact procedural details according 1791,' Galloway 319 372, 390, 63 1077, 1087, 87 1458 (1943); see also Ex parte Peterson, 253 300, 309, 40 543, 546, 64 919 (1920); Walker New Mexico S.P.R. Co., 165 593, 596, 17 421, 422, 41 837 (1897), '(n)ew devices may used adapt ancient institution present needs make efficient instrument administration justice. .' supra, 309—310, 546; Funk 290 371, 382, 54 212, 215, 78 369 (1933). 5 Our inquiry turns, then, Keeping mind purpose prevent government oppression, Williams, 100, 1905, and, assure fair equitable resolution factual issues, Gasoline Products Co. Champlin 283 494, 498, 51 513, 514, 74 1188 (1931), comes down performance function we notion reliability factfinder (is) size,' 100—101, 1906, nothing has been suggested lead us alter conclusion. Accordingly, think cannot members substantive aspect 6 It true, course, several earlier statement 'trial jury' means 'a Capital Traction Hof, 174 1, 13, 19 580, 585, 43 873 (1899); American Publishing Fisher, 166 464, 618, 1079 (1897); Maxwell Dow, 176 581, 586, 20 448, 450, 44 597 (1900). each case, reference twelve' clearly dictum decision upon presented litigated. most often cited, action brought justice peace Columbia triable turned judge empowered instruct them advise facts. Insofar Hof implied required 12, best assumption. even if assumption had doctrine,12 canvass relevant history, like canvassed 'casts considerable doubt easy past given feature then Constitution.' 93, 1902. cannot, accord unsupported dicta authority decided precedents.13 There remains, satisfies difficulty reaching conclusion III Amendment. Significantly, determination there 'no discernible difference between results reached two different-sized juries,' 101, drew largely studies operations cases.14 Since much written about persuades depart Williams.15 view number suffice,16 Amendment's cases.17 II 8 statute, authorizes promulgate Federal Civil '(s)uch Constitution.'18 argues 'as Amendment,' Congress meant provide having did require those characteristics. observed, '(t)his indeed sweeping limitation.' F.2d, 1380. impute saddle archaic presently unworkable procedures courts19 thereby nullify innovative changes approved over years now become commonplace all practical purposes, 'essential right' modern society. 310, 390—391, 1087. For say chose render system immutable 1791, some other date, deny judiciary 'flexibility capacity growth adaptation (which) peculiar boast excellence Hurtado California, 110 516, 530, 111, 118, 232 (1884); 215. 9 petitioner's extravagant contention slightest legislative provision. Section derived Enabling Act 1934, Stat. 1064.20 gave 'power unite prescribed equity actions secure one both.' H.R.Rep.No.1829, 73d Cong., 2d Sess., (1934). emphasized Appeals, included union (of equity) neither expanded nor contracted.' 1381, citing Moore, Practice 38.06, p. (2d ed. 1971). See Cooley Strickland Transportation 459 779, 785 (CA5 1972). words, sole creating under itself.21 If prescribe legislate features generally, 'it knew how use effect.' 97, 1904. 10 Petitioner's argument 13(d)(1)22 rests proposition implies direction absence stipulation parties lesser number. drafted time 'jury twelve,' generally accepted. Plainly draftsmen transmuted into without regard lacks precedential weight leaves draftsmen's thus inconsistent.23 783—785; Devitt, Six Man Jury Court, 53 F.R.D. 273, 274 (1971). 11 Similarly, reject conflicts deprives stipulate 'any twelve.' Aside fact indication record ever 'deals '(t)he parties.' purport reduced size.' 784. Affirmed. 13 DOUGLAS, whom POWELL concurs, dissenting. 14 provides: 15 'A 16 48—which came being result recommendation reject*—rests statute. mesh; collide. says way obtain jurors verdict short unanimous stipulation. 