Document: 376 U.S. 681 84 S.Ct. 984 12 L.Ed.2d 23 UNITED STATESv.Ross R. BARNETT et al. No. 107. Argued Oct. 21 and 22, 1963. Decided April 6, 1964. Rehearing Denied June 8, See 377 973, 1642. Archibald Cox, Sol. Gen., Leon Jaworski, Houston, Tex., for the United States. Malcolm B. Montgomery Charles Clark, Jackson, Miss., defendants. Mr. Justice CLARK delivered opinion of Court. 1 This proceeding in criminal contempt was commenced by States upon specific order, sua sponte, Court Appeals Fifth Circuit. oss Barnett, Governor State Mississippi at time this action arose,1 Paul Johnson, Jr., Lieutenant Governor, stand charged with willfully disobeying certain restraining orders issued, or directed to be entered, that court. Barnett Johnson moved dismiss, demanded a trial jury filed motions sever strike various charges. The Appeals, being evenly divided on question right trial, has certified question2 under authority 28 U.S.C. § 1254(3), 330 F.2d 369. We pass only issue decide alleged contemners are not entitled as matter right. 2 is aftermath efforts James Meredith, Negro, attend University Mississippi. Meredith sought admission 1961 and, refusal, suit District Southern 202 F.Supp. 224. That court denied relief, but reversed grant relief prayed for. v. Fair, 5 Cir., 305 343. mandate stayed direction single judge whereupon, July 27, 306 374, set aside stay, recalled mandate, amended reissued it, including its own injunctive order 'enjoining compelling' Board Trustees, officials all persons having knowledge decree admit school. On following day entered separate supplemental 'injunctive order' directing same parties refrain from any act discrimination relating his continued attendance. By terms, remain effect 'until such there been full actual compliance good faith each said (Meredith) * *.' After series further delays, injunction September 13, 1962, members Trustees register Meredith. 3 When it became apparent decrees might honored, applied 18 permission appear case. application granted terms: 4 'IT IS ORDERED designated authorized participate amicus curiae proceedings before reason mandates 28, subsequently thereto, also accord benefit views recommendations, submit pleadings, evidence, arguments briefs initiate proceedings, court, may appropriate maintain preserve due administration justice integrity judicial processes States.' Meanwhile, Mis issippi Legislature had adopted an emergency measure attempt prevent attending University, 20, Government's application, enforcement Act enjoined, along two state barring Meredith's registration. rebuffed gain admission. Both he citing Chancellor, Registrar Dean College Liberal Arts. hearing they were acquitted ground stripped them powers agent Board. 6 then show-cause against based dated 28. An en banc held which indicated ready 24 requiring revoke appointing agent. required Registrar, Robert Ellis, available 25 7 evening 24, ancillary Fair litigation seeking temporary Mississippi, Attorney General Commissioner Public Safety lesser officials. specifically implemented State's policy massive resistance court's orders, personal action, well use agencies, frustrate destroy same; Governor's would result immediate irreparable injury States, consisting impairment processes, obstruction deprivation declared rights Constitution laws basis allegations instance sole moving party behalf, issued 8:30 a.m. 25th these performing acts out therein interfering obstructing means 13. Thereafter verified showing afternoon 'having (the order), deliberately prevented H. entering office when Ellis conduct Ross did wilfully interfere obstruct enjoyment Court's 1962 violation terms day.' him 26, similar 29. after hearing, found civil placed custody pay fine $10,000 recalcitrance, unless purged himself October 2. next panel $5,000 day. 8 30, President Kennedy proclamation commanding engaged courts 'cease desist therefrom disperse retire peaceably forthwith.' 3497, 76 Stat. 1506. Executive Order, 11053, dispatching force Marshals detachment armed forces enforce orders. accompanied Marshals, into dormitory campus registered Although rioting broke out, soon restored, some casualties, carried studies continuous guard until graduation. 9 November 15, appointed assistants prosecute pursuant Rule 42(b) Federal Rules Criminal Procedure. General, Appeals' 25, It arises. 10 As we have said, us whether consider without prejudice other contentions interposed case indication their merits. I. 11 First Congress Judiciary 1789 conferred federal power 'to punish imprisonment, discretion courts, contempts cause 83. undisputed gave discretionary known common law. In re Savin, 131 267, 275—276, 699, 701, 33 L.Ed. 150 (1889). 1831, unsuccessful impeachment Judge Peck,3 restricted inflict summary punishment misbehavior 'in presence so near thereto justice,' officers official matters, disobedience person lawful writ, process, rule, decree, command courts. March 2, c. 99, 487, 488. These provisions now codified 401 material difference.4 proceeded section. claim, however, limited 1914 §§ 21, 22 Clayton Act, 38 738—740, 402 3691. sections guarantee arising 'of district Columbia,' provided complained constitutes offense State. But provides requirement does apply 'contempts committed brought prosecuted name of, behalf same, cases embraced section punished conformity prevailing usages law.' 402. Procedure thereafter down procedural requirements actions, providing '(t)he defendant provides.' 13 proceed consideration claim statutes II. 14 first contend record clearly shows invoked taken source duplicating obtained real interest Court, solely purpose by-passing depriving jury. find no evidence this. Indeed, jurisdiction over appeal, acted appeal frustrated. 