Document: 521 U.S. 457117 S.Ct. 2130138 L.Ed.2d 585 Dan GLICKMAN, Secretary of Agriculture, Petitioner,v.WILEMAN BROTHERS & ELLIOTT, INC., et al. No. 95-1184. Supreme Court the United States Argued Dec. 2, 1996. Decided June 25, 1997. Syllabus * Respondents, California tree fruit growers, handlers, and processors, initiated administrative proceedings challenging validity various regulations contained in marketing orders promulgated by Agriculture under Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act 1937 (AMAA). Congress enacted AMAA to establish maintain orderly agricultural-commodity conditions fair prices; program, which is expressly exempted from antitrust laws, displaces competition favor collective action discrete markets regulated. set uniform prices, product standards, other for all producers a particular market; must be approved two-thirds affected producers; are implemented committees appointed Secretary; impose assessments on expenses their administration, including advertising promotion. The at issue assessed respondents for, inter alia, cost generic nectarines, plums, peaches. After Department upheld regulations, sought review this action, was consolidated with enforcement actions brought Secretary. District entered judgment Secretary, but Ninth Circuit held that government-enforced contributions pay violated respondents' commercial speech rights test forth Central Hudson Gas Elec. Corp. v. Public Serv. Comm'n N. Y., 447 557, 566, 100 2343, 2351, 65 341. Held: requirement finance does not violate First Amendment. Pp. ____-____. (a) Respondents' claimed disagreement content some has no bearing entire program. invalidated program because Government failed prove such more effective than individual increasing consumer demand fruits. factual assumption may most method promote these commodities neither accepted nor rejected Court, instead stresses importance statutory context question arises. Under AMAA, detailed have displaced many aspects independent business activity characterizing portions economy fully protected laws. Business entities compelled fund as part broader enterprise regulatory scheme already constrains freedom act independently. It considers whether standard appropriate economic regulation or heightened Amendment standard. (b) erred relying constitutionality market order promotional advertising. Three characteristics distinguish it laws found abridge free speech. First, restraint any communicate message audience. Second, they do compel anyone engage actual symbolic Cf., e.g., West Virginia Bd. Ed. Barnette, 319 624, 632, 63 1178, 1182, 87 L.Ed. 1628. Third, endorse political ideological views. Wooley Maynard, 430 705, 97 1428, 51 752. Indeed, since fruits, presumed agree central generated Thus, none Court's jurisprudence supports suggestion should scrutinized different applicable orders' anticompetitive features. criticisms contention reduce sums use conduct own provide basis concluding accurate constitutes an abridgment anybody's right speak freely. Nor forbid financial Abood Detroit Ed., 431 209, 1782, 52 261, cases follow it, prohibit expressive activities conflict one's belief. here disagree. fact prefer foster ways make case comparable those involving disagreement. Moreover, relevant suggest lawful used nonideological over objection members group if germane purpose association justified. See, Keller State Bar Cal., 496 1, 13-14, 110 2228, 2235, 1. This clearly satisfied (1) unquestionably purposes and, (2) event, activities. Although wisdom questioned, its debatable features insufficient warrant special scrutiny. (c) Circuit's decision apply inconsistent very nature issue. rests volatile agricultural public will best served compelling cooperation among making decisions would made independently market. reviewing regulation, enjoys same strong presumption accords policy judgments Congress. Appropriate respect Congress' power regulate interstate commerce provides abundant support constitutionality. Generic intended stimulate regulated That legitimate consistent goals overall scheme. mere one wish sufficient reason judges override majority participants, bureaucrats, legislators programs beneficial. 58 F.3d 1367, reversed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. SOUTER, filed dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA, joined, THOMAS, joined except Part II. Alan Jenkins, Washington, DC, petitioner. Thomas E. Campagne, Fresno, CA, respondents. Justice STEVENS Court. 