Document: 509 U.S. 1 113 S.Ct. 2462 125 L.Ed.2d Larry ZOBREST, et ux., al., Petitioners,v.CATALINA FOOTHILLS SCHOOL DISTRICT. No. 92-94. Argued Feb. 24, 1993. Decided June 18, Syllabus* Petitioners, a deaf child and his parents, filed this suit after respondent school district refused to provide sign-language interpreter accompany the classes at Roman Catholic high school. They alleged that Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Free Exercise Cause of First Amendment required Establishment Clause did not bar such relief. The District Court granted summary judgment on ground would act as conduit for child's religious inculcation, thereby promoting development government expense in violation Clause. Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. prudential rule avoiding constitutional questions if there is nonconstitutional decision inapplicable here, since urge upon or any grounds it now raises Court. Pp. ____. 2. does prevent from furnishing disabled enrolled sectarian order facilitate education. Government programs neutrally benefits broad class citizens defined without reference religion are readily subject an challenge just because institutions may also receive attenuated financial benefit. Mueller v. Allen, 463 388, 103 3062, 77 721; Witters Washington Dept. Services Blind, 474 481, 106 748, 88 846. same reasoning used applies here. service case part general program distributes qualifying under IDEA, regard sectarian-nonsectarian, public-nonpublic nature attends. By according parents freedom select their choice, statute ensures government-paid will be present only result individual parents' private decisions. Since IDEA creates no incentive choose school, interpreter's presence cannot attributed state decisionmaking. fact public employee physically by itself make type aid was disapproved Meek Pittenger, 421 349, 95 1753, 44 217, School Dist. Grand Rapids Ball, 473 373, 105 3216, 87 267. In those cases, challenged gave direct grants aid—instructional equipment material, teachers, guidance counselors—which relieved schools costs they otherwise have borne educating students. Here, primary beneficiary, receives incidental addition, interpreter, unlike teacher counselor, neither adds nor subtracts school's environment but merely interprets whatever material presented whole. There absolute placing 963 F.2d 1190 (CA9 1992), reversed. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, which WHITE, SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. BLACKMUN, J., dissenting opinion, SOUTER, joined, STEVENS O'CONNOR, joined Part I. STEVENS, William B. Harrisburg, PA, petitioners. C. Bryson, Acting Sol. Gen., Washington, DC, Catalina Foothills Chief Justice REHNQUIST Petitioner James Zobrest, who has been birth, asked him Tucson, Arizona, pursuant (IDEA), 20 U.S.C. § 1400 seq., its Arizona counterpart, Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 15-761 seq. (1991 Supp.1992). United States Ninth Circuit decided, however, provision publicly employed violate Amendment. We hold providing requested interpreter. 2 Zobrest attended grades one through five deaf, six eight operated respondent. While he furnished For reasons, James' (also petitioners here) ninth grade Salpointe High School, institution.1 When supply Salpointe, referred matter County Attorney, concluded premises Constitution. App. 10-18. Pursuant 15-253(B) (1991), question next Attorney General, concurred Attorney's opinion. Pet. Cert. A-137. Respondent accordingly declined 3 Petitioners then instituted action 1415(e)(4)(A), courts jurisdiction over disputes regarding services due children IDEA.2 asserted require complaint sought preliminary injunction "such other further relief deems proper." 25.3 denied petitioners' request injunction, finding likely offend Id., 52-53. court thereafter judgment, "[t]he inculcation James—thereby, expense." A-35. "That kind entanglement church state," concluded, "is allowed." Ibid. 4 affirmed divided vote, applying three-part test announced Lemon Kurtzman, 403 602, 613, 91 2105, 2111, 29 745 (1971). It first found clear secular purpose: " 'to assist Localities education all handicapped children.' F.2d, 1193 (quoting 1400(c)).4 Turning second prong inquiry, though, determined applied proposed, effect advancing thus run afoul "By school," reasoned, "the create appearance 'joint sponsor' activities." 1194-1195. This, held, "symbolic union religion" impermissible 392, 3227, 267 (1985).5 contrast, judge argued "[g]eneral welfare available children," pass muster, "because diffuse entire population." 1199 (Tang, dissenting). certiorari, 506 ----, 52, 121 21 (1992), reverse. 5 raised brief opposition certiorari isolated passages merits several issues unrelated question.6 argues 34 CFR 76.532(a)(1), regulation promulgated precludes using federal funds Salpointe. Brief Opposition 13.7 alternative, claims even affirmative relief, furnish interpreters students schools. 