Document: 494 U.S. 652 110 S.Ct. 1391 108 L.Ed.2d Richard H. AUSTIN, Michigan Secretary of State and Frank J. Kelley, Attorney General, Appellantsv.MICHIGAN CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. No. 88-1569. Argued Oct. 31, 1989. Decided March 27, 1990. Syllabus Appellee Chamber Commerce (Chamber) is a nonprofit corporation, whose bylaws set forth both political nonpolitical purposes. Its general treasury funded through annual dues required all members, three-quarters whom are for-profit corporations. Section 54(1) the Campaign Finance Act prohibits corporations, excluding media from using funds for, inter alia, independent expenditures in connection with state candidate elections. However, they may make such segregated used solely for Because wished to use place local newspaper advertisement support specific office, it brought suit Federal District Court injunctive relief against § 54(1)'s enforcement, arguing that expenditure restriction unconstitutional under First Fourteenth Amendments. The court upheld section, but Appeals reversed, reasoning that, as applied Chamber, violated Amendment. Held: 1. does not violate Pp. 657-666. (a) Although requirements burden Chamber's exercise expression, see FEC v. Massachusetts Citizens Life, Inc., 479 238, 252, 107 616, 624, 93 539 (MCFL ), justified by compelling interest: preventing corruption or appearance arena reducing threat huge corporate treasuries, which amassed aid favorable laws have little no correlation public's corporation's ideas, will be influence unfairly election outcomes. 657-660. (b) sufficiently narrowly tailored achieve its goal, because precisely targeted eliminate distortion caused spending while also allowing corporations express their views making separate funds. persons who contribute understand money purposes, speech generated accurately reflects contributors' views. fact covers closely held do possess vast reservoirs capital substantially overinclusive, receive special benefits conferred form thus present potential distorting process. Cf. National Right Work Committee, 459 197, 209-210, 103 552, 555-556, 74 364. Pp 660-661. (c) There merit argument even if constitutional respect cannot ideological corporation itself. exhibit crucial features identified MCFL, supra, would require exempt burdens more akin voluntary association than business firm. MCFL's narrow focus on promotion ideas ensured resources reflected support, varied not. Additionally, unlike MCFL members similar shareholders—who an economic disincentive disassociating disagree activity—in reluctant withdraw wish benefit programs establish contacts other community. Also contrast took contributions can constitutionally regulated State, could circumvent funneling treasury. 661-665. (d) rendered underinclusive failure regulate unincorporated labor unions capacity accumulate wealth, exclusion undermine State's interest regulating unique enhances capacity. Moreover, union's activities decline them without giving up membership benefits, reflect members' organization's 665-666. 2. Equal Protection Clause Even strict scrutiny, classifications pass muster. decision associations serve interest. Similarly, exemption render section unconstitutional. Restrictions devoted collection dissemination information public might discourage news broadcasters publishers serving societal role reporting publishing editorials about newsworthy events; thus, section's justified. 666-668. 856 F.2d 783 (CA6 1988), reversed. MARSHALL, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., BRENNAN, WHITE, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, JJ., joined. post, p. 669, 678, filed concurring opinions. SCALIA, dissenting opinion, 679. KENNEDY, O'CONNOR joined, 695. Louis Caruso, Lansing, Mich., appellants. D. McLellan, appellee. Justice MARSHALL Court. 1 In this appeal, we must determine whether Act, 1976 Mich.Pub. Acts 388, violates either Amendment Constitution. of, opposition to, any elections office. Mich.Comp. Laws 169.254(1) (1979). Corporations allowed, however, 169.255(1). response challenge (Chamber), Sixth Circuit violating (1988). agree expressive rights implicated case, hold application provision Accordingly, reverse judgment Appeals. 2 * elections.1 issue before us only constitutionality ban expenditures. defines "expenditure" "a payment, donation, loan, pledge, promise payment anything ascertainable monetary value goods, materials, services, facilities assistance nomination candidate." 169.206(1). An considered "not made at direction control another person contribution committee." 169.209(1); 169.203(4) (defining "committee" group "receives makes purpose influencing attempting action voters candidate"). exempts prohibition fund. A solicit fund enumerated list associated corporation. See §§ 169.255(2), (3). 