1 A number processors fruits (respondents) proceeding challenge Agriculture. cover administering orders, presented us law "abridging speech'' within meaning 2 (AMAA), ch. 296, 50 Stat. 246, amended, 7 U.S.C. §601 seq., prices commodities. §602(1). pursuant species markets; §608b. Collective rather aggregate consequences competitive choices, characterizes markets. In "to avoid unreasonable fluctuations supplies prices,'' §§602(4), include mechanisms price market,1 limit quality quantity commodity marketed, §§608c(6)(A),(7), determine grade size commodity, §608c(6)(A), disposition surplus might depress ibid. Pursuant collective, marketing, also authorize joint research development projects, inspection procedures ensure quality, even certain standardized packaging requirements. §§608c(6)(D), (H), (I). specific projects undertaken serve interests cooperating producers, "paid funds collected order.'' §§608c(6)(I), 610(b)(2)(ii). 3 either who least volume commodity. §608c(9)(B). restricts smallest regional production areas . practicable.'' §608c(11)(b). composed handlers recommend rules governing matters maturity levels. CFR §§916.23, 916.62, 917.25, 917.30 (1997). committee determines annual rate services, research, §§916.31(c), 917.35(f). 4 Among authorized "any form promotion paid advertising.'' §608c(6)(I).2 activities, like themselves, producers' common interest disposing output favorable terms. "California Summer Fruits'' wholesome, delicious, attractive discerning shoppers. See App. 530. All advertising, insofar statute Secretary's designed handlers' promoting sale product.3 II 5 litigation Order 916, regulates nectarines grown California, 917, originally peaches, pears, plums California.4 1966 amendment former see 31 Fed.Reg. 8177, series amendments, beginning 1971, latter each commodities, 36 14381 (1971); 41 14375, 17528 (1976).5 provisions relating pears now being challenged, thus we our discussion 6 Respondent Wileman Bros. Elliott, Inc., large producer packs well farmers. 1987, after encountering problems varieties minimum standards refused petition standards. 1988 second amendments regulations. Administrative Law Judge (ALJ), two separate explained total 769 pages, ruled Procedure (APA) issues, without resolving claims. Brief Opposition 393a.6 comparably decision, Judicial Officer entirely reversed ALJ. Wileman, along 15 then Officer's filing §608c(15)(B). collect withheld were proceeding. Acting cross-motions summary judgment, both $3.1 million past due against handlers. Appeals challenged violative APA challenge, record substantial evidence justifying original advertising7 continuation explained: 8 "The Nectarine Committee Peach Commodity careful process year prior during spring meetings approving upcoming season. Prior full meeting, Subcommittee Advertising Promotion meets detail developed staff. staff turn uses monthly reports trends, interests, general formation proposed 9 10 " [I]t only through committees, budget component renewed every year. fact, years recommendations been unanimous. We cannot assume handlers-the parties firsthand knowledge state industry-would adverse effect businesses. Of course, voting always coincide handler industry. However, court previously noted "upheld system despite produce results growers disagree.' Saulsbury Orchards Almond Processing, Inc. Yeutter, 917 F.2d 1190, 1197 (9th Cir.1990) (citing Rock Royal Coop., 307 533, 59 993, 83 1446 (1939)).'' Espy, 1375-1376 (C.A.9 1995) (footnote omitted). 11 concluded, however, government enforced Relying earlier had cited 261 (1977), Cal-Almond, Dept. 14 429 1993), began stating "First includes render others' speech.'' Bros., F.3d, 1377. reviewed "the restrictions out 566 [100 341] (1980).''—Id., 1378. enhancing returns peach nectarine substantial, persuaded passed third "prongs'' Hudson. With former, though "undoubtedly'' increased sales, did so effectively individualized concluded "narrowly tailored'' give credit place.8 12 Appeals' claim Third beef Beef Research 1985, §§2901-2911. Frame, 885 1119, 1136, 1137 (C.A.3 1989). Characterizing "legislation furtherance ideologically neutral interest,'' id., 1137, noting "Cattlemen's Board develop campaign defendant himself chosen market,'' plaintiff's objections advertising,9 violation his rights. 