15 Next contended since remanded Court.5 certificate do irregularities below, premature.6 16 assert applicable. They urge gives those 'any include Columbia. argue must constru d Courts avoid manifest Due Process Clause Amendment prohibits comply Privileges Immunities Art. IV, Constitution. persuaded. At adopted, general Columbia 'Supreme Columbia' rather than Moreover, inferior municipal police called 'District Sessions.' Since none included designation States,' insertion necessary adapt bill nomenclature hardly possible suppose House, where phrase inserted explanation, somehow language reversing decision exclude appellate requirements.7 shown legislative history discussed Senate, 51 Cong.Rec. 14414, made explicit 'applies courts; now.' 17 Nor can conclude here construed founded violations Appeals. specifies three injunctions violated, i.e., original one admission; aforesaid generally embodied terms; contemners. is, first, superseded earlier significance added nothing except supersession, retained jurisdiction. significance, principal contemners' contemptuous predicated. will limit charge Secondly, that, motion includes 3691 make necessary. anomalous jury, rendered impotent offensive behavio happens well. unable attribute intent award favored treatment who instead one.8 III. Finally, urged constitutional trial.9 rejected again again. Only six years ago review Green 356 165, 78 632, 672 (1958). statements long unbroken line decisions involving ranging establish beyond peradventure subject right.' 183 U.S., 643 S.Ct., 672. accuracy historical error. always law land, both federal, courts—except precluded statute—have summarily matters. There were, course, enacted Colonies trivial specific, limited, instances. Some concerned minor officers. Others offenses swearing failure witness juror answer summons. 19 cannot standard permitting exercise classified trivial. short contention shall 'punish same.'10 remembered legislation men familiar new Madison passage House five eight Senate Committee recommended adoption, delegates Constitutional Convention 1787. Annals 18, 812—813. asserted limitation inferred fact subsequent contempts. our inquiry concerns adoption Constitution, score more later. early ferreted support theory powers, offenses.11 contrary, 1801 Duane, Fed.Cas. page 920, 14,997, significant language: 20 'But though discretion, far inclination crush you, oppressive fine, lasting imprisonment. (Emphasis supplied.) hope believe offences kind future conviction destructive tendency, assurance possess resolution them.' 922. Following holding least 50 disposition contempts, r ference distinction seriousness offense. list margin.12 true 1957 penalties imposed reaching increased appreciably. settle questions imposed. And reference cases, interesting note recognized enforced 100 Watson Williams, 36 Miss. 331 (1858), celebrated cited approval many jurisdictions Ex parte Terry, 128 289, 303, 77, 79, 32 405 (1888), Debs, 158 564, 595, 900, 910, 39 1092 (1895). just year decided Green, supra, approved, Young State, 230 525, 528, 93 So.2d 452 (1957), previous 'overwhelming weight (contempt) defendants) trial.' O'Flynn 89 850, 862, 43 So. 82, 83, L.R.A.,N.S., 1119.13 few cases. 1812 '(c)ertain implied necessarily nature institution. To contempt—imprison contumacy—inforce observance Hudson & Goodwin, Cranch 32, 34, 259. 276, 150, Harlan writing said: '(W)e doubt (in transactions process), remains, 1831 *. was, effect, adjudged Terry (supra, 304, 405).' Eilenbecker 134 31, 424, 801 (1890), order. Miller 'If ever understood according it. attributes—one incident justice—that should vindicating dignity, enforcing protecting itself insult, necessity calling assist power.' 426 1895 Brewer 1092, leading wrote: 26 'Nor invasion (T)he carries equal been, immemorial, special function technical rule. compel obedience inquire thereof. another tribunal, operate deprive half efficiency.' 594—595 910 1092. 27 Holmes equally authoritative Shipp, 203 563, 319 (1906), upheld 'The question,' 'naturally, abstract proposition, as, could success. Robinson, Wall. 505, 510, 205, 207; 302, 303 (9 405.)' 572 166 319. He emphasized party. affects judges persons. Their concern obeyed enforced, represent every case.' 574 167 Shipp testimony commissioner, 214 386, 471, 29 637, 53 1041. argument defendants guilty, 1041, sentenced prison, 215 580, 30 397, 54 337. Mr wrote field 1914, Gompers 233 604, 34 693, 58 1115, what left implicit supra: view past acts, secure future; repetition say sort only, further, court.' 606 693 1115. 'It place crimes, because, although punishable imprisonment therefore, if infamous, within protection Amendments giving follow class rather, offenses, because gradually worked fought thought extend 610 695 31 1919 Chief White Hudgings, 249 378, 337, 63 656, restated principle words: 'Existing limits sanctioned controlled limitations modes accusation methods safeguarding citizen. (The) performance duties end preservation secured.' 383 339 656. utherland Michaelson 226 42, 45 69 162 (1924), upholding constitutionality contained 3691, '* narrow scope, dealing thing constituting crime ordinary sense. deal justice, express carefully defined. Neither think purports reach refusal affirmatively decree—that something commands If statute extended excluded different serious arise.' 66 266 162. 35 adherence prior adjudication blind inflexible readiness correct errors even standing. Still, constellation eminent jurists century half's span teach contradiction law, overrule statement High Errors 105 perhaps urgent today:14 imprison contempt, earliest jurisprudence, regarded exist judge. inherent record, coexisting wise A effectually protect assaults lawless, judgments, recusant disgrace legislation, stigma age invented country, derive people, hold trust security benefit. elected authority, double sense, directly them; people themselves, exercised through agents. emanating sit enforce. Contempts laws, insults offered humble agents whom employ government. lawless offender, decency propriety, respect (a duty citizen yields hearty obedience, compulsion) exist, last restraint upright, need restraint, license offenders, subdue.' 