3 challenges statutory scheme. comprises 8,000 members. out bylaws, promote conditions private enterprise; analyze, compile, disseminate community publicize government matters; train educate members; foster ethical practices; collect data on, investigate matters social, civic, importance State; purposes perform lawful activity; coordinate organizations. 4 June 1985 scheduled fill vacancy House Representatives. had established fund, sought supporting candidate. As punishable felony, 169.254(5), enforcement 5 statute. 643 F.Supp. 397 (WD Mich.1986). restrictions We noted probable jurisdiction, 490 1045, 109 1952, 104 421 (1989), now reverse. II 6 To Michigan's ascertain and, does, Buckley Valeo, 424 1, 44-45, 96 612, 646-647, 46 659 (1976) (per curiam ). Certainly, "speech"; campaign constitute "political expression 'at core our electoral process freedoms.' " Id., 39, S.Ct., 644 (quoting Williams Rhodes, 393 23, 32, 89 5, 11, 21 24 (1968)). mere remove ambit See, e.g., Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 777, 98 1407, 1416, 55 707 (1978). A. 7 This concluded (1986) federal statute requiring funds, U.S.C. 441b, freedom expression. U.S., 624 (plurality opinion); id., 266, 632 (O'CONNOR, part judgment). reasoned small case face certain organizational financial hurdles establishing administering For example, appoint treasurer keep records contributions, file statement organization containing update periodically. 253, 625 opinion). addition, was permitted "members," did include merely contributed indicated organization. 254, 626 These "impose[d] administrative costs many entities [might] unable bear" "create[d] organizations engage speech." Ibid; 265-266, 631-632 J.). 8 Despite success see, Tr. 443 (Chamber expected over $140,000 available 1986 elections), requirement still "the free advocacy purposes." imposes those involved MCFL: treasurer, 169.221; administrators detailed accounts 169.224, officials organization, ibid. like stockholders officers directors spouses these persons. 169.255. stifle entirely, activity. Thus, B 9 contends legal characteristics necessitate some regulation avoid corruption. Conservative Political Action 470 480, 496-497, 105 1459, 1468, 84 455 (1985) (NCPAC ) ("[P]reventing legitimate interests far restricting finances"). law grants advantages—such limited liability, perpetual life, treatment accumulation distribution assets—that enhance ability attract deploy ways maximize return shareholders' investments. state-created advantages allow play dominant Nation's economy, permit "resources marketplace" obtain "an unfair advantage marketplace." 257, 627. explained 10 "[t]he . indication popular ideas. They instead economically motivated decisions investors customers. availability formidable presence, though power reflection ideas." 258, 628. 11 therefore recognized governmental support[s] war chests funneled form." NCPAC, 500-501, 1470; 12 argues concern domination insufficient justify has distinguished direct context individual donors, Buckley, 47, 648, legislature demonstrate danger real apparent posed when elections, 788, n. 26, 1422, 26. Regardless "financial quid pro quo corruption, 497, 1468; 702-705; (KENNEDY, dissenting), sufficient expenditures, aims different type arena: corrosive effects immense aggregations wealth accumulated help 658-659. attempt "to equalize relative speakers elections," 705 dissenting); 684 (SCALIA, rather, ensures actual espoused emphasize large amounts justification 54; state-conferred structure facilitates amassing treasuries warrants limit Corporate deployed just assumes guise contributions. articulated rationale C 13 next turn question goal. find Contrary dissents' critical assumptions, 698, 699, 706 J.); 680, 682-683 J.), impose absolute forms permits contributing 14 includes within scope capital. rejected 364 (1982) (NRWC found statute, "reflect[ed] legislative particularly careful regulation. While 441b restricts solicitation great resources, well fortunately situated, accept Congress' demands regulation." 555-556 (citation omitted; emphasis added). publicly ones, significant justifies applicability overbroad. III 15 nonetheless chamber commerce. there "features firms, should bear [its] incorporated status." 263, 630. reaching conclusion, three were "essential" holding. Ibid. share features, Constitution exempted generally applicable provisions 54(1). 16 first characteristic ordinary "was formed promoting activities." 264, 631. articles incorporation "[t]o human life defend right beings, born unborn, educational, activities," 241-242, 619, "designed further agenda," 242, 619. "ensure[d] reflect[ed] support." 17 contrast, 656, several inherently political. instance, compiles disseminates relating conditions, trains educates promotes practices. Unlike MCFL's, educational expressly tied goals; seminars, conventions, publications politically neutral issues. president chief executive officer stated one main provide "service everything insurance litigation behalf community." Deposition E. James Barrett, Nov. 12, 1985, 11. PR Newswire, July 21, 1989 cosponsored Automotive Management Briefing Seminar); May 9, New Product Awards competition); 14, 1988 sponsored seminar product liability losses lawsuits); Feb. 4, outreach program increase awareness investment opportunities Caribbean Basin). suffice distinguish characteristic. 