Document: 411 U.S. 279 93 S.Ct. 1614 36 L.Ed.2d 251 EMPLOYEES OF the DEPARTMENT PUBLIC HEALTH & WELFARE, State of MISSOURI, et al., Petitioners,v.DEPARTMENT al. No. 71—1021. Argued Jan. 15, 1973. Decided April 18, Syllabus Petitioners, employees state health facilities, brought suit for overtime pay due them under § 16(b) Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) and damages, which District Court dismissed as being an unconsented action against Missouri thus barred by Eleventh Amendment. The Appeals affirmed. Held: Although amendments to FLSA in 1966 extended statutory coverage employees, legislative history discloses no congressional purpose deprive a its constitutional immunity federal forum nonprofit institutions, particularly since Congress made change 16(b), makes reference suits State. Parden v. Terminal R. Co., 377 184, 84 1207, 12 233, distinguished. amendments' extension is not without meaning Secretary thereby enabled bring remedial on their behalf 17 FLSA. Pp. 281—287. 452 F.2d 820, A. L. Zwerdling, Detroit Mich., petitioners. Lawrence G. Wallace, washington, D.C., United States, amicus curiae, special leave Court. Charles Allen Blackmar respondents. Mr. Justice DOUGLAS delivered opinion 1 Amendment, adopted 1795, formally ratified 1798, provides: 2 'The Judicial power States shall be construed extend any law or equity, commenced prosecuted one Citizens another State, Subjects Foreign State.' 3 Amendment basis motion dismiss complaint filed agencies that Department Public Health Welfare, two divisions, Division Mental Disease Health, various officials Divisions. 4 literally applicable petitioners who are citizens Missouri, it established unconsenting immune from courts her own well See Hans Louisiana, 134 1, 10 504, 33 L.Ed. 842; Duhne New Jersey, 311, 40 154, 64 280; 233;1 C. Jacobs, Sovereign Immunity 109—110 (1972). 5 seek compensation 1938, 52 Stat. 1069, amended, 29 U.S.C. 216(b), equal amount liquidated damages attorneys' fees. complaint. Appeals, sitting panel three, reversed, judge dissenting. 20,204, Apr. 2, 1971 (not reported). On filing petition rehearing, sat en banc closely divided vote set aside decision affirmed judgment 820. case here writ certiorari we granted. 405 1016, 92 1294, 31 478. 6 three thought present was governed supra. court distinguishable. That central issue argued case. 7 involved state-owned railroad operating interstate commerce; claims were those Federal Employers' Liability (FELA), 35 65, 45 51 seq. term carrier purposes defined including '(e)very common while engaging commerce between several States.' Id., 51. concluded designed stateowned, privately owned, carriers within definition empowered do so Commerce Clause. State's operation commerce, held, subordination regulate application FELA circumstances precluded sovereign immunity. U.S., at 191—193, S.Ct., 1212—1213. final analysis turned question waiver, majority holding consent did arise act 'wholly sphere authority' but area subject pervasive regulation. 196, 1215. 8 It said stands same foundation, reflecting conditions work producing goods Darby, 312 100, 61 451, 85 609, whose activities necessary rpoduction commerce. Kirschbaum Co. Walling, 316 517, 524, 62 1116, 1120, 86 1638. By 3(d) Act, 'employer' first exclude states political subdivision But there added 'except' clause reads 'except with respect thereof, employed (1) hospital, institution, school referred last sentence subsection (r) this section . ..' Section 3(r) amended time include: institution primarily engaged care sick, aged, mentally ill defective reside premises such physically handicapped gifted children, elementary secondary school, higher education (regardless whether public private operated profit profit' Identical language also 3(s), defines '(e)nterprise production commerce.' 9 reason literal departments joined defendants constitutionally covered held Maryland Wirtz, 392 183, 88 2017, 20 1020. has heel, sense lifting court—a reserved supra, 199—201, 2025—2026. There doubt desired hospitals related institutions. S.Rep. 1487, 89th Cong., 2d Sess., 8, 22—23; H.R.Rep. 1366, 3, 11—12, 16—17, U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1966, p. 3002. remained same. Prior afterward, read relevant part: 11 'Any employer violates provisions liable employee affected unpaid minimum wages, compensation, may be, additional damages. Action recover liability maintained competent jurisdiction tradition indicate barrier render nonconsenting business Alabama 'for profit.' 