13 granted certiorari resolve conflict, 517 ----, 116 1875, 135 171 (1996), reverse. III Appeals, relied, part, 1377, n. 6. merit aspect claim,10 rely conclusion unconstitutional. Rather, theory could survive holding depend message. continued argue about messages, arguments, while perhaps calling into administration program.11 For analysis, accept reject underlying invalidation program-namely legal address raises resolve, simply Executive resolve. 16 answering stress peaches marketed characterize constrained consider together issues. IV 17 audience.12 person speech.13 views.14 engaged presume orders. 18 Respondents advance several arguments required violates impinge amount money available equally true, employee benefits, fees, order. never construed require scrutiny burden incidental constraining firm's budget. indirectly lead reduction handler's itself restriction 19 recognizing expansive argument, extent apparently argument infringe constitute Our law, inapplicable here. repeat objectional mouths, cf. 1628 (1943), them property convey antagonistic message, 752 Pacific Co. Util. 475 18, 106 903, 912-913, 89 (1986) (plurality opinion), force respond hostile when "would remain silent,'' ibid., publicly identified associated another's PruneYard Shopping Center Robins, 74, 88, 2035, 2044, 64 741 (1980). themselves speak, merely trivial exceptions rely,15 conveys Furthermore, attributed them, Tree Fruit Fruits.'' 20 recognized As read Abood, just prohibits speech, prohibits-at justification government-compelling "render announce broad organization conducts contribute whose "freedom belief.'' U.S., 235, S.Ct., 1799. considered, constitutional Michigan employees objected unions union "agency shop'' arrangement requiring dues condition employment. related bargaining "constitutionally justified legislative assessment important contribution labor relations. Id., 222, 1793. compelled-speech cases, unrelated implicated interfere values lying "heart Amendment[-]the notion believe he will, society beliefs shaped mind conscience coerced State.'' 234-235, 1799; 21 Here, said engender crisis conscience. None promotes encouraging consumers buy fruit. Neither products, think less spent fostering makes rested objectors "does mean [that] complaint.'' Ellis Railway Clerks, 466 435, 456, 104 1883, 1896, 80 428 (1984). 22 suggesting mandatory funding Amendment, affirmative proposition sometimes group. Lehnert Ferris Faculty Assn., 500 507, 111 1950, 114 572 (1991), publications collective-bargaining members, 527-528, 1963-1964, squarely permissible charge Teachers' Voice concern teaching education generally, professional development, unemployment, job opportunities, award , miscellaneous matters.'' 529, 1964. application rule announced further refined (1990), bar 23 pointed Keller, "Abood expend individual's "germane' justified: bargaining. Here integrated State's regulating profession improving services. therefore constitutionally members. not, manner fall outside activity.'' 2236. activities.16 24 greater weight given object earn unregulated factually Similar directed restraints arguably disadvantage benefit market.17 indeed error testing advertising.18 V 25 "directly advance'' stimulating otherwise acting find odd proof assign administrator reflect displacing unrestrained supervised cooperative programs. If there levels, size, features, generate plums. true larger But potential benefits bear directly advances statute's collectivist goals. Independent primarily motivated competitor's maximizing consumption While protects producer's advertise brands, basic underlies illogical, therefore, criticize ground action. 26 On occasion emphasize difference between adjudication. Judges endorsed view Sherman charter liberty,19 naturally approach command competitors participate ventures jaundiced eye. Doubts concerning underlie legislation justify reliance following reasoning. 27 At effective, presumably discontinued.20 Whether answered differently markets, involves exercise better administrators judges. 28 share views others majority, acceptable programs, Perhaps stake adopted endeavor, transform sum, what enjoy accord "do foster'' overriding 29 30 ordered. whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE SCALIA join, THOMAS joins II, dissenting. 