18 described second feature absence "shareholders affiliated so claim assets earnings. connected activity." lacks shareholders, similarly agenda distinct former continue pay participate latter. KENNEDY ignores disincentives withdrawing member stating "[o]ne need become earn living." Post, 710 dissenting). disinclined terminate involvement basis less extreme loss employment. persuaded shareholders respect.2 final upon relied independence On score, differs most greatly by, policy accepting from, Thus "serv[e] [a] condui[t] creates striking State. 29, 639 (upholding contributions); 658-661 (regarding expenditures). read payments into election, "contributions" "expenditures," 169.204(1), 169.206, subject Act's limitations. Business treasury.3 accepts could, absent 54(1), conduit spending. sum, thefeatures compel IV 19 attacks unions.4 Whereas unions, indeed individuals, able amass structure; "by prominent example enjoy enhancing wealth." 628, desire counterbalance case; statute's coverage "does corporations." 20 differ union give full activities. employer bargaining unit employees financially "union beyond germane collective bargaining, contract administration, grievance adjustment." Communications Workers Beck, 487 735, 745, 2641, 2648, 101 634 Abood Detroit Bd. Ed., 431 209, 97 1782, 52 261 (1977) (holding nonmember infringes employees' rights). employee objects activities, continuing derived performance duties exclusive representative labor-management result, exclude differences between V Amendment, address contention treats situated unequally. Specifically, restrict engaged business. 22 fundamental system, impinging Police Department Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 101, 92 2286, 2293, 33 212 (1972). muster Clause. discussions 660-661, underinclusive, 665 page, eliminating effect "war chests" given 23 "media exception" excludes definition "expenditure broadcasting station, newspaper, magazine, periodical publication story, commentary, editorial elective office regular course broadcasting," 169.206(3)(d).5 equal protection F.2d, 790. appeared exception implicate "[a]ny avail itself exemption" entering F.Supp., 405. persuaded, analysis necessary case. It true refer Nevertheless, undoubtedly result imposition fewer regarded neutral, distinction purpose. same inherent form, significantly public. consistently press plays "informing educating public, offering criticism, providing forum discussion debate." 781, 1418. Mills Alabama, 384 214, 219, 86 1434, 1437, 484 (1966) ("[T]he serves designed powerful antidote abuses chosen means keeping elected people responsible selected serve"). "expenditure," conceivably interpreted encompass election-related stories editorials. role. hinder prevent institutional about, events. H.R.Rep. 93-1239, (1974) (explaining exception, 431(9)(B)(i), "assur[ing] unfettered newspapers, TV networks, cover comment campaigns"); 1801-1804 (enacting antitrust newspapers recognition press). valid exists industry imparting press' entitle greater Constitution, 782, 18, 1418, reason VI 25 serious possibility integrity process, implemented solution problem. By solicited reduces outcome 26 ordered. 27 concurring. 28 I join Court's opinion. "Orwellian" "censor[s]" derided dissents, 679 713 author recent write separately explain my 29 across-the-board participation complete Rather, requires wishing candidates committees (PAC's) rather directly treasuries.1 dissents observe, analyzed solicitude care, 644, believe, overstate important respects today faithful prior opinions financing area, MCFL. 30 Election 1971 (FECA), added, 90 Stat. 490, amended, here, small, antiabortion group. evaluating challenge, "acknowledge[d] legitimacy marketplace gain "[d]irect activity raises prospect marketplace," 257-258, 627-28 (emphasis Instead, customers." stockholder oppose drawn treasury—which represents, after all, his money—in particular 260, 629, citing 208, 559, (1982), Pipefitters United States, 407 385, 414-415, 2247, 2264, financed PAC avert danger. "The [a PAC], opposed treasury, positions adopted 'underlying theory' FECA 'that substantial diverted purposes' funding guarantees 'the collected intended source.' 117 Cong.Rec. 43381 (1971) (statement Rep. Hansen)).2 31 dangers limitations aimed. Indeed, determined Life—the MCFL—fell category.3 nevertheless predicted class 631, holding bound First, [could not] Second, "ha[d] ensure[d] [had] disagree[d] (footnote omitted). Third, union, [was] entities. prevent[ed it] 32 majority persuasively demonstrates situation markedly foremost association, ante, advances two ways, support. protects businessperson her spent candidates, wishes maintain myriad provides unrelated 662-663. "objectives purposes" shall compile regulations members" training education bulletins, newsletters, reports technical materials." App. 43a. new advertisements wide variety including "regular publications, briefings, insurance, hot-line, seminars." 