Document: 32 L.Ed.2d 728 92 S.Ct. 2099 407 U.S. 258 Curtis C. FLOOD, Petitioner,v.Bowie K. KUHN et al. No 71—32. Argued March 20, 1972. Decided June 19, Syllabus Petitioner, a professional baseball player 'traded' to another club without his previous knowledge or consent, brought this antitrust suit after being refused the right make own contract with major league team, which is not permitted under reserve system. The District Court rendered judgment in favor of respondents, and Appeals affirmed. Held: longstanding exemption from laws, Federal Baseball Club v. National League, 259 200, 42 465, 66 L.Ed. 898 (1922); Toolson New York Yankees, Inc., 346 356, 74 78, 98 64 (1953), an established aberration, light Court's holding that other interstate sports are similarly exempt, but one Congress has acquiesced, entitled benefit stare decisis. Removal resultant inconsistency at late date matter for legislative, judicial, resolution. Pp. 269—285. 443 F.2d 264, Arthur J. Goldberg, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Paul A. Porter, respondent Bowie Kuhn. Louis L. Hoynes, Jr., City, respondents. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 1 For third time 50 years asked specifically rule baseball's system within reach federal laws.1 Collateral issues state law labor policy also advanced. 2 * Game 3 It century quarter since Nine defeated Knickerbockers 23 on Hoboken's Elysian Fields 1846, Alexander Jay Cartwright as instigator umpire. teams were amateur, contest marked significant beginnings. That early game led ultimately development its tightly organized structure. 4 Cincinnati Red Stockings came into existence 1869 upon outpouring local pride. With only Cincinnatian payroll, team traveled over 11,000 miles summer, winning 56 games tying one. Shortly thereafter, St. Patrick's Day 1871, Association Professional Players was founded born. 5 ensuing colorful days well known. ardent follower student know General Abner Doubleday; formation League 1876; Chicago's supremacy first year's competition leadership Al Spalding Cap Anson base; American then Union 1880's; introduction Sunday baseball; interleague warfare cut-rate admission prices raiding; 'clause'; emergence 1885 Brotherhood Ball Players, 1890 League; appearance 'junior circuit,' 1901, rising minor Western Association; World Series 1903, disruption 1904, Series' resumption 1905; short-lived majors' scene during War I years; troublesome discouraging episode 1919 Series; home run ball; shifting franchises; expansion leagues; installation 1965 draft potential new players; Major 1966.2 6 Then there many names, celebrated reason another, have sparked diamond environs provided tinder recaptured thrills, reminiscence comparisons, conversation anticipation in-season off-season: Ty Cobb, Babe Ruth, Tris Speaker, Walter Johnson, Henry Chadwick, Eddie Collins, Lou Gehrig, Grover Cleveland Alexander, Rogers Hornsby, Harry Hooper, Goose Goslin, Jackie Robinson, Honus Wagner, Joe McCarthy, John McGraw, Deacon Phillippe, Rube Marquard, Christy Mathewson, Tommy Leach, Big Ed Delahanty, Davy Jones, Germany Schaefer, King Kelly, Dan Brouthers, Wahoo Sam Crawford, Wee Willie Keeler, Walsh, Jimmy Austin, Fred Snodgrass, Satchel Paige, Hugh Jennings, Merkle, Iron Man McGinnity, Three-Finger Brown, Stan Coveleski, Connie Mack, Bridwell, Ruffing, Amos Rusie, Cy Young, Smokey Wood, Chief Meyers, Bender, Bill Klem, Hans Lobert, Johnny Evers, Tinker, Roy Campanella, Miller Huggins, Bressler, Dazzy Vance, Edd Roush, Wambsganss, Clark Griffith, Branch Rickey, Frank Chance, Anson, Nap Lajoie, Sad Bob O'Farrell, Lefty O'Doul, Bobby Veach, Kamm, Heinie Groh, Lloyd Waner, Stuffy McInnis, Charles Comiskey, Roger Bresnahan, Dickey, Zack Wheat, George Sisler, Charlie Gehringer, Eppa Rixey, Heilmann, Clarke, Dizzy Dean, Hank Greenberg, Pie Traynor, Waddell, Terry, Carl Hubbell, Old Hoss Radbourne, Moe Berg, Rabbit Maranville, Jimmie Foxx, Grove.3 list seems endless. 