32 today finds subsidization principal reasons. discernible element implementation Government's beyond sees "germane'' undoubtedly valid, nonspeech elements event takes position barred saying wishes, subject personal attribution dislikes, unless contains objecting disagrees. I company closely points. legitimacy governmental validate subsidies show reasonably necessary implement reasons falls scope protection likewise justifies subsidizing will. conclude forced payment level judicial communications category. Because fails test, respectfully dissent. 33 nub reading line (1977): 34 "Abood, belief.''' Ante, __ (quoting supra, 1799). 35 certainly proper understanding (and dwell length below), seems me appears readily begin analysis principles law: category, obscenity, placing Amendment's scope, coercion subsidize Even before first Pharmacy Citizens Consumer Council, 425 748, 96 1817, 48 346 (1976), stated protection, [a]ll ideas having slightest redeeming social guaranties [of Amendment],'' Roth States, 354 476, 484, 77 1304, 1308-1309, 1498 (1957). premise later echoed Pharmacy, where asked "is removed exposition ideas, truth, science, morality, arts general, diffusion liberal sentiments Government, lacks protection.'' 762, 1826 (citations internal quotation marks answer, no. 37 What stood unimportance consumer's receiving information, 763-764, 1826-1827, speaker's wares. [W]e advertiser's purely one. hardly disqualifies him Amendment.'' 1826. long self-interest providing supply informed demand, treat "utterly importance'' isolate exclusive touchstone protection. 38 one-dimensional. value truthful representation offered central, advertising's persuasive function cognizable, too. Like meant promotions objective information product's availability price; exploit emotional techniques modern ad messages often far simple proposals sell fruit.1 "Speech capacity complex substance, yielding insights interpretations depending upon identity listener reader transmission expression why so-called become essential discourse secures.'' Florida Went It, 515 618, 636, 115 2371, 2382, 132 541 (1995) (KENNEDY, dissenting). Since persuasion ingredient considerable effort, rhetoric written off devoid can inform. distinctly lower inextricable linkage transaction "may [the government] concomitant itself,'' Edenfield Fane, 507 761, 767, 113 1792, 1798, 123 543 (1993) (citation omitted); 44 Liquormart, Rhode Island, 1495, 1506, 134 711 (1996) (opinion J.). considerations nothing moderate generally: "common-sense' distinction proposing transaction, occurs area traditionally Rubin Coors Brewing Co., 514 482, 1585, 1589, 131 532 B 39 categorical exclusion protectible medium enterprise, becomes principle: cognizable officially suspect suppressing typically Riley National Federation Blind C., 487 781, 108 2667, 101 669 (1988), example, argued [from] silence,'' ought "deferential test.'' 796, 2677. hand: "There silence, significance, guarantees speech,' term necessarily comprising say say.'' 796-797, 2677; Hurley Irish-American Gay, Lesbian Bisexual Group Boston, 573, 2338, 2347, ("Since inherently choices leave unsaid, manifestation principle chooses decide say'') 714, 1435, (1977) (" [T]he thought freely refrain speaking all''); 633, 1182-1183, (1943) [I]nvoluntary affirmation c[an] commanded immediate urgent grounds silence''). 40 familiar corollary suppressed coerced, (thus far, speech) individuals compulsion private quasi-private organizations.2 considered addressing claims "agency-shop'' agreement employer union. "service fee'' equal limited separately obliged join union, personally espouse unionism, way. 212, 1787-1788. case, sole imposition nonmembers help union's And yet, was, dissenters' service fees employees. holding, drew lines doctrine; parallels per se associating purposes, 233-234, 1798-1799, relied (without reason) contributing propagate group's repeatedly adhered reasoning agency shops, see, (1991); Chicago Teachers Union Hudson, 292, 1066, 232 (1986); Brotherhood (1984) (statutory case); International Ass'n Machinists Street, 367 740, 81 1784, 1141 (1961) anticipating Abood), followed rationale state-compelled causes distinct core objectives (1990). C recognizes centrality authority today's draws wrong conclusions it. struck down funded "ideological duties representative,'' 232, reads places limits government's character __-__.3 42 mistaken lies treating permitting subsidy sense relates matter tends objectives. subsequent nearly permissive out. bargaining, compulsory impact employees' disagree positions taken issues inclusion abortion medical plan, negotiating no-strike agreements, desirability unionism general. 