Document: 478 U.S. 186 106 S.Ct. 2841 92 L.Ed.2d 140 Michael J. BOWERS, Attorney General of Georgia, Petitionerv.Michael HARDWICK, and John Mary Doe. No. 85-140. Argued March 31, 1986. Decided June 30, Rehearing Denied Sept. 11, See 1039, 107 29. Syllabus After being charged with violating the Georgia statute criminalizing sodomy by committing that act another adult male in bedroom his home, respondent Hardwick (respondent) brought suit Federal District Court, challenging constitutionality insofar as it criminalized consensual sodomy. The court granted defendants' motion to dismiss for failure state a claim. Court Appeals reversed remanded, holding violated respondent's fundamental rights. Held: is constitutional. Pp. 190-196. (a) Constitution does not confer right upon homosexuals engage None rights announced this Court's prior cases involving family relationships, marriage, or procreation bear any resemblance asserted case. And claim those stand proposition kind private sexual conduct between consenting adults constitutionally insulated from proscription unsupportable. 190-191. (b) Against background which many States have still do, such "deeply rooted Nation's history tradition" "implicit concept ordered liberty" is, at best, facetious. 191-194. (c) There should be great resistance expand reach Due Process Clauses cover new Otherwise, Judiciary necessarily would take itself further authority govern country without constitutional authority. claimed case falls far short overcoming resistance. 194-195. (d) fact homosexual occurs privacy home affect result. Stanley v. 394 557, 89 1243, 22 542, distinguished. 195-196. (e) Sodomy laws invalidated on basis majority belief immoral an inadequate rationale support laws. P. 196. 760 F.2d 1202 (C.A.11 1985), reversed. WHITE, J., delivered opinion BURGER, C.J., POWELL, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined. post, p. 196, 197, filed concurring opinions. BLACKMUN, dissenting opinion, BRENNAN, MARSHALL, STEVENS, joined, 199. BRENNAN 214. E. Hobbs, Atlanta, Ga., petitioner. Laurence Tribe, Cambridge, Mass., respondents. Justice WHITE Court. 1 In August 1982, (hereafter respondent) was sodomy1 home. preliminary hearing, decided present matter grand jury unless evidence developed. 2 Respondent then sodomy.2 He he practicing homosexual, statute, administered defendants, placed him imminent danger arrest, several reasons violates Constitution. claim, relying Doe Commonwealth's City Richmond, 403 F.Supp. 1199 (ED Va.1975), summarily affirmed, 425 901, 96 1489, 47 751 (1976). 3 A divided panel Eleventh Circuit (1985). first held that, because distinguishable event had been undermined later decisions, our summary affirmance did require Relying decisions Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 85 1678, 14 510 (1965); Eisenstadt Baird, 405 438, 1029, 31 349 (1972); 542 (1969); Roe Wade, 410 113, 93 705, 35 147 (1973), went hold activity intimate association beyond regulation reason Ninth Amendment Clause Fourteenth Amendment. remanded trial, which, prevail, State prove supported compelling interest most narrowly drawn means achieving end. 4 Because other Courts arrived judgments contrary case,3 we General's petition certiorari questioning homosexuals. We agree petitioner erred, hence reverse its judgment.4 5 This judgment whether against general, particular, are wise desirable. It raises no question about propriety legislative repeal their criminalize sodomy, state-court invalidating grounds. issue presented confers invalidates make illegal done so very long time. also calls some limits role carrying out mandate. 6 register disagreement construed extends all intents purposes line sketched Carey Population Services International, 431 678, 685, 97 2010, 2016, 52 675 (1977). Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 45 571, 69 L.Ed. 1070 (1925), Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 43 625, 67 1042 (1923), were described dealing child rearing education; Prince Massachusetts, 321 158, 64 88 645 (1944), relationships; Skinner Oklahoma ex rel. Williamson, 316 535, 62 1110, 86 1655 (1942), procreation; Loving Virginia, 388 1, 87 1817, 18 1010 (1967), marriage; supra, contraception; abortion. latter three interpreted construing individual decide beget child. U.S., 688-689, S.Ct., 2017-2018. 