341—342 37 therefore answered negative. Question APPENDIX TO OPINION OF THE COURT Appendix contains relevant punishments ontempt colonial extensive, purport exhaustive. Research period hampered complete reports most nineteenth century. Reports sparse, particular importance study, citations usually either appealable appealed. 40 Numerous observations concerning forth here.1 For present purposes, determination extending misconduct. Rather, appears quite applicable contempt2 type CONNECTICUT. 41 Code 1650, compilation Connecticut, 'that whosoever doth dissorderly speake privately, during sitting courte, neighbour' pence 'if courte thinke meett,' revealed secrets forfeit pounds 'and bee otherwise dealt withall, 1650 (1822 ed.), 40. decreed '(t)hat defame sentences magistrates sentence passed, thereof lawfully convicted generall magistrates, punnished fyne, disfranchisement, bannishment, quality offence deserve.' Id., 69. provision forward Conn.Laws 1673 (1865 41, Conn.Acts Laws (1796 142. 42 'Act Delinquents' Person Persons Examiantion Trial Delinquency, Examination aforesaid, Presence Words Actions behave contemptuously disorderly, Assistant, Punishment suitable Nature Offence. Provided, Minister (justice peace, whose c iminal 'the Penalty exceed Sum Seven Dollars') Offenders Imprisonment, binding Peace Behaviour County putting Stocks, exceeding Hours, imposing Fine, Five Dollars.' Conn. Acts 143. Connecticut able 1824 edition statutes: person, shall, words him, judged reasonable: minister greater seven dollars, nor longer term month; hundred months.' Conn.Pub.Stat.Laws, 1821 (1824 118—119. 'all ascertained course Huntington McMahon, 48 174, 196 (May Term, 1880). Accord, William Rogers Mfg. Co. Rogers, 121, 123 (February 1871). 44 commitment $200, refuse perform accept service writ habeas corpus. 219—220. Records Particular between 1639 1663 reveal several proceedings: 1639, Thomas Gridley 'Censured whipt Hartford bound behavior' for, inter alia, using 'contempteous Colony 1639—1663, 5. Enoch Buck fined shillings 'for irregular speeches Court' 1648. 60. 1654, Will Taylor prison unspecified length 'Contemtuous Carriage Courte 128. John Sadler ordered imprisoned 1655 'Contemptuous Carrage Magistrates 152. 1657, disorderly carriage 187. 1663, 'defameing thereof,' Edward Bartlet about days give behavior. 269. records indicate fines forfeitures, shillings, pence, four pounds, nonappearing jurors 1647 1654. (E.g., Sherwood contempte appeareing att uppon summons,' id., 47.) 46 1796, Zephaniah Swift, chief Superior contempt: tho justices unlimitted (emphasis supplied), yet deemed authorize capital punishment. supposed corporal suited offence, principles II System (1796), 374. 47 1823, Swift added: 'When presence, definite manner prescribed statute: till Digest Connect cut (1823), 359. DELAWARE. 49 Delaware contempt. Two statutes, apparently passed part eighteenth century, maximum types offenses: Jurors refused up shillings; spoke derogation judgment rudeness misdemeanor while session pounds. Del.Laws (1797 117, 120. 1739 1740 drunkenness, (and) blasphemy' convicted3 using, arrest 'abusive, reviling threatning (any) 174. 1852 fully 'as king's bench, pleas, exchequer England, do.' Del.Rev.Stat. (1852 317. 1818, Kent Supreme '(f)or offender require sureties behavior.' Patterson Blackiston, Del.Cases, 1792 1830 (Boorstin), 571, 573. GEORGIA. Our research uncovered Georgia enactment 1799 witnesses neglected appear. Section XX attachment $300. XLIV $40 grand $20 petit jurors. Ga.Digest 210, 215. 52 $10 amount defaulting peace. Ga.Laws, 1801—1810 (1812 17. 1811 mention $2 days. 1811—1819 (1821 ed.) 378. reported Noel, T.U.P.Charlt. (1805—1810) (1806). mayor marshal City Savannah $50 respectively failing suspend Council proceedings. 1807 White, 123, 136 (1807), 'inflict authority.' No Helvenston, R.M.Charlt. (1811—1837) (1820), $5 talked MARYLAND. 55 Maryland statutory chancery. 1785 rules chancery disobedience, non-performance non-observance, rule chancellor wherein incurred, sum ten current money performed paid Kilty's Md.Laws, 1800, LXXII, XXII. 56 Three failed summoned clear treated 1715 duly served process default fail appear, 'shall provincial thousand tobacco *' county tobacco. I Dorsey's 1692—1839 (1840 20. Another 'make time, governing regulating seem meet (and with) fit, 24. 57 1782 altered. sufficient excuse, neglect thirty-five money.' 1799, XL. around Stone, Har. McH. 115 (1792). associate costs refusing recognize certiorari them. 59 Archives report Provincial 1658 1675. Rousby attorneys speak proper turns. Arch.Md. LXV, 585 (1675). 400 thus causing clients suffer nonsuits. (1674). attorney, admitted falsified disbarred practice. (1672). 60 court: 500 abusive LIV, 566 (1673); 300 wearing hat presence. 146 (1658); taking God vain LIII, (1660); insolent (1652). Between 1671 1674 response summonses. Each 23, 29, 40, 45, 141, 203, 246, 314. 61 MASSACHUSETTS. 62 Massachusetts Bay Plymouth 1641 Court4 put bail, crimes Capital, open expresse allow it.' Mass.Laws Liberties (1648 Prior 1648 'Fine, Disfranchisement Bannishment' 'lawfully convict'5 Assistants defaming magistrate 36. 1665 'Prophanation Sabbath, Contempt Neglect Gods Publick Worship, Reproaching Laws, Authority Established Mass.Colonial La s, 1660 (1889 232. 'by Behaviour' disturbing peace sentence. Compact Charter New (1836 249. Fines serve (40 shillings), (10 (20 shillings). 263, 192 (Acts 1671, 1681). 