4, n. 4.8 And Art. II, 12, Tr. Oral Arg. 28. 6 familiar principle our jurisprudence constitutionality Congress construction fairly possible can avoided. See, e.g., Locke, 471 84, 92, 1785, 1791, 85 64 (1985), cases cited therein. coming here appeal 28 1252 (1982 ed.), we said "brings before decided below, case." U.S., S.Ct., 1791. "The case," explained, "includes actually lower well to, passed on, court." Therefore, case, turned "first pressed below." 7 contrast questions, were Appeals. opening paragraph noted issues: 8 Zobrests court's ruling state-paid sign language while attends argue denial assistance violates Clause." 1191. 9 statutory affirmance Appeals, too, parties chose litigate alone. "Both parties' motions issues." 4. Accordingly, Court's granting addressed question. 10 Given posture think application. buried record enough invoke rule. Board Airport Comm'rs Los Angeles Jews Jesus, Inc., 482 569, 572, 107 2568, 2571, 96 500 (1987). "Where considered ordinarily consider them." Adickes S.H. Kress & Co., 398 144, 147, 2, 90 1598, 1602, 26 142 (1970). therefore turn claim. 11 never "religious participating sponsored social programs." Bowen Kendrick, 487 589, 609, 108 2562, 2574, 101 520 (1988). groups receiving benefits, "a could protected police fire departments, sidewalk kept repair." Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 274-275, 102 269, 277, 70 440 (1981) (internal quotation marks omitted). contrary lead absurd results, consistently held Nowhere stated more clearly than 721 (1983), 846 (1986), two dealing specifically offering educational assistance. 12 Mueller, rejected Minnesota law allowing taxpayers deduct certain expenses computing income tax, though vast majority deductions (perhaps 90%) went whose See 401, 3070; id., 405, 3072 (Marshall, Two factors, aside States' traditionally taxing authority, informed decision. Witters, supra, 491, 753 (Powell, concurring) (discussing ). "permits parents—whether attend children's expenses." 398, 3069 (emphasis original). Widmar, 274, 277 ("The so spectrum important index effect"); Ed. Westside Community Schools (Dist. 66) Mergens, 496 226, 248, 110 2356, 2371, 191 (1990) (plurality opinion) (same). pointed out Minnesota's scheme, become "only numerous choices school-age distinguishing involving transmission State themselves." 399, 3069. 13 premised virtually identical reasoning. upheld against Washington's extension vocational assistance, program, blind person studying Christian college pastor, missionary, youth director. Looking whole, observed "[a]ny provided ultimately flows genuinely independent recipients." 487, 752. said, "creates undertake education." 488, remarked that, much like "Washington's 'made generally sectarian- nonsectarian, institution benefited.' 752 Committee Public Religious Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 782-783, 38, 93 2955, 2970, 37 948 (1973)). light these program—even student pastor—would advance manner inconsistent 489, 14 That equal force issue "handicapped" "sectarian-nonsectarian, nature" parents. words, Viewed backdrop then, erred offers neutral way skewed towards religion," 752, follows prior decisions Wolman Walter, 433 229, 244, 97 2593, 2603, 53 714 (1977). Indeed, easier sense traceable ever find into schools' coffers. indirect economic benefit might dint tuition—and is, course, assuming makes profit each student; gone elsewhere; unable fill spot. 15 contends, differs seek distinction, closely resembles 217 (1975), (1985). Meek, struck down inter alia, "massive aid" schools—more 75% related—through loan teaching equipment. 364-365, 1762-1763. covered included maps, charts, tape recorders. 355, 1758. According respondent, place recorder surely authorized personnel "auxiliary services"—which remedial accelerated instruction counseling—on offended well. 372, 1766-1767. Ball similarly involved premises; there, employees taught classrooms.9 375, 3218. likewise violated Constitution, relying largely Meek. 386-389, 3223-3225. 16 Respondent's reliance misplaced reasons. First, Ball—through aid—relieved 751 ("[T]he grant whether cash kind, where 'that subsidy school' State") 394, 3228). example, received State, relieving them necessary cost performing function. 365-366, 1763-1764. "Substantial function schools," "necessarily results enterprise whole," brings about substantial advancement activity." 366, 1764. So, Ball: teachers addition instructional "in subsidize[d] functions parochial taking portion responsibility subjects." 397, 3230. "This aid," determined, indistinguishable school." 395, 3229. petitioners, amount "an 'direct subsidy' 751. assumed And, above, do attributable parents." 400, 3070. Handicapped children, schools, beneficiaries IDEA; extent beneficiaries. Thus, hardly desired support nonpublic, institutions.' 783, 2970). 