7 Accepting these above description them, think evident none bears acts No connection family, one hand has demonstrated, either respondent. Moreover, nevertheless Indeed, twice right, found protections provided Clause, far. 688, n. 5, 694, 17, 2018, 2021, 17. 8 Precedent aside, however, us announce, did, quite unwilling do. true despite language Fifth Amendments, appears focus only processes life, liberty, property taken, legion substantive content, subsuming extent immune federal proscription. Among recognizing little textual language. Meyer, Prince, fall category, do Carey. 9 Striving assure public announcing readily identifiable Constitution's text involves much more than imposition Justices' own choice values Government, sought identify nature qualifying heightened judicial protection. Palko 302 319, 325, 326, 58 149, 151, 152, 82 288 (1937), said category includes liberties liberty," "neither liberty nor justice exist if [they] sacrificed." different appeared Moore East Cleveland, 494, 503, 1932, 1937, 531 (1977) (opinion J.), where they characterized tradition." Id., 1938 (POWELL, J.). 506, 1693. 10 obvious neither formulations extend Proscriptions ancient roots. generally, Survey Constitutional Right Privacy Context Homosexual Activity, 40 U.Miami L.Rev. 521, 525 (1986). criminal offense common law forbidden original thirteen when ratified Bill Rights.5 1868, ratified, but 37 Union laws.6 fact, until 1961,7 50 outlawed today, 24 Columbia continue provide penalties performed adults. Survey, L.Rev., 524, 9. background, 11 Nor inclined expansive view discover imbedded Clause. vulnerable comes nearest illegitimacy deals judge-made having cognizable roots design That painfully demonstrated face-off Executive 1930's, resulted repudiation gloss Amendments. be, therefore, Clauses, particularly requires redefining deemed fundamental. takes express pressed today 12 Respondent, asserts result relies (1969), First prevents conviction possessing reading obscene material one's home: "If anything, business telling man, sitting alone house, what books may read films watch." 565, 1248. 13 protect protected outside partially prevented enforcement obscenity laws; decision firmly grounded here similar Constitution, qualify recognition under prevailing principles Its difficult discern. Plainly enough, otherwise always immunized whenever Victimless crimes, possession use drugs, escape committed recognized offered protection firearms, stolen goods. 568, 1249, 11. submission limited voluntary adults, difficult, except fiat, limit while leaving exposed prosecution adultery, incest, crimes even though start down road. Even there must rational presumed electorate unacceptable. law. law, constantly based notions morality, representing essentially moral choices courts will busy indeed. makes insists sentiments morality homosexuality declared inadequate. agree, unpersuaded 25 basis.8 15 Accordingly, 16 Reversed. 17 Chief concurring. I join write separately underscore my terms thing commit 19 As notes, ante, ----, proscriptions "ancient roots." Decisions individuals relating subject intervention throughout Western civilization. Condemnation practices Judalo-Christian ethical standards. capital crime Roman Code Theod. 9.7.6; Just. 9.9.31. D. Bailey, Homosexuality Christian Tradition 70-81 (1975). During English Reformation powers ecclesiastical transferred King's Courts, passed. Hen. VIII, ch. 6. Blackstone "the infamous nature" "deeper malignity" rape, heinous mention disgrace human nature," "a fit named." W. Blackstone, Commentaries *215. England, including prohibition became received Colonies. 1816 Legislature passed here, continuously force form since To somehow cast aside millennia teaching. 20 personal "preferences" rather State. find nothing depriving power enact challenged here. 21 right—i.e., Clause—such Hardwick, Appeals. suggest, Eighth case, Ga.Code Ann. § 16-6-2 (1984), authorizes imprison person up years single private, view, prison sentence conduct—certainly duration—would create serious issue. Under setting felony comparable possible imposed felonies aggravated battery, 16-5-24, first-degree arson, 16-7-60, robbery, 16-8-40.1 23 tried, less convicted sentenced.2 raised below. For argument before us. whom STEVENS join, dissenting. sodomy," purports declare, 191, watch movies, Katz United States, 389 347, 507, 576 place interstate bets telephone booth. Rather, comprehensive valued civilized men," namely, let alone." Olmstead 277 478, 48 564, 572, 72 944 (1928) (Brandeis, dissenting). 