Document: 514 U.S. 779115 S.Ct. 1842131 L.Ed.2d 881 TERM LIMITS, INC., et al., Petitioners,v.Ray THORNTON al. Winston BRYANT, Attorney General of Arkansas, Petitioner, v. Bobbie E. HILL Nos. 93-1456, 93-1828. Supreme Court the United States Argued Nov. 29, 1994. Decided May 22, 1995. Syllabus * Respondent Hill filed this suit in Arkansas state court challenging constitutionality § 3 Amendment 73 to Constitution, which prohibits name an otherwise-eligible candidate for Congress from appearing on general election ballot if that has already served three terms House Representatives or two Senate. The trial held violated Article I Federal and affirmed. A plurality latter concluded have no authority "to change, add to, diminish" age, citizenship, residency requirements congressional service enumerated Qualifications Clauses, Const., Art. I, 2, cl. 3, rejected argument is constitutional because it formulated as a access restriction rather than outright disqualification incumbents. Held: Section Constitution violates Constitution. Pp. __. (a) power granted each judge "Qualifications its own Members," 5, 1, does not include alter qualifications set forth Constitution's text. Powell McCormack, 395 486, 540, 89 1944, 1973, 23 491. After examining analysis Clauses history text, id., at 518-548, S.Ct., 1962-1978, articulation "basic principles our democratic system," 548, 1978, reaffirms are "fixed," least sense they may be supplemented by Congress. (b) So too, imposing additional those specifically Petitioners' possess control over part original powers reserved them Tenth reasons. First, within States' pre-Tenth-Amendment "original powers," but new right arising itself, thus reserved. Second, even possessed some area, must Framers intended exclusive source Members Congress, thereby "divested" any qualifications. That so demonstrated unanimity among courts learned commentators who considered issue; structure text pertinent provisions, including 4, 6, 1; relevant historical materials, records Constitutional Convention ratification debates, well Congress' subsequent experience with attempts impose qualifications; and, most importantly, "fundamental principle representative democracy . 'that people should choose whom please govern them,' " Powell, U.S., 547, 1977. Permitting individual formulate diverse their representatives would result patchwork inconsistent Framers' vision uniform National Legislature representing States. fact that, immediately after adoption many imposed term limits other officers, while only one State such qualification provides further persuasive evidence understanding were unalterable ____-____. (c) measure unconstitutional when likely effect handicapping class candidates sole purpose creating indirectly. rejects petitioners' valid merely precludes certain being certified having names appear ballot, allows run write-in serve elected. Even narrow correct, fall indirect attempt evade Clauses' trivializes basic underlying Clauses. Nor can agree related permissible exercise under Elections Clause, regulate "Times, Places Manner holding Elections." necessary consequence itself Clause "make alter" 73, unfathomable Powell. Moreover, broad construction fundamentally view was grant protect integrity regularity process regulating procedures, see, e.g., Storer Brown, 415 724, 730, 733, 94 1274, 1279, 1280, 39 714, provide license substantive exclude classes federal office. (d) imposition fundamental change framework come through amendment properly passed procedures V. Absent amendment, allowing craft erode designed form "more perfect Union." P. ____. 316 Ark. 251, 872 S.W.2d 349 (1994), STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, KENNEDY, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. concurring opinion. THOMAS, dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR SCALIA, Bryant, petitioner John G. Kester, petitioners 93-1456. Louis R. Cohen respondents. Drew S. Davis, III, amicus curiae, special leave Court. Justice STEVENS 1 sets membership applies Representatives, provides: 2 "No Person shall Representative attained Age twenty five Years, been seven Years Citizen States, not, elected, Inhabitant he chosen." Senate, similarly 4 Senator thirty nine 5 Today's cases present challenge We holding. Such state-imposed contrary democracy," embodied "the them." 1977, 491 (1969) (internal quotation marks omitted). Allowing adopt If changed, amended. 6 At November 1992, voters adopted Proposed "Term Limitation Amendment," preamble stated: 7 "The find declare elected officials remain office too long become preoccupied reelection ignore duties people. Entrenched incumbency reduced voter participation led electoral system less free, competitive, established Founding Fathers. Therefore, exercising powers, herein limit officials." 8 limitations apply categories officials. official executive branch government more 4-year terms. legislative government; member 2-year Senate provision issue these cases, Congressional Delegation. It 9 "(a) Any person eligible his/her placed Arkansas. 10 "(b) Arkansas." 11 states self-executing all persons seeking January 1993. 12 On 13, respondent Hill, behalf herself, situated "citizens, residents, taxpayers registered voters," League Women Voters complaint Circuit Pulaski County, declaratory judgment "unconstitutional void." Her named defendants then-Governor Clinton, Republican Party Democratic General, intervened party defendant support amendment. Several proponents also intervened, Term Limits, Inc. 13 cross-motions summary judgment, Constitution.1 14 With respect holding, 5—to-2 decision, 349, 351 (1994). Writing justices, Robert L. Brown restrictions Id., 265, S.W.2d, 356. He noted: 15 "If there watchword representation various uniformity. legislators speak national issues affect citizens every state. uniformity mandated tenor fabric Piecemeal fly face order." Ibid. 16 Brown's "merely amendment," concluding "[t]he intent disqualify incumbents service." 265-266, 356-357. possibilities excluded might appointed fill vacancy "glimmers opportunity [that] faint indeed—so cannot salvage attack." 266, 357. In separate opinions, Dudley Gerald agreed 17 Two Justices dissented Hays started premise political resides people, limited provisions constitutions contrary." Ark., 281, 367. Because his examination convinced him contains express implicit ability constitutional. Special Chief Cracraft, drawing distinction between "impose[s] absolute bar incumbent succession," makes difficult elected," 284, 368, implicate instead restriction. 18 intervenors petitioned writs certiorari. importance issues, we both petitions consolidated argument. See 512 ----, 114 2703, 129 832 now affirm. II 19 As opinions suggest, depends critically resolution distinct issues. first whether forbids adding altering second is, forbid, significance. Our draws upon prior issue: Members. 20 Twenty-six years ago, (1969), reviewed Clauses2 case involving attempted exclusion duly Member principal Members"3 includes Warren eight Court,4 not. obvious issue, Court's review meaning especially thorough. therefore begin today full statement what decided case. 21 1966, Adam Clayton Jr., District New York 90th Allegations had engaged serious misconduct serving committee chairman during 89th appointment Select Committee determine eligibility take seat. found met 2. found, however, wrongfully diverted funds use others himself made false reports expenditures foreign currency. Based findings, debate Resolution 278, excluding House, declared seat vacant. 489-493, 1947-1949. 22 several invalid membership. ultimately accepted contention, "authority exclude5 person, constituents, meets expressly prescribed Constitution." 522, 1964 (emphasis original); see 1977.6 reaching conclusion, undertook detailed Framers. Though recognizing debates themselves inconclusive, 532, 1969, determined "relevant materials" reveal 1964. British Parliament, focusing particular Wilkes. While Wilkes published attack peace treaty France. This literary endeavor earned conviction seditious libel 22-month prison sentence. addition, Parliament ineligible ordered expelled. Despite (or perhaps of) difficulties, reelected times. persisted refusal him. Wilkes' efforts, Commons voted expunge resolutions expelled ineligible, labeling actions 'subversive rights whole body electors kingdom.' 528, 1967, quoting Parliamentary History England 1411 (1782) (Parl.Hist.Eng.). reviewing "long bitter struggle electorate represented men choice," "on eve Convention, English precedent stood proposition 'the law land regulated members parliament' 'not occasional fixed.' Ibid., 1967-1968, Parl.Hist.Eng. 589, 590 (1769). 