64 1692 cursing peace—five curse (or hours stocks pay) stocks). Mass.Bay (1726 9. Various established 1698, 1711, 1784, 1784),6 shillings),7 shillings).8 65 Many Assistants9 Colony, 1630—1692, these, severe inflicted. example, 1675 Maurice Brett Contemptuous Confronting hour ear nailed pillory. hour, off given lashes. Assistants, 57. Also: 1643, Elizabeth Vane pleasure abusing (she released petition acknowledgment), 132; 1637 Greene paid, told come 'upon paine speaking magistrates,' 71; 1633 Captain Stone prohibited returning leave government 'under penalty death' officer assaulting 'A asse,' 35; 1630 1631 Foxe whipped saying hadd bribe,' 12; 1634 Lee officer) false-hearted knave hard-hearted heavy friend,' 43; 1638 Starr enjoined acknowledge fault week 73; Katherine Finch Churches, 76; 1659 Robbinson lashes whole governor, III 68. addition, show: 1632 Dexter bilboes (device used sea, land), disfranchised reproachfully finding 30; (including pick men's purses), 49; 1636 'certeine seditious opprobrious speaches, wee rebells, traytors' ('wee' probably referring court), 63; Shorthose slighting speeches, 81; 1640 George Hurne irons) carriage, 93. reflected records. considered 1686 Samuell Shrimpton indicted denying government, tumult 'breach Majesty's Government.' 299. 67 1635 Endecott protesting submission acknowledgment. Haskins, Law Early Massachusetts, 207. Suffolk 1680 1698 periods 'contemptuous Farnum (1681), Inferiour Pleas (Suffolk Court), 1680—1698, 111; Jones (1685), Pynchon Record, 1639—1702, reveals instances Colonial Western 243, 271, 288. 68 1772, Judicature savagely snatching papers opponent's hand. Thwing Dennie, Quincy's Reports, 338. 1767 '(t)o Man King's Offender Loss Hand Imprisonment Life,' implying summarily. 245. NEW HAMPSHIRE. 70 existing Hampshire toward 1791 attach reasonable excuse offered, much allowed N.H.Laws (1792 96. 105. 71 house representatives, senate, governor council. administer days' (1815 10. JERSEY. 72 Apparently existed Jersey 1798 small causes, controversy $60. less $1. N.J.Rev.Laws (1800 legislature circuit fine. 395. Chancery matters rules, chancery, fifty dollars' confined complied paid. 434. 73 Common Right East contemner Contemner know sat, sat King resisted constable took custody. Case Lewis Morrice, Journal Jersey, 1683—1702, 311. 74 YORK. 75 Perhaps York Privileges, Assembly 1683. Hamlin Baker, Province York, 1691—1704, 147. broad assuring trials numerous stating freeman imprisoned, deprived freehold liberty exiled peers. However, exception mayor, recorder alderman placed, manner, hour. N.Y.Laws, (1887 54. Then, 1829, fairly comprehensive enacted, designating actions constituted limiting $250 jail. N.Y.Rev.Stat., 1828—1835 77 York. One notable occurred Peter Zenger 1735. During preliminary stages Zenger's exceptions position judges' commissions defective Cosby 'at pleasure' 'during exceptions, instead, lawyers legal stated: Alexander Smith farther practice names struck roll Court.' Buranelli, Zenger, 89; see Alexander, Brief Narrative 53—55. mentioned Goebel Naughton, Enforcement Colon al 200 1763 1764 questions. 243. 1717 Oyer Terminer affronted Justices. 606. 1729 'privately victuals jury.' Ibid. 79 post-colonial worthy mention, Yates, Johns. 317 (1809). Chancery, forged sent jail 'there corpus valid form discharge anyone forcing Yates Thus, 80 NORTH CAROLINA. 81 1868, North Carolina contempts: 1741 carrying profanely N.C.Pub.Acts, 1715—1790 (Iredell, 1804 52; 1777 nonappearance witnesses, N.C. (Potter, 298; 1779 fining superior 'bystanders' 279; 1783 changing establishing 'talismen,' 332. 82 1868 1869. Statutes 1868—1869, 177, Battle's Revisal N.C.Pub.Stat. (1873 257. 83 PENNSYLVANIA. Pennsylvania 1713, orphans' Pennsylvania, default, Justices send attachments warrants, cognizable body, sequestration lands goods, equity Pa.Laws, 1700—1781 (1810 84. 85 creating Equity,' 'exercise hereby singular premises, amply intents purposes whatsoever, Bench, pleas Westminster, them, do'10 'correct omissions neglects, favors, corruptions defaults sheriffs, coroners, clerks respective counties.' Pa.Stat. Large, 1712—1724 (1896 66—67. equity, 'like thereupon, hath like Great Britain t 86 1722, 'An Establishing Province.' VI persons, premises amply, 303. 87 1809. commonwealth misconduct officers, parties, 'only court; only.' Pa.Laws 1808 1812, 55—56. 88 Feree Strome, Yeates (1793), Nisi Prius Lancaster County. 'He reprimanded conduct, asserted, conceive subpoenaed, dismissed .' Respublica Oswald, Dall. 343 (319), 155 (1788), levied month published article. passing 'some difficulty arisen sentence; hand, informed your circumstances, seen conduct: circumstances small, great persisted in. Since, seems resolve this, you bend determine former 353 publisher Bayard Passmore, 438, 441 (1802). appearance posting $300 admonished 'consider well, atonement gross injury.' later days, 442. 90 Quarter Sessions Bucks County, 1684—1700, attachments. Coverdale coming drunk. (At 111.) Nine apiece summoned. 391.) others 211.) Richard Thatcher bench. 100, 198, 208.) produce behavior 101, 199, 91 RHODE ISLAND. 92 Rhode Island way back 1729, bring impose R.I.Laws (1798 206. dates, $5. 185. disclosed very Island. Trials Providence Plantations 1670. post bond sterling R.I.Court Records, 1647—1662, 51. 1662—1670, 58. 1662 total 16, 19, 35, 73, 77. 94 SOUTH 95 South broader restraints Colony. 1702 plus damages, appeared evidence. S.C.Pub.Stat.Law (Brevard, 1814 1731 reenacted shillings. S.C.Pub.Laws (Grimke, 1790 129, 126. Under permitted misbehaviour contempt' payment made; violence made. 129. affray disturbance court,' sitting, offenders consistent order.' Resolutions S.C. Assembly, December, 1811, 33. 96 Lining Bentham, man accusing partiality abuse power. affirmed 'power commit contempts' dictum 'ought to' indictment. 97 Brev. (1802), woman office, treating threatening him. Charleston 'indispensably requisite' 98 Applegate, McCord 110 (1822), carry duties. ruled discharged, done face reserved 'courts highest jurisdiction.' 99 VIRGINIA. Virginia specifying fines, tobacco, witnesses.11 1788 'guilty Hening's Va.Stat. 746. 1792, changed $30. Va.Acts (1803 101. procedures followed issuing pursuing 66, 90—91. 101 1831. specified categories contempts—misbehavior courts—was categories—violence threats judges, jurors, transactions, order—were limited.12 Supp. Va.Rev.Code (1833 143—144. 102 Virginia, Arthur P. Scott discusses states '(c)ontempt sharply reproved. apology, often furnished. Sometimes prescribed.' 171—172.13 concludes: 'On whole, attitude reasonably moderately. abuse. injured safeguard, outside public opinion, lies character intrusted 103 BLACK, DOUGLAS joins, dissenting. 