18 MARSHALL makes clear his dissent, could 11-man required. apparently agree presumed stipulation, reduce created 48. Neither Judicial Congerence, circuit council change. Whether change, made, I therefore reach. MARSHALL, STEWART joins, 21 Some 30 Black warned Brethren 'gradual process judicial erosion slowly worn away major portion essential Amendment.' 397, 1090, (1943) (dissenting opinion). Today, reaches bedrock. past, sanctioned 'mere procedure' trials, (1935), 'pleading practice' juries, (1897). today, always insisted '(w)hatever legislation trial, destroys (a) substantial thereof abridging right.' 468, 619, Dimick Schiedt, 293 474, 296, 603 (1935); (1899). 22 Now, my mount frontal assault very nature concept understood seven hundred years. No need fooled six-man trier utilized 'jury.' This mutation more 'jury' panel three judges condemned Baldwin York, 66, 1886, 437 laymen instructed outlawed supra. deal here minor tinkering role wholesale abolition replacement functions differently, produces results,1 wholly unknown Amendment.2 23 judgment, radical restructuring deemed wise necessary, should accomplished amendment. See, e.g., Tamm, Five-Man Jury: A Proposed Constitutional Geo.L.J. 120 (1962). appears, destined expire, bang, whimper. approval two-thirds both Houses three-fourths legislatures their proposal. Indeed, passage simple accomplish goal. Instead, interstitial rulemaking power majority district sitting particular rewrite definition jury.3 They done so, moreover, teeth promulgated which, designed 12-man By approving mode procedure, turns so-called 'clear statement' head. Instead requiring legislates limit powers, see, Crowell Benson, 285 22, 62, 52 285, 76 598 (1932), approve departure settled understanding despite intended thing. must respectfully dissent. 24 At outset, noted issue prior upholding nonunanimous juries. Apodaca Oregon, 406 404, 1628, 32 184 (1972); Johnson Louisiana, 356, 1620, 152 (1970). least reasons. 25 First, Apodaca, Johnson, involved trials requirements Fourteenth Sixth. is, distinguishable are directly applicable, through incorporation process.4 squarely problem defining meaning context.5 Brother Powell's concurring plain, were, last Term least, five Members who thought verdicts 395, 1650 (Brennan, J., dissenting). Powell argued 'process determining content long careful evaluation of, strict adherence limitations on, known 370 6, 1637. He concluded '(a)t adopted, unanimity established attributes conviction 1638. 123—125, 1917—1919 (opinion Harlan, J.). uncontested consisted men. infra, 177. extent precedent problems, seem cut strongly favor court, requirement. Moreover, assumed holdings readily transferable context, still follow definitions purposes Amendments coextensive. rights. recognized, resolve 'whether, example, additional interpretation.' 27 today goes great lengths show 'Suits speaks type suit required, suits. However, brethren totally ignore another textual consider equal significance. Whereas refers 'an impartial jury,' states preserved' (emphasis added). suggests judged standards. Certainly, Court's past. held 'in effect 487, 301, dissent essentials adoption 490, 303. 'right (by Amendment) English adopted.' 891. guaranteed 619. clear, whereas read permitting functional approach measures 'Sixth values,' requires analysis geared toward 1791 'preserve.' Slocum York Life Ins. 228 364, 33 523, 57 879 (1913); 29 Finally, important note tended ambiguous context. pointed out introduced James Madison House provided crimes freeholders vicinage, requisite conviction, challenge, accustomed requisites.' Annals Cong. 435 (1789) passed form, Senate, body 'accustomed requisites' language, Senate Journal, Sept. 9, 1789, 1st 77, ultimately contained trial. contrast, contains rejection fix recognizes, extant exceedingly sketchy. Henderson, Background Harv.L.Rev. 289 (1966). Undeterred source material, concoct elaborate theory demonstrate intend law. opinion, based following syllogism: 31 1. delegates Convention considered declined adopt provided. 2. passed, overrode arguments opposed differences rights attached. 