24 Against background, viewed manifesting fixed exclusive. particularly revealing concerning proposal Detail given property James Madison argued vest 'an improper & dangerous Legislature,' 'can degrees subvert Constitution.' 533-534, 1970, Records 1787, pp. 249-250 (M. Farrand ed. 1911) (hereinafter Farrand).7 continued: 'A Republic converted into aristocracy oligarchy limiting number capable authorised elect.' 534, 250. noted "parallel Madison's arguments striking." 1971. 25 revealed concerns about abuse Gouverneur Morris suggested modifying unfettered Hugh Williamson "expressed concern majority legislature happen 'composed description men, lawyers example, future elections secured body.' 535, 1971, emphasized Parliament's qualifications, observed: '[T]he lesson worthy attention.' significant Morris' modification Committee's proposal. 26 recognized post-Convention confirmed understood For response antifederalist charge favored wealthy well-born, Alexander Hamilton wrote: 27 'The truth method securing rich preference apprehended prescribing either elect But forms conferred government. chosen, remarked occasions, defined legislature.' 539, Federalist No. 60, p. 371 (C. Rossiter 1961) added) Federalist). 28 attached significance "Hamilton's reliance immutability 1974. conventions "also demonstrate Ibid.; 541, 1974, citing Debates Adoption (J. Elliot 1863) Elliot's Debates) (Wilson Carey Nicholas, Virginia).8 29 understanding. 100 existence, "Congress strictly 542, 30 elaborate reveals, persuasive. conclude now, did shows establish qualifications.9 POWELL'S RELIANCE ON DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES 31 course, rely solely evidence, complemented "an system." 1978. violate them.' 257 (A. Hamilton, York). 32 clear incorporated ideas.10 egalitarian concept open all.11 '[u]nder reasonable [enumerated Constitution], door merit description, native adoptive, young old, without regard poverty wealth, profession religious faith.' n. 74, 52, 326. Similarly, Wilson Nicholas defended against "violated principles" arguing: 'It ever great security liberty, very few chosen legislature. amply attended idea. required except age residence.' 8. 33 critical postulate sovereignty vested confers freely Government. "Robert Livingston endorsed same principle: best judges ought represent them. To dictate them, tell elect, abridge natural rights.' 76, 292-293. observed "[b]efore convention ., emphasized: true republic Representation imperfect proportion current popular favor checked. free government, election, perfectly pure, unbounded liberty allowed.' 540-541, 257. Quoting 1807 Chairman Elections, "restrictions 'absolutely safety society.' 543, 1975, Annals Cong. 874 (1807). Thus, sentiment expressed admission Parliament: 'That choice, essential preservation rights, sacred parts constitution.' 65, 589-590 34 establishes important propositions: first, compel conclusion listed exclusive; second, equally compelled HOLDING 35 Petitioners argue somewhat half-heartedly involved pursuant question susceptible reading. integral outcome. See, 1973 (noting "Framers' Constitution"). Only Terms ago Nixon 506 113 732, 122 (1993). noting specified "a precise, nature" "unalterable legislature," explained: 36 "Our based '[q]ualifications' Art claim 'be Judge Returns Members' textual commitment unreviewable defeated existence specifying membership." ---- - 740).12 Unsurprisingly, lower conclusively resolved Joyner Mofford, 706 F.2d 1523, 1528 (CA9 1983) ("In restrictive Clause—at applied Congress"); Michel Anderson, F.3d 623 (CADC 1994) (citing Nixon's Powell's holding); Stumpf Lau, 108 Nev. 826, 830, 839 P.2d 120, (1992) "[n]ot officers").13 37 sum, reaffirm III 38 reaffirmation necessarily resolve specific questions presented cases. whatever materials discussed do absence prohibition, argue, require allowed Before addressing arguments, appropriate note striking issue. None overwhelming array briefs submitted parties amici called attention single approved State's addition contrary, impressive lack Chandler Howell, 104 Wash. 99, 175 569 (1918); Eckwall Stadelman, 146 Or. 439, 446, 1037, 1040 (1934); Stockton McFarland, 56 Ariz. 138, 144, 106 328, 330 (1940); ex rel. Johnson Crane, 65 Wyo. 189, 197 864 (1948); Dillon Fiorina, 340 F.Supp. 729, 731 (N.M.1972); Stack Adams, 315 1295, 1297-1298 (ND Fla.1970); Buckingham State, 42 Del. 405, A.2d 903, 905 (1944); 123 (1992); Danielson Fitzsimmons, 232 Minn. 149, 151, 44 N.W.2d 484, 486 (1950); re Opinion Judges, 79 S.D. 585, 587, 116 233, 234 (1962). Courts struck down limits, Thorsted Gregoire, 841 1068, 1081 (WD Wash.1994); Nev., P.2d, 123, district requirements, Hellmann Collier, 217 Md. 93, 100, 141 908, 911 (1958); F.Supp., 731; Exon Tiemann, 279 609, 613 (D.Neb.1968); Chavez Evans, N.M. 578, 581, 446 445, 448 (1968) (per curiam ), loyalty oath Shub Simpson, 196 177, 199, 76 332, 341, appeal dism'd, 881, 71 198, 95 L.Ed. 640 O'Connor, 173 Misc. 419, 421, N.Y.S.2d 758, 760 (Super.Ct.1940), convicted felonies, Application Ferguson, 57 Misc.2d 1041, 1043, 294 174, 176 (Super.Ct.1968); Minn., N.W.2d, 486; Eaton Schmahl, 140 219, 220, 167 N.W. 481 (1918) curiam). Prior unanimous. W. Blackstone, Commentaries Appendix 213 (S. Tucker 1803) ("[T]hese constitution possibly nugatory"); Story 627 (each officer union, deriving constitution, neither created by, dependent upon, nor controllable states"); J. Kent, American Law 228, (3d 1836) ("the objections [on are] palpable weighty admit discussion"); McCrary, 322 (4th 1897) ("It competent manner office, laws States"); T. Cooley, Principles 268 (2d 1891) ("The offices, away them"); C. Burdick, 160 (1922) clearly intention disqualified instrument Representative"); 165 Senators Representatives"); 422 elimination fix left qualifications").14 judicial decisions commentary indicates obstacles confronting formidable indeed. 40 prohibition state-added place choices make. disagree independent powers" Amendment. 41 "plan convention" illuminated Amendment, newly Government retained pre-existing sovereign Marshall explained, "it proper define These proceed, America, States; remain, before, far abridged instrument." Sturges Crowninshield, Wheat. 122, 193, 529 (1819). classic Hamilton's reasoning plan contemplate "[a]n entire consolidation complete sovereignty," partial governments retain before had, act, exclusively delegated States." 32, 198. unambiguously confirms 43 prohibited respectively, people." frequently noted, unquestionably authority. They so, extent divested transferred Government." Garcia San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 549, 105 1005, 1016-17, 83 1016 (1985) citation omitted) added); 505 112 2408, 2417-18, 120 (1992). SOURCE OF THE POWER 45 Contrary assertions, misconceives nature could "reserve" existed before. recognized, whatsoever, spring out delegate No say, reserved, never possessed." 627. 46 Story's position echoes McCulloch Maryland, 316, 579 McCulloch, silence subject tax corporations chartered implies "reserved" instrumentalities. pointed out, tax" entities "never existed, surrendered, arise." 430. Crandall Nevada, Wall. 35, 46, 745 (1868). language presaged argument, concluded: "This deprive resources originally Wheat., 436.15 47 setting ratified. overlooks revolutionary character conceived. joined together Articles Confederation. system, sovereignty, like nations bound treaties." Wesberry Sanders, 376 9, 84 526, 531, (1964). convened, with, eventually variation of, amend Confederation create entirely Executive, Judiciary, Legislature." 10, 531. adopting plan, envisioned rejecting notion Nation collection direct link FERC Mississippi, 456 742, 791, 102 2126, 2154, 72 532 (1982) (O'CONNOR, part) permitt[ed] contact citizen"). Government, owe primary allegiance Nation. observed, states. Those officers functions united voice whole, portion, much union President. "have just right, more, prescribe representative, president. prerogative appoint senator, president union." Ibid.16 48 believe reflects agreement approach later articulated Story. "Each Members." gives final say judging State. reason, dissent falters Georgia Massachusetts select Congress." Post, 49 sections vision. consistent view, salaries "be ascertained Law, paid Treasury States," salary reflect governing surely coincidence context areas requires action namely Times, thereof." duty parallels appoint, thereof direct, Number Electors." II., delegations act elections.17 50 previous recognition contexts, incidents "[w]hile, loose sense, vote sometimes spoken derived states, authorized legislate provided I." Classic, 313 299, 315, 61 1031, 85 1368 (1941). Cf. Hawke Smith, 253 221, 495, 64 871 (1920) ("[T]he ratify proposed derives alike assented"). 