1792-1793. To sure, interference shop relations established Congress.'' Ibid.; 2235-2236 services'' [inherent the] bar''). way guaranteeing opportunity shop, settled, 217-232, 1790-1798 (following Emp. Hanson, 351 225, 76 1112 (1956), (1961)), attained infringements unfettered petitioners claimed. grievance arbitration contract parcel transactions regulate, impingements interests. instance retains directly, inherent transactions. Ohralik Ohio 436 447, 98 1912, 1918-1919, 56 444 (1978) (commercial offending language); Roberts Jaycees, 468 609, 634, 3244, 3258-3259, 82 462 concurring judgment) (in contrast association, "there minimal association,'' rational itself''); New York Club City York, 13, 2225, 2234, (1988) (constitutional choose associates); Dallas Stanglin, 490 19, 109 1591, 1595, (1989) (same); (funding opposed connection rights). 43 Decisions postdating clear, sanction affecting expanded sympathetically fee scheme; vital add significantly burdening achieving 519, 1959, Ellis, 1896. eight Justices teachers' raise esteem teachers increase public's willingness education. 528-529, 1963-1964 opinion); 559, 1979-1980 (SCALIA, part). "Expression kind extends negotiation grievance-resolution contexts imposes substantially [collective-bargaining functions].'' opinion). campaigns suffer defect effort product: local negotiate shop's whole globally espousing virtues teachers, absence explanation) stability growth They were, indeed, quarter century, still schemes. infra, __-__. instance, anything permit orders.4 45 misemployment successors forbids attributes objector, objectionable ideological. this, odds significant enough coerce justification. Supra, speaker (who mislead) generally fit, requires (such necessity valid regulation) objects. perfectly involve reference explaining gravity stake, suggests rein nonpolitical (which art,5 advertising). weighty continues stand expenditures "works infringement rights'' prohibited expenditures. 234, applied reflects fortuity commercial-speech come us. 46 An apparent advertisements subsidizing. ante, __, __. doubtful beside point true. notes, __-__, 11, fund: ads respondents; fungible whereas superior California. points seem relate vendor's touting wares mislead. "central message,'' good, featured desirable, 47 cases. Riley, free-speech charitable solicitors infringed statements profess to, 797-798, 2677-2678. Hurley, 2347 [The] rule, tailor applies expressions value, endorsement, ''); 635, 1183-1184 (if Free Speech Clause bars flag salute duty, nonconformist exempt saluting). protect declare espoused 301-302, 1073-1074; Requiring Terms ago articulable protected, 569, ----; clear-cut propositions assent contradiction, covers sphere preference. counts here, then, fail generalized deny valuable worthy merits brands. One need "disagree'' abstractionist buying canvas representational painter; wishes expression. D minimizing eliminating mandate, deserves mention adopt calls lesser payments sum consuming public. rests, solely largely preservation access seen inaccurate. Truth justifiable nonmisleading choice promote. 49 closest pass Zauderer Office Disciplinary Counsel Ohio, 471 626, 105 2265, 85 652 (1985), examination mandate today. disclosures calculating contingent advertised. lawyer's comparatively modest requirement, referred "justified principally '' 651, 2282 765, 770, 1829-1830; 481, 1589 (1995). position. "principally,'' exclusively, proceeded uphold adding immune scrutiny, bore reasonable relation "State's preventing deception consumers,'' 2282, ignorant real terms advertiser business. thereby reaffirmed long-standing preference disclosure requirements outright bans, narrowly tailored cures mislead too little. 651-652, 14, 2281-2283 14; 9, 2677 (1988); 565, 2350-2351; 771-772, 1830-1831. however pedigree mandates be, carries avoiding misleading incomplete messages. discussed above, suffices discounting schemes adhere laid cases: prohibiting engaging paying pursued (3) 2351 (1980).6 government. 