26 issue, denies themselves particular forms activity. concludes valid . time." Ante, 190. But expressed statutes like " 'natural familiar ought conclude embodying them conflict States.' 117, 709, quoting Lochner New York, 198 45, 76, 539, 547, 49 937 (1905) (Holmes, Like Holmes, believe "[i]t revolting better rule laid time Henry IV. grounds vanished since, simply persists blind imitation past." Path Law, Harv.L.Rev. 457, 469 (1897). analyze Hardwick's light underlie privacy. If can prosecute citizens making aspects lives, assert made 'abominable named among Christians.' Herring State, 119 Ga. 721, 46 S.E. 876, 882 (1904). 27 * haste "confe[r] 190, relegates actual footnote ignores procedural posture it. fair complaint clearly reveals distorted presents. 28 First, almost obsessive hard justify broad used. Unlike proceeded assumption lives controlled way tolerated citizens. Cf. 188, 2. "[a] commits performs submits sex organs mouth anus another." 16-6-2(a) (1984). status persons who irrelevant discern purpose Georgia's 1968 enactment 16-6-2, seems broaden coverage heterosexual well activity.1 therefore see treat "as applied" challenge 2, attempt, both brief oral argument, defend solely prohibits standing rest significant part apparent willingness enforce desire heterosexuals. Tr. Oral Arg. 4-5; cf. 1202, 1205-1206 (CA11 1985). unconstitutional intrusion into depend orientation. 29 Second, disagree refusal consider runs afoul Amendments Equal Protection 8. Respondent's expressly invoked Amendment, App. 6, relied heavily 484, 1681, (1965), identifies specific provisions giving "life substance" understanding Brief 10-12; 33. More importantly, affirm Appeals' ground entitled relief. petitioner's Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 12(b)(6). well-settled principle dismissed merely plaintiff's allegations legal theory advances, duty examine determine relief theory." Bramlet Wilson, 495 714, 716 (CA8 1974); Parr Great Lakes Express Co., 484 767, 773 (CA7 1973); Tallahassee Theatres, Inc., 333 630, 631 (CA5 1964); Howell, 318 162, 166 (CA9 1963); C. Wright & A. Miller, Practice Procedure 1357, pp. 601-602 Conley Gibson, 355 41, 45-46, 78 99, 101-102, 80 (1957). Thus, advance claims could entitle need issues stated interferes interests freedom association. resting provision peremptorily dismissed.2 cramped persuasive one. II 30 "Our embodies promise certain sphere kept largely government." Thornburgh American College Obstetricians Gynecologists, 476 747, 772, 2169, 2184, 90 779 privacy, along two somewhat distinct, albeit complementary, lines. reference properly make. E.g., (1973); (1925). places regard activities occupy engaged. Karo, 468 104 3296, 530 (1984); Payton 445 573, 100 1371, 63 639 (1980); Rios 364 253, 1431, 1688 (1960). implicates decisional spatial various free governmental interference "bears case." While Roberts Jaycees, 609, 619, 3244, 3250, 462 conclusion boundary warning 501, 1936, (plurality opinion), "clos[ing] eyes basic why associated accorded shelter Amendment's Clause." contribute, direct way, general welfare, central individual's life. "[T]he 'moral belongs himself others society whole.' 777, 2187, (STEVENS, concurring), Fried, Correspondence, Phil. Pub. Affairs 288-289 marry precisely marriage "is promotes causes; harmony living, political faiths; bilateral loyalty, commercial social projects." 486, 1682. parenthood alters dramatically self-definition, demographic considerations Bible's command fruitful multiply. 2188, concurring). contributes powerfully happiness individuals, preference stereotypical households. 500-506, 1936-1939 opinion). Roberts, "ability independently define identity cannot truly exercised vacuum; "emotional enrichment close ties others." Ibid. 32 Only willful blindness obscure intimacy sensitive, key relationship existence, community development personality," Paris Adult Theatre Slaton, 413 49, 63, 2628, 2638, 446 through relationships suggests, Nation diverse ours, "right" ways conducting richness come choose intensely bonds. Karst, Freedom Intimate Association, Yale L.J. 624, 637 453, 1038, 153, 726. 