51 short, electing itself. basis Instead, derive sovereignty. delegation exist. PRECLUSION STATE 52 believed system" preclude 53 Much undertaken supra, There pertains directly though extensive leads unavoidably Ratification 54 available affirmative role Paper dealing addressed "qualifications elected." 325. difficulty achieving electors, resulted decision electors. "must satisfactory comfortable standard established, itself." then explicitly contrasted elected: 55 carefully constitutions, time uniformity, convention. twenty-five years; citizen must, inhabitant represent; Under limitations, faith." Ibid.18 idea 57: "Who objects choice? Every whose recommend esteem confidence country. birth, faith, civil permitted fetter disappoint inclination 57, added). 58 confirm feared interests undermine Legislature, minimize possibility interference elections. prevent discrimination differentiate "would rendered alone." giving freedom Elections," safeguard "by make Regulations." overriding potential Manner" "[i]t impossible foresee abuses discretionary power." 240. "that returns elections." 241. When Charles Pinckney Rutledge moved strike safeguard, motion soundly defeated. 240-241. "Nothing evident hands legislatures, Union mercy." 59, 363. ibid. (one justification "[i]f humor presume power, fair government").19 59 discussion reveals similar concerns. raised, compensation otherwise dependence." 216. George Mason agreed, parsimony reduce low fit willing serve." 60 reopened, Nathaniel Gorham stated "wished refer matter Legislatures always paring keep offices executing 372. Edmund Randolph pay Nat[ional] dependence vitiate System." Rufus King "urged danger ibid., "[t]hose masters paid," 373. compensation. 6.20 light try Indeed, anomalous consequences accepts supremacy procedural aspects determining times, places, carte blanche 62 nevertheless contends distrust help choices. post, concedes, ____, concerned simply hold gave regulations. Yet dissent's approach, achieve exactly sufficiently high meet inconceivable ensure render meaningless ensuring qualified Given wariness abuse, specification rules States.21 63 vests tribunal ultimate Member's fully altered qualifications—such property, educational, professional qualifications—for representatives, eligibility. Murdock Memphis, 590, 429 (1875), generally answered finally tribunals depend "should everywhere" "their uniform." 632. normally assigned tribunals. 636. law. compelling assertion "rotation," major controversy. draft contained rotation.22 echo Arkansas' opponents condemned rotation requirement, "there doubt senators will perpetually; situation, necessity lose dependence, attachments people."23 propo nents "abandonment instance office."24 conventions, partici pants amendments rotation.25 Federalists' responses criticisms proposals merits arguing incompatible people's choose. above, argued: 66 rights. absurd species ostracism." 67 representatives' need mandatory effective way responsive "[w]hen man knows quit station, let may, turn chiefly emolument." 320.26 68 Regardless side better rotation, nowhere proponent opponent permit citizens. participants Federalists pro-rotation forces. freewheeling suggestion common lacked power. 69 assumed assumption powerful rebuttal advanced. failure intelligent experienced advocates utilize unsound, denied States.27 Experience 70 consensus area. examined confronted faced William McCreery, Maryland allegedly satisfy requirement recommending McCreery seated, Report proceeded examine relation therein determined, reserving diminish instrument, constituted it, obliged decide agreeably rules. .' 1975 (1807) added).28 elaborated debate: unalterably unless changed equal framed first; 542-543, 74 recommendation tended focus "narrow standing Constitution," 1975. report, simple resolution: "Resolved, entitled House." 1238 18. 75 Debate apparently seating confirmation letter Joseph Cabell, Thomas Jefferson alteration detract them"; added: "And think case; Baltimore." Letter Jan. 31, 1814 Writings 82 Lipscomb 1904). 150 expression referring commentator "By case, [and another contested election], seems settled members, different from, constitution." Cases Contested 171 Clarke D. Hall eds. 1834) original). Other incident similarly. Paschal, (1876) rightfully States") 323 stating "A requiring reside town country void"); Sutherland, Notes (1904) "[t]his clause fixes concerned, state"); "limitations effective"). Finally, House's acknowledgment fixed. 77 supports conclusions. 1887, seated Faulkner West Virginia, despite Virginia purported serve. Privileges unanimously "no S.Rep. 50th Cong., 1st Sess., (1887). Rules Administration reached Pierre Salinger, California. 1381, 88th 2d exclusive, cannot, statutory enlarge qualifications"). 78 recognize, "congressional practice erratic"29 precedential value "quite limited." 545-546, 1976-77. Nevertheless, lend reach today. vindicates democracy" 1977 80 earlier, ideal—that merit—provided foundation structure. theme throughout debates. 81 351. hoping persuade ratified, Stevens, "[N]o yet world, affords ample field, individuals ranks, display talents abilities. real merit, situation will, despair." Bailyn 487, 492. And Timothy Pickering "while indispensable throws wide entrance enjoys fellow citizens." Tillinghast (Dec. 24, 1787), 289, 290 original).30 Additional pose obstacle source. ideal, valued Framers, compromised degree congressionally Powell: aspect wish. Again, little moment assessing qualification's impact. restrictions, unlike third central belongs From start, "great radical vice" LEGISLATION STATES GOVERNMENTS, CORPORATE COLLECTIVE CAPACITIES, contradistinguished INDIVIDUALS consist." 15, (Hamilton). Thus contribution, conceived responsible directly, implemented ideal provision, extant beginning Republic, calls "chosen Year People 1. Following 17th 1913, extended therefore, confederation sovereigns delegates, composed then, emphatically, truly, substance emanates Its exercised benefit." 404-405.31 Ours "government A. Lincoln, Gettysburg Address (1863). deemed large, represented." original) (footnote Read "were forming Nati[ona]l Gov[ernmen]t regulation correspond (Emphasis original.) "enforced consideration." 86 Consistent views, treasury, elections, maintains strict checks process. judged creates 87 undermining sought ensure. 428-429 (1819) ("Those means constituents legislature, all, benefit all—and theory subjected all"). sever States.32 Practice 88 overcome demonstrates One reliable indicator contours upheld sort. unpersuasive "[a]lmost Constitutions considerable property." 416-417.33 near be, inter alia, "freeholder." 1788 Va.Acts, ch. 2.34 Just qualifica tion, replaced "qualified according 1813 23, Hampshire, Georgia, Delaware, South Carolina, revised around Constitutions, repr esentatives.35 contemporaneous similar. widely supported circumstances. limits.36 Congress.37 officers,38 four delegates Continental Congress,39 voiced Congress.40 widespread support, representatives. assessment States.41 90 read supplement IV 91 qualification, Holding reject contentions. 92 Unlike §§ bars long-term running ballot. contend legal impermissible 93 definition 714 (1974), California Code affiliated obtain win independents timely filing nomination papers signed 5% cast last election. recent affiliation year. Storer, challenged "wholly merit." 746, 16, 1287, 16. nominated adequately petition election." secure substantial community support." F.2d, 1531; Hopfmann Connolly, 746 97, 103 (CA1 1984), vacated grounds, 471 459, 2106, (1985). maintain qualification. correct because, stand. often '[c]onstitutional indirectly denied.' Harman Forssenius, 380 1177, 1185, (1965), Smith Allwright, 321 649, 664, 757, 765, 987 (1944). "nullifies sophisticated simple-minded modes" infringing protections. Lane Wilson, 307 268, 275, 872, 876, 1281 (1939); 1185. 96 accomplish accomplishing directly. "effort dress stand clothing," "intent 357.42 accept law: authoritatively informed forbidden seriously contended behind explicitly: "[T]he Sections served. hint purpose. 97 do, contest practical bar. campaign victory, entrenched incumbent. reasonably contention.43 advised nothing glimmer win.44 slight chance victory.45 ers occasionally candidates, denying significantly barred avowed evading suggest spent energy debating crafting easily evaded. More "dress[ing] clothing" underlie treats embodiment grand principle, empty formalism. guaranties embedded manipulated existence.' Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 345, 125, 129, 110 (1960), Frost Trucking Co. Railroad Comm'n California, 271 583, 594, 605, 607, 1101 (1926). 98 regulates "Manner" (the Clause) elections.46 agree. 99 73. Smiley Holm, 285 355, 366-367, 397, 399, 795 (1932) regulations substitute own"). unfathomable. above clear, lead inevitably self-aggrandizement upsetting delicate balance. ____-____, supra. us believe, circumscribed allow formulating Clause. refuse interpretation cavalierly disregard safeguard. regulations, During illustrated covered "[w]hether viva voce, assemble place; divided districts place, sh[oul]d representatives; allotted district." enables how elect—whether vote, way." (Steele North Carolina ratifying convention) original).47 101 point override distinguished restricted suggests, outcomes, disfavor restraints. interpreting enact numerous procedure safeguards order enforce involved." 366, 399. However, time, justify, abridgement rights." Tashjian Connecticut, 479 208, 217, 107 544, 550, (1986). "generally applicable evenhanded reliability Anderson Celebrezze, 460 780, 788, 1564, 1570, 547 (1983). reliance, validity Election Code. doing, interest orderly, fair, honest "rather chaos." 1279. "States' strong maintaining preventing interparty raiding," 731, explained "expressive policy aimed routes ballot," 1281. avoiding "voter confusion, overcrowding, presence frivolous candidacies," Munro Socialist Workers Party, 194-195, 533, 537, 499 (1986), "seeking assure operated equitably efficiently," Burdick Takushi, 504 433, 2063, "guard[ing] irregularity error tabulation votes," Roudebush Hartke, 405 25, 804, 810, (1972). 'fair sort order, chaos, accompan[ies] processes.' arguably rendering position. protecting process, involve measures reference candidates' upholding contention twin goals disadvantaging dictates Clauses.48 understand thesis, State-passed dissent, instead, raises objections, suggesting "level playing field," Neither merit. irrelevant 45, strongly slim success, agreed. rest observations regarding candidates. beside point. wholly field." officials, federal, V 109 since formation cogent sides largely force Over half indirectly, notably President serve.49 restrict hand, infusion fresh ideas perspectives, decrease likelihood touch constituents. province longstanding debate. are, firmly framework. legislation rather—as changes process50—through constituencies, become, servants separate, occupy components designed, words Preamble 111 ordered. concurring. join 115 intricacy my asserted identity unity system. course construed disparage republican remarks explain why argumentation runs counter federalism. Federalism Nation's discovery. split atom genius capacities, protected incursion other. resulting unprecedented design, establishing orders relationship, privity, mutual obligations sustain governed it. recall origins, instruct 117 distinctive mark legitimacy, owes remembered essence theory. Jay insisted early Papers, comments preceded formed 118 "To purposes uniformly people; everywhere enjoying privileges, protection. 119 blessings induced period, institute preserve perpetuate almost soon existence. ." 38-39 Once continued guide operation practice. "derive[s] America," capacities" government," one. 39, 244, 245 404-405, (1819), said, Union, observe follows Ex parte Yarbrough, 651, 666, 152, 159, 274 (1884): "In ours, reposed 121 identities," takes care identities structures points organizing union. follow her residence. denies dual assert well, '[f]or formed, country.' Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 630, 1322, 1329, 600 (quoting Passenger Cases, How. 283, 492, 702 (1849) (Taney, dissenting); 43, (1868) constitute nation" deeply interested"). objected ratified acting capacities authori tative rejection idea: indeed legislatures. true, assembled States—and where else assembled? dreamer wild enough breaking lines compounding mass. Of consequence, account, cease themselves, governments." 403. 124 reinforced proposition, beyond dispute, objects, controlled collateral affirmed interfere powers. design 432. otherwise, sphere. 430 (where "usurpation give," "has surrendered" existed"). invade sphere incontestable, corollary boundaries intrudes matters Lopez, 1624, --- (1995). 125 balance, solicitous prerogatives province. uses size delegations, ensures grants (subject revision), II, Amdt. 12, President, Nothing citizens, selection legislatures capacity right. Addressing Yarbrough follows: Congress" "office alone. State." 663-664, 158. 1037-1038, (1941), ballots counted Constitution" "is states." 126 flows reality citizenship privileges immunities passage Fourteenth Nevada call "any aid service, courts, departments, offices," "this pleasure territory pass services rendered." Wall., 43. Immunities again Cruikshank, 552, 588 (1876), peaceably petitioning redress grievances, thing connected attribute such, protection guaranteed form, consultation public affairs grievances." Hague Industrial Organization, 496, 513, 954, 963, 1423 (1939) (opinion Roberts, Black, Hughes, C.J.) ("Citizenship carry discuss benefits, advantages, opportunities accrue therefrom"). 127 Slaughter-House 36, 78-80, (1873), careful suffices stem sources interpreted origins confined Referring dimension origin "But lest said considering excluded, venture character, laws." 79. Later citizenship. supra; Terral Burke Constr. Co., 529, 188, 352 (1922); Guest, 383 745, 1170, 239 (1966); (1969). seem formulation comparison expansive attributed 78; Hague, 520, 966 Stone, J.), flow virtue dispute. 128 Not incongruities advanced burden resident reason earlier successful selecting candidate, penalized future. Quite apart First con-c cerns, Williams Rhodes, 393 30, (1968); 786-788, 1568-1569, (1983), manner. 188-89; 629-631, 1329. "right[s] citizen[s] country, implied guarantees identified 'to share engage administering functions.' 44). observation serves illustrate (and derivative vote) belong maintained colleagues seeks surer control, enhanced here. effect) lacking force; acknowledge, efficacy legitimate source, enactments doubt, exists relationship interfere. enactment domain, exceeds djQ CHIEF JUSTICE, O'CONNOR, SCALIA join, dissenting. 130 ironic bases today's "choose ante, __,__,__,__,__. please" holds, (acting initiative) defends them" invalidating won nearly 60% votes carried 131 dissent. deprives seek silent question. silent, 132 misunderstands start principles. majority's suggestion, authorize so. 133 rests stems consent phrase way, imprecise something undifferentiated whole. 134 erected VII clear. took once gathered went "between same," VII; bind until words, "given composing nation, respectively belong." 243 Accord, Conventions 1876) Elliot) (remarks convention).1 135 surrendered hence accountable themselves). affirmatively deprived confers: Government's enumerated. creature source." Reid Covert, 354 5-6, 1222, 1225, 1148 (1957) (plurality opinion) 136 remainder powers—"[t]he 10—are specify obtains; up withhold default rules: implication—the lacks enjoy 137 enshrined declares "are phrase, avoids taking division States: exercise. level removes level. All 138 sure, people," pointless: level, recognize mechanism Likewise, nationwide President—surely figures —is accomplished college Presidential winning (providing secures votes, thrown Votes taken Vote"); (same). 139 undergirds erase boundaries, tracks obviously trust fate consented Constitution; empower governmental institutions refused ratify. three-quarters States). identities. put "[n]o mass." 403, (1819).2 ambiguity Amendment's people" cleared begins providing "[a]ll Powers granted," goes give enumeration concludes enumerating import Amendment: invalidate measures. B disagrees bears burden. unpersuasive. 142 announcing enormous untenable limitation According majority, enjoyed adopted; "could 'reserve' before." Ante, previously Constitution,3 rule precisely opposite actually prescribes: Story, 1858)). 143 logic drafted. doing reserving. incoherent reserve controlled. 144 word someone says facility group, saying anything group used facility. designated entity similar: stem, 145 quite wrong unknown frustrates apparent phrase. pre-empt done amending remove Bill Rights effort defend position, (1985), indicate covers [state] sovereignty." dealt curtail asked statute appears nonetheless invades inquire "traditional Cities Usery, 426 833, 841, 849, 2465, 2469, 2473, (1976); raised authorize, forbid. answer face: action. 