185, 1209. where persons corporations normally ran enterprise. mental hospitals, cancer training schools delinquent girls proprietary. 'Before 1810, only few eastern-seaboard had incorporated institutions ill, Virginia alone asylum.' D. Rothman, Discovery Asylum 130 (1971). But, Rothman relates, after sector took over.2 13 Where conducted have relation national policy, keeper, indicates status should raised, can act. And when does act, place new even enormous fiscal burdens States. Congress, acting responsibly, would presumed take silently. dramatic case, rather isolated activity put side. We deal problems implicate elevator operators, janitors, charwomen, security guards, secretaries, like every office building governmental hierarchy. Those follow teachings see manifold applications will appreciate how scheme regulation be. 14 found word make possible citizen sue courts. 'surprising' learn railroads FELA, yet provided 'no means enforced.' 197, surprising infer deprived changing old she could sued indicating some way clear swept away. easy legislating pursuant Clause, grown vast proportions applications, silently they long enjoyed part Constitution. Thus, cannot conclude conditioned these facilities forfeiture forum. 15 lift FLSA, meaningless. Cf. 190, 1211. 16(c) gives authority wages Once acts 16(c), right terminates. enjoin violations obtain restitution employees. Sections 16 suggest enforcement paramount objective, disallowance remitting relief through explain why silent waiver For Mississippi, 380 128, 140—141, 808, 814—815, 717. In connection, amiss note allows recovery thing, Parden, whole; quite let him double Recalcitrant employers whipped into line manner. reluctant believe pursuit harmonious federalism treat harshly. policy far concerned wholly served allowing delicate federal-state relationship managed Labor. Solicitor General, argues 842, apply his theory collect coupons attaching bonds, instant cause created contained Act. true that, 'the surrendered portion sovereignty granted 191, 1212. decline cover exercise power, give force Supremacy Clause putting footing other clear. told 45.4 million nearly establishments, 2.7 118,000 establishments local government employment. less than 4% investigated each year. argument if deny direct remedy, effect reconizing remedy. however, authorizes 'any jurisdiction.' Arguably, permits need reach. problem constraints judicial power' 18 Affirmed. 19 MARSHALL, whom STEWART joins, concurring result. I proper owed Act1 requires consideration what view distinct questions: extending protection petitioners, effectively protective veil immunity; (2) general immunity, context light Art. III Amendment? Portions Court's convey impression questions single issue.2 agree. 21 common-law doctrine predates our Constitution although has, course, been carried forward jurisprudence.3 While present-day absence obviously justified rationale King wrong,' principle because '(t)he inherent nature sovereignty,' Great Northern Life Insurance Read, 322 47, 51, 873, 875, 1121 (1944). Kawananakoa Polyblank, 205 349, 353, 27 526, 527, 834 (1907). 22 original form stood absolute bar citizens, absent consent. modified pro tanto 1788 extent relinquished Government. At Union formed, good whole, gave certain powers doing, simultaneously subjected control pre-existing conflicted supreme given over Congress. This essential lessons 192, 1212, 233 (1964), recognized '(b)y empowering necessarily stand regulation.' having validly exercised 1020 (1968), defeat retreating behind commonlaw shield 23 Insofar now suggesting lifted amendments, 3(d), 203(d), altered expressly 'employees ..'4 face language, find impossible intend full benefit employees.5 true—as points out—that amend provides 'employee' compensation. readily explained fact amendment employees; alternation clearly sufficed achieve Congress' purpose6 express will. Indeed, provide despite alteration include employers, ignores basic canon construction different statute consistently another. See, e.g., Clark Uebersee Finanz-Korporation, A.G., 332 480, 488, 68 174, 177, (1947); Markham Cabell, 326 404, 410 411, 66 193, 196—197, 90 165 (1945); Ex parte National Bank, 278 101, 104, 49 43, 44, 73 202 (1928). 