42a. advertising practices indicate understands function causes alone. faces withdraw, he disagrees extent money, paid campaigns. 260-261, 629; cf. 686 prevents "serv[ing] spending." Ante, 664. repeatedly qualifier "nonprofit" throughout appears concede legitimately least "suffice 703 (dissenting If so, KENNEDY's sustain perplexing, nonprofits clearly barred independentex penditures directly.4 664, 3, rules groups PAC's 207-211, 559-561; California Medical Assn. FEC, 453 182, 193-199, 2712, 2720-2723, 69 567 (1981) common ground "nonprofit corporation," corporations; unremarkable either. 34 Of course, resign divest conduit, options sacrifice objecting expenditures.5 629. irrelevant policies, seek change within, withhold cease associate group, rival own." none alternatives proposed protect captive conduit.6 duty shareholder action, Board Education, 232-237, 1798-1800, (1977), surely chartered exploiting message. "A's steal alone enable communication." Brudney, Stockholders' Rights Under 91 Yale L.J. 235, 247 (1981). (1988); Machinists Street, 367 740, 81 1784, 1141 (1961). long "protect[ing] shareholders" CTS Corp. Dynamics America, 481 69, 91, 1637, 1651, 95 67 (1987). 35 concededly "underinclusive" insofar types object. 685-686 655-656. remains free, initiative proposal referendum.7 36 underinclusiveness fatal, reasons.8 recognize, lie "at heart 698 692 But zenith too unwilling forced subsidize speech. especially sensitive justifiable one.9 light Consolidated Edison Co. York Public Service Comm'n York, 447 530, 533-535, 100 2326, 2330-32, 65 319 (1980), related cases, prohibit One inquiry ensure proffered actually underlies law. Florida Star B.J.F., 491 524, 540, 2603, 2613, (1989); FCC League Women Voters California, 468 364, 396, 3106, 3125, 82 278 (1984). referenda (besides commercial speech), lack sense, all. Finally, authorizing actions waste remedy 600.3605(1)(b) (1979);10 795, 1426. 37 reasons, concur 38 39 45-47, 647-648, (1976), little, any, weight reviewing context, believe fact, appearance, relationships adequate (1978), difference lobbying debating issues hand, campaigns other.* judgment. 40 dissenting. 41 "Attention citizens. assure fairness disproportionate single your Government decided following prohibited speaking writing candidate: _____." permitting object Orwellian announcement, endorses principle much evil democratic proscribe. dissent contrary incompatible absolutely central truth Amendment: trusted assure, censorship, "fairness" debate. 42 43 says "[s]tate [them] advantages," 658, "unique treasuries," 660. seeks create good combining bad ones. Those individuals known are, sure, advantages—notably, immunization personal fortunes association—that obligation confer. sorts confer, ranging tax breaks awards employment outright cash subsidies. rudimentary exact price forfeiture rights. Pickering Education Township High School Dist. 205, Will County, 391 563, 88 1731, 811 (1968); Speiser Randall, 357 513, 78 1332, 1460 (1958). categorical suspension person, persons, speak need. That why puts forward argument, "amas[s] treasuries." suppression speech, unless thinks men women net worth above figure endorsing candidates. Neither flawed arguments improved saying, "since gives associations, since thereby abandon speech."* 44 extensive reliance restriction, "special advantages" stark issued six years ago decision, down congressionally imposed editorializing noncommercial stations receipt advantage" relevant determining limitation power, assuring subsidy Congress intended, editorializing. basis, station receives 1% overall income [federal] way limiting noneditorializing importantly, wholly finance 400, 3127. assuming exemptions accorded power. portion attributable gratuitously being endorsements, assets. am Voters. Commercial persona sympathetic broadcasters, entitled concern. 45 argumentation, (or them) "massive wealth": Certain uses wealth" process—whether State—pose risk constitutes Such plainly candidate, control. raise prohibition. 45, 647. nor concurrences effort case—except, perhaps, misdescribing involving "federal donors," 659, "individual expenditures," 678 (STEVENS, concurring). 