104 reasons agree opinion. place, never expressly try am unwilling exists absence unequivocal congressional grant. business below. my bad compelled interrupt delay pressing hear adjudicate specially created handle daily work.1 particular, highly disruptive downright injurious take surcharged almost emotional quarrels. Compare, e.g., n. 651, (dissenting opinion). Appellate too useful system subjected unnecessary ordeals. qualified capable others. Assuming, Part Brother GOLDBERG's dissenting commanded accorded His powerful point unanswered Even construing pains, commanded, doubts favor guaranteed Seventh Amendment.2 certainly alert construe 'Trial crimes' secton cl. Article prosecutions' Si th Amendment. 106 flies commands. My belief stated 193, 648, opinion), opinions margin written agreed.3 Bill Rights widely approved throughout nation guaranteeing prosecutions. Subsequent experience confirmed wisdom approval. part, think, knew disapproved happenings sets appendix—cases which, fined, thrown jail, humiliated stocks, whipped, pillory, trials. Unfortunately, points despite safeguards claimed themselves 'inherent' power, acting safeguards, offensive. concentrated crime, guilty. exists.4 Certainly permits it; fact, forbidden idea 'crimes' fiction. doctrine prosecutor, seriously encroaches repudiated. 107 threeyear ambiguous intimates 'severity' already defendants, majority tried allowing constitutionally customarily meted 'petty offenses.'5 welcome halting hopeful step ultimate doubly proclaimed Rights, indictment 108 Whatever scope offenses,' charged, 'petty,' grave indeed. nevertheless, heard Nothing guarantee. high judgment, wipe root branch judge-invented judge-maintained notion jury.6 individuals country done. 109 GOLDBERG, CHIEF JUSTICE join, question, A. STATUTORY RIGHT JURY TRIAL. 111 Defendants 844, entitles accused, demand therefor, jury' whenever consist willful doing omitting thereof, omitted *,' 'committed Unit turns essential factors: (1) order; (2) violation; (3) 'brought prosecuted' 'suit action.' below basic case; 86, (Supp. IV) 1509; action' private follows 112 1. Source Order. 113 January 4, 1963, allegedly violated.1 preventing Appeals') wilful defiance Appeals) 1962.' brief analysis background content understanding problem. 114 requested relief. immediately explicitly forthwith permanent compelling vacated stay aid jurisdiction, injunction,2 '(p)ending herein injunction, ran (defendants,) concert substantially enter. 10, MR. consultation stays Appeals.3 later, declaring 'matter (it) virtue Mandate Circuit BLACK Appeals.4 identical 1962. 116 juncture, id ntical effect: 'preliminary' 1962; 'permanent' alleges injunctions. clear, violated 355 128, 95. Also Costello, 198 200. especially 'permanent.' conviction, BLACK. 117 argued, 'actual admission' University. context preceding attempting finally definitively accomplish concluded, correctly lapse operation substantive desired achieved. Therefore, announced secured. incorporate injunction. operative event unincorporated incorporated become way, assured simultaneously Thus remained admission, defendants' Any allegation proceeding. 118 third accused violating 1962.'5 specifi ally named temporarily restrained active participation them' 'interfering obstructing' committing covered (e.g., instituting Meredith). Defendants, entire 'from related notice facts charged,' 42(b), Fed.Rules Crim.Proc., received derived 119 With obviously unnecessary, Government concede. coverage enjoining defendants), Were so, Barnett's fall, Johnson's violating, 120 prevail sustance, independently bearing trial. 121 sum, replaced here, deciding applicable, 'district 122 effectively conclusion same. negative says affirmative *, added.) wi h defeat Alleged Violation. second dispute here. constitute While assumed 1509.6 124 3. Character Party Which Brought Suit Action. 125 final 126 contends motion, 'action conclusion—that concerned—provides contention. concluding claims formal case, party, 127 assuming, arguendo, independent conclude, does, 'entered authorizing curiae,' authorization. exempt entered' exempts touchstone exemption entered. reading buttressed repea ed references debates suits 'party.' See, 8780, 8785; 9672, 14413, 15946. contends, suit, of: 129 critical prosecuting asserting distinct plaintiff action. 130 sovereign's preserving alone convert traditional 'an (parties),' public. 'customary (depend) outcome file curiae, interests.' Wiener, Briefing Arguing (1961), appoint 'amici justice.' Universal Oil Products Root Rfg. Co., 328 575, 581, 1176, 1179, 1447. serving essentially capacity. Its interest—securing courts' admission—was plaintiff, invited render direction. 132 goes far. 'After all, call amici' own' how insignificant suit. (This evidenced typically sovereign, litigant.) actually potentially) Such would, dead letter. bestow 'right' all. 133 remedial broadly designed afford narrowly category statutes. Accordingly, effectuate purpose, exemptions unduly expanded construction. concedes precise problem involved here—the obtaining violated—'did arise history.' view, inclines applying countervailing considerations, read foregoing satisfies me Court; Congress; States; accordingly, Insofar lingering punishing acce ted analysis, 135 CONSTITUTIONAL rests relied decisions. recent 672, closely Court.7 137 Sixth firmly rooted traditions.' 187, 644, 138 'Against (of Constitution), deviated 'criminal intended contempts.' 186, 139 sources convinces me, justify relatively research, authorities suggests explanation why Constitution: minor; variety including, to, 140 About Time 141 1821, 'known acknowledged imprisonment' Anderson Dunn, Wheat. 204, 228, 242.8 What best contemporary 142 ratified, proviso (for than) hours; dollars.'9 original.) 