24 remains, though, question, enforce congressionally rights FLSA? 'in Has successfully compelled submit court? 25 26 mention citizen's attempt court, situation here. Nevertheless, this, power. considered 842 (1890), claimed unconstitutionally repudicated debt obligations violation Contract I, 10. Bradley, speaking Court, observed 'an strain never imagined dreamed of,' he then asked: 'Can suppose adopted, understood left open courts, whilst idea states, foreign indignantly repelled?' 507. 28 rejected suggestion Hans, continued ever since. 280 (1920); Fitts McGhee, 172 516, 524—525, 269, 272—273, 43 535 (1899); North Carolina Temple, 22, 509, 849 (1890). root impediment Following Chisholm Georgia, Dall. 419, 440 (1793), encompassed introduced clarify intent Framers concerning reach 11—14, 505 widely prior ratification provision III, 'Controversies State' mechanism making unwilling court.7 Chisholm, plain controlling. reverse particular and, more generally, restore understanding, see, 11—15, 505—507. narrowness spirit guided interpreting 'it become repeated decisions entire embrace entertain parties given: subjects Amendment; fundamental rule exemplification,' York, 256 490, 497, 41 588, 589, 65 1057 (1921); Smith Reeves, 178 436, 447—449, 919, 923—924, 44 1140 (1900).8 30 limitation upon is, reflection concern limited context. law—but merely susceptibility before tribunals. Because appear other, restriction appropriate this.9 time, it.10 Petty Tennessee-Missouri Bridge Comm'n, 359 275, 276, 79 785, 787, 804 (1959); Gunter Atlantic Coast Line 200 273, 284, 252, 256, 50 477 (1906); Barnard, 108 447, 878, 882, 780 (1833). issue, then, consented 32 undertaken §§ 51—60. As suability reasoned 'Alabama, began approximately years enactment authorized Act.' 1213. me least, concept implied relied approaches, facts outer limit sort voluntary choice generally associate waiver. H. Overmyer Frick 185—186, 775, 782—783, 124 (1972); Fay Noia, 372 391, 439, 83 822, 849, 837 (1963); Johnson Zerbst, 304 458, 464, 58 1019, 1023, 82 1461 (1938). Certainly, stretched sufficiently further encompass Here fully amendments. To either ceasing vital services 'consenting' suffices, believe, demonstrate all voluntarily Marchetti 390 39, 51—52, 697, 704 705, 889 (1968). entered least legal notice operator's responsibilities chosen enter too onerous offensive. thing say must up services, programs else suit. case.11 say, personally redress State.12 16(b)'s authorization jurisdiction' includes Iowa Beef Packers, Inc. Thompson, 228, 859, already noted, insofar conflicts regulatory conferred done FLSA; owing limitations rights, nevertheless independent obligation actions rights. Testa Katt, 330 386, 67 810, 91 967 (1947). General Oil Crain, 209 211, 475, 754 (1908). hear character,13 judges co-equal partners members judiciary Constitution, Martin Hunter's Lessee, Wheat. 304, 339—340, 97 (1816). land, obliged it, 392—394, 813—815; Second Cases, 223 57—58, 169, 178, 56 327 (1912). 34 today, nothing remedy asserted denial blush, seem hypertechnical entitled If so, think hypertechnicality tension system federalism. BRENNAN, dissent. compels reversal neither nor my Brother MARSHALL's result persuasive not. 37 * Essentially, purports distinguish Parden. distinction lawsuits statutes. lawsuit 51—60, Alabama, owner operator employ railroad. (FLSA), 201—219, Pub.L. 89—601, 80 830, founded determination fits precisely Appeals. turn, reasons disagreement arguments rests contrary conclusion. 38 presented impression, namely, regulated enterprise consequence, more, becomes imposed condition amenability suit, consequence declared undertakes regulable conduct deemed waived railroad, became amenable FELA. distinguished ground whatever assert defense unless foreclosed assertion statute. very advanced dissenters cases. dissent formed disallowed '(o)nly 198—199, 1216. rejecting argument, States' grant exist today's inquiry 'whether court,' ante, 283, surrender, exists declaration room acceptance premise underlying dissent, forming surrender extent, control. rejection explicit Parden's that: 39 'By adopting ratifying create railroads; enacting operate Act; thereafter taken accepted suit.' words, holding, perhaps unambiguously phrased, engagement