608(e)(1) 1971, (1970 ed., Supp. V), directed, advocating defeat 42, 645. $1,000 (a lesser here) "individuals," "persons," specifically defined 187, 712 (setting 591(g) statute). plaintiffs included 8, discussed addressed "individuals groups," 48, "persons 647, organizations," ibid., "person[s] [and] association[s]," 50, 650. determination "wholly odds Amendment" cited Miami Herald Publishing Tornillo, 418 241, 94 2831, 730 (1974), been invalidated toto overbreadth, Broadrick Oklahoma, 413 601, 611-613, 2908, 2915-2916, 830 (1973), hint doctrine Our thought recharacterize each clear disguised "overbreadth" determination. Valeo overruled, entirely correct. prohibiting overt satisfies "compelling need" "corruption" easily dismissed. said "[i]t naively underestimate ingenuity resourcefulness desiring buy difficulty devising skirted benefited candidate's campaign." Independent advocacy, moreover, "may prove counterproductive," exchanged "as improper commitments 648. latter point seems advocates individuals. expect count fingers hand welcome, negotiate formal endorsement AT & T General Motors. "amassed effective brings people's attention despite invariably self-interested probably uncongenial source—strike true. 47 try proposition poses "corruption," English term. asserts concept (which 'financial ' corruption," 659) really subspecies hitherto unrecognized genus "Michigan's regulation," told, "aims corporations's mode analysis, virtually deems undesirable turned corruption—by simply describing "corrosive," close enough "corruptive" qualify. sad think ultimately brute force poetic metaphor. 48 rests violation "New Corruption": Expenditures "reflect espoused." illiberal free-speech "one man, minute" soundly Buckley: 49 "It argued, ancillary equalizing 608(e)(1)'s ceiling. elements society order voice others foreign 'to secure widest possible diverse antagonistic sources," interchange bringing social changes desired people." 48-49, 648-649 (citations 50 quoted today's decision. endorse espoused," 660 irrational. Why perfectly billionaire proportion "actual support" positions? explanation, except outset invalid ones: When vessel labeled begins founder logically sustained, argumentation jumps ship privilege"; go down, returns "corruption." hopping back two, survive headway towards port, where conclusion waits vain. 51 BRENNAN's concurrence approved paternalistic measure America. designed, [the] danger" "corporate [the shareholder's] money," opposes. 670 (BRENNAN, implausible explanation inasmuch take please, "in 169.206(1) sole distinguishing words, neither (impermissibly) "balance" debate, Given degree sophistication ought attend responsibilities, regrettable come surprise. plausibly portrayed least, assert), blatant becomes pursue objectives, i.e., money. Some charters specify line commerce company limited, amended vote. joining knows management accord what specified supermajority) wishes, profit. deal. exposes himself, therefore, things ideologically uncongenial: South Africa, operation abortion clinic, pornographic adopts absurd catastrophic endorsements. His protections assaults (1) persuade requisite minority) fellow taken, (2) sell stock. (The way, ordinarily involve severe psychic trauma disaster suggests.) me fanciful, suggest toward insulating exclusively profit-motivated rude world politics ideology. 53 fanciful think, assumes, not-for-profit member's psyche concerned. Would upsetting Motors endorsed Henry Wallace (to stay comfortably past) American Civil Liberties Union George Wallace? so. Yet other, association-induced last withdrawal membership. 54 Part sets longstanding follows: "Because interest." 666. 56 finds fully met reason: 57 "As 'war chests' 58 (assuming compelling) chose silence "only corporations" wealthy well. (what "narrow tailoring" pertains to) wealth. tailoring anything, mean taken counter targeted, possible, chests." And targeting possible—either manner accomplished amount, manner, amount 59 No satisfactory obvious overinclusiveness, above-quoted passage refers. "rejected argument" Comm., 'we judgment' structure' 'potential thatdemands regulation.' 661, quoting 560 added Court). Today's then continues: "Although 661. 60 holds, time Holmes left bench, extends producing harm. NRWC event candidates) authority startling proposition, purport applying narrow-tailoring requirement. abandons today—that harm speech—had origin "clear test devised 1919, Schenck 249 49-51, 247, 248, 63 L.Ed. 470, championed him Brandeis decade series famous opposing affirmance convictions subversive Abrams 250 17, 20, 1173 (1919) (Holmes, Gitlow 268 652, 672, 625, 632, 1138 (1925) Whitney 274 357, 374, 641, 71 1095 (1927) (Brandeis, finally view 1937, Herndon Lowry, 301 732, 739, 1066; Bridges 314 62 190, 194, 192 (1941); Thornhill 310 88, 105, 736, 1093 (1940); West Virginia Barnette, 639, 1178, 1186, 87 1628 (1943); Terminiello Chicago, 337 4-5, 894, 895-896, 1131 (1949). reversal field adjustment fairly number holdings. Presumably convict selling books potentially harmful minors, Butler Michigan, 352 380, 77 412 (1957), indecent telephone communications Sable FCC, 492 115, 2829, 106 restrain jeopardizing criminal defendant's fair trial, Nebraska Press Stuart, 427 539, 2791, 683 damaging reputation investigation, Landmark Communications, Inc. Virginia, 829, 1535, lists illegal activity, NAACP Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 449, 464, 1163, 1172, 1488 (1958), applicant bar reveal beliefs affiliations Baird Bar Arizona, 401 702, (1971). 