7 And recalls appropriate reference 'World Serious,' attributed Ring Lardner, Sr.; Ernest Thayer's 'Casey Bat';4 ring 'Tinker Evers Chance';5 all happenings, habits, superstitions about around made it 'national pastime' or, depending point view, 'the great tragedy.'6 II Petitioner 8 petitioner, Flood, born 1938, began career 1956 when he signed Reds salary $4,000 season. He had no attorney agent advise him occasion. traded Cardinals before 1958 Flood rose fame center fielder 1958—1969. In those 12 seasons compiled batting average .293. His best offensive season 1967 achieved .335. .301 better six years. participated 1964, 1967, 1968 Series. played errorless ball field 1966, once enjoyed 223 consecutive games. received seven Golden Glove Awards. co-captain 1965—1969. ranks among 10 outfielders possessing highest lifetime fielding averages. 9 Flood's compensation shown was: 1961 $13,500 (including bonus signing) 1962 $16,000 1963 $17,500 1964 $23,000 $35,000 1966 $45,000 $50,000 $72,500 1969 $90,000 11 These figures do include any so-called fringe benefits shares. But age 31, October 1969, Philadelphia Phillies multi-player transaction. consulted trade. informed by telephone formal notice deal been consummated. December complained Commissioner be free placed liberty strike bargain team. request denied. 13 instituted suit7 January 1970 court Southern York. defendants (although named each cause action) Baseball, presidents two leagues, 24 clubs. general, complaint charged violations laws civil rights statutes, violation statutes common law, imposition form peonage involuntary servitude contrary Thirteenth Amendment U.S.C. § 1994, 18 1581, 29 §§ 102 103. sought declaratory injunctive relief treble damages. 14 declined play 1970, despite $100,000 offer, sat out year. After concluded, sold Washington Senators. petitioner able come terms 1971 $110,000.8 started but, apparently because dissatisfied performance, left April 27, campaign. then. III Present Litigation 15 Judge Cooper, detailed opinion, denied preliminary injunction, 309 F.Supp. 793 (S.D.N.Y.1970), observing way: 16 'Baseball national pastime hundred enjoys unique place our heritage. avidly followed millions fans, looked fervor pride provides special source inspiration competitive spirit especially young. 17 'Baseball's status life nation so pervasive would strain credulity say can take judicial everybody's business. To put mildly restraint, unfortunate indeed if fine sport profession, brings surcease daily travail escape ordinary most inhabitants land, suffer least undue concentration group commercial profit considerations. higher ground; behooves every keep there.' F.Supp., 797. application trial granted. next deferred until decision defendants' motions dismiss primary causes action, granted defense motion summary additional action. 312 404 (S.D.N.Y.1970). 19 Trial took May 1970. An extensive record developed. 316 271 Cooper noted that: 20 'Plaintiff's witnesses main concede some players necessary element organization sport, contend present all-embracing needlessly restrictive offer various alternatives their view might loosen bonds sacrifice game. . 21 'Clearly preponderance credible proof does elimination clause. sole exception plaintiff himself, shows even plaintiff's wholly undesirable; fact they regard substantial portions meritorious. .' 275—276. 22 held (1922), controlling; issue whether result aspects now subject collective bargaining; state-law claims, based statute, 'a admits diversity treatment,' 280; claim failed absence essential showing compulsory service,' 281—282; entered defendants. included statement personal conviction effect 'negotiations could produce accommodation eminently fair equitable concerned' clause fashioned find acceptance club.' 282 284. On appeal, Second Circuit felt 'compelled affirm.' 265 (1971). regarded impression, concluded Commerce Clause precluded application. Moore added concurring predicted, respect suggested overruling Toolson, 'there likelihood such event will occur.'9 F.2d, 268, 272. We certiorari order look again unusual situation. 