engage arising surrendering agreed might out enterprises statutes However, empower disallow plainly stated intention 'on employers' suits. Since decided understandably declare existed disallowed. appears amendments.1 compelling score contains 'every' 187—188, 1210—1211. contrast, directly addressed institutions: enact benefits subdivisions support text 42 First, observes undisturbed adopted. terms applies '(a)ny employer' latest extensions appeared initially Obviously, words blanket sheerest ritualism excluded referring 16(b). Second, Alabama's 'proprietary' Missouri's 'governmental' character. not, conclusion failed sufficient clarity sustained constitutionality covering both characteristics, 'that Government, delegated override countervailing interests described character.' 195, 2023. themselves enterprises, profit, 'shall performed purpose.' 203(r).2 Third, saddle 'enormous burdens,' 'Congress, silently.' Ante, 284—285. Not ancestry supposed presumption divulged, offers explanation overbears Moreover, tracks Wirtz 'overwhelm policy' therefore offend 'constitutional principles federalism' allow Government (to) devour essentials sovereignty, though attested Tenth Amendment.' 203—205, 2028. Fourth, overtime, Secretary's 'suggest objective (of Congress), 286. Again evidence 'silent' spoke loudly event, 'private objective' unfounded. Act's establishes conclusively placed great reliance important tool achieving objectives.3 buttress emphasized curiae brief lawsuit, achieved, staff resources number counted vindicated actions. addition, preclude courts,4 observes: 46 unavoidable Parden: unable practical purposes, position Brief Amicus Curiae 23.5 argues: 47 'In Labor.' 48 Here, again, relies policy.' remotest connection design federalism.' Actually words: 'as whole.' Brooklyn Savings Bank O'Neil, 324 707—708, 895, 902, 89 1296 (1945): 'We previously damage penal constitutes retention workman's obscure difficult proof estimate Overnight Motor Missel, 572, 1216, 1682. Congressional recognition failure detrimental maintenance standard living 'necessary health, efficiency well-being workers' free flow payment event delay order insure restoration worker well-being. Employees receiving likely maintain until sums paid future date. forbids reparations accomplish purposes.' answer 'desired harshly' awareness imposing financial burden. cogently Circuit Briggs Sagers, 424 130, 133—134 (1970): Amendments reflects passage attain 'minimum efficiency, workers deliberate speed consistent welfare American people.' (S.Rep.No.1487, (1966).) demonstrates satisfaction contemplated burden states. overall tacitly suggests imposition outweighed (Emphasis added.) Finally, 13(b) jurisdiction,' '(a)rguably, courts.' 287. am puzzled reconciles implication 'clear' expression 'lifting employers.' Ibid. plaintiffs 'concurrent States,' 56. Yet, irrelevant 'Congress alternative 190 n. II 53 can, repair deficiency finds today simply amending engages court. A greater concern, therefore, treatment citizens. differs substantial respects, discuss separately. 54 regarded inapplicable maintainable availability ancient Yet says, Any intimation statement immunity,' 285, protecting rejected. emphatically develop later, assumptions opinions know concrete framers thought, intended, ensconce face, says about enacts familiar response Constitution—that Power Law Equity, State'—to individual South Georgia. An outraged outcry financially embarrassed debtor fearful greeted resulted immediate proposal, fairly prompt adoption, (emphasis added). wording flat prohibition judiciary's entertainment consenting aliens. year ratified, sweep jurisdiction, past future, Hollingsworth Virginia, 378, 382, 644 (1798) cases None offered, persuasively principled constitutionalized noncitizen should, open, ripe consideration, unfortunate inapplicable, lend existence 55 nation ultimate people government, premised kingship—or, suggested, logical depends,' (1907)—is indefensible 'if represents, once intimated, excrescence longer enlists 160 Frankfurter reminded us: course illustration conflicting considerations often struggle mastery process, implicitly. varying degrees, times, momentum historic arrested deflected unexpressed feeling runs counter prevailing notions justice. Legal concepts available Larson Domestic Corp., 337 682, 709, 69 1457, 1471, 1628 (1949) (dissenting opinion). 