61 perhaps revealing, compare cavalier elaborate 392-395, 397-398, 3126, 278. earlier clear, goal compelling. having error, yet reach suggests impregnable fortress jurisprudence been. explicit acceptance "potential tailoring, insubstantial "compelling," weakens defenses. D few words concerning approval law's right, 'informing debate.' 667 believes skewing role" coverage, strong them. Amassed regularly sits astride channels likely produce Corruption (too view) busy elsewhere. vastly perpetrate overinforming, opportunity. Motors, shareholders. them, whole ideology game. tells reasonable target specially. Members press, illogical law, comfort theory espouses dagger throats. holds excluded be. privilege speakers. cases cited. put unencouraging form: limitations." 668. hope, suppose, generous exemption. 64 justice significance discuss lapses precedent logic. Infinitely departure long-accepted premises system regarding benevolence managing anticipated institutions compete government, another, arena. Perhaps here unqualifiedly noble objective—to "equalize" debate corporations' points view. abridgment liberty always undertaken very best announced objectives (dictators bring order, tyranny), often genuinely (zealous policemen conduct unlawful searches dangerous felons behind bars). premise Bill Rights, things—even seemingly desirable things—that do. "fair" incumbent politician welcomes believed entrenched monopolist competition. Legislature trying "balanced" presentation views; Michigan) major employers. Or evenly balanced officeholders win. approach thought, assume worst, rule "for fairness' sake" bounds. 66 doubt framed avoiding Corruption, is, calibrating supports it, objective, qualify Founders prevail; also, readily popular. purpose, calibration backwards: scant wider narrower circulation. confident, Jefferson Madison sat controls; did, opposite direction. Ah, element wealth: What that? endorsed, Tocqueville wrote 1835: 68 "When aristocratic adopt conceive sentiment, were, beside themselves, lofty platform stand; sentiments conspicuous eyes multitude introduced minds hearts around. countries governing naturally condition act manner; easy inadequate, dangerous. sooner sphere enter track exercises, unintentionally, insupportable tyranny. Worse interested circulation ideas; stand motionless oppressed heaviness torpor. Governments, active powers; ought, nations, lieu equality swept away." de Tocqueville, Democracy America (P. Bradley ed. 1948). discussing "circulation ideas" general, endorsements particular. associations—not ones augment impoverish example. 93d deprived owning operating percentage employing citizens, prosperity? suggestion, effectively PACs voluntarily contribute. message represents leading occupying "lofty platform" State—not belong. 70 talk "corruption corruption"—evils avoided ways—it wrongdoing Since more, inordinate prominence traditions allow—neither categories "unduly" (because rich) persuasive movie stars) respected clergymen). thing speech—that foolish intelligent, wheat chaff. conceded Lincoln's aphorism fooling "all time," reality; assuredly frequently embraces: healthy prescribe how much, speak, 72 inconsistent unrepudiated judgments unrepealable wisdom dissent. 73 SCALIA join, validates censorship two. content-based decrees crime speaker stand, upholds history. 75 scheme, regret say, own creation. value-laden, groups, others, After failing disguise animosity distrust kind issue—the qualifications matters—the allows voices subjects system. Each schemes repugnant contradicts guarantee, 76 facts us. Michigan. sought, communication Bandstra, Representatives reproduced Appendix opinion.) economy unemployment supported improve conditions. banned question, (Act), 169.201 et seq. non-profit office.1 "assistance ."2 terms forbids "independent expenditures" coordination organization.3 communicating permissible name "inference."4 Violation felony.5 among assessment voting record. With imprimatur felony Sierra Club, Union, Commerce, advise voted urgent practice theory, 79 acknowledge, party contests, paradigm 14-15, (1976). bans along carry inference organized form. operates essential evaluate view, restricted. 80 Far stake. confront society's informed issues, discourse vital self-government. "In realm protected disqualified dictating issue." 784-785, 1420, silencing operate forbidding politics, suffers defects. subject, basic precept confine subjects. Content-based essence censorial (invalidating allowed materially affected business, subjects). 537, 2333, (1980) ("The Amendment's hostility viewpoints, entire topic"). discriminates speaker's identity. elections; electorate, remain mute. precedents condemn censorship. 784-786, 1420-1421; Dept. (1972) picketing near buildings picketers); Carey Brown, 455, 263 (1980). 83 afforded diminished ballot Bellotti stated: "If indispensable decisionmaking democracy, comes individual. informing depend identity source, individual." 