3. Therefore, hardly demonstration 'logic' flimsiest inferences. simply was, stage disparities among instances attached, scope surmounting disparities. opposite plausible. One argue dispute jurytrial attach, ground opponents measure whatever usage, argument, core parties. 35 chain reasoning correct, fall, grounded faulty premise. True, rested varying detailed examination debates highly selective quotations permit States. first proposed, Gorham, principal drafters Constitution, proposal, stating: 'It possible discriminate proper. Representatives people safely trusted matter.' M. Farrand, Records 587 (1911) (hereinafter cited Farrand). final vote, Gorham somewhat argument: 'The Juries States.' 628 Wilson defended open differed states,' Farrand he quite 36 'By will discovered all. manner summoning jurors, qualifications, consist, course proceedings, different, States; presume allowed good principle, carrying laws department, proper regulations agreeable habits wishes possible; easily impracticable, regulation, satisfaction all.' 164. differing itself.6 To anything inferred arguments, follows own override attach itself. 38 hasten add mean embrace reasoning. fact, indicated above, far fragmentary firm uncertainty looked order determine intent Framers. Harlan argued: 39 '(I)t sense merely blessing explains frequent reminders that: interpretation influenced provisions framed Emglish light history.' Smith Alabama, 124 465, 478, 564, 508 (1888). again put forward Gray speaking Wong Kim Ark, 169 649, 456, 42 890 (1898), called define term 'citizen' Constitution. nowhere (the Citizenship Clause) .. this, respects, interpreted principles familiarly constitution.' 459. History continues wellspring interpretation. invoked Townsend Sain, 372 293, 745, 770 (1963), Fay Noia, 391, 822, purported interpret habeas corpus 'historic conception writ' took rooted interpreted. Cf. Brown, 381 437, 458, 85 1707, 1720, 484 (1965).' 123—124, 1918. applied hand, doubted envisioned referred usage respects But, extend size seems uniform indeed, remained centuries. early 1164, Constitutions Clarendon 'where, layman rich powerful individual dares appear him, sheriff cause twelve legal men neighborhood, vill, take oath presence bishop declare truth it." Wells, Origin Petit Jury, L.Q.Rev. 347 (1911). Professor Scott wrote, 'At beginning thirteenth usual invariable middle fourteenth probably definitely fixed. Indeed finally regarded something superstitious reverence.' A. Scott, Fundamentals Actions Law 75—76 (1922) (footnotes omitted). W. Holdworth, 324—325 (7th 1956). sure, every element carried change Colonies. venerable popular colonies date.' Reinsch, Common Early Colonies, Select Essays Anglo-American Legal 412 (1907). Philadelphia 1787 either explicitly Va.Const. 1776, 8, Thorpe, State 3813 (1909), subsequently requirement.' 98—99 45, 1905.7 basis record, once Gray, 45 "Trial constitutions, officer vested summoned empaneled, administer oaths constable charge, enter judgment execution admitted, seldom contested, little occasion distinct assertion. Yet unequivocal statements books.' 13—14, 585. 46 Patton 281 276, 50 253, 854 (1930); (1900); Springville Thomas, 707, 717, 1172 47 elects abandon certainty test, well many it, vaguely asks substitute commonlaw performs serves adequate innovations surround trials. upheld interrogatories reports special masters interfering functioning (1935). know evaluate composition submit reason derives inherent problem. principled fashion appurtenances interfere institution. additur, jury's matter arbitrary, priori definition. enduring apart form.' 125, 1919 (separate 49 senseless, constitutes initial must, things, arbitrary. could, laymen. line just arbitrary 12. abstract principle 'function' 'enough,' 'too small,' large.'8 These evaluations hypothetical ideal arbitrarily chosen All eight, three.9 Although reject, one, begin tell go drawing