147 misplaced. "expressly" outside reservation; prohibitions arise implication.4 True indicated (whether implication) "leav[es] question, other, [Constitution]." 406. qualify indicating turned framing. seemed assume "conferred residuum 410. 148 McCulloch's refutes Bank entrusted Marshall's began incorporating Bank. 400-425. Maryland's statute. 425-437. relied principally concepts inherent Supremacy VI, Laws Pursuance thereof, supreme Land. "delegated "retard, impede, burden, operations enacted [that power] execution." 436. taxation Bank's "incompatible repugnant to," 425. 149 past years, operations. Osborn 738, 859-868, 204 (1824) (reaffirming impliedly pre-empted attempting operations); Louisiana, 451 725, 2114, 2129, 576 (1981) conflict statutes); Dakota 495 423, 434, 1986, 1994, 420 (1990) "regulate discriminate it").5 adopted, instrumentalities created. irrelevant; category anyway.6 comes 1833 treatise 623-628. brilliant man, casually dismiss views. generation, written century Rather range federal/state relation, moreover, positions commentaries nationalist warrants. Compare, 1063-1069 (arguing Commerce commerce reach) Cooley Board Wardens Port Philadelphia Society Relief Distressed Pilots, 996 (1852) (holding exclusive). Life Letters 296 (W. 1851) (extract manuscript Story) ("I maxim, lost sight statesman, intrinsically weak, Governments strong"). framing conflicts plain 151 sketches alternative narrower) Again suggests inconsis tent "national sovereignty" __,__. reaches steps. asserts institution "owe Nation." constituency scheme 152 Political scientists commands "primary allegiance" Washington. present, (originally thereof"); (amending "elected thereof"). "congress" coming entities.7 keeping complexity next indisputably abstract 153 (so law) choosing federally hardly constitutes authority." pick corporate agents Green, 377, 379, 586, 951 (1890) ("Although [Presidential] senators, Congress"). protests area "state representatives." strips abstractions, inject 154 surprising pointing Americans "citizens States" "of wherein reside," XIV, (particularly Amendment) itself," facts "beyond dispute," __, contradict said. Although Nation, although citizenry; indeed, (such referendum) politics, remains meaningful Massachusetts. unaware tries 155 expected "direct link" State; arrangement baffle majority,8 comfortably identity. result, absolutely strange 156 "shall receive Compensation Services, draw extend stage. compensation, topic "left legislatures." __; accord, 215-216 Mason); *. still salary. convention). 157 "respectively," State: minimum-wage Vermont. decree alone, Florida. none 158 fact, treatment actively contradicts (as concerned) electors—the selects chooses chief executive. respondents dispute college, muster (primarily Amendments). 9-10, McPherson Blacker, 27-36, 7-11, 869 (1892). power,9 incorrect, elector "'spring[s] government.' 159 deny argues, superfluous provision—the 4—even suggestion. reads: 161 thereof; Regulations, chusing Senators." 162 assumption, imposes gets right: "shall" details "expressly command meshes power: continues reporter summarized speech convention: 163 "[E]very imperfect, preserving Suppose accident, neglect certainly remedy evil. paragraph was, law, dissolution Union. [Jay] Convention." 326 original).10 164 duty. contrasting "may" confirm, exist able elections; deletion mentions 2: Electors, event obligation bare-bones coordinate creation college. mentioned uncontested 166 Thornton buttress Electors requisite Branch 168 Thornton, "grants [voters]" Brief Congressman Ray 4. anything, enjoy. restricting 169 treated one-way ratchet: voting onerous 225-229, 554-556, 170 Purporting 73—those Senate—should reelection, nonethe returned enthusiastic candidacy write names. Whatever wisdom arrangement, settles Clauses" violates. unstated unnecessary me identify ballot-access fixing "qualifications" Part below, straightforward recitations minimum thought meet. abolishing 172 turns animated us: members. B, contributed prove C, evidence. bear affirma tively unwillingness hidden surviving side. postratification disqualifications laws. justify inadequate warrant mean say. 174 known 3. 177 "Ineligibility Clause" office: Office Continuance Office." 178 "negative phrasing" relevance. referred Style: 179 "Every least; election; 565. 180 567 (same phrasing Clause). formulations—whether negative affirmative—merely formulation, following: 181 shall, Representative." 182 face, prohibit 183 list "[f]rom affirmation imply others." 624 (1833); 9. maxim expressio unius est exclusio alterius. decide, requirements. 184 spell expose weakness. content ordinary application account most, negation disqualifications; state-by-state basis. approaching recital qualification-setting Dickinson); cf. 27. 185 send immature, disloyal, unknowledgeable jeopardize wields guarantee standards competence. guarantee: competence Legislature.11 186 frustrate Anyone possesses plus Accordingly, specifies 187 legitimately complain 6-year-old freshman hard scrutiny Amendments. inhabitancy 188 buttressed reluctance implication. counsels hesitation. brief Cipollone Liggett Group, Inc., 2608, 2618, 407 (STEVENS, J.) (applying inclusion pre-emption pre-empted); Hall, 440 410, 425, 1182, 1190, 416 (1979) (suggesting "caution Framers"). Many ("[The President] Power, Advice Consent Treaties") 8, Power [t]o coin Money") ("No enter Treaty" Money"); (explicitly declaring Constitution). lightly deprivations Barron Tiernan Mayor Baltimore, Pet. 243, 249, 672 (1833).12 189 responds qualifications" "undermin[e] ensure." character" explains permits state-centered 190 uniform, contradict. framing, thereafter, varied possible B. 191 background. criteria. Kettner, Development Citizenship, 1608-1870, 213-218 (1978). "establish Rule Naturalization continue acted. 196, empowers "uniform Bankruptcies").13 meant things contested-election would-be illustrates principle. told colleagues, "I point, guided, us; us, guided nature. (reporting proceedings 1789). 192 chose route naturalization, durational element ensured variances matter. 1794 Albert Gallatin owing peculiarities years. 859-862, 867 February 28, 1794). 193 nonuniform below mandate "uniformity qualifications." 356 omit exclusivity focus. refute Jefferson's elegant analysis: 194 "Had nobody belonged others. preferred middle way. part, disqualifications. declare, lunatic, pauper, convict treason, murder, felony, infamous crime, non-resident district; these, circumstances for; tenth Cabell (Jan. 1814), 82-83 1904).14 195 finds infers "democratic modest (1) want (2) forth. logical constrained sweepi ng show contain provision. incapacity grant, act. deciding analysis. claims explanation scope "[e]ach [of Congress] recognizes, [in ] power—not away. Compare 519, 1963 (describing "what 5") 536, 1971-72 task "determining __ "limit Buckley Valeo, 424 133, 612, 689, 659 (1976) (taking ). 198 summarizing large quantity material bearing Judge" 521-531, 1963-1969, stress day precursor 5. 533-536, 1970-1972. empowering "Judge." followed claims, rested ).15 199 wanted ilk 250; 10. labor calculus 200 particular, impact." world difference self-imposed constraint above. 201 enabled collectively episode 18th-century problems result. mentions, Wilkes's repeatedly Commons, events fettering (for Representatives) Senate). 202 occupants selected identifies days amended Senators, field consider appointment.16 forbid Representatives. invocation repeal (despite 20-point margin ago), vote. 7. 203 inherently undemocratic. view; scheme. described officials" lies heart government." Gregory Ashcroft, 501 452, 463, 2395, 2402, 410 (1991) (refusing retirement periodic retention elections). Washington encompasses electorate's choose, [is] all." personal elected" elect. rationale, primary. (1974); Bullock Carter, 134, 142-143, 855-56, (1972) (rejecting vote). concedes "egalitarian concept" 11; 205 (deriving ideal" unduly 'fetter people' 351)). violated, former. 206 "[u]nder [set Clause], description. stresses assertion, effect, concept." __,__, 30. interpret statements relatively office.17 proclaiming inability Senators. responding undemocratic aristocracies (referring well-born"). withdrew desired. 207 parcel winnow. Hills, Defense Limits Terms, U.Pitt.L.Rev. 107-109 (1991). 