1416 (footnotes 85 distinctions based speaker, engages rawest censorship: censors segment say regard election. reconciled 'legislative Amendment.' Meyer Grant, 486 414, 428, 1886, 1895, 425 (1988), scheme validated disillusioned today; preferred speakers: vague favored participants enact empowering board not, enforce guidelines Life courts denied legislatures. draws discrimination portions supra. acknowledged language pointed id. 263-265, 630-631, lends majority's test. language, contravenes principles neutrality meet standards show purported end. 786, 793-795, 1421, 1424-1426. fail standards. (1976); supra; ); predicate State.6 acknowledge draw ("contributions") one's ("independent expenditures"). threatens once-protected qualifications. 259-260, 628-629. 20-21, 635. "[E]xpenditure ceilings freedoms contributions." 636. Candidate enhanced favors; pose risk: "Unlike counterproductive. prearrangement agent undermines alleviates Appellants' misplaced. proper follow exacting scrutiny. tendency corrupt. accepted funding, 491, 1465. hypothetical notice reward committee (PAC) official favors 1468. almost admits kind. specter interest[s] finances," missing invents combating "corrosive wealth," 660, styles novel assertion. questionable imprecision apply precise terms. said: "Corruption subversion process" whereby "[e]lected influenced obligations gain. ." touted impermissible altering muting impact regulatory mechanism aimed quantity majority. quite theory. already expenditures: "A spend during necessarily discussed, depth exploration, size audience reached. every mass money." 19, omitted); 644. acting precepts, somehow fosters key space broadcast dominate respects. overinclusive particular, intrinsic flaw corrupt, groups. conclude individual, well-funded PAC, supra (protecting limitations). discredited larger greater. 497-498, 1468-1469. noting form" finding 1470. 99 notion antithetical "[T]he '. properly person's discussion." afford succeed detract exercising right. 426, 7, 1894, petition circulators). vote; electorate hardly suppress it." 790, 1423. suggestion shaping exposure democracy entrusted responsibility judging merits conflicting arguments." 791, 1423; Meyer, 7; Brown Hartlage, 456 60, 102 1523, 1532, 732 (1982). Bellotti. There, assumption "corporations drown view" "exert undue influence" showing significant. 789, 1422. record assertion difference, here. conjecture. All suspect; surmise says, inform association's adherents. Though era deploring mechanisms accountable votes cast, accountability concerns time. suppressed directed spoken man woman standing soapbox, detracts scintilla validity, persuasiveness, dialogue. purports received profit-making undisputed said, fallacy source hearing say. circumstance Many trace donations, dividends, interest, salary. deprive freedoms. alternative recordkeeping disclosure available. 262, wooden invites discriminatory distinctions. principled concerned, favorites concludes tailored. agree. dangers. None justifications save Act. applies organized, saving regulation, condemns it. means, 169.255 (1979), 253-255, 625-626; concurring), costly burdensome tended percent administer PAC. 103a, 108a. directors, officers, managerial employees, 169.255(3) avenue open foreclosed "sufficient characterize statute] infringement 255, 626. Co., 541, 10, 2335, 10; Pharmacy Consumer Council, 748, 757, 15, 1817, 1823, 346 reaffirmed Terms ago, appellees' advocate cause select doing." 424, 1893. secondhand debases says; care credit blame opposed. suffer poor image. 92a, 104a, takes responsibility, likelihood, credibility generate interim, ad hoc continuity responsibility. continuity, stability, policies earned period injures offends ideals, itself, intermediary committee, blame. irony diffusion produced fit ends means. distorts seem injecting confusion intermediary, albeit controlled diffuses sense argue eliminated disclaimer bottom "Paid PAC" Commerce." relies protecting oppose. reject 792-793, 1424. 543, 2336. refuge contributors distorted cites (1977). dissociate comparable. 794, 34, 1425, (noting "crucial distinction" shareholders). Club living. own. Allowing excuse private, 111 second-class stifled dialogue, evidenced amici briefs Center Interest Law, Association, Association Realtors, Insurance Organization Women, Greenpeace Action, Abortion League, Planned Parenthood Federation Fund Feminist Majority, Washington Legal Foundation, Allied Educational Foundation. idea self-fulfillment self-expression rich dialogue mark society. otherwise experience judicial knowledge. 