33 variety circumstances necessary corollary how acceptance choices. example, important education give competing Amish effect extended formal schooling threatened declared: "There today's 'right' 'wrong.' life odd erratic condemned different." Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 223-224, 1526, 1537, (1972). refuses recognize sodomy; really refused controlling associations others. B 34 behavior faces occurred Fourth attaches special significance. treatment aspect symptomatic overall informed cases. Just mere aggregation number entitlements behavior, too, protecting physical integrity often there. contours depends "reference 'place,' 361, 516 (Harlan, essence violation 'not breaking [a person's] doors, rummaging drawers,' 'the invasion indefeasible security, property.' California Ciraolo, 207, 226, 1809, 1819, 210 (1986) dissenting), Boyd 116 616, 532, 746 (1886). interpretation pivotal entirely unconvincing. undoubted punish distribution unprotected, permit material. According thus, claimed, sheds printed materials. ----. said. anchored 36 'The makers undertook secure conditions favorable pursuit happiness. They significance man's spiritual nature, feelings intellect. knew pain, pleasure satisfactions things. Americans beliefs, thoughts, emotions sensations.' 38 "These appellant asserting observe pleases—the satisfy intellectual emotional needs home." 564-565, 1248, 572 39 gives Brandeis' dissent Olmstead, raising shows rested First. suggested reliance outcome actually it: unprotected carried 'penumbra' narrow 'privacy home,' hardly reaffirmation 'a castle.' 66, 2640. "The people houses," guaranteed perhaps "textual" inform thus statement "[t]he Constitution," 195. her me heart III comprehend magnitude stake leads slight petitioner, behalf justified infringement interests. justifications advanced warrants dismissing 41 adverse consequences health welfare," spreading communicable diseases fostering Petitioner 37. Inasmuch pleadings, surprising record barren claim.3 record, justification attempt equate "possession goods," 195, mentioned viewed "[v]ictimless," 195: drugs weapons inherently dangerous, see, e.g., McLaughlin 16, 1677, (1986), "stolen," someone wrongfully deprived Nothing provides finding physically engaged others.4 42 core defense prohibited interfere exercise 'right maintain decent society,' 59-60, 2636, Jacobellis Ohio, 378 184, 199, 84 1676, 1684, 793 (1964) (Warren, Essentially, argues, agrees, "for hundreds years, thousands, uniformly immoral" sufficient ban today. 19; ---- - length convictions passions defends withdraw legislation scrutiny. See, (1967); Brown Board Education, 347 483, 74 686, 98 873 (1954).5 Jackson wrote eloquently West Virginia Education Barnette, 319 641-642, 1178, 1187, 1628 (1943), "we apply limitations fear intellectually spiritually disintegrate organization. [F]reedom differ things much. shadow freedom. test substance touch existing order." L.J., 627. touches especially sensitive whose upset majority. 44 assertion "traditional Judeo-Christian proscribe" involved, 20, adequate 16-6-2. certain, all, religious groups condemn license impose entire citizenry. legitimacy secular instead conformity doctrine. McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 429-453, 81 1101, 1106-1119, 393 (1961); Stone Graham, 449 39, 101 192, 66 199 (1980). buttressing invocation Leviticus, Romans, St. Thomas Aquinas, sodomy's heretical during Middle Ages undermines suggestion represents legitimate coercive power.6 intolerance racial animus. control prejudices, tolerate them. Private biases cannot, directly indirectly, effect." Palmore Sidoti, 466 429, 433, 1879, 1882, 421 uncomfortable group "[m]ere animosity deprivation person's liberty." O'Connor Donaldson, 422 563, 575, 95 2486, 2494, 396 Cleburne Living Center, 473 432, 105 3249, 313 (1985); Dept. Agriculture Moreno, 528, 534, 2821, 2825, 782 (1973). "morally neutral" "protect environment," I, 68-69, 2641. Certainly, fabric whole. Reasonable immoral, ample believing abandon murder, cruelty dishonesty, practice abominate punished law." H.L.A. Hart, Immorality Treason, reprinted Law Literature 220, 225 (L. Blom-Cooper ed. 1961). fail difference sensibilities morality. Statutes banning consistent concerning relations: same justifies exposure dictate regulate places. 