880, 201, 30 160 IV Legal Background 25 damages member (Baltimore) against Leagues others. obtained verdict court, reversed. brief filed discloses strenuously argued, things, business engaged commerce; relationship several clubs, located different States, predominant; represented investment colossal wealth; engagement moneymaking; gate receipts divided agreement between visiting club; distinguished mere playing physical exercise diversion. See U.S., 201—206, 465. 26 Holmes, speaking succinctly unanimous Court, said: 27 'The giving exhibitions base ball, purely affairs. give must induce persons cross lines arrange pay doing enough change character (T) transport incident, thing. exhibition, although money called trade commerce commonly accepted use words. As defendant, effort, related production, commerce. consummation become States transportation we mentioned takes place. repeat illustrations given below, firm lawyers sending argue case, Chautauqua lecture bureau lecturers, engage lawyer lecturer goes State. 28 'If described same way restrictions prevented getting break bargains conduct interference States.' 208—209, S.Ct., 466.10 thus chose persuaded opposing examples proffered plaintiff, (a) Learned Hand's demurrer Sherman Act vaudeville entertainers traveling theater circuit covering H. B. Marienelli, Ltd. United Booking Offices, 227 F. 165 (S.D.N.Y.1914); (b) Harlan's International Textbook Co. Pigg, 217 91, 481, 54 678 (1910), correspondence courses pursued through mail constituted States; (c) Holmes' relating cattle shipment, movement interrupted finding purchasers stockyards, Swift & 196 375, 276, 49 518 (1905). earlier case parties locate where question raised Chase, 86 Misc. 441, 149 N.Y.S. (1914). answered negative. cited year later, disfavor, Holmes bookings. held, however, frivolous bill should dismissed. Hart Keith Vaudeville Exchange, 262 271, 43 540, 67 977 (1923).11 31 cited, unfavorably, practice South-Eastern Underwriters Assn., 322 533, 573, 1162, 1184, 88 1440 (1944) (Stone, C.J., dissenting); out-of-state contractors, Employing Plasterers 347 186, 196—197, 452, 459—460, 618 (1954) (Minton, J., general comparison reference, North SEC, 327 686, 694, 785, 791, 90 945 (1946). followed, continued intermittent attack. courts, rejected these challenges authority Baseball. cases stress laid, unsuccessfully, factors radio television revenues baseball.12 part, generally necessarily controlling authority.13 1952 Report Subcommittee Study Monopoly Power House Committee Judiciary, H.R.Rep.No.2002, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., 229, said, conclusion: 33 'On hand overwhelming evidence need sort Baseball's history chaotic conditions prevailed Experience points feasible substitute protect integrity guarantee comparatively struggle. adduced hearings clearly justify enactment legislation flatly condemning clause.' 34 certiorari, 345 963, 73 948, 949, 97 1382 Kowalski, Corbett cases, nn. 13, supra, and, short per curiam (Warren, Black, Frankfurter, Douglas, Jackson, Clark, Minton, JJ.), affirmed judgments respective courts appeals three cases. (1953). 'that providing public clubs scope laws,' 357, and: 35 'Congress ruling consideration seen fit bring having prospective effect. thirty develop, understanding existing legislation. ask us overrule prior retrospective effect, hold applicable. think evils warrant Without re-examination underlying issues, below Baltimore Clubs, far determines intention including laws.' Ibid. 36 This quotation reveals four reasons affirmance companion cases: Congressional awareness decades coupled congressional inaction. alone develop period laws. A reluctance consequent retroactive (d) professed desire needed remedy rather than decree. emphasis determination, Two Justices (Burton Reed, JJ.) dissented, stressing factual aspects, revenue sources, express Act. 78. study mentioned. Id., 358, 359, 361, 79, 80, 81. 37 interest note argued 'is wrong overruled,' Brief No. 18, O.T.1953, p. Thomas Reed Powell, constitutional scholar small stature, urged, counsel amicus, 'baseball enterprise,' Boston Base-Ball Amicus Curiae 2, 'unbridled applied interest.' 14. 