'be Pounds'; permit contempt.10 close (civil contempt), 'exceeding money.'11 'not pounds.'12 word gesture,' 'strike courts';13 imprisonment.14 143 Within ratification containing codifications practices newly limitations,15 shed additional light 144 dollars.'16 Kentucky '(n)o judge, inflict, inflicted, day, assess quantity duration imprisonment.'17 months.'18 contempts.19 145 Alabama that: 'whereas, penal, safe adequate mode investigation decision, suspended absolute necessity. Be twenty twenty-four hours, imprisonment.'20 147 detailed. proviso: 148 'That intervention therein, ollars, her days: provided, aggravated impannel indictment, information ascertain inflicted aforesaid.'21 149 similarly contempts.22 trivial.23 described 1809 follows: 'There modern times. found. alarm excited existence, extent laid down. tendency times, induce relax, increase severity ancient discipline, extreme moderation Rep. (N.Y.1809) 317, 375—376. And, 1916, Iowa summarized quarter 151 searched precedent clothe visit infamous whatever orderly Flannagan Jepson, 177 393, 400, N.W. 641, 643—644, L.R.A.1918E, 548. 152 Petty Offenses 153 'At commonly corresponding Colonies, workhouse, correction.' Clawans, 617, 624, 660, 662, 843. 154 'Profanely swearing' (punishable 'one dollar,' 'common gaol'); 'excessive spirituous, vinous, strong liquor' (fine dollar, 'gaol');24 (three months workhouse).25 unlicensed physician pounds);26 offering copper coins times value coins, whichever less);27 'drunkenness stocks);28 false pretenses (imprisonment months).29 mother bastard child 'discover' father shillings),30 workhouse).31 improper notes shillings)32 months' imprisonment).33 led Framers) petty offenses.' Schick 195 65, 70, 826, 827, 99. '(e)xcept grade impartial prosecution secures enjoy moment, Callan Wilson, 540, 557, 1301, 1307, 223, penalty' determining respects comparable common-law entitle Constitution.' 625, Recent Years. 156 dramatic Collins 269 745, imposed; Piemonte 367 556, 1720, 1028, Brown 359 539, 609, Nilva 352 385, 431, 415, Levine 362 610, 1038, 989, 157 4. Historical Conclusions. (a) triable penalties, (b) 'petty' justifies imposition reviewed sufficiently account possibility species penalties.34 punished, history.35 evaluated analyzing 'allcrimes' prosecutions.'36 159 Policy Jury. 160 wish with, conditional punishment—commonly referred keys freedom willingness directive. *'37 traditionally maintaining courtroom. Cf. Ungar Sarafite, 841. imposition, fixed nontrivial 161 prosecutions.' coordinate organ government:38 involves 'crime' legislature.39 prompt latter.40 dispose charge, expeditiously cheaply 163 trifling economies abandoning aimed human incalculable value. Cheap, easy convictions primary Rights. Every safeguard purposely difficult convict crimes. scale values occupied economy.' 216, 164 measured 'tests sanction) penal regulatory Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 168, 554, 567, 644. Mendoza-Martinez tests enumerated 165 'Whether sanction disability historically punishment, comes play scienter, promote aims punishment—retribution deterrence, applies alternative rationally connected assignable excessive relation assigned 168—169, S.Ct 568, penalty, 'involves restraint' definition terms. 'regarded punishment' deter defiances vindicate dignity.41 'alternative purpose' suggested existence. Scienter contempt.42 'already crime.'43 justification, differently law), labeled anything else.44 168 C. APPLICATION RULE FACTS THIS CASE. 169 remains specify proved, defy reality assume 'trivial' penalty. Solicitor oral 170 '(T)he array panoply rioting, loss life, troops uphold land 171 'Never citizen.'45 indicates year. 1509. 'Respondents amounts crime.' F.2d, 432. indicia, together grew conduct,46 'trivial.' extraordinarily serious, among Nation's history. Green's contempt—jumping bail—was years, Piemonte's contempt—refusal jury—was half,47 wholly unrealistic standards characterized penalty.48 reasons, remand receive affords defendant. 172 Congress, fundamental jury.49 173 reject 'necessity' argument, independence undermined nullified unsympathetic oft-rejected assertion guilty acquitted. possibility, price chosen cherished liberties. imperative gravest emergencies history, then, exigencies crisis, greatest temptation dispense guarantees feared, inhibit governmental 565, rulers war covers shield classes men, circumstances.' Milligan, 120—121, 281. 174 JUSTI E DISSENTING. APPEALS' ORDER SHOW CAUSE. 175 Dickson al., 19475, briefs, 176 instituted, agents, employees, successors, enrollment Department designate, institute 178 Probable December offices thereby enrolling student authorization Oxford, Jr. Wilfully measures did, direct encourage Highway Patrol, Sheriffs deputy entry day; knowing planned disorders disturbances attended entry, Patrol maintenance interferences obstructions responsibility, influence Mississippi; w 179 IT courtroom Orleans, Louisiana, February 9:30 o'clock a.m., show cause, have, pleading charges means, 180 4th January, ELBERT TUTTLE RICHARD T. RIVES WARREN L. JONES JOHN BROWN MINOR WISDOM GRIFFIN BELL Judges Dissent—BEN F. CAMERON Judge, Dissent—WALTER GEWIN 181 B INJUNCTION ORDER. 182 vacating Ben Cameron, recalling 17, amending reissuing injustice, ordering defendants-appellees plaintiff-appellant, (4) herein. Now issued: 184 Pending plaintiff-appellant attendance students servants, successors assigns, expressly: 185 Ordered applications heretofore filed, continuing applications, or, summer started, September, option, 186 Prohibited attendance, 187 promptly evaluate approve credits withot keeping wih transfers 188 effectiveness 12, G. Hinds agent, issuance instituted 5, charging knowingly secured registration voter resident Attala pending 189 copy defendants-appellees, attorneys, Joseph Patterson, 190 Entered Louisiana 28th July, BROWN, JMW DOZIER DEVANE, 191 C DISTRICT COURT'S GRANTING PERMANENT INJUNCTION. 193 Black setting Cameron steps Circuit, August directions complaint making meaning expressed 'forthwith applications. prohibit feferred excluding Mississippi.' 