nonarbitrary fashion, obvious degree ths kind, logical impossibility. Of intrinsically wrong lines problems essential. hesitated rely demarcations depend degree. Burns Fortson, 410 686, 1209, 633 (1973). consonant democracy fixed bounds ad hoc basis. bear solid intuitive, unexplained Justices 'right' 'just,' erode eventually, disappear altogether. find represent balance competing demands expedition group representation. dockets crowded grow, future three, two, large enough satisfy unexplicated justice? vulnerable moment really never tired arguing, accordion-like qualities philosophy inevitably imperil liberty safeguards specifically enumerated Rights.' Rochin 342 165, 177, 72 205, 96 183 (1952) (Black, concurring). Duncan 391 145, 169, 88 1444, 1457, 491 (1968) chosen, Framers, drafting observation context involve 'careful 1637 'historical accident' 'wholly significance 'except mystics." 102, 1907. surely significant six, drawn somewhere, ultimately, interpreting making up along. permissible highlights anomaly opinion. Normally, leave inevitable Legislative Branch, better equipped compromises. deference somewhere precisely delineated principle. sticky business separating along continuum compels legislature plainly defaulted. inside out. rejects articulated decision—a decision, incidentally, fully requirements—in line. explanation why finds unsatisfactory barely Title 2071, consistent Acts Supreme Court.' 56 treatment peculiar. explicating hold govern types attaches Their terms, '(i)n says, 'is law." Supra, 152. enough, reasons preceding section, unpersuasive. what, law'? reasoning, phrase Uninhibited seeming restraints logic, proceed tried face merger equity. word, force. well-recognized canon construction possible, superfluous. Sutherland, Statutes Statutory Construction 4705 (3d 1943), therein. reading creates redundancy, double redundancy. necessary since, sufficient purpose. statute—it Amendment' accepts premise preserves Congress' addition explicable protect 58 My instead redundant also, demonstrated previous raises gravest questions. discern stated reluctance 'saddle courts.' With respect, 'archaic' 'unworkable' enforce date. asserts '(i)f (for juries) effect." I, hard pressed So command Congress, duty obey, B 59 Nor end matter. flatly 13(d)(1). 11, falls within class permitted 11. rule, '(a) persons' 60 parties" 'does 164, passes understanding. parties, numbers numbers, conflict fall. 2071; 83. 61 That arguably performed 38(a) inviolate.' presupposed permits assumes am loss understand strains escape plain Rule's wrestle grave questions avoided. 62 anomalous after constitutionally Wisdom argued, considers importance role, 781 (5 Cir. force point rudimentary logic man entitled stake, property hangs balance. decide policy guaranteed. arose Sutherland observed ago attack source, 'this charged construing Constitution; discharge duty, alert doubtful extended analogy weaken subvert conceives fundamental land.' 485, 300. response dispositive. end, unitary, cohesive document piece ignored name expedience, entire fragile endeavor insecure. Fourteenth, held, '(m)aintenance fact-fnding occupies place histoy jurisprudence curtailment scrutinized utmost care.' 486, S.C., 301. scrutiny demands. 65 POWELL, 66 share DOUGLAS incompatible Procedure, reversal case. Accordingly reach addressed scholarly opinions, 166. 366—380, 1635—1643, (1972) Powell, plus alternate impaneled.' Similar courts, appendix Law: Magic Numbers, 507, 535—542 (1973) Delaware effective January 1973). addition, bills 92d H.R. 7800, Sess. (1971); 13496, insofar related received Committee Operation System Conference 1971 Annual Report Director Administrative Office Courts 41. March meeting endorsed principle' reduction Ibid. value exceed twenty dollars, otherwise reexamined usually provisions. Ann., A.L.R.3d 895 rules, forms process, writs, pleadings, motions, appeals 'Such abridge, enlarge modify finding 'Each amend governing rules. regulate rules.' Trial Crimes, except Cases Impeachment, Jury; Crimes committed; committed State, Place Places directed.' prosecutions, enjoy speedy public wherein crime committed, previously ascertained informed accusation; confronted witnesses him; compulsory obtaining favor, Assistance Counsel defence.' second irrelevant exclusively prohibition indirect impairment reexamination factfindings 1791. 