17 Second, task seems us quite different counselor. Notwithstanding Appeals' intimations contrary, see 1195, lays school.10 Such flat rule, smacking antiquated notions "taint," indeed exalt form substance.11 Nothing suggests accurately interpret fact, ethical guidelines "transmit everything exactly intended." 73. chosen own free pervasively environment. add subtract environment, hence barred 18 dispensing children. If chooses enroll 19 Reversed. whom SOUTER joins, O'CONNOR join I, dissenting. Today, unnecessarily addresses issue, disregarding longstanding principles adjudication. doing, holds placement classroom duty consists relaying messages I disagree both reach disposition merits. dissent. 22 * "If doctrine deeply rooted process adjudication, ought . unless adjudication unavoidable." Specter Motor Service, McLaughlin, 323 101, 105, 65 152, 154, 89 L.Ed. (1944). Brockett Spokane Arcades, 472 501, 2794, 2800, 86 394 (1985); Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 347, 56 466, 483, 80 688 (1936) (Brandeis, concurring); Liverpool, New York Philadelphia S.S. Co. Commissioners Emigration, 33, 39, 352, 899 (1885). This "fundamental judicial restraint," Three Affiliated Tribes Fort Berthold Reservation Wold Engineering, P.C., 467 138, 157, 104 2267, 2279, 81 (1984), sanction time experience. described "corollary" Article III controversy requirement, Rescue Army Municipal Angeles, 331 549, 570, 67 1409, 1420, 1666 (1947), grounded basic review proper role system. 23 arguments affirmance, rendering consideration unnecessary. maintains petitioner long special made endorses interpretation statute, explaining establish entitlement placed option." Amicus Curiae 13. reached conclusion. Goodall Stafford Bd., 930 363 (CA4), cert. denied, 502 112 188, 116 149 (1991); McNair Cardimone, 676 F.Supp. 1361 (SD Ohio 1987), aff'd sub nom. Oak Hills Local Dist., 872 153 (CA6 1989); Work McKenzie, 661 225 (DC 1987). contends 76.532(a)(1) forbids use pay "[r]eligious worship, instruction, proselytization," prohibits asserts preclude seek, 23, least otherwise. Goodall, supra. easily refrain deciding claim vacating remanding regulatory issues. majority's eliminate need resolve remaining questions. For, regardless views Clause, obtain what regulations prohibit school.1 24 deny existence alternative grounds, dispute venerable should avoided when case. Instead, zeal address question, casts "time-honored canon adjudication," cursory observation application" "posture" Ante, Because blithely proceeds 25 But statements non sequitur. From follow needlessly. obligation avoid unnecessary depend litigation strategy, rather "self-imposed limitation exercise [that] importance transcends significance particular controversies." City Mesquite Aladdin's Castle, 455 283, 294, 1070, 1077, 71 152 (1982). aim protect adjudicatory process. few days ago, expressed concern "litigants, agreeing legal presented, extract hypothetical Acts dubious principles, difficult characterize anything advisory." National Bank Oregon Independent Insurance Agents America, --- 2173, 2178, ---- (1993). CIO, 335 106, 126, 68 1349, 13--, 92 1849 (1948) (Frankfurter, concurring). properly briefed justify very alerted seeking amounts advisory After General Federal Constitutions, bypassed statutes proceeded directly issue. Under circumstances, weighty left unresolved "buried record." remained open Wheeler Barrera, 417 402, 94 2274, 41 159 (1974), scope Prudence counsels similar practice proceeding Youakim Miller, 425 231, 1399, 47 701 (1976) (vacating court); Escambia McMillan, 466 48, 51-52, 1577, 1578-1579, 36 (1984) had upon); Edward J. DeBartolo Corp. NLRB, 157-158, 2926, 2932-2933, 535 (1983) question). II 27 Despite my disagreement deserve response. Until now, participate indoctrination. Yet consequence today's Let going stipulated following facts. Carmelite Order Church. 90. "pervasively religious" values beliefs inextricably intertwined." 92. Salpointe's overriding "objective" "instill values." Its "distinguishing purpose" faith morals Church." Religion "strongly encouraged" daily Mass morning. must Faculty Employment Agreement requires promote relationship among religious, academic, extracurricular.2 encouraged "assist[ing] experiencing how God manifest nature, human history, struggles political justice, areas curriculum." sets forth detailed rules conduct mission.3 At "inextricably intertwined," governmental necessarily entails participation religion. A state-employed communicate class, nominally subjects perspective, Masses encourages attendance pervaded discussions divine, every gesture infused significance. willingly concede point: conveys given 22. concession, seem surrender 30 attempts elude impact three reasons why sort survives scrutiny. observes occurs "part 'handicapped' 'sectarian-nonsectarian, public-nonpublic' attends." finds significant pupils As result, '[a]ny recipients.' ____, quoting Department 751, (1986). finally, opines counselor." 