194 reaffirmed 'All date, continue compliance.' Now, ordered, Howard Institutions Higher Learning Louisville, Euclid Ray Jobe, Secretary Edgar Izard, Hazlehurst, Mississipp ; Lowrey, Olive Branch, Ira Lamar Morgan, Mette Roberts, Hattiesburg, Orlando S. Evans, Greenwood, Verner Holmes, McComb, Napoleon Lipscomb, Macon, Tally D. Riddell, Quitman, Harry Gordon Carpenter, Rolling Fork, Bruce Smith, II, Ripley, dThomas Jefferson Tubb, West Point, Members Learning; Davis Chancellor Beverly Lewis, Arts Byron permanently from: Refusing be, conditions white students; 197 From matriculate in, impair, enter 199 201 discriminating whatsoever race. Marshal ORDERED, 13th MIZE 204 D GOLDBERG. 205 TEMPORARY RESTRAINING 206 enroll 207 appearing Amicus Curiae herein, Joe Birdsong, Lamb, Lafayette J. Gilfoy, Sheriff W. Ford, Rayfield, Police Jones, Walton Constable ng sheriffs counties chiefs consisting* constables town threaten implement Resolution Interposition Legislature, 4065.3 Code, Proclamation invoking interposition prosecutions Meador, Sr., represents, Second Judicial 1501, seek implementing had, 208 marshals 209 Arresting, arrest, statute, ordinance, regulation whatever, attending, attend, 210 Instituting enroll, 211 Injuring, harassing, intimidating 212 Interfering obligations actio , obstructing, force, threat, otherwise, connection prevention arresting, duty. 213 FURTHER Gilfoy arresting Sr. Rel vs. Signed 216 A.M. 1964, expired Governor. 'Where initiated individuals, disobeyed request appointment rights, entitled, demand, changed?' Nelles King, Publication Col.L.Rev. 401, 423—430. 401: 'Power other, as— '(1) Misbehavior justice; '(2) transactions; '(3) Disobedience command.' Busby Electric Utilities Employees Union, 323 72, 75, 142, (1944), 'This issue, resolved certifying way.' instant simply hypothetical squarely presented rejected, lacked 916, 722, 723 (1963), now, foreclosed jurisdictional properly Interpreting precursor Ward Chamberlain, 430, 434—435, (December 1862): 'Such certificate, repeatedly brings certified, 6th act. (N)othing provision, disagreement decision. Ogle Lee, (2 Cran., 33) 198); Perkins Hart's Exr., (11 Whea., 237) (6 463); Bank, (8 How. (586), p. 611.) (12 1209) All suggestions, respecting informality premature remark; inquiries consideration, determined Judges. Wayman Southard, Whea. (1), 21) 253); Saunders Gould, (4 Pet., 392.) (7 897)' sponsor 8778: criticism former, bill) confining juries, met way. little, any, instance, occurred, abuses occur.' Committee, Representative Floyd 8780 Cong.Rec.App. also, S.Rep. 698, 63d Cong., 2d Sess., 18. makes 402, U.S.Const., III, 3; Amend. VI. Contemners IX X. compiled Appendix, 259 (1812); 242 (1821); Kearney, 38, 391 (1822); (October 1873); Orleans Steamship 387, 354 1874); Chiles, 157, 819 (1888); (1889); Cuddy, 280, 703, (1890); Swan, 225, 1207 (1893); Interstate Commerce Comm. Brimson, 447, 1125, 1047 (1894); (1895); Walker, 591, (1896); Lennon, 548, 658, 1110 (1897); Wilson Carolina, 586, 435, 865 (1898); Watts Sachs, 1, 718, 933 (1903); Bessette Conkey 324, 665, 997 (1904); Nelson 92, 358, 673 (1906); Young, 441, 714 (1908); Buck's Stove Range 221 418, 492, 797 (1911); Baglin Cusenier 669, 863 1115 (1914); Toledo Newspaper 247 560, 1186 (1918); 656 (1919); Blair 250 273, 468, 979 Craig Hecht, 263 255, 103, 293 (1923); (1924); Cooke 267 517, 390, 767 (1925); McGrain Daugherty, 273 135, 319, 323, 580 (1927); 276 134, 288, (1928); Sinclair 279 749, 938 (1929); Blackmer 284 421, 252, 375 (1932); Clark 289 465, 993 (1933); Nye 313 33, 810, 1172 (1941); Pendergast 412, 268, 368 (1943); 322 694, 1248, 1542 (1944); Michael, 326 224, 78, (1945); Mine Workers, 258, 677, 884 (1947); Oliver, 333 257, 274, 499, 682 (1948); Fisher Pace, 336 155, 425, 569 (1949); 340 367, 344 (1951); Hoffman 341 479, 814, 1118 Sacher 451, 717 (1952); Offutt 348 11, (1954); Cammer 350 399, 456, 474 (1956); 415 (1957); (1958); 609 (1959); 989 (1960); U 1028 (1961); 841 (1964). irrespective offense, imposed, raised certification, 843 (1937). Justice, 'commonly accepted punishent modified once mild harsh prescribes, adopted.' 627 663 impending effective requires regard offenses. constitution assures 'In Miss.Const., 26. inviolate 31. relevant, rationale general. Further, recently norms present. Professor Zechariah Chafee observed: colonists little favorite method got rid worst executions *; sharp turned loose else sold service. thieves rascals do, cost taxpayers dear, prisoners' relatives support, kept idle community wanted man-power. Consequently, let damages victim, disgraced.' (Mass.) 1671—1680, lxxix. frequently regarded, jurisdictions. jailers, etc., general, 'convicted' preclude 1672, Civil Power' legislation. xxi—xxii. argued convict' required. 278. Mass.Bay: Resolves (1869 335, 374; 254; 1780—1800 (1801 185, 189. non-appearing contempt.' 88. 72. 282—283. consisted depu y-governor, annually magistrates. institutional ancestor 'also functions upper governor's regularly twice appeals Courts, Causes divorce, Capital Causes, Life, Member Banishment." xx—xxi. England 1660: 1,000 23—24, 69; 1734: f 404; 1777: (sterling) costs, Va.Pub.Acts (1785 1788: 748; 1792: $8, 100. Yoder Commonwealth, Va. 823, 833, S.E. 584. is: 'Misbehavior (this) second, third, fourth, fifth general) divided.' 172—173: 1662, Hatton (outside court) fit sit; 1684, humbly justify; 1685, Humphrey Chamberlain standing drawn sword road courthouse ferry repairing breaking out; 1703, Mary Russell she gotten hell devil judge; Colonel Bolling damn justices; 1748, Dunning good. above, practice, sometimes 2284, 291, 292. Dairy Queen, Inc., Wood, 369 469, 894, 44; Beacon Theatres, Westover, 500, 948, 988. Simler Conner, 221, 691. provides: Suits preserved, reexamined McConnell, 370 230, 1288, 434; Murchison, 349 133; 11; 682; 592, 851 (DOUGLAS, J., dissenting); 1726—1727, 620, 1044 1045, opinion); 53, (WARREN, C.J., 76, 396, 437—438, 328, 712—713, (opinion DOUGLAS, JJ.) cited, 'Some Ante, 695. Of 'it obey coercion, directive, remedy centuries decrees. confinement unconditional transgressions crucial, analytically historically, permissible 197—198, 650, 331, stresses heavily deliver property children guardian been. lower 'committing Lowndes keeping, 340. want Holmes: 'I go sharpest decrees, breach deals illegal acts.' 425—426, 566, printed infra, 760, Race Rel.L.Rep. 739 seq. 