13, 2640, ("marital intercourse street corner theater stage" identified (1965)).7 real others, knowledge adhere value system legally interest, Diamond Charles, 54, 65-66, 1697, 1705, invading houses, hearts, minds live differently. IV took error analysis Minersville School Gobitis, 310 586, 60 1010, 1375 (1940), threat national cohesion posed salute flag vastly outweighed salute. (1943). hope soon reconsider poses greater deeply tolerance nonconformity ever betrays values, dissent. MARSHALL case,1 applies equally regardless parties married unmarried, sexes.2 odious sinful type formative period law.3 condemnation damning sodomy.4 exemption couples.5 cohabit produce offspring include permission considered "crime nature." traditional heterosexual, sodomy.6 point 20th century, women heterosexuals.7 cited proof protected, 192-194, nn. similarly sodomy.8 51 expresses it, proper consideration questions: totally prohibit neutral applying exception jurisdiction? not, save homosexuals? questions merit separate discussion. Our propositions abundantly clear. governing traditionally upholding prohibiting practice; tradition miscegenation attack.9 persons, intimacies relationship, intended offspring, "liberty" (1965). unmarried persons. (1977); 53 kind, emphasized animated concern. ago: 54 deal unwarranted attention, comment, exploitation. deal, rather, unusually own, family's, destiny. referred implicating 'basic values,' 'fundamental,' dignified tradition. character brings mind origins heritage freedom—the abiding intrusions citizen's intolerable. Guided history, respect dignity matters conscience restraints implicit system, judges accepted responsibility appropriate cases." Fitzgerald Porter Memorial Hospital, 523 716, 719-720 1975) (footnotes omitted), cert. denied, 916, 1518, 768 55 every encourage members follow traditions expressing affection gratifying desires. It, course, imposing selfish prevent interfering with, violating, sanctioned marriage. explain relative advantages disadvantages expression. couples isolated observation voluntarily relations them—not State—to decide.10 essential Griswold, Eisenstadt, surely embraces nonreproductive, offensive immoral. 56 Paradoxical seem, establish within sacred precincts marital bedrooms," 485, 1682, or, indeed, 1038. events, perfectly clear proscribed Criminal Code. 57 enforced written—if seeks vast citizens—the assume burden justifying selective application Either have, permitted generally applicable possibility plainly Although meaning "all men created equal" clear, mean citizen share. From standpoint individual, deciding and, narrowly, companions. burdensome. 59 second policy interest—something substantial habitual dislike for, ignorance about, disfavored group. Neither posited unacceptable." belief—instead, representatives enacted presumably reflects Unless prepared constitutional, rely work product holding. class meriting treatment. Nor, prosecutor violate punished. formally acknowledged engaged, intends engage, conduct, yet elected process charges him. POWELL points out, moreover, decades.11 nonenforcement, last decades, belies representations importance State's law.12 61 Both completely simpliciter, unacceptable met. orders dismissal concededly heterosexuals; post hoc explanations belied actions. At least, early stage litigation alleged withstand dismiss.13 respectfully (1984) provides, pertinent part, follows: "(a) another. "(b) shall imprisonment years. ." plaintiffs action. wished 3, "chilled deterred" engaging existence arrest. 5. held, sustained, immediate sustaining, injury 18. affirmed Does' lack standing, 1206-1207 Does applied Baker 769 289, reh'g 774 1285 1985) (en banc); Dronenburg Zech, 239 U.S.App.D.C. 229, 741 1388, 241 262, 1579 erred obligated resolve dispute, prefer plenary merits earlier action Usery Turner Elkhorn Mining 428 14, 2882, 2891, 752 (1976); Massachusetts Retirement Murgia, 427 307, 309, 2562, 2565, 520 Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 671, 94 1347, 1359, 662 (1974). Hicks Miranda, 332, 344, 2281, 2289, 223 1791: Connecticut: Public Statute Laws 1808, Title LXVI, (rev. 1672). Delaware: Delaware, 1797, 22, (passed 1719). 