1799-1800; Trustees Univ. N.Y. Fox, 492 469, 480, 3028, 3034-3035, 388 (1989). satisfy three prongs test. express Act, seq. —(AMAA Act), stabilize covered products received §§602(1), (4); Federal Improvement Reform 1996 (FAIR Act) §§501(b)(1), (3), Pub.L. 104-127, 888, 1030 (finding expand commodities).7 doubtless doubt undue instability income fluctuation segment economy, efforts little criterion regulation. attack across substantiality national open question, means sufficiently direct tailored. targets narrow band spectrum similar appear arise. arbitrariness underinclusiveness asserted pressing objects animating 489, 1592-1593 [E]xemptions inconsistencies'' alcohol labeling ban "bring ban,'' test); Ladue Gilleo, 512 43, 52-53, 2038, 2043-2044, 129 (1994) ("Exemptions diminish credibility restricting place''); Cincinnati Discovery Network, 410, 424-426, 1505, 1514-1515, 99 Star B.J. F., 491 524, 540, 2603, 2612-2613, 443 facial underinclusiveness'' "raises serious doubts is, serving, statute, interests'' invoked it). circumstances, obligation empirical reality purports addressing, Turner Broadcasting System, FCC, 622, 664, 2445, 2470, 497 (1994); 770-771, 1799-1801, sensible drawing instances burdens name not. AMAA's authorization random randomly implemented, light Act's unsettle inference real. authorizes listed nuts, vegetables, eggs, §608c(6)(I).8 list onions garlic, tomatoes cucumbers, Tokay grapes grapes, on. selection puzzling. thing unambiguously shows control go hand-in-hand stability, bears types produce. text, much suggested exists. Instead, history time amended request interested ever others.9 bill authorizing good point. indicates [o]ver years, numerous groups [market advertising] granted. combines requests operating agreements orders.'' H.R.Rep. 89-846, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., (1965), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1965, pp. 4142, 4143. letter appended House Report similarly accounts grower interest. 3-4. Or, again, "California-grown peaches'' refers vegetable actively so.'' S.Rep. 92-295, p. (1971). rulemakings carry findings explain needed specified others; announcements "consensus industry beneficial demand,'' 8736 (1971) (plums); 14376-14377 (1976) (peaches).10 53 goes activity, sort piecemeal answer plainly permissible, short something arbitrary Williamson Lee Optical Okla., 348 483, 487-489, 75 461, 464-465, 563 (1955). showing refer "consensus'' wants erratic pattern correlation priorities gives reassuring answer.11 54 inheres geographical limitations unaccompanied counterparts elsewhere. Some restriction, said, follows provision limiting practicable Act. §608c(11)(B). explains type manifested defined areas; oddity worth vindicating occur geographically select boundaries nowhere else, negate mentioned, 55 pronounced peaches,'' anywhere else country. §608c(6)(I). biggest peach-growing State, grow commercially account half crop, roughly sold fresh. 389; Statistics, 1995-96, V-23 (Table 294). Yet non-California utterly ignored Fruits,'' running throughout Canada, 341-343, 477-479, proclaim things. tells us, "promotes unique.'' Petitioner 31. crop expense essentially reveals Without more, interest, politics chance spread costs. Nothing appears.12 attempt how became permitted grafted onto existing convenient vehicle 9., supra; (letter indicating "could facility for'' financing programs). explanation explanation, expect quite different, land. recently enacting FAIR (but leaves intact, §524, 1047), specifically [t]he financing, coordinated promotion, regarding new commodities.'' §512(a)(7), 1033 (emphasis added); §514(a)(2), 1035 ("Each issued section shall scope''). actually scope. text remote undermine reality, let alone substantiality, put forward attempting Hudson's requirement. 57 stabilizing maintaining farm demand. causation, relies bans content, unremarkable works soften Edge 509 418, 428, 2696, 2704, 125 345 (1993); Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates Tourism P. R., 478 328, 341-342, 2968, 2976-2977, 92 266 2353. automatically convertible ban) (due ban). contrast, causal advancement comparing ness nothing, coercive voluntary comparison effectiveness whatever likely exist it.13 purpose, correctly notes viewed overall, considering behavior isolated few Broadcasting, 427, 2703-2704. argues voiced desire ended, "free riders'' wholly voluntary, cutting done. happen. conceivable, though, pure keep high details shifting costs, group.14 We, know, possibilities fatal ordering Mere speculation another possibility burden, 2470; appreciably increases somehow sparking would. There Finally, interests; ""fit' legislature's ends accomplish ends,-a fit represents single proportion served.'' 