31 unavailing. two, specific applications constitutionally forbidden (1988) (holding Adolescent Family Life face examination applications). disadvantaged schoolchildren attending private, alike insofar teachers. Aguilar Felton, 410, 3232, 3236, 290 385, 3223, 371, 1766, (1975). saved simply supplied Nor immunize ("Aid [unconstitutional] takes parents"); 250, 2606, (1977) (it "exalt substance distinction [between loaned pupil parent school] different" result); Rapids, 3229 (rejecting "fiction masking students"). turn, between 32 "Although characterized absolutes," minimum absolutely government-financed government-sponsored indoctrination faith." 3223. 623, 2582 (O'CONNOR, ("[A]ny doctrines Clause") original); 1766 (" 'The certain, Clauses, subsidized inculcate religion,' 619, 2114, (1971)); Levitt Liberty, 472, 480, 2814, 2819, 736 (1973) compelled assure state-supported activity being indoctrination"). keeping restriction, resource capable mission. Although permitted "secular nonideological primary, religion-oriented 364, 1763, always proscribed afford opportunity views," Wolman, 2603. 33 buses transport Everson Education, 330 1, 504, 711 striking employment funded field trips controlled 254, 2608-2609. Similarly, textbooks content immutable ascertained advance, 392 236, 1923, 1060 (1968), prohibiting materials convey message, slide projectors, recorders, players, like, 249, 2606. State-paid speech hearing therapists allowed administer diagnostic testing 241-242, 2602, whereas counselors offer risk beliefs, 1766. These distinctions perhaps somewhat fine, 'lines drawn.' 3230 (citation crosses boundary furnishes medium communication message. beyond serve petitioner's education, assisting mission enlists machinery enforce orthodoxy." Lee Weisman, 2649, 2658, 120 (1992). 35 contrary. Those dealt payment tax deduction, involvement ended disbursement lessening tax. hand, involves ongoing, daily, intimate propagation doctrine. dispenses individuals employ finance choices, endorsing graphic symbol concert instrumentality mouths message "enlis[t] eyes impressionable youngsters—the powers denomination operating pursuit common imprimatur approval favored religion, conveying exclusion adhere tenets. Moreover, form. goes heart animating Council Freedom points out, pose serious problems state. Many impose religiously based conduct, traditional Hindu instruct staff dress modestly, display bodies. orthodox Jewish yeshiva forbid kosher food premises. To obey impermissibly threaten liberty, fail endanger autonomy. feared tends destroy degrade religion." Engel Vitale, 370 421, 431, 82 1261, 1267, 601 (1962). designed avert conflict. "rests premise best work achieve lofty aims within respective sphere." McCollum 333 203, 212, 461, 465, 649 (1948). end, strived "chart course preserve[s] autonomy bodies semblance established Walz Tax Commission, 397 664, 672, 1413, 697 stray, today, set nearly decades jurisprudence. syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 50 499. stipulated: intertwined throughout operations Salpointe." agreed exhaustion administrative remedies futile 94-95. During pendency litigation, completed studies graduated May 16, 1992. nonetheless presents continuing controversy, reimbursement incurred hiring $7,000 per year. 65. concedes appropriate 'secular purpose.' 16. 1190, 1196-1197 1992). below. 10, 9. waived defenses. response interrogatory asking service, putative bar. 59-60. proselytization." implements Secretary Education's understanding (and coextensive with) requirements 23; O.T.1985, 84-1070, p. 21, ("These Department's requirements"). persuasive us. authority issuance rulemaking power. 76.532 (citing §§ 1221e-3(a)(1), 2831(a), 2974(b)). Though Fourth Board, 363, 369 school), views. view, belated contention entitled little, any, weight respondent's repeated concession perceived bar, local policy. ("We don't voluntarily done that. came up concern"). Forty forty-one sectarian. 384-385, 3222-3223. instance, 242, (1977), health schoolchildren—public nonpublic—does aiding State's 2603; admits, must, problem instead who, hired themselves. ("If student's employee, District's, end funds"). Constitution provides: "No money property shall appropriated exercise, establishment." provision, petitioner. "Religious institutions. separate academic extracurricular programs, interwoven believed other." 90-91. conduct: "1. Teacher times image living philosophy herein, School's Handbook, Catalog published School. aspects functions. administers mind, body spirit young men women "3. believes faithful adherence philosophical essential purpose. Teachers expected implementation policies compel behavior, language, attitude toward ideal." 91. djQ BLACKMUN's vacate remand various threshold problems, regulatory, moot urged parties. "It fundamental restraint necessity 2278, (1984). rule" suffices dispose us, answer decidedly addressing myself. Rust Sullivan, - 111 1759, 1788-1789, 114 233 (1991)

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