208 appreciate useful Seventeenth 1913. offers prospective carrying responsibility; barring passing choices, inferring prohibition. Imagine worst-case scenario: wishing punish bill, enacts satisfy. term; 6-year terms, removed two-thirds expel him, reappointment, discretion reappointment anyway. Instead around. legislature's added 209 easier voters, contexts. virtually Senator, Representative. suddenly acquired adopted. Now charged 210 go further, (if desire) authorizing behalf. withdraw Framing Civil War, abridging press, freedoms connection supporters disfavored persecute beliefs expropriate odd statutes. 211 uphold legislature; inserted constitution. undergird directed attacking themselves. 212 "untenable" "astonishing." 19. drew distinction: saw precluded agreeing initiative assumes strain locate instead: plausibly entrusting acknowledges justifies intermediate C 214 principles, intend supplementation focuses realizes 215 detail recites obscure __,__,__, exclusive," laws.18 clause, sort—simply Considered context, farther. dispels impression. 10; 1970-71. 216 quotes. wrote [for restating "forms legislature" remark Congressmen "fixed legislature." knew franchise. quotes 1967-68 (1769)); marginal relevance: America—that not—is important. event, parliamentary country's (unwritten) "fixed" "occasional" "exclude members-elect 1968. rule, sitting members' administer "one disability law." Plucknett, Taswell-Langmead's 585 (11th 1960); INS Chadha, 462 919, 2764, 317 (which grounds member-elect), solidity supporting highlights weakness 218 shed tend hurt Detail, five-member crucial drafting months work. document Max early, committee's work" survived Mason. xxiii, 36. handwriting Randolph, Committee, emendations hand Rutledge, Committee. Professor item checked off crossed showing preparation drafts." 137, 6; Meigs, Growth I-IX (1900) facsimile document). 219 outline parts, "House Delegates" Delegates least. citizenship: possessing [blank space]." drafter(s) contemplated insert exceptions deleting "except"—as deleted colon out. 220 speculates superfluous. 27.19 141. deliberate distinguish former 221 reflected "senators, am prepared explanation: constricting explanation, acknowledge mere surplusage. draft—"the senator least: states: amount space]," 141—did connotation exclusivity. odds 222 Unable glean helps signs provisions. ___ 1). reading infer However wary permitting letting (Madison) ("it [electoral-qualification] 223 cited cites "ascertained Like seen Legislature. 373 Madison), recurring themes parsimonious incapable 224 stresses, leaving dependence" Madison); presumably "Vote slash your salary"; approximate recall, salary, assembled. initial raise concerns: coherent 21, address all. 225 mention Elector-Qualifications electors." __.20 concomitant famous decisions. Taken 2—including elector-qualifications implements decision. (that participate legislature). 226 Third, emphasizes __,__,__. recorded England's Parliament. 18, "provide eligibility." 227 My "Qualifications," back encompass own. 740, (1993) (dictum) (asserting "set 2"). interest. plausible sure interests. 228 "Qualifications" determines valid, look "Elections" "Returns" "Qualifications." 229 generally, "federal tribunals" "judging exhaust decide. assign jurisdiction "all Treaties Authority." jurisdictional level; 1875 "revolutionized judiciary" suits Bator, Meltzer, Mishkin, Shapiro, Hart Wechsler's System 962 1988). By contrast, founding generation implement diversity jurisdiction, Judiciary Act 1789, Stat. 78, 92; Erie Tompkins, 304 64, 77-80, 817, 822-823, 1188 (1938). 230 fourth [congressional] procedure, 231 trusted reason" enable place. Tr. Oral Arg. 51; came existence; advance interest, date mechanics proposition. (acknowledging "particularly concerned" qualifications). coordination function rudimentary instance, times "such intervals elapse sufficient Documentary 920 Kaminski Saladino 1990). Congress[,] urgent business session necessary." 535 McKean Pennsylvania (defending ground "held corruption undue influence"). desire 233 undermines bizarre supervisory elector, ("no Representative, Trust Profit Elector"), implicitly requirements; leaves set. Time Electors. unwarranted divergence I's II's Properly understood, II. authorizes 235 avoid. powerless 236 nullify proscribes concede added)); ("if Vacancies Resignation, Recess Executive temporary Appointments Meeting Vacancies"). House. ."); ("When vacancies Authority Writs 237 (on power) proscription enforcement relegated Branch, adopts view. Both theoretically conceivable defy erecting Whether reads power; believes 238 unusual using guard everyone defied anyone. destroy expedient refusing Congress.21 flaws deeper. premise, holds afterwards purports winner condition, disqualification. "[q]ualifications" responsibility treat nullity. defiance, 240 refusal. manner.22 241 discussing data. pieces all—literally. devotes space void "compelling" "unquestionably reasons attacked failing rotate office.23 blunted attacks 242 cuts ways. debated, existing America seize ratification. suspect, fragmentary. Jensen 1978), spotty others, ibid.; 34-35; 342; Hutson, Creation Constitution: Integrity Record, Texas L.Rev. 21-23 244 side, piece period 52. essay talk "explicitly" otherwise. contrasts franchise continued, uniformity" 326, prescribes congressmen. That, 246 elected"—a Congress—"less properly" voters. rebuking sketchiest wrote, Congress.24 Four term-limits tracked Confederation,25 salaried Congress.26 Congress.27 "less competence: essential. readily incorporate Constitution.28 247 wonder opposed Congress). criticism barriers. considerably higher corresponding force. house upper N.H. Const. 1784, Pt. Thorpe 2460; S.C. 1778, XII, 3250. naturalized aliens seats becoming 214-219. 248 Framing, 249 inference. observes, legislators. evidently legislators, Test Qualification context29 offices. extending know "public direction position: types permissible. Rotunda, Rethinking Legislators Light Structure Ore.L.Rev. 561, 574 250 Michigan district-by-district State" Conceding ambiguous score, "where views entertained, construction[s] greatest weight." 27, district-based processes participated presidential 1788, 1792, 1796. 29-31, 8-9. acknowledging "most ticket "decisive" proof method. 11. doubts exposition obstinate shaken. 251 Here commonly Five laws, 252 Virginia's contingent (Nov. 20, 1788), Docmen tary 1788-1790, 293, (G. DenBoer 1984) Elections) (restricting "freeholder[s]"). What inhabitants elections30 Three insisting resided year (or, years) elected.31 neutralize focused, Respondents 20. false. 254 Massachusetts, report methods. article residents Joint 481. Centinel 1788) proceedings), 489. "considerable debate," version 72. 502, 504. 255 record objection letter, Ed ward Carrington (an requirement) "may exceed Assembly," acknowledged prospect out" Anti-Federalists professed "think right." 367 (letter Madison, 1788). colleagues: delete 287, 293.32 256 informative, enacted.33 Out poor inferences implications requirement.34 restrictions," analog requirements." 41. fails success supplementing statewide deems 258 thereafter Tennessee). then. 259 schemes Georgia. divide districts, district. 1789), 456, 457; 136, 138. "necessary analog" anything; sake. 260 alludes Hampshire Protestants places "civil department." 41, 35. "Article VI legislators." tends 261 increasingly grounds. advantages substantially fewer turnover naturally high. perceived smaller disadvantages great: prevented good Wood, 1776-1787, 439 262 Confederation, 1776, Form XXVII (echoing V), 1695; (same), 2467; N.C. XXXVII (similar), 2793, minor Articles, Pa. Frame 11, 3085. "many officers," 1790. 3084, 1790, 3092-3103; Va. (perhaps legislature), 3816. likely, policy-based restrictions. 263 counters conventions—in York, "proposed rotation." 40. (North Carolina) ("[N]o fifteen years"); 660 (Virginia) (similar). "voiced Congress," __,35 majority's: (because own), 31.36 264 33, shortly host explanations relative liberality laws.37 practice—which bit 11—refutes 265 majority: controversies failed 266 'congressional erratic' relevance 545, 1976). Actions 1887 Presumably puts emphasis McCreery. transpired reported McCormack. discussion—both misleading. 267 dating 1802 Baltimore County City. Ninth summer estate residence Washington, D.C., longer City notes, recommended (1807); submission sparked heated spanned days, speeches 871-919, 927-947 1807). recommit Elections. 950 19, thereupon references issued focused factual satisfied requirement. 1059-1061 7, receiving saying: 1237 majorities, Maryland," "duly qualified, 1231. Far 10th Constitution.38 269 needs that. enforces 270 votes. stop negating Representatives.39 mentally incompetent, Fla.Stat. 97.041(2), 99.021(1)(a) (1991), currently prison, Ill.Comp.Stat.Ann., 5/3-5, 5/7-10, 5/10-5 (1993 Supp.1995), vote-fraud convictions, Ga.Code Ann. 21-2-2(25), 21-2-8 Supp.1994). R.I.Gen.Laws 17-14-1.2 (1988) vote"). bulk dissent—addresses "genuine, unadulterated, undiluted limits." Ore.L.Rev., 570. kind 53-54; reelected, reelection. 