3035 fitness precise, "far restrictive precise means'' available. 479, 3034 (internal tailoring toward well-taken. face, least, achieve diminishing remarkable exactly credits almonds, filberts, raisins, walnuts, olives, Indian River grapefruit, 60 contends, "branded'' handler, "generic'' generally. §§501(b)(6), (7), 1030-1031 (congressional finding same). so, tell say, raisin hard imagine Sun-Maid allow credit. Why objective, be? answer. drawn examining galvanized depiction "Mr. Plum,'' 542, plum name, it.15 61 acknowledge implementing leeway determining goal expanding where, evaluation made, dealing assumes everything left assertion, completely denying expansion 62 ****** heavy understood call plausibility, accordingly affirm Circuit. SOUTER's dissent, exception My continue balancing discounted (THOMAS, (criticizing 341 (1980)). lenient fortiori, higher 66 write note my majority's "speech'' "issue.'' differ "abridgment'' matter-and complete repudiation precedent-for case. 67 speech.1 speech.2 Given elemental jurisprudence, incongruous forcing fruit-growers conceding forbidding fruit-grower voluntarily Compare (promotional orders), (distinguishing "restraint'' audience). Yet, precisely does.3 68 with, take face disturbing consequences: Either all, draft card burning, armband wearing, sleeping, nude dancing are,4 party communication implicate variety restrict. surely lost syllabus prepared Reporter convenience reader. Timber Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. Co-Op, (1939); Lynn Creamery, Healy, 186, 188-189, 2205, 2209, 157 (1994). 1954 "marketing projects.'' 1954, §401(c), 906. Those risk adversely affect producer. §608c(16)(A)(i) (providing termination suspension "effectuate declared policy'' AMAA); §608c(16)(B) regulation); §608c(15)(A) (allowing modification exemption statute). goals, them. that, approval effective. 1939. 2135 (1939). 1958. §937.45 (1959). portion terminated 1991 vote continuation, 23772, seeking refund moot. ALJ indicated "were succeed nonconstitutional arguments'' claim. 393a. quoted "typical excerpt'': ""The wide consensus pear industries continued. ..... ""Media expensive things done selectively field inexpensive yet create trade Trade paper ads, particularly season, editorial papers willing helpful launching seasonal pears. Spot radio TV commercials peak movement periods proved successful. fresh spot announcements, "dealer tag''' end spot, influence triggering retail promotions. 14,375, 14,376-77 (1976).''' 1375 1995). Reviewing deferential provided APA, capricious. 1382, 1384. plaintiff disagreed expressed ""desirable, healthy, nutritious'''; "a dispute strategy.'' F.2d, 1137. stated: "Scattered plaintiffs' briefs additional difficult quantify. assert condones "lying' "lie' red colored superior, re wards mediocrity sexually subliminal evidenced depicting young girl wet bathing suit, "socialistic programs' impossible "vague claims' infringed.'' Madigan, Civ. F-90-473-OWW (ED Cal.1993), reprinted Pet. Cert. 91a-92a. conveying 33, "all same,'' ibid.; Gerawan Farming, 46. contend respondent companies red, seek highly varied. 33; confuse complaints imposed 233; 692. premised advertisement, testimony executives opposition 588; 662-663. improperly materials exclusively competitors. 19-20. claim, arises Red Jim varieties, 1989 chart illustrating mid- late-season summer 531. These complaints, merit, challenges properly addressed distinguishes (1980), (1996). (1961), 12, supra. pose (1991). involved agency-shop poses 518, 1958-1959 (noting rights); 1792-1793 (recognizing ideological, moral, religious activities). By matter, Cf. 643, 3258, J.) (Finding "only association'' "activities predominantly Amendment'' "rationally membership''). noted, 8, Appeals. govern implicates understand Abood's "germaneness'' Appalachian Coals, 288 344, 359-360, 471, 473-474, 825 (1933); Northern R. 356 4, 78 514, 517-518, 545 (1958); Vendo Lektro-Vend Corp., 433 623, 647, 2881, 2895-2896, 1009 (STEVENS, terminate policies §608c(16)(A)(i), §608c(16)(B). voted unanimously 1376. ideal hypothesized ""no propose transaction,''' 1831 Pittsburgh Press Human Relations, 413 376, 385, 93 2553, 2558-2559, (1973)), communicating idea ""I you X prescription drug Y price,''' 1825. represent "government speech,'' latitude selecting 10-13, 2234-2235, (1990); 259, 1811, (Powell, judgment). (waiving argument). hold non-ideological, independent, upholding subsidy. [The Abood] activities'') added). "germaneness test'' allowing charges newsletter, Voice, concerned ""teaching matters.''' 