38 D. Shubert, 348 222, 75 277, 99 279 (1955), action production legitimate theatrical attractions throughout operating theaters presentation attractions. dismissed 120 (S.D.N.Y.1953). Warren broad conception 'trade commerce' types enterprises already phrase. stated afforded basis conclusion businesses built performance exempt 227, 280. went elucidate meticulously spelling above: 39 'In Base Ball, dealing nothing else. travel, thing.' 40 confronted combination circumstances. stood fixing more particularly validity 'reserve During period, reliance precedent, grown Congress, actively considered ruling, reject amendatory Against background, ground step subsequent decisions reflecting present-day concepts circumstances so. neither did reaffirm said Ball. Instead, '(w)ithout issues,' adhered 'so (346 79.) short, narrow 41 '. If expanded—or contracted lies Congress.' 228 230, 281. E. Boxing Club, 236, 259, 290 Shubert decided day. promoting championship boxing contests. Here Toolson. observed 'if too clear dispute Government's allegations Act.' 240—241, 261. pointed relied content interpretation them defendants, immunized involve athletic nature. argument. noted, 242, 262, 'Toolson overruled nor reaffirmed Baseball.' stated: was, instead, very practical one—the degree activity involved particular review. follows decisis cannot help here; for, argument, outside confronting is, therefore, previously continue, instance. resolve, Court.' 243, 262. 44 presence bills forbidding 'organized enterprises'; these; subcommittee opposition; postponement recommendation intact then-existing coverage 243—244, 263. 45 joined dissented. 'It baffle subtlest ingenuity,' 'to single differentiating factor sporting insofar relevant criteria considerations Law becomes applicable commerce." 248, 265. on: 46 doctrine not, sure, imprisonment reason. whimsy. hardly gave preferred position sport. aspect disregard identic situations caprice. 47 'Congress, hand, may yield sentiment capricious, due process. 48 'Between them, illustrate nice rational distinctions inevitable adjudication. agree precisely constrains me dissent case.' 249 250, 266. Minton separately dissented comment attempted' control boxing. 251, 253, 267. dissenting Justices, thus, call Toolson; merely umbrella freedom Frankfurter 266, exclusion legal jot tittle it.'14 parade marched on. Radovich Football 352 445, 77 390, 456 (1957), Clayton testing football. Ninth part hesitate 'confess strength pull' equal,' '(f)ootball sport' individual Cir., 231 620, 622. 51 reversed Clark. 'because harm done upholding dubious validity.' 450, 393. acted. 52 'All this, combined flood litigation follow repudiation, harassment ensue, decision, sustain unequivocal line reaching 53 '(S)ince still actions involving fields business, limit facts involved, i.e., baseball. long continues acquiesce adhere to—but extend—the unrealistic, inconsistent, illogical, sufficient answer, aside businesses, considering clean slate doubts. claiming conclude orderly eliminate error discrimination, be, decision. processes accommodative, affording whole industry opportunity assist formulation resulting product therefore likely alike. known advance effective dates set future injustices retroactivity surprise action.' 450—452, 393 (footnote omitted). 55 essentially Boxing, 455, 396. Harlan, Brennan, he, too, 'unable distinguish football baseball.' 456, decisions. They decisis, voted affirm. G. Finally, Haywood Basketball 401 1204, 91 672, 206 (1971), capacity Justice, reinstated injunction pendente lite basketball 'Basketball enjoy 1205, 673.15 57 series understandably spawned commentary,16 critical much not; nearly deemed essential. 58 I. Legislative proposals numerous persistent. Since introduced relative applicability nonapplicability baseball.17 few passed house other. Those expanded, restricted, system's sports. Sept. 30, 1961, Pub.L. 87—331, Stat. 732, merger addition thereto effected Nov. 8, 89 800, 6(b), 80 1515, 1291—1295, expansive exemption.18 V 59 60 1. 61 2. enjoying distinct sense, anomaly. aberration confined 62 3. Even though others 'unrealistic, illogical,' see Radovich, 394, one, recognized well, total five half century, heretofore fully survived expanding concept rests recognition characteristics needs. 