272 difference. data Court" six century. data's accuracy "uncontested," affidavit science professor Fay swore "[m]ost candidacies waged fringe extremely identification." App. 201. Fay's knowledge, modern Dale Alford entered 51% 1958; 1960, landslide 83% 201-202. Philip Philbin who—despite losing spot ballot—won 27% unsuccessful candidacy. 203. Fay, results—coupled examples campaigns, Ross Perot's victory Dakota's 1992 primary—"demonstrate well-known well-funded, 273 qualification" "simply today." which, Clauses—never conclusion. actual binding determination notes court" win." below. concurred plurality's "as matter, comment concession hopeless; disadvantage." 276, (Dudley, part). "distinct[ly]" worse absence—an unassailable conceded. 275 posture irregular gone Disputed elsewhere, entry judgment. Ark.Rule Civ.Proc. 56.40 disclaims court's finding 44. 276 intent" "[w]e 277 mistaken expectations alleged us. flatly "disqualify" important, findings 278 "evading Clauses." "avowed purpose" 73). preamble, speaks "limit[ing] officeholders. refers effects drafters restoration competition races. infra, inquiries usual unified consists 825,162 thinks goal incumbents." summary-judgment stage, short shrift claim. intentionally handicaps decreases chances. fact) "prevent" service. artificially inflated chances challengers compete 280 Current (enacted, incumbents) incumbents, "significantly difficult" defeat building home districts. U.S.C. 3210 (permitting "franked" mail charge); 61-1, 72a, 332 sizable taxpayer-funded staffs); 123b (establishing Recording Studio Photographic Studios).41 in-kind spending contribution campaigns "can disadvantage recognition." Amicus Curiae A-4 (statement 10-term Frenzel, 441a). observers campaign-finance "enormous fund-raising edge" financing incentives curry Wertheimer Manes, Campaign Finance Reform: Key Restoring Health Democracy, Colum.L.Rev. 1126, 1133 internal premium seniority, plentiful distribute benefits increase length tenure. manner, effectively "fines" U.Pitt.L.Rev., 144-145. 281 Cynics accident this. Frenzel it: devise institutional systems A-3. 1971 1989 laws), "changed lessen re-election improve challengers." 282 astonishingly rates. Lloyd Cutler 1989, "over weighted average ninety percent ran Presidency Cutler, Good Men Wm. Mary 387, (1989); Kristol, Limitations: Breaking Up Iron Triangle, Harv.J.L. Pub.Policy 95, 100th died polls). 1994 effected sweeping memory, successful, losers completing Reply defeated, earlier. 283 contests truly fair—that thumb scale. belief. portray offset 284 rough approximate; forcing well-funded campaign. base trying balance all; stand." advantage counterbalances me, possibilities. Either (assuming claims) 286 unbridled handicap threaten skew traditionally Amendments 728-736, 1278-1282 (undertaking lengthy severed ties preceding election) (dismissing merit" Clauses). Term-limit survive difficulty. Moore McCartney, 425 946, 1689, Maloney W.Va. S.E.2d 607 (1976), officeholders 287 analyze vistas courts. finance stacked choices," 1133, 1974 (of things) Clauses? (upholding challenge). shown nonminorities dominated minority intentional "majority-minority districts" Amendment? Shaw Reno, 2816, 2828, 511 ("we [the districts] rise claim"); 2837 dissenting) "sole helping blacks groups "[d]istrict rarely neutral phenomena" "districting consequences," Gaffney Cummings, 412 735, 753, 2321, 2331, 298 (1973), challenges greet redistricting decision? 754, 2332 Equal Protection "attemp[t] extirpating politics essentially Burns Richardson, 384 89, 1286, 1294, (1966) (finding invidious them). 288 far, principled stopping narrowly construed, inference represent, period. Rather, respectfully syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 321, 337, 282, 499. severable enacting clause. Cert. 60a. severability, 270, 359 reversed 263, 355. describe quoted, ____: impeachment proceeding 'any honor, States'; 'no Office'; 14th disqualifies 'who, insurrection rebellion same, comfort enemies thereof.' Guarantee 'qualification' 2." 1963, "qualifications," "both provisions." today: part: Members, Majority Quorum business. Stewart dismissed moot. 559-561, 1983-1985. expressing characterization raising 'touch bedrock [and] government,' 573, 1991, merits. ISSUE IN POWELL "exclude" depriving expulsion exclusion. Having submission, sworn seated. rationale Senate: "Since cl Houses Senate's identical exception, Senate." 44, 1964, HISTORY "Madison's caused 1972 Style, edited form," alterations purport so"), Warren, Making 422, (1947) Warren); 553 Style revise stile arrange articles to"). Dickinson Delaware implication tie supplying omissions." 123. point: "It plainest interpretation, prerequisites. 625 1858) Story). 421 ("As residence, general, alterius apply"). Dickinson's demonstrates, aware wording Clauses; nonetheless. articulate post completely reposing self-perpetuating detriment republic. (" 'If elected], elect' "); 534-535, 1970 emphasizing abuse). did, THOMAS's outcome "default rule" power—that it." excerpt quoted plainly effectuate absolute. unyielding wrongly decided. dormant jurisprudence, discriminates interstate commerce. THOMAS Oklahoma Tax Lines, 1331, (1995) (SCALIA, consistently 1335-1336); Bendix Autolite Corp. Midwesco Enterprises, 888, 2218, 896 (1988). (1948), Wyoming performing 908 Wyo., 204-213, 869-874 cases). scholars. 412-422 (discussing recently, split, constitutional, Gorsuch Guzman, Will Gentlemen Please Yield? Constitutionality State-Imposed Limitation, Hofstra 341 (1991); Safranek, Do Winds Change Blow Unconstitutional?, Creighton (1993), Lowenstein, Are Constitutional?, (1994); Eid Kolbe, Anti-Federalism: Office, Denv.L.Rev. Comment, Limits: Unconstitutional Initiative, Wash.L.Rev. only, influential silence. jurisprudence eliminated, officers. novel implausible paragraph. analysis, sending incompetent Congress; opening widely. belies [were] uniformity." His doors kept Finally argues "Madison barriers," disagree. extensiveness neglects abundance religious, detail, "open door" "unduly high" barriers legislatures," themselves." ("These novelty expansiveness astonishing. argued. simply, untenable. fixed, reinforce surrounding fear influence representative. conduct understates distrust. unanimously, 217. occasion. 309-310 (N.Y., Smith). 287-288 Livingston) (Senators re-election, please. apt forget sympathy, contract selfish habits. associate class, strangers condition people"); 30-31 (Mass., Turner) ("Knowing arts, designing prone hearty wish for"); Kingsley) ("[W]e annual members; rulers masters, servants"); Samuel Bryan, "Centinel I," Independent Gazetteer (Phil., Oct. (B. 1990) Bailyn) ("as [Senators] life, influence, course"); Lee Turberville 477, ("Why truely mode Rulers mix Periods again—observed"); Mercy Otis Columbian Patriot" (Boston, Feb. 292 ("There perpetuity life. check overbearing insolence periods, keeps mind equilibrio, teaches feelings governed"). December 1787 Madison. 209, 211. 1814, private abandoned limits. "appears sound," note: "but, caution confident, doubtful differ purest motives; readily, differed ourselves 83. "himself entertain correctness." 14. 40, infra. argument: People. purposes, chusing; whenever executed Interest, agreeable wishes, Servants can, undoubtedly recalled." 305, 306-307. q ualifications provided: except)." parenthetical Randolph's tells assuming draft, belief—as Dickinson, supra—that inappropriate. ingenious comparable "elected" 179, somehow deleted, 5-6. 537-539, 73; revisit now. "Committee unanimous sentiments," "minority advocated respective 873 544-546, 1975-1977 examples). (it "improper disabilities title trust, honors rewards") (Dickinson); minds walk life superior tribute due belong, society general. all") (Hamilton); N. Webster, 17, ("Money requisite—the wisely suitable merit"). 226, 496-497, ordained became States"). ("We People") reprinted 926 adoption. proper, "Those 428-429. "immature, mature, loyal, knowledgeable making "reasonable Colonial Charters, Organic Territories, Colonies 3816 (F. 1909) Thorpe) (members freeholders); 2460, 2461 (New Hampshire) (freehold pounds senators; pounds, freehold, representatives); 1691, 1694 (Maryland) (real 500 Delegates; 1000 Senate); ____ 300 Senators; freehold ratable Representatives); 562 (Delaware) (state 2595 Jersey) (Members Legislative Council freeholders 1,000 pounds; Assembly pounds); 2631 York) 2790 (100 acres House; 779 (Georgia) (150 3251 (South 2,000 senate). statute, "these nugatory." 