112 distinctive character enrich R. Horn, Groups 13-18 (1956). theme history democracy. Federalist (J. Madison). Toqueville observed: 113 "Americans ages, dispositions constantly associations. manufacturing companies, part, thousand kinds, religious, moral, serious, futile, restricted, enormous diminutive. inculcate feeling encouragement Wherever head undertaking you France, rank England, States sure association." Toqueville, 114 assumed pernicious, processes withstand rigorous scrutiny 501, "[A]ssociations suddenly reasons self-evident relation reality, organizations, feasible organizing transmit whole. carries high uncertain climate, prefer organize responsibilities limits Hadden B. French, Nonprofit Organizations (1987); Oleck, Corporations, Associations 30-31 (4th 1982); M. Lane, Handbook 22-26, 43, 59-61, 124 dwindled proliferated. 31. deciding forfeit discourse. 115 invalidating blanket per-adventure tolerate television network 218-220, 1436-1437, (1966). Dun Bradstreet, Greenmoss Builders, 472 749, 2939, 593 (1985), state: enjoyed 784, 2958 joined JJ.); 773, 2952 (WHITE, judgment) speech"). majority, unsatisfying. communicate degree, not; 116 web ownership links nonmedia difficult untangle meaningful distinction. Newspapers, owned parent multiple interests. Nothing directing discretion control, public-interest infers opposition. unsupported imprecise ever sanctioned event, "Where curtail problem infringing prompted 265, wholesale enacted "too blunt instrument delicate task." 118 constructing affairs announcing qualified model removed reality. unhappy paradox barring aspects censor. doing reveals affirm 119 APPENDIX TO OPINION DISSENTINGn modeled 431-455, 441b. disclose nature incentive spite disagreement agenda, correspond apparently (1979) (allowing "(a) Stockholders Officers corporation"). 441b(a). contains "any distributed publication, party, 431(9)(B)(i). (1986), observed "is distinguishable foreclosure opportunity referendum (1978)." 259, 12. elections: total Contributions permitted, discussion, convince sound espousing philosophy. necessity convincing burden. unconvinced reasonableness position refuse strengthened. strikes accommodation separate, put." Comment, Regulation Activity: Majority Minority Remedies, 126 U.Pa.L.Rev. 386, 409 (cited 26). mistaken upholding as-applied rejecting embarking "value-laden, 695-696 "speech suppression." Whether presents content factors shown exist, mount basis. 97, 131, appellee provided relationship According dissent, "it Union" 698. characterization inaccurate. Not proceeding us, overlooked lesson exemptions, restrictions. composed governed prohibitively expensive monitor enterprises lies chiefly so-called "nondistribution constraint"—i.e., residual earnings enterprise, receiving property themselves. Hansmann, Reforming Corporation 129 502-507, 557 (1981); Role Enterprise, 835, 843-845 nondistribution constraint helps overcome contractual situations monitor, removing "profit motive" with, nonprofit's managers exploit informational deficiencies Hence, donors police overlooks raison d'etre "underinclusiveness" belies charge broad expression; avenues Chamber. burdened candidate-oriented 1977 then. eligible 50,000 successful During 1983-1984 cycle, raised $102,000, projected primary amounted $140,000. 86-1867 (CA6), pp. 164, 184. amply efforts tremendously electing candidates." Juris.Statement 66a-67a. maintains purchase stock understanding profitmaking 686-687. unions. 234-235, 1799, (1977); 764, 1795, Rather deal," 686, advance unit, fees [is] restricted 'extent denying employee's objection, opposes,' aware historically expended issues." Ellis Railway Clerks, 466 435, 447, 1883, 1891, 428 (1984) 768, 1796) expectations circular expectation protected, concedes, must, corporation's] prohibited. 691. define qualifies "plausibly tied" waste," Rogers Hill, 289 582, 591-592, 731, 1385 (1933), wasteful 1426; Cort Ash, 422 66, 84, 2080, 2090, (1975). decide fear STEVENS notes today, 678-679, n., "state partisan elections." definitive interpretation addition vote submitted voters, proscribes 'for aiding, promoting, antagonizing party.' respect, Appellants committees, (1972); Automobile Workers, 567, 529, 563 (1957); CIO, 335 106, 1349, 1849 (1948). About half laws, (1976 ed.) (originally Corrupt Practices 864), votes. Several proscribe 'political' referenda. Schwartz Romnes, 495 844 (CA2 1974). overriding enactment statutes representatives creation debts. 570-575, 530-533; 849-851. occurrence never doubted. comparable problem, consideration implies existence [424 46, ]; 408-410 (1977)." spending," analysis. guilty misrepresentation asserted speaking. equivalent, John Rockefeller (though himself) Just Rockefeller, states: "Sec. 54. Except exceptions subsections (3) 55, loans volunteer services pursuant 4(3)(a). "(4) preclude joint qualification, passage, question. subsection act." 169.254 provides: 6. 'Expenditure' "(2) Expenditure transfer "(3) include: "(c) establishment, committee. "(d) broadcasting." 169.206 9(1) 9. 'Independent expenditure' 169.209(1) 2, 54(5) "(5) knowingly punished fine $5,000.00 imprisoned years, both, fined $10,000.00." 169.254(5) objective imprecise. noted, "inference" 169.206(3)(c) chill

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