63 4. Other interstate—football, boxing, basketball, presumably, hockey19 golf20—are exempt. 5. advent television, increased revenues, occasioned 65 6. emphasized 1922 baseball, full continuing awareness, allowed expand unhindered legislative Remedial repeatedly none ever enacted. accordingly, yet statutes. This, obviously, something silence passivity. Cf. Boys Markets, Inc. Retail Clerk's Union, 398 235, 241—242, 1583, 1587 1588, 199 (1970). 7. expressed concern confusion problems inevitably overturning voiced preference made, that, nature, operation. 8. clean. Indeed, century. 68 us. continue loath, almost overturn judicially positive inaction, stand beyond inference implication, evinced disapprove legislatively. 69 Accordingly, applications illogic standing remedied act otherwise, withdrawing intent concerns retrospectivity therein expressed. Under circumstances, merit consistency beneath layer inconsistency. 70 petitioner's argument deserves word. claims regulation conflict 'uniformity (is required) reserved system.' Appeals, affirming, stated, '(A) burden outweighs states' interests regulating system, precludes here law.' 268. observations allegedly inconsistent taken past law,21 statements adequately dispose claims. 71 reached makes unnecessary consider respondents' mandatory bargaining exempts operation laws.22 72 what Toolson: 'Without (judgment) (is) 79. 1953, 1972: remedy, indicated, congressional, 76 Judgment WHITE joins Part opinion. 78 POWELL case. 79 BURGER, concurring. concur like DOUGLAS, grave reservations correctness (1953); notes dissent, 'lived regret it.' error, affairs people rested time. Courts forum tangled web ought unsnarled. DOUGLAS inaction solid base, undesirable course let rest Congress; acted solve problem. 81 whom BRENNAN concurs, dissenting. 82 898, 1922, derelict stream we, creator, remove. Only romantic view1 dismal account last midstream. 83 narrow, parochial demise old landmarks era, Knight Co., 156 1, 249, 325, Hammer Dagenhart, 247 529, 1101, Virginia, Wall. 168, changed. 84 modern Mandeville Island Farms Crystal Sugar 334 219, 996, 1328; Darby, 100, 451, 85 609; Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 82, 87 122; 1440, power phases vast operations industrial dependent gleaning (see 4, (1952)) hard today big packaged beer, broadcasting, industries. beneficiaries Ruths, Cobbs, Gehrigs. owners, whose records reveal proclivity predatory practices, equities. equities victims word 'victims' forbids anyone calling unreasonable restraint trade.2 Gardella Chandler, 172 402 (CA2). (Douglas, chambers). guide, rely enact broadly exempting regulation.3 82nd Sess. (1952). statutory broadcasting rights. 1291—1295. ascribe broader grant explicitly. There doubt slate'4 regulation. 456. unbroken prevent correcting mistakes. MARSHALL, joins, leagues 1956, Reds, 12-year Cardinals, ended Phillies. contemplating trade, indicate prefer playing, go Philadelphia. receiving notification wrote protesting piece property bought irrespective my wishes,'1 urging offers requested inform available denied, choice all. non-athletes appear virtually enslaved owners who bartered themselves services. But, athletes bound owners; essence signs days.2 except retiring, assigning club. alleged, laws.3 thought itself found respondents trial. 264 1971, 160, further precedents lower courts. 93 difficult torn principle totally odds recent reasoned 94 'giving affairs.' 208, 466. Hence, purview Thirty-one re-examining it, one-paragraph Like attack 95 legislation.' 96 Much decide reasoning Toolson—i.e., refuse re-examine Club—or proceed chips fall may. answer complaint, 'admits interstage therein.' App. 40. warranted today's reality. commerce, exemption, require also, recently occasion 'Antitrust particular, Magna Charta enterprise. important preservation economic free-enterprise Rights protection fundamental freedoms. Implicit notion foreclosed sector economy certain private citizens groups believe foreclosure promote greater economy.' Topco Associates, 405 596, 610, 1126, 1135, 515 (1972). 