447 (1830); 38.08(5), pp. 86—90 289, 291 7, 292—294. until proposed draft reported Style Arrangement. point, Williamson North 'observed yet necessity it.' 587. provoked discussion: 'Mr. Gorham. Gerdy urged guard (against) corrupt Judges. appointed Juries. 'Col. Mason perceived mentioned specified. laid points sufficient. wished plan prefaced Rights, Motion Three days later, Gerry Pinckney cases: 'And pre- served prompted reaction: King objections. 'Genl. also. pregnant embarrassments. motion disagreed nem. con.' 628. Pennsylvania convened ratify Constitution: states; ground, rule. uniformity idle useless: not, propriety, said, heretofore:' foederal jurisprudence, declaration relate. Besides, questions: causes depending admiralty, relate maritime captures, agitated equity, intervention tribunal. How, discrimination drawn? convention them; left stands—in fullest confidence, danger possibly ensue, proceedings supreme regulated congress, faithful representation people: oppression effectually barred, declaring preserved.' 101 proponent responded: objection plan, pretends disingenuous me Wilson's pretended answer 'that impracticable rule.' extremely futile, com- mon England, obtains would, excepted. Quoted 296—297. Elliot, Debates Several Conventions, Adoption 1836). establish Story discussion Commentaries Judiciary 1789: phrase, clause, contradistinction jurisprudence. declared, third article, arising constitution, treaties authority,' &c., admiralty jurisdiction.' known, causes, intervene; extraordinary inform conscience court. When, find, requires, natural distinction minds meant, denominated article 'law' congress acted exposition act ch. 20, (which contemporaneous amendment;) Story, 645—646 (1833). reveal single instance expressed traditional Pennsylvania, member later stated: 'When speak feel predilection Works 503 (R. McCloskey 1967). Reform 669, 671 (1918): 'Although guaranty abolished, unalterable. Only fundamental, essence placed beyond legislature. modification resolves unessential, necessarily, analysis, question, submitted, approached spirit open-mindedness, readiness accept impair fundamentals substance, proceeded composed members, country throughout colonial times. statutes 529—532. Augelli, Six-Member System, Seton Hall L.Rev. 281, Croake, Memorandum Advisability Constitutionality 5/6 Verdicts Cases, N.Y. B.J. 385 (WD La.u972). Leger Westinghouse Electric Corp., D.C., 574 contra, Winsby John Oster Mfg. 336 F.Supp. 663 Pa.1972). 48, 1906 Arguments, pro con, effectiveness compared 13; 1; Bogue Fritz, Six-Man S.D.L.Rev. Moss, Twelve Member Massachusetts—Can Reduced?, Mass.L.Q. Zeisel, Then Were None: Diminution U.Chi.L.Rev. 710 Waning A.B.A.J. 367 Gibbons, Minijuries: Panacea Pandora's Box?, 594 Kaufman, Harbingers Reform, 695 Whalen, Remarks Resolution 7th Requirement, 148 Note, Right Twelve-Man 84 (1970); Reducing Size Juries, U.Mich.J.L. Effect Probability Conviction: An Evaluation Case W.Res.L.Rev. 529 Comment, Defendant's Trial—Is Enough?, Ky.L.J. 997 Zeisel representing full spectrum community, turn panels. U.Chi.L.Rev., 716—719. study decrease conductive improving quality deliberative process. 