1803). qualification: "First, undoubted delegate, supply estate, interfere, saying, overbalance "Secondly; happen, respects incapacitated country." 2477, 2479 786 (200 3259 (500 slaves sterling 570, 571 old 3084; 3092-3093. Hampshire's 1784 1792 protestant religion." 2461-2462 (1784 Constitution); (1792 Carolina's clergyman, preacher gospel, denomination, State," God Protestant religion profit department ("of religion"); 3252 (must religion"), 785, 3258, respectively. 926, 927 years"). ("Res[olved] [blank] expiration service"). ten drafted 1776-1777 executives); Petitioner 1b—34b Constitutions). 1695-1697 (Maryland); 2467 Hampshire); 3085 (Pennsylvania); 2793 Carolina). "enjoin[ed] exert means, ratification." 329. "That twelve years." 330. representatives," 564, Declaration Rights," 558, Branches "should, return mass supplied regular direct," 559. language, 566, 250-251. Jersey Connecticut nominating unpersuaded. remarkably small. instances notable restraint, persuaded felons restraints moves indicative reemphasize credible relies seemingly larger delegations. 37. "pauper" proportionally greater concurrence: reassured style is: 1,300 candidate. 20,000 century, "glimme[r] disqualified." 357; 357 service"); ("That Lubin Panish, 709, 1315, realities 'access' via falls ballot." Id. 719, 1321, 5; 799, 26, 1575, (1983) [a write-in] adequate printed ballot"); 313, 1036-37, (1941) ("Even lawfully ballots, counted, choice voters"); 428, 437, 2059, 2065, ("If impermissibly burdened availability option remedy"). Republican," Courant (Hartford, 710, 713 choice"). Clements Fashing, 457 957, 2836, 508 petitioners. Clements, Texas' so-called "resign-to-run" official's declaration automatic resignation held. 972, 2848 ("Appellees partisan activity") deleted); 974, 2849, judgment) appellees generally"). resign-to-run Arizona, attributable (1983); Signorelli 637 853, 859 (CA2 1980) ("New York's candidate] seeks"). now-Chief Newman "plac[e] him." 858. (1951) (limiting Presidents terms). (1913) (direct Senators); (extending suffrage women); (Presidential limits); (1964) (prohibition poll taxes); (1971) (lowering 18). ringing Constitution—"We States"—convey (In plural noun. 8; 7; Amar, Sovereignty Federalism, Yale L.J. 1425, 1455 (1987) conclusions).) clearer. began: "We New-Hampshire, Rhode-Island Providence Plantations, New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, North-Carolina, South-Carolina, 565 Farrand). Scholars M. Farrand, 190-191 (1913). least, edits work seizes contradistinction Counsel suppose threw aggregate mass, profess establish." 363) (argument counsel). borrowing counsel's language. compact 363 acts themselves" confused 403; 404 operating body, (conceding point); also, (prescribing qualifications), 1695-1696 Thorpe); 2467. surprising, stressing continuing applicability prevailed Articles. sensible (1868), deviate McCulloch. Crandall, (observing "distinctly invalidity taxes interfered government"). surplusage 'does possessed,' encompassed 'original tax.' 436, 430). refuting "overwhelming invasion bank exempt taxes. 337-339 counsel) (stressing revenue" highest amounts exist"). taxation" "essential" constitutionally invade, counsel right," employed execution powers." respect, "original" Garcia: "privilege exempting taxation," invaded reasoned taxing proves follow, Johnson, Dictionary Language 1773) (defining meeting settlement nations: as, congress Cambray"); Sheridan, Complete (6th 1796) ("an nations; assembly governs America"). really "Judge" consented. directs state-law accepted. conceivably recognizes appoints 4—which Caleb Strong ("[I]f dissolved. gentlemen evil lodged somewhere? Congress?"); 400 1976) (notes Anthony Wayne ("4th section occasioned eventual invasion, insurrection, etc."); (Hamilton) checks, annihilate Government] neglecting affairs"). Clause's simultaneously mature experience. 375 Convention); McHenry Delegates). familiar influence. Mason). produce collectively, local knowledge (Madison). Ineligibility corruption. 381 Hamilton). direction. Lest protections evaded, quick Tribe, 6-25, 480 1988) hesitate statutes state-displacing weight lawmaking [v. states' interests"); 464, 2403, argument). naturalization lenient admitting Uniform Rule" logically deviating downward Collet Collet, Dall. 294, 296, 387 (CC Pa.1792) (Wilson, Blair, Peters, JJ.). 1795, 242-243 motives." 24; cautioned impugning motives "[o]f course" correctness. errs 12. dictum, 740. 07 punctuation "Qualif ications" term, 2," invention. occasion justiciable, impeachment) Oregon, pioneered uncomfortable principles." Noah Webster's America" (Oct. 1993) Bailyn)). Webster invoking calling newspaper York. Stevens following despair" "He distinguishes amongst neighbours township county meeting; sent theatre abilities displayed ascent becomes easy sure." "Americanus," Daily Advertiser, Dec. disqualifications, Without praising arose clause: expedient." 248-251; proposal—like drop "with property" "tel[l] whole." time. inaccurately "allowing arisen 326; avoided problem (through constitution) delegating reading; disagreed explaining why, model (regardless constitutions). impossibly announce disenfranchising disqualifying dropped portion Resolutions space] consecutive 214-217; 362 (opting instead). Subsequently, appeared proposed. Morris). cite omission women Nineteenth Twenty-fourth Twenty-sixth Ga. 1877, 2-602 (adopted Aug. 1943) (reducing decades proposed); 1184, (1965) proposed, "only requirement"); Research Service, America: Analysis Interpretation 1571 (1973) women's proposed). 50. 564; XXVII, Mass. 1780, Ch. IV, 1906; N.Y. 1777, XXX, 2634-2635; XXXVII, 2793; 3085; XXII, 3253; 3817. overlooked limitations" spelled description." 18; 57). mentioned" Legislatures, Officers, "Oath Affirmation" supposed Papers Boyd 1958) Jefferson, 1789) "resident[s] district"), (simple requirement), 138; 508, 509 Becker 1976); (requiring Resident Division Space Election"), 347; bona fide District"), 294. Upon admitted 1796, Tennessee Apr. (1803). friends harder 378-379 (R. Rutland Hobson 1977) advisers, warned White Madison: "Some you Districts, Residence District. undertake know, afford clamour, opposers inflame Minds happened." test overcame stiff Monroe). 41-24. 129-130 (summarizing jettison 39-28. 132-133 stipulated "b[e] hav[e] calendar [be] 1790 XVI, art. VIII. Shortly top vote-getter standing" district, commissioned." 459 (resolution Carolina—the opted residency—does sketchy, broached Assembly, assemblymen amid [to Constitution] unconstitutional." bill. 320. 36-12, 325-326 reconsidered (apparently attendance). evenly requirement: 328-335 broke 335. Still, Assembly. nonresidents 282-288. I—which States"—forbade 283. district-residency example correctly convention, proposing "Amendments "Declaration Rights" appended "Declaration" exhortation 243; 657-658. Declarations reelection], direct." 658. propose "[t]hat 329-330. fell deaf ears, Yorkers doubted constraints convention's sheds Property unnecessary. pauper XIII, 3; 122-seat Representatives), 3258. significant, largest delegation. (allocating Virginia). House] probably 56, 348 (Madison); supra Jr.). deterred shown, included 1814); 14, "honest men" throw results outweighed risk temporarily Alternatively, stay questions. Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 347, 466, 483, 688 (1936) (Brandeis, concurring). questioned disputed. 84. obliquely mistakenly gloss editors 1834. treatises, 1834)). inaccurate print. hazy recollection Going "pure" another. Colo. XVIII, 9a; Mich. Mo. 45(a); Mont. Ohio V, Ore. 20; 32; Utah 20A-10-301. Eight "ballot access" triggered multiple VII, Calif.Elec.Code 25003 (West Supp.1994); Fla. 4(b)(5), (6); N.D.Cent.Code 16.1-01-13.1 (Supp.1993); Okla. 12A; Wash.Rev.Code 29.68.015, 29.68.016 Wyo.Stat. 22-5-104 (Supp.1994). Alaska, Idaho, Maine, Nebraska, Nevada—enacted term-limit measures, bringing total Pear, B7, Col. inclined departed disputed foreclosed determination. "conduct searching findings." Hernandez 352, 369, 1859, 1871, opinion). state-court "clear error" standard. 372, 1873 judgment); 1877 (identifying review, erroneous). areas, deference factfinder, "exercise[s] judgment" conclusions drawn record. Bose Consumers 466 485, 501, 1949, 1959, 502 (1984) J.). Former describes prepare tapes messages voters." explains: "Taxpayers facilities, personnel production costs, costs distributing, (from expense accounts). disseminated broadcasters, air cost A-5 A-6.

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