100 importance citizen minimized. players, lawyers, doctors, members class workers. important, unless says 101 Has acquiesced Toolson? not. Had consistent treated treated, concerned isolated silent. read Americans love Perhaps enamored athletics assume foremost minds legislators fans. forget, 600 players. Whatever muscle muster combining forces greatly impaired manner them. impotent, correct error. 103 lightly constructions errors deny rights, compete freely effectively one's ability guaranteed admit it. here. See, e.g., Blonder-Tongue Laboratories, University Illinois Foundation, 313, 1434, 788 (1971); Clerks 241, 1587, (1970).4 104 extent assert, satisfied making only. covered beginning henceforth, decides otherwise.5 105 reverse Appeals.6 106 mean prevail, Lurking background hurdle vintage overcome. formed. collective-bargaining representative Respondents parcel bargaining, applicable, laws.7 solely exemption. 107 faced interrelationship before. things clear. First, 'benefits utilized cat's-paw pull employers' chestnuts fires.' Women's Sportswear Manufacturers 336 460, 464, 714 (1949). Allen Bradley Local 3, 325 797, 1533, 1939 (1945). Second, nature mandates 'restrain' management unilaterally. Hutcheson, 463, (1941); Mine Workers Pennington, 381 657, 1585, 626 (1965); Amalgamated Meat Cutters Jewel Tea, 676, 1596, 640 cf., 24, etc., Teamsters, America Oliver, 358 283, 297, (1959). resolved examining purposes competing striking balance. 108 apparent point. union-management agreements work detriment management's competitors. urges works labor. 109 While concerning parties, surrounding explored. commentary suggested, 'has litigated implications institution dimly perceived. corners case—the example, them—moving shadows uninvited guest party can't either embrace expel.'8 110 true governed athlete examination briefs indicates squarely faced. focused. should, inquiry 111 surface appeal filing Labor Relations Board, premised agreed accept contradicted, suggests thrust formed players' union modify eradicate true, arises limits agree. 112 considerations, remand agreement, so, determination publicly contracts 1887, Metropolitan Exhibition Ewing, 198, 202—204 (C.C.SDNY 1890), centers uniformity contracts; confinement contract; assignability player's annually renew unilaterally, minimum. Thus Rule Rules part: '(a) UNIFORM CONTRACT. preserve morale similarity keen competition, shall prescribed Executive Council. uniform containing non-reserve clause, written approval Commissioner. '(g) TAMPERING. discipline enticement coaches, managers umpires, negotiations dealings respecting employment, prospective, player, coach manager terms, reserved, Negotiation List, umpire connected have, writing, expressly authorized commencement.' NOTICE. assign player. receipt assignment, serve assignee. 'After assignment obligations assignor thereunder assignee ..' contain provisions parallel just quoted. Uniform Player's Contract '4. Player agrees remedies, breach Player, including, others, enjoin person term contract.' '5. (a). while contract, expiration Club's otherwise participate post-season Rules. '6. assigned (and reassigned Club) accordance Rules.' '10. (or Sunday, preceding day) following tender mailing address signature hereto, given, Club. succeeding 15, amount payable fix notice; provided, amount, fixed rate less 80% stipulated '(b) subparagraph paragraph 10, promise determining hereof.' Encyclopedia (1969); Ritter, Glory Their Times (1966); Seymour, (1960, 1971); Voigt, (1966, 1970). names By mentioning some, risks unintended omission equally celebrated. Millions One writer knowledgeable assumed everyone until, day, discovered otherwise: 'I knew cove who'd never heard Lee, Of Caesar Napoleon ancient jamboree, bli'me, queerer anything here's Bat'! 'Ten million Keats, Shelley, Burns Poe; air shattered force Casey's blow'; Shakespeare, Dickens, somber drama Mudville's haunted lot. 'He Casey! Am dreaming? Is true? windblown ashes summer day through? Does greatness fade quickly grandeur doomed die bloomed morning, ere dusk rides down sky?' Never Heard Casey' Grantland Rice, Sportlight, Herald Tribune, 1926, 23. 