99 106. C. Joiner, 31, (1962) (concluding six- juries). four recent convincing empirical correctness 'there juries.' Twelve-Member Juries: Empirical Study Results, (1973); Institute Administration, Comparison Six- Jersey Superior County Decision-Making Processes, 712 Barmant Coppock, Outcomes Trials: Analysis 128 Washington, Wash.L.Rev. 593 What facilitate deliberation combined likelihood representative cross section community. undoubtedly becomes small goals, but, available data, six. Proposal Five-Member Courts, 162 (1964); immutably saved word 'preserved.' obviously commands shown, 'preserved' himself 179, improve 7; factor new device Brandeis aptly prevented utilizing master infringe jury: prohibit introduction methods facts actually issue, evidence. Changes made. right. limitation imposed enjoyment obstructed, ultimate issues interfered with.' (1920). terms Part 'consistent Rules. prohibits invalid. 3A Barron Holtzoff, 1171, 179 (C. Wright 1958). 38.06 1934 codifying 1948, 961, became Code, et seq. amended times 1947, none amendments discussion. Sibbach 312 10, 425, 479 (1941): (proviso 1934) former pursuant 83, 2071: conduct business. Such amicus Miner Atlass, 363 641, 1300, 1462 (1960). misplaced. struck authorizing discovery-deposition power, independent taking depositions discovery. 1939, omitted 'basic innovation' Admiralty 'must advertent declination opportunity institute 26(a) admiralty,' id., 648, 1305, General 647, 1304. Amicus innovations' rulemaking. suggestion because, event, innovation.' aspects litigatory outcome litigation thus, 'though concededly procedural,' litigants 'substantive' doctrine 650, 1305. shown 309 (see 15, supra), litigation. submitted them. 2072. peradventure save waived stipulating 180, interest variations produce result. intuitively smaller likely cross-section community viewpoints. nonetheless statistically demonstrable dramatic results. perhaps leading model 90% commnnity shares viewpoint, 10% viewpoint. 100 picked randomly minority group, selected, posits divided groups monetary personal injury claim, one-sixth evaluating claim $1,000, sixth $2,000, etc. damages award lie close average assessment juror choose. hypotheses, '(i)t considerably wider variation 'verdicts' twelve-member instance, 68.4% fall $3,000 $4,000, 51.4% range. 16% extreme levels $4,500 $2,500, 4% statistical standard deviation. actual distribution pattern stratification circumstances, deviation greater 42%. readers statistics polls—namely, sample inversely margin error.' 710, 717—718 176—177. Even difficulties. improper power. surrounding 'designed insure basic mature consideration quarters, opportunities comprehensive integrated affords.' 1306, construe extending innovations. seeks assertion innovation." startling least. Whatever one's shift years' standing, affect hundreds few remaining Hardware Dealers Mutual Fire Glidden 284 151, 158, 69, 71, 214 (1931); Wagner Lyndon, 262 226, 232, 589, 591, 67 961 (1923). author believes guarantees. (1968). Nonetheless, remains posed purely George Washington's letter Lafayette ('(I)t establishing modes induced adjustment') 298; Edmund Randolph's Virginia ('I risk certainty, (Congress) accommodate conveniences inhabitants state: ascertaining accommodation, for') 309. suggest isolated experiments sizes history. jurisdictions span involved, surprising aberrations. scholars involving consisting 507 constitute exceptions prove bases thesis Maryland 1682 year 1676 1705. 530. remembers thousands during prerevolutionary period, virtually nothing. South Carolina's 'Court Slaves Persons Color,' ibid., circumstance who, time, kind. Fisher's reliance petitions citizens Anson, Orange, Rowan Counties unaccountable impaneled. 530—531 87. example particularly revealing. Just Revolution, small-court 531. challenged Holmes Walton, 1780, defendant sworn try above whose entered, only, land men.' 532 88. verdict. scant month Legislature reversed reinstituted ibid. '(w)hat community.' 160 16. bypass intriguing examination, 'test' test 'enough' 'enough.' Obviously, larger provide. Merely observing level fails is. And, significantly, deciding White, 'can get off 'slippery slope' bottom. 91 28, 1901, begs knows off—a answer.

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