1964, (1991)). communications, "public nature,'' 1964; large, Assn-MEA-NEA, 643 F.Supp. 1306, 1328 (W.D.Mich.1986), aff'd, 881 1388 (C.A.6 1989), aff'd. rev'd grounds, communication, (1984), reasoned channel employees, ones, -[The may] reporting doing.'' 450-451, 1894. words, chargeable unlike Lehnert, role agent instance. respects, instant impermissible Lehnert. Schad Mount Ephraim, 452 61, 65, 2176, 2180-2181, 671 (1981) ("Entertainment, protected; motion pictures, broadcast television, live entertainment, musical dramatic works, guarantee''). Contrary respondents, category content-based, producing "dissemination "purely uncontroversial information,''' 2281-2282, (1985)), controversial sexual imagery. Regulation turns 1825, strict consistently lose disseminate information. 473-475, 3030-3032, (1989); Bolger Youngs Drug Products 463 60, 66-68, 103 2875, 2879-2881, 469 (1983). concept reduced relic threshold imposing reached evoke vaguely nostalgic themes indeterminate import hypersensitive specter sex film child eating peach. subtitle April 1996, Its procedural place although noticeable (other breadth coverage) laws: FAIR, §§511-526, 1032-1048. pre-empt federal 1047. "commodity laws,'' AMAA. §501, 1029. Section 608c(6)(I) currently [e]stablishing establishment assist, improve, distribution, efficient product, order: Provided, filberts (otherwise known hazelnuts), California-grown cherries, papayas, carrots, citrus onions, dates, celery, sweet corn, limes, pecans, avocados, apples, tomatoes, Florida-grown strawberries, grapefruit crediting pro rata obligations substantive marketable allocations quantities, maintenance reserve supplies. §608c(6) (1934 ed., Supp. III). a] 906; authorize, amendment, 1962, allowed 87-703, 632; 89-330, 79 1270, 92-120, 340; today, authorizations permits peaches). possible rulemaking relative unfamiliarity nationally developed. 5635, 5636 (1966). solitary cure defects scheme, however. taking renders suspect. Both and/or periodic referenda. §§608c(8)(A), (B), (9)(B)(i), (16), (19); §518, 1043-1044. working planned check achieved. implies, dissenters foster; otherwise, limitation majoritarian concentrated V-21, V-27 V-28 (Tables 288, 304-308), instituted thereunder. "illogical'' enquired lieu decisionmaking. eliminates varies spottiness demonstrates regime. cost-shifting scenario "problem'' riders free-standing [P]rivate furthers nonspeakers, empower for,'' 556, 1978 sustained ride others, free-rider problem serving maintains almond industry, 92% sales consumers, 429, 438, circumstances "certain brand creating problem.'' 47. proffered justifications seemingly unsubstantiated effects indication says anything, contrary 91-1204, (1970) (incorporating Growers Council almonds "will model commodities''); 3983 (1972). leads wonder example; production, too, domination cooperative? Is structured virtually brand-specific crop? (1980) (advertising electricity speech); Nat. Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 1407, 707 (corporate referendum); (payment Buckley Valeo, 424 612, 659 (contributions 520 117 1174, 137 369 (1997) (coerced carriage signals cable television facilities); utility envelopes); creation forum property); display license plate); Miami Herald Publishing Tornillo, 418 241, 94 2831, 730 (1974) reply newspaper editorials); pledge allegiance). distinguishing precedents are, unpersuasive contradictory, dissent amply demonstrates. excessive emphasis supposed collectivization conclusion. Constitution "enact Mr. Herbert Spencer's Social Statics,'' Lochner 198 45, 75, 539, 546, 937 (1905) (Holmes, dissenting), range Nation's structure, Constitution-the Amendment-does enact individualistic collectivize society, regardless O'Brien, 391 367, 88 1673, 672 (1968) (draft burning); Texas Johnson, 397, 2533, 342 (flag Tinker Des Moines Community School Dist., 393 503, 733, 731 (1969) (armbands); Clark Creative Non-Violence, 3065, 221 (prohibition sleeping park issues); Borough (nude dancing).

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