1816, Assembly adopted England 1784. pt. 290 (1981). Maryland 1791. Maryland's Declaration Rights, 1776, inhabitants England," Swindler, Sources Documents Constitutions 372 Massachusetts: Acts Act Mar. 1785. Hampshire 1718. 1680-1726, 141 (1978). Jersey ratification Rights. five later. Twentieth Assembly, 18, 1796, DC, 7. York: 1787). North Carolina VIII outlawing Collection Parliament Force Carolina, 314 (Martin 1792). Pennsylvania: Commonwealth Pennsylvania, CLIV, 1790). Rhode Island 1662. Earliest Colony Providence Plantations 1647-1719, 142 South Carolina: (1790). Hening's 127 (1821) 1776). 1868: Alabama: Ala.Rev.Code 3604 (1867). Arizona (Terr.): Howell Code, 10, (1865). Arkansas: Ark.Stat., 51, Art. IV, (1858). California: Cal.Gen.Laws, ¶ 1450, Colorado Colo.Rev.Stat., §§ (1868). Conn.Gen.Stat., Tit. 122, 7, 124 (1866). Del.Rev.Stat., 131, (1893). Florida: Fla.Rev.Stat., div. 2614 1868) (1892). Georgia: 4286, 4287, 4290 Kingdom Hawaii: Haw.Penal (1869). Illinois: Ill.Rev.Stat., (1845). Kansas Terr.: Kan.Stat., 53, (1855). Kentucky: Ky.Rev.Stat., 28, (1860). Louisiana: La.Rev.Stat., Crimes Offences, (1856). Maine: Me.Rev.Stat., XII, 160, (1840). Maryland: Md.Code, 201 Mass.Gen.Stat., 165, Michigan: Mich.Rev.Stat., (1846). Minnesota: Minn.Stat., 96, (1859). Mississippi: Miss.Rev.Code, 64, LII, 238 (1857). Missouri: Mo.Rev.Stat., 50, Montana Mont.Acts, Resolutions, Memorials, Acts, Nebraska Neb.Rev.Stat., Crim.Code, 4, Nevada Nev.Comp.Laws, 1861-1900, Punishments, 45. Hampshire: N.H.Laws, 19, 1812, (1815). Jersey: N.J.Rev.Stat., 8, (1847). N.Y.Rev.Stat., (5th 1859). N.C.Rev.Code, 34, (1854). Oregon: Ore., Crimes—Against Morality, etc., 655 (1874). 1860, 32, Pub.L. 392, Digest Pa. 1700-1903, 1011 (Purdon 1905). Island: R.I.Gen.Stat., 232, (1872). 1712, Stat. Large S.C. 1682-1716, 493 (1837). Tennessee: Tenn.Code, 4843 Texas: Tex.Rev.Stat., 342 (1887) 1860). Vermont: Vt. (1779). Virginia: Va.Code, W.Va.Code, Wis.Stat. 367 (1839). 1961, Illinois Institute's Model Penal decriminalized adult, consensual, conduct. 11-2, 11-3, 1961 Ill.Laws, 1985, 2006 (codified amended 38, &Par; 11-3 (1983) (repealed 1984)). Institute, 213.2 (Proposed Official Draft 1962). below crime, longest sentences. Ala.Code 13A-6-65(a)(3) (1982) (1-year maximum); Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-1411, 13-1412 (West Supp.1985) (30 days); Ark.Stat.Ann. 41-1813 D.C.Code 22-3502 (1981) (10-year Fla.Stat. 800.02 (1985) (60-day (1 years); Idaho 18-6605 (1979) (5-year minimum); Kan.Stat.Ann. 21-3505 (Supp.1985) (6-month Ky.Rev.Stat. 510.100 (90 days months); La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 14:89 1986) Md.Ann.Code, 27, 553-554 Mich.Comp.Laws 750.158 (1968) (15-year maximum), 750.338a-750.338b Minn.Stat. 609.293 Miss.Code 97-29-59 (1973) Mo.Rev.Stat. 566.090 (Supp.1984) Mont.Code 45-5-505 Nev.Rev.Stat. 201.190 (6-year N.C.Gen.Stat. 14-177 Okla.Stat., 21, 886 R.I.Gen.Laws 11-10-1 (7 S.C.Code 16-15-120 Tenn.Code 39-2-612 (5 Tex.Penal 21.06 (1974) ($200 maximum fine); Utah 76-5-403 (1978) Va.Code 18.2-361 maximum). conceded reported decades. Thompson Aldredge, 187 467, 200 799 (1939). declined charge jury, declaratory respondents validity statute. nonenforcement suggests moribund Some repealed statutes. put respondents, say now become right. Until 1968, defined carnal order man unnatural manner woman." Ga.Crim.Code 26-5901 (1933). (1939), Supreme lesbian Riley Garrett, 219 345, 133 S.E.2d (1963), cunnilingus. act-specific currently "perhaps response restrictive Riley," Note, Nature, J.Pub.L. 159, 167, (1967). Robinson California, 370 660, 1417, 758 (1962), barred convicting defendant due "status" narcotics addict, condition "apparently illness contracted innocently involuntarily." 667, 1420. Powell Texas, 392 514, 2145, 1254 (1968), punishment drunkenness chronic alcoholic, factors writing plurality Texas "attempted appellant's 2154. separately: "Analysis preoccupation label 'condition.' dealt narcotic addiction offense. .' 