57 Young, 123, 441, 714 (1908), numerous progeny, officers enforcing unconstitutional statute, notable example '(l)egal feeling' 'governmetal justice.' example. discussion regrettably tends exalt 'prevailing casts shadow validity expressed Chief Marshall Cohens 264, 257 (1821), federal-question (Art. III) giving account character parties, aliens, etc. limit, extends Union. (Eleventh) alone. leaves citizen, constitution, laws, it; still arises manner, parties.' 348 349 59 interpretation. determining error 'suit' said: 60 'If 11th amendment, 'by entirely constitution originally framed, seen, origin, laws 412 withdrew 109, reject Marshall's clause. (and followed holding), doctrine, 10—15, restraint accords nonconstitutional True, paradox: 'a claim alien, exercising much less, any, influence beneficence, denied remedy.' 91. nevertheless, 19—20, 508—509. weight pronouncements contemporaries framing constitute exception. statement, id., 20, 509 'observation unnecessary ought outweigh lead conclusion' implies most reservation. Whatever significance attached entirety sensibly resting squarely Hans' resolution paradox, independently provision, must, regret power—a far-reaching untoward consequences. commentator observed: 'If, theoretical pragmatic grounds—if support—its observance depend hence obligatory government. enough, status, judicially inferred. absolutely sanctioning doctrine. generalization preceded sure, impose classes individuals, irresponsibility written (Keifer Keifer Reconstruction Finance 306 381, 388, 784 (1939).)' 160. IV 63 My MARSHALL takes approach. He agrees, forecloses (and, concludes, court) relying affirm adoption implicitly entertaining individuals argues, reaffirmation implicit otherwise (1793). Then, admitting applying so-called jurisdictional concludes beyond consented. paradoxical frustrate petitioners' vindication federally powerless courts.6 Jurisdiction us cl. 1. exemption grants Rather, plausible reading Article controversies noncitizens certainly framed' overruled Georgia except vehement protests voiced during period. feared expose out-of-state alien creditors. proved fears justified. 27—40; Madison Hamilton, along John Marshall, replied critics period (as, example, plaintiff intervenor). anything otherwise; ratherIt '(i)t consent.' Federalist 81 (Hamilton). Louisiana conceded, arguendo, responses Madison, period, view, based decision, alleged drawn Otherwise, lengthy quotation Hamilton's doctrine: 'It practice mankind; exemption, attributes Unless, plan convention, remain 13, 506 quoting (Hamilton) (second emphasis times Iredell eventually concluding Iredell's views 'were right.' 14, 506. implicit, contrary, position, similar consents, where, involves protected instance individuals. stated: 'So legally (federal judicial) authority, sure subordinate limited. farther execution requires. party, providing purpose. surely refer party; which, arises, determined, according supported, manner pre-existent (common law), passed conformity it. (by Constitution) incumbent enquire, previous law, shown applicable. could, Dall., 436—437 original). end, seems advocates defenders sensible just; equally discussion.' 14—15, intepreting 'views Constitution.'7 70 sum, derives, traditional Except, Hamilton 'there convention,' irrelevant, bars leaving 'sovereign immunity' pure simple; played role decision. Therefore, liberally prohibit country (a decide case), bringing prohibition. Stated simply, lesson concedes, thich touches '(T)he asoption highest capacity, convention people,' (J)urisdiction feature formation perfect Union.' Principality Monaco 292 313, 328—329, 745, 750, 78 1282 (1934). 71 bar, inconsistent conceding always capable (1798), assumed 107—108. assumption confront accordingly, address highly provocative ancillary Doubtless occur judges, (which FLSA) treated requiring removed tantamount consent, bounds immunity—an repeat, agrees surrendered, said, resurrected grave solely purported employees' reasoning, respect, defies logic. holds incorporate fare better convention' foreclose V 72 People' governments Under system, people. sovereign. Our discomfort born systems divine abhorred, natural. markedly increased subsidence controversy review fought 41—74. substantially eviscerated agreement soundness Young indispensable establishment law,' Wright, Handbook Courts 186 (2d ed. 1970), Perez Ledesma, 401 82, 104—110, 674, 686—690, 701 (opinion Brennan, J.) short, trend 1890 required textual prohibitions, illustrates, interpret prohibitions narrowly literally. none gainsay grievously hurt expanding mortality offended escape wrongs. Fifth Amendment's counterpart guarantee process. 