'These saddest possible words, Chance.' Trio bear cubs, fleeter birds, Ruthlessly pricking gonfalon bubble, Making Giant hit double— Words weighty trouble: Chance." Franklin Pierce Adams, Lexicon. Bernard Shaw, Sporting News, 1943, col. Concededly supported Association, representative. Tr. Oral Arg. 12. participating prejudice 'And properly welfare politically insulated interpreters technical voters elected representatives. damaged regulation, congressman face constituents November consequences voting record.' Friendly's comments Salerno 429 1003, 1005 (CA2 1970), cert. sub nom. Kuhn, 400 1001, 462, 452 (1971): 'We acknowledge belief happiest days, rationale extremely Supreme adjectives, distinction 'unrealistic,' 'inconsistent' 'illogical.' chairs news overruled, ready happy despatch.' 'What really saved legally least, protective canopy spread Organized 1922. ruled commonly-accepted words' 'personal commerce'; interstate, across 'incidental' believe, business; troubled text claimed incorrectly business.' 420 close evidence. establish incidental. 341 (1926). 273 703, 97, 849 (SD Cal.1951), aff'd, 200 198 (CA9 1952); Kowalski 202 413 (CA6 1953). 1003 cf. 1949) (this advised, subsequently settled); Martin 174 917 1949). 428 1953); Portland 680 1960); Niemiec Seattle Rainier 705 (W.D.Wash.1946). State Milwaukee Braves, Wis.2d 699, 144 N.W.2d 385 990, 598, 451 (1966). case's final chapter 245, 270 Denver Rockets All-Pro Management, 1049, 1060 (C.D.Cal.1971); Corp. 147 154 (S.D.N.Y.1956). Neville, Antitrust Laws, Fordham L.Rev. 208 (1947); Eckler, Baseball—Sport Commerce?, U.Chi.L.Rev. (1949); Comment, Monopsony Manpower: Meets Yale L.J. 576 P. Gregory, Economic Study, c. (1956); Note, Super Bowl Act: Team Sports Harv.L.Rev. 418 (1967); 1953 Term, 105, 136—138 (1954); 94, 170—173 (1957); Va.L.Rev. 1164 (1946); Notre Dame Law. 372 Col.L.Rev. 242 U.Kan. City 173 Miss.L.J. N.Y.U.L.Rev. 213 U.Pa.L.Rev. Texas 890 B.U.L.Rev. 447 (1955); 725 Geo.Wash.L.Rev. 606 How.L.J. 281 Sw.L.J. 369 Temple L.Q. Tul.L.Rev. Dick.L.Rev. 516 N.C.L.Rev. 315 (1958); 350 B.C.Ind. Com.L.Rev. Wayne 417 Rutgers-Camden 302 (1970); San Diego 737 Wm. Mary 859 Hearings H.R. 5307 85th 1st 10378 S. 4070 Senate 2370 86th (1959) (not printed); 616 886 (1959); 3483 (1960); 2391 88th (1964); S.Rep.No.1303, 950 89th S.Rep.No.462, (1965). Bills 92d bearing 2599, 2616, 2305, 11033, 10825. Title 1294 reads: 'Nothing contained change, determine, affect act, rule, conduct, by, between, engaging in, conducting, football, hockey, section 1291 title apply.' (Emphasis supplied.) Peto Madison Square Garden Corp., Trade Cases, 69,106 (SDNY 1958). Deesen Golfers' (CA9), 846, 72, Respondent 204, O.T.1921, 67, 30. (1966), Jacobs Winter, Principles Collective Bargaining Athletes: Superstars Peonage, suggesting irrelevancy issue. 64, lived it; boycott occurred industry, Klor's, Broadway-Hale Stores, 359 207, 705, 741; 279; chambers); 456; 290; difficulty sustaining petioner's claim. disregards wisdom Helvering Hallock, 106, 119 121, 444, 604, 'Nor want specific repudiations implied instruction reconsider, experience .. persuasive enveloping debar doctrines. Various parliamentary tactics strategy walk quicksand try corrective principle.' 556-561, 1175—1178, 1440. gives actual Letter Curt Dec. 37. out, novel. employed 1887. (C.C.S.D.N.Y.1890). assert retain fan interest. overly restrictive. Before lawsuit instituted, contract. temporarily remain jointly investigated changes. along halted pending outcome suit. alleged forced Constitution. Because govern pre-empted area. Amendment. hesitated constitutes Compare (1895), 1328 (1948), 609 (1941). jurist 'public confidence system' however admirable resolute adherence sense justice operate, known, diminish itself.' Szanton, Stare Decisis; Dissenting View, Hastings 397 '(i)n rare construing instance overrules construction statute Estate Donnelly, 286, 295, 1033, 1038, Simpson Oil California, 377 25, 1051, 1058, (1964). whether, assuming apply, violated. remand.

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