666 [82 1420]. By precluding 'status' remote sanctions contemplated, relatively permanent duration, values. distinguish 'acts' 'conditions' 'condition' Robinson. inquiry volitional sufficiently proximate permissible penal 550-551, 2163, Despite historical views homosexuality, longer mental professionals "disease" disorder. Psychological Association Health Amici Curiae 8-11. But, obviously, deliberate election. orientation fiber personality. Consequently, WHITE's Powell, pose barrier sending acting attraction circumstances. An ability "decisions relations," 711, 2029, judgment), rendered empty indeed she given intimacy. With Clause's applicability note exclusive stress prosecuting gender-neutral raise discriminatory enforcement, disposed dismiss. Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 373-374, 1064, 1072-1073, 220 legislature participants legality acts, singled partners. available controversial suspect class. Rowland Mad River Local District, 470 1009, 1373, (BRENNAN, denial certiorari); Status Sexual Orientation: Suspect Classification, faced simple rational-basis scrutiny required show ill effects prevent. harms hot amenable Rule Civil Compare, 36-37 David Robinson, Jr., Amicus 23-28, hand, People Onofre, N.Y.2d 476, 489, 434 N.Y.S.2d 947, 951-952, N.E.2d 936, 941 joined 11-14; 19-27, other. remotely us, seem simple, analytically sound distinctions adultery incest (the vaguely "sexual crimes" points, 196), addition aspects, civil contract entitles contracting governmentally benefits. might contractual commitment eligible benefits fidelity breaching contract. likely injure third spouses children extramarital affairs. familial renders consent incestuous problematical blanket warranted. 21-22. Notably, effort chosen anal parallel uncanny. There, Compare 1819 (quoting trial court's "Almighty God races white, black, yellow, malay red, continents. separated intend mix"), 20-21 (relying Old Testaments writings Aquinas proscribe conduct"). defenders prohibitions. Appellee O.T. 1966, 395, 28-29, came 1820, (noting interracial marriage), 193-194 statutes). Yet invidious racism Virginia's 7-12, 1821-1823, Lovings denying "freedom marry" "long vital orderly men." 12, 1824. theological origin Anglo-American antisodomy patent. 1533 England. time, was, Sir James Stephen's words, "merely ecclesiastical." Stephen, History 429-430 (1883). Pollock Maitland observed nature. closely connected heresy vulgar name both." F. Maitland, 554 (1895). transfer jurisdiction over prosecutions primarily alteration attendant England's break Catholic Church, sovereign's preventing punishing involved. Coke, Institutes, (4th 1797). enforcing there, invalid. 10-11. misses entirely. invalid, police invade provided, obtain determination probable cause magistrate. One possibility, repugnancy, permitting searches regarding contraceptives. 485-486, Permitting kinds banned intrusive, repugnant. Winston Lee, 753, 1611, Beth G. Chicago, 723 1263, 1274 1983). ("A another"). states "issue reality, indiscriminate infra. reasoning employs written Hawkins, Pleas Crown (6th 1787) ("All copulations, beast, notion antient punished, according authors, burning; burying alive"); 215 (discussing beast; strictly impartially proved, punished"). East, 480 (1803) ("This offence, least notice consists woman, woman beast"); Hawley M. McGregor, 287 (3d 1899) ("Sodomy each other, beast. beast"). May, 203 (2d 1893) ("Sodomy, called buggery, bestiality, copulation woman—his wife, consent, accomplice"). predecessor current provided: "Sodomy Ga.Code, Pt. 4251 (1861). purely hortatory. Comer Ga.App. 306, (1917) (affirming sodomy). review discloses 1791, differentiate Interestingly, once treated sodomy); id., miscegenation). concedes couple. (stating couple "would unconstitutional" "right Griswold"). Significantly, after Griswold. 198, 4-5 (argument General) (noting, "where residence," "last recall back 1930's 40's"). argue symbolic role. 715, 2031, judgment) ("The admittedly never appellants' position symbolic"). Since written, possibly defended message. stage, indiscriminately class, arbitrarily selected revealed true, although "so intolerably vague evenhanded virtual impossibility." Marks 430 990, 996, 260 part).

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