163—164. commitment, recited Preamble, 'establish Justice.' keystone furthered toward represented Today, arrest trend—the watering down III. remand direction proceed trial 'Parden Post, 299. belies assertion. 'Recognition suable mean embodied overridden. remains '(a) subsequent Court.' passages, them, 198, dealt parden whenever No required. 186, 1207. 'Few departures colonial practices occurred forty independence; insane commonly languished jails poorhouses lived family friends. next decades, transformation, constructed asylums. Budding manufacturing centers York Massachusetts erected 1830's, agricultural Vermont Ohio, Tennessee 1850, almost northeastern midwestern legislature supported asylum; 1860, twenty-eight thirty-three insane. among aged chronic poor almshouses jails, institutionalization procedure society years. cult asylum country.' 201—219. 285. Jaffe, Suits Against Governments Officers: Immunity, 77 Harv.L.Rev. 2—21 (1963). 3(r), 203(r). S.Rep.No.1487, (1966), 3002, 'to education, schools, damages.' (Hamilton); 12—14, 506—507, (1890); Warren, Supreme History (Rev.Ed.1937); Cullison, Interpretation Houston L.Rev. 6—9 (1967). involve limits considers seminal indicated, party attempted action. Apparently, BRENNAN's unlike odds powers. compel After all, difference causes self-enforcing, Sturges Crowninshield, 122, 197—200, 529 (1819); enforceable strange hierarchy opportunity guaranteed plus forced anomalous admission incorrectly decided. apparently chooses former. former For, claim, susceptible power—regardless source claim. little doubting rested confirmed decision's debates surrounding 506—507 Railroad Banking Redwine, 342 299, 321, 324, 96 335 (1952). Of allegedly Likewise, cognizance submission solution governments, 'each sovereign, objects committed soverign other,' violence Texas, 143 621, 646, 494, 285 (1892). Carolina, 136 920, 336 other. BRENNAN roots correct rule, And, jurisdiction. anomaly jurisprudence. Court—including BRENNAN—clearly (1883), Rhode Island's Connecticut corporation specifically intervened Similarly, U.S.. (1959), tort resident (see 254 857, 862 (CA8 1958)) bi-state Tennessee, prohibited compact formed. Given citizenship Petty, literalist magnitude since, Fiske, 290 145 (1933). accept approach decisions, aided erroneous prosecution Whether decide. efforts function, whereas function. escaped unenlightening characterizations activities. 2023, (1968); California, 297 175, 183—184, 421, 423—424, 567 (1936). Unlike pretend 217, adequate safeguarding out: 1971, establishments; employment, hospitals. percent year.' 22—23 (footnotes omitted). unrealistic expect sufficient. Mo.Rev.Stat. 478.070(2) (1959). statements (1966); 3010 page: 'These proprietary, competition organized Failure implement elimination 'constitute unfair method commerce." agree dissenting below legislation strong inference intended afford possessed nongovernmental 831 (1971) (Bright, J., dissenting). governmental-proprietary identical 132—133 (1970). Sanitary 266 405, 426, 176, 352 (1925); (1936); K. Davis, Administrative Treatise 459—466 (1958); comprehensive Hodgson Wheaton Glass 446 527 (CA3 1971). Ricky Fashions, 434 1261 (CA5 1970). discussion, infra, 308. 22—23. account, suggested asserting willing constructive relatively small people—employees owned railways—even desire given, fortiori applied class meant greater, pressing Vill.L.Rev. 713, 720—721 discretionary. 216(b) represents assures employee) court.' F.2d, 833 disagrees issue. hand, stating 'is reach,' 'arguably' 287, implying attacked repudiation bond impairing contracts. action, (shared Clause) powers.' obvious 'such (as power) Clause.' compelled. reject, assuming inconsistency enumerated self-imposed 'supreme powers' effective necessary, subjecting otherwise. emphasize allowance prevented 'Whilst perform contracts, violate property acquired contracts resisted, void affect enjoyment.' 20—21, 509.

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