'preliminary injunction' 'issued' signed Wisdom. 763, 43. 766, 769, 'Whoever, prevents, obstructs, impedes, interferes attempts prevent, obstruct, impede, $1,000 year, both.' 'petitioners (did) (contend) 645, issue. 14,997 (1801): 'We confine ourselves retraced decisions.' Concerning linquents, May 1667, Conn.Pub.Stat.Laws (1808), 231—232. 'imprisonment, behaviour 231. (County annually, terminated, months. title dollars.' 230. 1737. ,1 Del. (1797), 173. number 'drunkenness' (five shillings); 'prophane stocks); blasphemy (two pillory branded forehead letter B, publicly whipt, bare back, thirty-nine on'). 173—174. Nov. 1785, Chapter Md. (Maxcy 1811), 595—596. Feb. 9, 1791, N.H. (1805), (1696—1725), 15. 1731, 552, Grimke's (1790), unclear decisional data suggest Colonies. Mass.Acts (1692—1714), 282—283, 1697, summons; 354—355, Dec. hours') apprehending offender. Matthews, (1639—1702): Record 243 'refusinge summons'; carriage'; 'commanding server summons) sickle *'); Fellowes, 271 (1671) Corte'); Carver, 288 (1678) 'horible Cariage,' threats, striking fist 'saying kill beate Braines etc.'). (Mass.1761—1772), 338 (committed savage Manner attempt(ing) snatch' hands opponent, tearing documents); (1672), 133, publick Worship.' sentenced, Fine Mulcts legally Security neglecting Sentence, Corporally cognizance determine: remitted.' Compare 'Court' ich executive body tribunal (cases ante, 711—712). Maine, promulgated 1649 'shalbe unto Maine 137. 1647, prohibiting 'use (of) officer, execution 'bound behavior, space, following.' 'his peers,' R.I. (1647) 52. Theunis Thew (N.Y.Supreme 1763), questions); Dobbs Paulding 1764), ibid. Mosier Terminer, 1717), ('John (was be) ye Custody weeks affronting Kings Going Hold released, day); Richardson (N.Y.Kings 1693), 605 (unspecified contempt); Tiebout (N.Y.Court Sessions, 1695), Tenbroek 1729), privately jury'); (Pa.1793) ('reprimanded fine' respond subpoena); 343(319), (Pa.1788) publication); Territory Thierry, Martin, O.S. 55(101) (La.1810) 'grossly indecently abusive' U. Charlton's 43, (Ga.1806) (fines of' Court); Priest Bonet (1702), Scott, (1930), fighting court); (1697), (one foreman jury); Matthew Kelley (1773), (fined warrant); (Oct. 1703), (ordered claiming 'received judge'); Harris McHenry's (Md.1792), higher Keene, La. 596, 601 space days,' remember grosser books.' annotation reporter dollars costs.' 596). Monroe Harkness, C.C. (1803), 157—158 cays injunction); Caton, 350, 14,758 (1803) $100 questions, behaving 'insolent manner,' jurors'); Rousby, Proceedings (1675), Arch. LXV speech attorney Cherman, (1660), LIII 'Prophainly takinge god vaine Open Courte'); Jon Seybrey, (1669), LI sixpence summons); Morrice (New Right, 1698), 311 resisting (1801) Emerson, 1012, 15,050 (1831) shouting Carter, 313, 14,740 (1829) $1 witness); Weiberg St. Oloff, 17,357 (1790) 'refusing irons suitor whilst *'). Elmer, N.J.Laws (1838), 59. 1793, Stats. Ky. 301. Apr. 3, 1809, Pa. (1808—1812), N.Y.Rev.Stats. (1829), More extensive Territorial 1807, Aikin's Ala. (1833—1835 Supp.), 87—88. Rev.Code (1833), 144. statute—violence order—was limited. 723. factual disputes cases; oath dismissed, perjury. Curtis Curtis, Story Notion Contempt, Harv.L.Rev. 51, 63—64; Blackstone, Commentaries, 288; Wells Grattan's (Va. 1871), 500. 'Contempt reproved Virginia). 171—172. E.g., Rev.Stats. Mich. (1846), Tit. XXI, 96, pp. 428—430 (30 im- prisonment, fine); Chase, Ohio (1788—1833), 49, 1701—1702 $200); (1850—1851), 1600, 237 day's Wis.Rev.Stats. (1849), 87, 439 Mo.Rev.Stats. (1835), Mar. 7, 1835, 58, Minn.Terr.Rev.Stats. (1851), 456 (six Miss.Stats. (1840), 486 committed'; annually; Thomson's Fla. (1847), 3d Div., I, 321 Ark.Stats. (1837), 234—235 Revisal, Pub.Stats. (1873), 257 $250); Vt. (1824), $200). (Feb. 1799), amend revise State,' 'a witness' (1851) 647, 14, XXVII, $2, 14. Elmer's N.J.Law 1798, 8—11, 588, 589. Paterson's N.J. (1800) 410. 329, 333. N.Y. (1760) 455. 1787 (N.Y.), 97. (1708) 617. cc. 47. 1752 Md.Sess.Laws, 1777, Va.Stats. Sess.) 8; 59; Sess.), 48, 209—210, 657, BLACK): understand maintained manifested embed threatened confident inkling sweeping far-ranging fair fellow citizens provoked storm protest, mildly. Would friend foolhardy enough floor ratifying convention dozen possibility?' 'historical error' 190, 202, 643, 646, 653, 'error' English American centuries. prepared overturn Here legitimated phenomenon. foundation Republic aware isolated attention year); Hill ex rel. Weiner, 105, 347, 537 years). 1957, years); (15 months); (18 months). correcting fundamental, manifested, analogous situation sale taxation liquor. liquor tax. 1712—1713, 195, (five-pound 1719, 239, (20-shilling 1756 (20-pound liquor, 1781, (10-pound 1757 (30-shilling selling above fixed, 1718, 235 (40-shilling minors slaves, 1721, 244, offense); Md.Laws 1735, XXXIX 292 (10-shilling places, (1768), 1380 fine). severely laws. Workers America, 330—332, 713—714, concurring Instead, stake validity long, BLACK). Goldfarb, Power 49—67. 'Under merely agencies sovereign directive guiding citizen's activity. perceive places plane regulations insofar concerned. Unfortunately contrary gospel truth.' 218—219, 661, enactment. concurred Brandeis). 283—285. Rice, 217. A, 761. crime. 729, 735—736. juncture Respondent sixty engaging secondhand license, 'punishable ninety days.' 623, unanimous noted '(i)f, simpler. So, say, jail.' held, 'cannot trivial.' App.D.C. 265, 268. pre-Revolutionary admissible, much.' 627—628, 663, cautioned: expression vary generation generation. change abandonment lash assume, 627, 369, 393. Governer time. supra. depends convicted, raising issues, convictions.

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